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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS OF
THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION
SHOWING THE
OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND
CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
FOR, THE YEAR. ENDING JUNE..30
1914
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
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CONTENTS.
Page.
Letter from the Secretary submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to
“DIRE Sa A lie he Se en ee eae Saeet en e Re iii
PE METN GS (0 Sw LITE SEC HOU Nia pa 8 crc ce oes a an ec yuh a Ree? SL tee rayne Fyn wit v
1 TSTRPLE TULSA SS Bert Sa oe ge Gan J Sa eee ak 2G Ay Seat, Sp ee a vi
Gpeeral subjects OL the ARNUALFOpOLG 33.2. oh te ott yee eo bere Gee ix
Oficrals of the Institution and iis; branches: ..2-- 4:76 Foti -2 tS oes yee x
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Bie erica mist tmetNON 450) 2 e= hele ois nro Se Se oe pe eye et tes ee Se 1
Reve ACAO MARU EMG. tos soe eso. ee at ee te ee Leer de Gees tee 1
Phirc SAU ROUO LES CREA Sasa See oe ra eae hrs Race eae c spoken eee eo i)
EASED GONE 150075 2 1 7 pa iA Roa De = cg 2
LITO NON T STS Lc Ee See lle et rn Me Seem Se a Fe Sa Ek me Se 6
Researches and explorations:
iLaneley: Acrodynamical Taboravory =< .). wei. -5:c5- - m-aye occ e cat pec ce = 8
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies...............-...-- 10
Geologic history of the Appalachian Valley in Maryland.-............. 11
Picisiocene eaye Gepost in Margland oo. es 12
Geological susvey OF PANAMA £6 Beste mains Snyacin cs Seg 2 aoe maine ete 12
Vertebrate fossil remains in Montanas |... 0.0 ee in eee we 13
Ho seer CChAnOGeNEIG UA MIMNGIS.4 28.5. agen soo p Ak. dice ak et we's oo sop 5 < 13
MESHIOSEATE SARA GR VINCUNIA CORSE ae eo ee ee ce a ead a he 14
Expedition to Dutch East Borneo and Cashmere. ...-.........-.---- 15
vie ones tn TO Wipaes ss. ener, on < alone w ape -2 2 ESR ETN AD ae AUR LIP SS 15
Researches under Harriman trust fund... .-....-...4-----------2-2-- 16
Anthropological research in Eastern Asia. ....-...:-...-.1---------- 17
Researches underthe Hodgkins fund... .-.-- 2... . 2. 2222-222 ye ee 17
Smithsonian table at Naples Zoological Station..........-........--- 19
CDE ARGH OOtORAGONME) tae ete ee cia = eons ence Eas soe weeps Sold 19
wmerican scuoolot Archeology im Ching... ....---- ce.-05 2 ean sc ae 20
gel UME ORI e eae Pee Rape gsr Cre eee ey eine pan Seon ge Sede ie ee ai 20
LUTTE NEI gS I ED 5 RCN A NRE Bp US yh ae Need 24
nstLeRniOMAl CONPTESSCS = 2. sa. eo sot ee. Pee ee eet ote. 25
George Washington Memorial Building. ...............205...22-----2000-- 25
ieeiedern ON NIBC URE Cain onan wey ek eonn naa a Nea kee PES oe oo 27
paren or American Mtnnglopy 2.44.2 esc. = 2n2. {She ee ee an ek te: 29
ieetreL onal PKC AMO ER o,. 2). roe ass ee Ae ol vcaeed 31
eiond |, Meolricalealks 525055. 28 tet ee os oes boos ee ae 31
BETO Mh vatcH Observatory: 22 soe de oe <mss ae. acca oe PUP SORE YA Se eS 32
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature........................--.--- 33
pee Rae er mean re eae mee Eee ene <a eens Sn ee F5 Stc e 33
Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum. .............-.. 35
2. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology.............-..-- 45
3. Report on the International Exchanges.............-.....-....- 67
4. Report on the National Zoological Park..........-.-.....------ 76
5. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory. ...............--..-- 89
Ge pets. On the WibTAny. sooo hic Jameel eens ced 5 isk oa ees 96
7. Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature... 104
Me rtentbeDorl Gi PUDINCAMONS: o- .ntoss op ciceence Geaccs sane cents esse 107
AA CONTENTS.
GENERAL APPENDIX.
The radiation of the sun, by C. G. Abbot........
Modern theories of the sun, by Jean Boslerss:sos:.........---------- De eee Be
The form and constitution of the earth, by Louis B. Stewart............-.-.--
Some remarks on logarithms apropos to their tercentenary, by M. d’Ocagne. . .
mhe consithimon ole atom; by Ash -Hive-ctessioe see sc soso oss o Sel 5rt tee.
Gyrostats and gyrostatic action, by Andrew Gray....-..........-..-5----------
Siabuityeor aeroplanes; by Orville Wright: 58ers etl
The first man-carrying aeroplane capable of sustained free flight, by A. F. Zahm.
Some aspects of industrial chemistry, by L. H. Baekeland......-....-.. SE
Peplosives= Diva lcdiward. ke. O Geom eer aero Sal SSS wins co ES
Climates of geologic time, by Charles Schuchert........................------
COLT OT Ch alGCS a Did eh OLYe a. 25 us seit eS oi ots ep ee ete = ieee ae a ee ce ae -
The geology of the bottom of the seas, by L. de Launay ..
Recent oceanographic researches, by Ch. Gravier...........--..-.----------
The Klondike and Yukon goldfield in 1913, by H. M. Cadell.............----
The history of the discovery of sexuality in plants, by Duncan S. Johnson... -.
Problems and progress in plant pathology, by L. R. Jones.....-...-.....----
Plant-autographs and their revelations, by J. C. Bose..............-----.----
The National Zoological Park and its inhabitants, by Frank Baker.........-..
The habits and behavior of the herring gull, by R. M. Strong........-.-.-.--
Notes on some effects of extreme drought in Waterberg, South Africa, by Eugéne
Je PA TNT 22 FSG le ae a a Sc RL OS enh A ee
Homeeotic regeneration of the antenne in a Phasmid or walking-stick, by H. O.
Sy Cu WENT FA far 6 53) oT 7 is Sek ett Ee NEN 2 ne
Latent life: its nature and relations to certain theories of contemporary biology,
nye Apu py CCCUICK cere cnet cepa yee ite cialis Oe gas BS oo orate we
The early inhabitants of western Asia, by Felix v. Luschan ....-..-...-..-..--.-
iE xeavyationsiat Abydos, by, Edouard: Nayilles sc. ooo ee ee oc pes wp np -
An examination of Chinese bronzes, by John C. Ferguson. - ss
The réle of depopulation, of deforestation, and of manera gt in ine deandienaa of
Certain nations. ny, Helix Kegmatltsc. tar. ascieciiclsers cere ccc anseick so saya
hestory ‘ot the chin, by: Louis Rovimsonse <i wesc riety <p <5!) -gaie == 3 ESS
Recent Agualeaneains! in the art of illumination, by Preston 8. Millar ROT EE NET
The loom and spindle: past, present, and future, by Luther Hooper.......-..
The demonstration play school of 1918, by Clark W. Hetherington...........-
Sketch of the life of Eduard Suess (1831-1914), by Pierre Termier...........
List OF PLATES.
SECRETARY’S REpoRtT: Page.
Plates 1, 2 (facing each other). 8
1 P/N ea eo ane ak ee ae 26
ete Sie ts era hd SOE 84
LETS VESNS ege a 92
RADIATION OF SuN (Abbot):
Platestles dence ok Sh eon saree 138
LEN Fess) 30m ahs Sa Ek ae 8 2 144
THEORIES OF Sun (Bosler):
1 EDGY 7s i OR a a 154
LocariruMs (d’Ocagne):
Peles ree te ea bas Oe era 176
Gyrostats (Gray):
1 SLES P Sys al Nee Se ee a ee 196
ALES CS SS SE ene ee a 200
LASERS Sie he eee eles Se 204
12] EN Sf a a ee 206
Man-CarryiIng AEROPLANE
(Zahm):
Phen a4 Mix Porsoreagh. 94s 218
Plsteg SS. Saeco w nsiseeuicie 22 220
Expiosives (O’ Hern):
| GS RR ees Sey ae 250
| PLE EISS Se capelees - Apa rap me mye he 256
LUGE S Sy ee 260
LOE PECL) fj Se oe ne eee oS 264
Pieocuroic Hatoks (Joly):
Pei lie tee ae 318
Dies oo seeh = oe eens mane 320
KionpIkE GOLDFIELD (Cadell):
PIRES eto as oe see SL 366
BLEU TEN 9 2 SN eel en ie a 372
Med oe as As fo Woe 8 oe os ae 381
ZoowoaicaL Park (Baker):
Plate 1 (colored map)......... 445
LES Ne pre Eee 446
LELIN ash Os Os a See a ee Ee 448
RL aESH Geers oe 5 pa) eer 450
13] UPEyS tee He Sapam cn et Sa a 452
Bintes 10-13 32-4 ose. os os 454
bates ie tb ont en cee aio 2 ste 456
PlatesullGml (nets Gases ot od See. 458
BLD S09 [ce Ue et ee a 460
ZooLoGicAL PARK—Continued.
| 2d CAH a a 462
Plgtenete2oe ects seen LY 464
Plates G21. oso ec 466
Plates osr20) st hoch oa staeee2 468
inten SONI a sue a ok ae 470
Lee on DE ee ee ee 472
Platesiab, Sie-bassoct ashe. a ee 474
Plates sotto 2 eas 2 ae 476
HERRING GULL (Strong):
1 ef /el ey J cn ee ce 480
1 Ey relc oe See aa OO 484
lates DuG2 ooo ree eee 486
LF) cg feo eee, a 492
Biates SO SES Ae 498
REGENERATION OF ANTENN2#
(Schmit-Jensen):
1 EAI FS) 101 8 Wea RENO ow BE 530
INHABITANTS OF WzSTERN ASIA
(Luschan):
i GF sys i aS eh a 564
J SIC EES ey mee Aes, an a ea eave 566
PS TER OMS S46 TS. See 568
PAS RON 10k. S200 soe. te Ae 574
Pier Ge eee 2 Se) ok 576
Asypos (Naville):
Plates dias 2 Psa sean ee 582
1 E5120 so neohe es ee aig = aN 584
CHINESE Bronzes (Ferguson):
Peg esi Gt eee en eee 592
Story oF Cun (Robinson):
IP iatepyie sis ous te eos ro 610
ILLUMINATION (Millar):
EAB eve tpl LO] Sea cee i Syed ie 618
bs] Ee LA ARERR pee 624
Loom AND SPINDLE (Hooper):
| EI CY ESS Oar she, eh ee are ee a 632
d EIS CISNS pete Eek SNE 642
MAME tee oie Ss as See 646
biben a Gask = eerie se see ee oe 652
Picton sete) 2250 woes Fk 670
PIA pe MNOS ect e ks see er ee er Gin
Vil
Pooper cl tals *
ee aia ma
err, & He
i
Ne a a te et ak ‘
“ile
/
: ; eeern 0s
ie oo) ah 73 }
greed craters f 3d = : i “ i oan ” uy “e bok iy r) i
dike sak iat
ete: er e Haaiat
sy on al eadet ef
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING
JUNE 30, 1914.
SUBJECTS.
1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera-
tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30,
1914, with statistics of exchanges, etc.
2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents,
exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state-
ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the
year ending June 30, 1914.
3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1914.
4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous mem-
oirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution,
teachers, and other engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These
memours relate chiefly to the calendar year 1914.
Ix
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
June 30, 1914.
Presidina officer ex officio —Woopvrow Wuson, President of the United States.
Chancellor.—Epwarp Dovatass Wurre, Chief Justice of the United States.
Members of the Institution:
Woopvrow Wizson, President of the United States.
Tuomas R. MarsHatt, Vice President of the United States.
Epwarp Dovatass Wurst, Chief Justice of the United States.
WiLLtIAM JENNINGS Bryan, Secretary of State.
Wiu1am Gisss McApoo, Secretary of the Treasury.
LinpLeY Miniter Garrison, Secretary of War.
JAMES CLARK McReyno tps, Attorney General.
ALBERT SIDNEY BuRLESON, Postmaster General. |
JosepHuS DanteE.s, Secretary of the Navy.
FRANKLIN Knicutr LANE, Secretary of the Interior.
«Davin FrANKuIN Houston, Secretary of Agriculture.
WrittAmM Cox ReEpFIELD, Secretary of Commerce.
Wi11AmM Baucnor Wison, Secretary of Labor.
Regents of the Institution:
Epwarp Dovatass Waite, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor.
Tuomas R. MArsHAtt, Vice President of the United States.
Henry Casot Lopae, Member of the Senate.
Wuutam J. Srons, Member of the Senate.
Henry Frencuw Hows, Member of the Senate.
Scorr Ferris, Member of the House of Representatives.
Maurice Connouty, Member of the House of Representatives.
Ernest W. Roserts, Member of the House of Representatives.
Anprew D. Wuire, citizen of New York.
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, citizen of Washington, D. C,
GrEOoRGE Gray, citizen of Delaware.
CHARLES |. CHOATE, Jr., citizen of Massachusetts.
Joun B. HenpeErson, Jr., citizen of Washington, D. C.
CHARLES W. FarrBanks, citizen of Indiana.
Executive committee.—(—————_), ALEXANDER GRAHAM Be tx, Maurice CoNNOLLY.
Secretary of the Institution.—Cuar.Les D. Waucorr.
Assistant secretary in charge of the National Musewm.—RicHarD RATHBUN.
Chief clerk.— Harry W. Dorsey.
Accountant and disbursing agent.—W. I. ADAMS.
Editor.—A. Howarp CLark.
Assistant librarian.—Pavut Brocoxertt.
Property clerk.—J. H. Hr.
x
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. XI
THE NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Keeper ex officio—CHarRLES D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution.
Assistant secretary in charge-—RicHARD RATHBUN.
Administrative assistant.—W. DE C. RAVENEL.
Head curators —Witu1amM H. Hotmrs, LEONHARD STEJNEGER, G. P. MERRILL.
Curators.—R. 8. BasstEr, A. Howarp Cuiark, F. W. Crarke, F. V. Covitez,
W. H. Dati, CHEstER G. GILBERT, W. H. Hotmes, WAtrEeR Hovuga, L. O. Howarp,
AueS Hrpuiéxa, Freperick L. Lewron, GeorGE C. Maynarp, G. P. MERRILL,
Gerrit 8. Minter, Jr., Ricnarp Ratuspun, RosBert Ripeway, LEONHARD
STEJNEGER.
Associate curators.—J. C. CRAWFoRD, W. R. Maxon, Davip WuirTeE.
Curator, National Gallery of Art—W. H. Homes.
Chief of correspondence and documents. RANDOLPH I. GEARE.
Disbursing agent.—W. I. Apams.
Chief of exhibits (Biology).—James E. BENEpIcT.
Superintendent of construction and labor.—J. 8. GoLpsmirH.
Editor—Marcus BENJAMIN.
Assistant librarian.—N. P. ScuppDER.
Photographer.—T. W. SMILu1E.
Registrar.—S. C. Brown.
Property clerk.—W. A. KNOWLES.
Engineer.—C. R. DENMARK.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
Ethnologist-in-charge.—F. W. Hopae.
Ethnologists.—J. WALTER FEwkEs, J. N. B. Hewirr, F. W. Hopae, Francis
La FiLescue, TrRuMAN MicHetson, JAMES Mooney, Matinpa Coxre STEVENSON,
JoHn R. Swanton.
Special ethnologist—Lro J. FRACHTENBERG.
Honorary philologist.—FRanz Boas.
Editor —JosErH G. GURLEY..
Tibrarian.—E.ita Leary.
Illustrator —Dr LANcEY GILL.
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
Chief clerk.—C. W. SHOEMAKER.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.
Superintendent.—FRANK BAKER.
Assistant superintendent.—A. B. BAKER.
ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.
Director.—C. G. ABBor.
Aid.—F. E. Fow te, Jr.
Bolometric assistant.—L. B. ALDRICH.
REGIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Assistant in charge.—LEONARD ©, GUNNELL.
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REPORT
OF THE
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
CHARLES D. WALCOTT
FOR THE YEAR ENDING FUNE 30, 1914.
To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:
GrnTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith a report on the
operations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, including work placed by Congress
under the direction of the Board of Regents in the United States
National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Interna-
tional Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical
Observatory, and the United States Bureau of the International
Catalogue of Scientific Literature.
The general report reviews the affairs of the Institution proper
and briefly summarizes the operations of its several branches, while
the appendices contain detailed reports by the assistant secretary
and others directly in charge of various activities. The reports on
operations of the National Museum and the Bureau of American
Ethnology will also be published as independent volumes.
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
THE ESTABLISHMENT.
The Smithsonian Institution was created an establishment by act
of Congress approved August 10, 1846. Its statutory members are
the President of the United States, the Vice President, the Chief
Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.
THE BOARD OF REGENTS.
The Board of Regents consists of the Vice President and the
Chief Justice of the United States as ex officio members, three Mem-
bers of the Senate, three Members of the House of Representatives,
and six citizens, “two of whom shall be resident in the city of Wash-
ington, and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no
two of them of the same State.”
In regard to the personnel of the board, it becomes my sad duty
to record the death on December 22, 1913, of Representative Irvin
73176°—sm 1914——1 a}
9 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
S. Pepper, and of Senator Augustus O. Bacon, who died February
14, 1914. Representative Maurice Connolly has been appointed to
succeed Mr. Pepper and Senator Henry French Hollis to succeed
Senator Bacon. Representative Ernest W. Roberts has been ap-
pointed as successor to Representative John Dalzell, whose term of
office as Member of Congress had expired.
The roll of Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows:
Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor ;
Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States; Henry
Cabot Lodge, Member of the Senate; Henry French Hollis, Member
of the Senate; William J. Stone, Member of the Senate; Scott Fer-
ris, Member of the House of Representatives; Maurice Connolly,
Member of the House of Representatives; Ernest W. Roberts, Mem-
ber of the House of Representatives; Andrew D. White, citizen of
New York; Alexander Graham Bell, citizen of Washington, D. C.;
George Gray, citizen of Delaware; Charles F. Choate, jr., citizen of
Massachusetts; John B. Henderson, jr., citizen of Washington, D. C.;
and Charles W. Fairbanks, citizen of Indiana.
At its meeting on January 15, 1914, the board filled a vacancy in
the Executive Committee by the election of Hon. Maurice Connolly.
The annual meeting of the Board of Regents, adjourned from
December 11, 1913, was held on January 15, 1914, and the proceed-
ings of the meeting have been printed as usual for the use of the
Regents, while such important matters acted upon as are of public
interest are reviewed under appropriate heads in the present report
of the secretary. The annual financial report of the Executive Com-
mittee has also been issued in the usual form, and a detailed state-
ment of disbursements from Government appropriations under the
direction of the Institution for the maintenance of the National
Museum, the National Zoological Park, and other branches will be
submitted to Congress by the secretary in the usual manner in com-
pliance with the law.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
The “ increase of knowledge” is one of the fundamental objects of
the Smithsonian Institution, and one of the first acts of the Board
of Regents in 1847 was to formulate a general plan of operations to
carry out that purpose. Among the examples of lines of work for
which appropriations were to be made from time to time were the
following:
(1) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the problem
of American storms.
(2) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological, mathematical,
and topographical surveys, to collect material for the formation of a physical
atlas of the United States.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3°
(3) Solution or experimental problems, such as a new determination of the
weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity and of light, chemical analyses
of soils and plants, collection and publication of articles of science accumulated
in the offices of the Government.
(4) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical, moral, and
political subjects.
(5) Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places celebrated in
American history.
(6) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the different races
of men in North America; also explorations and accurate surveys of the mounds
and other remains of the ancient people of our country.
It has been the aim of the Institution throughout its history to
accomplish as much as practicable in all the fields of research above
enumerated, and the secretaries of the Smithsonian have in their
turn been chosen by the regents with that end in view. The first
secretary, Professor Henry, was a physicist, and researches during
his administration were largely in the domain of physics.
The present United States Weather Bureau is an outgrowth of
the system of meteorological observations and warnings established
by the Smithsonian Institution. In 1847 an appropriation was
made “ for instruments and other expenses connected with meteoro-
logical observations.” The instruments thus secured were dis-
tributed throughout the country, and within two years the volunteer
observers reporting to the Institution numbered about 400. In 1849
Henry realized the value of the electric telegraph as “a ready means
of warning the more northern and southern observers to be on the
watch for the first appearance of an advancing storm,” and there was
inaugurated a system of daily telegraphic weather reports, a system
which was continued under the direction of the Institution until the
beginning of the Civil War. On a large map in the Smithsonian
building the weather over a considerable part of the country, accord-
ing to reports received at 10 o’clock each day, was indicated by
suitable symbols.
Under the second secretary, Professor Baird, biological science
was one of the principal fields of research. It was during his admin-
istration that there was organized the United States Fish Commis-
sion for the study of the food fisheries of the United States, and
Prof. Baird served as head of that commission until his death.
The organization later became the United States Bureau of Fish-
eries of the Department of Commerce. Prof. Baird took a deep inter-
est in the National Museum, and under his direction there was
erected a building for the exhibition of the valuable collections ac-
quired from the International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876.
Professor Langley, the third secretary, was both an astronomer and
a physicist. But to his deep devotion to those professions may be
added a broad view of the entire field of human knowledge. It was
4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
during the administration of Langley that the Astrophysical Observ-
atory was established to carry forward researches begun by him
many years before. And the National Zoological Park, largely the
outgrowth of investigations on living animals under the direction
of Assistant Secretary Goode, was likewise founded during Langley’s
administration. To Langley himself the world owes a debt for his
discoveries of the principles of aerial navigation and for his demon-
stration to the world on May 6, 1896, by the successful flight of an
experimental machine, that an aeroplane heavier than air could be
propelled through the air by its own power.
It would be interesting, were this the proper place, to review some
of the results of the many important researches and explorations by
the Institution in the last 60 years. The influence of the Institu-
tion is world-wide; through its international exchange service alone
it has been in correspondence with more than 60,000 individuals and
learned societies in the United States and practically in every land
on the globe. During its entire existence there has been an unbroken
record of friendly intercourse with every agency devoted to the
encouragement of learning.
The extent of the activities of the Institution is limited only by
the amount of the funds available. During recent years its private
income has been supplemented on several occasions by friends of
the Institution who have generously provided the means for carry-
ing on certain explorations and lines of research, but opportunities
for further important work constantly arise which must be declined
or temporarily held in abeyance. Some of the projects proposed are
such as could not properly be carried on through Government appro-
priation, but which the Smithsonian Institution could readily under-
take were the means available.
The Institution was founded by the bequest of James Smithson,
and from time to time it has been the recipient of other bequests and
of gifts of various sums, the largest of which was the gift of Mr.
Thomas G. Hodgkins, establishing the Hodgkins Fund. The Smith-
sonian permanent fund now aggregates a little more than a million
dollars. A number of bequests, now awaiting settlement, will even-
tually result in considerably increasing the present fund. Among
these I may mention—
Poore bequest—By the terms of the will of the late George W.
Poore, of Lowell, Mass., who died December 17, 1910, the Smithso-
nian Institution becomes his residuary legatee. As mentioned in my
1910 report, the estate, estimated at about $40,000, is bequeathed
under the condition that, the income of this sum should be added to
the principal until a total of $250,000 should have been reached,
and that then the income only should be used for the purposes for
which the Institution was created.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5
As a reason for making this bequest to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion Mr. Poore in his will says:
I make this gift not so much because of its amount as because I hope it will
prove an example for other Americans to follow, by supporting and encouraging
so wise and beneficent an institution as I believe the Smithsonian Institution
to be, and yet it has been neglected and overlooked by American citizens.
The affairs of this estate are being adjusted by the executor as
rapidly as circumstances will permit.
Reid bequest.—In 1903 the Institution was informed of a proposed
bequest to the Institution from Mr. Addison T. Reid, of Brooklyn,
N. Y., to found a chair of biology in memory of the testator’s grand-
father, Asher Tunis. The bequest was subject to the condition that
the income was to be paid in three equal shares to certain named
legatees until their death, when the principal of the estate (then
estimated at $10,000), with accumulations, was to come to the Insti-
tution. One of the beneficiaries having died, the trust created for
her benefit, amounting to $4,795.91, was received by the Institution
during the past year and deposited to the credit of the permanent
fund in the United States Treasury.
Loeb bequest.—By the will of Morris Loeb, of New York City, the
Smithsonian Institution is made a residual legatee and is to receive
a one-tenth share of the estate remaining upon the death of the
testator’s wife. This legacy is to be used for the furtherance of
knowledge in the exact sciences.
Morris Loeb, chemist, was born at Cincinnati May 23, 1863, and
died October 8, 1912. He graduated from Harvard University in
1883 with the degree of A. B. and received the degree of Ph. D. from
the University of Berlin in 1887 and Sc. D. from Union University
in 1911. In 1891 he became professor of chemistry at the New York
University. He was vice president of the American Chemical So-
ciety, and a member of the German Chemical Society and other sci-
entific bodies.
Lucy Hunter Baird bequest—Miss Baird, daughter of the late
Spencer Fullerton Baird, Secretary of the Institution, died June 19,
1913. Besides giving to the National Museum and the Smithsonian
Institution certain books, manuscripts, and other articles, the will
of Miss Baird provides that upon the release of any portion of
the trust estate by the death of the person entitled to the income
thereof, said trust estate shall be given “ to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion in trust as a fund to be known as ‘the Spencer Fullerton Baird
fund,’ the interest shall be devoted, under the direction of the
Smithsonian Institution to the expenses in whole or in part of a
scientific exploration and biological research or for the purchase of
specimens of natural objects or archeological specimens.”
6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Chamberlain bequest—In 1886 the National Museum received by
bequest of Dr. Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, an unrivaled collection
of fresh-water mussels; and in 1894 a collection of gems and precious
stones, also made by Dr. Lea, was bequeathed to the Museum by his
daughter, Frances Lea Chamberlain, wife of Rey. Dr. Leander T.
Chamberlain. Mrs. Chamberlain had taken a deep interest in her
father’s collections and had added materially thereto. Upon her
death in 1894, Dr. Chamberlain assumed the trust and until his
death in May, 1913, made large additions, particularly to the collec-
tion of gems and precious stones and in consequence of his gifts
and collaboration was appointed honorary associate in mineralogy
in the Museum.
Tn his will, Dr. Chamberlain bequeathed $25,000 to the Smithson-
ian Institution to be known as the “Frances Lea Chamberlain
fund,” the income of which shall be used for “ promoting the in-
crease and the scientific value and usefulness of the Isaac Lea collec-
tion of gems and gem material,” and the additional sum of $10,000
as a fund, the income of which shall be used for promoting the sci-
entific value and usefulness of the Isaac Lea collection of mollusks.
Sprague bequest.—Mr. Joseph White Sprague, of Louisville, Ky.,
died in Italy in June, 1900. His will provides that 85 per cent of the
total income of the estate is to be distributed among certain devisees
until their death, and then to several of their relatives for 20 years
after the death of the last devisee, when the trust expires by limita-
tion, and is to be paid to the Smithsonian Institution and to be known
as “The Sprague Fund.” Its purpose is to best promote the advance-
ment of the physical sciences, and only one-half of each annual
income is to be used, the other half to be added to the principal of
the estate. In 1901, the estate was estimated to be worth $200,000.
Fitzgerald bequest.—The will of Mr. Riter Fitzgerald, of Phila-
delphia, who died in 1911, makes certain definite bequests and leaves
all the rest, residue and remainder of the estate, to his executors in
trust, the net income to be paid quarterly to his niece, and should she
die without leaving a child or children, the principal of the estate
and interest accrued thereon is to be given “to the United States
National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.”
This part of the estate is appraised at between $12,000 and $13,000.
FINANCES.
The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which
it was derived are as follows:
Deposited in the Treasury of the United States.
Bequest.or James! Smithson, S465 ses ee ee eee $515, 169. 00
Residuary legacy of James Smithson, 1867_-__-__-____________ as 26, 210. 63
Deposits ofesayvinesvot income; dSG (222 = eee ee See ee eee 108, 620. 37
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7
Bequest of James blamiltons Asti). 2 $1, 000
Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895____________ 1, 000
—- $2, 000. 00
Bequest LOL STNeCOR Ean el StS SO nas a sa de 2 BO OS A Te 500. 00
Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 188i ——-- ==—- == 51, 500. 00
CoO PHOMmasiG-sHOGekINGs TCO Mie es 8 Spal ales ee i ol ee 200, 000. 00
Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894_____-_____ 8, 000. 00
Deposit Lrom-savines of income; A9OBLELE ee eG See? 25, 000. 00
Residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1907__________________ 7, 918. 69
Wenposif from savings-of incomes TOYS 2 EU meee ee 636. 94
Bequest of William Jones Rhees, 1913220) 020250005 2) 251. 95
Deposit of proceeds from sale of real estate (gift of Robert Stan-
(Gore AWWA ))acd ne ee Ee ie ae ere 9, 692. 42
Bequest of-Addison) TiReid, Howat Se te Oe ie Od fie 4, 795. 91
Deposit of savings from income Avery bequest, 1914____-_-_ 204. 09
Total of fund deposited in the United States Treasury_____ 960, 500. 00
OTHER RESOURCES,
Registered and guaranteed bonds of the West Shore Railroad Co.,
part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par value)____________ 42, 000. 00
Ota Permanent eos aes aoe Se 1, 002, 500. 00
With the aid of the first installment of $4,795.91 of a bequest
from the late Addison T. Reid and a small deposit from savings of
income from the Avery bequest, the permanent fund now, for the first
time, exceeds $1,000,000.
That part of the fund deposited in the Treasury of the United
States bears interest: at 6 per cent per annum, under the provisions
of the act organizing the Institution and an act of Congress approved
March 12, 1894. The rate of interest on the West Shore Railroad
bonds is 4 per cent per annum.
The income of the Institution during the year, amounting to
$90,952.54, was derived as follows: Interest on the permanent foun-
dation, $58,994.29; contributions from various sources for specific
purposes, $17,554.20; first installment of a bequest from the late
Addison T. Reid, $4,795.91; and from other miscellaneous sources,
en all of which was deposited in the Treasury of the United
tates.
With the balance of $33,641.40 on July 1, 1913, the total resources
for the fiscal year amounted to $124,623.94. The disbursements
which are given in detail in the annual report of the executive com-
mittee, amounted to $94,063.81, leaving a balance of $30,560.13 on
deposit June 30, 1914, in the United States Treasury and in cash.
The Institution was charged by Congress with the disbursement
of the following appropriations for the year ending June 30, 1914:
PRGA Gare Us Tee CTD NSS 9 a a ek $32, 000
ATS SVOSHT ICT OCT EY a Pkg gS Oe DY a age a es IE KG
AR IEOU IY Srealla@ DSETVanO Lye ee ee eee ee BO Bal ee ge 13, 000
8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
National Museum:
Hurniture; and: fixturess=— = Sane sae eee Peas ade tea8 Sealey $50, 000
Te tamuiboyse Gnavo lb iea e ayes ee 50, 000
PreservationsoL collections. 22 = 2 See eee ee ee 300, 000
1 0 ec key RP a eg 0 SAR AR Sy ee ee ees ee ee re 2, 000
ROStACe Be 2 ee ee ee a oO 500
PS Wilching MePaieS= ketene AE ei ie open ee 10, 000
Bookstacks for Government bureau libraries_——_-.--+=__-_-+~-____—_ 15, 000
National ‘Zooloricall Parka. — =. = svgiey Soc he oe ee ee 100, 000
Readjustment of boundaries, National Zoological Park ——-_-___~------- 107, 200
international Catalocueof Scientific Miterabhure = 25s 22 28 eee Se 7, 500
Op Yay ees) AeA CH Rg ea he eg A RE Dl 729, 200
In addition to the above specific amounts to be disbursed by the
Institution, there was included under the general appropriation for
public printing and binding an allotment of $76,200 to cover the
cost of printing and binding the annual report and other Govern-
ment publications issued by the Institution, and to be disbursed by
the Public Printer.
RESEARCHES AND EXPLORATIONS.
During the past year the Institution has continued to carry on
investigations in various lines throughout the world by means of
small allotments from its funds. It has also accomplished a great
deal in the way of exploration and research through the generosity
of friends of the Institution, who have contributed funds for special
work or provided opportunities for participation in explorations
which they had undertaken personally or through the aid of others.
Each year, however, the Institution is obliged to forego oppor-
tunities for important investigations through lack of sufficient funds.
IT can here only briefly mention some of the work in progress
under the Smithsonian Institution proper during the past year, while
accounts of activities connected with the Astrophysical Observatory,
the Bureau of American Ethnology, and the United States National
Museum are given in other parts of this report by those in direct
charge of those branches of the Institution.
THE LANGLEY AERODYNAMICAL LABORATORY.
By resolution of the Regents on May 1, 1918, the secretary was
authorized to reopen the Smithsonian Institution laboratory for the
study of aerodynamics and to be known as the Langley Aero-
dynamical Laboratory. The functions of the laboratory were de-
fined to be the study of the problems of aerodromics, particularly
those of aerodynamics, with such research and experimentation as
may be necessary to increase the safety and effectiveness of aerial
locomotion for the purposes of commerce, national defense, and the
welfare of man.
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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9
The Regents also authorized the secretary to appoint an advisory
committee; to add, as means are provided, other laboratories and
agencies; to group them into a bureau organization; and to secure
the cooperation with them of the Government and other agencies.
In accordance with the above general plan an advisory committee
was organized at a meeting convened at the Institution on May 23,
1913. The official status, organization, agencies, resources, and
facilities of this committee were set forth in a statement in my last
report.
The first year’s work of the laboratory was to arrange a com-
prehensive program of operations, devise ways and means of carry-
ing on investigations and publishing reports, conduct such active
experiments as were possible with the means immediately available,
and to secure and arrange in the library the best aeronautical
literature.
The reports of the committee thus far published have appeared
as individual papers in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.
The first of these recounts the organization of the advisory commit-
tee and the resources of the Langley laboratory. The first technical
publication sets forth the results of experiments made at the model
tank at the Washington Navy Yard. Another report describes the
organization and equipment of the leading aeronautical laboratories
of England, France, and Germany. Some of the reports of the
committee are as yet confidential or incomplete. The library has
been furnished with the chief aeronautic periodicals and the best
books thus far published.
The rehabilitation and successful launching of the Langley aero-
plane (called “aerodrome” by Prof. Langley), constructed over
a decade ago, was accomplished in May, 1914. The machine was
shipped from the Langley laboratory to the Curtiss aeroplane fac-
tory in April. It was recanvassed and provided with hydroaero-
plane floats, and was launched on Lake Keuka on May 28. With
Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss as pilot it ran easily over the water, rose on
level wing, and flew in steady poise 150 feet. Subsequent short
flights were made in order to secure photographs of the craft in the
air. Then Mr. Curtiss was authorized, in order to make prolonged
flights without overtaxing the bearings of the Langley propulsion
fixtures, to install in its place a standard Curtiss motor and pro-
peller. At the close of the fiscal year the experiments were still
making satisfactory progress.
The tests thus far made have shown that the late Secretary Lang-
ley had succeeded in building the first aeroplane capable of sustained
free flight with a man. It is hoped that further trials will disclose
the advantages of the Langley type of machine. It may be recalled
that this man-carrying aeroplane was begun in 1898 for the War
10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Department, and in the interest of the national defense. It was
built on the design of the model machine which, on May 6, 1896,
first demonstrated to the world that an aeroplane heavier than air
could be propelled through the air by its own power. The large
machine was completed in 1903, but its actual flight was at that time
hindered by injuries sustained through defects in the launching
apparatus.
The numerous and comprehensive aerotechnical investigations
planned for the Langley laboratory can be successfully carried out
only when increased funds are available. Properly equipped and
endowed, the laboratory would serve as a national aeronautical in-
stitute suitable for conducting the aerotechnical investigations and
tests required by the Government and the aeronautical industries of
this country.
GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES.
In continuation of my previous geological researches in the Cana-
dian Rockies, I revisited during the field season of 1913 the Robson
Peak district, in British Columbia and Alberta, and the region about
Field, British Columbia. At the latter place I met the members of
the International Geological Congress.
On this trip Robson Peak was approached from the west side in
order to study the local geological section, one of the finest in the
world. From the west foot of Robson Peak, Whitehorn Peak rises
on the north to a height of 7,850 feet above Lake Kinney, and on the
east the cliffs of Robson rise tier above tier from the surface of the
lake to the summit of the peak, a vertical distance of 9,800 feet.
From beneath the base of the mountain at Lake Kinney the strata
curve gently outward, so that upwards of 4,000 feet in thickness of
beds that are beneath Robson Peak are exposed in their extension to
the west and south.
Owing to exceptionally good climatic conditions the season of 1913
proved unusually favorable for studying Robson Peak. Frequently
in the early morning the details of the snow slopes and bedded rocks
on the summit of the peak were beautifully outlined, but toward
evening the mists, driven in from the warm currents of the Pacific,
300 miles away, shrouded the mountain from view.
From the west slopes of Titkana Peak, east of the great Hunga
Glacier, a wonderful view is obtained of the snow fields and falling
glaciers east and north of Robson Peak. The glacial streams come
tumbling down the slopes and often disappear beneath the glacier to
reappear at its foot with the volume of a river.
At Field, British Columbia, work was continued at the great
middle Cambrian fossil quarry, where a large collection of specimens
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 2
was secured. It was necessary to do much heavy blasting to reach
the finest fossils which occur in the lower layers of rock.
The collection of 1913 contains a number of very important addi-
tions to this ancient fauna and many fine specimens of species found
in 1912. A report on these collections is now in preparation.
An illustrated account of my previous exploration in the Robson
Peak district was published in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col-
lections, Vol. 57, No. 12, and a paper with panoramic view, entitled
“The Monarch of the Canadian Rockies,” appeared in the National
Geographic Magazine, May, 1913. Three other reports of my studies
were published in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, entitled
“New Lower Cambrian Subfauna,” “ Dikelocephalus and other
genera of the Dikelocephaline,” and “The Cambrian Faunas of
Eastern Asia.” A report on “The Cambrian and its Problems in the
Cordilleran Region” is now in press in a new volume of the Dana
commemorative course at Yale University. The investigations dis-
cussed in this paper were continued in a report, “ Pre-Cambrian Al-
gonkian Algal Flora,” in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
and preparations were made for further study of the subject in the
Rocky Mountains of Montana during the field season of 1914. This
was successfully carried out with the acquisition of several tons of
specimens.
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF THE APPALACHIAN VALLEY IN MARYLAND.
Dr. R. S. Bassler, of the National Museum, spent a month during
the summer of 1913 in the Appalachian Valley of Maryland and the
adjoining States, studying the postpaleozoic geologic history of the
region, as indicated by the present surface features. His studies,
which were under the joint auspices of the United States National
Museum and the Maryland Geological Survey, were in continuation
of work carried on during the previous summer, when the sedimen-
tary rocks of the region were mapped in detail.
Since Carboniferous times western Maryland has been above the
sea, and its rocks have accordingly been subjected to a long period
of aerial erosion. During Jurassic time the area remained stationary
for so long a period that the surface of the land in the Appalachian
province was reduced to a rolling plain. Later uplift raised this
plain still higher above sea level, and in Maryland only remnants of
the old surface are preserved in the flat sky line of the highest moun-
tains. This ancient plain, or Schooley peneplain, as it is termed, is
well preserved on the top of the Blue Ridge.
A second great period of erosion occurred in early Tertiary times,
the effects of which were chiefly in the Appalachian Valley proper,
where the erosion is indicated by a pronounced plain at an elevation
12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of about 750 feet. This plain was formed only on the softer Paleozoic
rocks, and, because of its prominence near Harrisburg, Pa., is known
as the Harrisburg peneplain. Conococheague Creek traverses the
Harrisburg peneplain in Maryland, and has dissected it considerably,
but the even sky line of the ancient plain is still clearly evident.
Other factors in the geologic history of Maryland are recorded
in the well-defined gravel terraces along the major streams of the
area and in great alluvial fans of large and small bowlders, spread-
ing out at the foot of the larger mountains and sometimes reaching a
depth of 150 feet.
PLEISTOCENE CAVE DEPOSIT IN MARYLAND.
As the results of a further examination of the Pleistocene cave de-
posit near Cumberland, Md., by Mr. J. W. Gidley, of the National
Museum, many new forms were added to the collection, and much
better material obtained of several species represented only by frag-
ments of jaws in the first collection. The series now includes more
than 300 specimens, representing at least 40 distinct species of mam-
mals, many of which are extinet. Among the better preserved speci-
mens are several nearly complete skulls and lower jaws. The more
important animals represented are two species of bears, two species
of a large extinct peccary, a wolverine, a badger, a martin, two porcu-
pines, a woodchuck, and the American elandlike antelope.
Other species represented by more fragmentary material include
the mastodon, tapir, horse, and beaver, besides several species of the
smaller rodents, shrews, bats, and others.
This strange assemblage of fossil remains occurs hopelessly inter-
mingled and comparatively thickly scattered through a more or less
unevenly hardened mass of cave clays and breccias, which completely
filled one or more small chambers of a limestone cave, the material,
together with the bones, evidently having come to their final resting
place through an ancient opening at the surface a hundred feet or
more above their present location. The deposit is exposed at the
bottom of a deep railroad cut which first brought to hght this ancient
bone deposit and incidentally made access to the fossils comparatively
easy.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PANAMA.
A statement was made in my report for last year that an allot-
ment had been made from the Institution’s funds toward the ex-
penses of an investigation of the geology of Panama. This work is in
progress under the joint auspices of the Isthmian Canal Commis-
sion, the United States Geological Survey, and the Smithsonian
Institution. The general plan includes a systematic study of the
physiography, stratigraphy and structural geology, geologic history,
geologic correlation, mineral resources (including coal, oil, and other
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 183;
fields), petrography and paleontology of the Canal Zone, and of as
much of the adjacent areas of the Isthmian region as is feasible.
Upon the completion of the work the Institution will print a gen-
eral account of the results, and later there will be published a de-
tailed report of the geological data of the Isthmus and adjoining
regions.
VERTEBRATE FOSSIL REMAINS IN MONTANA.
During the summer of 1913 Mr. Charles W. Gilmore, of the
National Museum, headed an expedition for the purpose of obtain-
ing a representative collection from northwestern Montana.
A camp was established on Milk River, on the Blackfeet Indian
Reservation, and four weeks were spent there in collecting, the work
being confined entirely to the Upper Cretaceous (Belly River beds)
as exposed in the bad lands for 10 miles along this stream. The camp
was then moved some 50 miles south on the Two Medicine River, and
two weeks were spent working in the same geological formation.
Between 500 and 600 separate fossil bones were obtained, many of
them of large size. The most notable discovery was a new Cera-
topsian or horned dinosaur, the smallest of its kind known. There
were portions of five individuals of this animal recovered, represent-
ing nearly all parts of the skeleton, making it possible to mount a
composite skeleton for exhibition. Although Ceratopsian fossils
were first discovered in the Rocky Mountain region in 1855, and por-
tions of a hundred or more skeletons have been collected, this is the
first individual to be found having a complete articulated tail and
hind foot. It thus contributes greatly to our knowledge of the
skeletal anatomy of this interesting group of extinct reptiles.
Another find was a partial skeleton of one of the Trachodont or
duck-billed dinosaurs recently described from specimens obtained
in Canada, and its discovery in Montana greatly extends its known
geographical and geological range. Less perfect skeletons of car-
nivorous and armored dinosaurs, turtles, crocodiles, and ganoid
fishes were also obtained.
FOSSIL ECHINODERMS IN ILLINOIS.
The special field explorations maintained by Mr. Frank Springer,
associate in paleontology in the United States National Museum,
were continued during the season of 1913 by his private collector,
Frederick Braun. The purpose of these explorations is to obtain
additional material for use in Mr. Springer’s monographs upon the
fossil crinoidea, now in course of preparation, but they also result
in important accessions of excellent specimens for the completion
of the exhibition series in the halls of Invertebrate Paleontology in
the National Museum.
14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The investigations of the past summer were confined to the Kas-
kaskia rocks of Monroe and Randolph Counties, Ill. They were
systematically carried on in connection with the geological work
for the State of Illinois, in progress at the same time under the
direction of Prof. Weller, in order to have the benefit of accurate
determinations of the horizons from which the collections were
made, with reference to the several subordinate formations into
which the Kaskaskia of that region is divided. In this way it was
hoped to correct some confusion as to the stratigraphic relation
of a number of species described in the geological reports of
Tllinois and Iowa. The operations were successful in this respect,
and at the same time six large boxes of fine specimens were obtained.
Among the specimens there are a number of slabs covered with
erinoids not hitherto found in that formation in an excellent state
of preservation, a portion of one slab containing 22 specimens of
9 different species.
MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF VIRGINIA COAST.
Mr. John B. Henderson, jr., a member of the Board of Regents of
the Institution, and Dr. Bartsch, of the National Museum, visited
the Atlantic shore of Accomac County, Va., which had heretofore
received little attention from collectors.
The chief objects of this trip were to determine of just what
elements the molluscan fauna consisted; to see how many, if any,
species of southern range lapped over from Hatteras, and what
northern species still persisted in this faunal area. The collectors
were fortunate in their somewhat haphazard choice of a locality,
for they encountered at Chincoteague a greater variety of stations
than can probably be found at any other point along this section of
the coast. Here there are interior sounds of very considerable
extent which are very shallow (4 to 12 feet), more or less thickly
sown with oyster beds and with patches of eel grass, the bottom
ranging from hard sand through varying degrees of hard clay
to soft mud.
They found also the unusual feature of a bight or protected cove
formed by the southward drift at the southern end of Assateague
Island, protected from heavy wave action by a long, curved sand
spit. This bight has a soft mud bottom, with a temperature possibly
8° less than that of the open sea. The mud brought up with the
dredge seemed almost icy to the touch. This condition is probably
produced by cold springs seeping through the floor of the bight.
This colder water of the bight yielded to their dredge Yoldia lima-
tula, large and fine, and Nucula proxima, whereas just around the
protective spit of sand, on the ocean side, they found dead Terebras
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15
of two species, some young Busycon perversa, and a valve of Cardium
robustum—a somewhat startling association of species.
Then there was the open sea, which here presumably differs in no
manner from other open-sea stations along the 200 miles or more of
this coast. The bottom drops off very gradually to the edge of the
continental shelf, some 75 or 100 miles out. The open-sea stations
which they occupied were, as might be expected, very poor. The
smooth, hard sand bottom seemed almost barren of life, and the
softer patches that were explored contained only many dead shells,
mostly ‘small bivalves. The work in the open sea was scarcely a
good test, although they made probably 20 hauls, reaching out from
the shore some 4 or 5 miles, but the chart soundings indicated more
promising areas of pebbly bottom a few miles beyond what they con-
sidered the safety zone for a small motor boat.
The inner waters of the sound were found to be unexpectedly
rich in molluscan life, the species, for the most part, not having been
taken outside or in the bight.
EXPEDITION TO DUTCH EAST BORNEO AND CASHMERE.
In continuation of the exploration and collection carried on
through the generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, by Mr. H. C. Raven, in
Dutch East Borneo it may be said that the work is going forward
with excellent results. Dr. Abbott is continuing his personal ex-
plorations in Cashmere and has forwarded some valuable specimens
of mammals, including a queer little silvery gray shrew about 74
millimeters long, and a magnificent snow leopard, with its complete
skeleton. In Baltistan, northwestern Cashmere, Dr. Abbott secured
about 289 skins, which have.been presented to the National Museum.
After a sojourn in England he expected to return to Cashmere and
march to Ladak. He also intended to visit Nubra and go east along
the frontier to the Dipsang Plains, where he hoped to secure speci-
mens of a certain vole from Kara Korum Pass, as well as the little
Tibetan fox, known to the Cashmere furriers as the “king fox.”
LIFE ZONES IN THE ALPS.
Aided by a small grant from the funds of the Institution, Dr.
Stejneger, head curator of biology in the National Museum, visited
the eastern Alps toward the close of the last fiscal year, to make
further observations toward a determination of the limits of the
life zones, which in that part of Europe might correspond to those
established in North America. That a system of such life zones
exists in Europe has long been more or less vaguely stated by authors,
but although a definite correlation was established by Dr. Stejneger
and Mr. Miller in 1904, certain points, especially the interrelation of
16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the zones corresponding to the so-called Canadian and Hudsonian
life zones in America, were greatly obscured by the long-continued
- interference of man and animals with nature, such as the grazing of
cattle in the high Alps, deforestation, and more recently, artificial
reforestation.
It was thought that the eastern Alps might show more primitive
conditions. Dr. Stejneger visited the mountain region between
Switzerland and the head of the Adriatic. Arrived at the town of
Bassano, at the foot of the Venetian Alps, he began to study the life
zones of the Val Sugana and the plateau of the Sette Comuni from
that point. This plateau descends abruptly to the Venetian plain
on the south, while to the east and north it is separated from the mass
of the eastern Alps by the Val Sugana, or the valley of the River
Brenta, and on the west by the lower part of the valley of the
Adige, or Etsch. It is intersected by the boundary line between
Italy and Austrian Tyrol.
He made a series of excursions from Bassano, Levico, and Trento
as successive headquarters, during which time he completely circled
the territory, and crossed the plateau once on foot. He was able
to trace the boundaries of the Austral life zones in considerable
detail, as well as to gather data which connect with the previous
correlation of these zones in the western Alps and with the corre-
sponding zones in North America. It was found that the bottom of
the entire Val Sugana belongs to the upper Austral zone. Owing
to the rainy and inclement weather the results were less satisfactory
in the higher regions, though some important data corroborating pre-
vious conclusions were obtained.
Observations were also made on the Etsch Valley in Tyrol, from
Trento to Schlanders, and on its tributary, the Eisak, from Bozen
to its source on the Brenner Pass.
The elaboration of the detailed observations will be incorporated
with a general report on the biological reconnoissance of the western
Alps.
RESEARCHES UNDER HARRIMAN TRUST FUND.
Dr. C. Hart Merriam continued during the year to carry on cer-
tain natural history and ethnological investigations provided for by
a special trust fund established by Mrs. E. H. Harriman for that
purpose. His principal work during the year was on the big bears
of America, a group he has been studying for more than 20 years and
concerning which he now has a monograph in preparation. In
furtherance of this study, specimens have been placed at his disposal
by numerous sportsmen and hunters and by the larger museums of
the United States and Canada. In the course of his investigations a
transcontinental line was run across the country to the coast of Cali-
fornia by which the easternmost limits of range were determined for
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17
a number of species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and plants. And
while traversing Utah and Nevada several remote tribes of Indians
were visited, particularly the Gosinte, from whom a long-needed
vocabulary was obtained.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA,
For the extension of researches in eastern Asia, in continuation of
anthropological investigations carried on in Siberia and Mongolia
under the direction of the Institution in 1912, an allotment has been
made from the Smithsonian fund for work during the next fiscal
year and for a limited period thereafter. The plan of operations
includes a thorough study of the peoples of the eastern coast of Asia,
Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, and Siberia, among whom it is believed
hes the secret of the origin of the American Indian. Investigations
thus far made by Dr. Hrdlicka in behalf of the Institution indicate, be
says, “that there exist to-day over large parts of eastern Siberia and
in Mongolia, Tibet, and other regions in that part of the world
numerous remains which now form constituent parts of more modern
tribes or nations, of a more ancient population (related in origin, per-
haps, with the latest paleolithic European), which were physically
identical with, and in all probability gave rise to, the American
Indian.”
In a pamphlet on Smithsonian Explorations in 1913 a number of
other biological and anthropological investigations are described.
RESEARCHES UNDER THE HODGKINS FUND.
The Hodgkins fund was established in 1891 by a gift of $200,000
from Mr. Thomas George Hodgkins, of Setauket, N. Y. By sub-
sequent gifts during his life and through sums received from Mr.
Hodgkins’s estate, of which the Institution was made the residuary
legatee, the fund has increased to about $250,000. It was stipulated
by the donor that the income of $100,000 of his gift should be de-
voted to the increase and diffusion of more exact knowledge in regard
to the nature and properties of atmospheric air in connection with
the welfare of man. He indicated his desire that researches be not
limited to sanitary science, but that the atmosphere be considered in
its widest relationship to all branches of science, referring to the
experiments of Franklin in atmospheric electricity and the discovery
of Paul Bert in regard to the influence of oxygen on the phenomena
of vitality as germane to his foundation. To stimulate researches
in these directions the Institution offered a prize of $10,000 for a
paper embodying some new and important discovery in regard to
the nature and properties of atmospheric air, which was awarded in
1895 to Lord Rayleigh and Prof. William Ramsay, of London, for
73176°—sM 1914———2
18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the discovery of argon, a new element in the atmosphere. Another
prize of $1,000 for the best popular treatise on atmospheric air was
awarded to Dr. Henry de Varigny, of Paris, from among 229 com-
petitors in the United States, France, Germany, England, Scotland,
Ireland, Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Norway, Denmark, Fin-
land, Bohemia, Bavaria, Servia, Switzerland, Spain, India, Canada,
Mexico, and Argentina. Numerous investigations on the “ composi-
tion of expired air and its effects upon animal life,” in “ atmospheric
actinometry,” the “air of towns,’ “animal resistance to disease,”
“experiments with ionized air,” “the ratio of specific heats,” and
kindred topics have been carried on with the aid of grants from the
Hodgkins fund. Researches have likewise been aided in connection
with the temperature, pressure, radiation, and other features of the
atmosphere at very high altitudes, extending during the past year
to more than 45,000 feet, and many other lines of investigation
have been carried on, through all of which it is believed that valuable
knowledge has been acquired by which the welfare of man has been
advanced.
Under a grant from the Hodgkins fund Mr. A. K. Angstrém car-
ried on some observations in California during the past year for the
purpose of measuring nocturnal radiations at different altitudes rang-
ing from below sea level to the summit of Mount Whitney, 4,420
meters (14,502 feet). Some of the results attained by Mr. Angstrém
and work in connection therewith are discussed by Dr. C. G. Abbot
in his report as director of the Astrophysical Observatory.
A grant was also made to Mr. Angstrém to enable him to measure
the “nocturnal radiation ”’—that is, loss of heat to space during the
total eclipse of the sun August 21, 1914, in the north of Sweden.
In connection with the International Congress on Tuberculosis
held in the National Museum in 1908 the Institution offered a Hodg-
kins fund prize of $1,500 for the best treatise on “the relation of
atmospheric air to tuberculosis.” About a hundred papers were
submitted, and after an exhaustive examination by the advisory
committee the award has now been made and the prize divided
equally between Dr. Guy Hinsdale, of Hot Springs, Va., and Dr. 8.
Adolphus Knopf, of New York, for their essays on the topic stated.
Dr. Hinsdale’s essay was recently published at the expense of the
Hodgkins fund, the public demand for the work requiring the print-
ing of a second edition. In discussing the general treatment of the
disease, the essayist has special reference to the effect of the atmos-
pheric air and the value of various climates in relation to tubercu-
losis. In conclusion the author says:
We believe that climate may be utilized as an adjuvant of great value for
carrying out the hygienic, dietetic treatment of all forms of tuberculosis and
many other diseases. * “ “* The first place must be assigned to an abundance
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19
of air, which is as nearly as possible bacteriologically and chemically pure.
* * * Only at the sea or at the highest elevations do we find air really pure,
but we can approximate it by living out of doors.
* * * Probably the best combination is a low humidity and a moderately
cool temperature; the average tuberculosis patient makes his best gains after
August 1 and in subsequent cold, dry weather when such conditions pre-
Wallen Raut * 34
The old idea about equability of temperature, at least between the tempera-
ture of midday and midnight, is not of great importance; all mountainous
stations show great variations in this respect. Some variability tends to stimu-
late the vital activities, but in older people and those who are feeble great
variability is a disadvantage.
As far as altitude is concerned it probably has not, per se, any great in-
fluence; certainly, to my mind, not so much as we used to think. However,
altitude is incidentally associated with mountain life or life on the plains, with
more sun, less moisture, and scattered population.
* * * Surgical tuberculosis is always favorably influenced by a seashore
residence suitably chosen. * * * Constant outdoor life in all weather works
miraculous cures after the most formidable operations for bone tuberculosis,
and in many cases renders them wholly unnecessary in patients whose physical
condition on admission was most unpromising.
SMITHSONIAN TABLE AT NAPLES ZOOLOGICAL STATION.
In the interest of American biologists who may desire to study
marine life under exceptionally favorable facilities, the Institution
has for more than 20 years maintained a table at the Naples Zoologi-
cal Station. Investigators are assigned the use of this table for
stated periods on the recommendation of an advisory committee ap-
pointed for the purpose. During the past year the table has been
utilized by Mr. Reynold A. Spaeth, a student of Harvard University,
who pursued studies in experimental physiology; Dr. T. S. Painter,
graduate of Yale University, for work on an experimental cytologi-
eal problem; and Prof. Edwin C. Starks, of Stanford University,
for an investigation of the bones and muscles of the mandible of
fishes.
RESEARCH CORPORATION.
In February, 1912, the Research Corporation was organized under
the laws of New York as a means for furthering scientific and tech-
nical research. Its principal object is—
to acquire inventions and patents and to make them more available in the arts
and industries, while using them as a source of income, and, second, to apply
all profits derived from such use to the advancement of technical and scientific
investigation and experimentation through the agency of the Smithsonian
Institution and such other scientific and educational institutions and societies
as may be selected by the directors.
No dividends are to be paid, and the entire net profits are to be
devoted to research. The Smithsonian Institution is interested in
20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the management of this corporation through the membership of the
secretary in its board of directors, which is composed of business
and professional men, many of whom have had experience in large
industrial and mining enterprises, and it is provided in the certificate
of incorporation that the Smithsonian Institution may receive funds
for research and experimentation.
The chief assets of the corporation at present are the Cottrell
patents relating to the precipitation of dust, smoke, and chemical
fumes by the use of electrical currents. Dr. F. G. Cottrell, the in-
ventor and donor of these patents, has described their operation and
advantages and the progress thus far made in their installation in.
an article printed in the Smithsonian Report for 1913.
A number of other patents in various fields of industry have been
offered by officers of the Government and scientific institutions, as
well as by manufacturing corporations holding patents not available
for their own purposes, and undoubtedly there are many others,
both in this country and abroad, who will be glad to have their in-
ventions utilized for the benefit of scientific research.
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ARCHEOLOGY IN CHINA.
In my last report mention was made of the proposed establish-
ment of an American school of archeology in China. The objects of
the school as proposed are: (1) To prosecute archeological research
in eastern China; (2) to afford opportunity and facilities for in-
vestigation to promising and exceptional students, both foreign and
native, in Asiatic archeology; and (38) to preserve objects of archeo-
logical and cultural interest in museums in the countries to which
they pertain in cooperation with existing organizations, such as the
Société d’Ankor, etc.
The management of the affairs of the school is placed in the hands
of an executive committee of five, consisting of Dr. Charles D. Wal-
cott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; Mr. Charles Henry
Butler, reporter of the United States Supreme Court; Prof. F. W.
Shipley, of St. Louis; Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit; and Mr.
Eugene Meyer, jr., of New York. The general committee consists
of 16 gentlemen especially interested in archeological research in
China, with Dr. Walcott as chairman and Mr. Butler as secretary.
A preliminary survey in the Chinese Republic for the information
of the general committee in considering the permanent organization
of the proposed school has been made, and the committee will later
be called together for further consultation.
PUBLICATIONS.
; Of new publications there was issued by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and its branches during the year a total of 6,807 printed pages,
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ot
with 834 plates of illustrations. The aggregate distribution was
202,671 copies of pamphlets and bound volumes.
One of the principal functions of the Institution, “the diffusion of
knowledge,” is accomplished through its publications, which record
results of original researches, accounts of explorations, the progress
achieved in science and industry, and general information in all
branches of human knowledge believed to be of value to those inter-
ested in the promotion of science and in the welfare of man. The
series of “Contributions to Knowledge” in quarto form, and the
“ Miscellaneous Collections,” in octavo, are printed in limited editions
at the expense of the Institution and distributed chiefly to certain
large libraries throughout the world where they are available for pub-
lic reference. The Annual Report, however, is provided for by con-
gressional appropriations, and the edition is great enough to permit
its wide distribution. Besides the official report of the Board of
Regents and the secretary of the general operations of the Institution
during the year, there is included in the Smithsonian Report a gen-
eral appendix containing 30 or more original or selected papers illus-
trating the more remarkable and important developments in scientific
discovery.
Tn addition to the three series of works above mentioned pertain-
ing to the Institution proper, there are issued under its direction (a)
_ the Annual Report, the Proceedings, and the Bulletins of the Na-
tional Museum, including the Contributions from the National Her-
barium; (0) the Annual Report and Bulletins of the Bureau of
American Ethnology; and (c) the Annals of the Astrophysical Ob-
servatory, all of which are public documents printed through annual
allotments by act of Congress.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—The chief characteris-
tic of memoirs contained in the Contributions to Knowledge is that
they are discussions of extensive original investigations constituting
important additions to knowledge. Since the establishment of this
series in 1848 there have been published about 150 of these memoirs
in 35 quarto volumes. The most recent of these, reviewed in my last
report, was the “Langley Memoir on Mechanical Flight,” recording
the experiments of the late Secretary Langley, resulting in his suc-
cessful demonstration of the practicability of aerial navigation with
machines heavier than the air.
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections —Thirty-six papers in this
series were issued during the year, forming parts of seven volumes, as
enumerated in Appendix 8. They included some articles by your
secretary, describing further results of his studies of Cambrian
fossils, and papers on the usual wide range of biological, geolog-
ical, and anthropological topics. In this series are included the
Smithsonian tables, which have become standard works of reference.
a2, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
In 1852 the Institution published the first edition of the Smithsonian
meteorological tables, which were so widely used by physicists during
the next 40 years that it was decided to publish three sets of tables,
independent of one another, but forming a homogenous series. The
first of the new series, Smithsonian Meterological Tables, was pub-
lished in 1898; revised editions were issued in 1896, 1897, and 1907,
and another revised edition is now under consideration. The second
series, Smithsonian Geographical Tables, appeared in 1894, editions
slightly revised were issued in 1897 and 1906, and additional copies
of the last edition were printed during the past year to meet the
constant demand for this work. In 1896 there was published the
Smithsonian Physical Tables, which have passed through several
editions, the sixth revised edition being now in press. In this latest
edition are incorporated many new tables and the insertion of recent
data in the older tables to conform with the great advances in various
fields of physical science. A fourth series is the Smithsonian Mathe-
matical Tables (Hyperbolic Functions), published in 1909.
Smithsonian Report.—The distribution of the Annual Report for
1912 was long delayed, awaiting a supply of the quality of paper
used in that publication. The volume contains 38 articles of the
usual character in the general appendix. The report for 1913 was in
type at the close of the fiscal year. The popularity of this publica-
tion continues unabated, the entire edition each year becoming ~
exhausted very soon after its completion.
Special publications—F or several years past the Institution has
issued in printed form the Opinions rendered by the International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. During the past year
Opinions 57 to 65 were thus published. To aid the work of this
commission the Institution also provides for clerical services in con-
nection with the oflice of its secretary in this country.
Another special publication of the year, printed in a limited edi-
tion, was a pamphlet giving an account of the exercises in the Smith-
sonian building on May 6, 1913, on the occasion of the presentation
of the Langley medal to Monsieur Eiffel and to Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss,
and the unveiling of the Langley memorial tablet.
Harriman Alaska Series —In 1910 there was transferred to the
Smithsonian Institution by Mrs. Edward H. Harriman the re-
mainder of the edition of volumes 1 to 5 and 8 to 13 of the elaborate
publication on the results of the Harriman Alaska Expedition of
1899. It may be recalled that this expedition was organized with
the cooperation of the Washington Academy of Sciences, but entirely
at the expense of the late Mr. Edward H. Harriman, of New York.
Tt was participated in by a large party of scientific specialists, on a
steamship specially chartered for the purpose. A narrative of the
irip and observations on the regions visited, together with desecrip-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. of
tions of the natural-history features of Alaska were prepared by
specialists of the party and published in the series above mentioned.
Volumes 6 and 7 on botany are still in preparation. During the past
year volume 14 has been issued by the Smithsonian Institution. It
is a.monograph of the shallow-water starfishes of the North Pacific
coast, from the Arctic Ocean to California, and is accompanied by
110 plates of illustrations.
National Museum publications—The annual report for 1914 of
the assistant secretary in charge of the National Museum was pub-
lished during the year, together with 49 papers from the Museum
Proceedings, and 9 Bulletins, including a number of parts of vol-
umes of Contributions from the National Herbarium.
Ethnology publications —The Bureau of American Ethnology
issued during the year a bulletin on Chippewa Music and one on the
Ethnozoology of the Tewa Indians. There were in press at the close
of the year three annual reports and several bulletins, as noted in
the second appendix of this report.
Astrophysical Observatory.—V olume 8 of the Annals of the Astro-
physical Observatory was distributed early in the fiscal year.
Reporis of historical and patriotic societies —In accordance with
the national charters of the American Historical Association and
the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution,
annual reports of those organizations were submitted to the Insti-
tution and communicated to Congress.
Allotments for printing.—The allotments to the Institution and
its branches, under the head of “ Public printing and binding,” dur-
ing the fiscal year, aggregating $76,200, were all utilized, with the
exception of small balances on work in progress at the close of the
year. The allotments for the year ending June 30, 1915, are as
follows:
For the Smithsonian Institution: For printing and binding the annual
reports of the Board of Regents, with general appendices____________ $10, 000
For the annual reports of the National Museum, with general appen-
dices, and for printing labels and blanks, and for the. Bulletins and
Proceedings of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not
exceed 4,000 copies, and binding, in half morocco or material not more
expensive, scientific books, and pamphlets presented to or acquired
byathe NationalsMauseunr libranty}isst: ase oet Ph fe ee ets 3 37, 500
For the annual reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology and for miscellaneous printing and binding for the bureau____ 21, 000
For miscellaneous printing and binding:
MitLern AOA XCHAN Sees eels SARA) RCE SENET AEP iS) ee, 200
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature__________________ 100
National Zoologicalls arle she) Pics. 5. hee kh ee Se gs 200
AStrophysicails Observahory = 4222 es ee ee 200
For the annual report of the American Historical Association_________ 7, 000
24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Committee on printing and publication —The advisory committee
on printing and publication under the Smithsonian Institution has
continued to examine manuscripts proposed for publication by the
branches of the Institution and has considered various questions con-
cerning public printing and binding. ‘Twenty meetings of the com-
mittee were held during the year and 121 manuscripts were passed
upon. The personnel of the committee during the year was as fol-
lows: Dr. Frederick W. True, Assistant Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, chairman; Dr. C. G. Abbot, Director of the
Astrophysical Observatory; Dr. Frank Baker, Superintendent of the
National Zoological Park; Mr. A. Howard Clark, editor of the
Smithsonian Institution, secretary of the committee; Mr. F. W.
Hodge, Ethnologist-in-charge of the Bureau of American Ethnol-
ogy; Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, United States
National Museum; and Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of
biology, United States National Museum.
Distribution of publications.—In accordance with the law enacted
August 23, 1912, requiring that all Government publications be
mailed from the Government Printing Office, the Smithsonian Re-
port and publications of the United States National Museum and
the Bureau of American Ethnology have since been distributed
direct from the Government Printing Office.
LIBRARY.
The library of the Smithsonian Institution is its most valuable
single possession. The number of publications of learned societies
and of periodicals and other works pertaining to pure and applied
science which have been brought together by the Institution since
its organization aggregates more than half a million titles. In
1866 many of the scientific works in the library were transferred for
various administrative reasons to the Library of Congress, where
they form the Smithsonian deposit, which is constantly being in-
creased by new accessions. The number of additions to the deposit
during the past year was 32,195 pieces, including 20,603 periodicals,
3,765 volumes, 1,729 parts of volumes, 5,755 pamphlets, and 348
charts.
In the Smithsonian and Museum buildings there are retained such
books of the Smithsonian Library as are needed for reference in
scientific investigations, and there is maintained a reading room,
where the current numbers of nearly 300 foreign and domestic scien-
tific periodicals are on file for consultation by students in general
and by the staff of the Institution and its branches.
In the main hall of the Smithsonian building steel stacks are being
constructed for the better care and preservation of the libraries of
the Government bureaus under the Institution.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25
Works on natural history, the arts and industries, and other sub-
- jects pertaining to the several departments of the National Museum
are installed in the new and older Museum buildings. This library
now numbers 43,609 volumes, 73,761 pamphlets and unbound papers,
and 124 manuscripts.
In the assistant hbrarian’s review of the year’s operations in ap-
pendix 6 of this report details will be found as to the work of the
library in its several subdivisions.
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES.
The Institution is frequently invited to send representatives to
scientific congresses in the United States and abroad, but as funds
are not available for the expenses of delegates, invitations can be
accepted only in a few instances when collaborators of the Institution
or members of the scientific staff are willing to attend at their own
expense.
Your secretary, as a member of the Twelfth International Congress
of Geology, would have attended the meeting in Toronto August 7
to 14, 1913, but he was unable to make arrangements to leave his
field work in the Canadian Rockies at that time. He had an oppor-
tunity to address the members of the congress during their visit to
Field, British Columbia. Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of
geology in the United States National Museum, however, attended
the congress as representative of the Smithsonian Institution and the
Museum.
Plans had been perfected at the close of the fiscal year for hold-
ing the Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists in Wash-
ington during the month of September, 1914.
GEORGE WASHINGTON MEMORIAL BUILDING.
In my last report reference was made to the act of Congress
approved by the President March 4, 1913, authorizing the George
Washington Memorial Association to erect a memorial building on
Armory Square facing the Mall, which extends from the Capitol to
the Washington Monument. The control and administration of the
building, when erected, is in the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution. Plans for the building were selected in May,
1914, from designs submitted by 13 competing architects, and were
subsequently approved by the National Commission of Fine Arts.
The drawings depict a colonial building with pillared front and
square ground plan. The main feature is an auditorium to seat 6,000
people, which is arranged in the form of an ellipse, with the stage
at one end and a deep balcony encircling the whole.
The work of construction must be begun before the 4th of March,
1915, or the authorization by Congress for the use of the above site
26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
will lapse. It is further provided that the work of construction can
not be commenced until the sum of $1,006,000 is raised by the associa-
tion, and although Mrs. Henry F. Dimock, president of the associa-
tion and chairman of the building committee, has secured a part of
this sum, much still remains to be raised.
The cost of the building must be not less than $2,000,000, and there
must be provided for its maintenance a permanent fund of not less
than $500,000. In the preamble of the original bill (S. 5494) passed
by the Senate April 15, 1912, “to provide a site for the erection of
a building to be known as the George Washington Memorial Build-
ing, to serve as the gathering place and headquarters ef patriotic,
scientific, medical, and other organizations interested in promoting
the welfare of the American people,” the purpose of the building is
defined as follows:
Whereas George Washington, on July 9, 1799, said, “It has been my ardent
wish to see a plan devised on a liberal scale which would spread systematic
ideas through all parts of this rising empire,” and it was Washington’s wish
to materially assist in the development of his beloved country through the
promotion of science, literature, and art, and with the firm conviction that
“Inowledge is the surest basis of public happiness”; and
Whereas the changing conditions that time has brought require new methods
of accomplishing the results desired by Washington and now a necessity of
the American people; and
Whereas at the present time there is not any suitable building in the city of
Washington where large conventions or in which large public functions can
be held, or where the permanent headquarters and records of national organi-
zations can be administered; and
Whereas a building should be provided in which there shall be a large audi-
torium, halls of different sizes where all societies pertaining to the growth of
our best interests can meet, and such as it is deemed desirable-may have
permanent headquarters; and
Whereas the George Washington Memorial Association is now engaged in ob-
taining funds for the erection and endowment of a building suitable for the
purposes above set forth, to be known as the George Washington Memorial
Building: Therefore * * *
The law as passed by Congress and approved by the President
March 4, 1913, was as follows:
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America in Congress assembled:
* Bo co * x ok *
Sec. 10. That a building is hereby authorized to be erected in the District of
Columbia, to be known as the George Washington Memorial Building.
The control and administration of said building, when erected, shall be in the
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.
The George Washington Memorial Association is authorized to erect said
building in accordance with plans to be procured by said association and to be
approved by the Commission of Fine Arts, said building to be fireproof, faced
with granite; and to cost not less than $2,000,000; it shall have an auditorium
that will seat not less than six thousand people, and such other smaller halls, °
reception rooms, office rooms, and so forth, as may be deemed necessary to
“ONIGTING IWIHOWSIA] NOLONIHSVAA SDYOS‘) YOS NOISAG GSA0UddY
"C6 aLV1d
*oday s Aiejosoeag—'1 6] oday ueluosy}iWusS
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 27
carry out the purposes for which the building is erected. And the said George
Washington Memorial Association shall in addition provide a permanent endow-
ment fund of not less than $500,000, to be administered by the Board of Regents
of the Smithsonian Institution, the income from which shall, as far as necessary,
be used for the maintenance of the said building.
Permission is granted the George Washington Memorial Association to erect
said building in the north end of the reservation known as Armory Square,
bounded by Sixth and Seventh Streets west and B Street north and B Street
south. The south’front of said building is to be on a line with the south front
of the new National Museum Building, in the north end of the Smithsonian
Park; and the said land is hereby set apart for that purpose: Provided, That
the actual construction of said building shall not be undertaken until the sum
of $1,000,000 shall have been subscribed and paid into the treasury of the George
Washington Memorial Association: And provided further, That the erection of
said George Washington Memorial Building be begun within a period of two
years from and after the passage of this act, and this section shall be null and
void should the George Washington Memorial Association fail to comply with
the provisions thereof, which are conditions precedent to the authorization
herein granted.
Said building may, among other purposes, be used for inaugural receptions
and special public meetings authorized by Congress.
Congress may alter, amend, add to, or repeal any of the provisions of this
section.
NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Since the operations of the Museum are reviewed by Assistant
Secretary Rathbun in the first appendix of this report and are dis-
cussed in detail in a separate volume, it seems unnecessary for me
here to do more than to allude to some of the more important fea-
tures of the year’s work. The growth of the Museum during recent
years has been greater than during any prior period of its history.
Confined as it was for more than 30 years within restricted quarters
poorly adapted for many classes of exhibits, its growth was greatly
hindered and its value to the public hampered in many ways. With
the completion of the new building, however, there has come an era
of greater usefulness to the Nation in every direction. The natural
history collections are now given adequate room in the spacious
halls of the new building, while in the older structure opportunity
is afforded for the proper display of objects relating to the arts and
industries and to American history. Increase in every division of
the three principal departments of the Museum—anthropology, biol-
ogy, and geology—is now welcomed both for purposes of exhibition
and in the study series.
During the last fiscal year there was added a total of 387,705
objects, 14,879 of which pertained to anthropology, 257,816 to zoology,
44,675 to botany, 3,648 to geology and mineralogy, 13,045 to pale-
ontology, 2,930 to textiles and other animal and vegetable products,
505 to mineral technology, and 207 to the National Gallery of Art.
The relative importance of many classes of objects thus acquired is
28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
referred to in the assistant secretary’s report. Among the most note-
worthy accessions in ethnology were more than 500 objects from
Dutch New Guinea, the Moluccas and Ambon of the Ceram group,
collected and presented by Dr. W. L. Abbott, who has done so much
for the Museum in past years toward increasing our knowledge of
the zoology and ethnology of the Far East. Among the important
acquisitions in biology were some 200,000 insects obtained by ento-
mologists of the Department of Agriculture during economic investi-
gations; a generous donation from Dr. E. A. Mearns, consisting of
his large private collection of bird skins, eggs, and skeletons, con-
taining many rarities; and over 10,000 specimens, mainly grasses,
from the Department of Agriculture., Additions in geology and
mineralogy included a 200-pound specimen of copper from Nevada;
many specimens of minerals from various sources, including rare and
excellent examples and some new forms; meteorites; Cambrian fossils;
and three valuable type collections pertaining to the paleobotany of
Alaska and other regions. Dr. E. O. Ulrich presented about 3,000
Paleozoic fossils of much value to the Museum. The division of
textiles has been enriched by many important accessions and has
been much extended in its scope during the year.
In the division of history there were large additions to memorials
of eminent Americans and of historic events. An exhibit of period
costumes installed in one of the history halls has attracted much
attention. It includes a series of costumes worn by wives of many
of the Presidents of the United States, and contains valuable ex-
amples of the styles of dress in America since the colonial period
and a variety of articles of domestic and personal use. A unique
photographic exhibit illustrates the apparatus and results of all
stages of that art since the first attempts to obtain pictures through
the agency of the sun.
The collection of fine arts has been enriched by further gifts from
Mr. Charies L. Freer, of Detroit. His original gift, made in 1906,
contained about 2,300 objects, and has since been increased to 4,701
most interesting and valuable examples of oriental and American
art. The collection remains in the possession of the donor during his -
life. Mr. Freer has provided for the construction of a suitable build-
ing adjacent to the National Museum for the permanent preserva-
tion and display of the collection. Among permanent additions to
the National Gallery were a number of paintings. The loans ag-
gregated 109 paintings and 38 pieces of sculpture from various
sources.
I have elsewhere mentioned the bequest to the Institution by Dr.
Chamberlain of $35,000, establishing a fund to promote the increase
and scientific value of the Isaac Lea collections of precious stones
and fresh-water mussels in the Museum.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29
In the interest of general education, particularly in natural his-
tory, it has been the custom for many years to distribute to schools
and colleges throughout the country such duplicate material as
can be spared from the Museum collections. During the past year
14,564 specimens were thus distributed, besides several hundred
pounds of rocks, minerals, and ores.
The total attendance of visitors to the new or natural history
building during the year was 267,728 for week days and 61,653 on
Sundays, while the older building was visited by 146,533 persons.
The publications of the year numbered 14 volumes and 58 sep-
arate papers. The hbrary has now increased to a total of 43,609
volumes and 73,765 pamphlets and other unbound papers.
The auditorium and other available rooms in the new building
have proved of great convenience for meetings of scientific bodies
and were largely utilized during the year. Accommodations were
also afforded for several conventions of agriculturists, accompanied
by exhibits of wool, fruits, and other products
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
The work of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the year
has brought together much new material relating to the habits and
customs and the languages of the American Indians. The results
of the studies of the several investigators are being published as
promptly as practicable. The systematic researches by the eth-
nologists forming the scientific staff of the bureau are described
in detail in the second appendix of this report. I may mention as of
special interest a reconnoissance by Mr. F. W. Hodge, Ethnologist-
in-charge, of a group of prehistoric ruins on a mesa in Cebollita
Valley, N. Mex. These ruins consist of a number of house groups
forming a compound built on an almost impregnable height, and
designed for defense; not only the groups but the individual houses
have the form of fortifications, while the vulnerable point of the
mesa rim is protected by means of a rude breastwork of stones. The
outer wall, which protects the whole mesa, is built of exceptionally
fine masonry, probably the finest work to be found in ancient pueblo
ruins of the Southwest. The building stones have been dressed to
shape, matched for size, and their faces finished by pecking, with
such labor as to confirm the belief that this ancient village was
designed for permanent occupancy. Among the special features of
interest which Mr. Hodge discovered were a burial cist in which
skeletons, pottery, and the remains of a mat were found; three small
cliff lodges situated in the sides of the cliffs; several ceremonial
rooms or kivas associated with the ruined houses; and the remains
of the early reservoirs of the inhabitants.
30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
A study was made by Dr. Fewkes of prehistoric antiquities in the
Lesser Antilles and material gathered for a proposed monograph on
the aborigines of those islands. Examination was made of many
village sites, prehistoric mounds, shell heaps, and bowlders bearing
incised pictographs. In a shell heap in Trinidad there was found
a valuable collection of animal heads made of terra cotta and stone
and other implements illustrating the early culture of the island. As
a result of his researches thus far, Dr. Fewkes concludes that—
The New World, when discovered, had not advanced in autochthonous de-
velopment beyond the neolithic age, whereas in Asia, Europe, and Africa a
neolithic age was supplemented by one in which metals had replaced stone for
implements. In the Old World this polished-stone epoch was preceded by a
paleolithic stone age not represented, so far as is known, in America. The
ethnology and archeology of our Indians is therefore only a chapter, and that
a brief one, of a segment of a much more extended racial evolution, as illus-
trated in Asia, Europe, and Africa.
Further study was made by Mr. Mooney of the sacred formulas of
the Cherokee Indians in North Carolina. In connection with this
work a collection of medicinal plants was made, including some speci-
mens of the native corn still cultivated as sacred and found to be a
new and hitherto undescribed variety of special food importance
under cultivation.
Investigations also progressed among the Fox Indians, the Creeks,
Osage, Seneca, and other tribes, and in the study of various Indian
languages and ceremonies much advancement was made. Toward a
work on the habits and customs and ceremonies of the Tewa Indians
of New Mexico there has been brought together much interesting
information.
Several years ago there was begun a series of handbooks on the
American Indians. The first. of these was issued in two volumes,
entitled “ Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico,” and
contains a descriptive list of the stocks, confederacies, tribes, tribal
divisions, and settlements north of Mexico, with sketches of their
history, archeology, manners, arts, customs, and institutions. The
work proved of so great value to the public that several reprintings
became necessary, including a special reprint by the Canadian Goy-
ernment.
The Handbook of American Indian Languages forms the second
of the series. Part I of this handbook has been published and por-
tions of the second part have been printed in separate form. This
work discusses the characteristics and classification of the languages
of the American Indians and their relation to ethnology. In North
America north of Mexico there are distinguished 55 linguistic fam-
ilies. The first volume of the handbook contains sketches of a num-
ber of the languages of the northern portion of the continent, in-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31
cluding the Athapascan, Tlingit, Haida, Chinook, Algonquian,
Siouan, and Eskimo. .
The third of the series of handbooks is in preparation. This will
be a Handbook of American Antiquities. Work is also in progress on
a Handbook of Aboriginal Remains East of the Mississippi, and it is
proposed later to put in hand a series of handbooks of the Indians
of the several States.
Publications issued during the year included a bulletin on Chip-
pewa Music and one on the Ethnozoology of the Tewa Indians;
those in press at the close of the year were the Twenty-ninth, Thir-
tieth, and Thirty-first Annual Reports, besides four bulletins. There
was distributed a total of 12,819 volumes or separate papers. ‘The
library of the bureau now numbers about 20,000 books, 13,000
pamphlets, and several thousand unbound periodicals. For the
proper care of the library, steel bookstacks have been installed in
the large hall on the first floor of the Smithsonian building.
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
Soon after the organization of the Institution there was created
what is known as the International Exchange Service for the inter-
change of publications between the scientific and literary societies
in the United States and other parts of the world. The mutual ad-
vantages of this system to all countries concerned has been reviewed
from time to time, and I will not attempt to state them again here.
During the past year there was handled by this service a total of
341,667 packages weighing 566,985 pounds. The weight of out-
going material was 424,481 pounds, and of incoming 142,504 pounds.
Fifty-six sets of official publications of the United States Govern-
ment are sent abroad in exchange with other Governments and form
about half of the total weight of shipments, although the receipts
from that source are comparatively small. In Appendix 3 will be
found details of the general operations of the Exchange Service
including a list of foreign bureaus or agencies through which ex-
changes are transmitted.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.
In establishing the National Zoological Park in 1890, “ for the ad-
vancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the peo-
ple,” Congress placed its administration in the Board of Regents of
the Smithsonian Institution. The collection in the park is the out-
growth of a small number of living animals which for several years
had been assembled in very crowded quarters near the Smithsonian
building mainly for the purposes of scientific study. Chiefly
through gifts and exchanges the size of the park collection has grad-
32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ually increased, until it now numbers 340 species of mammals, birds,
and reptiles represented by 1,362 individuals.
Among the 325 accessions during the year I may mention as of spe-
cial interest a male hippopotamus, a pair of young Bengal tigers, a
pair of young lions, a sable antelope, and an American white crane.
Among some specimens received from the Zoological Garden at Giza,
Egypt, was a pair of young African elephants. Thirty-eight in-
dividual donors contributed birds, reptiles, and other animals.
Popular interest in the park is shown by the fact that the number
of visitors during the year was 733,277, or a daily average of 2,009,
being an increase of 100,000 over the previous year. In the interest
of education in nature study many schools, classes, ete., visit the park
accompanied by their teachers; such groups during thie year num-
bered 3,172 individuals.
The improvements in quarters for the animals and for the comfort
of visitors are reviewed by the superintendent in Appendix 4. Ten
breeding pens, in a yard 40 by 56 feet, were built to provide for the
breeding and study of mink in cobwerntion with the Depar tment of
Agriculture.
The rough stone or bowlder bridge across Rock Creek, appropria-
tion for ane was made during the previous fiscal year, was opened
to travel on November 1, 1913.
Perhaps the most important feature of the year in connection with
the Zoological Park was an appropriation by Congress which became
available for the purchase of about 10 acres to extend the western
boundary of the park to Connecticut Avenue, between Cathedral
Avenue and Klingle Road. Legal proceedings necessary to the trans-
fer of this property had not been completed at the close of the year.
A new roadway to the park has been made to replace Quarry Road,
which had a very steep and dangerous gradient.
Among the important needs, some of which have been urged in
former reports, are (a) a suitable house for the care and preservation
of the birds of the collection; (6) an adequate reptile house; (¢) a
pachyderm house; and (d) a hospital and laboratory. Attention is
called to the statements of the superintendent urging these several
needs, particularly with regard to the laboratory.
There is need, too, for extending the scope of classes of animals in
the park, particularly those of common interest to the public, such as
the gorilla, orang, and chimpanzee, giraffe, East African buffalo, and
mountain goats and sheep.
ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.
The work of the Astrophysical Observatory, described in detail
in the report of its director, has comprised observations and compu-
tations at Washington and in the field relating to the quantity of
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33
solar radiation, its variability from day to day, and the effect of the
atmospheric water vapor in absorbing the radiations of great wave
length such as are emitted toward space by the earth. Much atten-
tion has been given to the design, construction, and testing of new
apparatus for these researches, including apparatus for measuring
the sky radiation, special recording pyrheliometers to be attached
to free balloons for the purpose of measuring solar radiation at great
altitudes, and a tower telescope at the Mount Wilson Station.
The principal results of the year include: A new determination of
the number of molecules per cubic centimeter of gas, depending on
measurements at Mount Wilson of the transparency of the atmos-
phere; successful measurements by balloon pyrheliometers of the
intensity of solar radiation up to nearly 45,000 feet elevation above
sea level. The results tend to confirm the adopted value of the solar
constant of radiation. Most important of all, the investigation by
the tower telescope at Mount Wilson shows that the distribution of
radiation along the diameter of the sun’s disk varies from day to day
and from year to year. These variations are closely correlated with
the variations of the total amount of the sun’s radiation. Thus the
work of the year yields an independent proof of the variability of
the sun and tends to elucidate its nature.
INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC
LITERATURE.
The United States Bureau of the International Catalogue is ad-
ministered by the Smithsonian Institution through a small annual
appropriation by Congress. It is one of 33 regional bureaus in
various countries engaged in the collecting, indexing, and classify-
ing of scientific publications of the year, and the classified references
are forwarded to the central bureau in London, where they are col-
lated and published in a series of 17 annual volumes covering each
branch of science and aggregating about 8,000 printed pages. These
volumes are sold at an annual subscription price of $85, chiefly to
large reference libraries and important scientific institutions, the
- proceeds covering in part the cost of publication. During the past
year there was forwarded to London from the United States bureau
a total of 28,606 reference cards, making a total of 318,936 cards
prepared in the United States since the system was organized in
T901.
NECROLOGY.
Augustus Octavius Bacon was born in Bryan County, Ga., Oc-
tober 20, 1839, and died in Washington City February 14, 1914.
He became a member of the Board of Regents in 1905 and for three
73176°—su 19143
34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
years had served on the executive committee. Mr. Bacon was edu-
cated at the University of Georgia in 1859 and was honored with
the degree of doctor of laws in 1909. He was for many years en-
gaged in law practice at Macon, Ga. He became a United States
Senator on March 4, 1895, and was thrice reelected, serving on many
important committees of that body. As a Regent of the Smith-
sonian Institution he took deep interest in the development of plans
for the advancement of science and the general welfare of mankind.
Irvin St. Clare Pepper, born in Davis County, Iowa, June 10,
1876, became a member of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution in December, 1911, and was reappointed December 10,
1913. He died on December 22, 1913. Mr. Pepper graduated from
the Southern Iowa Normal School in 1897 and received the degree of
bachelor of laws from the George Washington University in 1905,
and in 1906 entered law practice at Muscatine, lowa. He was county .
attorney from 1906 to 1910 and member of the Sixty-second and
Sixty-third Congresses. Resolutions to the memory of Mr. Pepper
were adopted by the Regents at the adjourned annual meeting Jan-
uary 15, 1914.
Frederick William True, born at Middletown, Conn., July 8,
1858, died in Washington City June 25, 1914. He was appointed an
Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution June 1, 1911, his
special duties being in connection with the library and international
exchanges. Dr. True had held various positions of trust under the
Institution since 1881. The following tribute to his memory was
adopted by his associates at a meeting on June 26, 1914:
Frederick William True, master of science, doctor of laws, Assistant Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, died at Washington, D. C., June 25, 1914,
in the fifty-sixth year of his age.
His associates in the Smithsonian Institution and its several branches, as-
sembled at a meeting in his memory at the United States National Museum
on June 26, do here record their profound sorrow in the loss of an honored
scholar, an executive officer of marked ability, a sincere friend, a patriotic
citizen, and a modest man.
Graduated from the New York University at the early age of 20, he at once
entered the service of the United States as the youngest member of the scientific
corps brought together by Profs. G. Brown Goode and Spencer EF. Baird during
the formative stages of the National Museum. Through faithful performance
of duty in positions of trust he leaves to his associates an example worthy of
emulation, and through his unassuming and upright personality a cherished
memory.
Respectfully submitted.
Cuartes D. Watcora, Secretary.
APPENDIX 1.
REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1914:
INTRODUCTORY.
The last report contains a brief review of the exhibits in the new
building, which mainly relate to zoology, geology, and anthropology,
though also including the paintings of the National Gallery of Art
and certain special and temporary installations. The natural history
collections, while presenting a generally finished appearance, are,
however, as there explained, still incomplete and to a large extent
provisional in their arrangement. Considerable progress toward
their improvement was made during last year, and this work will be
continued as rapidly as possible until, to the extent of the material
available, some degree of perfection has been reached, but the pur-
poses of the Museum would be poorly served if more or less, and
even radical, changes were not made from time to time in those parts
of the collections which belong especially to the public.
Because of extensive interior alterations going on in the Smith-
sonian building, it was necessary temporarily to withdraw the
graphic arts collection from display, but upon the completion of
this work the surroundings for this important division will be greatly
improved. In the older Museum building, moreover, there was much
activity in connection with the exhibits, though not as much was
accomplished as was desirable or would have been possible with a
slightly increased appropriation. This building has been entirely
given over to the arts and industries and American history. Square
in shape, its exhibition space, amounting to about 100,000 square
feet, is divided into four naves or halls, radiating from a central
pavilion, the naves in turn being connected by ranges, eight in num-
ber, which follow the outer walls of the building and inclose four
square covered courts. Although consisting of only a single story,
except in the towers and pavilions, which are used for offices, most
of the halls are supplemented by galleries. The building faces north,
and its different subdivisions are designated by their position with
35
°
86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
reference to the rotunda. In planning for the distribution of the
collections it has not been found possible to provide for all of the
subjects which should be comprehended, and the fact that a few of
the halls are still unarranged is due in part to the insufficient force
and in part to the length of time required for the preparation of
many of the exhibits. A brief summary of the conditions at the
close of the year may, however, be of some interest.
The division of history, formerly limited to the north hall, has
been extended into the west north range and the north west range,
and also occupies the floor space in the northwest court. The hall
and connecting range contain the general collection of history, con-
sisting chiefly of memorials. The collection of musical instruments
previously filling the large wall cases along the sides of this hall,
though not belonging to this division, have been removed to a corre-
sponding position in the northwest court, leaving these cases to be
used for historical furniture, of which the Museum has many im-
portant pieces. In one of them, however, “'The Star-Spangled Ban-
ner” still remains, pending arrangements for a better installation.
In the north west range has been placed the period costume collec-
tion, which was first opened to the public in February last. This
noteworthy feature, which centers upon a series of White House
costumes draped on manikins, contains many and valuable examples
of the styles of dress in America from the colonial period to the
present time, besides a great variety of articles of domestic and
personal use. In the adjoining or northwest court are the coins and
medals and the postage stamps, also an installation of last year.
The former are shown in table cases, but the stamps required a
special arrangement which has been carried out in the form of two
long upright cases, fitted with framed sliding screens to which the
stamps are attached. The gallery of this court is devoted to the
unique photographic exhibit, illustrating by apparatus and results
all of the stages in the progress of this art from the first attempts
at obtaining pictures through the agency of the sun. The opening
of this display was likewise a feature of the year.
On the left-hand side of the building on entering is the art textile
collection in the east north range, followed by the boat hall, or north
east range, in both of which but few changes were made. The divi-
sion of mechanical technology, to which the exhibit of boats belongs,
also occupies the east hall, the northeast court, and about one-half
of the south east range. The court is mainly given over to small
arms, both military and other, of which the collection is the largest
and most varied in this country. The remaining space is used for
a considerable variety of subjects, such as land and air transporta-
tion, electricity in its several applications, measures of space and
time, and many miscellaneous devices and inventions, which are well
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37
displayed and labeled and to which numerous additions have re-
cently been made. In the gallery of the court are the collections of
ceramics, glassware, bronzes, etc., and in the north gallery of the
hall is the exhibit of the division of medicine.
The southern part of the building has been allotted to two divi-
sions, which, organized some 30 years ago but soon discontinued on
account of lack of space, have recently been reestablished on a
broader basis and have already attained considerable prominence.
One of these is the division of textiles, including also such animal
and vegetable products as do not specifically belong elsewhere. ‘To
this division have been assigned the south hall, the east south range,
and the southeast court, together with a considerable amount of
gallery space. While much of the original collection, when removed
from storage, was found to be still serviceable, the greater part of
the textile display, which is exceedingly rich and varied in its repre-
sentation of this industry in the United States, is the accumulation of
only two years. There is also a fair illustration of the work done
in the Philippines and some examples from Porto Rico. The exhi-
bition of animal and vegetable products is much less advanced, and
there is still to be taken up the subjects of commercial woods and
of foods.
The division of mechanical technology has been assigned the west
hall, the southwest and west south ranges, and the southwest court.
the occupation of all of which has been planned, in part definitely,
in part provisionally. The objects of this division are to illustrate
the processes involved in extracting minerals from the earth, and in
the utilization of the products so obtained, with the intention of
covering all the important minerals, both metallic and nonmetallic.
Progress with this exhibition will be slow, because of the time re-
quired to build models, in which the mining and manufacturing
interests are giving hearty and generous support, even to the extent
of furnishing expensive reproductions of their works and operations.
The first of the exhibits, opened to the public last year, relate mainly
to the subject of coal, and include several excellent models, the largest
of which, representing a bituminous colliery, occupies fully half the
floor space of the southwest court. A number of other models and
exhibits were also completed and installed, and additional ones were
in course of construction.
‘COLLECTIONS.
The additions to the collections aggregated approximately 337,705
specimens, apportioned among the several branches of the Museum
as follows, namely: Anthropology, 14,879; zoology, 257,816, of which
over 214,000 were insects; botany, 44,675; geology and mineralogy,
3,648; paleontology, 13,045; textiles and other animal and vegetable
38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
products, 2,930; mineral technology, 505; and the National Gallery
of Art, 207. There were also received as loans 2,280 objects, mainly
for the exhibition series in ethnology, archeology, history, and the
Gallery of Art. 4
The most noteworthy accessions in ethnology consisted of over 500
objects from northern Dutch New Guinea, the Moluccas and Ambon
of the Ceram group, collected and presented by Dr. W. L. Abbott; an
especially important lot of material obtained at St. Lawrence Island,
Alaska, by Dr. Riley D. Moore, of the Museum staff; and a series of
Siouan ethnologica of particular value, as the locality and tribal
origin of the specimens are properly recorded. The principal addi-
tions in American archeology comprised material from old Indian
camp sites and caves in Patagonia and from Guatemala, the results
of explorations by Mr. Chester W. Washburne in the former region,
and by Mr. Neil M. Judd in the latter; an interesting series of stone
implements from Jackson County, Mo., presented by Mr. J. G.
Braecklein; and a large number of exceptionally fine specimens of
the same character from Missouri and Illinois, purchased from Mr.
D. I. Bushnell, jr. The collection of Old World archeology was
enriched by a drawing in color of an ancient mosaic map of Pales-
tine and adjacent regions, the gift of Mr. S. W. Woodward; an im-
portant contribution from the Egypt Exploration Fund through Mr.
Woodward; a large number of ancient coins and other objects from
the Near East, lent by Mrs. John Paul Tyler; and several series of
prehistoric material from Europe. The more notable accessions in
physical anthropology consisted of human crania and _ skeletons,
mainly of the Eskimo and Aleuts, the Buriats of central Siberia, the
Mongolians, the natives of Mélnik, Bohemia, the Patagonians, and
early man in Europe. The division of mechanical technology re-
ceived a circular sundial adapted to the latitude of Peking and
inscribed in Chinese characters from Mr. Claude L. Woolley; a set
of ancient German coin scales made by Johann Daniel Ellinghaus, in
Radevormwalde, Germany; important additions to the series of fire-
arms, and many other objects. There were a number of interesting
contributions in pottery and bronze, and also several desirable gifts
to the collections of graphic arts and musical instruments.
The division of history was the recipient of many accessions, some
of which were of much value, and an exceptionally large percentage
were permanent acquisitions. There were additions to the Washing-
ton collection; pieces of furniture formerly belonging to Alexander
Hamilton and Gen. Philip Schuyler; relics af Rear Admiral Charles
Wilkes, United States Navy; of Aaron Burr, and of Prof. Spencer
F. Baird; the sword carried by Brig. Gen. Strong Vincent, United
States Volunteers, when mortally wounded at Little Round Top,
Gettysburg; and a large collection of canes, interesting historically
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39
as well as for their workmanship, some having been owned by persons
of high distinction. The collection of postage stamps, postal cards,
and stamped envelopes was increased to the extent of about 9,000
examples, and many additions were made to the series of coins and
medals and of portrait photographs. So many contributions were
received for the period costume collection as to permit of the instal-
lation and opening of the hall allotted to this subject.
Especially notable among the acquisitions in biology were some
200,000 insects obtained by entomologists of the Department of Agri-
culture during economic investigations in Texas and neighboring
States. Mr. H. C. Raven, whose work has continued to be maintained
by Dr. W. L. Abbott, sent over 1,500 mammals and birds from eastern
Borneo, including numerous rare and probably some new forms. Be-
s:des extensive collections of fishes and marine invertebrates, the
Bureau of Fisheries transferred a large number of reptiles and batra-
chians from various parts of North America, and the first series, with
the types, of the mammals obtained in Lower California during the
cruise of the steamer Albatross in 1911. The Biological Survey, in
addition to its regular deposits of North American mammals and
birds, turned over to the Museum many mammals from Patagonia
and reptiles and batrachians from Panama, and Prof. A. M. Reese
contributed a large quantity of specimens of several groups collected
by him at the Philippine Islands. Additional mammals were re-
ceived from China, Africa, the island of Sardinia, etc., and reptiles
and batrachians from California, Mississippi, Alabama, and other
southern States. A generous donation from Dr. E. A. Mearns, United
States Army, retired, consisted of his large private collection of bird
skins, eggs, and skeletons, containing many rarities. Other sources
of fishes than those above referred to were Japan, Fanning Island,
the Philippines, Panama, and California; and of insects, the Bahama
Islands, Florida, the southwestern and western States, and Alaska,
besides which important series in several groups of insects of eco-
nomic importance were among the contributions. The division of
mollusks received as gifts the important collection of the late Prof.
F. W. Bryant, of Lakeside, Cal.; about 2,000 specimens obtained by
Mr. John B. Henderson, jr., during a dredging expedition to the vi-
cinity of Chincoteague, Va., and many other valuable donations. The
marine invertebrates from the Bureau of Fisheries consisted chiefly
of material in several groups which had been the subject. of study
and report. About 100 species of rotifers, mounted on slides, were
presented by Mr. H. K. Harring, and numerous more or less impor-
tant collections were received from various sources. The additions to
the herbarium comprised over 10,000 specimens, mainly of grasses,
from the Department of Agriculture, resulting from recent field
work; about 38,500 West Indian and African plants from the New
40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
York Botanical Garden; nearly 1,600 Chinese plants from the collec-
tion of Mr. E. H. Wilson; about 10,000 specimens of cryptogams
collected by the late John B. Leiberg and presented by Mrs. Leiberg;
and important contributiorts from Venezuela, Guam, the Philippines,
and the southern and southwestern States.
Among the additions in geology and mineralogy were an impor-
tant series of rocks and ores from the Sudbury nickel region and the
Cobalt mining district of Canada; a suite of recently described min-
erals from Peru; a 200-pound specimen of copper from Nevada; an
unusual deposit of carnotite in a fossil tree trunk; a large piece of
quartz vein, containing an abundant development of blade-like crys-
tals of tungsten ore; and many specimens of minerals from various
sources, including rare and excellent examples and some new forms.
The collections of meteorites and building stones received many
desirable additions, and the Geological Survey deposited a number
of series of rocks, of petrological value, from different parts of this
country and from Hawaii. The accessions in invertebrate paleon-
tology included about 150 types of Cambrian fossils collected and
described by Secretary Walcott; some 5,000 specimens from the
Middle Cambrian of British Columbia, also collected by him; and
about 150 type specimens of Bryozoa and Ostracoda, representing
work of the curator of the division on the Silurian collections from
the island of Anticosti, preserved at Yale University. The Geolog-
ical Survey transferred several collections, some of which had been
described; Dr. E. O. Ulrich presented about 3,000 Paleozoic fossils,
of much value to the Museum; and an important series of Tertiary
mollusks and Ordovician graptolites was received in exchange from
Australia. The most important acquisitions in vertebrate paleon-
tology consisted of a large collection made by Mr. Charles W. Gil-
more in the Blackfeet Indian Reservation; of the results of further
explorations by Mr. James W. Gidley in the Pleistocene cave deposits
near Cumberland, Md.; and of cetacean remains collected in the
Miocene beds near Chesapeake Beach, Md., by Mr. William Palmer
and Mr. Norman H. Boss. The section of paleobotany was enriched
by three valuable type collections from the Geological Survey, rep-
resenting the Jurassic formation at Cape Lisburne, Alaska; the
Tuscaloosa formation of Alabama; and the Cretaceous and Tertiary
in South Carolina and Georgia.
‘The number and value of the accessions in the division of textiles
were greatly increased over those of the previous year, due to the
appreciation shown by the producers in the important work which
the Museum has undertaken. Only a brief summary can here be
given of the many contributions which were almost wholly in the
form of gifts. 'To the cotton collection were added fancy wash
dress goods and shirtings, comprising pleasing and artistic combina-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41
tions of plain, ratine, and mercerized cotton yarns, with spun silk
and viscose silk in plain and fancy weaves; plain, piece-dyed and
yarn-dyed dress goods of all cotton and cotton and artificial silk;
cotton fabrics finished to imitate those of silk and of wool and fancy
printed cotton velvets in gold and silver effects for millinery pur-
poses. The collection of wool and woolen products was enriched by
a large assortment of new fleeces of the best American and foreign
wools, all carefully graded and labeled to show the value in the
grease and when scoured; specimens marking the steps in the manu-
facture of both woolen and worsted goods, and many pieces of fin-
ished fabrics of both classes. The already extensive silk collection
was enlarged by the addition of a commercial package of skeins of
the finest Japanese raw silk, many yards of printed broad silks rep-
resenting the latest seasonable designs, brocaded novelty silks for
dress trimmings, and samples of ties, scarfs, veilings, and ribbons of
all kinds. Another important acquisition was the oldest model of
the Grant silk reel, now in universal use for winding silk into stand-
ardized crossed skeins. The manufacture of fur felt hats from .the
finest grades of beaver, nutria, hare, and coney furs was illustrated
by a comprehensive collection showing each step in the process from
the fur pelt to the finished hat, and including the leather and silk
trimmings for the principal types of hats. The development of an
artist’s plan for the decoration of a fabric by weaving or printing
was represented by a series of preliminary sketches, weaver’s drafts,
and engraved plates for use on the pantograph machine, all bearing
on the technology of design.
In the division of mineral technology, including a few of the
exhibits presented at the St. Louis exposition of 1904, which had
not previously been unpacked and recorded, the principal accessions
of the year were as follows: A very full illustration of the processes
of glass making; a complete working model of a bituminous colliery
at Fairmont, W. Va., covering a space of 30 by 40 feet; a reproduc-
tion of a bituminous mine at Willock, Pa., 8 by 12 feet square, which
excellently supplements the former; a relief panel illustrating proc-
esses involved in the manufacture of illuminating gas, tar, ammonia,
and other coal products in what is known as the by-products coke
industry ; a number of photographic enlargements depicting typical
underground operations incidental to coal mining; a series of native
gypsum and gypsum products; and a collection illustrating crude
mica and its industrial products.
NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART.
The most important acquisition consisted of the formal transfer to
the Institution, by Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, Mich., of 198 ob-
jects as additions to his munificent gift to the Nation, comprising the
49 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
material which he had assembled since the last previous transfer in
November, 1912. This collection, as will be recalled, relates wholly
to American and oriental art, and is to remain in the possession of
the donor during his life. The original gift, made in 1906, con-
tained approximately 2,326 objects, but through subsequent contri-
butions this number has been increased to 4,701, of which 983 are
examples of American art and 3,718 are examples of oriental art.
These may be summarized as follows:
In the American section James McNeill Whistler is represented by
62 oil paintings, 44 water colors, 32 pastels, and 798 drawings, etch-
ings, lithographs, ete., besides 1 album of sketches, 38 original copper
plates, and the entire decoration of the famous Peacock Room. The
remainder of this section is composed of 75 oil paintings, 6 water
colors, 25 pastels, and 1 silver point, illustrating the work of 9 other
American painters, namely, Thomas Wilmer Dewing, Childe Hassam,
Winslow Homer, J. Gari Melchers, John Singer Sargent, Joseph
Lindon Smith, Abbott Handerson Thayer, Dwight William Tryon,
and John Henry Twachtman. The oriental paintings comprise 826
screens, panels, kakemono, and makimono from Japan and China;
32 albums of paintings and sketches from the same countries; and 18
paintings from Tibet. Of oriental pottery there are 1,665 pieces,
mainly from Japan, China, Corea, central and western Asia, and
Egypt; of bronzes, 236 pieces, of which over 200 came from China;
of stone objects, including sculptures, 234 pieces, mainly Chinese; of
wood carvings, 17 pieces; and of lacquered objects, 31 pieces. The
collection also contains over 600 pieces of ancient Egyptian glass in
the form of bottles, vases, and various other shapes, besides a large
number of miscellaneous objects from both the Far and Near East.
Other permanent additions to the Gallery consisted of 3 paint-
ings-by Miss Clara Taggart MacChesney, Guy C. Wiggins, and Addi-
son T. Millar, respectively, contributed by Mr. William T. Evans, of
New York; a painting by Du Bois Fenelon Hasbrouck, presented by
Mr. Frederic Fairchild Sherman in memory of his wife; and 4
paintings by Walter Shirlaw and a portrait sketch of him by Frank
Duveneck, received as a gift from Mrs. Shirlaw.
The loans to the Gallery aggregated 109 paintings and 3 pieces of
sculpture from 12 sources. Eighty-one of the paintings were re-
ceived for 2 special exhibitions, the first comprising 25 portraits in
oil from the National Association of Portrait Painters, the other
consisting of 56 marine paintings by Mr. William F. Halsall, of
Boston.
MISCELLANEOUS.
It is gratifying to announce a bequest by the late Rev. Dr. Leander
Trowbridge Chamberlain, an honorary associate of the Museum,
of the sum of $35,000, to be known as the Frances Lea Chamberlain
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43
fund, the income of which is to be used for promoting the increase
and the scientific value and usefulness of the two important Isaac
Lea collections, $25,000 being given on account of the gems and
precious stones and $10,000 on account of the fresh-water mussels
or Unionide. Owing to delay in the settlement of the will, pay-
ment had not been made to the Institution at the close of the year.
By the will of Miss Lucy Hunter Baird, daughter of Prof. Spencer
F’. Baird, the second Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the
Museum received during the year many interesting objects for its
collections and several hundred important books for its library.
The distribution of duplicate material suitable for teaching pur-
poses to schools and colleges in all parts of the country aggregated
_ 14,564 specimens, besides several hundred pounds of rock and min-
eral fragments for blowpipe analysis. These were sent out in
148 separate sets, and consisted mainly of rocks, minerals, ores,
fossils, and mollusks and other marine. invertebrates. In exchange
transactions with other establishments and with individuals over
15,000 duplicates were used, about 80 per cent of this number
being plants. The loans to specialists for study comprised 10,256
specimens of animals and plants, and 5,425 specimens from the
department of geology, besides 746 unassorted lots of marine
invertebrates and 107 lots of fossils.
The total attendance of visitors at the new building aggregated
267,728 for week days and 61,653 for Sundays, making the daily
average for the former 855 and for the latter 1,185. The number
who visited the older Museum building was 146,533, a daily average
of 486, and the Smithsonian building 102,645, a daily average of
828. The falling off in attendance at these two buildings may be
ascribed to the fact that many of the halls in the former, emptied
by the withdrawal of the natural history collections, have not yet
received their new installations, and extensive rearrangements and
repairs in the Smithsonian building practically caused the closing
of its exhibition rooms for a considerable part of the year.
The publications of the year numbered 14 volumes and 58 separate
papers, 49 of the latter belonging to the series of Proceedings and 9
to the Contributions from the National Herbarium. In addition, 31
short papers on materials in the collections of the Museum, relating
mainly to new discoveries, were printed in the Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections. The total distribution of Museum publications
amounted to about 93,200 copies. .
The library received 1,917 volumes, 1,723 pamphlets, and 132 parts
of volumes, and its total contents were thereby increased to 43,609
volumes and 73,765 pamphlets and other unbound papers, the greater
part of which have been obtained through exchange and as gifts.
Good progress was made in the reorganization and arrangement of
44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
the section of the library relating to the arts and industries, which
occupies the former library quarters in the older Museum building.
The auditorium and other rooms in the new building were fre-
quently used for meetings and public gatherings having objects
akin to those of the Institution, and also by several bureaus of the
Government for official purposes. The regular meetings of the
Washington Society of the Fine Arts and the Anthropological So-
ciety of Washington were held here, as were the public sessions of the
annual meeting of the National Academy of Sciences and the meet-
ings of the Spanish-American Atheneum and the American Orni-
thologists’ Union. Lectures were delivered under the auspices of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, the Medical Society of the Dis-
trict of Columbia, the Washington Society of Engineers, the George
Washington University, the Washington Society of the Archzeo-
logical Institute of America, the Germanistic Society of Washington,
the Columbia Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution,
the District of Columbia Chapter of the Guild of American Organ-
ists and other musical societies, and the Home Club of the Depart-
ment of the Interior. <A special program of American music was
also rendered by the Friday Morning Music Club. Of three con-
gresses, one held in Chicago, the others in Washington, each had a
special meeting in the auditorium for addresses by distinguished
persons. These were the Third International Congress of Refrigera-
tion, the fourth annual meeting of the American Association for
Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, and the Third Interna-
tional Congress on the Welfare of the Child. On April 18, 1914, a
reception to the Daughters of the American Revolution was given
by the Secretary of the Institution.
The accommodations afforded by the new building were utilized on
numerous occasions by bureaus of the Department of Agriculture
for meetings, conferences, and hearings, including a series of lectures
under the Bureau of Plant Industry and a conference with the wool-
growers, accompanied by an excellent exhibition of wool specimens,
which has been deposited in the Museum. <A meeting of the Ameri-
can Pomological Society in conjunction with the Eastern Fruit
Growers Association, the Northern Nut Growers Association, and
the Society for Horticultural Science, held in November, 1913,
brought together in the foyer of the building one of the finest exhi-
bitions of fruit that has ever been displayed in this country.
Respectfully submitted.
Ricwarp Rarusun,
Assistant Secretary in Charge U.S. National Musewn.
Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Ocroper 6, 1914.
APPENDIX 2.
REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
Sir: In response to your communication dated July 1, I have the
honor to present the following report on the operations of the Bureau
of American Ethnology for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, con-
ducted in accordance with authority granted by the act, of Congress
approved June 23, 1913, making appropriations for the sundry civil
expenses of the Government, and with a plan of operations submitted
_ by the ethnologist-in-charge and approved by the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution. The provision of the act authorizing the
researches of the Bureau of American Ethnology is as follows:
American ethnology: For continuing ethnological researches among the Amer-
ican Indians and the natives of Hawaii, including the excavation and preserva-
tion of archzologic remains, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution,
_including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees and the purchase
of necessary books and periodicals, including payment in advance for subscrip-
tions, $42,000.
SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES.
The systematic researches were conducted by the regular staff of
the bureau, consisting of nine ethnologists, including the ethnologist-
in-charge and several special investigators. These operations may
be summarized as follows:
Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist-in-charge, was occupied during most
of the year with the administrative affairs of the bureau. Consider-
able attention, however, was devoted to the preparation of the anno-
tated bibliography of the Pueblo Indians, which is probably more
extensive than that of any other group of tribes, as Pueblo written
history commenced in the year 1539, and the writings pertaining
thereto are exceedingly voluminous. The bibliography is recorded
on cards, the number of which is now about 1,900. The cataloguing
of the vast amount of manuscript material bearing on the subject
has been somewhat simplified by the recent publication of Bolton’s
Guide to Materials for the History of the United States in the
Principal Archives of Mexico, published by the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington, and Twitchell’s Spanish Archives of New
Mexico, although without consultation of the documents themselves
it is not possible to give more than the title in most cases. In the
45
46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
spring Mr. Hodge made a brief visit to the library of the Presby-
terian Board of Home Missions in New York City, where he was
enabled to record the titles of numerous published writings on mis-
sionary efforts among the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, not acces-
sible elsewhere. In this bibliographical work he has had the assist-
ance of Mrs. Frances 8. Nichols and Miss Florence M. Poast. | Mr.
Hodge continued to represent the bureau on the Smithsonian Ad-
visory Committee on Printing and Publication, and the Smithsonian
Institution on the United States Board on Geographic Names.
Early in the autumn of 1913 Mr. Hodge made a reconnoissance of
a group of ruins, evidently prehistoric, on a mesa rising from the
southwestern margin of the Cebollita Valley, about 20 miles south of
Grant, Valencia County, N. Mex., and only a few yards from the
great lava flow that has spread over the valley to the westward for
many miles. While no very definite information regarding the origin
of this ruined pueblo has yet been obtained, there is reason to suppose
that it was occupied by ancestors of the Tanyi, or Calabash, clan of
the Acoma tribe, and is possibly the one known to them at Kowina.
These ruins consist of a number of house groups forming a com-
pound. That the structures were designed for defense is evident, for
not only are they situated on an almost impregnable height rising
about 200 feet above the valley, but the houses themselves partake of ©
the form of fortifications, while the only vulnerable point of the
mesa is protected at the rim by means of a rude breastwork of stones.
Moreover, the outer walls of the buildings, some of which still stand
to a height of several feet, are pierced only with loopholes, entrance
to the structures doubtless having been gained by means of portable
ladders, as in some of the pueblos of to-day. The houses of the great
compound, consisting of four compact groups of buildings, were evi-
dently “terraced” on the plaza side, the rooms facing this court per-
haps having been only a single story in height. As a further protec-
tion to the pueblo, the eastern side was defended by a low wall,
pierced by three gatewaylike openings, extending from the north-
eastern to the southeastern corner of the compound.
The rooms indicated in the ground plan of the four house groups
number approximately 95 (for the northern group), 58 (eastern
group), 32 (central group), and 102 (southeastern group), or an
aggregate of 287 rooms. At the time of its occupancy the number of
rooms in the compound probably approximated 550. In addition,
there are traces of four or five single-story rooms abutting on the de-
fensive wall bounding the northeastern part of the compound. <A
short distance from the southwestern angle of the southwestern house
group are two smaller detached houses, the southernmost one con-
sisting of 24 rooms in a long tier, 2 rooms deep, extending approxi-
mately NNW. and SSE. The other structure, about 55 feet north-
Se
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47
westward, is rectangular and contains 11 rooms in its ground plan.
Four kivas are traceable among the rooms of the main compound—
one in the northwestern, one in the central, and two in the southwest-
ern group. In each case, so far as is determinable without excavation,
the outer walls of the kivas are rectangular, while the inner walls are
circular and slightly recessed a short distance above the floor.
About 500 feet southeastward from the main compound, at the
edge of the mesa, stand the well-preserved walls of another structure,
consisting of a double row of rooms, the outer wall, or that over-
looking the mesa rim, extending 28 and 15 feet, respectively, beyond
the northwestern and southwestern corners of the building proper, in
order to give further protection. The length of this outer wall from
angle to angle is about 132 feet. It exhibits one of the finest ex-
amples of masonry to be seen in the ancient pueblo ruins of the
Southwest, for not only have the building stones been dressed to
shape, but their faces have been finished by pecking, with such labor
as to confirm the belief that the ancient village was designed for
permanent occupancy. The southern corner of the outer defensive
wall is not only curved, but the stones of which it is built are rounded
by careful pecking, a most unusual feature in pueblo architecture.
That this last structure was designed to protect the most vulnerable
part of the mesa is evident from the fact that the outer wall is with-
out openings of any kind and extends beyond the rooms of the struc-
ture, and because the adjacent mesa rim is protected by a rude low
wall, especially at such points as required ready defense against
attack from below. As already noted, the walls of these ruins are
noteworthy by reason of the excellence of their masonry, special
effort having been made to produce a pleasing effect in the exterior
faces. Of the inner walls so much can not be said; but as there is
no question that when the houses were occupied the rooms were
smoothly plastered, there was little need of the elaborate finish ac-
corded the exposed masonry. Slight attention was paid either to
regularity in the shape of the stones or to smoothness of surface in
building the inner walls, nor was the aboriginal mason more par-
ticular in bonding the inner and outer courses than in “ breaking”
the joints of the outer face. It seems remarkable that, possessed of
such patience and expertness as the builders here display in other
ways, they seem to have been unaware of the necessity of avoiding
the construction of their walls in such manner that in places as many
as SIX or seven vertical joints occur practically in line. In this brief
report only mere mention can be made of many other interesting
architectural features of these ruins, as well as of another pueblo
ruin, more or less circular in shape, situated a few miles northeast-
ward on a low mesa at the extreme head of Cebollita Valley, which
here forms a small but beautiful canyon.
4
48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The inhabitants_of the great compound first described obtained
their water supply by means of two principal reservoirs fed by the
drainage from the great sandstone shelf on the southern slope of the
mesa summit. These reservoirs are natural depressions in the rock,
but the epee of the larger one, which measures 35 by 90 feet and
is about 5 feet in maximum depth, has been greatly augmented on
the western side by an artificial retaining wall 14 feet long and 10
feet in thickness, with an exposed face of 24 feet on the reservoir side.
So well did this reservoir evidently serve the ancient mesa-dwellers,
that, during seasons of unusual rain, water still stands to a consider-
able depth within the depression. The smaller reservoir is triangular
in outline and measures about 15 by 19 feet. An interesting feature
in connection with the larger reservoir is the remains of a rude dike
extending 60 feet along the rocky shelf above referred to, built for the
purpose of diverting the flow of rain water from its natural course
into the reservoir.
Jt is not yet known where the ancients of this pueblo customarily
buried their dead, but probably the interments were made in the
talus of the mesa, as is the case with the Hopi, of Arizona, to-day.
There was found, however, in the corner of a shallow cavern in the
northern face of the mesa, above the talus, a small cist, formed by
a low and broken wall of masonry, which contained the somewhat
incomplete skeletons of two adult females, one incomplete skeleton
of a boy, and the incomplete and defective skeletons of two infants.
With one exception these remains had been greatly disturbed by
rats, which had burrowed their way through the bones and their
accompaniments to the bottom of the cist and fairly filled the re-
pository with cactus spines, excreta, and other débris of nest build-
ing. The remains were accompanied with several pottery vessels,
chiefly bowls, one of which was covered with a well-preserved mat,
plaited of a fibrous plant which Mr. Lyster H. Dewey, of the De-
partment of Agriculture, identifies as a scirpus, and almost cer-
tainly Scirpus validus. The ornamentation of this pottery, as well
as of the numerous sherds scattered about the ruins, consists of
plain red, black on red, white on red, plain black, black on white,
brown on white, brown on red, and many other combinations of
color. All the decorations noted were in geometrical designs.
On the northern face of the mesa, but practically hidden from
view except from one point in the valley below, is a small house
shelter of excellent masonry, built beneath an overhanging ledge
of the cliff which forms the roof. This shelter, which is provided
with a single small opening overlooking the valley to the northward,
was seemingly designed as a lookout station either for watching the
crops or an approaching foe. Across the valley, on the eastern side
of the first great mesa directly opposite that on which the ruins are
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49
situated, is another small cliff lodge, now accessible only by artificial
means. Examination of the interior, as in the case of the cliff lodge
above described, yielded nothing of interest. Farther up the valley,
on the northern side, in plain view near the base of a mesa, is a larger
cliff lodge, filled to a considerable depth with detritus from the soft
stone forming the roof and side walls. Examination of the floor of
this lodge a few years ago by Mr. Hodge yielded a few corncobs,
one or two small objects made of yucca leaves, and a wooden drum-
stick of a form such as the Zui now employ.
Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, ethnologist, spent the month of July, 1913,
in the office continuing the preparation of his monographic report
on the aborigines of the West Indies, especially describing the many
objects from these islands in the noteworthy collection of George G.
Heye, esq., of New York. He made a visit to New York toward the
close of the month to study recent additions to this collection and to
supervise the preparation of the illustrations for his report. It
became necessary, in order to make this memoir as comprehensive
as possible, to investigate types of the Guesde collection, now owned
by the Museum fiir Volkerkunde in Berlin. Accordingly Dr. Fewkes
went to Kurope at his personal expense and spent August, Septem-
ber, and October studying these types and also many undescribed
Porto Rican and other West Indian objects in various museums.
Drawings of about 140 specimens, many of which have not been
described, were made during the course of these studies in Berlin.
He also visited the museum at Copenhagen, Denmark, which con-
tains many old specimens from the Danish West Indies and some
rare types of prehistoric objects from Porto Rico, all of which were
either drawn or photographed. West Indian objects were found also
in the museum collections of Leipzig, Dresden, and Vienna. Some
time was given to an examination of the dolmens and megaliths in
the neighborhood of. Berlin and elsewhere in northefn Germany, and
of the numerous mounds and prehistoric workshops on the island
of Riigen in the Baltic Sea.
Dr. Fewkes spent his vacation on the shore of the Mediterranean,
which he crossed, visiting the most striking ruins in Egypt, pene-
trating as far south as Assouan, and making special studies of the
remaining evidences of neolithic man at Abydos and El Kab on the
banks of the Nile. He had always in mind a study of prehistoric
irrigation in this region, with a view to comparing the works with
similar remains in Arizona. In the museums at Cairo and Assouan
Dr. Fewkes examined considerable material dating back to late
neolithic times and found a remarkable similarity not only in archi-
tectural features but also in stone implements, basketry, bone imple-
ments, and other artifacts from the valley of the Nile and those from
our Southwest. One of the important features of the visit to Egypt
73176°—sM 19144
50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
was a study of methods of excavation and repair of ruins adopted
by Egyptologists. On his return from Egypt Dr. Fewkes passed
through Greece and southern Italy and was able to acquaint himself
with the method of excavation and repair of ancient ruins in these
countries, especially those on the Acropolis and at Pompeii.
Dr. Fewkes arrived in Washington in April and immediately re-
sumed work on his report on the Aborigines of the West Indies,
which was continued during April and the greater part of May. In
the latter month he again took the field and spent the whole of June
in archeological research in the Mimbres Valley, N. Mex. In
this work he was able to enlarge our knowledge of the distribution
of pottery symbols and to add important collections to the National
Museum. The Mimbres Valley is practically the northern extension
into the United States of an inland basin known in Chihuahua as
the Sierra Madre Plateau. The fact that its drainage does not con-
nect with any stream that flows into the Atlantic or the Pacific
Ocean imparts a peculiar character to its geographical environment.
On the southern part of this plateau, as along the Casas Grandes
River, mounds and ruins of large size are well known, from which
have been taken some of the finest pottery in the Southwest; but the
archeology of the extension of this plateau into New Mexico has
never been adequately examined. In his brief reconnoissance Dr.
Fewkes collected evidence that the prehistoric culture of the Mimbres
Valley was strikingly characteristic. The decorated pottery from
the ruins in this valley is unlike that of any other region. It con-
sists mainly of mortuary food bowls, which the prehistoric inhabit-
ants were accustomed to break or “kill” and place over the heads
of the deceased, who were buried beneath the floors of the houses.
About 60 specimens of beautiful pottery, more than half of which are
ornamented with painted figures of human beings and animals, were
found or purchased. As these are the first examples ever brought
to the National Museum from this region, the results are gratifying.
They afford through their geometrical ornamentation, and especially
because of the life forms which predominate, an interesting insight
into the ancient culture of the Pueblo region to the north and in the
Gila Valley to the west. It is Mexican in type, and some of the frag-
ments are practically identical in form and ornamentation with the
beautiful pottery from Casas Grandes, Chihuahua.
During the year Dr. Fewkes added about 350 pages of manu-
script to his report on the Aborigines of the West Indies, which was
approaching completion at the close of the year.
Shortly before the close of the preceding fiscal year Mr. James
Mooney, ethnologist, proceeded to the reservation of the East Chero-
kee Indians in western North Carolina for the purpose of continuing
the translation and elucidation of the large body of sacred formulas,
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51
written in the Cherokee language and alphabet, which he had ob-
tained from the native priests and their surviving relatives some
years ago, and about one-third of which he had already translated,
with explanatory notes. In connection with this work a large num-
ber of plants noted in the formulas as of medicinal or other value
were collected and transferred to the division of botany of the Na-
tional Museum for scientific identification. In this collection were
several specimens of the native corn of the Cherokee, still cultivated
as sacred by a few of the old conservatives. On examination by the
experts of the Department of Agriculture this corn was found to be
a new and hitherto undescribed variety of special food importance
under cultivation. Return was made from the field early in Octo-
ber, 1913. .
In June, 1914, a brief trip was made into Prince Georges and
Charles Counties, Md., for the purpose of investigating the status
and origin of some persons of supposedly Indian descent, con-
cerning whom several inquiries had come to the bureau. Mr.
Mooney found, as he had supposed, that these people, numbering in -
all several hundred, were, like the Pamunkey of Virginia and the
so-called Croatan of North Carolina, a blend of the three races, In-
dian, Negro, and White, with the Indian blood probably predominat-
ing. They constitute and hold themselves a separate caste, distinct
from both white and negro. They probably represent the mongrel-
ized descendants of the Piscataway tribe, and are sometimes locally
distinguished among themselves as “ We-Sort,” that is, “Our Sort.”
On June 22, 1914, Mr. Mooney again started for the East Cher-
okee to continue work on the sacred formulas, with a view to speedy
publication.
His time in the office during the winter and spring was occupied
chiefly with the extended investigation of former Indian population,
together with routine correspondence and replies to letters of in-
quiry. On request of the Department of Justice he prepared an
extended deposition on tribal ranges and Indian depredations in
northern Mexico and along the Rio Grande, which was officially
characterized as one of the most important and interesting that had
ever come before the department.
In pursuance of his investigations of the Creek Indians and allied
tribes, Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, proceeded to Oklahoma
early in July to attend the busk ceremonies, and was present at those
of the Eufaula, Hilibi, Fish Pond, and Tukabachi Creeks. Notes
were taken on all of these and photographs obtained of various
features of all but the last. At the same time, with the valued as-
sistance of Mr. G. W. Grayson, of Eufaula, Dr. Swanton gathered
further ethnological information from some of the old people, and
continued this work after the ceremonies ceased. Somewhat later
52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
he visited the small body of Indians in Seminole County who still
retain a speaking knowledge of Hitchiti, and added about 40 pages
of text to that previously obtained, besides correcting a portion of
Gatschet’s Hitchiti vocabulary. He made an arrangement with an
interpreter by which 100 pages of additional text were received after
his return to Washington.
While some time was devoted to studies of the Alabama, Hitchiti,
and Choctaw languages, most of Dr. Swanton’s attention while in
the office during the year was centered on two particular undertak-
ings. One of these was the proof reading of the Choctaw-English
section of Byington’s Choctaw Dictionary, and the compilation, with
the efficient help of Miss M. C. Rollins, of an English-Choctaw in-
dex, which will comprise about 350 printed pages, to accompany it.
The other was work on the first draft of an extended report on the
Creek confederacy, of which the historical part, consisting of 300
typewritten pages, is practically completed.
At the beginning of the year Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist,
* undertook the work of editing and copying the Seneca text “ Shago-
wenotha, or The Spirit of the Tides,” which was recorded by him in
the form of field notes in 1896 on the Cattaraugus Reservation, New
York. This particular piece of work, forming a text of 3,692 native
~ words, was completed in August, 1913. The task of making a literal,
almost an etymological, interlinear translation of this text was next
undertaken and was completed in November, yielding an aggregate
of 11,411 English words in the rendering. The other of the two
native texts in Seneca, “ Doadanegen and Hotkwisdadegena,” which
was recorded in the form of field notes by Mr. Hewitt in 1896, was
next edited and copied; this work was completed by the close of
December and consists of 4,888 native Seneca words. The literal
interlinear translation of this text then taken up was completed in
February, 1914, making 14,664 English words in the rendering.
On finishing these translations Mr. Hewitt commenced the read-
ing and digesting of the Seneca material of the late Jeremiah
Curtin for the purpose of providing notes and explanations to the
stories, a task that was made the more difficult by the fact that Mr.
Curtin’s field notes of explanation and identification are not avail-
able. One of the longest of the stories collected by Mr. Curtin,
“Doonogaes and Tsodiqgwadon,” comprising 149 typewritten pages,
required 144 notes varying in length from three or four lines to
several pages; but this story is of exceptional length. The entire
Curtin material has now been reread and annotated. Mr. Hewitt
also completed the notes for his introduction to the “Seneca Myths
and Fiction,” and the final writing was almost finished by the close
of the year.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53
As opportunity offered, Mr. Hewitt continued to work on a sketch
of the Iroquois language, and he has now in hand about 75 pages of
manuscript, in addition to a considerable body of notes and diagrams
for incorporation into final form.
Mr. Hewitt also made a week’s study of the voluminous manu-
script “ Dictionary of Words that have been Made Known in or
Introduced into English from the Indians of North, Central, and
South America,’ compiled by the late William R. Gerard, with a
view of ascertaining its value for publication by the bureau. This
examination was made difficult by the fact that the compiler of the
dictionary had access to many works which were not available for
Mr. Hewitt.
Unfortunately the work summarized above was often interrupted,
owing to the need of frequently calling on Mr. Hewitt for the prepa-
ration of data for replies to correspondents, whose inquiries pertained
to linguistic, historical, sociological, and technical matters. In con-
nection with this work there were prepared 110 letters, rarely ex-
ceeding a page in length, although some occupied several pages and
required considerable study and research in gathering the needed
data for reply.
During the year Mr. Francis La Flesche, ethnologist, recorded the
rituals and accompanying songs of five additional Osage ceremonies,
known as Wawatho", Wadéka .Weko, Wazhitgao, Zhitgizhitga
Zhazhe Thadse, and Wéxthexthe. Of these the WAwatho" is com-
plete; the record fills about 150 pages, including songs, diagrams,
and illustrations. This ceremony, which is of religious significance
and is reverenced by all the people, has been obsolete for about 20
years, and there now remain only two men in the tribe who remem-
ber it in most of its details. It was a peace ceremony that held an
important place in the great tribal rites of the Osage, for through
its influence friendly relations were maintained among the various
gentes composing the tribe, and it was also the means by which
friendship with interrelated tribes was established and preserved.
Early French travelers mention this ceremony as being performed
by the Osage in one of the tribes of the Illinois confederacy during
the second decade of the eighteenth century. Unlike the Osage war
ceremonies, which are complex and composed of several steps or
degrees, the Wawatho® is simple and complete in itself. The “ pipes,”
sometimes called calumets, which are employed in its performance,
consist of a number of sacred symbolic articles, each of which, with
its attendant ritual, was in the keeping of a certain gens of the tribe.
The assembling of these articles formed an essential part of the
ceremony, for it was on this occasion that the ritual, which explained
both the significance of and the precepts conveyed by the sacred
articles, had to be recited. This Wawatho" ceremony resembled that
54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of the Omaha, Ponca, Oto, and Pawnee tribes, differing only in
minor details. To the intelligent thinking class the aims and pur-
poses of the ceremony are clear, but there are among the Osage, as
among other tribes, those who can not comprehend fully the deeper,
broader teachings of such a rite, and because of this restricted view
superstitious beliefs regarding it now prevail among the lower
classes.
The record of the Wadéka Weko, one of the seven war ceremonies,
consists of 89 pages of manuscript, with 32 songs. This rite, which
is the sixth degree of the war ceremony, is divided into eight parts,
exclusive of the introductory rites, and consists of rituals and songs
pertaining to the ceremonial cutting of the scalps for distribution
among the various gentes for their sacred packs. One of these parts
has to do with the odo”, or “honors,” won by the warriors in battle.
While this ceremony is recorded completely, it is not yet ready for
publication, since it 1s one of seven interdependent degrees the study
of which is not yet finished.
Wazhitgao, the bird ceremony for boys, is another of the seven
degrees, and is regarded as important. It has been transcribed in
full, but the notes thereon have not yet been elaborated for publica-
tion.
Zhitgizhitga Zhazhe Thadse (naming of a child), a ceremony that
bears no direct relation to any other, is regarded as essential to the
proper rearing of a child, and is still practiced. This ceremony has
been recorded in its entirety, but still lacks the descriptive annotation
necessary before publication.
The Wéxthexthe, or tattooing ceremony, the last of the five re-
corded by Mr. La Flesche, was taken down from its recitation by one
of the men who had participated therein. This transcription is still,
in a measure, fragmentary, but enough has been obtained to render
a fair idea of the significance of the tattoo designs employed. The
notes on the Wéxthexthe are not yet prepared for publication, as
there is still a possibility of recording the ceremony in its entirety.
A set of the implements used by the Osage in tattooing have been
obtained for illustration and have been deposited in the National
Museum. There has also been placed in the museum a waxdbeté"ga,
er great sacred pack, which once belonged to Wacéto"zhi"ga, a promi-
nent man of the tribe, who died in 1910. After much persuasion
his widow reluctantly consented to part with this sacred article, to-
gether with its buffalo-hair and rush-mat cases. This pack consists
of the skin and plumage of a white pelican, the bird which in Osage
mythology revealed through a dream the mysteries of tattoomg and
provided the implements therefor.
All the above-described ceremonies studied by Mr. La Flesche have
still a strong hold on the Osage people; this, together with the fact
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55
that every initiated person acquired his knowledge at great expense,
has made it almost impossible to record the ceremonies in full from
those who have been induced to speak about them.
Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, ethnologist, continued her studies of the
ethnology of the Tewa Indians of New Mexico, devoting special at-
tention to the pueblo of San Ildefonso, with a view of elaborating
her memoir on this group of tribes, which consists of about 400 pages
of manuscript, material relating to almost every phase of Tewa cus-
toms and beliefs having been added in whole or in part during
the course of the year. Perhaps the most important of the new data
gathered by Mrs. Stevenson on these interesting sedentary people
relate to their ceremonies with respect to human sacrifice. The con-
servatism of the Tewa and the secrecy with which most of their
numerous rites are conducted make them a difficult subject of study
and one requiring considerable time. Mrs. Stevenson’s memoir had
reached such a stage of completion that at the close of the year she
was making final arrangements for acquiring the materials still
needed for illustrations.
Shortly after the beginning of the fiscal year Dr. Truman Michel-
son, ethnologist, proceeded to Tama, Iowa, to renew his researches
among the Fox Indians. After successfully commencing these studies
he proceeded to Tongue River Reservation in Montana for the pur-
pose of studying the remnant of the Sutaio tribe incorporated with
the Cheyenne. It seems that some ethnological information can still
be obtained in regard to specific Sutaio matters, but little of the lan-
guage remains. Dr. Michelson compiled a fairly large Sutaio vocab-
ulary, but fewer than a dozen words are fundamentally different
from the corresponding Cheyenne terms. Such grammatical forms
as could be obtained indicate that Sutaio sheds little or no light on
the divergent Algonquian type of the Cheyenne language.
Returning to Tama to renew his Fox studies, Dr. Michelson suc-
ceeded in elucidating the social organization almost to completeness.
It appears that the two major divisions of the tribe are not purely for
rivalry in athletics, but rather are ceremonial. Dr. Michelson was
successful also in obtaining the very long myths of the culture hero
and the Mother of all the Earth. It is evident that the actual Fox
society still corresponds in a measure to that given in the myths.
In October Dr. Michelson proceeded to Kansas to investigate the
Sauk and Fox of the Missouri. A reconnoissance only was made
here, and some of the Fox material obtained at Tama was translated.
In November he returned to Washington, and in January, 1914, vis-
ited the Carlisle Indian School for the purpose of studying special
points of grammar and phonetics with some of the Sauk and Fox
pupils. Thence he made a trip to New York City, taking with him
one of the pupils for the purpose of consulting Dr. Franz Boas, hon-
56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
orary philologist of the bureau, on certain mooted points pertaining
to the Fox language. While in New York a few tracings were made
with the Rousselot apparatus.
In May Dr. Michelson again visited Carlisle for the purpose of
making a translation of the story of a sacred bundle of the Fox
Indians, which he has recently procured.
Toward the end of the fiscal year Dr. Michelson devoted some time
to the problem whether the Yurok and Wiyot languages of California
were Algonquian, as had been recently claimed, and reached the con-
clusion that the existing evidence does not justify such a classification.
Work on the Handbook of American Indian Languages was con-
tinued under the personal direction and editorship of Dr. Franz
Boas, honorary philologist. Part 2, which is in preparation, is to
contain grammatical sketches of the Takelma, Coos, Siuslaw, and
Alsea languages of Oregon; the Kutenai, of Montana; and the
Chukchee. The Takelma sketch was published in advance in sepa-
rate form in 1912. During the present year the printing of the
sketch of the Coos, by Leo J. Frachtenberg, which forms pages
297-429 of part 2, was finished. The manuscript of the Siuslaw,
also by Dr. Frachtenberg, was completed and revised, and, except for
a small part, is in galley form. ‘The Chukchee sketch likewise has
been set up in galleys and revised, and new material on the dialects of
the language, having become available, has been added. The print-
ing of the sketch proceeded necessarily slowly, since the notes had to
be read by the author, Mr. Waldemar Bogoras, who lives in Russia. A
full treatment of this grammar is particularly desirable, since it
serves to define the relationships of the American languages toward
the west. Dr. Frachtenberg, a fuller report of whose work will
follow, has made progress with his studies of the Alsea. The gram-
matical material and the texts have been extracted and studied, and
the latter, which are to form the basis of the sketch, have been copied
for the printer. Dr. A. F. Chamberlain, a valued collaborator, whose
untimely death we lament, furnished a sketch of the Kutenai lan-
guage. It was necessary to make a detailed study of this sketch.
This was done by Dr. Boas partly during the winter in New York
with the help of a Kutenai boy and partly during the month of June
among the Indians of Montana and British Columbia. The report on
this sketch was completed. A certain amount of preparatory work
for the sketch of the Salish language was also done, more particu-
larly a map showing the distribution of the Salish dialect, based on
researches by James Teit, was completed. ‘The expense of the field
work for this map, which has occupied four years, was met by Mr.
Homer E. Sargent, of Chicago, to whose lively interest in the Hand-
book and related subjects we are deeply indebted. The vocabularies
on which the map is based are in an advanced stage of preparation.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5a
Much time was devoted by Dr. Boas during the year to the prepara-
tion of a report on the mythology of the Tsimshian Indians, based on
material written during a period of 10 years by Henry W. Tate,
himself a Tsimshian. Owing to his recent death it was necessary to
close the collection, the expenses of which have been defrayed from
private sources. 'The monograph was completed and is in type for
publication in the thirty-first annual report.
Brief reference to the researches of Dr. Leo J. Frachtenberg,
ethnologist, has been made in connection with the preparation of
part 2 of the Handbook of American Indian Languages. The begin-
ning of the fiscal year found Dr. Frachtenberg in the field in Oregon,
where, from June to September he was engaged in linguistic and
ethnologic work on the Kalapooian family. During these months he
collected a number of grammatical notes and nine texts in the dialect
of the so-called Calapooia Proper, but owing to lack of sufficient
means for continuing this field work he was compelled to discontinue
it in October. The linguistic researches into the Kalapooian family
brought out a number of interesting points, of which the most salient
are as follows: Phonetically the family is related closely to the Lutu-
amian (Klamath) and Sahaptin groups. Certain pronominal forms
and a few numerical terms are identical with the Klamath and Sa-
haptin forms. In all other respects, chiefly morphological, Kal-
apooian bears close resemblance to the Coos, Siuslaw, and Yakonan
stocks. A particularly close affiliation exists between this and the
Coos family in the phonetic structure of words. While the phonetics
of both languages are divergent, both are what may be termed vocalic
languages and are practically free from any difficult consonantic
clusters. The Calapooia texts thus far obtained deal chiefly with
the Coyote cycle and are identical with myths found among the Coos,
Molala, Klamath, Maidu, Chinook, Alsea, Takelma, Salish, and other
tribes of the Pacific area. The mythology as a whole is typical of
that region in the absence of true creation myths and in the multitude
of transformation stories.
A survey of the linguistic phase of the Kalapooian stock shows it
to embrace the following dialects: Calapooia Proper (also called
Marysville), Chelamela, Yamhill, Atfalati, Wapato Lake, Ahant-
sayuk, Santiam, Lakmayut, and Yonkallat. These dialects show cer-
tain degrees of interrelationship, which may be formulated as follows:
Calapooia, Santiam, Lakmayut, and Ahantsayuk form one closely re-
lated group; another group embraces the Yamhill and Atfalati
dialects, while Yonkallat seems to constitute a group of its own. No
information as to the Chelamela dialect could be obtained.
In July Dr. Frachtenberg received what seemed to be trustworthy
information that some Willapa Indians were still living at Bay Cen-
ter, Wash., but on visiting that point he found the reputed Willapa
58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
to be in fact members of the Chehalis tribe, thus proving conclusively
that the Willapa are entirely extinct.
Dr. Frachtenberg returned to New York late in October and was
engaged until the beginning of December in the preparation of the
Siuslaw grammatical sketch for the Handbook of American Indian
Languages, additional work on which became necessary because of
the fact that during his stay in the field he had received further in-
formation concerning this extinct stock. In December Dr. Frachten-
berg took up his duties in Washington, becoming first engaged in
supplying references from the Siuslaw texts in the grammatical
sketch of that language. At the close of the year this sketch was in
type. Dr. Frachtenberg also prepared for publication a Siuslaw-
English and English-Siuslaw vocabulary, containing 90 typewritten
pages. He furthermore prepared an English-Coos glossary, which
may be utilized in the near future, as it has been found desirable to
add such a glossary to each volume of native texts.
On completion of this work Dr. Frachtenberg commenced the
preparation of the Alsea texts collected by Dr. Livingston Farrand
in 1900 and by himself in 1910. These texts, consisting of 31 myths,
tales, and narratives, and comprising 195 typewritten pages, will be
submitted in the near future with a view to publication as a bulletin
of the bureau.
At the close of the fiscal year Dr. Frachtenberg was preparing for
another field season in Oregon, with the view of finishing his studies
of the Kalapooian stock and of conducting similar researches among
the Quileute.
Mr. W. H. Holmes, of the National Museum, continued his work
on the preparation of the Handbook of American Antiquities for
the bureau, reaching the practical completion of part 1 and making
much headway in the preparation of part 2; progress in this work,
however, was necessarily delayed owing to the pressure of many
duties connected with a head curatorship in the National Museum.
During August, 1913, Mr. Holmes made a visit to Luray, Va., for
the further study of an ancient village site near that place and the
examination of certain implement-making sites in the vicinity. In
June he visited Missouri for the purpose of studying certain collec-
tions owned in St. Louis and for the reexamination of an ancient
iron and paint mine at Leslie. It was found, however, that recent
mining operations had been carried so far that traces of the aborigi-
nal work at the mine were practically obliterated, and besides the
mine was found to be filled with water, making effective examina-
tion impossible. From St. Louis he proceeded to Chicago, where
studies were made of certain collections with a view of obtaining
data necessary to the completeness of the Handbook of American
Antiquities.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59
In her studies of Indian music Miss Frances Densmore made two
trips to the Standing Rock Reservation, S. Dak. (one in July and
August, 1913, and one in June, 1914), where she engaged in investi-
gations at Bullhead, McLaughlin, and the vicinity of the Martin
Kenel School. This research completed the field work for the pro-
posed volume of Sioux music, the material for which, subsequently
prepared for publication, consists of 323 pages of manuscript, 98
musical transcriptions of songs, 20 technical analyses of songs, and 33
original illustrations.
The practical use which musical composers are making of the
results of Miss Densmore’s studies is very gratifying. Mr. Carl
Busch has adapted for orchestral purposes four of the songs rendered
by Miss Densmore and published by the bureau, as follows: (1) Chip-
pewa Vision, (2) Farewell to the Warriors, (3) Love Song, (4)
Lullaby. Mr. Heinrich Hammer, of Washington, has composed a
Sun Dance Rhapsody and a Chippewa Rhapsody. Mr. Charles
Wakefield Cadman has composed, for the voice, two of the Chip-
pewa songs, “ From the Long Room of the Sea” and “ Ho, Ye War-
riors on the Warpath.” Mr. 8S. N. Penfield has harmonized two vocal
quartets, “ Manitou Listens to Me” and “ Why Should I be Jealous? ”
For the violin Mr. Alfred Manger has prepared a “ Fantasie on Sioux
Themes,” and Mr. Alberto Bimboni has well advanced toward com-
pletion an opera bearing the title “The Maiden’s Leap.” Certain
of the orchestral arrangements have been played by the Chicago
Symphony Orchestra (formerly known as the Thomas Orchestra),
as well as by the symphony orchestras of Washington, Minneapolis,
and Kansas City. It is interesting to note the demand for Sioux
themes in advance of their publication. These have been furnished
in manuscript as far as possible to those desiring them for specific
and legitimate use. Two of the compositions in the foregoing list are
based on such themes.
Work on the volume of Sioux music is approaching completion.
This will be larger than either of the bulletins on Chippewa music,
and, while the same general plan has been followed, there will be
much that is new, both in subject matter and in style of illustration.
During the year work on the Handbook of Aboriginal Remains
East of the Mississippi was continued by Mr. D. I. Bushnell, jr.,
under a small allotment from the bureau, and approximately 90,300
words of manuscript were recorded on cards geographically ar-
ranged. The entire amount of manuscript now completed is about
321,000 words, and the bibliography thus far includes 306 titles. As
a result of the notes received from the Wisconsin Archeological
Society, through the courtesy of its secretary, Mr. Charles E. Brown,
of Madison, every county of that State will be well represented in
the Handbook. It is to be regretted that more information regard-
60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ing aboriginal remains is not forthcoming from certain other parts
of the country east of the Mississippi, especially the New England
States, which at this writing are not adequately represented. The
bureau is indebted to Mr. Warren K. Moorehead, of the department
of archeology of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., for the generous
use of original data gathered by him in Maine in advance of its
publication by the academy.
Mr. James Murie, as opportunity offered and the limitations of a
small allotment made by the bureau for these studies allowed, con-
tinued his observations on the ceremonial organization and rites of
the Pawnee tribe, of which he is a member. The product of Mr.
Murie’s investigation of the year, which was practically finished but
not received in manuscript form at the close of June, is a circum-
stantial account of “ The Going After the Mother Cedar Tree by the
Bear Society,” an important ceremony which has been performed
only by the Skidi band during the last decade.
In the last annual report attention was directed to a proposed
series of handbooks of the Indians of the several States and to the
arrangements that had been made for such a volume, devoted to the
tribes of California, by Dr. A. L. Kroeber, of the University of Cal-
fornia. The author has submitted sections of the manuscript of this
work for suggestion, and, although his university duties have delayed
its completion, there is every reason to believe that when the mate-
rial is finished and published it will form an excellent model for the
entire series. It has been hoped that the pecuniary means necessary
for the preparation of these State handbooks would be provided in
accordance with the estimate of an appropriation submitted for this
purpose, but unfortunately the desired provision was not made.
Prof. Howard M. Ballou, of Honolulu, has submitted from time
to time additional titles for the List of Works Relating to Hawaii,
compiled in collaboration with the late Dr. Cyrus Thomas. The
material for this bibliography is in the hands of Mr. Felix Neumann
for final editorial revision, and it is expected that the entire manu-
script will soon be ready for composition.
The large collection of manuscripts in possession of the bureau
has been in continuous charge of Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt. A few note-
worthy additions were made during the year besides those prepared
or which are in process of preparation by members of the staff.
Among these may be mentioned the “ Dictionary of Words that have
been Made Known in or Introduced into English from the Indians
of North, Central, and South America,” by the late William R.
Gerard, a work requiring many years of assiduous labor. The
manuscript was acquired for a nominal consideration from Mrs.
Gerard, and it is the design to publish the dictionary as soon as it
can be given the customary editorial attention. Before his death
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61
Mr. Gerard presented to the bureau an original manuscript of 31
pages, with 21 diagrams, on “ Terminations of the Algonquian Tran-
sitive and Indefinite Verbs and their Meanings,” to which Dr. Tru-
man Michelson has appended a criticism.
Additional manuscripts worthy of special note are the following:
J. P. Dunn: Translation of Miami-Peoria Dictionary, Part 2, Aller to As-
somer. The original of this dictionary is in the John Carter Brown Library, of
Providence, through whose courteous librarian, Mr. George Parker Winship,
the bureau has been provided with a photostat copy.
J. P. Dunn: Translation of the History of Genesis, second chapter, from the
Miami-Peoria Dictionary above cited.
Cyrus Byington: Manuscript notebook, 1844-1848 and 1861. Kindly pre-
sented by Mrs. Eliza Innes, daughter of this noted missionary to the Choctaw.
James A. Gilfillan: Chippewa Sentences. A small quarto notebook kindly
presented by Miss Emily Cook, of the Office of Indian Affairs.
Parker Marshall: Various memoranda on the location of the Natchez Trace.
H. A. Scomp: Comparative Choctaw and Creek Dictionary, consisting of
1,054 sheets, 20 by 86 inches.
Francisco Pareja: Confessionario, in Spanish and Timuqua. Photostat copy
furnished by the courtesy of the New York Historical Society.
Francisco Pareja: Catechismo, in Timuqua. Photostat copy furnished by
the courtesy of the New York Historical Society.
Francisco Pareja: Explicacion de la Doctrina, in Timuqua. Photostat copy
furnished by the courtesy of the New York Historical Society.
VY. C. Fredericksen: Origin cf the Eskimo and their Wanderings, with photo-
graphs. (The author is a Danish missionary in Greenland.)
From time to time the bureau has been put to considerable expense
in having photostat copies made of unique manuscripts and of ex-
cessively rare books indispensable to its researches. It is therefore
fortunate that the opportunity was afforded, late in the fiscal year,
to acquire a photostat apparatus which has since been in constant
service. The urgent need of such an instrument was made especially
manifest when the Rev. George Worpenberg, S. J., librarian of St.
Marys College, St. Marys, Kans., generously accorded the bureau
the privilege of copying a number of valuable original linguistic
manuscripts in the archives of the college, pertaining chiefly to the
Potawatomi and including a dictionary and a grammar recorded by
the late Father Maurice Gailland. Manuscript copies of these volu-
minous linguistic works could have been made only after infinite
labor by an expert and at an expense far exceeding the entire cost of
the photostat apparatus. By the close of the year the making of the
facsimile reproductions had been commenced by Mr. Albert Sweeney,
under the immediate direction of Mr. De Lancey Gill, illustrator.
An opportunity was afforded at the close of the year to replace the
wooden partition and ceiling of the manuscript room with terra
cotta and to install a fireproof door and window coverings, thus
giving for the first time adequate protection to the bureau’s large
collection of priceless unpublished material.
62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
PUBLICATIONS.
The editorial work of the bureau has been continued by Mr. J. G.
Gurley, editor, who has been assisted from time to time by Mrs.
Frances §. Nichols. The following publications were received from
the press during the year:
Bulletin 53, “ Chippewa Music—II,” by Frances Densmore.
Bulletin 56, “‘ Ethnozoology of the Tewa Indians,” by Junius Henderson and
John P. Harrington.
“Coos: An Illustrative Sketch,” by Leo J. Frachtenverg. Extract from
Handbook of American Indian Languages (Bulletin 40), part 2.
The status of other publications, now in press, is as follows:
The proof reading of the Twenty-ninth Annual Report, the ac-
companying paper of which, entitled “ Ethnogeography of the Tewa
Indians,” by John P. Harrington, is an exhaustive memoir present-
ing many technical difficulties, was nearly completed during the year.
About two-thirds of the memoir is in page form.
The Thirtieth Annual Report comprised originally, in addition to
the administrative section, three memoirs: (1) “Tsimshian Myth-
ology,” by Franz Boas; (2) “ Ethnobotany of the Zuni Indians,” by
Matilda Coxe Stevenson; (8) “An Inquiry into the Animism and
Folk-lore of the Guiana Indians,” by Walter E. Roth. Extensive
additions to the first-named memoir, received after the report had
been put into type, necessitated the division of the contents, and
accordingly this section was transferred to the Vhirty-jfirst Report.
Approximately two-thirds of “Tsimshian Mythology” has been
paged, and the Zui memoir also, now the first accompanying paper
of the Thirtieth Annual, is in process of paging.
To the Thirty-second Report will be assigned a memoir entitled
“Seneca Myths and Fiction,” collected by Jeremiah Curtin and
J. N. B. Hewitt and edited with an introduction by the latter, the
manuscript of which is about ready for editorial revision.
Bulletin 40 (pt. 2), “ Handbook of American Indian Languages.”
The work on this bulletin has been carried along steadily under the
immediate supervision of its editor, Dr. Boas. Two sections—
Takelma and Coos—have been issued in separate form (aggregating
429 pages), and two additional sections, dealing with the Chukchee
and Siuslaw languages, respectively, are in type, the former being
“made up ” to the extent of about 50 pages.
Bulletin 46, “A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language,” by Cyrus
Byington (edited by John R. Swanton and Henry S. Halbert). The
first (Choctaw-English) section of this work was completed during
the year and is practically ready for the press. The manuscript of
the second section (English-Choctaw directory), comprising 36,008
entries on cards, was sent to the Printing Office April 30 to June 13,
but no proof had been received at the close of the year.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63
Bulletin 55, “ Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians,” by Wilfred W.
Robbins, John P. Harrington, and Barbara Freire-Marreco. After
this bulletin was in type it was found advisable to incorporate a con-
siderable amount of valuable material, subsequently gathered and
kindly offered by Miss Freire-Marreco. The change involved recast-
ing in a large measure the original work. The second galley proof
is in the hands of Miss Freire-Marreco for final revision.
Bulletin 57, “An Introduction to the Study of the Maya Hiero-
glyphs,” by Sylvanus Griswold Morley. The manuscript and illus-
trations of this memoir were submitted to the Public Printer the
latter part of April. Engraver’s proof of the illustrations, with the
exception of a few pieces of color work, have been received and
approved. Owing to the heavy pressure of public business, the
Printing Office had been unable to furnish proof of the letterpress by
the close of the year.
. Bulletin 58, “List of Publications of the Bureau of American
Ethnology.” The page proof of this bulletin is in the hands of the
printers for slight correction, preparatory to placing it on the press.
The total number of publications of the bureau distributed during
the year was 12,819, classified as follows:
Report volumes ‘and! separate’ papers!2U_ tO tad hoh 1t9U Gt Os 2,810
IBinlevin SSS rte tiie) eae ed ar EES 1S SAD Gy NERD Ty SE NE FETT TNS Py Leer: 9, 945
Contributions to North American. Hthnology——-<—-= ==.) i+ - 4-2 ts 22
TOSM ETO YG OVS FICO TTRS) See A ee ES oe Cs es Se Ss ee ee 5
MATS COU AME OU Semi) Ul OU Cais O10 Ss eee en ee oer ee Sek ee a 39
1 Gy TUE RSS EA BO OI Ot ie Mie 2 Oe wee Oe Ae 2 SS LOS Toes ee ee 12, 819
As during several years past the extensive correspondence arising
from the constant demand for the publications of the bureau has
been in immediate and efficient charge of Miss Helen Munroe and
Mr. E. L. Springer, of the Smithsonian Institution, assisted by Mr.
Thomas F. Clark, jr. The distribution of publications has been
made in accordance with law and with entire satisfaction by the
office of the superintendent of documents on order of the bureau.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
The preparation of the illustrations for the publications of the
bureau, the making of photographs of the members of delegations of
Indians visiting Washington, and the developing and printing of
negatives made by the staff of the bureau during the prosecution of
their field work have been in charge of Mr. DeLancey Gill, illustrator,
assisted successively by Mr. Walter Stenhouse and Mr. Albert Sweeney.
In addition the numerous photostat copies of manuscripts and books,
aggregating about 2,500 exposures, have been made under Mr. Gill’s
supervision, as elsewhere mentioned, Of the visiting deputations, rep-
64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
resenting 17 tribes, 79 photographic exposures were made; 92 negatives
of ethnologic subjects were required for reproduction as illustrations;
' 512 negatives made by the members of the staff in the field were
developed and 3881 prints made therefrom; 105 photographs were
printed for presentation to Indians and 627 for publication, exchange,
and special distribution. In addition to the photographic work,
which constitutes the major part of the illustrative material required
by the bureau, 54 drawings were made for reproduction.
The series of photographs, representing 55 tribes, which had been
exhibited by the New York Public Library and the Public Library
Commission of Indiana, was borrowed in June by the Providence
Public Library for a similar purpose.
LIBRARY.
The reference library of the bureau, which consists of 19,240 books,
about 12,894 pamphlets, and several thousand unbound periodicals, has .
been in continuous charge of Miss Ella Leary, librarian, assisted by
Mrs. Ella Slaughter. During the year 708 books were accessioned, of
which 143 were acquired by purchase and 137 by gift and exchange,
the remaining 428 being represented by volumes of serials that
hitherto had been neither bound nor recorded. The periodicals cur-
rently received numbered 629, of which only 16 were obtained by pur-
chase, the remainder being received through exchange. Of pamphlets,
150 were acquired. During the year 1,195 volumes were sent to the
bindery and of these 695 were bound and returned to the bureau.
The endeavor to supply deficiencies in the sets of publications of
institutions of learning has continued without remission. Among
the more important accessions of this kind during the year were
Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin, 20 volumes;
Instituto Geografico Argentino, Boletin, 10 volumes; and Kénigliches
Museum fiir Vélkerkunde, Veréffentlichungen, 8 volumes.
The librarian has prepared a monthly bulletin of accessions for the
use of the staff, and has furnished information and compiled biblio-
graphic notes for the use of correspondents. In addition to the con-
stant drafts on the library of the bureau requisition was made on the
Library of Congress during the year for an aggregate of 300 volumes
for official use, and in turn the bureau library was frequently con-
sulted by officers of other Government establishments.
An appropriation having been made by Congress, in behalf of the
Institution, for installing modern steel bookstacks in the eastern
end of the large exhibition hall on the first floor of the Smithsonian
building, and provision having been made for affording the proposed
increased facilities to the library of the bureau, which for four and
a half years had been installed in the eastern galleries of the hall
mentioned, the books therein were removed in February to the gallery
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65
and main floor of the western end of the hall and the eastern galleries
were demolished. Although this work of removal occupied two
weeks, it was done without confusion and practically without cessa-
tion of the library’s activities. The new stacks were in process of
erection before the close of the fiscal year.
COLLECTIONS.
The following collections were acquired by the bureau or by mem-
bers of its staff, and, having served the purpose of study, were trans-
ferred to the National Museum, as required by law:
Hight fragments of ancient British pottery. Gift to the bureau by Rey. Robert
C. Nightingale, Swaffam, Norfolk, England. (55735.)
Potsherds, fragments of human bones, and three heads. Gift to the bureau by
Mrs. Bruce Reid, Port Arthur, Tex. (55758.)
Parts of five skeletons (three complete skulls and fragments of two skulls) from
a burial cist in a cave about 20 miles south of Grant, N. Mex. Collected by
EF. W. Hodge, Bureau of American Ethnology. (56134.)
Thirty-one ethnological objects from the Cherokee and Catawba Indians. Col-
lected by James Mooney, Bureau of American Ethnology. (563812.)
Six photographs of Aztec antiquities. Purchased from W. W. Blake, City of
Mexico. (56609.)
Stone phallus from Mesa Verde, Colo. Gift to the bureau by H. C. Lay, Tellu-
ride, Colo. (56719.)
Arrow point found on the north fork of Roanoke River, about 3 miles from
Blacksburg, Va. Gift to the bureau by Prof. Otto C. Burkhart, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va. (56679.)
PROPERTY.
The principal property of the bureau consists of its library, com-
prising approximately 35,000 books and pamphlets, a large collection
of manuscripts for reference or in process of preparation for publi-
cation, and several thousand photographic negatives. With the
exception of a portion of the library, this material could not be
duplicated. In addition, the bureau possesses a photostat apparatus
with electric-light equipment, several cameras, dictagraphs, and other
appliances for use in conducting scientific research in the field and
the office, necessary office furniture and equipment, and a limited sup-
ply of stationery, supplies, etc. Also under control of the bureau,
but in immediate custody of the Public Printer, as required by law,
is a stock of numerous publications, chiefly annual reports and
bulletins. 7
MISCELLANEOUS.
Quarters —The only improvements made in the quarters occupied
by the bureau in the Smithsonian building, as set forth in the last
report, have been those incident to the reconstruction of the library
and the fireproofing of the manuscript room, above alluded to, and
the painting of the walls of four rooms, made necessary partly by
73176°—sM 1914 5
66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
inadequate lighting. In addition to the space previously occupied, a
room on the fourth floor of the eastern end of the Smithsonian build-
ing was assigned temporarily to the bureau for the use of two mem-
bers of its staff.
Office force—The personnel of the office has remained unchanged,
with the exception of the resignation of one messenger boy and the
appointment of another. It has been necessary to employ a copyist
from time to time in connection with the editing of Byington’s
Choctaw Dictionary. The correspondence of the bureau has been
conducted in the same manner as set forth in the last annual report
and as hereinbefore mentioned.
Recommendations.—The chief needs of the Bureau of American
Ethnology lie in the extension of its researches to fields as yet un-
exploited. Attention has frequently been called to the necessity of
pursuing studies among Indian tribes which are rapidly becoming
extinct, or modified by their intimate contact with civilization.
These researches can not be conducted unless the means are pro-
vided, since the present limited scientific corps, with inadequate
allotments of money to meet the expenses of extended field investi-
gations, is not equal to the immense amount of work to be done.
Unfortunately many opportunities for conducting these researches
which were possible a few years ago have passed away, owing to the
death of older Indians who alone possessed certain knowledge of
their race. Much can still be done, however, if only the means are
afforded. j .
It is scarcely necessary to repeat, in connection with this general
recommendation, the estimate for an increase, amounting to $24,800,
in the appropriation for the bureau and the brief reasons for urging
the grant of this additional sum, inasmuch as these items will be
found in the printed Estimates of Appropriations, 1915-16.
Respectfully submitted.
F. W. Hooper,
Ethnologist-in-charge.
The SrecreTARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
APPENDIX 3.
REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1914:
The congressional appropriation for the support of the service
during the year, including the allotment for printing and binding,
was $32,200 (the same amount as appropriated for the past six
years), and the repayments from private and departmental sources
for services rendered aggregated $5,264.18, making the total available
resources for carrying on the exchange system $37,464.18.
During the year 1914 the total number of packages handled was
341,667, an increase of 3,046 as compared with the preceding year.
The weight of these packages was 566,985 pounds, a decrease of
26,984 pounds.
The number and weight of the packages of different classes are
indicated in the following table:
Packages. Weight.
Sent. |Received.| Sent. Received.
Pounds. | Pounds.
United States parliamentary documents sent abroad.......-.- TSI 469 ioe ce oo ae 04 700 lisscaese se
Publications received in return for parliamentary documents.|......-..- 2/1085 |ee eee see 9,913
United States departmental documents sent abroad......-.... OOF B20 so sae coe at 1995198) |e 22s seems
Publications received in return for departmental documents. .}.-...-.-.- 83 904-bentee keen 19, 080
Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad.} 60,844 |..........- ISOS524. |S octecceeces
Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received
from abroad for distribution in the United States........|......-.-- 95; 43 Ie Rete eeee 113, 511
Wie Se eee eRe Ser eee eee a ae ee oe | 292, 139 49,528 | 424,481 142, 504
Grariditotales teeth: Sees eee Ree ee nee k sae 341, 667 566,985
In April, 1914, the American-Chinese Publication Exchange De-
partment of the Shanghai Bureau of Foreign Affairs, which was
designated a few years ago by the Chinese Government as the
depository of the set of United States governmental documents
sent to that Government, signified its willingness to accept pack-
ages for miscellaneous addresses throughout the Chinese Republic
67
68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
and forward them to their various destinations. Consignments in-
tended for distribution in China are, therefore, now sent in care of
that department instead of the Zi-ka-wei Observatory at Shanghai.
In this connection, it is desired to record here the Institution’s
appreciation of the valuable service rendered by the Zi-ka-wei
Observatory in the distribution of exchanges to correspondents
in China for nearly a quarter of a century.
The Smithsonian Institution, through the International Exchange
Service, continues to solicit publications for both foreign and do-
mestic governmental and scientific establishments. At the request
of the British ambassador, which was referred to this Institution
by the Department of State, many United States official publica-
tions were procured for the various Canadian departments and
bureaus. As formerly, aid has been rendered the Library of Con-
gress in obtaining from foreign Governments certain documents
especially desired for its collections.
Of the 2,465 boxes used in forwarding exchanges to foreign
agencies for distribution, 280 boxes contained full sets of United
States official documents for authorized depositories and 2,185 were
filled with departmental and other publications for depositories of
partial sets and for miscellaneous correspondents. The number of
boxes sent to each foreign country and the dates of transmission
are shown in the following table:
Consigninents of exchanges for foreign countries.
Country. pes Date of transmission.
ARGENTINA. ...------- 45 | July 28, Aug. 22, Sept. 30, Oct. 27, Nov. 29, 1913; Jan. 20, Feb. 26, Apr. 9,
June 3, 1914.
IAI SIPRIAS Shanes dana te 91 | July 16, Aug. 12, Sept. 17, Oct. 15, Nov. 12, Dec. 10, 1913; Jan. 14, Feb.
18, Mar. 18, Apr. 17, May 19, June 17, 1914.
IBLGIUM cto. see see 64 | July 19, Aug. 8, Sept. 5, 27, Oct. 11, Nov. 8, 29, Dec. 20, 1913; Jan. 24,
Feb. 19, Mar. 21, Apr. 23, May 21, June 29, 1914.
IBOLIVIA .- betacee eee 6 | July 30, Oct. 4, Nov. 26, 1913; Feb. 4, Mar. 7, June 30, 1914.
PB RUA hese se sees cece 32 | July 28, Aug. 22, Sept. 30, Oct. 27, Nov. 29, 1913; Jan. 20, Feb. 26, Apr.
9, June 3, 1914.
BRITISH COLONIES... -- 20 | July 18, Aug. 2, 23, Sept. 6, 20, Oct. 10, 24, Nov. 14, 21, Dec. 5, 1913;
Jan. 10, 24, Feb. 6, Mar. 14, Apr. 4, 18, May 2, 24, June 6, 27, 1914.
BRITISH GUIANA....-- 4 | Nov. 5, Dec. 17, 1913; Mar. 14, June 30, 1914.
BUT GARTAS oe eraeiacrersiete 6 | Oct. 28, Nov. 25, 1913; Feb. 7, Mar. 14, May 14, June 24, 1914.
CANBDIAR sac cu cesses 5 | Sept. 22, 1913; Jan. 12, Feb. 21, Apr. 14, May 12, 1914.
(CHORE Yet ai: a 32 oe 23 | July 29, Aug. 3, Sept. 30, Oct. 27, Nov. 28, 1913; Jan. 20, Feb. 27, Apr.
~17, June 4, 1914.
CHINA PEALE urd 2. 38 | July 30, Aug. 31, Sept. 30, Nov. 15, 1913; Jan. 8, Mar. 9, Apr. 29, May
21, June 16, 1914.
COLOMBIALY: J3: 2 <f.i 16 | July 30, Nov. 26, 1913; Jan. 21, May 14, June 24, 1914.
COSTA TRICAS = see oe 16 | July 30, Oct. 6, Nov. 26, 1913; Jan. 21, Mar. 7, May 28, June 30, 1914.
CuBAEES . Sissi 722--* 5 | Sept. 22, 1913; Jan. 12, Feb. 21, Apr. 14, May 12, 1914.
DENMARK 6.00 --siss'49 40 | July 22, Aug. 19, Sept. 23, Oct. 21, Nov. 19, Dec. 20, 1913; Jan. 29, Feb.
21, Mar. 25, Apr. 24, May 27, June 25, 1914.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
69
Consignments of exchanges for foreign countries—Continued.
Country.
GREAT BRITAIN AND
TRELAND.
GRERGE settee dS
GUATEMALA. 22. j<~5-
LOURENGO MARQUEZ.
MANITOBA: 2. 5c.425:25
NEWFOUNDLAND....--
NEw SoutH WALES...
NEw ZEALAND.......
NIGARAGUAS : So555%.. -
INORWAY® 5.25 Joc dee cok
ONTARIO: - 32232 e
IPAGESTIN ES 62 LL a2tecs
Number
of boxes.
448
16
“1
ow
39
50
86
13
Date of transmission.
July 30, Oct. 6, Nov. 26, 1913; Feb. 4, Mar. 7, May 21, June 30, 1914.
Sept. 11, Oct. 25, Nov. 29, Dec. 30, 1918; Jan. 23, Feb. 21, Apr. 3, 28,
June 10, 1914.
July 10, 31, Aug. 14, 28, Sept. 18, Oct. 8, 29, Nov. 19, Dec. 3, 24, 1913;
Jan. 14, Feb. 4, 18, Mar. 11, Apr. 8, May 6, June 10, 1914.
July 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, 30, Aug. 5, 12, 19, 26, 29, Sept. 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, Oct.
7, 14, 21, 28, Nov. 4, 11, 19, 25, Dee. 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, 1913; Jan. 6, 13, 20,
27, Feb. 3, 10, 17, 24, Mar. 3, 10, 17, 24, 30, Apr. 7, 15, 28, May 5, 12, 26,
June 2, 16, 23, 30, 1914.
July 12, 18, 25, Aug. 2, 8, 15, 23, 29, Sept 6, 12, 20, 26, Oct. 3, 10, 17, 24,
Nov. 1, 7, 14, 21, 29, Dec. 5, 12, 19, 27, 1913; Jan. 3, 10, 17, 24, 31, Feb.
6, 13, 20, 27, Mar. 6, 14, 20, 27, Apr. 4, 11, 18, 25, May 2, 9, 23, June 1,
6, 13, 20, 26, 1914.
July 22, Aug. 28, Sept. 25, Oct. 13, Dec. 17, 1913; Jan. 31, Mar. 7, May
15, June 23, 1914.
July 30, Oct. 6, Nov. 28, 1913; Feb. 4, Mar. 7, May 21, June 30, 1914.
Sept. 22, 1913; Jan. 12, Feb. 21, Apr. 14, May 12, 1914.
Aug. 28, Nov. 15, 1913; Feb. 5, Mar. 7, June 12, 1914.
July 16, Aug. 12, Sept. 17, Nov. 12, Dec. 10, 1913; Jan. 14, Feb. 18, Mar.
18, Apr. 17, May 19, June 17, 1914.
July 12, 18, 25, Aug. 2, 15, 23, Sept. 6, 20, 26, Oct. 10, 17, 24, Nov. 14,
Dec. 5, 19, 1913; Jan. 3, 10, 24, Feb. 6, 18, 20, Mar. 6, 14, 20, 27, Apr. 11,
25, May 2, 23, June 6, 20, 25, 1914.
Aug. 7, Sept. 11, 27, Oct. 11, 25, Nov. 8, 29, Dec. 30, 1913; Jan. 23, Feb. 21,
Mar. 7, Apr. 28, June 30, 1914.
Aug. 27, Oct. 30, Nov. 29, Dec. 7, 1913; Mar. 20, June 12, 25, 1914.
July 24, Aug. 20, Sept. 24, Oct. 23, Nov. 25, Dec. 20,1913; Jan. 27, Feb. 24,
Apr. 28, June 5, 1914.
Aug. 27, Oct. 31, 1913; Feb. 7, June 12, 1914.
July 31, Oct. 31, Nov. 29, 1913; Mar. 7, May 14, 1914.
Aug. 27, Dec: 17, 1918; June 18, 1914.
Sept. 22,1913; Jan. 12, Feb. 21, Apr. 14, May 12, 1914.
Sept. 22, 1913; Jan. 12, Feb. 21, Apr. 14, May 12, 1914.
Dec. 17, 1913; June 18, 1914.
July 15, Aug. 5, 26, Sept. 23, Oct. 14, 28, Nov. 18, Dec. 16, 1913; Jan. 6,
Feb 3, 24, Mar. 24, Apr. 21, May 12, June 9, 1914.
Jan. 5, June 30, 1914.
July 24, Aug. 20, Sept. 25, Oct. 23, Nov. 22, Dec. 23, 1913; Jan. 27, Feb.25,
Mar. 25, May 7, June 12, 1914.
July 24, Aug. 20, Sept. 25, Oct. 23, Nov. 25, Dec. 23, 1913; Jan. 29, Feb. 25,
Mar. 27, May 7, June 16, 1914.
Aug. 28, Nov. 15, 1913; Feb. 5, Mar. 7, June 12, 1914.
July 22, Aug. 19, Sept. 23, Oct. 21, Nov. 19, Dec. 20, 1913; Jan. 30, Feb. 21,
Mar. 25, Apr. 24, May 28, June 25, 1914.
Sept. 22, 1913; Jan. 12, Feb. 21, Apr. 14, May 12, 1914.
Sept. 30, 1913.
Aug. 28, Noy. 15, 1913; Feb. 4, May 15, June 30, 1914.
July 29, Aug. 22, Sept.30, Oct. 27, Nov. 29, 1913; Jan. 20, Feb. 27, June 4,
1914.
July 22, Aug. 19, Sept. 23, Oct. 21, Nov. 19, Dec. 20, 1913; Jan. 30, Feb. 21,
Mar. 25, Apr. 24, May 28, June 25, 1914.
Sept. 22, 1913; Jan. 12, Feb. 21, Apr. 14, May 12, 1914.
July 24, Aug. 20, Sept. 25, Oct. 23, Nov. 25, Dec. 23, 1913; Jan. 29, Feb. 25,
Mar. 27, May 7, June 16, 1914.
70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Consignments of exchanges for foreign countries—Continued.
Country. oar Date of transmission.
FROUMANTAS 225/23. 13 | July 31, Aug. 30, Sept. 25, Oct. 23, Nov. 29,1913; Feb. 7, Mar. 12, May 14,
June 24, 1914.
IRUUSSTAS se cee yeicio seas 92 | July 17, Aug. 18, Sept. 18, Oct. 16, Nov. 18, Dec. 11, 1918; Jan. 16, 24,
Feb. 19, Mar. 19, May 20, June 18, 1914.
SAGVADOR =. 22h i ea-i6 8 | July 30, Oct. 6, 24, Nov. 28, 1913; Feb. 4, Mar. 7, June 12, 1914,
SERVIACS S55 28-2 ee 13 | July 17, Sept. 25, Nov. 15, 1913; Jan. 21, Mar. 7, May 28, June 24, 1914.
STAMEE 2 708 ee gM 5 | Aug. 27, Nov. 29,1913; Feb. 7, Mar. 28, June 30, 1914.
SoutH AUSTRALIA...- 18 | July 24, Aug. 20, Sept. 25, Oct. 23, Nov. 25, Dec. 23, 1913; Jan. 28, Feb.
25, Mar. 27, May 7, June 15, 1914.
SPAIN 62-3) Bee pest 30 | Aug. 7, Sept. 11, Oct. 25, Nov. 29, Dec. 30, 1913; Jan. 23, Feb. 21, Apr. 3,
June 10, 1914.
SWEDENS. 2 Gade 22 72 | July 17, Aug. 14, Sept. 18, Oct. 16, Nov. 13, Dec. 11, 1913; Jan. 16,
Feb. 19, Mar. 19, Apr. 20, May 20, June 18, 1914.
SWITZERLAND..-...-.- 54 | July 19, Aug. 7, Sept. 5, 27, Oct. 11, Nov. 8, 29, Dec. 20, 1913; Jan. 24,
Feb. 19, Mar. 21, Apr. 23, May 21, June 19, 1914.
DSYRIAI Oe ste b JS. 6 | Apr. 26, May 27, June 25, 1914.
DAS MANTA: onjceeeeee 12 | Aug. 2, 23, Sept. 6, 20, Oct. 24, Nov. 14, Dec. 19, 1913; Feb. 13, Apr. 11, 25,
June 25, 1914.
TRINIDAD eee hoe 3 | Mar. 7, 30, June 12, 1914.
DURE Ye < je) ccs os cis: 14 | Aug. 30, Sept. 30, Oct. 23, Nov. 15, 1913; Jan. 8, 23, Feb. 28, Mar. 7, Apr.
30, May 27, June 25, 1914.
UNION OF SOUTH 24 | Sept. 25, Oct. 31, Nov. 29, 1918; Jan. 26, Feb. 28, May 13, June 23, 1914.
AFRICA. ,
URUGUAY? A255 22 ue. 21 | July 29, Aug. 22, Oct. 4, Nov. 26, 1913; Jan. 21, Feb. 27, June 4, 1914.
WIE NISZ URW AGs sence eee 11 | Oct. 4, Nov. 26, 1913; Jan. 21, Mar. 7, May 28, June 30, 1914.
VICTORIAS <2 (9S 2022 29 | July 24, Aug. 20, Sept. 25, Oct. 23, Nov. 22, Dec. 23, 1913; Jan. 28, Feb.
25, Mar. 27, May 7, June 15, 1914.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 24 | July 12, 25, Aug. 23, Sept. 6, 20, Oct. 3, 17, 24, Nov. 21, Dec. 5, 19, 1913;
Jan. 10, 24, Feb. 6, 20, Mar. 6, 20, Apr. 4, June 13, 1914.
WINDWARD AND LEE- 3 | Oct. 31, 1913; Feb. 7, June 12, 1914.
WARD ISLANDS.
In October, 1918, the New York forwarding agents informed the
Institution that boxes 1179 and 1598, which were sent to them under
date of March 28 and May 15, 1913, respectively, for transmission to
his Japanese Majesty’s residency general at Seoul, Korea, had been
lost in transit by the steamship company. These consignments con-
tained publications from both governmental and scientific establish-
ments for distribution to Korean correspondents, and duplicates of
as many of them as were available for distribution were obtained and
forwarded to their destinations.
FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF UNITED STATES GOVERNMENTAL
DOCUMENTS.
No additions were made to the foreign depositories of full or par-
tial sets during the year, 56 full sets of United States official publica-
tions and 36 partial sets now being forwarded regularly to desig-
nated depositories abroad.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 71
The recipients of full and partial sets are as follows:
DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS.
ARGENTINA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Buenos Aires.
AUSTRALIA: Library of the Commonwealth Parliament, Melbourne.
Austria: K. K. Statistische Zentral-Kommission, Vienna.
Baven: Universitiits-Bibliothek, Freiburg. (Depository of the Grand Duchy
of Baden.)
Bavaria: Konigliche Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich.
BELGIUM: Bibliothéque Royale, Brussels.
BompBay: Secretary to the Government, Bombay.
Brazi.: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.
BuENos Atres: Biblioteca de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata. (Deposi-
tory of the Province of Buenos Aires.)
CANADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa.
CHILE: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago.
CuiIna: American-Chinese Publication Exchange Department, Shanghai Bureau
of Foreign Affairs, Shanghai.
CoLOMBIA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota.
Costa Rica: Oficina de Depdésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San
José.
Cuspa: Secretaria de Estado (Asuntos Generales y Canje Internacional),
Habana.
DENMARK: Kongelige Bibliotheket, Copenhagen.
ENGLAND: British Museum, London.
FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.
GERMANY: Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin.
GLAscow: City Librarian, Mitchell Library, Glasgow.
GREECE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens.
Haiti: Secrétairerie d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince.
Huneary: Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest.
Inp1A: Department of Education (Books), Government of India, Calcutta.
IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin.
Iraty: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome.
JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo.
Lonpon : London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the
London County Council.)
MANITOBA: Provincial Library, Winnipeg.
Mexico: Instituto Bibliografico, Biblioteca Nacional, Mexico.
NETHERLANDS: Library of the States General, The Hague.
New SourH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.
NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington.
Norway: Storthingets Bibliothek, Christiania.
OnTARIO: Legislative Library, Toronto.
Paris: Préfecture de la Seine.
Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima.
PortTUGAL: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon.
Prussia: Ko6nigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.
QUEBEC: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec, Quebec.
QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane.
Russia: Imperial Public Library, St. Petersburg.
Saxony: Konigliche Oeffentliche Bibliothek, Dresden.
Servia: Section Administrative du Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Belgrade.
SouTH AUSTRALIA: Parliamentary Library, Adelaide.
72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Spatn: Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Cuerpo Facultatiyo
de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arquedlogos, Madrid.
SwEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm
SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Fédérale, Berne.
TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart.
TURKEY: Department of Public Instruction, Constantinople.
UNION oF SoutTH AFrRiIcA: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal.
Urnueuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo.
VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.
Victoria: Public Library, Melbourne.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth.
WURTTEMBERG: KO6nigliche Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart.
DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS.
ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton.
ALSACE-LORRAINE: K. Ministerium ftir Elsass-Lothringen, Strassburg.
Bo.tiviA: Ministerio de Colonizacion y Agricultura, La Paz.
BREMEN: Senatskommission ftir Reichs- und Auswirtige Angelegenheiten.
BRITISH CoLUMBIA; Legislative Library, Victoria.
BRITISH GUIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara.
ButeariA: Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sofia.
CryLon: United States Consul, Colombo.
Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito.
Eeyrer: Bibliotheque Khédiviale, Cairo. é
FINLAND: Chancery of Governor, Helsingfors.
GUATEMALA: Secretary of the Government, Guatemala.
Hampure: Senatskommission ftir die Reichs- und Auswiirtigen Angelegenheiten.
Hesse: Grossherzogliche Hof-Bibliothek, Darmstadt.
Honpuras: Secretary of the Government, Tegucigalpa.
JAMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston.
LIBERIA: Department of State, Monrovia.
LourENcO Marquez: Government Library, Lourenco Marquez.
Lutseck: President of the Senate.
Mapras, PRovINCE oF: Chief Secretary to the Government of Madras, Public
Department, Madras.
Matra: Lieutenant Governor, Valetta.
MonTENEGRO: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Cetinje.
New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton.
NEWFOUNDLAND: Colonial Secretary, St. John’s.
NICARAGUA: Superintendente de Archivos Nacionales, Managua.
NORTHWEST TERRITORIES: Government Library, Regina.
Nova Scotia: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax.
PANAMA: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama.
ParaAcuay: Oficina General de Inmigracion, Asuncion.
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND: Legislative Library, Charlottetown.
RouMAntIA: Academia Romana, Bucharest.
Satyapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador.
Sram: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok.
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS: Colonial Secretary, Singapore.
UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OupH: Under Secretary to Government, Alla-
habad. .
VIENNA: Btirgermeister der Haupt- und Residenz-Stadt.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 73
INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL JOURNALS.
A list of the countries which have entered into interparliamentary
exchange of official journals with the United States is given below:
Argentine Republic. Italy.
Australia. Liberia.
Austria. New South Wales.
Baden. _ New Zealand.
Belgium. Portugal.
Brazil. Prussia.
Buenos Aires, Province of. Queensland.
Canada. Roumania.
Cuba. Russia.
Denmark. Servia.
Trance. Spain.
Great Britain. Switzerland.
Greece. Transvaal.
Guatemala. Union of South Africa.
Honduras. Uruguay.
Hungary. Western Australia.
As will be noted, there are at present 32 countries with which the
immediate exchange is conducted, no additions having been made
during the year.
LIST OF BUREAUS OR AGENCIES THROUGH WHICH EXCHANGES ARE
TRANSMITTED.
The following is a list of the bureaus or agencies through which
exchanges are transmitted:
ALGERIA, via France.
ANGOLA, via Portugal.
ARGENTINA: Comisién Protectora de Bibliotecas Populares, Reconquista 5388,
Buenos Aires.
Austria: K. K. Statistische Zentral-Kommission, Vienna.
AzorgEs, via Portugal.
Bretcium: Service Belge des Echanges Internationaux, Rue des Longs-Chariots
46, Brussels.
Bo.iviA: Oficina Nacional de Estadistica, La Paz.
Brazit: Servico de Permutacdes Internacionaes, Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de
Janeiro. ,
British CoLonies: Crown Agents for the Colonies, London.*
British GUIANA: Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, Georgetown.
BritisH Honpuras: Colonial Secretary, Belize.
BuLcGariA: Institutions Scientifiques de S. M. le Roi de Bulgarie, Sofia.
CANARY ISLANDS, vid Spain.
CuILE: Servicio de Canjes Internacionales, Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago.
CHINA: American-Chinese Publication Exchange Department, Shanghai Bu-
reau of Foreign Affairs, Shanghai.
CoLomBiIA: Oficina de Canjes Internacionales y Reparto, Biblioteca Nacional,
Bogota.
1 This method is employed for communicating with several of the British colonies with
which no medium is available for forwarding exchanges direct.
74 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Costa Rica: Oficina de Depdsito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San
José,
DENMARK: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen.
DutrcH GUIANA: Surinaamsche Koloniale Bibliotheek, Paramaribo.
Ecuapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Quito.
Eayper: Government Publications Office, Printing Department, Cairo.
FRANCE: Service Francais des Echanges Internationaux, 110 Rue de Grenelle,
Paris.
Germany: Amerika-Institut, Berlin, N. W. 7.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Messrs. William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street,
Strand, London.
GREECE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens.
GREENLAND, Vid Denmark.
GUADELOUPE, via France.
GUATEMALA: Instituto Nacional de Varones, Guatemala.
GUINEA, via Portugal.
Haiti: Secrétaire d’Hitat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince.
HonpurAs: Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa.
Hunecary: Dr. Julius Pikler, Municipal Office of Statistics, Vaci-utca 80, Buda-
pest.
ICELAND, via Denmark.
InpDIA: India Store Department, India Office, London.
Tray: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Eman-
uele, Rome.
JAMAICA: Institute of Jamaica, Kingston.
JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo.
Java, via Netherlands.
Korea: His Imperial Japanese Majesty’s Residency-General, Seoul.
LIBERIA: Bureau of Exchanges, Department of State, Monrovia.
LouRENcO MARQuEZ: Government Library, Lourenco Marquez.
LUXEMBURG, via Germany.
MapaGAscarR, vid France.
Mappriga, via Portugal.
Mownrenrecro: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Cetinje.
MogaMBIQueE, via Portugal,
NETHERLANDS: Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais, Bibliothéque de l’Uni-
versité, Leyden. ;
New GUINEA, via Netherlands.
New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.
New ZEALAND: Dominion Museum, Wellington.
Nicaragua: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua.
Norway: Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitet Bibliotheket, Christiania.
PANAMA: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama.
Paraguay: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Asuncion.
Persia: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, New York City.
Peru: Oficina de Reparto, Depdsito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones,
Ministerio de Fomento, Lima.
PortuGaL: Servico de Permutacédes Internacionaes, Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon,
QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Sec-
retary’s Office, Brisbane.
RouMANIA: Academia Romana, Bucharest.
Russia: Commission Russe des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Im-
périale Publique, St. Petersburg. ,
Satvapok: Ministerio de Relaciones’ Exteriores, San Salvador.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15
Servi: Section Administrative du Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Belgrade.
Siam: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok.
SoutH AustraLia: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide.
Spain: Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Cuerpo Faculta-
tivo de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arqueédlogos, Madrid.
SUMATRA, via Netherlands.
SWEDEN: Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm.
SWITZERLAND: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Fédérale
Centrale, Berne,
Syria: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, New York.
TASMANIA: Secretary to the Premier, Hobart.
TRINIDAD: Royal Victoria Institute of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain.
TUNIS, via France.
TurKEY: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Boston.
Union oF SoutH ArricaA: Government Printing Works, Pretoria, Transvaal.
Urvucuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional, Montevideo.
VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.
Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth.
WINDWARD AND LEEWARD ISLANDS: Imperial Department of Agriculture, Bridge-
town, Barbados.
It is my sad duty to record here the death on June 25, 1914, of Dr.
F. W. True, the Assistant Secretary in charge of Library and Ex-
changes. Dr. True was in charge of the exchanges a little over three
years, having been appointed June 11, 1911. His official connection
with the Institution, however, dates from 1881. During his in-
cumbency Dr. True took special steps to increase the efficiency of the
Exchange Service. Recently he addressed communications to the
chiefs of the various foreign exchange bureaus and establishments
acting as distributing agencies, requesting them to furnish him with
certain statistical information regarding the exchanges carried on
under their supervision for use in connection with the preparation
of an article on the present condition of the International Exchange
Service throughout the world which he had under way.
Respectfully submitted.
C. W. SHOEMAKER,
Chief Clerk International Fxchange Service.
- Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Aveusr 5, 1914.
APPENDIX 4,
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.
Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a report concerning the
operations of the National Zoological Park during the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1914.
By the sundry civil act approved June 23, 1913, Congress allowed
$100,000 for improvement and maintenance. The cost of food for
the animals during the year was $23,200, an increase of about $3,000;
considerable repairs were required to some of the older buildings,
and a large amount of damage on the grounds was done by a heavy
storm. The amount remaining available for improvement and ex-
pansion therefore was proportionately reduced.
ACCESSIONS.
The most important accessions were a male hippopotamus, a pair
of young Bengal tigers, a pair of young lions, a sable antelope, and
an American white crane. The animals mentioned in the last annual
report as on their way from the Government Zoological Garden at
Giza, Egypt, arrived early in the present fiscal year. Among them
were a pair of young African elephants and a pair of cheetahs.
The total expended for the purchase and transportation of animals
was $7,450, which includes $1,900 paid for bringing over the animals
from Giza.
Mammals and birds were born and hatched in the park to the num-
ber of 95, including bears of four species, an otter, five mink, several
monkeys, a llama, a chamois, an Arabian gazelle, various deer, two
American white pelicans, and some other mammals and birds.
EXCHANGES.
Comparatively few exchanges were made during the year. Among
animals obtained by this means were a leopard, a Japanese bear, a
white-tailed gnu, several other mammals, and a few birds and large
snakes.
GIFTS.
Miss M. H. Berger, Washington, D. C., an alligator.
Mr. Walter Brown, Washington, D. C., a broad-winged hawk.
Dr. D. EB. Buckingham, Washington, D. C., a coyote.
76
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 77
Mrs. Charlotte Buford, Washington, D. C., a red-fronted parrot.
Mrs. M. E. Butler, Washington, D. C., a Belgian hare.
Mr. Walter Campbell, Alexandria, Va., a woodchuck.
Mrs. C. E. Clark, Washington, D. C., a finch.
Mrs. Thomas W. Coskery, Flemingsburg, Ky., a bald eagle.
Mrs. Ida M. Dalton, Washington, D. C., a broad-winged hawk.
Miss Elizabeth Eccleston, Forest Glen, Md., a common ferret.
Lieut. J. H. Everson, United States Navy, a roseate spoonbill.
Mr. W. I.. Field, Washington, D. C., a Gila monster.
Capt. 8S. 8S. Flower, Giza, Egypt, an Arabian baboon.
Mrs. Elsie Frizzell, Washington, D. C., an American magpie.
Mr. F. P. Hall, Washington, D. C., a muscovy duck.
Mr. Hugh G. Harp, Bluemont, Va., a Cooper’s hawk.
Mr. Hendley, Washington, D. C., a brown capuchin.
Mrs. C. B. Hight, Washington, D. C., an alligator.
Miss Barbara Hubbard, Washington, D. C., three common canaries.
Mrs. Hughes, Washington, D. C., a goldfinch.
Mr. C. E. Hunt, Washington, D. C., a cardinal and four doves.
Mrs. Lieber, Philadelphia, Pa., an alligator.
Miss Annie C. Linn, Alexandria, Va., a raccoon.
Asst. Paymaster Stanley Mathes, United States Navy, a paca.
Miss Maria I. McCormack, Washington, D. C., a Cuban parrot.
Mr. E. B. McLean, Washington, D. C., a peafowl.
Mr. Mills, Washington, D. C., a common canary.
Mr. A. M. Nicholson, Orlando, Fla., 12 young water moccasins.
Mr. R. G. Paine, Washington, D. C., a hog-nosed snake.
Mr. W. W. Reese, Ironton, Va., a bittern.
Mr. Peter Simon, Washington, D. C., a hog-nosed snake.
Mr. J. T. Smoot, Smoot, W. Va., a horned owl.
Mr. Andreas Soto, Cape San Antonio, Cuba, two white-headed doves.
Hon. William J. Stone, United States Senate, a raccoon.
Mr. F. A. Thackery, Sacaton, Ariz., a spotted lynx, two Gila monsters, and a
normed lizard.
Mr. H. W. Wheeler, Street, Md., a black snake.
Hon. Woodrow Wilson, Washington, D. C., three opossums.
Unknown donor, a pigeon hawk.
LOSSES.
The losses were distributed throughout the collection, the more
important being a lion, a cougar, a guanaco, a gazelle, and an Ara-
bian baboon which died from pneumonia; an East African buffalo,
a gnu, a mandrill, and a Malay bear from tuberculosis; two lions, a
tiger, a moose, and an American bison from gastritis and enteritis;
a rhea, a sarus crane, a flamingo, and a great bustard from asper-
gillosis; and several mammals and birds as the result of fighting and
accidents. A number of birds were killed by predatory animals
living at large in the park.
Such of the dead animals as were of value for study or for other
museum purposes were transferred to the National Museum to the
number of 88. Autopsies were made, as usual, by the Pathological
78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agri-
culture.*
ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1914.
MAMMALS.
Green monkey (Cercopithecus callitri- |) Gray wolf (Canis occidentalis) _______ 4
CIUU8) eee ee ee ee et a Les Coyote Cais) LGtiCis) se 4
Mona monkey (Cercopithecus mona) —_ 2 | Woodhouse’s coyote (Canis frustror) —_ 3
Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana) —_ 1 | Red fox (Vulpes pennsylvanicus) —_—__ 5
Sooty mangabey (Cercocebus fuligi- Swift fox (Vulpes, velor) 22.2 2= = 2
UO S11) ee ee 1 | Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus)——___—___— 1
Bonnet monkey (Macacus sinicus) ~~~ 1 | Gray fox (Urocyon cinereo-argenteus) — 5
Macaque monkey (Macacus cynomol- Spotted hyena (Hyena crocuta)—_~~___ 1
U8) ye OE oS a eee eee 2 | African palm civet (Viverra civetta)_ 1
Pig-tailed monkey (Macacus nemes- Common genet (Genetta genetta)—____ 2
GUUIVILS)) ee ee a SER aS 5 | Cheetah (Cynailurus jubatus) ~~ ~____ 2)
Rhesus monkey (Macacus rhesus) _-_-__ 15 | Sudan lion (Jelis leo) _______________ 3
Brown macaque (Macacus arctoides) —_ 3 | Kilimanjaro lion (Felis leo sabakiensis)_ 2
Japanese monkey (Jfacacus fuscatus) — SP cer (MEM Sng res) ee ean ee eee 2
Black ape (Cynopithecus niger) ---—~~ 1 Cougar (Felis oregonensis hippolestes) — of)
Chaema (Papio porcarius) ——__—-___—- tiigWJacvanr) (Heliswionea) je il
Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) — 3u|) weopardl) (Hels pandus) a ee 3
Mandrill (Papio maimon) —_-_--------- 1 | Black leopard (felis pardus)_~_______ 1
Gray spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyt) — 1 Canada lynx (Lyne canadensis) _____— if!
White-throated capuchin (Cebus hy- Bay dyna? (ayna uf) —* ee eee 8
DOLCUCUS) 2 a ee 1 | Spotted lynx (Lyn# rufus terensis)_.__ 2
Brown monkey (Cebus fatuellus) ~~~ 1 | Florida lynx (Lyng rufus floridanus)__ 1
Durukuli (Nyctipithecus trivirgatus) —— 1 | Steller’s sea lion (Humetopias stelleri)_ 1
Mongoose lemur (Lemur mongoz) —~———- 1 | California sea lion (Zalophus californi-
Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) ~—---~ 2 QNU8) sete ees See te Se eth oe 2
Garnett’s galago (Galago garnetti) ——_ 1 | Northern fur seal (Callotaria alascana) _ 1
Polar bear (Thalarctos maritimus ) ——~ 2 | Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) _____-____ 2
European brown bear (Ursus arctos) —— 2 | Fox squirrel (Sciwrus niger) ———______— 9
Kadiak bear (Ursus middendorffi) _----~ 1 | Western fox squirrel (Sciwrus ludovi-
Yakutat bear (Ursus dat) —~.-2—-2—--_- 1 CLONAUS)) (ee ee Se te Ed oct fess Be] 8
Alaskan brown bear (Ursus gyas)—~—-~ 3 | Gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). 40
Kidder’s bear (Ursus kidderi) _-_-_-_-_ 2 | Black squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). 20
Himalayan bear (Ursus thibetanus) ___ 1 | Albino squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) — al!
Japanese bear (Ursus japonicus) ——-_- 1 | Prairie dog (Cyomys ludovicianus)__- 54
Grizzly bear (Ursus herribilis) _____-~ 8 | Albino woodchuck (Arctomys monaz) _ 1
Black bear (Ursus americanus) ~—~~--- 9 | Alpine marmot (Arctomys marmotta) — 1
Cinnamon bear (Ursus americanus) ——~ 2 | American beaver (Castor canadensis) — 6
Sloth bear (Melursus wrsinus) —---~-~—- 1 | Hutia-conga (Capromys pilorides)—___~ 1
Kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus) — 1 | Indian porcupine (Hystrix# leucura) ~~~ 2
Cacomistle (Bassariscus astuta) ~~~ 1 | Canada porcupine (Hrethizon dorsatus) — 1
Gray coatimundi (Nasua narica) ——_--- 5 | Canada porcupine (Hrethizon dorsatus)
Raceoon (Procyon lotor) ~----------- 10 albinont2 $2) oe SSS ee 1
American badger (Taxidea tarus)____ 8 | Mexican agouti (Dasyprocta mexicana) — 1
Common skunk (Mephitis putida) —~~~~ 4 | Azara’s agouti (Dasyprocta azar@) —____ 2
American marten (Mustela americana) — 4 | Crested agouti (Dasyprocta cristata) __ 2
Fisher (Mustela pennantti) _--_-_------ 1 | Hairy-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta prym-
Mink (Putorius vison) —-_-_~-~__-___ 13 molopNa) L212 Be aki USE eee 2
Common ferret (Putorius putorius) ~~~ |) Paca:(Oelogenys paca) 23224) eS 3
Black-footed ferret (Putorius nigripes) — 1 | Guinea pig (Cavia cutlert)———__—== =—— 13
North American otter (Lutra cana- Patagonian cavy (Dolichotis patago-
Gensis) | 2evert Ss 2 prea ae ee 2 NACH) sees Ete ee See ee 1
Eskimo dog (Canis familiaris) ~._-~~—~ 18 | Capybara (Hydrocherus capybara) ——~ il
Dingo. (Onis dingo) 222-— = il | Domestic rabbit (Lepus cuniculus)_-_-_— 15
1The causes of death were reported to be as follows: Enteritis, 23; gastritis, 2; gastro-
enteritis, 2; pneumonia, 15; pleuropneumonia, 1; congestion of lungs, 2; tuberculosis,
10; aspergillosis, 4; septicemia, 2; congestion of liver, 1; rupture of heart, 1; impaction
of gall bladder and ducts, 1; impaction of stomach with stones, 1; tumor, 1; purulent
conjunctivitis, 1; cataract, 1; congelation, 1; anemia due to old age, 2; accident, 3; and
undetermined, 4,
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
79
Animals in the collection June 30, 1914—Continued.
MAMMALS—Continued.
Cape hyrax (Procavia capensis) ~----~
African elephant (Hlephas oxyotis) ~~~
Indian elephant (Hlephas mazimus)—~
Brazilian tapir (Tapirus americanus) —
Grevy’s zebra (Hquus grevyi) --------
Zebra-horse hybrid (Hquus grevyi-ca-
ballus)
Zebra-donkey hybrid
asinus)
Grant’s zebra (Hquus burchelli granti)_
Collared peceary (Dicotyles angulatus)
Wildapoar(Sws scrofa) = 2225 ee
Northern wart hog (Phacocherus afri-
canus)
Hippopotamus
phibius)
Guanaco (Lama huanachus)—--~-----~-~
Mama CLAamMe- Glam) —s22 eee ae
AIDACHMCMOMman DLCs) aoe
Vicugna (Lama vicugna)———___-_____
Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus)_
Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) —
Sambar deer (Cervus aristotelis)_____
Philippine deer (Cervus philippinus) —_
Hog deer (Cervus porcinus) _-_------~_
Barasingha deer (Cervus duvaucelii) —
Axis deer’ (Cervus aais) [220 eee
Japanese deer (Cervus sika)--------~
Red deer (Cervus elaphus) _---_------_
American elk (Cervus canadensis) ~~~
Fallow deer (Cervus dama)_—~--------
Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionrus) ~---~
Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus
columbianus)
Cuban deer (Odocoileus sp.) ---__-_-___-
(Zquus grevyi-
(Hippopotamus —am-
Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) —~---~-
Brown thrasher (Toxwostoma rufum)-—-
Japanese robin (Liothria luteus) —---~
Laughing thrush (Garrular_ leucolo-
MV TVU:S))) | take eee ogre ty ea SE eb eats pte ae
Bishop finch (Tanagra episcopus) ~~~
Cut-throat finch (Amadina fasciata) __
Zebra finch (Amadina castanotis) ___~
Black-headed finch (Munia _atrica-
POULT) EE Ns SETAE YA SE EY
Three-colored finch (Munia malacca) —~
White-headed finch (Munia maja) _~-~
Nutmeg finch (Munia punctularia) —__
Java sparrow (Munia oryzivora)_____-
White Java sparrow (Munia oryzi-
VOTH) “2 2hssaaasn acne casas al!
Sharp-tailed grass finch (Poéphila acu-
CGEUM) LL SEO TE Se ee
Silver-bill finch (Aidemosyne cantans) _—
Chestnut - breasted finch (Donacola
castaneothoram) 282 Me Sal Bo eee
Napolean weaver (Pyromelana afra) ——
Madagascar weaver (Foudia madagas-
COPLCIUR IS) eee Se ee
Red-billed weaver (Quelea quelea) —___
ad bo ee bb bo
eo Re be
bo
=
PRR OANOCONNREPwWwWhHhywabd bd
_
1
Prong-horn
GINGTACO NG) is oe oe) ee ane,
Coke’s hartebeest (Bubalis cokei)_-___
Blessbok (Damaliscus albifrons) ~~ ____
White-tailed gnu (Connochetes gnu) __
Defassa water buck (Cobus defassa) __
Indian Antelope (Antilope cervicapra) —
Doreas gazelle (Gazella dorcas)______
Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica) ____
Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) _—_~—
Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) ~~~
Congo harnessed antelope (Tragelaphus
gratus )
Chamois (Rupicapra tragus)—~—~~_-____
Tahr (Hemitragus jemlaicus)_—~______
Common goat (Capra hircus)________
Angora goat (Capra hircus)__________
Circassian goat (Capra hircus)_______
Barbary sheep (Ovis tragelaphus)— ~__
Barbados sheep (Ovis aries-trage-
laphus )
Anoa (Anoa depressicornis) ~~______
Zebu (Bibos indicus)
Yak (Poéphagus grunniens) _________
American bison (Bison americanus). 1
Hairy armadillo (Dasypus villosus) —_
Wallaroo (Macropus robustus)__~~____
Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) _____
Red-necked wallaby (Macropus rufi-
COULUS)) pm eters rt AiR ae ones oe scot A ES
Virginia opossum (Didelphys marsu-
DIDS) Sor ae EE | SSE. LARS
Virginia opossum (Didelphys marsu-
DEUS) ea IT Oat eens een nero eae ES 1
Common wombat (Phascolomys mitch-
LET) ore Se A ES oe Ee eee 1
antelope (Antilocapra
WH Re Ce eee bo
bo HB bo o> HW GO bo
a
Waa nw1wrHo
be
BIRDS.
4
be
He CO
Cac an
mS
oO.
Whydah weaver (Vidua paradisea)___ _ 27
Red-crested cardinal (Paroaria cucul-
Rose-breasted grosbeak (Zamelodia lu-
GOULCLON DY ee re en ee 1
Common cardinal (Cardinalis cardi-
OLR LOIS POT Ree ie ae ach 2
Siskin (Spinws) spinws) == —— aa eee 5
Saffron finch (Sycalis flaveola)_----_ 19
Yellow-hammer (Hmberiza citrinella) — 1
Common canary (Serinus canarius)__ 26
Linnet (Linota cannabina) _----_____- 4
Cowbird (Molothrus. ater) _=______- 1
Meadow lark (Sturnella magna) _—____ 2
Glossy starling (Lamprotornis cau-
GG1U8) =e ee ae 1
Malabar mynah (Poliopsar malabari-
(7) ee ee ae ee es ee oe
European raven (Corvus corazr)_--~_~ 1
American rayen (Corvus coradz sinua-
(Corvus brachyrhyn-
1
Green jay (Xanthoura luwxruosa)_____-_ 1
White-throated jay (Garrulus leucotis) — 2
80
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
Animals in the collection June 80, 1914—Continued.
BIRDS—Continued.
Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) _-______
American magpie (Pica pica hudsonica) —
Red-billed magpie (Urocissa occipi-
ECL S)) ea ae ae ee ae le
Piping crow (Gymnorhina tibicen) —__~
Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas)_----~
Sulphur-erested cockatoo (Cacatua ga-
TRY BHAT Vee a a TE pS
White cockatoo (Cacatua alba) —--~----~_
Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Cacatua lead-
OCGA eens = ee
Bare-eyed cockatoo (Cacatua gym-
AUOD IS) ee ee ere ee a
Roseate cockatoo (Cacatua_ roseica-
(HUG) Va a ee
Cockateel (Calopsittacus nove-hol-
LOMONE) pa ee
Yellow and blue macaw (Ara ara-
TOUIU CG) a
Red and yellow and blue macaw (Ara
TIVOCG 0) Po Be eee Se ae ee
Red and blue macaw (Ara chloroptera)
Great green macaw (Ara militaris) ~~
Mexican conure (Conurus holochlorus)_—
Gray-breasted parrakeet (Myopsittacus
MONACHUWS) =o 2 oe a eee ae ed
Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala) —
Orange-winged amazon (Amazona
CNALONICE) = ee ee eee
Festive amazon (Amazona festiva) —-_
Porto Rican amazon (Amazona_ vit-
COU UNS a ae a en ee ee
Yellow-shouldered amazon (Amazona
ochropterd) 262s See se See
Yellow-fronted amazon (Amazona
ochrocephala)) 22s ee
Red-fronted amazon (Amazona rhodo-
COTY TNG aea2 ees LES See eee oe cases
Yellow-headed amazon (Amazona le-
Vaillant) 2s Laas Bee eee ee ae
Blue-fronted amazon (Amazona
ESTE C)) arr ee ie A aN ee ee Te
Lesser vasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) —
Banded parrakeet (Palewornis fasciata) —
Alexandrine parrakeet (Palewornis alex-
ONO) Sn a ee
Love bird (Agapornis pullaria) ____-_~
Green parrakeet (Loriculus sp.) —~--~-_
Shell parrakeet (Melopsittacus wun-
QUNGCWS) ee a ee
Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) _
Arctic horned owl (Bubo virginianus
SUCATCTICUS) Waa oe ee ree See
Screech owl (Otussasio) 282 anee2es22=
Barred owl (Striz varia) ~~~ 22
Barn owl (Aluco pratincola)___~_____
Sparrow hawk (Palco sparverius)———~
Bald eagle (Haliwetus leucocephalus) —
Alaskan bald eagle (Haliwetus lewcoce-
phalvws “alascanws) 22222. Nese es
Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaétos)—~--~
Harpy eagle (Thrasaétus harpyia)_—_—~
eo Ww
oo e bo
Ree bh om
to
a
bo
me bo bo
bo eS bo
Chilian eagle (Geranoaétus melano-
lCUCUS) oe aa a ees
Crowned hawk eagle (Spizaétus coron-
(TIS) ratio Uae ge a A RHI eg an
Broad-winged hawk (Buteo platyp-
COTS ee Ie ea ek pees
Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swainsoni) —_
Weneztiel sania yest coer a ee
Caracara (Polyborus cheriway) ~___—_
Lammergeyer (Gypaétus barbatus) —___
South American condor (Sarcorham-
GO CORSO QU ee Oe ee OE ee
California condor (Gymnogyps califor-
HOR TAD HS) jee RS ae ae ey Dg SR
Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)—--_____
Cinereous vulture (Vultwr monachus) _—
Hgyptian vulture (Neophron percnop-
COVULS)) ee el gee
Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura)———-~
Black yulture (Catharista wrubi) ~~~
King vulture (Gypagus papa) —_______
Red-billed pigeon (Columba flaviros-
tris)
White-crowned pigeon (Columba leuco-
CODNGUG) e523 SS ae ete oe
Band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata) _—
Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura) —
Peaceful dove (Geopelia tranquilla) —-_
Collared turtle dove (Turtur risorius) —
Cape masked dove (Gna capensis) ~~~
Nicobar pigeon (Caiwnas nicobarica) —_
Barred curassow (Craz fasciolata) ~~
Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo sil-
AICS EIS) yee k Se Se a Ee ah
Reafowl (Pavo enstatw ==
Jungle fowl (Gallus bankiva)—~__--_~
English pheasant (Phasianus colchi-
CUS) a ee ee ele Pe
European quail (Coturnir communis) ——
Massena quail (Cyrtonyz monteaume)
Black-backed gallinule (Porphyrio mela-
MOTUS) eet wos ey) aE eR
American coot (Fulica americana) ——_~
Flightless rail (Ocydromus australis) _—
Great bustard (Otis tarda) -~_______
Common cariama (Cariama cristata) ——
Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) —
Crowned crane (Balearica pavonina) ——
Whooping crane (Grus americana) ~~~
Sandhill crane (Grus mevicana) ——~--~
Australian crane (Grus australasiana) —
European crane (@Grus cinerea) ——~~--~~
Indian white crane (G@Grus lewcogera-
NWS) a2 oe ee ee
Ruff (Machetes pugnaw) —_.~--------=
Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax
NY CULCOFED -NGVIUS) =~ © 52 =
Snowy egret (Hgretta candidissima) ——
Great white heron (Herodias egretta)—
Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) ~~~
Great black-crowned heron (Ardea co-
1
kA OD ek et
pa
Le bo bo ce
ry
BPheoowty AK b
Per Parra
oreo x bo bo
~
bo
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,
Animals in the collection June 30, 1914—Continued.
BIRDS—Continued.
73176°—sM 1914——_6
81
Black stork (Ciconia nigra) _~-------- -1, Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galeri-
Marabou stork (Leptoptilus dubius) —~~ fi CULOEG) ies syle) pel ete Lo ids 5
Wood ibis (Mycteria americana) -----~- Zenit (Cala aCwtd) = ee 4
Sacred ibis (Jbis ethiopica) ____---_~_ 3 | Shoveler duck (Spatula clypeata)—____ 1
White: ibis (Guare alba) -—---=2 222 18 | Black duck (Anas rubripes) ___________ 3
- Roseate spoonbill (Ajaja ajaja)------ 2 | Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) ~~ ~___ 138
European flamingo (Phenicopterus ro- American white pelican (Pelecanus
PRR) Sok, RES SLE es Cae es Beaeien Os t's CLUCLTOLRANUGCHOS ee 9
Whistling swan (Olor columbianus) ~~~ 5 | European white pelican (Pelecanus
Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus) ---------- ti ONOCTOLOLUS) ir =e ne an See 1
Black swan (Chenopis atrata)-~_---~ 1 | Roseate pelican (Pelecanus roseus)_—__ 1
Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) —~--~ 2 | Brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) 5
White muscovy duck (Cairina mos- Australian pelican (Pelecanus con-
(5 (HERECE AD Stee SE pa perc peg Empey eal 2 SD ECUULCTUS) Peas eas a RENEE 2
Wandering tree-duck (Dendrocygna Florida cormorant (Phalacrocoraz au-
ACU) ee ae ee ee ee 6 UCU LOTACLOTEILS ) ete ee ee 13
Fulvous tree-duck (Dendrocygna bi- Mexican cormorant (Phalacrocorax
COLGT iy eee er Ee 2 UIUC LIC ONAL Sa ene 1
Brant (Branta bernicla glaucogastra) — 1 | Water turkey (Anhinga anhinga)_____ 2
Canada goose (Branta canadensis) ~~~ 7 | American herring gull (Larus argen-
Hutchins’s goose (Branta canadensis tatus smithsonianus) —~—=--__~______ 3
EULOGY ee ere eee, 3 | Laughing gull (Larus atricilla)_ ~____ 2
Lesser snow goose (Chen hyperboreus) 1 | South African ostrich (Struthio aus-
Greater snow goose (Chen hyperboreus LOLS oe ee ees os oe a ARS i
TUBULES) ee eee ee AS 1 | Somali ostrich (Struthio molybdo-
American white-fronted goose (Anser DhANES) ye he ead eee nee 2) 1
aloifrons gambel) —-----~-=~----.-— 1 | Common cassowary (Casuarius galea-
Chinese goose (Anser cygnoides) —~-__ 3 CUS eae EE POR eee eats i!
Scaup duck (Marila marila)---__-_~- 5 | Common rhea (Rhea americana) ——__~ 2
Red-headed duck (Marila americana) — 2) Emu (Dromeus nove hollandie) ——___ 2
Wood duck! (Aza ‘sponsa)— 22-22 2 5
REPTILES.
Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)___ 20 | Spreading adder (Heterodon platy-
Painted box-tortoise (Cistudo ornata) — 2 phinus)< Se itsrst AULT osipin ik
Duncan Island tortoise (Testudo ephip- Black snake (Zamenis constrictor)_._ 1
pium) —---~---~~----~------_---. 2 | Water snake (Natriz sipedon)_______ 3
Albemarle Island tortoise (Testudo Common garter snake (Hutenia sirtalis) 1
vicina) —--------------------~---- 1 | Water moccasin (Ancistrodon pis-
Horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum) 1 UDOT ALS eas es bine eee Se NE 9
Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum)- 4 | Copperhead (Ancistrodon contortriz)__ 1
Regal python (Python reticulatus)____ 4] Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus ada-
Common boa (Boa constrictor) ~-----~ 2 TIEIVECUB nee ee es ee 4
Anaconda (Hunectes murinus)— —---- 1 | Banded rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) 1
Velvet snake (Hpicrates cenchris) ~~ 3
STATEMENT OF THE COLLECTION.
ACCESSIONS DURING THE YEAR.
Pea CTNCE Cee nse open ae meee nae oe nbn ween una nae SPLIT Y SIARBERER DAPERLSSE Rb Wie rd ERS | LICKS 59
ESC ae ets SEE ESSIEN Tees SUE ES PETES ES Tyee OE ts SE Oe, 8 2O
Born and hatched in the National Zoological Park___--__-___- 95
IROCCIVEH ETN RECN ANG Clear elt A oie SA eg Wie alré
Depositedyine National Zoological, Park: 02-2 2 ee 30
Capuiredsin National: A0glogical Parks 2-2 = 8 Ree Te 4
PD ype Se ee Seg OS pot oe ey ee Shs SP 325
82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
SUMMARY.
Animal son: hand: daly al Owls ese e ob Sa oe Se ee eee 1, 468
Accessions during the) yea. esse hes ag 325
1, 798
Deduct loss (by exchange, death, return of animals, ete.) ~-___________ 431
Onchanad Pune’? BOF LOMA WO eee ak ee ee CO RO lg 1, 362
Class Species. |Individuals.
Mammals 25.22 sac nicace so se cee segue isis ig =e Sia.ciaia:c ig ecjorals sisteiclerstnis/sielsieje' = sigs Sete eats 150 604
BT eG FY gs eS cte ae ENO Se Seo Geet gn ve 172 697
(Rep iilestessme secre ctiecinssis eee n= ee atm eke ne Setagae nis atti nc ele veletoi=se setae easter ore 18 61
STARA ee Le es be oe Cs ee ce Ea a LP oe ec ee a ae 340 1,362
The number of animals on hand at the close of this year was about
100 less than the previous year. This decrease occurred mainly in
small birds, conditions in the temporary bird house being so unsatis-
factory that it seemed advisable to reduce somewhat that part of the
collection. The floor of the bird house had to be renewed and the
underpinning replaced and made rat proof.
Fewer reptiles, also, were on hand, as a part of the space pre-
viously used for them in the lion house was required for the new
hippopotamus.
VISITORS.
The number of visitors to the park during the year, as determined
by count and estimate, was 733,277, a daily average of 2,009. This
was about 100,000 more than during the previous fiscal year. The
largest number in any one month was 142,491, in April, 1914. The
largest number during one day was 56,981, on April 13 (Kaster
Monday). Vehicles were excluded from 10 a. m. to 5 p. m. of that
day because of the crowded condition of the roads.
Seventy-nine schools, classes, ete., visited the park, with a total of
3,172 individuals.-
IMPROVEMENTS.
The amount remaining from the appropriation, after providing
for maintenance and the acquisition of animals already mentioned,
was used for such minor improvements as were most urgently needed.
The fitting up of the old elephant barn as temporary quarters for
the pair of African elephants was completed, and a good-sized yard
built in connection with it, inclosed by a strong steel fence. The
yard includes a bathing pool. The adjoining inclosure and _ pool
for tapirs were completed and put in use early in the year.
New hippopotamus quarters were arranged in the lion house
by enlarging the cage formerly occupied by elephant seals. This
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83
was already provided with a tank of sufficient size, and, by extending
the exterior wall, ample floor space was secured. The female hippo-
potamus, which had outgrown her temporary quarters, was trans-
ferred to the new and much larger cage, and the cage vacated was
used for a young male that had been obtained at an unusually favor-
able price. Both animals have access to the outdoor yard and the
large pool which it contains. A new inclosure and shelter house
for Arabian camels were built near the sheep and deer inclosures
and two new yards were added to the series for wolves and foxes.
A yard 40 by 56 feet, with 10 breeding pens inclosed in it, was
built to provide for the breeding and study of mink in cooperation
with the Department of Agriculture.
During several years predatory animals living at large in the
park had at times forced their way into the flying cage and caused
considerable loss among the birds. In order to prevent this the
guardrail about the cage was rebuilt, using between the posts a wire
netting with small mesh and at the top a sheet-iron hood. This has
proved to be effective against both rats and larger vermin.
A small temporary toilet for men was built near the entrance from
Adams Mill Road.
A hot-water heating plant was installed in the office building,
which had up to that time been heated, rather unsatisfactorily, with
stoves. At the same time new floors were laid on the main floor of
the office and some other much-needed repairs made. In order to
provide for more convenient and economical use of the machines in
the workshop, two additional electric motors were installed there.
_ The drinking fountains with attached cups were removed and seven
“bubble” fountains set in their places. Several of these are fitted
with faucets for the accommodation of visitors who bring cups or
desire to obtain water for picnic purposes.
_ Two tennis courts were constructed in the lower end of the park
where there is level ground that is not as yet available for other
purposes.
The cost of these improvements was as follows:
Fitting up old elephant barn and building yard_______________________ $1, 325
(Completing: yard and pool-for tapings: 42s a es oe 300
NGC ASE WODOEA MINIS CUT AT CTS see ce ek ee els Sek Be 650
Inclosure and shelter house for Arabian camels________-_-_-_-__ 390
ACG OMAIE Vara Set One Ww OlVCSe se ate a sr ey Sn a ep 400
Onarersn late ReCO tl oll Ken sere Rarens 2 ba SS ae iE Te See ee 325
New guard rail, with foundation wall, at flying cage_______._-_____ 750
PSHGHEED UL TEGHVETE TV GR HIS! SN ay ir aCe 0 Eee De ee pO ee Me 2 eee 200
Heating plant and new floors in office building____-___--__-_-- 950
Additonal motors in: workshops =. foes th 2 cl aed Bae Tne Ses tite |. 350
Be DDLGarrainehaoMeOUN CAG = se. meee hE ee i ee SO ee 200
RACV. 6) BEGET are CURT ete ete tee eae ae 8 8 2 eS 150
84. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
MAINTENANCE OF BUILDINGS, INCLOSURES, GROUNDS, ETC.
Considerable repairs had to be made to some of the buildings and
inclosures, including new roof covering on part of the lion house and
the rebuilding of the fence around the elk paddock, and a portion of
the retaining wall above the bear yards on the eastern side of the park
was rebuilt where it had been undermined by the weathering of the
rock below.
A severe storm on July 30, 1918, destroyed a number of large trees
and caused serious damage throughout the park. The cost of remoy-
ing the débris and restoring the park to its normal condition was
about $1,500.
BRIDGE.
The construction of the “rough stone or bowlder bridge” across
Rock Creek, which was mentioned in the last annual report, pro-
ceeded in a satisfactory manner. The contract for the excavation
and masonry work was secured by the lowest bidder, the Warren F.
Brenizer Co. The plans and specifications were prepared by David
E. McComb, engineer of bridges, District of Columbia, and it was
thought best that the supervising engineer and the inspector of the
work should be persons recommended by him. Mr. W. A. Draper
was accordingly employed as engineer and Mr. Wilham Champion as
inspector. No obstacles of any importance were met with during
the progress of the work, though it was found that the excavation
required for the piers was somewhat greater than had been antici-
pated. The bridge was opened for travel on November 1, 1913. As
there was a heavy fill of earth over the stone masonry, it was neces-
sary to defer the construction of the macadam surface and concrete
sidewalk until spring. This also was satisfactorily completed during
June, 1914.
The following is a statement of the expenditures from the appro-
priation of $20,000:
Expenditures prior to July 1, 1913 (all outside of contract for excava-
LsLCOTNN DIN GL 10S VTA Ty) ase ee ee ee $1, 776
Motal payments under: contract: 22 == =e eee 10, 914
Expenditures during this fiscal year (outside of contract) —____________ 5, 158
17, 848
Since the close of the fiscal year expenditures and liabilities have
been incurred, amounting to $335, for restoring and perfecting the
approaches to the bridge. The total expenditures to date are there-
fore $18,183.
ALTERATION OF THE WEST BOUNDARY OF THE PARK.
The sundry civil act for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, con-
tained the following item:
Readjustment of boundaries: For acquiring, by condemnation, all the lots,
pieces, or parcels of land, other than the one hereinafter excepted, that lie
"AYVd IWOIDO1OOZ IVNOILVN ‘M3SYUO WOOY ssouoy sa9qiug
"LT akWId : ‘poday s Arejaisag—'p|6| ‘odey uejuosy}iws
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85
between the present western boundary of the National Zoological Park and
Connecticut Avenue from Cathedral Avenue to Klingle Road, $107,200, or such
portion thereof as may be necessary, said land when acquired, together with the
included highways, to be added to and become a part of the National Zoological
Park. The proceedings for the condemnation of said land shall be instituted by
the Secretary of the Treasury under and in accordance with the terms and
provisions of subchapter 1 of chapter 15 of the Code of Law for the District of
Columbia.
Under the sanction given by this act the attention of the Secre-
tary of the Treasury was immediately called to the matter. A great
delay has occurred. It is understood that a new survey of the prop-
erty involved was necessary, that the searching of titles to the vari-
ous parcels of land consumed considerable time. The case is now
before the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia awaiting the
award of a jury. In the meantime the principal property owner
has endeavored to enhance the value of the land by grading and
otherwise improving it. The total amount to be purchased is about
10% acres.
ROCK CREEK MAIN INTERCEPTOR.
The District of Columbia having obtained from Congress author-
ity to construct a large sewer, called the “ Rock Creek main inter-
ceptor,” extending from P Street northwest to the Military Road,
District of Columbia, began work upon it within the limits of the
park on June 1, 1913. The project involves both an open-cut sewer
and a tunnel, about 2,000 feet in length, extending from a short dis-
tance below the new bridge to the Klingle Road. This construction
necessarily produces a considerable disturbance of the surface and
defacement of the natural features of the park. This is particularly
the case at either end of the tunnel, where thousands of yards of
excavated material have been dumped. It is hoped that the District
officials will be able to remedy this in some measure when the work
shall be completed. This is expected about September 5, 1914.
NEW APPROACH TO THE PARK.
By an act of Congress approved March 2, 1911, there was author-
ized a new approach to the park from Sixteenth Street and Colum-
bia Road to what has been known as the Quarry Road entrance.
This has now been completed by the District with a fine macadam
roadway, and offers a most convenient and attractive route for reach-
ing the park from the city. The Quarry Road, which had a very
steep and dangerous gradient, has been abolished as a means of
access.
IMPORTANT NEEDS.
Aviary—aAttention has been called for several years past to the
importance of erecting a suitable house for the care and preserva-
86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
tion of the birds of the collection, most of which are now housed in a
low, wooden, temporary structure which is by no means suitable for
the purpose and has to be constantly renewed by repairs. The mat-
ter has been repeatedly urged upon Congress and an appropriation
of $80,000 asked for a new structure. This is by no means an ex-
travagant sum, as the aviaries of most zoological collections cost con-
siderably more than this.
Reptile house.—The park has never had an adequate exhibition of
the interesting and varied domain of reptiles. A few alligators, some
Galapagos tortoises, boas, anacondas, and a few native species are
kept in the lion house in quarters which are entirely unsuitable for
their proper exhibition and comfort. It is thought that a proper
reptile house, where the specimens could be kept in approximately
natural conditions, could be built for about $50,000.
Pachyderm house.—There are now in the collection a considerable
number of pachydermata or thick-skinned animals, including an
Indian elephant, two African elephants, two hippopotami, and four
tapirs. These all require special treatment in the way of bathing
pools, strong walls, etc. These animals are at present nearly all
housed in quarters that are too small and weak. Some of them are
young and rapidly growing and it will soon be a difficult matter to
confine them. It is also likely that other species will be added to
those now on hand. To properly exhibit and care for them a new
house should be built. It is thought that this can be done at a cost
of $100,000, which is much less than similar structures have cost in
other cities.
Hospital and laboratory.—The park has not at the present time
any means for properly isolating and caring for the animals that
may be injured or ailing. Sick animals are ordinarily exposed to
the gaze of the public, to the detriment of the animals and the reputa-
tion of the park. Quiet and repose are as necessary to animals as
to man, and that can not be assured under the present conditions.
Besides this, which seems required merely from humanitarian
reasons, consideration should be given to certain scientific aspects of
the matter. The diseases and parasites of animals are but im-
perfectly understood, and investigations of them are important, both
directly and for their analogy with those of man and their possible
transmission to the human race. The animals received at the park
have usually been kept in insanitary quarters and frequently bring
in the germs of disease which they transmit to others. If a strict
quarantine for a suitable time could be established, this danger could
be avoided in a great measure and the death rate reduced. Further
than this there is now no adequate utilization of the animals for
scientific purposes.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87
In other countries the most significant scientific function of col-
lections of living animals has been the advancement of our knowl-
edge with regard to the structure, habits, and activities of animals.
Most of the knowledge which has been acquired with regard to the
structure of animals has been gained from zoological collections of —
precisely similar character to those which we have in the National
Zoological Park.
I may note, for example, that in the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris,
investigations have been carried on since the middle of the eighteenth
century by men who are among the most famous scientists that have
ever lived. I will mention, among others, Duverney, Daubenton,
Buffon, Cuvier, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, and Milne-Edwards. In the
same way great names are associated with the Zoological Society of
London. I may mention in this connection the names of Owen,
Flower, Huxley, Sclater, and the present prosector, Beddard. The
garden at Berlin has been noted for the work of Hartmann, and in
the garden at Amsterdam Fiirbringer brought to a conclusion his
monumental work upon the structure of birds. I mention a few
names among many. It would be easy to extend the list very con-
siderably.
In order to properly utilize the material that comes to the park
from the death of the animals, it would be necessary to establish an
anatomical and pathological laboratory. This would, of course, in-
volve a considerable expenditure, but I am of the opinion that it
would be a wise thing for the Smithsonian Institution to consider the
question and to arrange to have the park advance along that line of
growth. <A proper structure for the purposes above mentioned suit-
ably fitted with the necessary simple apparatus would probably cost
$15,000.
Lunch and rest house——The visiting public is by no means properly
served at present in the park, which is rather remote from restaurants
or other places where food can be obtained, yet so extensive that a
proper view of the collection occupies at least half a day. Very many
visitors would be greatly benefited if there were a properly: equipped
lunch stand where food could be purchased at reasonable prices.
This is so generally understood in other places that the lack of such
facilities in the park is always a matter of surprise. There is at
present only a very inadequate counter, kept on an exposed pavilion,
which has to be closed up whenever the weather is inclement. Be-
sides this, persons are not infrequently taken ill or become fatigued
_ while at the park, and there should be means for meeting such emer-
gencies. It is thought that a suitable structure for this purpose, con-
taining the necessary cooking range, rest rooms, and water-closets,
ean be built for $15,000.
88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Fill across valley, Ontario Road—The administration has been
considerably embarrassed by the great quantity of earth and débris
that is washed down into the park from Ontario Road after every
heavy rain. The Commissioners of the District were authorized to
extend Adams Mill Road across a deep valley at the foot of Ontario
’ Road, and this has made necessary a very heavy fill of loose earth
that is readily excavated by rains. Attempts have been made to
arrest this flow, which amounts to many tons of earth, but the means
at the disposal of the park are inadequate.
Additions to the collection.—The park is greatly in need of certain
well-known animals to make its exhibit more complete. I do not
refer to those which are excessively rare, but to those that are common
objects of interest to the public. The anthropoid apes, including
the gorilla, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gibbon, should be
shown; also the rhinoceros, the East Indian tapir, the giraffe, the
eland, the Beisa antelope, the koodoo, the East African buffalo, and
a series of mountain goats and sheep, including those from the
Western States.
Respectfully submitted.
Frank Baker, Superintendent.
Dr. Cuartes D. Waxcort,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
APPENDIX 5.
REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.
Sir: I have the honor to present the following report on the opera-
tions of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for the year
ending June 30, 1914:
EQUIPMENT.
The equipment of the Observatory is as follows:
(a) At Washington there is an inclosure of about 16,000 square
feet, containing five small frame buildings used for observing and
computing purposes, three movable frame shelters covering several
out-of-door pieces of apparatus, and also one small brick building
containing a storage battery and electrical distribution apparatus.
(6) At Mount Wilson, Cal., upon a leased plot of ground 100
feet square, in horizontal projection, are located a one-story cement
observing structure, designed especially for solar-constant measure-
ments, and also a little frame cottage, 21 feet by 25 feet, for observer’s
quarters.
Upon the observing shelter at Mount Wilson there is a tower 40
feet high above the 12-foot piers which had been prepared in the
original construction of the building. This tower has been equipped
with an improvised tower telescope for use when observing (with
the spectrobolometer) the distribution of radiation over the sun’s
disk.
During the year apparatus for research has been purchased or
constructed at the Observatory shop. The value of these additions
to the instrumental equipment, not counting the tower above men-
tioned and its equipment, is estimated at $1,500.
WORK OF THE OBSERVATORY.
AT WASHINGTON.
Observations.—Mr. Fowle has continued the difficult research on
the transmission through moist air of radiations of great wave
length, such, for instance, as those which bodies at the temperature
of the earth emit most freely. He uses a very powerful lamp made
up of a large number of Nernst electric glowers, and examines by
the aid of the spectrobolometer the energy spectrum of the rays
89
90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
emitted by this lamp, first directly, and then, after the rays have
traversed twice or four times a tube 200 feet long, containing air of
measured humidity. During the past year Mr. Fowle has been
dealing principally with rays of the very longest wave lengths of the
terrestrial energy spectrum which moist air transmits. He has
reached a wave length of about eighteen microns, which is about
twenty-five times the longest wave length visible to the eye, and
about three and one-half times the wave length of the solar rays
investigated by this Observatory in the years 1890 to 1900.
A great number of difficulties are met with. In the first place,
great sensitiveness of the bolometer is required, owing to the feeble-
ness of these rays. Attempts to use a vacuum bolometer have con-
sumed much time, but not yet with entire success. Full success in
this seems now probable. In the second place there is great difficulty
in determining the amount of radiation lost in the optical train re-
quired to reflect the beam to and fro through the long tube. <A prin-
cipal difficulty in this matter arises from the fact that the lamp and
its surroundings are unequally hot at different parts, for this has led
to different degrees of loss at different wave lengths. This last source
of error is so obscure that it escaped our attention for a long time
and has required the observations to be repeated after results worthy
of publication had, as it was thought, been reached. These and a host
of other difficulties have delayed the research, but great hope is now
felt that satisfactory results will be ready for publication in another
year.
Computations—The reductions of Mount Wilson and Washington
observations take a large part of the time of Mr. Fowle and Mr. Ald-
rich, as well as the entire time of Miss Graves and a portion of that
of Mr. Carrington. This work is nearly up to date.
Mr. Fowle has continued the study of the effect of terrestrial water
vapor on the Mount Wilson solar observations and has published
several valuable papers upon it. An interesting result is, that after
determining and correcting for the effect of atmospheric water vapor
on the transmission of solar rays the coefficients of atmospheric trans-
parency determined at Mount Wilson when combined with the baro-
metric pressure after the manner indicated by Lord Rayleigh’s theory
of gaseous scattering of light, yield the value 2.70 billion billion as
the number of molecules at standard pressure and temperature in a
cubic centimeter of gas. Prof. Millikan, by a wholly independent
kind of reasoning, has derived from electrical experiments the value
2.705 billion billion. The close agreement found is a strong confirma-
tion of the accuracy of our determinations of atmospheric transpar-
ency, and accordingly tends to increase confidence in our determina-
tion of the solar constant of radiation.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 91
PREPARATION OF APPARATUS,
Sky radiation instruments—The director and Mr. Aldrich have
devoted much time to the design and testing of apparatus for meas-
uring the scattered radiation of the sky by day. What is desired is
an instrument exposing horizontally an absorber of radiation in such
a manner that the rays of the entire visible hemisphere of the sky
would be received upon it, all rays not of solar origin would be
excluded by a suitable screen, and the total energy of the scattered
sky radiation originally emitted by the sun would be measured
accurately. This is a more difficult problem than the measurement
of the direct solar radiation, and it is unlikely that quite as high
precision can be attained with the sky radiation instrument as with
the pyrheliometers used for measuring direct solar radiation. From
experiments with several instruments of the kind which have been
constructed in the Observatory shop by Mr. Kramer and tested by
Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich it now seems probable that the sources
of error can be so far eliminated that sky radiation measurements
accurate to about 2 per cent will be made. An instrument embody-
ing what are thought to be the final improvements of design is now
under construction, and it is hoped it will be used a great deal in
the coming year.
Balloon pyrheliometers.—Still more time has been devoted by
Messrs. Abbot, Aldrich, and Kramer to the reconstruction and test-
ing of balloon pyrheliometers. Mention was made in last year’s
report of the proposed measurements of solar radiation by apparatus
attached to sounding balloons and raised to great elevations. As
stated below, the first trials in August, 1913, while unexpectedly
successful in many ways, did not enable us to obtain measurements
above the elevation of about 14,000 meters, or 45,000 feet. At this
elevation the mercury froze in the thermometers. Also, the clock-
work proved not sufficiently accurate for best results. Still the
results obtained were so promising that it was thought well to repeat
the experiments.
Accordingly the five balloon pyrheliometers were reconstructed.
Excellent French clocks were substituted for those used in 1913, and
many improvements of the instruments were introduced. Two de-
vices were employed to prevent the freezing of the mercury in the
thermometer. In some instruments water jackets, having numerous
interior copper bars to act as heat conductors, were arranged. In
these it was hoped to make available the latent heat of freezing of
the water and thus to prevent the surroundings of the pyrheliometric
apparatus from descending far below the freezing point of water.
In other instruments electrical temperature regulators were provided.
Many experiments were tried to obtain a constant, powerful, and
92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
very light electric battery for this-purpose. At length a modification |
of the Roberts cell was designed, in which individual cells weighing
20 grams (} ounce) would furnish a constant potential of 1.3 volts
and yield a nearly constant current of about 0.5 ampere for nearly
two hours. The internal resistance of the cells was only about 0.3
ohms. Barometric elements were made to record on the same drum
that recorded radiation. One instrument was constructed to be sent
up at night, so as to show if any unexpected phenomena occurred
when the instruments were being raised, apart from those due to the
sun. Many tests of the instruments were made at different tempera-
tures and pressures, and while immersed in descending air currents
comparable to those anticipated to attend the flights. The accom-
panying illustration shows one of the balloon pyrheliometers as
reconstructed.
Silver-disk pyrheliometers—As in former years, a number of
silver-disk pyrheliometers were standardized at the Observatory and
sent out by the Institution to several foreign Government observa-
tories.
IN THE FIELD.
MOUNT WILSON EXPEDITION OF 1913.
Mr. Aldrich went to Mount Wilson early in July, 1913, and car-
ried on there solar constant measurements until September when he
was joined and then relieved by Mr. Abbot, who continued the obser-
vations until November. An expedition at the charge of the private
funds of the Smithsonian, and under the direction of Mr. A. K.
Angstrém, was in California during July and August for the pur-
pose of measuring nocturnal radiation at different altitudes, ranging
from below sea level to the summit of Mount Whitney, 4,420 meters
(14,502 feet). Mr. Aldrich cooperated as far as possible with this
expedition.
Balloon pyrheliometry.—At the same time a cooperating expedi-
tion from the United States Weather Bureau made ascents of captive
and free balloons in order to determine the temperature, pressure, and
humidity at great elevations, for use in reducing Mr. Angstrém’s
observations. Advantage was taken of the opportunity to send up
special pyrheliometers for measuring solar radiation at great alti-
tudes. These experiments, which were made jointly by Mr. Aldrich
and Mr. Sherry of the Weather Bureau, were referred to by anticipa-
tion in last year’s report. Five balloon pyrheliometers were sent up
from Santa Catalina Island. All were recovered, with readable
records. One instrument unfortunately lay in a field about six weeks
before recovery, and parts of its record referring to the higher
elevations were obliterated, but it yielded the best results of any up
to about 8,000 meters. Two of the instruments unfortunately were
“YSLAWOMAHYAd NOO11Vg
» me
*"G ALVId ‘poday s,Aiejaineg—'p1 61 ‘Woday UBIUOSY}IWUS
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 93
shaded by cirrus clouds until after the mercury froze in their ther-
mometers. The highest elevation at which a radiation record was
obtained was about 14,000 meters, or nearly 45,000 feet. As stated in
last year’s report no results indicating that values of solar radiation
exceeding our solar constant value (1.93 calories) are obtainable by
pyrheliometric measurements at any elevation, however high, appear
from these balloon pyrheliometer experiments. In view of the pro-
posed repetition of the experiments with improved apparatus no
further statement of these preliminary results is necessary here.
The tower-telescope work.—As stated in former reports, investiga-
tions were carried on at Washington during the years 1904 to 1907
to determine the distribution of the sun’s radiation along the diame-
ter of the solar disk. It was shown by this work, in accord with
results of earlier observers, that the edge of the solar disk is much
less bright than the center, and that this contrast of brightness is
very great for violet and ultra-violet rays, but diminishes steadily
with increasing wave lengths, and becomes very slight for red and
especially for infra-red rays. These phenomena are well shown in
Biue-GREEN UctRAMIOLET
A=.S03 AL A=.37 lye
' Inrra-Reo ‘INFRA-RED Tale me
Az 1.55 »=-966u A«.670
Fic. 1.—Brightness distribution along sun’s diameter for different colors.
the accompanying illustration, from observations of 1913. The
measurements were continued at Washington on all suitable days in
the hope that some fluctuation of this contrast of brightness between
the edge and center of the solar disk would be disclosed. It seemed
probable that there might be such fluctuations associated with the
’ irregular variability of the total solar radiation. It proved, however,
that such fluctuations, if existing, were of so small an order of
magnitude that it was not certain whether they were really shown
by the observations at Washington, hampered as these were by vari-
able transparency of the air.
When the observing station was erected on Mount Wilson in 1908
provision was made for a tower telescope designed to continue this
research. When in 1911 and 1912 the Algerian expeditions confirmed
the sun’s variability, added interest was felt in the proposed experi-
ments. Accordingly, the tower, 50 feet in height, was completed in
1912. Not sufficient funds were available to equip the tower tele-
scope, but Director Hale, of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory,
kindly loaned considerable apparatus, and with this and some appa-
ratus which remained from eclipse expeditions, and by using any-
94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
thing available, as, for instance, a trunk of a tree for a mirror sup-
port at the top of the tower, Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich succeeded in
getting arranged on the tower a reflecting telescope of 12 inches
aperture and 75 feet focus, all ready for observations by September
9, 1918. Then and thereafter solar constant measurements were sup-
plemented by determinations of the distribution of radiation along
the sun’s diameter on each day of observation. These determinations
are made in seven different wave lengths on each day, ranging from
0.38u. in the ultra violet to 1.ly in the infra-red. Fortunately, the
definition of the tower telescope proves to be very good. ‘There is
slight change of focus during the several hours of observing, and the
“seeing” seems not to deteriorate much up to 10 o’clock a. m., at
which time the observations are generally concluded.
About 45 days of simultaneous observations of the “solar con-
stant” and of the distribution of radiation over the sun’s disk were
secured in 1918. The results appear to indicate a variability in both
phenomena and a distinct correlation of the two in point of time. It
is indicated that when in course of its short-period irregular varia-
tion the solar radiation increases, there occurs simultaneously a dimi-
nution of the contrast between the edge and center of the sun’s disk.
A change of brightness of about 1.5 per cent was found to occur at 95
per cent out on the solar radius accompanying a change of 6 per cent
in the solar radiation. On comparing the mean of all results ob-
tained in 1913 with the mean of all obtained in Washington in 1906-7,
it appears that there was distinctly less contrast of brightness be-
tween the edge and center of the sun’s disk in 1913 than in 1907. We
have reason, however, to believe that there was distinctly a greater
total solar radiation in 1907 than in 1913. This result, compared with
the result stated above, indicates a difference of character between
the long-period fluctuations of the sun and its short-period irregular
fluctuations. The changes of contrast found, however, agree in this,
that whether from day to day in 1913, or as between 1913 and 1907,
the violet or shorter wave lengths change in contrast more than the
red or longer wave lengths.
MOUNT WILSON EXPEDITION OF 1914,
Mr. Abbot continued the Mount Wilson work, beginning in May,
1914. Many improvements were made in the tower telescope, lead-
ing to improved definition and stability of the image of the sun.
Improved methods of observing were introduced also.
BALLOON PYRHELIOMETRY.
Mr. Aldrich, in cooperation with the United States Weather
Bureau observers, under personal direction of Dr. Blair, arranged to
‘repeat the balloon pyrheliometer observations, and this time at
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 95
Omaha. Ascensions were not made until after July 1, 1914, but it
may be said in anticipation that two ascensions by day and one by
night were made. All three instruments were recovered. No unex-
pected phenomena were disclosed by the night record. One day
record appears to be excellent. Fortunately the instrument which
recorded it came back uninjured, and further tests and calibrations
with it are intended. The instrument reached a very great height,
and recorded radiation successfully until after it began to descend.
Preliminary reductions show that the values recorded fall below
our adopted value of the solar constant of radiation.
SUMMARY.
Progress has been made in the measurement of the effects pro-
duced by atmospheric water vapor on solar and terrestrial radia-
tion. New apparatus for measuring sky radiation has been devised
and perfected. Special pyrheliometers have been constructed and
caused to record solar radiation ‘with considerable success at great
altitudes when attached to free balloons. The results obtained tend
to confirm the adopted value of the solar constant of radiation.
Further results from balloon pyrheliometry are expected. A tower
telescope has been erected and put in operation on Mount Wilson.
By means of it the variability of the sun has been independently con-
firmed, for it appears that changes of the distribution of radiation
over the sun’s disk occur in correlation with the changes of the sun’s
total radiation.
Respectfully submitted.
C. G. Assort,
Director Astrophysical Observatory.
Dr. Cuarutes D. Watcortt,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
APPENDIX 6.
REPORT ON THE LIBRARY.
Sir: I have the honor to present the following report upon the
work of the Library of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches
during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914:
It is with deep regret that the library records the death, on June
25, 1914, of Dr. Frederick William True, assistant secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution in charge of library and exchanges.
ACCESSIONS.
The additions to the library are received, with few exceptions, in
exchange for the publications of the Institution or by gift. There
were received during the year a total of 32,964 packages of publica-
tions, about 90 per cent of which came by mail and the balance
through the International Exchange Service. The correspondence
incident thereto aggregated about 2,000 written letters and 5,883
printed forms of acknowledgment.
There was catalogued, accessioned, and forwarded to the Smith-
sonian Deposit in the Library of Congress a total of 32,195 pieces, as
follows: 3,765 volumes and 1,729 parts of volumes, 5,755 pamphlets,
20,603 periodicals, and 343 charts. In addition 1,062 parts of serials
were received to complete imperfect sets. The accession entries were
from 513,027 to 517,776.
There was also transferred to the Library of Congress without
being stamped and recorded a total of 7,464 public documents pre-
sented to the Institution.
The accessions to the office library, the Astrophysical Observatory,
and the National Zoological Park amounted to 1,165 publications,
which were distributed as follows: 631 volumes, 93 parts of volumes,
46 pamphlets, and 1 chart were recorded for the office library; 106
volumes, 33 parts of volumes, and 212 pamphlets for that of the
Astrophysical Observatory; and 39 volumes and 4 pamphlets for the
National Zoological Park. This large increase over the previous
year was due in part to the addition of nearly 100 books for the
employees’ library from the estate of Miss Lucy Hunter Baird and
also to books acquired for the use of the Langley Aerodynamical
Laboratory.
96
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 97
Complete sets of inaugural dissertations and technological publi-
cations from 35 universities and technical high schools were received
from the following places: Baltimore, Basel, Berlin, Bern, Bonn,
Braunschweig, Breslau, Dresden, Erlangen, Freiburg, Giessen,
Greifswald, Halle-Wittenberg, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Helsingfors,
Ithaca, Jena, Karlsruhe, Kiel, Konigsberg, Leipzig, Louvain, Lund,
Marburg, New Haven, Paris, Rostock, St. Petersburg, Strassburg,
Toulouse, Tubingen, Upsala, Wurzburg, and Zurich.
EXCHANGES.
A considerable portion of the periodicals in the Smithsonian
Library are obtained in exchange for publications of the Institution.
During the year 138 new titles of periodicals were thus added to the
large series of scientific journals already contained in the Smith-
sonian deposit. There were also secured 1,062 parts to complete
imperfect sets of publications already in the library.
This work of completing the sets and series in the Smithsonian
deposit is of great importance and has been carried forward with
definite results.
In response to requests sent to various institutions, 832 missing
parts have been supplied to complete 124 sets of publications of
scientific institutions and learned societies, 151 parts of 62 period-
icals and 78 parts of 30 sets and 1 map for the series in the general
classification. Among the more important publications received and
sent to the deposit to complete the sets may be mentioned 73 parts
of the “ Chetniia,” of the University of Moscow, Russia, making the
set complete from 1869 to date; also 60 parts of the Boletin de la
Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica, of Mexico City,
Mexico, completing the set to date; and 4 sets of publications, com-
prising 78 volumes, from Het Islenska Bokmentafelag, of Reykjavik,
Iceland, completing the sets from 1869 to date.
The securing of publications of historical societies in the United
States and abroad has been continued, and many additional publica-
tions have been obtained and transmitted to the Library of Congress.
READING ROOM.
The reading room has been in constant use during the year. There
are now on file about 270 foreign and domestic scientific periodicals
which are required by the staff of the institution and its branches
for consultation. In view of the fact that this collection contains
representative scientific periodicals from all parts of the world, offi-
cers of the scientific bureaus of the various governmental establish-
ments in Washington and students generally continue to take advan-
tage of the opportunity to consult them.
73176°—sM 19147
98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
THE AERONAUTICAL LIBRARY.
With the inauguration of the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory
many important works on aeronautics published in the last few
years were needed in connection with the work. <A specially pre-
pared list made by Dr. A. F. Zahm and Naval Constructor Jerome
C. Hunsaker, United States Navy, was considered, and 120 publica-
tions not already on the shelves were secured.
ART ROOM.
The collections of works on art have remained practically un-
changed during the year. The administration of the National Gal-
lery of Art being now under the National Museum, all books relating
to the fine arts formerly assigned to the art room are now placed in
the museum library as received.
EMPLOYEES’ LIBRARY.
The employees’ library has been very fortunate in receiving,
through the estate of Miss Lucy Hunter Baird, volumes in addition
to those presented by her some years ago, which add interest to the
collection of general literature for the use of the employees.
NEW STEEL BOOK STACKS.
In the report on the library for last year the preliminary plans .
for the new steel book stacks for the main hall of the Smithsonian
building were discussed. On March 14, 1914, a contract was entered
into for the erection of the stacks in the east end and the completion
of the work within 120 days from that date. On February 26, 1914,
the wrecking of the galleries had begun with the moving of the
books of the Bureau of American Ethnology library, and within 10
days the old galleries had been razed and the old exhibition cases
removed, leaving the east end of the hall entirely free. At the end
of the year the floor and walls at the east end of the hall had been
repaired, the heating plant reinstalled, and the steel framework of
the stacks put in place.
These stacks are of steel construction, in three tiers, one on the
main floor and two above, the two above having floors of glass. On
the east wall is a single-faced stack covering the entire wall area
from the floor of the hall to the ceiling. At the two columns second
from the east end is erected a double-faced stack, partitioning the
stacks from the main hall, and on the west face of this stack are
two galleries which are an extension of the floors of the stacks. The
stacks between this partition and the east wall have open shelving
throughout. A passageway on the lower floor leading to the offices
of the Institution in the east end of the building has been provided
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 99
for, and the openings between the stacks on the sides provided with
grill doors in order that the books on these shelves may be pro-
tected. The cases on the north and south walls of what is left of the
main hall, as well as those under the first gallery, are provided with
glass-panel doors in order to protect the contents, as it is the inten-
tion to use this hall for museum exhibition purposes.
CATALOGUE OF SMITHSONIAN PUBLICATIONS.
The manuscript of the dictionary catalogue of the publications of
the Institution and its branches mentioned in last year’s report is
still in preparation, but it is expected that it will be ready for
publication during the coming year.
UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.
The library of the National Museum consists of the main library
in the natural history building, to which have been transferred all
the publications relating to biology and anthropology as well as
those of a general character; the technological series, in the older,
or arts and industries building, which at present includes publica-
tions relating to technology, and for convenience those on history and
botany. These two libraries do not include, however, some 30 sec-
tional libraries in the scientific departments and divisions of the
Museum. In making this arrangement the convenience and inter-
ests of the scientific staff have been the only consideration. The
entire library of the Museum now contains 43,609 volumes, 73,765
~pamphlets and unbound papers, and 124 manuscripts. The acces-
sions during the past year were 1,917 volumes, 1,723 pamphlets, and
132 parts of volumes.
In the library of the Museum 755 books were catalogued; 2,001
pamphlets; total number of cards made, 3,520; completed volumes
of periodicals catalogued, 1,162; parts of publications, 12,833; parts
of periodicals entered, 397; 397 new periodical cards were made, and
8 books and 362 ee were recatalogued.
The number of books, periodicals, and pamphlets borrowed from
the general library was 20,884, which includes 9,718 obtained from
the Library of Congress, 376 from the Department of Agriculture,
105 from the United States Geological Survey, 90 from the Army
Medical Museum and Library, 2 from the United States Bureau of
_ Education, 4 from the United States Patent Office, 4 from the Bureau
of Fisheries, 1 from the United States Weather Bureau, 3 from the
United States Naval Observatory, and 2 from Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
The securing of new exchanges for the Museum has been continued,
with the result that many new publications have been added to the
100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
catalogue, and much has been done toward securing, in connection
with this work, parts of publications.
The moving of the biological, anthropological, and general refer-
ence series of the library to the new building having been completed
in the previous year and the rearrangement of the publications on
the shelves taken up, attention was given to the finishing of this
latter task.
DUPLICATE MATERIAL.
For many years the Museum library was overcrowded to such an
extent that the shelves had overflowed and it was impossible to
have a proper arrangement of the books. With these publications
were many duplicates which had been received by gift and other-
wise from the very beginning.
Among the duplicate material were many volumes of United States
Government documents duplicating publications already on the
shelves, and these, being of no further use to the Institution, were
transferred to the superintendent of documents, in accordance with
law.
BINDING.
The lack of sufficient funds for the binding of publications is a
serious question. This will obstruct the work in the future more
than in the past, unless an adequate sum can be set aside, so that
all the volumes may be bound and made ready for reference. To
prepare a volume for binding and then to be obliged to take out
parts of it urgently needed by the staff makes it incomplete, and
should that part be lost the volume may remain incomplete, inas-
much as the publications which the Museum needs for its work are
published in limited editions and it is often impossible again to
secure them for binding when there is money available for the
purpose.
During the year 690 volumes were prepared for binding and sent
to the Government bindery for that purpose.
GIFTS.
Many important gifts were received by the library during the
year, the estate of Miss Lucy Hunter Baird being one of the donors.
The following members of the staff presented publications: Dr.
William Healey Dall, Dr. O. P. Hay, Dr. C. W. Richmond, Dr. Edgar
A. Mearns, Mr. Alfred Klakring, and Dr. Harriet Richardson Searle.
BAIRD LIBRARY.
Spencer Fullerton Baird, second secretary of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, gave his valuable scientific library to the United States
National Museum when the Museum library was founded. He re-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101
tained during his lifetime a number of volumes, and after his death
his daughter, Miss Lucy Hunter Baird, continued to add to these
books. In her will, which was probated after her death last year,
she left to the Museum this collection, which numbered 750 volumes.
DALL LIBRARY.
A number of books relating to mollusks was presented to the
Museum in 1892 by Dr. William Healey Dall, and he has added to
this gift from year to year. The number of titles is now about 7,500,
and these, with a comparatively small number of books from other
‘sources, make up the sectional library of the division of mollusks.
During the past year Dr. Dall has added about 50 titles. The cata-
loguing of these books was completed during the past year under
Dr. Dall’s personal direction.
TECHNOLOGICAL SERIES.
Periodicals entered on the records of the technology library have
numbered 476 complete volumes, 6,096 parts of volumes, and the new
periodical cards made for these have been 331. The cataloguing for
the year numbered 256 volumes and 747 pamphlets, requiring 1,187
separate cards. The total number of cards typewritten, periodical and
catalogue, is 1,518. In addition, about 500 volumes and 8,000 pam-
phlets have been placed on the shelves under their respective class
numbers and will be incorporated later in the records which are now
in preparation.
Books and pamphlets loaned during the year in addition to those
from the general library numbered 188 volumes and 290 single pam-
phlets and parts of periodicals, making a total number of 478 pub-
lications. About 360 books have been consulted in the reading room,
and about 3,000 books and periodicals have been transferred to the
various sections of mineral technology, textiles, and graphic arts,
and section cards made for these.
The science depository set of cards from the Library of Congress
-was received last year, and about 28,000 have been filed alphabeti-
cally. About the same number remain to be filed before the set is in
alphabetical order. When completed it will be a useful index to the
scientific resources of Washington. The catalogue has been com-
pleted for all the books in the reading room and about two-thirds of
_ the east gallery, leaving the north gallery and the remainder of the |
east gallery still to be done.
SECTIONAL LIBRARIES.
The sectional libraries of the Museum have been receiving refer-
ence publications for which receipts have been given and filed in
102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the library, but since the moving to the new building no systematic
checking has been done of what is now on the shelves in the libraries
placed in the departments and divisions. It seems desirable and
important that this matter should receive consideration, and it is
recommended that a competent cataloguer be employed to do this
special work. It is estimated that it would require a year’s time
to complete the work.
The sectional libraries now existing are as follows:
Administration. Marine invertebrates.
Administrative assistant’s office. Materia medica.
Anthropology. Mechanical technology.
Biology. Mollusks.
Birds. Oriental archeology.
Botany. Paleobotany.
Comparative anatomy. Parasites,
Hditor’s office. Photography.
Hthnology. Physical anthropology.
Wishes, Prehistoric archeology.
Geology. Reptiles and batrachians.
Graphic arts. Superintendent’s office.
History. Taxidermy.
Insects. Textiles.
Invertebrate paleontology. Vertebrate paleontology.
Mammals.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
This library is administered under the direct care of the ethnolo-
gist in charge, and a report on its operations will be found in the
general report of the bureau.
ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.
Books relating directly to astrophysics have been brought to-
gether for the use of the Observatory. It is a valuable series of
technical works and all the publications are in constant use. During
the year 351 publications have been added, consisting of 106 volumes,
33 parts of volumes, and 212 pamphlets. There were 64 volumes °
bound at the Government Printing Office.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.
The collection of works on zoological subjects, which are kept
“in the office of the superintendent of the park, is not very large,
but they all relate to the work which is being carried on. During.
the year 39 volumes and 4 pamphlets have been added.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 103
SUMMARY OF ACCESSIONS.
The following statement summarizes the accessions during the
year, with the exception of the library of the Bureau of American
Ethnology:
To the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress, including parts
(ia CERT NeT OF KER ER Sey ASE ee ene ae cope Led A) YS RSC SS 2 a Le ee eee ee 12, 654
To the Smithsonian office, Astrophysical Observatory, and Zoological
[es ig" ga Dae yD ee ie te ee FS 4 eb ob MS Re a 24 hy et SO We 2k UR ie ii ot a 1, 165
Morthe: United States; National Museum: — veo. 4. eee eS 3, tae
ANCL SSS EO a op Sad eae A A eee Se DP a Wed ah er ne Soe eS fer 17, 591
Respectfully submitted.
Pauw Brockett,
Assistant Librarian.
Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
APPENDIX 1.
REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the
operations of the United States Bureau of the International Cata-
logue of Scientific Literature for the year ending June 30, 1914:
This enterprise was organized in 1901 and has for its object the
preparation and publication of an annual classified index to the
current literature of science. The catalogue is published in the
form of a classified book index, each paper referred to being first
listed under the author’s name and again under the subject or sub-
jects of the contents. Seventeen main volumes are issued each year,
one for each of the following-named branches of science: Mathematics,
mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy,
geology, geography, paleontology, general biology, botany, zoology,
anatomy, anthropology, physiology, and bacteriology.
All of the first 9 annual issues have been published, together with
16 volumes of the tenth issue, 8 volumes of the eleventh issue, and
1 volume of the twelfth, a total of 178 regular volumes, in addition
to several special volumes of schedules, lists of journals, etc. The
number of pages in each annual issue is shown in the following
table:
Pages
HITS annual iSSUC= ee eee A NERS Se Ee Se ee 7, 763
Second "annvallivissie 22.2. eS eee 8, 826
Mind FaAnNUal MISS. 2 =. See eee ee ee eee 8, 493
Mourth amin siSs ue == tts aw se ee a ee ees Be 8, 681
HitthieannWal ASS eso se ies i a ae i ee 10, 785
Shb-qan. Anavmp RN E VuSR ibe = ee bn PA aha pe hake 2 Be Ea 10, 049
Seventheammir all USSU Cee = Ee ed en ee 9, 219
BEATS NES Pye eh TUT EAN rT SS UB ea el Er I 8, 699
INinth ann Wal WiSSWUes=2 seer ee ee ee eee 7, 9383
Tenth annual: isswek #2. tpi ee a ae Se 8, 447
The large increase in size of the fifth and sixth annual issues
necessitated a change in the plan of publication, the object in view
being to reduce the bulk and consequent cost of the work while not
reducing its usefulness. This has been accomplished by printing
the full titles and references only once—that is, in the author cata-
logue—the subject catalogue containing only the author’s name and
104
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105
a number referring to a like number in the author’s catalogue where
the full reference may be found. Following this plan has resulted
in a marked reduction in the size of the eighth, ninth, and tenth
issues.
The central bureau of the organization is maintained in London
and has charge of receiving, editing, and publishing the classified
references furnished by the 33 regional bureaus cooperating in the
production of the catalogue. These regional bureaus are maintained
for the most part by direct governmental grants made by the coun-
tries in which they are situated. The annual subscription price for
a complete set of 17 volumes is $85. The proceeds derived from sub-
scriptions are used entirely to support the central bureau.
During the year 28,606 cards were sent from this bureau to the
London central bureau, as follows:
Literature of—
(90D ee tH oltre ew Boat bel Fo te 169
TOO GS eis mS ey ae eee SE ae 64
BI ea ais Ea ae ea a a 13.
POOR Meus aes. ae ny RE ne Ce Oe 621
EL S)() See meee ees eee. eee Ln Se eR RS 223
TOTONLE® SONA OOSS. OS SNES Ee ey 852
AOU 8 a eee aera ate an pe tyre oe ey 2, 988
LOUD tee PRO oy Ee: PERE Us os eS Cert ae! 8, 010
Oe es se a ee eR eb 15, 546
FUNG {ce [este ee ae ee Ree AEN AZ AV PA itd WY 28, 606
The following table shows the number of cards sent each year as
well as the number of cards representing the literature of each year
from 1901 to 1913, inclusive:
Aiterstgre 1901 | 1962 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 Po
year.
Year ending
June 30—
g0022: 2A: 6,990]......]...... pays A= a AO CER Cea Oe ee, Heese enme ee) Pema lal 6,999
eae “Se oe SR GS oe es [el aes ae Petes cael ae mene ey ie 14, 480
1904...... BOS APALS Taba -26 2) occ [oa faaade fm ocel as ar ert eee at pater k ye. 21, 213
1905...... SCION? EOIN TAS! SICMO) sufi nc ses anes acta: tas =| sows. |cand<|-na-e-lecesen|uoese 24, 182
90623 =. 301, 622) 3, 56H 2188) °9, OOH S. SLES yt OS A pe 25, 601
L007 2 ok SRe Pibitie: S63)'6, 27 3|. 0 Oato G78) ts a2 oth Sec | sos|-- soc afee-ceafter to 28, 629
1908...... AOR eb HOI a RBG! POSG NG TODO TA Bt7/1S, 400| ase ten. clay lee Ae ohe ye 2 28, 528
1909...... 123). 235378! 309] 45656) 4,410) /8,.500|18, 784. 2.2] coo = =ee we a feoe-seleas-s- 34, 409
rt) 72| 173| 248) 465] 1,163] 1, 502] 3, 160] 6, 305/11, 994|......|......]-....-[...--- 25, 082
yh eae 3} 26] 28] 218] 129} 374) 423) 1,301) 8,836]14, 682)......]......]...... 26, 020
ESE ae Rae 4| 243} 386] 562} 1,480] 1,949] 3,372) 5, 231]13,974)......|...... 27, 201
ea Ae 9} 5 12) 14] 131) 226] 324) 685] 3, 214] 6, 950/16, 425]... -. 27,995
cI athe 2 Ko 2 ce) a 169] 64] 133} 621} 223] 852| 2, 988] 8, O10|15, 546] 28, 606
Total ..|19, 104|22, 633/25, 312!28, 254/27, 169/26, 838|27, 360|29, 284 Ps 110/23, 979/23, 912/24, 435]15, 546|318, 936
106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
As has been pointed out in several previous annual reports, this
enterprise is in no sense commercial, and should be freed from the
necessity of depending entirely on subscription for its maintenance.
A comparatively small endowment would materially aid in improv-
ing the form and expanding the scope of the index to include some
of the applied sciences. Could this be done, it is more than probable
that increased demands would more than make up for increased ex-
pense, for when the catalogue meets the demands of the applied
sciences, as it now does those of pure science, it will become a gen-
eral work of reference for all branches of arts and industries. The
organization is complete and satisfactory, and its usefulness could
be greatly increased by the expenditure of a comparatively small sum
annually.
No advance or improvement can, however, be undertaken until
an assured additional income becomes available.
The International Catalogue was originally organized by a num-
ber of international conferences, the third of which met in London
in July, 1900. The delegates there assembled provided that an
international convention should meet in London in 1905, in 1910,
and every tenth year thereafter to reconsider and revise, if neces-
sary, the regulations governing the enterprise.
It was provided also that an international: council should meet
in London at least once every three years to regulate the affairs of
the catalogue between two successive meetings of the convention.
A meeting of this international council was held June 11 and 12,
1914, and after authorizing the necessary contracts for the continua-
tion of the enterprise and disposing of a number of other routine
matters, discussed the very vital question of altering and revising
the classification schedules. It was provided that further alteration
would best be made by the introduction of subdivisions to the now
existing schedules, such subdivisions to be suggested by the regional
bureaus as the need for them should appear.
Very respectfully, yours,
Lronarp C. GUNNELL,
Assistant in Charge.
Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
APPENDIX 8.
REPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS.
Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi-
cations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the
year ending June 30, 1914:
The Institution proper published during the year 36 papers in the
series of “ Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,” an annual report,
and pamphlet copies of 38 papers from the general appendix of the
report. The Bureau of American Ethnology published 2 bulletins
and a separate paper, and the United States National Museum issued
2 annual reports, 49 miscellaneous papers from the proceedings, 9
new bulletins and parts, and 9 parts of volumes pertaining to the
National Herbarium.
The total number of copies of publications distributed by the Insti-
tution proper during the year was 107,471. The aggregate includes
1,229 volumes of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge; 59,777
volumes and separates of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections;
23,279 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian annual reports;
6,483 special publications; 1,477 copies of volume 3, Annals of the
Astrophysical Observatory; 775 reports of the Harriman Alaska
Expedition ; 12,819 volumes and separates of the Bureau of American
Ethnology publications; 1,412 annual reports of the American His-
torical Association; 26 publications of the United States National
Museum; and 194 publications not of the Smithsonian Institution or
its branches. Additional copies of the third edition of the Smith-
sonian Geographical Tables were printed just before the close of the
year. There were also distributed by the National Museum 93,200
copies of its several publications, making a total of 202,671 publica-
tions distributed by the Institution and its branches during the year.
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.
QUARTO.
No publications of this series were issued during the year.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.
OCTAVO,
Of the Miscellaneous Collections, volume 57, 3 papers were pub-
lished; of volume 59, 1 paper, and title-page and table of contents;
of volume 60, 2 papers, and title-page and table of contents; of vol-
107
108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ume 61, 21 papers, and title-page and table of contents; of volume 62,
2 papers; of volume 63, 6 papers; and of volume 64, 1 paper; in all,
36 papers, as follows:
Volume 57.
No. 11. Cambrian geology and paleontology. II. New Lower Cambrian sub-
fauna. By Charles D. Walcott. Published July 21, 1918. Pp. 309-
326, pls. 50-54. (Publ. 2185.)
No. 12. Cambrian geology and paleontology. II. Cambrian formations of the
Robson Peak district, British Columbia and Alberta, Canada. By
Charles D. Walcott. July 24, 1918. Pp. 327-3848, pls. 55-59. (Publ.
2186.)
No. 18. Cambrian geology and paleontology. II. Dikelocephalus and other gen-
era of the Dikelocephalinew, By Charles D. Walcott. April 4, 1914.
Pp. 3845-412 and index, pls. 60-70. (Publ. 2187.)
[Title-page and table of contents.] (Publ. 2270.) In press.
Volume 59.
No. 19. Harly Norse Visits to North America. By William H. Babcock. July
9, 1913. iii4+-213 pp., 10 pls.
Title-page and table of contents. vi pp. August 7, 1918. (Publ. 2234.)
Volume 60.
No. 28. The influence of the atmosphere on our health and comfort in confined
and crowded places. By Leonard Hill, Martin Flack, James Mc-
Intosh, R. A. Rowlands, and H. B. Walker. Hodgkins Fund. July
15, 1913. 96 pp.° (Publ. 2170.)
No. 30. Explorations and field work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1912.
March 28, 1913. 76 pp., 82 figs. (End of volume.) (Publ. 2178.)
Title-page and table of contents. August 7, 19138. vi pp. (Publ. 2285.)
Volume 61.
No. 1. The White Rhinoceros. By Edmund Heller. October 11, 1918. 77 pp.,
31 pls. (Publ. 2180.) [Nos. 2 to 5 of this volume were published
during previous year. ]
No. 6. Great stone monuments in history and geography. By J. Walter Mewkes.
September 15, 1913. 50 pp. (Publ. 2229.)
No.7. New races of antelopes from British East Africa. By Edmund Heller.
July 31, 19138. 13 pp. (Publ. 22381.)
No. 8. The comparative histology of the femur. By Dr. J. 8S. Foote. August
22 Ol EO MDD tous ey (Buble 22a25)
No. 9. Descriptions of three new African weaver birds of the genera Estrilda
and Granatina. By Edgar A. Mearns. July 31, 1913. 4 pp. (Publ.
2236.)
No. 10. Descriptions of four new African thrushes of the genera Planesticus and
Geocichla. By Edgar A. Mearns. August 11, 1918. 5 pp. (Publ.
2237.)
No. 11. Descriptions of six new African birds. By Edgar A. Mearns. August
30; 1913. 5 pp. (Publ. 2238?)
No. 12. Populus Macdougalii. A new tree from the Southwest. By J. N. Rose.
September 3, 1918. 2 pp.,1 pl. (Publ. 2289.)
No. 13. New antelopes and carnivores from British East Africa. By Edmund
Heller. September 16, 1918. 15 pp. (Publ. 2240.)
==
INO. 2
14.
5 1s
«aU.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109
Descriptions of five new African weaver birds of the genera Othy-
phantes, Hypargos, Aidemosyne, and Lagonostica. By Edgar A.
Mearns. September 20, 1918. 5 pp. (Publ. 2241.)
. Notes on the recent crinoids in the British Museum. By Austin Hobart
Clark. December 31, 1918. 89 pp. (Publ. 2242.)
}. A new shrub of the genus Esenbeckia from Colombia. By Dr. K.
Krause. September 29,1913. 1p. (Publ. 22438.)
7. New races of ungulates and primates from Equatorial Africa. By Ed-
mund Heller. October 21, 1918. 12 pp. (Publ. 2245.)
. Anthropological work in Peru in 1913, with notes on the pathology of
the ancient Peruvians. By Dr. AleS Hrdlicka. February 12, 1914.
69 pp., 26 pls. (Publ. 2246.)
New races of carnivora and baboons from Equatorial Africa and Abys-
sinia. By Edmund Heller. November 8, 1913. 12 pp. (Publ. 2248.)
Descriptions of 10 new African birds of the genera Pogonocichla, Cos-
sypha, Bradypterus, Sylvietta, Melaniparus, and Zosterops. By Edgar
A. Mearns. November 29, 1918. 8 pp. (Publ. 2251.)
. Fifty-one new Malayan mammals. By Gerrit 8. Miller, jr. December
29, 1913. 30, pp... (Publ. 2252.)
. Four new subspecies of large mammals from Equatorial Africa. By
Edmund Heller. January 26, 1914. 7 pp. (Publ. 2255.)
. A new genus of Mallophaga from African guinea fowl in the United
States National Museum. By Jobn Howard Paine. January 31, 1914.
4 pp. (Publ. 2258.)
. New Sapindacee from Panama and Costa Rica. By Prof. Dr. L.
Radlkofer. February 9, 1914. 8 pp. (Publ. 2259.)
. Descriptions of eight new African Bulbuls. By Edgar A. Mearns. IT eb-
ruary 16, 1914. 6 pp. (Publ. 2260.)
Title-page and table of contents. March 13, 1914. vi pp. (Publ. 2265.)
No.
Volume 62.
. Advisory Committee on the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory. Hodg-
kins Fund. July 17, 1918. 5 pp. (Publ. 2227.)
. Hydromechanic experiments with flying-boat hulls. By H. C. Richard-
son. Hodgkins Fund. April 20, 1914. 9 pp., 6 pls. (Publ. 2253.)
. Report on European aeronautical laboratories. By A. F. Zahm. 23 pp.,
11 pls. (Publ. 2273.) In press.
Volume 68.
. Atmospheric air in relation to tuberculosis. By Guy Hinsdale. Hodg-
kins Fund. June 22, 1914. 186 pp., 93 pls. (Publ. 2254.)
. Notes on some specimens of a species of Onychophore (Oroperipatus cor-
radoi) new to the fauna of Panama. By Austin Hobart Clark. Febru-
ary 21, 19147) 2 pp: (Publ. 2261.)
. A new Ceratopsian dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of Montana,
with note on Hypacrosaurus. By Charles W. Gilmore. March 21,
1914. 10 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 2262.)
. On the relationship of the genus Aulacocarpus, with description of a new
Panamanian species. By H. Pittier. March 18, 1914. 4 pp. (Publ.
2264.)
. Descriptions of five new mammals from Panama. By HE. A. Goldman.
March 14, 1914. 7 pp. (Publ. 2266.)
110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
No. 6. Physical Tables. Sixth edition. F. HE. Fowle. (Publ. 2269.) In press.
No. 7. New subspecies of mammals from Equatorial Africa. By Edmund
Heller. June 24,1914. 12 pp. (Publ. 2272.)
Volume 64.
No.1. Cambrian geology and paleontology. III. The Cambrian Faunas of East-
ern Asia. By Charles D. Walcott. April 22, 1914. Pp. 1-76, pls. 1-3.
(Publ. 2263.)
No. 2. Cambrian geology and paleontology. III. Pre-Cambrian Algonkian Algal
Flora. By Charles D. Walcott. Pp. 77-156, pls. 4-28. (Publ. 2271.)
in press.
SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS.
Report for 1912.
The Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1912 was received
from the Public Printer in completed form in October, 1913.
Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, show-
ing operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year
ending June 30, 1912. xii, 780 pp., 72 pls. (Publ. 2188.)
Small editions of the following papers, forming the general ap-
pendix of the annual report for 1912, were issued in pamphlet form:
The year’s progress in astronomy. By P. Puiseux. 8 pp. (Publ. 2189.)
The spiral nebule. By P. Puiseux. 10 pp. (Publ. 2190.)
The radiation of the sun. By C. G. Abbot. 18 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 2191.)
Molecular theories and mathematics. By Emile Borel. 20 pp. (Publ. 2192.)
Modern mathematical research. By G. A. Miller. 12 pp. (Publ. 2193.)
The connection between the ether and matter. By Henri Poincaré. 12 pp.
(Publ. 2194.)
Experiments with soap bubbles. By C. V. Boys. 8 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 2195.)
Measurements of infinitesimal quantities of substances. By William Ramsay.
11 pp. (Publ. 2196.)
The latest achievements and problems of the chemical industry. By Carl
Duisberg. 26 pp. (Publ. 2197.)
Holes in the air. By W. J. Humphreys. 12 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 2198.)
Review of applied mechanics. By L. Lecornu. 16 pp. (Publ. 2199.)
Report on the recent great eruption of the volcano “ Stromboli.” By Frank A.
Perret. 5 pp., 9 pls. (Publ. 2200.)
The glacial and postglacial lakes of the Great Lakes region. By Frank B.
Taylor. 37 pp. (Publ. 2201.)
Applied geology. By Alfred H. Brooks. 24 pp. (Publ. 2202.)
The relations of paleobotany to geology. By F. H. Knowlton. 6 pp. (Publ.
2203.)
Geophysical research. By Arthur L. Day. 11 pp. (Publ. 2204.)
A trip to Madagascar, the country of beryls. By A. Lacroix. 12 pp. (Publ.
2205.)
The fluctuating climate of North America. By Elsworth Huntington. 30 pp.,
10 pls. (Publ. 2206.)
The survival of organs and the “culture” of living tissues. By R. Legendre.
8 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 2207.)
Adaptation and inheritance in the light of modern experimental investigation.
By Paul Kammerer. 21 pp., 8 pls. (Publ. 2208.)
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 111
The paleogeographical relations of antarctica. By Charles Hedley. 11 pp.
(Publ. 2209.)
The ants and their guests. By P. E. Wasmann. 20 pp.,10 pls. (Publ. 2210.)
The penguins of the antarctic regions. By L. Gain. 8 pp., 9 pls. (Publ. 2211.)
The derivation of the European domestic animals. By ©. Keller. 9 pp. (Publ.
2212.)
Life: its nature, origin, and maintenance. By EH. A. Schifer. 33 pp. (Publ.
2213.)
The origin of life: a chemist’s fantasy. By H. E. Armstrong. 15 pp. (Publ.
2214.)
The appearance of life on worlds and the hypothesis of Arrhénius. By Alphonse
Berget. 9 pp. (Publ. 2215.)
The evolution of man. By G. Elliot Smith. 20 pp. (Publ. 2216.)
The history and varieties of human speech. By Edward Sapir. 238 pp. (Publ.
2217.)
Ancient Greece and its slave population. By S. Zaborowski. 12 pp. (Publ.
2218.)
Origin and evolution of the blond Europeans. By Adolphe Bloch. 22 pp. (Publ.
2219, )
History of the finger-print system. By Berthold Laufer. 22 pp., 7 pls. (Publ.
2220.)
Urbanism: A historic, geographic, and economic study. By Pierre Clerget.
15 pp. (Publ. 2221.)
The Sinai problem. By E. Oberhummer. 9 pp., 8 pls. (Publ. 2222.
The music of primitive peoples and the beginnings of Huropean music. By
Willy Pastor. 22 pp. (Publ. 2223.
Expedition to the South Pole. By Roald Amundsen. 16 pp. (Publ. 2224.)
Icebergs and their location in navigation. By Howard T. Barnes. 24 pp., 3 pls.
(Buble 2225.)
* Henri Poincaré, his scientific work, his philosophy. By Charles Nordmann.
23 pp. (Publ. 2226.)
Report for 1915.
The report of the executive committee and proceedings of the
Board of Regents of the Institution, as well as the report of the
Secretary for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, both forming part
of the annual report of the Board of Regents to Congress, were pub-
lished in pamphlet form in November and December, respectively,
1913, as follows:
Report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents
for the year ending June 30, 1918. 21 pp. (Publ. 2250.)
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending
June 30, 1918. iii, 119 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 2249.)
The general appendix to the Smithsonian Report for 1913 was in
type, but actual presswork was not completed at the close of the fiscal
year. In the general appendix are the following papers:
The earth and sun as magnets, by George E. Hale.
The reaction of the planets upon the sun, by P. Puiseux.
Recent progress in astrophysics, by C. G. Abbot.
The earth’s magnetism, by L. A. Bauer.
112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Modern ideas on the end of the world, by Gustav Jaumann.
Recent developments in electromagnetism, by Eugene Bloch.
Wireless transmission of energy, by Elihu Thomson.
Oil films on water and on mercury, by Henri Devaux.
Water and voleanic activity, by Arthur L. Day and E. 8. Shepherd.
Ripple marks, by Ch. Epry.
Notes on the geological history of the walnuts and hickories, by Edward W.
Berry.
The formation of leafmold, by Frederick V. Coville.
The development of orchid cultivation and its bearing upon evolutionary theories,
by J. Costantin.
The manufacture of nitrates from the atmosphere, by Ernest Kilburn Scott.
The geologic history of China and its influence upon the Chinese people, by
Eliot Blackwelder.
The problems of heredity, by E. Apert.
Habits of fiddler-crabs, by A. S. Pearse.
The abalones of California, by Charles L. Edwards.
The value of birds to man, by James Buckland.
Experiments in feeding hummingbirds during seven summers, by Althea R.
Sherman.
What the American Bird Banding Association has accomplished during 1912,
by Howard H. Cleaves.
The whale fisheries of the world, by Charles Rabot.
The most ancient skeletal remains of man, by AleS Hrdliéka.
The redistribution of mankind, by H. N. Dickson.
The earliest forms of human habitation, and their relation to the general de-
velopment of civilization, by M. Hoernes.
Feudalism in Persia; its origin, development, and present condition, by Jacques
de Morgan.
Shintoism and its significance, by K. Kanokogi.
The Minoan and Mycenaean element in Hellenic life, by A. J. Evans.
Flameless combustion, by Carleton Ellis.
Problems in smoke, fume, and dust abatement, by F. G. Cottrell.
Twenty years’ progress in marine construction, by Alexander Gracie.
Creating a subterranean river and supplying a metropolis with mountain water,
by J. Bernard Walker and A. Russell Bond.
The application of the physiology of color vision in modern art, by Henry G.
Keller and J. J. R. Macleod.
Fundamentals of housing reform, by James Ford.
The economic and social role of fashion, by Pierre Clerget.
The work of J. van’t Hoff, by G. Bruni.
SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS.
The following publications were issued in octavo form:
Classified list of Smithsonian publications available for distribution April 25,
1914. Published April 25, 1914. vi+82 pp. (Publ. 2268.)
Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and June
SO, 19s. wily 1b, 1913. 2 pp. Cebubly 22285)
Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and
September 30, 1918. October 14, 1918. 4 pp. (Publ. 2244.)
Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and
December 31, 1918. January 22, 1914. 4 pp. (Publ. 2257.)
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. bUS
Publications issued by the Smithsonian Institution between January 1 and
March 31, 1914. April 10, 1914.. 1p. (Publ. 2267.)
Opinions rendered by the International Commission on i peniaiees Nomenclature,
Opinions 57-65. March 26, 1914. Pp. 181-169. (Publ. 2256.)
An account of the exercises on the occasion of the presentation of the Langley
Medal and the unveiling of the Langley Memorial Tablet, May 6, 1913,
including the addresses. October 13, 1913. 26 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 2233.)
Harriman Aldska series.
Vol. 14. Monograph of shallow-water starfishes of the north Pacific coast from
the Arctic Ocean to California. Part I, text; part II, plates. By Addison
Emery Verrill. April 30, 1914. xii+408 pp., 110 pls. (Publ. 2140.)
PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.
The publications of the National Museum are: (a) The annual
report to Congress; (0b) the proceedings of the United States Na-
tional Museum; and (c) the bulletin of the United States National
Museum, which includes the contributions from the United States
National Herbarium. The editorship of these publications is vested
in Dr. Marcus Benjamin.
The publications issued by the National Museum during the year
comprised 49 papers of the proceedings, 2 annual reports, 9 bulletins
and parts, and 9 parts of Contributions from the National Her-
barium.
The issues of the proceedings were as follows: Vol. 45, papers
1976, 1985, 2005, 2006, and 2007; vol. 46, papers 2008 to 2042, in-
clusive; vol. 47, papers 2043 to 2051, inclusive; Annual Report of
the United States National Museum ae 1912; and Annual poe Dae of
the United States National Museum for 1913.
The bulletins were as follows:
Bulletin 50, part 6, Birds of North and Middle America. By Robert Ridgway.
Bulletin 71, part 3, A monograph of the Foraminifera of the North Pacific
Ocean, Part III, Lagenide. By Joseph Augustine Cushman.
Bulletin 71, part 4, A monograph of the Foraminifera of the North Pacific
Ocean, Part IV, Chilostomellide, Globigerinide, Nummulitide. By Joseph
Augustine Cushman.
Bulletin 80. A descriptive account of the building recently erected for the de-
partments of natura@history of the United States National Museum. By
Richard Rathbun.
Bulletin 83. Type species of the genera of Ichneumon flies. By Henry L.
Viereck.
Bulletin 84. A contribution to the study of Ophiurans of the United States
National Museum. By Rene Koehler.
' Bulletin 85. A monograph of the jumping plant lice or Psyllide of the New
World. By David L. Crawford.
Bulletin 86. A monograph of the genus Chordeiles Swainson, type of a new
family of goatsuckers. By Harry C. Oberholser.
Bulletin 87. Culture of the ancient pueblos of the upper Gila River region,
New Mexico and Arizona. By Walter Hough.
73176°—sm 1914——_8
114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
In the series of Contributions from the National Herbarium there
appeared :
Volume 16.
Part 10. Annona sericea and its allies. By William E. Safford
Part 11. Nomenclature of the Sapote and the Sapodilla. By O. I. Cook.
Part 12. A monograph of the Hauyesr and Gongylocarpex, tribes of the Ona-
gracee. By J. Donald Smith and J. N. Rose.
Part 13. Botrychium virginianum and its forms Sphenoclea zeylanica and
Caperonia palustris in the southern United States. By Ivar Tidestrom.
Volume 17.
Part 8. Mexican grasses in the United States National Herbarium. By A: S.
Hitchcock.
Part 4. Studies of tropical American ferns. By William R. Maxon.
Part 5. Studies of tropical American Phanerogams—No. 1. By Paul C. Standley.
Volume 18.
Part 1. Classification of the genus Annona with descriptions of new and imper-
fectly known species. By W. EH. Safford.
Part 2. New or noteworthy plants from Colombia and Central America—.
By Henry Pittier.
There was also reprinted an edition of 200 copies each of parts
A, K, and P of Bulletin 39, United States National Museum, direc-
tions for collecting birds, by Robert Ridgway, directions for collect-
ing and preparing fossils, by Charles Schuchert, directions for col-
lectors of American basketry, by Otis T. Mason; an edition of 500
copies of Bulletin 67, directions for collecting and preserving insects,
by Nathan Banks; an edition of 2,000 copies of list of publications
issued by the United States National Museum from 1906 to 1912,
reprinted from annual reports with altered pagination; and an edi-
tion of 1,300 copies of a list of publications of the United States
National Museum issued during the fiscal year 1912-13, reprinted
from the annual report with altered pagination.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
The publications of the bureau are discussed in Appendix 2 of the
Secretary’s report. The editorial work is in the charge of Mr. J. G.
Gurley, who has been assisted from time to time by Mrs. Frances S.
Nichols.
Two bulletins and a “separate” from another bulletin were issued
during the year, as follows:
Bulletin 58. Chippewa music—II. By Frances Densmore.
Bulletin 56. Ethnozoology of the. Tewa Indians. By Junius Henderson and
John P. Harrington.
Coos: An illustrative sketch. By Leo J. Resahtenvers. Extract from Hand-
book of American Indian Languages (Bulletin 40), part 2
At the close of the year two annual reports and several bulletins
were 1n press.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 115
PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVA-
TORY.
Volume Iil, Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, by C. G.
Abbot, F. E. Fowle, and L. B. Aldrich. July 16, 1918, xi+241 pp., 7 pls.
(Publ... 2230.)
PUBLICATIONS OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION.
The annual reports of the American Historical Association are
transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, and are communicated to Congress under the provisions
of the act of incorporation of the association.
Volumes 1 and 2 of the annual report for 1911 were published
November 10, 1918, and January 14, 1914, respectively, with con-
tents as follows
Volume TI.
Report of the proceedings of the twenty-seventh annual meeting of the Ameri-
ean Historical Association. By Waldo G. Leland, secretary.
Report of the proceedings of the eighth annual meeting of the Pacific coast
branch. By H. W. Edwards, secretary of the branch.
The archives of the Venetian Republic. By Theodore IF. Jones.
Materials for the history of Germany in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies. By Sidney B. Fay.
The materials for the study of the English cabinet in the eighteenth century.
By Edward Raymond Turner.
Francois de Guise and the taking of Calais. By Paul van Dyke.
Factions in the English privy council under Elizabeth. By Conyers Read.
Anglo-Dutch relations, 1671-72. By Edwin W. Pahlow.
American-Japanese intercourse prior to the advent of Perry. By Inazo Nitobe.
Colonial society in America. By Bernard Moses.
French diplomacy and American politics, 1794-95. By James Alton James.
The insurgents of 1811. By D. R. Anderson.
The tariff and the public lands from 1828 to 1833. By Barnes G. Wellington.
The “Bargain of 1844” as the origin of the Wilmot proviso. By Clark E.
Persinger.
Monroe and the early Mexican revolutionary agents. By Isaac Joslin Cox.
Public opinion in Texas preceding the Revolution. By Eugene C. Barker.
Relations of America with Spanish America, 1720-1744. By H. W. V. Tem-
perley.
The genesis of the Confederation of Canada. By Cephas D. Allin.
Proceedings of the eighth annual conference of historical societies.
List of European historical societies.
Twelfth report of the public archives commission. By Herman Y. Ames,
chairman. -
Appendix A. Proceedings of the third annual conference of archivists.
Appendix B. Report on the archives of the State of Colorado. By James
F. Willard.
Appendix C. List of commissions and instructions to governors and lieuten-
ant governors of American and West Indian Colonies, 1609-1784.
Writings on American history, 1911. By Grace G. Griffin.
116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
Volume IT.
Ninth report of the historical manuscripts commission: Correspondence of
Alexander Stephens, Howell Cobb, and Robert Toombs.
The report for 1912 was sent to the printer on January 31, 1914,
and at the close of the year was nearly ready for distribution. The
contents are as follows:
Report of the proceedings of the twenty-eighth annual meeting of the American
Historical Association.
Report of the proceedings of the ninth annual meeting of the Pacific coast
branch. By H. W. Edwards, secretary of the branch.
Royal finances of the reign of Henry III. By Henry L. Cannon.
Antecedents of the Quattrocento. By Henry O. Taylor.
The new Columbus. By Henry P. Biggar.
The charter of Connecticut. By Clarence W. Bowen.
The enforcement of the alien and sedition acts. By Frank M. Anderson.
The reviewing of historical books. By Carl Becker.
Briefer papers read in conferences:
A. Libya as a field of research. By Oric Bates.
B. The international character of commercial history. By Abbott P. Usher.
C. Some new manuscript sources for the history of modern commerce. By
N. S. B. Gras.
D. The study of South American commercial history. By Charles L.
; Chandler.
E. On the economics of slavery, 1815-1860. By Ulrich B. Phillips.
F. On the history of Pennsylvania, 1815-1860. By P. Orman Ray.
G. Historical research in the far west. By Katherine Coman.
Proceedings of the conference on military history.
Proceedings of the ninth annual conference of historical societies :
Genealogy and history. By Charles K. Bolton.
The Massachusetts Historical Society. By Worthington C. Ford.
Appendix: Reports of historical societies, 1912.
Thirteenth report of the Public Archives Commission:
Appendix A. Proceedings of the fourth annual conference of archivists.
Plan and scope of a “ Manual of Archival Economy for the use of American
Archivists.” By Victor H. Palsits.
Some fundamental principles in relation to archives. By Waldo G. Leland.
The adaptation of archives to public use. By Dunbar Rowland.
Appendix B. Report on the archives of the State of Louisiana. By Prof.
William O. Scroggs.
Appendix C. Report on the archives of the State of Montana. By Paul C.
Phillips.
Classified list of publications of the American Historical Association, 1885-1912.
Tenth report of the historical manuscripts commission :
Letters of William Vans Murray to John Quincy Adams, 1797-1803. Edited
by Worthington C. Ford.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE
AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
The manuscript of the Sixteenth Annual Report of the National
Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution for the year
ending October 11, 1913, was communicated to Congress June 16,
1914.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. | Wa EY
THE SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND
PUBLICATION.
The editor has continued to serve as secretary of the Smithsonian
advisory committee on printing and publication. To this committee
have been referred the manuscripts proposed for publication by the
various branches of the Institution, as well as those offered for print-
ing in the Smithsonian publications. The committee also considered
forms of routine, blanks, and various matters pertaining to printing
and publication, including the qualities of paper suitable for text
and plates. Twenty meetings were held and 121 manuscripts were
acted upon. . . ;
Respectfully submitted.
A. Howarp Criarx, Editor.
Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF
REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONTAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR
ENDING JUNE 30, 1914.
To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:
Your executive committee respectfully submits the following re-
port in relation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the
Institution, and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for
the National’ Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of
American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astro-
physical Observatory, and the International Catalogue of Scien-
tific Literature for the year ending June 30, 1914, together with
balances of previous appropriations:
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
Condition of the fund July 1, 1914.
The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which
it has been derived are as follows:
DEPOSITED IN THE TREASURY OF THE UNITED STATES.
BegquestiotySmithson gl 8462225 ee ee a eee ee $515, 169. 00
Residuanrylegadcycol Smithson SG =e eee ee ee 26, 210. 63
IDO SE aoe Shhyabarys Gue maKKoe, WH. oe Se 108, 620. 37
Bequest ofeJames Hamilton, 1877p 25222 2 $1, 000. 00
Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895_________ 1, 000. 00
a 2, 000. 00
BEQuUesteotasiMeOn PE aD el el SS (es ae ee ee eee 500. 00
Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881___________________ 51, 500. 00
Gittyor THOMAS {Gs OG SAM Seal SO se ea ee ee 200, 000. 00
Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894___________ 8, 000. 00
DE POSTE RELOMNGS VAT SS gO fe COT Cel 9 (0) 5s eee ee 25, 000. 00
Residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgins, 1907__________________. 7, 918. 69
Deposit ptromysavings of income, 10l3= eee 636. 94
BequestyotawalliampsonessRhees, 1 Gils ess ee eee 251. 95
Deposit of proceeds from sale of real estate (gift of Robert Stan-
OTM ASY Etry gy ory 1th cs cet oe a ae 9, 692. 42
BequestvoteAgdison Ty Reidy Ola so. a eee eee 4, 795. 91
Deposit of savings from income of Avery bequest, 1914--_________ 204. 09
Total amount of fund in the United States Treasury_______ 960, 500. 00
OTHER RESOURCES.
Registered and guaranteed bonds of the West Shore Railroad Co.,
part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par value) ____________ 42, 000. 00
Total permanent, Tung == se= ewe a les Le ee eee 1, 002, 500. 00
Also three small pieces of real estate located in the District of Columbia and
bequeathed by Robert Stanton Avery, of Washington, D. C.
118
REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTER, 119
That part of the fund deposited in the Treasury of the United
States bears interest at 6 per cent per annum, under the provisions of
the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, organizing the Institution,
and the act approved March 12, 1894. The rate of interest on the
West Shore Railroad bonds is 4 per cent per annum. The real estate
received from Robert Stanton Avery is exempt from taxation and
yields only a nominal revenue from rentals.
Statement of receipts and disbursements from July 1, 1913, to June 30, 1914.
RECEIPTS.
CuchwongdepOStemuUly edi, POUR Lo ot ol a eee $33, 641. 40
Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury,
uel Me oO vandedan, 1. 1914 sat ee ee Oe eee $57, 314. 29
Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1,
TONS ane sane lt OA ee Be Gir ori DP ty Biceps eh Te 1, 680. 00
Repayments, rentals, publications, ete__________ _-_____ 9, 638. 14
Contributions from various sources for specific purposes. 17, 554. 20
EEQueNimOla cA OGISON, lh. (@iG 22322 ah 4, 795, 91
——_——— 90, 982. 54
124, 623. 94
DISBURSEMENTS.
Een SamCaAreranG TENA S 2 sn oe $5, 578. 43
EMEC M a Tanti SbUNCS a ee a ee 1, 755. 91
General expenses:
SELL UT ETESSIS 21s TSE SS 2 SS aa aS en an RT eee $18, 969. 72
MEE GIT Os ees see eer Bw pee po PS eS 102. 00
So UGS a eae a el ee Se De Ree ee ee ne 743. 25
Postage, telegraph, and telephone_________________ 594. 87
1 ANTE STS OU es aa a oe epee ph I eS la alba 100.81
inerdentals; tuel.y and. Wohts 2 2 eo eee TOb2. 20
CSREES eS 2 pe ge Spt Ne i i ES Lie ee De a A ae ee at 2, 973. 29
—————— 24, 535. 67
BUSES cab Ts gee ere ee Ne ee RO Oe se a ee 2, 399. 50
Publications and their distribution:
Contributions, to’ Knowledge === 22 25. 00
Miscellaneous. collections —— = ne 5, 864. 28
Dare ach Y St Ee Sek 2 ee SES aap eee ieee a 617. 438
Speci publications: Assays be 454. 88
Eubbearion: jSipplies,...%: 5) ao. es Aa ea 776. 92
SRUUSDTPICERSEE 2a OS UE ERIS. pe PaaS ae ee enn 6, 971. 48
_ 14, 709. 99
Eisplorations, researches, and: collections... 16, 142. 83
Hodgkins specific fund, researches, and publications____-§_-_-______ 6, 601. 85
PPR AGOn ale HECChan POS skew Be a) 4, 752. 70
callenye? ofy SAELt tex Peteptes. ss rote Toth. el Syed ahs heey peer hE ce 431. 80
Advances) for. field expenses;, etcs..5.22-. 1 = iD ed, Salieeee 2 Sits 11, 431. 40
120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Deposited, to) credit: of. permanent fund st e-5 eh 3 a ee $5, 000. 00
Langley, Acrodynamical sialbonatory see: 2 lee ee ee 728. 73
94, 0638. 81
Balance, June 30, 1914, deposited with the Treas-
MIRE LOL, THe AWa beGeSbAteS ss ce ee ee $30, 360. 138
CGPS Ye Cora eee aa 0 | Sea he eee eer ee a ER 200. 00
124, 623. 94
By authority your executive committee again employed Mr. Wil-
liam L. Yaeger, a public accountant of this city, to audit the receipts
and disbursements of the Smithsonian Institution during the period
covered by this report. The following certificate of examination
supports the foregoing statement and is hereby approved:
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, BOARD OF REGENTS,
Smithsonian Institution.
Strs: I have examined the accounts and vouchers of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, and certify the following to be a
correct statement :
Total GishursSeMentSs = os <4 be ee ee $94, 068. 81
BRO FANSTEC CIOS eee ed a INT Sole Seed ee ae RN ee 90, 982. 54
Excess of disbursements over receipts____________________ =. Se, O81R2T
AMTOUIMEREROMIG SLY: led Oil eees hee REE ee Sie 2 Se ee ae ee 33, 641. 40
Balanceron, Han ds TUT sO eel Omelet cee de ey ae 30, 560. 13
Balance shown by Treasury statement June 380, 1914______________ 34, 779. 94
DESSSHSU CON DIL SY cet 0UCG Wa OHH BY 24) Feta a pa Lee pe nario 4, 419. 81
30, 860. 18
Cashion tin Cees, See Ss ee ee ea een ee 2k oe Se ay Sa 200. 00
Eruebalancer une a0. Olas 222 = SS ears ee ee eee 80, 560. 13
The vouchers representing payments from the Smithsonian income during the
year, each of which bears the approval of the secretary, or, in his absence, of
the acting secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services charged
were applied to the purposes of the Institution, have been examined in connec-
tion with the books of the Institution and agree with them.
(Signed) WILLIAM L. YAEGER,
Public Accountant and Auditor.
Avaust 10, 1914.
Certified a true copy.
W. I. ADAMS,
Accountant, Smithsonian Institution.
All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from interest,
sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise, are
deposited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of
the Institution, and all payments are made by checks signed by the
secretary.
The expenditures made by the disbursing agent of the Institution
and audited by the Auditor for the State and other Departments are
reported in detail to Congress and will be found in the printed
document.
REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, bal |
Your committee also presents the following summary of appro-
priations for the fiscal year 1914 intrusted by Congress to the care
of the Smithsonian Institution, balances of previous appropriations
at the beginning of the fiscal year, and amounts unexpended on June
30, 1914:
Available | Balance
after July June 30,
1, 1913. 1914,
Appropriations committed by Congress to the care of the institution:
fattermmauionalslxchanges: LOL2 = sie oe ees aoc aee Oe aes oe & Sees sees oe $0. 31 130.31
Piirnamonaldxchanges. LOI 22 oat Sees cose oo lee wee See tee 4,065. 41 . 02
Tnternational Exchanges, DO They ae Saat ee cine lane one neo te at = Soc oes 32, 000. 00 1, 622. 22
AoNBTICAT EnLNNOLO Pye Oba tess ose- etae oan See nite ecina oe tate ce ee eee eae oe 50. 56 1 45,31
AGHOMIGATIOH UNNOLOP YE 1 Ol Sena ceak coe mecca ac seleisies sereisle sidejems weclae cise ecisle A= 4, 288. 61 1, 250. 74
PIMerican Hunn ology Olas ees a ees oe ose seb oe See te 5- = SEI 42,000. 00 2,676. 68
AStroph ySicuh@ bservatory,, 1912-30 25101 25. veh. ESS IY Ee cats ook. 612. 59 1 225. 59
AStrophiysical© pserveatorypl Ole) ceed a. «atic oe «2c 'sce a2 a5 gee t= aces em aan 516. 38 142. 42
Astrophysical Observatory, 1914.74 2.20. LES. 2 13,000. 00 779. 87
Bookstacks, Government bureau libraries, MOE BSS Seon GR eeCetap aesee secs 15, 000. 00 13,559. 77
International Cathlorue, 1912s. (S223 F2 1S 4 2 SR ee A a SER od 25. 95 125.95
International Catalogue, MOUS Sie oer ee ret oop th eg oy fs aa 2 681. 58 291. 73
imternavioual catalogue: Olas... 222 tthe ee. SE2 Sie 7,500. 00 720. 09
National Museum—
RuLMtHroand fxtures: O12) 2.2 Sil sss. is ee er ee
Rurniture’and fixtures) 1913. . 24-4 cess s 2.5 gone Fee een eee
MEarMILUTe ANG fixtures) 1914 54S. Joe SR AREA ee oe wale de oc Sosa
iHeaimerand Vehting Ole on oo 2 as Meme eee Ab ot wna cee =
Heaiimeiind liehting; V9I3:- 22! ea es es ths ce LS oo ets. a2 otek
Heating and lighting, 1914..................-. ee Se ee sae ae
Preservation of collections, 1912
Preservation of collections, 1913
Preservation of collections, 1914
TETGOK Selb ee oe ae laine Seis cia lees ee ae aecie
IOS hOl teeter. ee sense she ec isee ack Ree ee eck eee = on sete aaa aes
kc Oh aeee ee tae eA eae home em woe ae we eemeew omnes we eee eaesets
JES DEG) NOMA Wo coocuacsansoa essed seas soe agaone sue Sane caseessscDseaeSs|
Bidinerepairs LOUD = 2 se eee rere ee es ys | ED a es
Bmldingwreparss (Olea cee we wee eee ea don cc tee soa ceee cee eeete
SIP EOTE DD AINS pL OLE eee ee ee eee nce as. ihn ac Se eateawscatee cleiae els amine
Bile NAponaliMuseuIne Sep fhe = sc. 55- ok nasa tees delamnschecsenciess
NON AlLAoolppicaliParks S9lQNIsrh 2. S387 5 ff 5 400 Ree oS Rea
National Zoolosical-Park, 1913). 3225424 os fhe 2 ie se Be SS ee eases 59.
National Zoological Park, TOUS EAA St SERRE SR RSE A ee tee 100,000. 00 6, 210.30
Bridge over Rock Creek, National ZAooloricalibark. ssrA eS - 18, 224. 02 3,018. 67
1 Carried to credit of surplus fund.
Statement of estimated income from the Smithsonian fund and from other
sources, accrued and prospective, available during the fiscal year ending June
30, 1915.
ae Comin ene el OU Asamn ieee a Sea ee ee A ee $30, 560. 13
Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury,
ue uly, TOT ands Samet, OUT tt esl ety be ee $57, 630. 00
Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1914,
EVO cl holy Ley Ways a Sem Pa PEE a SES aed TE Eee ees 2 ee YE 1, 680. 00
Exchange repayments, sale of publications, refund of ad-
WEslavereis! S20 a eee SS Se 2b Seen CMe he Mees ee PASTY ER SOEs 13, 882. 85
MEDOSLUS sLOnESPECING, PURPOSCS2 42 ee ee 12, 405. 00
85, 597. 85
Total available for year ending June 30, 1915________________ “116, 157. 98
Respectfully submitted.
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL,
Mavricr Connotty,
Executive Committee.
Wasurneton, D. C.,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH-
SONTAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE
30, 1914.
ANNUAL MEETING, JANUARY 15, 1914.
Present: The Hon. Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the
United States, chancellor, in the chair; the Hon. Thomas R. Marshall,
Vice President of the United States; Senator A. O. Bacon; Senator
Henry Cabot Lodge; Senator William J. Stone; Representative
Scott Ferris; Representative Maurice Connolly; Representative
- Ernest W. Roberts; Dr. Andrew D. White; Dr. A. Graham Bell;
Judge George Gray; Mr. John B. Henderson, jr.; and the secretary,
Mr. Charles D. Walcott.
The chancellor explained that this was the annual meeting
adjourned from December 11, 1913.
DEATH OF REGENT.
The secretary announced the death, on December 22, 1918, of the
Hon. Irvin 8. Pepper, Member of the House of Representatives,
who was originally appointed Regent in December, 1911, and
reappointed December 10, 1913, for the ensuing two years.
Mr. Ferris submitted the following resolution, which was adopted:
Whereas the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution having learned
of the death, on December 22, 1918, of the Hon. Irvin S. Pepper, Member of
the House of Representatives and a Regent of the Institution since December,
1911: Therefore be it
Resolved, That the board desire here to record their sorrow at the loss of a
colleague whose untimely death terminates a career filled with promise and
whose interest in the affairs of the Institution made him a most valuable member
of the board.
APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS.
The secretary announced the appointment by the Speaker of the
following Members of the House of Representatives:
The Hon. Scott Ferris, reappointed.
The Hon. Maurice Connolly, to succeed Mr. Pepper, deceased.
The Hon. Ernest W. Roberts, to succeed Mr. John Dalzell, whose
term of office had expired.
122
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 123
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE VACANCY.
On motion, the following resolution was adopted:
Resolved, That the vacancy in the membership of the executive committee be
filled by the election of the Hon. Maurice Connolly.
RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.
Senator Bacon, chairman of the executive committee, offered the
following resolution, which was adopted:
Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1915, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended
by the secretary with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion
on the part of the secretary as to items,
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
Senator Bacon, chairman, submitted the report of the executive
committee for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913.
On motion, the report was adopted.
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTHE.
Hodgkins fund—This fund has undergone no changes since the
last report. The following allotments have been made from its
revenues during the year:
To Mr. C. G. Abbot and Dr. Angstrém for conducting experi-
ments in nocturnal radiation.
‘By formal action of the board, certain allotments were authorized
for immediate use in inaugurating the work of the proposed Langley
Aerodynamical Laboratory.
The board will recall that in connection with the International
Congress on Tuberculosis, held in the National Museum in 1908, the
Institution offered a Hodgkins prize of $1,500 for the best treatise
on “The Relation of Atmospheric Air to Tuberculosis.” Nearly a
hundred papers were submitted, and after a most exhaustive exam-
ination of the essays by all the members of the advisory committee,
which for various reasons encountered many delays, the award has
been made, and the prize divided equally between Dr. Guy Hinsdale,
of Hot Springs, Va., for his paper on “ ‘Tuberculosis in Relation to
Atmospheric Air,” and Dr. S. Adolphus Knopf, of New York City,
whose essay is entitled “On the Relation of Atmospheric Air to
Tuberculosis.”
Avery bequest——Two of the parcels of land included in this be-
quest have been sold for a total of $9,692.42, which sum has been
deposited to the credit of the permanent fund of the Institution in
the United States Treasury.
124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
Poore bequest—The matters in relation to the settlement of the
Poore estate, which have had the supervision of Mr. Choate, have
progressed satisfactorily.
A report on the financial condition of the estate to November 15,
1913, has been submitted by the executor, Mr. John J. Pickman, who
says that claims against the estate are being adjusted as rapidly as
circumstances will permit. Your committee asks that the board
refer the matter of final settlement to it with power to act. Mr.
Pickman reports that the whole estate may ultimately amount to
from $35,000 to $40,000.
Under the terms of the bequest, this is to be allowed to increase to
$250,000, the income of which will then become available for the
purposes of the Institution.
Research Corporation.—During the past year the corporation has
established the Cottrell process in a number of plants in order to
demonstrate its commercial practicability, and new plants are being
installed as rapidly as the engineering force can do the work.
Other patents have been offered to the corporation and are under
consideration. One of these is for a concrete tie, which is now being
thoroughly tested on one of the railways in southwestern California.
Addison T. Reid bequest—In 1903 the board was informed of a
proposed bequest to the Institution from Mr. Addison T. Reid, of
Brooklyn, N. Y., to found a chair of biology in memory of the
testator’s grandfather, Asher Tunis. The bequest was subject to
the condition that the income was to be paid in three equal shares
to certain enumerated legatees until their death, when the prtn-
cipal of the estate, with accumulations, was to come to the Institu-
tion. At that time the estate was estimated to be worth $10,000.
Recently the Institution has been informed of the death of one of
the beneficiaries, and the trust created for her benefit, amounting to
$4,795.91, has been paid to the Institution and deposited to the
credit of the permanent fund in the United States Treasury.
Will of Morris Loeb.—At the meeting of February 13, 1913, the
board’s attention was called to an item in the will of Morris Loeb,
of New York City, in which the Institution is made a residual legatee
and is to receive a one-tenth share of the estate remaining upon the
death of the testator’s wife. This legacy is to be used for the fur-
therance of knowledge in the exact sciences.
The Lucy Hunter Baird bequest—Miss Baird, daughter of
Spencer Fullerton Baird, late secretary of the Institution, died
June 19, 1913, making provision for the Institution and National
Museum in the following items of her will:
Fourth. * * * To the National Museum in the City of Washington,
D. C., all articles deposited by my father, Spencer F. Baird, my mother,
Mary H. C. Baird, or myself, in its keeping or that of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution with the exception of the specific bequests to the Smithsonian Institu-
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. ¥25
tion contained in this will. If there be any china of which I have made no
other disposition, of any value to the Museum, I desire that it shall be placed
therein.
To the Smithsonian Institution the copies of my father’s own books containing
his notes in his own handwriting, also the books by Audubon or any other works
on natural history, annotated in my father’s writing, to be kept forever in a case
together.
To the National Museum or to the Smithsonian Institution as my executor
shall deem best any pictures or books not otherwise disposed of, which they
may desire.
* co * * * ae
Sixth. Upon the release of any portion of the said trust estate by the death
of the person entitled to the income therefrom, unless otherwise provided in
paragraph fifth, I give, devise, and bequeath the same to the Smithsonian
Institution in trust as a fund to be known as “The Spencer Fullerton Baird
fund,” the interest from which shall be devoted under the direction of the
Smithsonian Institution to the expenses in whole or in part of a scientific
exploration and biological research or for the purchase of specimens of natural
objects or archaeological specimens.
The Chamberlain bequest—The late Rev. Dr. Leander T. Cham-
berlain, of New York City, married in 1890 Frances Lea, the
daughter of Dr. Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, publisher and eminent
naturalist, who had made an extensive collection of fresh-water
mussels and exhaustive researches into their life history. Dr. Lea
died in 1886, bequeathing this collection to the National Museum.
To his daughter he left a large collection of gems and precious stones.
She died in 1894, bequeathing this collection to the National Mu-
seum. Mrs. Chamberlain took a deep interest in “the Isaac Lea
collections” in the Museum, adding to them by direct gifts of speci-
mens and by money for their purchase. Upon her death Dr. Cham-
berlain assumed her trust in the Lea collections, and in consequence
of his gifts and collaboration he was appointed “ associate in min-
eralogy” in the Museum. Upon his death (May 9, 1913) it was
learned that his will contained the following provisions in regard
to the Isaac Lea collections:
Seventh. I give and bequeath to the Smithsonian Institution, in the city of
Washington and District of Columbia, the sum of twenty-five thousand dollars
($25,000), in trust, the same to constitute a permanent fund, which shall be
known as the “‘ Frances Lea Chamberlain fund,” the income of said fund to be
usec, under the direction of the secretary of the Board of Regents of said Insti-
tution, for promoting the increase, and the scientific value and usefulness, of
the collection of gems and gem material known as the “Isaac Lea collection ”
in the department of minerals in the United States National Museum, the said
collection having been chiefly collected and given by me in honor of Dr. Isaac
Lea and his only daughter, Frances Lea Chamberlain.
Highth. I give and bequeath to the Smithsonian Institution, in the city of
Washington and District of Columbia, the further sum of ten thousand dollars
($10,000), the same to constitute a permanent fund, which shall be known as
the “ Frances Lea Chamberlain fund,’ the income of said fund to be used,
under the direction of the secretary of the Board of Regents of said Institution,
for promoting the scientific value and usefulness of the collection of mollusks
126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
known as the “Isaac Lea collection,’ in the department of mollusks in said
Smithsonian Institution.
The Riter Fitzgerald bequest—The will of Mr. Fitzgerald, of
Philadelphia, who died in 1911, dated May 19, 1910, and first
brought to the attention of the Institution in March, 1913, contains
an item in which the National Museum is concerned, as follows:
I give, devise, and bequeath to my executors, hereinafter named, and the sur-
vivor of them, or their successors in the trust, all the rest, residue, and remainder
of my estate, real, personal, and mixed, and wheresoever situate, including all of
my portion, share, and interest in the estate of my late father, Thomas VWitz-
gerald, deceased, both real, personal, and mixed, in trust nevertheless, to invest
the same and collect the rents, interest, and income as it accrues, and pay over
the net income thereof quarterly to my niece, Geraldine Maud Hubbard, daugh-
ter of my sister, Maud Hubbard, for and during the term of her natural life,
her receipt alone to be a Sufficient release and discharge therefor, and so that the
same shall not be liable for the debts or engagements of any husband which
my niece may have. And upon the decease of my said niece, the principal and
accrued interest is to be equally divided betwen her then surviving child or
children in equal shares. In the event of the decease of my said niece without
leaving a child or children surviving her, then I direct that the principal of my
estate, and the interest accrued thereon, shall be given by my executors and
trustees, and the survivor of them, or their successors in trust, to the United
States National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
This part of the estate is appraised at between $12,000 and $13,000.
The Joseph White Sprague bequest—The committee desires to re-
fresh the memory of the Regents as to the terms of this bequest.
Tt will be recalled that in 1901 the board’s attention was drawn to
the proposed bequest of Mr. Sprague, whose residence was Louisville,
Ky. His will provides that 85 per cent of the total income of the
estate is to be distributed among certain devisees until their death
and then to several of their relatives for 20 years after the death of
the last devisee, when the trust expires by limitation and is to be
paid to the Smithsonian Institution and to be known as “ the Sprague
fund.” Its purpose is to best promote the advancement of the
physical sciences, and only one-half of each annual income is to be
used, the other half to be added to the principal of the estate. In
1901 it was estimated that the estate was worth $200,000. ‘The terms
imposed by the will indicate that the acquisition of the fund by the
Institution will be at a remote date.
Respectfully submitted.
A. O. Bacon.
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.
JOHN DALZzELL.
Cuarites D. Watcortt.
On motion, the report was adopted.
_ On motion of Senator Bacon, the secretary was requested to pub-
lish in his annual report a synopsis of the permanent committee’s
report.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 1O7
JOHN B. HENDERSON MEMORIAL,
The committee appointed to prepare for the records of the board
a suitable minute relating to the late Regent, John Brooks Hender-
son, submitted its report as follows:
GENTLEMEN: Your committee appointed at the meeting of May 1,
1913, for the purpose of preparing a suitable minute of the life and
work of the late Hon. John B. Henderson, a former Regent of the
Institution, begs to submit the following:
John Brooks Henderson, doctor of laws, a member of the Board
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from January 26, 1892,
to March 1, 1911, was born near Danville, Va., on November 16, 1826,
and died at Takoma Park, D. C., April 12, 1913.
For 19 years, until failing health compelled him to retire from
active duties, he had a deep official and personal interest in the
activities of the Institution, serving during that entire period as a
member of the executive committee, for 15 years its chairman, and
for 17 years as a member of the permanent committee. His sound
judgment and wise counsel as a jurist were of great assistance to his
associates in their deliberations on important and perplexing prob-
lems of policy and administration.
At an early age he moved from Virginia to Missouri, where he
received an academic education and supported himself as a teacher
while studying law. He was admitted to the bar in 1848 and in
1882 was honored with the degree of LL. D. by the University of
Missouri. From 1848 to 1856 he served in the State legislature; was
presidential elector in 1856 and 1860; United States Senator from
January 29, 1862, to March 3, 1869; commissioner to treat with hos-
tile Indians in 1867; United States district attorney in 1875; and
chairman of the Chicago convention in 1884. In 1861 he organized
a brigade of Missouri State Militia and was appointed brigadier
general. ;
On January 11, 1864, after conferences with President Lincoln and
without the knowledge of any other person, Mr. Henderson presented
in the Senate the joint resolution abolishing slavery which after-
wards became the thirteenth amendment to the Federal Constitution.
In 1890 he moved from Missouri to Washington City, and resided
there until his death, leading a life of retirement, although taking
great interest in public matters and philanthropic work and in the
affairs of several scientific and patriotic organizations of which he
was a member.
Mr. Henderson was a lawyer, a statesman, a soldier, a financier,
and in all these callings he was successful. The secret of his suc-
cess was an alert mind, a natural executive ability, strong will,
courage, and an independence that fixed his course though he walked
alone.
128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
During his long life Mr. Henderson enjoyed an intimate friend-
ship with many men eminent in the social, political, and business
life of the Nation, all of whom held him in the highest esteem.
He was one of the men who make history, and in his death a highly
honorable career was brought to a close.
Respectfully,
Gro. Gray,
H.C. Loner,
Cuarues D. Watcort.
On motion, the report was accepted.
SECRETARY’S ANNUAL REPORT.
The secretary presented his report on the operations of the Insti-
tution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913.
In regard to publications, he said:
“The publications issued by the Institution and its branches since
the last annual meeting of the board aggregate about 6,500 printed
pages covering the usual wide range of topics, and there have been
distributed about 190,000 copies of pamphlets and bound volumes.
“The Institution proper published 40 papers in the Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections; the annual report for 1912, and pamphlet
copies of 388 papers from the general appendix of that volume.
The Bureau of American Ethnology issued an annual report and
three bulletins, and the National Museum publications included 96
papers from the Proceedings, an annual report, and a number of
articles relating to the National Herbarium. The results of observa-
tions and experiments by the Astrophysical Observatory for 1907
to 1913 are recorded in Volume III of its Annals.
“One of the bulletins of the Museum prepared by Assistant Sec-
retary Rathbun gives an interesting descriptive illustrated account
of the new building erected more especially for the natural history
departments. A paper in the Miscellaneous Collections gives the
results of experiments to determine the influence of the atmosphere
on our health and comfort in confined and crowded places, from
which it appears that the essentials for good ventilation are mainly
to keep the air in motion, comfortably cooled, and containing the
proper degree of moisture, its actual chemical purity being of minor
importance.
“ Among important works in preparation I may mention a com-
plete list of publications of the Institution and its branches since its
establishment, the list including about 12,000 titles of articles and
volumes.”
On motion, the report was accepted.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 129
THE SECRETARY’S STATEMENT.
The secretary made personal statements as follows:
Langley Day exercises.—The exercises arranged for Langley Day,
May 6, 1913, were conducted as outlined, and a printed account of the
occasion, which included the presentation of two Langley medals and
the dedication of the Langley memorial tablet, has been sent to each
regent.
Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory.—In accordance with the reso-
lutions adopted at the meeting of the board on May 1, 1913, authoriz-
ing the reopening of the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory and the
enlargement of the same, I addressed a letter on May 8, 1913, to Pres-
ident Wilson, asking his approval of the cooperation with this Insti-
tution of the Departments of War, Navy, Agriculture, and Com-
merce, to which the President replied as follows:
THE WHITE HOovussE,
Washington, May 9, 1913.
My Drar Dr. WaAtcorr: Allow me to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
May 8 and to say that I shall take pleasure in sending copies of your letter to
the Secretaries of War, Navy, Agriculture, and Commerce, expressing my full
approval of the designation of representatives of those departments upon the
committee which you are forming for the study of the subject of aeronautics
under the authorization of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
on May 1, 1913.
Cordially and sincerely, yours,
; Wooprow WILSON.
Dr. CHARLES WALCOTT,
Smithsonian Institution.
Representatives were thereupon designated by the heads of the four
departments mentioned, and on May 23, 1913, the first meeting of the
advisory committee of the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory was
held at the Institution. The present membership of the committee is
as follows: |
Brig. Gen. George P. Scriven and Maj. Hdgar Russel, War Department.
Capt. W. I. Chambers and Naval Constructor H. ©. Richardson, Navy Depart-
ment.
Dr. W. J. Humphreys, Department of Agriculture (Weather Bureau).
Dr. 8. W. Stratton, Department of Commerce (Bureau of Standards).
Mr. Orville Wright.
Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss.
Mr. John Hays Hammond, jr.
Col. Samuel Reber.
Dr. Albert F. Zahm.
Mr. Charles D. Walcott, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, chairman.
_ Included in the organization of the advisory committee was the
formation of 16 subcommittees, covering practically every phase of
aeronautic work. With their membership recruited from the lead-
ing experts all over the country, these subcommittees enable the
Langley Laboratory to command the most authoritative advice and
assistance obtainable.
78176°—sm 1914——9
130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
As a preliminary step in starting the work of the laboratory, Dr.
A. F. Zahm, the recorder of the advisory committee, was sent to
visit the principal aerodynamical laboratories near London, Paris,
and Gottingen, in company with Assistant Naval Constructor Jerome
C. Hunsaker, United States Navy.
Dr. Zahm’s trip proved most satisfactory, and his report will con-
tain valuable data for the committee.
Three meetings of the advisory committee have been held, and its
work has progressed to such an extent as to render necessary the
transmission to Congress of an estimate for an appropriation of
$50,000, which received the President’s approval. There is also need
for a tract of land and water near Washington suitable for tests with
experimental air craft, and, as chairman of the advisory committee,
I requested the President’s approval of the use for this purpose of the
portion of Potomac Park east of the railroad embankment, which
the committee believes to be the best site for the purpose. It ap-
pears, however, that in the opinion of the War Department, author-
ity for such use of the park rests alone with Congress.
Freer gallery of art—The secretary exhibited elevation and floor
plans of a proposed building for the art gallery to be erected by
Mr. Charles L. Freer for the collections donated by him to the In-
stitution, stating that a trust fund of $1,000,000 had been set aside
by Mr. Freer for its construction.
In answer to inquiries the secretary said that the collections were
now thought to represent an expenditure, exclusive of the building,
of about $1,750,000.
Building for art objects—tWarge numbers of art objects are being
received by the Institution almost weekly for the National Gallery
of Art. Urgent necessity exists for a proper place for their care
and exhibit, as the space now devoted to their use in the new build-
ing of the National Museum is more and more needed for the natural
history collections. The present art objects represent a value of
about $1,000,000, and I wish to urge upon the members of the
board the importance of a very early consideration of the question
of requesting Congress to provide for the erection of a building
adequate for the national art collections.
Expeditions—The various expeditions under the auspices of the
Institution, concerning which reports have been made to the board
from time to time have, with few exceptions, been completed.
Borneo expedition—This expedition is still in the field... Dr. W.
L. Abbott, a collaborator of the National Museum, provided $8,000
for its expenses, and under his general direction the collecting is
being carried on by Mr. H. C. Raven. Two shipments have been
received by the Institution, that include 557 mammals and 560 birds,
with skins and skeletons of crocodiles and giant lizards. Mr. Raven
expects to remain in Borneo for another year.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 131
British Columbia expedition.—The Secretary briefly reviewed his
field work and studies in Cambrian geology during the summer of
1913.
Solar radiation expedition—Mr. C. G. Abbot, Director of the
Astrophysical Observatory of the Institution, spent several months
in California during the summer and fall of 1913, in continuation of
studies on the variation of the solar constant. The special work
of the year was in connection with the variability of the brightness
of different parts of the sun. A tower telescope was constructed on
Mount Whitney (14,500 feet) and numerous observations made,
which it is hoped will furnish an independent check on the varia-
tions to which the sun now appears to be subject. As a further test
of the results obtained and to overcome any objections that might
be made in scientific circles as to their soundness, Mr. Abbot devised
a special self-recording pyrheliometer which may be attached to a
sounding balloon and sent up entirely free from any connection with
the earth to the greatest height to which balloons may penetrate the
atmosphere. Five such instruments were constructed at the Astro-
physical Observatory in 1913, and, with the cooperation of the
United States Weather Bureau, they were sent up by observers of
that bureau from Catalina Island, Cal., about the end of July. All
were recovered, and although the apparatus had been untried up to
that time, three of the instruments gave valuable records, taken at
altitudes as great as 50,000 feet. These observations have not yet
been definitely reduced, but the preliminary results indicate that
just such values were found as will confirm in a very satisfactory
manner the conclusions already reached. Some of the balloons as-
cended over 100,000 feet (19 miles), but owing to the intense cold
no records were made, the mercury in the Smithsonian pyrheliome-
ters having frozen. The lowest temperature recorded by the instru-
ments of the Weather Bureau was 76° F. below zero, which is far
lower than the freezing point of mercury. It is expected to renew
the experiments next spring, when measures will be taken to prevent
the freezing of the mercury, and it is hoped then to obtain tempera-
ture records at altitudes of 100,000 feet or more.
Biological work in North China.—At the annual meeting on De-
cember 12, 1912, the board was informed that Mr. A. de C. Sowerby
was making collections in North China for the National Museum,
through the liberality of a gentleman who desired that his identity
be not disclosed. The same condition prevails now.
Mr. Sowerby has recently notified the Institution of the shipment,
principally from Manchuria, of 121 specimens, including squirrels,
hog deer, moles, voles (a species of mouse), rats, chipmunks, shrews,
hedgehogs, weasels, and badgers, many of which are thought to
be new species. He will continue his expedition in North and West
Shansi and in the Hei-lung-chang region of Manchuria.
132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Extension of National Zoological Park.—The sundry civil act for
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, approved June 23, 1913, con-
tains an item of $107,200 for the purchase of the land lying between
the present western boundary of the Zoological Park and Connecticut
Avenue, between Cathedral Avenue and Klingle Road. This ex-
tension will give the park a frontage of about 1,750 feet on Con-
necticut Avenue and a considerable area of quite level land much
needed for paddocks for bison, deer, and other ruminant animals.
The proposed purchase embraces over 10 acres, and will bring
the total area of the park to about 180 acres.
Work under the Harriman trust fund—Under the special trust
fund of $12,000 per annum established by Mrs. E. H. Harriman
for his investigations in natural history and ethnology, Dr. C. Hart
Merriam is conducting research work in Washington, D. C., and in
California. His principal work during the year has been on the
Big Bears of America, a group he has been studying for upward
of 20 years, and concerning which he now has a monograph nearly
ready for publication. In furtherance of this study, specimens have
been generously placed at his disposal, not only by numerous sports-
men and hunters but also by all of the larger museums of America,
including the Government museums of Canada at Ottawa and
Victoria.
Award of Loubat Prize to Dr. John R. Swanton—tIn 1893 the
Duc de Loubat founded two prizes to be awarded every five years
for—
“The best work printed and published in the English language
on the history, geography, archeology, ethnology, philology, or nu-
mismatics of North America. ‘The competition for such prizes shall
be open to all persons.”
Dr. John R. Swanton, one of the ethnologists of the Bureau of
American Ethnology, has recently been awarded one of these prizes,
which carries with it a money consideration of $400, for his two
works published by the bureau entitled “ Tlingit Myths and Texts”
and “Indian Tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and Adjacent
Coasts of the Gulf of Mexico.”
Exhibits—After informal remarks, in which Vice President Mar-
shall urged an appropriation for preserving the language of the
Miami Indians from extinction and Dr. Bell spoke of Mr. Abbot’s
work in connection with the reduction of the solar constant, the sec-
retary called the board’s attention to some special exhibits of an-
thropological, mineral, and biological material in the adjoining
rooms, which also included the pyrheliometer used by Mr. Abbot.
GENERAL APPENDIX
TO THE
SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1914.
133
ADVERTISEMENT.
The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX to the Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis-
covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by
collaborators of the institution; and memoirs of a general character
or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous
correspondents of the institution.
It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual
report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more
remarkable and important developments in physical and_ biological
discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations
of the institution; and this purpose has, durmg the greater part of
its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers
as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress.
In 1880 the secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an
annual summary of progress which for 30 years previous had been
issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com-
petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prom-
inent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology,
meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and
anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether
satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888.
In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original)
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and dis-
cussion. This method has been continued in the present report for
1914.
135
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THE RADIATION OF THE SUN.!
By ©. G. ABBort, D. Se.,
Director Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution.
[With 4 plates. |
It is really extraordmary how much has been found out about
the sun, when it is considered that the sun lies at the immense dis-
tance of 93,000,000 miles. There are various methods of ascer-
taining the distance of the sun, resting upon extremely diverse
foundations, so that the close accord of their results to within about
one-tenth of 1 per cent gives us great confidence in the accuracy of
the mean value. The angular diameter of the sun is also known to
a great accuracy, and from this and the distance one determines at
once that the diameter of the sun is 865,000 miles. How great this
is as compared with the diameter of the earth—7,918 miles! From
a consideration of the motions of the earth and the moon it is found
that the mass of the sun is 332,800 times the mass of the earth. In
accordance with this, the gravitation on the sun is enormous com-
pared with that upon the earth, so that a body which weighs 100
pounds at the earth’s surface would be pulled toward the center of
the sun from the sun’s surface with a force of nearly 14 tons.
In accordance with the measurements of the diameter and the
mass of the sun, it follows that the average density of the material
composing the sun is very much less than that composing the earth.
In fact, it comes out that the sun’s material has only 1.41 times the
density of water, whereas the mean density of the material composing
the earth is 5.5 times the density of water. Notwithstanding this
remarkable fact, it has been shown by spectroscopic work that the
heavy metallic elements, such as iron, nickel, zinc, tin, copper, and
others, occur in the sun as well as in the earth. The explanation for
the discrepancy of density between the two bodies lies probably in
the very high temperature of the sun, so that the elements found
there are in the form of gases, whereas upon the earth they are in the
form of solids. We shall return to this fact later.
1 Presented at the meeting of the Section of Physics and Chemistry held Thursday, Jan. 8, 1914. Re-
printed by permission from the Journal of The Franklin Institute, June, 1914.
Fig. 1 on pl. 1 is from The Astrophysical Journal, by permission of The University of Chicago Press.
Text fig. 1; fig. 2, pl. 1; and pls. 2 and 3 are from Abbot’s The Sun, by permission of D. Appleton & Co.
Qn
vi
138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
As viewed through the telescope, the sun at first sight is a very
disappointing object as compared with the moon. Nevertheless,
there is much of interest to be seen there. In the illustration (pl. 1,
fig. 1) we see a direct photograph of the sun as obtained te
pibea of the Yerkes Observatory, on May 18, 1910. Several
interesting features may be pointed out. In the Abs place, note
the falling off of the brightness of the disk toward the edges of the
sun. In he second place, one sees in the original photograph all
over the sun’s surface a sort of mottled appearance, not very dis-
tinct, but yet interesting. In the third place, in this particular pho-
(een appear some dark spots, called sun spots. Sun spots were
discovered by Galileo in the year 1610, soon after the invention of
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SuN-sPoTs AND TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES AND MAGNETISM.
I. Temperature departures, United States inland stations.
II. Sun-spot relative numbers (Wolf's).
III. Magnetic declination { mean diurnal renge}}
IV. Magnetic horizontal force { Ellis, Chree.
Fig. 1.
the telescope.'| They are distinguished by dark central parts, called
the umbra, surrounded by a ene of less darkness, called the pen-
umbra. The spots shown in the illustration are very large ones,
although they seem very small upon the surface of the sun. This is
because of the immense diameter of the sun itself. The earth might
be dropped into one of these sun spots without much more than filling
the umbra, leaving a generous space for the penumbra outside of it.
It was fang by Schwabe, about the middle of the nineteenth
century, that sun spots occur most plentifully in periods of about 11
years between maxima. This may be seen by the diagram (fig. 1),
in which the second curve represents the prevalence of sun spots
according to the so-called sun-spot numbers published by Wolter.
The two donee curves represent, ‘Tespectively, variations in a the earth’s
1Sun aod had beeasionalty been seen with the naked eye earlier, put it was not until 1610 ‘that they
were definitely regarded as a solar phenomenon.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Abbot PLATE 1
Fig. 1.—DIRECT SOLAR PHOTOGRAPH (SLOCUM).
Fia. 2.—SOLAR CoRONA, MAY 28, 1900.
(From drawing by P. R. Calvert from photographs by Yerkes Observatory Eclipse
Expedition.)
Grireoniani Report mld -Abbot PLATE 2.
Fic. 1.—HYDROGEN SPECTROHELIOGRAM, Ha (ELLERMAN).
1909, September 10, G. M. T.; 35 22m P, S. T.; 7h 22m A. M.
Fia. 2.—SOLAR CoRONA. AUGUST 30, 1905.
(From drawing by Mrs. C. G. Abbot from photographs by the United States Nayal Observatory
Eclipse Expedition.)
THE RADIATION OF THE SUN—ABBOT. 139
magnetic declination and in the earth’s magnetic force for the corre-
sponding years. It will be seen how exactly the sun-spot curve is
reproduced in these fluctuations of the earth’s magnetism, but the
cause of the connection which is so apparent is not yet well under-
stood. In the upper curve of the figure are represented the depart-
ures of temperature for the average of 17 stations in the United
States, and there will be seen, although not so plainly marked, an
apparent influence of the sun spots on the temperature of the earth.
Recent work, much of it at the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory,
has given us a good insight into the nature of sun spots. They
appear to be whirls of material coming outward from the inner layers
of the sun toward the surface, spreading out there like a waterspout.
The expansion attending decrease of pressure on the gases causes a
fall of their temperature, so that the sun spots are cooler than the
surrounding parts of the sun, and this is the reason why they seem
dark. The whirling matter contains electrical charges, which, by
virtue of their rotation, give rise to magnetic fields, as shown long
ago by Rowland. The presence of magnetic fields in sun spots has
recently been established by Hale.
At certain times the moon interposes between the earth and the
sun and cuts off the sunlight, so that we are able to see the objects
which are surrounding the sun and usually lost by the intense glare
of the sky. Such occasions are called ‘‘total solar eclipses.” As
the moon is but little, if at all, greater in angular diameter than the
sun, the cone of shadow cast by the moon only a little more than
reaches the surface of the earth, and sometimes, indeed, fails to reach
it at all. When the cone reaches the earth’s surface, and we have a
total eclipse, there will be a belt, not more than 200 miles wide, but
sometimes several thousand miles long, upon the earth’s surface, in
which the total eclipse may be observed at some time of the day.
Frequently the belt of totality passes over inaccessible regions of the
earth, as, for instance, the North or South Pole, or falls upon parts
of the ocean where it is impossible to use delicate instruments. The
longest possible period of totality at any one station is seven minutes,
and in general the total eclipses average about three minutes in length
Thus only a very little time can be used in eclipse observations, and
yet the information to be gained at such times is so valuable that
observers often spend months in preparation and travel thousands
of miles to observe them.
Figure 2 of plates 1 and 2 show the total eclipse of the sun. The
first is from a drawing of Calvert prepared from photographs by
Yerkes Observatory observers at Wadesborough, N. C., in the year
1900, and the second is from a drawing by Mrs. Abbot from plates
of the eclipse as photographed by the United States Naval Observa-
tory parties in Spain and Africa in the year 1905. In each photo-
140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
graph will be seen the corona, so called, a pearly object stretching
out in beautiful forms to a considerable distance outside the sun. A
ereat change, however, apparently occurred in its form between the
year 1900 and the year 1905. This change is shown by other eclipse
observations to be characteristic, and to always accompany the
change from sun-spot minimum conditions to sun-spot maximum
conditions. At sun-spot minima the solar corona extends in long
equatorial streamers, while at sun-spot maximum the corona, though
somewhat brighter, is not so extensive in any particular direction,
but stretches almost equally in all directions.
Close up to the border of the sun there are also seen, at times of
solar eclipses, bright red flames, called prominences, which are due
to the gases hydrogen and calcium, with sometimes an admixture
of other chemical elements. These beautiful objects sometimes reach
above the surface of the sun as much as 500,000 miles, and ih some
instances they have been observed to shoot up to such immense
heights as this within 10 minutes of time. I say within 10 minutes
of time, which implies that they may be seen at other times than
during total eclipses. A method of observing them by aid of the
spectroscope was devised indeperfdently by Lockyer and Janssen
immediately after the eclipse of 1868, and nowadays many observa-
tories examine them every day. <A beautiful prominence is shown
in plate 3 as photographed by Slocum at the Yerkes Observatory.
It would have seemed hardly credible to the contemporaries of
Sir William, or even of Sir John Herschel, that the materials of which
the sun and stars are composed could ever be known, but by aid of
the spectroscope much is learned in this respect. White light may
be thought of as a compiex mixture of vibrations of the ether, so
called; that medium which is supposed to fill all space, including the
interstices between the atoms and molecules of material bodies.
When light passes through a prism of transparent substance, the com-
plex vibrations are decomposed into their component parts, and we
see the spectrum, in which the colors are arranged in the order,
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. The spectrum is by
no means limited by the end of the visible red, or by the end of the
visible violet, for rays which may be photographed, and which pro-
duce heat when allowed to shine upon blackened substances, exist
both beyond the red and beyond the violet. Those beyond the red
are called infra-red, and those beyond the violet, ultra-violet. The
ultra-violet rays may be readily photographed, and by specially
staining photographic plates, with organic dyestuffs, it is possible
also to photograph a limited region beyond the visible red. Further
progress in that direction, however, must be made by delicate elec-
trical thermometers or other heat-measuring instruments.
THE RADIATION OF THE SUN—ABBOT. 141
When the chemical element sodium or any of its compounds, like
common salt, for instance, is placed in the flame, and the light which
is-given out is examined in the spectroscope, it is seen to consist
of a couple of bright yellow lines. No general extension of the spec-
trum to include the green or violet is seen. On the other hand, if one
observes the spectrum of the limelight or the electric are from carbon
poles, it is seen to give a long band of color much like the solar spec-
trum, except that, whereas in the solar spectrum a great number of
dark lines are seen under good conditions, in the spectra of the arc
light or of the limelight these lines will generally be absent. I,
however, the vapor of metallic sodium be caused to intervene between
the source of light and the slit of the spectroscope, two dark lines
will be seen in the yellow, corresponding in position to the two bright
yellow lines which are found by observing the light from heated
sodium, or heated common salt. In short, the yellow light is ab-
sorbed by the sodium vapor at the very positions in the spectrum
where that vapor would itself give off light if strongly heated. The
same is true of iron and other metals. The spectrum of iron is very
complicated, consisting of a great number of lines, many of them
in the green. If the arc light be caused to play between iron poles,
these bright green lines will be the main features of the light as ob-
served in the spectroscope. Some of these lines are very strong,
others quite weak, so that there is often a well-marked distinction
between one line and another, not only as regards its place but also
as regards its intensity in the spectrum.
Now, it is found on observing the spectrum of the sunlight or star-
light that the dark lines are found in the same relative positions,
and generally of nearly the same relative intensity, as in the bright
line spectrum of the chemical elements themselves. In this way it
is possible to determine what elements are found in the sun and the
stars, although these bodies are so immensely distant from us. In
this way we know that more than 40 of the ordinary chemical ele-
ments found upon, the earth exist also in the sun, and the existence
of about 20 more is doubtfully indicated by the solar spectrum. Not
only does the approximate correspondence in position and intensity
of the spectrum lines of the sun and of the chemical elements as ob-
served in the Jaboratory yield this significant result, but the slight
deviations from exact correspondence in intensity and in position of
the spectrum lines yield other facts not less remarkable. For instance,
it was predicted by Doppler and observed in the laboratory by Prince
Galitzen that the motion of a source of light toward the observer
displaces its spectral lines toward the violet, and, contrariwise, the
motion of the source of ight away from the observer displaces the
spectral lines toward the red. This effect is very noticeable in the
142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
solar spectrum if one takes the light from the east and west limbs
of the sun. There is a displacement of the lines of the two spectra
with respect to one another, depending upon the fact that the one
side of the sun is approaching the earth and the other side receding,
by virtue of the rotation of the sun on its own axis.
It had long been known that the sun rotated upon its axis, be-
cause of the behavior of sun spots, which march across the disk of
the sun in a period of about 14 days.1| Duner, Halm, Adams, and
others have observed the rotation of the sun by means of the dis-
placement of the spectral lines. The curious fact that the surface
of the sun rotates with unequal velocities, largest at the equator
and smaller as we approach the poles of the sun in either direction,
had been noted from sun spot observations. This peculiar rotation
behavior of the sun’s surface was investigated much more thoroughly
by Adams, who followed the rotation of the sun up to solar latitude
of 75°. He found that the period of rotation, as determined by the
majority of the spectrum lines, varied from 24.6 days at the equator
to 33.1 days at latitude 75°. However, the element hydrogen, which
is situated high up in the solar atmosphere, indicated a much more
nearly equal velocity of rotation at differing latitudes. The values
range from 23.7 days at the equator to about 26 days at latitude 75°.
Another cause of the displacements of the spectral lines is in the
pressure which exists in the solar envelope. This was investigated
first by Humphreys and Mohler at Baltimore. It has since fur-
nished a valuable means of measuring the pressure which ‘exists in
the solar envelope. For the element iron it is found to be about
five times the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth?
Still another interesting displacement of spectral lines was found
by Zeeman to be due to the presence of a magnetic field. Spec-
trum lines are broken up in the presence of a magnetic field into
doubles or triples or still more complex groups, whose complexity
of arrangement depends upon the situation of the spectroscope with
respect to the magnetic field, and on the strength of the magnetic
field in which the light is produced. This peculiarity was taken
advantage of by Hale, who has recently proved the existence of a
magnetic field in sun spots, and still more recently the existence
of a general magnetic field over the whole surface of the sun, analo-
gous in many respects to the magnetic field which exists over the
surface of the earth. .
A brilliant invention of Hale’s earlier years of investigation was
that of the spectroheliograph. This is an instrument for observing
the sun’s disk in the light of a single line of a single chemical element.
1 This exceeds the half-period of the sun’s rotation because of the advance of the earth in its orbit at the
same time.
2 Recent work of Evershed and of St. John indicates that this estimate must be revised, and that pres-
sures of one atmosphere or less exist where the iron lines are formed.
THE RADIATION OF THE SUN—ABBOT. 1438
It is not necessary here to explain the details of the construction or
the principle of it, more than to say that it is a particular form of
spectroscope whose effect is to act as a screen to cut off all rays of
the spectrum except the particular one which it is desired to observe.
By the aid of this instrument the distribution of the gases of different
elements over the sun’s disk has been investigated, notably of the
gases hydrogen and calcium. Plate 2, figure 1, shows a photograph
of a portion of the sun’s disk as observed in hydrogen. The reader
will note the very prominent detail which is shown by this illustration
as compared with that shown by direct photography of the sun’s
surface by a telescope as given in plate 1, figure 1. It was by the aid
of the spectroheliograph that Slocum obtained the beautiful figure of
the solar prominence given in plate 3.
SOLAR ENERGY.
We now turn from this general consideration of what may be
seen on the sun by the aid of the telescope and spectroscope to a
discussion of the quantity of energy which the sun sends out, the
distribution of it among the different spectrum rays, and the rela-
tions which it bears to the temperature of the sun, the temperature
of the earth, and other terrestrial concerns. I said a little while ago
that light is regarded as of the nature of a mixture of vibrations in
the ether, which is supposed to be a substance existing in all space,
including the interstices of the structure of the chemical elements
themselves. Light is but one of the manifestations of radiation.
It is merely that kind of radiation which is visible to the eye. Just
as there are some sounds which are of too high pitch for the ear to
hear, and some other sounds which are of too low pitch to distinguish
as sound, so there are kinds of radiation which are of too short wave
length for the eye to recognize as violet light, and others are of too
long wave length for the eye to recognize as red light. Indeed for
the longer wave lengths of radiation the substances of the eye are
not transparent, so that even if the retina should be sensitive to these
rays, they could not reach the retina to affect it.
In this state of affairs it is necessary to proceed to the investiga-
tion of the energy of radiation by means of another instrument in
which the radiation is caused to be absorbed by a blackened surface,
and thus to produce heat, and consequently a change of temperature
of the absorbing substance. Radiation is not heat. Heat is a
motion of the molecules of the material substance, but radiation is a
motion of vibration in the ether, which is not regarded in the same
category with ordinary chemical elements. Indeed, we may go a
little further and make a classification of energy. Imagine a chest of
drawers in which, as sometimes happens, the letters or other papers
fall over the back of the drawers, as they are pulled out into the
144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ones below. It is easy in that manner for the papers in the upper
drawers to fall into the lower drawers, but work has to be done in
order to get the papers from the lower drawers into the upper ones
again. So with energy—all forms of energy may easily be trans-
formed into heat, which is the lowest type of energy, but heat energy
can only partially be transformed back again ito the higher types.
Of these types radiation is one of the very highest.
Now it is on the sun’s radiation that a temperature suitable
for life upon the earth depends. Not only that, but the peculiar
properties of certain wave lengths of the solar radiations are re-
quired for supporting plant growth, with its complex chemical
reactions. All sources of energy upon the earth have been directly
or indirectly produced by solar radiation. A good many investiga-
tors, among them Mr. Shuman, of Philadelphia, have endeavored
to use the solar radiation commercially for the production of power,
and, in fact, very satisfactory results are being obtained in this
way, under Mr. Shuman’s direction, from a plant in Egypt.
Evidently it is of the greatest interest to measure the quantity
of the solar radiation, the distribution of it in the spectrum, the
hindrances which it suffers in passing through the earth’s atmos-
phere, and the quantity of it available to warm the earth after it
reaches the surface. This has been the principal work of the
Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution for the last
12 years.
In the first place, we have to deal with the measurement of
the solar radiation as a whole. For this purpose we employ what
is called the pyrheliometer, a name first devised by Pouillet, about
the year 1835. He employed a blackened box, filled with water,
and containing a thermometer for observing the rise of tempera-
ture in the water due to the absorption of the solar rays upon
the blackened box. In our.practice we have considerably devel-
oped the instrument of Pouillet, until now it comprises a silver
disk inclosed in a chamber provided with a vestibule for the ad-
mission of the solar rays. The disk has inserted in it a thermometer,
which is bent at right angles for convenience, and on which the
rise of temperature of the silver disk due to the absorption of solar
radiation is observed. The instrument is shown in figure 2.
It is not possible to obtain the correct heat capacity of the pyr- -
heliometer in this form, so that we have reduced its measurements
by comparison with what is termed the standard pyrheliometer, in
which the heat produced by the sun’s radiation is carried off by
flowing water. The rise of temperature in the water, due to the
absorption of the solar radiation, is determined by means of an elec-
trical thermometer. In this apparatus it is possible to introduce
electrically known quantities of heat, and to measure them as if it
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Abbot. PLATE 3.
1910, March 17, G. M. T.; 55 80™; long. 7°; lat. + 17° to — 18°.
1910, October 10, G. M. T; 7) 56.8™.
1910, October 10, G. M. T.; 85 6.4™,
SOLAR PROMINENCES (SLOCUM). CALCIUM (H) SPECTROHELIOGRAMS.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Abbot. PLaTe 4.
Fic. 1.—SMITHSONIAN OBSERVATORY ON MOUNT WILSON.
Fic. 2.—SMITHSONIAN OBSERVATORY ON MOUNT WHITNEY.
THE RADIATION OF THE SUN—ABBOT. 145
were solar radiation which was being measured. In such test ex-
periments it is found that as much as 99 per cent of the heat in-
troduced is recovered, and it is believed that the standard pyrhe-
liometer gives the true scale of radiation for the sun within a prob-
able error of a half of 1 per cent. The silver disk pyrheliometers
have been compared with this standard, and in this way the standard
scale of radiation has been diffused by the Smithsonian Institution,
which has sent out about 25 copies of the standardized silver disk
pyrheliometer to various countries
of the world, in Europe and North
and South America.
Measurements with the pyrheli-
ometer indicate that the maximum
intensity of the sun’s radiation at
sea level is about 1.5 calories per
square centimeter per minute. At
high-level stations, such as Mount
Whitney, in southern California, at
an altitude of 14,500 feet, the read-
ings run as high as 1.7 calories per
square centimeter per minute. You
may ask why it is that if the inten-
sity of the sun’s radiation increases
as we go up a mountain, it should
be also the case that the tempera-
ture of the air at high elevations is
- lower than it is at sea level. This
is due to the property of the air of
almost freely transmitting solar
radiation. Like a pane of glass in =
a window, it is not much warmed
by absorbing the rays, whereas a
blackened substance held in the
beam of light, either upon a mountain or inside the window pane,
will be very appreciably warmed.
If we could go outside the atmosphere altogether, all the radia-
tion which we receive from the whole sky, and which is derived
by scattering, would be still in the direct sun-beam. Looking
away from the sun we should see the stars shining, as if at night,
and the sun’s rays themselves as observed by the pyrheliometer
would exceed in intensity even those observed on high mountain sum-
mits. Now the question is, what would be the intensity of the
solar radiation if we could observe it outside the atmosphere, at
the earth’s mean solar distance? This quantity is called the solar
73176°—sM 1914——10
a
A) i
Fig. 2.—Silver disk pyrheliometer.
146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
constant of radiation, and it has been an object of investigation
for the last hundred years.
As shown by Forbes, Radau, and notably by Langley, it is not
possible by means of the pyrheliometer alone to estimate what the
intensity of the solar radiation outside the atmosphere would be,
unless the pyrheliometer itself could be raised by a bailoon or other-
wise to the extreme limit of the atmosphere. This latter procedure
having heretofore been impracticable,’ it was necessary to have
recourse to measurements of the solar spectrum. The defect in
pyrheliometer observations consists in this: That the several rays of
the solar spectrum are unequally affected in passing through the
earth’s atmosphere. Certain rays are almost completely removed
in the higher levels of the atmosphere, so that we can by no means
estimate the lossés, even upon the highest mountains, unless recourse:
is had to determinations in the spectrum.
About the year 1880 the late Dr. Langley invented the bolometer.
This is an electrical thermometer of great sensitiveness. It com-
prises two fine strips of platinum, each about one-half inch long,
one two-hundred-and-fiftieth of an inch wide, and one two-thou-
sandth of an inch thick. The strips are blackened on the front surface
with smoke, or with platinum-black electrically deposited. These
two strips, with two coils of resistance wire, form a Wheatstone’s
bridge, so called. If one strip is warmed with respect to the other,
and thereby its electrical resistance is increased, the effect is to cause
a slight current of electricity to flow through a very sensitive galva-
nometer. In ordinary practice one can detect with the bolometer
differences of temperature of a millionth of a degree; and in the most
refined construction, with every precaution taken to avoid disturbing
influences, it has been possible to observe the hundred-millionth part
of a degree change of temperature.
With the bolometer, which in those days was an instrument of
very uncertain behavior, and one requiring the most expert atten-
“tion and great patience for its use, Langley observed the sun’s spec-
trum in the famous expedition of 1881 to Mount Whitney, in southern
California. Like early investigators who had used the pyrheliometer
alone, he observed the increase of the intensity of the sun’s rays
from early morning to noon, and their decrease of intensity from noon
until late afternoon. This depends, as you will see, upon the fact
that when the sun is low and near the horizon its rays shine obliquely
through the atmosphere, so that their path in the air is very long,
whereas at noon, when the sun is nearly overhead, the path in the
air is comparatively much shorter. If one observes, ther®fore, the
intensity of each of the spectrum rays at different altitudes of the sun,
1 The author has recently devised apparatus which has recorded solar radiation successfully at enormous
altitudes, The results confirm those given below.
THE RADIATION OF THE SUN—ABBOT. 147
’
for which he knows the length of path in air, he may compute from
the observed increase of intensity, attending the decrease of air path,
how much the intensity would be if the path in air could be reduced
to nothing at all, or, in other words, if he could go outside the air
altogether. It is not possible to do this by observation with the
pyrheliometer alone, as explained above, because the rays of certain
spectrum wave lengths are almost entirely removed in the upper
atmosphere, and do not reach the observer at all, even if he be on a
high mountain. Especially is this the case in the infra-red region of
the spectrum, which is invisible to the eye, but which is of great
importance as containing a large part of the sun’s energy. In this
region there are great water-vapor bands, where the water vapor of
the atmosphere almost completely absorbs the solar rays, leaving
ereat gaps in the representation of the sun’s energy spectrum. Lang-
ley introduced the procedure of estimating for all other parts of the
spectrum the intensity which would be found outside the atmosphere,
le Scale 30 ae a ie ee
Fic. 3.—Bolographs of the Solar Spectrum. Air masses of observation: Upper curve, 3.0; middle curve,
4.0; lower curve, 5.2.
but in the great water-vapor and other terrestrial bands of absorption
he merely made the assumption that these would be altogether absent
if he could in fact be beyond the atmosphere altogether.
After Langley became Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
he established the Astrophysical Observatory there, in order that he
might carry out to greater perfection the measurements of radiation
begun by him while still director of the Allegheny Observatory in
Pennsylvania. Among the first improvements introduced in Wash-
ington was the automatic recording of the results of the bolometer by
photographic means. This was a great step, so that now we are able,
in the lapse of less than 10 minutes, to observe the intensity of the
rays of the sun of all wave lengths, from those far beyond the violet
end of the visible spectrum to those far beyond its extreme red.
Figure 3 shows the result of three such observations made on Mount
Wilson, in California, at the station of the Smithsonian Institttion
there. These three curves represent the distribution of solar radia-
tion in its spectrum, including the ultra-violet, visible, and infra-red
rays. ‘The great water-vapor bands above mentioned are shown
148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
in the infra-red as great depressions of the curve. Solar absorption
lines are shown in the visible spectrum as smaller depressions of the
curves. The three curves were taken at different hours of the morn-
ing, when the path of the solar rays in air was five, four, and three
times, respectively, that which would occur if the sun were vertically
overhead. The reader will notice that the curves are respectively
higher and higher, especially in the violet end of the spectrum, owing
to the decrease of the length of path of the sun rays in the air. At
several points a change of scale of the curves is shown. ‘This is due
to the introduction in the beam of rotating sectors of different angular
apertures in order to keep the record always within the limits of the
registering photographic plate. If these changes of scale had not
been made, the curve would run up in the edge of the red to the
height of several feet.
By suitable computation, by the aid of the exponential formula
developed by Bouguer about the year 1760, it is possible to compute
for each of the parts of this spectrum energy curve the intensity
which would be found if one were outside the air altogether. In
this way one might construct a curve similar to the three shown in the
Ulustration, which would represent the intensity of radiation beyond
the limits of the atmosphere. In such curves as these the area
included between the curve and the axis of zero radiation is propor-
tional to the intensity of the whole solar beam, including all wave
lengths. This, of course, is also measurable by the pyrheliometer.
Accordingly we multiply the reading of the pyrheliometer by the
ratio between the area of the curve outside the atmosphere and that
which is found at the observing station, and thereby we obtain the
solar constant of radiation. In this process, however, we follow
Langley’s assumption that there will be no absorption by water vapor
or oxygen in the sun itself, and therefore draw a smooth line in our
extra-atmospheric energy curve, where great atmospheric bands occur.
About 700 determinations of the solar constant of radiation have
been made by the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian
Institution, some at Washington, at sea level; others at Mount Wilson,
at an elevation of about 1 mile above sea level; others at Mount
Whitney, at an elevation of nearly 3 miles; and others at Bassour,
Algeria, at an elevation of three-quarters of a mile. No differences
beyond the reasonable errors of measurement are found between
observations made at two stations on the same day, whether made at
sea level or at any of these stations, up to the elevation of Mount
Whitney, 14,500 feet above sea level. Hence it appears that the
method of estimating atmospheric transmission is probably sound.
The mean value of the solar constant of radiation, as thus found from
700 determinations, is 1.933 calories per square centimeter per
minute. By this is meant that if the sun’s rays outside the atmos-
THE RADIATION OF THE SUN—ABBOT. 149
phere could be absorbed completely in a layer of water 1 centimeter
(about three-eighths of an inch) thick, exposed at right angles to the
solar beam, this layer of water would be warmed 1.93° C. during each
minute of time. Expressed in another way, the sun’s radiation
outside the atmosphere would be able to melt a layer of ice 105 feet
thick each year. .
An extremely interesting feature of the measurements has been
that they show a variation of the sun. This conclusion has been
tested in every way, not only by making measurements at different
altitudes but by comparing results obtained on the same days at
Mount Wilson, in California, and at Bassour, Algeria. As these sta-
tions are separated by about one-third the circumference of the earth,
it seems not possible that they could be generally influenced by local
conditions in a way to disturb the measurements in the same direction
at the same time. Nevertheless, the results of about 50 days of simul-
taneous observing at the two stations agree in showing that when
the radiation of the sun is found above the normal at the one station
it is found also above the normal at the other station, and vice versa.
The fluctuations of the intensity of the sun’s radiation outside the
atmosphere thus indicated range over about 10 per cent. Often
within a single week or 10 days a fluctuation of radiation as great as
5 per cent is shown. The variation of the sun in these short periods
appears to be irregular, both as regards the magnitude of the varia-
tion and as regards the period of it.
The measurements made at Mount Wilson, which extend over
the years 1905 to 1913, indicate also a fluctuation of the intensity
of solar radiation, attending the changes of the number of sun spots.
There appears to be about 3 per cent increase of the solar radiation
outside the atmosphere for an increase of 100 in the Wolf sun-spot
numbers. It is a very curious thing that the solar radiation increases
with increasing numbers of sun spots, whereas the temperature,
which directly depends upon the solar radiation, falls with increasing
numbers of sunspots. It appears that there is attending sun spots a
direct and an indirect influence on terrestrial temperature. The direct
influence is due to the increased solar radiation. The indirect influ-
ence is perhaps due to a change in cloudiness, but as yet is not certainly
understood. These two influences are of almost equal magnitude in
general, but with the indirect influence, which tends to lower tempera-
tures, slightly predominating. It will be a research of great interest
and value to determine the cause of the indirect influence.!
In connection with these researches on the solar radiation the
transparency of the air for light of all colors and for invisible rays
has been determined. This is a matter of great interest to those
1The author is informed that researches by the meteorological service of India indicate that not all
stations of the world are cooler at sun-spot maximum.
150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
who are studying the growth of plants, as well as to those who are
interested in the propagation of signals by means of lights at sea and
elsewhere.
Also, the form of the energy spectrum of the sun having been
determined, it is possible to estimate the probable temperature
which exists in the sun. For it is shown that as the temperature of
asource of light increases, the position of the wave length of maxi-
mum intensity in its spectrum shifts toward the violet end of the
spectrum, and from the exact position in the spectrum of the wave
length of maximum intensity the temperature of a source of light may
be ascertained. In this way it appears that the sun’s temperature
is of the order of 6,000° C., or nearly twice the temperature of the
are light. It is also possible, by means of the measurement of the
solar constant of radiation, to determine the sun’s temperature. In
this way also values of the order of 6,000° C. are found.
The surface of the sun is not equally bright from one edge to the
other. This is shown plainly on solar photographs, as was pointed
InFRA-RED INFRA-RED Sieg =o Sea B
ED LUE-GREEN
az 155m 4 =.986 ie Ga
ULTRA-VIOLET
Ae.37 le
ria. 4.—Brightness distribution along sun’s diameter for different colors.
out in relation to plate 1, but a more careful study of the matter
is being made by the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian
Institution, at its station on Mount Wilson, by the aid of the bolom-
eter. Plate 4, figure 1, shows the observing station of the Astro-
physical Observatory, and the reader will see a tower which has been
erected upon it, in which is a vertical telescope for forming a large
image of the sun. By stopping the clockwork, this image is allowed
to drift across the sht of the spectro-bolometer. Thereby an auto-
matic record is produced of the distribution of radiation of any
selected wave length from one edge of the sun along the diameter to
the opposite edge. Such observations are shown in figure 4. The
distribution of radiation is given for five different wave lengths.
It is seen that there is a marked contrast of brightness, especially
for violet rays. Here the edge of the sun’s disk is hardly half as
bright as the center. The contrast of brightness diminishes with the
increasing wave length of the light examined, and for the infra-red
rays is comparatively small. Experiments are being made on every
day on which the solar constant of radiation is determined, in order
to see if there is a change of contrast in brightness along the diameter
THE RADIATION OF THE SUN—ABBOT. 151
of the sun, accompanying the change of the intensity of the sun’s
radiation. Changes of contrast along the sun’s diameter have already
been found, but it is not yet decided whether they agree in point of
time with the changes in the intensity of the solar radiation.1
NATURE OF THE SUN.
In view of what has been said, what is the nature of the sun? It
appears, in consideration of its high temperature and low density,
to be a great ball of incandescent gases. Of course, the pressure is
so enormous that the gases approach the density of liquids. These
gases are so hot as to exceed in temperature anything that we have
upon the earth’s surface. It must not be supposed, however, that
they are burning gases like the burning of illuminating gas in air.
The temperature on the sun’s surface is so high that in general no
compounds of elements are occurring there. If the ordinary com-
pounds, for instance, products of combustion like carbonic-acid gas,
should be present on the sun, the elements of which they are com-
posed would separate, one from another, owing to the enormous tem-
perature. As the sun gives off radiation, it tends to cool, and it may
well be asked why, in the course of the millions of years which geolo-
gists tell us have elapsed since the earth reached.substantially its
present temperature, the sun should not have cooled off entirely. A
partial source for this immense quantity of energy was suggested by
Kant and discussed at length by Helmholtz, who showed that the
enormous gravitation of the sun, tending to condense the gases and
bring them toward its center, must, for every decrease of tempera-
ture and consequent shrinking up of the volume of the sun, produce
a certain quantity of energy. This source of the sun’s energy, how-
ever, seems insufficient to account for that which geologists demand
us to concede. It may be that the secret of the matter is in the
breaking up of the atoms, such as is now found to occur with the
element radium.
If the sun is gaseous, the question naturally arises why it presents
so sharp and round a boundary. The roundness of the sun is only
~ what would be expected in view of its gravitation. The sharpness
of its boundary seems explainable as follows: Gases, although very
transparent, are not perfectly so, so that in the case of the earth the
atmosphere above Mount Wilson transmits only about 95 per cent
of the yellow light. If, then, 5 per cent of the sun’s radiation in the
yellow is cut off by the earth’s atmosphere, it follows that a layer of
the sun’s gases only a few thousand miles thick would be sufficient
to prevent us from seeing any deeper. This 3,000 or 4,000 miles of
thickness, as we look at the center of the sun, will extend vertically
1 Experiments of 45 days in 1913 indicated that there is such agreement in point of time. Thus the sun’s
variability from day to day is again independently confirmed.
152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
downward, but at the edge of the sun we look obliquely, and there
the 3,000 or 4,000 miles will all be found in a layer of the sun perhaps
not more than 100 miles in thickness. In a body 800,000 miles in
diameter a thickness of 100 miles is practically negligible, certainly
so for any telescopic observations which can be made from the earth,
hence, naturally, the boundary of the sun is seen to be sharp.
The contrast of brightness between the center and the edge of the
sun follows at once from what has just been said. For at the center
we look far deeper than at the edge, and, naturally, see thereby gases
which are much hotter than those which are perceived in the com-
paratively superficial layer which is seen at the sun’s edge. Attending
the increase of temperature there must be an increase of brightness,
and this will be greater for red and infra-red rays than for violet and
ultra-violet rays, in accordance with laboratory experiments on the
relations of radiation and temperature. Thus the contrast of bright-
ness between the center and the edge of the sun will be greater in the
red and infra-red than in the violet and ultra-violet.
The sun spots appear to be whirlpools where the gases of the interior
are pouring out toward the exterior in forms similar to a waterspout.
They are cooled by expansion as they reach the surface, and the par-
tial vacuum formed in the center of the whirl sucks in the superincum-
bent and very light gases, hydrogen and calcium, above the sun’s
surface. The magnetic field found by Hale in sun spots is due, no
doubt, to the rotation of the electrically charged material in the spots.
The solar spectrum, with its numerous dark lines, is due to the pres-
ence of the gases of the chemical elements which are found upon the
earth. These gases are cooler at the boundary of the sun than they
are within, where the principal part of the light comes from, hence,
as noted above, the effect will be to produce dark lines on a bright
background. The irregular mottled appearance of the sun’s surface
is probably due to differences of temperature which exist in so great
a body, and thereby produce variations in brightness of different
parts.
It is impossible to go further and touch upon the very interesting
questions connected with the sun’s place among the stars, the de-
pendence of plant growth upon solar radiation, and the relations
between the temperature of the earth and the radiation of the sun.
These matters, and many details, which it has been impossible to
mention in this short account, are discussed by the writer in a book
entitled ‘‘The Sun,” to which and to the original sources of informa-
tion and to longer treatises the interested reader is invited to turn.
MODERN THEORIES OF THE SUN.!
By Jean Boster,
Astronomer at the Meudon Observatory.
[With 2 plates.]
It is the sun alone among all the stars that we can ever hope to
see in detail. It alone can aid us in understanding all the others
and throw light on their evolution. Furthermore, whatever our ideas
may once have been, they had no solid experimental basis until the
invention of the spectroscope toward the middle of the last century.
This remarkable discovery taught us that there was something
further to observe in the sun than the spots, the facule, and the
prominences visible at the eclipses; the appearance of these phe-
nomena to the eye has therefore lost something of the exclusive
interest it formerly usurped. The Janssen-Lockyer method of
utilizing the monochromatic hydrogen light from the prominences
had already enabled us to see them at any time on the limb of the
solar disk. The spectro-heliograph, based upon a bold and ingenious
generalization of analogous principles, now reveals to us in the
flocculi (pl. 2, fig. 1), the filaments and alignments (pl. 2, fig. 2),
new phenomena formerly invisible which, perhaps, equal or even
surpass in importance the spots and facule. It is on these new
appearances that the interest of the present-day astronomer is
especially centered.
Our knowledge of the constitution of the sun is naturally increased
by all this progress. The fact that the solar spectrum is made up of
black lines upon a bright continuous background shows, according
to Kirchhoff’s law, the existence of a very hot source of light sur-
rounded by a cooler absorbing layer of gas. The latter produces in
the spectrum the lines of a great number of terrestrial substances—
iron, hydrogen, calcium, magnesium, sodium, etc. Its inner portion,
situated close to the brilliant photosphere, has been called the revers-
ing layer. It contains the heavier elements, while the outer layer or
chromosphere contains principally hydrogen and calcium. Farther
1 Summary of two lectures delivered Apr. 11, 1913, and Jan. 9, 1914, at the observatory of the Société
Astronomique de France. Translated by permission from L’ Astronomie, 28th year, February, 1914, Paris.
153
154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
out yet, extending a distance of several solar radii, is found the
corona which we have not yet succeeded in observing except at total
eclipses of the sun (pl. 1).
PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE SUN.
Formerly the continuous background of the solar spectrum was
attributed to an incandescent solid or liquid nucleus. The prevalent
theory at present is that the sun is entirely gaseous. For this belief
there are several good reasons: Apart from the mean low density of
this star (1.4 relative to water), its temperature is, as we shall see,
higher than that at which all known bedies volatilize. Further, a
sphere not gaseous but solid or liquid would near its edge emit
polarized light, of which we observe not a trace. Finally, the way
in which the sun rotates is in complete contradiction to a rotating
rigid solid body. The objection based upon the continuous back-
ground of the spectrum alone remains. This was overcome when it
was found that gases can give such a spectrum. The bright lines in
the spectrum of a gas are narrow and separate when the gas is under
a weak pressure, but they broaden as soon as the pressure is increased,
and, finally, a continuous background appears which may indeed
become very bright.
We find, therefore, that in order to account for the observed facts
it is sufficient to assume that the heavy vapors gather at the center,
where they are under great pressure, while, according to their densi-
ties, the lighter gases in successive layers make up the outer portions.
This explanation, however, has not satisfied all, and physicists ask
whether the great diffusive tendencies in a gas would not finally tend
to transform the whole mass into a perfectly homogeneous mixture.
Further, the form of the sun, so perfectly round and, moreover, so
sharp, requires an explanation which the laws of refraction for a
moment seemed to give and about which we will say a word.
We know that in our own atmosphere the path of a beam of light
is curved by refraction, especially when the beam is near the horizon.
(Fig. 1.) Now we may conceive (theory of Schmidt) that the law of
densities in the sun’s atmosphere is such that, when the beam of light
is sufficiently inclined to the vertical, the path is so curved that it
never leaves the sun. (Fig. 2.) On such a star, in the upper very
rare layers, everything would appear as on the earth; in the lower
layers, however, only those rays near the vertical would succeed in
escaping. These two regions would evidently be separated by
another where the luminous trajectories would encircle the star
many times before emerging. (Fig. 3.) It is this very thin layer
which, according to Schmidt, constitutes the photosphere. Further,
the dark lines of the spectrum may be explained by the optical
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Bosler.
PLATE 1.
Fic. 1.—SOLAR CORONA: ECLIPSE OF MAY 28, 1900 (PERIOD OF MINIMUM ACTIVITY
Drawn by M. W.-H. Wesley, from photographs by M. Maunder.
NIP
)> y
SIP ; ae
i
/
ie
Fic. 2.—LINE OF FORCE OF A SPHERE UNIFORMLY MAGNETIZED.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Bosler. PLATE 2.
P. N.
P.S.
FIG. 1.-—FLOCCULI OF CALCIUM, JULY 1, 1906.
P. N.
P. S.
Fi@. 2.—FILAMENTS AND ALIGNMENTS OF HYDROGEN, APRIL 11, 1910.
Photographs of the sun, taken with spectroheliograph.
MODERN THEORIES OF THE SUN—BOSLER. 155
phenomenon of anomalous dispersion,’ which accounts also for the
winged appearance of their edges (Julius). This same theory offers
also an explanation of the divers aspects of the chromosphere, the
flocculi, the prominences, as well as, though less satisfactorily, the
spots.
All that is very ingenious. Unfortunately this explanation of the
photosphere assumes that there is no absorption of light in the sun.
Further, the lines of the spectrum produced by anomalous dispersion
should be unsymmetrical, and theyare not. Although somephysicists
remain faithful to these new theories resting on anomalous dispersion,
fascinated by their elegance, astronomers who actually see the sun
_ Observer,
A
\
\
\
Central |
Regions
Fie. 1. Fia. 2. Fig. 3.
and observe the effects due to perspective can not believe in such a
great optical delusion. They therefore generally cling to those ideas
which were held in the first place and which have become classical.
SOLAR HEAT.
Our ideas as to the temperature of the sun remained for a long
while in an unsatisfactory state until science made the decisive step
which was to insure a good solution. We can not tell the temperature
of a body at a distance except by means of some hypothesis as to
the emissive power of its surface. But we may agree to call the
effective temperature of a distant body that of a “black body”
having by definition a maximum emissive and absorbing power at
all temperatures and which, if situated at the same place, would send
us the same amount of heat.
The theoretical and experimental study of ‘black bodies” has
shown that their radiation is proportional to the fourth power of
their absolute temperature (Stefan’s law). This leads us to measure
the amount of heat per unit time and unit surface which the sun
sends us—that is, the ‘‘ solar constant.’’ It is about 2 small calories
1 Wecan not here enter much into details, for which we must refer thereader to special treatiseson thesun.
156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
per square centimeter per mimute and corresponds to an effective
temperature of a little less than 6,000 degrees absolute (Centigrade).
Another method based upon the wave-length of the most intense
radiation in the solar spectrum (Wien’s law), always assuming an
emission from a black body, leads to a like result.
This is very far, as you see, from the millons of degrees formerly
supposed. It does not mean, however, that the heat sent out from
the sun is not enormous. We may well ask by what means this
immense loss of energy is compensated. It is indeed impossible that
the sun should burn like an immense block of coal. The most intense
combustion revealed to us by the chemist, for example, that of gun
cotton, would not suffice to feed this radiation for more than a few
thousands of years. We must look elsewhere: <A rain of asteroids
has been suggested, which by its kinetic energy would restore the
lost heat to the sun. Such an hypothesis is not possible. The mass
of the sun would increase indefinitely and the planets should show
an unobserved acceleration. The sun, however, as Helmholtz sup-
posed, could contract little by little, changing mto heat the internal
energy of the primitive nebula of Laplace. A contraction of 30
meters per year would suffice to explain all. Unfortunately, a very
suggestive calculation shows that all the heat that the sun could
thus develop since its origin, by any mechanical process whatever,
would not sustain the radiation for more than 15 million years.
And the world is very much older than that, at least so the geologists
affirm. Their arguments, taken separately, do not seem without
value; but what is more remarkable, they all tend, by different
paths, to lead us to admit a past very much longer than 100 million
years, figuring perhaps into thousand millions. We must apparently
search in the interior of the atoms themselves for the source of
the solar heat. The infinitely small, as Pascal said, will explain the
infinitely great.
The intraatomic energy is indeed enormous and the sun, as well as
many of the stars, shows in abundance one of the most characteristic
elements of radioactive transtormations—helium. 'The mechanism of
the radiation, it is true, remains unknown. But the necessity of such
an explanation will perhaps not be so imperious in the near future.
The problem tends to assume a new aspect of the highest philo-
sophical import. The physicists of the new school are disposed to
admit and appear to have proved a fundamental identity ' between
the mass of a body and its internal energy. If matter is no more
than energy, we may foresee what a beautiful simplicity physics may
sometime assume. On this basis the sun would possess a total energy
(easy to calculate since we know its mass) of 2 X 10° ergs, assuring
e 1 Of course on the condition of the suitable choice of units.
MODERN THEORIES OF THE SUN—BOSLER. 157
to it a duration in the future of several hundred billion centuries with
the present loss of energy by radiation. It would then without doubt
die of good old age unless destroyed by direct collision with some
other star.t. But let us not trouble ourselves about this and come
back to our subject.
INTERIOR EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SUN.
A mass of gas subject only to the mutual gravitation of its parts,
such as is the sun, tends to assume a spherical shape. The resultant
of the attracting forces at each point is then directed toward the
center. However, there are two particular ways in which this equi-
librium may become established. In an immobile fluid the temper-
ature can be equalized only through conductivity, and if that is
high, the temperature will everywhere be finally the same. This is an
isothermal equilibrium. If, on the other hand, the fluid mass is subject
to convection currents and the conductivity is negligible, the temper-
ature will differ at different places and depend upon the local pressure.?
This is an adiabatic equilibrium.
Now, the sun is gaseous and gases are generally very poor con-
‘ductors for heat. Moreover, the loss of heat by radiation is relatively
very small. Further, the sun seems subject to incessant movements
of which the spots and facyle are evidence. Therefore, it must be
in adiabatic equilibrium. Postulating this, we may study mathe-
matically the distribution of pressures and temperatures in the
interior of a star formed thus of a perfect gas when we know its total
mass, its mean density and peripheral pressure (supposed to be zero).
With these data known, the problem admits of solution and the
pressures and temperatures will be found to increase very rapidly
toward the center. For instance, for a sun composed of hydrogen,
assumed monatomic at high temperatures, the density at the center
will be about 8, the pressure 8 billion atmospheres, and the temper-
ature 24 million degrees. Similar calculations give for other gases
results of the same order of magnitude. This is all we may hope to
obtain.
One point to be noted is that all this assumes an apparent contour
to the sun, which takes away from Schmidt’s theory one of its most
_ seducing advantages. But there is something better: The sun radi-
ates toward us and yet the quotient of the heat lost by the lowering
of the temperature may in certain cases be negative; that is, the
more heat the sun sends to us the warmer it may get. This is called
the ‘paradox of Lane” and it is a good one. However, we have
here a complex effect very analogous to the accelerating action of a
1 Such as was considered by .M. P. Salet in his article in the Revue du Mois (1911), ‘‘Le soleil doit-il
s’éteindre?’”’ (Will the sun become extinguished ?).
2 A gas compressed in a receiver impermeable to heat becomes heated, when expanded, cooled.
158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
resisting medium upon the velocity of a planet or comet,’ an effect
often cited in the case of Encke’s comet.
The theory of Lane takes no account of the rotation of the sun
which is 25 times slower than that
NP of the earth. M.Emden, taking his
suggestion from Helmholtz, has filled
Spot this gap and shown that, the given
conditions remaining the same, the
gaseous mass would separate into
discontinuous layers slipping con-
tinuously upon each other and. hay-
ing the form of hyperboloids of one
sheet.? (Fig. 4.) In the middle lati-
tudes the slipping would be the
greatest. This slipping produces
through friction deep-seated eddies
which could be the initial causes of
sun spots and give a remarkable ex-
planation of the zones in which they appear. Indeed, this seems to
be the best explanation of the whole phenomenon.
SIP
Fie. 4.
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC PHENOMENA.
We haveso far treated only of the mechanical and optical phenomena
of thesun. But we have every reason to suppose that the sun exhibits
electric phenomena. All hot bodies do. Metals in particular (but
not they alone) at high temperatures emit negatively charged particles
(electrons) in great abundance. Richardson and Harker, at tem-
peratures of about 1,500° obtained currents of 1 ampere per square
centimeter of heated surface. The law connecting the current with
the temperature is exponential. The emission from the sun must
therefore be considerable. Further, the spectrum of the chromosphere
includes a great number of lines which can be reproduced in the
laboratory only by electrical processes. Finally, the sun spots have
an undoubted although indirect influence upon terrestrial magnetism
which is shown by the general concordance between the magnetic
variations and the’ frequency of sun spots.2 We are thus almost
inevitably led to conclude that the sun is magnetized, an hypothesis
incompatible with its high temperature, or, and this is mfinitely more
probable, that it is the seat of huge convection currents of charged
matter.
1It would seem at first sight as if a resistance ought to diminish the velocity. And so it would in an
indeformable orbit as a consequence of the decrease of total energy. However, here the orbit is not invari-
able and the interdependence of the elements alters the case in every way.
2 The aspect of the corona especially toward the poles sometimes resembles these.
2? We know that the latter vary periodically each eleven years.
MODERN THEORIES OF THE SUN——BOSLER. 159
It seems extremely probable therefore that the solar matter is
electrified. The radiation pressure which, as Maxwell demonstrated
and experiment confirmed, is exercised upon any body struck by
light, helps in the expulsion of the charged particles. The wings and
filaments of the corona are doubtless due to this force which also
explains the tails of comets. They are probably real cathode rays
which the least magnetic field will deviate (M. Deslandres) and which
volute around the lines of force. The corona thus gives us an image
of the general magnetic field of the sun analogous to the terrestrial
magnetic field (a sphere uniformly magnetized) and also similar
to that of a rotating sphere electrically charged (pl. 1, figs. 1, 2).
Along another line of reasoning, the interpretation of the prominences
has shared in these new notions. It has been thought strange that
a gas should have ve-
locities of upwards of
a hundred kilometers a ; !
second. But in an ion- ;
ized gas only an infini- i notosphep,
tesimal number of the ;
molecules participate in ,
sending out the light :
(Perot). These few may {
alone have the enor-
mous velocities within
a gas itself almost immobile, just as is the case of the canal rays of
a Crookes’ tube.
A brilliant discovery in America in 1908 throws further light on all
these theories. Hale, by means of the Zeeman phenomenon, has
shown, within the nuclei of sun spots, magnetic fields of 3,000 or 4,000
Gausses, roughly normal to the surface and explaining perfectly
the enlargements and doublings of the corresponding lines in the
spectrum. Indeed, these magnetic fields seem to be vortices of
electrified matter: the ionization would have to be no more intense
than that observed in the laboratory either in vacuum tubes or in the
neighborhood of hot bodies.
Connected with this same line of thought is the study of the radial
velocities in the various chromospheric layers. This has permitted
Deslandres, Evershed, and St. John to investigate the phenomena
occurring in sun spots. Above the penumbra, the absorbing vapors
spread out from the center of the spot parallel to the surface; arriving
at the peripheral facula, they rise, come back higher toward the center
(fig. 5) and are finally engulfed within the cavity (nucleus) of the spot
where other researches have shown relatively low temperatures.
As in the case of eddies in rivers, the cause of this suction may be
looked for in the subjacent whirlpools, the very ones which probably
; Penumbra Nucleus )Fenumbra 1
I
I
'
|
!
!
I
I
|
I
J
I
|
Fia. 5.
160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
develop the magnetic fields and which the theory of Emden so nicely
predicts.
Very recently these researches have been extended and it is thought
that the evidence shows that there is about the sun a magnetic
field analogous to that about the earth. We have just spoken of this
in connection with the corona, but it should be further manifested both
in the Zeeman phenomena and the helicoidal movements in the prom-
inences. These experiments are not at present fully completed and
their discussion is in progress. We just call your atteation to them.
In the case of the sun, where so to speak, all the resources of modern
physics have been given rendezvous, we find ourselves very far from
the huge ball of fire which our fathers naively believed they saw.
There is no doubt that we have to do with one of the most powerful
creative organs of nature and the more we advance the greater the
-mysteries seem to become. Fortunately this is only apparently so.
As science advances, new questions appear before indeed the older
ones, often badly put, are solved. But the latter often lose their
interest, and as we proceed many untenabie hypotheses which dark-
ened our path are destroyed. And so, little by little, the knowledge
we have of things progresses with a tidal motion which will doubtless
end only with humanity.
THE FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH.
By Louis B. Stewart, D. T.S.
The beginnings of astronomy probably date from the earliest
development of the human intellect; and that it should be the oldest
of the sciences need not be a matter for surprise when we consider
the striking and interesting nature of its phenomena and the numerous
services which it renders to mankind. Among the many questions
requiring answers that would present themselves to a thoughtful
observer possibly one of the first was that of the form and magnitude
of our earth.
To a spectator placed upon an eminence the earth, as far as it
could be seen, appeared as a level plain, after making due allowance
for minor inequalities, so that primitive man regarded the earth as
flat, surrounded by an otherwise shoreless ocean. The sun at setting
plunged beneath this ocean to reappear at the opposite side of the
horizon at rising the following day. To allow for his passage beneath
the earth it was conceived that the latter was supported by pillars
between which the sun passed during his nightly journey. Thus the
Greeks explained the motion of the sun, and they claimed that they
were indebted to the Egyptians for their astronomical knowledge.
The teaching of the Hindoos was even more fanciful than that of
the Greeks. They taught that the earth is in the form of a hemi-
sphere, resting with its flat surface on the backs of four elephants which
in their turn stood upon the back of a gigantic tortoise. The question:
What supports the tortoise ? received the answer: The endless ocean.
The too curious inquirer who wished to know what supports the ocean,
was met with the reply that it extends all the way to the bottom.
As there is no statement that has come down to us concerning the
nature of the bottom or to what it is indebted for its support, we must
infer that the last answer stilled all further inquiry.
Leaving these fanciful theories, we find that in comparatively early
times more correct views as to the form of the earth were held by some
philosophers, based no doubt upon the reports of phenomena observed
by mariners and travelers, who found that the highest promontories
disappeared from view as they drew away from the land; that a ship
gradually vanished below the horizon in a manner that precluded the
idea of a flat earth; that the sea horizon always appears circular.
These and other phenomena, such as the varying meridian altitudes
1 Retiring president’s address, annual meeting, Jan. 13. 1914. Reprinted by permission from the Journal
of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, January-February, 1914.
73176°—smM 1914 11 161
162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
of stars as one travels in a north or south direction, must have given
rise to a belief in the curvature of the earth in the minds of early
astronomers. Thales, and after him Aristotle, is said to have taught
the sphericity of the earth, and it is not surprising that we soon find
attempts being made to determine its dimensions.
To Eratosthenes is due the honor of being the first of whom we have
any record to make an estimate of the circumference of the earth
based upon measurement. He was born at Syene, in southern Egypt,
in the year 276 B. C., and, his ability being early recognized by
Ptolemy Euergetes, he was placed by him in charge of the Alexandrine
library. His geodetic measures consisted in noting that at Syene, at
the time of the summer solstice, the sun passed through the zenith
of the place, as was shown by a vertical object casting no shadow;
while at the same time at Alexandria such an object cast a shadow of
such a length as to show that the sun’s rays made an angle with the
vertical equal to one-fiftieth of a whole circumference. He concluded,
then, that as the two places were nearly on the same meridian the dis-
tance between them is one-fiftieth of the whole circumference of the
earth. The distance being estimated at 5,000 stadia, the circumfer-
ence of the earth becomes 250,000 stadia. As we do not know the
precise length of his stadium, we are unable to estimate the accuracy
of this determination. We now know that the longitudes of the two
places differed by 3°; also the amplitude of his are was too small by
15’. Notwithstanding these sources of inaccuracy, however, great
credit is due to him for inaugurating a correct method for determining
the dimensions of the earth.
Cleomedes, to whom we are indebted for the account of Eratos-
thenes’s operations, suggested that if two gnomons be set up at two
places on the same meridian the lengths of their shadows on the
same day would serve to determine the amplitude of the are joining
the places. His suggestion thus contained the germ of the method
used at the present day to measure the length of a meridian arc.
According to the same writer, another determination of the earth’s
circumference was made by Posidonius about a century and a half
later. This observer noticed that at Rhodes the bright star Canopus
just appeared in the horizon when at meridian passage, while at
Alexandria it had an altitude equal to one forty-eighth of a circum-
ference. As the distance between the two places was estimated
to be 5,000 stadia, the whole circumference becomes 240,000 stadia.
From this time interest in the sciences in Egypt and Greece appears
to have languished, and during the Dark Ages the only country in
which astronomical science was cultivated appears to have been
Arabia. In the year 814 an Arabian caliph proposed to his astrono-
mers the problem of measuring an are of the meridian. From a
selected spot on the plain of Singar, near the Arabian Gulf, one party
FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF EARTH—STEWART. 163
was dispatched northward and another southward, each with instruc-
tions to measure as they went and continue their work until the
altitude of the pole was observed to have changed by 1°. The
northern party found 56 miles and the southern party 562 miles
as the length of 1°. The English equivalent of the latter value,
which was accepted as being the most accurate, is about 71 miles.
It was not until the sixteenth century that Europe, having
awakened from the lethargy of the Dark Ages to new intellectual
life, entered upon the era of development of which we have not yet
seen the end. Among the various activities in which this newly
found energy sought an outlet may be noted the exploration of
foreign lands. America had been discovered, and in 1521 Magellan
had completed the circumnavigation of the globe; and it may have
been this latter achievement that turned men’s attention to the
problem of determining the earth’s dimensions.
In 1525 Jean Fernel, court physician to Henry IJ of France, and a
cultivator of. the mathematical sciences, measured the length of a
meridian arc near Paris. His method was so crude as to be but a
slight advance upon those of the ancient astronomers which have
already been considered. He measured the length of his are by
counting the revolutions of a carriage wheel while driving from one
end of it to the other; and his astronomical observations were made
with a triangle used as a quadrant. He found the length of 1° to be
365,088 feet, a result very near the truth.
It is not proposed to give an exhaustive account of all the geodetic
surveys of the last three centuries, but only to notice briefly those
that embodied some improvement in method or were important
in their results.
A great advance upon previous methods was now for the first
time made by Snellius, who employed the method of triangulation
to measure the length of a meridian arc, the method which has been
in use ever since, and is superior to all others on account of its accu-
racy and cheapness, combined with adaptability to any country,
whatever its nature. He measured a base with a chain between
Leyden and Soeterwood, and his chain of triangles, 33 in number,
extended from Alemaar to Bergen-op-Zoom. This distance, pro-
jected upon a meridian, gave a meridian are having an amplitude
of 1° 11’ 05’’, which made the length of 1° to be 55,074 toises, a toise
being equal to 6.3946 English feet. His angles were measured with a
graduated semicircle 34 feet in diameter, and his latitudes observed
with a quadrant 53 feet in diameter, neither of these instruments
being provided with a vernier or telescope sight, as neither had been
invented at that time. It was not to be expected under those cir-
cumstances that his result would be remarkable for precision, in
spite of the precautions which he took to secure it; in fact, his length
164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of a degree is in error by about 2,000 toises. Though his triangles
were solved as plane triangles, neglecting spherical excess, the
labor involved in their solution will be realized when we remember
that at that time logarithms had not been invented.
The first attempt at degree measurement in England was made
by Norwood about 1635. He measured with a chain the distance
from London to York, occasionally, however, resorting to pacing,
and determined his latitudes by observing altitudes of the sun on
the same day, June 11, in the years 1633 and 1635. His adoption
of Fernel’s method instead of following in the path marked out by
Sneliius, is to be regarded as a retrograde step, in spite of the fact
that his value of a degree, 367,176 feet, or 57,420 toises, is so near
the truth. Its accuracy, however, must have been the result of a
compensation of errors.
Another improvement was now introduced by Picard, who used,
in 1669, telescope sights on his angle-measuring instrument. He
measured a base line with wooden rods of 5,663 toises, and a base
of verification of length 3,902 toises, and his triangulation extended
from Malvoisine, near Paris, to Sourdon, near Amiens. His result
for the length of 1° was 57,060 toises.
Picard’s work was rendered famous in another way, in that it
furnished Newton with data by which he was enabled to establish
the law of universal gravitation. About 1665, when he had retired
from Cambridge to his home at Woolsthorpe on account of the
ereat plague, his thoughts were first turned to the subject of gravity.
Reasoning from Kepler’s laws he readily proved that the planets
are kept in their orbits by an attractive force directed to the sun
whose intensity varies inversely as the square of the distance. It
at once occurred to him that if this law is universal it must be in
virtue of it that the moon is retained in her orbit about the earth;
that the distance through which the moon falls toward the earth,
or is deflected from a tangent to her orbit, in a unit of time stands
in a simple relation to that through which a body falls in the same
time near the earth’s surface.
To be more explicit, the distance through which a body falls
in a given time varies directly as the attractive force and the square
of the time. The moon’s distance is 60 radii of the earth; therefore
the force of the earth’s attraction acting upon it is only 1/3,600 of its
value at the earth’s surface, so that the moon falls in ene second
only 1/3,600 as far as a body at the earth’s surface. In one minute,
or 60 seconds, it will fall 3,600 times as far as in one second; there-
fore the moon should fall as far in one minute as a body near the
earth’s surface falls in one second, or 16 feet.
Newton, however, by assuming 60 miles to a degree, the value
used by navigators at that time, found only 14 feet for that quantity.
FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF EARTH—STEWART. 165
He considered, therefore, the discrepancy a proof of the maccuracy
of the law of the inverse square, and laid aside for the time his inves-
tigations in that direction. In January, 1672, at a meeting of the
Royal Society, the result of Picard’s work was mentioned, giving 69.1
miles as the length of a degree, and Newton was able to revise his
calculations, with the result that his hypothesis was amply verified.
This is generally supposed to have led to the publication of the
Principia, which laid the foundation of gravitational astronomy,
though some affirm that Newton delayed the publication of his great
work until he had proved that a spherical body attracts an outside
body as if all of its matter were concentrated at its center.
Up to this time the size of the earth had been investigated on the
supposition that its form is spherical, and that it is therefore only
necessary to measure the length of a degree on its surface in order to
determine its dimensions. A discovery was made, however, by
Richer (1672) which turned the attention of astronomers to the
possibility that its form may deviate materially from that of a sphere.
He had been sent by the Academy of Sciences of Paris to the Island
of Cayenne to make certain astronomical determinations, and while
there he found that his clock, which had been regulated in Paris to
keep correct time, lost about two and one-half minutes daily, so that
it was necessary to shorten the pendulum by one and one-fourth lines
to make it beat seconds. His report was received with doubt until
confirmed by the subsequent observations of Halley, Varin, and
Deshayes on the coasts of Africa and America. The phenomenon
was first explained by Newton in the third book of the Principia, where
he showed that it is the result of a decrease in the force of gravity in
the neighborhood of the equator due to increased distance from the
center of the earth combined with the effect of centrifugal force. He
also investigated the figure of the earth and showed that it must be
an oblate spheroid. As a consequence of this the lengths of the
degrees of latitude must increase with the latitude.
Between the years 1684 and 1718, Picard’s triangulation was
extended by J. and D. Cassini southward as far as Colidoure and
northward to Dunkirk, making a total amplitude of 8° 31’. The
northern portion of the arc, having an amplitude of 2° 12”, gave
56,960 toises as the length of a degree, while the southern portion
gave 57,097 toises. These results seemed to negative the theoretical
conclusions reached by Newton in the Principia, and to point to the
prolate spheroid as representing the true form of the earth. A heated
controversy arose in consequence, and in the excitement thus occa-
sioned, as well as from a desire to know the truth of the matter, the
Academy of Sciences resolved to apply a crucial test of the rival
theories by measuring a meridian are at the equator and another at
the Arctic Cirele.
a
166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Two parties were accordingly organized; one composed of Mau-
pertuis, Clairaut, Camus, Le Monnier, the Abbé Outhier, and Celsius,
being commissioned to measure an arc in Lapland; and the other,
composed of Godin, Bouguer, and de la Condamine, a meridian are in
Peru.
The polar party landed at the town of Tornea at the mouth of the
river of the same name in the beginning of July, 1736. They began
by exploring the river, and finding that the course of its valley is
nearly north and south and flanked on either side by high mountains,
they resolved to establish the stations of their triangulation on these
mountains. The tops had to be cleared of timber, and the signals
were constructed in the form of cones composed of several large trees
denuded of their bark, their white surfaces being thus visible at a
distance of 10 or 12 leagues. The angles were measured with a
quadrant having a radius of 2 feet, whose accuracy they verified by
measuring all the angles at a station that close the horizon. The
three angles of each triangle were also measured, and also check
angles, which were sums or differences of necessary angles at a
station.
The measurement of the angles occupied 63 days, and on September
9 the party reached Kittis, the most northerly station, and made
preparations for their astronomical work. ‘Two small observatories
were built, one of which contained a small transit instrument and a
clock, the former instrument being set up exactly over the center of
the station. The transit instrument was used in determining’ time
and the azimuths of the two stations visible from the observing
station. The other observatory contained a zenith sector having a
telescope 9 feet in length which was used in determining the difference
of the latitude of the two terminal stations. Observations of 0
Draconis, which passed near the zenith of the place, were taken
between October 4 and 10. The party then proceeded to Tornea and
commenced observations on the same star on November 1, finishing
on the 5th. Their instrument gave the difference of zenith distance
of the star as observed at the two stations; this difference, corrected
for aberration, precession, and nutation, gave the amplitude of the are
57’ 26:93.’
The final operation was now the measurement of the base line.
This had been intentionally postponed until winter, as its site had
been so chosen that the greater part of its length lay along the River
Tornea, its extremities only being on land. The frozen river. would
thus afford a level surface upon which to carry on their measurement
The party had brought with them from Paris a standard toise, called
afterwards the ‘‘Toise of the North,” which, with another taken by
the Peruvian party, had been carefully adjusted to be at standard
length at 14° Reaumer. By careful comparison with this standard
FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF EARTH—STEWART. 167
they prepared eight wooden rods each five toises in length and termi-
nating in metal studs, which were used in measuring the base.
This work was begun on December 21, the party having been
divided into two, each taking four rods and working independently, *
the rods probably being laid upon the snow with their ends in contact.
The difference between the measurements was only 4 inches in a
length of 7,406.86 toises.
It only remained now to compute the length of the meridian are
contained between the parallels of the two terminal stations. This
was found to be 55,023.5 toises.
Seeing that the resulting length of a degree would be far in excess
of that in the latitude of Paris, they submitted their work to a rigid
examination. An investigation of the division errors of the are of
their sector was made, and the amplitude of their are redetermined
increasing it to 57’ 30.42’’.. Observations for azimuth were made at
Tornea, and it was found that the resulting azimuth differed by 34’
from the value computed through the triangulation from the observa-
tions at Kittis; but this would have but a trifling effect upon the
length of the meridian are.
Their final value for the length of a degree was 57,437.9 toises.
Meanwhile the Peruvian party had selected as the scene of their
operations the valley in which Quito is situated, and which lies be-
tween the double range of mountains into which the Andes are there
divided. By placing the stations of their triangulation alternately
on opposite sides of the valley, they were able to form extremely well-
conditioned triangles, though the labor involved in occupying the
stations may be inferred from the fact that seven of them were sit-
uated at heights exceeding 14,000 feet. A base line was measured
near each extremity of their chain of triangles, the northern base
being near Quito, and having a length of 7.6 miles, and the southern
base a length of 6.4 miles. In their astronomical work they observed
the absolute zenith distances of stars, thus finding the latitudes of
their terminal stations, and not merely their difference of latitude.
The same stars, however, were observed at the two stations, so that
their difference of latitude was unaffected by errors in the star places.
The amplitude of their are was 3° 07’ 01’’, and its length 176,945
toises, thus giving 56,753 toises as the length of 1° at the Equator,
which was about 685 toises shorter than the value found in Lapland,
the length of a degree in France being intermediate between these.
Thus was 1t demonstrated finally that the form of the earth is that
of an oblate spheroid, and subsequent arc measurements have only
served to confirm this conclusion.
The problem that now presented itself was the determination with
all possible precision of the exact dimensions of the terrestrial spheroid.
Geodetic surveys were soon in progress in every civilized country.
168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
On representations from Count Cassini de Thuri to the Royal
Society of London of the advantages that would be derived from the
extension of the French triangle chain into England, the British Ord-
*nance Survey was begun in 1784, and by 1851 the whole of the British
Isles was covered with a network of triangles. This triangulation,
however, as in the cases of all modern surveys, was designed to serve
the double purpose of arc measurement and also as the basis of an
accurate topographic survey.
The year 1791 saw the inception of the grandest project ever devised
for the establishment of a standard of length. Certain prominent
members of the Academy of Sciences, among whom were Laplace and
Lagrange, proposed to the Constituent Assembly of France—and
received their sanction—that the ten-millionth part of the earth’s
meridian quadrant be adopted as the national standard of length, to
be called the meter. It was further proposed that this length be
determined by the measurement of a meridian are extending from
Dunkirk to Barcelona, and comprising 9° 40’ of latitude. This was
accordingly carried out, the work being intrusted to Legendre and
Mechain, and the length of the arc was found to be 551,584.7 toises,
and its amplitude 9° 40’ 25’’.
The commission appointed to revise their calculations and to deter-
mine the length of the meridian quadrant combined this new French
arc with the Peruvian arc, and thus found for the length of the
meridian quadrant 5,130,766 toises, which gave as the length of the
meter 0.5130766 in parts of the toise of Peru.
It would be impossible even to notice briefly all the arc measure-
ments that were now made in different countries, each contributing
its quota to the growing mass of data for determining the earth’s
figure. It is sufficient to state that in 1799 Laplace made a deter-
mination of the elements of the spheroid based upon a discussion of
nine meridian arcs measured in Lapland, Holland, France, Austria,
Italy, Pennsylvania, Peru, and at the Cape of Good Hope. In this
discussion Laplace made use of the expression
d=A+B sin’
which gives the length of a degree of the meridian in a given latitude,
A and B being functions of the semiaxes. As only two such equa-
tions are necessary in order to determine the two unknowns, some
principle had to be assumed in order to obtain the best values from
all the measurements. Laplace adopted the principle that the un-
knowns should be determined so as to fulfill the conditions that when
substituted in the observation equations they should make the alge-
braic sum of the errors in d equal to zero, and their sum, when all
are taken positively, a minimum. This gave the expression
d=56,753+ 613.1 sin’
FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF EARTH-—STEWART. 169
for finding the length of a degree in any given latitude. On applying
this expression to the Lapland arc, however, it was found to give a
value 138 toises shorter than that found by observation, from which
Laplace concluded that the earth deviates considerably from the
spheroidal form. It must be mentioned, on the other hand, that in
1801 an expedition was sent from Stockholm in charge of Svanberg
with instructions to measure the Lapland are, with the result that
he found for the length of 1° a value about 200 toises less than that
found by Maupertuis, thus conforming more closely to the value
given by Laplace’s empirical formula.
During the nineteenth century geodetic work was carried on vig-
orously by every civilized nation, and great improvements were intro-
duced in instruments and methods. The result of this activity is that
we now have the following arcs available for investigating the earth’s
figure: The British-French arc, extending from the Shetland Isles
through France into Africa, and covering 27° 01’ of latitude; the
Russian are, extending from the Danube to the North Sea and having
an amplitude of 25° 20’; the arc of the parallel in latitude 52°, extend-
ing from the west coast of Ireland to the Ural Mountains and embrac-
ing 68° 55’ of longitude; the are lately measured in Spitzbergen
between latitudes 76° 38’ and 80° 50’ N., which is important on ac-
count of its high northern latitude; the Indian ares, including 24
meridian arcs and 7 arcs of parallels of latitude; the South African
arc; the Peruvian arc, lately remeasured; the American oblique are
following the Atlantic coast for a distance of 1,623 miles; the western
oblique are, extending along the Pacific coast; the are of the parallel
of latitude 39° N., extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific; the
ninety-eighth meridian arc, now well under way and to which Canada
and Mexico have been invited to contribute their shares and which
when complete will extend over 50° of latitude.
A proposal made by Sir David Gill should be here mentioned.
When director of the Royal Observatory at Cape Town he instituted
the project of extending the South African triangulation through
Natal and then on through the whole extent of the African Continent,
following the meridian of 30° of east longitude, to Cairo, and thence
on to connect with the Russian are on the Black Sea. This are will
have a total amplitude of 105°.
The application of the electric telegraph to longitude determination
has given measurements of ares of parallels of latitude an importance
in these investigations fully equal to that of meridian arc measure-
ments.
As additional data became available investigations were made from
time to time to determine the spheroid that would best represent the
measured arcs. The most important of these were those made by
Bessel in 1841; Col. A. R. Clarke, of the British Ordnance Survey, in
170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
1866, and another in 1880; and Helmert in 1887. Clarke in 1866 also
investigated the dimensions of the earth regarded as an ellipsoid hay-
ing three unequal axes, using the same data as in determining the
spheroid, and, as was to be expected, it satisfied the observations
better than the spheroid. The compression of the Equator—which
on this assumption is an ellipse of small eccentricity—was thus found
to be 1/3,281, and the longitude of one extremity of its major axis 15°
31’ KE. Another similar investigation made by Clarke in 1878 re-
duced the compression of the Equator to 1/13,706 and made the longi-
tude of an extremity of its major axis 8° 15’ W. The fact that the
use of additional data diminished the eccentricity of the Equator is
perhaps significant, showing that, disregarding local irregularities, the
earth probably departs but little from the spheroidal form.
Tt must not be inferred, however, that any spheroid or ellipsoid
could ever be found that will exactly represent all observations.
There will always be differences between the computed or geodetic
positions of points and those found by astronomical observation
greatly in excess of the errors of observation. ‘These differences arise
from deviations in the direction of the plumb line, due to local irregu-
larities of density of the matter composing the earth’s crust.
An important improvement in the method of investigating the
form of the earth was recently made by J. F. Hayford, of the United
States Geodetic Survey, using the data of that survey alone. He
made use of 507 astronomical observations of latitude, longitude, and
azimuth, connected with their triangulations, and allowed for the
attraction of the earth’s crust on the assumption that the condition
termed ‘‘isostasy”’ exists at a depth of 114 kilometers. Three differ-
ent assumptions of depth were made, but this gave the best results.
His values were:
a=6,378,283 meters, c= 1: 297.8
The following is a tabular statement of some of the determinations
of the elements of the terrestrial spheroid made during the nineteenth
century and to date:
| Length of Length of
Years. By whom.% Cc. | meridian Years. By whom. c. meridian
| quadrant. quadrant.
155956 eIoe Delambre...} 1:334 10,000,000 || 1866.......-..- Clarke......- 1:295 10, 001, 887
iets SSS eas 8 Walbeck....| 1:302.8 | 10,000,268 |) 1868.........- Fischer......} 1:288.5 10, 001, 714
ISSOE ES see) aa Schmidt....| 1:297.5 | 10,000,075 || 1872.........- Listing...-..- 1:289 10, 000, 218
USSU arcisistemeie U Nitin See 1:299.3 | 10,000,976 || 1878.......... Jordan.....- 1:286. 5 10, 000, 681
SA teste merace Bessel....-.- 1:299.2 | 10,000,856 || 1880.......... Clarke..-....| 1:293.5 10,001, 869
SSO bees oes ee Clarke......- 13298. 1 | 10; 001;,.515))|| 1887-25-22 Helmert..... 1:299.15 | 10,002,041
NBGSHe e = F)-1-).\23 Pratt.o2..<--|, 13295: 3.,|., 10; 001,924 || 1906... ...-..-- Hayford..... Ie OOTSSpalsceoee ease <
In addition to the method of determining the earth’s figure by
geodetic measurements there are others that must be considered
FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF EARTH—STEWART. Se
briefly. Foremost among these is the method by pendulum experi-
ments. In 1743 Clairaut published his work on the figure of the
earth, which contains a remarkable theorem showing a connection
between the force of gravity at a point on the earth’s surface in given
latitude and the compression of the earth. The part played by the
pendulum in the application of this method is the determination of
the force of gravity, as the time of oscillation of a pendulum varies
directly as the square root of its length, and inversely as the square
root of the force of the earth’s attraction. If then the time of vibra-
tion'of a pendulum of a known length be observed, the value of the
force of gravity follows.
Since 1808 pendulum experiments have been made in various
parts of the world ranging from the Southern Hemisphere to Green-
land and Spitzbergen. In 1901, by a discussion of about 1,400
observations of g made during the nineteenth century, Helmert ob-
tained the value of the compression 1 :298.3.
Other methods of finding this quantity, which are purely astrono-
mical, are by lunar perturbations and lunar parallax. There are
certain disturbances of the moon’s motion that are caused by the
earth’s spheroidal figure, and their expressions are therefore in
terms of the compression. If then the amount of the lunar pertur-
bations is found by observation the compression of the earth can be
found from it. The value found in this way is 1:297.8.
Observations of lunar parallax may also be employed for this pur-
pose, whether made by the meridian method or the diurnal method.
Sir David Gill has lately advocated the use of this latter method.
He considered that if all the observatories situated not too far from
the Equator were to cooperate in taking systematic observations of
the moon a very precise value of the compression could be found.
To sum up: It is probable that the final values of the major semi-
axis and the compression of the elliptic meridian will be found to
differ but little from the quantities:
a—6,378,200
c=1:298
To return to the term “isostasy’’—this condition may be defined
as follows: Imagine a spheroid concentric with the terrestrial spheroid
and whose surface is everywhere about 76 miles within that of the
latter, then the pressure on all parts of the surface of this inner
spheroid, due to the weight of the superincumbent crust, is the same.
In other words, all prismatic columns of the earth’s crust having the
same cross section and extending from the surface down to the
isostatic surface—as it may be termed—have the same mass. Hay-
ford’s investigations show that geodesy furnishes positive proof of
the existence of isostasy, and places the isostatic surface at a depth
r72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of 76 miles, and shows, moreover, that that depth is almost certainly
not less than 62 miles, nor greater than 87 miles.
Pendulum experiments also show that there is a deficiency of
gravitating matter beneath mountain ranges and table lands, and an
excess near the seashore. This has been especially observable in
India, where at elevated points near the Himalayas the value of the
force of gravity has been found to be the same as it would have been
if there were no intervening mountain mass between the point of
observation and sea level. On the other hand, in the neighborhood
of the Indian Ocean an excess of attracting matter was revealed.
Facts like these first led Archdeacon Pratt to suspect the existence
of isostasy.
We see, however, various agencies at work on the earth’s surface
that must tend to disturb this isostatic condition. Mountains are
being worn down by the action of water and their materials trans-
ported to lower elevations, and there deposited. If, then, this state
of isostasy is maintained, it must be effected by a counter flow of
material in the opposite direction somewhere below the surface.
Geology furnishes evidence that this takes place by the fact that in
spite of rapid denudation mountain regions are often observed to
maintain their elevation, as if they were raised from below as fast
as they are torn down from above. Also sedimentary rocks of great
thickness, such as the Paleozoic formations of the Appalachian
region, contain shallow-water fossils throughout, showing that the
sea bottom must have sunk as fast as sediment was piled upon it.
Similar examples occur in many other localities.
On the theory of isostasy the interior portion of our globe, within
the layer of compensation is composed of material of the same density
at equal distances from the center—or rather, the layers of equal
density are concentric spheroids. The theory that the crust of the
earth is only a few miles in thickness, and rests upon an intensely
heated molten interior, is no longer tenable. It is now known that
the earth as a whole possesses a high degree of effective rigidity, as
great as if it were composed throughout of steel. It is no doubt true
that the interior of the earth is in an intensely heated condition and
that it appears to possess some of the properties of a fluid; at the same
time it behaves in many respects as a solid.
A heated and therefore cooling body like the earth must shrink;
and thus its solid outer crust would be continually under the necessity
of adapting itself to a contracting interior. This would give rise to
enormous tangential stresses in the crust to which it must eventually
yield. That this has taken place in the past is evidenced by the plica-
tions and dislocations shown in the rock strata that compose the
crust; and to the fact that it is still taking place are probably due the
earthquake shocks that are of almost daily occurrence in some part
of the world. It is practically certain that no earthquake center has
FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF EARTH—STEWART. 173
been situated at a greater depth than 30 miles below the earth’s sur-
face, and probably not below 20 miles, from which it would appear
that any transfer of material that may occur at greater depths must
take place without shock, and that consequently the material there
must behave as a fluid.
The most valuable evidence regarding the earth’s interior is
afforded by the study of earthquake phenomena. An earthquake
shock occurs in some part of the world, and at once elastic vibrations
are set up in the surrounding material which are propagated in all
directions from the center of disturbance, and leave their records upon
the seismographs installed at stations in various parts of the world.
By a study of these records some important conclusions can be drawn.
In the first place it is found that the earthquake waves that reach
stations within about 20° of the center of disturbance are of an
entirely different character from those observed at more distant sta-
tions. ‘The former are confined to the earth’s crust, while the latter
travel through the earth by the shortest route, or possibly by brachy-
stochronic routes, or routes of shortest time. It is with the latter that
we are chiefly concerned.
A study of a great mass of data regarding these long distance waves
has revealed the following facts:
These waves may be divided into preliminary tremors—of which
there are two phases—and large waves. The time required for the
waves of the first phase to travel from an earthquake center to a
distant station is proportional to the length of the chord drawn
between those points. From this it may be inferred that these waves
travel at a uniform rate along chords, that rate being about 9.25
kilometers per second. The times required for waves of the second
phase to reach the distant stations are not proportional to the lengths
of the chords, but show a velocity increasing with the distance trav-
eled according to some law not yet understood. The large waves are
propagated along the surface of the earth, and have a uniform velocity
of about 2.95 kilometers per second.
The generally accepted view regarding the preliminary tremors is
that those of the first phase are longitudinal waves, while those of the
second phase are transverse or distortional waves. As the velocity
of propagation of a longitudinal wave varies as the square root of the
ratio of the volume-elasticity to the density of the medium, it appears
that, whatever the composition of the interior of the earth, the ratio
of volume-elasticity to density must be constant at all depths, and
therefore constant with varying density of the medium traversed.
This is a property of gases. If the waves of the second phase are trans-
verse waves it would appear that this same medium is capable of trans-
mitting such waves, which can not be transmitted by fluids or gases.
Until the law of their increase of velocity with distance, and therefore
with depth, is better understood, it is too soon to draw any conclu-
174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
sions regarding the nature of these waves, and of the medium by which
they are transmitted. .
Prof. Nagaoka, of the University of Tokio, investigated the densi-
ties, elasticities, moduli of rigidity, and the velocities of transmission
of longitudinal and transverse waves, for the various kinds of rock that
compose the earth’s crust. An important result is to show that while
there is a slight increase of density in going from the Quaternary to the
Archean rocks there is a large increase of elasticity, so that the rate of
propagation of wave motion in the latter rocks is much greater than
in the former, the velocities for longitudinal waves going as high as 6
and 7 kilometers per second. It may be stated here that the velocity
in an unlimited medium of steel would be 6.2 kilometers per second.
Tt might then be inferred that at great depths in the earth the ratio of
elasticity to density may continue to increase with depth to a certain
point, so as to permit of the great velocities of wave transmission
observable in earthquake phenomena. 3
Prof. Milne concludes from the velocities of seismic waves at differ-
ent. depths that the materials and general characters of the crust of
the earth that are found at the surface may extend to a depth of about
30 miles, but beyond that the material seems rapidly to merge into a
fairly homogeneous nucleus. ‘This state probably extends to a depth
of six-tenths of the radius, but the remaining four-tenths forms a core
which differs in its physical, and possibly its chemical, constitution,
from the outer portion. What the state of this nucleus is must be a
matter largely of conjecture until we have a fuller knowledge of the
state of matter when subjected to the vast pressures that must exist
within the earth’s interior.
Additional evidence that the earth as a whole is at least as rigid as
steel is furnished by a study of tidal phenomena, and also by the varia-
tion of latitude. That bodily tides are caused by the moon in the solid
earth has been proved by Hecker; and Sir George Darwin found by a
study-of the tides of long period at different ports, extending over an
interval of 33 years, that the ocean tides are about two-thirds as great
as if the earth were unyielding. He also showed that this is the ratio
that theoretically should exist if the rigidity of the earth were that of
steel.
With regard to the variation of latitude, Euler showed that if the
earth’s axis of rotation and figure do not coincide one axis will revolve
about the other in a period of 305 days. All attempts to discover a
periodicity in latitude variations, however, were futile until Chandler,
by a study of a great mass of material, showed that a period exists,
but instead of 305 days he showed a period of 427 days. It was then
pointed out by Newcomb that Euler had assumed the earth to be
perfectly rigid, and that by assuming its rigidity as equal to that of
steel the period would become 457 days. The inference to be drawn
from this evidence is that the earth is more rigid than steel,
SOME REMARKS ON LOGARITHMS APROPOS TO THEIR
TERCENTENARY-.!
By M. p’Ocaenr,
Professor at the Ecole Polytechnique.
[With 2 plates.]
The Royal Society of Edinburgh during the last week of July,
1914, fittingly observed the tercentenary of the invention of loga-.
rithms by John Napier, Baron of Merchiston, whose name, Latinized
in the form of Neperus, has become in French Néper. In July,
1614, Napier published at Edinburgh, under the title ‘‘Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio,” a quarto work of 56 pages
of text and 90 pages of tables, dedicated to the Prince of Wales (later
the unfortunate King Charles I), which was to revolutionize the art
of numerical calculation, and exercise a prodigious influence on the
development of all collateral sciences, astronomy in particular.
We can not on this occasion fail to recall that one of the first and
most eager adepts at the new method of calculation was Kepler,
who, by his own confession, would perhaps without this aid have
given up the preparation of those tables from which with the intui-
tion of a genius he was to evolve the marvelous laws of the plane-
tary movements which bear his name, and which in their turn led
Newton to what is undoubtedly the highest human achievement in
therealm of natural philosophy—the principle of universal gravitation.
It seems, besides, that Napier, an essentially mystic spirit, must
have foreseen all the progress of which his invention was to be the
source when he ended the book in which he made that invention
known with these words, ‘‘Interim hoc brevi opusculo fruamini
Deoque opifici summo omniumque bonorum opitulatori laudem sum-
mam et gloriam tribuite’”’ (let those who reap the harvest of this
small work pay a tribute of glory and thankfulness to God, sovereign
author and dispenser of all good).
Logarithms in our day are so familiar to all who have taken up
mathematics in any way, even the mere elementary branches, that
the extraordinary originality of the discovery which gave them
birth is perhaps somewhat shadowed.
On the other hand, those who are unfamiliar with the study of
the exact sciences and know logarithms by name only, are apt to
1 Reprinted by permission from La Nature, Paris, July 11, 1914,
175
176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
see in them a kind of secret conferring on the initiated a mysterious
power over numbers.
The first are at fault in not sufficiently appreciating the great
ingenuity of this efficient means of simplifying calculations, the sec-
ond in attributing to it a character somewhat cabalistic.
For the uses to which they lend themselves there is nothing so
simple as logarithms. These uses are founded entirely on a prop-
erty which we will explain: For every number, the logarithmic tables
have another corresponding number which is called the logarithm
of the first, and when a number A is equal to the product of two
other numbers, B and C, the logarithm of A is equal to the sum of
the logarithms of B and C.
It is this faculty which logarithms confer, of replacing all multi-
plication by a simple addition, that is the source of all the simplifi-
cations attending their use. To obtain the product of B multiplied
by C, one looks in the table for the logarithms of B and C (which
may be represented by } and c) and performs the addition 6 plus c.
If a is this sum, the table shows the number A of which a is the
logarithm; this number A is equal to the product desired, B multi-
plied by C.
Inversely, if it is desired to divide A by B, the difference, a minus
b, of their logarithms is obtained, and if it is found to be ¢, it is only
necessary to read in the table the number C of which the logarithm
is c; this number C is the quotient desired.
As a general rule, in order to obtain the product of any number of
factors, it is sufficient to take the sum of the logarithms of those
factors; this sum is the logarithm of the product which is then read
in the table, opposite its logarithm.
In particular, the nth power of a number, which is the product of
n factors equal to this number, has for a logarithm 7 times the loga-
rithm of the given number. Inversely, if the nth root of a number
is desired, it is only necessary to divide by n the logarithm of that
number; the quotient obtained is the logarithm of the desired root.
Is there need of insisting on the simplicity of this method of working
compared with that which made the poor scholars grow pale who
were forced to apply the arithmetic rule to the extraction of square
and cube roots? It is not uncommon even to find certain students
who, deceived by a false appearance, imagine that if they work
deeper in the realm of mathematics, they would find need for calcu-
_ lations even more dry and repelling, when, on the contrary, the fur-
ther one advances, the more are methods discovered which are simple,
neat, and apt, designed not only to satisfy but even to delight the
mind.
And on this occasion one may be led to ask himself whether,
instead of holding young scholars down to the application of processes
———— eS
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—d’Ocagne. PLATE 1.
il joganhmditin ile
Canons dejcriptio ,
@)\ Ejyuique ulus, in utraque || f
|Z rigonometria ; tt pbsramg 1
ouini Logiftica N
Amplifstmi, F
Authore-ac te
IOANNE NEP
Barone Merchiftogi
FRONTISPIECE OF THE FIRST EDITION OF NAPIER’S TABLES OF LOGARITHMS.
(Reproduced from the copy in the library of the institute. )
Smit
n
sonian Report, 1914.—d'Ocagne. PEATE 2:
ESS
JOHN NAPIER OF MERCHISTON, INVENTOR OF LOGARITHMS.
(After a print in the National Library.)
LOGARITHMS—D OCAGNE, 177
which in themselves are certainly of great worth though without
true practical usefulness, it would not be better to initiate them from
the start in the handling of logarithms, reserving the theory for later
explanation; this question, unless it be decided a priori, should at
least be seriously examined.
The great usefulness of logarithms was everywhere manifest from
the start, particularly in trigonometric calculations involving sines,
cosines, tangents, cotangents, etc., as in astronomy, especially navi-
gation, so that to the tables of logarithms of numbers there were
promptly added those of trigonometric functions.
But it would still be underestimating the exceptional importance
of logarithms to consider them only from this utilitarian point of
view, however important it may be. In reality, the contribution
of this new invention has been found to constitute, not only in the
domain of simple calculation, but also in that of pure mathematics
considered under the form of algebra, an acquisition of the very
first order, the initiator of great progress, both in itself, and because
of the unexpected generalities of which it has been the source. There
is no need to dwell here on this side of the subject, which to mathe-
maticians is the most captivating, but it is not fitting in this rapid
explanation of the whole subject to leave it entirely in the shade.
When a system of logarithms is once formulated there can evi-
dently be deduced from it an infinite number of others by multiply-
ing all the logarithms of the first system by the same factor, what-
ever it may be. What characterizes each of these systems is the
number which takes for a logarithm, unity, a number which is called
the base of the system. The simplest system employed for all ordi-
nary uses, and which for this reason is given the name ‘‘common,”’ is
that of which the base is 10. But strange to say, this is not the
system of which Napier at first dreamed; that one had for a base a
certain incommensurable number which, like the well-known number
x (ratio of the circumference to the diameter), belongs to the class
of numbers which mathematicians call transcendant,! a number
equally designed, however, for universal use by a special notation,
and designated by the letter e. Now, and this is somewhat remarka-
ble, it is precisely this initial system of Napier which in the domain
of analysis plays a réle indeed fundamental; it is these Naperian
logarithms which enter directly into the speculations of the mathe-
-matician, giving them the name of natural logarithms, as it is the
common logarithms which constitute the daily implement used by
the calculator; the passage from one to the other, moreover, is
made easier since it is again a matter of multiplication by a constant
1 These numbers are those which no algebraical equation with integral coefficients can take for a root.
Numbers such as -/2 are indeed incommensurable (as a result expressible only with an infinite number of
figures), but they are not transcendant, -/2 in particular being a root of the equation 2—2=0,
73176°—sM 1914 12
178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
factor, the modulus (a multiplication itself effected by means of
logarithms).
But it is worthy of mention that Napier himself, after having pro-
duced his initial system of logarithms which we call Naperian, noted
the utility, from a practical point of view, of adopting the common
logarithm with the base 10. Death prevented him, however, from
realizing this reform, of which he had merely confided the plan to
his son, and it is to his friend, Henri Briggs, professor at Gresham
College in London, that should be given the credit for making known
for the first time in 1624 in his Arithmetica Logarithmica, these new
logarithms whose use has become universal.
Except those of the exact powers of 10, as 100, 1,000, etc., the
common logarithms of all whole numbers are incommensurable
numbers, that is, numbers represented decimally by an infinite suc-
cession of figures. In order by their means, to obtain results of cal-
culations closer and closer alike, it is necessary to obtain the loga-
rithms themselves with a greater and greater number of decimals.
It was with 14 decimals that Briggs had the patience himself to
calculate the logarithms of whole numbers from 1 to 20,000, and
from 90,000 to 100,000. The lacuna of from 20,000 to 90,000 was
filled in in 1628 by the Dutch mathematician Vlacq in the second
edition of the Arithmetica Logarithmica, published in Gouda. It
was in the same year and in the same city that were given by the
Englishman Gellibrand, in his Trigonometria Britannica, the first
tables of logarithms of trigonometrical functions. It was at this
date that logarithms were introduced into the ordinary usage of
calculators.
These early tables have constituted a treasure house from which
the majority of subsequent editors have borrowed, those who, accord-
ing to the degree of approximation which they had in view, have
merely had to extract from them selected tables more restricted in
decimals (falling to 5 and even to 4), in order to introduce improve-
ments in general arrangement, the classification of the numbers,
the readability, and finally their accuracy, for it must indeed be
admitted that some few errors had crept into the first tables of
Vlacq, but these mistakes have had at least the great advantage of
establishing the character of those mere copies which otherwise
might have been taken for originals. Such was the case with certain
tables recovered in China in the course of the nineteenth century,
to which the Mandarins, no doubt in good faith, had attributed
great antiquity, but the presence therein of mistakes characteristic
of Vlacq removed any doubt as to their real origin, and thus prevented
Napier from being despoiled of his fame to the profit of some legend-
ary figure rising suddenly from the depths of the history of the Celes-
tial Empire.
LOGARITHMS—D OCAGNRE. 179
It would take much too long to pass in review the editions of
tables of logarithms published in various countries during the last
three centuries; the number certainly exceeds 500.!
As to France, it must not be forgotten that Napier’s book, intro-
duced into our country by Henrion, was republished in Lyon in 1620.
What are known as “‘common”’ logarithms, were brought into France
by the Englishman Wingate, who likewise contributed to popular-
izing the slide rule.
Some tables in seven decimals, by Gardiner, were in 1770, issued
in an elaborate edition at Avignon though the work was quite un-
manageable on account of its folio form. On the completion of these,
Callet reproduced them in 1785, in a volume of convenient size, the
execution of which does honor to the capable printer Ambroise Didot.
At the time of a new edition of this work, in 1795, Firmin Didot,
son of Ambroise, invented the stereotype, which has the great ad-
vantage of permitting the correction of mistakes as soon as they
are recognized without running the risk of introducing new ones.
No work on logarithms not based on the prototype of Vlacq, was
published before the end of the eighteenth century when the adop-
tion in France of the metric system, entailing the centesimal division
of the quadrant, required the calculation of new trigonometric tables.
The direction of this important work was unfortunately given to
Prony who organized it in a truly remarkable way. Having confided
the choice of methods and the establishment of formulas to several
mathematicians of whom the best known was the illustrious Legendre,
and having entrusted the determination of results which may be
called primary, to professional calculators, he gave the task of filling
the rest of the columns beyond these primary results to assistants
who, in the domain of calculation, could be regarded only as ordi-
nary workmen apt merely in performing additions required by the
use, directed by the professionals, of the method of differences. It
is curious to note that the majority of these assistants had been
recruited from among the hair-dressers whom the abandonment of
the powdered wig in men’s fashion had deprived of a livelihood. It
goes without saying that in view of the control of the results (carried
out to the fourteenth decimal), all these calculations were done in
duplicate in localities distant from one another.
These tables of Prony, called also “du cadastre,”’ of which the
publication, cut by Didot to 12 decimals, was interrupted for the
time by the failure of the assignats, gave birth, several years ago, to
the eight-decimal tables of the geographical service of the Army,
executed by the National Printery with type specially cast for the
1 Details concerning the most important publications are given in the article, “Numerical calculations”
in the French edition of the Encyclopedia of Mathematical Sciences (Gauthier-Villars, 1909), which the
author of the present article signed with Prof. R. Mehmkede, Stuttgart.
180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
purpose, which made of them a work almost without rival for its
beauty.
Finally, it is known that the distinguished professor of astronomy
at the Sorbonne, Prof. Andoyer, has now undertaken the task of
recalculating a complete table of logarithms, which im this branch
of learning, will remain as the most important work of our epoch.
Let us add, as a matter of curiosity, that certain. tables, of very
restricted length, have been published with a very great number of
decimals for the extremely precise calculations exacted by certain
purely theoretical questions. We may cite in this connection the
Wolfram tables with 48 decimals; those of Sharp with 61 decimals; and
finally, those of Adams with 260 decimals. These last contain only
the natural logarithms of the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, and that of the
factor (modulus) which permits passing from these logarithms to the
common logarithms.
In the above remarks concerning the process used by Prony in the
calculation of his tables, it has been shown that the greatest part of
the work is reduced to simple addition required by the application of
what mathematicians call the method of differences. This im-
mediately brings up the possibility of entrusting the preparation of
the tables of logarithms to calculating machines, of the type called
“for differences.’ This is not a matter of fiction, for a machine of
this type invented by the Swedes, Schentz, father and son, and shown
at the Universal Exposition in Paris in 1855, has been found adapted
to such an operation. And not only does it effect the calculation of
logarithms, but it also stamps the results as depressions in a lead
plate after the method of stereotyping, calculating and stereotyping
at the same time two and a half pages of tables in the same time that
a good compositor would need to set up a single page. Through the
liberality of a wealthy. American merchant, Mr. Rathbone, this
machine became the property of the Dudley Observatory at Albany,
N. Y., and has there effectively served to calculate tables of which
some examples were put on sale in Paris in 1858.
However invaluable the tables of logarithms may be to calculating
humanity, they do not in themselves constitute the entire benefit
derived from the ingenious invention of Napier. Indeed, scarcely
had this invention come to light when it was transformed by the
Englishman, Gunter, into the logarithmic scale, on which the functions,
at least for certain numbers, are at distances from the origin propor-
tional to the logarithms of these numbers. This simple scale of
Gunter, a kind of graphic representation of Napier’s table, was in its
turn to become the source of a number of improvements in the
organization of means by which the calculator could more and more
simplify his task. It was in fact Gunter’s scale which gave birth to
the slide rules or calculating circles whose use is to-day so widely
LOGARITHMS—D’OCAGNE, 181
extended, of which the primitive type, conceived in 1652 by Oughtred,
has since then, with various modifications in detail, multiplied in an
infinite number of varieties.!
Combined with diverse mechanical means, such logarithmic
circles have in their turn brought about the construction of machines
to accomplish operations of a very different complication; such a
one is that extraordinary machine for resolving algebraic equations
of any degree whatever, designed about 20 years ago by M. Torrés-
Quevedo, and which that ingenious Spanish scholar exhibited several
months ago, among many other devices of his own invention, not less
surprising, in the mechanical laboratory of the Sorbonne.
It is also from the logarithmic scale that Lalanne derived the idea
of anamorphosis, announced in 1843, which has so notably con-
tributed to the development of graphic methods of calculation and
has been the origin of the new conceptions which gradually developed
into what is to-day known as Nomography.
When we thus rapidly glance at the great multiplicity of results
in practice and in theory which have sprung, from the invention of
the Scotch lord in 1614, we come to realize that of all the achieve-
ments of human genius, not one has surpassed this in fecundity, and
we can have only praise for the happy initiative which, as shown by
the impressive celebration of its tercentenary, has led the public
thought toward the source of so much progress.
1 On these methods and the different mechanical or graphic methods which have been devised for the
simplification of numerical calculation, see the work of the author of the present article: “Le calcul sim-
plifié par le procédés mécaniques et graphiques”’ (published by Gauthier-Villars).
MODERN VIEWS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ATOM.
By Prof. A. S. Eve,
McGill University.
At a meeting of the Royal Society of Canada held at Montreal,
May, 1914, the writer gave by request a summary of recent work
and ideas on the nature of the atom. The object was to concentrate,
as clearly as possible, but not exhaustively, the results and opinions
scattered through many different publications. Few men have time
or opportunity to collect and analyze for themselves the large output
bearing on this fascinating subject.
1. It may be well to call attention to the general bearing of the
situation. Biologists are divided into three camps, vitalists, mechan-
ists, and those who sit on the boundary fence. The mechanists be-
heve that all phenomena relating to life are attributed to the action
of physical and chemical processes only. The vitalists believe that
life involves something beyond and behind these. Now those who
investigate natural philosophy, or physics, are endeavoring with some
fair initial success, to explain all physical and chemical processes in
terms of positive electrons, negative electrons, and of the effects
produced by these in the ether, or space devoid of matter.
If both the mechanists are right, and also the physicists, then such
phenomena as heredity and memory and intelligence, and our ideas
of morality and religion, and all sorts of complicated affairs are ex-
plainable in terms of positive and negative electrons and ether.
All of these speculations are really outside the domain of science, at
least at present.
2. It has been remarked by Poincaré that each fresh discovery in
physics adds a new load on the atom. The conditions which the
atoms have to explain may indeed be written down, but to do so is
merely to make a complete index for all books on physics and chem-
istry in the widest sense.
3. In the early days of the kinetic theory of gases, now well estab-
lished in its broad outlines, it was sufficient to regard the atom as a
perfectly elastic sphere, and it is about a generation ago” that lead-
1 Reprinted by permission from Science, July 24, 1914.
2 Young proved this in 1805, but his work was forgotten, until Rayleigh called attention to it in 1890
Phil. Mag., vol. 30, p. 474.
183
184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ing savants were triumphantly determining the effective radius as
about 1078 em. (a convenient shorthand for the hundred millionth
of a centimeter).
The discovery of electrons as the cathode rays of an electric dis-
charge in an exhausted tube, and as the beta rays of radium, opened
up new regions. It appears that negative electricity consists of
electrons with their accompanying but unexplained effects in the
ether. Electrons in motion produce magnetic fields. Their effec-
tive mass is about one eighteen hundredth part of that of a hydrogen
atom, and their effective radius one hundred thousandth. The
greatest known speed of electrons nearly approaches that of light.
The Zeeman. effect, or separation of a single line in the spectrum
by suitable magnetic fields into two or more lines, proved con-
clusively that the vibrations of negative electrons in the atom are
the cause of the disturbances in the ether which we know as light.
4. The first scheme of an electronic atom, propounded by Sir
Joseph Thomson, was a sphere of positive electricity of undefined
character, within which revolved concentric rings of electrons in the
same plane. There necessarily followed the simplicity of circular
motion under a force to the center, proportional to the distance be-
tween the electron and the center of the atom. ‘
5. Previous to this Lord Rayleigh had called attention to a serious
anomaly. In a train of waves of a periodic character, the electric
intensity E varies as the sine of nt, where ¢ is the time and 2z/n is
the period. As the equations involve the second differential of EK,
it appears inevitable that the square of n should appear in the law
for spectral series. As a matter of fact there appears not the square
of n, but n itself. It is desirable to be more explicit. If parallel
light from a luminous source passes through a slit and a prism,
together with suitable lenses, then the eye or photographic plate can
detect a number of bright lines forming the spectral images of the
slit for different colors, provided that the light is from luminous
mercury vapor or hydrogen, or some such source. Many of these
lines have been found to belong to one or more series crowding to-
gether toward the violet end. Balmer and Rydberg have found
that the general type of formula for their frequency n is
ee |
n=Ni(Ge— ps}
where N, is a universal constant called Rydberg’s number, the same
in value for all electrons of all atoms; and @ and 6 are whole numbers
or integers. We shall refer later to the importance of Rydberg’s
constant and of this magnificent generalization.
CONSTITUTION OF THE ATOM—EVE. 185
The trouble to which Rayleigh referred was first faced by Ritz in
a startling manner. He imagined that there were inside the atom,
placed end to end, a number of small magnets with an electron con-
strained to move in a circular path around the line of magnets.
With this hypothesis he was able to account correctly for the above
law for series of lines in the spectrum.
We may appreciate Poincaré’s criticism—
On a quelque peine a accepter cette conception, qui a je ne sais quoi d’artificiel.
Inasmuch as physicists endeavor to explain magnetism in terms
of revolving electrons, there is a lack of simplicity, and there is an
inconsistency, in introducing elemental magnets inside the atom.
Nevertheless, it must be admitted that Weiss has found remarkable
evidence for the conception of magnetons or elemental unit magnets,
producing intramolecular fields reaching to millions of Gauss units,
far transcending any produced by our most powerful electromagnets,
and difficult to explain by revolving electrons.
Again to quote Poincaré—
Qu’ est-ce maintenant qu’un magnéton? Est-ce quelque chose de simple? Non,
si l’on ne veut pas renoncer a l’hypothése des courants particulaires d’Ampére; un
magnéton est alors un tourbillon d’électrons, et voila notre atome qui complique de
plus en plus.
Perhaps the hypothesis of Bohr, danas pil later, may overcome the
difficulty, but for some time to come the more prudent will suspend
judgment on the magneton.
Recently there has been nothing short of a revolution in physics.
In certain domains, the leading workers and thinkers have deliberately
abandoned the classical dynamics and electrodynamics, and made
suppositions which are in direct opposition to these. This startling
change may perhaps be justified by the fact that the famous laws
and equations were based on large-scale experiments, so that they
do not necessarily apply to conditions within the atom. Those who
put forward and make use of the new hypotheses, men like Planck
and Lorentz, Poincaré and Jeans, and others, appear to do so with
reluctance, like a retiring army forced from one position to another.
Others, like Rayleigh a Larmor, appear to regard the whole move-
‘ment with misgivings, and some endeavor, like Walker and Callendar,
to find a way out. There is a young school who go joyfully forward,
selecting and suggesting somewhat wild hypotheses, and yet attain-
ing an unexpected measure of success by their apparently reckless
methods.
The main phenomena to which the new mechanics have been ap-
plied are the radiation within an inclosure, and the distribution of
energy therein; the high speed of electrons ejected from matter by
ultra-violet light, or by Réntgen rays, or by the gamma or pene-
186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
trating rays from radioactive substances, or, as I suggest that we call
them, from radiants; the atomic heat of elements, so admirably han-
dled by Debye; the residual energy at low temperatures; and the
constitution of the atom.
Space prevents us from considering more than the last of these.
The first step toward the new method was taken by Planck when
he saw the necessity of explaining why the energy of short-wave
radiation is some hundred millionth part of that demanded by class-
ical dynamics. He made the supposition that energy is not indefi-
nitely divisible, but he did not assume that it was atomic. He
actually imagined that energy was emitted from oscillators in exact
multiples of hn, where n is the frequency of the oscillation and h is
a universal constant (Planck’s) with a value 6.5 10~ erg second.
The magnitude of the energy quantum is thus proportional to the
frequency.
This quantum hypothesis has spread like fire during a drought.
It pervades the scientific journals. No physicist has pretended to
explain or understand it, for, as Jeans says, the lucky guess has not
yet been made. Nevertheless, it appears that ‘‘h” has truth under-
lying it, and that it has come to stay, for the applications of the
quantum hypothesis have already achieved a great and unexpected
measure of success. In the meantime it is necessary to proceed with
caution, checking every theory by experiment, for there is no other
criterion to guide the investigator, whether to hold to the old or try
the new.
7. The first steps toward the idea of the modern or Rutherfordian
atom rest on an experimental basis, and are not, therefore, open to
suspicion.
Rutherford and Geiger found that when the alpha particles from
a radiant, such as radium or polonium, met a thin gold leaf, the bulk
of the alpha particles passed through with slight deflection, but
about 1 in 8,000 bounced back, or returned toward the side of their
source. Both large and small deviations of the alpha particles in
passing through matter were satisfactorily explained by ordinary or
Newtonian dynamics, with the law of repulsion inversely as the
square of the distance between similar electric charges. One charged,
particle was the alpha particle with a positive charge twice as large,
numerically, as that of an electron. The other charged particle was
the nucleus of the atom of gold, and the magnitude of this charge
was about 4A where A is the atomic weight of gold. This view was
subjected to a searching series of experimental tests and emerged
triumphant.
8. About this time C. T. R. Wilson skillfully obtained photographs
of the mist-ladened, charged air molecules, marking the track of a
recent alpha particle, in an expansion chamber. Some of these
CONSTITUTION OF THE ATOM—EVE. 187
photographs showed where a collision had occurred between the
alpha particle and one of the heavier molecules of air. It immedi-
ately occurred to Sir Ernest Rutherford that a collision between an
alpha particle and a lighter atom, such as hydrogen, would result in
the nucleus of the latter being projected beyond the known range
of the alpha particle. The poimt was put to the test by Marsden, and
a complete justification of Rutherford’s nucleus resulted. The
hydrogen nuclei were found to produce scintillations on a zine sul-
phide screen at a range about four times as great as that of the alpha
particles. Some mathematical investigations by G. C. Darwin indi-
cated that the alpha particle or nucleus of helium, and the hydrogen
nucleus must have approached so close that their centers were but
1.710 centimeter apart. This affords further evidence of the
extreme minuteness of the nucleus compared with the size of an
atom (10-° centimeter).
9. It may be well to recall at this point an interesting result of
Barkla, obtained some years earlier, who showed from the scattering
of Réntgen rays that the number of electrons in the atom must be
about 3A, where A is the atomic weight. In the case of an uncharged
atom, the positive charge on the nucleus must evidently balance the
negative charges on the electrons revolving in orbits around that
nucleus.
Thus we can form a clear mental picture of the general character
of the atom. It is a miniature solar system. The sun is replaced
by the positively charged nucleus. The planets, perhaps confined
to one or more definite orbits or rings, are replaced by negative
electrons revolving rapidly around the nucleus. The gravitational
force is replaced by the electrical attraction between the positive
nucleus and negative electrons.
10. A brilliant young Dane, Bohr, has gone a step further and
suggested the structure of an atom capable of explaining the series
of spectral lines. His work is remarkable as leading to excellent
numerical verification. He assumes the Rutherfordian nucleus of
electronic charge about half the atomic weight; he assumes that for
every revolving electron in every atom the angular momentum is
some exact multiple of Planck’s constant /2z.
He further supposes that in a steady stationary orbit even a single
electron does not radiate away energy. This is entirely contrary to
classical electrodynamics. Furthermore he imagines that in passing
from one state of stationary orbit to the next possible, there is homo-
geneous radiation of amount hn, where n is fhe frequency. This is
of course Planck’s assumption, and it is certainly unexplained, and
probably not in accord with Hamilton’s equations as deduced from
Newton’s laws. Nevertheless, any day we may learn why energy is
emitted per saltum, and this mystery will vanish.
188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Now if you permit these somewhat arbitrary assumptions to
Bohr, he can and does deduce, at least for the lighter atoms such as
hydrogen and helium, the Rydberg formula for the spectral series.
He finds:
= ie Ry
where n is the frequency; m, e, mass and charge of an electron; h is
Planck’s constant; a, 6, are integers. The quantity before the
bracket should equal the Rydberg number N,, of observed value
3.2910". Bohr’s calculated value is 3.2610, showing a most
satisfactory agreement.
Bohr endeavors to account for the manner in which two hydrogen
atoms form a molecule. Each atom has a nucleus of positive charge
and a simple electron revolving around it. Their charges are equal
and opposite. The nuclei of two such atoms repel each other. The
revolving electrons of two atoms close together, if rotating in the same
direction, constitute two parallel currents of electricity, and these
attract one another and arrive in the same plane. It is easy to make a
model on a whirling table with the nuclei on an upright rod, the
electrons revolving like the governor balls of an engine. Bohr has
gone further, and conceived a similar model of a water molecule with
the two nuclei of hydrogen and one nucleus of oxygen in a straight
line, with 10 electrons revolving in their zones around them. No
doubt these suggestive schemes are somewhat speculative, but it is
refreshing to find a first approximation to a dynamical scheme re-
placing the old unsatisfactory electrostatic atoms, which probably
did not approximate to the truth. Some of the formidable organic
molecules must have a complexity which it may take generations of
physicists to unravel.
11. One of the triumphs of mathematical physics was the forecast
of Laue that crystal bodies have their atoms so distributed that
Roéntgen rays must be diffracted by these atoms in the same manner
that closely ruled cross lines diffract visible light. This forecast and
its rapid verification, enable the two Braggs, father and son, to meas-
ure with accuracy the wave lengths of Réntgen rays. While the
waves of visible light are of the order 1075 centimeter, those of Rént-
gen rays are of the order 107° centimeter, about one-thousandth of
the former. The electromagnetic theory recognizes no intrinsic
difference between the great waves of wireless telegraphy, several
kilometers in length (10° centimeters), short electric waves, long heat
waves, visible light (10-5 centimeter), ultra-violet waves, and Rént-
gen rays (107° centimeter).
The method of reflecting Réntgen rays from a rock-salt or another
crystal has been applied by Moseley with marked success to the
CONSTITUTION OF THE ATOM—EVE. 189
determination of the nucleus charges of the atoms of most of the ele-
ments. He bombarded the elements, one after the other, by electrons
as cathode rays, reflected the resulting Réntgen rays from a crystal,
and measured the wave-lengths of one or other of the principal (K or
L, hard or soft) radiations.
In this manner he found
n= A(N —B)?,
where n is the frequency of vibration, N the nucleus electronic charge,
necessarily a whole number, and A and B are determined constants.
In this manner he has found the atomic numbers N of all the known
elements from aluminium 13 to gold 79. There appear to be but two
or three elements not yet found by the chemists. These experimental
results bear out well a view first propounded by van den Broek, that
each element has an atomic number, an integer representing its place
in the periodic table (H 1, He 2, Li 3, Be 4, Bo 5, C 6, and so forth).
The atomic weight is not an exact integer, nor of such fundamental
character as the atomic number. There will be further reference to
this point later.
12. Rutherford has extended Moseley’s method and results to the
crystal reflection of the gamma rays from a radiant (Ra B), and
determined the wave lengths of many lines, in particular of the two
strongest. He has bombarded lead with Ra B rays and found the
wave lengths of the radiation stimulated in the lead. He found that
Radium B and lead gave the same spectrum, indicating that they
have the same atomic number, 82. Hence he deduced the atomic
numbers of all the radiants in the uranium-radium family. His
results are worth repeating.
|
Atomic Atomic
Radiant. Rays. oe weight Radiant. Rays. Atomic weight
(about). v (about).
Uramgm: Tito 22tel a 92 | 238.5 Radigm Ais}. os f8o: a 84 | 218.5
Wranim xe Doss... B 90 | 234.5 Radiim) Be esses. 82 | 214.5
Uranium X 2....--.- B 91 | 234.5 Radium Os 3b. : a,B 83 | 214.5
rani 222) 5 45-2=2 a 92 | 234.5 15 Cob phat il Dee eee 82 | 210.5
dormrm Ie FA ea) a 90 | 230.5 Radium! His. sti . B 83 | 210.5
TERROR TTI as seis Se iceie a 88 | 226.5 Radigmib ses ose ese a 84 | 210.5
Radium Em......... a 86 | 222.5 Leadis ei EL Ie Sse seo. 82 | 206.5 (207.1)
13. All of these results are in harmony with the wonderful advances
in radiochemistry due to Soddy, Fajans, Von Hevesy, and others. It
has been found that when a radiant emits an alpha particle or helium
nucleus, the chemical properties of the newly formed radiant differ
from the old. A fresh element is formed, a different valency results,
and the new radiant, relative to the old, is two columns to the left in
the periodic table. The atomic number has decreased 2 and the
atomic weight about 4. But when a radiant ejects a beta particle or
electron, again there is a new radiant with different valency and
190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
chemical properties, but there is a move of one column to the right
in the periodic table; a gam of one m the atomic number and no
change in the atomic weight.
A brief example of the whole scheme applicable to all radiants is
given below:
Column.
IME V. | Wile | At. Wts.
|
|
UrxX1—~ Ur X 2—>5 Ur 2 234.5
90, 8 91, 8 92,4
eee Url 238.5
92,4
In the case of these radiants Ur | ejects an @ particle and gives
rise to UrX 1. The latter and Ur X 2, respectively, emit a f particle.
It should be added that the short-lived product Ur X 2 or ‘‘bre-
vium” was discovered by this theory, after it had been formulated
from the known behavior of other radiants.
It will be seen that Urantum 1 and 2 are in the same column and
have the same atomic number, but that their atomic weights differ
by 4. Such substances have chemical properties so identical that
they are called inseparables, or nonseparables, or isotopes, for they
occupy the same place in the periodic table. Thus the old trouble
of finding places in the periodic table for the 30 or 40 radiant elements
has suddenly vanished. They may be superposed even when their |
atomic weights differ, if their atomic numbers are the same. The
nuclear charges of isotopes must be identical, but the distribution of
electrons may be different. Other examples of inseparables are lead,
radium B, radium D, all 82; thorium and radiothorium; radium and
mesothorium.
It must be further noted that the results of radiochemistry appear
to require the presence of negative electrons in the nucleus itself.
The expulsion of a @ particle or one negative electron from the nucleus
is equivalent to the gain of one positive electron, and involves a unit
increase in the atomic number.
14. The last advance is the most important and far-reaching.
There has been long search for the positive electron, and in vain; yet
it seems likely that it has been under our eyes all the time. Since the
hydrogen atom never loses more than a single electron, is it not pos-
sible, suggests Rutherford, that the nucleus of the hydrogen atom may
be the positive electron ¢
é
») 2
The electromagnetic mass of an electron 1s 3 where ¢ is the charge
a
and a the radius. If the mass of the hydrogen nucleus is wholly elec-
tromagnetic, then its radius must be smaller than that of the electron —
CONSTITUTION OF THE ATOM—EVE. 191
(negative) as 1:1800, for that is the ratio of their masses, while their
charges are equal and opposite. Hence we have
Mass. Diameter,
Cm.
UAEOM es cee setae eee ain cies b caon seine Seen eaten se oSulewoescucteceeteuance 1 10-8
INerativelclectronmepceeas es soais> cae Seon reson ee meron sso sanice cena ewen ues 1/1800 19713
if
IROSitive elechromepe eeeert eats enc are Sees Heer nae pee cine dois waw ckijecuetsemees 19-16
Rutherford cautiously remarks that there is no experimental evi-
dence against such a supposition.
Those who wish to follow the matter deeper must refer to many
articles in the Philosophical Magazine, several letters to Nature,
Soddy’s ‘‘Chemistry of the Radio-elements,’’ Part II, and Perrin’s
“Les Atomes.”’ The chief writers have been Rutherford, W. H.
Bragg, W. L. Bragg, G. C. Darwin, Moseley, Broek, Bohr, Russell,
Fajans, Soddy, Hevesy, Nicholson, and Marsden.
Much has yet to be done, and much to be revised, but that the first
great forward strides have been taken in the right direction there can
be little doubt.
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GYROSTATS AND GYROSTATIC ACTION.!
By Prof. ANDREW Gray, M. A., LL. D., F. RB. 8.
[With 10 plates.]
We are accustomed in daily life to handle nonrotating bodies,
and their dynamical properties excite little attention, though it
can not be said that they are commonly understood. It is different,
however, with rotating bodies. These, when handled, seem to be
endowed with paradoxical, almost magical, properties. I have here
an egg-shaped piece of wood. I place it on the table and it rests, as
we expect it to do, with its long axis horizontal. Our experience
tells us that this is the natural and correct position of the body.
But I set it spinning rapidly on the table, as you see, with the long
axis horizontal, and you observe that after an apparently wobbling
motion it erects itself so that its long axis is vertical. It was started
spinning about a shortest axis, but the body has of itself changed
the spin, and it is now turning about the long axis. In taking this
position it has actually raised itself against gravity through a height
-equal to half the difference between the lengths of the long and
short axes. This seems paradoxical, but the man who is in the habit
of spinning tops knows that this is the proper position of the body;
that it must stand up in this way when spinning rapidly on a rough
horizontal plane.
This experiment may be performed at the breakfast table with an
egg as the spinning body. But the egg must be solid within—that
is, it must be hard-boiled; a raw or soft-boiled egg will not spin.
Perhaps this is why Columbus did not adopt this method for his
celebrated experiment; there may, of course, have been other reasons.
It is thus made clear that by causing a body to rotate rapidly we
endow it with new and strange properties. Between a top when
spinning and the same top when not spinning there is a difference
which reminds us of that between living and dead matter; and this
will strike us still more forcibly when we consider some more compli-
cated cases of rotational motion. The top, the ordinary spinning
top of the schoolboy, stands on its peg and ‘‘sleeps” in the upright
1 Reprinted by permission from pamphlet copy published by the Royal Institution of Great Britain.
Lecture at the Weekly Evening Meeting, Friday, Feb. 14, 1913.
73176°—sm 1914 13 193
194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
position, in contempt of all the laws which govern statical equilib-
rium.
The experimental study of spinning tops is carried on by very
small boys and a few more or less aged people. Somehow, but I
think quite wrongly, a top is regarded as a toy suitable only for a
child, and that kind of amusement is scarcely encouraged by the
benevolent despots who so completely direct the games of boys at
school. Among older boys there used to be a regular game in Scot-
land of ‘‘peeries,”’ and some of you may have read Clerk Maxwell’s
poetical description of the Homeric contests which distinguished the
sport.
The top as a plaything is despised; nevertheless it is a most im-
portant contrivance. The earth on which we live is a top, and a
considerable range of astronomical phenomena are most easily
explained by reference to the behavior of ordinary spinning tops. It
is a top that directs the dirigible torpedo, that controls the monorail
car, which may soon rise from the position of a small model to that of
an important affair of practical railway engineering, and that in the
gyrostatic compass gives a direction-pointer unaffected by the iron of
the ship or the rolling and pitching of the vessel. Its properties
(summed up in what we call gyrostatic action) have to be reckoned
with in all swift-running machinery, such as fast-speed turbines and
rotary engines of all kinds, especially if these drive flywheels or pro-
pellers. They affect very seriously the stability of aeroplanes and
even of submarines, and I am very doubtful if aviators have yet
become in sufficient degree instinctively alive to the dangers of -
sudden turning, such as those which are or used to be encouraged
by the promoters of aviation displays in alighting competitions.
The man who has spun and studied tops and gyrostats appreciates
as no one else can the extreme importance of properly balancing
rotating machinery, and of avoiding gyrostatic action where such
action is likely to interfere with the running of the machine as a
whole.
The properties of a top are best studied in the gyroscope, or gyro-
stat, as it is better called. Here is a simple gyrostat, of the ordinary
form sold in the toy shops, but with some important modifications
to enable it to run for a long time at a high speed. It consists, as you
see, of a heavy-rimmed metal disk or flywheel capable of rotation
with but little resistance from friction on pivots held in sockets
attached to a metal frame. Thus the flywheel may, by the quick
withdrawal of a string wound round its axle, or in some other way, be
set into rapid rotation in the frame, which in turn is mounted in
various ways to show gyrostatic effects. But this ordinary form, as
well as some others of a more pretentious character, suffers from the
GYROSTATS AND GYROSTATIC ACTION—GRAY. 195
great disadvantage of having no means of maintaining the spin, and
the continual renewal of the spin is a great nuisance.
I have here a gyrostat (fig. 1)! in which this drawback has been
overcome by the simple and effective device of making the flywheel
itself the rotor of a high-speed continuous-current electric motor.
The ordinary gramme-ring armature is well adapted for this. It
gives a wheel of great moment of inertia, or, as I call it, ‘‘spin inertia”’
(that is, the matter of the wheel is distributed so as to be on the
whole as distant from the axis as possible), which can be run at
high speed for a long time without trouble of any kind from bearings
or contacts.
For my first experiments the motor gyrostat is set up, with the
axis of the flywheel horizontal, in this mounting, which consists, as
you see, of a fork perched on a pillar. Notite the possible motions,
the freedoms, I may call them, of the arrangement. The flywheel
can turn about its axle, the case can turn about the line of the pivots
which carry it in the fork, and the fork about a vertical axis provided
in the pillar. These three axles, which we shall number 1, 2, 3, are
mutually at right angles and meet at the center of gravity of the
movable system or gyrostat proper. When thus set up the gyrostat
is said to be freely mounted.
With the flywheel at rest I push down on one side of the case, and
immediately turning takes place, as we should expect, about the axis
2. Pushing down the other side of the case causes the instrument to
turn about the axis 2 in the opposite direction. I grasp the fork in
my hands and turn it about the axle 3 in either direction. Nothing
unexpected happens; the gyrostat turns with the fork, its axis remain-
ing horizontal throughout. Again, I grasp the pillar in my hands and
turn it on the table, and you see that the friction of the axle 3 is suffi-
cient to cause the fork and gyrostat to move round with the pillar.
As before, the axis of the flywheel remains horizontal.
My assistant now causes a current of electricity to flow in the coils
which form part of the flywheel and in the coils which surround the
soft iron core of the magnet which is stationary within the ring. So
far you can only tell that the flywheel is turning by the faint hum
which its motion sets up. But when I repeat the operations which
I have just performed on the nonrotating gyrostat, the behavior of
the instrument is quite startlingly different. I push down on one
side of the case as before; a resisting force is experienced, and the
gyrostat turns, not visibly about the axle 2, but about 3, the vertical
axis. So long as I maintain the tilting force so long does the resist-
ance and this turning about the vertical persist. I withdraw the
tilting force, and the turning motion ceases.
1 Figures on plates numbered consecutively.
196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Now I would direct attention to these rods with arrowheads,
which are screwed to the gyrostat case. ‘This curved one shows the
direction in which the flywheel is spinning. The straight rods are
intended to represent the spin momentum and the tilting action,
respectively. Both are completely known when their amounts and
their planes are known. The spin momentum is got by multiplying
two numbers together, one representing the spin inertia of the wheel
(which is greater the more the mass is placed in the rim), the other
the speed of turning. The turning action or ‘‘couple” is also got by
multiplying the force with which I push by the arm or leverage of the
force about the axis. So then we represent these two by lines drawn
at right angles to the two planes, making the lines of lengths to rep-
resent the two products. Standing on one side of the plane of the
flywheel, you see it turning against the hands of a clock; standing
on one side of the plane of the turning action which I apply, you
observe that action tending to turn the body also against the hands
of a clock. The two lines representing the two products drawn
toward you from the two planes represent also the directions of the
turning actions of the couples. For example, the direction of rota-
tion of the flywheel being that shown by the curved rod, the line
representing the spin momentum points outward from the side of
the gyrostat to which the rods are attached. I call this the spin axis.
The other line, representing the turning action which I applied, I eall
the couple axis.
Now, observe that I set the couple axis so as to point toward your
left. I push down the side of the gyrostat nearest me, and you see
that the spin axis turns toward the left. Again, [ turn the couple
axis so as to point to your right. When so placed it represents a
turning action tending to depress the end of the axle of the flywheel
that is nearer you. I apply such an action, and the spin axis turns
toward your right. In both cases the spin axis turned toward the
instantaneous position of the couple axis.
Now I set the couple axis vertical, pointing up. It represents a
turning action tending to produce horizontal turning in the counter-
clock direction as seen from above. I apply such an action to the
fork, when you see that the gyrostat turns the spin axis toward the
upward direction. Finally, I set the couple axis vertical but point-
ing down, as in figure 1. It now represents a turning action tending
to produce clockwise rotation as viewed from above, counterclock
rotation as seen from below. I apply the action represented and the
gyrostat turns the spin axis toward the downward direction.
These experiments may be summed up as follows: The flywheel is
spinning about axis 1. Any attempt to tilt the gyrostat about axis
2 produces turning about 3; an attempt to tilt it about 3 produces
turning about 2. This response of the body seems paradoxical, but
Smithsonian Report, 1914,.—Gray. PLATE 1.
Fla. 1.—MoToR-GYROSTAT IN “FORK AND PEDESTAL”? MOUNTING.
Fic. 2.—MoTor-GYROSTAT MOUNTED TO DEMONSTRATE THE PRINCIPLE OF
THE DIRIGIBLE TORPEDO.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Gray. PLATE 2.
GRIFFIN, LON
Fia. 3.—MOTOR-GYROSTAT IN PEDESTAL WITH WEIGHT ATTACHED.
LONDON
GRIFFIN,
Fia. 4.—MoTorR-GYROSTAT BALANCING ON A SKATE.
GYROSTATS AND GYROSTATIC ACTION—GRAY. 197
in'point of fact, and this is the secret of the whole affair, this turning
of the body as a whole amounts to the production of spm momentum
about the couple axis at exactly the proper rate. It is quite easy to
prove this by the consideration, in the most elementary way, of the
accelerations of the different particles composing the wheel.
The turning of the spin axis toward the couple axis is called a
precessional motion, from a similar motion of the earth which pro-
duces the astronomical phenomenon called the precession of the
equinoxes. The turning action, or couple, as I shall now call it, may
be said to cause the flywheel to ‘‘precess”’ toward the couple axis.
This relation of directions is very important, and should be kept
always in mind.
If this turning response of the body, about an axis which we shall
call 3, is prevented when turning about an axis 2, at right angles to
3, is changing the direction of the axis of a rotor—an axis 1, say, at
right angles to 2 and 3—a preventing couple, usually called gyro-
static, about the axis 3, must be applied by the bearings to the axle
of the rotor, and therefore an equal and opposite couple by the axle
to the bearings. This couple, it is easy to prove, is equal to the
product of the spin momentum and the angular speed at which the
direction of the axis of the rotor is being changed. Thus the greater
the moment of inertia of the rotor, or its angular speed, or the angular
speed of the change of direction of the axis, the greater is the gyro-
static couple.
For example, the rotor of a dynamo, mounted on one of the decks
with its rotor axis athwartship, applies, when the ship rolls, a couple
to the bearings, the plane of which is parallel to the deck, and which
consists of a forward force on one bearing and a sternward force on
the other. These forces are reversed with reversal of the direction
of rolling, so that an alternating force is applied to each bearing
tending to shear it off the deck. Thus if the bearings are at all
loose, the axle will knock alternately on the front and back of each
bearing.
Similarly the axle of the rotor of a fore-and-aft turbine, when the
ship pitches, applies a force to port to the bearing at one end, and a
force to starboard at the other end, which forces are reversed when
the direction of the pitchmg motion is reversed. When the course
is being changed the forces of the gyrostatic couple are applied to
the top of one bearing and the bottom of the other.
Now, returning to the pillar gyrostat, and putting the flywheel
in rapid rotation, [ turn the pillar round on the table. I have
turned, as you see, the base round through one revolution, and
throughout the turning motion the axle of the flywheel has remained
pointing in the same direction. The friction at the axle about
which I have turned the pillar, which, you will remember, was suffi-
198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
cient to carry the gyrostat round when there was no spin, is now
quite insufficient to cause any serious change of position of the
gyrostat. Only a very small couple producing precession acted.
This experiment ulustrates the principle of permanence of direc-
tion of the axis of rotation, in the absence of a couple producing
precession, the principle on which depend the gyrostatic compass and
the self-directing torpedo. Carried within the body of the torpedo
is a fast-spinning gyrostat, and at the instant at which the torpedo
leaves the impulse tube this gyrostat is mounted freely with its axis
coincident with that of the torpedo; that is, pomted, so to speak,
exactly along the “cigar.” Any turning of the torpedo body side-
wise brings about a relative shift between the gyrostat and torpedo
axes, and this shift brings into operation a vertical rudder at the stern
of the torpedo. If the nose of the torpedo turns to port, the rudder
steers the craft to starboard, and vice versa.
Here (fig. 2) is a skeleton frame representing a torpedo. It is
mounted on a vertical axle, and carried on pivots within the struc-
ture is one of our motor gyrostats. At the stern of the frame is a
small rudder, and this is connected by means of cords to the gyro-
stat. Iset the flywheel in rotation. When, as I do now, I turn the
nose of the torpedo to port, the rudder steers to starboard; when I
turn the nose to starboard the rudder steers the craft to port.
The case of the pedestal gyrostat is provided with a hook at one
extremity of the axis (see fig. 3). The effect of hanging a weight
on this hook is to apply a couple tending to cause turning about the
axis 2; that is, which would produce such turning if the flywheel
were not spinning. But the wheel is spinning, and the visible actual
turning is about the axis 3. Observe also that the wheel is rotating
comparatively slowly, and that the precessional motion is great.
I increase the speed of the flywheel and the gyrostat precesses more
slowly. JI replace the weight by a larger one, and for the same spin
the precessional motion is greatly increased. Thus for a given
applied couple the faster the spin the slower the precessional motion,
and for a given spin the greater the couple the faster the precessional
motion.
Now, while the weight is in position and the gyrostat precessing
about the axle 3, I attempt to hurry the precessional motion, and
immediately the gyrostat turns about the axis 2 so as to rise against
eravity. I try to delay the precession, and again the gyrostat turns
about the axis 2, but now so as to descend under gravity.
Without being aware of it people are constantly meeting with
examples of gyrostatic action in daily life. A child expert in trund-
ling a hoop causes it to turn its path to the right or left, by striking
it a blow at the top with the hoop stick, the effect of which the
ordinary person would suppose, if he thought about it, should be to
GYROSTATS AND GYROSTATIC ACTION—GRAY. 199
make the hoop to fall over to the right or the left. A bicyclist riding
without holding the handles leans over to the right if he wants to steer
the bicycle to the right, and to the left if he wants to steer to the
left. And if he feels himself falling over to right or left he turns
the handles instinctively so as to turn the bicycle to that side, when
the machine resumes the upright position. In the bicycle, however,
the spin of the wheels is not the most important action to be taken
account of.
The gyrostatic action in the bicycle is much more marked in a
motor machine, for in that a massive flywheel rotates in the same
direction as the wheels. As the bicycle turns a corner it is con-
strained to precess, and a couple is needed to produce this precession
of the rotating parts quite apart from that required to turn the rest
of the machine. This the rider applies by leaning over to the inside
of the turn, and leans over more than he would have to if the fly-
wheel were not there or were not rotating. :
Good examples of gyrostatic action are given by paddle and tur-
bine steamers. A paddle steamer is steadier in a cross sea than a
screw steamer of the same size. This is due in part to the gyrostatic
action of the paddle wheels, which, but for their comparatively slow
speed of rotation, would form a compound gyrostat of considerable
power. For this gyrostat the spin momentum may be conveniently
represented by a line drawn from -the steamer toward the port side.
A couple tending to tilt the steamer over to starboard is represented
by a line drawn toward the bow, and a couple tending to tilt the
steamer to port by a line drawn toward the stern. Hence, if the
steamer heels over to starboard, her bow, in consequence of gyrostatic
action, precesses to starboard, but the starboard wheel, becoming
somewhat more deeply immersed, uses more power and exerts a turn-
ing influence to port. Thus the steersman has less difficulty in
keeping the vessel on a straight course. But if the vessel be turned
by the rudder, say to port, the vessel will by gyrostatic action be
slightly heeled over to starboard, and the starboard wheel, being more
deeply immersed, will assist the turning action of the rudder. When,
however, the steamer falls off her course, to port or starboard, the
gyrostatic action causes the correcting action applied by the rudder
to be resisted. Though the gyrostatic action of the wheels is not
very great, calculation shows that it is enough to produce an appr eci-
able variation in the immersion of the wheels!
The gyrostatic action of the flywheel in a motor ear is sof some
practical interest. The flywheel is placed withits plane athwart the
car—that is, with the axis, so to speak, fore and aft. It rotates in
the clockwise direction as viewed by an observer behind the car.
The effect of turning a corner to the left gives a gyrostatic couple
throwing the weight of the car more on the back wheels; turning to
200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the right throws the weight more on the front wheels. The forces
applied by the ground to the front wheels are diminished in the
former case and increased in the latter. There is danger, therefore,
of the steering power of the car being interfered with, if the corner
is taken at too great a speed.
As a final example, we take an aeroplane. Here the rotor of the
engine and the propeller together form a compound gyrostat of con-
siderable power. As the bearings are fore and aft, the action is simi-
lar to that of the flywheel of the motor car. Turning horizontally
in one direction gives rise to the gyrostatic couple tending to make
the aeroplane dive, turning the opposite way sets up a couple which
makes the aeroplane rear up in front. If the aeroplane is kept hori-
zontal, such couples have to be balanced by stresses in the framework.
These considerations show that sudden turning of aeroplanes should,
if possible, be avoided. Maneuvers calling for such turning are
_ accompanied by very considerable danger. No doubt aviators are
aware of the existence of gyrostatic action, but there is considerable
hhaziness in people’s minds as to its direction in the various possible
cases. The peculiar properties of rotating bodies need not, of course,
be understood theoretically by aviators, though it is well to know
something about them. But the aviator, like a person walking or
swimming, must know instinctively what to do in an emergency, and
what motions must be avoided. The gyrostatic action he has to con-
tend with lies hid, as it were, until he tries some new and violent
maneuver; and then it brings him to grief.
T now pass on to some special experiments which can be carried out
with these motor gyrostats. First, take one or two old experiments,!
which are more effectively performed with these fast-running instru-
ments. Here is a skate attachment (fig. 4) on which I place the
eyrostat after its speed has been adjusted to the moderate value of
about 6,000 revolutions per minute. The plane of the flywheel is
inclined to the vertical, and you see that the top does not fall down,
but precesses round on the table. I increase the inclination and the
precession becomes more rapid. Now J] attempt to hurry the preces-
sion and the gyrostat stands up erect; I try to resist the precession
and the gyrostat falls over.
I mount the gyrostat with its wheel horizontal over a flexible sup-
port, in the present case a universal joint (fig. 5). Without rotation
the instrument would fall over at once; but you see that it stands
stably erect when the flywheel is spinning, and has a precessional
motion when disturbed from the upright position.
Again, here is a two-stilt support. (Fig. 6.) One of the stilts is
held by a long socket, at one side of the case, and may be regarded
1See Thomson & Tait’s Natural Philosophy, sec. 345* et seq.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Gray. PLATE 3.
Fia. 5. —Motor-GYROSTAT ON GIMBALS.
Fic. 6. -MoToR-GYROSTAT BALANCING ON STILTS.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Gray. PLATE 4.
Fic. 7.—MoTOR-GYROSTAT ON CROSSED BIFILAR SUPPORT.
GYROSTATS AND GYROSTATIC ACTION—GRAY. 201
as rigidly attached. The other stilt is simply a bit of wire pointed
at both ends; one end rests on a table, the other, the upper end,
rests loosely in a hollow in the upper side of this projecting piece
attached to the case. The gyrostat is thus supported between two
stilts, one fixed, the other quite loose, and its axis is at right angles to
the plane of these when the arrangement stands upright. It would
be hard to devise a more unstable support. You see that there is no
possibility of making the arrangement stand up without spin. But
you see, on the other hand, that there is a fair amount of stability
with the flywheel spinning if the arrangement is allowed to oscillate,
or, as one might say, wriggle backward and forward, horizontally.
In the next experiment (due originally, | have been told, to the
late Prof. Blackburn) the gyrostat is rigidly clamped to this metal bar,
which, as you see, is hung by two chains attached to its ends. (See
fig. 7.) The chains have been crossed by passing one through a large
ring in the middle of the other. I turn the gyrostat so that the chains
and the rim of the case are in the vertical plane. You observe that
the arrangement is one of instability. The gyrostat has perfect free-
dom to fall over toward you or toward me. Further, in consequence
of the crossing of the chains the gyrostat is unstable as regards motion
about a vertical axis. The arrangement is thus doubly unstable
without rotation.
I now set the flywheel into rapid rotation, arrange the instrument
as before, and leave it to itself, when, as you observe, it balances with
great ease.
I now repeat the experiment with the chains uncrossed. Here
there is only one instability without rotation, and the gyrostat falls
over. An important point to be observed is that the rotation will
stabilize two nonrotational instabilities, but not one. In point of
fact, a system possessing nonrotational freedoms, all of which are un-
stable, can be stabilized if the number of Se is even, but not
if the iianbons is odd.
A general explanation of the experiment just performed may be
given as follows: Starting with the bar, gyrostat rim, and chains
(crossed) in one vertical plane, we may suppose the gyrostat to fall
over slightly. In consequence of the tilting couple introduced the
gyrostat precesses so that its axis turns in a plane which is nearly
horizontal. The chains now get slightly out of the vertical, and at
once a couple hurrying the precessional motion is brought to bear on
the gyrostat, which, in consequence, erects itself into the vertical
position. The couple does not retard, but hurries the precession
because the bars are crossed. This holds for both directions in which
it is possible for the gyrostat to fall over. Again, suppose starting
with the rim, bar, and chain in the same vertical plane, the chains
get out of the vertical. There is now a couple brought to bear on the
202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
eyrostat tending to turn its axis in a horizontal plane. In conse-
quence the gyrostat tilts over on the bar—in other words, it has a pre-
cessional motion about a horizontal axis in the plane of the flywheel.
This brings into action a couple due to gravity, which is such as to
hurry the last-mentioned precessional motion; the horizontal motion
is opposed and reversed, and with the reversal the gyrostat regains
the upright position. This holds for both directions in which the
- bar tends to turn in consequence of the crossed chains. The result
is complete stability.
Similar explanations are applicable to the other cases of motion
you have seen.
I now suspend the gyrostat from the horizontal beam by means
of this chain terminating in a hook (fig. 8), which engages in a central
recess of the rim attachment. The chain carries a ball-bearing race.
I place the gyrostat with its axis horizontal and leave it to itself. The
center of gravity of the gyrostat lies vertically below the hook, and
under those conditions there is no couple tending to tilt the instrument.
I transfer the hook to one of the side recesses, set the gyrostat so
that its axis is horizontal, and leave it to itself, when, instead of falling
down, it turns its axis in a plane which is nearly horizontal. If I delay
the precessional motion the gyrostat descends; if I accelerate the
precession the gyrostat ascends. I transfer the hook to the opposite
side recess, place the gyrostat so that its axis is horizontal, and again
let go. The gyrostat precesses as before, but in the opposite direc-
tion. Again I hurry the precession, and again the gyrostat rises;
again I delay the motion, and the gyrostat descends.
In these experiments, when the hook engages in either of the side
recesses there is a couple due to gravity tending to produce angular
momentum in a vertical plane. The axis of spin momentum turns
toward an instantaneous position of the couple axis at right angles to
it, at angular speed, w, say. If ” be the spin momentum, and the
top has been properly started, angular momentum about the couple
axis is being produced at rate yw by this turning, and this is equal to
the moment of the couple. The precessional moment remains at
the value required to give just the rate of production of angular
momentum corresponding to the couple. ¢ This is the point generally
missed in popular explanations of the gyrostatic action.
[t is important to notice, however, that, as these experiments are
usually carried out, the precession, though apparently steady to the
eye, is not, strictly speaking, perfectly steady. There is a very slight
alternate rise and fall of the axis. ‘To get quite steady motion, the
top must not be simply spun and then left to itself; it must be
started with the right amount of precession.
I now place the gyrostat within this wooden tray. (Fig. 9.) The
pivots carried by the rim of the gyrostat engage on bearings provided
GYROSTATS AND GYROSTATIC ACTION—GRAY. 203
in the tray, and these are on a level with the center of gravity of the
whole. I hold the tray so that its plane is horizontal, and carry it
round in a horizontal circle. Nothing happens. Still holding the
tray so that its plane is horizontal, I carry it round in a horizontal
circle in the reverse direction. The gyrostat immediately turns a
somersault and is thereafter stable. If I reverse the direction of
rotation of the tray, again the gyrostat turns a somersault and
remains again quiescent.
The gyrostat is stable, with its axis vertical, so long as the direction
of spin coincides with that in which the tray is being turned. If
this latter direction is reversed, the gyrostat turns a somersault so as
to render the two directions coincident. It appears as if the arrange-
ment had a will of its own, and refused to be carried round against its
direction of spin.
The theory of this experiment is very instructive. Both cases are
represented by one differential equation, but in one case there is a
real period of vibration about the vertical; in the other the period
is mathematically unreal, and the gyrostat axis moves farther away
from the vertical. No better illustration of the two cases of the
equation can be found. .
The behavior of the tray gyrostat is exemplified also in the gyro-
static compass. A heavy and rapidly rotating flywheel is mounted
so that its axis is maintained horizontally by means of an elastic sup-
port. Under these conditions the equilibrium position of the flywheel
under the horizontal component of the turning velocity of the earth
(which corresponds to the turning of the tray) is arranged to be that
in which the axis of rotation points due north and south. If time
permitted, I should be glad to make an experiment with a carefully
balanced motor gyrostat, which would not only show the turning of
the earth under the gyrostat, but enable the rate of turning to be
measured.
I would now direct your attention to this motor gyrostat, which
forms the bob of an ordinary compound pendulum. (Fig. 10.) The
tube carrying the gyrostat is attached, by means of a universal joint,
to the apex of a triangular stand, made of telescope tubing. The
gyrostat is attached to the lower end of its supporting tube, by
means of a special cap provided with spring contact pieces, to allow
the current to be led into the motor, and the flywheel is free to
rotate about an axis coincident with the rod. Screwed to the lower
side of the gyrostat is a pen, which presses lightly on a card placed
below.
We have now the pendulum rod in the vertical position. I draw
the pendulum to one side and let go, when you see that it vibrates to
and fro, and the pen traces out a straight line on the paper. The
flywheel has as yet no spin. I start the flywheel revolving, draw
204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the pendulum to one side, and let go, either from rest, or with a
certain amount of sidelong motion, when yot observe that the pen
describes a flower-shaped path. (Fig. 11.) The path is shown for
different amounts of sidelong motion. The peculiar appearance of
these curves is due to the rapid falling off of amplitude produced by
friction.
When the flywheel is revolving there are, in general, two couples
acting on the pendulum, one due to gravity, the other due to gyro-
static action. At an instant at which the axis of the gyrostat is
vertical the former couple is zero, and the latter one is a maximum,
for at that instant the angular velocity with which the axis of the
gyrostat is changing direction is greatest. When the pendulum is
at one extremity of its swing the former couple is a maximum, and
the latter one is zero. At that instant the deflection of the bob from
the vertical is a maximum, and it is at rest, or is moving sidewise,
according to the mode of starting, except in so far as the initial
conditions have been interfered with by friction. By this relation
of the couples the form of the path can be explained.
Another mode of motion is possible which has a very mtimate
connection with the theory of vibrations of light-emitting molecules
in a magnetic field, as indeed I pointed out here several years ago in
a Friday evening discourse.t| The bob can be made to move in a
circle about the vertical through the point of support either with or
against the direction of rotation of the flywheel. The two periods are
different, and the motions correspond to the circularly polarized light
of two distinct periods, which molecules, situated in a magnetic field,
are found to emit. Thus the gyrostatic pendulum gives a dynamical
analogue of the cause of the Zeeman effect.
In 1907 Herr Otto Schlick introduced a method of employing
a gyrostat to counteract the rolling of a vessel at sea. The gyrostat
is carried on bearings placed athwart the ship. These bearings are
in line with the flywheel, and a weight is attached to the frame of
the gyrostat in a position in line with the axis. It will be seen that
when the ship is on even keel the gyrostat rests with its axis vertical,
and with the weight vertically below the center of gravity of the |
flywheel. Heeling of the ship in one direction causes the gyrostat
to precess in one direction on the bearings on which it is mounted;
heeling in the other direction causes precession in the opposite
direction, and couples resisting the rolling motion are brought to
bear on the ship. The device may be employed in two ways. In
the first place, if the bearings on which the frame of the gyrostat is
carried within the ship are smooth, the effect of the gyrostat is to
resist the rolling force of the waves, and to bring about a lengthen-
ing of the free period of the ship, according to a mathematical theory
1 See Nature, Apr. 13, 1899, and Aug. 24, 1899.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Gray. PEATE 5:
Fic. 8.—MotTor-GYROSTAT PRECESSING ON CHAIN SUPPORT.
Fia. 9.—Motor-GyROSTAT MOUNTED TO DEMONSTRATE THE PRINCIPLE OF
THE GYROSTATIC COMPASS.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Gray. PLATE 6.
Fig. 10.—MoTOR-GYROSTAT FITTED UP AS A GYROSTATIC PENDULUM.
FIG. 11.—SOME CURVES OBTAINED WITH THE GYROSTATIC PENDULUM.
GYROSTATS AND GYROSTATIC ACTION—GRAY. 205
which, when put in the proper way, is really very simple. Excessive
rolling of a ship is due to the cumulative action of the waves, and
such cumulative action is only possible where the period of the ship
and that of the waves are of about the same order. A large ship has
a very long period, and synchronism of the ship and the waves is
impossible. The effect of introducing a gyrostatic control, operated
in the manner just described, is to endow the small ship with the
period of a very large one.
In the second mode of operating the gyrostat, friction is intro-
duced at the bearings on which the frame of the gyrostat is mounted.
With this addition the ship is forcibly prevented from excessive
rolling. In the trials of the device it was found that, with the con-
trol in operation, the angle of roll of the ship did not exceed 1° in a
cross sea which produced a total swing of 35° when the control was
out of action. It is interesting to notice that, contrary to the opin-
ions which were expressed when the device was first suggested, the
preventing of the rolling of a ship does not result in the waves break-
ing over her; a ship controlled by a gyrostat is, I believe, a dry one.
I have here a motor-gyrostat fitted within a skeleton frame repre-
senting a ship. (Fig. 12.) The frame is mounted on two bearings
arranged on wooden uprights, and may be made to oscillate on
these bearings, so as to imitate the rolling of a ship in a cross sea.
The frame of the gyrostat is mounted on two bearings placed athwart
the frame, and a weight is attached to the outside of the case in a
position in line with the axis of the flywheel. The center of gravity
of the gyrostat is in line with the bearings. A clip device is provided
which allows the gyrostat to be clamped to the skeleton frame, and
provision is made whereby a graded amount of friction may be
applied at one of the bearings.
I now set the skeleton frame vibrating with the flywheel at rest.
You observe the period. I start the motor gyrostat, and repeat the
vibrations, with the gyrostat clipped to the frame. The ship rolls
precisely as before. I free the gyrostat from the frame, and again
set the ship rolling, when you see that not only is the period vastly
increased, but the rolling motion is quickly wiped out.
When the gyrostat is clipped to the frame it produces no effect
upon the rolling motion. The couples opposing the rolling motion
arise from the precessional motion, and hence the gyrostat must be
given freedom to precess. In this connection it is interesting to
observe that in 1870 it was proposed by Sir Henry Bessemer to
obtain a steady cabin for a cross-channel steamer by placing it on a
gyrostat with its axis vertical and supported on fore and aft trunnions.
This plan was bound to fail. The dependence of the effect on freedom
of the axis to precess, in a direction which is not that of rolling, was
not understood. We now see that the object would have been
206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
attained by supporting the cabin on fore and aft trunnions and
mounting the gyrostat, within the cabin, on trunnions placed athwart
the ship.
Here is a monorail top of new design (figs. 13-14.) The frame
on stilts represents the car, and mounted on pivots placed across the
frame is a gyrostat. . Carried by a rod fixed to the frame of the gyro-
stat, and in line with the axis of the flywheel is a weight. When ,
the frame is placed on the table so that the legs and axis of the gyro-
stat are vertical, with the weight above the flywheel, the arrange-
ment is doubly unstable without rotation; the system of gyrostat
and weight is usually mounted on the pivots, and the entire structure
is unstable about the line of contact of the feet with the table. When
the flywheel is rotating, however, the top balances on the table.
The two nonrotational instabilities have been stabilized.
I now place the top on the table with the legs and axis of the fly-
wheel vertical, but with the weight below the gyrostat. The arrange-
ment is unstable. Here there is only one instability without rota-
tion, and the result is instability with or without rotation.
Here is a stilt-top similar to the one just shown, but provided with
wheels adapted to engage on a stretched wire. You observe the
remarkable balancing power of the arrangement.
In this top (fig. 15) a gyrostat is prvoted within a structure which
represents a tight-rope balancer. The structure terminates in wheels
adapted to engage on the wire. Attached to the gyrostat are two
arms, and carried by these is a light rod weighted at both ends.
My assistant spins the flywheel and places the structure upon the
wire with the legs vertical and the pole horizontal. The top, as you
observe, balances on the wire. If the top tilts over on the wire
toward me, the gyrostat precesses in the direction which carries the
pole over toward you, and vice versa. That is, if the balancer
begins to fall over to one side it immediately puts over the pole to
the other side. The action is exactly that of a tight-rope acrobat.
The rider of a bicycle keeps the machine upright by operating
the handle bar. If the machine tilts over to the left the rider turns
the handle bar to the left, and the forward momentum of the bicycle
and rider, aided by the gyrostatic action of the wheels (a relatively
small factor in this case) results in the erection of the machine.
Similarly, if the machine tilts to the right the front Heute bar of the
machine is turned to the right.
Here I have a small bicycle of the old-fashioned ‘“‘high” type,
provided with a gyrostatic rider. When the gyrostat is spinning
rapidly you observe that the top is completely stable. The gyrostat
operates the front wheel, just as does the rider on the ordinary
bicycle.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Gray. PLATE 7.
Fic. 12.—MoTor-GYROSTAT FITTED UP TO DEMONSTRATE SCHLICK’S METHOD OF
STEADYING A SHIP IN A Cross SEA.
Fic. 13.—NeEw MONORAIL-TOP.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Gray. PLATE 8.
Fila. 14.—MONORAIL-7T OP ON WIRE.
Fic. 15.—POLE-BALANCING TOP.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Gray, PLATE 9
Fic. 17.—‘‘ WALKING” GYROSTAT.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.— Gray. PLATE 10.
Fic. 18.—ACROBATIC TOP.
Fic. 19.—MoTor-Car.
GYROSTATS AND GYROSTATIC ACTION—GRAY. 207
Again, here is a small safety bicycle provided with a gyrostatic
rider. (Fig. 16.) In this case the gyrostat is mounted above the
back wheel, and is connected by arms to the handle bar of the front
wheel. The action is the same as in the other model.
The tops I have shown you are very interesting from the fact
that in each case the gyrostat not only detects but sets about correct-
Ing any tendency of the top to fall over. They behave as if they
possessed both a nervous and a muscular system.
I have also here a gyrostat which can be made to progress in
space by a reciprocating motion—in fact, a walking gyrostat. (Fig.
17.) The gyrostat is suspended by two chains from two horizontally
stretched wires. The wires are carried by a wooden frame, which is
mounted, as you see, on two trunnions carried by wooden uprights.
The chains attached to the arms of the gyrostat terminate in two
rings, and these are threaded on the stretched wires.
The gyrostat is spun and replaced on the wires. When the frame
is tilted to and fro on the trunnions, the gyrostat walks ‘ hand-over-
hand” along the wires. By the tilting of the frame the weight of the
gyrostat is thrown alternately on each of the chains, and in conse-
quence of the precessional motion the gyrostat moves along, carrying
the chains with it.
At present the spin is great, and therefore the precessional motion
is small. The gyrostat proceeds with a slow and stately motion.
As time goes on the spin falls off, and the rate of walking increases,
until finally the gyrostat literally runs along the wires, with con-
siderable loss of dignity. When the gyrostat is inclosed in a box,
or within an acrobatic figure, the behavior seems very mysterious.
Here is still another form of acrobatic top, consisting of a large
gyrostat, the axis of which is horizontal, and two small ones, with
axes vertical, mounted, one on each side of the large one, on sleeves
threaded on a horizontal bar, as shown in figure 18. My assistant
spins the flywheel of the large gyrostat, which is then suspended by
means of a string and hook from the upper bar of the frame. At
present the center of gravity of the gyrostat is vertically below the
hook, and under these conditions there is no precessional motion.
He now spins the two small gyrostats and attaches them to the large
one. Hach small gyrostat is carried by two sleeves which are threaded
on a horizontal bar. The hook is now transferred to one of the side
recesses provided in the upper bar of the large gyrostat, and the sys-
tem is left to itself, when it turns round in azimuth. One of the small
gyrostats throws itself up and balances on the bar. The experiment
is repeated with the hook engaging in the other side recess, when you
observe that the small gyrostat which previously occupied the lower
position now rises into the upright one, and the gyrostat which
occupied the upright position now occupies the lower one.
208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
This top admits of a large variety of designs. It is easy to imagine
a gyrostatic circus rider performing balancing feats on the back of a
gyrostatic horse!
I conclude with a gyrostatic model (fig. 19) which depends for its
action upon an entirely novel and practical method of operating a
gyrostat or gyrostats. The method has a very large variety of appli-
cations, into which I shall not enter at present. It is here shown
applied to a motor car. The car runs on two wheels in tandem;
it can be set to run either in a straight path or a path curved in either
direction. The arrangement includes two parts connected by a ver-
tical or nearly vertical hinge. Each is supported on a single wheel.
The front part carries a gyrostat with axis horizontal (in this case),
the afterpart contains the propelling mechanism. A quasi-gravita-
tional field of force is produced by the propeller behind acting through
the hinge, and the construction is such that there is true stability,
not the quasi stability, accompanied by contimually increasing
gyrostatic oscillation, which obtains in many other cases.
STABILITY OF AEROPLANES.
By OrvitteE Wricut, B.S8., LL. D.
The subject of “stability of aeroplanes” is too broad to permit of
a discussion of all of its phases in one evening. I shall, therefore,
confine myself more particularly to a few phases of the fore-and-aft
or longitudinal equilibrium. Although in learning to fly the beginner
finds most difficulty in mastering the lateral control, it is his lack of
knowledge of certain features of the fore-and-aft equilibrium that
leads to most of the serious accidents. These accidents are the more
difficult to avoid because they are due to subtle causes which the
flyer does not at the time perceive.
A flying machine must be balanced in three directions—about an
axis fore and aft in its line of motion, about an axis extending in a
lateral direction from tip to tip of the wings, and about a vertical
axis. The balance about the lateral axis is referred to as fore-and-
aft or longitudinal equilibrium; that about the fore-and-aft axis as
lateral equilibrium; and that about the vertical axis is generally re-
ferred to as steering, although its most important function is that of
lateral equilibrium.
If the center of support of an aeroplane surface would remain
fixed at one point, as is practically the case in marine vessels and
in balloons and airships, equilibrium would be a simple matter.
But the location of the center of pressure on an aeroplane surface
changes with every change in the angle at which the air strikes the
surface. At an angle of 90° it is located approximately at the center
of the surface. As the angle becomes less, the center of pressure
moves forward. On plane surfaces it continues to move forward as
the angle decreases until it finally reaches the front edge. But on
cambered surfaces the movement is not continuous. After a certain
critical angle of incidence is reached, which angle depends upon the
particular form of the surface, the center of pressure moves back-
ward with further decrease in angle until it arrives very close to the
rear edge. At angles ordinarily used in flying, angles of 3° to 12°,
the travel of the center of pressure is in this retrograde movement
and is located, according to the angle of incidence, at points between
1 Presented at the stated meeting cf the Franklin Institute held Wednesday, May 20, 1914, when Dr.
Wright received the Franklin Institute’s Elliott Cresson Medal in recognition of the epoch-making work
accomplished by him in establishing on a practical basis the science and art of aviation. Reprinted, by
permission, from the Journal of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, September, 1914.
73176°—sMm 1914——14 209
210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
30 per cent and 50 per cent back of the front edge of the surface. The
location of the center of pressure on any given surface is definitely
fixed by the angle of incidence at which the surface is exposed to
the air.
The placing of the center of gravity of the machine below its cen-
ter of support appears, at first glance, to be a solution of the problem
of equilibrium. This is the method used in maintaining equilibrium
in marine vessels and in balloons and airships, but in flying machines
it has the opposite of the desired effect. If a flying machine con-
sisting of a supporting surface, without elevator or other means of
balancing, were descending vertically as a parachute, the center of
eravity vertically beneath the center of support would maintain its
equilibrium. But as soon as the machine begins to move forward
the center of pressure, instead of remaining at the center of the sur-
faces, as was the case when descending vertically, moves toward that
edge of the surface which is in advance. The center of gravity being
located at the center of the surface and the center of pressure in ad-
vance of the center of the surface, a turning moment is created which
tends to lift the front of the machine, thus exposing the surfaces at
a larger angle of incidence and at the same time to a greater resist-
ance to forward movement. The momentum of the machine, acting
through its center of gravity below the center of forward resistance,
combines with the forward center of pressure in causing the surface to
be rotated about its lateral axis. The machine will take an upward
course until it finally comes to a standstill. The rear edge of the
surface will now be below that of the front edge and the machine
will begin to slide backward. The center of pressure immediately
reverses and travels toward the rear edge of the surface, which now
in the backward movement has become the front edge. The center
of gravity again being back of the center of pressure, the advancing
edge of the surface will be lifted as before, and the pendulum effect
of the low weight will be repeated. A flying machine with a low cen-
ter of gravity, without rudders or other means to maintain its equi-
librium, will oscillate back and forth in this manner until it finally
falls to the ground.
It will have been observed from the foregoing that the equilibrium
in the horizontal plane was disturbed by two turning moments acting
about the lateral horizontal axis of the machine; one produced by the
force of gravity and the lift of the surface acting in different vertical
lines, and the other by the center of momentum and the center of
resistance acting in different horizontal lines.
It is evident that a low center of gravity is a disturbing instead of a
correcting agent. The ideal form of flying machine would be one in
which the center of gravity lies in the line of the center of resistance
to forward movement and in the line of thrust. In practice this is not
STABILITY OF AEROPLANES—WRIGHT. 211
always feasible. Flying machines must be built to land safely as well
as to fly. A high center of gravity tends to cause a machine to roll
over in landing. A compromise is therefore adopted. The center of
gravity is kept high enough to be but a slight disturbing factor in flight
and at the same time not so high as to interfere in making safe
landings.
The three forces acting on an aeroplane in the direction of its line
of motion are the thrust of the propellers, the momentum or inertia of
its weight, and the resistance of the machine to forward travel. If
traveling in any other than a horizontal course, a component of
gravity in the line of motion will have to be reckoned with. When
these forces are exerted in the same line, with the centers of thrust
and momentum acting in the opposite direction to that of the center
of resistance, a variation in the quantity of any one, or of all, of these
forces will not in itself have a disturbing effect on the equilibrium
about the lateral horizontal axis. But these forces in the ordinary
flying machine do not act in the same line. Usually the center of
thrust is high, in order to give proper clearance between the propellers
and the ground; the center of gravity is low, to enable the machine to
land without danger of being overturned; and the center of resistance
is usually between the centers of thrust and gravity. When a flying
machine is traveling at uniform speed the propelling forces exactly
equal the resisting forces. In case the thrust of the propellers is
diminished by throttling the motor, the momentum of the machine
acting below the center of resistance carries the lower part of the
machine along faster than the upper part, and the surfaces thus will
be turned upward, producing a greater angle and a greater resistance.
The same effect is produced if the machine be suddenly struck by a
gust of wind of higher velocity from in front. The thrust of its pro-
pellers will be temporarily slightly decreased, the resistance due to the
greater wind pressure will be increased, and the momentum of the
machine (the center of gravity being low) will in this case also turn the
surfaces upward to a larger angle. While these variations in the
forces acting in the horizontal line have of themselves a certain amount
of disturbing effect, yet it is from the changes of incidence which they
introduce that. one encounters the greatest difficulty in maintaining
equilibrium.
The two principal methods used in preserving fore-and-aft equilib-
rium have been, first, the shifting of weight so as to keep the center of
gravity in line with the changing center of lift; and, second, the utili-
zation of auxiliary surfaces, known as elevators, to preserve the posi-
tion of the center of pressure in line with a fixed center of gravity.
The first method has been found impracticable on account of the im-
possibilty of shifting large weights quickly enough. The second
method is that used in most of the flying machines of to-day.
212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Flying machines of this latter type should have their auxilary sur-
faces located as far as possible from the main bearing planes, because
the greater the distance the greater is the leverage and consequently
the smaller the amount of surface required. The auxiliary surfaces
are usually placed either in front or in the rear of the main supporting
surfaces, since they act with greater efficiency in these positions than
when placed above or below.
With a view to high efficiency, no part of either the main surfaces
or the auxiliary surfaces should be exposed on their upper sides in a
way to create downward pressures. One pound of air pressure exerted
downward costs as much in propelling power as 2 pounds of downward
pressure produced by actual weight carried. This is due to the fact
that the total pressure on an aeroplane is not vertical, but approxi-
mately normal to the plane of the surface. This pressure may be re-
solved into two forces, one acting in a line parallel with the direction
of travel, and the other at right angles to the line of travel. One is
termed “lift”? and the other “drift.” With a given aeroplane surface,
the drift and lift for any given angle of incidence always bear a definite
ratio to one another. This ratio varies from 1 to 12, to 1 to 1, accord-
ing to the angle of incidence and the shape of the surface. On an
average it is about 1 to 6, so that the thrust. required of the propeller
in the ordinary flying machine is approximately one-sixth of the
weight carried. When traveling on a horizontal course the lift is
sential and is exactly equal to the total weight of the machine and
load. This load may be real weight, or it may be partly real weight
and partly downward pressures exerted on parts of the surfaces. For
every pound of weight carried, a thrust of approximately one-sixth
pound is required. If, however, instead of real weight a downward
air pressure is exerted on some part of the machine, this downward
pressure must be overcome by an equal upward pressure on some
other part of the machine to prevent the machine from descending.
In this case the horizontal component of the one pound downward
pressure will be about one-sixth pound, and the horizontal component
of the compensating upward pressure also will be about one-sixth
pound, making a total of one-third pound required in thrust from the
propellers, as compared with one-sixth pound thrust required by one
pound actual weight carried. It is, therefore, evident that the use of
downward air pressures in maintaining equilibrium is exceedingly
wasteful, and, as far as possible, should be avoided. In other words,
when the equilibrium of an aeroplane has been disturbed, instead of
using a downward air pressure to depress the elevated side an upward
pressure should be utilized to elevate the low side. ‘The cost in power
is twice as great in one case as in the other.
The dynamically less efficient system of downward air pressures
is used to some extent, however, on account of its adaptability in
STABILITY OF AEROPLANES—WRIGHT. 213
producing more or less inherently stable aeroplanes. An inherently
stable aeroplane may be described as one in which equilibrium is
maintained by an arrangement of surfaces, so that when a current
of air strikes one part of the machine, creating a pressure that would
tend to disturb the equilibrium, the same current striking another
part creates a balancing pressure in the opposite direction. This
compensating or correcting pressure is secured without the mechanical
movement of any part of the machine.
The first to propose the use of this system for the fore-and-aft
control of aeroplanes was Penaud, a young French student, who
did much experimenting with model aeroplanes in the seventies of
the last century. His system is used only to a slight extent in the
motor-driven aeroplanes of to-day, on account of its wastefulness
of power and on account of its restriction of the maneuvering quali-
ties of the machine.
Penaud’s system consists of a main bearing surface and a hori-
zontal auxiliary surface in the rear fixed at a negative angle in
relation to the main surface. The center of gravity is placed in
front of the center of the main surface. This produces a tendency
to incline the machine downward in front, and to cause it to descend.
In descending the aeroplane gains speed. The fixed surface in the
rear, set at a negative angle, receives an increased pressure on its
upper side as the speed increases. This downward pressure causes
the rear of the machine to be depressed till the machine takes an
upward course. ‘The speed is lost in the upward course, the down-
ward pressure on the tail is relieved, and the forward center of
gravity turns the course again downward. While the inherently
stable system will control a machine to some extent, it depends
so much on variation in course and speed as to render it inadequate
to meet fully the demands of a practical flying machine.
In order to secure greater dynamic efficiency and greater maneu-
vering ability, auxiliary surfaces mechanically operable are used in
present flying machines instead of the practically fixed surfaces of
the inherently stable type. These machines possess the means of
quickly recovering balance without changing the direction of travel
and of maneuvering with greater dexterity when required. On the
other hand, they depend to a greater extent upon the skill of the
operator in keeping the equilibrium. It may be taken as a rule
that the greater the dynamic efficiency of the machine and the
greater its possibilities in maneuvering, the greater the knowledge
and skill required of the operator.
If the operator of a flying machine were able to ‘‘feel” exactly
the angle at which his aeroplane meets the air, 90 per cent at least
of all aeroplane accidents would be eliminated. It has been the
lack of this ability that has resulted in so large a toll of human lives.
. 214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Instruments have been produced which indicate closely the angle of
incidence at which the machine is flying, but they are not in general
use. Nor does the average flier realize how exceedingly dangerous
it is to be ignorant of this angle. Most of the fliers are aware that
‘‘stalling’’ is dangerous, but do not know when they really are
“stalling.”
A flying machine is in great danger when it is flying at its angle
of maximum lift. A change either to a smaller or a larger angle
results in a lesser lift. There is this important difference, however,
whether the angle be increased or decreased. While a smaller angle
gives less lift, it also has less drift resistance, so that the machine is
permitted to gain speed. On the other hand, the larger angle gives
not only less lift but encounters a greater resistance, which causes
the speed of the machine to be rapidly checked, so that there is a
double loss of lift—that due to angle and that due to a lesser speed.
The maximum lift is obtained in most flying machines at some
angle between 15° and 20°. If the machine be gliding from a height
with the power of the motor throttled or entirely turned off, and
the operator attempts to turn it to a level course, the speed of the
machine will soon be reduced to the lowest at which it can support
its load. If now this level course be held for even only a second
or two, the speed and the lift will be so diminished that the machine
will begin to fall rapidly.
The center of pressure on a cambered aeroplane surface at angles
greater than 12° to 15° travels backward with increase of angle of
incidence, so that when a machine approaches the ‘“‘stalled”’ angles
the main bearing surfaces are generally carrying practically all of
the weight and the elevator practically none at all. Under these
conditions the main surfaces fall more rapidly than does the rear
elevator. The machine noses downward and plunges at an exceed-
ingly steep angle toward the earth. This plunge would tend to
bring the machine back to normal speed quickly were the machine
flying at its usual angle of incidence. But at the large angles of
incidence the drift is a large part of the total pressure on the sur-
faces, so that, although plunging steeply downward, speed is recov-
ered but slowly. The more the operator tries to check the downward
plunge by turning the elevator, the greater becomes the angle of
incidence, and the greater the forward resistance. At ordinary
stalled angles the machine must descend at an angle of about 25°
with reference to the horizontal in order to maintain its speed. If
the speed be already below that necessary for support, a steeper
angle of descent will be required, and considerable time may be con-
sumed before supporting speed can be recovered. During all this
time the machine is plunging downward. If the plunge begins at a
STABILITY OF AEROPLANES—WRIGHT. 215
height of less than 200 or 300 feet, the machine is likely to strike
the ground before the speed necessary to recover control is acquired.
The danger from ‘‘stalling’’ comes in the operator attempting to
check the machine’s downward plunge by turning the main bearing
surfaces to still larger angles of incidence, instead of pointing the
machine downward, at a smaller angle of incidence, so that the
speed can be recovered more quickly. It is safe to say that fully
90 per cent of the fatal accidents in flyimg are due to this cause.
Most of the serious ones occur when, after long glides from con-
siderable heights, with the power of the motor reduced, an attempt
is made to bring the machine to a more level course several hundred
feet in the air. The machine quickly loses its speed and becomes
“stalled.” All of us who have seen the novice make a ‘‘pancake”’
landing have seen the beginning of a case of ‘‘stalling’”’ which might
have been fatal had it taken place at a height of 100 or 200 feet.
The greatest danger in flying comes from misjudging the angle
of incidence. If a uniform angle of incidence were maintained, there
would be no difficulty in fore-and-aft equilibrium. As has already
been stated, for any given surface and any given angle of incidence
the position of the center of pressure is fixed. Under these conditions,
if the center of gravity were located to coincide with the center of
pressure and a uniform angle of incidence maintained, the machine
would always be in equilibrium.
It is in accordance with this principle that experiments the past
year have brought about a considerable advance in the development
of automatic stability. A small horizontal wind vane is so mounted
on the machine as to ride edgewise to the wind when the machine
is flying at the desired angle of incidence. In case the machine
varies from the desired angle, the air will strike the vane on either
its upper or lower side. The slightest movement of the vane in either
direction brings into action a powerful mechanism for operating the
controlling surfaces.
If the wind strikes the vane on the underside, as would be the
case when the machine takes a larger angle of incidence, the elevator
is turned to cause the machine to point downward in front till the
normal angle is restored. If the air strikes the vane from above, a
smaller angle of incidence is indicated, and an opposite action on the
elevator is produced. In this system no particular angle of the
machine with the horizontal is maintained. It is the angle at which
the air strikes the aeroplane surface that is important. If the vane.
is set at an angle of 5° with the main supporting surfaces, and the
machine is traveling on a level course, increasing the power of the
motor will cause it to begin taking on more speed. But as the lifting
effect of an aeroplane surface is the product of two factors—its speed
and its angle of incidence—any increase in speed will produce a greater
216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
lift and cause the machine to rise. The machine will now be turned
upward, with the surfaces meeting the air at an angle of 5°. On the
contrary, if the power of the motor be reduced or entirely turned
off, the machine will immediately begin to decrease in speed, requiring
a larger angle of incidence for support. But as soon as the angle
begins to increase the air will strike the regulating vane on the under-
side and the elevator will be turned, pointing the machine downward
till the component of gravity in the direction of travel becomes
sufficient to maintain the normal speed. In this case the planes
will be inclined downward with reference to the horizontal. It is
evident that a machine controlled by regulating the angle of the
machine with reference to the impinging air is not lable to the dangers
of ‘‘stalling”’ already described.
Several other methods of maintaining fore-and-aft equilibrium
automatically have been proposed. One utilizes the force of gravity
acting on a pendulum or a tube of mercury; the other, the gyroscopic
force of a rapidly revolving wheel. In both of these systems the angle
of the machine is regulated with reference to the horizontal, or
some other determined plane, instead of with the angle of the imping-
ing air.
In the case just referred to, in which the power of the motor was
suddenly turned off while traveling on a level course, with these
systems, the planes would be maintained at their original angle with
the horizontal without any regard to the angle of incidence. The
machine would continue forward till, through the loss of momentum,
its speed would become so reduced and its angle of incidence so great
that it would be exposed to the dangers of diving.
The pendulum and mercury tube have other serious faults which
render them useless for regulating fore-and-aft equilibrium. If the
machine suddenly meet with a greater resistance to forward travel,
either as a result of change in direction or of meeting a stronger gust
of wind from in front, and its speed be ever so slightly checked, the
pendulum will swing forward and instead of turning the machine
downward, so as to maintain the normal speed, will cause the machine
to be inclined upward in front and thus further increase its forward
resistance.
The pendulum has proved itself an exceedingly useful device,
however, in regulating the lateral stability of aeroplanes. In this
case the effects of momentum and centrifugal force act on the pendu-
lum in the proper direction to produce desired results.
I believe the day is near at hand when the flier will be almost
entirely relieved of the work of maintaining the equilibrium of his
machine, and that his attention will be required only to keeping it
on its proper course and in bringing it safely in contact with the ground
when landing.
THE FIRST MAN-CARRYING AEROPLANE CAPABLE OF
SUSTAINED FREE FLIGHT—LANGLEY’S SUCCESS AS A
PIONEER IN AVIATION.
By A. F. Zaum, Ph. D.
[With 8 plates.]
Tt is doubtful whether any person of the present generation will
be able to appraise correctly the contributions thus far made to the
development of the practical flying machine. The aeroplane as it
stands to-day is the creation not of any one man, but rather of three
generations of men. It was the invention of the nineteenth century;
it will be the fruition, if not the perfection, of the twentieth century.
During the long decades succeeding the time of Sir George Cayley,
builder of aerial gliders and sagacious exponent of the laws of flight,
continuous progress has been made in every department of theoreti-
cal and practical aviation—progress in accumulating the data of
aeromechanics, in discovering the principles of this science, in im-
proving the instruments of aerotechnic research, in devising the or-
gans and perfecting the structural details of the eden dynamic
flying machine. From time to time numerous aerial craftsmen have
flourished in the world’s eye, only to pass presently into comparative
obscurity, while others too neglected or too poorly appreciated in their
own day subsequently have risen to high estimation and permanent
honor in the minds of men.
Something of this latter fortune was fated to the late Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Fora decade and a half Dr. Langley had
toiled unremittingly to build up the basic science of mechanical flight,
and finally to apply it to practical use. He had made numerous model
aeroplanes propelled by various agencies—by India rubber, by steam,
_ by gasoline—all operative and inherently stable. Then with great
confidence he had constructed for the War Department a man flier
which was the duplicate, on a fourfold scale, of his successful gaso-
line model. But on that luckless day in December, 1903, when he
expected to inaugurate the era of substantial aviation, an untoward
accident to his launching gear badly crippled his carefully and ade-
quately designed machine. The aeroplane was repaired, but not
again tested until the spring of 1914—-seven years after Langley’s
death.
217
218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Such an accident, occurrmg now, would be regarded as a passing
mishap; but at that time it seemed to most people to demonstrate
the futility of all aviation experiments. The press overwhelmed the
inventor with ridicule; the great scientist himself referred to the acci-
dent as having frustrated the best work of his life. Although he felt
confident of the final success of his experiments, further financial
support was not granted and he was forced to suspend operations.
Scarcely could he anticipate that a decade later, in a far away little
hamlet, workmen who had never known him would with keenest
enthusiasm rehabilitate that same tandem monoplane, and launch it
again and again in successful flight, and that afterwards in the Na-
tional Capital it should be assigned the place of honor among the
pioneer vehicles of the air.
When in March, 1914, Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss was invited to send a
flying boat to Washington to participate in celebrating ‘‘Langley
Day,” 1 he replied, ‘‘I would like to put the Langley aeroplane itself
in the air.’ Learning of this remark Secretary Walcott, of the
Smithsonian Institution, soon authorized Mr. Curtiss to recanvas
the original Langley aeroplane and launch it either under its own
propulsive power or with a more recent engine and propeller. Early
in April, therefore, the machine was taken from the Langley Labora-
tory and shipped in a box car to the Curtiss Aviation Field, beside
Lake Keuka, Hammondsport, N. Y. In the following month it was
ready for its first trial since the unfortunate accident of 1903. e
The main objects of these renewed trials were, first, to show whether
the original Langley machine was capable of sustained free flight
with a pilot, and, secondly, to determine more fully the advantages of
the tandem type of aeroplane. The work seemed a proper part of
the general program of experiments planned for the recently reopened
Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory. It was, indeed, for just such
experimentation that the aeroplane had been given to the Smith-
sonian Institution by the War Department, at whose expense it had
been, developed and brought to completion prior to 1903. After some
successful flights at Hammondsport the famous craft could, at the
discretion of the Smithsonian Institution, either be preserved for ex-
hibition or used for further scientific study. To achieve the two
main objects above mentioned, the aeroplane would first be flown as
nearly as possible in its original condition, then with such modifica-
tions as might seem desirable for technical or other reasons.
Various ways of launching were considered. In 1903 the Langley
aeroplane was launched from the top of a houseboat. A car support-
ing it and drawn by lengthy spiral springs ran swiftly along a track,
then suddenly dropped away, leaving the craft afloat in midair with
1 May 6, the anniversary of the famous flight of Langley’s Steam model aeroplane in 1896, is known in
Washington as ‘‘ Langley Day,” and has been celebrated with aerial maneuvers over land and water.
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LANGLEY AEROPLANE JUST RISING FROM WATER, JUNE 2, 1914, PILOTED BY CuRTISS.
FLIGHT OF LANGLEY AEROPLANE WITH ITS OWN POWER PLANT OVER LAKE KEUKA,
JUNE 2, 1914, PILOTED BY CuRTISS.
PLATE 3.
Smithsonian Report, 1914,—Zahm.,
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LANGLEY AEROPLANE—ZAHM. 219
its propellers whirring and its pilot supplementing, with manual con-
trol, if need be, the automatic stability of the machine. This method
of launching, as shown by subsequent experimentalists, is a practical
one and was favorably entertained by Mr. Curtiss. He also thought
of starting from the ground with wheels, from the ice with skates,
from the water with floats. Having at hand neither a first rate
smooth field nor a sheet of ice, he chose to start from the water.
In the accompanying illustrations, plates 1 and 2 show the appear-
ance of the Langley flymg machine after Mr. Curtiss had provided it
with hydroaeroplane floats and their connecting truss work. The
steel main frame, the wings, the rudders, the engine and propellers
all were substantially as they had been in 1903. The pilot had the
same seat under the main frame, and the same general system of
control as in 1903. He could raise or lower the craft by moving the
big rear rudder up and down; he could steer right and left by turning
the vertical rudder. He had no ailerons nor wing-warping mecha-
nism, but for lateral balance depended upon the dihedral angle of the
wings and upon suitable movements of his weight or of the vertical
rudder. And here it may be noted that Langley had placed the ver-
tical steering rudder under and to the rear of the center of gravity.
So placed, it served as a fairly good aileron by exerting a turning
movement about the longitudinal axis of the machine.
After the adjustments for actual flight had been made in the Cur-
tiss factory, according to the minute descriptions contained in the
Langley Memoir on Mechanical Flight, the aeroplane was taken to
the shore of Lake Keuka, beside the Curtiss hangars, and assembled
for launching. On a clear morning (May 28), and in a mild breeze,
the craft was lifted onto the water by a dozen men and set going, with
Mr. Curtiss at the steering wheel, ensconced in the little boat-shaped
car under the forward part of the frame. Many eager witnesses and
camera men were at hand, on shore and in boats. The four-winged
craft, pomted somewhat across the wind, went skimming over the
wavelets, then automatically headed into the wind, rose in level
poise, soared gracefully for 150 feet, and landed softly on the water
near the shore. Mr. Curtiss asserted that he could have flown far-
ther, but, beg unused to the machine, imagined the left wings had
more resistance than the right. The truth is that the aeroplane was
perfectly balanced in wing resistance, but turned on, the water like a
weather vane owing to the lateral pressure on its big rear rudder.
Hence in future experiments this rudder was made turnable about a
vertical axis, as well as about the horizontal axis used by Langley.
Henceforth the little vertical rudder under the frame was kept fixed
and inactive.
After a few more flights with the Langley aeroplane, kept as nearly
as possible in its original condition, its engine and twin propellers
were replaced by a Curtiss 80-horse motor and direct-connected
220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
tractor propeller mounted on the steel frame, well forward, as shown
in the photographs. It was hoped in this way to spare the original
engine and propeller bearings, which were none too strong for the
unusual burden added by the floats. In 1903 the total weight of
pilot and machine had been 830 pounds; with the floats lately added
it was 1,170 pounds; with the Curtiss motor and all ready for flight
it was 1,520 pounds. But notwithstanding these surplus additions
of 40 per cent and 85 per cent above the original weight of the craft,
the delicate wing spars and ribs were not broken, nor was any part
of the machine excessively overstrained.
Owing to the pressure of other work at the factory, the aeroplane
equipped with the Curtiss motor was not ready for further flights till
September. In the absence of Mr. Curtiss, who had gone to Cali-
fornia in August, a pupil of his aviation school, Mr. Elwood Doherty,
volunteered to act as pilot.
During some trials for adjusting the aeroplane controls and the
center of gravity, Mr. Doherty, on the afternoon of September 17,
planed easily over the water, rose on level wing, and flew about 450
feet, at an elevation of 2 or 3 yards, as shown by the accompanying
photographs of that date. Presently two other like flights were
made. Mr. Doherty found that with the forewings at 10° incidence,
the rear ones at 12°, and the pilot’s seat on the main frame about
midway between the wings, the flier responded nicely to the move-
ments of the pilot wheel. A slight turn of the wheel steered the
craft easily to right or left, a slight pull or push raised or lowered it.
The big double tail, or rudder, which responded to these movements,
was the only steering or control surface used. The breaking of the
8-foot tractor screw terminated these trials for the day. The waves
indicate the strength of the wind during the flights.
On September 19, using a 9-foot screw, Mr. Doherty began to make
longer flights. A pleasant off-shore breeze rippled the water, but
without raising whitecaps. A dozen workmen, lifting the great tan-
dem monoplane from the shore, with the pilot in his seat, waded into
the lake and set it gently on the water. A crowd of witnesses near
at hand, and many scattered about the shores, and on the lofty vine-
clad hills, stood watching expectantly. When some of the official
observers and photographers, in a motor boat, were well out in, the
lake, a man in high-top boots, standing in the water, started the pro-
peller, and stepped quickly out of the way. Then with its great
yellow wings beautifully arched and distended, the imposing craft
ran swiftly out from the shore, gleaming brilliantly in the afternoon
sun. At first the floats and lower edges of the rudders broke the
water to a white surge, then as the speed increased they rose more
and more from the surface. Presently the rear floats and the rudders
cleared the water, the front floats still skipping on their heels, white
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with foam. The whole craft was now in soaring poise. It quickly
approached the photographers, bearing on its back the alert pilot,
who seemed to be scrutinizing every part of it and well satisfied to let
it race. Then it rose majestically and sailed on even wing 1,000 feet;
sank softly, skimmed the water, and soared another 1,000 feet;
erazed the water again, rose and sailed 3,000 feet; turned on the
water and came back in the same manner; and, as it passed the pho-
tographers, soared again nearly half a mile. The flights were re-
peated a few minutes later, then, owing to squally weather, were
discontinued for 11 days.
On October 1, 1914, the aeroplane was launched at 11 a. m. in an
off-shore breeze strong enough to raise whitecaps. Hovering within
30 feet of the water, and without material loss of speed, it made in
quick succession flights of the following duration, as observed by
four of us in a motor boat and timed by myself: 20 seconds, 20 sec-
onds, 65 seconds, 20 seconds, 40 seconds, 45 seconds. As the speed
through air averaged about 50 feet per second, the through air
lengths of these flights were, respectively, 1,000 feet, 1,000 feet, 3,250
feet, 1,000 feet, 2,000 feet, 2,250 feet. As the aeroplane was now
well out from shore among the heavy billows and white caps, Mr.
Doherty landed it upon the water and turned it half about for the
homeward flight. Thereupon the propeller tips struck the waves
and were broken off, one casting a splinter through the center of the
left wing. The pilot stopped the engine, rested in his seat, and was
towed home by our motor boat. The flights were witnessed and
have been attested by many competent observers.
As to the performance of the aeroplane during these trials, the
pilot, Mr. E. Doherty, reports, and we observed, that the inherent
lateral stability was excellent, the fore-and-aft control was satisfac-
tory, and the movement of the craft both on the water and in the air
was steady and suitable for practical flymg in such weather. Ap-
parently the machine could have flown much higher, and thus avoided
touching the water during the lulls in the breeze; but higher flying
did not seem advisable with the frail trussing of wings designed to
carry 830 pounds instead of the 1,520 pounds actual weight.
At the present writing the Langley aeroplane is in perfect condition
and ready for any further tests that may be deemed useful. But
it has already fulfilled the purpose for which it was designed. It
has demonstrated that, with its original structure and power, it is
capable of flying with a pilot and several hundred pounds of useful
load. It is the first aeroplane in the history of the world of which
this can be truthfully said.
If the experiments be continued under more painstaking technical
direction, longer flights can easily be accomplished. Mr. Manly, who
designed the Langley engine and screws and who directed the con-
222 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
struction and tests of the large aeroplane up to December 8, 1903,
reports that he obtained from the propulsion plant a static thrust
of 450 pounds, and that he once ran the engine under full load for 10
hours consecutively. This thrust is nearly 100 pounds more than
that commonly obtamed at Hammondsport with the same plant,
and 20 pounds more than the static thrust obtained with the Curtiss
motor on the day when it flew the aeroplane with 1,520 pounds
ageregate weight. Hence, by restoring the engine and propellers to
their original normal working condition they should be able to drive
the aeroplane in successful flight with an aggregate weight of nearly
1,600 pounds, even when hampered with the floats and their sustain-
ing truss work. With a thrust of 450 pounds, the Langley aero-
plane, without floats, restored to its original condition and provided
with stronger bearings, should be able to carry a man and sufficient
supplies for a voyage lasting practically the whole day.
Dr. Langley’s aerotechnic work may be briefly summarized as
follows:
1. His aerodynamic experiments, some published and some as yet
unpublished, were complete enough to form a basis for practical
pioneer aviation.
2. He built and launched, in 1896, the first steam model aeroplane
capable of prolonged free flight, and possessing good inherent sta-
bility.
3. He built the first internal-combustion motor suitable for a practi-
cal man-carrying aeroplane.
4. He developed and successfully launched the first gasoline model
aeroplane capable of sustained free flight.
5. He developed and built the first man-carrying aeroplane capable
of sustained free flight.
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY!
By L. H. BArKenanp, Sc. D.
While I appreciate deeply the distinction of speaking before you on
the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the Columbia School of
Mines, I realize, at the same time, that nobody here present could do
better justice to the subject which has been chosen for this lecture,
than the beloved master in whose honor the Charles Frederick
Chandler leetureship has been created.
Dr. Chandler, in his long and eminently useful career as a professor
and as a public servant, has assisted at the very beginning of some of
the most interesting chapters of applied chemistry, here and abroad.
Some of his pupils have become leaders in chemical industry;
others have found in his teachings the very conception of new chemical
processes which made their names known throughout the whole world.
Industrial chemistry has been defined as “the chemistry of dollars
and cents.”’
This rather cynical definition, in its narrower interpretation, seems
to ignore entirely the far-reaching economic and civilizing influences
which have been brought to life through the applications of science;
it fails to do justice to the fact that the whole fabric of modern civiliza-
tion becomes each day more and ever more interwoven with the
endless ramifications of applied chemistry.
The earlier effects of this influence do not date back much beyond
one hundred and odd years. They became distinctly evident during
the first French Republic, increased under Napoleon, gradually spread
to neighboring countries, and then reaching out farther, their influence
is now obvious throughout the whole world.
France, during the revolution, scattered to the winds old traditions
and conyventionalities, in culture as well as in politics. Until then,
she had mainly impressed the world by the barbaric, wasteful splendor
of her opulent kings, at whose courts the devotees of science received
scant attention in comparison to the more ornamental artists and
belles-lettrists, who were petted and rewarded alongside of the all-
important men of the sword.
1 An address given at Columbia University to inaugurate the Charles F. Chandler lectureship. Copy-
right, 1914, by the Columbia University Press. Reprinted by permission.
223
224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
In fact, as far as the culture of science was concerned, the Nether-
lands, Germany, and Italy, and more particularly England, were
head and shoulders above the France of “le Roi Soleil.”
The struggle of the new régime put France in the awkward position
of the legendary beaver which “had to climb a tree.’’
If for no other reason, she needed scientists to help her in her wars
against the rulers of other European nations. She needed them just
as much for repairing her crippled finances and her badly disturbed
industries which were dependent upon natural products imported
until then, but of which the supply had suddenly been cut off by the
so-called continental blockade. Money prizes and other inducements
had been offered for stimulating the development of chemical proces-
ses, and—what is more significant—patent laws were promulgated
so as to foster invention.
Nicolas Leblanc’s method for the manufacture of soda to replace
the imported alkalis, Berthollet’s method for bleaching with chlorine,
the beet-sugar THUR aEE to replace cane sugar imported from tho
colonies, and several other processes, were proposed.
All these chemical processes found themselves soon lifted from the
hands of the secretive alchemist or the timid pharmacist to the rank
of real manufacturing methods. Industrial chemistry had begun
its lusty career.
First successes stimulated new endeavors, and small wonder is it
that France, with these favorable conditions at hand, for a while at
least, entered into the most glorious period of that part of her history
which relates to the development of chemistry, and the arts dependent
thereon.
It is difficult to imagine that at that time Germany, which now
occupies such an enviable position in chemistry, was so far behind
that even in 1822, when Liebig wanted to study chemistry at the best
schools, he had to leave his own country and turn to Gay-Lussac,
Thénard, and Dulong in Paris.
But the British were not slow to avail themselves of the new
opportunities in chemical manufacturing so clearly indicated by the
first successes of the French. Their linen bleacheries in Scotland
and England soon used an improved method for bleaching with
chloride of lime, developed by Tennant, which brought plana the
manufacture of eer chemicals relating thereto, like Salpharie acid
and soda.
The chemical reactions involved in all these processes are relatively
simple, and after they were once well understood it required mainly
resourceful engineering and good commercial abilities to build up
successfully the industries based thereon.
From this epoch on dates the beginning of the development of that
important industry of heavy chemicals in which the British led the
world for almost a century.
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 295
In the same way, England had become the leader in another
important branch of chemical industry—the manufacture of coal gas.
The Germans were soon to make up for lost time. Those s*me
German universities which, when Liebig was a young man, were
so poorly equipped for the study of chemistry, were now enthusiasti-
cally at work on research along the newer developments of the physical
sciences, and before long the former pupils of France, in their turn,
became teachers of the world.
Liebig had inaugurated for the chemical students working under him
his system of research laboratories; however modest these laboratories
may have been at that time, they carried bodily the study of chemistry
from pedagogic boresomeness into a captivating cross-examination
of nature.
And it seemed as if nature had been waiting impatiently to impart
some of her secrets to the children of men, who for so many generations
had tried to settle truth and knowledge by words and oratory and
by brilliant displays of metaphysical controversies.
Indeed, at that time a few kitchen tables, some clumsy glassware,
a charcoal furnace or two, some pots and pans, and a modest balance
were all that was needed to make nature give her answers.
These modest paraphernalia, eloquent by their very simplicity,
brought forth rapidly succeeding discoveries. One of them was truly
sensational: Liebig and Wohler succeeded in accomplishing the direct
synthesis of urea; thinking men began to realize the far-reaching
import of this revolutionary discovery whereby a purely organic
substance had been created in the laboratory by starting exclusively
from inorganic materials. This result upset all respected doctrines
that organic substances are of a special enigmatic constitution,
altogether different from inorganic or mineral compounds, and that
they only could be built up by the agency of the so-called “vital
force’’—whatever that might mean.
Research in organic chemistry became more and more fascinating;
all available organic substances were being investigated one after
another by restless experimentalists.
Coal tar, heretofore a troublesome by-product of gas manufacture,
notwithstanding its uninviting, ill-smelling, black, sticky appearance,
did net escape the general inquisitive tendency; some of its constitu-
ents, like benzol or others, were isolated and studied.
Under the brilliant leadership of Kékulé, a successful attempt was
made to correlate the rapidly increasing new experimental observa-
tions in organic chemistry into a new theory which would try to
explain all the numerous facts; a theory which became the signpost
to the roads of further achievements.
The discovery of quickly succeeding processes for making from
coal-tar derivatives numerous artificial dyes, rivaling, if not sur-
73176°—sM 1914——15
226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
passing, the most brilliant colors of nature, made the group of bold
investigators still bolder. Research in organic chemistry began to
find rapid rewards; entirely new and successful industries based on
purely scientific data were springing up in England and France, as
well as in Germany.
Some wide-awake leaders of these new enterprises, more particu-
larly in Germany, soon learned that they were never hampered by
too much knowledge, but that, on the contrary, they were almost con-
tinuously handicapped in their impatient onward march by insufficient
knowledge, or by misleading conceptions, if not by incorrect published
facts.
This is precisely where the study of organic chemistry received its
greatest stimulating influence and soon put Germany, in this branch
of science, ahead oi all other nations.
Money aad effort had to be spent freely for further research. ‘The
best scholars in chemistry were called mto action. Some men, who
were preparing themselves to become professors, were indueed to
take a leading part as directors in one or another of the new chemical
enterprises. Others, who refused to forsake their teachers’ career,
were retained as advisers or guides, and, in several instances, the
honor of being the discoverers of new processes, or a new dye, was
made more substantial by financial rewards. The modest German
university professor, who heretofore had lived within a rather narrow
academic sphere, went through a process of evolution, where the
rapidly growing chemical industry made him realize his latent powers
and greater importance, and broadened his influence far beyond the
confines of his lecture room. Even if he were altrustic enough to
remain indifferent to fame or money, he felt stimulated by the very
thought that he was helping, in a direct manner, to build up the nation
and the world through the immediate application of the principles
of science.
In the beginning science did all the giving and chemical industry
got most of the rewards; but soon the réles began to change to the
point where frequently they became entirely inverted. The uni-
versities did not furnish knowledge fast enough to keep pace with the
requirements of the rapidly developing new industries. Modern
research laboratories were organized by some large chemical factories
-on a scale never conceived before with a lavishness which made the
best equipped university laboratory appear like a timid attempt.
Germany, so long behind France and England, had become the recog-
nized leader in organic manufacturing processes, and developed a
new industrial chemistry based more on the thorough knowledge
of organic chemistry than on engineering skill.
In this relation it is worth while to point out that the early
organic industrial chemistry, through which Germany was soon to
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. AIA
become so important, at first counted its output not in tons, but in
pounds—not in size nor in quantity, but in variety and quality.
Now let us see how Germany won her spurs in chemical engineer-
ing as well.
At the beginning, the manufacturing problems in organic chemistry
involved few if any serious engineering difficulties, but required most
of all a sound theoretical knowledge of the subject; this put a premi-
um on the scientist and could afford, for a while at least, to ignore the
engineer. But when growmg developments began to claim the help
of good engineers there was no difficulty whatsoever in supplying
them, nor in making them cooperate with the scientists. In fact,
since then Germany has solved just as successfully some of the most
extraordinary chemical engineering problems ever undertaken, al-
though the development of such processes was entered upon at first
from the purely scientific side.
In almost every case it was only after the underlying scientific
facts had been well established that any attempt was made to develop
them commercially.
Healthy commercial development of new scientific processes does
not build its hope of success upon the cooperation of that class of
“promoters” which are always eager to find any available pretext
for making “‘ quick money,’ and whose scientific ignorance contributes
conveniently to their comfort by not interfering too much with their
self-assurance and their voluble assertions. The history of most
of the successful recent chemical processes abounds in examples
where, even after the underlying principles were well established,
long and costly preparatory team work had to be undertaken; where
foremost scientists, as well as engineers of great ability, had to com-
bine their knowledge, their skill, their perseverance, with the sup-
port of large chemical companies, who, in their turn, could rely on
the financial backing of strong oe concerns, wall advised by
tried expert specialists.
History does not record how many processes thus submitted to
careful study were rejected because, on close examination, they were
found to possess some hopeless shortcomings. In this way numerous
fruitless efforts and financial losses were averted, where less carefully
accumulated knowledge might have induced less scrupulous pro-
moters to secure money for plausible but ill-advised enterprises.
In the history of the manufacture of artificial dyes no chapter
gives a more striking instance of long, assiduous, and expensive pre-
liminary work of the highest order than the development of the
industrial synthesis of indigo. Here was a substance of enormous
consumption which, until then, had been obtained from the tropics
as a natural product of agriculture.
Prof. von Baeyer and his pupils, by long and marvelously
clever laboratory work, had succeeded in unraveling the chemical
228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
constitution of this indigo dye, and had finally indicated some possible
methods of synthesis. Notwithstanding all this, it took the Badische
Aniline & Soda Fabrik about 20 years of patient research work, carried
out by a group of eminent chemists and engineers, before a satis-
factory method was devised by which the artificial product could
compete in price and in quality with natural indigo.
Germany, with her well-administered and easily enforcible patent
laws, has added, through this very agency, a most vital inducement
for pioneer work in chemical industries. Who otherwise would dare
to take the risk of all the expenses connected with this class of
creative work? Moreover, who would be induced to publish the
result of his discoveries far and wide throughout the whole world in
that steadily flowing stream of patent literature, which, much sooner
than any textbooks or periodicals, enables one worker to be bene-
fited and to be inspired by the publication of the latest work of
others ?
The development of some problems of industrial chemistry has
enlisted the brilliant collaboration of men of so many different
nationalities that the final success could not, with any measure of
justice, be ascribed exclusively to one single race or nation; this is
best illustrated by the invention of the different methods for the
fixation of nitrogen from the air.
This extraordinary achievement, although scarcely a few years
old, seems already an ordinary link in the chain of common, current
events of our busy life; and yet, the facts connected with this recent
conquest reveal a modern tale of great deeds of the race—an epos of
applied science.
Its story began the day when chemistry taught us how indis-
pensable are the nitrogeneous substances for the growth of all living
beings.
Generally speaking, the most expensive foodstuffs are precisely
those which contain most nitrogen; for the simple reason that there
is, and always has been, at some time cr another, a shortage of
nitrogenous foods in the world. Agriculture furnishes us these
proteid or nitrogen containing bodies, whether we eat them directly
as vegetable products or indirectly as animals which have assimilated
the proteids from plants. It so happens, however, that by our ill-
balanced methods of agriculture we take nitrogen from the soil
much faster than it is supplied to the soil through natural agencies,
We have tried to remedy this discrepancy by enriching the soil with
manure or other fertilizers, but this has been found totally insufficient,
especially: with our methods of intensive culture—our fields want
more nitrogen. So agriculture has been looking anxiously around to
find new sources of nitrogen fertilizer. For a short time-an excellent
supplv was found in the guano devosits of Peru: but this material was
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 229
used up so eagerly that the supply lasted only a very few years. In
the meantime, the ammonium salts recovered from the by-products
of the gas works have come into steady use as nitrogen fertalizer.
But here again the supply is entirely insufficient, and during the
later period our main reliance has been placed on the natural beds
of sodium nitrate, which are found in the desert regions of Chile.
This has been, of late, our principal source of nitrogen for agriculture,
as well as for the many imdustries which require saltpeter or nitric
acid.
In 1898 Sir William Crookes, in his memorabie presidential address
before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, called
our attention to the threatening fact that, at the mcreasing rate of
consumption, the nitrate beds of Chile would be exhausted before
the middle of this century. Here was a warning—an alarm call—
raised to the human race by one of the deepest scientific thinkers of
our generation. It meant no more nor less than that before long
our race would be confronted with nitrogen starvation. In a given
country, all other conditions being equal, the abundance or the lack
of nitrogen available for nutrition is a paramount factor in the degree
of general welfare, or of physical decadence. ‘The less nitrogen there
is available as foodstuffs, the nearer the population is to starvation.
The great famines in such nitrogen-deficient countries as India and
China and Russia are sad examples of nitrogen starvation.
And yet, nitrogen, as such, is so abundant in nature that it consti-
tutes four-fifths of the air we breathe. Every square mile of our
atmosphere contains nitrogen enough to satisfy our total consumption
for over half a century. However, this nitrogen is unavailable as long
as we do not find means to make it enter into some suitable chemical
combination. Moreover, nitrogen was generally considered inactive
and inert, because it does not enter readily in chemical combination.
William Crookes’s disquieting message of rapidly approaching
nitrogen starvation did not cause much worry to politicians—they
seldom look so far ahead into the future. But to the men of science
it rang like a reproach to the human race. Here, then, we were in
possession of an inexhaustible store of nitrogen in the air, and yet,
unless we found some practical means for tying some of it into a suit-
able chemical combination we should soon be in a position similar
to that of a shipwrecked sailor, drifting around on an immense ocean
of brine, and yet slowly dying for lack of drinking water.
As a guiding beacon there was, however, that simple experiment,
carried out in a little glass tube, as far back as 1875, by both Caven-
dish and Priestley, which showed that if electric sparks were passed
through air the oxygen thereof was able to burn some of the nitrogen
and to engender nitrous vapors.
230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
This seemingly unimportant laboratory curiosity, so long dormant
in the textbooks, was made a starting pomt by Charles S. Bradley
and D. R. Lovejoy, in Niagara Falls, for creating the first industrial
apparatus for converting the nitrogen of the air into nitric acid by
means of the electric arc.
As early as 1902 they published their results as well as the details
of their apparatus. Although they operated only one full-sized unit,
they demonstrated conclusively that nitric acid could thus be pro-
duced from the air in unlimited quantities. We shall examine later
the reasons why this pioneer enterprise did not prove a commercial
success; but to these two American inventors belongs, undoubtedly,
the credit of having furnished the first answer to the distress call of
Sir William Crookes.
In the meantime many other investigators were at work at the
same problem, and soon from Norway’s abundant waterfalls came
the news that Birkeland and Eyde had solved successfully, and on a
commercial scale, the same problem by a differently constructed
apparatus. The Germans, too, were working on the same subject,
and we heard that Schoenherr, also Pauling, had evolved still other
methods, all, however, based on the Cavendish-Priestley principle
of oxidation of nitrogen. In Norway alone the artificial saltpeter
factories use now, day and night, over 200,000 electrical horsepower,
which will soon be doubled; while a further addition is contemplated
which will bring the volume of electric current consumed to about
500,000 horsepower. The capital invested at present in these works
amounts to $27,000,000.
Frank and Caro, in Germany, succeeded in creating another
profitable industrial process whereby nitrogen could be fixed by
carbide of calcium, which converts it into calcium cyanamide, an
excellent fertilizer by itself. By the action of steam on cyanamide,
ammonia is produced, or it can be made the starting point of the
manufacture of cyanides, so profusely used for the treatment of gold
and silver ores.
Although the synthetic nitrates have found a field of their own,
their utilization for fertilizers is smaller than that of the cyanamide;
and the latter industry represents to-day an investment of about
$30,000,000, with 3 factories in Germany, 2 in Norway, 2 in Sweden,
1 in France, 1 in Switzerland, 2 in Italy, 1 in Austria, 1 in Japan,
1 in Canada, but not any in the United States. The total output
of cyanamide is valued at $15,000,000 yearly and employs 200,000
horsepower, and preparations are made at almost every existing
plant for further extensions. An English company is contemplating
the application of 1,000,000 horsepower to the production of cyana-
mide and its derivatives, 600,000 of which have been secured in
Norway and 400,000 in Iceland.
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 231
But still other processes are being developed, based on the fact
that certain metals or metalloids can absorb nitrogen, and can thus
be converted into nitrides; the latter can either be used directly as
fertilizers or they can be made to produce ammonia under suitable
treatment.
The most important of these nitride processes seems to be that
of Serpek, who, in his experimental factory at Niedermorschweiler,
succeeded in obtaining aluminum nitride in almost theoretical quan-
tities, with the use of an amount of electrical energy eight times
less than that needed for the Birkeland-Eyde process and one-half
less than for the cyanamide process, the results being calculated for
equal weights of ‘‘fixed”’ nitrogen.
A French company has taken up the commercial application of
this process which can furnish, besides ammonia, pure alumina for
the manufacture of aluminum metal.
An exceptionally ingenious process for the direct synthesis of
ammonia by the direct union of hydrogen with nitrogen has been
developed by Haber in conjunction with the chemists and engineers
of the Badische Aniline & Soda Fabrik.
The process has the advantage that it is not, like the other nitrogen-
fixation processes, paramountly dependent upon cheap power; for
this reason, if for no other, it seems to be destined to a more ready
application. The fact that the group of the three German chemical
companies which control the process have sold out their former
holdings in the Norwegian enterprises to a Norwegian-French group,
and are now devoting their energies to the commercial installation
of the Haber process, has quite some significance as to expectation
for the future.
The question naturally arises: Will there be an overproduction
and will these different rival processes not kill each other in slaugh-
tering prices beyond remunerative production ?
As to overproduction, we should bear in mind that nitrogen
fertilizers are already used at the rate of about $200,000,000 worth
a year, and that any decrease in price, and, more particularly, better
education in farming, will probably lead to an enormously increased
consumption. It is worth mentioning here that in 1825 the first
shipload of Chile saltpeter which was sent to Europe could find no
buyer and was finally thrown into the sea as useless material.
Then again, processes for nitric acid and processes for ammonia,
instead of interfering, are supplementary to each other, because the
world needs ammonia and ammonium salts, as well as nitric acid
or nitrates.
It should be pointed out also that ultimately the production of
ammonium nitrate may prove the most desirable method so as to
minimize freight; for this salt contains much more nitrogen to the
232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ton than is the case with the more bulky calcium salt, under which
form synthetic nitrates are now put into the market.
Before leaving this subject, let us examine why Bradley and
Lovejoy’s efforts came to a standstill where others succeeded.
First of all, the cost of power at Niagara Falls is three to five times
higher than in Norway, and although at the time this was not strictly
prohibitive for the manufacture of nitric acid, it was entirely beyond
hope for the production of fertilizers. The relatively high cost of
power in our country is the reason why the cyanamide enterprise had
to locate on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls, and why, up till now,
outside of an experimental plant in the South (a 4,000 horsepower
installation in North Carolina, usmg the Pauling process), the whole
United States has not a single synthetic nitrogen fertilizer works.
The yields of the Bradley-Lovejoy apparatus were rather good.
They succeeded in converting as much as 24 per cent of the air, which
is somewhat better than their successors are able to accomplish.
But their units, 12 kilowatts, were very much smaller than the
1,000 to 3,000 kilowatts now used in Norway; they were also more
delicate to handle, all of which made installation and operation
considerably more expensive.
However, this was the natural phase through which any pioneer
industrial development has to go, and it is more than probable that
in the natural order of events these imperfections would have been
eliminated.
But the killing stroke came when financial support was suddenly
withdrawn.
In the successful solution of similar industrial problems the origi-
nators in Europe were not only backed by scientifically well-advised
bankers, but they were helped to the rapid solution of all the side
problems by a group of specially selected scientific collaborators, as
well as by all the resourcefulness of well-established chemical
enterprises.
That such conditions are possible in the United States has been
demonstrated by the splendid team work which led to the develop-
ment of the modern tungsten lamp in the research laboratories of the
General Electric Co., and to the development of the Tesla polyphase
motor by the group of engineers of the Westinghouse Co.
True, there are endless subjects of research and development which
can be brought to success by the efforts of single independent inven-
tors, but there are some problems of applied science which are so vast,
so much surrounded with ramifying difficulties, that no one man, nor
two men, however exceptional, can either furnish the brains or the
money necessary for leading to success within a reasonable time.
For such special problems the rapid cooperation of numerous experts
and the financial resources of large establishments are indispensable.
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 233
All these examples of the struggle for efficiency and improvement
demonstrate why, in industrial chemistry, the question of dollars and
cents has to be taken very much into consideration.
From this standpoint, at least, the “dollars and cents’”’ argument
can be interpreted as a symptom of industrial efficiency, and thus the
definition sounds no longer as a reproach. With some allowable
degree of accuracy, it formulates one of the economic aspects of any
acceptable industrial chemical process.
Indeed, barring special conditions—as, for instance, incompetent or
reckless management, unfair competition, monopolies, or other
artificial privileges—the money success of a chemical process is the
cash plebiscite of approval of the consumers. It is bound, after a
time at least, to weed out the inefficient methods.
Some chemists. who have little or no experience with industrial
enterprises, are too much overinclined to judge a chemical process
exclusively from the standpoint of the chemical reactions involved
therein, without sufficient regard to engineering difficulties, financial
requirements, labor problems, market and trade conditions, rapid
development of the art involving frequent disturbmg improvements
in methods and expensive changes in equipment, advantages or
disadvantages of the location of the plant, and other conditions so
numerous and variable that many of them can hardly be foreseen
even by men of experience.
And yet these seemingly secondary considerations most of the
time become the deciding factor of success or failure of an otherwise
well-conceived chemical process.
The cost of transportation alone frequently will decide whether a
certam chemical process is economically possible or not. For
instance, the big Washoe Smelter, in Montana, wastes enough
sulphur dioxide gas to make daily 1,800 tons of sulphuric acid, but
that smelter is too far distant from any possible market for such a
quantity of otherwise valuable material.
Another example of the kind is found in the natural deposits of
soda or soda lakes in California. One of these soda lakes contains from
30,000,000 to 42,000,000 tons of soda. Here is a natural source of
supply which would be ample to satisfy the world’s demand for many
years tocome. Similar deposits exist in other parts of the world, but
the cost of transportation to a sufficiently large and profitable market
is so exorbitant that, in the meantime, it is cheaper to erect at more
convenient points expensive chemical works in which soda is made
chemically and from where the market can be supplied more profitably.
In addition, we can cite the artificial nitrate processes in Norway,
which, notwithstanding their low efficiency and expensive installa-
tion, can furnish nitrate in competition with the natural nitrate beds
of Chile, because the latter are hampered by the cost of extraction
234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
from the soil where fuel for crystallization is expensive, in addition to
the considerable cost of freight.
But there is no better example illustrating the far-reaching effect
of seemingly secondary conditions upon the success of a chemical
process than the history of the Leblanc soda process.
This famous process was the forerunner of chemical industry.
For almost a century it dominated the enormous group of industries
of heavy chemicals, so expressively called by the French ‘‘La Grande
Industrie Chimique,”’ and now we are witnesses of the lingering death
agonies of this chemical colossus. Through the Leblanc process
large fortunes have been made and lost; but even after its death it
willleave a treasure of information to science and chemical engineering
the value of which can hardly be overestimated.
Here then is a very well worked-out process, admirably studied in
all its details, which in its heroic struggle for existence has drawn
upon every conceivable resource of ingenuity furnished by the most
learned chemists and the most skillful engineers, who succeeded in
bringing it to an extraordinary degree of perfection, and which, never-
theless, has to succumb before inexorable although seemingly sec-
ondary conditions.
Strange to say its competitor the Solvay process, entered into the
arena after a succession of failures. When Solvay, as a young man,
took up this process, he was himself totally ignorant of the fact that
no less than about a dozen able chemists had invented and reinvented
the very reaction on which he had pinned his faith; that, furthermore,
some had tried it on a commercial scale, and had in every instance
encountered failure. At that time all this must undoubtedly have
been to young Solvay a revelation sufficient to dishearten almost
anybody. But he had one predominant thought to which he clung
as a last hope of success, and which would probably have escaped
most chemists; he reasoned that in this process he starts from two
watery solutions which, when brought together, precipitate a dry
product, bicarbonate of soda; in the Leblanc process the raw materials
must be melted together with the use of expensive fuel, after which
the mass is dissolved in water, losing all these valuable heat units,
while more heat has again to be applied to evaporate to dryness.
After all, most of the weakness of the Leblanc process resides in the
greater consumption of fuel. But the cost of fuel, here again, is
determined by freight rates. This is so true that we find that the
last few Leblane works which manage to keep alive are exactly those
which are situated near unusually favorable shipping points, where
they can obtain cheap fuel, as well as cheap raw materials, and whence
they can most advantageously reach certain profitable markets.
But another tremendous handicap of the Leblanc process is that
it gives as one of its by-products hydrochloric acid. Profitable use
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 235
for this acid, as such, can be foynd only to a limited extent. It is
true that hydrochloric acid could be used in much larger quantities for
many purposes where sulphuric acid is now used, but it has, against
sulphuric acid, a great freight disadvantage. In its commercially
available condition it is an aqueous solution, containing only about
one-third of real acid, so that the transportation of 1 ton of acid
practically involves the extra cost of freight of about 2 tons of water.
Furthermore, the transportation of hydrochloric acid in anything
but glass carboys involves very difficult problems in itself, so that
the market for hydrochloric acid remains always within a relatively
small zone from its point of production. However, for a while at
least, an outlet for this hydrochloric acid was found by converting
it into a dry material which can easily be transported, namely,
chloride of lime or bleaching powder.
The amount of bleaching powder consumed in the world prac-
tically dictated the limited extent to which the Leblanc process could
be profitably worked in competition with the Solvay process. But
even this outlet has been blocked during these later years by the
advent of the electrolytic alkali processes, which have sprung up
successfully in several countries, and which give as a cheap by-
product chlorine, which is directly converted into chloride of lime.
To-day any process which involves the production of large quan-
tities of hydrochloric acid, beyond what the market can absorb as
such, or as derivatives thereof, becomes a positive detriment, and
foretells failure of the process. Even if we could afford to lose all
the acid, the disposal of large quantities thereof conflicts immediately
with laws and ordinances relative to the pollution of the atmosphere
or streams, or the rights of neighbors, and occasions expensive
damage suits.
Whatever is said about hydrochloric acid applies to some extent
to chlorine, produced in the electrolytic manufacture of caustic soda.
Here again the development of the latter industry is limited, primarily
by the amount of chlorine which the market, as such, or as chlorinated
products, can absorb.
At any rate, chlorine can be produced so much cheaper by electro-
lytic caustic alkali processes than formerly, and in the meantime
the market price of chloride of lime has already been cut about in
half.
In as far as the rather young electrolytic alkali industry has taken
a considerable development in the United States, let us examine it
somewhat nearer.
At present, the world’s production of chloride of lime approx-
imates about half a million tons.
We used to import all our chloride of lime from Europe until
about 15 years ago, when the first successful electrolytic alkali works
236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
were started at Niagara Falls. That ingenious mercury cell of
Hamilton Y. Castner—a pupil of Prof. Chandler and one of the
illustrious sons of the Columbia School of ‘Mines—was first used,
and his process still furnishes a large part of all the electrolytic
caustic soda and chlorine manufactured here and abroad.
At present about 30,000 electrical horsepower are employed unin-
terruptedly for the different processes used in the United States,
and our home production has increased to the pomt where, instead
of importing chloride of lime, we shall soon be compelled to export
our surplus production.
It looks now as if, for the moment at least, any sudden considerable
increase in the production of chloride of lime would lead to over-
production until new channels of consumption of chloride of lime or
other chlorine products can be found.
However, new uses for chlorine are being found every day. The
very fact that commercial hydrochloric acid of exceptional purity is
now being manufactured in Niagara Falls by starting from chlorine
indicates clearly that conditions are being reversed; no longer than a
few years ago, when chlorine was manufactured exclusively by means
of hydrochloric acid, this would have sounded like a paradox.
The consumption of chlorine for the preparation of organic chlori-
nation products utilized in the dye-stuff industry is also increasing
continually, and its use for the manufacture of tetrachloride of carbon
and so-called acetylen chlorination products, has reached quite some
importance.
There is probably a much overlooked but wider opening for chlo-
rinated solvents in the fact that ethylen gas can be prepared now at
considerably lower cost than acetylen, and that ethylen chloride, or
the old known ‘‘ Dutch Liquid,” is an unusually good solvent. It has,
furthermore, the great advantage that its specific gravity is not too
high, and its boiling point, too, is about the right temperature. It
ought to be possible to make it at such a low price that it would find
endless applications where the use of other chlorination solvents has
thus far been impossible.
The chlorination of ores for certain metallurgical processes may
eventually open a still larger field of consumption for chlorine.
In the meantime liquefied chlorine gas, obtained by great compres-
sion, or by intense refrigeration, has become an important article of
commerce, which can be transported in strong steel cylinders. Its
main utilization resides in the manufacture of tin chloride by the
Goldschmidt process for reclaiming tin scrap. It is finding also in-
creased applications as a bleaching agent and for the purification of
drinking water, as well as for the manufacture of various chlorination
products.
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 937
Its great handicap for rapid introduction is again the question of
freight, where heavy and expensive containers become indispensable.
In most cases the transportation problem of chlorine is solved more
economically by handling it as chloride of lime, which, after all, repre-
sents chlorine or oxygen in solid form, easily transportable.
It would seem as if the freight difficulty could easily be eliminated
by producing the chlorine right at the spot of consumption. But this
is not always so simple as it may appear. To begin with, the cost of
an efficient plant for any electrolytic operation is always unusually
high as compared to other chemical equipments. Then, also, small
electrolytic alkali plants are not profitable to operate. Furthermore,
the conditions for producing cheap chlorine depend on many different
factors, which all have to coordinate advantageously; for instance,
cheap power, cheap fuel, and cheap raw materials are essential, while,
at the same time, a profitable outlet must be found for the caustic
soda.
Lately there has been a considerable reduction of the market price
of caustic soda; all this may have for effect that the less efficient
electrolytic processes will gradually be eliminated, although this may
not necessarily be the case for smaller plants which do not compete
in the open market, but consume their own output for some special —
purpose.
Several distinct types of electrolytic cells are now in successful use,
but experience seems to demonstrate that the so-called diaphragm
cells are cheapest to construct and to operate, provided, however, no
exception be taken to the fact that the caustic soda obtained from
diaphragm cells always contains some sodium chloride, usually vary-
ing from 2 to 3 per cent, which it is not practical to eliminate, but
which for almost all purposes does not interfere in the least with its
commercial use.
Mercury cells give a much purer caustic soda, and this may, in some
cases, compensate for their more expensive equipment and operation.
Moreover, there are some purposes where the initial caustic solution
of rather high concentration, produced directly in these cells, can be
used as it is without further treatment, thus obviating further con-
centration and cost of fuel.
The expenses for evaporation and elimination of salt from the raw
caustic solutions increase to an exaggerated extent with some types
of diaphragm cells, which produce only very weak caustic liquors.
This is also the case with the so-called “gravity cell,” sometimes
called the “‘bell type,” or ‘‘Aussig type,” of cell. But these gravity
cells have the merit of dispensing with the delicate and expensive
problem of diaphragms. On the other hand, their units are very
small, and on this account they necessitate a rather complicated in-
238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
stallation, occupying an unusually large floor space and expensive
buildings.
The general tendency is now toward cells which can be used in very
large units, which can be housed economically, and of which the gen-
eral cost of maintenance and renewal is small; some of the modern
types of diaphragm cells are now successfully operating with 3,000
to 5,000 amperes per cell.
As to the possible future improvements in electrolytic alkali cells,
we should mention that in some types the current efficiencies have
practically reached their maximum, and average ampere efficiencies
as high as 95 to 97 per cent have been obtained in continuous practice.
The main difficulty is to reinforce these favorable results by the use
of lower voltage without making the units unnecessarily bulky or
expensive in construction or in maintenance, all factors which soon
outweigh any intended saving of electric current.
Here, more than in any other branch of chemical engineering, it is
easy enough to determine how ‘“‘good”’ a cell is on a limited trial, but
it takes expensive, long-continuous use on a full commercial scale,
running uninterruptedly day and night for years, to find out how
‘“‘had”’ it is for real commercial practice.
In relation to the electrolytic alkali industry a great mistake is
frequently committed by considering the question of power as para-
mount; true enough, cheap power is very important, almost essen-
tial, but certainly it is not everything. There have been cases where
it was found much cheaper in the end to pay almost double for electric
current in a certain locality than in another site not far distant from
the first, for the simple reason that the cheaper power supply was
hampered by frequent interruptions and expensive disturbances,
which more than offset any possible saving in cost of power.
In further corroboration, it is well known that some of the most
successful electrolytic soda manufacturers have found it to their ad-
vantage to sacrifice power by running their cells at decidedly higher
voltage than is strictly necessary—which simply means consuming
more power—and this in order to be able to use higher current densi-
ties, thereby increasing considerably the output of the same size units,
and thus economizing on the general cost of plant operation. Here
is one of the ever-recurring instances in chemical manufacturing where
it becomes more advantageous to sacrifice apparent theoretical effi-
ciency in favor of industrial expediency.
All this does not diminish the fact that the larger electrochemical
industries can only thrive where cheap power is available.
Modern progress of electrical engineering has given us the means to
utilize so-called natural powers; until now, however, we have only
availed ourselves of the water power developed from rivers, lakes,
and waterfalls. As far as large electric power generation is concerned,
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 239
the use of the wind, or the tide, or the heat of the sun, represents, up
till now, nothing much beyond a mere hope of future possibilities.
In the meantime it so happens, unfortunately, that many of the
most abundant water powers of the world are situated in places of
difficult access, far removed from the zone of possible utilization.
But, precisely on this account, it would appear, at first sight, as if
the United States, with some of her big water powers situated nearer
to active centers of consumption, would be in an exceptionally favor-
able condition for the development of electrochemical industries. On
closer examination we find, however, that the cost of water power, as
sold to manufacturers, is in general much higher than might be ex-
pected; at any rate, it 1s considerably more expensive than the cost
of electric power utilized in the Norway nitrate enterprises.
This is principally due to the fact that in the United States water
power, before it is utilized by the electrolytic manufacturer, has
already to pay one, two, and sometimes three profits to as many inter-
mediate interests, which act as so many middlemen between the
original water power and the consumer. Only in such instances as
in Norway, where the electrochemical enterprise and the develop-
ment of the water power are practically in the same hands, can electric
current be calculated at its real cheapest cost.
Neither should the fact be overlooked that the best of our water
powers in the East are situated rather far inland. Although this
does not matter much for the home market, it puts us at a decided
disadvantage for the exportation of manufactured goods, in compari-
son again with Norway, where the electrolytic plants are situated
quite close to a good sea harbor open in all seasons.
Some electrochemical enterprises require cheap fuel just as much
as cheap power, and on this account it has proved sometimes more
advantageous to dispense entirely with water power by generating
gas for fuel as well as for power from cheap coal or still cheaper peat.
At present most of our ways of using coal are still cumbersome and
wasteful, although several efficient methods have been developed
which some day will probably be used almost exclusively, princiaplly
in such places where lower grades of cheap coal are obtainable.
I refer here particularly to the valuable pioneer work of that great
industrial chemist, Mond, on cheap water-gas production, by the use
of a limited amount of air in conjunction with water vapor.
More recently this process has been extended by Caro, Frank, and
others to the direct conversion of undried peat into fuel gas.
By the use of these processes peat or lower grades of coal, totally
unsuitable for other purposes, containing, in some instances, as much
as 60 to 70 per cent of incombustible constituents, can be used to
good advantage in the production of fuel for power generation.
240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Whether Mond gas will ever be found advantageous for distribu-
tion to long distances is questionable, because its heating value per
cubic foot is rather less than that of ordinary water gas, but this does
not interfere with its efficient use in internal-combustion engines.
In general, our methods for producing or utilizing gas in our cities
do scant justice to the extended opportunities indicated by our newer
knowledge.
Good fuel gas could be manufactured and distributed to the indi-
vidual household consumer at considerably cheaper rates, if it were
not for antiquated municipal specifications, which keep on prescribing
photometric tests instead of insisting on standards of fuel value, which
makes the cost of production unnecessarily high, and disregards the
fact that for lighting the Welsbach mantle has rendered obsolete the
use of highly carbureted gas as a bare flame. But for those unfortu-
nate specifications, cheap fuel gas might be produced at some advan-
tageous central point, where very cheap coal is available; such heat-
ing gas could be distributed to every house and every factory where
it could be used cleanly and advantageously like natural gas, doing
away at once with the black coal smoke nuisance, which now prac-
tically compels a city like New York to use nothing but the more
expensive grades of anthracite coal. It would eliminate at the same
time all the bother and expense caused through the clumsy and ex-
pensive methods of transportation and handling of coal and ashes;
it would relieve us from many unnecessary middlemen which now
exist between coal and its final consumer.
The newer large-sized internal-combustion engines are introducing
increasing opportunities for new centers of power production where
waste gas of blast-furnaces or coke-ovens, or where deposits of
inferior coal or peat are available.
Jf such centers are situated near tide water this may render them
still more advantageous for some electrochemical industries, which,
until now, were compelled to locate near some inland water powers.
Nor should we overlook the fact that the newer methods for the
production of cheap fuel gas offer excellent opportunities for an in-
creased production of valuable tar by-products, and more particu-
larly of ammonium salts; the latter would help to a not inconsiderable
extent in furnishing more nitrogen fertilizer.
It is somewhat remarkable that a greater effort has already been
made to start the industrial synthesis of nitrogen products than to
economize all these hitherto wasted sources of ammonia.
In fact, science indicates still other ways, somewhat of a more
radical nature, for correcting the nitrogen deficiencies in relation
to our food supply.
Indeed, if we will look at this matter from a much broader stand-
point we may find that, after all, the shortage of nitrogen in the
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 241
world is attributable to a large extent to our rather one-sided system
of agriculture. We do not sufficiently take advantage of the fact
that certain plants, for instance those of the group of Leguminose,
have the valuable property of easily assimilating nitrogen from the
air, without the necessity of nitrogen fertilizers. In this way the
culture of certain Leguminosz can insure enough nitrogen for the
soil, so that, in rotation with nitrogen-consuming crops, like wheat,
we could dispense with the necessity of supplying any artificial
nitrogen fertilizers.
The present nitrogen deficiency is influenced further by two other
causes:
The first cause is our unnecessary exaggerated meat diet, in which
we try to find our proteid requirements, and which compels us to
raise so many cattle, while the amount of land which feeds one head
of cattle could furnish, if properly cultivated, abundant vegetable
food for a family of five.
The second cause is our insufficient knowledge of the way to grow
and prepare for human food just those vegetables which are richest
in proteids. Unfortunately, it so happens that exactly such plants
as, for instance, the soy bean are not by any means easily rendered
palatable and digestible; while any savage can eat raw meat, or can
readily cook, boil, or roast it for consumption.
On this subject we can learn much from some Eastern people, like
the Japanese, who have become experts in the art of preparing a
variety of agreeable food products from that refractory soy bean,
which contains such an astonishingly large amount of nutritious
proteids, and which, long ago, became for Japan a wholesome, staple
article of diet.
But on this subject the Western races have not yet progressed
much beyond the point of preparing cattle feed and paint oil from
the soy bean, although the more extended culture of this or similar
plants might work about a revolution ir. our agricultural economics.
Agriculture, after all, is nothing but a very important branch of
industrial chemistry, although most people seem to ignore the fact
that the whole prosperity of agriculture is based on the success of
that photochemical reaction which, under the influence of the light
of the sun, causes the carbon dioxide of the air to be assimilated by
the chlorophyl of the plant.
It is not impossible that photochemistry, which hitherto has busied
itself almost exclusively within the narrow limits of the art of making
photographic images, will some day attain a development of use-
fulness at least as important as all other branches of physical chem-
istry. In this broader sense photochemistry seems an inviting
subject for the agricultural chemist. The possible rewards in store
73176°—sM 191416
242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
in this almost virgin field may in their turn by that effect of super-
induction between industry and science, bring about a rapid develop-
ment similar to what we have witnessed in the advancement of
electricity, as well as chemistry, which both began to progress by
bounds and leaps, way ahead of other sciences, as soon as their
growing industrial applications put a high premium on further
research.
Photochemistry may allow us some day to obtain chemical effects
hitherto undreamed of. In general the action of light in chemical
reactions seems incomparably less brutal than all means used hereto-
fore in chemistry. This is the probable secret of the subtle chemical
syntheses which happen in plant life. To try to duplicate these
delicate reactions of nature by our present methods of high tempera-
tures, electrolysis, strong chemicals, and other similar torture pro-
cesses, seems like trying to imitate a masterpiece of Gounod by
exploding a dynamite cartridge between the strings of a piano.
But there are endless other directions for scientific research relat-
ing to industrial applications which until now do not seem to have
received sufficient attention.
For instance, from a chemical standpoint, the richest chemical
enterprise of the United States, the petroleum industry, has hitherto
chiefly busied itself with a rather primitive treatment of this valuable
raw material, and little or no attention has been paid to any methods
for transforming at least a part of these hydrocarbons into more
ennobled products of commerce than mere fuel or illuminants.
A hint as to the enormous possibilities which may be in store in
that direction is suggested by the recent work in Germany and Eng-
land on synthetic rubber; the only factor which prevents extending
the laboratory synthesis of rubber into an immense industrial under-
taking is that we have not yet learned how to make cheaply the
isoprene or other similar nonsaturated hydrocarbons which are the
starting point in the process which changes their molecules by
polymerization into rubber.
Nor has our science begun to find the best uses for such inexpensive
and never exhaustible vegetable products as cellulose or starch.
Quite true, several important manufactures, like that of paper,
nitrocellulose, glucose, alcohol, vinegar, and some others, have been
built on it; but to the chemist at least it seems as if a much greater
development is possible in the cheaper and more extended produc-
tion of artificial fiber. Although we have succeeded in making
so-called artificial silk, this article is still very expensive; furthermore
we have not yet produced a cheap, good, artificial fiber of the quality
of wool.
If we have made ourselves independent of Chile for our nitrogen
supply, we are still absolutely at the mercy of the Stassfurt mines in
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 243
Germany for our requirements of soluble potash salts, which are just
as necessary for agriculture. Shall we succeed in utilizing some of the
proposed methods for converting that abundant supply of feldspar,
or other insoluble potash-bearing rocks, into soluble potash salts by
combining the expensive heat treatment with the production of
another material, like cement, which would render the cost of fuel
less exorbitant? Or shall the problem be solved in setting free
soluble potassium salts as a by-product in a reaction engendering
other staple products consumed in large quantities ?
We have several astonishingly conflicting theories about the con-
stitution of the center of the globe, but we have not yet developed
the means to penetrate the world’s crust beyond some deep mines—
merely an imperceptible faint scratch on the surface—and in the
meantime we keep on guessing, while to-day astronomers know
already more about the surface of the planet Mars than we know
about the interior of the globe on which we live.
Nor have we learned to develop or utilize the tremendous pressures
under which most minerals have been formed, and still less do we
possess the means to try these pressures, in conjunction with in-
tensely high temperatures.
No end of work is in store for the research chemist, as well as for
the chemical engineer, who can think by himself, without always
following the beaten track. We are only at the beginning of our
successes; and yet, when we stop to look back to see what has been
accomplished during the last generations, that big jump from the
rule of thumb to applied science is nothing short of marvelous.
Whoever is acquainted with the condition of human thought
to-day must find it strange, after all, that scarcely 70 years ago
Mayer met with derision even among the scientists of the time when
he announced to the world that simple but fundamental principle of
the conservation of energy.
We can hardly conceive that just about the time the Columbia
School of Mines was founded Liebig was still ridiculing Pasteur’s ideas
on the intervention of microorganisms in fermentation, which have
proved so fecund in the most epoch-making applications in science,
medicine, surgery, and sanitation, as well as in many industries.
Fortunately, true science, contrary to other human avocations,
recognizes nobody as an “authority,” and is willing to change her
beliefs as often as better studied facts warrant it. This difference has
been the most vital cause of her never ceasing progress.
To the younger generation, surrounded with research laboratories
everywhere, it may cause astonishment to learn that scarcely 50
years ago that great benefactor of humanity, Pasteur, was still
repeating his pathetic pleadings with the French Government to give
him more suitable quarters than a damp, poorly lighted basement,
244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
in which he was compelled to carry on his research; and this was
then the condition of affairs of no less a place than Paris, the same
Paris that was spending, just at that time, endless millions for the
building of her new Opera Palace.
Such facts should not be overlooked by those who might think that
America has been too slow in fostering chemical research.
If the United States has not participated as early as some European
countries in the development of industrial chemistry, this was chiefly
because conditions here were so totally different from those of nations
like Germany, England, and France that they did not warrant any
such premature efforts.
In a country so full of primary resources, agriculture, forests,
mines, and the more elementary industries directly connected there-
with, as well as the problems of transportation, appealed more
urgently to American intellectual men of enterprise.
Why should anybody here have tried to introduce new, difficult,
or risky chemical industries when on every side more urgently im-
portant fields of enterprise were inviting all men of initiative ?
Chemical industries develop along the lines furnished by the most
immediate needs of a country. Our sulphuric acid industry, which
can boast to-day of a yearly production of about 3,000,000 tons, had
to begin in an exceedingly humble way, and the first small amounts
of sulphuric acid manufactured here found a very scant outlet.
It required the growth of such fields of application as petroleum
refining, superphosphates, explosives, and others, before the sulphuric
acid industry could grow to what it is to-day.
At present, similar influences are still dominating our chemical
industries; they are generally directed to the mass production of
partly manufactured articles. This allows us to export, at present,
to Germany, chemicals in crude form, but in greater value than the
total sum of all the chemical products we are importing from her;
although it can not be denied that a considerable part of our imports
-are products like alizarine, indigo, aniline dyes, and similar synthetic
products which require higher chemical manufacturing skill.
In this connection it may be pointed out that our exports of
oleomargarine to Germany alone are about equivalent to our imports
of aniline dyes.
But all this does not alter the fact that in several important chemical
industries the United States has been a pioneer. Such flourishing
enterprises as that of the artificial abrasives, carborundum and
alundum, calcium carbide, aluminum, and many others, testify
how soon we have learned to avail ourselves of some of our water
power.
One of the most important chemical industries of the world, the
sulphite cellulose industry, of which the total annual production
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. 945
amounts to 3,500,000 tons, was originated and developed by a
chemist in Philadelphia, B. C. Tilgman. But its further develop-
ment was stopped for a while on account of the same old trouble,
lack of funds, after $40,000 were spent, until some years later it was
taken up again in Europe and reintroduced in the United States,
where it has developed to an annual production of over 1,000,000 tons.
What has been accomplished in America in chemical enterprises,
and what is going on now in industrial research, has been brilliantly
set forth by Mr. Arthur D. Little.t
Nor at any time in the history of the United States was chemistry
neglected in this country; this has recently been brought to light in
the most convincing manner by Prof. Edgar F. Smith, of Philadelphia.?
The altruistic fervor of that little group of earlier American chem-
ists who, in 1792, founded the Chemical Society of Philadelphia
(probably the very first chemical society in the world), and in 1811
the Columbia Chemical Society of Philadelphia, is best illustrated by
an extract of one of the addresses read at their meeting in 1798:
The only true basis on which the independence of our country can rest are agri-
culture and manufactures. To the promotion of these nothing tends in a higher
degree than chemistry. It is this science which teaches man how to correct the
bad qualities of the land he cultivates by a proper application of the various species
of manure, and it is by means of a knowledge of this science that he is enabled to
pursue the metals through the various forms they put on in the earth, separate them
from substances which render them useless, and at length manufacture them into
the various forms for use and ornament in which we see them. If such are the effects
of chemistry, how much should the wish for its promotion be excited in the breast of
every American! It is to a general diffusion of knowledge of this science, next to the
virtue of our countrymen, that we are to look for the firm establishment of our inde-
pendence. And may your endeavors, gentlemen, in this cause, entitle you to the
gratitude of your fellow citizens.
This early scientific spirit has been kept alive throughout the fol-
lowing century by such American chemists as Robert Hare, E. N.
Horsford, Wolcott Gibbs, Sterry Hunt, Lawrence Smith, Carey Lea,
Josiah P. Cooke, John W. Draper, Willard Gibbs, and many others
still living.
Present conditions in America can be measured by the fact that the
American Chemical Society alone has over 7,000 members, and the
Chemists’ Club of New York has more than 1,000 members, without
counting the more specialized chemical organizations, equally active,
like the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, the American
Electrochemical Society and many others.
During the later years chemical research is going on with increasing
vigor, more especially in relation to chemical problems presented by
enterprises which at first sight seem rather remote from the so-called
chemical industry.
1 Journal of Ind. and Eng. Chem., vol. 5, No. 10, October, 1913.
2 Chemistry in America, published by D. Appleton & Co. New York and London, 1914.
246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
But the most striking symptom of newer times is that some wealthy
men of America are rivaling each other in the endowment of scientific
research on a scale never undertaken before, and that the scientific
departments of our Government are enlarging their scope of usefulness
at a rapid rate.
But we are merely at the threshold of that new era where we shall
learn better to use exact knowledge and efficiency to bring greater
happiness and broader opportunities to all.
However imposing may appear the institutions founded by the
Nobels, the Solvays, the Monds, the Carnegies, the Rockefellers and
others, each of them is only a puny effort to what is bound to come
when governments will do their fullshare. Fancy that if, for mstance
the Rockefeller Institute is spending to good advantage about half a
million dollars per annum for medical research, the chewing-gum bill
of the United States alone would easily support half a dozen Rocke-
feller Institutes; and what a mere insignificant little trickle all these
research funds amount to if we have the courage to compare them to
that powerful gushing stream of money which yearly drains the war
budget of all nations.
In the meantime the man of science is patient and continues his
work steadily, if somewhat slowly, with the means hitherto at his
disposal. His patience is inspired by the thought that he is not
working for to-day, but for to-morrow, He is well aware that he is
still surrounded by too many ‘‘men of yesterday,” who delay the
results of his work.
Sometimes, however, he may feel discouraged that the very
efficiency he has succeeded in reaching at the cost of so many pains-
taking efforts, m the economical production of such an article of
endlessly possible uses as Portland cement, is hopelessly lost many
times over and over again by the inefficiency, waste, and graft of
middlemen and political contractors, by the time it gets on our public
roads, or in our public buildings. Sometimes the chaos of ignorant
brutal waste which surrounds him everywhere may try his patience.
Then, again, he has a vision that he is planting a tree which will
blossom for his children and will bear fruit for his grandchildren.
In the meantime, industrial chemistry, like all other applications
of science, has gradually called into the world an increasing number
of men of newer tendencies, men who bear in mind the future rather
than the past, who have acquired the habit of thinking by well-
established facts, instead of by words, of aiming at efficiency instead
of striking haphazard at ill-defined purposes. Our various engineer-
ing schools, our universities, are turning them out in ever-increasing
numbers, and better and better prepared for their work. Their very
training has fitted them out to become the most broad-minded
progressive citizens. eat
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY—BAEKELAND. Q47
However, their sphere of action, until now, seldom goes beyond
that of private technical enterprises for private gain. And yet, there
is not a chemist, not an engineer, worthy of the name, who would not
prefer efficient, honorable public service, freed from party politics, to
a mere money-making job.
But most Governments of the world have been run for so long
almost exclusively by lawyer politicians, that we have come to con-
sider this as an unavoidable evil, until sometimes a large experiment
of government by engineers, like the Panama Canal, opens our eyes
to the fact that, after all, successful government is—first and last—
a matter of efficiency, according to the principles of applied science.
Was it not one of our very earliest American chemists, Benjamin
Thompson, of Massachusetts, later knighted in Europe as Count
Rumford, who put in shape the rather entangled administration of
Bavaria by introducing scientific methods of government ?
Pasteur was right when one day, exasperated by the politicians
who were running his beloved France to ruin, he exclaimed:
In our century, science is the soul of the prosperity of nations and the living source
of all progress. Undoubtedly, the tiring daily discussions of politics seem to be our
guide. Empty appearances! What really leads us forward are a few scientific
discoveries and their application.
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EXPLOSIVES.
By Maj. Epwarp P. O’HeErn,
Ordnance Department, United States Army.
[With 7 plates. ]
IMPORTANCE.
The importance of the so-called explosives and the increasing
extent of their use are evident from the fact that the production in the
United States for the year 1910, as shown by the United States
Census reports, amounted to the enormous total of approximately
480,000,000 pounds, this being more than double the production of
1905, and more than three and one-half times that of 1900.
The increasing demand has come, not only from an ever widening
field of commercial use, such as for mining, quarrying, tunneling, and
road building, but from a greatly enlarged field of use for war purposes,
such as for mines, torpedoes, explosive projectiles, and propelling
charges. It is the purpose of the writer to discuss some of the more
important explosives, their uses, the method of their employment,
and the results accomplished.
GENERAL CHARACTER.
An explosive is a substance of which the molecules are made up of a
number of atoms or units rather loosely bound together in an unstable
condition, ready to seek new and simpler combinations upon the
furnishing of a sufficient motive force to start the operation. This is
usually supphed through a primer ignited by a slow-burning fuse, or
by a wire heated by an electric current. When started, the heat and
shock developed will cause a continuation of the action throughout
the mass of the explosive. The enormous power that can thus be
developed from a comparatively small quantity of material is indi-
cated by the accompanying ilustration showing the thousands of
fragments into which a 12-inch armor-piercing projectile was broken
by the detonation of a bursting charge of about 53 per cent of its
weight (pl. 1).
TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES.
For convenience of consideration, explosives may be divided into
three general classes, viz:
1. Progressive or propelling explosives (low explosives).
2. Detonating explosives (high explosives).
3. Detonators (fulminates).
250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The first of these includes black gunpowder, smokeless powder, and
black blasting powders; the second includes dynamite, nitroglycerin,
guncotton, most of the ‘‘ permissible explosives,’’ and some blasting
powders; the third class comprises chiefly fulminates and chlorates.
For all classes the effect of explosion is dependent upon the quan-
tity of gas and heat developed per unit of weight and volume of the
explosive, the rapidity of the reaction, and the character of the con-
finement, if any, given the explosive charge.
Low explosives—The rapidity of reaction varies greatly with
different explosive substances and with the manner in which the
explosion is started. For certain explosives, such as smokeless
powder, the explosion does not differ in principle from the burning of
a piece of wood or other combustible. The combustion is very rapid
but is a surface action proceeding from layer to layer until the grain
is consumed. Such materials are known as low or progressive
explosives, although the total power developed through the com-
bustion of a unit weight may be very great and would be destructive
unless properly controlled.
High explosives—The combustion of another class of materials
called high explosives is extremely rapid wher. suitably inaugurated,
such action being known as a detonation.
In these explosives, such as nitroglycerin, guncotton, the picrates,
etc., the progress of the explosive reaction is not by burning from
layer to layer, as described above, but the breaking up of the initial
molecules gives rise to an explosive wave which is transmitted with
ereat velocity in all directions throughout the mass and causes its
almost instantaneous conversion into gas. The velocity of propaga-
tion of the detonating wave has been determined for some materials
to be more than 20,000 feet per second, or, approximately, 4 miles
per second. A charge 1 foot long would thus be converted into gas
in the very short interval of five one hundred thousandths of a
second. The progressive emission of gas from a low explosive such
as burning gunpowder produces a pushing effect upon a projectile
throughout its movement without necessarily overstraining the gun,
whereas the sudden conversion of an equal weight of material into
gas, as would happen with a high explosive such as dynamite or nitro-
glycerin would develop such high pressure and shattering effect as to
rupture the gun.
Fulminates—The action of fulminates is much more brusque and
powerful than even that of the class of explosives just described. As
they can be readily detonated by Shock or by the application of heat,
they are used in primers and fuses to start the action of both the low
and the high explosives. The most common fulminate is made by
dissolving the metal mercury in strong nitric acid and pouring the
solution into alcohol. After an apparently violent reaction there is
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EXPLOSIVES—0’HERN, 951
produced a mass of fine, gray crystals of fulminate of mercury. The
erystalline powder thus produced is washed with water to free it from
acids, and, because of its extreme sensitiveness, is usually kept soaked
with water or alcohol until needed. On account of its great specific
gravity (4.4) a small volume of it develops a large volume of gas.
According to the usually assumed reaction the gas developed occupies,
at the ordinary temperature, a volume more than 1,340 times that of
the original material. Because of the large amount of heat developed
in the reaction, the volume at the temperature of the reaction is very
much greater. It is estimated that a pressure as great as 48,000
atmospheres is produced by the detonation of mercury fulminate.
QUANTITY AND COST.
According to a bulletin of the Census Bureau, approximately
487,000,000 pounds of explosives were produced in the United States
during the year 1909 and comprised (approximately) the following
principal items:
Pounds.
LD CURIE FE eee Oe Oe ee ee Beene eae 195, 000, 000
1 5'\43 128275 SY ORI 0 eal a ll a IRB (or SS Pak Pree RN RS 233, 000, 000
SLUT DERN CEs ad ee Rete Aen gall 2.8 Sep Ein Sich ed heed cai INE Uo 29, 000, 000
Praamipronmener: = Le ays! o73LE FLEE REE ee Ue Re Td eee 18, 000, 000
epernnincipie Explosives s)siitity «43: weadeetowep. bb. see st oe. 10, 000, 000
STATIS SSS To (C1 Sea ea) A ree ae oe a 5 6, 000, 000
eESIGLON VC UCr S re Oe St Mined yo Pes BO mr, 4) CE ede tg 1, 000, 000
The approximate value of these explosives per pound is as follows:
Cents.
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All of the foregoing explosives were used for industrial purposes
except the smokeless powder, some of the guncotton, and some of the
gunpowder. The so-called “permissible explosives” are those ap-
proved by the United States Bureau of Mines as being suitable for
use in mines where dust or gas explosions are likely to occur. The
explosives used for military and naval purposes probably comprised
not much more than 7,000,000 out of 487,000,000 pounds, or about
1.5 percent. Of the total money value, amounting to approximately
$38,000,000, about 10 per cent represents military and naval uses.
EXPLOSIVES IN WAR.
At no time in the history of the world have explosives played such
a mighty part in deciding the destiny of nations as they are playing
to-day in the prosecution of the general European war. Their
252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTIFUTION, 1914.
extensive use in the mighty engines of destruction such as the sub-
marine mine, the torpedo, and in projectiles thrown from cannon to
great distances with marvelous accuracy, is resulting in loss of life
and destruction of property on an unprecedented scale.
BLACK POWDER,
Black powder is extensively used for blasting and mining purposes,
but has lost its importance as a propellant in modern firearms, al-
though still retained for primers and other special purposes supple-
mental to the more important smokeless powder.
Black gunpowder has, however, played a very important part in
the history of the wars of the past three centuries, and for that
reason deserves more than brief mention. It is ordinarily com-
posed of about 75 parts niter, 15 parts charcoal, and 10 parts sul-
phur. The niter furnishes the oxygen to burn the charcoal and sul-
phur. The charcoal furnishes the carbon and the sulphur gives
density to the grain, and lowers its point of ignition. The earliest
record of the use of a mixture of this general character in actual war
dates back to the fourteenth century, but its use did not become
common until about the beginning of the sixteenth century. Until
about the end of that century it was used in the form of fine pow-
der; hence the name. To overcome the difficulty experienced in
loading small arms from the muzzle with such material, it was given
agranular form. Little further marked improvement was made until
about 1860, when Gen. Thos. Rodman, of the Ordnance Department
of the United States Army, advanced the principle that the rate of
combustion, and consequently the pressure developed, could be con-
trolled by compressing the fine-grained powder previously used into
larger grains of greater density. The size of grain was to be so pro-
portioned to the size and length of the gun that the powder would be
completely burned up about the time the projectile reached the
muzzle.
The increase in size of grain decreased the initial burning surface
for a given weight of charge, thereby lowering the rate at which the
gas was given off during the early part of the movement of the pro-
jectile and correspondingly lowering the maximum pressure. This
permitted the use of a bigger charge, without overstraining the gun,
and thus secured higher average pressures along the bore with re-
sultant higher muzzle velocities. This principle is of special impor-
tance because it has found application in the manufacture of all the
later gunpowders.
BROWN POWDER AND SMOKELESS POWDER.
A further reduction in the velocity of combustion of powder was
obtaied about 1880 by the substitution of an underburnt charcoal
EXPLOSIVES—O’HERN, 253
for the black variety previously used. The resulting product was
called brown. or cocoa powder from its appearance. The next great
step in the improvement of powder was the development of smoke-
less powder which began to be introduced into service about 1886.
The great advance that has been made in the power and range of
guns since about 1880, when modern guns and powders began to be
used, is evident from a comparison of the 15-inch smooth-bore gun
then in use with the 14-inch rifles now being mounted. The old 15-
inch gun fired a projectile weighing 450 pounds, with a muzzle velocity
of 1,534 feet per second, and attained a maximum range of approxi-
mately 5,579 yards when fired at 20° elevation, the usual limit per-
mitted by the mount. The present 14-inch gun fires a projectile
weighing 1,660 pounds, with a muzzle velocity of 2,360 feet per
second and attains a maximum range of approximately 19,300
yards with 15° elevation. The muzzle energy of the former pro-
jectile is approximately 7,350 foot-tons, while that of the latter is
approximately 64,170 foot-tons. The former carried a small burst-
ing charge of black powder, and would have been practically useless
against modern armor, while the latter carries a large charge of pow-
erful high explosive and is capable of ae through the heaviest
armor if it strikes fairly.
SMOKELESS POWDERS.
As already pointed out, a great advance in power of firearms was
made when smokeless powders came into general use. Many differ-
ent kinds of such powders have been manufactured, and more or
less extensively used, but all of them have practically disappeared
from military use except two, the kinds commonly designated as
nitrocellulose powders and nitroglycerin powders, respectively. The
use of the two types is quite evenly divided. Thus, the nitrocellu-
lose type is used by the United States Army and Navy, by the
French Army and Navy, and by the German Army, whereas nitro-
glycerin is used by the British Army and Navy, and by the German
Navy.
Nitrocellulose powders, the manufacture of which will be described
more in detail later, are essentially composed of nitrocellulose or gun-
cotton dissolved in a mixture of ether and alcohol, then compressed
into a horny mass, formed into grains of suitable size, then dried
until nearly all of the solvent has been extracted. The principal
ingredient of nitroglycerin powder is also guncotton, the other im-
portant ingredient being nitroglycerin, this varying from 20 to 50
per cent. Guncotton, technically known as nitrocellulose, is there-
fore the principal ingredient of all military powders, and its manu-
facture is, for that reason, of special interest.
254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Nitrocellulose.—Nitrocellulose is obtained by the nitration of cel-
lulose. The latter is not a clearly defined substance, but a generic
term applied to a class of substances which have many chemical and
physical characteristics in common. The composition of the cellu-
lose corresponds to the empirical formula C,,H,,0,,.. In the process
of nitration, a number of atoms of hydrogen are replaced by a num-
ber of molecules of nitric peroxide (NO,) giving a product nitrocellu-
lose of the general formula C,,Hy)—nO(NO,)n. It has been found
possible to introduce more than 12 (NO,) groups into the cellulose
molecule. This gives a nitrogen content by. weight equal to 14.16
per cent. The highest stable nitrocellulose contains, however, only
about 13.5 per cent of nitrogen, and the one most used in the manu-
facture of smokeless powder contains about 12.5 per cent. The
purest form of natural cellulose is cotton. This material is accord-
ingly used almost exclusively in the manufacture of nitrocellulose
for smokeless powder. The several steps in the process of manu-
facturing nitrocellulose may be described briefly as follows:
The cotton used is generally the short fiber which is detached from
the cotton seed rather late in the process of removal. After being
bleached and purified it is run through a picker, which opens up the
fiber and breaks up any lumps. It is then thoroughly dried and is
ready for nitration. The most generally used method of nitration
is to put the cotton into a large vessel, nearly filled with a mixture
of nitric and sulphuric acids. The sulphuric acid is used to absorb
the water developed in the process of nitration, and which would other-
wise too greatly dilute the nitric acid. After a few minutes immersion
the pot is rapidly rotated by machinery and the acid permitted to
escape. The nitrated cotton is washed in a preliminary way, then
removed from the nitrator and repeatedly washed and boiled to
remove all traces of free acid. In the process of nitration, the cotton
has not changed its appearance, but has become a little harsh to the
touch. As the keeping qualities are dependent upon the thoroughness
with which it is purified, the specifications for powder for the United
States Army and Navy require that the nitrocellulose shall be given
at this stage of manufacture at least five boilings with a change of
water after each boiling, the total time of boiling being 40 hours.
Following this preliminary purification, the nitrocellulose is cut up
into still shorter lengths by being repeatedly run between cylinders
carrying revolving knives. This operation was found necessary as
cotton fibers are hollow tubes making it very difficult to remove
traces of acid from the interior unless cut into very short lengths.
After being pulped, the nitrocellulose is given six more boilings with
a change of water after each, followed by 10 cold-water washings.
The completed material is known as guncotton or pyrocellulose.
Before adding the solvent, the pyrocellulose must be completely
bo
EXPLOSIVES—O HERN. 55
freed from water. This is partly accomplished in a centrifugal
wringer, but is completed by compressing the pyrocellulose into a
solid block, then forcing alcohol through the compressed mass.
Some of the water is thus forced out ahead of the alcohol and the
remainder is absorbed by the alcohol, the operation of forcing it
through the block being continued until pure alcohol appears. Ether
is added to the pyrocellulose thus impregnated with alcohol, the
relative proportions being about 2 parts of ether and 1 part of alcohol
by volume. The amount of mixed solvent added varies between
about 85 per cent and 110 per cent of the weight of the dried pyro-
cellulose. After the ether has been thoroughly incorporated in a
kneading machine the material is placed in a hydraulic press, in
which it is formed into cylindrical blocks about 10 inches in diameter
and about 15 inches long. In this operation the pyrocellulose loses
the appearance of cotton and takes on a dense horny appearance,
forming what is known as a colloid. The colloid is transferred to a
finishing press, where it is again forced through dies and comes out
in the form of long strips or rods, which are cut to grains of the length
required. The grains are then subjected to a drying process, which
removes nearly all of the solvent and leaves the powder in a suitable
condition for use. The drying process is a lengthy one, amounting
to as much as four or five months for the larger grained powder.
Upon completion, the powder is blended and packed in air-tight
boxes.
Form of grain.—The form of grain used in the United States Army
and Navy for large-caliber cannon is a cylinder containing seven
longitudinal holes. Figure 1 shows the dimensions of a grain of
about the size suitable for a 14-inch gun. The purpose of the holes
is to cause an increase rather than a decrease in the burning surface,
as the grain is consumed, the increase in the area due to their enlarge-
ment more than compensating for the decrease in the outer
surfaces.
The increasing burning surface thus secured is advantageous in
tending to better keep up the pressure as the volume behind the pro-
jectile increases as it moves down the bore. Abroad, smokeless
powder is commonly made in the form of flat ribbons or single per-
forated sticks 2 or 3 feet long. Such forms have not been adopted
in this country because of the fact that they do not give as much in-
crease in surface while burning, and because of the difficulty of pre-
venting serious warping of the long sticks in drying, whereby trouble
would result in getting sufficient powder into the desired volume in
loading.
Smokeless-powder charges.—For use in guns, smokeless powder is
put up into charges inclosed in stout cloth made of raw silk. Each
charge is subdivided into as many sections as is necessary to secure
256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ease of handling. The charge for one round for a 16-inch gun is
shown in plate 2. It weighs approximately 666 pounds, and is sub-
divided into six sections of about 111 pounds each, for ease of
handling.
To improve the speed and uniformity of ignition, a small charge of
black powder is fastened to one or both ends of each section of the
charge. Ono of these is ignited by the flame from a primer inserted
in the breech of the gun and serves to facilitate the ignition of the
smokeless powder charge.
Life of smokeless powder.—The life of smokeless powder varies
ereatly with the conditions under which it is stored. If stored in a
cool, dry climate it will remain in good condition indefinitely, but if
eM
Fra. 1.—Powder grain for 14-inch gun.
exposed to high temperatures, especially if moisture be present, the
stability life will be greatly reduced. In the manufacture of the
United States Government smokeless powder there was used for a
number of years a small percentage of a material called rosaniline,
which gave the powder a strongly pinkish color, which gradually
faded as the powder lost its chemical stability. This material did
not retard the change, but merely served as an indicator that the
powder was becoming dangerous.
About five years ago there was adopted as one of the constituents
of the powder used by the United States Army and Navy a material
called diphenylamine, which by combining with the products of
decomposition of the smokeless powder, serves to retard the progress
of decomposition, and thus greatly lengthens the stability life of the
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—O’Hern. PLATE 2.
PROJECTILE AND POWDER CHARGE FOR 16-INCH GUN. WEIGHT OF PROJECTILE, 2,400
POUNDS; WEIGHT OF POWDER CHARGE, 666.5 POUNDS OF SMOKELESS POWDER.
"YAGMOd NINSOATOOYULIN HLIAA SGNNOY O0O0‘S ONIYI4 YALSY TAY¥kYVgG NNH-3NIHOV|] 4O NOILOSS ssoug
6 (AEN RO i ESA ety see
"€ ALVId “W8H. O—'b16] ‘Hoday uejuosyyiWws
EXPLOSIVES—0’HERN, 257
powder. While there has been insufficient time since the adoption of
this stabilizer to fully determine its advantages under ordinary con-
ditions of storage, tests made at elevated temperatures have indicated
that its presence will probably double the life of the powder. That
the life of the smokeless powders manufactured for the United States
service, even without the stabilizer, has been very satisfactory is
evident from the fact that there is powder 14 years old now on hand
in fairly satisfactory condition. There is a possibility that in de-
teriorating, the chemical action may become so violent as to cause
spontaneous ignition of the powder or of the gas being developed.
The Army and Navy in this country have been practically free from
this source of trouble, but there have been a number of disastrous
explosions from this cause abroad. Within the past few years the
French have lost two battleships from this cause, the Brazilians one,
and the Japanese one. In order to guard against such a possible source
of danger, samples of all lots of powder are kept under constant
observation at the powder factories and at storage magazines. Any
serious change taking place is thus promptly detected and the corre-
sponding lot of powder withdrawn from service.
Source of supply.—The smokeless powder needed by the United
States Army and Navy is in part manufactured in Government plants
and in part purchased from private manufacturers. The smokeless
powder is made at all the plants, both Government and private, in
accordance with specifications prepared by a joint board of Army
and Navy officers, thus insuring a uniform and satisfactory product.
The specifications permit the use of only the highest grade materials
and prescribe such tests at the various stages of manufacture as ‘to
insure a high-grade product. The most important details of manu-
facture as prescribed by the specifications have been given in the
discussion of the manufacture of nitrocellulose.
Tests.—The usual tests for chemical stability are made at elevated
temperatures in order to bring their completion within a reasonable
time limit. One of these is made with the powder at 135° C., the
requirement being that the gases developed by the decomposition
must not turn litmus paper to a standard red in less than 1 hour and
45 minutes, nor must any sample explode in less than 5 hours.
Another test is made at 115° C., the requirement being that the loss
in weight must not exceed a prescribed limit as a result of exposure
to this temperature for 8 hours per day for six days. A third test
is made at 65.5° C., the requirement being that no nitrous fumes
shall be developed in less than a prescribed number of days, dependent
upon the size of the grain being tested. To guard against brittleness,
which might result in the grain being split or shattered while burning,
73176°—-sm 1914——_117
258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
a physical test is prescribed wherein grains are tested by being
shortened in a press. The requirement in this test is that no crack
shall be developed in the outer surface of the grain before it has
.shortened a specified percentage. Samples representing every
lot of powder, lots usually consisting of 100,000 pounds, are sub-
jected to all the foregoing tests as well as to others of less im-
portance.
ACCURACY LIFE OF GUNS.
In order to maintain an elongated projectile in accurate flight it
must be given a rapid rotation about its longitudinal axis. Except
for small arms projectiles this is accomplished by means of a copper
band secured to the projectile and engaging in the raised elements
or rifling in the gun, this having the desired twist. In small arms
the rifling engages the projectile over the entire length of the body or
cylindrical part. It is found that the large powder charges and
high pressures used in modern cannon rather quickly wear away the
raised elements, especially near the origin, and that eventually the
projectile bands fail to properly engage the rifling and the gun loses
its accuracy.
With the largest caliber guns this occurs after the firing of from 150
to 250 rounds, depending upon the weights of powder charges and
the muzzle velocities used, a large charge and a high muzzle velocity
in general greatly shortening the accuracy life. For smaller guns the
accuracy life is greater, amounting to at least 3,000 rounds for a
3-inch field gun. After a gun has lost its accuracy, it can be restored
to good condition at a moderate cost by boring it out and adding a
new lining tube, then reriflmgthe gun. One of the great advantages in
the use of nitrocellulose powder, that used in this country, in compari-
son with the nitroglycerin powder cordite, used to a considerable extent
abroad, is the much less erosive effect of the former. The great
difference is evident from the fact that in changing from nitroglycerin
powder to nitrocellulose powder in the United States service small
arms some years ago, the accuracy life was raised from about 3,000
to about 15,000 rounds. Plate 3 indicates the condition of the in-
terior of a 0.30-caliber machine-gun barrel after a rapid-fire test of
3,000 rounds in which nitroglycerin powder was used. The firings
were made with unusual rapidity and without the presence of the
usual water jacket surrounding the barrel, the test being one of a
series in an effort to find a steel more resistant to erosion than the
varieties now in use. The water-filled jacket commonly used in
service firings tends to keep down the temperature of the barrel and
thus reduces the erosion.
EXPLOSIVES—0O’HERN, 259
BURSTING CHARGES FOR PROJECTILES.
In selecting an explosive suitable for use as a bursting charge for
projectiles, conflicting conditions are encountered in that it must be
sufficiently insensitive to withstand the enormous shock in being
fired from the gun, and must at the same time be sufficiently sensitive
so that it will be detonated without the use of so large a detonator as
would in itself be dangerous in firing. Among the more important
explosives which have been tested in this country at various times
for use in filling projectiles may be mentioned nitroglycerin, blasting
gelatin, picric acid, emmensite, joveite, maximite, trinitrotoluol,
trinitrobenzine, and wet guncotton. The extreme sensitiveness of
nitroglycerin and blasting gelatin were found to render their use
exceedingly dangerous, and resulted in one instance in the destruc-
tion of a $50,000 gun. Most of the other explosives mentioned were
found too sensitive, too hygroscopic, or otherwise objectionable.
While picric acid itself has not been greatly used, it has been em-
ployed mixed with other substances such as nitronaphthaline, nitro-
toluol, nitrobenzole, camphor, etc., and these mixtures have been used
under various names such as lyddite, ecrasite, melenite, shimose, maxi-
mite, etc. The explosive used in the United States service is a secret
known only to those officials concerned in its procurement and use.
It is designated as ‘‘Explosive D”’ as a tribute to its inventor, Lieut.-
Col. B. W. Dunn, an officer of the Ordnance Department of the Army.
This explosive can be readily manufactured and at a moderate cost,
has excellent keeping qualities, can be easily loaded into projectiles,
and is very powerful when detonated. It is so insensitive that it
can be not only fired from a gun with absolute safety, but will with-
stand the shock of impact on the hardest armor plate without
exploding.
ARMOR-PIERCING PROJECTILES.
The sketch (fig. 2) shows the general construction of a modern
projectile used for the attack of armor. The long-pointed outer
covering for the head serves to greatly reduce the air resistance
encountered in flight, and thus enables the projectile to reach the
target with a higher striking velocity. The short inner cap is found
to give the point such support as to greatly improve the chances for
the projectile’s getting through a hard-faced plate unbroken. The
head of the projectile proper is very hard, and at the same time very
tough, two conflicting requirements.
The difficult character of the acceptance tests for armor-piercing
projectiles is evident from the fact that they are in general required
to perforate unbroken a hard-faced armor plate at least as thick as
the caliber, or projectile diameter. A 14-inch projectile is thus
260
WCOTPITING LYINLA
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
VGH) LATZOO/PE «
Fig. 2.—Armor-piercing projectile.
required to completely perfo-
rate a 14-inch plate, and be
in unbroken condition. The
striking velocity for such a
test is about 1,745 feet per
second.
For coast-defense guns two
general types of such projectiles
are employed. One of these,
known as armor-piercing shell,
carries a very large bursting
charge and is equipped with a
quick-acting fuse which deto-
nates the explosive immedi-
ately upon impact with an
armor plate (pl. 4). This type
is intended for the attack of
lightly armored vessels, or the
upper works of heavily ar-
mored craft, and does its work
by driving in the thin plates
and destroying parts that are
not protected by heavy armor.
The other type, known as an
armor-plercing shot, is thick
walled and carries a smaller
bursting charge. It is pro-
vided with a delay-action fuse
which permits the projectile
to pass through a plate and
detonate after reaching the in-
terior of a ship. Plate 5 shows
the effect of such a projec-
tile fired against a target
representing a section of a
fairly modern battleship. This
projectile passed through
11 inches of the most mod-
ern armor and_ detonated
some distance in rear with
the result shown in the illus-
tration. Jt is evident that
no human being could survive
within that part of the ship.
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*SATILOSrO’d AWYY JO SGNNOY OML Y3LIY dIHSSILLVG v SO NOILOSS ONILNASSYdayY LIOYV] 40 YOINA LN]
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EXPLOSIVES—O’HERN, 261
MOBILE ARTILLERY PROJECTILES.
There are being used by the field and siege artillery in the present
European conflict three general types of explosive projectiles, viz,
high-explosive shell, common shrapnel, and high-explosive shrapnel.
These projectiles vary in weight from about 15 pounds, as used in
guns of about 3-inch caliber, the most numerous type, to about 1,700
pounds, as used in 16.5-inch mortars, presumed to have been em-
ployed in the attack on some of the Belgian fortifications. All of these
projectiles can be thrown with remarkable accuracy to a distance of at
least 4 miles, while some of them, as fired from the most powerful
weapons, have a range as great as 7 miles.
HIGH-EXPLOSIVE SHELL.
The high-explosive shell carry from about 3 per cent to about 30
per cent of their weight m high explosive. The smaller percentage
is found in those intended for use where fragments of considerable
size are needed, as for man-killmg purposes in the open.. The large-
capacity type is used where the desired purpose is to demolish build-
ings, earthworks, or other obstacles. High-explosive shell are usually
equipped with a fuse which will cause them to explode upon impact,
but with sufficient delay to secure penetration well into the interior of
trenches or other hostile cover (fig. 3). It has been reported that high-
explosive shell are being used in the present European conflict to a
ereater extent than ever before in modern war, this condition result-
ing from the fact that well-prepared trenches are being utilized to a
greater extent than formerly (pl. 6).
Some of the high-explosive shell fired against the armored forts in
Belgium are presumed to have carried as much as 400 or 500 pounds
of high explosive. The great destruction wrought by such large
quantities of high explosive has been evident from the photographs
published in current periodicals showing overturned or otherwise
damaged turrets, and large masses of broken concrete.
COMMON SHRAPNEL.
The projectile most frequently used in land warfare, especially in
the attack of troops in the open, is known as the common shrapnel.
It consists essentially of a steel case closed at the rear, filled with
lead balls, and carrying a fuse capable of being set to cause the balls
to be expelled while the projectile is in the air immediately in front
of the position occupied by the enemy. The balls are expelled by
the action of a charge of powder carried in the case in the rear of
the balls, and ignited by a flame from the fuse passing down a central
tube communicating with the powder charge. The number of lead
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EXPLOSIVES—O ’HERN.
balls carried varies from about
300 in a 3-inch field-gun shrap-
nel to about 1,100 in a 6-inch
howitzer shrapnel. Each of
these balls has sufficient energy
to disable a man or a horse up
to 100 yards or more beyond
the point of burst of the shrap-
nel. This type of projectile
was invented about the year
1800 by a British officer, Col.
Shrapnel, hence its name. The
rapid rotation of the projectile
in flight causes the balls to
spread in a rather uniform
manner, thus covering with con-
siderable regularity a given area
beyond the point of burst. In
firing, an effort is made to se-
cure a height of burst which
wil give a ball density of about
one ball per square yard on the
surface of the ground, this being
sufficient to insure the escape
of no-one within the beaten
zone unless protected by suffi-
cient cover. A shrapnel of the
type manufactured for use in
the United States Army is
shown in the illustration here-
with (fig. 4). In order to render
the pomt of burst more clearly
visible to the firing battery
and thus permit adjustment of
range, the shrapnel balls are
embedded in a matrix of mate-
rial which gives a cloud of dense
black or white smoke at the
pomt of burst. The materials
in common use for this purpose
are resin, mononitronaphthalene
and ee naphthalene. The car-
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Fig. 5.—Cartridge case.
tridge case used to carry the apelin chat of smokeless povidist
is shown in figure 5.
264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
COMBINATION FUSES.
Tn order to secure a burst of the shrapnel at the desired range, or
in case a burst in the air is not secured, to obtain a burst upon
impact with the ground, there is carried on the head of each projectile
a combination fuse of the general character shown in the illustration
(fig. 6). This contains a concussion plunger which, by means of the
shock of discharge fires a primer, and thus ignites a tram or ring of
compressed powder which, after burning a prearranged distance as
determined by the setting of the fuse, transmits the flame to the
powder at the base of the shrapnel. Upon the ignition of that
charge, the fuse is driven off and the balls expelled as previously
described. There is provided a second plunger—percussion—which
moves forward on impact, and, in case the shrapnel has not already
exploded, fires a primer that transmits a flame to the base charge
with resultant burst. The time tram rmgs which determine the
interval between the projectiles leavmg the gun and the pomt of
burst in the air are usually in pairs and so arranged that one of them
is readily movable with respect to the other, this movement being
secured through the operation of a device called a ‘‘fuse setter.”
This device is adjusted in accordance with the known or supposed
range to the enemy, and the fuse set accordingly by merely inserting
the projectile into the fuse setter and turning the projectile or the
fuse setter until the movement is automatically stopped. The burst
is usually timed to occur a few yards above the ground and a short
distance in front of the enemy’s position.
HIGH-EXPLOSIVE SHRAPNEL.
A third type of projectile combining the principles of both the
high-explosive shell and the common shrapnel has come into use to
some extent within the past four or five years, this projectile being
known as a high-explosive shrapnel. In this type the head carries
a high explosive charge, and the matrix surrounding the balls is a
high explosive capable of being detonated by the detonation of the
head. ‘This projectile carries a.combination fuse and a base charge
as does the common shrapnel. For use as such the head and balls
are expelled without a detonation occurring, the matrix serving to
produce smoke as does that of the common shrapnel. The head con-
tinues in flight and detonates upon impact, the power being sufficient
to put out of action a shielded gun in case it strikes the shield. If
the projectile strikes without having functioned as common shrapnel,
the head and matrix detonate together, thus giving the effect of the
high-explosive shell. The explosive commonly used in the head and
as a matrix in this class of ammunition is trinitrotoluol together with
the fulminate or other similar material needed to start the deto-
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—O’Hern. PLATE 6.
3-INCH HIGH-EXPLOSIVE SHELL.
A. Shell recovered from sand butt after firing through a steel
plate. J
D. Fragments resulting from high-explosive bursting charge.
‘3NdVYHS JAISO1dX4-HDIH HONI-€ ‘SSVO GNV GVaH JO SLNAWOVH ONY STIVq
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PH EVEN Tka| UAH O—'PL6 | Hodey uRluosy}}WUsS
EXPLOSIVES—0O’HERN, 265
nation. Plate 7 shows the balls and fragments from such a projectile
of 3-inch caliber weighing 15 pounds.
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COMBINATION FUZE
EXTEFIOR
AEROPLANE BOMBS.
The usual type of bombs or grenades dropped from aeroplanes or
dirigibles consist of stout envelopes containing a bursting charge of
high explosive, and equipped with a fuse which operates upon impact.
266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
These grenades are occasionally partly filled with lead balls or other
missiles, but usually the effect of the high explosive alone is depended
upon. It seems readily practicable to carry and drop from aero-
planes bombs weighing from 50 to 100 pounds. It is, of course,
practicable to carry and drop much heavier ones from dirigibles.
Experiments in our service have indicated that good accuracy can be
secured in dropping grenades of suitavle form from heights at least
as great as 2,000 feet.
NITROGLYCERIN.
One of the most powerful and commonly used explosives is nitro-
glycerin, it being used alone or as forming the explosive element in
dynamite. It is prepared by slowly running glycerin into a mixture
of the strongest nitric and sulphuric acids, the whole being stirred
and kept cool durmg the process of mixing. The reaction which
takes place between the glycerin and the nitric acid is in a general
way similar to that which takes place in the manufacture of gun-
cotton. As the result of the reaction, NO, groups from the nitric
acid replace hydrogen in the glycerin, and the previously harmless
glycerin is thereby changed into the powerful and dangerous explo-
sive nitroglycerin. Nitroglycerin is a rather dense oil-like liquid.
When pure it is colorless, but as it appears in the market is usually
pale yellow. It is somewhat poisonous, and one can be poisoned by
it not only through the mouth but also by breathing its vapors or by
allowing the liquid to touch the skin. <A drop of it touching the tip
of the finger will usually soon produce a violent headache. * The
chemical formula giving its reaction upon explosion is usually written
40,H,(O.NO,),=12CO,+10H,O +6N,+0,
As expressed in simpler language this means that four molecules of
nitroglycerin, each composed of 3 atoms of carbon, 5 of hydrogen,
3 of oxygen and nitric peroxide (NO,), become upon explosion 12
molecules of carbon dioxide (CO,), 10 of water vapor (H,O), 6 of
nitrogen, and 1 of oxygen.
Gas developed.—The equation further shows that, in accordance with
a general chemical law, a quantity of this explosive in grams equal to
the number of units of molecular weight in the first member—that is,
908 grams—will give 12 molecular volumes of carbon dioxide, 10 of
water vapor—if that be assumed to behave like a perfect gas—6 of
nitrogen, and 1 of oxygen, if measured at zero temperature and
standard atmospheric pressure. As the molecular volumes of all
gases are the same (22.32 liters) the total volume of gas developed
by 908 grams of nitroglycerin is approximately 647 liters. That is,
1 pound of nitroglycerin, which occupies approximately 16 cubic
inches of space would develop approximately 340 cubic inches of gas
EXPLOSIVES—0’HERN, 267
measured under the zero temperature condition specified above, but
which at the temperature of explosion would occupy more than 4,000
cubic inches, if similarly measured under atmospheric pressure.
Heat developed.—The quantity of heat developed can be readily
computed from experimental data giving the heat absorbed in the for-
mation of the explosive material and of each of the products of
explosion other than the simple gases, these absorbing no heat. It
is thus determined that the heat given off by exploding under con-
stant pressure 1 pound of nitroglycerin amounts to sufficient to raise
approximately 2,610 pounds of water through 1° F.
Temperature of explosion.—Knowing the quantity of heat liberated
and the quantity required to raise the products of explosion through
1°, the temperature of explosion can be readily computed. The tem-
perature thus determined for the explosion of nitroglycerin has the
enormous value of approximately 3,178° C., this temperature being
approximately twice that of molten steel. The considerable volume
of gas developed, the very high temperature to which raised, and the
quickness of the reaction account for the extremely violent action of
nitroglycerin and other explosives of similar character.
DYNAMITE.
Dynamite consists of nitroglycerin absorbed in a solid body called
the ‘‘dope.”” One of the earliest dynamites was made by absorbing
nitroglycerin in powdered ‘‘rotten stone.” As the rotten stone could
neither burn nor explode, it was called ‘‘inactive dope.” There are
now many varieties of dynamites with dopes of this character. On
the other hand, nitroglycerin may be absorbed in gunpowder or in
other active materials which will explode as well as the nitroglycerin
when the dynamite is fired. There are large numbers of dynamites
thus made with active dopes, and with varying percentages of nitro-
glycerin. The following may be taken as an example of a standard
dynamite with an active dope:
Per cent.
itenebyeetrn.. fs laos SIDE OL Fk a Se eee, da 40
Bisisite,of sad9; (sodium filtrate)jos.232) :qed4sor 1s taoskesstidteespeed doaeiede 44
a ee Ea 8 ai wo len ae oes tid ade ie 15
Pxenotapion Mme.(ealciim carbonate): . <=.) ios = o00<dg.05 jasc tin space ccc aan 1
OA adee ey pee i he seed Sagnse aeedoudcnen~ceaad -usht.! Baigalads: 100
The extensive use of dynamite in this country is apparent from the
fact that there were manufactured-in the United States in the year
1909, as previously stated, approximately 195,000,000 pounds of this
material. It was the explosive most largely used in digging the
Panama Canal, the expenditure at times amounting to about 1,000,000
pounds a month.
268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
EXPLOSIVE GELATIN AND GELATIN DYNAMITE.
Nitroglycerin, like other liquids, acts as a solvent for certain mate-
rials. It has been found that it will dissolve nitrocellulose, and that
the mixture thus formed will become a jellyliike mass. In this way a
substance known as explosive gelatin is formed, which material is in
some respects the most nearly ideal explosive and one of the most
powerful known. It is, in fact, too powerful for ordinary use in
blasting and is commonly mixed with dope, such as nitrate of soda
and wood pulp, as used instraight dynamite. The mixture so formed
is commonly known as gelatin dynamite.
DYNAMITE CARTRIDGES.
Dynamite and other explosives containing nitroglycerin are ordi-
narily put upon the market in the form of sticks or cartridges, which
are made by wrapping cylinders of the material in stout paper; the
wrappers are paraffined to protect them against the action of the
water and from moisture in the air, because the nitrate of soda, which
the material commonly contains, absorbs moisture and thereby be-
comes damaged. The sticks of explosive vary in size from about
1 inch to 24 inches in diameter, and are usually about 8 inches long.
They are commonly packed in cases containing 50 pounds each.
NITRO SUBSTITUTION COMPOUNDS.
A number of substances derived from coal tar, if acted upon by
nitric acid, form what are known as nitro-substitution compounds.
The best known and most extensively used of these compounds is
phenol, or earbolic acid, which material comes from the oxidation of
benzine. The chief source of benzine is coal tar, from which it passes
over in the fractional distillation between 150° and 200° C. In the
usual process of manufacture the liquid thus obtained is treated with
caustic soda, and results in the production of sodium phenylate.
This is acted upon by sulphuric acid and purified by further frac-
tional distillation, resulting in the production of phenol. Picric acid
is obtained by treating phenol with nitric acid. The resultant product
is not only greatly used as an explosive by itself, but as an ingredient
of many explosive mixtures.
‘‘Melenite,”’ the high explosive used by the French for filling pro-
jectiles, is probably picric acid and colloided nitrocellulose, or some
other substance, such as nitrobenzole. ‘‘Lyddite,” the high explo-
sive used by the British, is presumably likewise a mixture of picric
acid and some substance of the character used with melenite. ‘‘Shi-
mose,” the high explosive used by the Japanese, is thought to be
either pure picric acid or a mixture of that and a nitrate compound
of the aromatic series. The high explosive used in the United States
EXPLOSIVES—0 HERN, 269
service is less sensitive than any of those referred to above, and at
the same time is very powerful. Its power is indicated by the faci
that the pressure developed in a projectile filled with that material
is estimated to be approximately twice as great as that developed in
one filled with compressed guncotton.
MEANS OF IGNITING EXPLOSIVES.
Some types of explosives, such as black powder and _ blasting
powder, can be satisfactorily ignited by means of an ordinary flame.
For blasting purposes this is commonly supplied by a slow-burning
fuse consisting of a core of mealed powder inclosed in two or more
layers of yarn and generally surrounded by tape that has been dipped
into a waterproofing composition. A suitable length of fuse having
been cut off, and one end inserted in the explosive, the other end is
lighted. The powder core burns slowly along the fuse, giving the
operator time to proceed to a safe distance. For other types of
explosives, such as dynamite, detonators are needed to secure satis-
factory starting of the explosion. These detonators, as used in
commercial practice, are commonly called blasting caps, and consist
of copper capsules about as thick as an ordinary lead pencil. They
are commonly charged with dry mercuric fulminate, or with a mixture
of such fulminate and potassium chlorate. The weight of fulminate
in detonators varies from about 8 to about 30 grains. The detonators
themselves are usually fired by means of a fuse of the character
previously described.
ELECTRIC DETONATORS.
In order to secure greater safety for the operator, electric detona-
tors or fuses that can be fired from a considerable distance are
commonly used. These detonators differ from those previously de-
seribed in that two electric wires enter the upper end and are joined
by an extremely fine platinum or other high resistance wire like the
carbon filament in an incandescent lamp, which becomes heated until
it glows, when an electric current is passed through it. This wire,
known as the bridge, is placed above the detonating composition and
is surrounded by guncotton or loose fulminate. Such a detonator
differs in principle from the electric primers commonly used in firing
cannon only in that the mercuric fulminate of the detonator is
replaced by black powder in the cannon primer.
SUBMARINE MINES.
A submarine mine is essentially a charge of high explosive confined
in a strong case, and provided with a suitable fuse to cause its explo-
sion either upon the receipt of a blow from being struck by a ship,
270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
or to be exploded electrically from a distance. A torpedo differs
from a submarine mine chiefly in that it is provided with a vehicle
for its transportation to a distance.
The first recorded experiments with submarine mines were made
by David Bushnell, of Connecticut, in 1775. His mines contained
charges of black powder and explosion was effected by means of
clockwork which, after being set in motion, allowed sufficient time
for the operator to get away before the explosion. Bushnell also
constructed a submarine boat for the purpose of conveying his mines
to hostile vessels. With such a boat an attempt was actually made
in 1776 to sink the British man-of-war Hagle in New York harbor.
An important step in the development of submarine mines was made
Fic. 7.—Submarine mine.
in 1842 by Samuel Colt in applying electricity to the firing of such
mines. Mines and torpedoes were first successfully used during our
Civil War. Although of rather crude construction, they succeeded
in sinking or seriously damaging more than 30 ships. Their success
turned the attention of the world to this method of naval attack and
defense, with the result that there have followed great improvements
in appliances and methods.
The sketch (fig. 7) shows a submarine mine of the type planted
in waterways with a view to closing the entrance to harbors. Such
a mine is usually controlled electrically from shore, but may be set
to operate upon being struck by a passing ship. The steel case is
either spherical or cylindrical, depending upon the quantity of
explosive carried. The amount usually carried is from 100 to 500
pounds, although there is no special reason why even greater quan-
tities may not be carried.
EXPLOSIVES—0’HERN, Ort
Method of firing.—For electrically-controlled mines a continuous
insulated cable extends from a mining casemate in the fortification
on shore to each mine in the adjacent waters. Observers are main-
tained to watch for the approach of hostile vessels and to plot their
position with respect to the mines. The electrical system is usually
so arranged that the striking of a mine is automatically signaled to
the operator on shore, who may then fire it at once or after a few
moments’ delay in order to allow the hostile ship to get well over it.
The electrical method of control permits the safe passage of a friendly
vessel. Mines which are set adrift or are planted at the entrance of
harbors without providing electrical control from the shore are
equipped with a firmg mechanism or fuse which operates upon the
shock of contact with a vessel. This has the decided disadvantage
that it functions equally well whether the vessel be friendly or
hostile.
DEFENSIVE MINE SYSTEM.
The sketch herewith shows the general arrangement of a defensive
mine system covering the entrance to a harbor. Concealed and pro-
tected in the fortifications is a mining casemate (C) which contains
the electrical generators, switchboards, and instruments needed in
the service of the mines. The mines are planted in small groups
for convenience of cable service.
In the sketch (fig. 8) each small circle represents an individual
mine. The arrangement of the mines is such that a hostile vessel
can. follow no reasonable course into the harbor without encounter-
ing one or more mines. Gaps forming a more or less tortuous chan-
nel are sometimes left through which friendly vessels can be con-
ducted by guide boats. In order to prevent the enemy from remoy-
ing the mines or destroying them in position and thus clearing a
channel, rapid-fire guns are usually mounted to cover the mine
fields and prevent the sending in of small boats or tugs to accom-
plish this purpose. Searchlights are provided to illuminate the
mine fields and prevent such action under cover of darkness.
TORPEDO.
A torpedo is merely a mine carried at the forward end of a self-
propelling vehicle. The motive power is usually compressed air
stored in a tank under very heavy pressure and supplied to two
propellers by means of a compressed-air motor. These propellers
turn in opposite directions in order that the torpedo may not be
thereby turned over. In order to secure greater power, arrangements
are made to heat the air by an alcohol torch in its passage from the
tank to the engine. The torpedo is discharged from a launching
tube mounted on a ship’s deck or built into the ship below the water
22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Ime. The torpedo leaves the tube with a moderately low velocity,
and is then driven forward through the water by its own propellers,
operated by compressed air as previously described. The explosive
charge carried in the head is fired by percussion when the torpedo
strikes. The depth at which the torpedo will travel is reeulated by
the operation of a plunger, which is-acted on by the water pressure
i
\
\
i
= «== as «as =
=... 7
anes as
Fia. 8.—Defensive mine system. Entrance to harbor.
and controls a steering device which operates a horizontal rudder
attached to the rear of the torpedo (fig. 9.)
DIRECTING MECHANISM.
The torpedo is guided in direction through the operation of a
rapidly rotatmg gyroscope or small wheel which controls a steering
engine. This gyroscope is usually of a turbine construction and is
rotated by compressed air at a very high rate of speed. In accord-
ance with a well-known principle of mechanics, such a rapidly rotat-
EXPLOSIVES—0O’HERN.
ing body resists any force tending to change
the direction of its axis of rotation. To imsure
the torpedo’s following a desired direction, it
is only necessary then to point the axis of the
gyroscope in the proper direction before launch-
ing the torpedo. The size and effective range
of torpedoes have been greatly increased within
recent years. Those of late construction are as
much as 21 inches in diameter, 16 feet long,
have an extreme range of at least 10,000 yards,
or nearly 6 miles, a maximum speed of at least
36 miles per hour, and carry a charge of as
much as 300 pounds of high explosive.
EXPLOSIVES USED.
Until recently, dynamite and guncotton have
been the principal explosives used in submarine
warfare, but there is reason to believe that some
of the important countries have adopted for
that purpose the explosive trinitrotoluol or
other similar explosives. Dynamite has the
advantage of cheapness and ease of ignition.
Its disadvantages are changing sensibility when
freezing and thawing, and separation of the
nitroglycerin from the absorbent if the dyna-
mite becomes wet through leakage in the mine
case. Guncotton has usually been employed
wet, in which condition it is safe and insensi-
tive, but can be detonated only by means of a
priming charge of dry guncotton. The chief
objection to guncotton is the danger in handling
the dry primer, and its liability to become
accidentally wet and thereby prevent the func-
tioning of the mine. Trinitrotoluol has the
advantage of being safe to handle and of not
being affected by contact with water.
ISOLATION OF MAGAZINES.
There is no general law in this country pre-
scribing requirements as to the character of
magazines for storing explosives, nor as to the
location of storage places with respect to
dwellings, although there are usually State
73176°—sm 1914——18
SUWELLLIND
AMVMNG FW.
DLT VY (7M.
Fia. 9.—Self-propelling submarine torpedo.
274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
laws and local police regulations governing such matters. At the
instigation of the bureau of explosives of the American Railway
Association, a committee was appointed by the manufacturers of
explosives to make an exhaustive study of all the data that could
be collected the world over to show the damage that had resulted
from explosions. Data were thus collected relating to over 130 ex-
plosions. From these data a table was prepared to show the dis-
tances that, according to the quantity of explosives involved, should
separate storage magazines from inhabited dwellings and railways.
It was assumed that such magazines would be provided with an arti-
ficial barricade, or would have the advantage of a natural obstacle
screening the property to be protected, otherwise the distances given
in the table should be doubled.
The following extracts from that table show the distances recom-
mended for certain quantities of explosives:
Proposed A meri-
can distances.
Quantity of one
explosives
stored. Tnhabited) Public
buildings.| railway.
{
Pounds. Feet. Feet.
100 180 110
500 400 240
1, 000 530 320
5, 000 780 470
10, 000 890 535
50, 000 1, 460 875
100, 000 1,83 1,100
500, 000 2, 755 1, 655
1,000, 000 3, 455 2,075
It will be noted that a barricaded magazine is considered safe with
respect to inhabited buildings at a distance of 180 feet for 100 pounds
of explosive and at 3,455 feet, or about 0.6 of a mile for 1,000,000
pounds. The distance here indicated as safe means that at which
no serious structural damage will be done to buildings, although glass
may be broken and plaster shaken down.
The recommendations of the committee have not yet been sanc-
tioned by law, but it seems probable that they will be given great
weight in any judicial procedure involving questions as to safety of
location for storage magazines.
SHIPMENT OF EXPLOSIVES.
Under authority granted by Congress, the Interstate Commerce
Commission has made regulations, binding upon shippers and common
carriers, for the transportation of explosives in interstate commerce.
The penalty of a possible fine of $2,000 and 18 months’ imprisonment
is prescribed by law for a violation of these regulations. The shipper
EXPLOSIVES—O’HERN, Mas)
must certify on his shipping order that the explosive offered by him
is in a proper condition for safe transportation and that it is packed
and marked as required by the regulations. The regulations require
that the car used for shipment of certain classes of explosives be
placarded to clearly indicate the character of the contents so as to
insure greater care in switching and the avoidance of placing such a
car in a dangerous position in a train.
EXPLOSIVES IN BAGGAGE.
In order to prevent the carrying of explosives in personal baggage
or on passenger cars, the law makes this a criminal act, and subjects
the guilty person, when detected, to arrest and prosecution. There
is prescribed a maximum penalty of imprisonment for 10 years for
anyone convicted of this crime when death or bodily injury results
from the illegal transportation of explosives. When no injury re-
sults, the maximum penalty is 18 months’ imprisonment and a fine
of $2,000.
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME.1
By CHARLES SCHUCHERT.
The ancient philosophers imagined that the earth arose out of
darkness and chaos and that its present form and condition came
about gradually through the creative acts of an omniscient and
omnipotent God. Certain Greek philosophers tell us that the
world had its origin in a primeval chaos; others that it arose out of
water or an all-pervading primeval substance with inherent power
of movement; that the energy of this primal matter determined heat
and cold, and that the stars originated from fire and air. It was
Empedocles (492-432 B. C.) who first told us that the interior of
the earth was hot and composed of molten material, an opinion he
formulated after seeing the volcanic activity of the Sicilian Mount
Etna, in whose crater he is said to have met his fate.
The geology of ‘to-day still teaches that the interior of the earth
is very hot, but that the material of which it consists is as dense
and rigid as steel, and that little of the interior high temperatures
attains the earth’s surface because of the low conductivity of the rocky
and far less dense outer shell. The older geologists believed that
this shell originally was thin, and that therefore much heat was radi-
ated into space, this idea being a natural result of the Laplacian
theory of earth origin. In other words, they held that the earth
was once a very small star which in the course of the eons gradually
cooled and formed a crust. Therefore it was postulated that, because
the crust formerly must have been thin, life began in hot waters
and the climates of the geologic past were hot, with dense atmos-
pheres charged with far more carbonic acid and water vapor than
they now hold. The present type of climate with zonal belts of
decidedly varying temperature and polar ice caps was thought to
be of very recent origin, resultant from a much thickened rocky
crust. All of these conceptions are now greatly modified by the
planetesimal hypothesis of Profs. Chamberlin and Moulton, which
teaches of an earth accreting around a primordial cold nucleus
through the infalling of small cold bodies, the planetesimals, all of
1 Reprinted by permission, after revision by the author. The article first appeared as chapter 21 in The
Climatic Factor, by Ellsworth Huntington, 1914, pp. 265-289. Published by the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, as publication No. 192.
200
278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
this material being derived from a spiral nebular mass formed
through the close approach of two large bodies. As the nuclear earth
grew in dimensions, so also was increased the gravitative pressure,
gradually developing central heat which spread to the surface and
there broke out in a long period of volcanic activity.
Our knowledge of glacial climates had its origin in the Alps, the
land of magnificent scenery and marvelous glaciers, through the
work of Andreas Scheuzer, early in the eighteenth century. This
was at first only a study of the interesting local glaciers, but out
of it gradually came about, especially through the studies of De
Saussure, Hugi, Venetz, Charpentier, Schimper, and Louis Agassiz,
the application of conditions observed in the Alps to the very widely
distributed foreign bowlders known as erratics and the hetero-
geneous accumulations of sands, clays, and bowlders called tills.
The engineer Venetz in 1821 pointed out that the Alpine glaciers
had once been of far greater size, and that glaciation had been on
a scale of enormous magnitude in some former period. By degrees
the older conception that the erratics and tills were of flood, river, or
iceberg origin gave way to the theory of colder climates and glaciers
of continental extent. It was shown that the reduced temperature
was finally succeeded by greater warmth, and that in the wake
of the melting glaciers the land was strewn with erratics, with thick
accumulations of heterogeneous rocks deposited at the edge of ice
sheets and known as moraines, and with great fans of bowlder clays
and sands, all of this being the diluvium or deluge material of the
older philosophers and the drift or tills of modern students of earth
science.
Throughout more than a century of study we have learned how
glaciers do their work and what results are accomplished by their
motion plus the action of temperature, air, and water. ‘The present
geographic distribution of the glaciers, together with that of the
glacial deposits, shows us that during the Pleistocene or glacial
period the temperature of the entire earth was lowered. We also
know that this cold period was not a uniformly continuous one, but
that during the Pleistocene there were no less than four intermediate
warmer climates, so warm indeed that during one of them lions and
hippopotamuses lived in western Europe along with primitive man.
We may now be living in another interglacial warm period, though
more probably we are just emerging from the Pleistocene ice age.
Figure 1 gives the known distribution of Pleistocene glacial materials.
With the reduction of temperature, great variations also took place
in the local supply of moisture, in the number of dark days, and in
the air currents. How great these changes were in Pleistocene
time is now being revealed to us through the work of the geologists,
paleontologists, and ethnologists of Europe, where this record is far
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 279
more detailed than in North America. These observations picture
a fierce struggle on the part of the hardier organisms against the
colder climates, a blotting out of those addicted to confirmed habits
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and to warmer conditions, and a driving southward of certain ele-
ments of the flora and fauna from the glaciated into the nonglaciated
regions. The result was the disestablishment of the entire organic
world of the Pleistocene lands other than those of the Tropics. More
280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
than once man and his organic surroundings have been forced to
wander into new regions; the life of cool to cold climates has dis-
possessed that of milder temperatures, and with each moderation
of the climate the hardier floras and faunas have advanced with the
retreating glaciers or become stranded and isolated in the mountains.
As the organic world is dependent upon sunlight, temperature, and
moisture, it is not difficult to see why these same factors are essential
to man and his civilization.
PERMIC GLACIATION.
Hardly had the Pleistocene glacial climate been proven when
geologists began to point out the possibility of earlier ones. An
enthusiastic Scotch writer, Sir Andrew Ramsay, in 1855 described
certain late Paleozoic conglomerates of middle England, which he said
were of glacial origin, but his evidence, though never completely
gainsaid, has not been generally accepted. In the following year an
Englishman, Dr. W. T. Blanford, said that the Talchir conglomerates
occurring in central and southern India were of glacial origin, and
since then the evidence for a Permic glacial period has been steadily
accumulating. The land of ancient tills (tillites of geologists) is
Africa, and here in 1870 Sutherland pointed out that the conglom-
erates of the Karoo formation were of glacial origin, and, further,
that they rest on a land surface which has been grooved, scratched,
and polished by the movement of glaciers. Australia also has Permic
glacial deposits. It is only very recently that the evidence found in
many places in the Southern Hemisphere has become widely known,
but so convincing is this testimony that all geologists are now ready
to accept the conclusion that a glacial climate was as widespread in
Permic time as was that of the Pleistocene. This time of organic
stress, curiously, did not affect the polar lands, but rather those
regions bordering the equatorial zone, while the temperate and arctic
zones of the Northern Hemisphere were not glaciated, but seem to
have had winters alternating with summers. The lands that were
more or less covered with snow and ice lay on each side of the equator;
that is, roughly, from 20° to 40° north and south of this line, as may
-be seen in figure 2.
Geologists now accept the geographical occurrence of tillite deposits
formed in early Permic time as follows: Throughout South Africa
(widely distributed and with much fossil evidence, thickness of tillites
up to 1,130 feet); Tasmania; western, southern, eastern, and central
Australia (tillites up to 1,300 feet thick, both land and marine fossils) ;
peninsular and northwestern India; southeastern Brazil (of wide
distribution, with land floras and some marine invertebrates) ;
northern Argentina; and the Falkland Islands. ‘‘It may be added
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 281
that the plant beds of the Gondwana associated with the glacial
deposits found near Herat (Afghanistan) are much like beds found in
Russian Turkestan and Elburz, in Armenia, suggesting a still further
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extension to the west (of India), and that a probably glacial conglom-
erate is known from the Urals.”” (Coleman, 19084: 350.) Heritsch
records the presence of tillites in the Alps and Frech points out that
a scratched surface occurs in ens Ruhr coal field of Germany, on
282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
which the Rothliegende rests. (Frech, 1908: 74.) The Roxbury
conglomerate, with a thickness of 506 to 600 feet, occurs in the vicinity
of Boston and is interpreted as a tillite. (Sayles and La Forge:
723-724.) Then, too, the Lower Permic (Buntsandstein) of western
Europe is now thought to indicate not only an arid but probably also
a cool climate.
The greater part of these glacial deposits is ground moraines or
morainic material carried by the land ice into the sea. Their wide
distribution in the Southern Hemisphere clearly indicates that gla-
ciation there was as effective in earliest Permic time as was that of
the Pleistocene of the Northern Hemisphere. This Permic glaciation
caused the development in the Southern Hemisphere of a peculiar
hardy flora—the Glossopteris flora—of which very little is known in
the Northern Hemisphere. Of this cold-climate flora the invaders
and advance migrants arrived in Asia and Europe not before Middle
Permic time.
In Africa and India the glacial condition appears to have been con-
tinuous during early Permic time, and there is as yet no convincing
evidence here for interglacial warmer climates such as occurred in
the Pleistocene. In Brazil, however, the evidence appears to indicate
one warmer between two colder periods, and in New South Wales
there is evidence of a series of recurrent colder and warmer climates.
In Africa, in the southern Dwyka region, there is also some evidence
for interglacial warmer periods. (Coleman, 19084: 360.)
DEVONIC GLACIATION.
In South Africa there occurs, beneath Lower Devonic marine strata,
the 5,000-foot-thick Table Mountain series, essentially’ of quartzites
with zones of shales or slates, which has striated pebbles up to 15
inches long, found in pockets and seemingly of glacial origin. There
are here no typical tillites, and no striated undergrounds have so far
been discovered. While the evidence of the deposits appears to favor
the conclusion that the Table Mountain strata were laid down in cold
waters with floating ice derived from glaciers, it is as yet impossible
to assign to these sediments a definite geologic age. They are cer-
tainly not younger than the Lower Devonic, but it has not yet been
established to what period of the early Paleozoic they belong.
Elsewhere than in South Africa late Siluric or early Devonic tillites
are unknown. It is desirable here, however, to direct attention to
the supposed tillites mentioned by Ramsay and found in the north
of England in the Upper Old Red Sandstone of late Devonic time.
Geikie (1903: 1001, 1011) states that this “‘subangular conglomerate
or breccia recalls some glacial deposits of modern time.” Jukes-
Brown in his book, The Building of the British Isles, 1911, writes of
arid Devonic climates, but does not mention tillites or glacial climates.
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 283
CAMBRIC GLACIATION.
Unmistakable tillites, thought to be of earliest Cambric age, have
been described by Howchin and David from southern Australia and
by Wills and Blackwelder from China. In both cases the evidence
as to age is open to question, as the tillites are either sharply sepa-
rated from the overlying Cambric deposits or these strata have no
fossils to fix their age, thus leading to the inference that the tillites
are more probably of late Proterozoic time. In arctic Norway occur
other tillites at the base of the thick Gaisa formation. These deposits
also were formerly regarded as of Paleozoic age, but Norwegian
geologists now refer them to the Proterozoic. All of these tillites
are best referred to the vast era previous to the Cambric period.
LATEST PROTEROZOIC GLACIATION.
Australia.—In southern Australia, conformably beneath marine
and fossiliferous Lower Cambric strata but sharply separated from
them, occur tillites of wide distribution. They extend from 20 miles °
south of Adelaide to 440 miles north of the same city, with an east-
and-west spread of 200 miles. Bowlder clay has also been discov-
ered on the west coast of Tasmania. The tillites range in thickness
from about 600 to 1,500 feet and occur at the top of a vast pile of
conglomerates, grits, feldspathic quartzites, slates, and phyllites,
whose exact age is unknown because as yet no fossils have been
discovered in them. (See fig. 3.)
According to Howchin, the tillite consists ‘‘mainly of a ground-
mass of unstratified, indurated mudstone, more or less gritty, and
carrying angular, subangular, and rounded bowlders (up to 11 feet
in diameter), which are distributed confusedly through the mass.
It is in every respect a characteristic till” (1908: 239). The first
scratched bowlders were observed in 1901, and now they are known
by the “thousands” (David). They range in size up to about 10
feet long. So far no striated underground or glaciated floor has
been discovered, and both Howchin and David hold that the tillite
was formed at or near sea level in fresh or brackish water with floating
icebergs. The rocks of the tills, David thinks, came from the south.
The tillite is now found from below sea level to about 1,000 feet
above the sea. These tillites and all of the enormous mass of coarse
deposits below them, which is at least several miles thick, the Aus-
tralian geologists regard as of Lower Cambric age, because overlying
them occur fossils of this time. The contact between the tillite
and the marine Cambric is always a sharp one, leading to the inference
that the sea of this time transgressed over an old flat land. Under
these circumstances deposition was not continuous, for the geologic
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
284:
From the evidence of the Lower Cambric life, to
section is here broken between the tillite and the Cambric deposits,
indicating that the age of the former is rather late Proterozoic than
early Paleozoic.
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CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 285
Arctic Norway.—As long ago as 1891, Dr. Reusch described unmis-
takable tillites in the Gaisa formation in latitude 70° N. along the
Varanger Fiord of arctic Norway. Similar deposits are also known
farther east on Kildin Island, and on Kanin Peninsula at Pae. (Ram-
say, 1910.) At first the age of these deposits was thought to be late
Paleozoic and even Triassic, but the Swedish geologists now correlate
the Gaisa with the Sparagmite formation, one of the members of the
Seve series. As the latter is overlain by the Lower Cambric fauna,
it appears best to refer the Gaisa formation to the top of the Pro-
terozoic series. The tillite occurs at the very base of the Gaisa for-
mation and overlies the ancient and eroded granites. Strahan
reinvestigated the area originally studied by Reusch and his descrip-
tion of the geologic phenomena must convince anyone not only that
here are intercalated thin zones of sandstone and tillite in a series of
red shales (these may indicate warmer and arid interglacial climates),
but as well that the tillite rests upon a striated sandstone, the very
ground over which the glacier moved. Strahan further states that
“the Gaisa Beds, so far as I saw them, do not suggest the immediate
neighborhood of a mountain region, for such conglomerates as they
contain are neither coarse nor plentiful” (1897:145). Again we
have the evidence of tillites formed on low grounds and not in the
mountains.
UNDATED PROTEROZOIC GLACIATION.
The following occurrences of tillites do not appear to be of latest
Proterozoic time, as do those of Australia and Norway. They are
therefore held apart under a separate heading from the tillites of
earliest and latest Proterozoic time.
North America.—Prof. Coleman states. that ‘‘Dr. Bell reports
bowlders reaching diameters of 3 feet 8 inches, having grooves like
glacial striz, in a conglomerate with sandy matrix belonging to the
Keweenawan of Pointe aux Mines, near the southeast end of Lake
Superior. Messrs. Lane and Seaman describe a Lower Keweenawan
conglomerate as containing ‘a wide variety of pebbles and large
bowlders, in structure at times suggestive of till,’ from the south
shore of Lake Superior” (1908).
India.—In peninsular India occurs the Kadapah system, which,
according to Vredenburg, is made up of several series separated from
one another by unconformities. The Lower Kadapah is of Protero-
zoic age and the Upper Kadapah is certainly older than the Siluric
and probably even than the Cambric. In the Upper Kadapah occur
“remarkable conglomerates or rather bowlder beds consisting of peb-
bles of various sizes, some of them very large, scattered through a
fine-grained slaty or shaly matrix. * * * These peculiar bowlder
beds are regarded as glacial in origin”’ (1907).
286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
In Simla occurs the Blaini formation, also with bowlder beds, the
age of which, according to Holland is certainly older than the Permic
and possibly of late Proterozoic time. It is ‘‘a conglomeratic slate
composed of rounded pebbles of quartz, ranging up to the size of a
hen’s egg, or in other cases angular and subangular fragments of slate
and quartzite, of all sizes up to some feet across, which are scattered
at intervals through a fine-grained matrix.’”’ Holland regards these
beds as ‘‘almost certainly of glacial origin.” They may eventually
be shown to be of late Proterozoic age.
Africa.—In Proterozoic strata, far beneath the Table Mountain
series, of probably late Siluric or early Devonic age, is the Griquatown
or Pretoria series (29° 8. lat.), in which glacial materials have been
found. At present no definite age in the Proterozoic era can be
assigned this formation, nor can it be said that the glacial horizon is
either that of the Lower Huronian or of the latest Proterozoic time.
China.—In the Provinces of the middle Yangtse River of China
(110° E. long. and 31° N. lat.) Willis and Blackwelder (1907) found
resting unconformably upon very ancient granite and gneiss a series
of quartzites followed by at least 120 feet of an unmistakable glacial
tillite (in places nearly 500 feet thick), green in color, which is in turn
overlain by unfossiliferous limestones over 4,000 feet thick. This lime-
stone Willis correlates with the fossiliferous Middle Cambric occur-
ring 100 miles away, and the tillite beneath it is thought to have
formed ‘‘close to sea level.’”’ The age of these tillites is conceded to
be at least as old as the Lower Cambric, but when we note that the
tillite changes quickly into the overlying limestone within a few feet
of thickness, indicating a probable break in sedimentation between
the two series of deposits, and the further fact that the overlying
limestones have yielded no fossils, we see that these glacial deposits
are as yet unplaced in the geologic column. Prof. Iddings restudied
these tillites in 1909, and he likewise could find no fossils in the lime-
stone. For the present the tillites are referred to the Proterozoic.
What their distribution has been in China is as yet unknown.
Scotland.—In the northwest of Scotland are seen some of the oldest
rocks known to the geologists of Europe. The basement formations
make up the Lewisian series, comparable to the Laurentian of Ameri-
can geologists. Upon these old gneisses and schists, mainly of igneous
origin, reposes unconformably a great pile of dull red sandstones,
shales, and conglomerates, referred to as the Torridonian, that Peach
states were laid down ‘‘under desert or continental conditions” (1912).
These attain a thickness of at least 8,000 to 14,000 feet, and are in
turn overlain unconformably by Lower Cambric strata having the
trilobite Olenellus and related genera. The Torridonian was laid
down in part upon a mountainous topography of Lewisian domes
strikingly suggestive of glacial erosion.
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 287
In western Sutherland and Ross, Giekie states that the observant
traveler must be struck by the ‘‘extraordinary contour presented by
the gneiss. A very slight examination shows that every dome and
boss of rock is ice worn. The smoothed, polished, and striated sur-
face left by the ice of the glacial period is everywhere to be recognized.
Each hummock of gneiss is a more or less perfect roche moutonnée.
Perched blocks are strewn over the ground by thousands. Jn short,
there can hardly be anywhere else in Britain a more thoroughly typical
piece of glaciation” (1880).
Over this eroded and smoothed ground was formed a coarse reddish
breccia with many of the stones decidedly angular and ‘‘sometimes
stuck on end in the mass.” Some blocks are ‘‘fully 5 feet long” but
none were found to be scratched or striated. The breccia ‘‘is quite
comparable to moraine stuff.’””’ The material came from a land that
lay to the northwest and that has since sunk into the Atlantic.
EARLIEST PROTEROZOIC GLACIATION.
Canada.—The oldest known tillite was recently described by Prof.
Coleman. (See fig. 3.) It occurs at the base of the Lower Huronian
in the so-called ‘‘slate conglomerate,” and therefore near the base of
the geologic columm accessible to geologists. These conglomerates
are found ‘‘from point to point across all northern Ontario, a distance
of nearly 800 miles [now placed at 1,000 miles] and from the north
shore of Lake Huron in latitude 46° to Lake Nipigon in latitude 50°
[now placed at 750 miles].” ‘‘The appearance of these so-called
slate or graywacke conglomerates is closely like that of the Dwyka
bowlder clays of Africa” (1907). They rest on various formations
older than the Huronian, an ‘‘undulating surface of low hills and
valleys, the conglomerate often more or less filling in these valleys.”
A scratched or polished underground has been found in three places,
but as a rule such are not seen because of the unfavorable conditions
for their display. The evidence of the tillites is in favor of the view
that glaciation in Huronian Canada was not ‘‘the work of merely
local mountain glaciers,” but rather due to ‘‘the presence of ice
sheets comparable to those which formed the Dwyka. * * *
This implies that the climates of the earlier parts of the world’s history
were no warmer than those of later times, and that in Lower Huronian
times the earth’s interior heat was not sufficient to prevent the for-
mation of a great ice sheet in latitude 46°.”
CLIMATIC EVIDENCE OF THE SEDIMENTS.
During the past 10 years it has become evident that the color of
the delta deposits of geologic time, and especially that of continental
deposits, is to be connected largely with differences in climate.
288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
This evidence, however, is as yet difficult of interpretation, because
the climatic factors are not easily separated from those due to topo-
graphic form. All that can be done now is to call attention to the
marked changes in sedimentation from the gray, green, blue, and
black colors to the red beds which are so often also associated with
coarser materials. Barrell states:
The changes from the red beds of the Catskill formation, several thousand feet in
thickness, to the gray Pocono sandstones with a maximum thickness of 1,200 to 1,300
feet, then to the sharply contrasted red shales and sandstones of the Mauch Chunk,
3,000 feet in maximum thickness, and back to the massive white conglomerates of
the Pottsville conglomerate, 1,200 feet in maximum thickness, followed by the coal
measures, are all the result of increasingly wide swings of the climatic pendulum
which carried the world from Upper Devonian warmth and semiaridity to Upper
Carboniferous coolness, humidity, and glaciation (1908).
In regard to the significance of gray to black formations Barrell
states:
Where a whole formation, representing an ancient flood plain or delta, shows in its
unweathered portions an absence throughout of the colors due to iron oxide, anda
variable presence of carbon, giving grays to black, the inference is that the formation
accumulated under a continuously rainy climate or one which in the drier season
was sufficiently cool or cold to prevent noteworthy evaporation; such climates as
exist in Ireland, Iceland, or western Alaska.
On the other hand, the red colors in stratified rocks are in general
due to arid and warm conditions.
Turning to the climatic significance of red, it would therefore appear both from
theoretical considerations and geological observations that the chief condition for the
formation of red shales and sandstones is merely the alternation of seasons of warmth
and dryness with seasons of flood, by means of which hydration, but especially oxida-
tion of the ferruginous material in the flood-plain deposits is accomplished. * * *
The annual wetting, drying, and oxidation not only decompose the original iron
minerals, but completely remove all traces of carbon. If this conclusion be correct,
red shales or sandstones, as distinct from red mud and sand, may originate under
intermittently rainy, subarid, or arid climates without any close relation to tempera-
ture and typically as fluvial and pluvial deposits upon the land, though to a limited
extent as fluviatile sediments coming to rest upon the bottom of the shallow sea. The
origin of such sediment is most favored by climates which are hot and alternately
wet and dry as opposed to climates which are either constantly cool or constantly wet .
or constantly dry.
Red sandstones and sandy shales recur at many horizons in the
American Paleozoic strata and markedly so at the close of the Ordo-
vicic, Siluric, Devonic, Lower and Upper Carbonic, and early Permic.
The eastern Triassic beds, and those of the Rocky Mountains, are
nearly everywhere red throughout, and there is gonsiderable red
color in the Lower Cretacic (Morrison and Kootenay) of the Great
Plains area. Then, too, there are many red beds in the Proterozoic
of America as well as of Europe. Between these zones of brilliant
strata are the far more widely distributed ones of grays and darker
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 289
colors, and these are the deposits of the times when the oceans have
most widely transgressed the lands, and therefore the times of greater
humidity. The maximum of continental extension falls in with
red deposits and more or less arid climates. (See curve for aridity
in fig. 4, p. 305.)
VOLCANIC DUST AS A CLIMATIC FACTOR.
Two interesting papers on the subject of volcanic dust as a
climatic factor have recently appeared. These articles, which are
by W. J. Humphreys,! should be read by every student of paleo-
meteorology. The following are the conclusions reached:
[Volcanic dust in the upper atmosphere has been one of] several contributing causes
of climatic change, * * * a cause that during historic times has often been fit-
fully operative, and concerning which we have much definite information. * * *
At an elevation that in middle latitudes averages about 11 kilometers the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere becomes substantially constant, or, in general, ceases appre-
ciably to decrease with increase of elevation, this is, therefore, the upper limit of
distinct vertical convection and of cloud formation. Hence, while volcanic or other
dust in the lower or cloud region of the atmosphere is quickly washed out by snow
or rain, that which by any process happens to get into the upper or isothermal region
must continue to drift there until gravity can bring it down to the level of passing
storms. In other words, while the lower atmosphere is quickly cleared of any given
supply of dust, the isothermal region retains such dust as it may have for a time that
depends upon the size and density of the individual dust particles themselves, or
upon the rate of fall. * * * Volcanic dust once in the upper atmosphere must
remain in it for many months and be drifted out, from whatever origin, into a thin
veil covering perhaps the entire earth. * * * A veil of volcanic dust must pro-
duce an inverse greenhouse effect, and if long continued, should perceptibly lower
our average temperature. Let us see then what observational evidence we have on
the effect of volcanic dust on insolation intensity and average temperatures.
. Pyrheliometric records [show] that there was a marked decrease in the insolation
intensity from the latter part of 1883 (the year this kind of observation was begun) to
and including 1886, from 1888 to 1892, and during 1903. There has also been a similar
decrease since about the middle of 1912. Now all these decreases of insolation inten-
sity, amounting at times to 20 per cent of the average intensity, followed violent vol-
canic eruptions that filled the isothermal region with a great quantity of dust. * * *
It appears quite certain that volcanic dust can lower the average temperature of
the earth by an amount that depends upon the quantity and duration of the dust,
and that it repeatedly has lowered it certainly from 1° F. to 2° F. for periods of from
a few months to fully three years. Hence it certainly has been a factor, in determin-
ing our past climates, and presumably may often be a factor in the production of our
future climates. Nor does it require any great volume of dust to produce a marked
effect. Thus it can be shown bya simple calculation that less than the one-thousandth
part of a cubic mile of rock spread uniformly through the upper atmosphere as vol-
canic dust would everywhere decrease the average intensity of insolation received
at the surface of the earth by at least 20 per cent and therefore would, presumably, if
long continued, decrease our average temperatures by several degrees. * * * This
1A summary paper appeared first, entitled ‘‘ Volcanic dust as a factor in the production of climatic
changes,” Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 3, 1913: 365-371. The complete article is “ Volcanic dust and
other factors in the production of climatic changes, and their possible relation to ice ages,” Bull. Mt.
Weather Obseryv., Washington, 6, Pt. I, 1913, 1-34.
73176°—sm 191419
290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
effect has been clearly traced back to 1750, or to the time of the earliest reliable
records. Hence itis safe to say that such a relation between volcanic dust in the upper
atmosphere and average temperatures of the lower atmosphere has always obtained
and therefore that volcanic dust must have been a factor, possibly a very important
one, in the production of many, perhaps all, past climatic changes.
The intensity of the solar radiation at the surface of the earth depends upon not
only the dustiness of the earth’s atmosphere but also upon the dustiness, and of course
the temperature, of the solar atmosphere. Obviously dust in the sun’s envelope
must more or less shut in solar radiation just as and in the same manner that dust in
the earth’s envelope shuts it out. Hence it follows that when this dust is greatest,
other things being equal, the output of solar energy will be least, and that when the
dust is least, other things being equal, the output of energy will be greatest. Not
only may the intensity of the emitted radiation vary because of changes in the trans-
parency of the solar atmosphere but also because of any variations in the temperature
of the effective solar surface which, it would seem, might well be hottest when most
agitated, or at the times of spot maxima, and coolest when most quiescent, or at the
times of spot minima.
BIOLOGIC EVIDENCE.
In the previous pages there has been presented the evidence for
cold climates during geologic times as furnished by the presence of
the various tillites. This presentation has also been made from the
standpoint of discovery of the tillites, which in general is in harmony
with geologic chronology, i. e., the youngest tillites were the first to
be observed, while the most ancient one has been discovered recently.
Variability of climate is also to be observed in the succession of
plants and animals as recorded in the fossils of the sedimentary rocks.
In this study we are guided by the distribution of living organisms
and the postulate that temperature conditions have always operated
very much as they do now upon the living things of the land and
waters. In presenting this biologic evidence we shall, however,
begin at the beginning of geologic time and trace it to modern days,
for the reason that life has constantly varied and evolved from the
more simple to the more complex organisms.
Proterozoic._—The first era known to us with sedimentary forma-
tions that are not greatly altered is the Proterozoic, a time of enor-
mous duration, so long indeed that some geologists do not hesitate
to say that it endured as long as all subsequent time. These rocks
are best known and occur most extensively over the southern half
of the great area of 2,000,000 square miles covered by the Canadian
shield. There were at least four cycles of rock making, each one of
which, in the area just north of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence
River, was separated from the next by a period of mountain making.
These mountains were domed or batholithic masses of vertical uplift
due to vast bodies of deep-seated granitic magmas rising beneath
and into the sediments. Ih the Grenville area of Canada, Adams
and Barlow (1910) tell us that the total thickness of the pre-
Proterozoic rocks alone is 94,406 feet, or nearly 18 miles. Of this
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 291
vast mass more than half (50,286 feet) is either pure limestone,
magnesian limestone, or dolomite, and single beds are known with
a thickness of 1,500 feet. Certainly so much limestone represents
not only a vast duration of time but also warm waters teeming with
life, almost nothing of which is as yet known. There is further evi-
dence of life in the widely distributed graphites, carbon derived from
plants and animals, which make up from 3 to 10 per cent by weight
of the rocks of the Adirondacks. (Bastin, 1910.) The graphite
occurs in beds up to 13 feet thick, and at Olonetz, Finland, there is an
anthracite bed 7 feet thick.
It is also becoming plain that there was in the Proterozoic a very
great amount of fresh-water and subaerial deposits, the so-called
continental deposits, some of which indicate arid climates. Because
of the apparent dominance of continental deposits and the great
scarcity of organic remains throughout the Proterozoic, Walcott has
called this time the Lipalian era (1910).
We have seen that the Proterozoic began, with a glacial period, as
evidenced by the tillites of Canada, but that this frigid condition
did not last long is attested by the younger Lower Huronian lime-
stones of Steeprock Lake, Ontario, having a thickness of from 500
to 700 feet and replete with Atikokania, sponges up to 15 inches in
diameter, and forming reef limestones several feet thick, found there
by Lawson and described by Walcott (1912). This discovery is of
the greatest value, and opens out a new field for paleontologic
endeavor in Proterozoic strata and for philosophic speculation as
to the time and conditions when life originated.
We have also seen that the Proterozoic closed with a frigid climate,
as is attested by the tillites of Australia, Tasmania, and possibly
China, while the other glacial deposits of India, Africa, Norway, and
Keweenaw certainly do in part indicate another and older period of
cool to cold world climates.
Cambric—Due to the researches of many paleontologists, but
mainly to those of Charles D. Walcott, we now know that the shallow-
water seas of Lower Cambric time abounded im a varied animal life
that was fairly uniform the world over in its faunal development.
It was essentially a world of meduszx, annelids, trilobites, and brach-
iopods, animals either devoid of skeletons or having thin and nitrog-
enous external skeletons with a limited amount of lime salts. The
“lime habit”? came in dominantly much later; in fact, not before the
Upper Cambric. However, that the seas in Lower Cambric time
had an abundance of usable lime salts in solution is attested by the
presence of many Hyolithes, small gastropods and brachiopods, and
more especially by the great number of Archzocyathine, most
primitive corals, which made reefs and limestones 200 feet thick
and of wide distribution in Australia, Antarctica, California (thick
292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
limestones near the base of the Waucoba section), southern Labra-
dor (reefs 50 feet thick), and to a smaller extent in Nevada, New
York, Spain, Sardinia, northern Scotland, and arctic Siberia.
With an abundance of limestone and reef-making animals of world-
wide distribution in the Lower Cambric, we must conclude that the
climate at the time was at least warm and fairly uniform in tempera-
ture the world over. We therefore see the force of a statement made
to the writer by Walcott some years ago in a letter that ‘‘the
Lower Cambrian fauna and sediments were those of a relatively
mild climate uninfluenced by any considerable extent of glacial con-
ditions,” and also that ‘‘the glacial climate of late Proterozoic time
had vanished before the appearance of earliest Cambrian time.”
Toward the close of Lower Cambric time there was considerable
mountain making, without apparent volcanic activity, going on all
along eastern North America and to a lesser extent in western Europe.
These uplifts seemingly had much effect upon the marine life, for
the Middle Cambric faunas became more and more provincial in
character in comparison with the earlier, more cosmopolitan faunas
of Lower Cambric time.
The Archeocyathine now vanished, and their extinction is sug-
gestive of cooler waters; there was, however, a greater variety of
invertebrate forms, more lime-secreting invertebrates, and far more
widespread limestone deposition in Middle Cambric time. In the
Upper Cambric the brachiopods, gastropods, cephalopods, and bivalve
crustaceans were abundantly represented by thick-shelled forms,
and in most places throughout North America there was marked
deposition of limestones, magnesian limestones, and dolomites, all
of which is suggestive of warmer waters.
Ordovicic and Siluric—The Ordovicic seas from Texas far into the
arctic regions were dominated by limestone deposits and a great pro-
fusion of marine life that was also more highly varied than that
of any earlier time. The same species of graptolites, brachiopods,
bryozoans, trilobites, and other invertebrate classes had a very wide
distribution, all of which is evidence that at that time the earth had
mild and uniform climates. In the Middle Ordovicic and again
late in that period reef corals were common from Alaska to Oklahoma
and Texas. |
Toward the close of the Ordovicic mountain making was again in
progress throughout eastern North America without significant vol-
canic activity, but in western Europe, where the movements were less
marked, volcanoes were more plentiful. The seas were then almost
completely withdrawn from the continents, and yet when the Siluric
waters again transgressed the lands we find not only the same great
profusion and variety of life as before, but as widely extended lime-
stone deposition. The evidence is again that of mild and uniform
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 293
climates. We can therefore say that the temperatures of air and
water had been mild to warm throughout the world since the begin-
ning of Cambric time, that there was a marked increase of warmth
in the Upper Cambric, and that these conditions were maintained
throughout the Ordovicic and the earlier half of the Siluric, since
shallow-water corals, reef limestones, and very thick dolomites of
Siluric time are as common, in arctic America as in the lower latitudes
of the United States or Europe.
The Siluric closed with an epoch of sea withdrawal and North
America was again arid, for now red shales, gypsum, thick beds of
salt, and great flats of sun-cracked water limestone were the dominant
deposits of the vanishing seas. The marine faunas were as a rule
secant and the individuals generally under the average size. In
North America no marked mountain making was in progress, but
all along western Europe, from Ireland and Scotland across Norway
into far Spitzbergen, the Caledonian Mountains were rising. In
eastern and northern Maine throughout Middle and Upper Siluric
time there were active volcanoes of the explosive type, for here
occur vast deposits of ash.
Devonic.—In the succeeding Lower Devonic time the Caledonian
intermontane valleys of Scotland and north to at least southern
Norway were filling with the Old Red sandstone deposits of a more
or less arid climate. On the other hand, the invading seas of northern
Europe were small indeed, and their deposits essentially sandstones
or sandy shales, but in southern Europe and North America, where
the invasions were also small and restricted to the margin of the
continent, the deposits were either limestones or calcareous shales.
The life of these waters was quite different from that of the earlier
and Middle Siluric, and entire stocks had been blotted out in later
Siluric time, as is seen best among the graptolites, crinids, brachio-
pods, and trilobites, while new ones appeared, as the goniatites,
dipnoans or lung fishes, sharks, and the terrible armored marine
lung fishes, the arthrodires.
From this evidence we may conclude that the early Paleozoic mild
climates were considerably reduced in temperature toward the close
of the Siluric and that even local glaciation may have been present.
Refrigeration may have been greatest in the Southern Hemisphere,
where the marine formations of Devonic time are coarse in character
and, in Africa, of very limited extent. Corals were scarce or absent
here, and in South Africa the glacial deposits of the Table Mountain
series may be of late Siluric age; if so, they harmonize with the Cale-
donian period of mountain making in the Northern Hemisphere.
Warmer conditions again prevailed in the latter hemisphere early in
Middle Devonic times, for coral reefs, limestones, and a highly varied
marine life with pteropod accumulations were of wide distribution.
294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
On Bear Island workable coal beds were laid down in late Devonic
time.
Throughout the Devonic, but more especially in the Lower and
Middle Devonic, the entire area of the New England States and the
maritime provinces of Canada was in the throes of mountain making,
combined with a great deal of volcanic activity. At the same time,
many volcanoes were active throughout western Europe.
Carbonic.—The world-wide warm-water condition of the late
Devonic seas of the Northern Hemisphere was continued into those
of the Lower Carbonic. These latter seas were also replete with a
varied marine life, among which the corals, crinids, blastids, echinids,
bryozoans, brachiopods, and primitive sharks played the important
roles. Limestones were abundant and with the corals extended from
the United States into arctic Alaska. Reefs of Syringopora are
reported in northern Finland at 67° 55’ N., 46° 30’ E., on Kanin
Peninsula (Ramsay). ven several superposed coal beds, and up to
4 feet in thickness of pure coal, of early Lower Carbonic age, occur
at Cape Lisburne, overlain by Lower Carbonic limestones with corals.
It is generally held that the world climate at this time was uniformly
mild and the many hundred kinds of primitive sharks lead to the
same conclusion. ‘There were in the American Devonic 39 species of
these sharks, in the Lower Carbonic not less than 288, in the Coal
Measures 55, and in the earliest Permic only 10.. They had no
enemies other than their own kind to fear, and as the same rise and
decline occurred also in Europe, we must ask ourselves what was the
cause for this rapid dying out of the ancient sharks during and shortly
after early Coal Measures time. With the sharks also vanished most
of the crinids, but otherwise there was an abundance and variety of
marine life (wide distribution of large foraminifers) with much
limestone formation. The vanishing of the sharks does not appear
therefore to have been due solely to a reduction of temperature, but
may have been further helped by the oscillatory condition and retreat
of the late Lower Carbonic seas.
Toward the close of the Lower Carbonic, or after the Culm and its
coals of western Europe had been laid down, mountain movements on
a great scale began to take place in central Europe, and then were born
the Paleozoic Alps of that continent. These mountains, Kayser tells
us, Were in constant motion but with decreasing intensity throughout
the Upper Carbonic, culminating in “a mighty chain of folded moun-
tains.” Toward the close of the Upper Carbonic began the rise of
the Urals, which was finished in late Permic time when the Paleozoic
Alps of Europe were again in motion. These movements are also
traceable in Armenia and others are known in central and eastern
Asia. Likewise, in America, the southern Appalachians were in
movement at the close of the Lower Carbonic, but the greatest of all
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. © 295
of the Upper Carbonic thrustings began to take place at the close of
the period and culminated apparently in the earlier half of Permic
time, when the entire Appalachian system from Newfoundland to
Alabama, and the Ouachita Mountains, extending through Arkansas
and Oklahoma, arose as majestic ranges anywhere from 3 to 4 miles
high.
These mountain-making movements of long duration at first caused
the oceans to oscillate frequently back and forth over parts of the
continents, and great brackish-water marshes were developed, pro-
ducing the greatest marsh floras and the greatest accumulations of
good coals that the world has had. The paleobotanists White and
Knowlton tell us that the climate of Upper Carbonic time was rela-
tively uniform and mild, even subtropical in places, accompanied by
high humidity extending to or into the polar circles. Plant asso-
ciations were then “able to pass from one high latitude to the opposite
without meeting an efficient climatic obstruction in the equatorial
region’’ (1910).
The marine faunas of Upper Carbonic time were fairly uniform in
development, and many species had a wide distribution, although the
biotas were still somewhat provincial in character. Limestones or
calcareous shales predominated. The large Protozoa of the family
Fusulinide occurred throughout the Northern Hemisphere and less
widely in South America. They were also very common in Spitz-
bergen. Staff and Wedekind (1910) state that the Fusulinide occur
here in a black asphaltic calcareous rock, i. e., a sapropel like those
now forming-in marine tropical regions, according to Potonié. The
water, they state, was shallow, highly charged with calcium carbonate
and of a tropical character, or at the very least not cooler than that
of the present Mediterranean. The very large insects of the Coal
Measures tell the same climatic story, for Handlirsch (1908) says that
the cockroaches of that time were as long as a finger and the libellids
as long as an arm. They were “brutal robbers’? and scavengers
living in a tropical and subtropical climate, or at the very least in a
mild climate devoid of frosts. We therefore conclude that after
Middle Devonic time the climate of the world was as a rule uniformly
warm and more or less humid and that it remained so to the close of
Upper Carbonic time. ;
During the time of these mild and humid climates vast accumula-
tions of carbon extracted by the plants out of the atmosphere were
being stored up in brackish and fresh water swamps, and even greater
quantities of this element were being locked up in the limestones and
calcareous shales in the seas and oceans. According to the physico-
chemist Arrhenius and many geologists and paleontologists, so much
loss of carbon dioxide and its associated water vapor from the air
must have thinned the latter greatly and thus largely reduced the
296 ~ ‘ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
atmospheric blanket and retainer of the sun’s heat rays. Therefore
they hold that these factors alone were sufficient to have brought on a
glacial climate. It may be that this theory will not stand the test of
time, but even so we have learned that in Carbonic times there were
earth movements on so grand a scale as to be but slightly inferior to
those of the late Tertiary that were followed by the Pleistocene
glacial climate.
Permic.—Very early in Permic time the mild climate of the past
was greatly changed; the evidence is now overwhelming that through-
out the Southern Hemisphere there was a glacial period seemingly
of even greater extent than that of the Northern Hemisphere during
the Pleistocene. This evidence is most easily seen in the wide dis-
tribution of the tillites and the scratched and polished grounds over
which the land ice moved in Africa, Australia, Tasmania, India, and
South America. In the Northern Hemisphere the evidence of ice
work is far less marked; but tillites occur near Boston, Massachusetts,
and in the Urals, and there is much evidence of thin and arid climates,
seen in the widely distributed red formations. Then, too, the land
life of this time clearly indicates that a great climatic change had
taken place in the environment of the organic world.
The grand cosmopolitan swamp floras of the Upper Carbonic, con-
sisting in the main of spore-bearing plants, such as the rushes (Kqui-
setales), the running pines, and clubmosses (Lycopodiales), and the
ferns, among which were also many broad-leaved evergreens (Cor-
-daitales) and seed-bearing ferns (Cycadofilicales), were very largely
exterminated in the Southern Hemisphere at the beginning of Permic
time. In the Northern Hemisphere, however, the older flora main-
tained itself for a while longer, as best seen in North America, but
finally the full effects of the cooled and glacial climates were felt
everywhere. Then in later Permic time the old floras completely
vanished, except the hardier pecopterids, cycads, and conifers of the
Northern Hemisphere, and with these latter mingled the migrants
from the hardy Gangamopteris flora originating in the glacial climate
of the Southern Hemisphere. (White, 1907.) Some of the trees
show distinct annual growth rings, and hence the presence of winters.
It was these woody floras that gave rise to the cosmopolitan floras
of early Mesozoic time.
With the vanishing of the cosmopolitan coal floras also went nearly
all of the Paleozoic insect world of large size and direct development,
for the insects of late Permic time were small and prophetic of modern
forms. Then, too, they all passed through a metamorphic stage
indicating, according to Handlirsch, that the insects of earlier Permic
time had learned how to hibernate through the winters in the newly
originated larval conditions.
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 297
Our knowledge of the land vertebrates of late Paleozoic time is
increasing rapidly, and it is becoming plainer that great changes were
also in progress here. The vertebrates of the Coal Measures, either
the armored amphibians (Stegocephalia) or the primitive reptiles,
were still largely addicted to the ‘‘water habit” and lived in fresh
waters or swamps, but this was much changed by the arid climates
and vanishing swamps of later Permic times, and in the Triassic we
meet with the first truly terrestrial reptilian faunas.
A climatic change naturally must affect the land life more quickly
and profoundly than that of the marine waters, for the oceanic areas
have stored in themselves a vast amount of warmth that is carried
everywhere by the currents. The temperature of the ocean is more
or less altered by the changes of climate, be they of latitude or of
glaciation. The surface temperatures in the temperate and tropical
regions, however, are the last to be affected, and only change when
all of the oceanic deeps have been filled with the smking cold waters
brought there by the currents flowing from the glaciated area. We
therefore find that the marine life of earlier Permic time was very
much like that of the Coal Measures, and that it was not profoundly
altered even in the temperate zones of Middle Permic time (Zechstein
and Salt Range faunas). Our knowledge of Upper Permic marine
life is as yet very limited and will probably always remain so because
of the world-wide subtraction of the seas from the lands at that time.
It was a period of continued arid climates, and the marginal shallow
sea pans were, as a rule, depositing red formations with gypsum, and
locally, as in northern Germany, alternations of salt with anhydrite
or polyhalite in thicknesses up to 3,395 feet. In certain of these
zones there were developed annual rings so regular in sequence
as to lead to the inference that they were the depositions of
warm summers and cold winters, enduring for at least 5,653 years.
(Gérgey, 1911.)
Triassic.—When we examine into the Triassic faunas we meet at
once with a wholly new marine assemblage. The late Paleozoic
world of fusulinids, tetracorals, crinids, brachiopods, nautilids, and
trilobites had either vanished or was represented by a few small and
rare forms. On the other side, in the Triassic, their places were
taken by a rising marine world of small invertebrates, now hexacorals,
regular echinids, modern bivalves (among them the oysters), siphonate
gastropods, and more especially by a host of ammonites and a
prophecy of the coming of squids and marine reptiles. Truly, there
is no greater change recorded in all historical geology. |
Plants are scarce in the rocks of Triassic time until near its close
in the Rhetic, when we can again truly speak of Triassic floras.
These are known from many parts of the world, and according to
Knowlton there is nothing in the floras to suggest a “depauperate
298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
and pinched” condition, as has often been said. “In North Carolina,
Virginia, and Arizona there are trunks of trees preserved some of
which are 8 feet in diameter and at least 120 feet long, while hun-
dreds are from 2 to 4 feet in diameter. Many of the ferns (some
are tree ferns) are of large size, indicating luxuriant growth, while
Equisetum stems 4 to 5 inches in diameter are only approached by
a single living South American species. * * * The complete or
nearly complete absence of rings in the tree trunks indicates that
there were no, or but slight, seasonal changes due to alternations of
hot and cold or wet and dry periods.’ On the whole, the climate
was ‘‘warm, probably at least subtropical” (1910).
Of insects, too few species (27) are known to be of value for
climatic deductions. On the other hand, the reptilian life of the
Triassic in America, Africa, and Europe was highly varied, and with
the dinosaurs dominant and often of large size again gives evidence
that appears to be indicative of uniform and mild climate.
The marine Triassic deposits consisted largely of thick limestones,
and such are well developed in arctic America and arctic Siberia.
One of the oldest faunas, known as the Meekoceras fauna, has a very
ereat distribution from Spitzbergen to India and Madagascar, and
from Siberia at Vladivostok to California and Idaho. In general,
however, the Triassic assemblages were more provincial, and it was
not until middle and late Triassic time that the faunas again had
wide distribution. Limestones with thick coral reefs, of the same
age, appear in the Alps (up to 1,000 meters thick), India, California,
Nevada, Oregon, and arctic Alaska. Smith, from whom most of
these facts were taken, states that this shows there was during the
Triassic ‘“‘nearly uniform distribution of warm water over a great
part of the globe” (1912).
We may therefore conclude that the rigid climate of the Permic
had vanished even before the earliest of Triassic times, and that the
climate of the latter period until near its close was again mild and
fairly uniform though semiarid or even arid the world over.
Late Triassic-Lias.—Throughout much of late Triassic time there
was renewed crustal instability, for we have the evidence of volean-
ism on a great scale all along the Pacific from central California into
far Alaska, in eastern North America from Nova Scotia to Virginia,
in Mexico, South America (in southern Brazil 600 meters thick), and
New Zealand. The volcanoes of western North America were prob-
ably insular in position, for their lavas and ash beds are found inter-
bedded with marine sediments. Just how important this movement
was and what effect it had upon the climate is not yet clear, but
there is important organic evidence leading to the belief that the
temperature was considerably reduced during latest Triassic and
earliest Jurassic time.
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—-SCHUCHERT. 299
Pompeckj, Buckman, and Smith state that late Triassic time was
a particularly critical one for the ammonites. Of the far more than
1,000 known species of Triassic ammonites, not one passed over into
the Jurassic, and but a single family survived this time, the Phyl-
loceratidee. Pompeckj says that “out of Phylloceras has developed
the abundance of Jurassic-Cretaceous ammonites”? (1910), while
Buckman holds it was out of Nannites by way of the Liassic Cymbites
that the later fullness of ammonite development came.
In the Liassic there are now known 415 species of insects that
remind one much of modern forms. Nearly all were dwarf species,
smaller than similar living insects of the same latitude and far
smaller than Paleozoic or Upper Jurassic insects. Handlirsch (1910)
is positive that this uniform dwarfing of the Liassic insects was due
to a general reduction of the climate and that the temperature was
then cool and like that of present northern Europe between latitudes
46° and 55°. The climate, he states, was certainly cooler than either
that of the Middle Triassic or Upper Jurassic.
In this connection we must not overlook the fact that the known
_ Liassic insects are of wide distribution, for 172 species are known
from England, 164 from Mecklenburg, northern Germany, 75 from
Switzerland, and 2 from upper Austria. With this depauperating of
the insects and the vanishing of the late Triassic ammonites, there is
also. to be noted a marked quantitative reduction and geographic
restriction among the reef corals of Liassic time. We therefore are
seemingly warranted in concluding that the cooling of the climate in
late Triassic and early Jurassic time was not local in character, but
was rather of a general nature. Much workable coal was also laid
down in Liassic time, not only in Hungary but also im many places east-
ward into China and Japan. In addition, the many black shales of
this time furnished further evidence of cool and nontropical climates;
coal and black shales are so general in occurrence throughout the
Liassie rocks that the time is often referred to as the Black Jura.
Finally, certain Liassic conglomerates of Scotland have been thought
by some to be of glacial origin. (J. Geikie.)
Jurassic.—The Jurassic formations of Europe are so rich in fossils
that they have been the classic ground on which many paleontologists
and stratigraphers were reared. From the studies of these faunas
came the first clear ideas of climatic zones and world paleogeographic
maps through the work of the great Neumayr of Vienna. As the result
of a very long study of the ammonites and their geographic distribu-
tion, he came to the conclusion in 1883 that the earth in Jurassic time
had clearly marked equatorial, temperate, and cool polar climates,
agreeing in the main with the present occurrence of the same zones.
He also said that ‘‘the equator and poles could not have very much
altered their present position since Jurassic times.” His conclusions
300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
were, however, assailed by many, and while no one has greatly
altered his geographic belts of ammonite distribution, still the con-
sensus of opimion to-day is that these are representative rather of
faunal realms than of temperature belts. On the other hand, it is
admitted that there were then clearly marked temperature zones;
that is, a very wide medial warm-water area, embracing the present
equatorial and temperate zones, with cooler but not cold water in the
polar areas. That the oceanic waters of Middle and (somewhat less
so) of Upper Jurassic times were warm throughout the greater part
of the world is seen not only in the very great abundance of marine
life—probably not less than 15,000 species are known in the Jurassic —
but also in the far northern distribution of many ammonites, reef
corals, and marine saurians. The Jurassic often abounds in reefs
made by sponges, corals, and bryozoans. Jurassic corals occur 3,000
miles north of their present habitats.
The Jurassic floras were truly cosmopolitan, and Knowlton tells us
that of the North American species, excluding the cycad trunks,
about half are also found in Japan, Manchuria, Siberia, Spitzbergen,
Scandinavia, or England. ‘‘What is even more remarkable, the,
plants found in Louis Philippe Land, 63° S., are practically the
same [both generically and specifically] as those of Yorkshire, Eng-
land. * * * The presence of luxuriant ferns, many of them tree
ferns, equisetums of large size, conifers, the descendants of which
are now found in southern lands, all point to a moist, warm, probably
subtropical climate’’ (1910). The insects of this time were again
large and abundant, indicating a warm climate—evidence in harmony
with the plants.
At the close of the Jurassic the Sierra Nevadas of California and
the Humboldt Ranges of Nevada were elevated; probably also the
Cascade and Klamath Mountains farther north; but this disturbance
seemingly had no marked effect upon the world’s climate, though
there was a considerable retreat of the seas from the continents.
Cretacic.—The emergence of the continents at the close of the
Upper Jurassic gave rise to extensive accumulations of fresh-water
deposits, known in western Europe as the Wealden, and in the Rocky
Mountain area of North America as the Morrison. These are now
regarded as of Lower Cretacic (more accurately Comanchic) age.
Along the Atlantic border of the United States occur other conti-
nental deposits, known as the Potomac formations, in the upper
part of which the modern floras or Angiosperms make their first
appearance. Before the close of the Lower Cretacic this early hard-
wood forest had spread to Alaska and Greenland, where elms, oaks,
maples, and magnolias occurred. Knowlton concludes from this
evidence that the climate “was certainly much milder than at the
present time’? and ‘was at least what we would now call warm
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—-SCHUCHERT. 301
temperate’? (1910). It was therefore a climate somewhat cooler
than that of the Jurassic. On the other hand, the Neocomian series
of King Karl’s Land has silicified wood, the trunks of which, accord-
ing to Nathorst, are at least 80 centimeters in diameter and show 210
annular rings. These rings are far better developed than in stems
of the same age found in Europe, “ which indicates that the trees lived
in a region where the difference between the seasons was extremely
pronounced” (1912).
During Comanchic time, in the temperate and tropical belts, the
world had the greatest of all land animals, the dinosaurs, reptiles
attaining a length in North America of 75 feet or more and in equa-
torial German East Africa of probably more than 100 feet. Their
bones range to 50° North latitude, and the animals must have lived
in a fairly warm and moist climate.
While the Lower Cretacic seas were prolific in life, the most char-
acteristic shellfish of southern Europe, the Mediterranean countries,
and Mexico were the limestone-making rudistids, large ground-living
foraminifers (Orbitolina), and reef corals. In northern Europe and in
the United States from southern Texas to Kansas nothing of these
warm-water faunal elements is known. Itis recognized that the north
European seas had Arctic connections by way of Scandinavia and
Russia, and along the west coast of North America are seen many
other boreal migrants as far south as California and even Mexico.
These waters, however, were not cold. Thesame geographic distribu-
tion prevailed in the Upper Cretacic of Europe. This distribution was
first noted in Texas by Ferdinand Roemer in 1852, and he further
observed that ‘‘in each case the European deposit is approximately
10° farther north than its American analogue,’ and concluded, “that
the differences between the northern and southern facies were due to
climate and that the climatic relations between the two sides of the
Atlantic were about the same in Cretaceous time as they are now.”
(Stanton, 1910.) Even though Roemer’s conclusion as to climatic
zones was founded on erroneous stratigraphic correlations, still his
theory has long been looked upon favorably, but in 1908 Gothan
showed that the fossil woods of the late Upper Cretacic of central Ger-
many have distinct annual rings, while those of Egypt do not have a
trace of them. The late Cretacic woods of Spitzbergen also have
decided growth rings. Berry (1912) states that the climate of Upper
Cretacic time was far more uniform than now and that there was an
increase of warmth southward, Alabama having then a climate that
was subtropical or even tropical. On the other hand, the early Upper
Cretacic or Cenomanian flora of Atane in western Greenland, accord.
ing to Nathorst, “is particularly rich in the leaves of Dicotyledonous
trees, among which are found those of planes, tulip trees, and bread
fruits, the last mentioned closely resembling those of the bread-fruit
tree (Artocarpus incisa) of the islands of the southern seas’’ (1912).
302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
In Middle Cretacic times the oceans began again to spread over the
continents and this transgression of the seas was one of the greatest
of the geologic past. It is interesting to note that even though there
was great opportunity for expansive evolution, but few new marine
stocks appeared here, and it was rather a time of death to many
characteristic stocks. This well-known fact is clearly brought out
by Waither in his interesting book, “Geschichte der Erde und des
Lebens”’ (1908), in chapter 26, entitled ‘Cretaceous time and its great
mortality.’’ Entire stocks of specialized forms vanished, just as did
other stocks at the close of the Paleozoic. In late Cretacic time it
was the ammonites, belemnites, the rudistids that begaa to develop
in great numbers in the Lower Cretacic, and the other thick-shelled
large bivalves (Inoceramus) that perished. In addition, there was
a great reduction among the reef corals, the replacing of the dominant
ganoids by the teleosts or bony fishes, and, finally, the complete dying
out of the various stocks of marine saurians.
On the land, with the further rise of the Angiosperm floras, we see
the vanishing of the reptilian dragons known as pterodactyls, and,
at the very close of the Cretacic, the last of the large and small
dinosaurs and the birds with teeth. ‘‘We thus see the reptiles
displaced from the seas by the fishes; on the land they are restricted
by the rise of the mammals, in the air after a short struggle by the
more finely organized birds—in short, the reptilan dominance
is destroyed with the end of the Mesozoic era, m which entire time
they were the characteristic feature.” (Koken, 1893.)
The Upper Cretacic was therefore a time of great mortality among
animals, ‘‘here sooner, there later; although numerous relict faunas
are preserved for a time and last into the Cenozoic, still there never
was so great a mortality as that taking place toward the close of the
Cretacic.””’ (Walther, 1908.)
During the Upper Cretacic, but more especially toward the close
of the period, mountain making on a vast scale went on, along with
exceptional outpourings of lavas and ashes. These movements,
though of less intensity, were repeated in early Tertiary times,
and while they were equaled only by those of the closing period of the
Paleozic, they were exceeded by the crustal deformation of late
Tertiary time; they form the Laramide revolution of Dana, embracing
the mountains of western North and South America from Cape Horn
to Alaska and the reelevation of the Appalachian and Antillean
Mountains. Throughout the Eocene in the Rocky Mountains there
were many volcanoes throwing out immense quantities of ashes
in which is entombed a remarkable vertebrate fauna. Then in late
Cretacic time in peninsular India occurred the Deccan lava flows,
the most stupendous eruptions known to geologists, covering an area
of 200,000 square miles, in thickness anywhere up to a mile or more.
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 303
Although there were these great crustal movements toward the
close of the Upper Cretacic, nevertheless they seem to have had no
marked effect on the climates of the world, for nowhere has anyone
shown the presence of unmistakable glacial tills of this age.t| Then,
too, the floras of early Tertiary times are said to be of about the same
character as those of the late Cretacic, and they indicate that the
climates were warm with slight latitudimal variation, so slight that
even in Greenland and Spitzbergen the early Tertiary floras were
those of a moist and mild .climate. :
Tertiary.—We have seen that there was no marked climatic change
in the time from the Cretacic to the Eocene, but that there was a
reduction in temperature is admitted by paleobotanists and students
of marine life. Berry states that the Middle Eocene floras of Europe
‘show many tropical characters absent in the earlier Eocene” (1910).
The Oligocene marie faunas were prolific in species, and the largest
of all foraminifers, the nummulites, although still present at this
time, had their widest distribution and largest species in the Middle
Kocene and especially in the Tethyian Sea of the Old World, extending
from 20° South to 20° North latitude. (Stromer, 1909.)
In Miocene time on Spitzbergen (Cape Staratschin) lived the
swamp cypress (Tazxodium distichum miocenum), a leafy sequoia,
pines and firs, besides various hardwood trees, such as poplars,
birches, beeches, oaks, elms, magnolias, limes, and maples. The
swamp cypress, Nathorst says, ‘formed forests, as in the swamps
in the southern portion of the United States. This conclusion is
also confirmed by the occurrence of the remains of rather numerous
insects” (1912). All of the plants mentioned then flourished as
far north as 79° North latitude, and even at nearly 82° in Grinnell
Land. This is evidence that in early Miocene time the climate was at
least warm-temperate in arctic America.
Again, Dall (1895) states that in Middle Miocene time considerable
reduction of the climate appeared, for the Atlantic Chesapeake faunas
were those of temperate waters and they spread southward as far
as the eastern area of the Gulf of Mexico. Similar conditions are
noted by the same conchologist in the northern Pacific Ocean.
The Tertiary was an era of extraordinary crustal movements,
finally resulting in the greatest mountain chains of all geologic time.
These movements began in early Eocene time in the Rocky Mountains
and at the close of this epoch further deformation took place in the
Klamath and Coast Ranges of Oregon and the Santa Cruz Mountains
of California. In Europe the elevations of Tertiary time started
1 At the Princeton meeting of the Geological Society of America, Dec. 29, 1913, Prof. W. W. Atwood
announced the discovery of a tillite about 90 feet thick in the San Juan Mountains of southwestern Colorado.
The age of these glacial deposits is somewhere between late Cretacic and late Eocene. We therefore are now
on the road to finding the physical evidence of a reduced climate during or following the close of the Lara-
mide revolution.
304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
at the close of the Eocene in the Pyrenees, and in the Miocene the
entire ‘‘Alpine system” was in elevation. This unrest spread at
the same time to the Caucasus, Asia, and to the entire Himalayan
region of highest mountams and elevated plateaus, an area 22°
of latitude in width. Itis probable that all of the world’s great moun-
tain chains were more or less reelevated in Miocene and Pliocene
times, resulting in the present abnormally high stand of the continents
when contrasted with the oceanic mean level.
These elevations also-altered the continental connections, for
North and South America were reunited in Miocene times, and west-
ern Europe, Greenland, and America were severed late in the Tertiary
era, the exact time being as yet not clearly established. With these
ereat changes also must have come about marked alterations in the
oceanic currents and, as a consequence, in the distribution of heat
and moisture over vast areas of the northern Atlantic lands. It is
admitted by all paleontologists that the marine waters of late Pliocene
times in the arctic region were cool, and the widespread glacial tills
of the Northern Hemisphere are evidence of a glacial climate of
varying intensity throughout Pleistocene time.
CONCLUSIONS.
Our studies of the paleometeorology of the earth are summed up
in figure 4. We have seen that two marked glacial periods are
clearly established. The one best known was of Pleistocene time
and the other, less well known in detail, of earliest Permic time.
Both were world-wide in their effects, reducing the mean temperatures
sufficiently to allow vast accumulations of snow and ice, not only
at high altitudes, but even more markedly at low levels, with the
glaciers in many places attaining the sea. We also learn that the
continental glaciers of Pleistocene time were dominant in polar regions
while those of Permic time had their greatest spread from 20° to 40°
south of the present equator, and to a far less extent between 20° and
40° in the other hemisphere. There is also some evidence of glaciers
in equatorial Africa in Permic time. We may further state that,
although Pleistocene glaciation was general in the arctic region,
there certainly was none at this pole in early Permic time, because
of the widespread and abundant marine faunas that are not markedly
unlike those of the Upper Carbonic; asfor the South Pole, our knowl-
edge of pre-Pleistocene glaciation is as yet a blank.
A glacial period does not appear to remain constantly cold, but
fluctuates between cold glacial climates and warmer interglacial
times of varying duration. During the Pleistocene there were,
according to the best glaciologists, at least three, if not four, such
warmer intervals. The Permic glacial period also had its warmer
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 305
times, while the interbedded red strata of the Proterozoic tillites
seem to point to the same variability. It is this decided temperature
Polat below) sedboho loll bitihaic | aor bea
Liked ie
ne me santas =
CACCE eet
a
CT
aD aay
Jurassic
rmic¢ || Triassic
Pe’
ic
auea ;
-[Asuuag
Carbon
ISSUW
JIM]
=| =
eE
iP
=
Times of mountain making
ia
Lower
Carbonic
Juric | Devomiec
aquoaag
LS
DUNS
ca
Positive (land) strand line curve
waa ce
eo |e WA EIN
1
Si
ian
Ordovicic
Fig. 4.—Chart of geological climates—Paleometeorology.
Proterozoic
pical temperature
Frigid temperature
Geologic time |
Geologic time
Tro
fluctuation during the glacial periods that is so very difficult to
explain.
In addition to the well-known Pleistocene and Permic glaciation,
_ there is rapidly accumulating a great deal of evidence to the effect
73176°—sM 191420
306. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
that there were at least two and probably three other periods of
widespread glacial climates. All of these were geologically very
ancient, earlier than the Paleozoic; in fact, one was at or near the
close of Proterozoic time, while another was at the very beginning of
that era and almost at the beginning of earth history as known to
geologists.
The oldest of all glacial materials occurs at the base of the Lower
Huronian and is of great extent in Canada. Seemingly of the same
time is the Torridonian glacial testimony of northwest Scotland.
The Proterozoic tillites of China in latitude 31° N. may also be of
this time. If these correlations are correct, then the oldest glacial
evidence indicates that a greatly cooled climate prevailed near the
very beginning of the known geologic record and that it was dominant
in the Northern Hemisphere.
Toward or at the close of the Proterozoic there is other evidence
of a glacial climate in Australia, Tasmania, and Norway. These
occurrences of tillites lie immediately beneath Lower Cambric
fossiliferous marine strata and probably are of pre-Cambric age.
In India there is also evidence of late Proterozoic tillites in two
widely separated places, and it may be that the inadequately studied
Keweenawan testimony of the Lake Superior region is of this time.
If so, these occurrences record a distribution of glacial materials very
similar to that of Permic time. Again, the Proterozoic tillites of
Africa are clearly of another age, so that there is evidence of at least
three periods of glaciation previous to the Paleozoic.
The physical evidence of former glacial climates is even yet not
exhausted, for the Table Mountain tillites of South Africa point to a
cold climate that apparently occurred, at least locally, late in Siluric
time. Finally, ghere may have been a seventh cool period in early
Jurassic time (Lias), but the biologic evidence so far at hand indicates
that it was the least significant among the seven probable cool to
cold climates so far discovered in the geologic record.
The data at hand show that the earth since the beginning of
geologic history has periodically undergone more or less widespread
glaciation and that the cold climates have been of short geologic
duration. So far as known, there were seven periods of decided tem-
perature changes, and of these at least four were glacial climates.
The greatest intensity of these reduced temperatures varied between
the hemispheres, for in earliest Proterozoic and Pleistocene time it lay
in the northern, while in late Proterozoic and Permic time it was
more equatorial than boreal. The three other probable periods
of cooled climates are as yet too little known to make out their
centers of greatest intensity.
Of the four more or less well-determined glacial periods, at least
three (the earliest Proterozoic, Permic, and Pleistocene) occurred
during or directly after times of intensive mountain making, while
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 307
the fourth (late Proterozoic) apparently also followed a period of
elevation. The Table Mountain tillites of South Africa, if correctly
correlated, fall in with the time of the making of the great Caledonian
Mountains in the Northern Hemisphere. On the other hand, the
very marked and world-wide mountain-making period, with decided
volcanic activity, during late Mesozoic and earliest Eocene times,
was not accompanied by a glacial climate, but only by a cooled one.
The cooled period of the Liassic also followed a mountain-making
period, that of late Triassic time. We'may therefore state that
cooled and cold climates, as a rule, occur during or immediately
follow periods of marked mountain making—a conclusion. also
arrived at independently by Ramsay (1910).
Geologists are beginning to see clearly that the lands have been
periodically flooded by the oceans, and the times of maximum sub-
mergence and emergence of the continents since earliest Paleozoic
time are fairly well known. The two marked glacial periods since
Cambric time (Permic and Pleistocene) and the three other more
or less cooled climates (late Siluric, Liassic, and late Cretacic) all
fall in with the times when the continents were more or less exten-
sively and highly emergent. There were no cold climates when the
continents were flooded by the oceans, and it may be added that the
periods of widespread limestone-making preceded and followed,
but did not accompany, the reduced climates. On the other hand,
the periods of greatest coal making (Upper Carbonic and Upper
Cretacic) accompanied the time of greatest continental flooding and
preceded the appearance of cooled climates.
The more or less coarse red sediments seen at many horizons of
the geologic column are interpreted as the deposits of variably arid
climates, or those that are alternately wet and dry. In the Paleozoic
they are seen more often at the close of the periods when the seas
were temporarily withdrawn and the lands were most extensive.
These red deposits alternate with formations that are either wholly
marine or of brackish-water origin, and in the latter case of gray,
green, blue, or black color.
Humphreys has shown that volcanic dust in the isothermal region
of the earth’s atmosphere does appreciably reduce the temperature
at the surface of the globe. It is thought that if explosive volcanoes
continued active through a more or less long geologic time, this
factor alone would bring on, or largely assist in bringing on, a more
reduced temperature or even a glacial climate. If then, we may
further postulate that volcanic activity is most marked during
times of mountain making, i. e., during the “critical periods” at
the close of the eras and the less violent movements at the close of
the periods, we should expect ice ages, or at least considerably cooled
climates, occurring here also. Let us see how the facts agree with
this hypothesis.
308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Of the ‘‘critical periods” at the close of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
and Cenozoic eras, we know that the first and last were accompanied
by glacial Slemuties but the Mesozoic, though a time of very extensive
mountain making aud great and soelgnged volcanic activity in North
America, did not close with a glacial, but only with a slightly cooled
climate. Not only this, but we find that voleanism was renewed in
the Cordilleras of North America throughout much of the Eocene, and
yet there was developed no glacial climate at this time. In the same
way the marked temperature reduction at the close of the Cenozoic
in the Pleistocene was subsequent to the Miocene and Pliocene move-
ments of this period and not comcident with them, while that of the
Paleozoic appears to fall in with the rise of the Urals and Appala-
chians, though but little volcanism seems to have accompanied the
movements in North America. It should also be said that equally
extensive movements were going on in Europe in the rise of the
Kuropean Alps during the geologic times before and after the Permic
glaciation, and that the earlier movements did not appreciably affect
the climate.
Again, there was decided mountain making toward the close of the
Siluric in the formation of the Caledonia Mountains all along western
Europe from Spitzbergen to Scotland, with marked volcanic extru-
sions during the Siluric and early Devonic in Maine, the Maritime
Provinces of Canada, and Europe. Yet we have no glacial climate
at these times, certainly not in the Northern Hemisphere; rather it
seems that the temperature was mild the world over. It is possible,
however, that the Table Mountain tillites of South Africa may coin-
cide with this time, and if so a colder temperature affected the
Southern Hemisphere only locally.
On the other hand, the “life thermometer” indicates a cooled
period at the close of the Triassic and the following Liassic, but this
reduction of temperature, again, is geologically subsequent to, rather
than coincident with the marked volcanic activity of the Triassic in
many widely separated places.
Finally, there were earth movements of considerable magnitude at
the close of the Lower Cambric, Ordovicic, and Jurassic that were
not accompanied by glacial climates. At all of these times there
appears, however, to have been a drop in temperature, slight for the
two first-mentioned periods and more marked for the third one, for
here we find in the austral region, during earliest Cretacic times, win-
ters alternating with summers.
We may therefore conclude that volcanic dust in the isothermal
region of the earth does not appear to be a primary factor in bringing
on glacial climates. On the other hand, it can not be denied that such
periodically formed blankets against the sun’s radiation may have
assisted in cooling the climates during some of the periods when the
continents were highly emergent.
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. 309 -
It has long been known that during times of intensive mountain-
making and more or less cooled climates there was great destruction
and alteration of life. The first effects of the environmental changes
occurred among the organisms of the land, while the climax of altera-
tion among the marine life appeared later. This is especially well
seen in the Permic glaciation, which first blotted out the cosmopolitan
Upper Carbonic flora and the insects, while the life of the sea con-
tinued without marked change into Middle Permic time. In the
later Permic, in the northern equatorial waters of Tethys, occurred
the final destruction of many stocks that had long dominated the
Paleozoic seas. The explanation of these facts appears to be that on
the lands the change of climate takes immediate effect on the organ-
isms, while in the oceans a longer time is consumed in cooling down
the warm and equable temperature and in filling all the basins with
cold water. Accordingly the last regions in the oceans to come under
the influence of glacial climates must be the shallow waters of the
equatorial area. The proof of this conclusion is seen in that the last
stand made by the marine Paleozoic world is recorded in the deposits
of Tethys, the great Mediterranean sea of Permic time. It is also
here that we find nearly all of the Paleozoic shallow-water holdovers
in the succeeding period, the Triassic.
The cooled but not frigid climate that followed the magnificent
mountain making at the close of the Cretacic also produced striking
changes in the organic werld. These changes were less marked than
those of Permic time and more noticeable among the land animals
than those of the marine waters, affecting especially the overspe-
cialized, large, thick-shelled, and degenerate stocks.
Great changes were again produced among the large land animals
of the world, as well as among those of the polar and temperate
oceanic waters, by the glaciation of Pleistocene time. The present
shallow waters of the equatorial region still maintain the late Tertiary
faunas, and Africa is the asylum where the higher Pliocene land ani-
mals have been preserved into our time.
What the effects of the Proterozoic glacial climates were upon the
living world of that time it is impossible to say, because we have as
yet discovered but little of the organic record.
The marine “‘life thermometer” indicates vast stretches of time of
mild to warm and equable temperatures, with but slight zonal differ-
ences between the equator and the poles. The great bulk of marine
fossils are those of the shallow seas, and the evolutionary changes
recorded in these ‘‘medals of creation” are slight throughout vast
lengths of time that are punctuated by short but decisive periods of
cooled waters and great mortality, followed by quick evolution, and
the rise of new stocks. The times of less warmth are the miotherm
and those of greater heat the pliotherm periods of Ramsay (1910).
310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
On the land the story of the climatic changes is different, but in
general the equability of the temperature simulates that of the oceanic
areas. In other words, the lands also had long-enduring times of
mild to warm climates. Into the problem of land climates, however,
enter other factors that are absent in the oceanic regions, and these
have great influence upon the climates of the continents. Most
important of these is the periodic warm-water inundation of the
lands by the oceans, causing insular climates that are milder and
moister. With the vanishing of the floods somewhat cooler and cer-
tainly drier climates are produced. The effect of these periodic floods
must not be underestimated, for the North American Continent was
variably submerged at least 17 times, and over an area of from
154,000 to 4,000,00 square miles. (Schuchert, 1910.)
When to these factors is added the effect upon the climate caused
by the periodic rising of mountain chains, it is at once apparent that
the lands must have had constantly varymg climates. In general
the temperature fluctuations seem to have been slight, but geograph-
ically: the climates varied between mild to warm pluvial and mild to
cool arid. The arid factor has been of the greatest import to the
organic world of the lands. Further, when to all of these causes is
added the fact that during emergent periods the formerly isolated
lands were connected by land bridges, permitting intermigration of
the land floras and faunas, with the introduction of their parasites
and parasitic diseases,’ we learn that while the climatic environment
is of fundamental importance it is not the only cause for the more
rapid evolution of terrestrial life. Unfortunately, the record of land
life, and especially of the animal world, is the most imperfect of all
paleontologic records until we come to Tertiary time. The known
mammal history is a vast one and, although very difficult to imter-
pret from the climatic standpoint, we have in the work of Depéret
(1909), Osborn (1910), and Scott (1913) glimpses into the many tem-
perature fluctuations, faunal isolations, and intercontinental radia-
tions of Tertiary time. The history of the Tertiary is the last one
of at least three previous and similar records (Mesozoic, later and
earlier Paleozoic) of vastly longer eras, taking us back to a time when
the lands were without visible life.
In conclusion, it is seemingly clear that the variability in the storage
of solar radiation by the earth’s atmospheric blanket and by oceanic
waters, and the consequent climatic variations of the past and present
are due in the main to topographic changes in the earth’s crust.
These telluric changes alter the configuration of the continents and
oceans, the air currents (moist or dry), the oceanic currents (warm,
mild, or cool), and the volcanic ash content of the atmosphere.
1 This subject is fully discussed by R. T. Eccles, M. D., in the following papers: “ Parasitism and natural
selection,’’ ‘Importance of disease in plant and animal evolution,” ‘‘The scope of disease,”’ and ‘“ Disease
and genetics.’? Medical Record for July 31, 1909; Mar. 16, 1912; Mar.8 and Aug. 2, 1913.
CLIMATES OF GEOLOGIC TIME—SCHUCHERT. Sisk
On the other hand, a great deal has been written about the supply
and consumption of the carbonic acid of the air as the primary cause
for the storage of warmth by the atmospheric blanket. A greater
supply of carbon dioxide is said to cause increase of temperature, and
a marked subtraction of it will bring on a glacial climate. This aspect
of the climatic problem is altogether too large and important to be
entered upon here. It is permissible to state, however, that the glacial
climates are irregular in their geologic appearance, are variable lati-
tudinally, as is seen in the geographic distribution of the tillites be-
tween the poles and the equatorial region, and finally that they appear
in geologic time as if suddenly introduced. These differences do not
seem to the writer to be conditioned in the main by a greater or smaller
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, for if this gas is so strong
a controlling factor, it would seem that at least the glacial climates
should not be of such quick development. On the other hand, an
enormous amount of carbon dioxide was consumed in the vast lime-
stones and coals of the Cretacic, with no glacial climate as a result;
though it must be admitted that the great limestone and vaster coal
accumulations of the Pennsylvanic were quickly followed by the
Permic glaciation. Again it may be stated that the Pleistocene cold
period was preceded in the Miocene and Pliocene by far smaller areas
of known accumulations of limestone and coal than during either the
Pennsylvanic or Cretacic, and yet a severe glacial climate followed.
Briefly, then, we may conclude that the markedly varying climates
of the past seem to be due primarily to periodic changes in the topo-
eraphic form of the earth’s surface, plus variations in the amount of
heat stored by the oceans. The causation for the warmer interglacial
climates is the most difficult of all to explain, and it is here that factors
other than those mentioned may enter.
Granting all this, there still seems to lie back of all these theories a
greater question connected with the major changes in paleomete-
orology. This is: What is it that forces the earth’s topography to
change with varying intensity at irregularly rhythmic intervals?
This difficult and elusive problem the older geologists solved with a
great deal of assurance by saying that such change was due to a cool-
ing earth, resulting in periodic shrinkage; but the amount of shrinkage
that would necessarily have taken place to account for all the wrin-
klings and overthrustings of the earth’s crust during geologic time
would be far greater than that which has apparently occurred.
Further, a cooling earth is yet to be demonstrated. Again, some
paleogeographers seem to see a periodic heaping up of the oceanic
waters in the equatorial region and a pulsatory flowing away later
toward the poles. If these observations are not misleading, are we
not forced to conclude that the earth’s shape changes periodically in
response to gravitative forces that alter the body form ?
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* PLEOCHROIC HALOKS.!
By J. Jouy, F. R. 8.
[With 3 plates.]
It is now well established that a helium atom is expelled from
certain of the radioactive elements at the moment of transformation.
The helium atom or alpha ray leaves the transforming atom with
a velocity which varies in the different radioactive elements, but
which is always very great, attaining as much as 2X 10° centimeters
per second, a velocity which, if unchecked, would carry the atom
round the earth in less than two seconds. The alpha ray carries a
positive charge of double the ionic amount.
When an alpha ray is discharged from the transforming element
into a gaseous medium its velocity is rapidly checked and its energy
absorbed. A certain amount of energy is thus transferred from the
transforming atom to the gas. We recognize this energy in the gas
by the altered properties of the latter; chiefly by the fact that it
becomes a conductor of electricity. The mechanism by which this
change is effected is in part known. The atoms of the gas, which
appear to be freely penetrated by the alpha ray, are so far dismem-
bered as to yield charged electrons or ions, the atoms remaining
’ charged with an equal and opposite charge. Such a medium of free
electric charges becomes a conductor of electricity by convection
when an electromotive force is applied. The gas also acquires other
properties in virtue of its ionization. Under certain conditions it may
acquire chemical activity and new combinations may be formed or
existing ones broken up. When its initial velocity is expended the
helium atom gives up its properties as an alpha ray and thenceforth
remains possessed of the ordinary varying velocity of thermal agita-
tion. Bragg and Kleeman and others have investigated the career
of the alpha ray when its path or range lies in a gas at ordinary or
obtainable conditions of pressure and temperature. We will review
some of the facts ascertained.
1 Being the Huxley lecture, delivered at the University of Birmingham on Oct. 30, 1912. Reprinted
by permission. Published in Bedrock, London, January, 1913.
313
314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The range or distance traversed in a gas at ordinary pressures is a
few centimeters. The following table, compiled by Geiger, gives the
range in air at the temperature of 15° C.:
Centimeters. Centimeters.
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It will be seen that the ray of greatest range is that proceeding from
thorium C,, which reaches a distance of 8.6 centimeters. In: the
uranium family the fastest ray is that of radium C. It attains 6.94
centimeters. There is thus an appreciable dif-
- ference between the ultimate distances traversed
by the most energetic rays of the two families.
The shortest ranges are those of uranium 1 and 2.
The ionization effected by these rays is by no
means uniform along the path of the ray. By
examining the conductivity of the gas at dif-
ferent points along the path of the ray the ioniza-
tion at these points may be determined. At
ply a Ge @ the limits of the range the ionization ceases.
0. 2 In this manner the range is, in fact, determined.
The dotted curve (fig. 1) depicts the recent in-
vestigation of the ionization effected by a sheaf of parallel rays of
radium C in air, as determined by Geiger. The range is laid out -
horizontally in centimeters. The numbers of ions are laid out verti-
cally. The remarkable nature of the results will be at once apparent.
We should have expected that the ray at the beginning of its path,
when its velocity and kinetic energy were greatest, would have
been more effective than toward the end of its range when its energy
had almost run out. But the curve shows that it is just the other
way. The lagging ray, about to resign its ionizing properties,
becomes a much more efficient ionizer than it was at first. The maxi-
mum efficiency is, however, in the case of a bundle of parallel
rays, not quite at the end of the range, but about half a centimeter
from it. The increase to the maximum is rapid, the fall from the
maximum to nothing is much more rapid.
It can be shown that the ionization effected anywhere along the
path of the ray is inversely proportional to the velocity of the ray at
that point. But this evidently does not apply to the last 5 or 10
lonisation
PLEOCHROIC HALOES—JOLY. 315
millimeters of the range where the rate of ionization and of the speed
of the ray change most rapidly. To what are the changing properties
of the rays near the end of their path to be ascribed? It is only
recently that this matter has been elucidated.
When the alpha ray has sufficiently slowed down, its power of
passing right through atoms, without appreciably experiencing any
effects from them, diminishes. The opposing atoms begin to exert
an influence on the path of the ray, deflecting it a little. The heavier
atoms will deflect it most. This effect has been very successfully
investigated by Geiger. It is known as “‘scattering.’’ The angle
of scattering increases rapidly with the decrease of velocity. Now
the effect of the scattering will be to cause some of the rays to
complete their ranges or, more accurately, to leave their direct
line of advance a little sooner
than others. In the beautiful
_ experiments of C. T. R. Wilson
we are enabled to obtain ocular
demonstration of the scattering.
The photograph (fig. 2), which
I owe to the kindness of Mr.
Wilson, shows the deflection of
the ray toward the end of its
path. In this case the path of
the ray has been rendered visi-
ble by the condensation of water
particles under the influence of
the ionization; the atmosphere
in which the ray travels being in
a state of supersaturation with
water vapor at the instant of
the passage of the ray. It is
evident that if we were observing the ionization along a sheaf of
parallel rays, all starting with equal velocity, the effect of the bend-
ing of some of the rays near the end of their range must be to cause
a decrease in the aggregate ionization near the very end of the ulti-
mate range. For, in fact, some of the rays complete their work of
ionizing at points in the gas before the end is reached. This is the
cause, or at least an important contributory cause, of the decline in the
ionization near the end of the range, when the effects of a bundle of
rays are being observed. The explanation does not suggest that the
ionizing power of any one ray is actually diminished before it finally
ceases to be an alpha ray.’
The full line in figure 1 gives the ionization curve which it may be
expected would be struck out by a single alpha ray. In it the
lonization goes on increasing till it abruptly ceases altogether, with
the entire loss of the initial kinetic energy of the particle.
Nae
\
Fig. 2.
316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
A highly remarkable fact was found out by Bragg. The effect of
the atom traversed by the ray to check the velocity of the ray is
independent of the physical and chemical condition of the atom.
He measured the “stopping power”’ of a medium by the distance
the ray can penetrate into it compared with the distance to which
it can penetrate in air. The less the ratio the greater the stopping
power. The stoppmg power of a substance is proportional to the
square root of its atomic weight. The stopping power of an atom
is not altered if it is in chemical union with another atom. The
atomic weight is the one quality of importance. The physical state,
whether the element is in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state, is unim-
portant. And when we deal with molecules the stopping power is
simply proportional to the sum of the square roots of the atomic
weights of the atoms entering into the molecule. This is the
‘fadditive law,” and it obviously enables us to calculate what the
range in any substance of known chemical composition and density |
will be, compared with its range in air.
This is of special importance in connection with phenomena we
have presently to consider. It means that, knowing the chemical
composition and density of any medium whatsoever, solid, liquid,
or gaseous, we can calculate accurately the distance to which any
particular alpha ray will penetrate. Nor have the temperature and
pressure to which the medium is subjected any influence save in so
far as they may affect the proximity of one atom to another. The
retardation of the alpha ray in the atom is not affected.
This valuable additive law can not, however, in strictness be
applied to the amount of ionization attending the ray. The form
of the molecule, or more generally its volume, may have an influence
upon this. Bragg draws the conclusion, from this fact as well as
from the notable increase of ionization with loss of speed, that the
ionization is dependent upon the tume the ray spends in the molecule.
The energy of the ray is, indeed, found to be less efficient in pro-
ducing ionization in the smaller atoms.
Before leaving our review of the general laws governing the
passage of alpha rays through matter, a point of interest must be
referred to. We have hitherto spoken in general terms of the fact
that ionization attends the passage of the ray. We have said
nothing as to the nature of the ionization so produced. But in
point of fact the ionization due to an alpha ray is sui generis. A
glance at one of Wilson’s photographs (fig. 2) illustrates this. The
white streak of -water particles marks the path of the ray. The
ions produced are evidently closely crowded along the track of the
ray. They have been called into existence in a very minute instant
of time. Now we know that ions of opposite sign if left to them-
selves recombine. The rate of recombination depends upon the
ry
PLEOCHROIC HALOES—JOLY. 317
product of the number of each sign present in unit volume. Here
the numbers are very great and the volume very small. The ionic
density is therefore high, and recombination very rapidly removes
the ions after they are formed. We see here a peculiarity of the
ionization effected by alpha rays. It is linear in distribution and
very local. Much of the ionization in gases is again undone by
recombination before diffusion leads to the separation of the ions.
This ‘“‘initial recombination” is greatest toward the end of the path
of the ray where the ionization is a maximum. Here it may be so
effective that the form of the curve is completely lost unless a very
large electromotive force is used to separate the ions when the
ionization is being investigated.
We have now reviewed recent work at sufficient length to under-
stand something of the nature of the most important advance ever
made in our knowledge of the atom. Let us glance briefly at what
we have learned. The radioactive atom in sinking to a lower
atomic weight casts out with enormous velocity an atom of helium.
It thus loses a definite portion of its mass and of its energy. Helium,
which is chemically one of the most inert of the elements, is, when
possessed of such great kinetic energy, able to penetrate and ionize
the atoms which it meets in its path. It spends its energy in the
act of ionizing them, coming to rest, when it moves in air, in a few
centimeters. Its particular initial velocity depends upon which of
the radioactive elements has given rise to it. The length of its
path is therefore different according to the radioactive element
from which it proceeds. The retardation, which it experiences in
its path depends entirely upon the atomic weight of the atoms
which it traverses. As it advances in its path its effectiveness in
ionizing the atom rapidly increases and attains a very marked
maximum. In a gas the ions produced being much crowded
together recombine rapidly; so rapidly that the actual ionization
may be quite concealed unless a sufficiently strong electric force
is applied to separate them. Such is a brief summary of the climax
of radioactive discovery—the birth, life, and death of the alpha ray.
Its advent into science has altered fede our conception of
matter. It is fraught with momentous bearings upon geological
science. How the work of the alpha ray is sometimes recorded
visibly in the rocks and what we may learn from that record I pro-
pose now to bring before you.
In certain minerals, notably the brown variety of mica known as
biotite, the microscope reveals minute circular marks occurring here
and fhend) quite irregularly. The most usual appearance is that of
a circular area darker in color than the surrounding mineral. The
radii of these little disk-shaped marks when well defined are found
318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
to be remarkably uniform, in some cases four-hundredths of a milli-
meter and in others three-hundredths, about. These are the meas-
urements in biotite. In other minerals the measurements are not
quite the same as in biotite. Such minute objects are quite invisible
to the naked eye. In some rocks they are very abundant, indeed
they may be crowded together in such numbers as to darken the color
of the mineral containing them. They have long been a mystery to
petrologists.
Close examination shows that there is always a small speck of a
foreign body at the center of the circle, and it is often possible to
identify the nature of this central substance, small though it be.
Most generally it is found to be the mineral zircon. Now, this
mineral was shown by Strutt to contain radium in quantities much
exceeding those found in ordinary rock substances. Some other
mineral may occasionally form the nucleus, but we never find any
which is not known to be specially likely to contain a radioactive
substance. Another circumstance we notice. The smaller this
central nucleus the more perfect in form is the darkened circular area
surrounding it. When the circle is very perfect and the central min-
eral clearly defined at its center we find by measurement that the
radius of the darkened area is generally 0.033 millimeter. It may
sometimes be 0.040 millimeter. These are always the measurements
in biotite. In other minerals the radii are a little different.
We see in the photograph (pl. 1, fig. 1), much magnified, a halo con-
tained in biotite. We are looking at a region in a rock section, the
rock being ground down.to such a thickness that light freely passes
through it. The biotite is in the center of the field. Quartz and
feldspar surround it. The rock is a granite. The biotite is not all
one crystal. Two crystals, mutually inclined, are cut across. The
halo extends across both crystals, but owing to the fact that polar-
ized light is used in taking the photograph it appears darker in one
crystal than in the other. We see the zircon which composes the
nucleus. The fine lineated appeararice of the biotite is due to the
cleavage of that mineral, which is cut across in the section.
The question arises whether the darkened area surrounding the
zircon may not be due to the influence of the radioactive substances
contained in the zircon. The extraordinary uniformity of the radial
measurements of perfectly formed haloes (to use the name by which
they have long been known) suggests that they may be the result of
alpha radiation. For in that case, as we have seen, we can at once
account for the definite radius as simply representing the range
of the ray in biotite. The farthest-reaching ray will define the
radius of the halo. In the case of the uranium family this will be
radium C, and in the case of thorium it will be thorium C. Now
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Joly. PLATE 1
Fia. 1.
Fia. 2.
PLEOCHROIC HALOES.
at
Pee,
mo
an
PLEOCHROIC HALOES—JOLY. 319
here we possess a means of at once confirming or rejecting the view
that the halo is a radioactive phenomenon and occasioned by alpha
radiation; for we can calculate what the range of these rays will
be in biotite, availing ourselves of Bragg’s additive law, already
referred to. When we make this calculation we find that radium C
just penetrates 0.033 millimeter and thorium C 0.040 millimeter.
The proof is complete that we are dealing with the effects of alpha
rays. Observe now that not only is the coincidence of measurement
and calculation a proof of the view that alpha radiation has occas-
ioned the halo, but it is a very complete verification of the important
fact stated by Bragg, that the stopping power depends solely on the
atomic weight of the atoms traversed by the ray.
We have seen that our examination of the rocks reveals only the
two sorts of halo, the radium halo and the thorium halo. This is
not without teaching. For why not find an actinium halo? Now,
Rutherford long ago
suggested that this ele-
ment and its deriva-
tives were probably an
offspring of the ura-
nium family; a side
branch, as it were, in
the formation of which
relatively few trans-
forming atoms took
part. On Rutherford’s Fig. 3.
theory, then, actinium should always accompany uranium and ra-
dium, but in very subordinate amount. The absence of actinium
haloes clearly supports this view. For if actinium was an indepen-
dent element we would be sure to find actinium haloes. The differ-
ence in radius should be noticeable. If, on the other hand, actinium
was always associated with uranium and radium, then its effects
would be submerged in those of the much more potent effects of the
uranium series of elements.
Tt will have occurred to you already that if the radioactive origin
of the halo is assured the shape of a halo is not really circular, but
spherical. This isso. There is no such thing as a disk-shaped halo.
The halo is a spherical volume containing the radioactive nucleus
at its center. The true radius of the halo may, therefore, only be
measured on sections passing through the nucleus.
In order to understand the mode of formation of a halo we may
profitably study on a diagram the events which go on within the
halo sphere. Such a diagram is seen in figure 3. It shows to rela-
tively correct scale the limiting range of all the alpha-ray producing
320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
members of the uranium and thorium families. We know that each
member of a family will exist in equilibrium amount within the
nucleus possessing the parent element. Each alpha ray leaving the
nucleus will just attam its range and then cease to affect the mica.
Within the halo sphere there must be, therefore, the accumulated
effects of the influences of all the rays. Hach has its own sphere of
influence, and the spheres are all concentric.
The radii in biotite of the several spheres are given in the following
table:
URANIUM FAMILY. THORIUM FAMILY.
Millimeter. Millimeter.
TReS OBI NAOT UN CUS yer eas ie ener 0.0330, || chonum Con 3:2 fees 4 ee RD
PRR CIINDTINNA ACs tee eee rt ae ee AR FO2243 horn eAG pee ee eye . 026
VATCINATA WOM asa eee eae OlIGaehwernta nations een ee 023
HRALGUUNY His Sor eeeees SEAR AARS | ROEBe Oly 7 EhorkumeG]!. 224 ORE 30. etre . 022
Radium: 9.250). Se Leen 98 TOLS6NC ThoinmeX. .. ep iasat tends . 020
OMIT eae eee Seen O14 Radiothormimngss) ssseet eee 019
Winamp lene ee OLS 74 Phorm 2 2 een 28 eee 013
Wiramiinecaee ase conse eee 0118
In the photograph (pl 1, fig. 2) we see a uranium and a thorium
halo in the same crystal of mica. The mica is contained in a rock
section and is cut across the cleavage. The effects of thorium C,
are clearly shown as a lighter border surrounding the accumulated
inner darkening due to the other thorium rays. The uranium halo (to
the right) similarly shows the effects of radium C, but less distinetly.
Haloes which are uniformly dark all over, as described above, are,
in point of fact, ‘‘overexposed,” to borrow a familiar photographic
term. Haloes are found which show much very beautiful internal
detail. ‘Too vigorous action obscures this detail just as detail is lost
in an overexposed photograph. We may again have ‘“‘underexposed”
haloes in which the action of the several rays is incomplete or in
which the action of certain of the rays has left little if any trace.
Beginning at the most underexposed haloes we find circular dark
marks having the radius 0.012 or 0.013 millimeter. These haloes are
due to uranium, although their inner darkening is doubtless aided by
the passage of rays which were too few to extend the darkening be-
yond the vigorous effects of the two uranium rays. Then we find
haloes carried out to the radii 0.016, 0.018, and 0.019 millimeter.
The last sometimes show very beautiful outer rings having radial
dimensions such as would be produced by radium A and radium C.
Finally we may have haloes in which interior detail is lost so far out
as the radius due to emanation or radium A, while outside this floats
the ring due to radium C. Certain variations of these effects may
occur, marking, apparently, different stages of exposure. Plate 2
illustrates some of these stages, figure 2 of this plate being greatly
enlarged to show clearly the halo sphere of radium A.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Joly. PLATE 2.
Fia. 1.
Fig. 2.
PLEOCHROIC HALOES.
Ww
ort, 1914.—Joly. PLATE 3.
Fic. 1.
FiGz2:
PLEOCHROIC HALOES.
PLEOCHROIC HALOES—JOLY. Sok
In most of the cases referred to above the structure evidently shows
the existence of concentric spherical shells of darkened biotite. This
is a very interesting fact, for it proves that in the mineral the alpha
ray gives rise to the same increased ionization toward the end of its
range as Bragg determined in the case of gases; and we must con-
clude that the halo in every case grows in this manner. A spherical
shell of darkened biotite is first produced, and the inner coloration is
only effected_as the more feeble ionization along the track of the ray
in course of ages gives rise to sufficient alteration of the mineral.
This more feeble ionization is, near the nucleus, enhanced in its
effects by the fact that there all the rays combine to increase the
ionization, and, moreover, the several tracks are there crowded by
the convergency to the center. Hence the most elementary haloes
seldom show definite rings due to uranium, etc., but appear as
embryonic disk-hke markings. The photographs on the screen! illus-
trate many of the phases of halo development. Rutherford suc-
ceeded in making a halo artificially by compressing into a capillary
glass tube a quantity of the emanation of radium. As the emanation
decayed the various derived products came into existence and all the
several alpha rays penetrated the glass, darkening the walls of the
capillary out to the limit of the range of radium Cin glass. Figure 1 on
plate 3 is a magnified view of the tube. The dark central part is the
capillary. The tubular halo surrounds it. This experiment has, how-
ever, been anticipated by some scores of millions of years, for here is
the same effect in a biotite crystal (pl. 3, fig.2). Along what are appar-
ently tubular passages or cracks in the mica a solution rich in radio-
active substances has moved, probably during the final consolidation
of the granite in which the mica occurs. A continuous and very
regular halo has developed along these conduits. A string of halo
spheres may lie along such passages. We must infer that solutions
or gases able to establish the radioactive nuclei moved along these
conduits, and we are entitled to ask if all the haloes in this biotite
are not, in this sense, of secondary origin. There is, I may add,
much to support such a conclusion.
It must not be thought that the underexposed halo isa recent
creation. By no means. All are old, appallingly old; and in the
same rock all are probably of the same, or nearly the same, age.
The underexposure is simply due to a lesser quantity of the radio-
active elements in the nucleus. They are underexposed, in short, not
because of lesser duration of exposure, but because of insufficient
action, as when in taking a photograph the stop is not open enough
for the time of the exposure.
The halo has so far told us that the additive law is obeyed in solid
media and that the increased ionization attending the slowing down
1 Shown by lecturer but not here reproduced.
73176°—sMm 1914——21
322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of the ray obtaining in gases also obtains in solids, for otherwise the
halo would not commence its development as a spherical shell or
envelope. But here we learn that there is probably a certain differ-
ence in the course of events attending the immediate passage of the
ray in the gas and in the solid. In the former initial recombination
may obscure the intense ionization near the end of the range. We
can only detect the true end effects by artificially separating the ions
by a strong electric force. If this recombination happened in the
mineral we should not have the concentric spheres so well defined as
we see them to be. What, then, hinders the initial recombination in
the solid? The answer probably is that the newly formed ion is
instantly used up in a fresh chemical combination. Nor is it free to
change its place, as in the gas. There is simply a new equilibrium
brought about by its sudden production. In this manner the con-
ditions in the complex molecule of biotite, tourmaline, etc., may be
quite as effective in preventing initial recombination as the most
effective electric force we could apply. The final result is that we
find the Bragg curve reproduced most accurately in the delicate
shading of the rings making up the perfectly exposed halo.
That the shading of the rings reproduces the form of the Bragg
curve projected, as it were, upon the line of advance of the ray and
reproduced in depth of shading, shows that in yet another particular
the alpha ray behaves much the same in the solid as in the gas. A
careful examination of the outer edge of the circles always reveals
a steep but not abrupt cessation of the action of the ray. Now,
Geiger has investigated and proved the existence of scattering of
the alpha ray by solids. We may therefore suppose, with much
probability, that there is the same scattering within the mineral
near the end of the range. The heavy iron atom of the biotite is,
doubtless, chiefly responsible for this in biotite haloes. I may
observe that this shading of the outer bounding surface of the
sphere of action is found however minute the central nucleus. In
the case of a nucleus of considerable size another effect comes in
which tends to produce an enhanced shading. This will result
if rays proceed from different depths in the nucleus. If the nucleus
was of the same density and atomic weight as the surrounding
mica there would be little effect. But its density and molecular
weight are generally greater, hence the retardation is greater, and
rays proceeding from deep in the nucleus experience more retarda-
tion than those which proceed from points near to the surface. The
distances reached by the rays in the mica will vary accordingly,
and so there will be a gradual cessation of the effects of the rays.
The result of our study of the halo may be summed up in the state-
ment that in nearly every particular we have the phenomena which
have been measured and observed in the gas reproduced on a minute
PLEOCHROIC HALOES—JOLY. 323
scale in the halo. Initial recombination seems, however, to be
absent or diminished in effectiveness; probably because of the new .-
stability instantly assumed by the ionized atoms.
One of the most interesting points about the halo remains to be
referred to. The halo is always uniformly darkened all round its
circumference and is perfectly spherical. Sections, whether taken
in the plane of cleavage of the mica or across it, show the same
exactly circular form, and the same radius. Of course, if there was
any appreciable increase of range along or across the cleavage the
form of the halo on the section across the cleavage skould be elliptical.
The fact that there is no measurable ellipticity is, I think, one which
would not on first consideration be expected.
For what are the conditions attending the passage of the ray in
a medium such as mica? According to crystallographic conceptions
we have here an orderly arrangement of molecules, the units com-
posing the crystal being alike in mass, geometrically spaced, and
polarized as regards the attractions they exert one upon another.
Mica, more especially, has the cleavage phenomenon developed to
a degree which transcends its development in any other known
substance. We can cleave it and again cleave it till its flakes float
in the air, and we may yet go on cleaving it by special means till
the flakes no longer reflect visible light. And not less remarkable is
the uniplanar nature of its cleavage. There is little cleavage in any
plane but the one, although it is easy to show that the molecules
in the plane of the flake are in orderly arrangement and are more
easily parted in some directions than in others. In such a medium
beyond all others we must look with surprise upon the perfect sphere
struck out by the alpha rays, because it seems certain’ that the
cleavage is due to lesser attraction, and, probably, further spacing
of the molecules, in a direction perpendicular to the cleavage.
It may turn out that the spacing of the molecules will influence
but little the average number per unit distance encountered by rays
moving in divergent paths. If this is so we seem left to conclude
that in spite of its unequal and polarized attractions there is equal
retardation and equal ionization in the molecule in whatever direc-
tion it is approached. Or, again, if the encounters indeed differ in
number, then some compensating effect must exist whereby a direc-
tion of lesser linear density involves greater stopping power in the
molecule encountered, and vice versa.
The nature of the change produced by the alpha rays is unknown.
But the formation of the halo is not, at least in its earlier stages,
attended by destruction of the crystallographic and optical proper-
ties of the medium. The optical properties are unaltered in nature
but increased in intensity. This applies till the halo has become
so darkened that light is no longer transmitted under the condi-
324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
tions of thickness obtaining in rock sections. It is well known
. that there is in biotite a maximum absorption of a plane polarized
light ray when the plane of vibration coimcides with the plane of
cleavage. A section across the cleavage then shows a maximum
amount of absorption. A halo seen on this section simply produces
this effect in a more intense degree. This is well shown in figure 1
(plate 1) on a portion of the halo sphere. The descriptive name
“»leochroic halo”’ has originated from this fact. We must conclude
that the effect of the ionization due to the alpha ray has not been
to alter fundamentally the conditions which give rise to the optical
properties of the medium. The increased absorption is probably
associated with some change in the chemical state of the iron present.
Haloes are, I believe, not found in minerals from which this element
is absent. One thing is quite certam. The coloration is not due
to an accumulation of helium atoms, 1. e., of spent alpha rays. The
evidence for this is conclusive. If helium was responsible we should
have haloes produced in all sorts of colorless minerals. Now we
sometimes see zircons in feldspars and in quartz, etc., but inno such
case is a halo produced. And halo spheres formed within and
sufficiently close to the edge of a crystal of mica are abruptly truncated
by neighboring areas of feldspar or quartz, although we know that
the rays must pass freely across the boundary. Again it is easy
to show that even in the oldest haloes the quantity of helium involved
is so small that one might say the halo sphere was a tolerably good
vacuum as regards helium. There is, finally, no reason to suppose
that the imprisoned helium would exhibit such a coloration, or,
indeed, any at all.
I have already referred to the great age of the halo. Haloes are
not found in the younger igneous rocks. It is probable that a halo
less than a million years old has never been seen. This, prima facie,
indicates an extremely slow rate of formation. And our calculations
quite support the conclusions that the growth of a halo, if this has
been uniform, proceeds at a rate of almost unimaginable slowness.
Let us calculate the number of alpha rays which may have gone
to form a halo in the Devonian granite of Leinster.
It is common to find haloes developed perfectly in this granite
and having a nucleus of zircon less than 5107-* centimeter in
diameter. The volume of zircon is 65 X10-” cubic centimeter and
the mass 3107! gram, and if there was in this zircon 10~* gram
radium per gram (a quantity about five times the greatest amount
measured by Strutt), the mass of radium involved is 3 x 10~ gram.
From this and from the fact ascertained by Rutherford that the
number of alpha rays expelled by a gram of radium in one second is
3.410", we find that three rays are shot from the nucleus in a year.
If now, geological time since the Devonian is 50 millions of years,
PLEOCHROIC HALOES—JOLY. 325
then 150 millions of rays built up the halo. If geological time since
the Devonian is 400 millions of years, then 1,200 millions of alpha
rays are concerned in its genesis. The number of ions involved, of
course, greatly exceeds these numbers. A single alpha ray fired
from radium C will produce 2.37 x 10° ions in air.
But haloes may be found quite clearly defined and fairly dark out
to the range of the emanation ray and derived from much lesser
quantities of radioactive materials. Thus a zircon nucleus with a
diameter of but 3.4X10-* centimeter formed a halo strongly
darkened within, and showing radium A and radium C as clear
smoky rings. Such a nucleus, on the assumption made above as
to its radium content, expels one ray ina year. But, again, haloes
are observed with less blackened pupils and with faint ring due to
radium C, formed round nuclei of rather less than 2 x 10-* centimeter
diameter. Such nuclei would expel one ray im five years. And
even lesser nuclei will generate in these old rocks haloes with their
earlier characteristic features clearly developed.- In the case of
the most minute nuclei, if my assumption as to the uranium content
is correct, an alpha ray is expelled, probably, no oftener than once
_ in a century, and possibly at still longer intervals.
The equilibrium amount of radium contained in some nuclei may
amount to only a few atoms. Even in the case of the larger nuclei
and more perfectly developed haloes the quantity of radium involved
is many millions of times less than the least amount we can recognize
by any other means. But the delicacy of the observation is not
adequately set forth in this statement. We can not only tell the
nature of the radioactive family with which we are dealing, but
we can recognize the presence of some of its constituent members.
I may say that it is not probable the zircons are richer in radium
than I have assumed. My assumption involves about 3 per cent
of uranium. I know of no analyses ascribing so great an amount
of uranium to zircon. The variety cyrtolite has been found to
contain half this amount, about. But even if we doubled our
estimate of radium content, the remarkable nature of our conclusions
is hardly lessened.
It may appear strange that the ever-interesting question of the
earth’s age should find elucidation from the study of haloes. Never-
theless the subjects are closely connected. The circumstances are
as follows: Geologists have estimated the age of the earth since
denudation began, by measurements of the integral effects of de-
nudation. These methods agree in showing an age of about 10°
years. On the other hand, measurements have been made of the
accumulation in minerals of radioactive débris—the helium and lead—
and results obtained which, although they do not agree very well
among themselves, are concordant in assigning a very much greater
326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
age to the rocks. If the radioactive estimate is correct, then we are
now living in a time when the denudative forces ofthe earth are
about eight or nine times as active as they have been on the average
over the past. Such a state of things is absolutely unaccountable.
And all the more unaccountable because from all we know we would
expect a somewhat lesser rate of solvent denudation as the world
gets older and the land gets more and more loaded with the washed-
out materials of the rocks.
Both the methods referred to of finding the age assume the prin-
ciple of uniformity. The geologist contends for uniformity through-
out the past physical history of the earth. The physicist claims
the like for the change rates of the radioactive elements. Now the
study of the rocks enables us to infer something as to the past history
of our globe. Nothing is, on the other hand, known respecting the
origin of uranium or thorium—the parent radioactive bodies. And
while not questioning the law and regularity which undoubtedly
prevail in the periods of the members of the radioactive families, it
appears to me that it is allowable to ask if the change rate of uranium
has been always what we now believe it to be. This comes to much
the same thing as supposing that atoms possessing a faster change
rate once were associated with it which were capable of yielding
both helium and lead to the rocks. Such atoms might have been
collateral in origin with uranium from some antecedent element.
Like helium, lead may be a derivative from more than one sequence
of radioactive changes. In the present state of our knowledge the
possibilities are many. The change rate is known to be connected
with the range of the alpha ray expelled by the transforming ele-
ment; and the conformity of the halo with our existing knowledge
of the ranges is reason for assuming that, whatever the origin of
the more active associate of uranium, this passed through similar
elemental changes in the progress of its disintegration. There
may, however, have been differences in the ranges which the halo
would not reveal. It is remarkable that uranium at the present time
is apparently responsible for two alpha rays of very different ranges.
If these proceed from different elements, one should be faster in its
change rate than the other. Some guidance may yet be forth-
coming from the study of the more obscure problems of radio-
activity.
Now, it is not improbable that the halo may contribute directly
to this discussion. We can evidently attack the biotite with a
known number of alpha rays and determine how many are required
to produce a certain intensity of darkening, corresponding to that
of a halo with a nucleus of measurable dimensions. On certain
assumptions, which are correct within defined limits, we can calculate,
as I have done above, the number of rays concerned in forming the
PLEOCHROIC HALOES—JOLY. Bat
halo. In doing so we assume some value for the age of the halo.
Let us take the maximum radioactive value. A halo originating
in Devonian times may attain a certain central blackening from the
effects of, say, 10° rays. But now suppose we find that we can not
produce the same degree of blackening with this number of rays
applied in the laboratory. What are we to conclude? I think
there is only the one conclusion open to us, that some other source
of alpha rays, or a faster rate of supply, existed in the past. And this
conclusion would explain the absence of haloes from the younger
rocks; which, in view of the vast range of effects possible in the
development of haloes, is, otherwise, not easy to account for. It is
apparent that the experiment on the biotite has a direct bearing
on the validity of the radioactive method of estimating the age of
the rocks. It is now being carried out by Prof. Rutherford under
reliable conditions.
Finally, there is one very certain and valuable fact to be learned
from the halo. The halo has established the extreme rarity of
radioactivity as an atomic phenomenon. One and all of the specu-
lations as to the slow breakdown of the commoner elements may be
dismissed. The halo shows that the mica of the rocks is radio-
actively sensitive. The fundamental criterion of radioactive change
is the expulsion of the alpha ray. The molecular system of the
mica and of many other minerals is unstable in presence of these
rays, just as a photographic plate is unstable in presence of light.
Moreover, the mineral integrates the radioactive effects in the same
way as a photographic salt integrates the effects of light. In both
cases the feeblest activities become ultimately apparent to our
inspection. We have seen that one ray in each year since the De-
vonian period will build the fully formed halo, unlike any other
appearance in the rocks. And we have been able to allocate all the
haloes so far investigated to one or the other of the known radio-
active families. We are evidently justified in the belief that had
other elements been radioactive we must either find characteristic
haloes produced by them, or else find a complete darkening of the
mica. The feeblest alpha rays emitted by the relatively enormous
quantities of the prevailing elements, acting over the whole duration
of geological time—and it must be remembered that the haloes
we have been studying are comparatively young—must have regis-
tered their effects on the sensitive minerals. And thus we are
safe in concluding that the common elements, and, indeed, many
which would be called rare, are possessed of a degree of stability
which has preserved them unchanged since the beginning of geo-
logical time. Each unaffected flake of mica is, thus, unassailable
proof of a fact which but for the halo would, probably, have been
forever beyond our cognizance.
THE GEOLOGY OF THE BOTTOM OF THE SEAS.
By L. pe Launay,
Membre de V Institut, Professeur 4 V Ecole supérieure des Mines.
Notwithstanding so many important discoveries, the oldest of which
date back scarcely more than a century and a half, geology, a very
young science, is still full of mystery. We are laboriously trying to
reconstruct a story which had no human witnesses, the traces of
which have been for the greater part destroyed or are to-day buried
under the mountains or the seas at depths compared with which
the thickness of the ash which covers Pompeii seems trivial. Little
by little we bring together again some scattered shreds; we compare
them with present phenomena which seem to us to offer an analogy,
and proceeding by inference we try to reach some general conclusions
which by later investigation we may verify experimentally in certain
details. But at least we must have the testimony as full as possible
of all these existing traces of ancient phenomena or of present com-
parable phenomena. All that the geologist can do is to go over the
surface of the globe, hammer in hand, observing and collecting as
he goes. As a rule, he does not dig; he personally does not search
below the surface, for the means, except in some favored countries,
would be lacking for that work. THe is therefore compelled to plead,
to beg for aid in every quarter. He asks it chiefly from miners, from
well diggers, from builders of tunnels and from excavators who pene-
trate beneath the soil for him. He seeks it from explorers, who,
though inexperienced in geology, visit the less accessible regions of
the globe, the deserts, the polar glaciers. He will demand it even
from astronomers who bring him cosmic elements for comparison and
to whom he will try in exchange to furnish, for the interpretation of
a vast universe, positive evidences and precise facts established on
our little earth. He will demand much—and this is the point which
I wish to examine—from oceanographers whose bold explorations
have for their aim to in some degree increase our knowledge of what
we here term the geology of the bottom of the seas.
Oceanography i is the geology of the future just as physical eeog-
raphy is in certain respects the geology of the present and as geology
proper is, above all, the reconstruction of the past.
1 Stenographic report ofalecture before the Institut Oceanographique de Paris, November 22, 1913.
Translated by permission from Revue Scientifique, Paris, Jan. 3, 1914.
329
330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
At the bottom of the seas, side by side with the continuous work of
natural forces—of gravity, of chemical precipitations and dissolutions—
-myriads of beings live and die, innumerable generations succeed each
other and develop to finally accumulate inert deposits, which in later
millions of years shall become the sedimentary formations of a new
land just as to-day in Touraine, in Normandy, in Champagne the
chalky limestones which nourish our crops and from which we extract
material for the construction of our houses are the product of bryozo-
ans, of foraminifera of the Cretaceous age. <A glance at the geolog-
ical formations which make up the solid substratum of our arable land
is enough by the presence of innumerable remains of marine shells to
establish the fact that the greater part of these chalk beds were formed
in the seas. Beside these marine sediments the lake, river, and other
sediments play but a minor part. And if in comparison with the
sedimentary deposits proper we considered the formations due to an-
other great source of terrestrial activity—fire—we could show, dis-
regarding the plutonic rocks, that the evidences of these igneous
rocks occupy a limited area at the surface. It is true that the plu-
tonic rocks would soon predominate if we could dig down a short dis-
tance into the crust of the globe. At a depth of 2 or 3 kilometers
(which appears to us enormous because we are very small and because
our tools are very insufficient, but which is only a shallow depth in
the 6,400 kilometers of radius of the earth), we should find the sedi-
ments would disappear, giving place almost exclusively to igneous
rocks. But this geology of the depths, which perhaps will be the
geology of our successors, unfortunately is not yet for us. And if
one is limited as we are to the surface of the earth, the part played
by the waters, especially by the marine waters, becomes absolutely
predominant.
Geology was made by the waters; it was made by the seas. If
water, as it is passing away in other worlds, had not existed at the
surface, this geology would be altogether different; and the day
when active water shall have disappeared from the surface of the
earth, which may happen, though perhaps only by congealing, the
land will be dead; its geological history, as we understand it at least,
will be ended.
Thus oceanography permits us to see in operation before us this
work of the waters, which has played such a preponderant part in the
construction of the earth’s crust. There are some sediments, com-
parable to those of geological strata, which are now in process of for-
mation in the seas, just as the scenery prepared in the mysterious
places beneath the stage of a theater is caused at a given moment
to spring up to alter the scene. Of the method of these great changes
at which we can not be present, but of which the ancient equivalent
constitutes our geologic history, oceanography informs us. ‘The
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. So
explorations undertaken with so much success during the past
years in ocean depths show us similar strata in process of deposition
and enable us in a measure to be present at the first stage—the sub-
marine stage—of those sediments whose ancient equivalents have had
likewise in their turn a history now terrestrial, now marine or lacus-
trine again, so complicated, so changeable with vicissitudes so
diverse and such changing fortunes.
We must not forget, however, and on this point I must insist
because it is fundamental, that what to-day is the land, was yester-
day, and to-morrow may again be, the ocean. Our moving and
changing earth, while carried on its unbridled course through space,
is unceasingly developing and is transformed, just as are the living
beings on its surface, whose changes we can see, by laws which though
of another nature have none the less, in their origin, one and the same
cause—the very general principle of tendency to equilibrium and to
least resistance. The movements of the waters pass and repass over
our continents like the tides on a beach. Twenty times in the short
period which represents one of our geologic stages a locality like
Paris has been covered by the floods or has emerged again. There is
not a spot on our globe which has not, like that Atlantis whose his-
tory last year M. Termier so eloquently recalled to us, been sub-
merged by the ocean after having been inhabited for a time by ter-
restrial beings. And to-morrow, perhaps, if geologic history con-
tinues, as everything indicates it will, some new changes of the same
order may be produced, for example, in the troubled zone of our
Mediterranean Sea—the emergence here of lands and the reflux of
the seas driven from their old bed coming to submerge the conti-
nents. The features which seem to us the most essential of our pres-
ent physical geography are only entirely momentary forms, pro-
visional and ephemeral, destined to disappear in this perpetual move-
ment of destruction and construction, in this incessant turmoil of
forces and of matter which moves the universe in space as well
as the atoms in a grain of sand. Geology teaches us also that the
highest elevations of the globe, those which to men of antiquity
seemed to constitute the oldest parts of the earth, the bodies of titans
struck by lightning in their fight against the heavens, the Alps, the
Caucasus, and the Himalayas, are quite recent wrinkles of our crust,
the heights and escarpments of which remain only because time has
so far failed to erode and destroy them. It shows us likewise in the
deepest abysses of the sea some recently formed hollows.
By reason of these incessant movements, while the bottom of
the seas is the laboratory where future continents are made, it is
also the vast tomb where are concealed and preserved, in such
measure as the mummy of the past may be preserved, certain con-
tinents that have disappeared. The geology of the marine sub-
332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
strata has no reason for being different from the geology of the con-
tinents save the inevitable restriction that necessitates the progres-
sive evolution of all forces working on our planet. The present
formation is the continuation of ancient formations disturbed by
similar accidents.
But here I come face to face with an objection about which I
must say a word. Some standard treatises will confidently tell of
the permanence of the great oceanic basins. Especially will you see
in certain works which are in the hands of everyone the statement
that the Pacific has always been an ocean.
On what does this theory rest? Almost exclusively on the fact
that our geologic strata contain no deposits in whick can be clearly
identified any formations from great depths; for I do not consider
as a valid argument the fact that the outline of the Pacific coasts
seems formerly to have been marked by channels where coursed the
marine floods of former ages. The first objection, on the contrary, has
its value. In fact, if you asked me to cite a geologic stratum repre-
senting a depth of 4,000 to 8,000 meters, I should be much embar-
rassed to do so, although certain manganese deposits associated with
radiolarians have sometimes been considered as belonging to a great
depth. But I do not think that this is positive proof and here is the
reason. First of all, it will be observed that the land has necessarily
much oftener been subjected to movements of slight range, capable
of causing emergence from depths of 50 to 100 meters, than to move-
ments great enough to bring beds back to light from hollows of
10,000 meters. These deep hollows stand by themselves and besides
must always have constituted exceptional cases. Simple logic there-
fore leads to the conclusion that the representative deposits in our
strata must preferably come from littoral sediments or from slight
depth. Abysmal deposits on any hypothesis must therefore be
much rarer, unless there is in them a primary difference, a demarca-
tion traced from the first day on the model of our planet. If these
abysmal deposits appear to be lacking, that may be explained in two
ways without necessarily concluding the indefinite persistence of the
great oceanic hollows. It is either because we do not know how to
recognize these deposits, transformed as they have been by diagen-
esis and metamorphism in a movement of the crust which, by its
very extent, has here reached the greatest violence, or else because
they may have been disintegrated and carried off at the time of this
violent emergence.
I recognize that these arguments would be of little value if, on the
other hand, all geology did not impress us with the idea that the
seas have been constantly displaced on the surface of the earth,
and not only such small seas as the Baltic, the North Sea, and the
Mediterranean, which are the immediate prolongation of neighbor-
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. 333
ing continents, but even oceans like the Atlantic or the Indian Ocean,
where we so naturally picture ancient continents having united
Brazil and South Africa, or Madagascar and India, to be later
broken up by sinking. These sinkings must have been not merely the
counter-equivalent of folded ranges localized along the length of old
geosynclines; it is entirely probable that they had as a consequence
or as a corollary the removal, at least relative, of other deep ter-
restrial cavities, left so by the passing out of the waters. In the
Pacific likewise the evident dissolving of certain Tertiary deposits,
notably in some of the coral islands, proves that the land has moved
vertically in a recent epoch.!
Oceanography will some day tell us exactly what there is in these
hypotheses. Suppose, in fact, that a marine basin had been con-
stantly filled by the sea since its origin (which with few exceptions is
entirely possible). We then ought at this point to meet with a
sedimentary series complete, without break, extending from the
pre-Cambrian to the Quaternary. A sounding deep enough, travers-
ing this series, would give us the ideal geologic section, the integral
section, which would render insignificant the finest sections fur-
nished by terrestrial escarpments (such as the Colorado Canyon),
on condition, which is uncertain, that the parts of the formation not
very deep might not have been entirely despoiled of their organisms
and reduced to a clayey residue by diagenesis. Even if the section
presented some gaps its study would give us information, in a pre-
cise and directly experimental way, on one of the most obscure
problems in the history of the globe.
I repeat then, because I know that my opinion on this point is
not accepted by all geologists, that as a rule, save in exceptional cases,
it does not appear to me necessary to establish a fundamental differ-
ence, a permanent difference, between the regions to-day occupied by
the seas and those occupied by terra firma. I do not believe that
in their entirety, with some possible exceptions to which we shall
return, the present oceans, since the beginning of geologic history,
have had their sites marked out in advance to be continuously occu-
pied as heretofore by the waters. The difference between the seas
and the continents, which forms the most characteristic feature of
our physical geography, is to my eyes only a momentary stage in a
continuous evolution through all past ages and probably destined to
be continued through all ages yet to come.
When one studies geology, the first notion with which it is neces-
sary to familiarize oneself is that of the instability of the seas. One
must picture to himself that over the present site of all our conti-
nents, almost without exception, the seas have passed during an
1 Robert Douvillé gave in La Nature, 1911, pp. 401-405, a good résumé of the history of the Pacific.
334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ancient geologic epoch—at Paris as well as at London or at Vienna.
T even believe, and here I coneglude this digression, that the greater
part of our present seas cover the sites of ancient continents and
may mark the place of future continents.
This comparison between oceanic and continental geology presents
a very extended program for our study.
In the first place, continental geology includes the study of certain
horizontal strata, such as the limestones, sandstones, schists, etc.,
a study called stratigraphy. Here especially are some formations
deposited under the waters of ancient seas which formerly covered
our globe. We shall very naturally find again at the bottom of the
seas similar deposits in process of formation; the present composi-
tion of these marine deposits will enlighten us as to the past of our
geologic sediments.
This present sedimentation in the seas is the part of oceanography
which has most attracted the attention of geologists; it is likewise
the best known phase of our subject and will interest us the longest.
It proposes a multitude of questions: on the aspect of the deposits
with relation to the topography of the bottom of the seas and on that
so convenient hypothesis of horizontal stratification which, accord-
ing to Sténon, is the basis of our geologic theories; then on the organic
and chemical nature of these sediments; on the transformations that
they have undergone by diagenesis at the very bottom of the sea.
In this regard, especially, the problems that confront us are of pecu-
liar interest. We know from geology that the strata emerged on
the continents continue through all ages to undergo transformations
which at times end in making them unrecognizable and one of the
essential traits of which is the gradual elimination of the organic
remains by their transition to a crystalline structure. This is what is
called metamorphism or metasomatosis. In the present marine sedi-
ments we shall come to see in actual operation phenomena which
appear to me very closely to resemble those of metasomatosis and
to which is given the name, also a bit barbarous, of diagenesis.
These are modifications undergone by marine deposits at the bottom
of the seas, consequently before their emergence: modifications
which, for chemical reasons as yet not fully determined, seem to end
in results very analogous to those of metasomatosis at the surface.
And the geology of the sea bottom will also bring before us that
other great branch of geologic formations called igneous rocks. We
shall have a word to say about submarine volcanoes.
Finally, no more than does terra firma remain immovable, does
the sea escape results of internal movements. There are small, rela-
tively feeble earthquake shocks. There are also the great geologic
movements shown, by their two principal forms of vertical displace-
ments and foldmgs. Finally, from some such movements of the
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. a00
crust have come in geologic history those oscillations of the seas of
which I was speaking a while ago.
And we shall end by examining how an ancient sea could become
dry land, how an ancient continent could become sea. This will
lead us definitely to discuss the bottom of the sea as a continent and
to attempt that method of mapping which sums up the entire geol-
- ogy of a country, the establishment of submarine geologic charts.
You see that this is a very comprehensive program, and one that
would fit an entire book rather than a single lecture. If I were to
give it the development that it deserves, I should be obliged to appear
before you many times. I shall be content, therefore, in this lecture
to indicate its most characteristic outlines.
At this poimt I must confess to you, furthermore, that my task
consequently, if not easy, will at least be abridged. The geology of
the bottom of the seas, with which I shall try to entertain you, is
still very poorly known to us. Interrogation points are presented
on, all sides and very few of them have been answered. We should
not complain too much about this. No doubt what I shall have to
say to you here this evening will lack interest. But what is not
known remains to be learned. That is the harvest of the future. It
is the grain which is springing up. It is the almost unexplored field
where one may hope some day to find the key to problems that
terrestrial geology elsewhere proposes to us. The search that arouses
the fever of discovery is always joyous, when in the great palace of
truth, here flooded with light and surrounded by the throng, there
already lighted by pale rays and accessible to the rare passers, it
percetves some corners now shrouded in dense darkness where in
imagination it hopes may presently shine forth marvellous invisible
treasures which hardly yet attract the covetous.
Although we know little of the geology of the bottom of the seas,
it is almost enough to define it, to comprehend it. Oceanic geology
proposes to us, as I have said, for parts of the earth at present again
covered by the waters, the same problems that terrestrial geology
seeks to solve in regions now emerged. It likewise seeks to know,
from one point to another, what the accumulation of sediments is
which have been deposited in successive periods of a very old history
or which are still being deposited there, to what movements these
strata have been subjected, what eruptive rocks have traversed them.
Whether located in the depths of the oceans or placed on our con-
tinents, the point of view, from this fact alone, is not different. Now
we already often have much difficulty in recognizing the complete
and exact geologic history of a place on our continents, the very
ones most readily accessible, like Paris, the most furrowed by cut-
tings and perforated by borings. How much more so when it is
necessary to work under water several thousands of meters deep?
336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Difficult as it may be, however, the problem is not insoluble.
Although unfortunately the attention of oceanographers has up to
this time been attracted rather by submarine topography, zoology,
the physical and chemical study of sea water, and other questions,
we begin to possess valuable data concerning the present sediments
of ocean bottoms. It may be hoped that some day, instead of limit-
ing the work to the epidermis of these submarine deposits, we shall
penetrate them better by deeper and still deeper borings.
The day when we shall energetically attack such investigations,
an entire world will be opened to science, without doubt full of unsus-
pected revelations: a world in which from afar we are beginning to
discern the first confused views.
1. PRESENT SEDIMENTATION.
(a2) SUBMARINE TOPOGRAPHY.
Let us pause for a moment and view the manner in which the
sediments are deposited at the bottom of the present seas. Here
first of all comes in submarine topography, of which we are beginning
to have a fairly approximate idea. It has frequently been observed
that this topography differs from that of the continents in the fact
that a fine dust is constantly fallmg there, and being but slightly
influenced by the currents, though agitated in shallow water, is accu-
mulated there by gravity alone, filling little by little the hollows and
tending toward a gradual leveling. It has been observed in this
connection that one could go in a carriage from Brest to New York
over the sea bottom without having any definite notion of slopes.
This relative horizontality of sea bottoms, from which as a matter
of course we must exclude the shores, has geologic importance; it is
in fact, the point of departure of a convenient hypothesis, which,
according to Sténon, dominates our geology—that of horizontal
sediments superposed in the order of their formation and having taken
their present slopes only through some later orogenetic or mountain-
making movements. It is obvious, however, that this is a mere
approximation; and. when one finds along the western coast of
America some abysses of 4,000 to 5,000 meters depth immediately
succeeding ranges of the same relief; when to the south of the Aleutian
Islands or to the east of Japan, to the east of the Tonga Islands (north
of New Zealand), to the east of Australia, and elsewhere, one falls
abruptly into these gulfs, attaining in one case a depth of 9,700
meters, in the presence of slopes estimated at more than 10 kilometers
in 200 to 300 kilometers of breadth—it is no longer a question of
gentle slopes. It is the same as regards the holes in the Caribbean
Sea 5,200 meters deep, or on a smaller scale, those of 3,000 meters
found 15 kilometers south of Crete, or in an opposite case, as regards
the chain of isles rising in the midst of the Pacific like summits of a
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. 337
submerged mountain range. It may be said on the subject of sedi-
mentation, however, that on steep slopes, deposits must hold so inse-
curely that sediments comparatively thin must have a tendency
toward presumed horizontality.
To limit ourselves to two principal examples, the topography of
the Atlantic is rather simply characterized by two deep zones extend-
ing north and south that indent a plateau surmounted by volcanic
cones. In the Pacific, there are first of all, along the coast, some deep
hollows corresponding with the folded ranges of the shores. But there
is also a long series of hollows extending in an east and west direc-
tion from China toward the Gulf of Mexico, and, in the south there
is a north and south hollow at right angles to the preceding which
passes to the east of New Zealand, a hollow consequently having
a direction like that of the American continent or of the Atlantic
Ocean. These accidents well indicate the complexity of the topog-
raphy of this ocean, which has sometimes been inaccurately plotted,
and they imply a very complex ensemble of folds pertaining to vari-
ous ages, with vertical subsidences, just as on the continents.
The horizontal aspect of the nonlittoral sediments should be con-
sidered only as a tendency accentuated with time by the very effect
of some of the first deposits under which the inequalities of the bottom
have been leveled. It has sometimes been held that when the sea
has invaded a continent it has been preceded by what has been called
a marine abrasion. And, in fact, it is possible, when the movement
is made slowly after a period of emergence which has caused a pene-
plain, that this kind of tide has almost invariably displaced horizontal
sediments. It could not have been the same wherever the vertical
displacement was a sudden matter nor wherever the invasion of the
sea was the result of a folding in a geosynclinal zone. If we come
back to the present epoch, there is every evidence that strictly con-
temporaneous sediments are being produced to-day, some at 8,000
meters and more in depth, others but a few meters below the level of
the waters. Let us, then, exclude the abysmal hollows, for we have
seen that they lengthen the discussion. Certainly the level of con-
temporaneous sediments similar to those of geologic periods may differ
according to location by some 2,000 meters. One sees, therefore,
how inexact it is to prejudge the general horizontality of sediments
pertaining to the same ancient epoch.
(6) VARIABLE NATURE OF SEDIMENTS, AND DIAGENESIS.
What is now going on in the bottom of the ocean? I mean, what
is going on there in the very special order of geologic ideas? The
first thing that interests us is that sediments are being deposited there
and that their nature differs according to the depth of the water, the
distance from continents, the direction of currents, the temperature
73176°—sM 1914——_22
338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of surface waters, ete. Starting with our geologic strata, we shall
thus be permitted to discover under what conditions analogous sedi-
ments have formerly been deposited. For the exploration of oceanic
deposits, we are provided with well-known instruments called the
sounding dredge or the Buchanan tube.
In the formation of these sediments a first important demarcation
must be established. Some are the product of the mechanical
destruction of continents. These are clastic débris removed from
the rocks and the soils of parts emerged, and after having been rolled
around for a time, and for a longer or shorter period held in suspen-
sion, they are at last deposited. These are terrigenous deposits.
Others have begun by being in solution, but all have a hke origin,
and they separate from these solutions, either by the medium of organ-
isms, or by a simple chemical reaction. Finally, other chemical
reactions, characterized as diagenesis, continue in the sediments after
their deposition.
The terrigenous deposits proper form a crown or belt around
the continents. These cease at a distance from the continents and
-are followed by sediments entirely different in character, either
those of organic origin, resembling a grayish ooze, which we shall
presently distinguish, or those of chemical origm which may take
on the appearance of red clays. This distinction of terrigenous de-
posits is very important, although one must not attribute to them,
as is sometimes done, a too absolute value, for, correctly speaking,
there are hardly any sediments which do not include some terrige-
nous elements. Far distant from the coasts, however, these ter-
rigenous elements are generally reduced to very fine particles which
remain in suspension much longer than is generally believed and which
contribute toward the clay of the deep ooze, at the same time that
this clay, redissolved, as we shall see, yields the silica of siliceous
organisms and consequently contributes to the formation of silex in
the strata. When instead of confining oneself to a summary state-
ment, an examination is made of certain sections of samples from very
deep soundings, one often notes these irregular intercalations of
extremely fine, true sandy beds? which indicate a dragging along of
these particles by the waters to very considerable distances.
These detrital sediments, as I have just said, come from continents;
they are the direct product of erosion. Now, this erosion is impor-
tant. It is estimated that under present conditions it would destroy
the land in 7,000,000 years; each year the ocean receives 10 cubic
kilometers of solid material, composed in great part of silica and
alumina.”
1 Expedition of the ‘‘ Gauss”? and works of Thoulet.
2 The average composition of the terrestrial crust in round numbers is 60 per cent silica, 15 per cent alu-
mina, 6 per cent iron, 5 per cent lime, 5 per cent alkalies. (See Science géologique, p. 654.)
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. 839
These detrital materials are subject to mechanical action which is
especially visible along our shores and which contributes to the for-
mation of littoral strata so abundant in our geologic periods. At the
same time the river waters carry along to the sea chemical products
of every nature which are going to meet in this general outlet and
which gradually increases not only the salinity but also the content
of various chemical substances, reserves on which we shall see the
organisms drawing.
Terrigenous muds are divided into (1) blue muds charged with
sulphate of iron and permeated with ammonia salts; (2) red muds in
which the iron is a peroxide; (3) green muds in which the iron is in
the state of silicate (glauconite). These last skirt the length of the
coasts. The facts under discussion are so well known that it is
enough to recall their nature and [ shall limit myself to some brief
ideas on the distribution of organisms in marine deposits, a very
important but also very common phase of my subject.!
Marine beds, you know, comprise a primary grand division called
the continental plateau, terminated by the line of 200 meters depth
and characterized by the penetration of lumimous rays under such
conditions that plants can live there, permitting the existence of
herbivorous animals. Certain seas, like the North Sea or the Channel,
belong entirely to this continental plateau. Two principal zones are
here easily distinguished, the littoral and the sublittoral, which are
subject to the play of the tides, and where the individuals, of a limited
number of species, are very abundant. The summit of the littoral
zone is characterized by the level of the Balanes; then deepening,
there are the Mytilus, the Littorina, the Patella; and finally, in the
zone exposed only at the low tides of the equinox, the Haliotis and
the Pecten. After these come next, from the level of low tide down
to about 27 meters, the zone of the Laminaria with the oyster beds,
the cuttle-fish, and the calamarians. Let us note, incidentally, that
at this level the alge help to fix and to isolate two constituent
elements of sea water, iodine and bromine, which are extracted
therefrom.
Lower down, from 27 to 92 meters, we have a zone which comprises
the important fishery regions frequented by the cod, plaice, tur-
bot, and sole. Finally we come to the continental plateau, where,
under very special conditions, are found the coral formations, which
play a part so important in the formation of geologic strata. As
regards coral the most important thing for us to remember is that
coral organisms live only in very pure water where the surface tem-
perature does not fall below 20° and where the variation does not
exceed 6°; in fact, at a depth which, according to recent measure-
1 See a very good résumé of this question in Collet’s “Les fonds marins.”
340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ments, does not exceed 64 meters for true corals and 120 meters for
calcareous alge of the group of millipores. On agcount of these very
close restrictions the coral reefs of to-day occupy a much localized
zone in the vicinity of the equator; and the fact that in the oldest
geologic periods corals extended into the polar regions is of great
importance in the history of ancient climates.
These corals present opportunity for another curious observation.
Darwin, after some very hasty observations, advanced a theory
accepted by Dana, according to which the construction of coral reefs
demonstrated a gradual sinking of corresponding regions. According
to the theory of Murray, now admitted, the coral reefs simply mark
out submarine volcanic cones, such as exist in great number in the
Pacific. Some such cones have been recognized by #ceanographers.
The Nero pointed out 20 of them on a cable route between Japan and
Hawai, one rising to within 150 meters of the surface, others reaching
from a depth of 9,000 meters up to 1,200 meters below sea level, etc.
It is on these cones that organic sediments at first accumulated (and
that since what may be a very ancient geologic epoch), down to the
day when coral organisms from the deep, such as the Lithothamnium,
begin to be established there and approach the surface at the rate of
50 meters ina thousand years. In fact, and rather paradoxically, the
corals often play only an accessory réle in the construction of so-called
coralline reefs, certain of which present scarcely anything except calca-
reous alow. Then intervene the remains of these calcareous elements
and the accumulations of various organisms which become established
on the reef.
We come finally to sediments of the deeper seas. These are com-
posed chiefly of organisms which are divided into two principal
categories—(a) calcareous deposits with globigerina or with ptero-
pods; _(6) siliceous deposits with radiolarians and diatoms.
The influence of temperature on the distribution of these organisms
is very marked. In warm waters the calcareous organisms dominate;
in cold waters only the siliceous organisms exist, and it thus appears
how both of them procure the elements of their substance.
As for lime, which is in fairly appreciable amounts in sea water,
there are no traces of carbonate concerned, but the sulphates are
much more developed. Those are transformed by carbonate of
ammonia coming from the organisms, and the carbonate of lime is
then secreted. As the decomposition of nitrogenous matter is
especially rapid in warm waters, these reactions are there favored.
The calcareous secretion, abundant in regions of uniformly high
temperature, diminishes in temperate regions where its maximum
takes place in summer, and nearly disappears in the polar zones.
Thus the calcareous organisms, the globigerina, play a réle entirely
dominant. Nearly all the sea bottom contains at least 10 per cent
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. 341
of it, but the name globigerina ooze is reserved for cases where the
proportion exceeds 30 per cent. These globigerina oozes contain
a little less than 2 per cent of siliceous organisms and a certain
proportion of clay, which tends to be increased by the dissolving
of limestone in diagenesis. Finally the globigerma ooze becomes a
red clay.
A map of the marine beds reveals the predominant réle of these
globigerina oozes, except in the Pacific, where the latest explora-
tions of the Albatross have, however, found some zones of consid-
erable extent. More locally at a maximum depth of 3,000 meters
some pteropod oozes are found, which are indicated on the map of
the Atlantic.
Let us pass now to the siliceous oozes. Here the origin of the
silica is the clay which exists in fine suspension down into the extreme
depths. It is supposed that the chemical medium is furnished by
decomposing organic matter which reduces the sulphates to alkaline
sulphides, after which the latter in their turn act on the clay. Ex-
periments by Murray and Irvine have shown that in order to sus-
tain life in diatoms in a liquid there must be a supply of pulverized
clay.
Now, the quantity of clayey material remaining in suspension
increases in proportion as the temperature of the water decreases.
This is without doubt one of the reasons why siliceous diatoms are
particularly abundant in cold water. But this phenomenon is
complex and the observation should not be generalized upon.
The siliceous organisms comprise sponges, diatoms, and radiola-
rians. Only the last form in the sea distinctive deposits. The others
remain in a state of balance in the calcareous deposits. Sponges
have a very extended area of dispersion because their embryos swim
freely and their spicules are found in the most diverse strata. They
are quickly dissolved and help to keep the silica in motion. Di-
atoms, siliceous alge, live in waters of weak salinity, such as estu-
aries. Immense floating banks of them are met with in the Atlantic
many kilometers long and several meters deep. They are developed
like calcareous algz in the upper layers of water, where they serve as
food for numerous marine animals, after which their débris falls to
the bottom. An extensive train of them is found in the Antarctic
Ocean, another to the south of Bering Strait. And, furthermore,
contrary to what was claimed some years ago, the Albatross observed
them in a warm region in latitude 12° south on the coast of South
America. The radiolarians live chiefly in warm and relatively quiet
waters. Their deposits form an equatorial track across the Pacific
from the Gulf of Mexico toward Australia, then between Australia
and Java. In places in the Pacific the siliceous organisms dominate
342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
in the ooze; but it is chiefly m the Antarctic Seas that they come
strongly into consideration, attaining 16 per cent.
We have just indicated the distribution of these various oozes.
Let us see how they are formed and what they become.
First of all we note the influence of surface currents, which accord-
ing to their temperature develop more or less organized life of this or
that character. Along warm currents the surface organism descends
into the sea, serving to nourish other life deeper down which in turn
descends still lower. On the surface borders of these currents the
variations of temperature sometimes produce great slaughter.
Finally there is formed near the bottom a slow chute of organic
particles, some calcareous, others siliceous.
These particles before reaching the bottom certainly undergo
partial dissolution and some chemical reactions, the more accentu-
ated as they take more time to descend. This is the beginning of
the transformations that we call diagenesis. Some of the above-
mentioned differences between deposits of various depths arise
from this. Thus the fragile shells of pteropods are usually dissolved
before reaching a depth of 3,000 meters and for that reason they are
not found deeper down. The globigerina have greater resistance,
but end by disappearing in their turn in the great depths. This
is why in the Pacific, deeper than the Atlantic, so few of them are
found at great depths, although they may be abundant at the surface.
Once deposited at the sea bottom the oozes continue to undergo
like transformations which must gradually give a different aspect
to like deposits according to their age of formation, or, when these
deposits have later been brought back to daylight in geologic ages,
according to the duration of their sojourn in the sea.
These reactions are not yet well known. Chemically there would
be opportunity here to study what effect may be produced in oozes
of various compositions by sea water at about 2° of temperature
and at the great pressure there.
In reviewing some of the observations made on this subject I am
struck by the apparently close analogy between these phenomena
and those which characterize the superficial alterations of our strata
in the line of peroxidation, directly exposed to waters strongly
aérated and charged with carbonic acid. Some very different condi-
tions lead to the same result. The first fact, for example, is the
elimination of lime, decalcification. We have already remarked
that the deeper the ocean bottom the less do calcareous shells appear
there, hence at great depths we find manganiferous red clay like that
which decalcification and lateritization produce on our plateaus.
The Gauss expedition at the center of the Atlantic brought up some
soundings in which there was clearly less lime at the bottom than at
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. 343
the top. Some have believed in a modification in the conditions of
deposition; I would rather believe in a later alteration. At the same
time, however, as at the surface, the proportion of magnesia increases
because the bicarbonate of magnesia and of lime is less soluble than
the carbonate of lime: there is dolomitization.
On the other hand, there is produced at centers of attraction, ex-
actly as at our horizon, a concentration of silica and other accessory
bodies to which I shall presently revert, such as iron, manganese,
and phosphate of lime. It is very probable that many similar con-
centrations observed in our geologic strata date from the epoch
when the sediments in question were still under the sea, although
the phenomena may undoubtedly have been continued and accen-
tuated after emergence. Among the phenomena of dissolution one
may still observe that on the great marine bottoms where the sharks’
teeth and the tympanum drums of whales are at times rather abun-
dant, all other parts of their skeletons have been dissolved; gen-
erally all that was phosphate of lime has been eliminated, the calca-
reous parts having the greater resistance.
Once dissolved, the substances tend to recrystallize. Calcite, for
example, will refill all the empty spaces, notably those left by the
dissolution of the skeleton or of the shell, which is thus replaced by
a substituted shell with crystallographic orientation.
Likewise in malm rock, the silica arises from the spicules of the
sponges and is reprecipitated in the form of silica globules for ex-
ample, in the interior of the foraminifera, etc.
One of the most important of the oceanographic formations which
must be connected with diagenesis is that of the red clays with de-
posits of manganese.
Red clay was found for the first time by the Challenger at a depth
of 5,000 meters, and Wyville Thomson considered it a residue of the
globigerina ooze. The accepted theory is otherwise, and according
to Murray this red clay is ordinarily attributed to the decomposition
of various rocks, especially the volcanic rocks which form the marine
bottom.
Perhaps this would be the place to review, in a way, the explana-
tion of Thomson and to say that in the very great depths everything
is transformed into red clay because everything calcareous is dis-
solved before reaching there. Thus at the surface of continents we
see red clays of slightly varied compositions,! with more or less
silica associated with the alumina, produced as well on the calcareous
plateaus, in the so-called pockets of siliceous clay, as on the serpen-
tines of New Caledonia or on the ancient plateaus of Madagascar.
1 See Gites métal., vol. 1, p. 197, on lateritization.
344 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The red clay of the seas is formed essentially of brick red silicate
of alumina, with a tint of chocolate brown, or even blackish, due to
the more or less marked development of manganese.
This development of manganese often in large nodules, constitutes
a comparison besides with surface formations where I have shown
how characteristic and abundant it is! The manganese of the red
clays, which has too exclusively been connected with volcanic rocks,
really comes from all kinds of eroded rocks in which the feeblest
manganiferous traces occur in the remarkable process of its concen-
tration.
The hydrated silicate of alumina which is the characteristic ele-
ment of these red clays is accompanied by zeolites, by small frag-
ments of pumice or by volcanic crystals (in the Pacific with millions
of sharks’ teeth, the tympanum bones of whales, etc.). It would be
interesting to point out the quantitative differences that these various
clays present which must pertain to their origin. On the average, in
the analyses of the Challenger the quantity of iron was more than
that of alumina. There is often a proportion of silica too great for
the theoretic composition of silicate of alumina; the silica, due no
doubt to the precipitation of siliceous organisms, not yet being trans-
formed. Likewise, the proportion of carbonate of lime always re-
mains very great, up to 23 per cent in a Challenger specimen, from
a depth of 4,207 meters. Carbonate of magnesia reaches 3.24 per
cent, and results, no doubt, from a concentration similar to that pro-
duced on the coral reefs.
(¢) FORMATION OF PHOSPHATES AND FERRUGINOUS SEDIMENTS.
We come now to study the ordinary and common deposits which
constitute the great mass of sediments. There are, however, some
rarer deposits more exceptional, which may be of practical interest
to us. They are those composed of utilizable accumulations of
mineral wealth, the relative commercial value of which depends on
whether its elements have been brought together there in an abnor-
mal manner. The sea, which I have elsewhere called the universal
drain, holds some traces of all chemical bodies, including gold, which
is found there in quantities not at all negligible. This or that circum-
stance may cause the concentration of one of these elements and
from it forma true ore. I shall be content to examine, as examples,
two bodies, phosphate of lime and iron, having already said a word
about manganese.
Let us first take the phosphates. If a direct examination be made
of the phosphates of our geologic strata without first having recourse
to a comparison with oceanography one finds that phosphate of lime,
very abundantly, one might say very generally, scattered through
1 Gites métal., vol. 1, p. 200, and vol. 2, pp. 530-536.
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. 345
the greater part of our sediments, as it is in the state of apatite in
most of our rocks, is condensed in exceptional quantities in certain
deposits which appear in a general way, as M. Cayeux observed in
1897, to correspond to some disturbances of equilibrium causing an
advance, or more rarely a withdrawal of the sea; a phenomenon in
which it is probable that numerous living things were killed by
changes of temperature resulting from a modification in the cur-
rents, and consequently are accumulated at the bottom of the sea.
Phosphate, which existed at first in solution in sea water, has passed
through the medium of organisms; and its greater or less abundance
is in accord with that of these organisms themselves, save that they
later have undergone some more or less pronounced concentrations:
in the sea itself by diagenesis or, after emergence, by metasomatosis.!
This is the general theory that oceanography demonstrates for us.
The Challenger expedition has already brought up from the depths
rather numerous phosphatic concentrations. These concretions were
encountered especially on what is called Agulhas Bank to the south
of Cape of Good Hope, where the German expeditions in the Gazelle
and the Valdivia again found them later, then on the east coast of
Japan, at the junction of the warm Kuroshimo with the cold current
of the Bering Sea, on the Atlantic coast of North America, in the
straits of Florida, etc. The corresponding depths of water do not
exceed 1,000 meters and are often less than 200. It may follow
from this, that in the greater depths the precipitated phosphate of
organisms is dissolved before reaching the bottom.
When on a general map of the oceans you mark these localities
of phosphatic concretions you note that they are specially present at
the points where warm currents encountering a cold current produce
decided variations of temperature in the surface water. You know
how sensible marine organisms are to variations of this kind. It is
therefore probable that organisms thus killed are accumulated at the
bottom of the sea at the corresponding points and have there fur-
nished the phosphate. These organisms should be especially inverte-
brates; but there must be added some fishes, the teeth of which abound
in certain phosphatic chalks. The constant association of carbona-
ceous material with geologic phosphates equally proves this organic
origin. Along the American coast, for example, a conflict is pro-
duced between the cold Labrador current and the warm waters of the
Gulf Stream. According to the severity of the polar winter, the cold
current encroaches more or less on the warm stream. It was so in
1882 when in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of New England there
appeared, over a width of 270 kilometers, beds of dead tilefish to a
depth of 1.8 meters. On the other hand a general displacement of
the seas and especially a transgression on the continents must have
1 See, on this subject, my Traité des gites métalliféres, vol. 1, pp. 646-649, 659-661.
346 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
been a particularly active cause of changes in the course of ocean
currents and consequently of similar destructions.
This is one of the reasons, as I have elsewhere stated, why each
great period of folding has been followed by a phase of phosphatic
deposition, just as we find after it, from somewhat different though
mutual causes, oil-bearing hydrocarbon deposits, saline deposits, and
deposits of iron.
If we revert to the phosphates, the greatest concretion which has
been, dredged up came from Agulhas Bank, where there are some
genuine greensands (glauconitic) in the phosphates similar to those
of the upper Cretaceous; it measured 23 by 16 by 12 centimeters.
Oftener these nodules, like those found in geologic strata, as in the
Gault or the Liassic, are less than 10 centimeters. Their form is
similar, being irregular, the contours at times rounded, sometimes
angular and with an outer deposit which is at times dark and shiny
when the phosphate existed in the ooze, at other times gray and dull
when this phosphate leaving the ooze was covered over with organ-
isms, such as bryozoans, corals, sponges, and foraminifera. The
nodule itself is often covered with shells of lamellibranchs, brachio-
pods, and gasteropods, more or less completely phosphatized, as so
often occurs with geologic phosphates; we also find in it particles of
calcite, of glauconite, and of detrital minerals. The relative propor-
tion of shells fixes the relative amount of carbonate of lime it contains.
Finally, you observe, in these present phosphatic nodules, a fact
which is constant in the geologic strata; that is, the transition into true
iron ores through the medium of the glauconite. The nodules are
often yellowed or browned by peroxide of iron due to a decomposi-
tion of the glauconite like that which we shall see taking place in the
formation of true iron ores, and, like that, curiously similar to the
phenomena produced in the superficial continental reactions above
the hydrostatic level, in what is called the zone of peroxidation.
Potash, a soluble element which plays an important réle in glauconite,
is eliminated as it may become exposed and that is why the iron is
peroxidized.
This is a case of what I have above called diagenesis; but other
cases exist which apply more directly to the phosphates. In a
chalky ooze of phosphatic elements, one can readily ascertain that the
phosphate is gradually concentrated and concreted around nuclei
already phosphatized, like that produced in the growth of all crystals,
or likewise by pseudomorphism, on some simple calcareous elements.
This concentration began beneath the sea—it is diagenesis; it continued
by metasomatosis after the emergence of the phosphates to their
present levels, and it has thus played an enormous role in the for-
mation of utilizable lodes as they are presented to us. The soluble
phosphate which appears to be at first in the state of phosphate of
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. 347
ammonium, but which may also be in the state of alkaline phosphates
or of phosphate of calcium, gradually impregnates the adjacent
strata, especially those that are calcareous (polyps, corals, etc.), and
sometimes even the clay, and becomes substituted for them, tending,
through a correlative attraction exercised on fluorine, to take the
composition of apatite, which is a crystallized fluo-phosphate of lime.
The study of ferruginous sediments offers hke data for very inter-
esting oceanographic observations on the interpretation of our iron
ores.
In the present marine deposits, independent of sublittoral oozes,
we find iron either in the form of glauconite, or as red clay, each of
these formations corresponding to a different origin and conditions.
Glauconite of the present seas is a silicate of iron and potassium
which chiefly characterizes some terrigenous deposits, particularly
the muds and greensands. It is found along the continents, at a
depth not exceeding 2,000 meters, but only where the terrigenous
sedimentation is slow, without heavy fluvial supplies and where, con-
sequently, the phenomena of solution and reprecipitation have time
to act. It is evident that the iron of this mineral comes from the
rocks and strata remolded by the sea, as its potash has for its origin
the feldspars and potassium micas. For the alumino-alkaline sili-
cates which chiefly characterize all our rocks is substituted a ferro-
alkaline silicate, the alumina separating out from the other part as
clay, to enter presently in the composition of the chlorites. This
substitution is one of the first essential effects of the solvent reactions
exerted by sea water, and we may at once note that lake water is
powerless to produce a like chemical transformation. There is no
glauconite in lake waters, probably because the iron in these waters
is readily dissolved by the organic acids and immediately peroxi-
dized by the excess of oxygen in them, being brought to precipita-
tion under various forms, the most characteristic of which is bog
iron, or limonite, instead of combining with the silica. Glauconite
has a certain tendency to form small nodular grains not exceeding
one-tenth of a millimeter. I have just remarked that it is frequently
associated with phosphate, and like this has a tendency to develop
by epigenesis, for example, from grains of feldspar. Like silica, the
role of which is very similar, glauconite becomes solidified first on
porous objects which have contained eliminated organic matter, such
as the pores of foraminifera, or in the thin fissures of minerals. Then
begin in the still submarine deposit renewed movements, some of.
which, purely mechanical, accumulate the grains of glauconite at
certain points by levigation such as has taken place in the tufas,
and other movements, of chemical origin, result in the gradual ¢ con-
centration of iron.
348 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
When ferruginous elements under whatever form once exist in a
stratum, they do not remain there unchangeable. The glauconite
is altered, turns green, yellow, red. At the same time iron permeates
neighboring oozes where it acts on the calcareous elements. There
is then a transition to siderite, which itself may later be transformed
into chlorite, then into hematite.
These phenomena, begun beneath the sea and compelled from
that time to form true ferruginous deposits, are continued, as we
have seen in the case of the phosphates, in exterior alterations (by
geologic processes) with gradual enrichment in iron because of the
elimination of the more soluble calcareous elements which at first
accompany them. You have then, at last, either some hematite,
if alumina was lacking at the outset as is the case except when the
glauconite is already associated with a calcareous ooze; or, when the
point of departure was direct, an alumino-ferric silicate complex,
like that ordinarily presented in our rocks, a red clay, retaining
alumina associated with iron. The red clay and the iron ore proper
may have, as can be readily understood, easy transitions from one to.
the other.
This study, as you see, throws a certain, though imperfect light
on the important practical question of our sedimentary iron ores.
And I would have you observe apropos, in passing, how pure science,
science totally disinterested, which seems to have for its object only
the search for truth, often has some useful results.
It could not be foreseen that dredgings undertaken at the bottom
of the sea would enlighten us on the origin of the ores of iron or man-
ganese, and enable us, consequently, better to establish the theory
of their formation, and finally to lead to borings at a great depth
permitting the development, under conditions at first unforeseen, of
an immense reservoir of iron like that which at this moment is
making the fortune of Normandy.*
2. MOVEMENTS OF THE BOTTOM OF THE SEAS—SUBMARINE
VOLCANOES.
The movements of marine bottoms are of two kinds. You might
here see the slow displacements to which certain observations on
our shores bear witness, or the deep subsidences of which geologic
history offers us numerous examples. I could tell you of the cities
of Ys and of those avenues of statues which on certain islands of
the Pacific must have led in days of yore to some temple to-day
engulfed beneath the sea. Not to bore you, I will confine myself,
however, to some brief observations on volcanic phenomena.
1 We could profitably discuss many other questions, particularly the intervention of glaciers in sedimen-
tation, of which I wrote in La Nature, Oct. 5, 1912.
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. 349
The ancients attributed the birth of all the islands in the
Archipelago to a sudden upheaval in which the gods intervened, and
likewise they thought that the islands could be engulfed by the
anger of Poseidon. Although the origin of most of the large islands
may have been entirely different, the ancients were not so far wrong
as to their own region, for the history of Santorin, and of the
famous island of Julia, are classic examples of like phenomena. The
island of Julia appeared in 1831 between Sicily and Pantellaria.
There were first some shocks; then, 15 days after, a column of
water and smoke rose 25 meters high; a little later there was a
column of 500 meters; finally there appeared an isle 4 meters high in
the form of a crater, while the sea around was covered with dead
fishes. In 5 days it rose from 4 meters to 20 meters, and a month
after the first movement the island attained 1,600 meters in diameter.
Six months later it was engulfed. It reappeared in 1863 to be
swallowed up again. There were similar phenomena seen at Santorin
in 1866, at the Azores, near San Miguel Island, in the Tonga Archi-
pelago, and elsewhere. Saint Paul Island is a known example of
an extinet volcanic crater which rises from the sea and which the
sea invades.
In other cases, submarine cables have been found with the gutta-
percha covering completely melted.
Marine movements of internal origin are of two kinds.1. There are
first of all earthquakes properly so called, as their center of action may
be on land orsea. Their principal effect as to land is the propagation
of a vibratory wave, but with a regularity and a uniformity main-
taining a mean, which are lacking on our continents. When a vessel
is subjected to these earthquakes at sea there is the impression of its
touching the bottom, without, however, suffering damage, and there
is astonishment at not seeing the ocean foam on the reefs. Reaching
the shore, the undulation produces tidal waves which may have been
evident on the coast of Cornwall and on that of Brittany, but which
are transformed into cataclysms on the shores of Japan and Sumatra,
some of which, called tsunamis, have caused the death of 30,000 to
200,000 persons. Other phenomena of volcanic origin have for their
principal manifestation a projection of water to a great height, like
that produced by a submarine explosion. Elevations of temperature
are likewise observed in the deep beds, and sometimes fish seem thrown
out like flying fish and cover the sea with their bodies. The region
noted by Daussy, in the middle of the Atlantic, at the equator, is a
well-known center for these phenomena.
1 See Montessus de Ballore, La Science sismologique, p. 182 et seq.
2 See 1838, Daussy: Note sur l’existence probable d’un volcan sous-marin (C. R. Ac. Sce., t. 6, p. 512).—.
1858, Muller: Report on the facts and theory of earthquake phenomena (Rep. Brit. Ass., p. 20 et seq.;
with chart representing the zone of Daussy). — 1887 to 1897, Rudolph: Ueber Marine Erdbeben und
_ Eruptionen (Beitr. z. Geoph. her. von Gerland, 1887 pp. 133-165; 1894, pp. 537-666; 1897, pp. 273-336).
»
350 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
3. GEOLOGIC MAP OF THE BOTTOM OF THE SEAS.
I come finally to the last problem, which, in spite of its great
interest, will not detain me long, for its solution is yet hardly out-
lined—to prepare a geologic map of the bottom of the seas, and, by
means of that, to reconstruct the history of the oceans as one may do
for the continents.
What I have already said on the present accumulation of marine
sediments explains how a Buchanan sounding tube lowered to the
bottom of the sea does not as a rule penetrate beyond the recently
formed ooze and consequently gives no information on the geologic
substratum.
The exceptions are few. Let us limit ourselves to the mention of
some excavations whose passages have penetrated a slight distance
under the seas—for example, those in Brittany. The only place
where work of this kind has been done methodically is at Pas-de-
Calais, the geologic map of which has been very nearly completed in
view of the proposed tunnel.t But the Pas-de-Calais, for an ocean-
ographer or a geologist, is hardly a sea. Its depth is so slight (a
maximum of 60 meters between Dover and Sangatte) that it must be
likened to a submarine valley across which the sedimentary forma-
tions are prolonged very perceptibly from one shore to the other.?
At the begmning of the Pleistocene epoch communication between
England and the Continent could still be had on foot. That is why
this region offered a good field for soundings which in 1875 and
1876 gave us more than 3,000 profitable throws of the sounding lead.
Thanks to these data a complete map could be drawn, showing the
bendings of successive strata from the Senonian in the north to
beyond the lower Cretaceous in the south. These soundings have
shown that under the fissured and permeable Cenomanian and Seno-
nian chalks there existed in the Cenomanian some impermeable
argillaceous beds. On the condition that the tunnel be kept in this
Cenomanian bed, or 130 meters below the sea at the lowest point, it
could be easily constructed. You know that this project has recently
become again a live topic.
Aside from this very special place, we have very few items to
glean.’ However, at various points on the Channel, at Berck, at
St. Aubin (Calvados), again at Roscoff, there have been found some
Kocene fossils, especially nummulites, proving that at the beginning
of the Tertiary epoch the sea had already passed the length of the
French coast and had there left some deposits. Farther on, toward
England, off Plymouth, some dredgings made in the open sea have
1See La Nature, Apr. 21, 1906, and Revue des Deux-Mondes, October, 1913.
2 The currents which sweep the bottom prevent the present sediments from being deposited there and
facilitate the work of the geologist.
8 See a work by Paul Lemoine in les Annales de Geographie of November, 1912.
GEOLOGY OF BOTTOM OF SEAS—DE LAUNAY. 351
brought up some Cretaceous blocks, showing that marine crustacea
might have existed between the two important peninsulas of Corn-
wall and Brittany, and consequently justifying the inference that
since the Cretaceous epoch this might have been the site of a marine
furrow. The same series of dredgings enables us to trace on the map,
from Morlaix to Plymouth, after these Eocene and Cretaceous epochs,
some successive zones of Liassic, then of Triassic, with ancient strata
in the vicinity of the continent. Thus a series of ancient seas might
have existed on the site of the Channel to lead, probably during the
beginning of the Pleistocene, to an emergence during which the Chan-
nel must have played the part of a continental valley and finally
resulted in a last submergence of which we see the effects.
On the Atlantic coast we have but little information in regard to
the continental shelf or plateau to the west of Ireland, where the
zones of strata which beeome visible on the continent appear to be
prolonged under the sea. In the Atlantic Ocean itself volcanic rocks
are found at various points denoting high bottoms not covered over
with sediments. Notably, 900 kilometers north of the Azores, at a
depth of 3,000 meters, some jagged flows of lava have been found
which were almost certainly solidified in the air.t
Everywhere else we are awaiting information not yet furnished us
by oceanographic soundings, and in order to reconstruct the history
of the ancient seas we are reduced to deductions based on the con-
tinuity of geologic zones, on the nature of the faunas and the floras in
various epochs, and on the relations between these faunas and floras.
In prief, we are led thus to conceive the various types of seas:
(1) The type of continental shelf or plateau prolonging the neigh-
boring continents in a gentle slope, which the faint movements of
equilibrium may alternately move again above or below the sea (the
North Sea, the Baltic, Hudson Bay), ete.; (2) the type of geosyn-
clinal depression in connection with foldings which take at first the
‘aspect of a marine furrow or ridge, to give place some day to a high
alpine chain and on which, in proportion to its fragility, become
accumulated volcanic and seismic irregularities (Mediterranean) ;
(3) the Atlantic type, where successive subsidences through irregu-
larities of unequal depth extending north and south have abruptly
sliced off geologic zones of nearly perpendicular direction, and where
the slopes cross these perpendicular zones without the least account
being taken of them, a recent ocean at its central axis elevated with
volcanic manifestations;? and, finally, (4) the Pacific type in which
geosynclinal troughs with ranges of folding warp an immense block,
1 Pruvot and Robert studied in 1897 near Cap de Creus (Arch. zool. expér. et génér., pp. 497-510) a sub-
marine deposit of shells anterior to the second half of the Pleistocene, at the beginning of which the present
régime was established in the Mediterranean and the Septentrional mollusks had disappeared.
2 See on this subject la Science géologique, p. 253.
352 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
or an assemblage of blocks, deeply and unequally hollowed out, with
folded ranges welded to solid arch stones, and on the summits of
these folded ranges wreaths of islands outlining arabesques.
In conclusion, after having seen what is at present occurring in
the sea, and having shown by comparison how this study of the
present sea yields information on the story of the ancient seas, we
are led to ask ourselves whether this same story will go on indefi-
nitely, whether the seas will continue to be displaced on the surface
of the globe.
I do not think the seas can ever be lacking on the earth, at least
not until the day when the earth becomes only an extinct and frozen
globe. It does not seem to me, in fact, that the loss in water could
be very great at the surface. Granting that to a certain depth there
surely do not exist empty cavities in which this water could be
engulfed, it can disappear only through chemical reaction by yielding
its oxygen to the oxidation of rocks, while the hydrogen escapes
into the heights of the atmosphere. Such a reaction as that certainly
does take place. The land exhales hydrogen, and toward a height
of 70 to 80 kilometers this hydrogen takes the place of nitrogen.
But this is a much restricted phenomenon compared with the immense
volume of the seas which, if spread all over the earth, would form a
mantle of water 3 kilometers thick, and which even now cover three-
quarters of the land. The oxidations, to be effectual, must become
more and more limited by the fact that the region of the crust where
they act could not exceed 60 kilometers. On the contrary, it is even
very possible that volcanism and certain thermal springs may furnish
at the surface some new water, fresh, never having seen the light.
I believe, then, in conclusion, that the total volume of the seas, which
must, no doubt, have been diminishing since the beginning of geologic
time, at the same time that their salinity was increasing and as
their average temperature has been reduced, might diminish still
more. You will see the same phenomena continued, but they will
without doubt be retarded more and more in such a way that the
cooling of the sun, which will lead to the death of the earth, will
probably have had time to be completed before these seas have
disappeared.
RECENT OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCHES.!
By Cu. Gravikr, Sc. D.
iB
From cruises far and wide across the seas, especially during the
nineteenth century, sailors and travelers brought back large collec-
tions of many varieties of animals and plants. To the explorations
by Dumont d’Urville, du Petit-Thouars, Péron and Lesueur, Quoy
and Gaimard, Hombron and Jacquinot, and others, the Muséum
d'Histoire Naturelle owes the great number of original types which
make up its rich collections. The marine organisms collected by
them were taken, for the most part at least, either between tides
or in surface waters, without special appliances.
The cruise of the Challenger around the world (1873-1876) marks
an important date in this class of scientific explorations. Not con-.
tent with the accumulation of a mass of material for zoological study,
they also made observations on the conditions of the environment
in which the captured animals lived. The nature of the sea bottoms
was studied; the depths and the temperatures of the sea waters along
the course were recorded. This was the beginning of a new branch
of the science of oceanography, which has in the years succeeding
undergone great development.
This was also the beginning of a series of explorations conceived in
the same spirit and undertaken by different countries: The T'ra-
vailleur and the Talisman in France, the National and the Valdivia
in Germany, the Siboga in Holland, the Investigator in India, the
Blake and the Albatross in the United States, and others, without
taking into account the numerous expeditions which traversed the
Arctic Seas and those which penetrated the Antarctic Ocean.
Special mention is due the cruises of the Prince of Monaco in the
Atlantic Ocean and in the region of Spitzbergen.
18
It is, however, only at a very recent date that the methods of
oceanographic investigation have been fixed and systematized. It
was, to be exact, in 1902 that the nations bordering upon the North
1 Translated by permission from Revue Scientifique, Paris, May 30, 1914.
73176°—sM 191423 353
304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Sea (England, Norway, Denmark, Germany, and Holland) established
the ‘‘Permanent International Council for the Exploration of the
Sea,”’ with a central laboratory at Christiania.
Oceanographic studies are of two kinds, one physico-chemical, the
other biological. The first includes the determination of the depth
of the sea bottom and the study of the bottom; determination of
the temperature, the salinity, the gaseous contents of the sea water,
the color and transparency of the water, and finally the study of
currents. These investigations require the use of special instruments,
involving a technique the details of which it is impossible to enter
into here. It is enough to say that several of these operations take
place at the same time. Thus, when a sounding is made and a speci-
men of the bottom secured at the point sounded, the temperature is
observed and specimens of the water at various depths taken.
The biological investigations pertain to all organisms both animal
and vegetable which pass their existence in the seas; to their evolution,
to their distribution, etc.: they are specially concerned with the ex-
tremely varied organisms which move actively or float passively in
the superficial layers, and which constitute the so-called plankton,}
a name we commonly reserve for the organisms of very small size
which often swarm at the surface, in differentiation from the animals
of large size like the fishes which inhabit the same regions; to the
former class we sometimes give, in contradistinction, the name of
microplankton.
The attributes of water with which oceanography is concerned above
all are temperature, because of its biological importance; salinity,
thanks to which it is possible to determine the geographical origin
of the sea waters; and the density, which depends on the two pre-
ceding and on the pressure, and which is related directly to the circu-
lation of the water, as much in the vertical sense as in the horizontal.
The color and transparency are less important, though not negligible,
for they help to better define the biological complex in which the
plankton is evolved.
In order to capture the plankton organisms, as well as the animals
swimming at different depths, nets much varying in form and dimen-
sions are used, of which some can be closed at any desired depth;
for the animals which live permanently on the bottoms, recourse is
had to trawls or dragnets of different types. All these oceanographic
operations require on board the vessel from which they are per-
formed a special equipment of winches, cables, drums, and booms,
for the immersion and recovery of the large nets.
In founding the ‘‘Permanent International Council for the Explo-
ration of the Sea,’”’ the nations bordering on the North Sea consid-
1 From zdayxréc, wandering, vagabond.
OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCHES—GRAVIER. apd
ered that it was to their interest to know the physical condition of
that sea and the biology of the fishes which are found there. They
have divided up the immense task which is to be carried on jointly
according to a program in which each nation has the share most
suited to it. The investigations undertaken by all the parties have
culminated in an imposing array of publications appearing under the
titles: Rapports et Procés verbaux; Publications de circonstance.
(Conseil permanent international pour l’exploration de la mer, Copen-
hague.)
TIT.
From the point of view of purely oceanographic investigations, the
Scandinavians, who have so courageously explored the Arctic regions,
have shown themselves to be ardent enthusiasts. During the last
15 years the Norwegians have especially distinguished themselves
and their investigations have caused such a stir in the scientific world
that we must summarize briefly the results.
In 1895, Dr. J. Hjort, the distinguished director of the scientific
fisheries service of Norway, mm his annual report called attention to
the impossibility at that time of determining where the fishes live
when they abandon the littoral waters. “‘No one,” he said, ‘‘ knows
what becomes of the cod, the eel, the herring, or the mackerel, when
they leave the shore waters. ‘This is a point in urgent need of inves-
tigation. No nation is more interested than Norway in deciding the
question, for excepting those of the coast of Séndmére (Aalesund),
the fisheries are almost exclusively littoral, and the deep sea remains
for the fishers of that country a virgin ground.” He emphasized the
necessity of having a steamer well equipped to undertake careful
investigations, based on the technical oceanographical knowledge so
far acquired. The Norwegian Government was so much impressed
by Hjort’s appeal that in July, 1900, the learned naturalist and his
- collaborators were ready to make their first cruise on the Michael
Sars, built in England after the plans of Hjort himself, the arrange-
ment and equipment of which have served as a model for similar
vessels. The practical utility of a technical study of the sea was
quickly admitted among the Norwegian fishermen. I recall that in
1908, when I was taking the very imstructive course of Meeresfor-
schung (studies and investigations relative to the sea) instituted at
Bergen, the president of the organization committee, a shipowner, on
the day of the mauguration of the lectures, delivered an address
which greatly impressed his cosmopolitan audience, and in which in
its true light he described the service which oceanography had
already rendered to the fisheries.
To the lot of Norway, in the division made by the permanent
council, fell the Norwegian Sea with its fjords; that is, the northern
356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
part of the North Sea between Norway, Iceland, and Jan Mayen.
The plan of work from a hydrographic point of view was largely
inspired by the very valuable investigations by the Swedish scholars
Otto Pettersson and Gustaf Ekman, in the Skagerack, to solve similar
problems. The plan comprises two parts:
1. The determination of the temperature and salinity in order to
understand the distribution of the different layers of water and of
the currents, both at the surface and in the depths.
2. The recording of the changes which take place at different
seasons of the year and during a series of years.
Thanks to the labors of Fr. Nansen, director of the international
central laboratory at Christiania, and of B. Helland-Hansen, it can
be said that to-day the first part of the plan is nearly completed, and
successfully. The temperatures and the salinities have been recorded
with all the desired precision in the seas bordermg upon Norway, and
the same has been done with regard to the principal currents, with the
characteristic variations. Concerning these currents, whose study is
one of the principal aims of oceanography and presents very great
difficulties,t we are specially well informed as to their direction, but
we have less information as to their speed, although on this aspect
we have obtained very interesting data, especially in the deeper parts
of the Gulf Stream. . The second part of the program is under way
but much less advanced, because in winter the waters of the Nor-
wegian Sea are troubled by almost continual storms; frequently there
occur, at short intervals, marked changes within restricted areas.
Variations in the distribution of different layers of water, in the direc-
tion and speed of the currents, can be determined only by constantly
collecting records from a great number of adjacent stations.
We now know the origin and the characteristics of the principal
layers of water, affording the two learned Norwegian oceanographers
the basis for a monograph of the hydrographic conditions of the sea
which washes the shores of their country. An approximate estimate
has been made of the volume of water and the amount of heat brought
by the Gulf Stream into that sea. Now, the amount of heat coming
from the warm current has a marked influence on the winter climate
of Scandinavia. Records kept continuously during the month of
May have shown that the annual variations in the amount of heat
from the Gulf Stream correspond to variations in the temperature of
the air in that country. Thus, accordmg to the amount of heat
brought in by the current, measured and calculated in the month of
May, it should be possible to predict whether the following winter
will be warmer or colder than usual. The temperature of the littoral
waters in May is correlated with the rainfall of the preceding year in
1 Cf. Ch. Gravier, ‘‘ Les récentes recherches océanographiques en Norvége,”’ in the Revue gén. des Sci-
ences pures et appliquées, 1909, No. 2, pp. 84-89.
OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCHES—GRAVIER, 857
the north of Europe. Furthermore, the fluctuations in the fisheries
likewise correspond to the annual variations of the waters of the coast.
These conclusions, though resulting from five years of intensive study,
can not yet be regarded as final. Nevertheless, the correlations thus
far determined permit us to hope that hydrographic researches con-
ducted methodically and with perseverance will furnish data useful
to meteorology and to agriculture.
IV.
From the beginning the planktonic investigations have been asso-
ciated with hydrographic work. We have acquired a general idea
of the distribution of the layers of water in the Norwegian Sea and
the nature of the principal plankton organisms. The boundaries of
certain layers of water and of the distribution of certain planktonic
types have shown an interesting correlation. Enormous collections
have been made in order to ascertain the changes in the qualitative
and quantitative composition of the plankton at different seasons;
and the critical and extended study of this material will lead to the
preparation of distribution charts, by region and by month, which
will serve as a basis for our future knowledge. The explorations in
the North Sea proper, where the conditions are less complex, per-
mitted us to affirm that there are in the sea definite areas where cer-
tain species spawn, and that the young stages are carried long dis-
tances by the play of the currents. It has also been found that the
presence of masses of the principal plankton species on which the
fishes feed is correlated with determinable, natural conditions.
Wherever possible to do so, we have sought to understand the fauna
of the sea bottom, which has for us more than pure zoogeographic
interest, for certain kinds of fishes are made up from this fauna.
Thus, at the Danish biological station, Dr. C. G. Joh. Petersen has
made some very interesting observations on the bottom animals
which constitute the food of the plaice, and has drawn from them
conclusions useful in the plaice fisheries. The work of Appelléf along
the same lines has led to conclusions pertaiming to the geographical
distribution of certain animals, and also the physical conditions of
the earth, as, for example, the very probable subsidence of the Faroe
Bank to the south of the islands of that name.
V.
Among the elements of the plankton the attention of Norwegian
oceanographers has been especially concentrated on the eggs and
larvee of fishes. Important discoveries have been made from the very
first cruise. In the summer of 1900 the Michael Sars found young
stages (a few centimeters in length) floating hundreds of miles from
358 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the banks where it was supposed the fish had spawned. ‘The fol-
lowing year, on the banks to the north of Norway, they gathered
recently spawned eggs in great abundance above some shoals of
spawning fish. A chart was carefully prepared showing the spawn-
ing grounds, and, moreover, one of the commissions (commission A)
named by the ‘‘Permanent International Council for the Exploration
of the Sea”’ was given the task of preparing for the entire area of the
North Sea a chart of the spawning grounds of the fishes of the very
important family of Gadide (of which the cod (Gadus) is the type).
Investigations have shown that each of the 15 species of Gadide
caught on the coast of Norway chooses its particular spawning
ground—sometimes extremely limited—which offers the natural
conditions that that species seeks during the spawning period. Depth,
temperature, and salinity appear to be predominant factors in this
matter. While certain species, such as the hake, cod, and haddock,
spawn on the littoral banks and at depths which speaking broadly
never exceed 200 meters, most of the other species of this family
breed in greater depths in water of oceanic character. The larve
are carried far from the breeding places by the currents, which play a
predominant réle in the transportation of young fish into different
waters. This passive distribution of the pelagic stages has been
made the object of joint investigations by the Danish, English,
Germans, Dutch, and Norwegians.
The herring, whose life history has been worked out so carefully by
Heincke at the Heligoland biological station, has also been closely
studied in Norway by several naturalists, who have distinguished
on the coasts of their country four different types of herring cor-
responding to different stages of development. The one which is
given the name spring herring is in the state of sexual maturity, its
length varying from 24 to 37 centimeters and its age from 3 to 14
years. The same individual may spawn 10 or 14 times. Great
differences have been found in the size of herring, according to locali-
‘ties. While the spring herring of Norway reach 37 centimeters at
10 to 14 years, that of the Zuyder Zee does not exceed 26 to 27 centi-
meters, and that of Breitstadfjord not more than 23 to 24 centimeters.
J. Hjort and Einar Lea have shown that, as G. O. Sars had supposed,
the migrations of the herring are much more extended than had been
previously suspected. All these facts are of the greatest importance
from the point of view of the fishing industry.
VI.
In addition to investigations similar to the foregoing relative to the
salmon and the sprat, the Michael Sars has been utilized also for
fishing experiments and for practical investigations directed by its
vO
OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCHES—GRAVIER. 359
commander, Capt. Thor Iversen. The aim was to get in touch with
the fisheries in order to acquire a complete knowledge of the banks
and grounds exploited for fishing and to see the fishers at work,
together with their appliances and their methods. During these
practical researches Capt. Thor Iversen discovered grounds abun-
dantly stocked with fish which the fisheries had until then neglected.
At certain places where they sought to get a general idea of the
grounds, they found fishes in such quantity that they began at once
to exploit industrially these unsuspected riches. When I stopped
at Bergen, in 1908, there were in the famous fish markets of that city
an immense quantity of halibuts, which came from a very rich bank
accidentally discovered by the Michael Sars some time before. In
these operations the primarily scientific ship was aided by fishing
boats hired for the purpose, with competent zoologists aboard. It is
due to the earnestness and intelligent energy of Hjort and the col-
laborators whom he was fortunate enough to gather around him that
success many a time crowned their efforts. These cceanographers
succeeded in finding new forms of fishes and indicated methods of
capturing them, thus aiding in the development of a new industry.
VIl.
Desirous of extending their researches into the Atlantic, whose
relations with the Norwegian Sea they had studied, the Norwegians
in 1910 undertook, thanks to the generous collaboration of Sir John
Murray, the well known oceanographer of the Challenger expedition,
a cruise in the northern part of that ocean, which proved extremely
profitable as much from a biological point of view as from a physical.
The observations of B. Helland-Hansen in the vicinity of the Azores
show that the sun’s rays penetrate much deeper than had been
believed until then, for at 1,000 meters from the surface photographic
plates still received distinct impressions, and certain rays from the
most refrangible part of the spectrum penetrate much deeper yet.
By an ingenious contrivance which permitted of fishing simultan-
eously at different depths, naturalists of the Michael Sars were first
enabled to study the vertical distribution of a certain number of
species of fishes and of crustacea, and to clear up a number of bio-
logical questions. The general results of this expedition have been
presented in a very comprehensive work written by the two chiefs,
Sir John Murray and Hyort.'
VEL
In the United States, where Maury, Bache, Pillsbury, and others
were among the first to scientifically study the sea, there has been a
1 Sir John Murray and Johan Hjort, The Depths of the Ocean, with contributions from Prof. A. Appelldf,
Prof. H. H. Gran, and Dr. B. Helland-Hansen. Macmillan & Co., London, 1912. 821 pp., 575 figs. in the
text, 9 pls., of which 7 are colored.
360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
strong trend toward oceanographic studies. At the tropical bio-
logical station at Tortugas, Fla., founded by the Carnegie Institution
of Washington, they have begun with the Anton Dohrn a series of
hydrographic and biological studies covering the Caribbean Sea and
the very sources of the Gulf Stream. ‘‘It would be a source of regret
for Americans,’ writes Dr. Alfred G. Mayer, director of the Tortugas
station,! ‘to fall to an inferior level in this important field of studies.’’
At the San Diego marine biological station on the coast of Cali-
fornia, the Alexander Agassiz is methodically carrying on the ex-
ploration of the coast of southern California. This ship is provided
with all the necessary machinery and apparatus for dredging, sound-
ing, fishing, determination of temperatures, taking specimens of sea
water at all depths, measuring currents, and measuring the intensity
of the light in the sea water.’
In addition to these, the Grampus, a schooner specially assigned to
this duty through the cooperation of the United States Bureau of
Fisheries and the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Cambridge,
Mass., has been given the task of investigating the characteristics of
the Gulf of Maine, from the point of view of temperature, salinity,
the currents, and the plankton. The fact that waters of diame-
trically opposed origins (the Gulf Stream and the cold littoral cur-
rent) here meet, leads one to think that a study of this gulf, using
modern methods, would be of interest from an oceanographic point
of view and might have a favorable influence on the quite considerable
fisheries of which it is the headquarters. H. B. Bigelow, who directs
the cruises of the Grampus, has just published the chief results of the
campaign of 1912. He seems to establish the fact that the Gulf of
Maine owes its low temperature and its low degree of salinity chiefly
to local causes—to its geographical position and its partial isolation by
the Georgian Bank. The cold water comes from the St. Lawrence and
its tributaries and probably has no connection with the cold Labrador
current, contrary to the opinion generally held in scientific works as
well as in popular belief. Bigelow and his collaborators propose to
study the correlation between the geographic and seasonal distribu-
tion of the most important elements of the plankton and the physical
characters of the waters in which they live, and to try to determine
the factors controlling their periods of reproduction, their migrations,
etc. The work of 1912 was but a preliminary investigation of the
problem; the materials gathered require long study before yielding
the results which we may expect from them.
1 Annual report of the director, 1912, p. 188.
2 Cf. Ch. Gravier, le Laboratoire de Biologie tropicale de Tortugas (Floride), Revue génér. des Sc. pures
et appl., 1913, No. 23, pp. 874-882. La station biologique marine de San Diego (Californie), ibid., 1912,
No. 11, pp. 440-443.
OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCHES—GRAVIER, 361
The operations of the Grampus will be continued from year to
year. They were taken up in November, 1912, by the steamer
Blue Wing, an auxiliary to the Grampus, during the operations of
fish culture in the winter season. In 1913, in again taking the meas-
urements at the stations of 1912, to determine the changes from year
to year, Bigelow traversed the cold waters between the coast and the
Gulf Stream from Cape Cod to the entrance to Chesapeake Bay. In
pursuing their investigations relative to edible fishes the American
naturalists discovered very extensive beds of scallops (Pecten magel-
lanicus) along the whole length of the States of New York, New
Jersey, and Maryland, which promise to be a source of very important
new fisheries.
IX.
Until these later years, aside from the cruises of the Prince of
Monaco and the local investigations such as those of Pruvot at Ban-
yuls and of J. Richard in the Bay of Monaco, almost everything
from an oceanographic standpoint remained to be done in the Medi-
terranean. But since 1910 the situation has changed entirely. The
Italians have taken up the work with a remarkable zeal, greatly
excited by the acquisition of Lybia (Tripoli). The law of July 13,
1910, modified by that of June 5, 1913, established the ‘‘ Reale Comi-
tato talassografico italiano.’ Paragraph 1 of article 1 of that law
thus defines the duties of that committee: ‘‘There is established
from the ist of July, 1910, the Royal Italian Thalassographic Com-
mittee, having executive functions to carry on the physico-chemical
and biological studies of the Italian seas, their special relation to the
industries of navigation and of fishing, and the exploration of the
higher atmosphere in its relation to aerial navigation. The com-
mittee received (1) a contribution from the Government of 60,000
francs a year: (2) fixed or temporary contributions from other public
departments, and from private and scientific bodies. It met at
Naples in 1910, at Rome in 1911, at Genoa in 1912, at Sienna in 1914,
always on the occasion of the Congress of the Italian Association for
the Advancement of Science, whose president is at the head of the
Thalassographic committee.
Furthermore, the committee felt the necessity of having a central
institute of marine biology which would permit making, besides inde-
pendent biological studies, an examination of the material collected
during the cruises and the distribution of sorted lots to competent
specialists, to whom recourse must inevitably be had. The place
chosen is Messina, whose rich plankton has attracted so many natur-
alists. A first contribution of 100,000 francs has been furnished by
the Government; the work of construction was begun at the end of
last January. From the financial appropriation for 1912 to 1913 the
362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
sum of 20,000 franes (incorporated in the extra budget for the Navy)
for each appropriation is set aside for the construction and furnishing
of this institute. Besides the Royal Italian Thalassographic Com-
mittee, they have created local committees to participate im the gen-
eral work, but especially to study local problems: Ligurian, Adriatic,
Parthenopian, and Sicilian committees.
It is to the study of the Adriatic that the Italian efforts are mainly
directed. An agreement concluded with the Austro-Hungarian Gov-
ernment following a conference of delegates of the two allied countries
at Venice, in May, 1910, paved the way for this collaboration. Four
cruises each year, in February, in May, in August, in November
(those of November, 1911, February and May, 1912, could not be
carried on on account of the Tripolitan war), were to be undertaken
following eight determined traverses, making observations and meas-
urements according to an established technique with the standard
instruments. The fourteenth cruise of the Cyclops (Italy) and of
the Naiad (Austria-Hungary), which were to close the program of
periodical investigations to be made in the Adriatic, took place in
February, 1914.
Finally, the international commission for the study of the Medi-
terranean has thus far met three times under the honorary presidency
of S. A. S. the Prince of Monaco. At the last meeting, at Rome, in
1914, the Italians presented a complete plan of investigations for
that sea, inspired by that which they had followed in the Adriatic,
and laid out work for each of the nations bordermg on the Medi-
terranean.
THE KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD IN 1913.1
By H. M. Capzt1, B. Se., F..R: S. EB:
[With 6 plates.]
Klondike was once a name in every mouth, and in the last years
of the nineteenth century it nearly became incorporated in the
language as a new synonym for all that is rich and prosperous. But
of late it has been little heard of on this side of the water, and its
early bloom has faded away. The sensational pockets of fine placer
gold, that attracted hordes of hardy adventurers from every quarter,
have now been mostly depleted and new ones have not been dis-
covered to maintain the early reputation of the field. But while
this part of the Yukon district can not any longer be called a poor
man’s goldfield, it still contains a considerable -quantity of alluvial
gold that can be profitably won by the application of capital and
brains. In any case, it is a district well worth a visit, and apart
altogether from gold it has other possibilities in the way of future
development. Besides this, it is full of points of great geographic and
scientific interest, and in this remote and imperfectly explored north-
western corner of the British Empire the geologist and the geographer
will find many new problems awaiting them which it will be a delight
to discuss and investigate for many years to come.
I had the advantage in September, 1913, of paying a short visit
to the Yukon district with a few members of the International
Geological Congress, under the able guidance of Mr. R. G. McConnell,
of the Canadian Geological Survey, and other specialists and officials
who had already explored the goldfield on behalf of the Government,
and had published from time to time accounts of its industrial and
geological development. We were thus placed in the favorable
position of being able to see in a short time many things that might
never have come under the notice of a solitary and unguided stranger,
and with the literature and maps that were liberally provided it was
possible to form a good general idea of the district, that might be
made serviceable to our respective countrymen in distant lands,
whether they might be men of science or people with more material
mterests.
1 Reprinted by permission from the Scottish Geographical Magazine, July, 1914.
363
364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The Yukon territory is most easily reached by steamer from Van-
couver through the lovely forest-clad islands and straits on the coast
of British Columbia and the United States coastal belt of southern
Alaska. In the last part of this most interesting voyage of nearly .
1,000 miles the route lies along the Lynn Canal, a narrow arm of the
sea that reminds a Scot of Loch Linnhe, but is bordered by higher
mountains with snowy crests, and glaciers creeping down the glens
to near sea level. The Lynn Canal is a straight fiord about 85 miles
long, but it is only the prolongation northward into the mountains
of the Chatham Strait, a deep submerged valley among large islands,
whose whole length is 250 miles. The width varies from 3 to 6 miles,
and the depth from 1,000 to 2,500 feet. Although this narrow inlet
penetrates so far up into the mainland, its head, with that of all the
other fiords on the coast north of the Portland Canal, now belongs
to the United States. The latter claimed it, and Lord Alverstone as
chairman decided in their favor and against Canada in the boundary
dispute whose settlement caused so much bitterness in the Dominion
in 1903. The head of the Lynn Canal lies at Skagway, the gateway
to the Yukon, a wretched little town with decayed wooden houses
and grass-grown streets, the scene of many robberies, riots, and
murders at the time of the gold rush, which the police authorities
outside of British territory had neither the power nor the energy to
control. Skagway is not and can never be of much use to the United
States, except as an obstruction to Canadian progress, but it might be
of some advantage to the vast Canadian hinterland less than 20
miles inland. If, at some future time, the United States Government
ever wished a cheap opportunity to show a little practical good will
to their progressive northern neighbor, they might advantageously
dispose of the head of the Lynn Canal, and thus give Canada one
much needed outlet along a strip of some 500 miles of seacoast from
which the Dominion has been cut off by the award of the lord chief
justice.
Skagway is surrounded on three sides by a plateau of steep and
rugged mountains through which to the north there are two trails,
by the White Horse and the Chilcoot passes, respectively. Up fess
wild and difficult ravines thousands of hardy adventurers trekked and
struggled with their heavy packs, tools, and tents, in the mad rush
to the expected El Dorado, 500 miles away. Soon eee the gold was
found in sufficient Gitdantitien? a 3-foot-gauge mountain railway was
laid up the White Pass (fig.1). It runs from Skagway to the summit
at 2,887 feet abovesea level and on to Lake Bennett, a distance of
about 40 miles. It traverses a wild, ice-worn, granitic plateau,
strewn with moraines and sprinkled over with -lakes at the foot of
bare snowy peaks, 5,000 to 6,000 feet in height, reminding one of
parts of the west coast of Sutherland or of the interior of Norway.
KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD—CADELL. 365
Lake Bennett, a narrow and picturesque sheet of water between
high mountains, is 27 miles long and its outlet at the northern end
is one of the tributaries of the Great Yukon River. The sixtieth
parallel, that of the south end of the Shetland Islands, crosses the
lake some miles from the deserted town of Bennett at its head. At
the time of the gold rush there were 5,000 people at Bennett in
houses, huts, and tents, and the fact that a wooden Presbyterian
church was built there shows that more than 10 righteous men were
to be found among that surging and sordid crowd. The church is
now almost the only building besides the railway station that is
standing, but it is boarded up and falling into decay. The photo-
graph I had time to make during our short halt for lunch shows this
little ecclesiastical pile with its spire pointing to the sky adding a
human touch to the grand but desolate picture (pl. 1).
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Fic. 1.—Scenery at summit of White Pass, on Yukon Railway. Altitude, 2,800 feet.
The original diggers here got into boats and canoes, and navigated
their frail craft through the lakes and rapids on the remaining 531
miles of their adventurous journey to Dawson City. The whole dis-
tance from Skagway to Dawson is 571 miles, and the first part of the
journey is covered by 110 miles of railway. The line runs at the foot
of the steep granite mountains along the shore of Lake Bennett to
White Horse, a few miles above the tame but beautiful Lake Laberge,
where safe navigation begins. At the north end of Lake Bennett the
country bécomes less rugged, and the mountains lower and more
rounded, and there are broad valleys covered with glacial drift and
herbage. ake Laberge is a little over 2,000 feet above sea level
and the whole fall to Dawson is about 1,000 feet, which gives an
average gradient in 435 miles of a little more than 2.5 feet per mile.
There are no serious declivities below White Horse, and only at one
place—the Five Finger Rapids below the Tantalus coal mine— is there
much risk to travelers during the season when the river is open to
navigation by flat-bottomed, stern-wheel steamers.
366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The Lewes River, flowing from Lake Laberge, and the Yukon, of
which it is a large tributary, flows northward in. a channel with many
windings between high terraces of gravel and sand. White Horse is
situated on the flat river bank at the base of one of these high gravel
terraces, well exhibited in plate 1. The upper part of the valley is
full of glacial detritus and fine mud from the glaciers that once cov-
ered the higher country, and the river is busy excavating a lower
channel in these loose deposits. Over a large district the sandy soil
under the grass has a skin of impalpable white ash from 6 inches to a
couple of feet deep, that has been wafted hither at the time of some
prodigious eruption of an unknown volcano long ago, and has fallen
quietly like a shower of fine snow over the face of hill and dale.
Though the latitude is that of our Shetland Islands, this part of the
Yukon Valley is thickly covered with trees, mainly aspen, birch, alder,
and spruce. In the bright September days the whole landscape was
blazing with the brilliant golden and scarlet tints of the autumn
foliage, mingled with the somber hue of the firs in the lower reaches,
and this mass of rich colormg faded away into the deep blue and
purple of the bare mountain crests in the background of the lovely
picture.
Many kinds of rock are to be found along the Yukon Valley, from
pre-Cambrian ‘schists to Tertiary and recent volcanic lavas. At
Tantalus, where the Nordenskiédld joins the Lewes River, 200 miles
below White Horse, and at the Five Finger Rapids some miles farther
down, seams of coal are seen cropping out on the cliff faces. Although
there is much true Carboniferous limestone in the district, this forma-
tion is not associated with any coal, and, as is the case all over western
Canada and Alberta, the coal is all of younger age, and is interbedded
with Jurassic and Cretaceous strata. The seams are sometimes over
7 feet thick, and at Tantalus there is a mine in operation in the cliff
at the river’s edge where several thousand tons have been worked.
The coal is of great use, as the woods near the river have been largely
cut for fuel and for mining and building purposes, and the supply is
thus becoming scarcer every year. But the quality of the coal is not
very good, and its percentage of ash is high.
Near White Horse a valuable body of copper ore is also bemg mined
in the hills, and if enough good coal were to be discovered a great
impetus would be given to permanent local industry of a better kind
than precarious gold mining. The region has for half theryear at least
a good and sunny climate, and as it is now fairly accessible it may
some day develop into a useful grazing or agricultural territory. It
is, of course, still largely unexplored, and more valuable minerals and
other resources may yet be discovered in the unfrequented remoter
hinterland out of sight of the river highway.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Cadell. PLATE 1.
LAKE BENNETT.
THE LEWES VALLEY AT WHITE HorSE, SHOWING HIGH TERRACE OF
GLACIAL GRAVEL.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Cadell. PLATE 2.
A “HuMAN Moraine.” EFFECT OF GOLD DREDGING ON TOPOGRAPHY OF HUNKER CREEK,
KLONDIKE.
EFFECT OF HYDRAULIC SLUICING OF UPPER WHITE GRAVELS, BONANZA CREEK, KLONDIKE.
KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD—CADELL., 367
A curious and interesting feature of the district must now be
mentioned. The numerous lakes, the deeply eroded ice-worn valleys,
and the widespread deposits of gravel and morainic material in the
upper part of the Yukon Basin, all tell of the former wide extension of
the glaciers, whose diminished representatives have long ago shrunk
back into the remote glens and corries among the higher mountains.
But as we sail northward toward the Arctic Circle these traces of
former extensions of land ice diminish, and finally disappear alto-
gether. The moraines are no longer to be seen, and all we find in
the valley is a wide deposit of very fine sand or silt, such as is washed
in a milky flood from beneath any valley glacier. These glacial silt
beds finally dwindle away, and the solid rock surface becomes soft and
rotten, and covered with screes and loose débris produced entirely by
its own disintegration.
Long before we reach Dawson all traces of glaciation have disap-
peared, and the noble river winds back and forward between the steep
sides of a valley, a quarter of a mile wide, cut out of the old and
decomposed plateau of crystalline rocks. The latitude of Dawson
City is that of the south of Iceland, and its level is a little more than
1,000 feet above the sea. The whole of the old alluvium in the valley
bottoms is frozen hard to a depth of over 100 feet, and the summer
sun is only able to thaw a few feet of the surface before the winter’s
cold sets in, and the whole region is incased in snow and ice.
Now, it is a matter of common knowledge that the cold was at one
time so intense in the Northern Hemisphere that the northern parts
of Europe and Canada were covered for a time by huge glaciers, or
ice caps, such as now envelop the whole of Greenland. The whole of
the Pacific coast of British Columbia and the southern end of Van-
couver Island is intensely ice worn. In the eastern part of Canada
the polar ice cap in the glacial period covered the country as far south
as the Great Lakes, and left the Province of Ontario sprinkled over
with clay and stones from far-off northern sources. Wherever the
creat ice sheet went it swept away all the loose rock, river alluvium,
and soil that lay on the preglacial land. The underlying rocks were
scoured and polished, and when the ice melted at last, the valleys
and plains were left buried under a covering, not of soil or river
alluvium in stratified beds, but mainly of unstratified bowlder clay
or till, produced by the grinding of the creeping ice, which was at
places thousands of feet in depth.
These considerations may seem remote from the subject of the
Klondike gold deposits, but in reality the opposite is the case. The
original valley gravels, the accumulations of long ages in which small
quantities of gold derived from the adjacent rocks had become col-
lected, sorted out, and concentrated by the long-continued action of
the ancient rivers—these auriferqus deposits were not swept away
368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
>]
here as they were at other places during the glacial age, and they
were only partially washed out by the rivers of later times. They
were left, or at least partially left, lying undisturbed in certain shel-
tered valleys until their value was discovered by a few prospectors.
The final process of removal, or at least -disturbance, of the old
gravels was not long delayed after this important discovery had been
made.
The reason why this northern territory thus escaped the besom of
destruction that swept other regions bare was doubtless the fact that
the climate was so dry that there was little or no rain or snow to
produce a great glacier. However great the cold may be at any
place, it is obvious there can be no frozen water if the water is not
first there to freeze. Had there either been no ice age, or else a dry
climate during that epoch, placer deposits of gold might also be
found in eastern Canada, Scotland, or Scandinavia, where small quan-
tities of the precious metal occur in the local crystalline rocks, and
the almost complete absence of alluvial gold is one result of that
prolonged icy invasion of these countries. The deeply frozen sub-
soil in the Klondike district is all that remains to tell us of the great
cold of the glacial age, for there is no doubt that the ground has
remained in a frozen state since that period, and that its covering of
moist peat has effectually prevented it from becoming thawed by the
warm sun in summer.
The Yukon goldfield, so far as it has been explored, is apparently
mainly confined to the vicinity of Dawson City, although small quan-
tities of gold can be found in the sand of the Yukon for hundreds of
miles up the valley. Indeed, our party panned a little gravel and
got specks or colors of gold where the steamer stopped for fuel, 10
miles below Big Salmon River, a tributary of the Lewes River above
Tantalus, near the place where gold was first discovered in 1881. We
passed an old digger who, we were told, can wash out about £2 worth
of gold a day during good weather, when the water is low and the
banks well exposed, in certain parts of the channel.
Dawson City (see map, fig. 2) is situated on the alluvial flat close to
the mouth of the Klondike, a small river which rises in the Ogilvie Range
and flows southward and westward into the Yukon. The Bonanza
Creek is a little stream in a deep and wide gully that enters the left
bank of the Klondike Valley just above the confluence at Dawson,
which is celebrated for the richness of its auriferous gravels. The
Klondike is joined by two other tributaries on its left bank farther
up, Bear Creek and Hunker Creek, the latter of which is by far the
larger and more important.+ These and other streams all occupy
smooth-sided valleys traversing an old peneplain or dissected upland
composed of rounded hills and ridges. These smooth ridges originate
in and branch outward from the. Dome, a round-topped eminence
KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD—CADELL. 369
reaching to an elevation of 4,250 feet, the highest mountain and
topographic center of the whole district. It is 19 miles southwest of
Dawson and commands a magnificent view of the surrounding tract
of brown, grassy uplands, sweeping away northward for 40 miles to
the snowy peaks of the Ogilvie Range. I had time to make a topo-
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Fi@. 2.—Map of Klondike district and vicinity. (From the Geological Survey of Canada.)
graphic sketch of the panorama from the summit, which was nearly
clear of snow, and have now reproduced part of it to convey to the
reader an impression of the general appearance of that remote and
lonely region, the haunt of the caripou and the ptarmigan. (See pl. 3.)
The Klondike goldfield has two perfectly distinct sets of placer
deposits. In the alluvial flats of the Klondike and its tributaries, the
73176°—sMm 1914——24
370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Hunker and Bonanza Creeks, there is a series of deep gravels covered
with soil and peat moss and containing the remains of extinct and
existing animals in large quantities. Bones of mastodon and huge
mammoth tusks, skulls of buffaloes and bones of bear, musk ox, and
mountain sheep, as well as ancient beaver dams, are often discovered
by the drift miners. These ancient denizens of the valleys must some-
times have been of immense size. I met a digger from another gold
field in Alaska who told me that he had once seen a mammoth’s tusk
14 feet long in the frozen gravel, but those found in the Klondike dis-
trict have seldom a length of more than 11 or 12 feet.
In these gulch or valley gravels the richest gold is found, and the
most valuable part is at the bottom next the bedrock. To reach the
pay streak shafts have to be sunk where the gravel is deep, and the
fact that the ground is all frozen makes the drift mining a compara-
tively easy operation requiring very little timbering or pumping.
The second set of auriferous gravels occurs at certain places on high
terraces or benches cut in the rock, and they reach up to about 450
feet above the beds of the existing valleys. These high-level gravels
are mostly white or pale in color, very compact, and quite different in
appearance from the loose and more recently formed low-level placer
deposits. They are largely made up of white quartz pebbles and
sand and subangular pieces of vein quartz and sericite schist. The
largest bowlders are seldom more than 18 inches in diameter except
near the bottom, where large angular blocks 3 or 4 feet in diameter
are occasionally found. The white channel gravel is very uniform in
texture and reaches a thickness at places of 150 feet, with a maximum
width of more than a mile. It is almost unstratified and, unlike the
valley gravel, is totally destitute of plant or animal remains. At the
bottom of the white gravel there is a pay streak next the rock. This
is at places extremely rich, but gold occurs throughout the whole bed
in quantities sufficient to be profitably extracted by hydraulicking,
but not by individual miners. The best of the pay streak has been
already exhausted by drifting, and what is left is bemg worked by
hydraulic ‘‘giants’”’ in the hands of capitalists.
These two distinct river deposits have an interesting story to tell.
They point unmistakably to a change in the level of the land at one
period, and indeed when the Yukon territory comes to be better
explored many other interesting historical points that are now obscure
will be cleared up. There is evidence of a considerable change in sey-
eral parts of the Yukon River system since the Tertiary period, and
some of the rivers have been able to capture parts of others and so
modify the original pattern of the continental drainage. The land
has not remained quite stationary, and indeed in Yakutat Bay, in
Alaska, as recently as 1899, there was a terrific earthquake, accom-
KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD—CADELL. 371
panied by a local movement of the land and an upheaval of the coast
line to the extent of 47 feet in one place.
In the Klondike and Dawson instance the movement was one of
upheaval of the whole region to a height of at least 700 feet. There
were ancient river valleys with sluggish streams, where the white ter-
race gravels slowly accumulated and in whose bottoms the grains of
gold derived from the waste of the small quartz veins in the neighbor-
ing hills became concentrated in streaks and pockets. When the
uplift began the rivers acquired fresh velocity and started at once to
deepen their old courses energetically and to cut out new and nar-
rower valleys in their old flood plains. They swept away a great deal
of the white gravel, but some of it was left undisturbed, with the gold-
bearing streak beneath. The process went on till the rivers had not
only cut out deep trenches in the white gravels, but had penetrated
far below them into the underlying rock. The gold in the white
gravels, perhaps with other gold derived directly from the neighboring
schistose rock, sank to the bottom of the later alluvium and was con-
centrated again in a newer pay streak, while the lighter débris was
mostly transported to the distant sea. The climate was mild enough
for vegetation to flourish, on which many large animals browsed in
peace and comfort, or were preyed upon by more predaceous denizens
of the northern wilds.
To come down to more modern times, adventurous prospectors
threaded their weary way over this little-explored region, and these
hardy pioneers of empire first began to find traces of gold in the
Yukon Valley about the year 1869. In 1881 gold was found in the
gravel banks and bars of the Big Salmon, and other discoveries were
made in the Lewes, Pelly, and Stewart Rivers soon afterwards. The
first discovery of coarse gold was made on the Fortymile, another
tributary of the Yukon below Dawson, in 1886, and with this evidence
of the auriferous character of the district prospecting received further
encouragement. In 1894 fresh discoveries drew the miners into Klon-
‘dike Valley, but it was not till 1896 that the great find was made, of
which I shall now give a short account.
In 1894 Bob Henderson discovered gold in Quartz Creek, a tributary
of Indian River, at a place about 6 miles south of the Dome, and he
went over the ridge to Gold Bottom, another gully, a tributary of
Hunker Creek, where he discovered more gold in 1896. He told
George Cormack, another prospector in the district, of his luck, and
Cormack paid him a visit, but on the way back Cormack, or one of his
companions, while stopping for dinner, accidentally turned up some
remarkably rich dirt at Bonanza Creek, and immediately pegged out
a claim without ever telling Henderson of his own far greater luck.
Prodigious quantities of gold were soon found at this spot, and pros-
pectors flocked in from all quarters. Many of them made fortunes
372 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
in a short time, but not being educated to use wealth properly, it was
mostly misused and spent in debauchery. The greatest quantity
produced in the district was in 1900, when the output reached
nearly four and a half million pounds sterling. One man, Dick Lowe
by name, is said to have got out of a fractional claim, 86 feet by 300
feet in area, £120,000, but I was told he spent it in a few years and
died in poverty. Others got and wasted as much or more. Cormack
was said to be working as a coal miner and Henderson was in 1913 a
Government pensioner. One of the quickest fortunes was made
by two men who in 27 hours cleaned up gold to the value of £13,000.
Many stories are told of the proceedings at Klondike in these ‘‘golden
days” which are not for edification, and the moral is that wealth
too easily and quickly acquired is apt to be the opposite of a blessing
to mankind.
At the height of the boom in the winter of 1899 the population of
Dawson City is said to have reached 25,000, and that of the whole
district 50,000. All these people did not make fortunes, while many
lost their lives in the attempt, and soon the richest of the placers
became exhausted and the exodus began. At the time of my visit
Dawson City had a population of only 2,000, and the place was in a
sorry condition, while the surrounding district was almost depleted
of drift miners.
When good gold was found the Government, out of the revenue
from the duty that was paid, set to work with exemplary speed to
construct roads up the main creeks and over the hills, which greatly
facilitated and cheapened transport. We went up Klondike Valley
and Hunker Creek by one of these roads, spent the night in the little
rest house near the summit in the snow that had begun to fall, and
next day returned by Eldorado and Bonanza Creek. My little
party of three was fortunate enough in being conveyed round this
60-mile run by Mr. J. W. Boyle in his motor car, not without con-
siderable difficulty and risk at perilous places. Mr. Boyle is the able
head of the Boyle Concessions (Litd.), one of the two large and
prosperous companies now engaged in extracting the remaining gold
left by the drift miners. Besides showing us great hospitality,
Mr. J. W. Boyle, in common with many other kind hosts in Dawson
City, gave the visitors much valuable information about the present
condition of the gold industry and the methods that are taken to
succeed in accomplishing by modern science and capital what in
the hands of poor and uneducated men would be a perfectly hopeless
task.
The gold in the Yukon field is, as has been said, derived originally
from many small veins widely disseminated in the metamorphic
schists of the surrounding locality. Large and productive veins
have not been found but attempts have been made to work small
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KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD—CADELL. ais
ones, hitherto, however, with indifferent success. The long-continued
operations of nature before the advent of man have been needed to
concentrate these scattered grains into sufficient quantities to be
profitable for his use.
The various methods of gold recovery in the Klondike district
may be generally classified under three main heads into the following
seven subdivisions:
A. By individual men:
(1) Washing surface gravels with shovel and pan.
(2) Sluicing gravel with flumes and sluice boxes.
B. Small parties:
(3) Working drift with mechanical scraper and sluices.
(4) Drift mining in shafts and sluicing.
C. Capitalists:
(5) Dredging with powerful mechanical plant.
(6) Hydraulic sluicing with monitors.
(7) Mining and stamping ore in mills.
The first class (A) includes the so-called ‘‘poor men’s diggings,”’ as
all the plant that is required are a few tools and wood to make
‘ ta
Fia. 3.— Generalized section showing distribution of auriferous gravels at Klondike. A, Klondike schists;
B,stream gravels; C,peat or ‘‘muck”’; D, terrace gravels; E, white channel gravels of old valley; F,
high-level gravels; G, G, G, profile of old valley bed.
cradles or sluice boxes and flumes to convey the water required to
wash the gravel. The second class (B) requires more financial
resources and also more mechanical ability, but a man who has begun
from zero may, if successful, quite well gain enough money and expe-
rience to enter class B and employ other men or work in company
with a party on the cooperative system. Both A and B, however,
require fairly rich ground to work upon. But between B and C
there is a wide gap, and only men such as Mr. J. W. Boyle, with excep-
tional ability and command of ample capital, can hope to pass from
B to C and work the low-grade placer gravels or quartz veins suc-
cessfully. The poor men without education who suddenly realized
fortunes, but had not the brains to use their money rightly, were not
qualified to pass into the last class even though they had the capital
to begin with. The survivors, the men with both the mental and
material resources, are now left almost alone on the field, and it is to
them that the future of Klondike belongs.
374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
On our way up Klondike Valley, between Bear Creek and the
mouth of Hunker Creek, we stopped to visit the last of the old drift
mines in the Klondike Valley, where a party of 21 men were working
on tribute in the frozen gravel, which is here 40 feet deep, for which
they paid a royalty of 20 per cent of the gold recovered to the owner
of the claim. The accompanying diagram, showing a section of the
working drawn to scale, and a sketch of the surface arrangements
(pl. 4), will convey an idea of the method adopted in this field by
miners with a limited amount of capital at their disposal.
A shaft is sunk to the rock surface where the pay streak occurs, and
from this a tunnel or heading is driven 50 yards in one direction to
the boundary of the claim or the limit of the little field that can be
worked easily from one shaft. When this distance is reached a
drift is made in the gravel at right angles to the main tunnel on each
side along the boundary, so that the working plan is like the letter
T to begin with. Then the whole area is gradually worked back
Fia. 4.—Section across Bonanza Valley at Lovett Hill (vertical scale double horizontal). P.S., position
of pay streak of coarse gold at bottom of white channel gravels in bed of old valley.
toward the shaft on a method corresponding to what in coal-mining
is known as the ‘‘long-wall system.” It is not a true long-wall
method, however, as no wall is required to hold up the frozen roof,
which is very strong and needs no support near the working face.
In mining a coal seam the thin ‘‘holing” picked or cut out under
the coal is the least valuable part, and the thick stratum above it
is what the miners are after. But in the case under notice the
opposite principle holds. The thin stratum next the bedrock is
the only valuable part. It is, however, too hard frozen to be imme-
diately removed. To undercut the hard mass, lines of horizontal
holes are bored close to the bedrock into which pipes with sharp
points are driven 4 or 5 feet, and connected with a pipe from a boiler
at the pit mouth. Steam is thus injected by means of these steam
points, as they are called, for from 6 to 12 hours, and the holing is
thawed till it is quite soft and can be easily excavated with picks and
shovels. Each steam point requires steam equal to about one horse-
power, and thaws from 1 to 3 cubic yards per shift. This thawed
gravel is wheeled away in barrows and emptied into a bucket or
skip at the pit bottom. The bucket is hoisted to the surface by a
steam winch, and by an ingenious arrangement travels along an
aerial ropeway and is tipped automatically into the sluicebox. All
the surface labor required is that of a man in the sluicebox to throw
KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD—CADELL. 315
out the stones and another to attend to the engine. In order to
give headroom for working, the gravel thus undermined is broken
down in lumps and thrown back into the waste, and the loose stuff fills
it nearly to the roof. In course of time the superincumbent stratum
thaws and subsides gently like the roof of a long-wall working, and
closes up the space above the waste, and the surface of the ground
sinks down to the same extent
This frozen gravel or ‘‘muck’’ provides a surprisingly strong roof
to the working. It is, however, sometimes forgotten that water is
a true mineral, and in its crystalline or frozen state is as much a rock
as granite. When thus solidified in the interstices between hard
grains and pebbles it forms a very strong and homogeneous block
without fissures or joints to weaken it or interrupt its continuity.
Thus it is that drift miners can work with comparative safety,
especially in winter, and only require to leave an occasional solid
pillar or put in a little timbering to support parts of the roof that may
be weak. In winter time the frost is most intense and the roof not
so liable to fall in. In one case on Dominion Creek, a ‘‘muck”’
roof of this kind, unsupported by pillars, is stated to have covered
a vault 140 feet wide by 230 feet long, and remained unbroken, till
midsummer.
The thawing of the gravel was originally carried on by wood fires
placed against the face like the ancient method of fire setting to dis-
integrate the lode in metal mines before the days of explosives, but
the use of steam points soon superseded this primitive process. There
is, of course, considerable danger of individual stones or slices of the
roof dropping down, and fatal accidents have often occurred from
this cause. In the mine I have described I noticed a continuous
shght shower of sand grains dropping on my head from the thawing
skin of the roof, but happily no large hailstones were among them.
The depth of the frozen ground is variable, and is less on the
ridges than in the valleys. A shaft sunk on the ridge south of Eldo-
rado Creek reached unfrozen ground at a depth of 60 feet, while one
in the valley of the same creek was stopped by running water at a
depth of a little over 200 feet. The advantage of the ice is thus
obvious from the pomt of view of pumping, which, if it became
necessary, would put an end to many of the poorer drift mines in
the valleys. But for surface work the ground must be thawed arti-
ficially when the gravel comes to be handled on a large scale at a
depth not affected by the summer sun.
The bed of peat, or ‘‘muck,” as it is called, that covers she valley
bottoms acts as a nonconducting skin and prevents the sun’s rays
from penetrating the frozen mass, but when it is cleared off the sur-
face thaws permanently to a depth of several feet, and can be removed
by a scraper and sluiced or otherwise treated.
376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
We now come to the more important methods of gold recovery by
which the outout of the field is being maintained after the drift
miners have extracted all that is possible by their simple and inex-
pensive appliances. There are, as we have seen, two kinds of gravel,
one in the valleys and the other on the high terraces, and to extract
the remainder of the gold two separate methods must be thus
employed.
The valley gravels are worked down to a certain depth by very
strong and specially constructed dredgers, with internal revolving
trommels or sereens, and extensive sluice boxes with the usual riffles
to catch nuggets and gold grains. The terrace gravels are removed
by hydraulic giants, and washed through flumes and sluice boxes
into the already depleted valley bottoms, and when all these compli-
cated operations are completed the physical character of the gullies
is completely changed.
The dredging operations are mainly conducted by two companies.
One of these is the Boyle Concessions (Ltd.), and the other the
Yukon Gold Co., the principal partners in which are the Messrs.
Guggenheim. The Boyle Concessions (Ltd.) has taken over the
holdings of the Canadian Klondike Mining Co., and controls and
operates the properties of the Bonanza Basin Gold Dredging Co.
and the plant of the Granville Power Co. The company has holdings
on the Klondike Valley and other creeks, covering altogether about
40 square miles, and at present its operations are confined mainly
to dredging the valley gravels. The Yukon Gold Co. has. both
dredgers in the valleys and hydraulic monitors at work in the upper
white gravels.
The dredging process is an interesting and remarkable one, and pro-
duces curious effects. To wander up a lone glen with a mere trickle
of water in it, and suddenly to come round a corner and confront a
solitary large dredger, grinding away among peat bogs, wooden huts,
and old dump heaps, is a surprising apparition to one who always
associates dredgers with docks and navigable estuaries. But this is
what can be seen in several creeks and dry gulches amid the Klondike
hills. The plant is transported piecemeal, with great labor, to the
patch of alluvium where it is required; a large square hole is then dug
in the ground large enough to float the structure, and there it is put
together, built up, and set agoing. The buckets scoop out the gravel
at one end, and the stones and sand are dropped out in a bank behind
at the end of a long conveyor, while the fine mud runs out by a sepa-
rate orifice. This pond or tank is thus part of the working plant, and
the dredger slowly carries along with it the water on which it floats,
as the original stream is far too small to support the massive hulk. All
the water in the stream is, of course, required to help in keeping the
basin full, and to prevent its fluid from becoming too thick in conse-
KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD—CADELL. STi
quence of the sediment that is being constantly washed out of the
gravel.
The final result of the operation is that the flat bed of gravel as
far down as the dredger buckets can reach—perhaps 60 feet at the out-
side—is cleaned out, and all sorted into a deposit of coarse shingle,
with bowlders at one place and fine silt or sand at another. ‘The gully,
if narrow, after being robbed of its gold is thus left with a long em-
bankment of stones, ribbed from side to side with deep furrows cor-
responding to each forward step of the dredger, and running up the glen
in a serpentine course for miles, perhaps, like a moraine left by a
valley glacier (pls. 2 and 6).
This “human moraine’’ heap entirely blocks up and interrupts the
course of the original stream, and produces a series of more or less
stagnant pools in the loops it makes in its meanderings between the
sides of the gully. If the latter is broad, there may be two or three
parallel embankments, with pools of muddy water between them, amid
which the stream has to find its way past as best it can. The mud that
is washed out in the process lodges in these lagoons and buries up the
bases of the stony ridges. Plates 2 and 6 show this curious physio-
graphic effect of the valley dredgers, an effect that will last for cen-
turies, and one that has probably never been taken notice of before.
This, however, to anticipate matters, is not everywhere the final
result of man’s geological work on the Kiondike River system.
First, the drift miners swarm in multitudes, like locusts. undermine
the gravel, and turn it upside down. After they have disappeared the
dredgers arrive and slowly plow it all over again, throwing it into
ereat ridges of stones, with mud banks between. Finally, at those
places where there are white gravels on the high ground, the hydraulic
“oiants’’ appear on the scene, wash them down in great cones of de-
jection vomited forth at intervals from the flumes on the mountain
side. These white deltas radiate outward like fans, and sometimes
reach across the entire valley, when they completelv bury all that is
below. By thus damming up gullies and producing new lakes they
end in completely drowning and obliterating the effects of the previous
dredging and drifting operations. When the geologist of the remote
future comes to unravel these complex valley deposits he will have a
tough problem before him, unless he has previously well acquainted
himself with the achievements of the singular beings who inhabited
these glens in a far-off age, when the hunt for yellow gold was appar-
ently considered the ultimate aim and end of their whole existence.
(See pl. 2.)
There are many dredgers of various sizes at work. The largest and
newest, ‘Canadian No. 3,”’ belonging to the Boyle Concessions (Ltd.),
which started on March 31, 1913, was working close to Dawson City
at the mouth of the Klondike Valley at the time of our visit. (See
378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
pl. 5.) It is an immense structure weighing some 2,000 tons and
cost nearly £100,000, but its efficiency is marvellous. It dredges
11,300 yards per day and goes Sunday and Saturday for 250 days a
year from March till nearly Christmas, when the weather becomes too
severe. The buckets scrape all they can reach, including blocks of the
bedrock, and to test their efficiency we are told that a man twice
threw a small coin about as large as a threepenny piece into the water,
and each time it was brought up and recovered in the rifles along with
the gold. The whole machinery is controlled by one man, the dredgs-
master, who has 10 men under him—3 winchmen who are paid $6
(25s.) a day; three oilers, at $4.50 (18s. 6d.), and 4 deck hands, at
$4.80 (about 20s.).. The winchmen and oilers work in three shifts of
8 hours, and the deck hands two shifts of 12 hours. The cost of
dredging a cubic yard is 6 cents (3d.), and the average value of the gold
is 28 cents, so that the gross profit is 22 cents (11d.). On the 11,300
cubic yards dredged this gives a daily gross profit of a little over £500,
so that it is obvious with gravel of this value there is a very handsome
annual return, and indeed it would pay well to dredge much poorer
stuff, of which no doubt there is still abundance.
We are often told by politicians of a certain class that wealth is the
result of manual labor only. Here we find a notable proof that such
shallow philosophy is based on a pure fallacy. The laborers got all
they could and wasted most of it. It was only when capital and
brains, and especially the latter, came to the rescue that the Klondike
goldfield was saved from absolute extinction and granted a new and
prosperous lease of life.
The price of the dredger does not, however, nearly represent the
whole of the capital involved. The plant is worked by electric power
derived from the upper part of the Klondike River, as there is not
nearly enough local fuel available for steam-raismg purposes. The
water is taken from the North Fork of the Klondike by the Granville
Power Co. and conveyed through a ditch 6 miles long to a point where
there is an effective head of 228 feet. By means of turbines and a
10,000-horsepower plant the current is generated at 2,200 volts and
stepped up to 33,000 volts. It is conveyed over two main distributing
lines, one of which runs down to the mouth of the Klondike River and
the other over the watershed to the basin of the Indian River. This
great installation supplies electricity, not only to the Boyle Co. dredg-
ers, but to other public and private consumers in the district. As
there is neither cheap fuel nor water power in the immediate neighbor-
hood of Dawson City, it is obvious that this source of power and light
is of the highest importance to the district.
The greatest achievement in the way of hydraulics is to be seen in
the works of the Yukon Gold Co., an American firm belonging chiefly
to Messrs. Guggenheim. As there are no local falls to provide water
KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD—CADELL. 379
for hydraulicking the higher white gravels, this company in 1905 in-
itiated a bold scheme. After three years of very difficult work they
succeeded in bringing water at high pressure from the Little Twelve-
mile River, a tributary of the Yukon with a good fall, from a point 64
miles from the Klondike placers. The water is conveyed in 37 miles
of ditch, 15 miles of flume, and 12 miles of pipe line, crossing five.de-
pressions, including the Klondike Valley, mainly by means of inverted
syphons. The water is delivered to the Bonanza terraces under a
head of 500 feet. The total length of this waterway and its extensions
is 75 miles, and the stream issues from the nozzles at a pressure of
100 pounds per square inch or more.
The ‘‘giants’’ or ‘‘monitors,’’ as they are called at some places in
America, throw the water against the frozen cliff, and it takes some
time to make an impression on a block of the white icy conglomerate,
as I soon found when I tried my hand at it. Every day in summer
some of the face crumbles away as the ice melts, but the parts that are
hard frozen are not quickly eroded down by the powerful jet that is
concentrated on them.
The gravel and bowlders are washed into steep and narrow cuts or
ravines sunk in the rock floor of the terrace, with mouths opening on
the steep hillside. The gold is caught in wooden flumes and sluice
boxes through which the tumultuous current rushes before it spouts
out on the face of the slope and is discharged into the gully in the way
I have already described. The hydraulicking of these high gravel
cliffs with vast jets of snow-white water, like graceful comets, is the
most picturesque and striking spectacle in the whole district. (See
jul. Se)
The last of the seven systems of gold working, the mining of the
quartz reefs from whose decay the placer gold has been derived, is not
important. No large veins have been discovered, but more prospect-
ing may yield some fruits in the future after other methods have been
exhausted. On our way down from the Dome we stopped at Victoria
Gulch, a small branch near the top of Bonanza Creek, where a pros-
pectors’ four-head battery, worked by electric current from the
Granville power line, was crushing ore from an open-cast mine about
1,000 feet up the hillside. The Lone Star mine is in a considerable
body of low-grade ore in mica schist full of quartz lenticles. It ap-
peared to be about 200 feet wide, but its dimensions were not well
defined. The ore did not average more than $3 a ton in value, but
assays had proved that at places it contained over 2 ounces per ton,
and the prospectors said they were able to pay their way from the
proceeds.
The hillsides are covered with scrubby vegetation growing on the
decomposed and crumbling rock, and thus the outcrops of mineral
380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
lodes are not always easily discovered. From the quantity of gold in
the gravels which are derived from the parts of the local rock surface
that have been denuded away, it is likely that the undecomposed rock
beneath contains much more, but unless lodes are found in a sufficiently
concentrated form at any one place they can not be profitably mined.
Hitherto the attention of miners has been mainly directed to what is
immediately payable, but further research may reveal large bodies of
pay ore in the little explored district. The great and highly profitable
Alaska Treadwell mine on the coast near Juneau has laid open an im-
mense body of low-grade ore, but the conditions are far more favor-
able for cheap mining than they are likely to be at Dawson for a long
time to come.
YUKON COLO PRODUCTION
TO 1913
Scare of Million Paunds Sterling
SE 8 e 2 Pane Trio
Si image
ee eae ete ie one & 8 &
S cs
7
Fic. 5.—Yukon gold production to 1913.
In conclusion it may be noted that although the Yukon and Klon-
dike district is not now producing sensational results, the production
from the placers is still large and steady. The exact annual produc-
tion prior to 1904 is only estimated, but the figures from that year are
officially known and have been kindly supplied me by Mr. Edmund E-
Stockton, the inspector at Dawson. The Government levies a royalty
of 2 per cent on the value of the gold. This is carefully collected,
sometimes with the help of that admirable force, the Northwest
Mounted Police (mainly recruited in the Old Country) who work more
‘‘for honor and applause”’ than for financial reward, and have, with a
small but highly efficient and thoroughly respected personnel, been
the means of maintaining a wholesome respect for British law and
order in the vast Northwest territory durimg and since the very try-
ing time of the first great rush of wild adventurers to the Klondike.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Cadell. PLATE 5.
KLONDIKE RIVER, SHOWING DREDGERS AT WORK.
HYDRAULICKING ON LOVETT GULCH.
‘AMIGNOTY S133YO VZNVNOg ‘ONIDGSYG G105 4o 1034449
"9 3ALV1d ‘}apeg—+bl6l ‘Hodey ueluosyiWS
‘KLONDIKE AND YUKON GOLDFIELD—CADELL. 881
The gold production from 1898 to 1913 was as follows. The first
column is in dollars and the second is the approximate value in
pounds sterling, reckoning £1 as roughly equal to $5. The years in
question end March 31.
Yukon gold production.
nos iy: $10, 000, 000= £2,000,000 | 1906........ $7,166,617= £1, 433, 323
1899........ 16,000,000= 3,200,000 | 1907........ 5,141,136= 1,028, 227
oT ae 22,275,000= 4,455,000 | 1908........ 2,820,131=— 564, 026
1901........ 18,000,000= — 3,600,000 | 1909. ....... 3, 260, 364— 652, 073
1902.......- 14,500,000= 2,900,000 | 1910.......- 3, 594, 893= 718, 978
190g. <n. _ 12,250,000—= 2,450,000 | 1911..-..... 4,125,570=— 825, 114
1904........ 10,500,000—= 2,100,000] 1912......-. 4,024, 245— 804, 849
ii... 9, 806. 675— ‘1, 861, 335. | 1913......-. 5,018, 411= 1, 003, aa2
The largest year’s output was in 1900, and was estimated at
$22,275,000 (£4,455,000), and the total output of the territory since
the discovery of gold is estimated at over $150,000,000 (£30,000,000).
These figures, which show the rapid rise and steady decline of the
production and the slow increase since 1908 after hydraulicking and
dredging operations began, may be made more impressive by refer-
ence to figure 5.
The important question may now be asked: How long is the field
likely to remain productive? This aspect of the subject has been
discussed by Mr. McConnell in a report published by the Geological
Survey in 1907. The total volume of the remaining river and terrace
gravel beds was measured and the deposits were carefully sampled in
sections. Mr. McConnell’s conclusion at that time was that after
1906 the total value of the gold in the Bonanza and Klondike valleys
and their tributary creeks was $53,642,620. Since then the value of
gold obtained up till the spring of 1913 was $27,984,750, so that of
the amount estimated there remained of gold values after 1913 only
$25,657,800 still to be produced.
The production in 1913, as shown above, was a little over
$5,000,000, and since then the large dredger of the Boyle Concessions
has added to the productive capacity of the plant. If Mr. McConnell
is right in his figures and no fresh discovery is made, the field at this
rate will be quite exhausted in five years’ time. But Mr. Boyle has
carefully sampled the river gravels at the mouth of the Klondike by
boring, and there is evidence that the capacity of the field is consid-
erably greater than Mr. McConnell anticipated. Of course, the life
of the field will be shortened in proportion to the rate at which it is
being exhausted, and when all the alluvial gold is extracted the main
hope for Dawson City will be the discovery of reefs or bodies of pay-
able ore in the bedrock.
382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The discovery of gold was the principal means of opening up the
Yukon district for settlement and showing that its resources are not
entirely dependent on the yellow metal. The vast territory is imper-
fectly explored, and although it is far north, the climate is warm and
favorable for agriculture and grazing in summer. Further explora-
tion is now much easier from such a good center as Dawson City than
it was 15 years ago, and we may hope that fresh enterprise will not
fail in revealing new resources that will lead to the permanent set-
tlement of this remote and almost uninhabitated outpost of the
Dominion.
THE HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF SEXUALITY IN
PLANTS.?
By Prof. Duncan 8. JOHNSON.
From the beginning of man’s thoughtful consideration of natural
processes, the phenomenon of sexual reproduction, with the associated
phenomena of heredity, have persistently engaged his keenest interest.
The primary fact of the necessary concurrence of two individuals in the
production of offspring in the case of animals was recognized from the
beginning. ‘The equivalent phenomenon was not established for plants
until the end of the seventeenth century. At this time, however, little
more was known of the essential features of the sexual process in ani-
mals than had been familiar to Assyrians, Egyptians, and Greeks 20
centuries before.
Of the additions made since 1700 to our knowledge of sexual
reproduction, of its varied types and of the associated phenomena,
no mean share has been contributed by botanical investigators.
Noteworthy among such contributions are the work of Koelreuter
and Mendel in the production and systematic study of plant hybrids,
and the early work of Pfeffer on the chemotactic response of sper-
matozoids. Of more recent work we may cite that of the plant
cytologists on apogamy and apospory, on multinucleate sexual cells
or gametes and on the long-delayed nuclear fusion in the sexual
reproduction of the plant rusts. It should then be of interest for us
to consider just how and when the more important steps have been
taken in building up the vast mass of somewhat incomplete knowl-
edge that we now possess concerning the reproductive process in
plants. Because of exigencies of time and patience, I shall con-
fine myself primarily to an attempt to picture the chief steps by
which our present knowledge of the essential sexual process, the
mingling of two parental substances, has been attained. Incidentally
we may note the changes in point of view of investigatcrs and in
their mode of attack on this problem. I shall attempt to suggest the
trend of development more clearly by often grouping the chief phe-
nomena discovered in such a way as to indicate the sequence of dis-
covery within each group of the different phases of the sexual process,
though the order of discussion may thus not always accord with the
1 Address of the vice president and chairman of section G, Botany, American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, December, 1913. Reprinted by permission of author. Printed in Science, Feb.
27, 1914.
383
384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
sequence of the discovery of individual phenomena in plants as a
whole.
In following the evolution and change in aspect of our problem we
shall often find it best to keep a few relatively great names prominent.
This will serve in the first place to make the story more vivid and intel-
ligible. It will at the same time often come nearer the essential
truth, for in each great forward step some one worker has usually
been the dominating leader.
I.—_THE DISCOVERY THAT POLLINATION IS A PREREQUISITE TO SEED
FORMATION, 750 B. C. TO A. D. 1849.
The first discoveries pointing to the existence of sex in plants
were evidently made very early in human history by peoples culti-
vating unisexual plants for food. The existence of fertile and sterile
trees of the date palm was known to the peoples of Egypt and
Mesopotamia from the earliest times. Records of the cultivation of
these trees and of artificial pollination have come down to us on bas-
reliefs from before 700 B. C., found in the palace of Sargon at Khorsa-
bad (Haupt and Toy, 1899).1. The Assyrians, it is said, commonly
referred to the two date trees as male and female (Rawlinson, 1866).
The Greeks, in spite of their peculiarly keen interest in natural
phenomena, failed to offer any definite interpretation of this well-
known fact concerning the date palm. Aristotle and Theophrastus
report the fact, gained apparently from the agriculturists and herb
gatherers, that some trees of the date, fig, and terebinth bear no
fruit themselves, but in some way aid the fertile tree in perfecting
its fruit. But without recording a single crucial experiment on the
matter Theophrastus concludes that this can not be a real sexuality,
since this phenomenon is found in so few plants.
In this uncertain state the knowledge of sexuality in plants was
destined to rest for 20 centuries, waiting for the experimental
genius of Camerarius to give a conclusive answer to the question
raised by the Assyrian and Greek gardeners and answered wrongly
by Theophrastus. The English physician Grew (1676) did, it is
true, accept and expand the suggestion of Sir Thomas Millington
that the stamens serve as the male organs of the plant. Thus Grew
concludes (p. 173) that when the anther opens, the ‘‘globulets in the
thecz act as vegetable sperm which falls upon the seed case or womb
and touches it with prolific virtue.” But this guess, though it
proved correct in the main point, was still a guess and not supported
by any critical evidence so far as recorded by Grew. ‘The only
adequate evidence that could be obtained on this question, while
microscopes and technique were so imperfect, was experimental
evidence. This kind of proof was first given some 20 years after
1 Dates herein indicate publication of discovery. See bibliography appended to present article in
Science, Feb. 27, 1914.
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 385
Grew’s work by Rudolph Jakob Camerarius, of Tiibingen. Came-
rarius fully appreciated the presence of areal problem here. He also
had the genius to see that the philosophical attempts of many of his
immediate predecessors to discover its solution entirely in their own
inner consciousnesses were futile. With the insight of a modern
experimenter Camerarius put the question to the plants themselves.
The results of his experiments, as reported in the famous letter of 1694
to Prof. Valentin, of Giessen, were clear and conclusive. After noting
that the aborted seeds were produced by isolated—and therefore
unpollinated—female plants of Mercurialis, and of mulberry, by
castrated plants of the castor bean, and by plants of Indian corn from
which he had removed the stigmas, Camerarius gives his interpreta-
tion of these phenomena. He says (Ostwald ‘ Klassiker,” p. 25):
Tn the vegetable kingdom. there is accomplished no reproduction by seeds, that
most perfect gift of nature, and the usual means of perpetuating the species, unless
the previously appearing apices of the flower have already prepared the plant therefor.
It appears reasonable to attribute to these anthers a nobler name and the office of
male sexual organs.
In the 70 years after Camerarius had proved in this way the existence
of two sexes, and the fertilizing function of the pollen in plants,
little advance was made. Bradley, of London, Gleditsch, of Berlin,
and Gov. Logan, of Pennsylvania, confirmed parts of Camerarius’s
work, and the great Linnzeus accepted the conception of the stamens
and pistils as sexual organs as clearly proven, not, be it noted, by the
results of Camerarius’s experiments, but by the “nature of plants.”
In 1761 J. G. Koelreuter, of Carlsruhe, published an account of the
first systematic attempt that had been made, with either plants or
animals, to produce and carefully study artificial hybrids. In his
work with hybrid tobaccos, he demonstrated that characters from
both parents are often associated in a single offspring. He thus not
only completed Camerarius’s work, but also, by showing that the male
parent participates in the makeup of the offspring, he helped mate-
rially to break down the “emboitement theory” of Christian Wolff,
which assumed that the embryo came entirely from the egg, and that
its characters could not be influenced by the male parent. It is true
that Koelreuter was mistaken in believing that fertilization is accom-
plished by the mingling of the oil on the pollen grains with the secre-
tion of the stigma to form a mixed fluid, which he supposed then
penetrated to the ovule. Nevertheless, his conception of the mingling
of two substances was a move with the proper trend.
Koelreuter also demonstrated that in nature the pollen necessary
to fertilization is often brought to the stigma by insects. He thus
opened up a field of research which was cultivated with such splendid
effect by Konrad Sprengel 30 years later, and by Darwin, Miller, and
others a century afterwards.
73176°—sM 191425
386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
In spite of the absolutely conclusive work of Camerarius, Koelreuter,
and Sprengel on the sexuality of plants, their conclusions were often
rejected during the first half of the nineteenth century. Thus
certain devotees of the nature philosophy occupied themselves
either in proving over again, after Cesalpino, that plants can not be
sexual because of their nature, or in trying, by ill-conceived and
carelessly performed ‘experiments,’’ to prove the conclusions of
Camerarius and Koelreuter erroneous. These objectors were finally
silenced, however, when Gaertner, in 1849, published the results of
such a large number of well-checked experiments, entirely confirming
the works of Camerarius, Koelreuter, and Sprengel, that no thinking
botanist has since doubted the occurrence in flowering plants of a
sexuality essentially identical with that found in animals.
IIl.—THE DISCOVERY OF THE POLLEN TUBE AND ITS RELATION TO THE
ORIGIN OF THE EMBRYO, 1823-1847.
During the opening years of the nineteenth century a number of
botanists, who believed in the sexuality of plants, tried to discover
by the aid of the microscope just how fertilization is effected. Most
botanists of the day believed the pollen grain burst on the stigma,
and that its granular contents found a way through the style to the
ovary. An entirely new aspect of the problem of fertilization was
opened up, however, when in 1823, Amici, of Modena, saw on the
stigma of Portulacca young pollen tubes arising from the pollen
grains. Seven years later he followed these tubes through the style
to the micropyle of the ovule. At about this time also, Jakob
Matthias Schleiden (1838) took up the study of this same problem.
He was a man of vigorous intellect and great versatility, who some-
times misinterpreted what he saw, but who proved a most stimulating
opponent to a number of other workers who did observe accurately.
After denying Robert Brown’s assertion that the pollen tubes of the
orchids arise in the ovary, Schleiden proceeded to describe and figure
the pollen tube as penetrating not merely the style and then the
micropyle, but even far into the embryo sac itself.
Here, as he says in his Grundziige (I, p. 373):
The end (of the pollen tube) soon swells, either in such a way that the vesicle arising
in it fills the whole cavity of the portion of the tube within the embryo sac, or there is
left, between the apex of the embryo sac and the embryonal vesicle of the tube, a long
or a short cylindrical portion of the latter, the suspensor.
He thus regarded the embryo sac as a sort of hatching place for the
embryo, which he thought formed from the end of the pollen tube.
This idea of the origin of the embryo really denied the occurrence of
any actual sexual process, and made the pollen the mother of the
embryo.
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 387
In 1846, however, the error of this conception was clearly demon-
strated by Amici, who showed that the embryo of the orchids arises
from an egg which is already present in the embryo sac when the
pollen tube reaches it. It is this preexisting egg, according to Amici,
that is stimulated to form the embryo by the presence near it of the
pollen tube. This view was confidently supported by Mohl (1847)
and Hofmeister (1847), and the controversy with Schleiden became
even more spirited. As Mohl afterwards wrote (1863), men were
“led astray by their previous conceptions to believe they saw what
they could not have seen.”” The dispute even approached the ac-
rimonious, as when Schleiden (1843) says of one worker’s figures,
“Solche Praparate sind ohne Zweifel aus den Kopf gezeichnet.”
Hofmeister, from the beginning of his study of fertilization in
seed plants, had sought in the pollen tube for some equivalent of
the spermatozoids, those motile male cells of the mosses and ferns that
had first been understood by Unger in 1837. He was unable, how-
ever, to do more than point out the mistake of earlier observers in
regarding the starch grains of the pollen tube as spermatozoids, and
to suggest the likelihood that these motile cells might be discovered
in the gymnosperms, a prediction the fulfillment of which was realized
by Ikeno and Webber 50 years later. In his study of pollen tubes
Hofmeister demonstrated to his own satisfaction that the tube does
not open in accomplishing fertilization. His view, which was the one
current till 1884, was that the egg is stimulated to develop into the
embryo by some substance that diffuses through the imperforate
wall of the pollen tube.
IlIl.—_THE DISCOVERY OF A PROTOPLASMIC FUSION AT FERTILIZATION.
We come now to consider a series of discoveries of supreme im-
portance in the investigation of the essential sexual process in plants.
This is the period in which the problem that had baffled naturalists
for twenty centuries was at last solved, at least in one most essential
feature, by the demonstration of the occurrence at fertilization of a
mingling of paternal and maternal substances.
It will not be without interest at this point to note the intellectual
stimuli which led an unusual number of workers to investigate this
phase of our problem.
In the first place, there were on record and under discussion at the
middle of last century the many puzzling observations of the “spiral
faden,”’ or animalcule, as they were thought to be, that had been
found arising from a number of plants. These motile, spiral fila-
ments had been seen in a liverwort (Fossombromia) by Schmiedel
(1747), in Sphagnum by Esenbeck (1822), in Chara by Bischoff
388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
(1828), and finally, on the fern prothallus by Naegeli (1844). Unger
(1834-37) studied these bodies in the mosses (Sphagnum and Mar-
chantia) and declared his belief that they are not infusoria, but are the
male fertilizimg cells. At this time also the zoologists of the day
were making the first detailed studies of the spermatozoa of animals.
Barry (1844) had seen a spermatozo6n within the egg of the rabbit;
Leuckart (1849) saw them enter the frogs’ egg, and then, in 1851,
Bischoff and Allen Thompson proved that fertilization is accomplished
by the actual entrance of the spermatozo6n into the egg. A no less
important influence, in stimulating the botanical workers on the
problem of fertilization, was the magnificent work of Hofmeister,
on the reproductive structures of the mosses, ferns, and conifers.
By these splendid researches he had indicated to men of less insight,
and less comprehensive imagination, just the points in the life cycles
of plants where the critical phases of the reproductive process are to
be sought.
Among the many workers engaged on this problem of fertilization
in plants in the third quarter of last century there was, in consequence
of readier exchange of information, an attitude of greater considera-
tion for the work of other investigators than was found in the two
preceding decades. ‘There were differences of opinion and interpre-
tation, to be sure, but there was less of that strenuous cocksureness
when men saw, or thought they saw, differently from others. The
mistakes of the brilliant Schleiden were perhaps remembered. Men
like Hofmeister, Pringsheim, and Strasburger added to and modified
the interpretations of other workers in the same spirit with which
they remolded their own immature conclusions. There was a spirit
of cooperation evident; it became possible for a worker to observe
and record the fate of a pollen tube in good temper and with calm
judgment.
The first steps toward the demonstration of a union of two masses
of living substance at fertilization resulted from the study of a group
of plants, the alge, in which sexuality had not been proven or generally
admitted. It had, however, long before been suggested in the case
of Spirogyra by Hedwig (1798) and Vaucher (1803).
The alge were in fact especially advantageous for the study of
fertilization, since the development and behavior of the reproductive
organs and cells could, without elaborate preparation, be readily seen
under the microscope, and often followed through in living material.
Thus, Thuret, in 1853, for the first time saw the active sperms attached
to the egg of Fucus, and, in 1854, proved experimentally that only eggs
to which spermatozoids have had access will germinate. He thus
demonstrated in this alga the correctness of Unger’s unsubstantiated
surmise (1837) that the spermatozoids are the male fertilizing cells.
In Gdogonium, Pringsheim, in 1856 (p. 9), watched the spermatozoid
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 389
push into the receptive tip of the living egg and saw the character-
istic odspore wall formed in consequence. This, except for the less
satisfactory observations made on Vaucheria a year previous by the
same worker, is the first case recorded of the observation of the
actual union of male and female cells in any plant. Such a union
of the protoplasmic masses of the two sexual cells was soon shown to
be a characteristic feature of fertilization in a number of alge. Thus
De Bary saw it in Spirogyra (1858), and Pringsheim (1869) repeatedly
observed the gradual fusion of the motile gametes of Pandorina. It
was nearly 30 years later, however, that this phase of fertilization was
first seen in seed plants by Goroschankin and Strasburger.
The workers on this problem were on the lookout for further details
of the process of fusion, and even knew rather definitely what they
were looking for, but failed to discover it from lack of proper methods
of preparation of material. Thus, Strasburger, in 1877, carefully
studied the process of conjugation in Spirogyra and found that
“Hautschicht fuses with Hautschicht, Kernplasma with Kern-
plasma’’—‘“‘The chlorophyll bands unite by their ends ’’—and he then
goes on to say of the feature that evidently interested him most, “the
cell nuclei of both cells, however, became dissolved; the copulation
product is without a nucleus.”’ Two years later Schmitz (1879),
when studying hematoxylin-stained material of this alga, was more
fortunate. He saw the two nuclei in the zygote, as he says, “ap-
proach nearer and nearer, come into contact and finally fuse to a
single nucleus.” This observation by Schmitz is an important one,
for in it we have the first clear statement that the nucleus of the male
cell passes over intact to the female cell, there to fuse with the female
nucleus.
Strasburger had, it is true, seen a second nucleus fusing with that
of the egg in the archegonia of Picea and Pinus in 1877. He did not,
however, really know the source of this second nucleus, though he
suspected some relation to those that are present earlier in the tip
of the pollen tube. These tube nuclei he says are dissolved just
before fertilization, and then just after fertilization, to quote (1877):
The male nucleus formed from the contents of the pollen tube is found now near the
end of the tube, now near, or in contact with, the egg nucleus. * * * The proto-
plasmic contents of the pollen tube, I hold, passes through the (imperforate) tube-
membrane in a diosmotic manner.
The fertilization of the gymnosperms, because of their large eggs,
pollen tubes, and nuclei, was at this time being studied by a number
of workers. One of these, Goroschankin, in 1883, was able to demon-
strate that in Pinus pumilio the pollen tube opens at the end, and
that through this pore the two male cells pass bodily into the egg.
Goroschankin’s mistake, in supposing both male nuclei to fuse with
the egg nucleus, was corrected by Strasburger the following year. The
390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
latter (1884) saw the same bodily exit of both male nuclei from the
open pollen tube of Picea, but found only one male nucleus fusing
with that of the egg. In the same publication Strasburger also
records numerous instances in which he had been able to observe the
same mode of escape of the contents of the pollen tube into the ripe
embryo sac in angiosperms. At last, as Strasburger puts it, in dis-
cussing fertilization in the conifers:
The most important morphological facts are clear. It is established that the male
nucleus that copulates with the egg nucleus, passes as such out of the pollen tube into
the egg.
Thus, finally, was the actual material contribution of both parents
to the embryo of the seed plants first seen. This was just two cen-
turies, lacking a decade, after Camerarius (1694) had proven that the
presence of pollen on the stigma is indispensable to seed formation.
One chief reason why this important problem so long baffled all in-
vestigators was the lack of proper methods of preparing material for
study. The older method of studying unfixed and unstained sections
had certain advantages, it is true. The sequence of developmental
stages was often determined with certainty by actually following
their succession in living material under the microscope, and there
was less cause also for dispute about artifacts. But structures of
the same refractive qualities were not readily distinguished in such
sections. As Strasburger himself says (1884, p. 18):
The negative results of my earlier studies and of those of Elfving were due to the
lack of a method which permitted the nuclei to be distinguished in the strongly re-
fractive contents of the pollen tube up to the moment of fertilization.
That these studies of 1884 were successful was largely due to the
use of material fixed in five-tenths per cent acetic acid, 1 per cent
osmic acid or in absolute alcohol, and stained in borax carmine, hema-
toxylin or iodine green.
The extreme significance of the fact that those most highly organ-
ized portions of the cell substance—the nuclei—were so prominent
in the process of fertilization was at once appreciated by Strasburger,
who in 1884 (p. 77) announced the following general conclusions as
the outcome of his consideration of the phenomena observed:
(1) The fertilization process depends upon the copulation with the egg nucleus of
the male nucleus that is brought into the egg, which is in accord with the view clearly
expressed by O. Hertwig. (2) The cytoplasm is not concerned in the process of ferti-
lization. (3) The sperm nucleus like the egg nucleus is a true cell nucleus.
In the years since 1884 the nuclei have been found to be the struc-
tures chiefly concerned in fertilization, whenever such a process occurs.
Among the earlier observations of this nuclear union at fertilization
in each of the great groups are the following, named in the order of
discovery: It was seen in Pilularia (Campbell, 1888), in Riella (Kruch,
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. BO
1891), in @dogonium (Klebahn, 1892), in the plant rusts (Dangeard
-and Sapin-Trouffy, 1893), in the toadstools (Wager, 1893), in the
red alga Nemalion (Wille, 1894), in Spherotheca (Harper, 1895), in
the rockweed, Fucus (Farmer and Williams, 1896). Finally Zeder-
bauer (1904) reported it for the Peridines, and Jahn (1907), Olive
(1907), and Kraenzlin (1907) made it out in the myxomycetes.
The observations just referred to, and many others on plants in all
groups, warrant the general application of Strasburger’s conclusion
that a nuclear union is the characteristic feature of every sexual
process. The few cases where the male cytoplasm seems more promi-
nent than usual, as in the three conifers studied by Coker (1903),
Coulter and Land (1905), and Nichols (1910), can not yet be said to
have rendered it very probable that this cytoplasm plays a primary
part as an inheritance carrier.
IV.—-THE DISCOVERY OF THE ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN
PLANTS, 1851.
The fact that the sexual cells of the higher plants are produced on
a plant body or individual distinct from that which forms the asexual
reproductive cells, and that in the normal life cycle the one type of
individual arises from, and later gives rise to, an individual of the other
type, must be regarded as one of the most significant features of the
evolution of plants yet discovered. One of the chief general results of
te magnificent work of Hofmeister was the discovery of this regular
alternation of a sexual and an asexual generation, not only in the life
history of the mosses and ferns, but also in that of the seed, plants.
Hofmeister states this result clearly in the Vergleichende Untersuchun-
gen, and makes it apply still more broadly in a brilliant generalization
published in the Higher Cryptogamia. There he says (p. 439):
The phenogams, therefore, form the upper terminal link of a series, the members of
which are the Coniferze and Cycadez, the vascular cryptogams, the Muscinez and the
Characeze. These members exhibit a continually: more extensive and more inde-
pendent vegetative existence in proportion to the gradually descending rank of the
generation preceding impregnation, which generation is developed from reproductive
cells cast off from the organism itself.
Since Hofmeister’s day detailed investigations by many workers
have fully confirmed Hofmeister’s conclusion. They have shown the
essential homology, not only of the spore-producing organs, and the
one or two kinds of spores produced in them, but also of the structures
arising from these spores, throughout all cormophytes, from the mosses
upward.
In the studies of the alge that followed immediately after Hof-
meister’s work, investigators of these plants sought in them for some
evidence of that regular alternation of sexual and asexual phases that
had been demonstrated in higher plants. Pringsheim (1856, p. 14)
392 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
one of the ablest of these students of the alge, at first regarded the
multicellular body, formed at the germination of the oospore of Cido-
gonium and Coleochete, as an asexual phase comparable with the
simple sporophyte of the liverwort Riccia. Celakowsky (1886) distin-
guishes as homologous alternation those cases, in alge like Ulothrix
or Hdogonium, where the gamete-producing generation seemed capa-
ble of zoospore production also. ‘The constant and regular alternation
of the archegoniates and seed plants he called antithetic alternation.
Pringsheim (1877) found that moss protonemata form from cuttings
of the seta of the sporophyte as weil as from bits of the gametophyte.
From this fact, and from Farlow’s discovery (1874) that a sporophyte
of the fern, Pteris cretica, may arise directly from the prothallus, with-
out the fertilization or even the formation of an egg, Pringsheim con-
cluded that both generations of the archegoniates are really identical.
He says (1877), p. 6:
I believe the moss sporogonium stands to the moss plant in the same relation that the
sporangium-bearing Saprolegnias do to the oogonium-bearing plants of thisspecies, . ..
I therefore turn against this interpretation of the fruit generation of the thallophytes in
general, and especially against this interpretation of the sexual shoot generation of the
Floridese and Ascomycetes . . . The cystocarp is evidently not a separate individual
but part of the sexual plant that produces it.
The antithetic view was reasserted, however, especially by Cela-
kowsky (1877) and Bower (1890), both of whom emphasized the sug-
gestion of A. Braun (1875) that the sporophyte is a new thing phyloge-
netically. Bower holds that the types of sporophyte found in the
archegoniates have arisen by the amplification of the zygote, with the
sterilization for vegetative functions of smaller or larger portions of
the originally all-pervading sporogenous tissue. The amphibious type
of alternation of the mosses and ferns has arisen, according to Bower’s
conception, with the migration of these plants to the land, and the
assumption of the terrestrial habit by the sporophyte. The antithetic
view was also supported in a most striking way, later, by the results
of the workers on chromosomes.
The homologous view of alternation also has not been without sup-
porters in the years since Pringsheim. One of its upholders, Klebs
(1896), based his belief on the fact that he could determine the type of
reproductive cells formed by the algee Hydrodictyon and Vaucheria,
by changing the conditions under which they are grown. Lang (1896-—
1898) favored the homologous view because of the discoveries of Far-
low, De Bary, Bower, Farmer, and himself on apogamy and apospory.
Scott, one of the strongest advocates of the homologous alternation
theory, bases his belief not only on the evidence afforded by the cases
of apogamy and apospory, but also on the fossil record. He points
out the lack of any sporophyte, living or fossil, that can be regarded
as ancestral to that of the ferns. In arguing for the homologous
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 3938
origin of the leafy fern sporophyte from a liverwort-like thallus Scott
says (1911):
We know plenty of intermediate stages between a thallus and a leafy stem; but no
one ever saw an intermediate stage between a sporogonium and a leafy stem.
V. THE DISCOVERY OF CHROMOSOME REDUCTION AND OF SYNAPSIS,
1888.
We have seen that during the two decades at the middle of last
century students of sexuality in plants devoted their attention
to the discovery of the relation of the pollen tube to the origin of the
embryo. The three decades after 1860 were given largely to the
proof of a union of a paternal with a maternal nucleus as a constant
feature of the sexual process in plants. For the past two decades
workers interested in reproduction have been engaged especially
in determining the behavior and fate, in the various phases of
plant development, of those essential elements of the nuclei, the
chromosomes. The result of this study has been to give us a much
more definite criterion than we had before of just what constitutes
a sexual process. Moreover, this intimate examination of the
chromosomes, together with the precise means of germinal analysis
by breeding, introduced by Mendel, has given us some insight into the
significance of the sexual process in the ontogeny and phylogeny of
plants.
The discovery of chromosomes in plants may best be attributed
to Strasburger, who, in 1875, first figured them distinctly in the
embryo of Picea. It is true that Hofmeister (1867) had noticed the
equatorial plate of ‘‘albuminous clumps” in cells at the time of their
division, and Russow (1872) saw, in the dividing spore mother-
cell nuclei of Ophioglossum, plates of vermiform rods (‘‘Staébchen-
platten”). Strasburger (1879), and Hanstein (1880), and Flemming
(1880) were, however, the first to realize the constancy of the occur-
rence of chromosomes in the dividing plant nucleus. The fact
soon pressed itself upon the investigators that the number of these
chromosomes differs in different plants and in different phases
of the same plant. Then followed the epoch-making discovery of
the zoologist Van Beneden (1883), that the number of chromosomes
in the egg and sperm of the thread worm Ascaris is the same, and
that the double number characteristic of the body cells becomes
reduced during the maturing of the germ cells. Botanists after
some delay, due, as Strasburger says, to lack of proper technique,
succeeded in demonstrating these same facts for plants. Thus
Strasburger in 1888 showed that the number of chromosomes char-
acteristic of the egg and of the male nucleus in a number of angio-
sperms is the same, and is fixed by a reduction occurring in the
394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
mother cells of the pollen and of the embryo sac. Guignard also
(1889 and 1891) demonstrated these phenomena in Lilium and in the
pollen mother cells of Ceratozamia, noting the eight double chromo-
somes in the latter and other peculiarities of the first mitosis. Over-
ton (1893) counted the same number of chromosomes in the female
prothallus of Ceratozamia, while Farmer (1894) found four chromo-
somes in the thallus and sexual reproductive cells of Pallavicinia,
and eight in the seta and capsule.
Later in the same year Strasburger, in a masterly address before
the British Association, completed the proof of Overton’s suggestion
(1893) that in the mosses and ferns also reduction takes place, as
Overton puts it, ‘‘in the mother cells of the spores; that is, at the
point of alternation of the generations.’ Strasburger, by com-
paring his counts of chromosomes in the dividing spore mother cells
of Osmunda with the number seen by Humphrey (figures published
in 1895) in the tapetal cells, found the latter number about double.
It is interesting to note also that the Osmunda slides used in this work
were among the first paraffin sections used by Strasburger.
From this correspondence of the hyerwort and fern mentioned
with the seed plants in which reduction had been seen, Strasburger
was led to predict the universal occurrence of this phenomenon of
reduction in all plants that reproduce sexually. Concerning the
phylogenetic origin of the reduction process Strasburger held that all
plants (and animals) were primitively nonsexual and had a constant
number of chromosomes. With the development of sexual repro-
duction the initiation of the process of chromosome reduction avoided
the evident disadvantage of repeated doubling of the chromosome
number at each sexual fusion. This return from the double number
formed in the zygote to the primitive ancestral number of chromo-
somes he believed might occur at any point in the life cycle before
the next fertilization. Strasburger then went on to emphasize
the advantage of the sexual mode of reproduction, when once ac-
quired, in allowing new combinations of parental strains in the
offspring, and the disadvantage it had of producing so small a number
of offspring. It is to meet this disadvantage, he suggested, in agree-
ment with Bower, that the zygote of forms lke Coleochzte, mosses,
ferns, and seed plants took over the function of multiplying the
progeny by a sort of polyembryony—the formation of spores. The
spore-bearing generation later in the evolutionary history became
ultimately independent of the gametophyte, and at a still later period
it not only produced two kinds of spores but also assumed the care
and nutrition of the reduced female plant arising from the larger
of the two kinds of spores. Thus, in Strasburger’s view, the primitive
nonsexual generation is now represented in the archegoniates by
only the sexual phase, which has gradually lost its power of asexual
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 395
multiplication, while the sporophyte is a third, a new generation which
has risen by specialization of the zygote. There isin the cormophytes
then an antithetic alternation of the two most recently evolved
phases of the life cycle, while the only clear trace of the primitive
nonsexual phase is found in the halved number of chromosomes,
which is reverted to by a process of chromosome reduction at some
point in each life cycle.
In the two decades since this famous pronouncement of Stras-
burger’s was made, chromosomes have been counted in the different
developmental phases of nearly all groups of plants. These counts
have shown that wherever there is sexual fusion there is also, at some
other point in the life cycle, a reduction of the double number of
chromosomes so formed to the single number characteristic of the
gametes. In all cormophytes and many thallophytes this reduction
occurs at sporogenesis.
The investigation of the complementary phase of the chromosome
behavior, the doubling of the number at fertilization, has during the
past two decades also led to extremely mteresting results.
The earlier workers on sexual nuclear fusion apparently believed
that the paternal and maternal nuclear materials became intimately
mingled soon after contact of the nuclear walls. Thus Klebahn
(1892) described the chromatin nets of the two nuclei as gradually
merging into one in Cidogonium, and Shaw (1898) described the
same process in Onoclea. It is true that Guignard (1891) had noted
that, in Lilium and Fritillaria, the male and female reticula remain
distinct until the prophase of the first nuclear division of the embryo.
Later research, however, showed that the paternal and maternal com-
ponents remain. distinct till much later than this; in fact, that the
chromatin elements from the two parents do not really fuse at all
during the process of fertilization. On the contrary, it seems quite
likely that all through the development of the sporophyte the chro-
mosomes from the two sources retain their identity and individuality.
Thus Blackman (1898) and Ferguson (1901) say that in the fusing
nuclei of Pinus the two chromatin nets never lose identity, and that
at the first mitosis of the embryo each constituent gives rise to its
own group of chromosomes. This independence of the two chro-
matins at fertilization has since been seen in a number of species,
and it is now believed to persist throughout the life of the sporophyte.
The double number of chromosomes is present at each mitosis of this
generation, and these chromosomes sometimes occur in pairs and are
assumed to consist of a paternal and a maternal chromosome each.
In certain plants also, according to Overton (1909), Gregoire (1910),
Stout (1912), and others, the individuality of the chromosomes of the
resting nucleus, postulated by Strasburger in 1894, is morphologically
discernible. De Vries (1903) emphasized this fact that the sporo-
396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
phyte, with its two complete sets of chromosomes, is really two beings
in one, by designating it as the ‘2X generation.’ This contrasts it
at once, in this important characteristic of chromosome number, with
the gametophyte or “X generation.”
Apparently, then, no actual fusion of the chromosomes is included
in the nuclear union occurring at fertilization. The question at
once arising is: Where in the life cycle is there any fusion, or intimate
union of these inheritance-bearing units? The answer to this question
was for some time generally believed to be offered by the phenomena
associated with the process of ‘“synapsis.”’ Botanists had for some
time noticed and figured the peculiar contraction of the chromatin
of the spore mother-cell nucleus occurring just before the chromo-
somes for the reduction division are formed. Moore (1895) reaffirmed
Strasburger’s view that, even with the best preservation, the chro-
matin regularly assumes this condition at sporogenesis, and then only.
Moore, therefore, declared this condition to be not an artifact, as many
workers had held, but a natural process, which he named ‘“‘synapsis.”’
In spite of the insistence by an occasional worker that synapsis is an
artifact, the impression of its constancy and peculiarity erew more
general at the end of the last century. Then in 1901 Montgomery
suseested that it is in this process that the long-delayed union of the
paternal and maternal chromatin occurs. Montgomery’s conception,
that each of the double or bivalent chromosomes formed on emer-
gence from synapsis is made up of a paternal and a maternal chro-
mosome, which have in some way been paired up during the synaptic
process, came to be rather generally accepted.
Recently, however, a number of workers have dissented vigorously
from the view that synapsis is a constant, or a highly significant
process. Thus Gregoire (1910), Gates (1911), and Faved (1912)
hold that it does not occur unfailingly at sporogenesis. Lawson says
that so much of the separation of the chromatin from the nuclear
wall as is not due to fixation is attributable to the more rapid growth
of the nuclear wall than of the chromatin. Finally all three agree
that such a process is not needed for the pairing of the chromosomes,
since, as was observed by Strasburger (1905) and others, the chromo-
somes may regularly appear in pairs in the vegetative mitoses of the
sporophyte. Moreover, studies of the vegetative nuclei of the sporo-
phyte, especially by Gregoire and his students, show that their chro-
mosomes are closely connected by adhesions, and by pseudopodium-
like strands developed between the viscid chromosomes when the new
reticulum is formed after each mitosis. Gates (1911), after reviewing
recent work on this point, holds that the pairs seen in vegetative
mitoses are of a paternal and a maternal chromosome each. He sees
no adequate reason for thinking that the association of parental
chromosomes at synapsis is any more intimate than that which occurs,
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 397
as he says, “‘at or soon after fertilization.’”’ He evidently regards the
connections between sporophytic chromosomes referred to above as
affording ample opportunity for any interchange of material or
“influences”? between the chromosomes. Gates does not say just
when the parental chromosomes are first paired up after fertilization
nor give the evidence for this. He fails also to explain the fact,
upon which practically all workers seem agreed, that the constituent
chromosomes of the diploid pair are associated with each other in a
more intimate way than are the chromosomes of any other mitosis
in the life cycle.
VI.—ALTERNATION AND CHROMOSOME NUMBERS IN THE ALG, 1896.
We have already seen that an attempt was made in the third
quarter of last century to interpret the life histories of certain thallo-
phytes, especially among the alge, in terms of the alternating gen-
erations discovered by Hofmeister among the archegoniates. The
basis of comparison was the occurrence of a sort of polyembryony
at the germination of the sexually produced oospore in these alge.
There was much uncertainty, however, concerning the exact corre-
spondence of phases in the two groups, and even as to whether the
alternation was of the same sort in the two groups.
With the promulgation of Strasburger’s view (1894) regarding the
significance of the reduction of the chromosome number in the life
cycle, botanists felt that they would now be able to distinguish
the phases of a real alternation of generations wherever chromosomes
could be counted. A number of workers therefore followed out
cytologically the details of development and conjugation of the
sexual cells; and the germination of the zygote in various alge.
The work of Chmielewski (1890) on Spirogyra, and of Klebahn
(1891) on desmids showed some indications of a reduction process at
the germination of the zygote in these forms, though chromosomes
could not be counted. Not till very recently was it demonstrated
for one of these, Spirogyra, that the chromosome number is actually
reduced at this time. Tréndle (1911) has counted chromosomes of
Spirogyra and finds that there is a real reduction here, and that three
of the first four nuclei formed in the zygote degenerate, the fourth
remaining as the nucleus of the single embryonic plant formed.
In a study of the green alga Coleochete, Allen (1905) showed that
the chromosome reduction occurs with the beginning of germination of
the zygote. Hence the group of zoospore-producing cells arising
from the latter is not to be regarded as a sporophyte, as had often
been maintained. Allen thus eliminated the only ancestral prototype
of the bryophyte sporogonium that the antithetic alternationists had
been able to discover among the green alge.
398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The search among the brown alge for parallels to the chromosome
history of the cormophytes has been much more successful. The
first case made out, that of Fucus, by Farmer and Williams (1896)
and by Strasburger (1897) seemed, it is true, not very illuminating.
They found the reduction occurring in the first divisions of what
seemed clearly to be the egg- and sperm-producing organs, a point
where it occurs in no other green plant. This case of Fucus, you will
remember, is the one used by Scott (1896) to point a moral, when
voicing the generally felt criticism of those botanists who proposed
‘‘making the number of chromosomes the criterion by which the two
generations are to be distinguished.” Scott says:
T venture to think it premature to rush into inductive reasoning from imperfectly
established premises. The case of Fucus in which the Fucus plant is shown to have the
full number of chromosomes goes dead against the idea that the sexual generation (and
who could calla Fucus plant anything but sexual) necessarily has the reduced number
of chromosomes. This fact is indeed a rebuff to deductive morphology.
When, however, Strasburger (1906) and Yamanouchi (1909)
followed out the logical trend of the chromosome evidence unre-
servedly, this life history of Fucus became more readily comparable
with that of the cormophytes, and with those of certain brown and
red alge that had in the meantime been elucidated by Willams and
Yamanouchi. From this point of view, elaborated most completely
by Yamanouchi, the Fucus plant with its 2X number of chromosomes
is a sporophyte, and the reproductive organs arising in its concep-
tacles are sporangia comparable with those of aseed plant. After the
reduction, which occurs at the normal point, at sporogenesis, each of
the four megaspores, without escaping, gives rise to a gametophyte
of two fertile cells or eggs. Each of the four microspores in turn
forms a gametophyte, or X generation, of but sixteen cells, each of
which is fertile and forms a spermatozoid. It is interesting to note
here the similarity which has been pointed out by Strasburger and
by Chamberlain of the chromosome cycle of Fucus to that of ani-
mals. In the latter, from the plant cytologist’s point of view, the
sexual generation has become reduced to the four haploid nuclei
formed at spermatogenesis and oogenesis, and the so-called ovary
and spermary are really spore-producing organs of the 2X or asexual
generation.
In the brown seaweed Dictyota the discovery of the chromosome
cycle revealed, for the first time in any thallophyte, an alternation
that seemed clearly comparable with that of the cormophytes in this
respect. Williams (1904) was able to show that the morphologically
similar, mature plants of Dictyota dichotoma differ not only in that
some produce spores only and others male or female reproductive
cells only, but also that the nuclei of the former have twice as many
chromosomes as those of the sexual plants. He found also that
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 399
the number of chromosomes is reduced at tetraspore formation and
held that all this cytological evidence indicated the alternation of the
sexual and the tetrasporic plants. The doubts of conservative
botanists regarding the regular and necessary sequence of these
haploid and diploid plants were dissipated when Hoyt (1910) raised
fruiting tetrasporic plants from eggs, and mature sexual plants from
tetraspores. Hoyt thus demonstrated by cultures, for the first time
in any alga, the identity of this alternation with that of the cormo-
phytes. Yamanouchi (1911 and 1913) has demonstrated, cyto-
logically and in part by cultures, the occurrence of an exactly similar
type of alternation in the brown alge Cutleria and Zanardinia, the life
cycle of Cutleria seeming peculiarly like that of the cormophytes
because the two generations differ not only in chromatin content, but
also in structure.
In the red seaweeds also the use of cytological methods and the
determination of chromosome numbers has given a series of very
suggestive, though not as yet easily mterpreted, results. Oltmanns
(1898) showed that the nucleus of the carpospore is a direct descend-
ant of the diploid oéspore nucleus. Wolfe (1904) decided that in
Nemalion, a species that does not form tetraspores, the reduction
occurs at the budding out of the carpospores from the mass of cells
arising by division of the fertilized egg. He therefore follows Olt-
manns in regarding the diploid cell mass mentioned as the sporophyte
of this species. In a series of red alge, which have a tetrasporic
phase in the life cycle, Yamanouchi (1906), Lewis (1909), and Svede-
lius (1911) have found cytological evidence of an alternation of two
generations similar in character to that first seen in Dictyota.
Lewis (1912) later proved conclusively by the use of cultures that the
haploid sexual plants arise from tetraspores only, while the diploid
fertilized egg gives rise, through the carpospores formed from it, to
tetrasporic plants only.
In the interpretation of the phenomena seen in these red alge
Yamanouchi regards the tetrasporic plant as the more primitive
phase of the 2X generation, and carpospore-formation as a sort of
secondarily developed polyembryony for multiplying the progeny
from each fertilization. Lewis, on the contrary, holds the view that
the tetrasporic plant is, in origin, an early, self-propagative phase of
the primitive, haploid, sexual generation. Further he suggests that,
in accordance with a general tendency evident in many sexual plants,
the process of reduction has here been postponed and pushed for-
ward from the time of carpospore-formation, where it still occurs
in the primitive form Nemalion, into this originally haploid tetra-
sporic plant.
Though no generally accepted interpretation has yet appeared
of the somewhat varying chromosome cycles that have now been
400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
elucidated in green, brown, and red alge, yet the mass of facts thus
far obtamed presents an impressive picture of the essential identity
of reproductive processes in these plants with those found in the
cormophytes. Perhaps the most interesting pomt noted in making
such a comparison is the fact that the type of life cycle among alge
that corresponds most closely with that of a higher plant, such as an
archegoniate, is the type found in several genera of the brown
alge. The fact may be recalled here also that it was to the gamet-
angia of this group that Davis (1903) finally turned im his search
for a prototype of sexual reproductive organs of the bryophytes.
VII.— SEXUALITY, CHROMOSOME HISTORY AND ALTERNATION IN THE
FUNGI, 1820.
In this group of parasitic or saprophytic thallophytes we shall
find as great a variety in the type of reproductive process as in their
mode of nutrition at the expense of the hosts beset by them. At
the beginning of last century fungi were commonly supposed to arise
spontaneously ‘‘out of the superfluous moisture of the earth and
rotten wood.”
Observations had been made long before this, it is true, sufficient
to render improbable the then common belief in the spontaneous
generation of the fungi. Thus Micheli (1729) had raised a fungus
mycelium from spores. Ehrenberg (1820) did the same and also
saw the conjugation of Sporodinia. Du Trochet (1834) proved that
the mushroom arises from threads of the mycelium in the soil.
The spontaneous generation of even the simplest of these parasitic
or saprophytic thallophytes—the bacteria—had been denied by
Leeuwenhoek at the end of the seventeenth century. In one of his
numerous letters to the Royal Society he denies the spontaneous
origin of the animalcule or bacteria which he found in the mouth.
These he found present even in the mouths of ladies who cleaned
their teeth carefully. He insists that these organisms are like those he
obtained from pools of water, and then goes on to say, I a para-
graph that reads like a modern health commissioner’s report:
Now, when people wash their beer mugs and drinking cups in the water from ponds
and streams, who can tell how many of these animalculze may stick to the sides of
the glass and thus get into the mouth.
_ The hazy or bizarre beliefs concerning the occurrence and the mode
of reproduction in the fungi, current at the middle of last century,
were dispelled by the studies of a group of able investigators early
in the second half of the century. First came the splendid work of
the brothers Tulasne (1847-1854) on the smuts and rusts, and their
discovery of the odgonium of Peronospora. Pringsheim, in 1857,
studied the sequence in development of the zoosporangia and odgonia
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 401
of the water molds. Then came the researches of that master
mycologist, Anton De Bary, on the reproductive structures of Peron-
ospora (1861), of Pyronema and Spherotheca (1863), and on the
life histories of the rusts, 1853 and 1865. The results of his own work
and that of his students Woronin and Janczewski convinced De
Bary that, in the Ascomycetes, as well as in the phycomycetous
Peronosporas, the contents of an odgonium is fertilized by the
escape into it of the living contents of the antheridial tube that grows
beside it.
In the seventies and eighties a vast number of detailed observa-
tions concerning reproductive processes in the fungi were accumu-
lated by many observers, led especially be De Bary’s student,
Brefeld. One outcome of this work which concerns our particular
problem was the insistent, though unconvincing, denial by Brefeld
of the sexuality of the Ascomycetes.
In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the application
of new methods of fixing, sectioning, and staining, a new era opened
in the study of sexuality in the fungi, an era in which American
workers have played a prominent part from the beginning.
As early as 1886 Rosenvinge had succeeded in staining the many
nuclei of the mycelial cells of toadstools; also the primary basidium
nucleus and the four-spore nuclei arising from this.
Humphrey (1892) and Hartog (1895) followed the history of the
nuclei in the antheridium and oégonium of Saprolegnia by the use
of stained sections, and concluded, as De Bary had done, that there
is no fertilization in these forms. Not until the work of Trow (1904)
and Claussen (1908) was it proven that the antheridium of these
water molds, at least in some species, may be functional, and not
always vestigial, as De Bary (1881) and Humphrey had thought.
The earliest cytological work on the Ascomycetes, after the detec-
tion of their nuclei by Schmitz, was that of Dangeard (1894), He
described and figured a fusion, of two nuclei in the ascus of Exoascus,
of Peziza, of the truffle, and others. The source of the two fusing
nuclei Dangeard did not trace back farther than the subterminal cell
of a hooked hypha, from which the ascus arises in Peziza and others.
The ascus, with its fusion nucleus, he regarded as an odéspore.
In 1895 there was announced from Strasburger’s famous laboratory
at Bonn a discovery which seemed at one stroke to settle the dispute
between De Bary and Brefeld, and to definitely demonstrate the
occurrences of a sexual nuclear fusion in the sexual organs seen by
De Bary. In that year Harper showed that out of the opened
antheridial tube of the hop mildew, Spherotheca, a male nucleus
passes into the odgonium and fuses with its nucleus. The whole
behavior of antheridium and oégonium and their contents had
73176°—sM 191426
402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
every aspect of a real sexual process, as De Bary had asserted in
1863. What made Harper’s discovery still more significant was the
determination of the fate of the fusion nucleus in relation to the
nuclei of the ascus and spores. Harper found that one of the row of
five or six cells resulting from the division of the fertilized o6gonium
has two nuclei. These two descendants of the diploid nucleus,
formed at fertilization, afterwards fuse, and the cell containing them
swells to form the single ascus of this species. This, presumably
tetraploid, fusion nucleus of the ascus then grows and divides three
times to give the eight spore nuclei. In the following year or two
Harper (1896-97) demonstrated a sexual fusion of the same type at
the initiation of the fruits of another mildew Erysibe, and of the
saucer fungus Ascobolus. The numerous asci of these forms all,
arise from binucleate branches of the binucleate, subterminal cell of
the fertilized o6gonium. Each ascus is at first binucleate, but later,
as had been seen by Dangeard (1894), the two fuse and then by
division the eight spore nuclei are formed as in Spheerotheca.
In the course of the following decade Harper reported the occur-
rence of two nuclear fusions, like those of Spherotheca, and at the
same points in the life cycle, in the mildews Erysibe (1896) and
Phyllactinia (1905), and in the saucer fungus Pyronema (1900).
Moreover, he found in Phyllactinia a synapsis and evidences of a
double reduction of the chromosome number in the divisions of the
presumably tetraploid, fusion nucleus of the ascus. Pyronema
proved interesting also in having multinucleate gametes, such as
were at this time being studied by Stevens in the white rust Albugo.
Harper believed that many pairs of male and female nuclei fuse in
the odgonium of Pyronema.
As the outcome of this whole series of studies by Harper it seemed
clear that there is in many Ascomycetes an alternation of a haploid
generation, the vegetative mycelium and the sterile hyphe of the
fruit, with a diploid generation, the fertilized o6gonium and the
ascus-forming hyphe arising from it. The second fusion, in the
ascus, was regarded as a nutritive phenomenon to provide a nucleus
adequate in size for the organization of the relatively huge ascus.
At the opening of the century the observations of a number of
- workers on the simpler Ascomycetes, e. g., those of Juel (1902) and
Barker (1902), seemed to establish the occurrence of a nuclear fusion
in the odgonium in these forms also. This, with Harper’s work,
made it seem probable that this fusion is a frequent phenomenon
throughout all the Ascomycetes.
The researches of certain other cytological workers, however,
convinced them that no fusion of nuclei really occurs in the oé6gonium
of the Ascomycetes which they studied. Thus, Dangeard (1897 and
1907), working on Spherotheca and Erysibe, found no fusion except
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 403
that in the ascus. Claussen (1907) and Brown (1909) could find no
other in the varieties of Pyronema studied by them. Both workers
find paired nuclei associated in the ascogenous hyphe and finally in
the young ascus. Claussen therefore regards the fusion in the young
ascus as a union of descendants of the sexual nuclei that were brought
together in the odgonium but did not fuse there. In other words, he
thinks it a real sexual fusion which has been deferred.’ Brown, on
the other hand, says that in his plant no antheridial nuclei are con-
cerned, since the antheridium never reaches the odgonium. He
therefore regards the fusion of pairs of nuclei, derived from the
odgonium, which occurs in the ascus, as one that serves as a substitute
for the sexual fusion that primitively occurred in the odgonium.
Brown’s view is supported further by his work on Lachnea (1911),
and by Faull’s recent work (1912) on certain Laboulbenias.
If this view of Brown’s be accepted it implies that the original
diploid condition of the cells of the sporophyte has been altogether
eliminated, except for the brief uninucleate stage of the ascus. In
spite of this, however, the whole structure and development of the
original 2X generation, from fertilized odgonium to mature fruit
and ascus, has been retained. This same normal type of vegetative
structure, in spite of an abnormal chromosome number, has been
demonstrated in gametophyte and sporophyte of aposporous and
apogamous mosses and ferns. It is implied also in Lewis’s suggestion
that, in the red seaweeds, the reduction has been postponed from its
original jocation at carpospore-formation over into the primitively
haploid tetrasporic phase of the next generation.
Still other recent work on the Ascomycetes, however, supports
Harper’s view that a double fusion frequently occurs in these fungi.
Thus Blackman and Fraser (1906), Fraser (1907-8), and Fraser and
Brooks (1909) find evidence of several steps in the loss of function of
the antheridia in the different species of the cup fungi Lachnea and
Humaria. In those cases where no antheridial nuclei are discharged
into the odgonium, nuclei of this organ itself are believed, by these
workers, to fuse in pairs within it. The later fusion in the ascus,
which they find in common with all workers, they regard as a
nutritive phenomenon.
Until toward the end of last century the Basidiomycetes were
generally assumed not to be sexual. At least no sexual organs had
been described for them, with the exception of the spermagonia and
ecidia of the plant rusts. These had been called male and female
organs, respectively, by Meyen, before the middle of the century.
_ The very first nuclear studies of the rusts and toadstools, however,
revealed the occurrence of a nuclear fusion, and at another point in
the life history indications of the complementary process, a reduc-
tion, were discovered.
404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
In the case of the rusts Rosen (1892) saw two nuclei in the scidio-
spore of certain species. Dangeard and Sapin-Trouffy (1893) reported
the occurrence of a nuclear fusion in the teleutospore. Sapin-Trouffy
(1896) found that the cells of the excidium-bearmmg mycelium are
uninucleate up to the very base of the chain of ecidiospores. Maire
(1900) first stated clearly the whole nuclear cycle in rusts: Beginning
with the binucleate ecidiospore there follows, e. g., in the wheat rust,
the uredo or rust stage, which has a binucleate mycelium and forms
binucleate uredospores for several generations. The two nuclei of
the young teleutospore, finally formed on this mycelium, fuse as the
spore matures. The two divisions of this fusion nucleus in the
promycelium give rise to the four nuclei of the four sporidia which
germinate to the uninucleate cluster cup mycelium on the barberry.
Maire saw in this life history a real alternation of generations, the
gametophyte or X generation beginning with the sporidium, the
sporophyte or 2X generation, with the mother cell of the ecidiospore
chain.
Blackman (1904) and Christman (1905) discovered the origin of
the binucleate condition of this mother cell in species of Phragmidium.
It there arises by the migration of a nucleus from one cell into another,
or by the fusion of the cytoplasm of two cells to form the mother cell
of the spore chain. The two nuclei thus brought together divide
simultaneously or conjugately, each contributing a nucleus to the
first and to each succeeding spore. This conjugate division of the
paired nuclei and their descendants was shown to occur all through
the uredo generation up to the formation of the young teleutospore.
In the interpretation of their discoveries Blackman and Christman
differ more widely than in the facts reported. The former supports
the surmise of Meyen, and believes the basal cells of the spore chain
are oogonia which were primitively fertilized by the now functionless
spermatia, or pycnospores, that are produced in separate organs on
the barberry leaf. Christman, on the contrary, regards the fusing
cells at the base of the eciditum as the primitive, undifferentiated
sexual organs of these fungi. He holds that male and female organs
have never become differentiated in this group, and thinks that the
spermatia are, or were, propagative cells of the X generation.
The observations of many workers on the smuts and on the toad-
stools have shown the frequent occurrence in them of an association
of nuclei and the final fusion of two nuclei in the chlamydospore or
the basidium. The time and mode of association of the fusing nuclei,
or of their progenitors, are very different in different forms. The
fusion, and what appear to be the reduction divisions are, however, |
constant in location in each species, and are always closely associated.
Thus, the nuclear fusion in the smuts often occurs in the chlamy-
dospore, according to Dangeard (1893) and Rawitscher (1912), and
SEXUALITY IN PLANTS—JOHNSON. 405
reduction evidently follows immediately in the next developmental
phase, when this spore germinates to form the sporidia. In the toad-
stools, according to Wager (1893), Dangeard (1894), Harper (1902),
Nichols (1904), and Levine (1913), the fusion of nuclei occurs in the
basidium, and the reduction at the very next division of this fusion
product, when the four spore nuclei are formed.
The striking uniformity with which the apparent reduction occurs
in all Basidiomycetes, at the time of formation of the sporidia or
basidiospores, affords good evidence that this type of spore formation
is a long-established one, common to the whole group. It thus sup-
ports Brefeld’s view that the promycelium of the smuts and rusts is
homologous with the basidium of the higher forms. That the point
in, the life cycle where the associated nuclei finally fuse is the point at
which it occurred in the earliest Basidiomycetes is not so clear. The
modes of bringing about the first association of the paired nuclei are
so varied that it is difficult to detect any clearly ancestral type among
them all. The structures concerned with this process in the scidium-
forming rusts certainly seem most readily comparable with the repro-
ductive organs of other thallophytes. It seems probable that the
occurrence of fusion at the same point im all forms is due to its being
postponed in all forms as long as it could be, without being pushed
over into another phase of the life cycle.
It would be instructive to spend another half hour, as we can not
do here, in considering those peculiar short cuts in reproduction
known as apogamy and apospory. These phenomena are so patently
secondary and so relatively infrequent that they can not be looked to
for evidence of fundamental importance concerning the history or the
significance of the essential sexual process itself. Their study has,
however, served to correct certain false assumptions concerning the
relation between the difference in chromosome number and the differ-
ence in structure of the two generations. For example, the apoga-
mous production, by Nephrodium molle, of a normal fern sporophyte
with the X number of chromosomes demonstrates as no other kind
of evidence could that De Vries was right in regarding the normal
sporophyte as really two beings in one. Incidentally too, such phe-
nomena suggest how comparatively unimportant it is for the structure
of the plant, in what manner, and at what point in the life history the
association of the 2X number of chromosomes is brought about.
CONCLUSION.
In our rapid glance at the progress made in the study of this prob-
lem during 20 centuries we have seen how for 18 centuries men at-
tempted to solve the problem by recourse to philosophical reasoning,
without the aid of detailed observation or experiment. Then, in less
than 2 centuries, by the use of these means, Camerarius proved that
406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
pollination is a necessary condition of seed formation; Koelreuter
demonstrated that characters from both parents appear in hybrid
offspring; Amici, Pringsheim, Schmitz, and Strasburger showed how
the mingling of parental qualities is made possible by the approxi-
mation and mingling of parental protoplasms and nuclei.
The sexuality which was first suspected and first experimentally
proven in the seed plants has now been demonstrated in all groups
of plants save the bacteria and their allies. The primary feature of
the process, the union of two parental nuclei, is the same im all.
The method of bringing together the two nuclei varies widely, this
variation sometimes involving even the complete disappearance of
externally recognizable sexual organs. During the evolution of
plants old methods of accomplishmg the approximation of the nuclei
have been discarded, and new methods have arisen. In the latter
case a fusion of nuclei of closer kinship has often been substituted for
the primitive one of more distantly related nuclei. This seems evi-
dently the case, for example, in the apogamous Ascomycetes; perhaps
also in the Basidiomycetes, and surely so in the cases of nuclear
fusion in the prothallia and in the sporangia of apogamous ferns.
In the process of fertilization, as we understand it at present, there
are brought together two distinct sets of chromosomes, which in the
nuclear divisions of the sporophyte, or 2X generation, are often found
associated in pairs. The exact manner in which these chromosomes
become paired, and the possibility of their attainmg any more inti-
mate association, either in the resting reticulum or im synapsis, are
not yet definitely determined. If, as is mdicated by Mendelian
phenomena, and as demonstrated cytologically to the satisfaction of
many workers, there is no loss of identity of the chromosomes in the
sporophyte, then there is no very significant fusion at any pot in the
life cycle in consequence of the sexual process. Members of the two
sets of chromosomes may be interchanged or shuffled, probably at
synapsis, and thus new sets or combinations be formed in the haploid
nuclei at reduction. These new combinations, however, are still
made up of the same discrete individual chromosomes.
The essence of the sexual process then, as far as yet morphologically
demonstrated, consists not of a real fusion, but merely of a temporary
association, followed by a reassortment at sporogenesis of those
ultimate, inheritance-bearing units—the chromosomes.
PROBLEMS AND PROGRESS IN PLANT PATHOLOGY.'
By L. R. Jonss,
Professor of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin.
I.—INTRODUCTION.
It may be assumed, I trust, that I am doing the expected thing in
choosing the topic of this address from my own field, phytopathology.
If, however, justification is asked, the answer is clear. Plant path-
ology is simply a phase of botany. Practically all progress to date in
its scientific development is owing to botanists. The rapid increase
in numbers of those engaged upon work in this branch of botanical
science has, however, naturally crystallized certain tendencies to
segregation, giving us our independent Phytopathological Society
with its separate program and its own journal. While this segre-
gation is, in my judgment, the natural and wholesome result of
progress, it creates problems and embodies danger to both parties.
To the parent group, these lie in the loss of close association which it
has heretofore had with some of its virile younger members; to the
younger branch, there is the even more serious danger in passing
from the critical and standardizing influence of the general Botanical
Society, dominated by maturer minds and broader ideals.
If we accept as true the statement of one year ago by Dr. Farlow’
that America is to-day surpassing other nations in the study and
applications of plant pathology, perhaps the first phase of biological
science where this can be asserted, all will agree that much credit
for this is due to the fact that our methods, ideals, and leadership
have come directly from botanical circles. Now that these relations
are becoming less intimate, the responsibility rests upon both parties
to see that by conscious effort we keep in closest touch, that the
dangers of mutual loss from segregation be minimized to the utmost.
I have chosen the combination title ‘‘Problems and Progress,”’
because of the necessary relationship of these two ideas. There may,
indeed, be difference of opinion as to the relative stage of scientific
progress in plant pathology, as compared with other branches of
botany. There must, however, be general agreement as to the
1 Address of the retiring president of the Botanical Society of America, read at the Atlanta meeting,
Dee. 31, 1913. Reprinted by permission from the American Journal of Botany, March, 1914.
2Farlow, W.G. The change from the old to the new botany in the United States. Science, N. S. 37:
79. 1913.
407
408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
relatively great increase in activity in this field in the last two decades.
Activity is the gauge of life, and fullness of life should be the best
criterion of progress. But we all recognize that whether or not
activity or life in any scientific field does measure progress depends
upon whether or not action is directed toward the solution of funda-
mental problems.
Let us with this in mind review the progress in phytopathology,
trying to define and delimit some of the chief problems as they have
successively arisen and to decide in how far they have been solved.
IIi.— THE PROBLEM OF PARASITISM.
Practical-minded men have faced the problems of disease in plants
since plant culture began and those more scientifically minded have,
of course, speculated or investigated in the matter. But it will
profit us little to go back much more than a century for inquiry into
either their definition of the problems or t heir progress in the solution.
When Count Re, of Italy (1807),! following the lead of the Tyrolese
von Zallinger (1773), attempted an account of what was known about
plant diseases, practical or scientific, the result was largely barren
because he had no conception of the meaning of parasitism. Little
was known about the fungi and less about their host relations.
Schweinitz, Persoon, and Fries soon laid the secure foundations for
mycological nomenclature and species descriptions, secure because
based on keen observations and critical comparisons. But they had
no concern. with plant pathology, aud their contemporaries who had,
were star-gazing with the nature philosophers. Thus Count Re’s
work remained nearly half a century after it was published as a stand-
ard writing in plant pathology.’
It required the plague of the potato disease and the example of
the Irish famine finally to focus attention upon the fundamental
problem—the relation of the mildew to the sick potato plant, of the
smut and rust fungi to the infected grain—the problem of parasitism.
True, they had been phrasing the term parasite much as we do, but so
long as most held that the so-called parasitic fungus originated through
the transformation of the sap or the degeneration of the diseased host
tissues there could be no real progress in plant pathology whether
scientific or practical. To De Bary’s master mind we owe the clear
recognition of the parasitic relations of fungus and host plant,? and
from his demonstration of this we date further progress.
1 Re, Fillipo. Saggio teorico pratico sulle malattie delle piante. Veneziae, 1807. An English transla-
tion was published in Gardiner’s Chronicle, 1849, p. 228.
2 The editor of Gardiner’s Chronicle (1849, p. 211) prefaces the translation of Re’s work withthe statement
that “it is the best work within our knowledge”’ upon this subject.
3De Bary, A. Untersuchungen iiber die Brandpilze und die durch sie verursachten Krankheiten der
Pflanzen mit Riicksicht auf das Getreide und andere Nutzpflanzen, 1853.
PLANT PATHOLOGY—JONES, 409
But although De Bary’s work has settled for all time that the
parasite is an independent plant entering the host from without and
feeding upon it to its destruction, we must not forget that the more
fundamental problems of parasitism remain with us. In biology, the
definition is always dangerous, and the more complete and finished
the more the danger. De Bary’s classification of all fungi as parasites
and saprophytes, obligate and facultative, is so complete and satisfy-
ing that it is constantly misleading. De Bary thought as the mycolo-
gist with attention focused upon the fungus. The first concern of the
pathologist must ever be with the host plant, and chiefly with the
host plant under conditions of culture. _He must constantly be alert
to the fact that parasitism is not a fixed but a fluctuating relation,
dependent as to its occurrence and degree upon a complex of condi-
tions, and these involving the reactions of not one but two widely
different organisms. Although the fact of parasitism was settled
and the modern science of plant pathology securely based upon it,
there has been no time since when phytopathologists realized as
clearly as to-day the importance of the problems yet to be solved in
this field. We have scarcely begun the study of the intimate relations
of parasite and host, the conditions and results of parasitism.
III. THE LIFE-HISTORY PROBLEMS.
The fact of parasitism accepted, the problem of the life-history of
the parasite at once presented itself to these early students. Kihn’s
work on grain infection by smut (1858) and De Bary’s upon the life
histories of the Peronosporales (1863) with proof of heteroecism of
the rusts (1864-65) set the pace. In the retiring address of my
predecessor, we learned how Farlow brought to this country the
coals which have kindled the fires of our best American research in
mycological pathology.
It should remain the first concern of plant pathologists that this
work be continued. Discoveries as to life histories of parasites are,
in the long run, of more practical importance as fundamental for
disease control than demonstrations with spray mixtures. The‘lat-
ter are usually transient contributions, the former permanent. It
is, therefore, of good promise that the two life-history problems
which first engaged De Bary’s efforts, those of the grain rust and the
potato fungus, are to-day held more open and are receiving more
earnest attention than when De Bary died. It is well that the prob-
lem of the overwintering of the apple scab is no sooner settled by
one investigator for one locality than it is opened by another, work-
ing in a different environment. Life-history problems have so many
variations and complexities that they must ever remain with us, and
progress in their fuller solution will continue as one index to general
progress in plant pathology.
1 Farlow, W. G.., loc. cit.
410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
It is fortunate that they are so well suited for thesis problems of \
graduate students, and we may hope that the traditions established
in the laboratories of Farlow and Atkinson may be perpetuated as
well in other institutions.
IV.—THE CULTURE PROBLEMS.
While De Bary in Germany was laying the foundation of myco-
logical morphology, Pasteur in France was doing a correspondingly
important work on the side of physiology, dealing with the funda-
mentals of fermentation and nutrition. Following his initial efforts,
the problem of the pure culture with yeasts and bacteria was promptly
defined and solved. Bacteriology not only came quickly into exist-
ence, but soon became the most exact science of the biological group,
owing to the fact that in such pure cultures environmental conditions
can be controlled to a degree unattainable with the higher organisms.
Brefeld’s success in culturing the smuts directed attention to this
new method in studying the fungous parasites. Although the meth-
ods were adapted from those of the bacteriologists their uses with
fungi are somwehat different. With these it is not only the gain
from exact handling in differentiating mixed infections and mocu-
lating from pure cultures, but also in completing life-history investi-
gations. With the imperfect fungi and Pyrenomycetes the method
is especially applicable and the recent work on Glomerella by Shear !
and Edgerton? illustrates well its advantages. To this method
Phytophthora infestans has at last yielded the clue to its complete
life history,’ although here as always the developments in the culture
tube need to be checked by comparison with those in nature.
For culturing the plant pathogens the value of the solid over
liquid media and of vegetable over animal extracts becomes increas-
ingly evident with experience. Thus the merits of Clinton’s oat agar
which gave such important results with Phytophthora have again
been shown by the development upon this medium in our laboratory
of perithecia of the apple scab fungus in greater abundance and vigor
than ever observed in nature.‘ It should be assumed that for all
such fungi which develop part of their fruiting stages saprophytically
we may perfect culture media and methods which will not only stimu-
late but may improve on those of nature.
1 Shear, C. L. and Wood, A. K., Studies of fungous parasites belonging to the genus Glomerella. U.S.
Dept. Agr., Bu. Pl. Ind. Bul. 252. 1913.
2 Edgerton, C. W., Plus and minus strains in an Ascomycete. Science, N. 8. 35: 151. 1912; also paper
read at this Atlanta meeting.
3See Jones, L. R. and Giddings, N. J. Studies of the potato fungus. Science, N. S. 39: 271. 1909.
See also ibid. 30: 813. 1909; 31: 752.1910. Clinton, G. P., Oospores of potato blight. Science, N. 8. 33: 744.
1911; Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1909-10: 753. Jones, Giddings and Lutman, Investigations of the potato
fungus. U. S. Department Agriculture, Bu. Pl. Ind. Bul. 245. 1912. Pethybridge, G. H., On pure
cultures of Phytophthora infestans De Bary and the development of oospores. Sci. Proc. Royal Dublin
Soc. 13: 556. 1913.
4See abstract of paper by F. R. Jones: “‘Perithecia in cultures of Venturia inaequalis.’”’? Phytopa-
thology 4: 52. 1914.
PLANT PATHOLOGY—JONES. 411
And even the so-called obligate parasites deserve attention, for we
are not restricted to artificial or dead media in pure culture work.
The living sterile tissues of the proper host may be secured for many
parasites providing only the need is sufficient to justify the pains-
taking. This of course, is easy with many interior tissues of fleshy
parts, while for various other plants the seedlings may be grown from
sterile seeds. It would seem that the problem of whether or not
Plasmodiophora brassicae is the sole cause of club root of crucifers, or
whether association is necessary with bacterial or other organisms, as
has been suggested,! is a challenge to such increased skill in culture
technique.
Vinally, there is culturmg upon the living host. Although this
was the earliest method in vogue, and has yielded such gains especially
in the hands of Arthur and others with rusts, yet the general applica-
bility and importance of this practice in plant pathological investi-
gations has not been fully realized. It is only thus that we can learn
with exactness of related varietal or species susceptibility of hosts on
the one hand and of the occurrence of biological forms among para-
sites on the other—both things of paramount importance in plant
pathology, scientific and economic. Success in such work is condi-
tioned upon our ability to control and interpret environmental condi-
tions. When the superiority of the greenhouse for such studies is
more fully realized, we shall here work out the most of our funda-
mental problems, with the field plat as the place more important for
verification than for investigation.
V.—BACTERIA IN RELATION TO PLANT DISEASE.
The problems of bacteria im relation to plant disease naturally
followed the advent of the pure-culture method. While, from the
American standpoint, this is the most important chapter in the
development of modern plant pathology, it is at the same time, to
us, the most familiar. The universally acknowledged world suprem-
acy rests here, thanks to the high ideals and energetic—at times mili-
tant—leadership of him who two years ago was the honored president
of this society. I may only outline certain things in order to warn of
dangers or suggest other problems.
Since the work of Burrill, over 40 years ago, no American worker has
doubted the occurrence of bacterial diseases of plants. That Euro-
peans were skeptical for a time was the natural consequence of too
great reliance upon tradition and too great respect for authority.
And as we grow older in the work in America we must realize that the
traditions will soon be ours and that the paralyzing hand of authority
will rest more heavily upon us. While in general we must follow its
1 Pinoy, Role des bactéries dans le developpement du Plasmodiophora brassicae. Compt. Rend. Soc.
Biol. 58° 1010. 1905.
412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
lead, and the “progressive”? who breaks from the ranks must do so
at his peril, let us keep alive to the need of progressiveness, and be
patient with the man who challenges a traditional idea. Of course,
every American recognizes fire blight of pear as the “classic”? among
bacterial diseases. But there may be blight which is not the bacterial
fire blight. It is a wholesome thing, therefore, to have a challenge
issued. It has been too easy, at least in horticultural circles of the
west, to attribute all types of blighting of pear and apple trees to
Bacillus amylovorus. One of the most reassuring things about the
chestnut blight situation has been the fact that from the outset there
have been those who must be converted. I have for years been
convinced that American pathologists have relied too implicitly on
authority in attributing all potato scab to one organism. Now that
our so-called “‘Oospora scabies”? seems to be of a bacterial nature!
and the powdery scab of Europe is threatening if not invading our
territory, we may hope for a revival of first-hand investigations.
And may we not be in danger of generalizing too broadly with refer-
ence to galls? The brilliancy and thoroughness of the recent work?
upon crown gall will almost inevitably encourage this in spite of the
guarded and conservative statements made by the authors themselves.
The natural consequence of the general acceptance of the fact of
bacterial diseases of plants, coupled with the lack of adequate training
in bacteriological technique, led many in the early days to attribute
numerous diseases to bacteria upon incomplete evidence. Nor was
this confined to America. European literature, especially the French,
has many such announcements. We need not criticise these too
severely as to the past. It was natural and inevitable. But we are
increasingly blameworthy if we continue either to publish carelessly
or to accept the announcements of others without critical review.
With the appearance of Smith’s monographic work on Bacteria in
Relation to Plant Diseases, any American, at least, who describes a
“new” bacterial disease of plants upon inadequate data should realize
that he is committing an offense against the American profession.
This is not to imply that there are not plenty of bacterial diseases
of plants yet to be discovered, nor to discourage the search for these.
It is rather to emphasize that there are other problems better worth
while than the search for ‘‘new”’ diseases of minor economic impor-
tance. The simplicity of the bacteria in their relations to host and
in the way they lend themselves to culture and infection stimulate
the hope that through persistent intensive study of bacterial diseases
we shall gain the clearer insight into those intimate relations of para-
site and host which are fundamental to the science of plant pathology.
is sia E. F. Crown gall of plants. Phytopathology 1:7. 1911. Smith, Brown, and McCulloch.
The structure and development of crown gall: A plant cancer. U.S. Dept. Agric., Bur. Pl. Ind., Bull.
255, 1912.
PLANT PATHOLOGY—ZJONES. 413
VI.—THE RELATIONS OF PARASITE TO HOST AND ENVIRONMENT.
Although parasitology in relation to plant pathology dates from
but little later than in animal pathology, and the relations involved
would seem simpler than with the animal parasite, yet the fact remains
that we are far behind the animal pathologists in understanding these
relations. Some of the reasons for this are evident. The preeminent
value of human life among the animals has focused attention upon
human pathology. Even where attention has been given to the path-
ology of the lower animals, the students have as a rule approached
the subject from the viewpoint of human pathology, and have been
eager to apply to this any suggestions from comparative work on the
lower forms. The result has been intensity and concentration of
research upon the diseases of this one organism, man.
In plant pathology the natural tendency has been exactly the oppo-
site. From the beginning the phytopathologist has included in his
range of interests all the diseases of all plants known to him. The
numbers of disease-inducing parasites is so enormous that it has con-
sumed his professional energies simply to catalogue them. Concen-
tration when attempted has been secured by narrowing one’s interests
within the parasitic group rather than within the host group.
I believe that we need to have, far more than heretofore, special-
ization by hosts in our phytopathological studies. Whether one is to
probe deeper into problems of relations of environment to parasitism
or into matters of predisposition and variations, either with host as to
susceptibility or parasite as to its biological forms, attention should
be focused long and intensively upon the one host. Experience has
convinced me that one can not understand the diseases of a cultivated
plant like the potato, for example, except as he understands them in
relation not only to the normal physiology and morphology of the
plant, but in relation to its history and its variations under culture.
Progress requires that we have specialists on types of host plant as
well as of parasite.
And passing to the cellular relations of host and parasite, how
little we know! The very simplicity of the plant’s organization
makes the pathological reactions harder to investigate than with the
animal. In the plant the unit in the more fundamental pathological
relations is not the organism but the cell, an object so minute as to
make the study of the chemical interrelations highly difficult. We
recognize the cell membrane as the first barrier to be overcome by the
invader and we believe the cytolytic enzyme the first weapon in the
attack. Yet, save with certain soft rot diseases, we know little that
is definite about these enzymes in their action. We see evidence of
other disturbing effects of parasite upon host cells, even in advance
of actual invasion. Sometimes these are inhibitory or fatal, some-
414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
times stimulating. But we have scarcely sufficient basis for a sugges- —
tion as to the nature of the agents involved. Such problems call for
the combined skill of pathologist, physiologist, cytologist, and
chemist.
The variation in the occurrence of disease with environment is one
of the commonest observations and a thing of the greatest practical
moment. Yet how little progress we have made in understanding
the factors. Climate and soil both are composites of many variables,
which in turn may react on either host or parasite. Why is it that
Rhizoctonia diseases and Blattrollkrankheit of the potato claim so
much attention in certain sections of the United States while in
others pathologists are skeptical as to their existence? Why is it that
the bacterial black leg of the potato develops so much worse in the
South than in the North? Why is it that with the melon the Fusarium
wilt is the scourge of the one section and the bacterial wilt of another ?
Why is it that the yellows disease of cabbage exterminates the crop
under certain conditions and is of minor importance under others ?
It would seem that here are problems to challenge the attention
of every pathologist. Yet if one turns to them he is balked at the
outset. We have inadequate data as yet regarding the occurrence
and distribution of even the commonest economic diseases in the
United States. Let us unite in urging that in the reorganization of
the work now in progress in the Bureau of Plant Industry the entire
attention of at least one expert pathologist be given to collecting and
analyzing such data, while all local pathologists pledge the under-
taking continued support and cooperation. Coordinate with this,
the local student of the special disease may make painstaking studies
in field, greenhouse, and culture chamber, and in time delimit the
effects of moisture, temperature, soil reaction, and like factors upon
each parasite and host.
The evidence is accumulating that the variations in relations
between parasite and host which give us specialized races of parasites
on one hand, and on the other, gradations in disease resistance of
host are of the greatest importance, whether scientifie or practical.
But we can as yet record little that helps us adequately to define the
factors in the problems, much less to solve them.
As suggested before, these problems are at bottom physiological
and of the most complex kind. The pathology of the past has been
the work of the mycologist and the bacteriologist. That of the
future must be increasingly dependent upon the physiologist; for what
is pathology at bottom but abnormal physiology? Realizing how
slow is progress upon the really fundamental problems in normal
physiology and what dearth there is of workers adequately trained to
grapple with them, we must be patient with ourselves, and beg the
patience of others, when dealing thus with the abnormal. Perhaps
PLANT PATHOLOGY—JONES, 415
our greatest hopes lie in the assurance that from now on inereasing
attention must and will be given to the training in physiology of
those who are coming into the profession of plant pathology.
VII.—-THE NONPARASITIC DISEASE.
If the early workers in plant pathology erred in failing to recognize
the importance of parasites as causal agents, the recent ones have
gone to the other extreme.
The mycologist and the bacteriologist naturally bring to our
attention even the minor parasitic maladies; the physiologist has as
yet rarely come to our aid. It is only as one undertakes the compre-
hensive study of the maladies of a particular host that he realizes how
few of the nonparasitic diseases have been listed.
Perhaps the peach, the tobacco, and the potato are the only plants
where the energies have been duly distributed between the investi-
gations of parasitic and nonparasitic diseases. If anyone doubts
that in these nonparasitic maladies we are dealing with specific
diseases having clearly defined symptoms which follow a regular
course, let him grow China asters for a series of years in his garden
and trace the course of aster yellows.1_ Here we have a malady as
clearly characterized as a fungous rust or wilt disease; unknown, I
believe, in Eurpoe, but widespread in America, variable with season
and locality, yet its etiology and pathology are entirely problematical.
But these are not problems to be undertaken lightly. Considering
their inherent difficulties, we may be thankful that such critical and
persistent work has been given to certain types already, notably to
peach yellows by Smith and to the mosaic disease of tobacco by
Mayer, Beijerinck, Woods, and others. It is encouraging to see that
earnest attention is being given to certain apple maladies in different
sections, especially the so-called ‘‘brown spot” or ‘‘bitter pit” in
South Africa and Australia?
Our encouragement will be greater, however, when we see the clear
recognition of the fact that training in parasitology has only indirect
value when it comes to such problems. The most evident need if we
are to advance in the fundamentals of our research in this field of
plant pathology is the reinforcement of our ranks with young men
equipped with a high degree of special training in plant physiology
grounded in organic chemistry, and ready to dedicate their services
long and patiently to these physiological researches.
VIII.—_THE PROBLEMS OF DISEASE CONTROL.
Now, you are expecting the statistics showing how many millions
America is adding to her income by modern methods in disease con-
1 See Stone, G. E., and Smith, R. E., Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 79. 1902.
2 McAlpine, D., Bitter pit investigations—First progress report. Melbourne.
416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
trol; but you have heard them often, so I need not repeat them; and
they have much of truth in them. The Yankee is practical, and the
Yankee mind dominates everywhere in America. Instead of boasting,
we rather owe ourselves this explanation—shall we say apology ?—
when we point to the relative proportion of the space in American
plant pathological publications given to the consideration of the spray
pump and the disinfecting solution. How could it be otherwise?
The millions spent by patent medicine advertisers have implanted
firmly in the American mind the idea that each animal disease is a
specific thing and for it there exists a specific remedy. It was, there-
fore, most lucky that when the professional “plant doctor” was
introduced to the American rural constituency by the State experi-
ment stations and National Department of Agriculture he could step
forward with Bordeaux mixture in one hand and formaldehyde in the
other, two specifics which could at once be used and misused in a most
amazing variety of cases without serious danger of loss of life or
reputation. And just as these were becoming somewhat common-
place, lime-sulphur was brought to our aid and with it the added enter-
prise of the American commercial advertiser.
Please do not misunderstand me. I recognize clearly that the
highest duty in plant pathology is service, and that the chief aim in
that service is to lessen loss from plant diseases. The only question
is, How can we best serve to this end?
Perhaps as conditions have been, we could not at the outset have
done much better. It was necessary first to educate the public as to
the amount of their loss from plant diseases, as to the general nature
of the parasites, and as to the great gains from the use of fungicides.
In order to do this, the pathologist must familiarize himself with
these things by repeated observations and trials and must contribute
in turn to the education of the horticulturist, the agronomist, and the
agricultural press. This has taken time—in many cases nearly all of
his time; but we may have satisfaction in the idea that it has been
well done. No other country has had lke service and in no other
country has the agricultural public followed the teachings so fully.
It is important, however, for us to remember that this is the pioneer
service, necessary and best at the outset; but that, as fast as con-
ditions permit, we must be moving on to the attack on the more
fundamental problems, to the performance of the more enduring
service. The fundamental idea in plant disease control is prevention.
It is surprising, if one goes over the list, how many diseases can not be
prevented by the use of fungicides. For the great classes of bacterial
diseases, rusts, and soil fungi, we must look to other measures. The
three fundamental ideas which here deserve increased attention are
sanitation, exclusion, disease resistance.
PLANT PATHOLOGY—JONES. 417
Spraying and seed treatments are only one part of sanitation in
any case and have no part in many cases. Full data as to the life
histories and modes of dissemination of causal organisms are more
important fundamentals for improved sanitation than are further
demonstrations with fungicides. The importance of fertilization,
cultivation, and crop rotation in relation to sanitation, together with
the destruction of diseased plant tissues_and the checking of the
carriers of disease germs, deserve more critical attention than they
have received from plant pathologists as well as plant cultivators.
While America has for some time been the most advanced nation
in controlling diseases by spraying, she has been one of the slowest
to undertake plant disease exclusion. The plant quarantine act
secured last year by the combined efforts of phytopathologists and
entomologists marks, therefore, a most important forward step. The
recent hearings relative to the potato disease quarantine, under this
act, have served not only to emphasize its importance, both com-
mercially and educationally, but also to point out important new
duties for plant pathologists. In order wisely to administer such
quarantine measures, there must be international cooperation among
phytopathologists in determining the occurrence and seriousness of
plant diseases. But while we are thus beginning to guard our borders
against potato wart and other dangerous foreign diseases, what are we
doing within our own territory? For example, we know that there is
an alfalfa disease ( Urophlyctis alfalfe) similar to the black wart of
potato in its nature and destructive possibilities, as yet apparently
limited in its distribution to a few western alfalfa-growing sections.!
No official steps have as yet been taken, so far as I know, to make
exact determinations of its present distribution or to guard against its
being carried to other places on seed. This would seem to be a
National rather than a State function and ,the National plant disease
survey already referred to would seem to be the logical first step.
Tn this connection the plan outlined by Orton for official inspection
and certification as to health of seed potatoes is highly significant.?
I believe it must commend itself for adoption with various other crops
as well. There is no other place more important for guarding the
health of crops than at the source of seed.
And finally, there is the question of disease resistance and im-
munity. Of course, the idea is not new; observations upon the
relative liability of varieties to disease come to us from early times.
But the clearer conception of the possibilities in this respect of plant
improvement through breeding is recent. The relative success of the
1 O’Gara, P.J., Urophlyctis alfalfe, a fungous disease ofalfalfa. Science, N.S. 36: 487. 1912.
2 Presented in a paper, ‘‘A Plan of Potato Seed Inspection,” before the annual meeting of the Wisconsin.
Potato Growers’ Association, Nov. 20,1913. See abstract in bulletin issued by J. G. Milward, secretary,
Madison, Wis., “‘Potato Development Work in Wisconsin,’’ p. 49, issued April, 1914.
73176°—sM 1914 27
418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
German and Scotch breeders in securing disease resisting potatoes
is fully recognized.t The work started by Ward at Cambridge has
raised our hopes relative to the possibilities of placing the studies of
disease resistance on a scientific basis. The most stimulating results
in America have dealt with resistance to soil fungi including Orton’s
work on cowpea, cotton and watermelon in the South, and Bolley’s
work on flax in Dakota. Such results as these and Norton’s on
asparagus rust resistance are to be regarded, not as final, but as merely
suggestive of what I believe to be the most important future line of
work in the control of plant disease, the breeding and selection of
plants for local adaptation and disease resistance. If this is true
then the fundamental problem deserving most serious consideration
is, What constitutes disease-resistance? The difficulty of even
defining the factors involved should not deter us from urging its
importance and encouraging work upon it along all possible lines of
attack.
IX.— CONCLUSION.
In conclusion let us emphasize that, if progress in plant pathology
is to continue as rapidly as we hope, those who are responsible for its
direction should realize the limitations of the individual workman,
and the necessity for division of the labors involved.
The demand to-day upon the American phytopathologist is almost
equally urgent for four types of service—(1) college teaching, (2)
extension teaching, (3) inspection, (4) research. In how far are these
compatible ?
The ideal college teacher must be an investigator, but until we
have passed the present stage of rapid growth in our State colleges,
nothing comparable to the proper proportions in the division of his
energies between these fields is practicable. The duties of public
adviser or extension servite in plant pathology may not be wholly
incompatible with college teaching or station research, although at
times seriously distracting. I am, however, convinced that in such
matters the professional plant pathologist may in general wisely
delegate the responsibility to act as spokesman to his associates in
horticulture and agronomy. The nature of a disease and its mode
of control once settled, the application of control measures becomes
simply one factor in the complex of cultural operations for the execu-
tion of which the above departments become responsible.
Plant disease surveys, inspection and quarantine service belong
in still another class and deserve the attention of experts in plant
pathology. But back of all these must stand the investigator, with
time and faculties kept free for his fundamental work; for research
‘is the most exacting of all taskmasters. While no one realizes more
1See Stuart, Wm., Disease resistance of potatoes. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 122. 1906.
f
PLANT PATHOLOGY—2JONES, 419
keenly than I do the present impracticability, in general, of restricting
our responsibilities along any such clean cut lines, nevertheless I am
convinced that it is only as we clearly define these ideals and approach
more nearly their realization that we are to secure the best results.
It is encouraging, therefore, that these responsibilities are being
divided in an increasing number of State institutions and that the
proposed reorganization in the United States Department of Agri-
culture follows similar lines, differentiating research at least from the
other fields of work.
If in this overlong discussion I have taxed your patience by empha-
sizing more the problems than the progress in plant pathology, it has
been with a two-fold purpose. On the one hand, I have hoped thus
to win your continued charity toward the plant pathologist, in view
of the complexity of the problems which he must meet, administra-
tively as well as scientifically. On the other, I have wished to urge
your continued cooperation along the two lines; first, in training young
men for the profession—the best training our botanical institutions
can give, with increasing attention to physiology; and second, in
sharing, in the future as in the past, in the responsibility for focusing
attention upon the fundamental problems and fixing standards by
which rightly to measure progress toward their solution.
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS AND THEIR REVELATIONS.*
By Prof. Jacapis CHUNDER Boss, M. A., D. Se., C. 8.1. C. 1. E.,
Professor, Presidency College, Calcutta.
There are professors of sciences bordering on the mystical, who
declare that they can discriminate the character and disposition of
anyone, simply by a careful observation of his handwriting. As to
the authenticity of such claims scepticism is permissible; but there is
no doubt that one’s handwriting may be modified profoundly by con-
ditions, physical and mental. There still exist at Hatfield House,
documents which contain the signatures of no less a person than the
historical Guy Fawkes of Gunpowder Plot celebrity. And those
who have seen them declare that there is a sinister variation in these
signatures. The crabbed and distorted characters of the last words
Guy Fawkes wrote on earth—as in the dark hours of the morning
on which he was executed he set his hand to the written confession of
his crime—tell their own tale of what had transpired in the solitary
imprisonment of that fateful night.
Such, then, is the history that may be unfolded to the critical eye
by the lines and curves of a human autograph. Under a placid
exterior, there is also a hidden history in the life of the plant. Storm
and sunshine, warmth of summer and frost of winter, drought and
rain, all-these and many more come and go about the plant. What
coercion do they exercise upon it? What subtle impress do they
leave behind? Is it possible to make the plants write down their
own autographs, and thus reveal their hidden history? Were this
possible, the fact would be fraught with far-reaching consequences.
For about the life reactions of plants, there are contending and »
irreconcilable hypotheses. Does the plant, like the animal, give an
answering twitch to an external shock? Is there any possible relation
between plant life and our own? On these points very little is
definitely known. For numerous are the experimental difficulties
which confront and baffle the investigator.
One school of thinkers, by far the most numerous, would have us
believe that some of the most characteristic reactions in the animal
are not to be found in the plant; for example, it is urged that, unlike
the animal, the majority of plants are insensitive to a blow, exhibiting
1 Reprinted by permission from pamphlet copy published by the Royal Institution of Great Britain.
Lecture at the Weekly Evening Meeting, Friday, May 29, 1914.
421
422 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
no shuddering twitch, either mechanical or electrical; and that even
in the sensitive Mimosa, an irritation does not cause an excitatory
impulse, but a mere hydraulic disturbance. The pendulum then
swings from these hasty assumptions to the diametrically opposite
extreme. Under these circumstances the clear path is that which
leads us away from theory and disputations to find the thread of fact.
We must, therefore, abandon all our preconceptions, and put our
questions direct, insisting that the only evidence which can be
accepted is that which bears the plant’s own signature.
How are we to know what unseen changes take place within the
plant? If it be excited or depressed under some special circum-
stance, how are we, on the outside, to be made aware of it? The
only conceivable way would be, if that were possible, to detect and
measure the actual response of the organism to a definite testing
blow. When an animal receives an external shock, it may answer
in various ways; if it has voice, by a cry; if it is dumb, by the
movement of its limbs. The external shock is the stimulus; the
answer of the organism is the response. If we can find out in the
plant the relation between the stimulus and response we shall be
able to determine its state of vitality at the moment. In an excit-
able condition, the feeblest stimulus will evoke an extraordinarily
large response; in a depressed state even a strong stimulus evokes
only a feeble response; and lastly, when death has overcome life,
there is an abrupt end of the power to answer at all.
We might, therefore, have detected the internal condition of the
plant, if we could have made it write down its responses. In order
to succeed in this, we have, first, to discover some compulsive force
which will make the plant give an answering signal; secondly, we
have to supply the wherewithal for an automatic conversion of these
signals into an intelligent script; and, last of all, we have ourselves
to learn the nature of the hieroglyphic.
RESPONSE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL.
In answering the question whether there is a fundamental unity
in the response of plant and animal, we have first to find out whether
sensitiveness is characteristic of only a few plants or whether all
plants and every organ of every plant is sensitive. Then we have to
devise apparatus by which visible or invisible reactions are detected
and recorded. Having succeeded in this, we have next to survey
the characteristic reactions in the animal, and find out whether
phenomena corresponding to these may also be discovered in the
plant.
Thus, when an animal is struck by a blow, it does not respond at
once. <A certain short interval elapses between the incidence of the
blow and the beginning of the reply. This lost time is known as
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 423
the latent period. In the plant is there any definite period which
elapses between the incident blow and the responsive twitch? Does
this latent period undergo any variation as in the animal, with
external conditions? Is it possible to make the plant itself write
down this excessively minute time interval ?
Next, is the plant excited by various irritants which also excite
the animal? If so, at what rate does the excitatory impulse travel
in the plant? Under what favorable circumstances is this rate of
transmission enhanced, and under what other circumstances is it
retarded or arrested? Is it possible to make the plant itself record
this rate and its variation? Is there any resemblance between the
nervous impulse in the animal and the excitatory impulse in the
plant ?
The characteristic effects of various drugs are well known in the
case of the animal. Is the plant similarly susceptible to their action ?
Will the effect of poison change with the dose? Is it possible to
counteract the effect of one poison by means of another ?
In the animal there are certain automatically pulsating tissues
like the heart. Are there any such spontaneously beating tissues ih
the plant? If so, are the pulsations in the animal and the plant
affected by external conditions in a similar manner? What is the
real meaning of spontaneity ?
Growth furnishes us with another example of automatism. The
rate of growth in a plant is far below anything we can directly per-
ceive. How, then, is this growthto be magnified so as to be rendered
instantly measureable? What are the variations in this infinitesimal
erowth under external stimulus of light and shock of electric current ?
What changes are induced by giving or withholding food? What
are the conditions which stimulate or retard growth ?
And, lastly, when by the blow of death life itself is finally extin-
cuished, will it be possible to detect the critical moment? And does
the plant then exert itself to make one overwhelming reply, after
which response ceases altogether ?
PLANT SCRIPT.
We shall first take up the question of recording response of a plant
like Mimosa. Here, at the joint of the leaf, there is a cushion-like
mass of tissue known as the pulvinus. This serves as the motile
apparatus. The swollen mass on the lower side is very conspicuous.
Under excitation, the parenchyma in this more effective lower half
undergoes contraction, in consequence of which there is a fall of the
leaf. This sudden movement constitutes the mechanical response of
the leaf to the impinging stimulus, just as the contractile movement
of a muscle in similar circumstances forms its characteristic mechanical
response. For obtaining a record, the leaf of Mimosa is attached to
424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
one arm of a lever, V; the other is loaded with a small weight, which
acts as a counterpoise. A long wire, W, bent at the tip, is placed at
right angles to the lever, and serves as a writer. The tip of this
writer touches a smoked-glass plate, which is allowed by means of a
clockwork to fall at a definite rate. (Fig. 1.) An instantaneous
electric shock is applied on the leaf stalk at A. The excitation will,
after a time, be prop-
(+) Vv agated from A to the
responding pulvinus
at B, inducing the
responsive fall of the
leaf. After a definite
period the leaf recoy-
ers from excitations
and is reerected. <A
complete curve of
response is thus ob-
tained in which the
ordinate a b repre-
sents the intensity of
excitation, and the
abscissa ac the period
of complete recovery.
(Fig.2.) Any condi-
tion which increases
excitability will also
enhance the ampli-
tude of response.
Depression, on the
other hand, is at-
tended by a diminu-
Fia. 1.—Diagrammatic representation of plant recorder. Respond- tion of response. At
ing leaf attached to one arm of lever V, at the fulerum of which is
attached W, the writer. G, sliding smoked glass plate for record. death the response Is
Recording plate is lifted and allowed to drop. Ata definite position alto g ether abolished.
during fall, R makes momentary electric contact with R’, giving
rise to instantaneous electric shock at A. Moment of application of Thus ) by means of
stimulus marked on recording plate by arrow a; arrival of excita- :
tion at B causes fall of leaf, which pulls the writer toleft, describing bc. testing blows, WiCrATe
For determination of latent period, stimulus is applied on the pul- able to make the
annie plant itself reveal
those invisible internal changes which would otherwise have entirely
escaped us.
The above is a description of the theoretical method of obtaining
response of the plant. In practice numerous difficulties have to be
overcome. In the case of muscle-contraction, the pull exerted
is considerable and the friction offered by the recording surface
constitutes no essential difficulty. In the case of plants, however, the
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 425
pull exerted by the motile organ is relatively feeble, and in the
movement of the very small leaflets of Desmodium gyrans or the
telegraph plant, for instance, a weight so small as four-hundredths
of a gram is enough to arrest the pulsation of the leaflets. Even
in the leaf of Mimosa the friction offered is enough to introduce
serious errors into the amplitude and time relations of the curve.
This error could not be removed as long as the writer remained in
continuous contact with the writing surface. I was, however, able
to overcome this difficulty by making an intermittent, instead of a
continuous, contact. The possibility of this lay in rendering the
Fig. 2.—Response curve of primary leaf of Mimosa. The verticallines below the record indicate
intervals of one minute each.
writer tremulous. Fresh difficulties arose which were finally elimi-
nated by an invention depending on the phenomenon of resonance.
THE RESONANT RECORDER.
The principle of my resonant recorder depends on a certain phe-
nomenon, known as resonance or sympathetic vibration. In illus-
tration of this we may construct an artificial ear tuned to a definite
note. The drum of the artificial ear is made of thin soap film; a
beam of light reflected from its surface forms characteristic pattern
of color on the screen. To various cries this ear remains deaf, but
the apathy disappears as soon as the note to which the ear is tuned
is sounded at a distance. On account of sympathetic vibration
the artificial ear film is thrown into wildest commotion, and the
hitherto quiescent color pattern on the screen is now converted into a
whirlpool of indescribably gorgeous color of peacock green and
molten gold.
426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
In the same manner, if the strings of two violins are exactly tuned,
then a note sounded on one will cause the other to vibrate in sym-
pathy. We may likewise tune the vibrating writer V with a reed C.
(Fig. 3.) Suppose the reed and the writer are both tuned to vibrate
a hundred times per second. When the reed is sounded the writer
will also begin to vibrate in sympathy. In consequence of this
the writer will no longer remain in continuous contact with the
recording plate, but will deliver a succession of taps a hundred times
in a second. The record will therefore consist of series of dots, the
distance between
one dot and _ the
next representing
one-hundredth part
of a second. With
other recorders it is
possible to measure
still shorter inter-
vals. It will now
be understood how,
by the device of the
resonant recorder,
we not only get
rid of the error
due to friction, but
make the record it-
self measure time as
short as may be de-
sired. The extraor-
dinary delicacy of
Fig. 3.—Upper part of resonant recorder (from a photograph).
Thread from clock (not shown) passes over pulley P, letting down this instrument will
recording plate. S’,screw foradjustment of distance of writing-point he understood when
from recording plate. S, screw for vertical adjustment. T, tangent : : :
serew for exact adjustment of plane of movement of recorder, parallel by 1ts means it 1s
to writing surface. V, axis of writer supported perpendicularly at possible to record
center of circular end of magnet. C, reed. M, micrometer screw for a time-int erval as
adjustment of length of reed. aa ri the et)
sandth part of the duration of a single beat of the heart. The com-
plete apparatus for obtaining plant record is shown in figure 4.
BY
LY,
COMPARISON BETWEEN SENSITIVENESS OF MAN AND PLANT.
We have next to find some method of stimulation which will
not cause any mechanical disturbance to the plant. In connection
with this I made an important discovery which demonstrates the
identical characteristics of excitation in plant and animal. In the
animal tissue a constant electric current causes very characteristic
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 427
excitations at the moment of ‘‘make”’ or ‘‘break’’ of the current.
In most cases there is no excitation during the continuation of the
current. At the ‘‘make” excitation takes place only at the cathode;
at the ‘‘break”’ of the current, however, excitation is induced once
more, but this time at the anode. These characteristic effects I find
repeated also in the plant. At this point it is interesting to institute
a comparison between the sensitiveness of a plant and a human
being. The most sensitive organ by which an electric current can be
‘6
Py
aed
Fig. 4.—Apparatus for determination of latent period of Mimosa. M, spring motor.
W, winding disk. C, projecting catch. H, release handle, pressure on which also completes
primary circuit of induction coil. K’, short circuit key. The automatic break consists of
contact rod adjusted by micrometer screw A.
detected is our tongue. An average European, according to Laser-
stein, can perceive by his tongue a current as feeble as 6.4 micro-
amperes—a microampere being one-millionth part of the unit of
current. ‘This value might be subject to certain variation, depending
on racial characteristics. One might expect that the tongue of the
Celt would be far more excitable than that of the stolid Anglo-Saxon.
In any case the superiority of man has to be established on foundations
more secure than sensibility; for the plant Biophytum, I find, is
428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
eight times more sensitive to an electrical current than a human
being. With regard to the stimulus of induction shock, Mimosa
is ten times as sensitive. As with the animal so also with the plant,
the effect of stimulus is additive; that is to say, effective stimulation
is determined not only by the intensity, but also by the duration
of application. In fact, I have been able to establish in plants a
strictly quantitative relation as regards the additive effect of sub-
minimal stimulus, which is, that the effective excitation is equal to
individual intensity of stimulus multiplied by the number of repeti-
tions. In order that successive stimulations may be uniform, we
have to assure ourselves that the duration of the tetanizing shock
Fic. 5.—Diagrammatic representation of automatic plant-recorder. Petiole of Mimosa,
attached by thread to one arm of lever L; writing index W traces on smoked
- glass plate G the responsive fall and recovery ofleaf. P, primary,and S, secondary, of
induction coil. Exciting induction shock passes through the plant by electrodes E, E’.
A,accumulator. C, clockwork for regulating duration of tetanizing shock. Primary
circuit of coil completed by plunging rod R dipping into cup of mercury M.
is maintained absolutely constant. This I am able to secure by
means of the special device of automatic stimulator. The results
of experiments to be presently described appeared so astonishing
that for many reasons it became highly desirable to remove com-
pletely all elements of personal equation. In fulfilment of this, I
spent several years in perfecting various instruments by which
the plant attached to the recording apparatus is automatically
excited by successive stimuli which are absolutely constant. In
answer to this it makes its own responsive records, goes through its
period of recovery, and embarks on the same cycle over again,
without assistance at any point from the observer. (Fig. 5.) In
this way the effect of changed external condition is seen recorded
in the script made by the plant itself.
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 429
THE SLEEP OF PLANTS.
In studying the effect of a given change in the external condition
an assumption has to be made that during the time of experiment
there has been no spontaneous variation of excitability. Is the plant
equally excitable throughout day and night? If not, is there any
particular period at which the excitability remains uniform? Is
there again a different time during which the plant loses its sensi-
bility—going, as it were, to sleep? On these points no definite
information has been available. The fanciful name of sleep is often
given to the closure of leaflets of certain plants during darkness.
These movements are brought about by variation of turgor, and
Fig. 6.—Record for twenty-four hours, exhibiting diurnal variation of excitability
(spring specimen). The displacements of base line are due to nyctitropic move-
ments.
have nothing whatever to do with true sleep; for similar closure of
leaflets takes place under the precisely opposite condition of strong
light.
In order to find out whether Mimosa exhibits diurnal variations
of sensibility I made it record its answer to uniform questioning
shocks, repeated every hour of the day and night. The amplitude of
the answering twitch gave a measure of the ‘‘wakefulness” of the
plant during 24 hours. The results obtained were quite unexpected.
The plant is found to keep up very late, and fall asleep only at the
early hours of the morning. It makes up for its late hours by grad-
ually waking up by noon. (Fig. 6.) It then remains in a condition
of uniform sensibility all the afternoon. This period of uniformity
is chosen for investigations on the effect of changed external condi-
tions on excitability.
EFFECT OF LIGHT AND TEMPERATURE.
Does the plant feel the depressing effect of darkness? The fol-
lowing record shows the effect of a passing cloud. (Fig. 7.) It is
430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the sudden change which exerts a marked depressing effect. The
plant partially regains its sensibility when accustomed to darkness.
When brought suddenly from darkness to light there is also a transient
depression followed by enhanced excitability.
Temperature has also a marked effect on excitability. Up to a
critical point warmth increases excitability, the recovery being also
Fic. 7.—Effect of cloud. Dotted up-curve indicates responsive fall, and continuous
down-line exhibitsslow recovery. First four responses normal; next three show depression
due to diminution oflight brought on by cloud, the duration of which is indicated by hori-
zontal line below. Last three records show restoration of excitability brought on by clear-
ing ofsky. All records read from left to right.
hastened. Cooling conversely depresses excitability. The motile
excitability is abolished at about 20° C.
EFFECT OF AIR, FOOD, AND DRUGS.
The plant is intensely susceptible to the impurities present in the
air. The vitiated air of the town has a -very depressing effect.
According to popular science, what is death to the animal is supposed
to be life for the plant; for does it not flourish in the deadly
atmosphere of carbonic acid gas? The record (fig. 8) shows that,
instead of flourishing, the plant gets suffocated just like a human
being. Note the gasp of relief when fresh air is introduced. Only
in the presence of sunlight is the effect modified by photosynthesis.
In contrast to the effect of carbonic acid, ozone renders the plant
highly excitable. Sulphuretted hydrogen, even in small quantities,
is fatal to the plant. Chloroform acts as a strong narcotic, inducing
a rapid abolition of excitability. The ludicrously unsteady gait of
the response of plant under alcohol (fig. 9) could be effectively
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 431
exploited in a temperance lecture. The next record is in the nature
of an anticlimax, where the plant has drunk (pure water) not wisely
but too well. The gorged plant is seen to have lost all power of
Fic. 8.—Effect of carbonic acid gas.
Fic. 9.—Effect of vapor of alcohol.
movement. I was, however, able to restore the plant to normal
condition by extracting the excess of liquid by application of glycerin.
(Fig. 10.)
UNIVERSAL SENSITIVENESS OF PLANTS.
It may be urged that the various reactions of irritability may
hold good only in the case of the particular plant Mimosa, and that
the majority of plants are quite insensitive. I shall presently show
432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
that this view is quite erroneous. In Mimosa diffuse stimulation
causes relatively greater contraction of the more excitable lower half
of the pulvinus, and this differential action is magnified by the long
petiolar index. Had the upper half of the pulvius been equally
excitable as the lower, then the antagonistic reactions would have
balanced each other. In radial organs we do not observe any lateral
movement asin Mimosa. ‘This is not owing to insensitiveness, but to
equal contractions on all sides balancing each other. The shortening
of length of various radial organs like soft stem, tendril, pistil, and
stamen, can easily be shown by means of magnifying levers. Again,
if we take a hollow tubular organ of some ordinary plant, say the
peduncle of daffodil, it is
clear that the protected inner
side of the tube must be the
more excitable. When this
is cut in the form of a spiral
strip and excited by means
of an electric shock, we ob-
serve aresponsive movement
by curling, brought about by
greater contraction of the
inside of the strip. If again
we take a tendril which has
curled round a support, the
outside is fresh and free from
Fic. 10.—Abolition of motile excitability by excessive irritation and therefore more
absorption of water, and subsequent restoration by excitable. In this case the
withdrawal of excess. : 5
response is by uncurling, due
to greater contraction of the more excitable outer side of the spiral.
In the case of woody plants, responsive movement is prevented by
the rigid support. Even in such a ease I have been able to demon-
strate its excitation by means of electric response, first exhibited at
this very hall 13 years ago.!’ No plant could appear more stolid and
irresponsive than the common radish; appearances are, however,
deceptive, and we find it giving a series of vigorous responses in answer
to successive stimuli. The electric response comes to an end with
the death of the plant.
LATENT PERIOD OF PLANT.
I next take up the very difficult problem of finding out how long
it takes for the plant to perceive and respond to a blow. In attempt-
1 Bose—Friday evening discourse, May 10, 1901.
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 433
ing to make such measurements the results are vitiated by our
personal limitations. The conditions of the experiment demand
accurate measurements of time-intervals shorter than a hundredth
part of a second; but sluggishness of our perception makes such an
attempt an impossibility. It is therefore absolutely necessary to
invent a special device by which the plant itself should be compelled
to write down its own latent period. In the case of the leg muscle
of a frog the latent period, according to Helmholtz, is about a
hundredth part of a second. This result is not without some error,
on account of the inertia of the recording lever, and the inferring of
time relations from a neighboring chronographic record. In my
resonant recorder these errors have been reduced to a minimum.
In the first place, the curve of response or phytogram is at the same
time a chronogram. Secondly, the weight of my plant recorder is
only a hundredth part of the usual muscle recorder. The latent
period of the animal tissue undergoes appropriate variation with
Fig. 11.—Record showing. the latent period of Mimosa. This recorder vibrates 200 times per
second. The time-interval between successive dots is here 0.005 sec.
changing external conditions. With feeble stimulus it has a definite
value; this becomes shortened under a stronger blow. Again, when
we are tired our perception time becomes prolonged. Every one of
these results is equally applicable in the case of the plant. The
delicacy of the resonant recorder will be understood from the response
curve exhibiting the latent period of Mimosa (fig. 11). Here deter-
mination is carried to a thousandth part of a second, the value being
0.076 seconds, or eight times its value in an energetic frog. The
reliability of this method can be gauged from successive records under
uniform conditions, when the results are found to be identical.
Another curious thing is that a stoutish plant will give its response
in a slow and lordly fashion, whereas a thin one attains the acme of
its excitement in an incredibly short time. Perhaps some of us can
tell from our own experience whether similar differences obtain
among human kind. The perception time of the plant becomes
73176°—sM 191428
434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
very sluggish under fatigue; when excessively tired it temporarily
loses its power of perception. In this condition the plant requires at
least half an hour’s absolute rest to regain its equanimity.
EXCITATORY IMPULSE IN MIMOSA,
We next take up the question of the function of transmission of
excitation. It has hitherto been supposed that in Mimosa the im-
pulse caused by irritation is merely hydromechanical and quite dif-
ferent from the nervous impulse in the animal. According to this
hydromechanical theory, the turgid plant tissue is imagined to be like
india-rubber tube filled with water. The application of mechanical
stimulus is supposed to squeeze the tissue, in consequence of which
the water forced out delivers a mechanical blow to the contractile
organ of the plant. The propagation of mechanical disturbance is
thus occasioned by the bodily transfer of fluid material in a pipe.
In strong contrast to this is the transmission of nervous impulse,
which is a phenomenon of passage of protoplasmic disturbance from
point to point. The molecular disturbance, constituting excitation,
passes along the conducting nerve, and this point-to-point propaga-
tion of molecular upset is known as the transmission of excitatory or
nervous impulse. If by any means the physiological activity of a
portion of the nerve be enhanced, then excitation will pass through
the particular portion with quickened speed. Such favorable condi- -
tion is brought about by the application of moderate warmth. If a
portion of nerve, on the other hand, be rendered physiologically slug-
gish, then the speed of nervous impulse through that portion will be
slowed down. There are certain agents which paralyze the nerve
for the time being, causing a temporary arrest of the nervous impulse.
Such agents are known as anesthetics. There may, again, be poison-
ous drugs which destroy the conducting power. Under the action of
such poisonous agents the nervous conduction is permanently abol-
ished.
We are now in a position to distinguish between mechanical and
nervous transmission. ‘The mechanical conduction of water through
a pipe will in no way be affected by warmth or cold; the pipe will not
lose consciousness and stop the flow of watey, if 1t be made to inhale
chloroform, nor will its conducting power be abolished by applying
round it a bandage soaked in poison. These agents will, on the other
hand, profoundly affect the transmission of excitation. The nature
of an impulse may thus be discriminated by several crucial tests.
If physiological changes affect the rate of conduction, then the
impulse must be of a nervous character; absence of such effect, on the
other hand, proves the mechanical character of the impulse.
Of the various physiological tests, Pfeffer employed that of the nar-
cotic drug. Chloroform applied on the surface of the stem of Mimosa
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 435
failed to arrest the impulse. This result, at first sight, appears most
convincing and has been universally accepted as a disproof of the
existence of nervous impulse in Mimosa. A little reflection will, how-
ever, show that under the particular conditions of the experiment the
conducting tissue in the interior could not have been affected by the
external application of the narcotic, the task beimg, in fact, as diffi-
cult as narcotizing a nerve trunk lying between muscles by the appli-
cation of chloroform on the skin outside.
The question of nervous impulse in plants has thus to be attacked
anew, and I have employed for this purpose twelve different methods.
They all prove conclusively that the impulse in the plant is identical
in character with that in the animal. Of these I shall give a short
account of three differ-
ent modes of investiga-
tion. Itisobvious that
the transmitted im-
pulse in Mimosa must
be of an excitatory, or
nervous, character:
(1) If excitation can
be initiated and prop-
agated without any
physical disturbance.
The central fact in the
mechanical theory is
the squeezing out of
water for starting the
hydraulic impulse.
The hydromechanical Fic. 12.—Experimental arrangement for determination of velocity
of transmission and its variation. Record is first taken when
theory must necessa- stimulus is applied near the pulvinus at B (latent period) and then
rily fall to the ground at a distant point on the leaf-stalk at A. Difference of two gives
if cette is time for transmission from A to B. The band of cloth C is for
uw excitation can € local application of warmth, cold, anesthetics, and poison.
effected without any
mechanical disturbance whatsoever. JI have shown that excitatory
impulse is initiated under the polar action of current in the complete
absence of any mechanical disturbance, the intensity of the current
being so feeble as not to be perceived even by the very sensitive
human tongue.
(2) If it can be shown that physiological changes induce appro-
priate variation in the velocity of transmission of the impulse.
(3) If the impulse in the plant can be arrested by different physio-
logical blocks by which nervous impulse in the animal is arrested.
For the last two investigations the research resolves itself into the
accurate measurement of the speed with which an impulse in the
plant is transmitted, and the variation of that speed under changed
436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
condition. A portion of the tissue at C may, for example, be sub-
jected to the action of cold or of a poison (fig. 12). In order to find
the speed of normal transmission, we apply an instantaneous stimu-
lus, say, of an electric shock, at B, near the pulvinus. A short inter-
val, the latent period, will elapse between the application of stimulus
and the beginning of responsive movement. After the determina-
tion of the latent period we apply stimulus once more at A and
observe the time which elapses between the application of stimulus
and the response.
The difference be-
tween the two pe-
riods gives us the
time required for
the excitation to
travel from the point
of application of
stimulus at A to the
responding organ at
B. Hence we ob-
tain the speed of im-
Fic. 13.—Determination of velocity of transmission in Mimosa. _ ul : i 1]
The two lower records are in response to stimulus applied at a dis- puise im the p ant.
tance of 30 mm.; the upper record exhibits latent period in response ‘(he experiment is
to direct stimulus applied on the pulvinus. Successive dots in this
and following records are of intervals of one-tenth part of a second. repeated once more
after the application
of a given agent at C. If the speed undergoes any variation, it must
be due to the action of the given agent.
DETERMINATION OF SPEED OF EXCITATORY IMPULSE IN PLANTS.*
As relatively long intervals have to be measured in the determina-
tion of velocity, the recorder has its frequency adjusted to 10
vibrations per second, hence the space between successive dots
represents an interval of one-tenth of a second. In figure 13 is
given a record for determining the velocity of transmission. The
two lower figures give practically identical results of successive
experiments when stimulus was applied at a distance of 30 millimeters.
The uppermost is the record for direct stimulation. From these it
is seen that the interval between stimulus and response is 1.6 seconds,
and that the latent period is 0.1 second. Hence the true time for
the excitation to travel through a distance of 30 millimeters is 1.5
seconds, the velocity being 20 millimeters per second.
1 For a more detailed account confer:
Bose, An automatic method for the investigation of velocity of transmission of excitation in Mimosa
Phil. Trans. of Royal Society, Series B, Vol. 204.
Bose, Researches on irritability of plants (Longmans Green, 1913).
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 437
The velocity of excitatory impulse in the plant is slower than
those of higher, but quicker than those of lower animals. The speed
of the impulse is, however, subject to variation under different
conditions. One significant result that came out was that while a
plant carefully protected under glass from outside blows looked
sleek and flourishing, yet as a complete and perfect organism it
proved to be a failure. Its conducting power was found atrophied
or paralyzed. But when a succession of blows rained on this effete
and bloated specimen, the stimulus canalized its own path of con-
duction and it became more alert and responsive, and its nervous
impulses became very much quickened.
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON VELOCITY.
A decisive experiment to discriminate between the theories of
mechanical and nervous transmissions consists in the determination
of the effect of
temperature
on the speed of
transmission.
Temperature
has no effect
on mechanical
propagation,
whereas a mod-
erate varila-
tion of it pro-
foundly affects Fi. 14.—Bffect of rising temperature in enhancing velocity of transmission.
nervous trans- The three records from below upwards are for temperatures 22° C., 28° C.,
ae. The and 31° C., respectively.
result given in figure 14 is quite conclusive as regards the excitatory
character of the impulse in plants. It is seen that with rising tem-
perature the time required for transmission through the same dis-
tance is continuously reduced. In the present case the velocity is seen
to be more than doubled by a rise of temperature through 9°.
The converse experiment is to subject a portion of conducting
petiole to the action of cold. This retards the speed of conduction.
Excessive cold temporarily abolishes the conducting power.
we be eee we bs ee Selle
INDUCED PARALYSIS AND ITS CURE BY ELECTRIC TREATMENT.
As an aftereffect of the application of intense cold, the conducting
power remains paralyzed for a considerable length of time. It is
a very interesting and suggestive fact that I have been able to
restore the conducting power quickly by subjecting the paralyzed
portion of the plant to a measured and moderate dose of electric
shock. The application of too strong an intensity is, however, very
detrimental.
438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
BLOCK OF CONDUCTION BY THE ACTION OF POISON.
I have also succeeded in arresting conduction of excitation in
plants by local application of poisonous drugs. The defect of
Pfeffer’s experiment lay in his attempt to arrest the impulse by the
application of a volatile anesthetic: like chloroform on a surface of
a thick stem. The chloroform escapes in the form of vapor; the
access of the solution under these conditions to the interior of the
tissue by absorption can only be slight and therefore ineffective
in arresting the excitatory impulse. It occurred -to me that the
physiological block induced by a drug could be rendered more
effective in two different ways: First, by the selection of a thin
leaf stalk mstead of a thick stem for the purpose of the experiment,
so that the access of
the solution to the in-
terior became less dif-
ficult; in the second
place by the employ-
ment of strong non-
volatile toxic agents,
like solutions of cop-
per sulphate or of
potassium cyanide.
The choice of astrong
- poison was deemed
Fic. 15.—Abolition of conduction by local application of potassium ~ advisable. because
cyanide. (1) Normal record; (2) arrest of conduction after appli- ue
cation for five minutes; (3) persistent abolition of conduction, even the absor ption of even
when stimulus was increased fifteen-fold; (4) record of direct g gmall quan ti ty
stimulation. : :
might in such a case
prove effective in abolishing the conducting power. My anticipations
were fully justified. By the application of copper sulphate the con-
ducting power was found arrested in the course of 20 minutes;
but the more deadly cyanide solution abolished the conducting
power in a period as short as five minutes. (Fig. 15.)
Accounts have thus been given of some typical experiments by
which the nervous impulse is discriminated from the mechanical
impulse. It has been shown that excitation may be initiated and
transmitted in the plant in the complete absence of any mechanical
disturbance. It has been shown that the various conditions which
accelerate, retard, or arrest the nervous impulse in the animal also
enhance, retard, or block the impulse in the plant in a manner which
is identical. I have, moreover, from my investigations on the plant
nerve, led to the discovery of certain hitherto unknown characteristics
of the animal nerve. The investigation on the simplest type of
plant nerve is expected to cast a flood of light on the obscure phe-
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSR. 439
nomenon of nervous impulse in general and the causes operative in
bringing about the degeneration of the normal function of the nerve.
SPONTANEOUS PULSATION.
In certain animal tissues a very curious phenomenon is observed.
In man and other animals, there are tissues which beat, as we say, .
spontaneously. As long as life lasts, so long does the heart continue
to pulsate. There is no effect without a cause. How, then, was it
that these pulsations became spontaneous? To this query no fully
satisfactory answer has been forthcoming. We find, however, that
similar spontaneous movements are also observable in plant tissues,
and by their investigation the secret of automatism in the animal
may perhaps be unraveled.
Physiologists, in order to know the heart of man, play with those
of the frog and tortoise. ‘To know the heart,” be it understood, is
here meant in a purely physical and not in a poetic sense. For this
it is not always convenient to employ the whole of the frog. The
heart is therefore isolated and made the subject of experiments as to
what conditions accelerate and what retard the rate and amplitude
of its beat. ‘When thus isolated, the heart tends of itself to come to
a standstill, but if by means of a fine tubing it be subjected to
internal hydrostatic pressure its beating will be resumed and will
continue uninterrupted for a long time. By the influence of warmth
the frequency of the pulsation may be increased, but its amplitude
diminished. Exactly the reverse is the effect of cold. The natural
rhythm and the amplitude of the pulse undergo again appropriate
changes under the action of different drugs. Under ether the heart
may come to a standstill, but on blowing this off the beat is renewed.
The action of chloroform is more dangerous, any excess in the dose
inducing permanent arrest. Besides these there are poisons also
which arrest the heartbeat, and a very noticeable fact in this con-
nection is that some stop it in a contracted and others in a relaxed
condition. Knowing these opposed effects, it is sometimes possible
to counteract the effect of one poison by administering another.
RHYTHMIC PULSATIONS IN DESMODIUM.
The existence of such spontaneous movements is seen in the well-
known Indian plant Desmodium gyrans, or the telegraph plant,
whose leaflets dance up and down more or less continuously. The
characteristics of the automatic pulsations in the plant could not be
determined on account of the apparent impossibility of obtaining a
record. The leaflets are too minute and the pull exerted too feeble to
overcome friction of the recording surface. This difficulty I have
been able to remove by the device of my oscillating recorder. From
440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the records thus obtained I am enabled to say that the automatic
movements of both plants and animals are guided by laws which are
identical. ae
Firstly, when for convenience of experiment we cut off the leaflet,
its spontaneous movements, like those of the heart, come to a stop.
But if we now subject the isolated leaflet by means of a fine tube to an
added internal hydrostatic pressure, its pulsations are renewed and
continue uninterrupted for a very long time (fig. 16). It is found
again that the pulsation frequency is increased under the action of
Fic. 16.—Record of automatic pulsations in Desmodium gyrans.
warmth and lessened under cold, increased frequency being attended
by diminution of amplitude and vice versa. Under ether there is a
temporary arrest, revival being possible when the vapor is blown
off (fig. 17). More fatal is the effect of chloroform. The most
extraordinary parallelism, however, lies in the fact thaf those poisons
which arrest the beat of the heart in a particular way arrest the
plant pulsation also in a corresponding manner, the arrest produced
being either at sys-
tole or diastole, de-
pending on the char-
acteristic reaction of
the poison. Taking
advantage of the an-
Fic. 17.—Arrest of pulsation of Desmodium under ether; restoration 3 OL ue :
of pulsation on blowing off ether. The arrow indicates the time of tagonistic reactions
application. of specific poisons, I
have been able to
revive a poisoned leaflet by the application of another counteracting
poison.
Let us now inquire into the causes of these automatic movements,
so called. In experimenting with certain types of plant tissues
[ find that an external stimulus gives rise to the same amplitude of
response, whether the stimulus be feeble or strong. What happens,
then, to the excess of the incident energy? It is not really lost,
for these particular plant tissues have the power of storage. In this
way energy derived in various ways from without—such as light,
warmth, food, and so on—is constantly being accumulated. When
a certain point is reached, there is a bubbling overflow, and we call
this overflow spontaneous movement. Thus what we call automatic
is really an overflow of what has previously been stored up. When
this accumulated energy is exhausted, then there is also an end of
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 441
spontaneous movements (fig. 18). But a fresh accession of stimulus
from outside renews these pulsations.
In the matter of these so-called spontaneous activities of the
plant I find that there are two distinct types. In one the overflow
is initiated with very little storage, but here the unusual display of
activity soon comes to a stop. To maintain such specimens in the
rhythmic condition, constant stimulation from outside is necessary.
Plants of this type are extremely dependent on outside influences,
and when such sources of stimulus are removed they speedily come
to an inglorious stop. Averrhoa is an example of this kind. In
the second type of automatic plant activity I find that long-continued
storage is re-
quired before an
overflow can be-
ein. But in this
case the sponta-
neous outburst is
persistent and of
long duration,
even when the Fia. 18.—Gradual stoppage of pulsation in an isolateq Desmodium leaflet
plant is deprived - due to rundown of stored energy.
of any immediately exciting cause. These, therefore, are not so
obviously dependent as the others on the sunshine of the world.
Our telegraph plant, Desmodium, is an example of this.
INSTANTANEOUS RECORD OF GROWTH.
As a further example of automatic activity we may take the
phenomenon of growth. The rate of growth is so extremely slow
that even the proverbial pace of the snail is two thousand times
quicker. It would take an average plant 200 years to cover the
short distance of a mile. This extreme slowness is a serious draw-
back in the investigation on growth. For even with the existing
magnifying growth recorders it would take many hours for the varia-
tion of growth to be recorded under the given changed conditions
in the environment. The results thus obtained are subject to errors
brought about by the variation of growth which takes place spon-
taneously in the course of a few hours. Growth can be assumed to
remain constant only for a short time; on this account it is necessary
to conclude an experiment in the course of a few minutes.
By means of microscopic projection it is possible to magnify
growth; but such an arrangement will not be self-recording. ‘Fhere
is again a serious error introduced by the action of strong light,
which profoundly modifies the rate of normal growth.
These difficulties have been overcome in my high magnification
crescograph, which records the absolute rate of growth in a time so
449 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
short as the single beat of the pendulum. The various magnifica-
tions available are a thousand or ten thousand times. For demon-
stration purposes I have been able to secure a magnification of a
million times. The infinitesimal growth thus becomes magnified so
as to appear rushing forward as if in a race. The actual rate of
growth and its variations under the action of drugs, of food materials,
of various electrical and other forms of stimuli, are thus recorded in
the course of a few minutes. The great importance of this method
of investigation in agriculture is sufficiently obvious.
The plant has thus been made to exhibit many of the activities
which we have been accustomed to associate only with animal hie.
In the one case, as in the other, stimulus of any kind will induce a
responsive thrill. There are rhythmic tissues in the plant which,
like those in the animal, go on throbbing ceaselessly. These spon-
taneous pulsations in the one case, as in the other, are affected by
various drugs in an identical manner. And im the one case, as in
the other, the tremor of excitation is transmitted with a definite and
measured speed from point to point along conducting channels. The
establishment of this similarity of responsive actions in the plant
and animal will be found of the highest significance; for we now
realize that it is by the study of the simpler phenomena of irritability
in the vegetal organisms that we may expect to elucidate the more
complex physiological reactions of the animal.
THE PLANT’S RESPONSE TO THE SHOCK OF DEATH.
A time comes when, after an answer to a supreme shock, there is
a sudden end of the plant’s power to give any further response.
This supreme shock is the shock of death. Even in this crisis there
is no immediate change in the placid appearance of the plant.
Drooping and withering are events that occur long after death itself.
How does the plant, then, give this last answer? In man, at the
critical moment, a spasm passes through the whole body, and similarly
in the plant I find that a great contractile spasm takes place. This
is accompanied by an electrical spasm also. In the script of the
death recorder the line, that up to this pomt was being drawn,
becomes suddenly reversed and then ends. This is the last answer
of the plant.
These, our mute companions, silently growing beside our door,
have now told us the tale of their life tremulousness and their death
spasm in script that is as inarticulate as they. May it not be said
that this, their story, has a pathos of its own beyond any that we
have conceived ?
We have now before our mind’s eye the whole organism of the
perceiving, throbbing, and responding plant, a complex unity and not
a congeries of unrelated parts. The barriers which separated kindred
PLANT-AUTOGRAPHS—BOSE. 443
phenomena in the plant and animal are now thrown down. Thus
community throughout the great ocean of life is seen to outweigh
apparent dissimilarity. Diversity is swallowed up in unity.
In realizing this, is our sense of final mystery of things deepened
or lessened? Is our sense of wonder diminished when we realize in
the infinite expanse of life that is silent and voiceless the foreshadow-
ings of more wonderful complexities? Is it not rather that science
evokes in us a deeper sense of awe? Does not each of her new
advances gain for us a step in that stairway of rock which all must
climb who desire to look from the mountain tops of the spirit upon
the promised land of truth ?
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THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK AND ITS INHAB-
LEANTS.*
By Dr. Frank Baxker,
Superintendent of National Zoological Park.
[With 41 plates.]
In the year 1890 Congress authorized the purchase of land for the
establishment of a national zoological park, to be placed under the
direction of the Smithsonian Institution.
The site, about 167 acres in extent, was selected with much care
and is very beautiful. From north to south, a distance of more than
three-quarters of a mile, it is traversed by Rock Creek, a streamlet
that winds through a valley inclosed by steep, tree-clad hills and
cliffs of gray, moss-covered stone. At that time fewer than a dozen
houses bordered upon it, and it was thought that its seclusion was
complete. Even now, when by the growth of 20 years the city has
nearly surrounded it, the shut-in valley, with its woods and stream,
lies quiet and remote.
The act establishing the park declared it to be for the “instruction
and recreation of the people,” and every effort is made to meet this
requirement. Thousands of children make it their happiest play-
ground. Babies. dig in the sandboxes or sleep in the shade of the
great trees; small boys and girls wade in the creek and scramble over
the rocks; older ones play ball on the lawns in summer and skate on
the ponds in winter; and all ages picnic by the tables or in the pleasant
shade of the woods. Schools come in bodies to pursue their nature
studies, and pupils training for teachers study the wild birds, the
trees, shrubs, and animals.
The National Zoological Park is a favorite resort for the pastime
of egg-rolling on Easter Monday, as it has many extended slopes
down which the eggs can roll and the children run until they are
tired. The accompanying illustration (pl. 2), shows the appearance
of the lion-house hill upon such a day, yet gives but a slight idea of
the great crowds of children present. In order to find out the actual
number of visitors, watchmen were stationed at each entrance on
this day to record the persons passing in on foot and in earriages.
1 Reprinted by permission from the Volta Review, Washington, D. C., July, 1912, and September, 1914.
445
446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
The total-number for Easter Monday, 1914, was found to exceed
57,000.
The main buildings are grouped within a comparatively small area.
The most important is the lion house, shown in the background of
plate 2. This contains most of the large cats, as well as a number
of other interesting animals. Behind it are the monkey house, the
bird house, the antelope house, each well filled with animals; at the
west of these are the main inclosures for bears. In the valley below
are the wolves, foxes, and dogs, the sea-lion pool, the beaver pool,
the inclosures for otter, etc., and a shady pathway leads to the
western entrance to the park. Along this pathway are various cages
and inclosures. The houses for the elephants are along the main road
beyond the antelope house. These houses and paddocks do not
comprise the whole collection, for against the cliff at the very south-
ern side of the park are another set of bear dens and an inclosure for
the chamois; on the eastern side of Rock Creek are paddocks for elk,
on the western side those for lamas, yak, and camels.
Along the main pathways are cages containing animais so inured
to changes of climate that they can remain out all winter.
A flock of wild turkeys, several coveys of partridges, many peacocks,
squirrels, and wild rabbits make their homes here and wander in
perfect freedom throughout the whole extent of the park. At the
opening of spring of 1913 a flock of wild geese voluntarily came down
and settled in the pond where the other geese are kept. These
beautiful birds became quite tame but unfortunately again took
flight.
THE AMERICAN BISON. THE YAK.
When the park was first established it was thought that one of its
principal functions should be the preservation of races of animals
about to become extinct, and one of its earliest cares was the collection
of a group of American bison, the great grazing animal that only 40
years ago roamed in vast herds on the plains of the Middle West and
was rapidly disappearing before the advance of railroads and the
rapacity of hunters. The project for the preservation of this interest-
ing and valuable animal has proceeded, chiefly under the stimulus
of Dr. W. T. Hornaday, until at present there is no reason to suppose
that it will wholly disappear, there being several large parks estab-
lished where it breeds freely. A careful census made by the American
Bison Society shows that there were in North America, January 1,
_ 1914, 3,788 bison, of which 3,212 were in captivity, and that they are
slowly increasing in numbers.
The early settlers in America, with that strange mischance that
seems to preside over the naming of new animals, called the American
"AVGNO[W YSLSV4 NO T1IH SSNOH-NOIT SHEL “AYVd IWOIDO100Z IWNOILVN SH
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Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker PLATE 3.
AMERICAN BISON.
THE YAK.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK——BAKER. 447
bison a ‘‘buffalc,”’ a name which properly belongs to a quite different
group. The genus Bison is common to both Europe and America.
The European animal once pervaded the great forests of Germany,
Austria, and Poland very much as our form did the western plains,
but retired before advancing civilization, until now it is found only
in two carefully guarded preserves, in central Russia and the Cau-
casus. He is not as picturesque an animal as his American cousin.
The immense head and shoulders of the bison give it an aspect of
great force and dignity, and it is a favorite subject with sculptors and
painters. J am informed by Mr. Charles R. Knight, the well-known
illustrator, that the bison engraved on the United States treasury
note for $10 was from a drawing made by him of the very animal
shown in plate 3. Asis the case with many herding animals, there
is usually a single one who by superior strength and prowess com-
mands the others and becomes the leader of the herd. In the course
of time his powers weaken and some younger aspirant displaces him.
A tragical occurrence of this kind happened at the park a few years
ago, when two young bulls attacked the reigning monarch of the
herd and gored him to death in spite of the exertions of the keepers.
The short, powerful horns of the animal can inflict serious injury,
and it is not safe to approach too closely the fence of the paddock
where they are confined. They have been known to attack and
seriously injure their keepers.
The yak, an animal nearly allied to our bison, is found in quite
a distant part of the globe, in the high, mountainous regions of
Tibet Its heavy, thick coat of hair, which falls about it in long
fringes nearly to the ground, shows that it is prepared to resist
extreme cold. This hair is so arranged as to form a kind of mat
for the animal when it lies down upon the icy rocks where it makes
its home. The legs are short and stout and the hoofs large and
rounded, well calculated to give it a footing upon the mountain
passes. Its horns are wide and spreading, somewhat like those of
some varieties of our domestic oxen. The specimen shown in
plate 3 used to delight in diggmg up the earth with these great
horns, defacing the hillside of its paddock so that he had to be
removed to more level ground.
Adapted to resist cold, this animal is rather intolerant of heat
and suffers considerably during the heated term of a Washington
summer. It does not bellow like our oxen, but has a rather char-
acteristic grunting bark, which has led to its being called the grunt-
ing ox.
The yak has been domesticated and is used to carry burdens
over the mountain passes of upper Tibet. It is said that without
them traffic would be almost impossible, as there are no other ani-
448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
mals that can be used there. The domesticated variety is almost
invariably white, while the wild ones are usually dark colored, like
the specimens in the park.
The cows of this species are smaller than the bulls. They are
usually horned, but it is not uncommon to see animals that are
“nolled,” or hornless. Young have been born in the park from
the pair that was there for several years, and several of these are
without horns.
This group of oxlike animals should not be left without noting
that there are to be found in the park several others quite distinc-
tive and important. The first of these is the true buffalo, from
East Africa, a young animal of powerful build, whose horns and
bodily frame are quite different from those of our bison. The
second is the little anoa, or buffalo, from the Celebes, the smallest
of the ox tribe, not larger than a small Shetland pony. Both of
these are in the antelope house. There is also, in a separate build-
ing’, a group of zebus, or humped Indian cattle.
MOUNTAIN SHEEP.
This noted American animal inhabits the most lofty and desolate
regions. It is not accustomed to the more humid and heavy air
of the Atlantic seaboard and does not thrive well when confined
here. When first caught it is exceedingly timid and liable to die
from what might be called in a human being “home-sickness,”’ as
it pines and refuses to eat. The only way of succeeding with these
animals is to capture them when quite young and furnish them with
a foster mother, like a goat or domestic sheep. The specimen
shown in plate 41s a young male that was in the park for some time.
The adult male has much larger horns and is a very fine and imposing
animal.
Several specimens of a near relative of our mountain sheep may be
seen. These are the Barbary sheep from the Atlas Mountains of
Africa. The male of this animal possesses when fully grown a mane
of long hair covering its chest and forelegs. Its horns are large and
powerful, but do not reach the size of those of our own sheep. The
color of the animal is like that of the rocks of their mountains, a red-
dish yellow, and, as their instinct leads them to remain perfectly
quiet upon the approach of man, they are very difficult for the hunter
to discover.
The woolless sheep from the Barbados is also here.
Through the kindness of the Swiss Government the park has been
enabled to exhibit specimens of the chamois, or wild goat of the Alps.
They are located on the steep cliff at the southern boundary of the
park, a situation not very dissimilar to that which they occupy when
at home. They are very agile and surefooted, and can leap from
PLATE 4.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker.
BIGHORN, OR AMERICAN MOUNTAIN SHEEP.
THE CHAMOIS.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 5
BONTEBOK.
WATER BUCK.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—-BAKER. 449
rock to rock with the greatest ease and obtain a foothold on a pinna-
cle that scarcely seems large enough to hold their feet. Their hook-
like horns are very sharp and dangerous. They thrive well here, as
they have bred and raised young.
The park has also specimens of the tahr, an Asiatic mountain goat
from the Himalayas. These look like our domestic goat, but have
no beard. Their horns are black, the general color of their hair dark
brown. They live on extremely precipitous cliffs. These animals
have bred in the park and seem to endure captivity well.
ANTELOPES.
Notwithstanding the advance of European settlement, Africa
still exhibits a remarkable variety of wild game. Antelopes in great
numbers and of great variety of form and size, together with giraffes
and zebras, still roam over its vast grassy plains. The park is fortu-
nate in having a number of specimens of this teeming animal life,
but only a few will be mentioned.
The bontebok (pl. 5), was formerly very numerous in South Africa
but has been nearly exterminated by hunters, only a few small groups
remaining. It derives its name, given it by the Dutch colonists (pied
goat, when translated), from the marked contrast between the white
coloring of its face and rump and the brown or fawn color of its body.
Its horns are black. The blessbok (blazed goat) is another rare ani-
mal of quite similar character.
There is a pair of Coke’s hartebeests, a rare species inhabiting east-
ern Africa, having widely expanded horns capable of inflicting a dan-
gerous blow.
The waterbuck (pl. 5), or defassa, from the same region, lives among
the high grass of swampy regions and is also found on higher ground,
fleeing to the valleys when pursued. It is reddish brown in color.
The white-tailed gnu is the animal often styled the horned horse.
The Dutch call it the ‘ wildebeest,”’ as if it were a wild form of domes-
tic cattle. The specimen in the antelope house is very fond of danc-
ing and curveting about his inclosure, uttermg sharp barking cries.
The harnessed antelope is from western Africa and is another water-
frequenting animal. It receives its name from the peculiar narrow
white markings, that make it appear as though wearing a harness.
It has hoofs especially adapted for walking on swampy ground.
An animal related in its structural formation, though much larger,
is the nilgbai from India. It lives in small groups on grassy plains
or among thin brushwood.
The largest of all the antelopes is, however, the African eland, which
formerly ranged over a large extent of country, but is now confined
to central and eastern Africa. It is quite oxlike in its appearance,
73176°—sM 1914 29
450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSIITUIIC: ,
its flesh is excellent eating, it is said to be easily domesticated and
might be made of use as a draugh* animal.
The small antelopes known as gazelles are noted for their delicate
symmetry and graceful movements. The animal shown in plate 6 is
from the plains of East Africa, where it is found in great numbers.
The male has very long horns, which are ringed from the base nearly
to the tip.
Gazelles are remarkable for their speed, being among the swiitest
of the antelope tribe. Consequently they are so lean and sinewy
that their flesh is not very good eating. Their colors are excellently
adapted to conceal them, being almost exactly the same shades as
are seen on the dry plains or sandy deserts where they have their
home. It is from their skins that are made the water sacks that are
commonly used in the East for the transportation of water.
The springbok is another most beautiful member of this group,
cinnamon colored upon the back, snowy white below and upon the
rump, where it has a patch of long white hair which it can spread
when excited. It receives its name from the peculiarity of its gam-
bols, during which it leaps suddenly upward, sometimes quite over
the backs of its fellows in the same herd, as if engaged in a game of
leapfrog, doing this with the utmost ease, without perceptible exer-
tion. This animal was formerly very numerous in South Africa, and
is still found there in considerable numbers, occasionally, when
driven out by drought, pourmg down from the interior toward the
settlements in Immense migratory herds, and laying waste the
cultivated regions.
The Indian gazelle, or black buck, is also a plains animal but con-
fined to the continent of India. The male only is entitled to the name,
being, when full grown, of a deep, glossy black above and a snowy
white below, the female being cinnamon brown above and white
below. The horns of this animal are long and peculiarly shaped,
being not only ringed but spirally twisted, like those of the fabulous
unicorn, which has led some to suppose that this animal may in some
obscure way have given rise to the conception of that mythological
beast.
This is one of the animals that is hunted by means of the cheetah,
or hunting leopard. Though very fleet of foot, it can not equal the
speed of this swiftest of the cat tribe. It breeds readily in captivity
and several young have been born in the park.
America has but one species that can be placed among the ante-
lopes, and that is of a very peculiar type. The old-world antelopes
differ from the deer family in not shedding their horns annually,
but retaining them throughout life. Our own antelope, the prong horn
(pl. 7), agrees with the deer in shedding its horns, but conforms to the
African and Asiatic species in general appearance and habits. It was
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 6.
HARNESSED ANTELOPES.
GRANT’S GAZELLE.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 7
PHILIPPINE DEER.
PRONG-HORN ANTELOPE.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 451
formerly common throughout the plains west of the Mississippi, but
its range is now much less. In the Yellowstone Park, where it is
carefully preserved, a considerable number are found. It does not
stand well the more humid climate of the eastern United States, and
on this account is difficult to keep in zoological collections. It is
easily tamed and becomes very familiar with its keepers.
THE DEER.
The deer family is a very large one, comprising specimens inhabiting
every quarter of the globe. The most striking characteristic of the
race is the almost universal possession by the males of peculiar
branched appendages termed antlers, or horns, which are cast off
every year and again renewed with astonishing rapidity. The park
possesses specimens of many different species of this family.
Of distinctively American species, the Virginia deer is the most
famous as well as the most widely distributed. It still lingers in the
forest of the northern United States, in the Alleghanies, and in the
South, extending into Mexico. It varies much in size and color in
different localities. A fine specimen is a most beautiful object, as
may be seen by the picture of a fawn in plate 8. This photograph
was taken in the Blue Mountain Forest Park, and is published by
the kind permission accorded by Mr. Baynes, one of the board of
managers of the Bison Society. Similar animals are shown in the
National Zoological Park, but this illustration is presented because
it is an unusually successful nhotograph, not always easy to secure in
the case of living animals.
Notwithstanding their apparent gentleness, the bucks of this
species are at times very dangerous animals. On one occasion a buck
attacked the principal keeper at the park and would probably have
killed him if he had not been able to get behind a tree and, by seizing
both antlers, hold the animal until assistance could arrive. It is
often necessary to saw off the antlers from ugly bucks to prevent their
injuring others.
Specimens of the mule deer, a western form with large ears, may
also be seen. This species was formerly very abundant on the western
plains. Care is taken to preserve it in the Yellowstone National Park.
One of these animals once jumped over the 8-foot fence of its paddock
and created considerable excitement by wandering about the city.
After a few days it came back to its paddock and submitted again
to being shut up.
Our largest American deer is the moose, known in Europe as the
elk, a term which we have improperly applied to the wapiti. Several
attempts have been made at the park to keep the moose, but these
have not been very successful. The animal lives in the vast northern
452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
forests and feeds almost wholly upon the young twigs of trees or
upon pond-lily roots, and suitable food is therefore very difficult to
procure.
The wapiti or elk, on the contrary, seems to thrive well in confine-
ment, eating hay and grass like a domestic animal and _ breeding
freely. On the eastern side of the park is a large paddock where a
number of these stately animals can be seen. The wapiti was for-
merly very abundant in nearly all parts of North America, but its
range is now greatly restricted. There are still considerable herds
in the Yellowstone Park and in the Olympic Mountains of the western
coast. At the approach of autumn the peculiar melodious eall of
the stags can often be heard.
There is also a small band of the European red deer, nearly related
to the wapiti, although considerably smaller in size. These are the
deer so famous in song and story, still found wild in the Scottish
highlands and eastern Europe and preserved in many English parks.
The fallow deer is another species widely preserved in England,
though it is a native of the Mediterranean countries. It is yellowish
brown in color, marked with white spots.
Closely allied species represented in the park are the axis deer of
India, the Japanese or sika deer, and the swamp or barasingha deer,
also of India.
An interesting example of another group was presented to the
park by the late Admiral R. D. Evans, United States Navy. This
animal is from the Philippine Islands. It is quite small, and proba-
bly lives in an alluvial country, as it delights in plowimg up the earth
with its antlers, and is usually covered with mud that it gets from
digging in its yard.
The sambar deer of eastern Asia is a larger representative of this
group, and the little hog deer is a smaller one, not being larger than
a pig of medium size.
The barking deer, or muntjae, of the same region is also represented.
This animal is of a deep chestnut brown and has antlers of a very
simple pattern, resembling somewhat those of the pronghorn antelope.
The park has also a specimen of the famous reindeer, used by the
Laplanders as a draft animal. It has to be fed entirely upon moss
and lichens brought from the north, as it never gets accustomed to
eating hay.
THE CAMEL.
The strangest beast of burden is the camel of the old world, a long-
legged, ungainly animal, vicious in temper and ugly beyond descrip-
tion. In both Asia and Africa it is domesticated. The camel of
Africa and Arabia, often called the dromedary, is distinguished by
one hump, while the central Asiatic or Bactrian camel has two.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 8
VIRGINIA DEER.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 9
THE LLAMA.
FEEDING THE BABY BACTRIAN CAMEL, ONLY 1 DAY OLD.
\
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. ; 453
Both have a peculiar series of cavities in the lining of the stomach,
by means of which they retain from a gallon to a gallon and a half of
water separate from the food; this enables them to go many days
in the hottest climates without drinking, a peculiarity which makes
this beast invaluable in the desert. The humps upon the back are
another provision of nature by means of which the animal is assured
of sustenance, being made up principally of lumps of fat that increase
in size when the animal is well fed, and on which he draws when
there is little or nothing to eat. The feet of the camel are very pe-
culiar, being large, spongy pads adapted for traveling over sand.
The small camel in plate 9 is of the Bactrian variety, and was
born in the park. Bitimg and kicking him when he tried to nurse,
his unnatural mother would have nothing to do with him, and it
was necessary to put him in a separate yard and to bring him up by
hand. The picture shows him when but 1 day old, nursing from a
bottle held by the keeper.
The Arabian camel exists in a wild state in Spain, and the Bactrian
is found wild in certain parts of central Asia, but these have doubtless
descended from animals that have escaped from domestication.
Both species are exceedingly stupid animals, sometimes very ill-
tempered and dangerous, inflicting savage bites with their powerful
canine teeth.
THE LLAMAS.
In South America are found four representatives of a genus allied
to the camel. These are the llama, the alpaca, the vicugna, and the
guanaco. The first two are domesticated and the others wild.
Specimens of each are owned by the park. These animals have a
long neck, a large head, and long ears like the camel; but, as they
have not the hump, they are much more graceful.
All of these species live in temperate climates, usually upon the
higher slopes of the Andes, but coming down to sea level in Pata-
gonia. They do not thrive in humid regions and attempts to utilize
them in other countries have usually failed.
They all have the very unpleasant habit of spitting at visitors that
stop to examine or pat them.
The guanaco is now believed to be the true ancestor of these several
stocks. It is found in considerable flocks on the higher mountains
from Ecuador to Tierra del Fuego, and is very wild and wary. It is
said that when about to die it seeks a spot commonly resorted to by
the flock for a place of demise.
The vicugna is smaller than the guanaco and is much more re-
stricted in its range, being confined to Peru and Bolivia. Formerly
the wild vicugnas and guanacos were rounded up annually by great
numbers of Indians, then carefully sheared, and allowed to escape.
From the wool thus obtained a fine and durable cloth was manu-
454 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
factured. The finest was made from the wool of the vicugna, which
was therefore reserved for the use of the Peruvian nobles. At the
present day this is rarely used, being difficult to obtain since the
periodical hunts have been abandoned. Instead of this the wool of
the domesticated alpaca is employed and has become a valuable arti-
cle of export for producing the well-known cloth of the same name.
When the Spaniards came to South America they found the Peru-
vians in possession of vast herds of Hamas, which they used princi-
pally for burden bearers. Large troops, 500 or even 1,000 in number,
transported merchandise by scaling the difficult mountain passes of
the Andes. Horses and mules have gradually displaced the lama as
a beast of burden, and these large caravans are no longer seen. The
llama is still used as a burden bearer, but can carry only 100 pounds
or so at a time, so that great numbers are required when there is
much to transport. Both the domesticated and the wild animals
live by grazing, and in captivity are fed on hay like domestic cattle.
THE ZEBRAS.
Among the horselike animals the zebra is one of the most interest-
ing. It is an African animal, once existing in vast numbers from
Cape Colony in the south to Nubia in the north. Its peculiar striped
markings make it a striking object, and it was early sought as suita-
ble for menageries. The earliest ones exhibited were from South
Africa, and were of the form known as the mountain zebra. They
have become rare and are now carefully preserved by the British
Government. Two other species exist, both of which are represented
in the park. The finest of these, the Grevy zebra, shown in the
picture (pl.10), was sent from Abyssinia by King Menelek as a gift to
President Roosevelt. It appears to be a favorite selection for a royal
gift, as the King also sent a pair to Queen Victoria and another to
President Grevy of the French Republic, whose name was promptly
used by the French naturalists to designate the species. Formerly it
was rarely seen, though it is found in great abundance in Abyssinia
and British East Africa. Since the construction of the railroad from
the coast to Nairobi has opened up this country, a considerable num-
ber of animals formerly but little known have been brought to Europe.
This zebra is more delicately striped than the other species and is also
much larger, the animal at the park being equal in size to a small
horse. Successful attempts have been made by the Department of
Agriculture to breed this animal with the domestic ass. One of the
hybrids from this union is on exhibition at the park.
The other variety of zebra on exhibition is a subspecies of the
Burchell zebra, known as Grant’s zebra. It is a smaller animal with
broader stripes. It also is found in abundance in the region about
Mount Kilimanjaro.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 10.
GREVY ZEBRA.
YOUNG TAPIR.
“LNVHd31q OILVISY
See alvatel
ayeG—'b16] ‘Woday ue|UuOsY}IWS
“LNVHd314 NVOINIY
“SOL ALV1d 4exeg—'b16| ‘Hodey uvjuosyyiws
PLATE 138.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker.
HIPPOPOTAMUS.
qt
Or
or
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER.
THE PACHYDERMS.
The park is fortunate in having a number of the large, thick-
skinned animals known to naturalists as pachyderms. ‘There are at
present three elephants, two hippopotami, four tapirs, and a number
of swine of different specics in the collection.
The elephant is the largest animal that lives upon land. He
grows to 10 feet or more in height and may weigh many thousand
pounds. The one in the park is 9 feet 1 inch high at the highest
point of his back and weighs about 11,000 pounds.
Elephants have huge feet and thick, dark gray skin that hangs in
loose folds and is covered with short, scanty hair. Their large and
massive heads have great flapping ears and small eyes. Their most
remarkable feature is a long proboscis, or trunk, formed by the union
and excessive growth of the upper lip and the nose. Through it the
elephant breathes and smells; with it puts food and drink into his
mouth, throws dirt or hay on his back to protect it from flies, pulls
down trees, lifts heavy burdens, or safely picks up the most delicate
and fragile things. It is most sensitive to touch and serves the pur-
pose of a hand. With it the beast can untie knots, open doors, or
give himself a shower bath.
There are at least two groups, the elephants of Africa and those
of Asia, and varieties are often known by the name of the country
they inhabit, as the Indian elephant of India and the Ceylon elephant
of Ceylon. ‘The latter variety is often without tusks, and it therefore
appears probable that the one at the park is from Ceylon.
They are hunted for their hides and their tusks of ivory, and, par-
ticularly in Asia, are sometimes caught and trained for use. While
usually gentle, they are not easily trained, being really stupid, al-
though seemingly intelligent. It is a curious fact that, although so
large and powerful, the elephant is timid and easily frightened, being
quite afraid of a mouse or of a small dog.
The Asiatic elephant of the park has a house to himself, where, be-
hind the heavy bars that shut him from the public, he is free to move
about, to go out into his large inclosure, and to take a bath in his
big tank, as shown in plate 11. He is fed on the best of hay, of
which he eats 125 pounds each day, and he stretches his trunk out to
visitors for other food; but, because he was once made dangerously
ill by eating several bushels of peanuts thrown to him on a crowded
day, visitors are no longer allowed to feed him.
The African elephant (pl. 12) is represented by two young speci-
mens, male and female, about 54 and 4 years old, which were received
from the Giza Zoological Garden. They were captured in Abyssinia,
near the Blue Nile. They were named Jumbo, jr., and Jumbina, in
memory of their great predecessor Jumbo, who was probably the
456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
largest elephant ever seen in captivity. They differ notably from
the Asiatic species both in the shape of the body and the enor- |
mous triangular ears which overlap each other on top of the neck
when at rest but stand out at right angles when the animal is ex-
cited. The males reach greater size than the Asiatic, occasionally ex-
ceeding 11 feet, and have very large and heavy valuable tusks, which
_have caused them to be gradually killed off in the more accessible
regions. The animal is now protected by governmental regulations.
Its hunting is by no means free from danger, and in this respect it
ranks with the lion and buffalo. While its sight is not very good, it
has a very keen sense of smell. Naturalists consider that there are
several species and varieties in Africa. In modern times it has not
been reduced to servitude like the Asiatic species, but it is supposed
that the war elephants used by the Carthaginians were African.
The park has both a male and a female hippopotamus captured in
East Africa. This most characteristic and striking of the animals of
African rivers lives mostly on coarse herbage and water plants, but
often ravages the crops of the natives, doing great damage, as it is
an enormous eater and its stomach will easily hold 5 or 6 bushels.
In captivity it is fed upon hay and various vegetables, with a little
crushed oats, bran, and stale bread by way of delicacies, but hardly
eats as much as would be expected from an animal of its size. When
adult it may reach a weight of 4 tons. It thrives well in captivity
and breeds regularly, so that many of the zoological collections of
the world have been supplied from the offspring of captive hippo-
potami.
The tapirs also belong to the family of thick-skinned animals, or
pachyderms. They have a short proboscis, small eyes, and short,
thick legs. They are fond of standing or lying partially immersed
in water. When wild they feed on roots, grasses, water plants, the
leaves of certain trees, and sometimes on cultivated crops, to the
inconvenience of planters. In captivity they are fed with ordinary
garden vegetables. The adult tapir is of a dull, dark brown color,
while the young are marked with gay stripes and spots of yellow and
of white. They lose these markings after six months or so.
The little fellow shown in plate 10 is one of several born in the
park. He was tame and good tempered.
THE GREAT CATS.
Within the lion house are, besides many other animals, a number
of large cats, such as lions and tigers. The lion shown in plate 14 is
one of five presented to the park by Mr. McMillan, of Hast Africa.
These were caught when quite young cubs and reared by hand at
Nairobi. They are distinguished by very heavy and powerful hind-
quarters, and are of a beautiful tawny color.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker.
PLATE 14.
BENGAL TIGER.
sha)
PAADAMLSONRNSS\cARtONOS
mmm thittyitiii
| DEDESSAOADRRADADLALENTt
os.
ALE
: i ety ae
el
pul
KILIMANJARO LION.
"HLVG NI YSOIL
sas a
eseenret
"CG, 3LV1d uayeg—'p16| ‘Woday ueluosy}IWS
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER, 457
Such animals as this caused a great deal of trouble during the
building of the railroad from Mombasa to Nairobi, frequently carry-
ing off the native workmen, and even tearing open railway cars to
get at their occupants.
A lion of quite a different type, slate colored and more slenderly
built, was formerly owned by the park, being obtained from a woman
in West Virginia who had reared it from birth by means of a feeding
bottle. He was very tame and used to run about the house freely,
but finally became too troublesome to be tolerated. Always very
playful and tractable, he showed so much affection for his keeper that
it inclined one to think that the old story of Androcles and the lion
may not have been altogether fabulous.
He showed an unusual aptitude for training, allowing his trainer
to handle him freely, apparently enjoying the exercise as a sort of
play.
The lion once ranged over nearly the whole of the Eastern Conti-
nent, but in recent times is to be found only in Africa (in many parts
of which he is quite exterminated) and in southern Asia.
The male is distinguished by a flowing mane and a brush of long
hair at the end of the tail. His pose, with the head thrown up to
keep his mane out of his eyes, is very commanding, and has gained
for him the title of the “king of beasts,’’ but the female, slinking
stealthily along with her head lowered, has a less noble aspect.
There are no true lions in America, although the puma, or cougar,
a wild animal that is found in parts of both North and South America,
is often called the mountain lion. Conflicting stories are told of it.
In the north it is said to be bloodthirsty and dangerous to man, while
in the south it is disposed to be gentle and friendly. It lives upon
flesh, killing wild animals and even birds in uninhabited regions, and,
in times of scarcity, horses, cattle, and sheep are never safe in its
vicinity.
The park has a beautiful puma which is very tame and likes to be
petted. Its color is a warm gray. Other specimens are found of a
yellowish or of a dark brown color.
The tiger is a native of Asia, abounding particularly in the jungles
of India and the Malay Peninsula, but also extending northward into
Korea, Manchuria, and the adjacent islands. Its appearance is not
as noble and majestic as that of the lion, but its lithe and graceful
movements and its sleek, shining coat, in color bright tawny striped
with black above, and pure white below, gives it a kind of fearful
beauty that the lion does not possess. Quite as large as the lion, the
absence of mane makes the tiger appear smaller, and there is much
controversy as to which animal is the stronger. There is no doubt
as to its terrible power and bloodthirsty nature. During the torrid
heat of the summer day it seeks the shade, coming out at night to
458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
hunt its prey. Tigers may live altogether upon wild game found in
the forests or upon domestic cattle. It is estimated that at least
20,000 head of cattle are carried off by tigers in India‘during a single
year. After becoming accustomed to cattle stealing and overcoming
their natural fear of man, they not infrequently attack human beings.
The man-eating tiger, as he is called, is the most terrible of beasts.
He is crafty and moves so noiselessty in the darkness of the night
that he has been known to snatch people from their beds without
awakening neighboring sleepers. While not so numerous as formerly,
tigers are still a scourge and a menace in many parts of Asia.
Tigers caught when very young may be tamed, but they can hardly
be said to be ever safe as household pets. Any flesh-eating animal,
even if reared in captivity and fed on milk, rice, and similar food,
may seem to be quite tame and harmless; but if it gets the sight and
smell of blood or bloody flesh, its innate instinct asserts itself and it
becomes ferocious and is no longer to be trusted.
The animal shown in plate 15 is a large specimen, probably from
Central India. On a hot day he was very fond of lazily immersing
himself in a tank of water, very much as he would have done in his
native jungle. The artist has caught him in the act of yawning. He
was quite unmoved by the presence of visitors, and in order to show
him at his best it was necessary to rouse him from his sleepy attitude.
The American jaguar is often called the tiger, or ‘‘tigre,”’ by the
natives of South and Central America. It resembles the leopard
much more nearly, as it has the same general structure and a similar
coloring, though its spots are larger and arranged in groups. It is
much heavier than the leopard, and has enormously powerfuljaws. It
ranges from Patagonia to the northern boundary of Mexico, and has
even been found in the United States.
It preys upon all wild life in its region—animals, fishes, and even
birds—but rarely attacks man. In the southern forests it sometimes
lives in trees, but it is found also on the treeless plains, showing con-
siderable ability to accommodate itself to changes of climate, food,
and general conditions.
Those who live in the country in Canada or along the Ganddian
border have doubtless heard of the “‘lucifee” (French foun cervier), or
Canadian lynx, about which blood-curdling stories are told. The
animal certainly has a most ferocious aspect and it is not strange
that its weird, unearthly, screeching cry, its glaring eyes and erect
hair, seen in the dusky wood, should frighten the casual passer-by and
lead him to seek the shotgun kept for such emergencies behind the
kitchen door. The early French settlers gave it the name of loup
cervier (deer wolf) from its supposed habit of springing from trees
upon the backs of deer and drinking their blood. These, however,
are merely woodsmen’s exaggerations, for the creature does not kill
‘dYvd0O3q] NVOIYAY
"OL 3ALV1d sayeg—' 16 | ‘Hodey uriuosy}iWs
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 17
ALASKAN BEAR.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 459
anything bigger than a rabbit and never voluntarily attacks man.
It is really rather timid, and its ferocious appearance is for effect
rather than otherwise. It is found throughout British America and
the northern border of the United States, and greatly resembles the
European lynx that owes its name to its supposedly piercing vision.
In the central or southern United States its ‘place is occupied by
the bay lynx, or “‘bobeat,”’ of which there are several species at the
park.
The leopard, or panther, is found both in Asia and in Africa, and is
next in size to the lion and the tiger. From his stealthy habits he is
more to be feared than either. He moves with marvelous agility,
springing upward without apparent effort to a height of 6 or 7 feet,
like a feather blown by the breeze. He runs as lightly as a squirrel up
trees and lies along the branches, hidden by the foliage, through
which his spots seem like the light and shade of the shifting leaves,
and from his concealment drops upon his unsuspecting prey. Like all
cats, he lives upon the flesh of other animals. Because of this he is a
dreaded and hated scourge in the agricultural regions, where he
devours the herds and flocks.
The leopard varies much in size and color. It is usually of a bright
fawn, but may be black or, very rarely, white.
The distinctive characteristic of the leopard are the spots which
cover the body and even the tail of the animal, of a darker color
and often arranged in rosettes, shading from black on the outer edge
to a light center. Even in the black leopard the shape of these spots
can be discerned.
The park has a fine leopard, received from Aden, Arabia, a beautiful
female presented by Mr. McMillan, and a black leopard of very fero-
cious aspect, seeming the very incarnation of devilish malignity.
Another specimen that may be seen is the serval, an African cat of
quite a different aspect, having legs so long as to almost give it the
appearance of walking upon stilts. It is of a light tawny color,
with rather widely separated black spots. It has very much the same
habits as its American cousin, the bay lynx.
Specimens of the very pretty spotted cats from Central and South
America, known as the ocelots, may usually be seen at the park.
They vary considerably in the pattern of their coloration, but have
usually a ground color of warm gray on which blotches and stripes of
black occur. When young they are as tame as young kittens and are
quite as playful. One was kept for some time in the office of the park,
running about the floor in complete liberty.
THE BEARS.
Bears are found in nearly every country in the world, from the
frozen north, where the great white polar bear lives on the ice and
460 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
snow, catching seals for food, to southern India, where the bear of the
jungle hides in caves in the rocks, feeding on vegetables, fruits, and
wild honey. Bears are of various colors—white, black, or brown,
often with distinctive markings—but they all walk with apparent
awkwardness, flat on the soles of their broad, heavy feet. The
awkwardness is only apparent, however, for they can run with con-
siderable rapidity, and some kinds can climb trees. The polar bears
eat meat and fish, while others live chiefly on vegetables and fruits,
occasionally eating fish or sheep, and in captivity are fed largely on
bread. Bears are easily trained and often, when caught young and
kindly cared for, are gentle and become fond of their keepers. The
polar bear is the most stupid of all, while the jungle bear of India and
the brown bear of eastern Europe are the most easily taught to dance,
play tricks, and otherwise obey their trainers. All bears are very
playful when young, and when alone or together tumble, turn somer-
saults, and run about for sheer love of exercise, like puppies or
kittens. Most countries have bears that are not found elsewhere,
but the brown bear is common to many lands. The real Americans
are the black and grizzly bears. The black bear is still to be found
in the deep woods, which he loves, hunting berries in summer and
curling up for a nap of several months when winter comes and he
can no longer find food. In captivity bears often remain awake and
active all winter if they are regularly fed; but in the wild state they
hibernate or sleep through the long, cold winter of the temperate
and frigid zones.
The most ferocious of all bears is the grizzly. His great size and
strength and the fact that he eats flesh make him feared by both
beasts and men. Animals avoid his haunts, but men seek him, both
for the sport of the hunt and to obtain the beautiful heavy pelt with
its thick, grizzly gray fur. The grizzly is the only one of the bear
tribe that attacks man unprovoked, and even he has been known to
turn and walk away when met by a man who stood quietly, showing
no fear and not offering to attack. He was long thought to be the
largest of the bear species, but the Alaskan bear shown in plate 17
now disputes this claim with him. This specimen weighs 1,160
pounds, stands 51 inches high at the shoulders, and can take an apple
from a stick held 9 feet 3 inches from the ground. He was brought
to the park when a cub, and is now 11 years old. The size of his
mother’s skin was 11 feet 8 inches from tip to tip. The cub of the
bear when born is very tiny, not much larger than a rat, and it does
not open its eyes for 40 days, during which time the mother bear
keeps it from all light.
A near relative of the bears is the frisky and mischievous little ani-
mal which we call the raccoon, but which the Germans call the
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 18.
GRIZZLY BEAR.
POLAR BEARS.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PRaTe do
RACCOON.
BLACK BEAR CuB.
ae
a
al
fama \.
aaa Ht
“wet mae TET,,
““NAPPER,” THE MANDRILL.
"HLO1S GS01-OML
‘06 S1V1d ueyeg—'b 161 ‘Hodey ueluosyziWsS
"Ny
PLATE 21.
ee
Gotskie es
WORK OF BEAVERS IN NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.
an
era
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 461
waschbiar, or washing bear, from its habit of paddling in the water
and wetting its food before eating it. These creatures inhabited this
region before the park was established, and their tracks are even now
occasionally seen along the creek at the water’s edge. A whole tree
is devoted to them, where they may be seen hanging upon the limbs
in various positions.
THE MONKEYS. THE SLOTH.
An entire house at the park is devoted to the monkey tribe, or
primates. Nor is this any too large, for if the principal species
only were exhibited, twice or three times the area would be required.
The great manlike apes are at present lacking, though there was
once a very interesting female orang on exhibition. Both Old World
and New World monkeys are here—baboons from Africa and Arabia,
the graceful Diana monkey from the western coast of Africa, macaques
of various kinds, the thumbless spider monkeys, the capuchins and
the ‘‘weepers” of South and Central America, besides lemurs
from Madagascar. One of the most mischievous of this tribe is a
young mandrill, whom the keepers have christened ‘‘Napper.”
He stations himself at the front of his cage, apparently quiet and
listless, and if an unwary visitor attempts to rouse him by thrusting
out an umbrella or a hat, he instantly seizes the object with his
powerful hands and tears it to pieces. Notwithstanding the utmost
watchfulness on the part of the keepers, he has at present to his
discredit 59 umbrellas and over 60 hats, among which is a police-
man’s helmet. He could not get this stiff object between the bars
of his cage, but he managed to destroy it before it could be rescued.
South America is the home of the sloth, a creature with long,
irregular limbs, that lives in the trees of tropical forests. It is of a
very low order of development, seems to have little intelligence,
moves slowly about on the trees, hanging head downward, the claws
of its long arms clasping the branch above. Its body and limbs are
covered with coarse, brittle hair on which, in the damp, hot air of the
South American forest, a vegetable growth attaches, making the
creature seem a part of the tree itself, thus successfully hiding it from
view. When it is removed from its native forest into a drier atmos-
phere the green alga on its hair dries up and falls off, leaving the ani-
mal a dull gray, with or without stripes or other marks, according to
the species to which it belongs. It is not at home on the ground, its
legs not being adapted to walking. Its food is the young leaves and
tender fruits of the forest trees. As is the case with most creatures
of a low order, the sloth is a night roamer, taking his sleep curled up
and looking like a moss-covered bole of a tree during the light of day,
making his slow journeys and eating his simple food by night, when
he probably sees better than in the day.
462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
BEAVERS. SEALS. . OTTERS.
Mention has already been made of the secluded valley, parallel
to the main road through the park from the western entrance, in
which are pools for the beavers and sea lions, together with other
inclosures. Plate 21 shows the condition of this valley some years
ago, when the work of the beavers was more extensive than at present.
The American beaver, which resembles closely the European
animal, was once very abundant throughout the United States and
Canada. The Dutch company that founded the State of New York
used the beaver as an emblem on the coat of arms of the colony
because of its abundance and importance, and it is said that the
Hudson Bay Fur Co. often exported more than 100,000 beaver skins
per annum. Its fine, soft fur was a source of great profit to trappers
and hunters. This led to a merciless pursuit of the animal, result-
ing in its practical extermination in the United States, it bemg now
found only in thinly settled forest regions and in the Yellowstone
Park, where it is carefully guarded and preserved.
Traces of its former existence may be seen in many parts of the
country, consisting of dams, sometimes hundreds of feet in length
and of very considerable width, evidently the result of long years
of work of successive colonies of beavers. In the course of time these
dams became solid embankments, upon which large forest trees
flourished. Small ponds and lakelets were thus formed, these being
particularly numerous upon the smaller affluents of the rivers of
Canada, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. These
ponds gradually filled up with growths of moss and other plants,
forming a peaty bog from which trees were absent and which then
supported grass. The early settlers termed this a ‘‘beaver meadow.”
The lower part of the city of Montreal is built upon such a forma-
tion, and there are many such in different parts of the United States.
Not less than 54 towns in this country have been named from some
natural association with the beaver.
The beavers in the park, following their natural instincts, have
built, in all, three dams, two of which may be seen in plate 21.
They did this work, enormous when considered in the aggregate,
unaided, cutting down all unprotected trees and bushes within their
inclosure, gnawing the trunks and branches into lengths suitable for
transportation, dragging them for some distance, and piling them
in a systematic manner across a little rivulet that meandered through
the valley. Considering the means at their disposal, their method
would do credit to any civil engineer. They place the bottom layer
of sticks with the heavier ends downstream, intertwine them with
sticks and brush, weight them down with stones where the greatest
pressure is likely to occur, and plaster the whole with mud from the
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 22.
BEAVER GNAWING,
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 23
THE SEA-LION POOL.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 463
stream. The dam is in this manner built up until the water rises,
forming a pond. The upstream side of the dam is nearly vertical,
and in the course of time becomes fairly regular, the lower or down-
stream side being much more slopmg and remaining rough. At
first the water percolates through the interstices of the structure
but as the dam gets more compactly settled the water rises nearly
to its top.
Having completed the dam, the beavers proceed to build, on the
edge of the pond, a house or lodge, pursuing the same method of
construction by interlacing sticks. Within is a chamber, usually
about 5 or 6 feet across and 18 or 20 inches high, having a firm, hard,
level floor, made of small twigs and chips imbedded in earth, a few
inches above water level. On this floor they place some dried grass
or leaves. Here the beaver sleeps and rears his family. The lodge
is entered from an inclined passageway commencing some 2 or 3
feet below the level of the water in the pond, the purpose of the
dam being to raise that level sufficiently to conceal the entrance and
thus protect the animal from its enemies.
The beavers are constantly at work repairing or altering the dam,
sometimes cutting channels through it to lower the water, more
frequently plastering it up and extending it. The dam now in the
park, the third one built, has been repaired and reconstructed by
them several times. This interesting work is done mostly at night;
during the day the animals stay in their lodge and are not seen by
visitors unless it be early in the morning or late in the afternoon.
Like most nocturnal animals, the beaver does not see well in a bright
light.
In a wild state the beaver feeds almost entirely on the bark or
tender wood of the aspen poplar, the willow, or other soft-wooded
trees. As he does not hibernate, he usually stores up a supply of
twigs of this kind just before winter, immersing them in water near
his lodge. In captivity he becomes accustomed to more civilized
fare and eats bread, roots, and other vegetable products, and occa-
sionally may get a little bark. Im order to digest such refractory
food, he has a large macerating pouch, larger indeed than his stomach,
corresponding to the appendix of the intestine of man.
The beaver is enabled to do his extraordinary work by means of
extremely strong chisel-shaped incisors, or front teeth, which are
separated from the others by a considerable interval and are actuated
by very powerful muscles. He will bite a broomstick in two with
ease, and fells large trees with no aid whatever, merely by gnawing
around the entire circumference. One of these trees may be seen
in the upper left-hand corner of plate 21. If caught in a steel
trap, a beaver will sometimes free himself by gnawing off the limb
that is seized. In one instance this was done three times; so that
464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the animal, when finally captured, had but one effective leg. The
American Indians, before they became acquainted with the use of
iron, used these formidable teeth of the beaver as gouges and chisels.
In other respects also the animal is excellently adapted for this
work. He readily stands upright on his hind legs, as may be seen
in plate 22. This is the posture he assumes when gnawing
around a tree in order to fell it. His forelegs and paws are capable
of holding and clasping, very much as do the hands and arms of
man. It is with these that he carries his load of twigs, stones,
and mud with which he builds. His hind feet are powerful paddles,
and he can use his flat, scaly tail to guide him in swimming. When
alarmed, he gives a resounding slap upon the water with his tail,
dives, and seeks the security of his lodge.
Near the pen in which the beavers are confined are smaller inclo-
sures for gnawing animals of similar habits, such as the muskrat and
the coypu or nutria.
The muskrat is a natural inhabitant of the park, colonies of them
being found in several places along the banks of Rock Creek. More
tolerant of civilization than his cousin the beaver, he is also more
prolific, and is consequently found in considerable numbers through-
out the United States. He is smaller than the beaver and, like him,
lives in lodges made out of small twigs or in burrows hollowed in
the banks of streams and ponds, the entrance being always under
water. The fur is sold extensively, usually under some disguising
name, as “‘river mink,” or “‘ Hudson seal.”
The coypu, also called the nutria, the South American water rat,
otter, or beaver, is a native of Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Its habits
are like those of the muskrat.
Adjoining the beavers’ inclosure is the sea-lion pool, an artificial
basin some 96 feet long, 47 feet wide, and 6 feet deep, through which
fresh water constantly flows. Visitors often ask whether these ani-
mals—in a wild state found only in salt water—can properly thrive
in such a location. There has been no difficulty in keeping them in
good health, for, being air-breathing creatures, they do as well in
fresh water as in salt, provided they get plenty of food and exercise.
Two different species are shown—the California sea lion, familiar
to those who have visited the Cliff House, near Golden Gate, San
Francisco, and the northern or Steller sea lion, a larger animal found
principally in Bering Sea. The California species emits a loud, sharp
bark, which it keeps up almost incessantly and which reminds one
more of a dog than a lion, while the northern animal makes a roaring
noise, remotely resembling that of a lion.
These animals swim with great rapidity and ease throughout the
whole extent of the pool, gamboling and playing about each other,
and it is interesting to see how expert they are in seizing the fish
*SNOI]. VAS VINHOSITVD GNV 4377319
‘Po ALV1d uexeg— p16] ‘Hodey uejuosyyiWS
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 25
ALLIGATOR YAWNING.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 465
which are thrown to them as food. On land they are clumsy and
awkward, pulling themselves along by their flippers, which resemble
a fish’s fin rather than the limbs of a mammal, which they really are.
When they wish to rest they seek some shelving spot on the gravel
that surrounds the pool or perhaps crawl into the house of piled
bowlders which may be seen at the lower end of their inclosure, where
there is a plank floor and shelves on which they may lie in quiet.
Under the cliff at the southern limit of the park are found some
near relatives of the sea lions. Here is a fur seal from the Pribilof
Islands, the animal to which we are indebted for the sealskin used
for articles of apparel. It was only recently that it was found
possible to keep these creatures in captivity. This one was taken
from its mother and reared on a nursing bottle like a baby. For a
long time it would not eat the fish which was given it, but now
it has become accustomed to that diet. It is one of the most grace-
ful creatures imaginable when swimming in a tank of sufficient
size to show its evolutions; but, like the sea lion, it progresses with
some difficulty on land. The fur seal spends the winter in the open
ocean, but betakes itself to certain definite localities on the shore
during the summer and autumn for the purpose of rearing its young.
When the time for this migration comes the seals, in vast schools,
swim swiftly, unswervingly, often hundreds of miles, to their breeding
place, showing that ‘‘homing” instinct so puzzling to uaturalists.
_ Next are several harbor seals from the coast of Maine, intelligent
looking little animals, with faces astonishingly human in appearance.
One can easily conceive that the fable of the mermaids or mermen
might arise from an indistinct view of these creatures through fog
or mist.
- In separate inclosures above the beaver pen are found the otters,
animals that, like the seal, feed upon fish, and swim to catch them
with great rapidity and ease. Unlike the seals and sea lions, they
have well-developed and perfect limbs and are active and agile upon
land, but when swimming in the water they look very much like small
harbor seals. They are very playful and may often be seen swimming
about balancing a small stone or pebble on their heads. Where the
ground is suitable they make slides, down which they coast into the
water, and they also do this in winter on the ice and snow. They
have a curious habit of always wetting their food before eating it.
In captivity otters become very tame and readily come to the call
of their keeper, or indeed of any visitor. They are so active that it
is very difficult to photograph them. They have a strong antipathy
to dogs and the sight of one puts them immediately in arage. Though
comparatively small, they are quite strong, and a full-grown otter has
been known to killa dog by seizing it a the nose, dragging it into the
73176°—sm 191430
466 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
water, and drowning it. The dog can not well get hold of the otter
because of its slippery coat.
Although a semiaquatic animal, always seeking a home near small
lakes or streams, it is said to make quite long journeys overland from
one watercourse to another, always going around or under obstacles,
instead of climbing over them. It is widely but not profusely dis-
tributed from Canada to Florida, and closely related species are found
in Europe and South America.
The fur is quite valuable and would probably be more generally used
were it easier to obtain. Three thousand three hundred skins were
reported to be sold in the June sales of the London market. This
animal must not be confounded with the closely related sea otter,
found only in the Arctic regions, which produces one of the most valu-
able furs known to commerce, but is now nearly extinct.
There can usually be seen at the park a number of other small fur-
bearing animals, such as the marten, the fisher, the mink, and the
striped skunk, a very interesting and sociable animal when deprived
of his scent bags. The skunk is usually very easily tamed, and even
in a wild state shows but little fear of man, relying rather upon the
dread which its natural means of defense inspires. The black-footed
ferret, an intelligent and active little animal from the plains of the
West, may also be seen here, and its relative, the common ferret, used
for exterminating rats.
Neither are there wanting certain indigenous animals, the remnants
of the original wild stock that inhabited the land before the park was
established. Once, walking along the main road in the park, I chanced
to meet a weasel who had so fearless and aggressive an attitude that
I did not know but what he was about to dispute my passage. It isno
doubt to such marauders that we owe the loss of a good many speci-
mens from the ponds for aquatic birds.
THE ALLIGATORS.
When the fur seals first came to the park there was built for them,
close by the beaver pen, a fine swimming pool, but experience showed
that this situation was too hot for them in our long summer days, and
the pool was given over to the alligators, although they seem rather
out of place here among the fur-bearmg mammals. About a dozen of
these unpleasant-looking saurians, of all sizes, may be seen here lazily
basking in the sun. Let any unusual noise or movement occur near
their inclosure and they at once scurry into the water, where they
float, looking very much like submerged logs, with but little more than
the nostrils, eyes, and dark knobby back visible. These animals were
formerly quite common in the southeastern parts of the United States,
but at present, owing to the demand for their hides and the fact that
“ATOM VESSZ NVINVWSVY | YO SNIOVIAH _L
"Og ALVId JOxeg—'b1G1 ‘Hoday ueluosyyiws
Smithsonian Report, 1914.+-Baker. PLATE 27
KANGAROOS STANDING.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 467
tourists seem to take a particular pleasure in shooting them, have
become comparatively rare. The demand is so considerable that they
are reared for sale. Visitors to Florida often bring home young ones
as curiosities, and then, as the creatures grow larger, find it incon-
venient to keep them, so present them to the park. They grow rather
slowly, the largest finally attaining a length of about 16 feet. The
largest speciman at the park is not more than 10 feet long and has not
grown in length since his arrival 20 years ago. In the warmer climate
of its native haunts it might have reached a larger size. During the
cold season alligators remain quite torpid, eating but little and moving
about but slowly. They can not endure the cold of winter without
protection, and in Florida they bury themselves in the mud. JI am
informed that one that escaped from confinement at White Sulphur
Springs, W. Va., burrowed in beside a heating pipe, and came out
safe and sound in the spring. When excited or angered they emit a
peculiar hissing noise, and if they hear any distant, loud sound, like
quarry blasting, they bellow like bullfrogs. Plate 25 shows the largest
one in the act of yawning. They are not especially dangerous to man,
but are very apt to snap up little dogs that come within their reach.
Their cousins, the crocodiles, are much more vicious, snapping and
biting at anything approaching them. The few that have been at the
park have been particularly hard to manage on that account.
THE POUCHED ANIMALS.
The park possesses a number of specimens belonging to the very
interesting group of marsupials, or pouched animals, so called because
their young, born at a very immature stage of development, are imme-
diately transferred by the mother to a peculiar pouch on the belly, in
which they remain for some months, attached to the nipples. Most of
these strange creatures are found in Australia and the adjacent islands,
where the ordinary forms of mammals are almost wholly wanting.
Different habits of life have caused these animals to vary much as do
those of other climes, and we have vegetable feeders, flesh eaters, and
insect eaters, approaching in form the animals of similar habits in
other regions. Thus there is a marsupial that the colonists have
termed a bear, another somewhat like a cat, others resembling rats
and mice, and one very like a flying squirrel.
One of the most striking forms is the so-called Tasmanian zebra
wolf, or thylacine, shown on plate 26. This animal is also called the
pouched dog, and is, in fact, more like a dog in appearance than a
wolf. It is a flesh eater, and has been nearly exterminated by the
farmers, who can not tolerate its incursions into the sheep pen and
poultry yard. It is of a slate color, with black, zebralike stripes.
It is found only in the island of Tasmania, where it lives in rocky
caverns, coming out mostly at night.
468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
To the vegetable-eating group of marsupials belongs the kangaroo,
an animal that greatly excited the wonder of the discoverer, Capt.
Cook, and his fellow voyagers when first discovered. As will be seen
from the illustrations, it has very short fore legs and very long and
strong hind legs. It seems rather awkward when walking on all 4
feet, but when disturbed gets over the ground with great rapidity by
taking long leaps, sometimes of 20 feet. When sitting upright on
its hind legs, supported by its tail, which is its usual posture, those of
the larger species are as tallas aman. The colonists therefore gave
to the adults of this size the name of ‘‘old man.” In their native
country they are usually found in flocks or droves of 50 or 60 animals,
and, like sheep, invariably follow a leader when on the move. There
they feed upon the tender young shoots of grass and other plants; in
captivity they adapt themselves very readily to a diet of garden
vegetables. There are a number of smaller tree kangaroos not larger
than a house cat. In the park several kangaroos are kept during
the summer in a large paddock, where they nibble grass and lie under
the shade of the trees. At night they go into an open shed much as
domestic animals would do. They are very timid and at any unusual
sight or noise jump swiftly away. Hf they have their young with
them, which is not infrequently the case, it is interesting to see the
little ones jump hastily into their mother’s pouches for concealment.
The only representative of the marsupials native to the United
States is the opossum, which is, in fact, indigenous to the park and the
surrounding country. This animal lives almost wholly in trees, and
has a long, prehensile tail and clasping hands and feet that make it
very expert in climbing. Its diet is quite miscellaneous, fruit, roots,
birds’ eggs, and small mammals all being acceptable. Like most
other marsupials, it is most active at night and is dazzled by a bright
light.
In the Southern States the opossum, when well fattened, is much
esteemed by some as an article of food. During President Roose-
velt’s administration these animals were frequently sent him from
different parts of the South and were then promptly turned over to
the park.
Another pest of the farmers in Tasmania, which has earned its
title by its fighting qualities, is the so-called Tasmanian devil, a
short, stubbed animal with a large head. Although small, it can
easily whip a dog of much larger size. In color it is black or very
dark brown, with a white band or spot at the neck. Its teeth and
jaws are large and powerful, and it cracks bones with the greatest
ease. Retiring to the shade or to a cleft in the rocks during the day,
it prowls about at night to prey upon other small animals, and even
upon sheep, which it destroys in large numbers. Its general repu-
PLATE 28.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker.
~ at ~
Sw
Me ANN NS
N yt tae
. RS
EUROPEAN HEDGEHOG. TASMANIAN DEVIL.
“3SIOLHYO | SODVdvIV5 LNVID Vv NO 30ly V
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NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 469
tation is bad, as it is said to be untamably sullen and savage. The
specimens kept at the park do not seem to confirm this, as they have
been reasonably docile, not unlike other animals of limited intelli-
gence. It naturally shuns the light, stays in a dark corner of its
cage, and, when disturbed, is likely to resent it by snarling. We are
apt to forget that in captivity we place animals in extremely unnat-
ural conditions and force them to endure the sight of man, who is to
them an object of the greatest fear and distrust.
The park has quite recently acquired a wombat, one of the larger
marsupials of Australia—a herbivorous animal that looks like an
enormous woodchuck or groundhog, and it is not dissimilar in its
habits as it is a burrowing animal living upon roots. It is sluggish
and quiet in captivity, usually sleeping during the day.
The echidna, or spiny anteater, is another strange creature from
Australia, being extremely interesting as showing the intimate rela-
tion which exists between the lowest mammals and birds. It is not
very large, being from a foot to a foot and a half in length. It has
a long, horny bill, no teeth, a slender tongue which it can protrude
to catch the insects on which it feeds, and sharp spines are mingled
with its hair. Though in a sense it suckles its young, it lays eggs as
do birds and many reptiles. The specimen shown in plate 28 was
at the park for some time. Its natural food is white ants, but as
these were not available, it was fed mostly on finely minced hard-
boiled eggs. It kept constantly hidden under the straw that was
used as its litter. Mr. Le Souef, director of the zoological garden at
Melbourne, informed me that when placed on soft ground it quickly
burrows out of sight, and if pulled away clings to the soil by erecting
its spines. He once saw one with a dead snake wound around it.
The reptile had tried to crush it and had been pierced by its spines,
leaving the echidna unhurt.
In superficial appearance the echidna is not unlike the European
hedgehog shown in plate 28, specimens of which animal may
usually be seen in the park. The latter is, however, only distantly
related to the echidna, as it brings forth its young alive and is in
many respects of a much higher order. In this animal also the hairs
have been developed into spines which are used as a means of defense.
On the slightest intimation of danger it rolls itself into a compact
ball, with limbs and head perfectly concealed and sticks out its spines
in every direction. It is able to do this by means of a powerful layer
of muscle that lies immediately beneath the skin. This animal
should not be confounded with the American tree porcupine, which,
on account of the spiny character of its hairs, is often called a hedge-
hog.
470 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
THE REPTILES.
The park does not as yet possess a perfectly appointed reptile
house, consequently the few reptiles in the collection are exhibited
in a somewhat unsatisfactory way in the lion house. There are to
be seen a number of boa constrictors, an anaconda, several large
rattlesnakes, a copperhead, a water moccasin, a number of harmless
snakes, the celebrated Gila monster (a species of lizard), some iguanas,
and last, but not by any means least, four giant tortoises from the
Galapagos Islands.
These tortoises are very interesting to naturalists, as they are the
surviving representatives of gigantic reptiles that were formerly
widely distributed over the surface of the earth, but are now. nearly
extinct. They exist only in scattered islands in the Indian Ocean
and in the small voleanic group of the Galapagos, 500 miles west of
South America, directly under the equator. They were formerly
extremely abundant there, so much so that the Spaniards named the
islands from them, the word ‘‘galapago”’ meaning, in Spanish, a land
or fresh-water tortoise. Their abundance led, however, to their
destruction, as they were found to be excellent food and easily caught,
so that ships would stop at the islands and take on hundreds of them
as a welcome supply of fresh meat. They are vegetable feeders, in
captivity eating lettuce, cabbage, and other vegetables; when at
home their principal food is a species of cactus and some acid berries.
They are believed to be very long lived, specimens of the East Indian
variety being known to be at least 200 years old. As they grow very
slowly, it is probable that the specimens in the park are already of
ereat age, though they are of moderate weight and size for these
animals, the largest weighing only 170 pounds and measuring slightly
less than 3 feet long, while specimens have been collected weighing
400 pounds and measuring 4 feet, and fossil specimens are known at
least 6 feet in length. They are quite strong and easily walk off
with a small boy or even a man upon their backs, as may be seen in
plate 29.
Mr. Walter Rothschild sent an expedition to the islands in 1897,
and it is from him that these specimens were obtained. They
represent two different species, inhabiting two different islands, for,
strangely enough, those in each separate island have peculiarities
slightly different from the others. The following account of these
interesting creatures is from the Journal of a Cruise to the Pacific
Ocean (1812-1814), by Capt. David Porter, United States Navy:
They [the ships] had been in at James Island and had supplied themselves abun-
dantly with those extraordinary animals, the tortoises of the Galapagos, which prop-
erly deserve the name of the elephant tortoise. Many of them were of a size to
weigh upward of three hundredweight, and nothing, perhaps, can be more disagree-
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NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 471
able or clumsy than they are in their external appearance. Their motion resembles
strongly that of the elephant; their step slow, regular, and heavy; they carry their
body about a foot from the ground, and their legs and feet bear no slight resemblance
to the animal which I have likened them; their neck is from 18 inches to 2 feet in
length and very slender; their head is proportioned to it and strongly resembles that
of a serpent; but, hideous and disgusting as is their appearance, no animal can pos-
sibly afford a more wholesome, luscious, and delicate food than they do. The finest
green turtle is no more to be compared to them in point of excellence than the
coarsest beef is to the finest veal, and after once tasting the Galapagos tortoise every
other animal food fell greatly in our estimation. These animals are so fat as to
require neither butter nor lard to cook them, and this fat does not possess that cloying
quality common to that of most other animals; and, when tried out, it furnishes an
oil superior in taste to that of the olive. The meat of this animal is the easiest of
digestion, and a quantity of it, exceeding that of any other food, can be eaten without
experiencing the slightest inconvenience. But what seems the most extraordinary
in this animal is the length of time that it can exist without food; for I have been
well assured that they have been piled away among the casks in the hold of a ship,
where they have been kept 18 months, and, when killed at the expiration of that
time, were found to have suffered no diminution in fatness or excellence. They
carry with them a constant supply of water, in a bag at the root of the neck, which
contains about 2 gallons; and on tasting that we found in those we killed on board,
it proved perfectly fresh and sweet.
As to the other reptiles in the lion house, it may be of interest to
note that some of them have bred in captivity. Plate 31 shows a
bullsnake coiled about its eggs, evidently brooding them as a bird
might do. When hatched out the young are left to shift for them-
selves. Some species of snakes bring forth their young alive. That
is the case with the tree boas, one of whom gave birth to 64 young at
once, puzzling the park authorities very much to know how to care
for so numerous a progeny. A number of them were presented to
other zoological collections; others remained in the park and grew to
considerable size.
The unnatural conditions which necessarily prevail in captivity
make it difficult to keep snakes in perfect health. It seems quite
clear that, in spite of the popular impression as to their aggressive-
ness, they are really quite timid creatures. They often refuse to eat,
remaining for long periods without food. It is quite astonishing how
long they will live without taking a particle of nourishment. In
several instances they have been known to survive for more than a
year. About two or three times a year snakes shed their skins en-
tirely, even to the horny covering that protects the eyes. The skin
usually strips off in one entire piece, and the reptile appears in a
new and much more brilliant suit.
THE FLYING CAGE.
Lovers of birds found very early that the confinement of these
winged creatures within the limits of a small cage did not display
their activities or beauties to the best advantage and so invented
472 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
for their more effective exhibition large inclosures in which they might
have some opportunity for flight. Such an inclosure is called in
French a ‘“‘voliére,’”’ or place for flymg. We have no perfectly satis-
factory word for it in English, and have adopted the rather clumsy
and misleading substitute of “flying cage.’’ There are several such
large cages in the National Zoological Park. It is necessary, of
course, to separate the eagles, owls, hawks, vultures, and other
predacious birds from the less aggressive ones, and the larger running
birds can not well be shown in this way.
The large cage shown on Plate 32 is 158 feet long by 50 feet
wide and 50 feet high, and is situated in a lovely valley near the
western entrance to the park. It is built over several full-grown
trees and has a streamlet of water running through it which supples
small pools for the convenience of the birds. It contains a con-
siderable variety of medium-sized birds, mainly those that like to live
near water, such as herons, storks, cranes, cormorants, etc. The
night herons have made themselves very much at home there,
building their nests and rearing young in considerable numbers every
year, so that the park has been somewhat embarrassed by their rapid
increase. Attracted by the apparent comfort of their kind, wild
herons come and build also in the trees about the cage.
Much larger cages than this have been erected. The one built
by the park at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904 is 228 feet long, 84
feet wide, and about 55 feet high. It was intended to bring this cage
to the National Zoological Park, but the city of St. Louis desired it to
remain there.
It will be impracticable to give within the limits of this article
anything more than a brief note of some of the principal birds in the
collection at the park. Only a few are mentioned.
THE TOUCAN.
This noisy bird comes from the forests of tropical America and
many species are found in the Amazon Valley. Its enormous bill,
which one would think would overweight the bird, is really very light
and does not at all interfere with flight, though it is somewhat
awkward while eating, as the bird has to throw its head back to allow
morsels to reach its throat. Its plumage varies much in different
species, but is always very showy —jet black or very dark green,
being set off by brilliant yellow and scarlet. Like our crows, these
birds congregate and call to each other with raucous cries, and are
especially excited if they discover an owl.
THE MARABOU.
If you observe a large, silent, sedate bird scanning you critically
and judicially with a military air, that is the marabou stork, or adju-
PLATE 32.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker.
THE FLYING CAGE.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 33.
te:
lle ai
THE MARABOU.
THE TOUCAN.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 34.
THE Harpy EAGLE.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 35
THE OSTRICH.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 473
tant, a name given to it from its severe aspect. Great flocks of them
are seen in eastern countries, where they serve as scavengers. It has
a curious way of reposing by bending its legs and resting on what is
really the tarsus. From this bird come the marabou feathers so
much prized for ladies’ boas. The specimen at the park is from
India, but there are closely related species in Africa and Java. In
front of its neck there may be seen a large throat pouch, connected
with the respiratory apparatus, which has puzzled naturalists a good
deal, as its functions are not exactly known. It has been thought to
assist the lungs by affording a reservoir of air during rapid feeding,
also to give additional resonance to the voice, or to attract the female
by its expansion while strutting. The bird is a very silent one, and
its mating habits have not been carefully observed, as it seeks seclu-
sion upon the highest points of inaccessible rocks.
THE HARPY EAGLE.
In 1899 the United States sent a naval vessel up the Amazon as
far as Iquitos, Peru, with a view to obtaining information regarding
the commercial development of the country. The Secretary of the
Navy kindly instructed the commanding officer to collect for the park
such animals as could be readily obtained without impeding in any
way the expedition, A number of important additions to the collec-
tion were secured, one of the most beautiful being the harpy eagle.
This kingly bird was presented by the governor of the Province of
Amazonas, Brazil, at Manaos, and came from the upper Amazon.
Plate 34 does not do justice to its imperial air and lordly pres-
ence. It created a considerable sensation when carried through
the streets of New York to be shipped to Washington. Its nature is
by no means expressed by the name which has been given it. The
harpy of Grecian mythology was a ravenous, unclean creature having
the head of a woman and the wings and claws of a bird. Readers of
Vergil will recall that when Aineas and his companions reached in
their wanderings the Strophades, two little islands in the Ionian Sea,
they were attacked while eating by the harpies, who, when driven
away, prophesied dire calamities to the Trojans. Our eagle does not
deserve such a name, for it is clean and dainty, proud as a Spanish
don, and very fond of attention. It raises or lowers the crest upon
its head at will, and it delights to spread its great wings and sidle
along its perch at its keeper’s call. If it is shown a monkey, it is at
once excited and flutters and seizes the bars of its cage in attempts to
get at it. Monkeys probably constitute most of its food when in its
native haunts, but it also attacks peccaries, sloths, and fawns. The
bird is found throughout tropical America as far north as southern
Mexico.
A474 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
THE CONDORS.
These great birds, the largest of all the birds of prey, inhabit the
high mountain regions of North and South America, having their
nests on almost inaccessible peaks. Both the Andean and the Cali-
fornia species are seen in the park. The South American form is
slightly the larger, but either bird is very impressive when it spreads its
wings fully. It is interesting to see them do this on a hot day to cool
themselves, or after a rain to dry their feathers.
The California condor shown in plate 36 is a young bird not yet
in full plumage. He was very playful, and delighted to untie the
shoestrings of his keeper while his cage was being cleaned. It seems
almost a pity to confine in a cage birds whose delight is apparently to
wing their way through the upper air over great mountain ranges.
The California species is nearly extinct, bemg now found only in the
most inaccessible parts of the Sierra Nevada. It was formerly abun-
dant throughout California and Oregon. The park is fortunate in
possessing three specimens. They are kept by themselves in a flying
cage.
THE OSTRICH.
Since the extinction of the gigantic moas of New Zealand the
ostrich is the largest of living birds, a fine male sometimes measuring
nearly 5 feet to the top of its back and being able to look over a
9-foot fence, the height being due to the length of the legs and the
neck, the size of the body not being proportional. The head is small
and flat, with a short broad beak; the neck is practically bare of
feathers, as are also the slender legs and muscular thighs, which natu-
ralists have compared to those of a camel.* This undressed appear-
ance is fully compensated, however, by the luxuriance and beauty of
the plumage of its body and wings. In the female the color is a
somber gray, while the male is dressed in black, with wings and tail
bordered with snowy, glistening white. These are the feathers which
have been prized in all countries from the earliest times. Formerly
they were procured only from the wild bird by hunting, but to-day
ostrich farming is a recognized industry in many places, both in this
country and in Africa.
The bird is a native of the deserts of Africa and Arabia, where its
great height enables it to descry its enemies at a great distance, and
its long legs and peculiar feet, especially adapted for traveling in
sand, usually outdistance its pursuers. A wise hunter while pursuing
on one horse will place a relay at a point at right angles to the course,
as it is known that the bird will travel in a large circle. When
finally exhausted the bird tries to hide in a shadow, with its tall head
concealed behind a projecting rock, which is probably the origin of
the fable concerning his hiding his head in the sand. This and other
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 36.
THE CALIFORNIA CONDOR.
THE CASSOWARY.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 37.
THE SNOWY OWL.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 475
tales of his digesting iron nails and similar objects have led to the
popular belief that his intelligence is very low. It is a fact that he
readily picks up hard, bright objects and pebbles to assist in the
trituration of his food, as our own barnyard fowl does in a lesser
degree, and in repairing his paddock care is taken not to leave wire
clippings about. From the small head of the bird it might seem that
the brain matter was rather deficient, but it appears from recent
investigations that many functions of the brain of higher vertebrates
are in his case performed by the large and well-developed spinal cord.
The park has two species of ostriches—one presented by King
Menelek, of Abyssinia; another from South Africa. It has also a
number of birds that are near relatives to the ostrich, such as the
rhea, or South American ostrich, and the emeu that represents this
family in Australia.
THE CASSOWARY.
Closely allied to the ostrich is the cassowary, from New Guinea
and Australia—a large bird, with rudimentary wings, blue-black
plumage, highty colored neck and wattles, and a helmetlike crest.
Unlike the ostrich, these birds are lovers of the forest, and are said —
to use this strong helmet to part the branches of the dense scrub in
which they live and which they traverse at great speed, quite baffling
the hunter. When captured they are very readily tamed and breed
well in captivity.
THE OWLS.
There are usually several species of owls in the park, as they are
frequently found in the vicinity by farmers, who consider them as
‘‘vermin,” overlooking their value as exterminators of rats and mice.
At the ineeption of the collection, when it was kept at the back of the
Smithsonian, a colony of barn owls was discovered in one of the
towers of that institution. This species is not, however, generally
known to agriculturists, and we are often asked to identify a ‘‘rare
bird which no one in the neighborhood has ever seen,” and find that
it is the tawny barn owl, which from its peculiar facial coloration has
been given the name of the ‘‘monkey-faced”’ owl. The horned owl,
the barred owl, and the screech owl may usually be seen here. The
beautiful snowy owl in plate 37 is a visitor from the North, its
home being within the Arctic Circle, whence it comes southward in
the winter in search of food, being occasionally seen even in this
latitude. Unlike some of the owls it sees well by day.
THE GULL.
Everyone who has seen the ocean or a big lake knows the gull that
follows steamers halfway across the Atlantic and ascends every great
river far inland, with tireless and powerful flight. It seems strange
476 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
and out of place in captivity, yet holds its own well among other
web-footed birds. When nesting, it seeks some secluded spot—an
island far offshore, a headland jutting out into the waters—and there
lays its eggs and hatches its brood. Thousands frequent the same
nesting places, and their cries are loud and unceasing. The interest
in this particular specimen is that she hatched her chicks in the
flying cage at the park, and they ran about as unconcernedly and
with no more timidity than the chickens in a barnyard.
THE PELICANS.
These curious birds are distinguished by a large appendage like a
leather bag attached to the lower jaw, by means of which they catch
the fish which form their only food. When they wish to feed their
young, they bring the nestlings close to their breast and disgorge
some partially digested fish into the pouch for the little ones to eat.
An imperfect observation of this peculiar method led to the story,
once current, that the mother bird wounded its own breast and allowed
the blood to flow into the mouths of its young, who were nourished
in this self-sacrificing manner. The illustration on plate 39 is from
Gesner’s Historia Animalium, published in 1555. This old work, in
four folio volumes, is a very erudite compilation of the knowledge of
that time regarding animals. It will be noticed that the artist has
not shown the pouch of the bird. This subject was a favorite one in
heraldry during the Middle Ages, being used particularly in eccle-
siastical institutions.
There are at present four species in the park. The brown pelican
from eastern Florida and the Gulf coast is found only near salt water.
Thousands of them may be seen on Pelican Island, in Indian River.
They go often long distances for their fishing, proceeding in a very
regular manner in a diagonal singie file, the whole group beating the
air in unison for a few strokes and then sailing until the leader com-
mences to beat again.
The illustration on plate 40 shows the American white pelican
received from the Yellowstone Park, where there is a colony on an
island in Yellowstone Lake, from which each year they migrate to
the Gulf at the approach of winter. They are among the largest of
our native water fowl, having a spread of wings of 8 or 9 feet. During
the mating season each male bird has a curious protuberance on the
upper part of its beak, which drops off as soon as the young are
hatched. They have wonderful powers of flight and delight to per-
form evolutions in the air and upon the water. Their plumage is of
a glistening snowy white, and when standing erect, like the bird in
the foreground of the group, they present a most noble and striking
appearance. It is thought that this species once extended much
farther north, even to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, migrating south-
"dooug Y3H GNV 11n5 SNINuSH
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Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Baker. PLATE 39.
THE FLAMINGOES.
VARIOUS DUCKS.
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NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—BAKER. 477
ward at the approach of cold weather. In the park they remain out
until it is so cold that their pond freezes over, when they are picked
up bodily and taken in a cart to the protection of a house.
The whooping crane seen in plate 40 became very much attached
to this group of pelicans, and also very tame. When they were trans-
ferred to their winter quarters, he followed on behind the cart of his
own accord, fearing that he might be left behind. There must have
been something unusually attractive about this crane, for when, one
season, he was placed in the flying cage, a young demoiselle crane, of
a totally different species, became his inseparable companion.
THE FLAMINGOES.
Another very interesting water bird is the flamingo, formerly breed-
ing on the Florida coast, but now rarely seen there. Two large colo-
nies have been found on one of the Bahama islands. Other species
exist in India and in southern Europe and northern Africa. It is
preeminently a wading bird, as, with its long legs, it stands 4 or more
feet high. It has a most peculiar beak, that looks asif it had been
bent downward about the middle, and both jaws are fringed with
little platelets, by means of which the bird strains out the water after
it has scooped up from the muddy bottom the mollusks and water
plants that constitute its food. The body plumage is a beautiful
rosy pink, which, unfortunately, has a tendency to fade in captive
birds.
It is only quite recently that the nesting habits of the flamingo have
been known. It was formerly supposed that, finding a difficulty in
accommodating its long legs, the bird built up a hillock of convenient
height and then sat upon it astride while incubating. This bizarre
idea is now believed to be without foundation.
THE SWANS.
From the most ancient times the swan has been famed for its
beauty and grace. It does not appear to advantage on land, as its
widely set legs, meant for propulsion in water, give it a waddling gait;
but when floating at ease, it is one of the most elegant of birds. The
gpecies shown in plate 41 is the European white or mute swan, so
called because it has no singing note. It will, however, hiss like a
goose when attacked. The poets from Homer down have ascribed
to it the faculty of singing just before death, and Plato makes Socrates
say, referring to his own approaching doom, that they sing not from
sadness, but rather from joy, because they feel themselves to be
immortal and about to return to Apollo. It is indeed probable that
the bird in a wild state has a trumpet-like call. These birds have
regularly nested in the park each year, the female incubating the eggs
while the male mounts guard near by to drive away intruders. Even
478 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
this is not always effective, as the small boy of the period, one of the
most predacious of animals, sometimes succeeds in evading the vigi-
lance of the watchmen and robbing the nest. The little nestlings,
or cygnets, are covered with a soft gray down, which lasts for some
months.
The ancients evidently supposed that swans must always be white,
for the Latin poet Juvenal was the author of the well-known satirical
comparison, “‘as rare as a black swan’’; but they knew nothing of
Australia, which has given us a fine jet-black species, which may be
seen in the park. We also have two beautiful so species—the
whistling and the trumpeter swans.
THE DUCKS.
In the valley below the flying cage a little pool has been formed
and an inclosure in which a number of varieties of ducks may be
seen. One of the most striking of these is the mandarin, whose
particolored and checkered plumage has been compared to a crazy
quilt. A number of these were presented to the park by the zoological
garden at Tokyo, Japan, through the good offices of Dr. Alexander
Graham Bell. Another very beautiful duck is the American wood-
duck, not so bizarre in appearance as the mandarin, but possessing
almost as great a variety of plumage. The redhead, the pintail, the
shoveler, and the mallard may also be seen.
ON THE HABITS AND BEHAVIOR OF THE HERRING GULL,
LARUS ARGENTATUS PONT:!
By R. M. Srrone.
[With 10 plates. ]
I. INTRODUCTION.
It is the purpose of this paper to describe the results of work
which was begun with the idea of studying bird habits intensively.
I learned through Mr. Henry L. Ward, curator of the Milwaukee
Fia 1.—Map showing locations of gull colonies in region of Green Bay, Wisconsin.
Public Museum, that colonies of herring gulls were to be found breed-
ing on islands off both coasts of the peninsula which forms Door
County, Wis., i. e., in Green Bay and in Lake Michigan.
1 This paper isreprinted in abridged form from the original which appeared in The Auk, vol. 31, Nos. 1-2,
January-April, 1914, pp. 22-49, 178-199; pls. 3-10, 19,20. For a more detailed account, especially from the
standpoint of the literature, the reader is referred to the original paper. oa
480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
These birds seemed to be especially favorable for my purpose
because (1) they nest in rather compact colonies on the ground and
in more or less open places so that many individuals can be seen
and studied to advantage, and (2) their considerable size and largely
white plumage make them among the best bird subjects for the
indispensable photographic records. Furthermore, I had already
had some experience with these birds, especially during July, 1907,
when I visited a breeding colony at Gull Island in Lake Superior,
near Marquette, Mich.
On June 20, 1911, I made a preliminary exploring trip in Green
Bay, starting from my headquarters at Ephraim, Wis. With the
aid of a motor boat, the Strawberry Islands, the Sister Islands, and
Hat Island were all visited during the day, and colonies of herring
gulls were found breeding on all of these islands except at the largest
of the Strawberry Islands (pl. 1, fig. 1), which supported a colony of
ereat blue herons.
As it did not seem practicable to attempt to live on any of the
islands, I thought it best to stay at Ephraim and depend upon small
boats for transportation whenever a visit was made to the gull
colonies. Unfortunately, boats were not always available and the
weather was not favorable on many days. Work was carried on at
the Sister Islands on June 26, July 12, and July 15; at Middle Straw-
berry Island on June 30 and July 29; and at Gravel Island July 18
and 19. Another period was spent at Middle Strawberry Island
beginning at 7.20 p. m., July 7, and ending the next day at 7.05 a. m.
So much time was taken by preliminary studies that my experimental
work at the breeding places was barely begun when the season ended.
Other experiments were begun with some juvenal gulls which
were taken from their nesting places to Ephraim and were kept in a
pen (pl. 2, fig. 2). These birds were removed to Chicago in August,
where experiments with them were continued for three years. Ref-
erences will be made in this paper to observations made on these
captive gulls. The work in Chicago was made possible through the
kindness of Profs. Angell and Carr, of the department of psychology,
in giving me outdoor cage accommodations.
The only species of gull discussed in this paper except where
otherwise stated is the herring gull.
Like other observers, I found a tent or blind indispensable for the
study of the birds at their breeding places. On approaching a
breeding colony of gulls a wild panic begins, which does not cease so
long as the intruder appears to be in the immediate vicinity. If a
companion enters the tent with the observer and then goes out again,
leaving the place, many birds, at least, fail to notice that only one
of the two men has left, and they very soon resume their usual
activities.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Strong. PLATE 1.
1. THE STRAWBERRY ISLANDS FROM THE EAST. ISLAND ON LEFT OCCUPIED BY
GREAT BLUE HERONS; OTHER TWO ISLANDS BY HERRING GULLS.
2. GRAVEL ISLAND.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Strong. PLATE 2.
1. BLIND ERECTED ON MIDDLE STRAWBERRY ISLAND.
2. JUVENAL GULL SWALLOWING FISH ABOUT 10 INCHES LONG.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 481
I had a tent made similar to that described by Sawyer,! with some
modifications (pl. 2, fig. i). For a description of this tent and for
an account of methods and material employed, the reader is referred
to the original paper in the Auk.
II. SOCIAL OR COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIPS.
Both juvenal and adult herring gulls seem to prefer the com-
pany of other individuals of their age. My captive gulls and those
I have seen wild are usually to be found in close groups, especially
when at rest. However, they are often cruel to each other and like
other animals will fight fiercely for food.
A large amount of fighting occurs at a breeding place where no
struggle for food is involved. Some of the encounters are undoubt-
edly the results of intrusions upon a nesting precinct, as is Herrick’s
opinion, and I saw adults resenting attacks upon the young by |
other adults. Many of the fights, however, seem to indicate simple
belligerency. A gull will approach another with head somewhat
lowered and bill pomted straight forward or slightly upward. They
will then grasp each other by the mandibles and attempt to drag
each other about. Blows may be given with the wings and even
with the feet. In plate 3, figure 1, such an encounter appears. The
gull on the right is shown just at the moment when its wings have
struck its opponent. The heads of the combatants appear in an
oblique position as a consequence of the locking of mandibles. Fre-
quently other gulls will join in the fracas and quite a lively but
usually short and harmless tussle follows. I saw one fight broken
up by another bird interfering much as a rooster may interfere in an
encounter between two other cocks. Often a challenge to fight
is not accepted, and the bird approached simply retreats.
Various writers have mentioned the killing of young gulls by
adults. According to Ward? this may be a very common occur-
rence.
Maltreatment of the young has also been described by Dutcher
and Baily * and it has been discussed by Herrick.‘ I found that
similar treatment was administered to a juvenal gull when it was
placed in a cage with two juvenals 2 to 3 weeks older. One gull,
the youngest of the three in the cage, was particularly persistent
and savage in its attacks, so that I had to remove the newcomer
until its head had healed and it was better able to defend itself.
1 Sawyer, E. J., A special bird blind: Bird Lore, vol. 11, No. 2, March-April, 1909, pp. 71-73. One page
of text figures.
2 Ward, H. L., Why do herring gulls kill their young. Science, n. s., vol. 24, 1906, No. 619, pp. 593-594.
3 Dutcher, W., and Baily, W. L., A contribution to the life history of the herring gull (Larus argentatus)
in the United States: Auk. vol. 20, 1903, No. 4, pp. 417-31, pls. 21, 22.
4 Herrick, F. H., 1909, Organization of the gull community: Proc. Seventh International Zool. Congress,
Boston, 1907.
73176°—sm 1914——31
482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
On erecting my tent at one of the Sister Islands, July 12, 1911,
I took a downy juvenal not more than a week old inside with me.
This I released at 12.50 p. m., and it made its way out at once. Its
appearance outside caused great excitement. The little gull started
west in the direction of the place where I had captured it. On
its way it went near a couple of gulls which appeared to belong
to a nest [ had under observation. These birds started the “‘chal-
lenge cry,’ and others joined in the same performance. The small
gull approached the two adults just mentioned and was pecked on
the head after a minute or so. It was next given a number of sharp
blows which apparently did no serious damage. The little bird
turned at bay and when pecked most severely ran screaming with
mouth open toward its persecutors. This was followed by alter-
nate running and fighting, a procedure which was successful in
preventing further serious attacks. The bird eventually found
shelter under driftwood about 50 feet away from my tent.
Herrick explains these attacks upon the young as follows:
This is due to the ferocity of the guarding and fighting instincts in the old birds,
and to a lack of attunement in the instincts of the young, in consequence of which
a chick will occasionally stray from its own preserve and trespass on the domain of a
neighbor.
Undoubtedly this covers many and perhaps most cases, but it
seems doubtful whether the deaths among the juvenals at Gravel
Island, described by Ward, can be explained as easily. There both
Ward! and I found a promiscuous herding of juvenals without
regard to precincts, at least when the birds were of good size. Fur-
thermore, it does not account for attacks upon juvenals by other
juvenals.
Other birds may nest in apparent safety upon an island even
fairly densely populated with gulls. Spotted sandpipers, bronzed
grackles, song sparrows, and other land birds were more or less com-
mon nesters on the Strawberry Islands. I found red-breasted mer-
gansers nesting on all of the wooded islands occupied by gulls. So
far as I could see, no attention was paid to these birds by the gulls.
On the other hand, a large bird like the great blue heron seemed to
be viewed with disfavor, and I did not find both occupying the
same island. On one occasion, I saw a great blue heron pursued
and much harassed by gulls.
I have always found herring gulls nesting on islands not inhabited
by man, but exceptions occur in the literature. <A very large colony
of gulls studied by Dutcher and Baily was found nesting on Great
Duck Island which has a lighthouse.
Though the herring gull seems to prefer remote places for nesting,
it is a matter of common observation that at other times, if unmo-
1 Ward, H. L., Notes of the herring gull and the Caspian tern: Bull. Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. 4,
No. 4, 1906, pp. 113-134, 2 plates.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 483
lested, it does not hesitate to frequent large cities where bodies of
water with food occur.
III. FEEDING HABITS.
The herring gull is generally recognized to be almost omnivorous
in its feeding habits. It is especially known and prized as a scaven-
ger. I have found that fishermen appreciate its habit of ridding
the water of dead fish. It has been my observation that fish, espe-
cially when fresh, are preferred by gulls; but when hungry they
take almost anything in the animal-food line and many forms of
plant matter. Dutcher! mentions insects including large numbers
of ants as eaten by herring gulls. Ejifrig? noted the occurrence of
shells, seeds, berries, and a crab in the stomachs of three adult her-
ring gulls taken May 29, June 10, and June 15. According to
Knight,’ sea urchins and starfishes are eaten. Various mollusks and
a crustacean are mentioned by Norton,‘ and Audubon® states that
eggs are sucked. ‘There is even a record of the capture by a gull of
a bat ° which had been flying about over a river where gulls occurred.
Various mollusks are mentioned by Mackay as gull food.
My captive gulls when very hungry would eat bread, but they
preferred animal food. Their main article of food was liver with occa-
sional feedings of fish scraps. When live fish are caught, the herring
gull may immerse its head and a large portion of its body, but I
have never seen complete immersion. The bird may fly down to the
water for food, but it does not dive vertically as terns do. Other
writers have made similar observations.
Pieces of food not too large are swallowed entire, and the mass
may be relatively great (pl. 2, fig. 2). My captive gulls swallowed
fish as long as 10 inches on a number of occasions. Under ordinary
conditions in cool weather, one of my birds would eat 4 to 6 ounces
of beef liver at a meal, when fed once a day, and it would be hungry
the next day.
IV. BREEDING HABITS.
The nests, as has been stated by others, are usually fairly bulky
and of varying materials. Apparently grass, fine weed stems, and
feathers are preferred as these occurred: in the majority of nests.
Sometimes, however, nests were made largely of strips of bark or of
coarse weed stems. Other beach débris may be used, especially the
finer or softer materials. Bits of bark and other coarse materials
appear in the nest which is shown in plate 4.
1 Dutcher, W., Report of the committee on bird protection. Auk, vol. 21, 1904, No. 1, pp. 164-165.
2 Hifrig, C. W.S., Notes on northern birds. Auk, vol. 23, 1906, No. 3, pp. 313-318.
3 Knight, O. W., The birds of Maine. 1908, p. 49.
4 Norton, A. H., The food of several Maine water birds. Auk, 1909, vol. 24, No. 4, p. 438.
5 Audubon, J. J., Ornithological biography. Edinburgh, 1835, vol. 3, p. 591.
§ Rodger, A. M., Herring gull (Larus argentatus) capturing abat. Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1903, p. 51.
484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
As has already been stated in the introduction to this paper, a
great variety of locations may be chosen for the nest. In general,
it seems that uninhabited islands are preferred, where the nest may
be anywhere on the beach or back some rods from the open beach
in bushes, among tall herbaceous plants, or in grass, or upon rock
ledges. Often the shelter of a drift log is chosen (pl. 5, fig. 2).
Nests may be placed in trees under certain circumstances, a point
that will be discussed elsewhere in this paper.
As the males can not be distinguished from females by their plum-
age, ordinarily, it is difficult to get data concerning the relative parts
taken by the two parents in brooding. Dutcher and Baily * obtained
evidence that both parents take part in brooding the eggs. Some
observations were made by Dutcher and Baily? on the turning of
the eggs by the brooding bird. They found that the eggs are some-
times turned slightly with the bill when the bird goes on the nest,
though in one case where each egg had been marked with an arrow,
only one was found turned after the bird went on the nest. I also
obtained some evidence of the eggs being turned by the bird. In
some cases, as the parent nestled down over the eggs it appeared
probable that at least a slight turning of eggs would occur. There
was usually more or less shifting of the feet, body, and plumage, as
the bird adjusted itself to the eggs and nest. This performance has
been described in detail by Dutcher and Baily.?
On very warm days, especially at midday, I found that the nest is
left frequently for a few moments. At such times the bird goes to
the water’s edge and takes at least a partial bath. There is much
splashing of water with the bill and sometimes with the whole head.
There is some drinking of water also at this time.
So far as I could determine there is more or less brooding of the
young for several hours after hatching or until they are able to run
about. Often on a hot day one of the parents would simply stand
over the newly hatched nestlings shading them from the sun (pl. 8,
fig. 1). The other parent was usually near by, and it would change
places with its mate at intervals.
I doubt whether there is much covering of the young for more than
a day or two after hatching, in pleasant weather. No observations
were made in bad weather of the treatment of very young birds. I
obtained considerable evidence that both birds participate in feeding
the young. According to Herrick,*? the young gull receives its first
food about one hour after hatching, at the nest.
The larger juvenals tease vigorously for food when hungry, and the
whole feeding performance for a young gull more than a few days old
has been well described by Ward.*
1 Op. cit., p. 426. 3 Internat. Zool. Congress Report, op. cit.
2Op. cit., p. 427. 4 Op. cit., p. 121.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Strong. PLATE 3.
2. PARENT FEEDING NEWLY HATCHED YOUNG.
“SIVINSLVIA LSSN B3SYVOO SHL SLON “ONING WOYS 1334 9 LNOSV LSAN LV SNNOA GSHOLVH AIMSN HLIM 11N5 SNIYYSH
Ar? BEAKa| "Bu0lS—'p1 6] ‘Wodey ueluosy}IWs
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 485
The newly hatched young, according to my observations are more
passive, and I obtamed some evidence that the parent may initiate
the feeding performance. Similar conditions occur in the feeding.
of young pigeons. On June 30, 1911, while taking observations on
one of the Strawberry Islands, a pair of gulls whose nest was about
5 feet from the base of my tent fed two young not many hours old
and still too weak to walk well, at irregular intervals within 8 to 10
feet from my point of observation. The little gulls had been coaxed
away from their nest for a few feet by their a eae a distance which
they covered with difficulty.
The following notes concerning the observations just mentioned
have been taken from my notebook. The bird shading its young
was relieved at 12.40 p. m., and went down to the water for a drink.
The other parent at once proceeded to feed the young gulls while
the first bird stood a few feet away at the edge of the water. The
adult bird did not insert its bill in the mouth of its offspring, but the
latter took food from the ground just below the bill of the parent.
Occasionally the young reached up toward the bill of the parent,
which was held low, often almost at the ground (pl. 3, fig. 2). A
quantity of food in a fine and soft condition was disgorged in more or
lessofaheap. After the young had eaten, the parent swallowed what
was left. These very young birds ate slowly, apparently without
much appetite. The whole performance passed off quietly and with
no rapid movements.
At 1.45 p.m. I saw the same young birds being fed again. A little
later I noticed another feeding of some gulls a few days older. Small
fishes appeared in the food disgorged by the parent.
In spite of the fact that the gulls seemed to settle down to normal
activities durmg my tent work, I saw surprisingly few cases, rela-
tively, of feeding the young. These were usually a little too far away
to permit close observation, and it was seldom possible to determine
by observation from my tent what the nature of the food was.
The stomachs of six young herring gulls ‘‘of different sizes” as re-
ported by Norton,* ‘‘contained almost no fish, but all contained ants
in varying quantities, only one being full.”
Where many young gulls occur in a relatively small area, it is diffi-
cult to determine whether the adult birds always feed only their own
young. The small amount of evidence I obtained suggested that the
parents, usually, feed their own offspring. But it is of course possi-
ble that birds usually feeding their own offspring may occasionally
give food to other juvenals.
At Gravel Island there was apparently considerable promiscuous
feeding according to the observations of both Ward and myself.
1 Dutcher, W., Report of committee on bird protection. Auk, 1904, vol. 21, No. 1, p. 164.
486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
I observed adult gulls alighting near close flocks of young birds
on a number of occasions, at Gravel Island. Each time the juvenals
surrounded the adult like a pack of wolves, and it was often com-
pletely hidden from my view by the struggling young gulls. In
plate 7 such a scene appears. Such a performance was usually ac-
companied by considerable noise made by the hungry birds. Other
adult birds sometimes added to the clamor by screaming. The gen-
eral excitement is shown in the illustration just mentioned.
The period during which the young are fed is evidently a long one. ©
I saw young birds which must have been at least 6 weeks old, and
probably considerably older than this, still being fed by adult birds.
It is of course possible that young birds may be obtaining some of
their food themselves before all food giving by their parents or by
other adults ceases.
On a few occasions, I saw adults apparently resenting the approach
of other adults to their young, but data of this sort are very meager.
These observations and those quoted in this paper from Herrick and
Hornaday, however, make it probable that the young are guarded for
at least a considerable time after hatching by their parents.
I have been unable to obtain data concerning the relationships of
the parents to the young when the latter are learning to take care
of and feed themselves. Adults and young roam about together in
flocks for weeks or months after the young are able to fly.
V. GENERAL BEHAVIOR OF THE JUVENAL GULLS.
The behavior of the young just after hatching has been described
by Ward.’
According to Dutcher and Baily,? ‘‘The instinct to hide seems to
be present within an hour or two after hatching, or so soon as
the young bird is strong enough to walk.”’ My own experience is
that the instinct to hide is not always developed thus early. On
July 6, 1907, at Gull Island near Marquette, Mich., in Lake Superior,
I found a nest containing one single nestling which stood up pertly
in its nest and did not give the usual mdications of fear (pl. 6, fig. 1).
The plumage of this bird was dry, and it was able to stand. On the
same day, another nest was observed with two young and an egg in
which the occupant was breaking its way out (pl. 6, fig. 2). In
this case the two nestlings showed very great fear and left their nest
which was located on a small ledge of rock, squealing pitifully. They
showed other signs of distress and began to pant. Mrs. Strong held
an umbrella over the birds to protect them from the intense sunlight
that prevailed. Nevertheless, before I had gone through the process
of mounting a camera on a tripod and making one exposure, one of
1 Op. cit., p. 120. 4 Op. cit., p. 422.
PLATE 5.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Strong.
1. CHARACTERISTIC GULL NEST ON ROCK LEDGE AT GULL ISLAND, NEAR
MARQUETTE, MICH., IN LAKE SUPERIOR.
2. HERRING GULL ON NEST.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Strong. PLATE 6.
1. NEWLY HATCHED YOUNG SHOWING NO FEAR.
2. NEWLY HATCHED YOUNG IN A PANIC OF FEAR,
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 487
these birds died. Presumably the combination of fear and heat was
responsible. The dying bird appears in the picture.
I agree with Dutcher and Baily that young gulls show the hiding
instinct as soon as they are able to run about freely. During the
pandemonium that prevails among the adults when one approaches
the nesting place of a colony of gulls, the larger young not yet able
to fly may be observed with the aid of strong glasses, running about
to find places for hiding. On reaching shore all young birds able to
leave their nests will be found hiding except those that have taken
to the water. Those able to fly are pretty sure to jom the adults in
flying overhead, or they often alight on the water at some distance.
This hiding instinct has been described in some detail by Dutcher
and Baily.
At Gull Isiand in Lake Superior, I frequently saw half-grown gulls
running headlong over the rocky surface of the island after being
dislodged from their hiding places. They would often fall 10 or
more feet over ledges to rocks below without any apparent injury
or significant delay in their rush for the water.
According to my observations the young gull, when attempting
to hide, especially if still in the down plumage, will remain perfectly
quiet until it 1s handled or removed from its hiding place. After
being disturbed in this way, however, the hiding instinct seems to be
replaced by an impulse to flee and the bird, if not checked, will run
in headlong fashion until it reaches water or gains a position where
it is really out of sight, a number of rods away. Usually when such a
bird reaches the water it will swim some distance from shore. I
have observed the same behavior in the young of the Wilson’s and
roseate terns, Sterna hirundo, and 8S. dougalli. The laughing gull
(Larus atricilla) apparently shows the same behavior, but I have
not studied the habits of this species enough to make a complete
comparison. Probably this hiding behavior is common to most
species of the whole order, under similar circumstances.
In the case of the gulls hatched in tree nests, the behavior must of
course be different. It is hardly conceivable that the young in tree
nests as high as 50 feet above the ground, as some have been
stated to be, can leave their nests before the flight feathers are well
developed. Concerning this point we find Dutcher and Baily?
saying:
The young in tree nests also seem to have sense enough not to walk off the edge
of the nest, for in 1902 Mr. Baily found young at least 10 days old in a tree nest.
As viewed from my tent, the young gulls appeared to spend most
of their time standing idly about waiting for food. The recently-
hatched birds were observed enjoying the shade of one of their
1 Op. cit., p. 422.
488 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
parents when the sun was intense as has already been stated in this
paper. They also used driftwood or anything else offering shade.
The more developed juvenals, especially on warm days, did a large
amount of bathing at the water’s edge. Still older young would
swim farther out from shore in bathmg. When the definitive
feathers are developing and begin to burst from their sheaths, much
time is spent in dressing the plumage with the beak. Whether the
opening of the feathers is facilitated by the feather manipulation
could not be determined.
VI. DEVELOPMENT AFTER HATCHING.
A detailed account of the hatching and early development of the
young after hatching has been given by Dutcher and Baily.
Growth is rapid, but the young are in the down plumage for a
number of days after hatching. It is not in the province of this
paper to give a detailed description of the plumage, and the reader
is referred to the account given by Dutcher and Baily? (p. 422 with
pl. 22). The sequence of plumages has been described by Dwight.’
The dark plumage of the juvenal gull is replaced after the first winter
by a lighter and less mottled plumage with quite a bit of individual
variation in the rate of change, judging from my captive gulls. At
two years, my gulls had lost most of their juvenal coloration. Strange
to say a wild gull obtained in the winter of what must have been its
second year, was somewhat behind the others when they were 2 years
old. None of my gulls had acquired at two years as advanced a plum-
age as that described by Dwight for herring gulls of that age. Sharpe‘
describes progressive changes extending through the first five au-
tumns, and he says that the “quills” have more dark coloring at the
fifth autumn than appears in older birds. The following quotation
from Townsend’s account of the herring gull agrees well with my
observations:
It is superficially evident from the large number of dark and mottled birds at all
seasons, that it takes several years to attain the beautiful adult plumage. What
appears to be a dark tip to the tail, so prominent in young birds of a certain age, is
often retained after increasing whiteness has set the stamp of years, but it is entirely
absent in the snowy white tail of the fully matured bird. Birds with pure white
tails with the exception of a slight central sprinkling of dusky brown and with a few
faint gray streaks in the upper breast, are not uncommon.
My gulls acquired a yellow iris in the second winter, but in their
third fall they still had the bill colored as in the first year. Accord-
ing to Astley,® the bill does not become yellow until the fourth year,
1 Op. cit., pp. 421-422.
2 Op. cit., p. 422.
’ Dwight, J., The sequence of plumages of the Laridae (gulls and terns): Auk, 1901, vol. 18, No. 1, pp.
ee R. B., Catalogue of birds in the British Museum. Vol. 25, 1896, p. 264.
5 Astley, H. D., My birds in freedom and captivity, p. 160. E. P. Dutton & Co., London, New York,
J.M. Dent & Co.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 489
although a nearly complete adult plumage appears at the third
autumnal molt. Sharpe’s account indicates that the adult colora-
tion of the beak is not acquired until after the fourth autumn.
[Norr.—The following observations were made too late to appear
in the paper published in the Auk:
The bills of the gulls obtained at Ephraim changed to the adult
yellow toward the end of their third year. By April 12, 1914, the
bills of both birds had acquired a pale-yellow color. By May 3 the
yellow had become as rich as that of the adult, but the black subter-
minal spot still remained. On May 13 I noted that the adult orange
color of this spot was to be seen distinctly at the proximal margin.
Both birds had lost most of their mottled plumage during the pre-
ceding two months and at a distance appeared almost entirely adult
in color, though the white portion of the plumage still contained many
dark gray flecks. During this period, the, birds became more adult
in behavior, and during the latter part of it the “challenge”’ ery de-
veloped rapidly. The notes of the alarm cry also appeared for the
first time. Another gull of the same age which had been in bad
health for several months made no progress in color or behavior.
Further observations were ended a few days later when a marauder
broke into the gull yard and released my birds. |
Very meager data are available as to when breeding begins. A
case is described by Dutcher‘ of a gull which apparently began
breeding when two years old.
It is my judgment that herring gulls rarely breed this early. I
saw a few with a very small amount of the immature coloration in
their plumage, which were certainly at least 2 years old. I obtained
no evidence that these birds were breeding except the fact of their
occurrence with breeding birds at a breeding place. All of the birds
that I actually saw with eggs or young were adult, as far as I could
see.
I have seen relatively few immature gulls during the spring and
summer after their first winter, but this is probably due to their
scattered distribution. Many individuals linger some distance
south of the breeding range of the species. Thus Townsend speaks
of immature gulls being abundant at all seasons off the coast of
Essex County, Mass., though herring gulls do not now breed south
of Maine on the New England coast. Immature gulls are also seen
over the south portion of Lake Michigan during the breeding season,
though the nearest breeding place is many miles to the north.
Concerning the longevity of the herring gull, I have found two rec-
ords which indicate that the period of life may be considerable,
though giving no idea how long it may be. Thus Morris? mentions
1Dutcher, W., Results of special protection to gulls and terns obtained through the Thayer fund: Auk,
vol. 18, 1901, No. 1, p. 98.
4 Morris, F. O., A history of British birds. Vol. 6, p. 159,
490 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
a herring gull which was being fed daily and was very tame. This
bird is stated to have escaped 30 years before ‘“‘from a garden where
he had been a prisoner.”? Another bird known as ‘‘Gull Dick’’ is
well known to ornithologists through the reports made by Mackay
to The Auk. He says that this bird* had “‘the habit of frequenting
and returning year after year to the waters adjacent to Brenton’s
Reef, Narragansett Bay, and was known in consequence to the crew
of the lightship anchored in that locality.
In 1891 the bird arrived October 12, which makes the twentieth
winter it is known to have passed in this locality. This bird was
identified each year partly by its tameness, and ‘‘also by certain
marks on its wings, also by its cry.’”’ It was reported by Mackay
during the following four years, after which it failed to appear.
VII. VOICE.
1. Introductory.—During the summer of 1911, especially, I gave a
large amount of attention to the sounds made by the gulls with the
hope of making interpretations concerning their significance. At-
tempts to describe the various vocal performances were made, when-
ever possible, with difficulties which will be appreciated by all observ-
ers who have tried to make descriptions of animal sounds.
Though I tried to notice anything that might have any bearing on
the significance of the sounds made by the gulls, I had the following
points especially im view: (1) The circumstances under which each
sound was made; (2) any possible evidence of associated emotions;
(3) the attention given by other individuals and especially by the
young to these sounds. As all of the cries occupy only a few seconds
at the most, it is necessary when in the field to be ready to give instant
attention the moment the sound is heard. Here again we see the
advantage of the presence of a considerable number of individuals at
such close range as they can be at a breeding place. Some notes are
not made frequently by a single individual, and the chances of hearmg
them are multiplied many times when the observer is in the midst of
a fairly large breeding colony. On-the other hand, of course, a large
number of gulls in a limited area make a bedlam of noise which is
often confusing. With careful concentration on single sounds or
performances it is possible to reduce the confusion of sound to a
working basis.
2. The alarm cry.—In my experience, whenever wild gulls are dis-
turbed at their breeding places, at least by man, they become very
noisy. Though other sounds are made, the characteristic and usual
cry is what has been called by Herrick,? Ward, and others the “‘alarm
1 Mackay, G. H., Habits of the American herring gull (Larus argentatus smithsonianus): Auk, vol. 9,
1892, No. 3, pp. 221-228.
2 Herrick, F. H., The home life of wild birds.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 491
ery.” This consists of sharp and short notes in doublets or triplets
which are produced with great variations in quality and in pitch. I
was unable to determine whether these variations are produced by
different individuals. They are striking and always to be noted when
a colony of breeding gulls is disturbed.
After trying various syllables to represent these sounds, I finally
decided that the following is as satisfactory as anything I could
devise, kek’-kek-kek, with an accent on the first syllable, the “e”
being sounded as in deck. Often only two instead of three of these
sounds are made in a group. These triplets or doublets are uttered
in rapid succession as the bird flies about in the general panic.
Mackay ' described the alarm cry with the syllables ‘‘cack, cack,
cack,” and Herrick? used the following: ‘‘waw-wak-wak! wak-wak!
wak-wak!”” Ward used the same symbols in his paper. Another ren-
dering was made by Knight* as follows: ‘‘ha-ha-ha” or another
alarm cry as follows: ‘‘qu-e-e-e-a-h que-e-e-e-a-h.”
The alarm cry may be high and shrill or rather low with ‘‘chest
tone’ quality. Intermediate variations also occur. As the dis-
turbance in a gull colony subsides, these notes are uttered less and
less frequently, and the lower notes predominate more as the excite-
ment decreases. The cries also become less loud and incisive, until,
as Herrick * has expressed it, ‘‘Finally ceasing like a clock running
down, the mandibles continue to work with no sound for a moment
Gro.
I have often heard these sounds made when the birds were appar-
ently simply solicitous or slightly anxious concerning their eggs or
young. ‘Thus hours after the gulls had settled down to apparently
normal activities about my tent, single birds would occasionally
fly overhead making the alarm cry. At such times the cry is charac-
teristically low and not at all shrill.
3. The ‘‘challenge.’’—This was for me the most interesting vocal
performance, though it is less often mentioned by other writers.
Herrick describes a ‘‘scream of defiance’’ and has a photo showing
a bird making this noise. Ward is the only writer to my knowledge
who has described this performance in any detail, and his interesting
account follows.
Frequently, the general clamor would be dominated by a peculiar cry which I put
into words as “yeh, yeh, yeh,’’ rapidly repeated and increasing in vehemence to the
utmost capabilities of the gull, when it quickly ceased. Usually, a few seconds
after one began another joined, until often there were a half dozen birds screeching
at once, and occasionally, this number would be increased toa scoreormore * * *
The bird stretches its neck downward, opens its bill widely and begins the call, then
with a jerky sort of start it stiffly raises its outstretched neck, usually to an angle of
about 45°. Generally, almost invariably, the head, neck, body and tail are all held
10p. cit., p. 226. 4 Op. cit., p. 55.
2Op. cit., p. 55. 5 Op. cit., p. 130.
3 Knight, O. W., op. cit., p. 48.
A492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
in practically the same line and in a remarkably stiff manner. The whole perform-
ance is so machinelike in its rigidity and precision of motion that the gulls appear
like a lot of automatons.
I have adopted Ward’s term ‘‘the challenge”’ for this ery.
I made a number of records of the performance, and I add a few
details to Ward’s description. Just before the head is raised a single
note which may be of appreciable duration is often made. This
I tried to represent in my notes by the syllable ‘‘keeé.”’ It is fol-
lowed by a series of high and shrill notes as described by Ward.
I finally settled on the following representation in my notes:
‘‘keee, kee’ ek, kee’ ek, kee’ ek, ke, ek, kee’ ek, ete.’’ The e in kee
is sounded as insee and this syllable is accented. The first note is
‘longer. Although this noise seemed to take more time, I found on
using a watch that it occupies only a few seconds. The performance,
may, however, be repeated more than once during the course of a
few minutes, when other gulls are ‘‘challenging.”’
In my experience the ‘‘challenge’”’ call is usually made by a bird
on or about the ground, but I haye often heard swimming or flying
birds make this noise. All of these situations are shown in plate 7,
where a number of birds are seen in the performance. The three
birds on land at the left and in front give the best idea of the usual
position.
Good pictures of gulls indulging in the ‘‘challenge’’ appear in both
Herrick’s and Ward’s accounts of the habits of these birds.
Concerning the significance of the ‘‘challenge’’ performance, hitle
more than opinions can be offered. It may sometimes be made
when other individuals are frantically indulging in the ‘‘alarm cry.”
I have noted individuals going through this performance while flying
about in the general panic which took place when I was landing at
an island where gulls were breeding. This behavior often seems
to indicate a belligerent attitude and it then well deserves the term
‘‘defiance cry’’ or ‘‘challenge.’’ My observations lead me to agree
with Ward in saying:
Anything that startles the gull without producing a panic, or the proximity of
fighting birds, or even at times the approach of other gulls seems to be sufficient
cause for its production.
The first efforts by my captive gulls at ‘‘challenging’’ were made
in their first autumn. The same positions were taken, and the sounds
made were as similar as the first crowing efforts of a young rooster
are to the crow of a mature cock. Each time the performance, which
occurred only a few times in my presence until the spring of 1914, ©
was begun without warning, and it was over in a few seconds. On
each occasion a contest over food was in progress, although the bird
making the noise was not always engaged in the struggle. Contests
over food are exceedingly frequent, however, and the usual sounds
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Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Strong. PLATE 8.
1. PARENT GULL SHADING NEWLY HATCHED YOUNG.
2. GULL AT RIGHT MAKING THE ‘‘'MeEWw” Cry, VERY YOUNG OFFSPRING WALKING JUST
BEHIND. OTHER GULLS SEEN IN CHARACTERISTIC LOAFING POSITIONS.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 493
made, with these rare exceptions, consisted of a shrill squealing
chatter.
Adult birds in late summer after the breeding season is over make
a cry which is at least similar if not identical with the ‘‘challenge,”
but I have not observed it at close range.
4. Other cries —Though the ‘‘alarm”’ and ‘‘challenge’’ cries make
up a large portion of the general clamor at a breeding place, especially
when the birds are disturbed or excited, other sounds are also made.
Of these a cry remarkably like the mewing of a cat is one of the most
frequent. The birds I saw ‘‘mewing”’ held the neck arched and the
head pointed downward. This performance often occurred when
adults approached young birds apparently their offspring. It also
seemed at times to be made in calling the young. The adult gull at
the extreme right in plate 8, figure 2, is seen ‘‘mewing.”’ This bird
was engaged in coaxing its newly hatched young to a place not so
near the tent, and they were too weak to do more than stumble along
over the pebbly beach. The whole procedure was rather deliberate
and more or less interrupted. Now and then the adult would make
the mewing sound, and on one of these occasions I obtained the
photograph just mentioned. Ward?‘ observed another set of con-
ditions under which the mewing cry may occur as follows:
The first day that I was in the tent, at 3p. m., arain squall came up. Dark clouds
obsctred the sun, occasional flashings of lightning were seen, and peals of thunder
sounded from time to time. The wind came in cold sharp gusts. The shrill cries of
the gulls were quickly subdued and a plaintive mewing was the all-prevailing sound.
On a few occasions I heard a shrill and prolonged cry which was
distinguishable from the mew and yet apparently related to it in its
characteristics. This I have represented in my notes by the syllable
‘Kerr’? with the ‘‘e” sounded as in her. It suggested to me a noise
often made by a contented hen in the chicken yard. I was unable
to get any clue to its significance.
A high-pitched kee sound is often made when the bird is flying.
I have heard this given by gulls away from their breeding place. It
is of appreciable duration, and it descends slightly in pitch.
Another performance which I noted only a few times involved a
rapid series of weak notes not unlike the peeps of a newly hatched
gull but with more of a whispering quality. This I represented as
follows: ‘‘peep-peep-peep-peep-peep, etc.” The beak was opened
only slightly and shut with each note. It is possible that this is the
‘run down” alarm cry which Herrick mentions, but its occurrence
was not connected with any apparent alarm nor was it closely pre-
ceded by alarm cries. The bird stood about in the position shown
in plate 8, figure 1, and was very near my tent. The noise would not
have been heard if the gull had been many feet away. Perhaps a
1 Op. cit., p. 129.
494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
fair guess would be to suggest that we had here an incipient alarm
cry which did not involve a stimulus strong enough to produce the
full response.
Young herring gulls give a ery for food which varies with age. The
newly hatched birds utter only weak peeps. As they grow older these
develop into more insistent squealing notes which may be made with
a bowing motion for each. When attacked or in distress, juvenal
gulls often make a sharp and still more incisive squeal in which the
notes are uttered more rapidly and more loudly. I have already
mentioned the attempts at a challenge cry which are made by
juvenals.
VIII. REACTIONS TO STIMULI.
1. Auditory.—I know of no experimental work on the reactions of
gulls to sound stimuli, but I have made numerous observations in
the field and with my captive gulls which show that hearing is rea-
sonably keen in these birds, especially under certain circumstances.
The bird shown in plate 5, figure 2, was easily startled during the
earlier part of my tent studies by the small though sharp noises made
by the shutters of my cameras. During the course of the day this
gull became less and less sensitive to such noises and to other slight
sounds which came from my tent, though one end of the tent was
hardly 5 feet away. The responses finally consisted of little more
than short turns of the head. A pistol shot from a boat fully a quar-
ter mile away from shore caused a wild panic on the island. Little
attention had been given to the boat before the shot was fired and
boats could come nearer without causing a disturbance so long as no
shooting occurred.
On another occasion the sharp noise made by a falling timber on
the beach caused great alarm among gulls which could hardly have
seen the fall. Great excitement was caused during the night of my
stay on one of the Strawberry Islands by the noise produced by a
falling board which was blown down from a position against my
tent. It is improbable that many gulls if any could have seen this
board fall. The resemblance of such noises to that made by the
firing of a gun undoubtedly explains the intensity of the reactions.
Many and perhaps all of the adult gulls had learned the significance
of a gun shot.
My captive gulls when tested by some simple experiments on Sep-
tember 27 and 29, 1913, were not much disturbed by any noises which
I made out of their sight, though they responded to various sharp
sounds or to a sudden shrill whistle by quick turns of the head.
2. Visual reactions.—Like practically almost all birds the her-
ring gull is predominantly visual in its behavior. It also appears to
be unusually alert to visual stimuli. Rapid movements. especially,
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 495
are noticed as is the case with most seeing animals, so far as we
know anything of their reactions to visual stimuli.
Standing outside of my tent, I could distinguish the form of a
man inside through the thin tent cloth, im certain positions with
reference to the sun’s rays. Small portions of the man’s figure
were also visible to me through narrow openings at the corners of
the tent. It does not seem probable to me that the gulls could fail
at least occasionally to get such glimpses for they often came
within a few feet of the tent and it was evidently under constant
scrutiny. Nevertheless, neither the gulls nor any other birds
appeared to notice these evidences of the presence of a man inside.
_ The visual images afforded under such circumstances were of course
of very low light intensity and of vague outline. They were also
very incomplete and often only small portions of a human form
would be even faintly visible. At any rate they seemed to lack the
intensity or completeness necessary for arousing the associations
connected with the appearance of a man in the open.
On the other hand, I obtaimed some interesting evidences of
sensitiveness to very small visual stimuli under other circumstances.
In the course of my tent studies, I found a need for new openings
before the series of apertures which appears in plate 2, figure 1, had
been prepared. A large pocket knife blade was used for the pur-
pose, and the cloth was cut cautiously. On two occasions the knife
blade slipped through the cloth, unexpectedly, exposing a large
portion of its length. ‘These occurrences were the causes of small
panics among a number of the gulls in the vicinity. The appear-
ance of a small portion of my hand through one of the corner openings
caused considerable excitement even when no rapid movements were
involved.
I used my cameras, however, at the openings with considerable free-
dom after the first hour or so of quiet watching inside the tent. The
lens was often pushed partly through an opening without arousing
any significant disturbance. It was a dark object and it was moved
slowly, whereas the shining steel of the knife blade came into view
suddenly.
In spite of the failure of the gulls to be disturbed by possible
glimpses of the man inside the tent, there is abundant evidence that
these birds see unusually well, as compared with most birds, in
weak light. As will be discussed in the section of this paper which
deals with the nocturnal activities of gulls, these birds are often
active at night. My captive gulls if very hungry would eat in con-
siderable darkness when their food was placed in a customary position,
even when it was not easy for me to make out more than the bare
outlines of the pieces of food. Thus on May 3, 1913, I fed my
496 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
gulls at about 8 p.m. The sky was clouded, and there was barely
enough light to follow the movements of the birds from a position
about 15 feet away. The birds, which were thoroughly hungry,
moved about somewhat uncertainly but they fed promptly from the
two dishes in which their food was placed. When these birds were
still partly in the nestling down plumage, on the evening ot July 8,
1911, I made some notes on their movements at night. There
was some light from the moon which was at half phase. I found
the birds swimming or standing at the edge of the water in their
inclosure, and they seemed to move easily in the semidarkness.
During even the darker portion of the night that I spent on
Middle Strawberry Island, I had plenty of auditory evidence that |
both adult and young gulls were more or less active when it was
too dark for me to see any thing of the birds. The moon set about 1
a. m., and there was no light except that furnished by the stars.
Adult birds were evidently flying occasionally, and juvenals were
occasionally heard peeping.
On many occasions, food was brought to my captive gulls in paper
wrappers. Often the package was placed on the ground more or
less completely open. When the paper was flapped by wind, the
gulls showed a good deal of apprehension. At one time they would
not approach the package, although they could see that food was
inside. They became more accustomed to the flapping paper but
did not entirely lose their fear of it. This experiment was attempted
only occasionally.
Even when there was no flapping paper, great distrust was shown
for the package, when the contents were covered by it though not
entirely hidden. Under such circumstances, food was removed
with slow and timid approaches followed by quick retreats. Flap-
ping pieces of paper were for over a year very disturbing to the cap-
tive gulls, but after they had been fed daily for some weeks with food
placed on a sheet of paper, their fear of moving paper decreased
greatly.
3. Reactions to chemical stimuli.—During considerable portions
of the time that I had the captive gulls, I conducted experiments
on their reactions to chemical stimuli. <A preliminary statement *
concerning the results of this worl has already been published, and I
plan to publish another fuller account later. In general, IJ may
say here that I found my captive gulls showing what I interpret
as a dislike for pieces of liver that had been dipped in solutions of
table salt or in weak acids. The following notes are extracted from
my records of the first experiment. On July 11, 1911, I placed a
number of pieces of herring in a strong solution of table salt in a
1 Strong, R. M., 1912, The sense of taste in birds: Science, n. s., vol. 35, No. 911, June 14, p. 940.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 497
pan just before feeding the gulls. Another pan contained similar
pieces of herring without any salt. The birds were very hungry,
not having been fed since the previous evening. All three birds
showed great aversion for the salted fish. Two ate of the salted
food at once and the other jomed them in a moment. The response
was immediate, one bird disgorging what it had swallowed. Another
dropped what it had taken, and the third swallowed only one piece.
All three birds ran to water in less than a minute and drank heartily,
though they had taken very little of the solution. They did not
return to the food during 20 minutes that I waited. Experiments
with other materials were carried on after this until September 6,
1911, when a 10 per cent solution of sodium chloride was employed.
Pieces of liver were placed in the solution. The birds were exceed-
ingly hungry and ate voraciously, paymg no attention to the salt
solution. On September 23 a 20 per cent solution of common table
salt was tried with pieces of liver. The birds were not so hungry at
this time. One went to the dish containing the salt solution and
picked up a piece of liver with the tip of its berk. After a few
minutes of cautious manipulation of the liver it was taken into the
bird’s mouth, only to be hurriedly ejected. The gull at once jumped
into the swimming tank and drank water, washing its beak vigorously.
The other gulls did uot take any food on this occasion while I was
present. Later, similar reactions were obtained with weaker solutions
of table salt and also with weak acids. Food was often rejected,
even when the taste was just perceptible to me under the conditions
of the experiments.
So far I have almost no significant results with bitter and sweet
solutions, although a great many tests have been attempted. This
has been surprising to me, as results were obtained readily with chicks
and ducklings for the same solutions, with food, however, which
would hold more of the solution.
The point of greatest interest to naturalists, perhaps, is the
reaction to salt solutions, as it has long been a question to what
extent sea birds drink sea water or tolerate it in their food. My
gulls were fresh-water birds, of course, as they came from Green
Bay, but field observations on salt-water gulls are in agreement with
"my experimental results, so far as they go.
My own observations indicate that herring gulls, in cold weather,
at least, do not need to drink often. They do not wander far from
land relatively, and they are probably usually within a reasonable
distance from fresh water.
Though fish and other meat that has begun to spoil are eaten to
some extent by very hungry gulls, fresh food is evidently preferred.
My captive gulls never touched spoiled liver, for instance, if not very
73176°—sM 1914-32
498 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
hungry, though fresh liver was taken promptly at such a time. Liver
which was just beginning to spoil, if eaten, was not taken with the
same greediness, and a smaller quantity was swallowed. ‘The first
piece of tainted meat might be taken eagerly and sometimes partly
swallowed, only to be rejected. One or more pieces might be swal-
lowed in haste if the birds were exceedingly hungry, before signs of
disgust appeared. Other pieces were handled-with care on the same
occasion, if touched at all. Bread which had been soaked in water
that had contained such food as fresh raw liver was eaten more
eagerly than when plain water was used to moisten the bread.
It was a common practice of my captive gulls to carry some of
their food to their swimming tank, where they would play with it in
the water. A piece of liver would be held in the beak and moved
about under water with quick jerks of the head or dropped in the
water to be seized before it had sunk far. This performance hap-
pened more frequently when the food had been lying in a chemical
solution or when it had accumulated considerable dirt as a conse-
quence of having been dragged on the ground. Such rinsing of the
food did not occur at every feeding, but was usual. The extent to
which the food was thus treated also depended upon the degree of
hunger. When very hungry, food was bolted in a few seconds
without much playing with it except sometimes with the last piece
taken if hunger had been satisfied by the amount of food placed
before the birds.
4. Other reactions.—It is generally known that birds have a
special development of nerves and endings of general sensation
about the mouth with large trigeminal nerves for the sense organs
involved. It is consequently reasonable to expect that my gulls
when suspiciously manipulating food of uncertain palatableness em-
ploy their general sensation to a large extent. We do not know to
how great an extent general sensation and the taste sense are used
relatively by birds, but such information as is available indicates
that the former plays the larger part. It has been shown by
Botezat! for the birds which he studied that taste endings occur
only in the back part of the mouth cavity and especially at the en-
trance to the gullet. In some birds they were also found at the,
base of the tongue, but they were never numerous.
On the preceding page I describe the behavior of one of my
gulls when it started to eat liver which had been lying in solutions
of table salt for a few moments. The piece of liver was manipulated
in the front part of the mouth at the tip of the beak by the apparently
suspicious bird. No avoiding reactions resulted and the food was
often swallowed. Such a result suggests that the region of the
1 Botezat, E., Die Nervenendapparate in den Mundteilen der Végel und die einheitliche Endigungsweise
der peripheren Nerven beiden Wirbeltieren; Zeitschr, {, wiss. Zool, Bd. 84, 1906, s. 205-360.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Strong. PLATE 9.
1. GULLS FACING THE WIND IN A STORM.
2. YOUNG GULL, HALF GROWN BUT STILL IN DOWN PLUMAGE.
“ONINWIMG YAHLONY GNV DNIHOYSd GHIG ANO “ASVANITd IWNSANL NI STINS ONINYAH
‘OL 21LW1d *BU0S—'b1 61 ‘Hoday uejuosy}iWws
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 499
mouth where trigeminal nerve endings occur is first used in testing
food. It is quite probable that the salt solution adhering to the piece
of liver did not stimulate the trigeminal nerve endings of the bird in
the experiment and so was swallowed, with a consequent strong stim-
ulation of taste endings as the food slipped into the gullet. I have
made similar observations on this behavior of my gulls when given
uncertain food, on a number of occasions. It is not improbable that
mutual relations of stimuli exist between the general sensation of the
mouth region and either smell or taste, or between all three. Read-
ers who may be interested in the physiology of the beak region are
referred to Edinger’s! suggestions.
Gulls regularly show a positive reaction to strong air currents;
that is, they face a heavy wind whether standing or swimming and
usually when flying. This reaction is illustrated in plate 9, figure 1,
where an adult and a number of juvenals are seen facing a heavy
wind. Rain was falling when the picture was taken.
When the wind is exceptionally heavy, especially if rain is falling,
gulls are commonly seen flying, and they face the wind a large part
of the time. During an exceedingly violent storm which occurred in
the early afternoon of July 15, 1911, when I was on one of the Sister
Islands, all of the gulls able to fly took to the air. Their flight ma-
neuvers were similar to those which gulls so often show over a beach
during a gale at other times of the year. It is obviously more con-
venient to face a heavy wind, as the bird’s body is adapted to meeting
air currents head on with little horizontal resistance.
Extremes of temperature apparently give gulls considerable dis-
tress. On a hot day the brooding gull pants a great deal, even when
perfectly quiet on the nest.
Young gulls, especially if excited, pant constantly when the tem-
perature is as high as 90° F. (P1.9, fig. 2.) My captive gulls be-
came very uncomfortable, apparently, and panted a great deal after
taking only a few short flights of several yards each in their inclosure
on a hot day. At such times they seek water and, if undisturbed,
indulge in much bathing.
In zero weather (Fahrenheit) my captive gulls, though well fed and
fat, appeared to suffer from cold, especially after eating cold food.
When the ground was covered with snow or ice in zero weather, the
gulls squatted upon their feet, apparently to keep them protected
by their plumage. They rarely stood up at such times except when
disturbed or to obtain food. They also showed their sensitiveness
to cold by shivering, although probably in perfect health. Wild gulls
with abundant opportunities for flying apparently keep warm by
and Psych., vol. 18, 1908, No. 5, pp. 437-457.
Also see Vorlesungen tiber den Bau der nervésen Zentralorgane des Menschen und der Tiere. Bd. 2.
Aufl, 7, 1908 (or a still later edition). Leipzig, F.C. W. Vogel. :
500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
being active, and I have not seen them showing such distress from
cold.
IX. BATHING AND DRINKING.
References have already been made in this paper to the frequency
with which herring gulls bathe in warm weather. My captive gulls
enjoyed swimming and bathing in their tank, even m winter, so long
as the temperature of the air was not very much below freezing.
When swimming, the herring gull sits high on the water, probably in
part because of the large amount of air contained in the dense ventral
plumage. Possibly this extreme buoyancy, which also involves a
large pneumatization of the skeleton, explains the fact that gulls do
not often dive to the extent of completely immersing their bodies.
When bathing the herring gull dips its bill, and often the entire
head, into the water with rapid bowing movements. At the same
time the wings are flapped vigorously and water is splashed over the
entire body. The performance is more or less the same whether the
bird is floating on water or standing in shallow water.
During the colder weather of the winter my captive gulls were de-
prived of all opportunities for bathing, as their tank was emptied.
They became very dirty, poncoquentiys in a city like Chicago. With
the coming of each spring the tank was refilled and a regular orgy of
bathing followed. Each bath lasted for several minutes and was fol-
lowed by feather dressing and partial drying of the plumage. Then
another bath was taken. This would continue for an hour or more.
In the course of two or three days the plumage became quite clean.
On July 29, 1911, I found a young herring gull at one of the Straw-
berry Islands in well-developed plumage and apparently old enough
to fly. It was sitting quietly on the ground at the base of a tree 50
feet from water. On examination I found the bird to be very much
emaciated; it was too weak to make effective efforts to escape—in
fact it could not stand upright. I took the gull to the water and
gave it a chance to drink. It was evidently very thirsty and drank
eagerly. After taking what water it wished the bird took a bath,
going through such movements as its limited strength and my grasp
would allow. During the following week I gave this bird frequent
opportunities to bathe, always holding it in my hands, and the bath
was always taken without hesitation. The principal features were a
plunging of the head under water with a quick removal, followed by
a shake of the head, which splashed water over the body. This bird
ate ravenously, but it was too weak to stand up for any length of
time and died in about two weeks. An autopsy was performed by
a pathologist, who was unable to find any other explanation for its
death than the starvation the bird had experienced before I found it.
During the bathing performance the gull appears to drink more
or less water, but it is difficult to say how much is taken. In hot
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 501
weather there appears to be considerable water drinking by brooding
birds. The gull which appears in plate 5, figure 2, was studied care-
fully from my tent for several hours on June 26, which was a very
warm day. During the middle of the day this bird made trips to
the beach edge for water so frequently that I timed some of the
periods. I found that the intervals between drinks varied from 3 to
10 minutes. There was more or less bathing each time the bird went
to water. I did not note any water drinking by gulls not brooding at
the breeding place.
My captive gulls seemed to need very little water to drink in cold
weather. During the first winter it was my practice to take warm
water to the gull yard, which would not freeze over immediately. In
the winter of 1911-12 the temperature was below 0° F. for some weeks,
and during quite a portion of this time there was neither snow nor ice
in the place occupied by the gulls. No other opportunities were pres-
ent for the gulls to secure water than in their food or in the very slight
amount of water which adhered to the food, mostly liver. I never
saw any evidence of interest in the water which I brought to the gulls
and they seemed to thrive without it.
X. PERCHING.
The herring gull, being a web-footed bird, would not be expected
to have a perching habit, nevertheless it does perch sometimes, after
afashion. Oneof my captive gulls may be seen in plate 10 perched on
the side of the swimming tank, a position not infrequently assumed
by these birds on leaving the water. On July 29 I saw herring gulls
perched in the foliage of the upper outermost branches of tall trees
on one of the Strawberry Islands. They did not remainthere long and
they presented the appearance of standing on foliage rather than on
single limbs.
Other observers have reported seeing herring gulls perched in trees.
Of course there is no such gripping of the perch by the feet of a gull
as is done by a true perching bird.
XI. COMPARISON OF DIURNAL AND NOCTURNAL BEHAVIOR.
As Herrick ' has well said, there is no repose by day or night in a
gull colony. Adults take naps at all hours, either while on the nest
or standing near. Often they simply doze, with the head drawn close
to the body and the eyes shut, or the bill may be tucked inside a wing
with the eyes either open or closed in view. During the day groups
of gulls stand about dozing, as may be seen in plate 8, figure 2.
In order to get an idea of the entire daily cycle of activities at a
gull-breeding place, I spent a night at one of the Strawberry Islands.
1 Herrick, F. H., The home life of wild birds. Revised ed., 1905, p. 112, Putnam’s Sons, New
York and London.
502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
I arranged my trip so that it would cover those hours not included
on other days. Ward also spent a night at a guil colony, and I quote
his interesting account ' of his experiences as follows:
Sleep seemed to occur perhaps a little more frequently during the warmer hours of
the afternoon than at other times, though pretty evenly distributed through the 24
hours. The birds sometimes stood, but more frequently squatted on the ground and
turned their heads over their backs and tucked them under their wing feathers. Sleep
was of very short duration, as fights, panics, and alarms of various sorts followed one
another too closely to allow of unbroken repose for more than a few minutes at a time.
The night that I spent among them there was less sleep than during the day. Thesun
set about half past 7, but at 8 o’clock the colony was as busy as ever fighting, making
abortive nests, and screaming. At 10 minutes past 8 the moon arose, and 10 minutes
later nearly all the gulls suddenly took wing in what I conceived to be a panic, until
shortly afterwards I spied a large flock of them on the water in the direction of the
moon. Later they worked around the island, so that I was between them and the
moon, and I could then see that they were busily fishing. My notes continue up toa
quarter of 3, when I fell asleep with the gulls still on the water and noisy. When I
awoke at 20 minutes after 4 the sun was up, most of the gulls were on the island, and
many young were teasing a few adults for breakfast.
On July 7, 1911, at 7.20 in the evening, I was on the island and I
left the next morning at 7.05. My blind was erected and I was inside
ready for work at 7.45 when my companion left the tent and went
away in the motor boat that had brought us. Within 10 minutes the
culls had settled down to normal activities, i. e., when the boat had
gone a fair distance from shore. The “challenge” and mewing cries
were made a number of times during the following half hour. I also
heard the quack of a red-breasted merganser occasionally during this
period, and a bronzed grackle flew near the tent. At 8.25 a spotted
sandpiper call was heard, also a very young gull apparently calling for
food. By 8.40 it was too dark to see my writing and the gulls were
quieter. There was an outbreak of noise, however, at 8.43, which
lasted for a minute or so. I used a small pocket electric flashlight,
carefully concealed during the night, to see my watch and to make
notes.
About 9.30, when the sunset glow was practically gone, a board
was knocked down from one end of my tent, making a noise which
alarmed the whole colony, and no birds came near my tent except
in flight, so far as I could determine, until daybreak. The moon
set about 1 a. m., and there was only starlight. I could not see any
birds, but I could hear them flying about all night, giving the alarm
cry at intervals. The gulls were less noisy from 1 to 2.45. Small
juvenals were heard calling occasionally through the night.
Shortly before 3 the first glow of approaching day appeared in the
east, and the gulls began to settle down near my tent. They also
became very noisy, especially with the challenge cry. At this time
1 Ward, H. L., Notes of the herring gull and the Caspian tern. Bull. Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc., vol.
4, No. 4, October, 1906, p. 132.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 503
I noted a female red-breasted merganser playing in the water not
many feet away. Song sparrows were singing, and bronzed grackles
were active. A few minutes later a very small juvenal gull ran to
the edge of my tent some 50 feet from where I first sawit. It passed
within 5 feet of two adults, who gave it no attention. The sun rose
about 4.20, and at 4.25 two adult gulls came within 3 feet of my tent,
where they remained about a minute. They then flew away a short
distance and returned to a point about 10 feet distant. No birds
were seen on nests, as the incubation season was over on this island.
At 4.40 I noted gulls bathing, and at 5 I saw a very small juvenal
paddling ashore. A fight occurred between two adults which was
broken up by the interference of a third adult. About the same
time I saw an attack on a juvenal gull by an adult resented by another
adult. Challenge cries and mewing calls made a great noise at this
time. Other juvenals which had been standing near the place where
the attack was made disappeared.
A few moments later I saw three gulls worrying a great blue heron
in full flight, much as kingbirds harass a crow. The heron finally
disappeared in the woods on the largest of the Strawberry Islands,
where a heronry was located, and from which I had heard noises
throughout the night.
Another fight between adults occurred at 5.15, and, as usual, with
no apparent injury to the participants. When the contest was over
the two birds faced each other and made a feint at renewing hostilities.
Then they went through the challenge performance simultaneously.
At 5.25 I noted that J had seen no feeding and that most of the
juvenals gave no evidence of desiring their parents, but at 5.45 I saw
a downy juvenal teasing an adult for food, and a feeding occurred a
few minutes later. After the feeding both birds drank water, and
the adult swam out from shore about 20 feet where it took a bath.
I noted at 6.25 that downy juvenals were standing idly most of the
time or dressing their plumage. An adult approached a juvenal,
and another adult flew to the spot, apparently to drive the first adult
away.
T was unable to determine what the gulls were doing during the
darker part of the night after the setting of the moon beyond the fly-
ing already mentioned. Judging from the sounds, many of them were
on the water, as was the case during Ward’s night at Gravel Island.
_ Whether the falling of the board had anything to do with the absence
of the gulls from at least my part of the island is uncertain. As the
birds left Gravel Island at nearly the same time in the evening accord-
ing to Ward’s observations, there is some reason to believe that the
board accident was not responsible. It is conceivable that there
was some fear of the tent in the darkness which did not exist in day-
504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
light. Or possibly the birds feel safer on the water at night and are
in the habit of remaining there in a flock during a major portion of
the night when uneasy.
During the night of July 5 and 6, 1907, I camped on Partridge
Island, in Lake Superior, about 1 mile from Gull Island, where a
colony of gulls were breeding. In the latter part of the night, just
before dawn, I heard the cries of gulls ftying overhead. The night
had been very dark as the sky was clouded.
Some observations on the nocturnal activities of herring gulls
have been reported by Schuster.1. He noted these birds feeding on
the river Mersey at Liverpool. Large quantities of food, thrown
into the river at night from ships, are stated to be responsible for this
nocturnal feeding. The gulls are described as flying and feeding
silently.
Various writers speak of gulls ‘‘roosting” at night, and my captive
culls apparently sleep during the night, asa rule. It seems probable
that gulls usually rest during the night, except during the breeding
season or when food is especially available at night. It is also prob-
able that gulls are not active when the darkness is intense.
XII. VARIABILITY AND MODIFIABILITY IN BEHAVIOR.
According to Herrick,’ whose conclusions are in general supported
by my own observations:
The life of birds is one of instinct irradiated by gleams of intelligence. Their
mental faculties exhibit a wide range of gradation from excessive stupidity to a fair
degree of intelligence with strong associative powers of things with ideas.
In my study of the herring gull I have been especially interested in
attempts at determining the extent of the ‘‘gleams,” a fascinating
but very elusive topic. The resourcefulness which animals show in
new situations and the extent to which their behavior may be modi-
fied by new conditions may be considered fair criteria of their intelli-
gence. Variability in behavior, however, has some bearing on the
problem of intelhgence. We must recognize perhaps two types of
variability in behavior which do not indicate intelligence as it is
commonly understood. They may even tend toward confusion in
our analyses of behavior, as acts which may seem to indicate resource-
fulness or adaptiveness may be only variations in stereotyped be-
havior.
It is to be expected that so-called pure lines or strains may be
found among the behavior characteristics of a species as well as in
other characters. Some of these strains may possibly be the result
of or be accentuated by such segregation as is afforded by separate
1 Schuster, W., Mowen als Nachtvégel. Zool. Beob. Frankfurt a. M. Jahrg. 47, No. 3, S. 79, 1906.
2 The home life of wild birds. Revised ed., 1905, p. 212. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL——STRONG. 505
breeding places. Unfortunately we know nothing concerning the
relationships of individuals in one colony to those of another. We
have no information concerning whether gulls breeding at one of the
Strawberry Islands, for instance, have interbred in recent years
with Gravel Island gulls. Furthermore, we have no data, as yet,
concerning the existence of definable pure lines in the morphological
characters of herring gulls.
The other type of variability in behavior is not associated with
pure line inheritance. It represents simple chance variations from
the average type of behavior which are to be expected just as we
find variations in morphological characters.
In the section of this paper which deals with the general behavior
of juvenal gulls I mentioned variability in the behavior of some
newly hatched gulls. A single bird in one nest showed no terror,
whereas two nestlings of essentially the same age in another nest
were in great distress from fright over the presence of human
intruders. I can think of no reason for considering that either the
quiet bird or the frantic pair were more intelligent or that either
form of behavior was adaptive. Nor have we reason to believe that
it was a case of pure line differentiation. It seems quite possible
that chance variations in the metabolic states of the birds or possibly
in their nervous organization were responsible for the difference in
reaction to our presence. It is conceivable that the reactions would
have been either similar or reversed if we had approached the nests
a few hours later.
A large amount of variation has been noted in the choice of mate-
rials used in constructing the nest. Evidently the herring gull
uses what is available with a preference for finer and softer mate-
rials. It seems probable to me that such nest building, which is
evidently mostly instinctive or stereotyped, is not absolutely without
the elements of intelligence. There must be adaptation of special
materials which may be found, to use and location. Though the
general form, size, and location of the nest are characters of the
species, the variations which fit the nest to its special location, for
instance, are no more stereotyped than various acts of man which
are called intelligent.
As a consequence of persistent nest robbing, gulls at certain
breeding places have been reported as taking on a tree-nesting habit.
I know of no evidence worth considering for believing that the
recent ancestors of such birds were tree nesters, and we have every
reason for considering the inherited choice of location for most her-
ring gulls as on the ground.
We have already seen in this paper that even the structure of the
nest may be modified in adaptation to the location in a tree. More
skill is shown in weaving the nest, according to reports, so that it
506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
will hold together in its tree location. Of course it may be said
that tree nesting by the herring gull may be due to a so-called latent
instinct which appears when persecution compels the bird to seek
a safer place for its nests. We have, however, no reason to believe
that instinct behaves in inheritance differently than other charac-
ters. Our knowledge of the laws of inheritance does not furnish
any basis for thinking that an instinct for tree nesting can exist for
long periods of time in a species that has another habit, without itself
appearing.
Herrick! seems to consider tree nesting for the herring gull to
be a variation without much significance. He found a small per-
centage of gulls nesting in trees at a height of from 6 to 10 feet. In
his judgment, this position affords no protection to the birds. I
have seen no nests above the ground, though trees and bushes cover
most of the ground on all but two of the islands where I have seen
gulls breeding.
To me such tree nesting as Audubon? described suggests real
resourcefulness, but we know too little about it to be warranted in
making any generalizations concerning the intelligence it may
involve. In some colonies tree nesting may possibly be the inherited
habit or instinct of certain strains or ‘‘pure lines”’ of herring gulls.
The nestling offspring of tree-nesting gulls are reported as remain-
ing in the nest when observed, though gulls of the same age on the
ground would never be found in the nest, but would always be hiding.
That tree-nesting juvenals do not leave their nest until they are able
to do so without injury is probably due to a realization of the danger
involved in such an attempt. This remaining in the nest under
such circumstances may possibly be regarded as intelligent behavior
of perhaps a low order which prevails over any blind instinct to
leave the nest to hide when intruders appear. Just how much this
behavior is tied up with instinctive activity is of course beyond our
knowledge.
The promiscuous feeding of juvenal gulls at Gravel Island appeared
to me to bea variation from the probably usual habit of parents
feeding their own offspring. Unfortunately, we lack data for estab-
lishing the extent of this variation. It could easily be the conse-
quence of the congested life on the island. I have noticed that
juvenal Wilson’s terns seek food of any adult that may happen to
come near them with food in its beak, but all of my observations indi-
cate that the parent tern probably feeds its own offsprmg. The
gull must go through the somewhat complicated process of re-
gurgitation, which seems far from voluntary. Large numbers of
1 Herrick, F. H., Nests and nest building in birds. Part 2, Journ. Animal Behavior. July-August,
1911. Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 244-277.
2 Audubon, J. J., Ornithological biography. Edinburgh, 1835., vol. 3, pp. 588-589.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—STRONG. 507
juvenal gulls crowding about an adult who, perhaps, sees its own
offspring in the mob may be able to snatch the food regurgitated
without regard to parental relationships.
A large number of so-called lower birds like ducks, coots, etc., and
the various species of gulls learn rather rapidly where they may feed
and breed without molestation by man. In the course of only a
week wild ducks become far less shy on bodies of water in or about
cities than when they arrive, a matter of common observation.
Gulls likewise recognize even more positively that they are rela-
tively safe in such places, but they are exceedingly wary wherever
shooting occurs. Such discrimination undoubtedly imvolves at
least. the rudiments of intelligence even though the activities in ques-
tion may be largely instinctive.
I had hoped to carry on some experiments on modifiability in be-
havior with gulls, but my time was taken up so largely with the gen-
eral observations which I thought should come first that only a
single experiment was started. An entire nest was moved 4 feet to
one side at a distance of about 100 feet from my tent. The nest was
under observation for several hours, and what appeared to be the
owners were seen standing about the spot where the nest had been
located. Though the birds seemed to be disturbed, they did not
make any significant demonstrations of excitement, and they did
not attempt to brood the eggs.
SUMMARY.!
1. The herring gull is gregarious in habit, but it is also quarrelsome.
Some of the fights are undoubtedly the consequence of invasions
upon nesting precincts, as stated by Herrick, but many are probably
due to simple belligerency. This bird is often a great coward and
may be routed by smaller birds. The fights between adults have
always been harmless, in my experience. Herring gulls will fight
fiercely for food when very hungry.
2. Herrick’s conclusion that the frequent killing of the young by
adults is the consequence of the instinct to guard a nesting precinct
probably holds true in many cases. There is, however, some evi-
dence that this is not always the explanation. Juvenals sometimes
attack younger birds just as savagly as the adults do and in the same
manner.
3. Other birds often nest safely even on a small island densely
populated by breeding gulls.
4. The herring gull nests usually in places the most inadcessible
to man that are available. The breeding place is usually on an island
not inhabited by man. When seeking food or aside from the breed-
1 This section is not complete. It includes principally the more important conclusions of this paper.
508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ing season this bird is frequently to be seen near human habitations
on the coast or following vessels.
5. This gull is practically omnivorous in its habits, according to the
observations of various writers. Animal food is preferred, but other
food may be eaten if the bird is hungry enough.
6. The herring gull does not dive for its food to any extent, and it
never plunges verticaHy into the water, as terns do.
7. The nests are made of such material as is available, but fine
materials are preferred.
8. The offsprmg are shaded by their parents on a hot day until
they are strong enough to leave their nest and seek a shaded spot.
9. The young are given food which is first regurgitated upon the
ground. There may be promiscuous feeding of young birds by adults
not their parents.
10. Herring gulls which I have had in my possession since they
were in the nestling-down plumage were less mature in plumage at
two years than is indicated by Dwight for birds of that age. It is
my judgment that herring gulls rarely breed before they are 3
years old. All of the breeding herring gulls which I have seen were
adults, so far as I could determine.
11. It has been my experience that the young are at least 2
months old before they begin to fly well.
12. I have given especial attention to the voice of the herrmg
gull. The most frequent sounds are the “challenge” and the
“alarm” cry. <A ‘‘mewing’’ sound is fairly common. These cries
all involve characteristic positions, especially the ‘challenge’ and
‘““mew.” The ‘‘challenge’? seems to represent a variety of emo-
tional states, but, m general, excitement. The young have a charac-
teristic squeal or chatter, which is high pitched. It is used in calling
for food or with a little modification when frightened. My captive
gulls began to use what appeared to be a rudimentary ‘‘challenge”’
cry in September of their first year.
13. Both vision and hearing are keen in the herring gull, as ap-
pears to be the case with most birds.
14. It has been my experience that the herring gull has nearly as
good darkness vision as man at least. Durmg the breeding sea-
son, or when food is best obtained at night, this bird is active at
night. My captive gulls would eat, if very hungry, when there was
barely light enough for me to distmguish their food.
15. Food which is wet with solutions of either table salt or acids is
rejected. My birds detected the presence of these solutions even
when they were very weak to my taste.
16. Meat is eaten much more readily when it is fresh. The ex-
tent to which spoiled meat is tolerated varies directly with the degree
of hunger.
HABITS OF THE HERRING GULL—-STRONG. 509
17. It is a common practice of these birds to rinse in water food
of uncerta‘n palatableness or when it is dirty.
18. Some evidence was obtained concerning the use of nerves of
general sensation in testing food.
19. A positive reaction is shown to air currents. In a severe
storm gulls leave the ground and indulge in flight maneuvers.
20. The herring gull is sensitive to extremes in temperature. In
very cold weather the feet are kept protected by the plumage a large
portion of the time.
21. There is a large amount of bathing, especially in hot weather.
In very cold weather no water seems to be required beyond that
present in the food obtained.
NOTES ON SOME EFFECTS OF EXTREME DROUGHT IN
WATERBERG, SOUTH AFRICA.*
By Advocate Everne N. Marars, R. J. P., Rietfontein, Waterberg.
The gradual but continuous diminution of the surface water of the
earth is undoubtedly the chief element in our cosmic history since
long before the advent of man. The change in environment occa-
sioned by it has been the great moving cause of natural selection and
the evolution of living species.
If we study this loss in the two continents where water has reached
such a degree of scarcity as to render its present rate of lessening
an outstanding natural feature, the progress not only becomes more
noticeable, but also more easily measurable. In Asia and Africa, the
two ‘‘dry”’ continents, the disappearance of water annually is so
great that it seems to justify the prediction of the French astronomer,
Flammarion, that within a measurable space of time the human race
is to find in this cause its final eclipse. In Europe and America, the
““wet’’ continents, water is still too plentiful to make its yearly less-
ening a matter of much moment; but they are certainly not exempt.
If one compares, for instance, the facts disclosed in the histories of
early Roman conquest with existing conditions, it would appear that
what are now comparatively dry countries and fertile tracts were
in those times an unending succession of marshes with broad sluggish
rivers winding from mere to mere.
In Asia a comparison between the observations of the Russian
explorers of 50 years ago with those of Sven Hedin reveals the fact
that even in that short space of time the desert has taken in thousands
upon thousands of square miles of once fertile country. Rivers and
lakes have vanished and even populous cities have been obliterated
by the all-conquering sand.
Just as rapidly are the great lakes of Africa shrinking. Our own
N’gami was a real lake less than 50 years ago; now it is no more than
a marsh threatened with speedy extinction. Lake Rudolf, that most
perfect diadem in the girdle of the globe, is approached on one side
(that opposite Rowenzori) over enormous plateaus of dry mud
which were quite recently covered by the waters of the lake, and
yearly a new belt is added to these mud flats, a process that becomes
alarming when one remembers that upon this great natural reservoir
largely depends the fate of the Nile and of fertile Egypt.
1 Reprinted by permission from the Agricultural Journal of the Union of South Africa, February, 1914,
511
512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Nothing is more fallacious than the old doctrine that evaporation
and precipitation of moisture constitute a perfect cycle without the
possibility of loss. Asa matter of fact the earth is sucking up moisture
like a sponge, and a vast quantity each day penetrates the surface to
subterranean depths from which no natural cause releases it again and
where it is apparently beyond the reach of man’s utmost ingenuity.
The recent geological history of Waterberg in this respect is
extremely interesting and convincing. ‘That in quite recent geological
times the major portion of its surface was covered by a great lake is
a thing beyond question. The barrier of waters to the north was a
plateau of which a portion still remains in situ. A few of the original
islands, now strangely formed lamboidal hills, with wave marks
still visible on their rocks, stand like a row of sentinels in the low
country just beyond the edge of the plateau. From the south great
rivers deposited their shingle on the shores and bottom of the lake.
Some upheaval destroyed all the eastern portion of this barrier, and
the confined waters escaped northward and eastward to form new
rivers when the first floods had subsided. The shingle mixed with
the lake sand was buried under the products of this eruption, and
after being subjected to immense pressure, the lapidescent stuff was
by another cataclysm released and scattered over the entire district,
where it is now known as Waterberg conglomerate. On the highest
hills and in the lowest valleys you find it studded with highly polished
lacustrine pebbles, as if yesterday they had been taken from the
water. Only on uninjured fragments of the plateau which once
formed the heights above the lake shore you find none of it, but on the
slopes of this high country, just below the surface, one finds layers
of beautiful lacustrine shells sometimes 2 or 3 feet in depth. Since
that debacle the geological history of Waterberg has chiefly been one
of rapid desiccation. Broad over its surface lies the writmg which
he who runs may read. There was.a time within the memory of
white men, when every kloof and donga was the bed of a perennial
stream of crystal water and the district generally was so marshy and
“vals” as often to render a passage by ox wagon a hazardous under-
taking. In those times was its present name bestowed on the dis-
trict—a name that to-day seems to have originated in the bitter irony
of some disappointed voortrekker.
Even within the last half-century Waterberg was, to dwellers on
the high veld, synonymous with a sort of lotus land of fertility,
literally overflowing with milk and honey. So plentiful were these
two emblems and proofs of fruitfulness that the good wives of those
times fattened their pigs on a mixture of expressed honey and “thick”
milk. Fruit, wild and domestic, was proverbial for size and plenty.
1 On the farm Rietfontein No. 1944 a layer of these beautiful shells, of all shapes, were found at 26 feet.
DROUGHT IN WATERBERG, SOUTH AFRICA—MARAIS. 5138
Every farmhouse had a water mill, and a spirit-still smoking night
and day. It was the last great stronghold of big game in the northern
Transvaal. It will be remembered that it was to Schimmel-perd-se-
pan that Markapan invited Commandant Potgieter for elephant
shooting when he had planned the murder. It is perhaps true that
man had here also to procure his bread in the sweat of his brow. He
had to work in order to live, but his work was so uncommonly like
play that not without reason was the district named ‘‘ Lui-lekker-
land.” A salted horse and a good rifle were the prime necessaries of
life, and many a fine farm was swapped for one of these.
That was the picture then. And now? Tantaene animis celestibus
irae?
Last season was a culmination of several drought years. It was
the worst drought ever experienced in this district since its settlement
by whites, and this statement is made on surer evidence than the
unassisted recollection of the “oldest”? inhabitant. One can not be
too doubtful of such evidence. By an eclectic acceptance of such
statements one can find foundation for almost any sort of theory.
Even one’s own recollection must be consulted with considerable
reserve. No one who has grown up in this country but seems to
remember a Transvaal of broad deep rivers, of mighty rains, of
beautiful springs, spruits, and waterfalls. Valuing this no more than
one would hearsay evidence in law, there is in Waterberg a mass of
confirmatory evidence which places the above statement beyond
doubt. Take only one fact: Last season a large number of orange
groves perished from drought of which the trees were over 50 years old,
And in addition to the facts such as these, a little study of drought
conditions and the diminution of existing waters soon enables one to
follow the ancient spoor of once living streams, and even to assign
an approximate date of their final disappearance. With such col-
lateral evidence human memory can, tant mieux, be valued correctly.
The assertion, therefore, may be safely accepted that last year was
the worst drought year experienced in this district since the advent
of the voortrekkers. Over the greater portion of the district the
first rains did not fall before the middle of November, and over about
half of the northern middle veld no rain fell at all, that is to say
not sufficient rain to cause the veld seeds to germinate and the plants
to grow. ‘This season has, in certain respects, been even more dis-
astrous. In the early part of the season there were good but purely
local showers. The grass and shrubs in these favored localities started
fairly well, and then when rain was most needed for crops and veld
alike it ceased altogether. This refers to the plateaus and mountains.
In the north, with the exception of one or two localities, no rain has
fallen this year, and again it is the end of November.
73176°—sM 1914——33
514 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The effects of such a drought open a vast field for research, of which
almost every ascertained fact would be of the most vital importance
to the inhabitants of South Africa. Not to the naturalist only are
these facts of interest and value. To the farmer their study would
afford an essential arm in his struggle for existence. In an article
such as this it is possible to touch on a few of these facts only. Many
experiments and comparative measurements were made which might
be of some value for the purposes of exact research, but a detail of
them would hardly be admissible here. J will confine myself there-
fore to a brief description of the more immediately perceptible effects
of the drought on surface water, on plants, and on animals—facts
that would strike any observant visitor.
It is impossible, unless one saw, to conceive the scene of utter
desolation—that once famous hunting ground between Gaul and
Magalakwen, extending northward from the mountains, to the
Limpopo and constituting the lateral watersheds between the three
river systems. The two rivers, Magalakwen (‘‘the strength” or
‘stronghold of the crocodile’’) and Palala (‘‘the hinderness,” ‘‘ the
stoppage,’”’ ‘“‘the impossible’’), bearing in their native names proof
of their former greatness, are to-day mere ribbands of sand winding
through desolate sand dunes to the Limpopo. For some distance
along their course one can still secure water by digging holes in the
sand. It will try the reader’s faith to learn that in the entire district
of Waterberg there is at the date of writing with perhaps one excep-
tion, no running river or spruit, and Waterberg is, I believe, consider-
ably larger than the Free State. In the north of the district there
is a tract over 4,000 square miles in extent in which there is no single
drop of water running or stagnant above the surface of the ground.
Schimmel-perd-se-pan, the last great center of elephant hunting
in the Transvaal, received its name from the legendary feat of an
intrepid voortrekker, who, braving its dangerous subaqueous weeds,
swam his horse across the pan with a quarter of an eland behind the
saddle. Now there is never more water in the pan than can be
covered with a lady’s pocket handkerchief. The water supply con-
sists of a tiny pool deep under a sheltering rock, and at the time of
writing this has shrunk away till nothing is left but a patch of damp
sand. Similarly have all the famous old waters of the great hunting
days disappeared for the first time withi the memory of man,
although to those who had an opportunity of studying their annual
shrinkage their fate has for many years been a foregone conclusion.
Tambootie, a huge marsh, always dangerous to cross; Sandmans-
fontein, a beautiful strong spring im the hills, named after the only
hunter who attempted to make his home there in the old days;
Bobbejans Krans, where the water boiled out under a precipice and
where the finest Kaffir cattle in the middle veld were to be seen three
DROUGHT IN WATERBERG, SOUTH AFRICA—MARAIS. 515
years ago—all have vanished, and with the ending of the waters the
great herds of cattle have fled in all directions. All that once teeming
pasturage lies dead and desolate.
But it is not in the middle veld alone that this state of affairs
obtains. There are hundreds of farms in our immediate vicinity which
have the same tale to tell. One can take them absolutely at random.
Zwartkloof, for instance, was selected by the late Mr. Piet du Toit,
a voortrekker, on account of its magnificent water supply. Up to
recently it was still renowned as one of the best wheat farms in our
ward, and its great herds of wild red Africander cattle were hunted
and shot like big game up to the time of the rinderpest. The present
joint owners, Messrs. Franz and Nols du Toit, were born on the farm.
The former is now 65 years of age. He declares that never in his
jifetime was there even a perceptible lessening of the spruit. To-day
a well, 40 feet deep, sunk in the source itself, is as dry as a bone.
There is not a drop of drinking water on the farm. ‘Thirty years ago
there were no less than 11 perennial springs in its veld. And this .
same story can be told of almost every occupied farm in Waterberg.
The great Limpopo itself is dry for all the distance that its course
delimits this district. Only by deep digging in its sandy bed can
drinking water be found. The larger seacow pools, it is true, still
contain stagnant water, but the majority of these are almost putrid.
The smell of fish and crocodile poisons the air in their vicinity, and
it would be courting death to drink the soupy liquid they contain
without previous filtering and boiling. After the recent heavy rains
in Pretoria and Rustenburg, and the floods consequent on them,
the running water in the Limpopo reached 30 miles above Silika’s
Stad and was there—a mere futile trickle—lost in the burnmg sand
of the river bed. Of all the immense quantities of water which at
that time drained off the northern slopes of the high veld, and at one
time most of the tributaries of the Limpopo were flooded, not one drop
reached the sea in the shape of flowing water.
The only waters in the district which remain unaffected by the
drought are the fairly numerous thermal sprmgs. The farm on which
the writer resides is dependent for all its water, both for drinking
and irrigation, on a thermal spring, and careful measurements during
the past five years show no diminution at its source. But this year
the loss of water between the source and the dam inlet is 60 per cent
more than it was three years ago on the same date.
The effect of the drought on plants was naturally in exact propor-
tion to its effect on surface waters. Early in the season of 1913 the
belief gathered strength that a large proportion of sweet grass clumps
in the affected veld were quite dead. The deepest roots under magni-
fication showed a state of desiccation precluding the possibility of life.
This, however, was strenuously combated by the experience of old
516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
settlers. They seemed to think that no amount of drying-out could
kill grass clumps as long as they remained in the ground. To decide
the question it was attempted to start growth in 200 clumps of sweet
grass of different varieties growing on zoet-doorn-veld by damping
and shading. The result proved that 92 per cent were quite dead.
The average number of seeds that germinated in and near these clumps
was three. Before the end of the season, however, most of the seeds |
represented by this artificially induced growth were in turn destroyed.
Just enough rain fell to start germination, and when they were at
the tenderest stage of growth the sun scorched them to death. The
result is that an enormous extent of sweet veld has been destroyed.
On this farm the sweet veld looks more bke a barren ‘“‘brak” than the
luxuriant pasturage 1t once was.
The coarser ‘‘sour’’ grasses (Aristidas) to a great extent escaped
complete destruction. By their habit of growth the clumps are better
able to resist drought. The thick fibrous covering just above the
- ground affords more root shade and is a better absorbing medium
than the scantier clumps of the finer grasses. It seems to me quite
evident that these so-called ‘“‘sour”’ grasses are comparatively recent
invaders from the desert north, where natural selection had long since
fitted them to resist similar conditions. The native sweet grasses
not able to adapt themselves to this changed environment are losers
in the struggle for existence. Therefore is it that all our sweet veld
is yearly diminishing and the sour veld extending. In fact, it is
almost impossible to get quite pure sweet veld in Waterberg. Our
best sweet veld would have been called ‘‘ mixed veld”’ a few years ago.
In the olden days Waterberg was a sweet-veld district.
It is in their seeds that one can best see the high specialization
attained by the sour grasses as drought resistance. Their manner of
distribution and habit of growth were all evolved understress of water-
lessness in some semidesert country. Their life history is one of
those fairy tales of botany that might be of interest even to the busy
man who has no time to notice. With a body shaped like a torpedo
and a long tapering tail, they have attained in perfection the tadpole
shape, which nature finds of such advantage that she has evolved it
a thousandfold in the highest and lowest forms of life—indeed it is
probable that from such a shape have all organic forms originated.
Under low magnification it will be seen that both body and tail are
thickly studded with sharp stiff bristles growing backward. The
point of the torpedo is an intensely hard horny spike, sharp as the
point of a needle with a coronal of harpoon points at its base. The
seed is thus able to cling to the coats of animals, besides being easily
moved off by the wind. But these qualities are of more immediate
value in another direction. It is above all things a penetrating
machine—how efficient one can judge from the fact that it is often
DROUGHT IN WATERBERG, SOUTH AFRICA—-MARAIS. 517
found in the internal tissues of animals, having gone through coat,
muscle, and flesh. It often penetrates human flesh, and is then
always a source of serious danger. Every movement, however slight,
causes the embedded seed to penetrate deeper, and frequently aserious
surgical operation only can remove it. But it was not for this purpose
only that its penetrative qualities were evolved. It is a common
thing in good rain years to come across a mass of these seeds drifted
together by the wind. It is then that one has an opportunity of see-
ing a wonder of plant life, quite startling in the apparent intelligence
disclosed. The seeds as they lie are huddled and orderless like cas-
ually thrown spillikins. If one sprinkle a little water on the mass a
tremor as of awakening life is almost immediately seen to pass through
them. Movements in all directions follow; spasmodic jerks, twistings,
and turnings, so animal-like as almost to leave one in doubt whether
they veritably are seeds and not insects. And this doubt intensifies
as the process continues and the purpose becomes more apparent.
One sees that by these movements the seeds are disentangling them-
selves; and when this is effected, each one becomes engaged in inde-
pendent movements. At first it all seems erratic and casual, and itis
only after careful watching that it dawns upon one that all these
movements are quite ordered and have a definite purpose. The first
spring-like twistings lift the seedhead clear off the ground and free it
from obstructing fellows. A bend of the tail, on which it then rests,
turns the torpedo head point earthwards. It is gradually lowered
until the needle point with its harpoon bristles is thrust into the damp
soil with a steady and continuous pressure from the tail. This move-
ment is continued until the entire seed is embedded, the whole opera-
tion occupying 15 minutes. But its chief protection against drought
and the accompanying ineffective and, in fact, fatal night showers lies
herein, that if the soil be only shghtly damped the seed penetrates
beyond the line of moisture and remains thus without germinating,
ready planted, waiting for enough rain to insure the safety of the
future seedling. This penetration is proportionate to the length of
tail, and it will be found at the end of a season of severe drought that
the species with the longest tailed seeds have started more seedlings
than the relatively short-tailed. The hard shells of these seeds also
require a definite and large amount of moisture to soften.
Of all these advantages the seeds of the sweeter and softer grasses
are deprived. The clumps die and the seeds germinate with the first
slight shower only to die next day in the scorching sun. And thus it
happens that yearly the famous sweet veld of Waterberg is diminish-
ing and getting more and more mixed and its value as a cattle district
proportionately deteriorating. And not only are the sweet grasses
thus handicapped by changed environment, but man enters into the
518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
fight against the losing species and by the annual veld-firing assists,
and even completes, the work of natural selection.
And not the pygmies of the veld only have thus been struck down.
The giants, secure in their strength and age, have not escaped. The
big trees are leafless and sapless like a northern woodland in the midst
of winter. On the higher ‘‘bults” 50 per cent of the springs and
boekenhout are quite dead, food for the next veld fire. Among these
dead trees there were many at least three centuries old—calculated
from the annulation of timber sawn from them.
Even the most efficient waterstorers could not survive this terrific
stretch of drought and heat. In the middle veld the little naevose
aloe, common on our southern hills, grows plentifully on the flat,
chiefly in the shade of thick bushes. Where this shade was in any
way deficient they commenced dropping their leaves from the crowns
downward, and before the middle of the season they were quite dead.
Stapelias, those weird daughters of the desert, are here very plentiful.
Under normal conditions they seem to shun every semblance of
moisture by growing on barren shelves of rock, collecting a scanty
soil by means of their own roots; even stapelias hang shrunken and
flaccid on their rocks, and quite half the plants examined seemed quite
dead.
It was a matter for surprise to find one of the best drought resist-
ers in a larger hypoxis. Not only did it start a fair growth of fronds,
but in shady places a few sickly flowers even appeared. This plant
has a medium sized bulb, not nearly so large, compared with its
growth above ground, as hundreds of others that perished. The bulb
is enveloped in several layers of dry, perfectly waterproof husks, and
is filled with a sticky orange-colored liquid. What made it of special
interest was the fact that it was eagerly sought after and eaten by all
kinds of animals in preference to any other plant procurable. Even
the well-fed animals in our team were very keen after it.
On the animal world the effects were just as far-reaching and
quite as noticeable. Those animals to whom escape was possible fled
early from the stricken area—man among the first. The entire middle
veld is without human inhabitant. Whites and blacks trekked north
and south along the river ways with their stock as the waters receded,
and a great many cattle have been sent on to the high country. For |
all practical purposes the north is a desert, and in many respects a
worse desert than the Kalahari. In the middle of the day it is a scene
of utter death and desolation. Not a bird sings, not an insect moves.
Over everything seems to lie the silence of absolute lifelessness—a
silence characterized by the true desert tinnitus. Elsewhere it is said
that the wind bloweth where it listeth. _Here—when there does come
a breath of air—it has a strong predilection for one direction only;
straight from the Kalahari, hot and scorching as the breath of an
DROUGHT IN WATERBERG, SOUTH AFRICA—-MARAIS. 519
oven. It seems indeed as if the desert has reached out an arm and
taken to itself for all time this great extent of once fertile country.
For four and a half jong hours each day in the coolest available spot
the temperature never sank below the century.
This terrible heat and the absence of all moisture in the atmos-
phere has some singular effects on the human body and its immediate
environment. The hair became so electrified that to stroke it lightly
with the hand evoked a crackling shower of sparks. The finger-nails
became so brittle that they were constantly breaking into the quick,
and both the hair and nails seemed to have lost all power of growth.
All celluloid substances were speedily broken up into thin laminae,
and new rubber became in a few days a useless spongy mass. The
horses’ tails swishing their sides crackled incessantly and stood out
in disheveled bushes, each hair apparently wired. When travelling
at night their flanks were surrounded by minature auroras of electric
discharges. To stroke the canvas with one’s finger generated a dis-
charge that could be felt in the hand. The big game had nearly all
disappeared. The large herds of blue wildebeeste that frequented the
rivers earlier in the year trekked down the Limpopo to the larger
pools and across into Rhodesia.
The change of habit forced upon animals by this change in their
environment was very interesting, and in many instances remarkable.
The first thing we noticed was that antbears, famished and unafraid,
were walking about in broad day. This unfortunate edentate, among
the most highly specialized of mammals as far as its food-supply is
concerned, seemed to be in desperate straits. I had here an oppor-
tunity of observing for the first time a baby erd-vark out hunting
with its mother at midday. The reason that compelled this most
nocturnal and shyest of animals to abandon so fixed a habit was imme-
diately apparent. The termites, on which they feed exclusively, live
only in hard soil. In the sand dunes there are none. This termite-
infested soil was as hard as a rock, and though the erd-vark is the
most perfect of mining machines, the hours of darkness were not
sufficient for it to reach the nests. Hence was it driven to work in
daylight too. Everywhere in the areas of red soil we found its
abandoned attempts at shaft-sinking. On another occasion we found
its cousin edentate, the armadillo, out in the morning. It was a
female and carried a baby of a few weeks old on its back, the tails
firmly interlocked.
For the same compelling reason—hunger—most noctural beasts of
prey hunted during the day as well as by night. Two leopards raided
a small Kaffir stad in the vicinity of our camp and carried off a pig
during the early afternoon. The unfortunate baboons apparently
never slept at all. Weird and ungainly skeletons they were, fearless
through starvation. In normal times no animal is more frightened
520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of the dark than the baboon. Nothing will induce them to leave
their sleeping-place before the dawn is well advanced, and they are
always careful to be safe on the krans before the approach of night.
And here all night long we heard their human-like lamentations as
they searched the river banks for food, devouring everything and
anything that was remotely entitled to the name.
Where the crocodiles had disappeared to was at first an insoluble
enigma. The few stagnant pools in the Limpopo, of course, swarmed
with them, but this could not possibly account for the numbers that
in rainy seasons rendered every pool in Magalakwen, Palala, Gaul, and
the Crocodile dangerous. A possible solution was afforded while
digging a hole in the sand for water half-way down the Magalakwen.
In the center it had to be at least 6 feet deep in order to reach the
water level, and that meant that it had to be at least 25 yards in
circumference. Four and a half feet below the surface we came
upon a little crocodile, 3 feet long, apparently dead. It was just
below the level of the damp sand. Although apparently lifeless
the body was quite limp and fresh. We also found a number of
small fish known to the bushveld boers as ‘makriel.’’ They are the
northern representative of the well-known barbel of the south.
These, too, were apparently quite lifeless. I placed the fish in a
bucket of water in direct sunlight and aerated it by pouring a stream
from a kettle at intervals from a considerable height. In 10 minutes
they began to show signs of life, and in a quarter of an hour they
were Swimming about in the bucket apparently none the worse for
their long sleep. The crocodile we revived within half an hour by
placing it in a hole scooped in the sand under the shade of a tree
and occasionally pouring a bucket of water over it. The moment it
woke to life some strange instinct seemed to compel it to burrow down
into the sand again.
Judging from the spoor and from actual observation, it seemed
that most of the animals still subsisting in this deadly waste had
learned to dig for water in the river-bed. The most efficient diggers
were the baboons and the warthogs, and my companion—an old
hanter and clever veldman—pointed out an interesting fact to me:
that every sounder of pigs was followed by a regular retinue of other
animals all day long, apparently for the purpose of using their
water-holes when thirst drove the warthogs to the river-bed to dig.
One quite unexplainable thing observed during the height of
the drought in certain parts of the Springbok Flats was that the
ordinary white ants (wingless) came out of their holes in the middle
of the day in vast numbers, and they would lie in the sun im a closely
packed ball all day long. The ground next to such a ball was so
hot that one could not stand contact with it with the bare hand for
above two or three seconds. I was anxious to ascertain the tempera-
DROUGHT IN WATERBERG, SOUTH AFRICA—MARAIS. 521
ture next to them in the direct sun and placed a registering ther-
mometer close against the ball. Unfortunately the scale went to
60° C. (140° F.) only, and the mercury rose to the top of the tube in
afew minutes. This terrific sun bath did not seem to injure their
etiolated bodies at all. In the cool of the evening they trekked
back to their underground nests.
The only animals which suffered no perceptible inconvenience al-
though they also were driven to a change of habits, were Canis pictus—-
the terrible hunting dog. In the middleveld during ordinary times
they drive during the day only, mostly in the early morning. But
now on account of the terrible heat they hunted at night, and we were
often rudely awakened by the noise of their drives. On one occasion
a troop drove a full-grown rietbuck ewe right through our camp
while we were sitting in the light of a big fire, and pulled her down
in the river-bed within 20 paces of our carts. Oa another occasion
a troop drove one of our donkey stallions 2 miles before they captured
and devoured the unfortunate animal. Judging from the threaten-
ing and fearless attitude of those encountered during the day, I
have not the least doubt that they would attack a human being if the
least indication of fear and retreat became apparent to them. We
once had the pleasure of assisting at the poisoning of a troop that had
killed a full-grown male ostrich near a neighboring camp, within a
few hundred yards of the tents. This appeared to be a new prey.
Several old Waterberg hunters assured me that they had never before
heard of wild dogs driving an ostrich, and several of them doubted
the possibility of capturing a full-grown healthy male.
The white-headed, vociferous seaeagle, which every visitor to
the East African coast will remember, if only on account of its clear
triumphant shout high up im the clouds above some estuary, has
always been a rare visitor to Waterberg during the early summer.
The late Dr. Gunning thought that they were driven inland by storms
on the coast. This is a mistake. There can be no doubt that the
real reason of their travels so far inland is the drying of the streams
which affords them a plentiful food supply easily attaimed. They
follow the course of a drying stream as long as there is any chance
of securing fish. We found a large number of these birds on
Magalakwen, more than I have ever seen together anywhere. They -
were apparently caught as in a trap by the drying of the streams
behind them. No longer were they noble denizens of the clouds,
clean feeders, stooping from the blue to plunge into the fresh clear
water—as they are in their native haunts. Here in the middleveld
they had become simply vultures, quarrelmg over fragments of
carrion, left by the wild dogs, and picking up putrid crabs and fish
along the river banks.
522 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
But if I attempt to describe even in outline what the drought
has done to the birds of Waterberg, I should need an entire issue
of the Journal. However interesting the subject may be, it cannot
be gone into on this occasion.
In the presence of this scene of death and desolation it is difficult
to cultivate a spirit of optimism. It does not seem possible that
enough water can ever again fall to damp or even to cool this parched
and cracked earth and to fill these moats of burning sand. Optimism
suggests that it is only the great tidal swing of nature exemplified:
that we are at the lowest point of the periphery, and that from now
onward it must rise steadily up to better things. But at the back
of one’s mind remains the pessimistic conviction, apparently borne
out by every fact observed, that the oscillations of the pendulum are
gradually lessening round the dead point.
HOMCOTIC REGENERATION OF THE ANTENNZ IN A
PHASMID OR WALKING-STICK.1
By H. O. Scumir-Jensen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
[With 2 plates. ]
REVIEW OF PREVIOUS RECORDS OF HOMCOSIS IN INSECTS.
The term ‘“‘Homeosis” (the assumption by one of a series of
parts of the characters proper to another member of the series), was
first used in biology in 1894 by W. Bateson(1),? who in his studies —
of variation applied it to several cases of meristic, or segmental,
variation, in which one member of a meristic series assumes the form
or peculiarities characteristic of other members in the same series.
In a special chapter of his work, Bateson summarizes all the cases
of homeosis in Arthropoda of which he could find records. The
four insect records given in this work are here referred to at some
length for chronological reasons.
(A) In 1876 G. Kraatz(2) described and feud a specimen of
Cimbex axillaris where peripheral parts of left antenna were devel-
oped into a tarsal joint with two well-developed normal claws, sepa-
rated by a well-developed plantula. The antenna was otherwise
normal, as far as where the club-shaped terminal joint should nor-
mally have been, although as a whole it was slightly smaller and
thinner than the normal right antenna. Bateson, who had examined
this specimen, had nothing to add to the description by Kraatz.
(B) In 1889 Kriechbaumer(3) secured a male specimen of Bombus
variabilis Schmkn., in Munich, which had the left antenna partially
developed as a tarsus. The first two joints of the antenna were
normal, the rest were abnormal. From the apex of the second
abnormal joint arose a shortened, reddish brown, shiny joint bearing
two quite normal claws similar to those on the tarsi.
Bateson further records the following two cases, but remarks that
the first must be regarded as doubtful until a more detailed descrip-
tion is made, and that the second may not be a case of homeosis
at all.
Carausius (Dixippus) morosus.’”? Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Dansk naturhistorisk Forening i Kjgben-
havn. Vol. 65, pp. 113-134. Copenhagen, 1913.
2 Numerical references are to bibliography at end of the paper.
023
524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
(C) In 1840 Saage(4) received from one of his pupils a male Prionus
corarus Fabr., with an abnormal thorax. The mesothorax was
unchitinized and instead of the elytra carried a pair of fully developed
legs, pointing upward and backward and inserted in the exact place
where the elytra normally are attached. The metathorax carried
normal wings (ale). The abdomen was no more chitinized than is
usual on the upper side under the wings. When the insect attempted
to fly, it moved the upwardly pointed legs simultaneously with the
wings. It was otherwise normal except that it lacked the scutellum,
and that the prothorax carried only two spines.
(D) In 1887 N. M. Richardson (5) reared a male Zygzna filipendulae
which had five wings but only five legs. The specimen was collected
as pupa together with about 700 others in the neighborhood of Cam-
bridge. The posterior left leg was apparently entirely absent and its
place was occupied by a fifth wing which was much smaller than the
normal hindwings, slightly folded, and differing in color, but in no
wise misshapen. ‘The wing was supposed to have been immovable
in the live insect. Bateson(1) and Sharp both examined this speci-
men but could not reach a definite conclusion as to the exact point
of the attachment of the extra wing, because they were not permitted
to injure the insect by removing the wing or the thick hair covering
around its base. Sharp was inclined to believe that the wing was
attached along the length of the posterior coxa and described the
specimen, on this basis, as an abnormality, which carried a reduced
wing instead of a normal leg on its posterior coxa; but he noted that
a careful examination might give quite a different result. Bateson
reproduced two drawings by Richardson which show the specimen
from the underside and the enlarged wing.
Besides these four cases of homeeosis in insects, Bateson described
a series of cases in Crustacea, but it would carry me too far to discuss
these interesting cases or the numerous others since recorded. I
shall make an exception, however, of the experimental work by
Herbst, which I will here briefly mention.
Herbst(6), who sought to ascertain the réle which utility plays in
the regeneration, asked himself the following questions: Do the eyes
of these Crustacea regenerate? and if so, would they also do so in
darkness where these organs would serve no purpose and where their
regeneration would consequently be superfluous? His results,
reached through experimentation, were briefly as follows:
If one of the stalked eyes of a Paleemon, Palinurus, Sicyonia and
others. is removed, it regenerates as an eye. If, on the other hand,
the stalk is removed together with the eye, an antenna-like organ
will in some cases be regenerated. This very peculiar difference in
the regeneration proved to be due to the fact that the ganglion
opticum in these Crustacea is located in the eye stalk and hence was
REGENERATION OF ANTENN2—SCHMIT-JENSEN. 525
removed together with that. In such species as have the ganglion
opticum located nearer the brain and where it consequently is not
injured by the removal of the eye stalk, such antenna-like regenerations
were never obtained, but an eye was always formed to take the place
of the one which was removed. By comparing these regenerations
with the normal appendages, Herbst concluded that they could only
be regarded as antenna-like formations, which in structure nearest
resembled the first pair of antenne (the antennule).
Herbst did not consider these peculiar regenerations to be a result
of atavism, and founded this opinion for one thing on the result of
the following interesting experiment:
If the ball-shaped apex of a stalked eye in certain species of Pale-
mon and Palinurus is removed, and the ganglion opticum is then
pulled out through the wound by the aid of a pair of forceps, an
antenna-like regeneration on the eye stalk results.
Herbst believes it is thereby proved that the same cells in the stalk
may regenerate into a new eye or into a very different structure, an
antennula, according to whether or not it is influenced by the gang-
lion opticum.
In 1910 H. Przibram(7) brought together a large number of
recorded instances of homeceosis and added a few new cases. It will
suffice here to mention that he described and in part figured a series
of cases in Lepidoptera (Zygena, Cucullia, Adela) and a single case
in the coleopterous genus Prionus. He further tabulated all the
cases, both in Crustacea and in insects, in a comprehensive schematic
form.
The cases which are of special interest in the present work are later
referred to in detail in this article.
It is of great interest to note the regularity, which Przibram pointed
out, in the large number of apparently quite unconnected facts which
are classed under the name homecosis. He endeavors thereby to
give a better understanding of these phenomena and to find a basis
for experimental work, without which it would be hardly possible to
prove the hypotheses advanced about the formation of homeotic
forms.
In 1896 Wheeler(8) divided these phenomena into (a) substitu-
tional and (6) adventitious homeosis. Przibram adopted this divi-
sion and added a third, (c) the transpositional (translation) homeeosis.
These three kinds of homeosis are characterized as follows:
(a) Substitutional Homeosis.—(Wheeler: ‘‘substitutional homceo-
sis.’ Przibram: ‘‘Ersatz H.,” substitution, Homeosis s. str.) This
form consists in the supplanting of one appendage (‘‘Gliedmass’’)
by another which normally belongs to a different body segment.
526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
(b) Adventitious Homceosis.—(Wheeler: ‘‘redundant or adventi-
tious homeosis.’’ Przibram: Zusatz-H., Adventive H., Hetero-
topie.) This form consists in the addition of a formation, which
normally belongs on another segment, at a point which is already
supplied with a normal appendage.
(c) Transpositional Homeosis.—(Przibram: ‘‘ Versatz H.,”’ Trans-
lation, Heterophorie.) This consists in the transposition of append-
ages which are absent in their normal positions to points on another
segment.
Regeneration is given as the cause of substitutional homeosis;
this cause seems definitely proved in many of the cases and is pre-
sumably true for the other cases also.
As the cause of adventitious and transpositional homeeosis, inher-
ited variations and embryonic abnormalities both seem to play a
part.
Substitutional homeeosis alone has a bearing on the following and
I shall therefore only consider this form and shall briefly mention a
few of the rules, which Przibram has proved for this kind of homeo-
sis: Less specialized appendages always supplant the more special-
ized if these are removed. As the jointed appendages in the Arthro-
pods become less specialized the farther back they are found on the
body, this means that the homeotically changed appendages resem-
ble the normal appendages on the succeeding joint. This rule does
not hold for the wings, where the opposite is true; a hindwing will
thus always be supplanted by a forewing; the opposite has never
been observed.
Because regeneration has been proved to be the cause of substi-
tutional homeeosis in Crustacea and must be supposed to be the cause
also in insects, this kind of homeosis may be regarded as an extreme
regenerative Hypotypy.
In the last part of his paper Przibram calls attention to the char-
acteristic, striking tendency to homeceosis in certain genera of Crus-
tacea and insects. Of eight cases within the Lepidoptera, six were
found in the genus Zygena. All recorded cases in the Coleoptera
(2+1) were in the genus Prionus, and out of six cases in Crustacea
five were in the genus Cancer, This is clearly more than accidental.
It is still more remarkable that this tendency can be traced within
the different kinds of homeosis; thus only five cases are known
where a hindwing has been replaced by a forewing; and four of
these cases were in the genus Zygena, while the fifth was in the
closely related genus Adela. Transpositional homeeosis is only known
in the genus Prionus and similar proportions are found in the
Crustacea.
Przibram intends to continue his studies on homeosis experimen-
tally and solicits in his paper material of Prionus, pointing out that as a
REGENERATION OF ANTENNZ—SCHMIT-JENSEN. 527
matter of course these species should be chosen for these experi-
ments in which the tendency to homeosis is found in nature.
In the ‘‘Zoologischer Jahresbericht,” from 1891 to 1911, I have
found the following records of homceosis, which seem to have been
overlooked by Przibram in his work(7).
Bateson(9) described a specimen of Asellus aquaticus which had
the left antennula supplanted by a mandible.
Shelford (10) found a cockroach (probably allied to Panesthia sinuata
Saus), which by dissection proved to have the right maxilla sup-
planted by a hard chitinized structure which superficially looked like
a mandible. The left maxilla and both mandibles were normal.
By closer examination it was found that the abnormal right ‘‘max-
ila’? was made up of four immovable joints. Shelford, without
drawing any definite conclusions about the nature of the abnor-
mality, mentions that another species of Panesthia has been found
tO possess segmented mandibles in the embryonic stage.
Osburn(11) describes a male Syrphus arcuatus Fallén (later identi-
fied as L. perplecus Osburn), in which the large compound eye was
absent on the left side; a third antenna was found on this side of
the head behind the normal antenna and entirely separated from this,
inserted in a separate fossa. The extra antenna was nearly normal
but was somewhat undersized and lacked the dorsal seta, the arista.
Osburn mentions the experiments of Herbst with the Crustacea and
supposes that the eye of the Syrphus had been injured during the
metamorphosis and had been supplanted by the antenna.
Przibram (Experimental-Zoologie, 2. Regeneration) later mentions
the following case, observed by Tornier, as a probable case of homee-
osis; Tornier(12) cut off the right antenna on a number of larve of
Tenebrio molitor, which seemed nearly ready for pupation; five of
these larvee pupated seven days after the amputation and the pupe
showed a beginning regeneration of the antenne. Four of these
pup developed into imagoes with normal, regenerated antenne,
but the fifth imago showed the following peculiar regeneration:
on the tip of the remaining basal part of the antenna, which showed
the wound of the amputation on its fourth joint, developed a claw-
jike formation, which was immovably fixed on the antenna without
any joint.
KYrizenecky has in a short paper(13) criticized one of the cases of
transpositional homeeosis recorded by Przibram, but this criticism
has no bearing on the present paper.
Before I give my own observations I wish to bring together from
Przibram’s tabulation(7) such records of homeosis as are of special
interest in connection with the present paper, namely, those in
which tarsuslike formations have been found on the antenne.
528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The cases of tarsus-bearing antenne in Cimbex axillaris and Bom-
bus variabilis, Schmkn., recorded, by Kraatz(2) and Kriechbaumer(3) ,
have already been referred to at length in the foregoing.
Klemensiewicz(14) briefly mentions a male specimen of a Zygena
species, which had tarsal claws on the tip of both antennz; on the right
antenna were found two claws, on the left only one was apparent.
Doumerec(15) has described an abnormal antenna in a specimen
of Bombus agrorum Latreille. As this may be a case of a slightly
developed tarsal joint on the antenna, it has been included in Przi-
bram’s tabulations, but with a question mark.
The above-mentioned cases of homeeosis, which are all classed by
Przibram as substitutional, agree in having the tarsal formation
occur on a stalk of antennal joints. In this they agree also with the
spontaneous case in Carausius, which is described below.
In this connection must also be mentioned a male Tenthredopsis
nassata, var., described and figured by Jacobs(16) which, besides the
normal antenna on the right side of the head, carried a peculiar
joined appendage which is inserted beside the second antennal joint
on the basal antennal joint. Jacobs does not express any opinion on
the nature of this appendage. Przibram places the case in his tabu-
lations in the following noncommittal manner: Under the headings
‘‘Morphologischer Wert des abnormen Gebildes”’ and ‘‘Ersatz-,
Zusatz-, oder Versatz-Homeeosis,”’ this case is placed relatively as
‘Fuss ?”’ and ‘‘Zusatz?”’
Reference must finally be made to the Tenebrio recorded by Tornier
and mentioned in the foregoing.
ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS.
After this review of the literature on homeosis in insects, I shall
now discuss my own observations on the homeotic regeneration of the
antenne in a Phasmid, Carausius (Dixippus) morosus. These
observations may be of some interest because, so far as I know, it is
the first time that the development of a typical homeeosis in insects
has been referable to regeneration.
The first cause of my studies was a spontaneous case of substitu-
tional homceosis, found in a reared lot of this Phasmid, which is
commonly utilized by students of insect biology. This interesting
species, whose home is India, propagates itself almost entirely par-
thenogenetically, at least in captivity.
On this spontaneous case of homeeosis I shall record the following
notes:
October 16, 1911, a number of half-grown larvee of Carausius were
selected for some regeneration experiments. The lot, which con-
sisted of about 50 female larve, had been somewhat neglected with
regard to fresh food (rose leaves) and was therefore badly injured
through cannibalism. This always occurs when a large number of
REGENERATION OF ANTENNZ—SCHMIT-JENSEN, 529
these insects are reared together, for the specimens, which havejust cast
their skin, become the victims of cannibalism, even if the food supply
is kept fresh. Such was the case with the present lot. A number of
the specimens were mutilated, being deprived more or less of their
legs and antenne, and it was difficult to find a perfect specimen.
One specimen especially attracted my notice. Its right antenna had
been bitten off nearly to the base, and on the end of the remaining
stump was a small Jump, which, to the unaided eye, appeared as a
ball of antennal joints, which had grown together. As it would be
of interest to observe how this formation would come through the
moltings, this specimen was selected among others for a series of
regeneration experiments, and its left front leg was amputated at the
trochanter. At this date the larva was about 5 centimeters long; it
was fed on fresh leaves of English ivy.
On October 24, 1911, it molted. The cast skin was senfotihatinitells
devoured Pinaceae The amputated leg was not regenerated, but
the abnormal right antenna had undergone a very interesting change;
the ‘‘ball”’ on the end of the antennal stump had developed into a
distinct tarsus-like jomt with large empodium and with two weak
but distinct claws. This peculiar formation was bluish green, which
is the color of the blood of the insect, in contrast to the body and legs,
which are light green.
Figure 1 (pl. 1),is reproduced from a microphotograph, and shows the
head of this specimen, enlarged 7 to 8 times. This photograph, as
well as those for figures 2 and 6, was taken after the specimen had
been strongly anesthetized with ether (anesthesia by chloroform
often produces autotomy of the legs, if the specimen is touched even
slightly).
The considerable difference in the two antenne is very apparent
from figure 1. On the abnormal antenna is found, nearest the head,
the large basal jot, which has the shape of a cucumber seed, and
which carries a short thin stem, consisting of four undoubted antennal
joints. This stem carries an oblique, nearly oval joint, thickened at
the apex and pointed toward the normal antenna. The claw-
bearing joint is attached laterally to this irregular joint, which has
several small bud-formed elevations. The claw-bearing joint is
nearly spindle-shaped and carries apically a well developed empo-
dium and a pair of weakly developed claws, which lie close to the
dorsal surface of the empodium, one on each side of it. The normal
relations, in size and position, of the empodium and the claws on the
tarsus may be seen in figure 5.
Comparison between the abnormal and the normal dattdnnd shows
the different proportions of the parts. The right basal joint is some-
what shorter than the left; the jomts which form the stem in the
73176°—smM 1914——84
530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
abnormal antenna are considerably thinner than the corresponding
joints in the normal antenna; the basal attachment of the right sec-
ond antennal joint is much narrower than in the left, normal, antenna.
The next molt occurred on November 18, 1911. This time I
succeeded in saving the cast skin, which has been preserved in alcohol.
At this molt the insect became imago. This stage is reached after
six molts. On December 3 began the parthenogenetic egg laying.
In this stage, the antennal tarsal joint assumed a somewhat dif-
ferent shape, as may be seen in figure 2. The empodium had become
reduced to a small round knob, while the claws had grown in size and
were curved downward with strongly chitinized brown points. On
the underside of the irregular joint, which carries the claw-like joint,
are found four empodium-like protuberances, placed 2 and 2, and
separated by deep furrows. Comparison of this case with similar
ones in the other material proves that these protuberances correspond
exactly to the paired plantula found on the underside of the first,
second, third, and fourth tarsal joints. This irregular joimt with its
two pairs of plantule is possibly produced by the growing together of
two undeveloped tarsal joints.
The length of the abnormal antenna in this full-grown stage is
about 6 millimeters. The antenna of a normal imago is about 36
millimeters.
Several details in this spontaneous case of homceosis indicated
that it was a regeneration of the right antenna. For example, the
thinness of the abnormal antenna in comparison with the stout
normal antenne—a difference in size which is often found after
regeneration. The connection between the basal joint and the small
second joint indicated that the regeneration probably had its origin
from the basal joint. Here also should be considered the conditions
under which the Jarva had lived among a lot of more or less mutilated
comrades with definite cannibalistic inclinations.
I therefore concluded that the right antenna had at some time been
bitten off just at the end of the basal joint, or rather a jittle within the
end of this joint, and that it had thereafter regenerated into the very
peculiar shape above described.
Hence it was natural to begin the regeneration experiment with
amputations in the region of the first and second joint and especially
in the suture between these joints. I was unfortunately prevented
from giving the time and attention desired to these experiments, and
was forced to make the amputations by hand with fine scissors,
without the aid of a dissecting microscope. By this primitive method
I could not always make the amputation just where it was intended—
for example, exactly between two joints; often either a little too much
or else not quite enough was removed. This condition was of course
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Schmit-Jensen. PLATE 1.
1 2
Fig. 1.—Spontaneous case of substitutional homoeosis in antenna of larva of Carausius (Dixippus)
morosus. Head from dorsal side. Microphotograph taken shortly after the eedysis, October 24,
1911; magnified 7-8 times.
Fic. 2.—Head of same individual as fig. 1, from dorsal side. Microphotograph taken shortly after
the ecdysis, November 18, 1911; magnified 6-7 times.
5
i
4
Fic. 3.—Experimental homceotic formation in a nearly full-grown larva of Carausius. The regenera-
tion, seen from the dorsal side, consists of a claw joint and three small, short tarsal joints without
distinct plantula. It grew from the basal joint and thus belongs to group A. Microphotograph
from balsam-mount; magnified about 16 times. -
Fig. 4.—Distal end of a young regeneration of a leg of a Carausius larva. Microphotograph from
dorsal side; balsam-mount; magnified about 16 times.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Schmit-Jensen. PLATE 2.
Fic. 5.—Normal tarsus of an imago of Carausius from dorsal side. Of the first tarsal joint only the
halfisshown. Balsam-mount. Microphotograph; magnified about 16 times.
6 th
Fic. 6.—Experimental homoeosis in half-grown larva of Carausius. Anterior part from ventral side.
Described under group B. Microphotograph; magnified 5-6 times.
Fic. 7.—Anterior part of the body of same specimen as fig. 6, seen from dorsal side. Imago. Micro-
photograph; magnified 5-6 times.
REGENERATION OF ANTENN2Z—SCHMIT-JENSEN. 531
unfortunate and somewhat lessens the value of the experiments, but
as they nevertheless brought some new results, I shall here make
record of them. ;
The experiments began in November, 1911, and lasted until
March, 1912. As material I used 50 specimens of newly hatched
larvee of the Carausius and about 60 halfgrown larve, all issued from
unfertilized eggs. The amputations were made by the unaided eye
with a pair of fine scissors; the newly hatched larvee were anesthetized
by ether, as it was difficult otherwise to handle these small, delicate
insects. In most cases the amputation was made as exactly as possible
in the suture between the basal joint and the second joint, in others
both these joints were preserved. In one lot of the specimens the
right antenna was removed, in another lot the left, and in a third lot
both antennz were removed. Fresh ivy leaves were used as food and
these were daily sprinkled with water. Most of the specimens of
this hardy insect thrived well under this treatment, though it must be
admitted that the mortality was considerably above the normal—all
cases of cannibalism excepted. It was particularly the individuals
with both antennz removed which had difficulty in surviving.
The results of these amputations could be surveyed after a few
months. In some cases the insects died, in others no regeneration
took place, or at most a small bud appeared on the place of amputa-
tion, but a third lot showed regeneration with the formation of not
only a single claw joint, but also a series of connected tarsal joints,
and in a few of the specimens an additional tibia-like joint.
Figure 3 illustrates such a regeneration in an imago. It will be
seen that there is a large claw joint and three other tarsal joints.
Comparison with figure 4, which illustrates a newly regenerated tar-
sus, formed after the amputation of a leg, proved that it is truly a
tarsal formation.
Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the most perfect regenerations in which,
in addition to the tarsus, a tibia-like part has been formed. These
are described below more in detail.
A striking difference between the regenerations I produced in this
experiment and the spontaneous case, described above, is that the
former are not placed on a stalk of antennal joints, but are emitted
directly from the basal joint, or from the second joint. The regenera-
tions developed more and more with each succeeding molt, especially
in the young larve, which had most changes of skin. The simi-
larity between the tarsus-like antennal joints and the true tarsus
became gradually greater as the formations grew larger.
The steps in the development of these regenerations are about as
follows: The first molt after the amputation rarely produces any real
new growth; the wound is grown together and may show a short
532 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
bud-shaped outgrowth. After the second molt regenerations are pro-
duced consisting of a short stem of undifferentiated tarsal joints and
a slightly developed but unmistakable claw joint with its character-
istic parts. At this time, the regenerations have not yet reached the
differentiation shown in figure 3. At the following molts, the tarsus
is further developed; the joints become differentiated and each de-
velops its pair of plantula. The difference in the size of the joints
becomes apparent, with the first tarsal joint considerably longer (com-
pare fig. 7) than the following, quite as in the normal tarsus. A large
tibia-like joint was further developed in four specimens between the
point of amputation on the second antennal joint and the tarsal joints.
My material of these more or less developed homeotic regenera-
tions includes 20 cases. In all these the nature of the regeneration
is determined by the presence of a claw-bearing joint or, where this
is absent, by the presence of joints supplied with plantula. I have
not attempted to diagnose as either antennal or tarsal joints a large
number of cases where the regeneration consisted of a short stem
of undifferentiated joits, and these cases are consequently not in-
cluded in the tabulation of the material.
In order to get a comprehensive survey of the material, it is neces-
sary first to note its several imperfections. Specimens of different
ages and on which different amputations had been made (within the
first and second antennal joints) have been reared together after the
amputations. The method of amputation was, as mentioned, imper-
fect and it is therefore in many cases impossible to determine with
certainty the exact place of amputation, and thus draw conclusions
with respect to the influence of the place of amputation on the nature
of the regeneration. At present it is impossible to determine the age
of each specimen at the time of amputation, a factor which is of the
greatest importance in the development of the regenerations, as these
are dependent upon the molts like the rest of the organism.
However, the place of amputation can be determined approxi-
mately in most cases. As all of the amputations in these experiments
were made on or between the first and second antennal joints, I
have relied in these determinations upon the relative size of the
regenerated part and the joint from which it has grown. Due to
its larger diameter, the second joint covers the entire apex of the
basal jot, while the more slender regenerations are generally at-
tached with a much smaller base to the broad basal joint. A com-
parison with a remaining normal antenna is naturally a considerable
help in these determinations (pl. 1; figs. 1, 2).
In the arrangement of the material, I have given special attention
to the insertion place, structure, and size of the regenerated appendages.
The material may be divided into two groups, according to the
place of amputation:
REGENERATION OF ANTENNE—SCHMIT-JENSEN. 535
Group A.—In this group the amputations were made in the suture
between the first and second antennal joints, or possibly encroach-
ing somewhat on the first joint.
All the regenerations in this group, which includes 14 out of 20
cases, are small, only 0.5 to 2 millimeters in length. The number of
joints varies from one to four. The regenerated part is often badly
crippled, curved, crooked, or spiral. Most frequently one dispropor-
tionally large claw joint is found together with two or three small,
plantula-bearing tarsal joints. A claw joint may often be found in
this group without the presence of plantula on the other joints and
vice versa.
Nearly all the cases in this group are in imagines, hence the possi-
bility is not entirely excluded, that the defective regeneration is due
to the fact that the amputation was made in a later stage and that
therefore fewer molts have intervened. Considering the dwarfed pro-
portions of most of these formations I regard it however, as improb-
able that further developments could have taken place through inter-
mediate forms to the very perfect regenerations found in group B.
Group B.—In this group the amputations were made in the suture
between the second and the third antennal joint or possibly os
ing somewhat on the second joint.
While all the cases within the first group are of nearly similar
structure and degree of development, this second group, which con-
tains a minority consisting of six cases, must be divided into two
subgroups, according to their different composition.
In the first of these subgroups, which includes four cases, fall the
largest and highest developed regenerations within the material under
observation. ‘These consist each of four well-developed tarsal joints
and one large unjointed tibia-like segment, inserted between the
place of amputation and the first tarsal joint. The most striking
of these cases is shown at different stages in figures 6 and 7. A
description of this interesting regeneration will explain the structure
of these specimens better than figures.
With the second antennal joint, which presumably has been partly
amputated, as a base, is found a tibia-like joint, 2 centimeters long,
which is constricted at its base and gradually becomes thicker out-
wardly. It possesses longitudinal ridges, covered with very small,
stiff, dark brown hairs, exactly as found in the normal tibia. This
character together with the position of the joint, next to the tarsal
joints, presumably justifies the characterization “tibia-like.” It
should be mentioned that the antennal joints have only scattered hairs.
Connected by a joint with this short tibia-like structure is the long,
slender first tarsal jomt, which is followed by two short tarsal joints;
these three joints possess on their plantal surfaces each a well devel-
oped pair of plantula. On the fourth well-developed tarsal joint is
534 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
found a large empodium and two strong curved claws. The entire
regenerated part is about 8 millimeters long, of which the tarsal
part measures 3.7 mm. The normal tarsus in an imago measures
with its five joints about 6 mm.
Of the other specimens within this subgroup, two were nearly full
grown and one was half grown.
The other subgroup contains only two regenerations, both found in
full-grown specimens. They differ from the other examples within
this group mainly by the absence of the tibia-like segment. They
consist only of four well-developed tarsal joints, which in size are
equal to the corresponding joints in the cases described above.
It is possible that these regenerations under favorable conditions
might develop further and acquire the tibia-like segment, which alone
differentiates them from the other cases in this group.
It should be mentioned in this connection that the antennal tarsi,
like the regenerated tarsi on the legs, at most consist of four joints,
while the normal tarsus is five-jointed.
Group C.—This group is not represented among the material pro-
duced in these experiments, but contains only the spontaneous regen-
eration, described in the foregoing. This case is sharply differentiated
from the types just described by the possession of a stem of antenna-
like joints. Nowhere else in my material have I found any case in
which I have been able to detect the presence of a stem of antennal
joints bearing the tarsal joints.
Another division of the material into two groups may be made—
for example, on the different composition of the regenerated append-
ages; the first group containing such specimens which consist only
of tarsal joints and the other including such which possess a tibia-like
joint in addition.
Such a division will not coincide with the first division made on the
different places of amputation, on account of the grouping within the
group B, above defined. This may be merely a result of the manner
in which the amputations were made and of insufficient material.
It has already been noted that further experimentation may prove
that the two subdivisions within group B may represent the same
type in different stage of development.
With regard to a possible relation between the structure of the
regeneration and the place of amputation, I shall confine myself to
giving the general impression I received during my studies: Amputa-
tions across the basal joint or between this and the second joint produce
dwarfed, slightly developed homeeotic regenerations, while amputa-
tions across the second joint or between the second and the third
joints cause strong well-developed homeeotic regenerations. It is
possible that quite different results may be reached by more careful
experimental studies of larger material, which shall obviate all such
REGENERATION OF ANTENN#Z—SCHMIT-JENSEN. 5385
disturbing factors as occurred in my material (the different ages of the
larve, the primitive method of amputation, etc.).
Since the termination of these experiments with regeneration, I have
made numerous different amputations, by the aid of very fine scissors
and a dissecting microscope, on larve of Carausius, which had been
anesthetized with ether. Among the several places which I selected
for amputation in these series of experiments may be mentioned the
place where the antenna is inserted on the head, the middle of the
basal joints, the end of the second and the third joint and others.
These amputations can be easily made with considerable precision.
I was unfortunately forced to abandon these series of experiments,
as well as other preliminary, similar experiments with two other
Phasmids, Bacillus Rossiz Fabr. and Diapheromera femorata Say, be-
fore the regeneration had taken place.
More thorough experimental work on this problem on a large scale
is badly needed, but interesting aid to the understanding of these
phenomena would surely result from historical study also. In this
connection must be mentioned the gratifying accord between the
experiment and the anatomical study in a similar field by C. Herbst,
which has been referred to in the foregoing.
Leaving herewith my experimental results to be further worked out
by others, I shall in conclusion briefly mention such references in the
literature on the Phasmide, as are of interest in this connection.
There are not many, as apparently little work has been done with
antenna-regeneration in this group of insects, in which the study of
regeneration at one time caused particular interest.
R. dé Sinéty (17) has amputated the antenna in Leptynia attenuata
with the result, that regenerations were produced with 2 to 4 joints.
In one case, where one antenna was completely removed, a small four-
jointed antenna was regenerated, in which the basal joint was only
half as long as in a normal antenna.
R. Godelmann(18) amputated the antennz in Basillus Rossii Fabr.
Of the results he only mentions that the regenerations had a slow
growth and never reached even approximately normal size.
Otto Meissner(19) who has done considerable work with the biology
of Dizippus morosus Br., briefly mentions that regenerated antenn
often are shorter than the normal, but that they may contain never-
theless the normal number of joints.
It is apparent that none of these authors has observed homeotic
regeneration.’ |
received valuable help in this work and who, for example, placed the library of the histological-
embryological laboratory in the Copenhagen University at my disposal.
536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
_
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
. BATESON, WILLIAM: Materials for the Study of Variation. London, 1894, pp. 85, 146.
. KRAATZ, G.: Ueber eine merkwiirdige Monstrositit bei Cimbex axillaris (Hymenopt.). Deutsch.
Entomol. Zeitschr., vol. 20, 1876, p. 377. Compare Bateson (1, p. 147).
. KRIECHBAUMER: Hochst merkwiirdige Missbildung eines Fiihlers von Bombus variabilis Schmkn.
Entomol. Nachrichten, Berlin, vol. 15, 1889, p. 281.
. SAAGE: Entomologische Zeitung herausg.Entomol. Vereine zu Stettin., vol. 1, 1840, p. 48.
. RICHARDSON, N. M.: Substitution of a wing for aleg in Zygzna fiiipendulae * * *, The Entomolo-
gist’s Monthly Mag., vol. 25, 1888-89, p. 289. Compare Bateson (1, p. 149).
. Herpst, Curt: Ueber Regeneration von antenneniihnlichen Organen an Stelle von Augen. Arch. f.
Entwick.-Mech., vol. 2, 1896, pp. 544-558.
2. Mitteilung. Versuche mit Sicyonia sculpta M. Edw. Vierteljahrschrift Naturforsch. Gesellsch,
Ziirich., vol. 41, 1896, pp. 435-454.
3. Mitteilung. Weitere Versuche mit total exstirpirten Augen. Arch. f. Entw.-Mech., vol. 9, 1899,
pp. 215-257.
4. Mitteilung. Versuche mit theilweise abgeschnittenen Augen. Ibid., pp. 257-292.
5. Mitteilung. Weitere Beweise fiir die Abhingigkeit der Qualitit des Regenerates von den nervoésen
Centralorganen, ibid., vol. 13, 1901, pp. 486-447.
6. Mitteilung. Die Bewegungsreaktionen, welche durch Reizung der heteromorphen Antennula
ausgelést werden. Arch. f. Entw.-Mech., vol. 30, part 2, pp. 1-14.
Ueber die formativen Beziehungen zwischen Nervensystem und Regenerationsprodukt. Zeitsch. f.
Naturwissensch., vol. 74, p. 134, 1901. (Tagbl. 5. Int. Zool. Kongr.)
. PRZIBRAM, Hans: Die Homeeosis bei Arthropoden. Arch. f. Entw.-Mech., vol. 29, 1910, pp. 587-615
9 text figs., plates 19-21. (Bibliography.)
. WHEELER, W.M.: An Antenniform Extra Appendage in Dilophus tibialis. Loew. Arch. f. Entw.-
Mech., vol. 3, 1896, pp. 261-268 (see p. 267).
. BATESON, W.: On a Case of Homeosis in a Crustacean of the Genus Asellus: Antennule replaced
by a Mandible. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1900, p. 268.
. SHELFORD, R.: A Case of Homceotie Variation in a Cockroach. Transact. Entomol. Soc., London,
1907. Proceedings, pp. xxxiii-xxxiv.
. OSBURN, R. C.: The Replacement ofan Eye by an Antenna inan Insect. Science (n.s.), vol. 27, 1908,
p. 67. Journ. New York Entom. Soc., vol. 18, 1910, pp. 62-66.
. TORNIER, G.: Bein- und Fiihlerregeneration bei Kafern und ihre Begleiterscheinungen. Zool. Anz.,
vol. 24, 1901, pp. 634-664 (see pp. 646-647).
. KRiZENECKY, J.: Ueber die Homceosis bei Coleopteren. Einige Bemerkungen * * * Zoolog.
Anz., vol. 39, 1912, pp. 579-582.
. KLEMENSIEWICZ, S.: Merkwiirdige Fiihlerbildung bei einer Zygzna-Species. Illustrierte Zeitschrift
f. Entomologie, vol. 5, 1900, pp. 168-169.
. DouMERC: Sur quelques monstruosités entomologiques * * * Annales de la Société Entomolo-
gique de France, vol. 3, 1834, p. 171 (see p. 175).
. JacoBs: Antenne complémentaire chez la Tenthredopsis nassata 3 var. Comptes-Rendus des Séances,
Soc. Entomol. de Belgique, 1881, pp. xcvi-xcvVii.
. SINETY, RoB. DE: Recherches sur Ja biologie et V’anatomie des Phasmes. Thése. Lierre, 1901
(see p. 21).
. GODELMANN, R.: Beitrige zur Kenntnis von Bacillus Rossii Fabr. * * * Arch. f. Entw.-Mech.,
vol. 12, 1901, pp. 265-301 (see p. 277).
. MEISSNER, OTTO: Biologische Beobachtungen an Ditippus morosus (Phasm. Orth.). Entomologische
Zeitschr. Frankfurt a. M.,1911.
LATENT LIFE: ITS NATURE AND ITS RELATIONS TO
CERTAIN THEORIES OF CONTEMPORARY BIOLOGY.
By Paut BecquEREL, Sc. D.
I. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Although the study of latent life holds an unimportant place in
most of the standard works on biology, yet it is none the less one of
the most widespread phenomena of the living kingdom. We meet
it everywhere that germs exist. And since germs are continually
emitted in considerable quantity, even more by plants than by ani-
mals, there is not a piece of ground on which we tread nor the smallest
quantity of air that we breathe which is free from them.
Not only can the spores of fungi, bacteria, algz, mosses, and of
ferns, the myriads of grains of pollen from flowers, the seeds of
phanerogams, the cysts of infusoria, the eggs of certain crustaceans
and insects, pass into a state of latent life, but likewise animal tissues,
and even some perfectly developed forms of life called reviviscents,
as certain species of alge, mosses, lichens, rotifers, arctisca, and
nematodes.
In that condition of repose, these germs or beings may escape the
harsh necessities of active life, better resist dryness, cold, or heat, are
more easily carried away by the currents, winds, or other causes,
finally to await for several years the return of conditions favorable
to their development.
II. THEORIES AS TO THE NATURE OF LATENT LIFE.
But what is the true nature of latent life? Is it apparent death in
which all the vital functions are suspended; is it a relaxed aérobic
life demanding gaseous exchanges with the atmosphere, or is it a °
very sluggish, intercellular anaérobic life? These are questions which
since the beginning of the eighteenth century have engrossed the
attention of eminent naturalists, have incited numerous experiments,
and which at this moment provoke interesting controversies.
We owe to Leeuwenhoek (1701), the founder of micrography, the
first observations on reviviscent animals, the arctisca or water bears,
and rotifers of the roofs and gutters. That author observed with
1 Translated by permission from Revue générale des Sciences pures et appliquées, vol. 25, No. 11, Paris,
June 15, 1914,
537
538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
great astonishment that these little beings may remain dried up for
five months amid moss and dust without showing the slightest trace
of life and then, when moistened, resume their vital functions.
In 1743 Needham made analogous observations upon the nematodes
from musty wheat. But the most interesting experiments upon
these organisms have been chiefly those of Baker and Spallanzani.
Baker, working with nematodes (anguillula), succeeded in bringing
them to life 28 years after their desiccation. Since we know that
the life cycle of these minute beings does not exceed 10 months, it is
thus proved that their life has been strikingly prolonged by this
procedure.
On the other hand, Spallanzani verified the observations made by
Leeuwenhoek on the rotifers. After having dried and preserved them
for three years, he found that they returned to life when placed in
water. All these experiments amazed the public of that period. It
was at that time believed that these beings had the power of resus-
citation. The extraordinary properties of these animalcule having
been doubted in the nineteenth century, Doyére and Davaine, from
1840 to 1860, studied the subject very critically. Their experiments,
confirmed by Gavarret, but bitterly contested by Pouchet and Penne-
tier, were the subject of very spirited discussions. In fact, at that
time two rival theories, vitalism and organicism, were sharing the
approbation of physiologists. Some, and they were in the majority,
considered life as a mysterious principle of action which animates
matter and sets it in motion. The others saw in life only the result
of the organization of a special complex substance, merely the mani-
festation of the activity of organized matter.
In order to show the soundness of their conception of the question,
those holding the latter view called attention to the phenomena pre-
sented by the revivified animals, notably in the experiments of
Doyére and Davaine, in which they believed that they had seen a
very clear example of an arrest of the functions of an organism and
of their startmg again under the action of a physical phenomenon,
namely, the imbibition of water.
Organized matter therefore needed only a vital principle to resume
activity. In the Société de Biologie the strife between the two fac-
tions was so earnest that to put an end to discussion it was decided
to repeat the experiments before a committee of scientists which
included Balbiani, Brown-Séquard, Dareste, Guillemin, and Robin,
and was presided over by Broca.
Before this committee it was then established: First, that there is
no appreciable life in the inert body of reviviscent animals; second,
that the bodies preserve their revivifying property in conditions
incompatible with every kind of functioning life, as for example, for
LATENT LIFE—BECQUEREL. 539
82 days in a dry vacuum, and in free air for 30 minutes at a temper-
ature of 100° C.
Some time later, Paul Bert in his researches upon the inherent
vitality of tissues, corroborated this point of view by some interesting
experiments. He showed that rats’ tails dried for eight days, then
kept for two hours in a temperature of 99° C., and grafted four days
afterwards, resumed their vitality at the end of a month. About
two years later, Claude Bernard, in his admirable lessons on the
phenomena of life common to plants and animals, resumed the study
of reviviscence and applied it to the vegetable kingdom.
In order to characterize the state of repose in which the seeds
exist before germinating, he coined the term “‘latent life’? and he
gave us the following theory:
The latent life of seeds is potential. It exists ready to manifest itself if suitable
exterior conditions are supplied, but there is not the least manifestation if these con-
ditions are lacking.
It would be wrong to think that the seed, in this case, possesses a life so attenuated
that its manifestations escape observation because of the very degree of this attenuation.
That is true neither in theory nor in fact. In theory, we know that life results from
the coalition of two factors—the one external, derived from a cosmic world; the other
internal, derived from the organism.
It is a coordination impossible to separate, and we should understand that in the
absence of one of these factors the being could not live. It no more lives when the
factors exist under unsatisfactory conditions than when they exist alone. Heat,
humidity, and air do not constitute life; no more does the organism. In fact, we see
some seeds preserved for years and for prolonged periods which after such long inaction,
can germinate and produce a new plant. If they had a sluggish life, that ought to
exhaust it. But it is not exhausted.
From the moment that it was proposed, this conception of latent
life has had many supporters who have strengthened it by the estab-
lishment of new facts. Thus the resistance of seeds, of spores of
bacteria and mushrooms to the action of a vacuum, of irrespirable
gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and
chlorine, the conservation of the germinative power in liquids such as
mercury, alcohol, ether, and chloroform, as shown through numerous
experiments by Giglioli, Detmer, Romane, de Candolle, Kochs,
Jodin, Ewart, Kurzvelly, Maquenne, to cite only the principal
authors, demonstrate in an apparently indisputable manner the
reality of suspended life.
In spite of these facts, however, other physiologists have neverthe-
less continued to defend a theory directly opposed to it; that of the
continuity of the vital phenomena, a doctrine according to which
latent life is but a life relaxed. .
Among the most eminent supporters of this view we may cite Van
Tieghem and Gaston Bonnier, whose researches on the latent life of
seeds have become classic. 'These scientists having allowed separate
lots of seeds to remain two years in confined air and in carbon dioxide,
540. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
perceived in the first medium that there had been an absorption of
oxygen and a throwing off of carbon dioxide, and in the second
medium asphyxiation. From this they concluded that respiration
takes place in latent life and when it is not possible, the organism
perishes; consequently, life in the embryo can be only relaxed. These
conclusions allayed certain doubts as to the early experiments of
Doyére and Davaine. This is why Lance in 1896 took up the study,
confining his researches to arctisca.
Contrary to the claims of the committee presided over by Broca, he
himself affirmed that the coming to hfe of these beings is not a resur-
rection:
The arctisca of the roofs adapted to desiccation lose their power to revive when
after desiccation they have been plunged into a gas, unsuited to support life, such as
carbonic and sulphuric. When they find respiration impossible, they die; their
latent life is then a relaxed life.
We have therefore to deal with two contradictory hypotheses,
apparently based upon facts equally conclusive:
Is the relaxed life a more exact conception of the nature of latent
life than the suspended life ?
Must the one completely exclude the other or is each one partly
true? These are questions which I have tried to elucidate and to
which we shall now turn our attention.
Ill. THE IMPERMEABILITY OF THE TEGUMENT OF CERTAIN SEEDS.
When in 1904 I undertook these researches, limiting myself entirely
to the latent life of seeds,! I asked myself if the prevailing contra-
dictory opinions were not due to errors in interpretation of certain
experimental results. For instance, were the embryos of the seeds
really in contact with the media tried—confined air, irrespirable
atmosphere, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, mercury, alcohol, chloroform,
and ether? If their tegument had been impermeable, might it not
have protected them against the various media that it was intended
to subject them to? That was an important point, to which the
greater part of my predecessors paid too little attention.
It was therefore very necessary to find a means for determining the
permeability of the teguments of the seeds which were most used in
the above-mentioned experiments. I employed a very simple
apparatus: A barometric tube closed at one end by a portion of the
tegument to be experimented upon, then filled with mercury with all
the usual precautions, and inverted in a dish of mercury. The varia-
tions of the level of the mercury of this pseudo-barometer which
terminated in a vegetable membrane, compared with the variations
in the level of the mercury of another tube of the same kind, pre-
1 Researches on the latent life of seeds (1904-1907). Annals of Natural Sciences, Botanical, 9th series.
LATENT LIFE—BECQUEREL. 541
pared in the same manner, but closed at one of its extremities,
indicated under what conditions and at what rate the gas passed
through the tezuments.
In this way I was able to determine that the tegument of most of
the seeds of Leguminose, such as that of the lupine and honeylocust,
when it reached a certain degree of natural desiccation,! proved itself
to be for two years impermeable to air in all its parts, even in those
containing the hilum and the micropyle. The teguments of these
seeds do not permit gases to pass through them under the laws of
diffusion except when they are moistened with water.
On the other hand, desiccated embryos of these same seeds act like
porous bodies. Gases pass through them according to the laws of
effusion. The tegument of the same species is equally impermeable
to liquids, such as absolute alcohol, ether, and as Wk which
readily penetrate the embryos after Hcecudention
These results apply not only to the seeds of many species of the
family Leguminose, but likewise to those of certain Crucifere,
Malvacee, cee Linacee, and Cistacee. They justify the
reservations that I had made concerning the greater part of the
experiments of my predecessors, for, in showing that the embryos
protected by their impermeable teguments were not submitted to the
action of the media employed, they nullify in part the deductions
that had been drawn from them to explain the nature of latent life.
I was thus led to repeat on seeds with the permeable tegument
either perforated or removed, the experiments of some of my prede-
cessors. I thereupon ascertained that, contrary to their assertions,
absolute alcohol, chloroform, and ether, instead of preserving the
embryos of seeds, kill them when no longer protected by their tegu-
ments. On the other hand, the fact of the impermeability of their
tegument rendered very improbable the interpretation that had been
placed upon the gaseous exchanges of certain seeds.
With seeds of lupine, peas, castor beans, and beans, taking into
account the réle of their tegument, I repeated the experiments of
Van Tieghem and Gaston Bonnier. Several comparable lots were
prepared, some containing only decorticated seeds, others consisting
only of the teguments of these seeds, and finally some seeds protected
by their teguments. All these lots were placed in the confined and
dry atmosphere of tubes inverted upon mercury, some placed in full
light, others in darkness.
Six months later, having made analyses of these confined atmos-
pheres, I found that the gaseous exchanges had been greater in the
light, and that the isolated teguments of the seeds had absorbed
more oxygen and given off more carbon dioxide than the embryos.
1 Degree of desiccation which is normally attained in the ordinary conditions of conservation of seeds.
542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Certain teguments taken from castor beans had given off in darkness
1.61 per cent of carbon dioxide and had reduced the quantity of
oxygen to 15 per cent while the separated embryos from which they
had been taken, placed with their endosperm in the same conditions,
had not changed their atmosphere at all. If the gaseous exchanges
of these seeds protected by their teguments had been interpreted as
true respiration, one would have arrived at the paradoxical conclu-
sion that the tezuments composed of dead cells respired, while the
embryos with their endosperm ready to germinate, having neither
absorbed nor thrown off the least particle of gas, were dead.
The results obtained with several kinds of decorticated seeds, such
as those of peas, beans, and lupine, in their natural state of desic-
cation, that is, still containing a certain quantity of water, convinced
me that after a certain time in darkness they absorb traces of oxygen
and throw off traces of carbon dioxide. There must therefore be in
the embryos of those seeds which were not protected by their tegu-
ments and were in their natural state of desiccation extremely slight
gaseous exchanges.
IV. THE NATURE OF THE GASEOUS EXCHANGES IN SEEDS.
But are these gaseous exchanges that are indicated in the case of
the decorticated seeds in their state of natural desiccation really
caused by a true respiration, the result of a kind of relaxed life for
which the oxygen of the air is absolutely necessary? To find this
out, I rendered the respiration of the embryo impossible by depriving
it by means of a vacuum of its internal atmosphere confined in the
intercellular spaces and in the cells themselves which intercommuni-
cate so readily through the punctures of their walls. The embryo
was then placed for a greater or less time in contact with irrespirable
media. Treated thus, peas with their teguments perforated, and
deprived of their internal atmosphere, remained a year under the
mercury and grew perfectly after the experiments. Seeds of beans,
peas, castor beans, and wheat after decortication were kept in dark-
ness in an atmosphere of nitrogen without giving off any trace of CO,
and without losing their power of germination.
Other seeds of lupine, lucern, peas, clover, mustard, pumpkin, buck-
wheat, and pine, and grains of wheat and oats, after perforation of
their tegument were kept for eleven months in pure and dry carbon
dioxide without suffering any injury. Finally, desiccated seeds of gar-
den cress, lucern, and peas, and grains of wheat with the tegument
perforated, were inclosed for two years in vials in which a nearly com-
plete vacuum had been obtained, without injury to their germinative
power.
These are new results, all agreeing, which are opposed to those
classic experiments on which dependence is still placed to show the
LATENT LIFE—BECQUEREL. 543
existence of a respiration in seeds. These results afford a proof that
the gaseous exchanges demonstrated by Van Tieghem and Bonnier
are not due to an attenuated respiration, but to a simple chemical
oxidation of the surface of the tegument or of the embryo.
The generally accepted conception of the latent life of seeds must
be modified. It is an extremely sluggish, intracellular, anaérobic, or
else a suspended life. How is one to choose between these two
hypotheses ?
V. LONGEVITY OF SEEDS.
If the life of seeds in nature were entirely suspended, if all the pro-
toplasmic functions of assimilation and of disassimilation were com-
pletely arrested, as claimed by Claude Bernard, thew germinative
power should be unlimited. This is what many naturalists believed
when they were told of the extraordinary case of the longevity of
grains of wheat inclosed for more than 2,000 years in the tombs of
the Pharaohs, which, once sowed, would have germinated. But it is
now known that the good faith of these scientists was imposed upon.
Mixtures of authentic and recent grain were sold to them. This
fraud, by which such botanists as Alphonse de Candolle and Decaisne
were not deceived, was unmasked by M. Maspéro. This eminent
egyptologist never succeeded in germinating the grains of wheat which
he himself collected in the tombs of the Pharaohs. Furthermore, the
study of these grains made by Ed. Gain showed that their embryos
were partially destroyed; when they were moistened, they were trans-
formed into an amorphous pulp.
On the other hand, no confidence can be placed in the story of seeds
from Roman sepulchers or the graneries of Cesar, Argau, or Hercu-
laneum, or from Merovingian tombs or excavations. Too many flaws
in the evidence, ignored by the investigators, destroy every basis for
their claims. Only experiments made with specimens of which the
time of harvesting the seeds and the date of their arrival in the
laboratory are known can give us acceptable evidence.
Already, in 1831, Alphonse de Candolle had carried on researches
with 368 kinds of seeds preserved for 14 years in sacks. Many species
of Leguminose and Malvacez had conserved their germinative fac-
ulty. I resumed the work of that learned naturalist, extending it to
500 kinds of seeds belonging to 30 of the more important families of
monocotyledons and dicotyledons. The seeds came from the seed
collection of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle of Paris. The time of
their collection, carefully verified, varied between 25 and 135 years.
Four families furnished germinations: the Leguminose, the Nelum-
bonacex, the Malvacez, and the Labiate.
Twenty of these germinations came from seeds 28 to 87 years old.
Among the Leguminose the oldest species were Cassia bicapsularis
544 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of 1819, Cytisus biflorus of 1821, Leucena leucocephala of 1831, and
Trifolium arvense of 1838. The seeds which germinated at such an
age were covered with a very thick tegument, whose impermeability
to gases was checked experimentally in the case of the Leguminosz
and the Nelumbonacee. In this way it was proved that some seeds
conserved their germinative power from the epoch of the Restoration
to our time without their embryo having gaseous exchanges with
the atmosphere. The tegument of these seeds preventing through
the years the oxidation of the substances in reserve and their hydra-
tion under the action of the humidity of the atmosphere, did much
to assure them this remarkable longevity.
Nevertheless, this longevity is not unlimited. The germinative
power always diminishes with time. Macrobiotic seeds, to use the
picturesque expression of Ewart, who has written an excellent mon-
ograph on them,’ do not keep their germinative power much beyond
a hundred years.
The claim of Claude Bernard that the latent life of seeds, under
natural conditions of their preservation, is not exhausted, rests on
inexact data, and the undeniable fact of the aging of commercial
seeds seems to refute it. When, however, you carefully examine the
significance of this fact, it is not a positive proof against the theory
of suspended life. The loss of the germinative faculty of the seed
may very well be caused by physico-chemical phenomena which may
not apply to those of an extremely sluggish life.
Why should not the protoplasm of the cells, when life is suspended,
become decomposed in the course of time under the influence of the
humidity and the oxygen accumulated in the intercellular spaces ?
What would prevent its comporting itself like inert substances which
gradually lose their original properties, their potential energy? With
time liquors are modified, a sprmg tends to wear out, powder ages,
and yet in these substances there is no retarded life!
VI. THE DEHYDRATION OF GERMS.
However that may be, since it is impossible to prove that a seed
preserved under ordinary conditions is in a state of suspended life
rather than in one of relaxed life, the problem might perhaps be
solved by placing the seed under artificial conditions such that, with-
out affecting its germinative power, its life may be temporarily
arrested.
_ All the writers who are engaged with this subtile problem are of
the opinion that the water and the gases inclosed in protoplasm are
the cause of its decomposition. A seed in a state of natural desicca-
tion always contains a quantity of water ranging from 0.5 to 20 per
! Ewart, On the longevity of seeds. Proc. Roy. Soc., Victoria, vol. 21, 1908.
LATENT LIFE—BECQUEREL. - 545
cent of its weight. But is it possible, without injuring its germinative
faculty to deprive it completely of this water? Relying upon experi-
ments by numerous investigators, particularly upon those of Schréder
and Ewart, it was believed until recent years to be impossible to
withdraw all the water from the protoplasm of seeds without killing
them. In fact, Ewart had ascertained that as a general rule the
most resistant seeds lost their vitality when their percentage of water
fell below from 2 to 3 per cent of their weight. This had led him to
believe that the protoplasm of seeds in its state of natural desiccation
must have a chemical composition very different from that of pro-
toplasm fluid in a condition of active life. According to this new
theory the chemical composition of the protoplasm in latent life
would correspond with the chemical equation proposed by Loew for
certain albumins. In that instance there was obtained by poly-
merization of aspartic aldehyde with the addition of hydrogen and
sulphur, a proteid which finaily gave an albuminoid, whose formula,
C12H,2AZ,350..+ 2H,0 contains 2 per cent of water.
This conception of protoplasm from which you can not draw out
its 2 per cent of water without decomposition, appears to me too
simplistic or one sided, as much from the standpoint of physics as
from that of chemistry. Besides, this formula does not include the
greater part of the chemical elements, metals, and metaloids which
are absolutely necessary for the constitution of the nuclei of cells and
the formation of a protoplasm capable of life. Consequently it does
not correspond to the reality of experimental facts, for thcugh certain
kinds of cells do not endure a prolonged desiccation, the result is not
the same with many other cells.
Ewart was unable to ascertain this because he employed a very
defective method of desiccation—that of the sulphuric-acid des-
iccator, a process which has the great objection of often altering the
protoplasm entirely in desiccating it. Moreover, as Maquenne, the
learned physiologist of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, has demon-
strated, for completely drying the seeds there is only one effective
method and that is the employment of a vacuum for several months
at a temperature of 40° to 45° in the presence of anhydrous BaOH.!
This process is more efficient than that of the oven at 110°C. which
is employed in the method of dry weights. Moreover, lif, as I have
advocated, the precaution is taken of decorticating the seeds or of
perforating the impermeable tegument, desiccation can be obtained
more rapidly and more actively, so that there is no releasing of
vapor in the vacuum nor loss of weight; and, besides, the germinative
power of the seeds thus treated is not destroyed. Maquenne has
proved this in the case of grains of wheat, seeds of parsnip, and castor
1 Maquenne: C. R. Acad. des Sce., t. 134, p. 1234; t. 134, p. 208.
73176°—smM 1914 35
546 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
bean, and myself for seeds of pumpkin, peas, and buckwheat, which
lost 10 to 14 per cent of their weight of water.
Now, are seeds artificially dried more readily altered, or do they
conserve longer than others their power of germination ?
According to my investigations, the seeds of pumpkin, castor bean,
and beans, thoroughly dried, preserved in darkness in a dry atmos-
phere of air or nitrogen are not oxidized. I have been unable to
detect by analysis the slightest Indication of absorption of oxygen or
release of carbon dioxide. Likewise, according to Maquenne, dried
parsnip seeds preserved for two years in a vacuum had suffered no
loss of their germinative power, while seeds preserved in the open
air as checks had been dead a long time.
These parsnip seeds, losing their power of germination at the end
of six months, had therefore, as a consequence of their dehydration
and their protection from oxidation, quadrupled the duration of
their latent life. Upon the basis of these results, Maquenne concludes
that cellular respiration is arrested in a vacuum, and that under the
influence of desiccation the seed passes from a state of relaxed life
to a state of suspended life in which vegetative functions cease to be
performed. This conclusion, which is supported by all my above-
mentioned researches, appears to agree well with the facts. But
many physiologists, partisans of the theory of the continuity of vital
phenomena, are unwilling to accept it.
They oppose the following objections?
In this matter of gaseous exchanges, especially if they are intracellular, how can
you prove whether they are slight or negative? What leads you to believe that
your methods of analysis are satisfactory evidence? There where your judgment
hesitates, your theory affirms. It maintains a priori that the process of assimilation
neither suffers, nor stops, nor begins again, but follows a continuous march.
Obviously it is very difficult to prove a complete arrest of the phe-
nomena of life in the organism in a state of latent life. However, it
must be acknowledged that the vacuum and the dehydration, carried
to the extreme limit, should signally retard the exchanges of matter
and energy in the protoplasm. If to these two conditions, already
very influential, there be added a third, that of low temperatures, will
not the suspension of life be really accomplished experimentally ?
VII. THE INFLUENCE OF LOW TEMPERATURES.
The influence of low temperatures on seeds and on spores of
bacteria has been studied for 30 years by a number of investigators,
chief among whom are Raoul) Pictet, Casimir de Candolle, Brown and
Escombe, Dyer, and MacFadyen. These scientists have proved that
1 Paul Becquerel: Sur les échanges gazeux des graines. C, R. Acad. des Sc., Dec. 10, 1906.
2 Dastre, La vie et la mort, p. 226 (Flammarion, Paris). M. Dastre, whom I have consulted on this
subject, now accepts my point of view.—(Note of M. P. B.)
LATENT LIFE—BECQUEREL. 547
seeds and spores in their state of natural desiccation endure, without
perishing, temperatures as low as 190° to 250° below zero. I myself
in attempting to ascertain the influence of the state of hydration, of
decortication, and of gaseous reserves of the seed, have obtained
analogous results. The investigators above mentioned, believing
that physical and chemical phenomena are completely suppressed by
low temperatures, have thought that the latent life of seeds and
germs plunged into liquid air or hydrogen must be a completely
suspended life. But this opinion should be accepted with some
reserve. Certain chemical reactions may still take place at low
temperatures. Have not Dewar and Moissan shown that solid
fluorine in contact with liquid hydrogen is combined explosively at
250° C. below zero? On the other hand, Svante Arrhenius ! does not
now admit the suppression of chemical reactions at that temperature.
He considers that the chemical reactions especially connected with
the loss of the germinative power of seeds must be much retarded
by cold. Upon the basis of the experiments of Nyman and Madsen
in which the spores of anthrax are shown to develop twice as rapidly
when the temperature is increased 10°, the eminent Swedish physicist
formulated an ingenious hypothesis according to which the retarda-
tion of life should be twice as great if the temperature is lowered 10° C.
According to this rule the germinative power of spores would diminish
no more during 3,000,000 years at 220° below zero than during a single
day at 10° above zero.
If we accept this calculation and apply it to macrobiotic seeds which
live a hundred years at a temperature of 10°, their latent life, pro-
vided it could be kept at a temperature of 220° below zero, could be
prolonged for two hundred billions of years. This is a number which
surpasses any which is conceded for the duration of life on the surface
of the earth, and even for the period of the evolution of our solar
system.
If the physical and chemical phenomena of life are thus retarded,
we concede that we could not detect it experimentally.
But since in all the experiments with low temperatures upon which
Arrhenius relies, it is a matter of germs in the state of natural desic-
cation, containing consequently from 5 to 12 per cent of their weight
of water, it is interesting to ask what would happen if we were to
experiment with dried seeds placed in the most complete vacuum
and submitted at the same time to the lowest temperatures. With
this in view, with the valuable cooperation of the learned physicist
of Leyden, M. Kammerlingh Onnes, who very kindly placed at my
disposal the resources of his excellent cryogen or refrigerating labor-
atory, there were submitted for three weeks to the temperature of
1 Svante Arrhenius: L’évolution des mondes (translation by Seyrig), p. 138.
548 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
liquid air and then for 77 hours to that of liquid hydrogen at 250°
below zero, decorticated seeds previously dried, of lucern, mustard,
and wheat, and spores of Mucor, Rhizopus, and Aspergillus, and of
various bacteria inclosed in sealed tubes in which the most complete
vacuum possible had been secured. :
All these seeds at the end of one year, and the spores after two
years in the vacuum, showed a high percentage of germination.
In this particular case in which the cell was deprived of water and
gas, in which its diastases were desiccated, and the protoplasm lost
its state ot colloid solution, at least while they were under the simul-
taneous influence of desiccation and low temperatures, one can hardly
say that latent life is relaxed life.
Life without water, without air, without gaseous exchanges,
without colloid molecules, in suspension in a liquid, appears to me
paradoxical. The vital phenomena of assimilation and of proto-
plasmic disassimilation being rendered temporarily impossible, I
believe that the real latent life such as Claude Bernard conceived it,
that is to say, the suspension of life, under these particular conditions
has been realized.
VIII. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE SUSPENSION OF
LIFE.
If that is the case, the law of the continuity of vital phenomena is
dealt a severe blow. In fact, the phenomena of life, which since their
appearance on earth have been transmitted without interruption
from generation to generation during millions of centuries, with
only occasional retardation in the germs, have now for the first time,
under the influence of exceptional conditions, been interrupted in
certain cells, without injury to their power of resuscitation. More-
over, these facts demonstrate that one can not confound an organism
wholly inert during latent life with a dead organism. Although on
examination a dried seed and a dead seed appear identical, there is a
great difference between them. The protoplasm of the dead seed
has undergone an irrevertible chemical modification, such that if it
be placed in conditions favorable for its development, none of the
physical and chemical phenomena of assimilation and disassimilation
can longer be produced. .
On the contrary, the protoplasm of the seed in latent life, under the
combined action of the vacuum, desiccation, and cold has received
only a physical modification which has in no way altered its chemical
composition. It is a revertible modification which it has undergone,
since if there be restored to it water, gases, and the proper tempera-
ture, its substances again take on their properties and all the physico-
chemical phenomena of its vital activity reappear. ‘The experimental
1 Paul Becquerel: C. R. Acad. of Sc., Apr. 19, 1909, and May 30, 1910.
LATENT LIFE—BECQUEREL. 549
proof of the interruption of life without destroying its power of resus-
citation and without leaving any mark to make one suspect the exist-
ence of a limit to its prolongation in the case of both seeds and spores,
is, Moreover, a good argument against certain neovitalistic theories.
It demonstrates the actuality of the strong persistence of vital phe-
nomena and exposes the unstableness of the basis of the definition
of life accepted and promulgated by such scientists as Grasset,
Bundge, Reinke, and Lodge.*
According to the definition of this last author, in his little work,
La vie et la matiére, life is a particular force, ‘“‘a special directive
power issuing from a world in which physics and chemistry have no
part, a world that it is impossible for us to know through our senses.”
But after the results of all my experiments, which confirm the
ingenious views of Claude Bernard, it can no longer be affirmed that
life is a principle or a mysterious directive force escaping the influence
of natural phenomena.
Life is nothing more than the extremely complex physicochemical
functioning of protoplasmic organisms produced by their incessant
relations, their continual exchanges of elemental matter, and the differ-
ent forms of energy.
IX. THE BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF LATENT LIFE.
This study of latent life not only brings us preciseness as to the
nature of life and of death, but it touches also on the biological prob-
lems concerning the dissemination and conservation of life.
In fact, this peculiar property of latent life confers on all organisms
that possess it the power to traverse time and space. It is to be noted
that the seeds which preserve their germinative power the longest are
almost always heavy ones which can not be transported by the wind,
and which if buried must wait during a long time conditions favora-
ble to their germination and growth. Most of these seeds belong to
the families Leguminose, Nelumbonacee, Myrtacez, Malvacez, and
Cistaceze. The same remark applies to the eggs of certain crusta-
ceans which are deposited in the mud of ditches, marshes, and streams
which often run dry. Thus, Giard, in his researches on anhydrobiosis,
informs us that the dried eggs of Apus survived for 12 years until the
arrival of the water necessary for hatching.
Many bacteria profit by their state of latent life to await for years a
time favorable for their multiplication. It is in this way that dan-
gerous epidemics suddenly appear.
As Pasteur has shown, anthrax germs from a buried sheep brought
to the surface of the earth by earthworms sooner or later make a pas-
ture dangerous to the flocks. In the same way the wretched hovels
in which people die of tuberculosis from generation to generation,
1 Lodge, La vie et la matiére. Alcan, Paris, 1907.
550 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
notwithstanding ineffective disinfections and numerous removals of
tenants, owe their danger to the presence of dried bacilli in the dust
that is inhaled during sweeping.
This persistence of vitality of cells may also be characteristic of
tissues of the human body and may be advantageously utilized. This
is what the splendid researches of Dr. Carrel are demonstrating to-day.
This investigator, profiting by the experiments of Paul Bert, of which
I have already spoken, has succeeded in preserving in a state of latent
life certain tissues gathered aseptically from fresh corpses, such as
fragments of skin, cornea, blood vessels, and bony tissues. These
tissues protected from the air in sterilized vaseline at a temperature
of 3° to 5° C. have preserved their vitality for 40 days, and conse-
quently may be used for grafting. When some such method shall
have been perfected it will render estimable service to surgery.
Still other biological deductions result from the conservation of
latent life, particularly when it is under the influence of low tempera-
tures. For instance, germs arrested in their development may at
this moment be subjected to the actions of complex causes which are
determining their evolution. Borings made on continents covered
with ice, such as the South Pole and the vicinity of the North Pole,
where the temperature oscillates between 40° and 60° below zero, will
perhaps permit us to gather seeds or old spores which have conserved
their germinating power for many thousands of years under the action
of the cold.
Arrhenius goes still further in his deductions. He thinks that
latent life is sufficient to enable germs to traverse the icy void of inter-
stellar space intact during an almost unlimited period. To demon-
strate it, the Swedish scientist has formulated his ingenious theory of
interastral panspermism. I have already had occasion elsewhere to
explain and discuss this hypothesis.
Unfortunately, worlds can not be sown with germs in latent life,
propelled by light from one to the other, because the action of the
stellar ultra-violet rays in the center of the solar systems and even in
the atmosphere of planets is too harmful, but also because there would
be needed a very improbable concurrence of extraordinary conditions.
So it is necessary to seek other modes for the propagation of germs
in infinity. In advance of their discovery, there results from my
researches upon latent life, from the point of view of the future of life
on the globe, a conclusion which, notwithstanding its great proba-
bility, will not fail to astonish us. This conclusion is that on the day
when the sun shall be extinguished, when all the gases of our atmos-
phere shall have disappeared, as took place on the moon, when active
1 Paul Becquerel, La panspermie interastrale devant les faits: Revue Scientifique, Feb. 18, 1911, and
C. R. Acad. des Sc., July 4, 1910.
LATENT LIFE—BECQUEREL, 551
life shall be destroyed, latent life will still be able to exist for a long
time on. the surface of the earth.
Indeed, at that moment there will be found realized by nature the
vacuum, dryness, and low temperature, the three conditions neces-
sary for the conservation of germs which we have obtained simulta-
neously in our experiments. Upon that day, on this frozen, unin-
habitable planet, wandermg in the darkness of cosmic space, what
will become of the stored seeds, and eggs, and spores? If the planet
should be captured by a new solar system, will there be produced,
under the action of new radiations, an atmosphere and a wakening
of latent life, the beginning of a new evolution of beings? If this
contingency is not fulfilled, and the planet is demolished by a shock
or an explosion, will its débris, charged with germs, as Lord Kelvin
believes, sow other worlds ?
For my part, I do not believe so, because at the present time the
study of meteorites does not justify this conjecture. And it is a
pity, because latent life, which is a true Providence for the terrestrial
conservation of beings, would have been the best means that nature
could have employed to confer on certain animal and vegetable
species a sort of celestial immortality.
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sue alae ee sa
THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA.
By Feu v. Luscuan, M. D., Ph. D.,
Professor of Anthropology in the University of Berlin.
[With 12 plates.]
Standing on the ‘‘New Bridge” in Constantinople, near the
Mosque of the Sultan Validé, I have more than once tried to count
the languages and dialects spoken by the crowds pressing and pushing
between Galata and Stamboul. Turkish and Greek are naturally
the most frequently spoken, but one also easily distinguishes much
Armenian, Arabic, Kurdish, and Persian. We hear the harsh voices
of some Circassian soldiers, and learn from an Abkhasian friend that
he does not understand their language and that “it might be”
Lesghian. He also tells us that many of his Circassian friends
serving in the same regiment are obliged to speak Turkish when they
want to understand one another.
We then meet Albanians, Bulgarians, Roumanians, and are
addressed in Serbo-Croatian by an’ old priest from Bosnia. You are
sure to hear in less than five minutes five other modern European
languages, English, French, German, Italian, and Russian, and then
your ear is delighted by the melodious Spanish of some Spaniole Jews
from Salonika, who still retain the idiom spoken in Spain when they
were expelled from there more than 400 years ago, and have thus
actually preserved the language spoken by Cervantes. And we hear
other Jews on their pilgrimage from Russia and Poland to Jerusalem,
speaking their curious Yiddish, a sort of German that no German could
understand without making it a special study. Once on this bridge,
I had to play the interpreter between a Hungarian Gypsy and some
Aptals or other Gypsies from Anatolia, and an instant later I saw a
Dinka eunuch sitting on the motor car of an imperial princess and
making his selam to a group of equally dark and equally tall Bari or
Shilluk.
Bilin and Nuer also are very commonly spoken by Stamboul
eunuchs, and I was once told by one of my colored friends there that
more than 1,000 female servants are living in metropolitan palaces,
all coming from Bornu and speaking Kanuri. Another day, on the
same bridge, I met some East Indians, speaking, as they told me,
1The Huxley Memorial Lecture for 1911. Reprinted by permission from The Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 41,1911. July to December. London.
553
554 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Hindi, Hindustani, and Gujerati, and trying in vain to come to an
understanding with a large troop of African hajjis returning from
Mecca, some of whom were Hausa, others from Zanzibar and the
Swahili coast, others from Wadai and Baghirmi. One may also meet
on this bridge Mohammedans from China and from Indonesia, and,
to complete this Babylonian confusion of languages, some day or other
even a Papuan from Doreh or some other place in Dutch New
Guinea may appear there on his hajj to Mecca.
Not less numerous than the languages are the types one meets in
Constantinople or in any other of the larger towns in western Asia,
and even within a linguistic group there is generally a most striking
diversity of somatic qualities. There are Turks with fair and Turks
with dark skin; Greeks with short and Greeks with long heads;
Arabs with broad and low noses; and other Arabs with narrow and
high noses; Kurds with blue and Kurds with black eyes; and the more
one studies the ethnography of the Ottoman Empire the more one
sees that ‘‘Turks” in reality means nothing else than Mohammedan
subjects of the Padishah, that ‘‘Greeks’’ means people belonging to
the Orthodox church, and that ‘‘ Arabs” are people speaking Arabic—
the somatic difference between a Bedouin from Arabia or Mesopo-
tamia and an ‘‘ Arab” farmer from near Beyrout is striking, and they
have nothing in common except their language.
Also the study of the modern religions in western Asia is of no help
to us in this labyrinth of types. There are Greeks who look like
Mohammedans, and many Ansariyeh or other (‘‘Moslem’’) sectaries
are not to be distinguished from Armenians. Religion, too, is here
much more closely connected with late historical events than with
races or nations, and is only too often of a merely accidental character.
Even the old historians do not help us. Their anthropological
interests were generally trifling, and important statements like the
note that the Armenians ‘‘zoddd dovytfovew tH Purif,’ or that a tribe
from the Solymian Mountains spoke Pheenician, are extremely rare
in the old writers, who give us names like Lycians, Carians,
Cilicians, Paphlagonians, Cappadocians, Lydians, and so on, but,
generally, do not give us the slightest details as to their place in an
anthropological system.
So we can well understand how, 50 years ago, G. Rosen, then
perhaps the best authority on the nations of Asia Minor and Syria,
could say that the anthropology of western Asia would ‘always
remain a mystery.”
Since then minute anthropometric researches and vast excavations
have both thrown light on most of the problems connected with this
‘‘mystery,’’ so that it may now be considered as practically solved.
My own way of proceeding was to eliminate one by one every
national or racial element that could be traced as having come
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN,. 555
from outside, and then to study the remainder. It was my good
fortune to begin archeological and anthropometric field work in
Lycia as early as 1881, and since that time I have never ceased to
collect all available data connected with the natural history of man
in western Asia. So it is the work of 30 years of which I shall now
try to give a short account, and this will be done best by beginning
with the ostensible foreign elements and then describing the remain-
ing tribes and groups.
A. DARK AFRICANS.
These are naturally by far the easiest to eliminate, and they have
only in a very insignificant way contributed to the building up of the
white communities in Asia Minor and in Syria, although they have
been imported there from the earliest historical times down to our
own days. Even now there are few houses of wealthy Moham-
medans without dark servants, male or female, and without hali-
caste children of the most various tints. Nowhere, perhaps, with the
exception only of Brazil, could miscegenation be better studied than
in the large towns of the Levant. Domestic slavery is still flourishing
there, and ‘‘black ivory”’ generally comes, as in the old times, from the
Upper Nile, but also from Bornu. In the Turkish-speaking south of
Asia Minor a dark African is generally called ‘‘Arab,’’ in Syria,
‘“‘Maghrebi” or ‘‘Habeshi.” As far as I know, social inferiority is
never connected with color; half-castes frequently intermarry with
whites, but still there is no real negro permeation of the other natives,
probably because that section of the offspring which reverts to negro
qualities does not stand the climate.
B. CIRCASSIANS.
About a million of the Mohammedan inhabitants of the Caucasus
immigrated into Asia Minor and Syria after the fall of Shamyl.
The lot of these muhajir (refugees) was generally a melancholy one;
the Ottoman Government did its best to give them land, but land
without a master is rare also in Turkey, and in many places the result
was a fight of all against all or a state of regular brigandage, often
resulting in the final extinction of the Circassians. Where the land
given to them was really masterless, it lay in unhealthy swamps
and marshes, where malaria raged and carried them off at a terrible
rate year by year. I know a place near Islahiyeh where more than
1,000 Circassian families were settled about 1880; now only 7 of them
remain, and these in a wretched state of fever and disease. Only
a very few of these Circassian colonies aré really thriving, and prob-
ably most of these glorious sons of snowy mountains will in a few
generations have paid with their lives for their fidelity to Islam.
556 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Till now the Circassian blood has not seriously influenced that of
their Turkish neighbors and probably never will. The colonists
very seldom give their daughters to Turks or Arabs, and the “soft
Circassian beauties’? play a larger part in fiction than in actuality.
C. ALBANIANS.
The number of Arnauts or Albanians actually living in Asiatic
Turkey is said to be about 100,000. Many of them serve in the
army, some are high government officials, a few are even in the dip-
lomatic service and famous for their unusual intelligence. Most of
the ‘‘kavasses’’ of the foreign consuls and rich merchants are Arnauts,
and so are nearly all the boy servants in the Turkish bath establish-
ments. Most of the large ‘“‘hans’’ (caravanserai) in the interior are
also managed by Albanians.
It is easy to separate these Albanians from the great bulk of the
other Islamic elements of the Ottoman Empire, because they are
all proud of their nationality and stick to their native language.
They intermarry rarely with aliens and are remarkably homogeneous
as to their physical qualities. They are nearly all dark, tall, with
large, extremely brachycephalic skulls, and high and very narrow
noses. Somehow connected with the Dinaric race they have by
long inbreeding and isolation in their nearly inaccessible mountains
acquired their remarkable and quite peculiar type.
D. BULGARIANS.
The few thousand Bulgarians living in Asiatic Turkey are mostly
confined to Constantinople and some towns on the north coast of
Asia Minor. Their language and their garb permit us easily to
isolate them, and they are so few in number that we may neglect
their influence on the somatic qualities of their alien neighbors.
For the same cause also we may here omit the Roumanians and
Serbs.
E. BOSNIANS.
Since 1879 probably not one Austrian Lloyd steamer has left
Trieste for Constantinople without having on board some Mohamme-
dans from Bosnia and Herzegovina desirous of escaping Christian
rule. They settle by preference near Brussa, and will probably in
some generations have a certain influence on the type of the Islamic
inhabitants of the neighborhood. It may therefore be stated here
that, though they are called ‘‘Turks” in Austria, they have no
Turkish blood. They are descendants of the typical South-Slavonic
- population, which inhabited Bosnia and Herzegovina long before the
battle of Kossovo-polye (1389) and were after the fall of the Servian
Empire forced to turn Mohammedans. They do not even speak
Turkish, but have preserved their old Serbo-Croatian language.
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN. 557
The very few Bosnians, mostly officers, that settled in Asiatic Turkey
before the Austrian occupation of Bosnia may be omitted here.
F. FRANKS AND LEVANTINES.
Frenghi (Franconians or Franks) is the common name for the
European Christians (and also for syphilis) all over the nearer Orient,
and the descendants of European, generally French and Italian,
and therefore Roman Catholic, families are called Levantines. They
take only a minimum share in the building up of the oriental popu-
lations. In Marmaritza near Halikarnassos, where a British squadron
had a winter station for many years, a very great proportion of the
children are said to be flaxen-haired, and at Kynyk, the ancient
Xanthos in Lycia, I met in 1881 a Mohammedan, quite fair, with light
blue eyes, of rare intelligence, and with nearly a fanatical interest in
geographical and archeological problems. He was born in 1841, a
year after the second expedition of Sir Charles Fellows, at Xanthos.
Near Sendjirlii I know an Armenian woman who is very fair; her own
people pretend that she is the daughter of an American. But all
these are rare exceptions, of no general importance, and I feel sure
that the modern admixture of European blood is in no way responsible
for the great number of light-colored people also in the interior of
Asia Minor and Syria..
That in Oriental towns with very hot summers the death rate of
light-colored children in Frankish and Levantine families is essen-
tially larger than that of dark-colored has been often asserted, and
would naturally be of universal anthropological interest if proved by
serious statistics. Personally I do not know of one single light-
colored Levantine family in places infected with heavy malaria.
G. JEWS.
As the oriental Jews practically never mix with the other orientals,
and so do not contribute in any way to the physical qualities of their
oriental neighbors, they would be of no interest for this paper if we
could not trace them back to very early times. But their racial
position can only be investigated in connection with the old and oldest
anthropology of Syria and Palestine. So for the moment we must
here confine ourselves to the statement that there are several very
distinct groups of oriental Jews.
By far the most numerous are now the Sephardim, speaking an
early Spanish dialect, and descended chiefly from Jews expelled from
Spain by the narrow-minded fanaticism of the fifteenth century.
They have contributed not a little to the intellectual and economic
development of the Ottoman Empire.
Of far less importance are the Ashkenazim, speaking “ Yiddish,”
and descended from Jews emigrated from eastern Europe. The
558 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
difference between these two groups was originally merely geograph-
ical and accidental, but now they are holding themselves rigidly
apart, and I know of a small Ashkenazic community in southwestern
Asia Minor that abstains from meat rather than eat of an animal
killed by a Sephardic butcher. I could not learn if there were also
differences in creed, but practically these two groups are like different
sects, and in most places there is less intercourse between them than
there is between Protestants and Catholics in the most backward
villages of Central Europe.t. This is perhaps of some importance in
connection with the fact that both Ashkenazim and Sephardim are
equally distinguished by a complete absence of uniform racial char-
acteristics, just as it is with our Jewish friends in Europe.
The ‘enlightened public” of course knows better. Some Jews
themselves state that they are ‘‘pure Semites, chosen and selected,”
and even in modern scientific papers one may still read of the com-
plete “uniformity” of the Jewish type. But this uniformity only
exists in the books and not in reality. There are Jews with light and
with dark eyes, Jews with straight and with curly hair, Jews with
high and narrow, and Jews with short and broad noses; their cephalic
index oscillates between 65 and 98—as far as this index ever oscillates
in the genus homo. Indeed, since my paper on the anthropological
position of the Jews? there is, as far as I know, no serious anthro-
pologist who still maintains the cranial uniformity of the Jews. It is
also conceded that the great majority of the Jews is decidedly brachy-
cephalic, whilst the typical Semites are essentially dolichocephalic.
But even giving up the cranial uniformity, one still speaks of the
marvelous tenacity, frequency, and distinctiveness of the Jewish type
of face. Now this “‘Jewishness”’ is much more easily felt than defined,
and Joseph Jacobs ? (1885) was the first to try an exact definition.
It is a certain and typical development of the nostrils (Jacobs’s
‘“‘nostrility’’) that is the best characteristic of what we generally call
“Jewish.”
Weissenberg,* wanting to prove a specific Jewishness of type, relates
how he showed some hundred photographs of Russians and Russian
Jews without distinguishing or peculiar dress, etc., to two friends, a
Russian and a Jew; the first was correct in 50 per cent, the second in
70 per cent of his statements. I do not think this experiment very
1R. Andrée, in his Volkskunde der Juden, quotes a passage in the Jewish Chronicle, 1878, where an
Ashkenaz asks if “those Portuguese are real Jews, or only a sort of half-castes but distantly related to our
glorious race?””? A Portuguese answers him that ‘‘we are the Jews of the highest caste, as may be best
evidenced by the fact that we have always refused to assimilate ourselves with the lower caste—the Tedes-
chi.”? So felt the Jews in London, and in 1864 the Sephardim of Bucharest bought a churchyard for them-
selves, to have nothing in common with the Ashkenazim, even alter their death!
2‘* Die anthropologische Stellung der Juden,’’ Correspondenzblatt der deutschen anthropol. Gesellschaft,
1892, Also in an Italian translation by Prof. Ugoliniin Arch. per l’ Antropologia e 1’ Etnologia, vol. 22,
1892.
3 “On the racial characteristics of modern Jews,” Journal Anthropol. Inst., 1885, vol. 15, p. 23 ss.
4 Globus, Bd. 97, 1910, p. 329.
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN. 559
convincing; Weissenberg should have shown his friends photos of
Greeks, Armenians, and Persians. The number of correct identifica-
tions would then have been certainly very much smaller, and it would
have become evident that what Weissenberg takes to be “ Jewishness”’
is nothing more than oriental, pure and simple. I shall refer to this
statement toward the end of this paper, and meanwhile only want to
advert.to Table II, on page 571, showing in the thick line the cephalic
indices of 1,222 Jews; 52 per cent of these were Sephardim, whom I
measured at Smyrna, at Constantinople, at Makri, and in Rhodes;
the rest were Ashkenazim measured by myself when I was one of the
medical assistants in the Allgemeine Krankenhaus at Vienna, Austria.
Besides these two large groups there are other Jews in Turkey and
in Egypt, who have been there since the early times of the Diaspora
and longer. But they are few in number and I had no opportunity
to measure any of them.
H. GYPSIES, APTAL, ETC.
Asmall but highly interesting group is formed by the Gypsies and
their kin. About 30,000 of them are said to infect Turkey with their
disorder and inclination for theft and larceny. On the other side,
they are cheerful company, men and women, not seldom with a cer-
tain beauty.1. They make baskets and sieves; the men are mostly
blacksmiths and shrewd horsedealers. They are never settled in
houses, but wander with their goat-hair tents, in winter time on the
plains, in summer high up in the mountains. I once met a small
“village” of about 10 Gypsy tents as high upas 8,000feet. Unhappily,
nothing is known about their early migrations and history; they speak
Turkish in Asia Minor, Arabic in Syria, and keep secret their own lan-
guage with so much care that my various and repeated efforts to get
at least a few phrases turned out a complete failure.?
In northern Syria I met a kind of Gypsies calling themselves
‘“‘Aptal”; they lay a certain stress upon their not being Gypsies, but
I could find no real difference either in their somatic qualities or in
their ethnographic or social standing. Some of them often wander
about like dervishes in groups of four or five, and with a large red or
green banner; others are jugglers and conjurers and play tricks with
serpents.
Gypsies never, or hardly ever, mix with other tribes in Syria or
' Asia Minor. They naturally pretend to be Mohammedans and have
Islamic names, but they are always treated with a certain contempt
1Cf. some types I published in Petersen and von Luschan, Reisen in Lykien Milyas und Kibyratis,
Wien, C. Gerold’s Sohn, 1889.
2 Henry Minor Huxley (American Anthropologist, vol. 4, 1902, p. 49) examined at Jerusalem a few
gypsies of Syria that spoke Arabic, ““but among themselves fluently Gypsy. Many of their words have ex-
actly the same forms as are found in Hindu Gypsy words.’”’ I do not know if this statement is confirmed
by other explorers.
560 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
or disesteem. Mohammedans hardly ever curse; but one of their
rare abusive phrases is tchungene = gypsy.
Till now we have been treating of a few isolated groups that are
very easily separated from the bulk of the tribes of western Asia.
We now come to some nomadic tribes, who also form quite distinct
groups: Turkomans, Yuruks, and Kurds.
I. TURKOMANS.
Real Turkomans, coming from west Turkestan, are rather rare
in Asia Minor, and I never met any in Syria. They travel in quite
small groups, one or two families only, and are to be distinguished
even at a great distance, as they are the only tribe in Asia Minor
which has the real camel with two humps, all the others having the
dromedary. I once met a family of such Turkomans, near Old
Limyra in eastern Lycia, tlrat had come ‘‘from near Samarkand.”
They had been away from home four years and wanted to go as far
as Constantinople; in five or six years more they thought—inshallah—
to reach their home.
Some of these Turkomans have very oblique eyes; all have small
roundish heads and are of low stature, seldom exceeding 160 centi-
meters. They do not mix with the native inhabitants.
J. YURUKS.
Another nomadic tribe found in Asia Minor in far greater numbers
than the Turkomans, is formed by the Yuruks. The word means
‘‘wanderer,” and many misunderstandings are due to this ambiguity,
as all sorts of ‘‘wanderers’”’ have been described as Yuruks, just as
settlers in South Africa sometimes speak of ‘‘ Bushmen,” not meaning
the real Pygmy-Bushmen, but dark and tall Kafirs living ‘‘in the
bush.”
I wrote upon the real Yuruks in the Z. f. E. 1886, vol. 18, Verh. p.
167 ss., and may here refer to this paper and to the plates in Reisen
in Lykien, ete., quoted here (p. 559, note 1).
They are remarkable for the artificial deformation of their heads
and their generally long skulls. Their real home is not known.
They speak Turkish, and up to the present no trace has been found
of their original language. I once suggested that they might be in
some distant way related with the Gypsies, with whom at least some
of them have a decided and striking somatic resemblance; it then
seemed to me possible that their high moral standard, their serious
and decent ways, and their assiduity in work—their wives are famous
carpet makers—might be due to Islam. But this was a mere sugges-
tion, and it might well be that their resemblance to the Gypsies is only
quite accidental. I hope that others may be more successful and
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN. 561
find legends and traditions, remains of the old language, or other
material that would permit us to trace the Yuruks back to their real
home.
Meanwhile a sort of jealousy between them and the settled Moham-
medans excludes intermarriage almost without exception.
K. KURDS.
Kurdistan, the land of the Kurds, is a vast mountainous territory,
nearly twice as large as Greece, in the southeast of the Armenian
mountains. Its frontiers are undefined and uncertain, changing
with the scattering or gathering of a floating mass of chiefly nomadic
inhabitants.1. The greater northwestern part is under Ottoman, the
southeastern under Persian, control. We know of no political unity
of the Kurds, and, as far as we can trace back their history, they were
always forming many different tribes (ashirets) under independent
chiefs, whose strength was only broken in the last century, in Turkey
not without the aid of H.v. Moltke, then a young Prussian officer.
The Kardouchoi and Gordyaeans of the old historians are most
probably the direct ancestors of the modern Kurds, but we do not
know when these tribes first set their foot upon the soil of their pres-
ent home. The Assyrian annals and careful excavations on the
upper Euphrates and Tigris will probably, at some future time, shed
light upon this question.
Meanwhile it is important to state two facts: The Kurds speak an
Aryan language, and they have long heads and generally blue eyes and
fair hair.
I have studied three groups of Kurds, 115 men near Karakush, 26
men on the Nimrud-Dagh, and 80 men from near Sendjirli—all adults.
In the Karakush series 71 men were xanthochroic, on the Nimrud=
Dagh 15, and in Sendjirli 31, this being 62, 58, and 39 per cent, respec-
tively, and for the whole number of 221 aduit men, 53 per cent. The
cephalic index oscillated, in the case of the 115 Karakush Kurds,
between 713 and 785, with the Nimrud-Dagh men between 723 and
783, and in Sendjirli between 744 and 809, the arithmetic mean being
749, 752, and 769. Two good types are here reproduced. (PI. 1.)
The Kurds from Karakush and from the Nimrud-Dagh live nearly
isolated. I found only one or two small Armenian merchants with
them. The Kurds from Sendjirli stay near “Turkish” and Armenian
villages, and it is known that they sometimes steal and marry Armen-
ian wives, and not seldom they intermarry with “Turks” so it is
probable that the Kurds from Sendjirli are less typical than those
from Karakush and Nimrud-Dagh.? I saw many other Kurds on the
1 The best statistics on Kurds are due to Mark Sykes, Trans. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., vol. 37, 1908, p. 451 ss.
2 The greater number of xanthochroic men on the Nimrud-Dagh and in Karakush compared with their
smaller number in Sendjirli may be due partly to the splendid, cool climate of these mountain villages.
73176°—sM 1914 36
562 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
plain between Kyrykhan and Marash, whom I could not measure,
but who seemed to be in absolute conformity with the Kurds I had
measured. So I may state that the western Kurds are dolichocephalic
with an average index of 75, and with more than 50 per cent of fair
adults—the heads becoming shorter and larger, and the hair and eyes
darker, with the increasing admixture of ‘“‘Turkish” or Armenian
blood.
So much for the western Kurds. We are up to the present very
ignorant as to the somatic qualities of the eastern Kurds. Ihave my-
self only seen a very few Kurds from Persia, but the general impression
of some of my scientific friends is that the eastern Kurds show a much
higher percentage of darker and round-headed men than the western.
The language of the Kurds is split into many dialects; yet two main
groups are to be distinguished, a western and an eastern. Both are
related to modern Persian and are typically Aryan. So, if we ask for
the real native country of the Kurds, there can only be one answer.
It must be the same as that of our own race, of the race of Northern
Europe. Itis not my concern here in this paper to treat of the Aryan
problem, and I feel myself utterly free from any Pan-Germanie aspir-
ations in the style of Gobineau and Chamberlain, but still I believe in
an old ‘blue-eyed, fair-haired, long-headed race as in an impregnable
complex and not a synthetic accident.” 4
And can it be mere accident that a few miles north of the actual
frontier of modern Kurdish language there is Boghaz-K6i, the old
metropolis of the Hittite Empire, where Hugo Winckler in 1908 found
tablets with two political treaties of King Subbiluliuma with Matti-
uaza, son of Tusratta, King of Mitanni, and in both these treaties
Aryan divinities, Mithra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya, are invoked,
together with Hittite divinities, as witnesses and protectors.
And in the same inscriptions, which date from about 1380 B.C., the
King of Mitanni and his people are called Harri, just as nine centuries
later in the Achemenidian inscriptions Xerxes and Darius call them-
selves Har-ri-ya, ‘Aryans of Aryan stock.”
So the Kurds are the descendants of Aryan Invaders and have main-
tained their type and their language for more than 3,300 years.
L. TAHTADJI.
In Lycia there are about 1,000 families, or 5,000 souls, of a people
calling themselves Tahtadji or boardcutters—‘‘sawyers.” This is
indeed their principal occupation. In Western Lycia their Mohamme-
dan neighbors call them Allevi, a name that is perhaps connected
= ;
1 Verbally quoted from a paper of R. N. Salaman, ‘‘ Heredity and the Jew,’ in Journal of Genetics, vol. 1,
p. 274. The author of this very interesting paper holds the opposite opinion and believes in a “synthetic
accident.’”
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN. 563
with the word Ali-Ullahi or Layard’s Ali-[llahiya,! meaning people.
that worship Ah. I treated at large of this curious sect in 1889,? so
that I can be brief here.
They live high up in the mountains, generally in tents covered with
felt, sometimes in round [!] houses, and keep rigidly apart from all the
other inhabitants of Lycia. They speak Turkish, are originally re-
garded as Mohammedans, and have also Mohammedan names, but they
have no inner connection with the creed of Mohammet. They believe
in metempsychosis and in good and bad demons. Hares and turkeys
are considered as unclean, and the peacock as a sort of incarnation of
the devil.
Their somatic qualities are remarkably homogeneous; they have a
tawny white skin, much hair on the face, straight hair, dark brown
eyes, a narrow, generally aquiline nose, and a very short and high
head. The cephalic index varies only from 82 to 91 with a maximum
frequency of 86. The mean length-height index is 781, the mean
facial index, 876. A typical skull of a Tahtadji is figured here (pl. 11).
M. BEKTASH.
Whilst the Tahtadji live high up in the mountains of Lycia, a similar
sect, the Bektash, dwells in the Lycian towns, principally in Elmaly.
Their creed has never been exactly studied, and they are very anxious
to keep it secret. Like the Tahtadji they affect a certain affinity with
the real Moslems, but they never intermarry with them.
I published the measurements of 40 adult male Bektash in my
paper on the Tahtadji? and quote from it here, that the cephalic
index oscillates only between 84 and 89, and the auricular height-
index between 74 and 83, with two maxima at 75 and 82. The
facial index has a very distinct maximum at 86.
N. ANSARIYEH.
Exactly corresponding to the Tahtadji and the Bektash in south-
western Asia Minor are the Ansartyeh=Nussairiyeh in northern
Syria.
In some places, as in Antiochia (ad Orontem), they are called
“Fellah”’—from their principal occupation—but have no connection
with the Fellah of Egypt. Ali that is known about their creed is
exactly parallel to our knowledge of the Tahtadji, and the same
tales of nocturnal orgies, “jus prime noctis,” and ‘spiritistic”’
meetings are told of both groups.
Many Ansariyeh have also in their general appearance a striking
likeness to some Lycian Tahtadji. I measured 15 adult men.
1A. H. Layard, Nineveh, vol. 1, p. 296 ss.
2 Petersen and von Luschan, Reisenin Lykien, etc., Wien, C. Gerold’sSohn. Partly reprintedin Archiv.
f. Anthr., vol. 19, 1890.
564 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Their cranial index varies from 80 to 94, with a maximum at 85.
(Compare plate 2.)
O. KYZYLBASH.
In Upper Mesopotamia and in small groups reaching in the west
as far as the High Taurus, near Marash, there is a curious people,
living in the midst of Arabs and Kurds, which calls itself ‘ Kyzyl-
bash,’’ a word that means ‘‘redhead”’ in literal translation. But
there are not more red-haired individuals among them than among
their neighbors, and their head dress is not more red than that of
any other Oriental group. So the word can not mean what it seems
to mean, and had its origin perhaps in quite another word in another
language; in the same way that popular etymology made “‘ridicule”
from “‘reticula”’ or, in German, ‘‘mutter-seelenallein”’ from ‘‘moi
tout seul.” Perhaps linguists will one day find out the real origin
and meaning of Kyzylbash.
In some places in western Kurdistan people that are exactly lke
the Kyzylbash are called ‘Yezidi,” and protest that they have
nothing at all to do with the Kyzylbash; in other places, so I was
told one day at Kiakhta, on the Béilam River and again near Diarbekr,
that Yezidi and Kyzylbash were two words for the same thing,
the one being Arabic, the other Turkish. I do not know if this is
correct, but, as far as I could ascertain, the creed and the social
condition of both groups are fairly identical. Sir A. H. Layard’s
classic report on this sect is so complete and exhaustive that I have
nothing more to add than a few words on the physical characteristics.
They are strangely homogeneous. J was able to measure 189 adult
men; only three of them had grayish eyes, all the rest had dark
brown eyes, dark hair, and tawny ‘‘white” skin. Their cranial
index varies only from 83 to 92, with a well-defined maximum at 86.
The index of the auricular height varies from 75 to 83, and the facial
index from 80 to 90, with a pronounced maximum at 86. I could
measure only a few noses; they were all very high and leptorrhine,
and so seemed, with few exceptions, all the rest.
So these Kyzylbash are excessively short and broad-headed in
the midst of dolichocephalic Kurds and Arabs; their nose, too, is
much narrower than that of their neighbors. On the other hand,
the Kyzylbash [and the Yezidi] correspond absolutely with the
Tahtadji, the Bektash, and the Ansariyeh, so that we find a small
minority of groups possessing a similar creed and a remarkable
uniformity of type, scattered over a vast part of western Asia. I
see no other way to account for this fact than to assume that the
members of all these sects are the remains of an old homogeneous
population, which have preserved their religion and have therefore
refrained from intermarriage with strangers and so preserved their
old physical characteristics.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Luschan. PLATE 1.
IBo, KuRD, NIMRUD-DAGH, 1883.
Bako, KurD, NIMRUD-DAGH, 1883.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Luschan. PLATE 2
SuLo, ‘‘KuRD,” ATYPICAL, KIAKHTA.
Habis, ANSARIYEH, SCANDEROON.
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN. 565
Two other sects that are now to be mentioned, the Druses and
the Maronites, show in the same way how religious seclusion tends
to preserve old physical types.
P. DRUSES.
In the south of Beyrout a great part of the Lebanon and Antili-
banos country is inhabited by about 150,000 Druses, who down to
our days are to a certain extent independent of the Ottoman Govern-
ment and enjoy a good many privileges.
Their secret creed has been studied best by S. de Sacy in 1838,
and contains, mixed with Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan ele-
ments, a great many pantheistic conceptions, together with curious
ideas on metempsychosis and the repeated incarnation of God, and
with remains of the old Oriental worship of Nature. They speak
Arabic and pass officially as ‘‘Mohammedans,”’ having Islamic names,
but they have no inner connection with the religion of Mohammet.
Max y. Oppenheim ? believes the Druses to be the descendants of
‘“‘Arabs,’’ immigrated about A. D. 800.
This hypothesis probably conforms to local tradition, but is in
direct contradiction to the general impression we get from Druses
and from Arabs, and from the result of anthropometric researches.
I measured 59 adult male Druses, and not one single man fell, as
regards his cephalic index, within the range of the real Arab.
The Druses are all hyper-brachycephalic, with an index oscillating,
like that of the Bektash, between 84 and 89 only, with one single
exception, an old mischievous and half idiotic pensioner, who pre-
tended to have once been first keeper of the Imperial Plate in Con-
stantinople, and to be a real incarnation of Ali. His index was 76
without a suspicion of synostotic sutures; but he had gray eyes,
and fell in many other respects so fully out of the line of the homo-
geneous rest of my Druses, that it seems safe to drop him entirely.
The index of the auricular height ranges from 74 to 84 and the
facial index from 79 to 92, with a distinct maximum of 86, with 14
men in 58.
Q. MARONITES.
The northern neighbors of the Druses are the Maronites, Christians,
generally said to be the descendants of a Monophysite sect, separated
from the common Christian Church after the Council of Chalcedon in
A. D. 451. Now, this council is certainly of the very greatest import-
ance for ecclesiastical history, as it caused the schism between the
Oriental world and the Occidental: the Greek, the Armenian, and
the Coptic Church separated from the Roman, because the simple
understanding and the sound common sense of the Orientals preferred
1 Exposé de la religion des Druses, vol. 2, Paris, 1838.
2, Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf, Berlin, D. Reimer, 1899, vol. 1, p. iiiss.
566 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
to accept only one nature in Jesus Christ. But this theological dispute
gave the name to the Maronites, for they chose a monk, John Maro,
to be their bishop after they separated from Rome, but their physical
qualities are much older than their religious’schism. Indeed, partly
through their isolation in the mountains, partly through their not
intermarrying with their Mohammedan or Druse neighbors, the
Maronites of to-day have preserved an old type in an almost marvel-
ous purity. In no other Oriental group is there a greater number of
men with extreme height of the skull and excessive flattening of the
occipital region than among the Maronites. They are the best
specimens of what C. Toldt‘ calls ‘‘planoccipital”’ formation, and
very often their occiput is so steep that one is again and again
inclined to think of artificial deformation. Indeed I took great care
to make sure of this point and examined nearly a hundred babies in
their cradles, to ascertain whether or not a particular way of laying
the child’s head on a cushion might perhaps influence the form of the
occiput. No such possibility was found, and we are constrained to
regard the extreme ‘‘planoccipital’”’ formation of the Maronites (and
their relations) as a natural character. Cf. the two types here (pl. 3.)
I have measured 20 adult males, mostly from Baalbek and from
Tarabolus. Their cephalic index ranged from 79 to 91 with an
arithmetic mean of 86. The average facial index was 89, the irregu-
lar indices running from 75 to 94, with four cases of 87. All were dark.
Having thus treated of a series of smaller groups, we can now pro-
ceed to the five great groups of western Asia—Persians, Arabs, Turks,
Greeks, and Armenians.
° R. PERSIANS.
Notwithstanding some recent researches, our knowledge of the
anthropology of Persia is rather scanty. In a land inhabited by
about 10,000,000, not more than 20 or 30 men have been regularly
measured, and not one skull has been studied.
Apart from Kurds, Arabs, and Armenians, each numbering from
200,000 to 300,000 souls, and smaller groups of Nestorians, Lurs,
Gypsies, etc., there are two large ethnical groups in Persia, the Shiite
and settled Tajik and the Sunnite and essentially nomadic Ihlat.
The latter are Turkomans and so is the actual Dynasty of the Kajar;
the Ihlat, being the energetic and vigorous element, are the real
masters of the land and of the Tajik, the descendants of the old Per-
sians and Medes. But long-continued intermarriage has produced
a great many mixed types. Thus the Kajars have sometimes the
high aquiline noses quite foreign to real Turkomans.
The old type seems to be preserved in the Parsi, the descendants of
Persians who emigrated to India after the battle of Nahauband
1“ Untersuchungen tiber die Brachycephalie der Alpenlindischen Bevélkerung,’’ in Mitteilungen der
Wiener anthropol. Gesell., vol. 40, 1910, p. 69 ss. and p. 197 ss.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Luschan. PLATE 3.
NEDSHIB Huri, ‘“ARAB,’”? SHUAFAT, LEBANON.
IBRAHIM IBN Saip, “ARAB,’? BEYROUT.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Luschan.
ANNESEH—BEDOUIN FROM NEAR BAGHDAD.
ANNESEH—BEDOUIN FROM NEAR MOSSOUL.
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN, 567
(A. D. 640), of much purer form than among any true Persians.
They are all short headed and dark.
My own measurements are confined to 15 adult men, Persians of
the Diaspora, diplomats, consuls, and tobacconists, whom I occa-
sionally met in Constantinople, Smyrna, Rhodes, and Adalia. They
were all very dark. Their cephalic indices run 73, 74, 74, 80, 81, 86,
86, 87, 87, 87, 88, 88, 89, 89, 90. So there is a large majority of
brachycephals. I do not lay stress on the three dolichocephalic men,
because a great number of Persians whom I saw, without being able
to measure, seemed to be brachycephalic. Anyhow it is not impos-
sible that in reality a certain number of Persians—I am very far
from saying one-fifth of them—have long skulls. I never saw Persians
with light hair and blue eyes, but I am told that in some ‘‘noble”
familes fair types are not very rare.
We know nothing of the physical characteristics of the Achemen-
ides, who called themselves ‘‘Aryans of Aryan stock” and who
brought an Aryan language to Persia; it is possible that they were
fair and dolichocephalic, like the ancestors of the modern Kurds, but
they were certainly few in number, and it would therefore be aston-
ishing if their physical characteristics should have persisted among a
large section of the actual Persians. Still we must reckon with the
possibility that an early ‘‘Aryan”’ invasion was not quite without
influence also on the somatic qualities of modern Persians. Mean-
while much serious scientific work must still be done in investigating
the anthropology of Persia ere we can replace mere conjecture by
actual certainty.
S. ARABS.
In dealing with the peoples of western Asia, in no case is it more
important to keep language and race rigidly apart than when treating
of the Arabic-speaking people. Friedrich Miller called all the various
elements in Arabia, Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia ‘ Arabs,”
merely because they spoke Arabic. Nothing could be more errone-
ous. The material and mental culture of these tribes and their
somatic qualities are widely distinct, and the extent of the Arabic
language is infinitely larger than the extent of an. Arabic racial
element.
But peninsular Arabia is the least-known land in the world, and
large regions of it are even now absolute ‘‘terre incognite,’’ so
great caution is necessary in forming conclusions, from the measure-
ments of a few dozens of men, concerning the anthropology of a land
more than five times as great as France.
My own measurements are confined to 38 Annezeh-Bedouins,
whom I met in 1883 in Aleppo; 18 other Bedawy, generally Shammar,
camel drivers between Mosul and Alexandrettta; 20 Mohammedan
“Arabs” living in the town Hamah, the site of the first Hittite
568 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
inscriptions published; and 15 other Mohammedans from Syrian towns.
Two groups, unfortunately very small, consist of 6 priests from
Gesyra, whom I met in Aleppo, and 5 men from Hail, in Arabia,
whom I was able to measure-in Constantinople—in all 102 adult
men, 61 of them real Bedawy and 41 settled in towns.1
The cephalic indices of these ““Arabs”’ ran thus:
Number | Cephalic
measured. | index.
Bedawy:
IATINOVO Nar cisene ste alee ae Soe ae oe ies Me cided ops Lect Ee Eee Eee 38 68 to 78
Other Bedaw ys. saa ee aes Bhs EOE. Sa ee eee 18 71 to 81
METH INOUE AN 3 Be Sc ee cape cis a mcc cae Seis a bogs Seca s geleniae earn ore eee Ber 5 70 to 74
Settled in towns:
Arab St vOMmerram alas sere ere rmnad ie ais cic as eae Be as Seer S ete 20 85 to 89
Other Mohammedans from Syrian towns.......-..:----..-+.2---.-----+------ 15 76 to 89
PPTIOS CSE OMI COS YIU cele eteloralstelaledateyetele ela ais wicle= oini=)5 reel podbon tihencebdobesdsobess 6 83 to 86
Remarkably parallel with the cephalic index is the form of the
nose in both these groups. The Bedawy as a rule have short and
fairly broad, the other “Arabs” have, with few exceptions, high and
narrow noses, often of an aquiline form
What we sense call a “Jewish type’’ is found very seldom
among real Bedawy and very often among the ‘Arabs” in the
towns, but it would be difficult to reduce this statement to a statis-
tical form, as the conception of “Jewishness” is too uncertain and
precarious. Two typical Bedouins are figured here. (PI. 4.)
We shall later on try to understand the historical connection
between these two types, the Bedawy and the other “Arabs.” For
the moment, we must restrict ourselves to having shown the marked
difference that separates them.
T. TURKS.
It is customary in most European languages to call the Moham-
medan subjects of the Padishah ‘‘Turks.”’ But the word should
never be used in this sense without inverted commas; it is more
than ambiguous and easily leads to serious misunderstandings.
A Turkoman tribe, the Othmanli, commenced from 1289 to conquer
a great part of what is now the Ottoman Empire. A good many of
the former inhabitants were then forced to speak Turkish and to
turn Mohammedans. It is easy to understand that the descendants
of the conquerors and of the conquered renegades intermarried
freely, and, as the number of the conquering troops was naturally
very much smaller than that of the original population, the great
bulk of the 10 or 15, or perhaps more, millions of so-called ‘“Turks”’
has now the physical qualities, not of the conquering-Othmanh, but
of the old pre Othmianic inhabitants.
1{ have Foaauted @ 7 more “Arabs,’”’? but I omit their figures in this statement, because they were of
mixed blood or in some way or other pathological.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Luschan. PLATE 5.
ALI TSHAUSH, MOHAMMEDAN, AGHLASAN (SEAT),
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Luschan. PLATE 6
GEorGIOS GLINIS, GREEK, TINOS.
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN. 569
So the anthropology of Turkey is, like that of Hungary, a typical
example showing how language, religion, nationality, and race are
quite distinct conceptions, and it is interesting to see how they are
again and again confounded by the general public and by the press.
In my paper on the Tahtadji‘ I gave the indices of 187 ‘‘Turks”’
(Turkish-speaking Mohammedans) from Lycia, and was able to show
that in the mountain villages, and in some swampy marshes not
easy of access, people were generally short headed, and in the towns
and on the coast long headed. Since then I have measured 569
more ‘‘Turks” from southern Asia Minor and northern Syria, so
that I can now publish the cephalic indices of 756 adult men; they
run from 69 to 96; if we count the indices 77 to 81 as mesaticephalic,
172 of these 756 men would be dolichocephalic, 151 mesaticephalic,
and 433 brachycephalic, with a very pronounced maximum of 77
and 83 men respectively at indices 85 and 86.
These numbers speak for themselves, but it is perhaps useful to
study first the corresponding figures for the two large remaining
groups, the Greeks and the Armenians, and then to compare the
results. Two very different types of ‘‘Turks” are figured here.
(Pls5:)
U. GREEKS.
What has been said of the ‘‘Turks” is valid too in absolutely the
same way for the ‘‘Greeks” of Anatoha and Syria. Some of them
are certainly the direct descendants of old Ionians, Dorians, or
AKolians, but the greater part are descended from other groups
which spoke Greek and had accepted the orthodox religion.
I must here pass over the interesting problem of the Dorian and
Jonian wanderings? and must restrict myself to some measurements
taken on a series of 179 adult men calling themselves Greek and
belonging to the orthodox church. I published this series in 1890,
in my paper on the Tahtadji, and reprint here a graphic table showing
the frequency of the cephalic indices. It is very striking to see how
the curve shows a maximum of 22 men with an index of 75, and a
second maximum of 18 men with an index of 88.
Seventy-nine out of the 179 men are dolicho-, 84 are brachy-, and
only 16 are mesaticephalic. If we reckon the arithmetic mean for
the whole series, we get an average index of about 80, closely con-
forming to Weisbach’s 95 skulls of Asiatic and European Greeks
with an average index of 81.2, and with the series of Klon Stephanos,?
who found 80.8 for the Greeks in Europe and 80.7 for the Asiatic
Greeks.
1 Op cit., p. 563, note 2.
2 My own private idea is that, contrary to the theory of Curtius, the Ionians came from Europe and the
Dorians from Asia, but I shall treat of this subject in another paper.
3 Article on Greece in Dict. encyclop. des sciences med., Paris, 1884,
570 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
It is easily understood how dangerous and mystifying such an aver-
age index may be, if the material is composed of individuals from at
least two different groups, as it manifestly is.
I am in possession of 93 skulls from a modern Greek cemetery in
Adalia; they show about the same distribution of indices.
Long before the rediscovery of Mendel and his laws I tried to study
the heredity of the cephalic index in the Greek families of Adalia.
Here, in the old capital of Pamphylia, there is a large Greek colony,
ces in a series of 179 adult male Greeks,
cephalic
and as I had by good chance been able to give medical help to some
of the influential members, I was. permitted to measure parents,
children and other relations in 67 families. The results were striking.
I published a short abstract of them in 1889, in the Reisen in Lykien,
and in 1890 in my paper on the Tahtadji.
There was a family A; the father had an index of 87, the mother
of 73; of the two sons, the elder had an index of 70, the younger 87.
In another family, B, the brother of the dead father had an index
of 70, the mother 86, a son 82, a daughter 75. In a third family,
©, both parents were brachycephalic, with indices of 85 and 86.
Of their five children, only the youngest daughter was short
headed, with an index of 86, and four elder brothers had long heads
with 72, 73, 75, and 73, respectively; 74 was the index of a brother
of the mother.
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN. 571
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TABLE II.—Frequency of cephalic indices with Greeks, Turks, and Jews.
1,222 Jews, reduced to one-fifth.
756 Turks, reduced to one-third.
179 Greeks,
572 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
If I now study these 67 families in the light of Mendelian researches,
it seems as if neither brachy- nor dolichocephaly were dominant or
recessive; they seem to be transmitted now with equal frequency,
and this has probably been the case for more than 2,000 years. At
least, that is the age of the Greek colony of Adalia and for 60 or 70
generations short and long headed ‘‘Greeks’’ have been freely inter-
marrying. The result was, in many cases, not a mixture, as if we
would mix red and white wine, but it was often a manifest reversion
to the original types. I called this process ‘‘Entmischung,”’ but
one might perhaps just as well say ‘‘Spaltung”’ or ‘‘reversion”’ or
“restitution.”
In this way good old types, once fixed by long inbreeding, do not
necessarily get lost by intermarriage, but often return with astonish-
ing energy. Z
The short heads of the Asiatic ‘‘Greeks”’ certainly correspond to
the short heads of the ‘‘Turks” and of all the Moslem Sectaries
described at length in this paper. We shall soon learn to know their
real origin. The long heads probably do not belong to one uniform
type; some of them are nearly as high as good Anglo-Saxon heads,
and can perhaps be compared with the heads of Kurds; other long
heads of Greeks are low, like the heads of Bedawy, and I am inclined
to regard them as Semitic. They are, indeed, chiefly found on the
sites of old Semitic colonies. In some of these places, as in Adalia,
the women wear their hair in many thin plaits, like the old Assyrians,
and they are famous for their ‘‘Semitic”’ appearance.
As in ancient Greece a great number of individuals seem to have
been fair, with blue eyes, I took great care to state whether this were
the case with the modern ‘‘Greeks”’ in Asia. I have notes for 580
adults, males and females. In this number there were 8 with blue,
and 29 with gray or greenish, eyes; all the rest had brown eyes.
There was not one single case of really light-colored hair,! but in
nearly all the cases of lighter eyes the hair also was less dark than
with the other Greeks.
I did not measure all the Greeks whose eye and hair color I noted,
but I found that three cases of the blue, and thirteen of the gray or
greenish eyes were combined with long heads; but I noted also several
cases of blue eyes with very short heads. So it is evident that head
form and pigment are transmitted separately. As the number of
long and high heads is much larger than the number of fair complex-
ions it seems permissible to say that with the Asiatic Greeks fairness
is recessive in the Mendelian sense. Two different types of ‘‘Greeks”
are figured here (pl. 6).
1 With the exception of the young men at Symi, who are all faxen haired. in summer they dive for
sponges, and their hair is bleached by the combined effects of sun and salt water.
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA——-LUSCHAN, 573
V. ARMENIANS.
Whilst ‘‘Turks” and ‘‘Greeks’’ have been proved to be composed
of at least two quite distinct somatic elements, the third of the three
great ethnic groups, which form the bulk of the inhabitants of Asia
Minor, the Armenians, is comparatively homogeneous.
Of course they also have incorporated in themselves various alien
elements, and J know Armenians from southern Persia who look like
Biloch or Dravidians, but as a rule the great mass of the Armenians
forms not only a religious, but also a somatic unity.
Particularly in northern Syria there are places where Armenians
resemble one another like eggs. Religious seclusion and, in many
cases, life in remote mountain villages, have both contributed to
prevent intermarriage with strangers, and thus we may assume from
the beginning that they represent an old type.
More frequently than any other group in western Asia they show
the ‘‘planoccipital”’ form of the profile curve, great brachycephaly
with extreme height of the skull and a particularly narrow and high
nose (Cf. pl. 7).
They are generally dark; yet of 110 adult men, whom my friend
Dr. Assadur Altounyan examined for me in Aleppo, 8 had blue, and
6 ‘‘greenish,’’ eyes, and in my own series of 26 adult men 1 had light
gray, another greenish, eyes. I have no good statistics on the Arme-
nians from the Provinces of Erivan and Nahitshevan in the Russian
Transcaucasia, but a great number of the Armenians, whom I occa-
sionally saw from there, had reddish hair and gray or green eyes.
I do not know with what elements they may be mixed, and thinkit safe
to omit them here entirely. Also a few ‘‘Catholic’’ Armenians whom
I met at Antiochia (ad Orontem) are to be excepted from my series,
as they have a more prominent occiput; probably they are of mixed
origin. If I omit these ‘‘Catholics,’”? my series of true Armenians
begins with a cephalic index of 83 and ends with one of 96, the max-
imum of frequency falling clearly at 88.
To this extreme brachycephaly corresponds a facial index oscilla-
ting between 77 and 96, with a maximum frequency of 87 and 88,
and with an average of 87.5.
A series of 26 Armenian skulls begins with a cranial index of 81,
ending with one of 91. A very typical skull from this series is figured
here (pl. 11). and two good types are reproduced here (pl. 7).
SUMMARY.
If we now sum up the results of our researches and try to review
them in regard to the origin of the different ethnic groups of western
Asia, we need not linger over the Negroes, the Circassians, the Alba-
nians, the Bulgarians, the Bosnians, the Franks, and the Levantines.
574 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Their origin lies outside the scope of this paper. The same is true
of the Gypsies and their kin, but it must be stated that perhaps one
of the nomadic tribes in Ma Minor, mee Yuruks, is in some way or
other related with them.
Of far greater importance are the Kurds. From the great frequency
of fair individuals among them, it is evident that their home must
be in the north, and it is probable from their Aryan language that
they are in some way connected with the Mitanni, who had Aryan
divinities about 1280 B. C.
I am well aware that at present there is no real proof or decisive
evidence for this statement, but, by way of a working hypothesis, I
might be allowed to suggest that the Kurds, the Amorites of the
Bible, the Mitanni of the Boghaz-k6i tablets and the Tamehu of the
old Egyptian texts are, if not identical, at least somehow related to
one another.1. About 1500 B. C., or earlier, there seems to have begun
a migration of northern men to Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Egypt,
and India. Indeed, we can now connect even Further India with
the Mitanni of Central Asia Minor. On the tablets of Boghaz-k6i
the king of Mitanni not only calls himself and his people “harri,”’
but he speaks of his noblemen as ‘‘mari,” and Hugo Winckler and
¥. C. Andreas ? remind us of the word “‘marya” for “young man” or
‘“‘hero” in the Vedic texts. So we find the same Aryan nobles in
Mitanni about 1280 B. C., and very much later also in India.
If really, as it seems, the old texts state that the Amorites and the
Tamehu were fair, we should thus get a historic explanation of the
great number of xanthochroic people we find down to our time
everywhere in Asia Minor and in Syria, and among the modern Jews.
Resuming now the thread of this paper, we have a great number of
different ‘“‘Moslem” Sectaries spread over a vast part of western
Asia under different names, as Tahtadji, Allevi, Ali-Ullahiya, Ansari-
yeh, Fellah, Kyzylbash, Yezidi, and Bektash, speaking the different
languages of their orthodox neighbors, Turkish, Arabic, and Kurdish,
but still absolutely homogeneous as to their somatic characteristics.
And to this selfsame group belong also the Druses and the Maronites.
They also have the enormously high and short “planoccipital”’
heads and the narrow and high noses we find with the Sectaries.
Now this same hypsicephalic element with the high aquiline noses,
which forms the entire stock of all these Sectaries, we find again in
Persia, and in a high percentage among the Turks and the Greeks, and
in a still higher among the Armenians—everywhere under circum-
1 The latest migration of a European tribe to western Asia is that of the Galatians. Passing through
Roumania, where the town of Galatz (Galati in Roumanian) has conserved their name, they crossed*the
Hellespont about 280 B.C. Angora and Gordion were their principal towns, and it is not impossible that
the latter name, and then also that of the Gordyaeans and of the Kurds, is linguistically connected with
that of the Galatians, who might have had earlier precursors.
2 Orientalistische Literaturzeitung, 1910, p. 289 ss. Cf. also Ed.Meyer, ‘Das erste Auftreten der Arier
in der Geschichte,” in Sitzungsberichte Berliner Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1908, i.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Luschan. PLATE 7.
STEPAN, ARMENIAN, KESSAB, DJEBEL AKRAH.
KYRIAKOS, ARMENIAN, DJEBEL AKRAH.
“VIMAS ‘ITYIPANSS ‘SSILINIAIG SLILLIH
‘8 31V1d ‘ueyosnqj—'Fl6| ‘Hoday ueiuosyyiWS
PLATE 9.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Luschan.
SYRIA.
HITTITE DIVINITY, SENDJIRLI
HITTITE GOD AND KING, IBRIZ (WITH HITTITE INSCRIPTION).
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Luschan.
Vv
KING BARREKUB OF SAMAL, AND QUEEN, ABouT 730 B. C.
(WITH SEMITIC INSCRIPTION).
PLATE
10.
EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—-LUSCHAN. 575
stances that would make it appear to be old and aboriginal,whilst the
dolichocephals seem to represent later immigrations.
This theory, based entirely on anthropometric research, is con-
firmed by historic considerations and by the results of modern exca-
vations. We now know that about 1280 B. C., when Khattusil made
his peace with Rameses II, there existed a large empire, not much
smaller than Germany, reaching from the Adgeean Sea to Mesopotamia
and from Kadesh on the Orontes to the Black Sea. We do not know
at present if this Hittite Empire ever had a really homogeneous
population, but we have a good many Hittite reliefs, and all these,
without one single exception, show us the high and short heads or
the characteristic noses of our modern brachycephalic groups.
When I first upheld in 1892, in my paper on the anthropological
position of the Jews, the homogeneous character of these groups, I
called them ‘‘Armenoids.’”’ But there can be no doubt that they are
all descended from tribes belonging to the great Hittite Empire. So
it is the type of the Hittites that has been preserved in all these
groups for more than 3,000 years, and this is certainly a Jewish type,
and corresponds with the old Jewish ideal of beauty as we read in
the Song of Songs, vii, 4: ‘Thine eyes are as the pools in Heshbon,
by the gate of Bath-rabbim, thy nose is like the tower of Lebanon,
which looketh toward Damascus.”
But this Jewish type is not Semitic and is rarely found among the
only real Semites, the Bedawy. The Hittite inscriptions have not yet
been read, but our orientalists are unanimous in assuming that there
is not the slightest doubt that the Hittite language was not Semitic.
These non-Semitic aborigines had their own language, their own
writing, and their own religion. Semitic influence is completely
absent in the earlier times and is perceptible only later on at different
times in the different territories—first in Babylonia, then in Pales-
tine, where Abraham is the jowe éxwvupoc of a Semitic invasion, and
still later in Northern Syria. Here my own excavations ! in Send-
jirli, the old Samal, have brought to light a Semitic inscription of
King Kalamu, son of Yadi, from about 850 B. C., invoking Baal
Semed, Baal Haman, and Rekubél. Another inscription of King
Panamu from about 800 B. C., on a statue of Hadad, praises Hadad.
himself and four other Semitic divinities, El, ReSef, Rekubél, and
Semes.
As TeSup, the great chief-god of the Hittites, is not mentioned in
any of the Semitic inscriptions of Sendjirli, we may suppose that
about 900 B. C., or earlier, independent of the Assyrian conquests,
Semitic invaders brought with them their language, their alphabet,
their writing, and their religian, to northern Syria, but we know
nothing of their number, and we are not able from historical data
1 Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, parts 1-4. Berlin, Georg Reimer, 1893-1911.
576 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
to form an exact opinion as to how far these invaders could influence
the somatic characters of the old Hittite population.
I give here (pl. 10) the portraits of a later king of Samal, Barrekub,
from about 730 B. C., and of his queen. The king has certainly
not a Hittite profile, and he might well himself be of Semitic origin,
but probably a great number of his subjects had preserved the old
Hittite characteristics, and even the queen herself looks as she were
not quite without Hittite blood.
For the present population of northern Syria, as well as of all
western Asia, our anthropometric tables show evidence that this old
type is still extant in a high percentage among the actual inhabitants.
Only as to the primordial home of the Hittites, or however else we
may term all these hypsi- and brachycephalic people with the high
and narrow nose, is there some difficulty. The ‘Alpine race”’ of
central Europe is certainly somehow related to or connected with
them and a priori it is not easy to determine if the Hittites came from
central Kurope or if the ‘Alpine race” came from western Asia. I
do not know if the first possibility has many champions left now. If
so, they might certainly lay stress on the fact that the modern
Armenians and the modern Persians, both typical ‘‘ Hittites,” are
now speaking Aryan languages, but we know how often ethnic
groups change their language entirely without losing their somatic
type, and we can in this special case well imagine that early precursors
of the xanthochroic Kurds and their relations may have brought
their Aryan language to the old Armenians and Persians without being
able to impress their somatic type upon them.
We should not forget, too, that Europe is only a small peninsular.
annexe to Asia, and that there are infinitely more typical ‘‘ Hittites”
in western Asia than there are in Europe. It seems surer, therefore,
to locate the cradle of the Hittites in Asia, where we find extreme
brachycephals as far to the east as Burma and Siam and the Malay
Archipelago.
We could then also understand how the essential somatic difference
between the Hittites and the other brachycephalic Asiatics—their
high and narrow nose—originated as a merely accidental mutation
and was then locally fixed, either by a certain tendency of taste and
fashion or by long, perhaps millennial, inbreeding. The “ Hittite
nose” has finally become a dominant characteristic in the Mendelian
sense, and we see it, not only in the actual geographical province of
the Alpine race, but often enough also here in England. Certainly,
similar noses may originate everywhere, quite independently of the
1 Typical portraits of Hittite divinities, excavated at Sendjirli, are here reproduced on pls. 8and 9, and
the rock sculpture of Ibriz (ef. here pl. 9) shows a Hittité god and king, both with extreme ‘‘Jewishness.”’
On Egyptian monuments Hittites are always figured with a profile like the modern Armenian (pl. 2).
The young ‘“‘ Kurd’? Sulo (pl. 2), also belongs to this group; his mother, whose type he has inherited, is
an Armenian woman.
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EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA—LUSCHAN. 577
Hittites, by mere mutation, but it seems safer to explain by atavism
and by Asiatic or Alpine origin noses like those of the late Cardinal
Newman, Ralph Waldo Emerson, or Charles Kingsley.
So, to sum up, we see how all western Asia was originally inhabited
by a homogeneous, melanochroic race, with extreme hypsi-
brachycephaly and with a “Hittite” nose. About 4000 B. C. began
a Semitic invasion from the southeast, probably from Arabia, by
people looking like modern Bedawy. Two thousand years later
commenced a second invasion, this time from the northwest, by
xanthochroous and long-headed tribes like the modern Kurds, half
savage, and in some way or other, perhaps, connected with the
historic Harri, Amorites, Tamehu, and Galatians.
The modern ‘‘Turks,”’ Greeks, and Jews are, all three, equally com-
posed of these three elements, the Hittite, the Semitic, and the xan-
thochroous Nordic. Not so the Armenians and the Persians. They,
and still more the Druses, Maronites, and the smaller sectarian
groups of Syria and Asia Minor, represent the old Hittite element,
and are little, or not at all, influenced by the somatic characters of
alien invaders.
Combinations of philology with anthropology have in former times,
especially through Friedrich Miller and his school, often led to
serious mistakes. One spoke of Aryan races instead of people with
Aryan languages, and one went so far as to speak of Aryan skulls and
of Aryan eyes, so that Max Miller formally protested against the
intrusion of linguistics into ethnology, stating that one might just as
well speak of a brachycephalic grammar as of an Aryan skull.
Still there is a solidarity between the historical sciences and natural
history, and in proof of this solidarity I have ventured—in the spirit
and in honor of Thomas Henry Huxley—to give argument and
evidence.
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EXCAVATIONS AT ABYDOS.!
By Epvovarp NAvILLE.?
[With 3 plates.]
I. THE TOMB OF OSIRIS.
There was a city in Egypt called by the Greeks Abydos. This is
an example of a popular etymology or rather popular transcription.
Its Egyptian name was ‘About,’ which through resemblance of
sound recalled the distant well-known Grecian city of Abydos on
the Hellespont, made famous by the passage of the army of Xerxes,
and led to calling the Egyptian city by that name. It played no
part in the political world, but became famous chiefly as a place for
the worship of Osiris; one could almost call it a Mecca of pilgrims.
Osiris, the most human god of the Egyptian pantheon, had been cut
into pieces by his rival, Set, or Typhon; but his son Horus had
brought him back to life by reconstructing his body. His tomb
however, was at Abydos, though we do not know whether it con-
tained the body of the god, or as Greek writers say, only his head.
On account of the sanctity of the place, the Egyptians liked to be
buried there, and very few localities contained cemeteries so rich,
belonging to all epochs from the neolithic age down to the Roman
Empire. Kings had there built temples most of which, excepting
two, have been destroyed, though one in particular, built by Séti I,
of the nineteenth dynasty, the father of Rameses II, has remained
almost in its entirety. It was unearthed by Mariette. It is a large
temple which was completed by Rameses. In the part built by
Séti there are some of the most beautiful sculptures in Egypt, but
from father to son the style changed completely, the work of Rameses
being hastily done with the carelessness oe ae so many of
his monuments.
The temple of Séti is what is called a memnonium, that.is, an
edifice in connection with a tomb and in which they rendered services
to the dead. Since it is dedicated to Osiris, it seemed uals that
the tomb of this god might be in this vicinity.
1 Translated by permission from Archives Suisses d’ Anthropologie générale, Geneva, May, 1914.
,? This article consists of two letters which were originally written to the Journal de Genéve on Feb.
26 and Mar. 17, 1914, while the excavations were carried on. This explains why they do not agree
completely. After an interval of three weeks I could describe new discoveries, and especially that
of the edifice, the great pool which I did not suspect when I wrote the first letter.—Ed. N.
579
580 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
For several years M. Petrie had attracted attention to what he
called the Osireion. He had discovered a passageway leading to a
room ornamented with funereal paintings showing a scene of worship
rendered to Osiris. In this passageway was a side door before which
M. Petrie was stopped and which he shows upon his map to be a
passage leading to the temple of Séti, situated about 80 meters from
this door.
Following close upon a number of excavations in these cemeteries,
it was decided that we would examine all that was in the space which
separated the temple from that door, and we commenced this work
two years ago. We first found an inclined corridor, completely
filled with débris, whose walls are covered with texts from the Book
of the Dead from the time of Menephtah, the son of Rameses II,
King of the Exodus. This corridor which was 14 meters long, was
formerly covered by a ceiling made of large blocks of sandstone all
but one of which have been taken away. It ends in what we first
thought ‘to be two lateral chambers. Now we have found that it is
a single great hall, with corbelled ceiling and the walls covered with
funereal paintings of Menephtah.
Opposite the corridor in the east wall of the hall there is a doorway,
the triple lintel of which was found two years ago, composed of three
stones 5 meters long. We have found that this doorway crossed a
wall 4 meters thick. It seemed as if beyond it we might discern two
undiscovered rooms. It was only a lack of funds that stopped us.
When we left the place, we had before us.a space about 50 meters long
covered with sand that must be cleared out to some unknown depth,
and close to the temple there was a very high mound made by the
excavations of Mariette. This pile has since been removed by the
Service of Antiquities. It was evident, however, that we could not
reach the Osireion until we had the necessary funds for making the
excavation on a large scale. So we did not work during the winter
of 1912. One can judge of the importance of the excavation from
the fact that to-day we have 639 workmen, two-thirds of whom are
children carrying baskets. It is the greatest work that the Egypt
Exploration Fund has undertaken.
On December 23 we were installed in two crude brick houses built
for us in the desert. My collaborators that year were Mr. Whitte-
more of Boston, and Messrs. Wainwright and Gibson, both Engtish-
men. After we had begun, I thought that beyond the door discovered
two years ago we might reach the entrance of a passage leading to the
subterranean sanctuary, consecrated to what is called the double of
Osiris; that is, a kind of bodyless shadow which forms part of the
person.
T should never have expected to see what we really unearthed.
Between the doorway with enormous lintels and the temple of Séti I
EXCAVATIONS AT ABYDOS—NAVILLE, 581
is a large edifice evidently built at the time of the pyramids; that is,
belonging to the first dynasties. It is very much ruined, but it was
constructed of massive materials, the largest that have been found
in Egypt in like quantity. It is an edifice unique among those |
numerous temples and tombs that one finds in the Valley of the
Nile.
It is rectangular in shape inclosed by a wall 6 meters thick made
in two layers, the outer layer of roughly dressed limestone, and
the inner layer of great blocks of very hard red sandstone, bound with
dovetails of gray granite. The area thus inclosed is 30 meters long
by 20 wide and divided into three parallel naves which are separated
by enormous monolithic granite pillars supporting architraves which
are mostly 5 meters long. The two side naves had a ceiling of granite
monoliths that one could hardly call slabs, for they are more than 2
meters thick. The middle nave was probably open to the sky.
These gigantic colonnades must have produced a very wonderful
effect. Even now one is struck with admiration before that majestic
simplicity, although very little of the whole edifice remains. There
is nothing intact but the corner of the north colonnade. All the rest
has been ruthlessly destroyed. It is very probable that the one who
set the example was Rameses himself, for he had little respect for
the work of his predecessors. Several heavy blocks of granite or
sandstone used in the sanctuary of his temple located a little farther
along, show by their shape and dimensions where they were obtained.
But since Rameses, and perhaps even recently, the destruction has
been even more ruthless. These majestic colonnades have become
quarries where millstones of all sizes have been cut. Everywhere
one sees the trace of wedges which have served to split the granite.
Many of these millstones, nearly finished, are still there and weigh
several tons. We are obliged to remove these as well as a great
number of still larger fragments. This is what noticeably retards the
work of excavation. We have not yet reached the flagstones of the
flooring. We shall then judge better of the effect of those great
monolithic columns and of the architraves which they support.
In the wall of these colonnades there is a series of recesses or cells,
6 of which we have already discovered, and there should be at least
16. They are not large. A man can just stand upright in them, and
they were closed by doors probably of wood. One can still see the
place for the hinges. I firmly believe that these cells are the exact
duplicates of those.described in the Book of the Dead as belonging to
the celestial dwelling of Osiris. Outside of these cells we find nothing
at all in the colonnades; neither an object nor a hieroglyphic sign.
This complete absence of ornamentation characterizes the monu-
ments of the period of the pyramids, as also does the style of con-
struction and the enormous materials then employed.
582 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The middle nave terminates at the wall at the end, about 10 meters
from the temple of Séti. This wail is of red sandstone, and there
alone can be seen sculptures of the King Menephtah of a funereal
style. They indicate a tomb. For example, we find there a repre-
sentation of the two principal amulets that they put on the body of
deceased persons. In fact, at the base of the wall, a little door the
size of that of the cells opens. When we had crept through the door
we found ourselves in a large room of 20 by 5 meters, the ceilmg made
of heavy blocks. This room, perfectly preserved, is absolutely
empty. In a temple which has served as a quarry for centuries
nothing can be found. Nevertheless, the texts cut by King Séti I on
one of its sides is what proves that it was a funeral chamber. It
represents the final scene of a book which is pamted or sculptured in
the royal tombs, the Book of the Lower World. The tomb of Osiris
is really there. Was a sarcophagus there, what was it like, did it
contain the body of the god or only his head, that is what we shall
probably never know.
We have not yet reached the flooring. It is quite possible that the
end of the excavation has some surprise in store for us; that we may
learn the purpose of this edifice with three naves which so little
resembles a sanctuary.
Next winter, tourists visitng Abydos, after having crossed the
temple of Séti, will find themselves before the majestic ruins of one
of the most ancient edifices that the soil of Egypt has preserved for
us, and which was absolutely unknown up to these last few days.
This indicates that this privileged land perhaps still contains under
a thick bed of sand some great monuments of whose existence no one
had any idea. This is the second time that the explorations through
the Egypt Exploration Fund have revealed a style of edifice here-
tofore unknown. ‘There is reason to hope that results such as those
of this winter will awaken the interest of some friends of antiquity
in what I will call the great excavation, that which seeks above all
things to bring to the light of day these glorious remains of the past
and which is not a search for souvenirs destined to decorate the show
cases of museums or of private collections.
II. THE GREAT POOL OF ABYDOS.
A short time ago, describing the excavations of Abydos, I said
that we had not reached the flooring and that at the end of this
work we might find something unexpected. That is just what has
happened. We now know the purpose of that peculiar edifice con-
structed of those huge stone blocks. While at the extreme end the
tomb of Osiris was found, the great subterranean room into which
we penetrated on the 13th of February, nevertheless the Cyclopean
PReAniEme
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Naville.
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INTERIOR OF NORTHERN COLONNADE, SHOWING DOoRS OF THREE CELLS; THE FOOT OF
THE LADDER IN THE CORNER RESTS IN THE WATER OF THE POOL.
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EXCAVATIONS AT ABYDOS—NAVILLE. 583
construction which is in front of that room is neither a sanctuary
nor a tomb; it is a great reservoir, or, if you wish to call it so, a pool,
the word being understood in the same sense as when we speak of
the pool of Bethesda.
I recall that we found ourselves in a rectangular space of 30 by 20
meters, inclosed by a wall 6 meters thick, the outer face of the wall
of limestone and the inner face of very hard, red sandstone. This
space is divided into three naves, the two on the sides being narrower
than the center one. These naves are separated by colonnades made
of enormous pillars of granite supporting architraves equally massive.
The two lateral naves had a ceiling, a corner of which is still standing;
as for the middle nave, that is more doubtful.
All around this inclosure there are parallel cells in which a man can
stand upright, closed in probably by wooden doors and which are
without any ornament. It seemed at first sight quite certain that
these cells opened on a pavement and that the entire building had a
flooring. Great was our astonishment when we discovered that in
front of these cells there was no flooring but only a footpath a little
more than 60 centimeters wide which extended all around the edifice,
passing before the large entrance door, and which ran also along the
side of each nave opposite the doors of thesecells. This wall of magni-
ficent masonry continues beneath the pathway and at a depth of
nearly 4 meters we discovered infiltration water at the level where it is
encountered in cultivated land, although we are in the desert.
Thus the two large lateral naves and the contiguous extremities of
the middle one form a great rectangular basin bordered on two sides
by a stone path which might have served as a towpath for hauling
the boats or canoes in the basin and which stopped, perhaps, before
the cells.
The middle nave was larger and contained no waterexcept at its ends.
From each side the stone forming the footpath, which is an enormous
block, passes between the pillars or supports them and advances
almost to the middle of the nave to that which at first sight appeared
to be a narrow canal, a little more than a meter and a half wide.
While digging in this canal we came to two stairways, turned, one
toward the front entrance the other toward the funeral chamber of
Osiris. We had a great deal of trouble excavating in this middle
nave covered with enormous stones that we were obliged to remove,
but it is clear from the arrangement of the place that the entire central
gallery was an island reached by a wooden bridge or by boat. The
end of one of these staircases that we have been able to clear stops
about a meter above the water. If we were in a normal year instead
of a year when the water is exceptionally low, the staircase would
reach the water and, according to the conditions of the season, the
first two or three steps even might be mundated.
584 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
There is no longer any doubt, then, that we have discovered what
Strabo calls the well or the fountain of Abydos. He spoke of it as
being near the temple, at a great depth, and remarkable for some
corridors whose ceilings were formed of enormous monolithic blocks.
That is exactly what we have found.
These cells were 17 in number, 6 on each of the long sides. There
was one in the middle of the wall at the back; in passing through it
one came in the rear to the large hall which was the tomb of Osiris.
A careful study of the sculptures confirmed the opinion that this was
a funeral hall where the remains of the god were expected to be found.
But this hall did not form a part of the original edifice. It must
have been-constructed under ground when Séti I built the temple
of the god. The tomb of Osiris was very near the great reservoir.
Nothing revealed its presence; the entrance to it was exactly like that
to all the other cells, the back of it bemg walled up after they had
dug through it.
The discovery of this subterranean reservoir, constructed of huge
building stones, presents many questions, some of which let us hope
may be solved by the completion of these excavations. At present
we are checked. We could not get to the bottom of the basin, as it
is obstructed by a number of large blocks thrown there at the time
the edifice was destroyed. There are some millstones weighing
several tons and other fragments just as heavy. We must get to
the bottom in order to find out where the wall of magnificent masonry
inclosing the water may lead, whether it ends at a flagstone pave-
ment, and also whence comes the abundant supply of water that we
see in our excavations. Hydraulic engineers are now studying the
sheet of water which extends under Egypt, under the desert as well
as under cultivated land. Is it that water that we find in the reser-
voir? Or has it a conduit which emanates from no one knows where ?
The word that Strabo uses might apply to a spring.
We have as yet no certain indications of the date of the con-
struction; but the style, the size of the materials, the complete
absence of all ornamentation, all indicate very great antiquity. Up
to the present time what is called the temple of the Sphinx at Gizeh
has always been considered one of the most ancient edifices of
Egypt. It is contemporaneous with the pyramid of Chefren. The
reservoir of Abydos being of a similar composition, but of much
larger materials, is of a still more archaic character, and I would not
be surprised if this were the most ancient architectural structure in
Egypt. The pyramids are perhaps of the same age, but a pyramid
is simply a mass of stone and is not a complicated design like the
reservoir.
If we have here the most ancient Kgyptian structure that has been
preserved to us, it is curious that it should be neither a temple nor a
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EXCAVATIONS AT ABYDOS—NAVILLE. 585
tomb, but a reservoir, a great hydraulic work. This shows that the
ancients well understood the flow of subterranean waters, the laws
which control their rise and fall. It is very probable that this reser-
voir played some réle in the worship of Osiris. The cells are perhaps
those which appear in the Book of the Dead; it is possible also that
the water was believed to have a curative property and that it was
of service to invalids who came there to seek a cure. Did the barque
of Osiris sometimes float on this reservoir, towed by the priests who
followed the footpath ?’—for the solar barque such as one sees in the
tombs of kings was always pulled along by a tow line, stopping at
some of the doors or chambers. Such are the questions which arise
and to which we can not yet reply.
The few travelers who have already seen the reservoir of Abydos
have been struck with the grandeur and dignity of the edifice, in
spite of the ruined condition in which it was found. Who would
have thought a few months ago that at 10 meters underground there
would appear a structure such as this, surpassmg in grandeur the
most colossal Cyclopean edifices? What astrange country this Egypt
is! We were beginning to believe that we had found all the great
structures and that nothing more remained to be discovered. Who
can say that this region does not conceal beneath the ground some
majestic work of the most ancient Egyptians that may bring sur-
prises as astonishing as those of Abydos?
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feolnd& to eaodt en octileinites Ba eoetiG
AN EXAMINATION OF CHINESE BRONZES,
KU TUNG CH’I K’AO.
By Joun C. FERGuson.
[With 14 plates.]
PRELIMINARY NOTE.
It is important that, in all branches of Chinese art, the rest of the
world should understand the Chinese pomt of view. Without a
careful survey of the historical development of the country it is
impossible to enter into the intricacies of their art interpretation,
but general principles can be learned by persons unfamiliar with the
language of China if these are translated into our own language.
There is a greater lack of accurate information concerning bronzes
than in any other field of Chinese art, and this is not for the reason
that Chinese literature is not rich im books on this subject. The
purpose of this article is to bring to the attention of the western
world a succinct authoritative statement of the principles recognized
by Chinese connoisseurs in the examination of Chinese bronzes. The
original text is written in short nervous sentences which I have
frequently jomed together to make the meaning clearer. The article
demands careful study for a clear comprehension of its meaning.
AUTHORSHIP AND TEXT.
The following account was written in 1767 by Liang T’ung-shu,
the son of Liang Shih-chéng, a noted official of the reign of Chien
Lung, who was an eminent authority in archeological research,
especially m connection with the places around the West Lake
Hangchow. The son was employed in the palace as an expert.
This account was in manuscript and was only published in 1913 by
the Shen Cho Kuo Kuan She, Shanghai, in its encyclopedia of fine
arts—Mei Shu Ts’ung Shu. So little has been written on this subject
that the following translation may be of some value to the increasing
number of students of this interesting branch of ancient art.
TRANSLATION OF TEXT.
INTRODUCTION.
What are now called antiques are the gold and silver inlaid bronzes
of the Shang dynasty‘ and the ting, tsun andi of King Wén, which
were also of ancient workmanship, and therefore correctly classified
1 Harly Chinese dynasties: Hsia, B. C. 2205-1766; Shang, 1766-1122; Chow, 1122-255 (the preceding three
dynasties known as the San Tai); Ts’in, 255-206; Han, B. C. 206 to A. D. 221.
587
588 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
as belonging to the Shang and Chow periods. The men of the Han
dynasty were fond of the craftsman’s art, as is shown by the jade
pieces of that period, which are of rare workmanship. It was near
to the period of antiquity, and the models of the three dynasties
could be readily utilized. The articles produced were named after
the period of their pattern, and are not necessarily to be considered
as genuine products of the Shang and Chow dynasties. There are
also articles which have been fraudulently said to have come from
ancient tombs, such as the instance of the Hunan amulets; but such
facts are well known to connoisseurs. Articles used in the Han
period, like the Po-shan censers, having no distinct colormg of blue
or green are not classed as ancient, but as belonging to the Han
dynasty; but it must be remembered that the output of mortuary
articles during the three dynasties was very great and that they
were not much used during the Han. Therefore few articles were
then buried, and even in the case of those which were buried the
blue and green color must be very much like that of the articles of
the three dynasties, for the difference in age is not great. Even
jades which are now found with bloodlike marks come from the Han
period, and how could it be possible that bronzes could be buried
without undergoing a change of color?
THE COLOR OF ANCIENT BRONZES.
Ancient vessels which have been much exposed to the air become
blue, while those much exposed to water become green. When
exposed both to air and water, the colors blue and green are both
produced. The tombs of the ancient kmgs and emperors were
solidly built, so that water could not penetrate them. Those vessels
that were placed on stone pedestals were in the air as long as the
pedestal remained intact. Thus, being long subject to the influence
of the surrounding air, the color became very pure, and, further-
more, there being no contact with the earth, the color is a pure
(kingfisher) blue. This is the best variety. Inferior to this are
vessels found in the burial mounds of the ministers of state, where
they were subjéct to the influences of the soil and water, and thus
were colored both blue and green. The pure green ones were pro-
duced where they lay in water without bemg covered with the soil.
THE DIFFERENCES OF APPEARANCE PRODUCED BY BURIAL IN EARTH
OR WATER AND BY EXPOSURE TO THE AIR.
Bronze vessels buried in the earth for a thousand years become
pure blue, like that of the kingfisher. The color before noon is pale,
but after noon takes on the appearance of clouds, and the kingfisher
blue seems as if it would liquefy into drops. There are also places
CHINESE BRONZES—FERGUSON. 589
where the earth has eaten into the metal, either making a hole or
forming scales and giving the appearance of snail tracks. An ap-
pearance of being the mark of a stroke of a hammer is unreal.
Bronze vessels subject to the influences of water for a thousand
years become pure green, as the rind of a melon (kua-p’i), and glossy
like jade. If subjected to such influences for a shorter time, al-
though they may be bluish green, yet they are not bright. Corroded
places are similar to those mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
It is the present custom to call ‘‘ancient” light-weighted specimens
of either of the above classes. This is done in ignorance of the fact
. that large vessels are necessarily thick, and that only a third of such
vessels are corroded even during a long period of time. The weight
of these vessels in which the bronze has only been partially corroded
is only reduced by a third or a half. In the case of light, thin ves-
sels, where the influences of earth or water have easily penetrated
the entire body of the bronze, the color of bronze can not be seen
when fractures have been made by the strokes of hoes. It is all
blue or green, or there is an occasional streak of red, like red lead.
However, the resonance of the metal is not lost.
Such specimens as have not been covered with earth or water
and have been preserved to the present time have a dark brown
color with red scales. These scales stand out like good Chen-chow
sand. If immersed in hot water for a good length of time, the
patma of these scales becomes more brilliant. Such specimens are
of the highest value. Spurious specimens can be detected, as their
color is only superficial.
None of the three classes mentioned above have any rank odor,
with the exception of those recently exhumed from old soil, which
retain a strong smell of earth for a short period. Spurious specimens,
when rubbed briskly with the palm of the hand, have a distinct
disagreeable smell.
COLOR AND PATTERN.
Specimens of a dark reddish or black lacquer color that have been
buried in the soil or in water for a short time may become superfi-
cially beautiful, but the beauty is not deep and they are never glossy.
Such specimens are of secondary value. J have noticed that Han
dynasty seals and coins which are fifteen hundred or sixteen hundred
years old are rarely glossy even when they are quite green; neither
do they have red scales raised upon them. Ancient specimens of
bronze in which the patina has penetrated deeply are glossy like
jade and have red scales, thus showing that they belong to the three
dynasties (Hsia, Shang, Chow). To determine their age, attention
must be paid to the gloss of specimens and then to their pattern.
590 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
DETERMINATION OF INSCRIPTIONS.
Inscriptions are of two different kinds, k’uan and chi. What is
ealled chuan (seal characters, ornamental writing) is for the com-
memoration of merit. This writing is on bells and tripods. K’uan
is in intaglio, and such writing durimg the three dynasties was con-
sidered stylish. The characters were sunk into the metal.. From
the time of the Han dynasty, the chi in relief was used, with occasional
use, also, of sunken characters incised by the use of tools in the same
manner as if on stone tablets. Sunken chi were difficult to cast, but
relief chi were easy, and thus it can be easily detected that they did
not long belong to the period of the three dynasties. The k’uan of
ancient vessels were on the inside and sunken. The chi were on the
outside and were in relief. Vessels of the Hsia and Chow dynasties
had either chi or k’uan, while those of the Shang dynasty usually had
chi, but no k’uan. The ancients showed great care in their work.
Artisans were classed by them as among the four estates of the people,
and were not looked down upon as in later degenerate days.
Tn casting vessels the ancients used wax for their models or patterns,
and the lines were thin, like hairs—even, regular, and distinct. The
characters of chi were rounding like the surface of inverted tiles.
They were not deep or bold, and both large and small characters had
the same depth. They were clear and distinct, without any blurs.
Such castings of carefully chosen bronze were excellent. They had
three characteristics: First, they had no marks of sand granules;
second, the workmanship was wonderful, and third, there was no
sparing of labor. They were not made overnight. If ancient ves-
sels are now found with the k’uan and chi blurred and distorted and
cast in an irregular mold, these are the work of amateurs or imitators.
The quality of the metal, its color and odor, are not the same as of
good vessels.
EXAMINATION AS TO AGE NOT SOLELY DEPENDENT UPON K’UAN
: AND CHI.
The ancients used sacrificial vessels, such as bells and tripods, for
the praise of meritorious and worthy deeds, and hence made inscrip-
tions on them. Inscriptions were put on platters and bowls when
they were used in preparation for sacrifices, but when used for
domestic purposes inscriptions were often lacking, and such fact can
not be used as a proof of their being counterfeits. In such cases the
style of the inscription, the quality, color, and odor of the metal must
decide.
VESSELS OF THE THREE DYNASTIES.
The Hsia dynasty was noted for reliability, the Shang for quality,
and the Chow for display; and the bronze vessels of these dynasties
have the same respective differences. Vessels of the Shang dynasty
ee et. ee ee
Se ee ee
CHINESE BRONZES—FERGUSON. 591
are plain and without adornment, those of the Chow dynasty are
finely engraved, while those of the Hsia are different from either of
these. I have often seen vessels of the Hsia dynasty on which gold
was inlaid thin as hairs. In course of time the gold fell out, leaving
sunken places, so that the ornamentation became depressions. Such
inlaying is now often wrongly attributed to the Shang dynasty by
those whose knowledge is limited. They should remember the
poetical quotation—
Engraved and chiseled are the ornaments,
Of metal and of jade is their substance.
—Shih King ITI, 1, 4, 5.
and thus know that these were of the three dynasties period.
NEW BRONZE VESSELS.
New bronze vessels refers to those cast during the T’ang, Sung,
and Yuan dynasties. From the time of the Emperor Yuan Pao
(742-756) of the T’ang dynasty, down through the Sung dynasties,
such vessels were made at Ku-yiing. Many were also made at T’ai
Chow, but these were chiefly of the small lui-wen pattern. During
the Yuan dynasty, Chiang Lang-tzu, of Hangchow, and Lu Wang-chi,
of Ping Chiang, were noted artisans, but the figures on their work
were without delicacy. However, Chiang was a better workman
than Lu.
METHOD OF DETERMINING ANCIENT BRONZE VESSELS ADOPTED BY
THE HOUSEHOLD DEPARTMENT OF THE CHING DYNASTY.
Vessels of the Shang dynasty were unadorned, those of the Chow
dynasty were richly engraved with fine lines, while those of the
Hsia dynasty were inlaid with gold which had the appearance of fine
hairs. These fundamental facts can not be overlooked.
The inscriptions on chung, ting, tsun, and 1 during the Hsia, Shang,
and early part of the Chow dynasty had only 1 or 2 characters, and
at the most 20 or 30. Long inscriptions of two or three hundred
characters belong to the later part of the Chow dynasty or to the
early Ts’in. There were also genuine vessels of the three dynasties
which bore no inscription, for the reason that they were the property
of families which had no special merit to be commemorated. Such
vessels can not be discarded as spurious. The characters used in
inscriptions of the Hsia dynasty were niao chi (bird tracks), those of
Shang were ch’ung-yti (insects and fish), while those of Chow were
ch’ung-yti and the large ‘“‘seal.”” Ts’in dynasty used the large and
small “‘seal”’ characters, but from the Han dynasty onward small seal
characters were used. The three dynasties used sunken inscriptions,
while the T's’in and Han used inscriptions in relief, and occasionally
sunken ones, which were incised with tools in the same manner as
592 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
stone tablets, for the reason that this was easier than casting inscrip-
tions in intaglio.
Ts’ao Chung-ming says that bronze vessels buried in the earth for
a thousand years became pure blue like the kingfisher, while those
subject to the influence of water for a thousand years became clear
green as the rind of a melon. My opinion is that where the soil is
warm and moist vessels became blue and where the water is brackish
they became green. It is also said that before a thousand years ves-
sels may become blue or green, but not glossy; but I fear that this is
not true. How can it be that vessels of a thousand years of age which
are glossy, but on which the blue and green colors are not pure, are not
properly classed as belonging to the three dynasties? Kao Shen-fu
considered that where the metal was comparatively pure and without
much alloy the vessels became blue, and that when the alloy was in
larger proportion they became green. But the ancients were not
niggardly in their expenditures, and how can it be thought that they
preferred alloyed metals? Such statements are those of a blind man
at a theater, and should be discounted. There are those also who
maintain that vessels of a dark-brown color have not been preserved
in open places, but have come from graves on hillsides or stone vaults
where there is no dampness to cause the decaying corpses to influence
the color of the metal, and this opinion is probably correct.
The sound given out by ancient bronzes is clear, while that of
modern pieces is confused and noisy. Ancient bronzes have no rank
odor, except those which have been recently taken from the soil and
still retain its smell. Other kinds are spurious. If rubbed briskly
with the palm of the hand, a rank odor is given off.
The ancients were not sparing of labor like the artisans of later
degenerate times. For this reason the k’uan and chi of ancient
bronzes were fine like hairs and were even, regular, and distinct
without a trace of being blurred. The characters of the chi were
rounding like the surface of inverted tiles and were uniform in depth,
both when written large or small. The specimens preserved by me
all have these characteristics, but I have seen those preserved by
others which are different. If the inscriptions are somewhat blurred,
such specimens are spurious, and the quality and color of the metal
would also be incorrect.
The best color of ancient bronzes, according to some persons, is
dark brown, and in my opinion the worst is a leaden calor. Those
which have red scales are better than the lead-colored ones, but the
dark-brown color is still better. The dark-brown color is not so good
as the green, nor the green as the blue, nor the blue as those which are
iridescent (mercurial), or the iridescent as the black lacquered ones,
which, however, have the fault of being easy to counterfeit. Such
counterfeits can be readily detected,
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson. PLATE 1.
Tripod bronze vessel of Chow Dynasty, known as the K’o Ting;
supported on wooden stand. Height 9{ inches, diameter of
mouth 92 inches. (Ferguson collection.)
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson. PLATE 2.
2.
1. Tripod bronze vessel of Chow Dynasty, known as a Lui Wén Ting, decorated with thun-
der scroll; supported on wooden stand. Height 6% inches, diameter of mouth 5 inches.
(Ferguson collection. )
2. Covered tripod bronze vessel with three suspending rings on cover, of Han Dynasty.
(Metropolitan Museum, New York.)
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson. PLATE 3.
2.
1. Covered tripod bronze vessel, of Shang Dynasty, decorated with pinniped pattern—k’uei
wén; four suspending rings on cover; color of bronze is mercurial and is iridescent.
Height 6} inches, diameter of mouth 7 inches. (Metropolitan Museum, New York.)
2. Bronze wine vessel, of Chow Dynasty, known as Fu Hsin Lui; inscription on rim; decora-
tion of the p’an k’uei pattern; supported on wooden stand. Height 83 inches, diameter
of mouth 7% inches. (Ferguson collection.)
Smithsonian Report, 1914—Ferguson. PLATE 4.
2.
1. Bronze wine vessel, of Shang Dynasty, decorated above and below with recurved pattern—hui wén.
In center are nipples surrounded by diapers. Handles richly carved and surmounted by ogre’s
head. Height 52 inches, diameter of mouth 8 inches. (Metropolitan Museum, New York.)
2. Bronze wine vessel, of Chow Dynasty, decorated with the thunder scroll—lui wén, and known as the
Fu nae I; has a cast inscription. Height 5} inches, diameter of mouth 63 inches. (Ferguson collec-
tion.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson. PLATE 5.
aa
1. Bronze wine vessel, of Shang Dynasty, known as Kung Fu Keng Yu, shaped like a bow,
with inscription on inside of cover and on inner base of vessel, ends of handle decorated
with an animal head; supported on wooden stand with overreaching frame; is recorded
in Chun Ku Lu. Height 1 foot 2 inches, diameter of mouth 31 inches. (Cleveland
Museum.)
2. Two small bronze wine vessels, of Chow Dynasty, known as Chou. Neither one is dec-
orated, but that on left has animal head on the two handles. (Larger one in Ferguson
collection; smaller one in Cleveland Museum.)
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson.
PLATE 6.
1. Bronze libation cup, of Chow Dynasty, with one handle and two suspending hooks,
known as Fu I Tsioh, with an inscription under the handle. Height 62 inches.
(Metropolitan Museum, New York.)
2. Bronze wine vessel, of Chow Dynasty, known as Su
Hu; supported on wooden stand,
with two suspending rings decorated with an animal head, with two bands around
body of vessel. Height 1 foot 7 inches. (Metropolitan Museum, New York.)
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson. PLATE 7.
ile
1. Bronze vase, of Chow Dynasty, known as a
Ku; is supported on woodenstand. Height
9inches. (Ferguson collection.)
Ze
2. Bronze vase,of Han Dynasty,
undecorated, with band around
body of vessel. Height 1 foot 22
inches, diameter of mouth 3}
inches. (Metropolitan Museum,
New York.)
Smithsonian Report, 1914 —Ferguson. PLATE 8.
2.
1. Bronze sacrificial platter, known as Fu, of Chow Dynasty; illegible inscription; with two han-
dies. (Ferguson collection.) ;
2. Bronze tripod wine steamer, known as a Ting, of Han Dynasty; top of legs decorated with an:
animal head, cover missing, hollow tubes above vessel provide exit for evaporation of wine
which dripped from overhanging cover. Height 11 inches. (Collection of Mr. Pao Hsi, Peking.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson. PLATE 9.
Fst cal aut
eee
De
1. Bronze tripod vessel, known as Ko, of the Tsin Dynasty, surface roughened by burial in soft
earth. (Metropolitan Museum, New York.)
2. Two bronze candlesticks, known as Téng, of the Han Dynasty; smaller one supported on
wooden stand. (Ferguson collection. )
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson. PLATE 10.
2.
1. Bronze wine cooler, known as Ping Hsien, of Han Dynasty, decorated with pinniped pattern—
pan k’uei. Height 1 foot, 6? inches, diameter of mouth 1 foot.
2. Tiger-shaped wine ewer, on three legs, known as Hu Hsing J, of Han Dynasty; supported on
wooden stand. Height 3 inches, length 6} inches. (Ferguson collection.)
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson. PLATE 11.
Zs
1. Bronze bell, known as Chung, of Chow Dynasty; supported on wooden stand with over-
reaching frame; double dragon decoration at top. Height 12inches. (Ferguson collec-
tion. )
2. Bronze platter, of Chow Dynasty, known as Ch’i Hou P’an; a part of the most famous
bronze sacrificial set in China; has the date 1116 B. C. cast in intaglio on the inside sur-
face of platter. (Metropolitan Museum, New York.)
‘seyour § ayetd Jo Jojauierp ‘soyour FF YIMOULl Jo Jojoureip ‘seyout §6 IYStoyY “Ayseudq uv} Jo ‘ny ueyY Og sv UMOUY ‘1oUING osMeDUT eZUOIg °*z
(UOTJDeT[OD UOSNSIOy) “pueJs WapooOM uo i
poyoddns {uayVys S] JUPUINAISUT USA SoT}}VA YOIYA 9NSUOY SOO] B SLY ‘SUTOULP [VUOMeJoo JOJ pasn ‘AjseUA, MOY JO ‘Ov’T NAA Sv UMOUY ‘a[}}VA [BOISNUI oZUOIg *T
G a
‘“o| ALVId ‘uosndia4j—'p|6| ‘Hoday ueluosy}IWS
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Ferguson PLATE 13.
1. Three bronze dagger heads, of Chow Dynasty, with cast inscription. (eereuson collection.)
c
oy)
At either side are two axle ends, of Han Dynasty, one plain and one decorated with thunder
scroll—luiwén. The two central pieces are axle pins, of Han Dynasty, supported on a wooden
axle. These are decorated with ox heads. (Ferguson collection. )
(UoT}o9T[09 MOSSE, ) ‘“SoyoUT fF USI “ourelJ UaPOOM uO poysoddns ‘Ayseudq uv Jo ‘s[IsuojN YA ofuvi ezuo0Ig °z
(‘WOToT[00 MOSNS10q) “SoOUL 2 WUSIeFY ‘ouresy
wepoom wo poyioddns ‘:do} jo opts 1oUUL UO MOTI JOSUT 4SvO B IIA ‘poyueureusO ATYorI ‘Ayseud, MoY_ Jo ‘e_puvy aqvods ezuorg, oil
G
‘pL 3LV1d ‘uosnsia4—"p 61 ‘HOdey ueiuosyyIWws
THE ROLE OF DEPOPULATION, DEFORESTATION, AND
MALARIA IN THE DECADENCE OF CERTAIN NATIONS.!
By Dr. Fenix REeNAvtt.
The persistent decadence of certain peoples is at present attrib-
uted to depopulation, deforestation, and malaria. How can these so
widely divergent factors be brought into interrelation? To under-
stand it, geology, sylviculture, and medicine must be interrogated.
In the period of her greatness Greece was a fertile, well wooded,
healthful, and very populous country, estimated by historians to
have had at least 8,000,000 inhabitants.
Two centuries later, at the time of the Roman conquest, the
mightiest cities of Greece and the most important leagues could
place only a few thousand soldiers in the field, and entire Hellas,
according to Plutarch, could equip not more than 3,000 fully armed
troops. The country became poor. Polybius estimates the taxable
capital of the Peloponnesus at less than 6,000 talents ($7,080,000),
the landed and movable property of Athens at 5,750 talents ($6,371,-
000), being half of the reserve funds of Pericles.
Historians ascribe the depopulation of Hellas to a continuously
increasing emigration of adult inhabitants. Since the fourth century
B. C. they went forth in throngs to foreign regions as mercenaries;
the conquests of Alexander the Great precipitated this exodus and
dispersed Greece over the surface of Asia.
Low birth rate probably also played an important part, but we
are poorly informed on this subject. The classical instance of the
Spartans who, at the time of the Roman conquest, counted only a
few hundreds, is not enough, for here is involved only the question of
the aristocratic caste, and we do not know whether the plebs had
diminished.?
Emigration and low birth rate prevailed only for a time. If
Greece had conserved its fertile soil, immigration or a higher birth
rate would have sprung up at a given moment and filled up the ranks.
Depopulation persisted because the land was impoverished by becom-
ing deforested and unhealthy. Strabo observes that in his time
' 1 Translated by permission from the Revue Scientifique, Paris, Jan. 10, 1914, pp. 45-48.
2 Possibly it was due to the high birth rate that Greece, down to the sixth century B. C., swarmed over
numerous colonies. Families quitted their city to establish new ones. Greece in that way relieved itself
of an excess of population and at the same time remained populous. On the other hand, at the end of the
fourth century B.C. the emigration cf adult people was no longer compensated by an excessive birth rate.
Unfortunately we have no certain data on this subject.
593
73176°—sm 1914——38
594 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
nearly all the mountains seen from the coast were denuded, while at
the same time the valleys and plains were ravaged by malaria, as
Mr. Rose has recently demonstrated.t
Deforestation was a result of the depopulation of the countrysides.
In fact, the cultivation of the soil, which the lack of laborers ren-
dered impossible, was replaced by exploiting the elevations, since a
few men could superintend immense herds and drive them every
summer into the mountains, while the dried-up plain could not support
them. The pasturage would not have entailed waste if it had been
rationally regulated. But the ignorant and avaricious proprietors
overburdened the pastures; the too numerous cattle devoured the
herbs down to the roots, trampling and destroying them. With each
year the pastures grew more impoverished. To feed a herd which
was always so numerous, it was driven into the woods, where the
cattle browsed on the young roots, the seedlings—all the future
trees. In the long run the old trees perished; occasionally the cat-
tlemen hastened their end by setting them on fire. Then desolation
began. The water, no longer held in place by the trees and turf,
rushed tearing down the slopes, carrying away the entire vegetal
soil; it was the death of the mountains.
With deforestation, malaria developed. Mr. Rose claimed that the
Anophele mosquito had been imported into Greece from a foreign
land, probably from Egypt. M. Cawadias? has demonstrated that
swamp fever had always raged in Hellas. At first its area was
limited, but deforestation favored its extension. ‘This, in fact, ren-
ders the run of rivers unequal. In summer, when there is no flow,
the river beds still in places contain pools favorable to the breeding
of mosquitoes. It is in this way that the plain of Argos, once healthy
_ and fertile, is ravaged by malaria. On the other hand, silt is deposited
at the mouths of the streams, forming vast marshy plains, where the
Anophele develops.
The condition of the lakes was altered. The detritus carried by
the water over the deforested slopes choked the outlets of the lakes
and kept the water on a nearly constant level. Besides, there are
long intervals between the high-water and low-water levels, and
during the latter period the marshy banks become favorite nests of
the Anopheles.
Finally, as another consequence of deforestation, new lakes are
formed by the movement of subterranean waters and the breaking
up or subsidence of the soil, which are subject to the same conditions
and thus produce malaria.
At present Greece has a high birth rate, but since she can not sup-
port all her children, they emigrate in large numbers, for the old
1W. H.S. Jones, Malaria and Greek history, with a preface by H. Rose, Cambridge, 1907.
2 A. Cawadias, La Paludisme dans l’histoire de l’ancienne Gréce. (Bull. Soc. Fr. histoire de la Médi-
eine, 1909, pp. 158-165. )
ROLE OF DEPOPULATION—REGNAULT. 595
devastations persist, and innumerable herds perpetuate the work of
destruction. During every summer malaria rages. Only the Ionian
Islands, which have always remained wooded, rich, and densely
populated, can convey an idea of what ancient Greece once was.!
Next to the decadence of Greece may be considered that of Italy.
Among the manifold causes which brought about the fall of the
Roman Empire may be pointed one of the same order as that which
prevailed in ancient Greece. After the Roman conquests the allure-
ments of the city of Rome attracted to it the rural population, ? and
the depopulated lands were acquired by the patricians. Large estates
or “‘latifundia”’ were thus formed, and the iniquitous réle which they
played is related by ancient writers, without being explained. Here,
as in Greece, the scarcity of laborers gave rise to pastoral industry;
the herds were a “husbandry of which Jupiter defrayed all the ex-
penses’’; the meat sold well. Then, the ‘‘caniculi’”’ system of drains,
which had been established by the first cultivators in the flat clayey
plains of Latium, were neglected and became obstructed. Their very
existence was so far forgotten that no Latin work mentions them.
Swamps formed, and at the close of the first century B. C. the popu-
lation of these regions was decimated by malaria.
It was not, as has been claimed, in consequence of wars that these
lands were impoverished and ravaged with the plague. Enemies
might ruin the crops, the farms; but they would not engage in many
long months of labor needed to destroy a work of such magnitude as
the ‘‘caniculi.” After peace the peasants would resume their agri-
cultural pursuits. They would not abandon fertile lands, unless their
mentality was changed. Instances of the courageous persistence of
the peasant when he is attached to the land are numerous in history.
Thus, after the conquest of Algiers, the plains of Metidja, which were
occupied by the Arabian herders, were dotted with stagnant pools
and ravaged by malaria; the French peasants who set out to cultivate
the land were all attacked with fever and many of them died; others
continued the work, and after a time the crops absorbed the waters
and that country is now healthy and prosperous. It was therefore
not the infertility and insalubrity which drove the Roman peasants
from these lands, but, on the contrary, the peasants, having lost their
attachment to the land, left the country and the lands became sterile
and unhealthful.
Italy is at present overpopulated, for the families are large, and
the fertile plains of Campania, Apulia, and Tuscany, which in Roman
1 J have furnished numerous facts in support of this theory in ‘‘La décadence de la Gréce expliquée par
la déforestation et l’impaludisme” (Presse médicale, Sept. 22, 1909, No. 76), and ‘‘Le déboisement et la
malaria en Gréce”’ (Le Naturaliste, Paris, 1910, p. 262).
2 As causes of the depopulation and decadence of the Roman Empire might also be cited the low birth
rate, but we are poorly informed on this subject. Certain it is that Augustus promulgated the Pappia .
Poppoea law, which deprived celibates of the right of inheritance and allowed the childless married people
only half ofit. But these laws were directed only against the upper classes.
596 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
times had been given over to the shepherds, are reconquered by the
cultivators. But the regions which had been attacked by malaria
remain insalubrious and half deserted; they constitute large domains
upon which, as in times of the Cesars, the pastoral industry is still
practiced.
Among the numerous factors causing the decadence of Spain, one
of the most important was its depopulation by emigration and its
low birth rate. One can imagine what must have been the allure-
ment of the New World for the men of the sixteenth century—forests
of precious woods, diamond mines, rivers with rolling gold sand!
Thus the young people embarked in crowds, and most of them never
returned.
In Europe itself the possessions of Spain extended from Sicily to
the Baltic. To hold peoples so different from herself under her
domination she needed men, and Spain then sent forth the most
vigorous of her children as soldiers. Of those who remained in the
country a large number entered the various religious orders. Those
who married, and upon whom fell all the burdens of home affairs,
restricted their offspring, so that the voids could not be filled out.
Even the cities became depopulated, notwithstanding the influx of
more than half a million strangers. In the seventeenth century the
decadence was complete. The ruin of the land made it definitive.
As in Greece, as in Italy, so in Spain the depopulation of the coun-
trysides favored pastoral pursuits. The great landowners, the mas-
ters of Castilla, drew large revenues from the rearing of the merino
sheep, whose wool yielded an annual return of 10 francs per head.
Their powerful corporation, the ‘“ Mesta,’”’ obtained exorbitant privi-
leges from the Government; the flocks, which herded in summer on
the plateaus, in winter on the lower levels, everywhere had the right
of way and of watering; fences were forbidden, and the flocks de-
voured the crops, vines, olive trees, and other verdure. Castilla be-
came deforested, then denuded, and the rivers were turned into tor-
rents. There was total ruin, and famine permanently reigned.
“The lark had to import its grain” when passing through this land
of hunger and thirst. Andalusia and Aragon, countries of large prop-
erties, suffered from the same evils. On the other hand, the north-
ern Provinces, subject to the régime of small properties, preserved
some prosperity, thus establishing a striking counterproof.!
In Spain, as in Greece and Italy, the development of the heights
resulted in deforestation and ruined the soil, but in Castilla, which
is a high plateau whose climate is unfavorable to the reproduction of
the Anophele mosquito, malaria could not settle; it raged only in
certain low and humid districts of Andalusia.
1 This theory was presented by me, with numerous historical details, in Les Documents du Progrés,
Oct., 1910, p. 298. Dr. W. Koeppen, in another article, ‘Les Causes de la Décadence de l’ Espagne et de
certains autres pays” (in the Review, June, 1912, p. 387), brought new facts to the support of my thesis.
ROLE OF DEPOPULATION—-REGNAULT. 597
The Kingdom of Spain at present presents the same aspect. Its
capital rises in the midst of vast solitudes. Some large proprietors
share in the deserts of Castilla and the plains of Andalusia, which
continue to be ravaged by their flocks of sheep and goats.
Devastating wars, unjust laws, low morale, depopulation following
upon a low birth rate or intense emigration—all these factors, which
are often cited by historians to explain decadence, are but passing
causes. As long as the richness of the soil is not destroyed prosperity
can rapidly return, and the instances of these fluctuations in the great-
ness of peoples are not rare in history.
But reforestation, restoration of vegetal earth on a denuded soil,
turning torrents into peaceful watercourses, the drainage and sani-
tation of the swamps—these are works which require centuries of
constant and devoted labor, the sacrifice of numerous generations.
Thus Greece, Italy, and Spain continually suffer from those evils which
a single improvident generation could cause, but which are so difficult
to combat.
At present we are better equipped against those evils. In the first
place, we have grasped their seriousness, which formerly was not
understood. Governments devote large sums to reforestation, and
patriotic associations lease the pastures and conserve them by limit-
ing the number of cattle. In this way Sologne and the Landes (in
France), where in the eighteenth century no tree rose from the ground,
“were reforested; in Sologne the sylviculturist preserved the seedlings
from the voraciousness of the hares by means of wire fences; in
Landes they built up the soil, so that the water which rotted the
grains would run off.
Malaria is fought by the administration of quinine, by pouring
petroleum on the swamps, by barricading doors and windows with
wire screens, by the multiplication of dytiscid insects, fishes, birds,
and bats, all of which are great destroyers of the mosquito.
Finally, the depopulation which prevails not only in France but in
all western Europe no longer results in turning agricultural lands into
pastures, thanks to the agricultural implements, which lessen the
number of laborers, and to the railways, which rapidly transport the
workingmen in harvest time.
This is not to say that depopulation, when pushed to an extreme,
is not evil. Thus in certain districts in France with a low birth rate
fertile fields are neglected, and the mediocre lands, whose yield would
not compensate for the expense involved for labor and in bringing
harvesting machines from a distance, are abandoned. But it is cer-
tain that the means at present at our disposal make it possible for a
country to pass through a crisis of depopulation without quickly
becoming, as was formerly the case, the victim of complete ruin.
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THE STORY OF THE CHIN.!
By Lovis Roxsryson, M. D.?
[With 12 plates.]
The human lower jawbone differs in a very essential manner from
those found among the rest of the primates—and all other verte-
brates—in having its lower anterior border bent downward and for-
ward so as toformachin. Recent discoveries of the remains of early
men, such as the Heidelberg and Piltdown jaws, have informed us that
this distinctive shape of the inferior maxilla has increased in a marked
degree since the lower stages of man’s existence. (See figs. 77-81.)
I propose to discuss in the present article some of the causes which
appear to be responsible for this curious deviation from type. That
these causes were evolutionary factors of considerable potency
becomes fairly evident when we examine further into the facts.
The general type of the mandible among terrestrial veitebrates has
been curiously uniform from the very earliest times, as may be seen
in the illustrations of mesozoic and eocene jaws. (See figs. 1-3.) It
is, we may say, fixed or stereotyped to a remarkable degree. This
makes the search for evolutionary forces which have so changed it in
our own species all the more interesting.
There are certain apparent chins found among other vertebrates, a
few typical instances of which, with their probable evolutionary causes
it may be interesting to discuss briefly.
The elephant (see fig. 8) has a kind of chin, and among older writers
in the preevolutionary days this fact was adduced as showing its
superiority to other quadrupeds. But we now know that the ele-
phant’s chin is a mere degenerate remnant of the long lower jaw of
his ancestors, the tetrabelodon (see fig. 6) and the mastodon (see
fig. 7). In the illustrations to which reference is made the process
of its downward evolution is plainly shown.
Another interesting example is found in the dugong and its rela-
tions. (See figs. 59-61.) Here a little search into paleontology shows
that this apparent chin is not, like the elephant’s, a relic of decayed
functions, but that it has, like thac of man, increased and improved
with the ages. As seen in the illustrations, the dugong’s collateral
ancestor, the halitherium, and its big extinct relative, known as Stel-
1 Reprinted by permission from “‘ Knowledge,’’ London, November, 1913.
2 Theillustrations are by Ménie Gowland.
599
600 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
,
ler’s sea cow (Rhytina gigas), had “chins”’ also, but in a less marked
form. As amatter of fact the downward prolongation of the mandible
in these animals is not a chin comparable with our own at all, but
is merely a kind of bony rostrum on which the dugong and its relations
wear their horny false teeth. This structure, with its curious change
of angle, is more comparable to the bony support of the flamingo’s bill
than to ahuman chin. A very curious fact is that we appear to find
the nearest resemblance in the whole animal world, whether ancient
or modern, to our own mandible in a group of some of the earliest rep-
tiles that have yet been discovered. In the figures 4 and 5 of those
strange theromorphs, Pariasaurus and Inostransevia, unearthed by
Prof. Amalitzky in the Permian strata on the shores of the northern
Dwina, we see an extraordinary chin which resembles our own in
several striking anatomical particulars.
How such a resemblance comes to exist I do not even venture to
guess; but most assuredly nature’s molding forces, which so shaped
the mandibles of these ancient reptiles, were totally different from
those cerebral activities largely responsible for the chin of civilized
man. Wesay so more confidently because casts of their skull cavities
show that they had no brains to speak of, the whole cerebral chamber
being of about the same caliber as the tunnel for the spinal marrow.
When, the writer discussed this subject before the British Associa-
tion at Birmingham, and there suggested that the needs of the mech-
anism for articulate speech would probably account for the essential
changes in man’s lower jaw, it was pointed out by Prof. Elhot Smith
that man’s face differs from those of his nearest congeners in many
other particulars quite as remarkable as these. I hope some day to
show that most of these other changes have been profoundly influ-
enced, if not actually caused, by structural necessities demanded by
articulate speech. ‘To attempt to do so now would take me beyond
the scope of the present subject, and I shall therefore confine my
attention merely to the changes that have taken place in the mandible.
In the many endeavors that have been made to explain the why and
wherefore of the chin, the argument as to its being due to sexual selec-
tion deserves most notice. It has’ been rightly said that the chin is
essential to the beauty of the human countenance, and therefore in a
choice of mates, those deficient in this direction would be losers in
life’s race. Arguments from esthetics are very difficult to handle,
because of the extraordinary differences in the standards of beauty,
not only among different species of the lower animals, but among dif-
ferent nearly related races of men. Who can doubt that among the
anthropoid apes there is a type of apish beauty (including the retreat-
ing lower jaw) which satisfies the most critical and exacting simian
taste in choosing a mate? We need not do more than allude to the
STORY OF THE CHIN—ROBINSON. 601
peculiar esthetic standards obviously existing a little lower down the
scale among the baboons, drills, and mandrils.
A chin is now unquestionably a sine qua non of human beauty.
But how did it become so? When did the simian ideal cease to flutter
the hearts of our primitive ancestors ?
Do we not find that almost all the adorable features which have this
disturbing and fateful influence nowadays are based upon and are the
sign of some intrinsic quality contributing to racial efficiency which
lies behind mere appearance? ‘The lower races are continually, to the
great embarrassment of sundry colonial governments, desirous of
mating with a superior race differmg from them in physique and in
color. There can be no question that if the colonists in such cases
were not the superior race this evidence of the working of sexual
selection would not appear. It would seem, therefore, that the primi-
tive man who was manly and, amongst other manly attributes, had a
chin, scored all along the evolutionary line in mating contests over
the primitive man who was apelike. The individual or the race which
does not recognize the upward stream of tendency in such particulars
by instinct alone can not be found upon the surface of this planet.
One argument against the sufficiency of sexual selection in produc-
ing a chin is the well-known fact that man in the early stages of his
existence muffled up his lower jaw with a beard, which is almost
without doubt of purely ornamental value. Hence it would seem that
the chin per se as a sexual ornament was a failure. Women, it is
true, have not’ adopted this form of hirsute decoration; but I doubt if
this goes far in helping the esthetic argument, since, according to the
ideals generally current, a big jaw and formidaple chin are nowhere
considered an excellent thing in woman. I think we shall find that
before esthetics came greatly into play more prosaic evolutionary
forces had already exerted pressure upon the lower jawbone and had
begun to mold it into the general shape in which we find it now.
A glance at the drawing of the mandible of a chimpanzee (see fig.
62) with the roots of the teeth exposed shows the real status of the
chin in the anthropoids. It is mainly formed by two thick bony but-
tresses supporting the sockets of the lower canine teeth. This appar-
ently was the real physical beginning of the bony chin, or rather was,
as it were, the gross concrete foundation upon which evolutionary
forces of another kind have based the modern structure.
It is a most remarkable and suggestive fact that after man (or the
inframan) had lost his huge lower canines this abundance of bony
tissue in the lower edge of the mandible did not disappear, but
became more marked as an anatomical feature. (See fig. 64.)
From analogy with the elephant, such a degeneration should have
taken place at once. That this did not happen is a proof that the
602 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
part more than justified its continued existence by performing some
function of vital importance to the species.
Sir E. Ray Lankester, in one of his delightful scientific causeries,
has pointed out that man’s chin consists of something more than a
bony prominence on the jaw. There is a distinct fleshy pad upon its
outer surface, which materially influences its outline and which con-
sists of fatty tissue bound up in little cushionlike compartments
almost exactly comparable to the pads on our fingers and toes.
Although the esthetic and sex influences may be apparent here
rather more than in the bony mandible itself—for who can gainsay
the charm of a softly rounded chin?—the probable origin of this
cushionlike covering is to be found in the fact that the protruding
chin needed a pad for exactly the same reason as do a cricketer’s
shins. It was into a world full of brutal tumult and hard knocks that
the nascent chin first made its appearance. In the prize ring to-day
it is a well-known fact that a blow on the chin is the most rapid way
of putting your opponent hors de combat; and, moreover, it has
become apparent that the nearer the exponent of ‘‘the nobie art” is
in structure to a chimpanzee or gorilla the better chance will he have
of wearing the glorious ‘‘echampion belt of all the world.” If we look
at the bony structure of the chin in some of the prehistoric jaws we
find it of astonishing strength, bemg stout and buttressed as if to
stand terrific violence. This is remarkably shown in Emil Selenka’s
admirable monograph on primitive jaws, published by Kreidel, of
Wiesbaden, in 1903. From the above facts it seems reasonable to
infer that man acquired such advantages as a chin can give at his
peril; and here again it is suggested that some evolutionary need of
exceptional potency molded man’s jawbone into its modern shape.
It is when we turn a human mandible round and look at it from
the inside and observe the surface beneath the central incisor teeth
that we begin to get hints as to the actual functions of the chin and
the causes which have led to our deviation from ancestral type.
About halfway between the rim of the central tooth sockets and the
lower edge there are to be found in practically all European and in
most other jawbones two bony prominences known as the genial
tubercles. (See fig. 18.) Below them are two somewhat similar
prominences, generally much smaller (which often appear as faint
convergent ridges), which are also known to anatomists as genial
tubercles; but these, [ think, we need not consider of any importance
in the present argument. They are to be found not only in the
lowest savages and in prehistoric men but also in a large number of
the apes and other vertebrates; indeed, I have detected apparent
traces of them in those strange Permian reptiles of incalculable
antiquity to which allusion was made above. They are the points
STORY OF THE CHIN——ROBINSON. 603
of attachment for a little muscle which appears to be equally devel-
oped in man and in many of the lower creatures. It is known as the
genio-hyoideus and has no connection with the tongue.
A close examination of the larger bony prominences, or the genial
tubercles proper, reveals some very interesting and remarkable facts,
especially when we employ comparative methods. To these are
attached the tendon of the fanlike genio-glossus muscle which spreads,
out beneath the whole lower surface of the central region of the
tongue and penetrates through the intrinsic muscles almost to the
upper surface. (See figs. 64, 65.) Now if we examine any of the
current books on anatomy, little or no suggestion is found that the
functions of the genio-glossus muscle have to do with articulate
speech. Let us leave the mandible for a while and confine our atten-
tion to the structure and functions of this muscle, and I think it will
soon become’ evident that it has more to do with the oral (as distinet
from the laryngeal) machinery of articulate speech than any other
structure.
In the diagrams (see figs. 66-71), which show the under surface of
the tongue of man and other creatures more or less related to him, it
is seen how remarkably this muscle has become developed since we
became human. The functions accorded to it in our standard works
of anatomy would apply to the needs of the dog and the pig equally
to those of man; yet we see that in these animals it is a mere feeble
slip of flesh which can exercise but little influence.
I have dissected it in a good many apes, among which animals it
evidently had somewhat important duties quite apart from vocal pro-
duction; in fact, | doubt whether in any other creature except in man
we should find the tongue interfermg in any way whatever in the
sounds which issue from the larynx: The muscle is not only much
smaller in apes than in man, but it is much more homogeneous and
compact (see fig. 63); while, so far as I have been able to observe,
the method of innervation shows an even greater difference than is
seen in the structure of the muscle itself. To put the matter very
briefly, im man the genio-glossus has become a series of a large num-
ber of independent muscular strips which are, to all intents and pur-
poses, separate muscles, each with its little fiber of the hypoglossal
nerve entering it in such a way as not to hamper its free movement,
while in the apes it is apparently a single muscle, or a closely united
group, acting en bloc.
It must be remembered that the adoption of an exceedingly im-
portant new method of expression and communication such as human
articulate speech would require widespread and most elaborate
changes in the structures which it brought into play. It is not
possible on the present occasion to go into the marvelously intricate
cerebral, nervous, and muscular machinery, with its innumerable
604 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
bonds of coordination required for ordinary speech; but a little search
into the matter will show anyone that we are here in contact with one
of the most incredible marvels in nature. Most wonderful of all, the
whole mechanism is, from an evolutionary standpoint, quite new—
a product of merely the later fragment of a brief geological period!
When we consider the number of movements, following one another
in continually varying order, required for articulate speech, it is
obvious that only machinery which is able to act with every me-
chanical advantage and with a minimum of friction can accomplish
such a task with precision. Public speakers frequently talk at the
rate of 150 words a minute, while it seems possible to articulate quite
clearly and correctly when speaking at the rate of 180 words a minute.
If we analyze the action of the tongue when speaking at the rate of
150 words a minute, we find that there must be at least 500 different
movements or adjustments. This gives 8 or 9 in every second!
Such movements, it must be remembered, do not follow one another
regularly in mechanical rotation like the piston-beats of a multiple-
cylindered engine, but are continually varying their order. What
wonder is it that coordination sometimes breaks down, with the
result of a stutter or a stammer ?
Now a brief examination of the intrinsic muscles of the tongue,
i. e., those that begin and end in the tongue itself like the distal
muscles of an elephant’s trunk, will show how totally inadequate
these would be to produce any such result; but immediately one takes
careful note of the mode of action of the genio-glossus muscle the
solution of the tongue’s incredible agility becomes possible.
It is seen in the accompanying diagrams (see figs. 72-76) that the
several bundles, or fasciculi, of the muscle are able to act more or
less at right angles to the main plane of the tongue without any-
thing to hamper them. For each flashlike movement of the tongue
away from the palate all that is demanded is an instantaneous
shortening of one or other of these independent strips. or instance,
in pronouncing the letter T we place the tip of the tongue against the
palate close to the upper incisor teeth (see fig. 75), and then snatch
it away with great rapidity. The placing it there is probably the
work of the intrinsic muscle called the superior longitudinal lingual,
but the more critical action of withdrawing it at the proper moment
is due to the front fibers of the genio-glossus, which become taut and
braced for instantaneous action as soon as the tongue-tip is pressed
against the palate.
In figure 74 it is seen that in the hard G or K exactly the same
thing takes place with the central fasciculi of the muscle. A like
action comes in with sounds involving L, N, R, D, J, Q; while in
S, X, and all other consonants where the nice adjustment of the
distance of the tongue from the palate is a matter of moment the
STORY OF THE CHIN—ROBINSON. - 605
genio-glossus muscle is capable—and appears to be the only structure
capable—of exercising a quick and exact control. The same applies
to the vowels, as is well shown in the accompanying diagrams after
Von Meyer’s drawings. Von Meyer, however, has not shown the
genio-glossus muscle in action as it is shown here, and indeed, strangely
enough, does not give it a word of mention as a factor in articulate
speech.
It is worth while to take note of the fact that practically all the
speech movements of the tongue take place in the neighborhood of
its central line, and that the sides play a very subordinate part.
Hence the other extrinsic muscles, such as the hypo-glossus and
stylo-glossus can have little or no part in articulation. (See fig. 65.)
Now let us return to our inferior maxilla and examine the attach-
ments and relations of the genio-glossus. It is obvious that for quick,
precise movements, such as those demanded by articulate speech,
it must be unhampered and have plenty of room to act. An exami-
nation of the arrangements for the play of the muscles in different
animals is exceedingly instructive. In the dog, and indeed the
majority of the mammalia, the tongue lies flat upon the lower jaw-
bone, leaving practically no room for any muscular machinery. If,
however, a photograph of a plaster cast of the inner surface of the
wolf’s jaw (see fig. 48) is compared with that of the baboon (see
figs. 50, 51), which outwardly resembles it, a remarkable difference
of shape is evident.
In all the monkeys—and even lower down the scale among the
lemurs—we find that nature has made provision for working room
for the genio-glossus muscle by excavating a kind of pit on the inner
surface of the mandible beneath the tongue. This pit has been
noticed by various comparative anatomists, but I had never seen any
explanation of the reason why it exists, nor was I aware of its func-
tion, until a series of dissections of monkeys’ jaws showed in every
case the tiny tendon of the genio-glossus coming from the lower
surface of the deepest part of the pit (see figs. 10, 63). The more
doglike the jaw is, as in the baboons—the more, in fact, it corre-
sponds in general outline with the prevalent type of the mandible
among the lower vertebrates—the deeper is this pit. As soon, how-
ever, as the mandible begins in some degree to resemble our own, ‘as
in some chimpanzees and gibbons, and the whole lower surface
becomes tilted forward, the pit seems to be no longer needed, and
becomes shallower. One may as well rémark in passing that it is of
course obvious that originally the genio-glossus muscle had nothing
whatever to do with articulate speech. The need it met in the
economy of lemurs and apes was probably that of giving increased
mobility to the tongue for sorting food already in the mouth. This
is plainly seen when we give a monkey a nut and see him crack it
606 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
and turn it about with his tongue, selecting the kernel! and rejecting
every fragment of shell. This ability, common among all the pri-
mates to sort food with the tongue, and with its aid to eschew unac-
ceptable morsels, is strikingly absent in the case of most animals.
Anyone can assure himself of this on seeing a dog try to get rid of
some small unpalatable object. Animals, such as cattle, and espe-
cially camels and giraffes, which are liable to get dangerous thorns
into their mouths, depend upon a most elaborate arrangement of the
long papille lining their cheeks, so that by a simple backward and
forward movement of the tongue such things are at length extruded.
There seems little doubt but that it is this sorting machinery of
the tongue in the lower Primates which has been seized upon and
greatly elaborated for the new and wondrous mechanism of articulate
speech.
Before going further it may be as well to clear up another point
which seems to have puzzled some of my audience when I was lec-
turing at Birmingham. The question was asked me, ‘‘How is a
parrot able to talk if he has no chin?” An equally pertinent ques-
tion would be, ‘‘How is a phonograph able to talk when it possesses
no chin?”’ <A parrot has deep down behind its breastbone a mar-
velously elaborate and versatile sound-producing apparatus, almost
as different from any possessed by ourselves as is the mechanism of
a phonograph. When man began to speak, he had to make use of
raw material, which was there already, to build up his talking
machinery. That the parrot and the phonograph can speak, merely
proves that there are other ways of doing it; but the only question
which we here have to discuss is how man did it himself with such
means as were at his disposal.
When we come to examine the difference between prehistoric man
and modern savages we find the same order of structural change in
the mandible still going on, tending to the greater efficiency of the
genio-glossus muscle for speaking purposes. When this fanike group
of muscular fibers came out of a deep pit, such as is seen in the
illustration of the jaws of the lower monkeys, the fibers were obvi-
ously hampered by being bunched and huddled together. (See fig.
63.) As the jaw became tilted forward, giving more engine room
beneath the tongue, the need for the pit became less, and it becomes
shallower and shallower until we find it a mere depression, as in the
Siamang gibbon. (See fig. 12.) These changes are plainly shown
in the series of plaster casts of which photographs are reproduced in
figures 9 to 18. First of all is a fossil lemur, in which the jaw still
retains its generalized character, but is beginning to show depressions
as the genial pit makes its appearance; then one has apes like the
baboons, macaques, or colobus monkeys, with an exceedingly deep
pit or depression. Next come anthropoids, in which the lower edge
STORY OF THE CHIN—ROBINSON. 607
of the jaw is already being dropped into something resembling a
chin, and the depression at once becomes less apparent. Next are
some jawbones of prehistoric man, namely, the Heidelberg and the
Naulette jaws, in which the depression is still plainly seen and is
scarcely less marked than in the gibbon.
It will be seen that the Heidelberg jaw shows on its surface a
tubercle; indeed, I understand that one of the descriptions of it
published soon after it was found stated that it did not differ from
modern jaws in this respect. (See fig. 41.) A brief comparison with
the other casts, however, will make it plain that the tubercle here
seen is too low down to be that for the genio-glossus, and is plainly
the one for the genio-hyoid muscle mentioned in the earlier part of
this article, which has nothing whatever to do with the tongue.
This tubercle is quite common among the apes.
When we come to the Pygmies and Bushmen we find in the
majority of jaws the remains of this pit or a mere flat surface; but
in some African dwarf races, and among the Hottentots, Veddas,
and Andamanese, two little prominences are seen beginning to grow
at the lower edge of the pit. (See figs. 19-29.) These tubercles,
as we pass to higher and more civilized races, become more and more
prominent, until we get the European type familiar to all students
of anatomy.
Now the bearing of these changes on the functions of the genio-
glossus muscle is fairly evident. First of all, it needed a deep pit in
the lower apes to get room to work at all. Then the depth of the
pit became unnecessary through the tilting of the lower surface of
the mandible; and by means of this change the muscle was obviously
given greater freedom for action. Then we get a nearly flat surface;
and finally a prominence appears, enabling the separate fasciculi of
the muscle to spread from the very point of origin and so act inde-
pendently without hampering their neighbors. (See figs. 18, 32,38, 42.)
We are thus able to follow the whole course of the history of the
genio-glossus muscle from fossil lemurs to modern men, and a very
remarkable history it is; difficult, I believe, to parallel in any other
structure of the body which we may pick out for the purpose. We
found it in the lower apes, in which it first appears as an important
factor in tongue movements, coming out of a hole in the lower jaw,
and we take leave of it mounted upon a pinnacle quite as high as
the pit was deep. (See figs. 63, 64.) This is as if an organism com-
menced its career in the uttermost depths of the sea, and attained
its full development at the top of Mount Everest! The muscle might
stand above all things else in our bodies as a symbol and sign of our
upward progress. For I think it can not be denied that its develop-
ment marched part passu with the development of intellectual
capacities and the increasing need of a means of clear expression.
608 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
When speech began, as distinct from mere animal stereotyped cries
and other noises, it is, of course, impossible to say. For the speech of
certain low savages, consisting of grunts, guttural sounds, and clicks,
it is fairly obvious that few tongue movements are necessary; but
wherever languages have become more elaborate—and many of them
in different parts of the world appear to have had an independent
origin from more brutelike utterances—we find that the genio-
glossus muscle comes more and more into play, as is evidenced by its
tubercles of attachment and by the forward tilt of the chin to give
elbow room among all the higher races.
The speech of monkeys is, of course, a myth, and most of our
anthropoid friends are curiously silent beings. The two exceptions
appear to be the chimpanzee, which is described by travelers as
shouting and calling in varied tones in the forest, and certain gibbons,
which appear to come nearer to us in the variety of articulate utter-
ances than any other of the Primates. From the series of plaster
casts shown in the plates, and in many others that are in my possession
it seems to become evident that, speaking generally, the genial
tubercles may be taken as some index of social and intellectual
development. They are not, of course, strictly necessary for speech,
but it is clear, both from anatomical and general reasons, that they
greatly facilitate speech.
It is interesting to watch their development in the normal human
subject (see figs. 30-32), and I have several casts which illustrate
this fairly clearly. In all young children they are absent, and up to
the age of 14 years they make but a small show; in fact, the jaw of a
child of 14 years almost exactly resembles in this respect that of a
Bushman or Pygmy; between 14 and 17, however, they appear to
obtain their full development. How far that development is depend-
ent upon the use of the muscle it is difficult to say; my own belief is
that, like many of the roughnesses and ridges upon our bones, they
are very largely the product of vigorous muscular action, 1. e., nature
has met the obvious need of the muscle by altering the bone in a
certain specific direction. |
For many years I have been endeavoring to get evidence as to the
presence or absence of the tubercles in deaf mutes. Such as I have,
so far as it goes, seems to show that in adults who have never acquired
articulate speech they are quite absent. (See fig. 17.) In the one
specimen I have from a deaf mute, the bone almost exactly resembles
that of a Bushman, or a child of 14.
A glance over the peculiarities of the tubercles in the accompanying
plates shows how extraordinarily variable they are in different indi-
viduals and in different races (see figs. 34, 35), but before any safe
generalized conclusions are drawn from these diversities one ought to
have many thousands before one for comparison. It seems to me
STORY OF THE CHIN—ROBINSON. 609
quite probable that this would prove a fruitful line of research for
anyone with leisure and opportunity to follow up; for, when we con-
sider the distinct anatomical problems involved in the pronouncing
of different languages it seems not improbable that definite structural
peculiarities might become apparent in accordance with the tongue
spoken. We know that it is practically impossible for Europeans to
acquire the elaborate tongue and throat movements of not a few
barbarous languages, and it would be extraordinary indeed if this
wide diversity in muscular function did not leave some trace which
the methods of the anatomist might reveal.
In figure 42 is reproduced a photograph of a cast from part of the
jawbone of O’Brien, the Irish giant, the capture of whose body gave
John Hunter so much trouble. I placed it there, because it shows
the typical arrangement of the genial tubercles in a very marked
manner. It also tells us something else, which I think is not a little
instructive. There can be no question that the Irish speak our lan-
guage with much greater correctness and precision than the average
Anglo-Saxon, and further investigations seemed to show that m Irish
jaws there was a fuller development of the genial tubercles than in
those found in English museums. On following the same line of
research a little further it became apparent that a greater symmetry
and uniformity of the development of the genial tubercles was to be
found in French and Italian jaws than in English. This seems to be
a matter well worth following up.
A few other suggestive points come out from a further examination
of the plaster casts, reproduced in the plates, which have no very
direct bearing upon our present inquiry. One, for instance, is the
obvious kinship between certain American monkeys and the lemurs,
as evidenced by the duplicated pit. (See figs. 52, 53.) In nearly all
the Old World apes of which I have specimens the two cavities
appear in close proximity or merged into one, but in the American
monkeys and the Madagascar lemurs they are generally separated by
a marked interval. The lower jaw in certain highly specialized apes
such as the howler and proboscis monkeys, appears very difficult to
interpret. Here again a more extended collection, giving oppor-
tunities for exact comparative methods, would be certain to throw a
good deal of light on what is at present a subject which seems to have
been very little studied.
Apart from these by-products of the inquiry I think it will be
acknowledged that many of the facts put forward in this article go far
in justifying my suggestion that the chin, which is so marked a
characteristic of the modern human mandible, may be considered part
of the necessary mechanism of articulate speech.
73176°—sM 1914——-39
aomitene ana uch aldaddorqareaic cecoanll Mises ninagan ea 4
<arltialtow eodabunion: ni esr gi terodes tidal te cokes iio
eupao?
et wctdeongoritr sok, olsticagezasy eh
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otal neat) nenacr etn tot inh epiieinet xaoodust
A ee Se a Ae hsowiiddyoanteintotesd. ade es ehosliean wae :
gt to Sempron pale te hgargdtoulepae, ae a
i mbgerbod cada iowwarsqas ost tuniy detolbod? signe Ye a.
needs: Hedvavods canta dirvaogig, T.paldudm.dum. G5
Hooker. yrsy allinicenisiadun Ienten. oo} le: arantoge x
aj tt Htadmod ot (peel
10 2 Sanh | '
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pnuhanidaagersieasl ors teis okPaa psa Boned ae ,
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Mobeni Howie » iv iow aria’ 2iaish eriieoquaate eee
A aetion ) til) doidt:ceniels ote, hoonhelges; nea obey ae
Sulbinistoohnient toh ele pti pint trigebee SELLOP A AREA aR
Geudennh enbie big eq hicborumoiid A ndatiga amie c
Maideda lod! Soy Sdceginea) ied botiadlieds aubbreddiabnaligenian
uniiivgs det oil) raomiogs iovsd: L tai to mae Se
| ttevrigatd. spaldiyesiioteranten ditsrt aay iom ee
indie = ie amo aaa
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Robinson. PLATE 1.
1. Amphitherium oweni (Stonesfield State). 2. Dromatherium (Upper Trias,
North Carolina).
3. Arsinotherium (Eocene). 4. Pariasaurus.
5. Inostransevia. 6. Tetrabelodon.
7. Mastodon. 8. Elephas primigenius.
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Smitnsonian Report, 1914.—Robinson. PLATE 8.
59. Halitherium. 60. Steller’s sea cow.
61. Dugong.
62. The jawbone of a chimpanzee, showing roots of teeth and the stout buttressed
socket of the canine filling the side of the ‘ chin.”
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Robinson. PLATE 9.
anny ij;
‘vl (if
W WH} Wy
Y | Y ij
The lower jaw and tongue of a macaque, from a drawing ofa
dissection by the author, showing the deep pit for the origin of
the genio-glossus muscle.
64. Human jawbone with part of the tongue, drawing showing the sprez uding fasciculi
of the genio-glossus muscle, and their origin from the upper genial tubercle.
a
T Tih i
Transverse section through the tongue; diagram
showing genio-glossus muscle penetrating the in-
trinsic muscles. After Quain.
PLATE 10.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Robinson.
SE SSS PED
CEES I
RX Pezestee REP EE
pees,
8. Chimpanzee.
g
Oran
ceitinsai i ae a
6
Siamang.
Soe
66.
flees oe
and the proportions of the
Man.
0.
genio-glossus muscle.
Dog.
Figs. 66-71 show the under surface of the tongue
69.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Robinson. PEATE tte
72. Diagram of the genio-glossus muscle 73. Diagram of the genio-glossus muscle
at rest. in pronouncing the sound “Oo.
|
74. Diagram of the genio-glossus muscle in
pronouncing the letter ‘‘ kK.”
75. Diagram of the genio-glossus muscle 76. Diagram of the genio-glossus muscle
in pronouncing the letter ‘‘ T.”’ in pronouncing the sound ‘ Ah.”
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Robinson. PLATE 12.
77. Chimpanzee.
78. Siamang. 79. Heidelberg.
80. Neander type. 81. Modern man.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
By Preston S. Minzar,
Electrical Testing Laboratories, New York, N. Y.
[With 3 plates.]
In the Journal of the Franklin Institute for the last few years there
are to be found a number of papers dealing with certain phases of
illumination. These are of especial interest to a limited number of
institute members, but most of them are somewhat esoteric and pre-
sumably have been read in detail by but a limited number of institute
members. Consideration of the character of the institute member-
ship has led the writer to feel that he could perhaps be of some service
by endeavoring to outline in a comprehensive way the nature and
scope of the art of illumination and by making available a brief
review of developments in illumination which will place before the
members a general view of the sub-
ject in its large features. Accord-
ingly, this paper will be found to
contain but little of new interest
for the illuminating engineer,
being written more especially for
the consideration of the member-
ship of the institute at large.
In the discussion which follows
a fragmentary bibliography is in-
cluded. The references which are
noted are intended to direct attention to significant papers, and to
furnish an indication of the manner in which the several phases of
each division of the subject of illumination are being developed.
Illuminating engineering as a distinct specialty is perhaps not
generally understood. The name illuminating engineering as applied
to this specialty is perhaps not wisely chosen. It willserve, however,
for the purpose of this discussion. Illuminating engineering, then,
as a specialty may be represented by the diagram in figure 1.
The specialist applies the materials of illumination with the aid of
the science of illumination, and practices the art of illumination.
ILLUMINATION
MATERIALS SCIENCE
Fic. 1.
1 Presented at a joint meeting of the Electrical Section and the Illuminating Engineering Society, held
Thursday, Apr. 9, 1914. (Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Franklin Institute, October,
1914.)
611
612 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
THE MATERIALS OF ILLUMINATION.
The materials of ilumination may be classified as illuminants—
natural and artificial—lighting auxiliaries, and fixtures (fig. 2).
Considering first incandescent electric lamps,’ it may be noted that
increases in the efficiency of light production have been accompanied
by increase in the variety of illuminants both as to types and sizes.
Neglecting for the
moment other qual-
ities than the
efficiency of light
production, your at-
tention is directed
to the diagram in
figure 3. This
shows improvements in incandescent electric lamps which were made
available some years ago and the status of lamps of more recent
development. It will be noted that the advances in the efficiency of
light production have been marked. The carbon filament lamp
which had remained without material efficiency improvement from
1893 to 1905 was at that time improved through the development of
MATERIALS OF ILLUMINATION
ILLUMINANTS
NATURAL | ARTIFICAL
FIXTURES
AUXILIARIES
Fig. 2.
LUMENS PER WATT.
“MAZDA DRAWN WIRE
NERNST 220¥,AC.+
T
+ TREATED CARBON
the so-called ‘‘metallized”’ carbon filament, and in that form remains
the most efficient type of carbon filament incandescent lamp. The
carbon filament lamp had been the standard form for general electric
lighting, and continued to be the standard lamp and the most largely
produced lamp until about 1912. Its preeminence was challenged
before that time because of the adoption of the metallized carbon
1 Incandescent lamps: ‘A new carbon filament,’’ Howell; Trans. A. I. E. E., 1905, p. 839. “New types
ofincandescent lamps,’’ Sharp; Trans. A. I. E. E., 1906, p. 815. ‘‘ High efficiency lamps,” Doane; Proceed-
ings N. E.L. A., 1910. “Recent progress in the art of lamp making,” Randall; N. E. L. A., 1913. “Tung-
sten lamps of high efficiency,” Langmuir and Orange; Trans. A. I, E. E., 1913, p. 1915,
DEVELOPMENTS IN ILLUMINATION—MILLAR. 613
filament lamp for free renewal to customers by the larger central
stations of the country, and was lost in 1912 as a result of the influence
of lamp manufacturers in promoting the sale of the metallized fila-
ment rather than the sale of the carbon filament lamp. The substi-
tution of the metallized carbon filament lamp for the earlier form of
carbon filament lamp resulted in an increase of the standard of
illumination throughout the country, for it consumed the same
energy and produced about 20 per cent more light than did the earlier
carbon filament lamp.
In 1905 the various forms of carbon filament lamps were supple-
mented by the tantalum lamp, an importation from Europe. This
lamp never entered largely into American practice, its largest sale
in the country probably never exceeding 3 per cent of the total
sales of incandescent lamps. Its inferiority when operated upon
alternating current and the announcement of the invention of the
tungsten lamp shortly after its appearance prevented its attaining
a position of importance in our practice.
The tungsten filament lamp, first made available commercially in
1907, was a marked improvement over other lamps then available,
although its fragility and relatively high price led to restriction of
its use in the earlier years of its history. Through the splendid de-
velopment work of American lamp manufacturers this lamp has been
rendered much more effective in all respects than it was a few years
ago. The substitution of the drawn wire mounted as a continuous
filament placed the lamp in a class with the carbon filament lamp
in respect to ruggedness. The development of bulb-blackening pre-
ventives has permitted its operation at, somewhat higher efficiencies.
These improvements, with notable price reductions, have led to the
large use of the tungsten, now known chiefly as the Mazda lamp,
so that in 1913 sales of the Mazda lamp exceeded sales of all other
types of incandescent electric lamps, notwithstanding’ the fact that
the life standard which it sets is twice that which obtained pre-
viously.
During the past year a new form of tungsten filament lamp has
been announced, in which the bulb contains an inert gas which re-
duces the rate of evaporation of the filament and permits operation
of the lamp at a higher efficiency. This gas-filled Mazda lamp is
chiefly of importance in the larger sizes, and in effect creates a new
lamp of characteristics similar to the incandescent lamp but of
power equivalent to the arc lamp. In its smaller sizes it is included
on the diagram, marking the highest efficiency attainment in the
- production of light by small incandescent lamps.
The Nernst lamp was brought to its highest development in 1908
in the Westinghouse Nernst. Its active exploitation practically
ceased in 1912, due to the superior qualities of the tungsten filament
lamps.
614 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Paralleling the improvement in efficiency of light production by
means of incandescent lamps have come improvements in larger elec-
tric iluminants.'| The pure carbon open are lamp was supplemented
in about 1893 by the inclosed carbon lamp, which largely sup-
planted it in spite of a lower efficiency because of more desirable
operating characteristics. This inclosed carbon are lamp has been
for a number of years the standard street lighting illuminant of
America, and only within the past two or three years has yielded its
position of preeminence in that field to the newer and superior forms
of arc lamps. The intensified carbon are lamp has found consider-
able application in the lighting of interiors, principally stores. In
this lamp pure carbons of relatively small diameter are operated at
high current density within a globe which partially restricts the air
supply. The resultant light is more nearly white than that usually
obtained from the carbon are lamp and offers some advantages for
store hghting purposes.
The metallic electrode are lamp, of which the magnetite and me-
tallic flame lamps are the principal examples, has come into large
use in street lighting and more than any other type of lamp has
supplanted the inclosed carbon are lamp. This lamp differs radi-
cally from earlier forms of are lamps in that the light is produced
by luminescence and emanates wholly from the are stream, whereas
in the several forms of pure carbon arc lamps the light is produced
by incandescence of the electrode ends.
The flame are lamp (short-life form) is the highest achievement
in efficiency of light production among commercial electric illumi-
nants. In its earlier forms ,it suffered from short electrode life,
which made its operation costly and practically limited its usefulness
in this country to display lighting. In repetition of the history of
the pure carbon are lamp, the flame are lamp, which is equipped
with carbons impregnated with various salts, has been adapted to
secure long electrode life by partially inclosing the arc and employ-
ing large diameter electrodes. As in the earlier lamp, this operating
advantage has been secured at the expense of loss in efficiency, and
the long-burning flame are lamp is not to be confused with the more
efficient short-life flame are lamp in this respect.
The gas-filled Mazda lamp,? small sizes of which have been in-
cluded in consideration of incandescent lamps, has not yet emerged
1 Are lamps: “The invention of the inclosed are lamp,’’ Marks, The Sibley Journal of Engineering,
October, 1907. ‘‘ Properties and industrial applications of the flame are lamp,”’ Blondel, International
Electrical Congress, 1904, vol. 2, p. 729. “The electric arc,” Steinmetz, International Electrical Congress
vol. 2, p. 710. ‘‘The metallic flame arc lamp,”’ Stephens, Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1907, p. 657. “ Design
of luminous are lamps,’”’ Halvorson, General Elec. Review, 1911, p. 578. “Are lighting,’”’ Steinmetz,
General Elec. Review, 1911, p. 568. ‘‘ Ornamental luminous arc lighting at New Haven,’’ Halvorson,
General Elec. Review, 1912, p. 220. ‘Inclosed flame arc lamp,’’ Chamberlain, General Elec. Review,
1912, p. 706.
2 Mazda gas-filled lamps: “‘ Tungsten lamps of high frequency,’’ Langmuir and Orange, Trans. A. I.
E. E., 1913, p. 1915.
DEVELOPMENTS IN ILLUMINATION—MILLAR. 615
from the developmental stage, but is known to be among the very
highest efficiency electric illuminants, especially in its larger sizes.
The mercury arc lamp is available in two types. The low-pressure
are in glass tubes is the earlier form and is in more general use than
the high-pressure quartz tube lamp. The latter, however, surpasses
it in efficiency.*
The Moore tube, filled with nitrogen for general illumination pur-
poses, has been used to a limited extent for special classes of light-
ing. Smaller sizes in which carbon dioxide replaces nitrogen are
used only as artificial daylight.
The Neon tube, as devised by Claude of France, marks a distinct
advance in the efficiency of tube lighting. Whereas the Moore
CHRONOLOGICAL DIAGRAM OF LARGE ELECTRIC LAMPS. palmer ee
50
E
c
4
:
2
A FLAME ARC — YELLOW
=
[2%
a
+ MAZDA-GAS FILLED—- LARGE
2 MERCURY VAPOR— QUARTZ (220V,D.C) +}
[+772-10 AMP LONG BURNING - FLAME ARC— WHITE
aoe + MOORE TUBE +
CARBON ARC NITROGEN
830 2 4 e@ = 60 2 4 Se fay lo t a4
Fig. 4.
nitrogen-filled tube yields light of a pinkish-yellow tinge, the Neon
tube gives light which is red.?
The diagram, figure 4, summfarizes and compares the light-pro-
ducing efficiency of these several large illuminants. The inclosed
carbon arc lamps and the Moore tube are the lowest in efficiency.
The 4-ampere magnetite lamp is of substantially the same efficiency
as the old open carbon arc lamp. The 6.6-ampere magnetite and
the low-pressure mercury vapor lamp are next in order, just failing
to reach the efficiency of the long-burning flame are lamp, of the
quartz high-pressure mercury vapor lamp, and the Mazda gas-filled
lamp. <A short-burning flame arc lamp producing 36 lumens per
watt is distinctly the most efficient of these large illuminants.
1 Mercury vapor lamps: “ Notes on the Cooper-Hewitt lamp,’’ Cooper-Hewitt, Elec. World and En-
gineer, 1910, p. 679. ;
2 Tube lighting: “‘ Light from gaseous conductors within glass tubes,’’ Moore, Trans. A. I. E. E., 1907,
p. 605, ‘‘Neon tube lighting,’’ Claude, Trans. Ilg. Eng. Soc., 1913, p. 371.
616 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The development of the gas mantle by Von Welsbach, in 1884,
was the beginning of a new era in gas lighting.t. When the mantle
burner was introduced there were available the flat-flame burner,
producing 1 to 2 candlepower per cubic foot of 16-candlepower coal
gas; the Argand burner, producing perhaps 3 candlepower per cubic
foot; the regenerative burners, producing as much as 7 to 10 candle-
power. The Welsbach lamp made available at first 10 and, later,
something like 15 candlepower per cubic foot of gas. Since the
early developments of the modern Welsbach lamp in, say, 1891, no
material improvements have been made in the efficiency of light
production from small mantle burners, though burners, mantles, and
auxiliaries have been further developed along lines which make for
better operating qualities. Beginning with about 1901, the number
of sizes of lamps employing mantles was increased and the produc-
tion of an inverted burner was undertaken. By 1906 the inverted
burner had attained a point of commercial success, and there had
been produced a variety of sizes of upright mantle lamps, ranging
from those consuming 1} cubic feet of gas up to the multiple burner
lamps employed for lighting large areas and consuming 12 to 18
cubic feet of gas per hour. Since that time this range of lamps has
been realized in the inverted type, and various improvements have
been made in structural features and operating qualities. Regen- .
erative lamps have been produced and. have entered to a limited
extent into service in this country. These attain efficiencies of
the order of 28 candlepower per cubic foot per hour. Highest
efficiencies from illuminating gas have been obtained by the use of
pressed gas systems, used largely abroad for street hghting, but not
as yet introduced extensively in this country. These yield light-
producing efficiencies of the order of 35 candlepower per cubic foot
per hour. -
The progress in efficiency of light production indicated by the
record of the manufacturer of gas illuminants is shown in figure 5.
Among other illuminants? the kerosene oil lamp is, of course,
the most important. Its earlier form was improved by the substi-
tution of a round-wick, center-draft lamp for the flat-wick burner.
The incandescent mantle has been applied to the kerosene lamp,
but without such success as to command general substitution in
oil-lamp lighting. Acetylene lighting, filling a limited part of the
general illumination field, is not understood to be making any con-
siderable advance in efficiency of light production. The same is true
of gasoline lighting.
1Gas lamps: “Inverted gas lighting;’”? Whitaker; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1907, p. 764. ‘‘Modern gas
lighting conveniences;” Litle; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 418. “Symposium on Ligh-pressure gas
lighting;’? Goodenough, Klatte and Zeek; Trans. Ilg. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 506.
2 Miscellaneous illuminants: ‘‘The progress of the gas industry;’’ Morrison; Trans. Ig. Eng. Soc., 1909,
p. 36.
DEVELOPMENTS IN ILLUMINATION—MILLAR., 617
One illuminant has been produced which yields light of a color
closely approximating what may be considered to be average day-
light. That is the Moore carbon-dioxide tube. Mazda lamps, the
intensified carbon are lamp, and gas mantle lamps have been equipped
with color screens intended to modify the light to produce artificial
daylight.t_ Some of these duplications of natural light are excellent
and are being employed with good effect for commercial purposes.
Other illuminants or equipments for illuminants have been announced
as the equivalent of daylight or as having daylight qualities. Unfor-
tunately, however, there has been much misrepresentation connected
with this, and so far as the writer is aware, only the efforts named
above should be regarded seriously in this connection.
CHRONOLOGIGAL DIAGRAM OF GAS LAMPS
+ PRESSED GAS
S PER ” FT. os HR.
S
ar}
THORIA-CERIA MANTLE+
1 |
+ WELSBACH UPRIGHT
8
OPEN FLAME
BURNER
°
130 & 4 c 6 1990 2 4 G 6 1900 @ 4 c 8 i810 2 +
Fia. 5.
Lighting auxiliaries,” including reflectors, globes, shades, etc., have
been greatly improved in recent years. Plate 1, figure 1, illustrates
some types of reflectors typical of those which were sold 10 to 15
years ago. Plate 1, figure 2, shows an assortment of modern
reflectors which surpass those previously available in appearance,
and in that they conceal the light source and diffuse the light. They
excel also in efficiency of light redirection.
The design and manufacture of fixtures * may be divided into two
classes; namely, fixtures of distinctive design and stock fixtures.
The former can not well be generalized; the latter, which, of course,
1 Artificial daylight illuminants: ‘‘A standard for color values—The white Moore light,” Moore; Trans.
Illg. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 209. ‘‘A lamp for artificial daylight;’’ Hussey; Trans, Illg. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 73.
“Subtractive production of artificial daylight;” Ives and Luckiesch; Electrical World, 1911, p. 1092. “A
gas artificial daylight;’’ Ives and Brady; Lighting Journal, 1913, p. 131.
2 Auxiliaries: ‘‘The principles of shades and reflectors;’’ Bell; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1909, p. 723. ‘‘Sei-
entific principles of globes and reflectors;’? Lansingh; Trans. lg. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 49. “Symposium
on illuminating glassware;’’? Jones, Marshall, Young, and Hibben; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 854.
3 Fixtures: “‘Fixture design,” Lansingh and Heck; Trans. lg. Eng. Soc., 1907, pp. 728-784. “The
relation of fixture design to modern illuminating practice ’? Hopton and Watkins; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc.
1910, p 310.
618 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
are more largely used, have been improved somewhat with the
improvement in taste in regard to design which is gradually being
wrought among the public at large. At least, it may be said, that
the atrocious fixtures which were placed in moderate priced houses
20 years or so ago are now supplanted by more tasteful fixtures.
Plate 2, figure 1, shows a cluster of electric lamps which is typical
of those sold 10 years ago. Contrast them with the view in plate 2,
figure 2, of modern fixtures designed for the same class of use. The
latter are superior in almost every respect and, while possibly more
costly, yield a much better service return upon, the investment.
It is thus apparent that progress in recent years in the design
and construction of materials of illumination has been rapid, and
that the report of recent developments must be considered to be
encouraging in so far as the materials of illumination are concerned.
THE SCIENCE OF ILLUMINATION.
The science of illumination may be considered to comprehend
engineering, vision, and esthetics.
Principles of engineering—Considering first the principles of engi-
neering in so far as they form a part of the sctence of illumination, it
may be said that the subject of
supply falls properly under the
headings of electrical or gas engi-
neering. The lighting practitioner
must have a working knowledge
of usual systems of supply, but no
special knowledge is essential.
In the matter of installation! the practitioner needs to be some-
what more skilled. The electrical contractor, plumber, etc., are
prepared to handle installations effectively, but are in need of
guidance of the illuminating expert; hence, the latter requires a good
working knowledge of the subject.
A thorough knowledge of the design, construction, lighting quali-
ties, and operating characteristics of artificial iuminants is essential,
and this subject has not been neglected in the literature of the art.
Daylight? also has been studied as to direction, diffusion, intensity,
color, etc. Very complete information regarding sources of illumina-
‘tion is thus available to the practitioner.
SCIENCE OF ILLUMINATION
Fia. 6.
1 Operating characteristics of illuminants: “Deterioration of gas lighting units in service;”’ Pierce;
Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1912, p.677. ‘‘ The relation of the incandescent lamp to the lighting service; ’”? Cooper
and Campbell; National Elec. Light Assn., 1913, p.400. ‘‘The proper lamp for a circuit;’’ Campbell and
Cooper; N. E. L. A., 1912, vol. 3, p. 338.
2 Daylight: ‘‘ Daylight illumination;” Marsh; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 224. ‘‘The intensity of
natural illumination throughout the day;”? Lewinson; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 482. ‘‘ The distri-
bution of luminosity in nature; ” Trans, Illg, Eng. Soc., 1911, p.687. ‘‘Daylight;’’ Nichols; Journal of the
Franklin Institute, 1912, p. 315.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Millar. PLATE 1.
1.—REFLECTORS OF A DECADE AGO.
2.—VARIOUS FORMS OF MODERN REFLECTORS AND GLOBES.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Millar. PLATE 2
1.—TYPICAL STOCK FIXTURES OF A DECADE AGo.
SS ee
a
2.—MODERN FIXTURES.
DEVELOPMEN'S IN ILLUMINATION—MILLAR. 619
The study of auxiliaries from the several viewpoints of light dis-
tribution, light absorption, color modification, dust depreciation, etc.,
has been an important part of recent developments in the field of
illumination. The light distribution curve has become a familiar
part of manufacturers’ data and has been influential in emphasizing
the importance of correct design and low light absorbing qualities for
reflectors and globes. It has been shown that there have been
marked improvements in the design of lighting auxiliaries. Like-
wise, there has been a notable growth in the knowledge of the use of
such devices and in the discriminating selection of the best available
for given purposes.
The literature of the art is rich in discussions of the physics! of
light production, optical principles, color, etc. Knowledge of these
subjects has been distributed rather rapidly through numerous pres-
entations before organizations of men interested in lighting
In the measurement of light, notable progress has been made in
recent years. The measurement of total flux and light distribution
in the laboratory and the measurement of illumination intensity and
brightness in lighting installations has been developed and now
forms a standard part of illuminating engineering practice.
Beyond the introduction of certain refinements which have pro-
moted accuracy of results, there have been no important develop-
ments in the practice of commercial photometry during recent years.
Probably the most important development in this field has been the
reduction in the size of photometers, which has resulted in making
portable photometers available for the study of illumination. A
recent broadening of the scope of such study has included the meas-
urement of brightness as an important branch of photometry.?
A number of investigators are engaged in the study of the problem
of photometry by nonocular means. The thermopile and the photo-
electric cell, with possibly some alternatives, are looked to for assist-
ance, in the future. While nothing of commercial practicability has
yet demonstrated its value, progress is being made.
The variety of color values of the several important iluminants,
and the other color values which for scientific purposes must be
measured, create a requirement for standards of light of several
1 Physics and chemistry: ‘‘ Transformation of electric power into light;’’? Steinmetz; Trans. A. I. E.E.,
1906, p. 789. ‘‘Color values of artificial lamps;’’ Stickney; Trans, Illg. Eng. Soc., 1907, p. 282. ‘‘The
theory of flame and incandescent mantle luminosity;’? Fulweiler; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1909, p. 635.
“Luminous efficiency;”’ Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 113. ‘Some chemistry of light;’”? Whitney; Gen-
eral Elec. Review, 1910, p. 101.
2 Photometry: *‘The integrating photometer;’’? Matthews; Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, p. 39.- “‘Tlumina-
tion photometers and their use;’’ Millar; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1907, p. 548. ‘‘A new universal photom-
eter;’? Sharp and Millar; Elec. World, 1908, p.181. ‘‘The integrating sphere in industrial photometry;”
Sharp and Millar; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 502. ‘‘Color measurements ofilluminants;” Ives; Trans.
Illg. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 189. ‘Illumination tests; Sharp and Millar; Trans. Ilg. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 391.
“‘Photometry of large light sources;’’ Stickney and Rose; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc.,1911, p.641. ‘‘Photom-
etry at very low intensities;’’ Bell; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 671,
620 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
widely different color values. There is a great need for a series of
such standards which shall be authoritative by reason of the auspices
under which they have been derived as well as by official designation.
A number of laboratories are engaged in the study of this problem
of heterochromatic photometry, and- while concrete results in the
establishment of such standards are not available yet, progress must
be recorded in that the need for such standards is now definitely
established and work is under way which should result ultimately
in meeting this need. Present indications are that a range of cali-
brated color screens offers a most practical solution of this problem.
Standards of light ? may be classified as primary, representative,
and working standards. Primary standards, or those reproducible
from specifications, are at present flame standards, respectively
candles, the Hefner lamp, and the Pentane lamp. There have been
no important developments in the way of primary standards of light
in recent years, although certain means of arriving at a superior
primary standard have been suggested and some research work has
been done with that end in view. It is generally recognized that
none of the existing primary standards of light is entirely satisfactory
and that there is need for the development of a new and superior
standard. Representative standards have been adopted and the
so-called international candle is the official unit of light in England,
France, and the United States. It is the result of standardization
work of the past few years, and the unit is now represented by groups
of seasoned, calibrated incandescent electric lamps held at the
official laboratories of these three countries. These form a reason-
ably accurate and safe standard for light of one-color value. From
them working standards are derived which accurately duplicate
the value of the standard lamps and which are now available for
general use of all who require them.
A start toward adopting a reasonable system of units and nomen-
clature ? was made at the Geneva Electrical Congress in 1896. The
committee on nomenclature and standards of the Illuminating
Engineering Society has been actively engaged in the furthering of
this work. That considerable progress has been made will be testi-
fied by the several annual reports of the committee to be found in
1 Photometrical laboratories: ‘‘Photometrical laboratories of National Bureau of Standards;” Stratton
and Rosa; Trans. A. I. E. E., 1905, p. 999. “A testing laboratory in practical operation;” Sharp; Trans.
A.I.E.E.,1905, p.1051. ‘“Photometrical laboratory of the United Gas Improvement Co.;’’ Bond; Trans.
Tilg. Eng. Soc., 1909, p. 619. “Physical laboratory of the National Electric Lamp Association;” Hyde;
Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1909, p. 631.
2 Standards of light: ‘‘Standards oflight;’’? Nichols; International Electrical Congress, 1904; Steinmetz;
Trans. A.I.E.E.,1908, p.1319. ‘Report of the committee on nomenclature and standards ;” Trans. Illg.
Eng. Soc., 1909, p. 520. ‘Heterochromatic photometry and a primary standard of light;” Ives; Trans.
Ilig. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 376.
3 Units and nomenclature: “Reports of the committee on nomenclature and standards ;” Trans. Ilg.
Eng. Soc., to date. “The concepts and terminology of illuminating engineering;” Sharp; Trans. Illg.
Eng. Soc., 1907, p. 414.
DEVELOPMENTS IN ILLUMINATION—MILLAR,. 621
the transactions of that society. The subject of nomenclature is
especially vexing, and the art is fortunate in having the services of
so distinguished a committee to assist in the adoption of sound
definitions, symbols, and nomenclature. Pressure is being exerted
with a view to the adoption of the metric system and some little
progress appears to have been made toward this end.
The principles of physical optics and of magnetic flux underlie
many calculations * made in illuminating practices. Marked impetus
was given to calculations of illumination by the application of the
idea of luminous flux in commercial illumination design. In recent
years the mathematics of the subject has been set forth repeatedly,
and it may be said that calculations involved in illuminating engineer-
ing work are perhaps further along toward complete development
than is any other branch of the subject.
The subject of costs” is a fundamentally important feature of the
science of illumination, and questions of first cost and operating cost,
including maintenance and depreciation, must have ‘the careful
attention of the practitioner. The literature of this subject is rather
meager, because of the difficulty of generalizing due to the marked
influence which local conditions often exercise upon costs and due
to the invidious form which cost discussions are likely to take.
So much for the purely engineering aspects of the illuminatirg art.
The engineering features are important, indeed essential, but other
aspects are equally so. The subject of vision in all its ramifications
forms an integral part of the science of illumination, a fact which is
being given due recognition. Light must be correct in respect to
intensity, direction, diffusion, color, and steadiness; and to the study
of these qualities a knowledge of visual processes and methods of per-
ception is essential.* Shade perception and visual acuity together
with color perception have been studied and discussed to an extent
which begins to make known some of the more important facts
pertaining to vision.
In this connection also the subject of contrast may be considered.
A knowledge of the behavior of the human eye under various condi-
tions of contrast is all essential to the science of illumination. There-
fore the study of reflection and absorption of ight and of brightness
1 Calculations: “A rectilinear graphical construction of the spherical reduction factor of a lamp;” Ken-
nelly; Trans. Ulg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 243. ‘The calculation of illumination by the flux of light method;”
Cravath and Lansingh; Trans. Ilg. Eng. Soc.,1908,p.518. “Calculating and comparing lights from various
sources;” Hering; Trans. Ilg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 645. ‘The law of conservation as applied to illumination
calculations;” McAllister; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 703. ‘
2 Costs: “The analysis of performance and cost data in illuminating engineering; Harrison and Magd-
sich; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 814.
* Visual processes: “ Iffects of light upon the eye;” Seabrook; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p.157. “Eye-
strain and artificial ilumination;” Krawell; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 212. “Artificial illumination
from a physiological point of view;” Standish; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 254. ‘“Eyestrain;” Pyle;
Trans. Ulg. Eng. Soc., 1909, p. 447. “Physiological effects of radiation;” Steinmetz; Trans. Illg. Eng.
Soc., 1909, p. 683, “The psychology of light;”” Woodworth; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 437.
622 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of surfaces is a prominent feature of the most recent advance in the
science of illumination. Glare both from light source and from
reflecting surfaces is largely a question of contrast, and its suppression
in order to promote ocular welfare is one of the principal aims of the
lighting practitioner to-day.1 Excessive brightness means excessive
contrast with surrounding objects.?, Sometimes a light source, which
is so bright as to occasion discomfort amid dark surroundings,
becomes innocuous when amid bright surroundings. The general
recognition of the need for contrast limitation has been effective in
reducing contrast in the more recent installations.’
Glare is intimately connected with diffusion of ight. It is a sub-
ject to which a great deal of study has been given within the last few
years. In a paper before this institute Sweet presented the results of
some laboratory experiments on the effect of glare due to the presence
of a light source within the field of vision. While the conditions
which he employed were extreme and the effect was exaggerated
beyond that met in practice, yet the consequences experienced in
ordinary installations differ from those found in his experiments only
in degree. Glare due to exposed light sources means diminished
seeing ability, discomfort, and possible injury to the eyes. Another
effect also known as glare is that attending specular reflection from
polished surfaces. This is a subject which has received especial atten-
tion during recent years. Glare of this kind is again a matter of
excessive contrast. One views the imperfectly reflected image of a
light source upon the page of a book, brightness of the image being far
in excess of the immediate surroundings and the general surround-
ings. The same means which are effective in reducing contrasts
between the light source and its surroundings are naturally effective
in reducing the contrast between the reflected image of the light
source and its surroundings. Thus in avoiding glare due to exposed
light sources, glare due to specular reflection is ikewise avoided.*
The engineering aspects, together with those aspects which pertain
to vision, in large part constitute the science of illumination. Es-
1 Methods of perception: “‘Some physiological factors in illumination and photometry;” Bell; Trans. Illg.
Eng. Soc., June, 1906, p.3. Allowableamplitudes and frequencies of voltage fluctuations in incandescent
lamp work;” Ives; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1909, p. 709. ‘‘ Physiological points bearing on glare;’’ Cobb;
Trans. Tllg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 153. ‘Notes on spectral character of light upon the effectiveness of vision;”’
Luckiesch; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 135.
2 Brightness: ‘‘Intrinsie brightness of lighting sources;”? Woodwell; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 573.
“The measurement of brightness and its significance;” Ives; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., vol. 9, No. 3.
3 Light absorption and reflection coefficients: ‘‘Coefficients of diffuse reflection;”’ Bell; Trans. Illg. Eng.
Soc., 1907, p. 653. ‘‘Some experiments on reflection from ceilings, walls, and floor;”” Lansingh and Rolph.
Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 584. “‘ Effect of the variation of the incident angle on the coefficient of diffuse
reflection;” Gilpin; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 854. ‘‘Reflection coefficients; Bauder; Trans. Ilg.
Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 85. “Some reflecting properties of painted interior walls;” Jordan; Trans. Ilg. Eng.
Soc., 1912, p. 529.
4 Contrast, glare, etc.: ‘Physiological points bearing on glare;’”? Cobb; Trans. Tllg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 153,
“ Artificial illumination as a factor in the production of ocular discomfort;’’ Black; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc.,
1911, p.166. “The effectiveness of light as influenced by systems and surroundings;” Cravath; Trans. Illg.
Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 782.
DEVELOPMENTS IN ILLUMINATION—MILLAR, 623
thetics as comprehended in the principles of design, ornamentation,
and decoration may, in a sense, be grouped under the science of illu-
mination, and to the extent that it is so considered it is essentially
important. Obviously, however, esthetics is so much a matter of
artistic feeling that the entire subject can not be classed under this
heading. |
A growing appreciation of the artistic possibilities of lightmg and
the growing demand for artistic execution in lighting design are grad-
ually introducing more pleasing features, glassware, and lamps. It is
one of the gratifying and encouraging features of the situation that
there is nothing inconsistent in the requirements of good illumination
whether they be requirements of efficiency, ocular hygiene, or
esthetics. It appears that in promoting the one, natural impetus is
given to one or both of the others.
The more efficient light sources
are likely to be more brilliant and
to carry with them the need for
concealment from view. In meet-
ing this need, design along the lines
of least resistance results in diffused
light from larger areas, forming
secondary sources which do not disturb ocular comfort. In the
design of such systems of lighting, opportunities for the creation of
pleasing and artistic effects thrust themselves upon the designer in a
manner which was never encountered when less efficient illuminants
of lower briliancy were placed in rooms without adequate con-
cealment.
The art of illumination ? is the lighting of interiors and of exteriors.
The specialist applies daylight and artificial illuminants employing
lighting auxiliaries and fixtures conforming to correct engineering,
ocular, and esthetic principles in the lighting of interiors and exte-
riors. The art of illumination may be improved only as better mate-
rials of illumination are made available and as the science of illumi-
nation is advanced. In the lighting of interiors, more or less in ac-
cordance with established illuminating principles, much experience
ART OF ILLUMINATION
LIGHTING
OF
EXTERIORS
LIGHTING
OF
INTERIORS
Fia. 7.
1 Esthetics, architectural principles, etc.: “‘ Electric light as related to architecture;” Walker; Trans. Illg.
Eng. Soc., 1907, p. 596. ‘The relation of architectural principles to illuminating engineering;” Jones; Trans.
Tig. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 9. ‘‘Modern methods of illumination from the architectural standpoint;’’ Castor;
Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 271. ‘The relation of illuminating engineering to architecture from the
illuminating engineering standpoint;”’ Elliot; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 280. ‘Architecture and illu-
mination;”’ Perrot; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 619. ‘‘Illumination and architecture;”’ Furber; Trans,
Tig. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 822. ‘‘The architect and illuminating engineering;” Trimble; Trans. Illg. Eng.
Soc., 1912, p. 51.
2 Art of illumination.—Decorative aspects: “Light and color in decoration;’’ Hunter; Trans. Tllg. Eng.
Soc., 1908, p. 190. ‘The relationship of decoration to the illuminating engineering practice;”’ Cliford;
Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 179. Church lighting: “Church lighting;”’ Perrot; Trans. Ig. Eng. Soc.,
1908, p. 369. “Indirect lighting in auditoriums;” Wheeler; Trans. Ig. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 163. ‘Church
lighting;’’ Ely; Trans. Ig. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 613. Lighting of auditoriums and theaters: ‘‘The illumina-
624 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
has been gained and recorded in recent years, and considerable
advance in practice has resulted. In the transactions of the Illumi-
nating Engineering Society alone there are more than 50 papers deal-
ing with the illumination of interiors, many of them containing
definite photometric data on the results obtained. This experience
covers a wide variety of installations ranging from the ilummation
of churches and theaters through illumination of stores and factories
to the simpler problems of lighting garages and stables.
That remarkable advances have been made in the lighting of
interiors during the last five years will probably not be denied.
Better materials of illumination are available and knowledge of cor-
rect principles of illumination has increased rapidly. Experiments
in the design of lighting equipment and its installation have some-
times failed to give satisfaction, but usually have given some lesson
which has added to the total experience in lig#ting practice. Develop-
ments which in themselves have not achieved permanent success have
in some cases been stimulative, and have promoted the best develop-
ment of lighting practice.
In the lighting of exteriors there has been some advance also.
Street lighting is so largely dependent upon municipal appropriations
that its development is sometimes hampered unduly by lack of funds.
Merchants’ associations have found in street lighting a means of pro-
tion of Hammerstein’s Philadelphia Opera House;”’ Spillman; Trans. Ilg. Eng. Soc., 1909, p.385. ‘‘Thea-
ter ilumination;”? Vaughn and Cook; Trans. lg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 961. Office lighting: ‘‘ The illumina-
tion of the building of the Edison Electric Tluminating Co. of Boston;” Bell, Marks, and Ryan; Trans.
Illg. Eng. Soc., 1907, p. 603. ‘Illumination of the Engineering Societies’ Building, New York;” Knox;
Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1907, p. 445. ‘‘ Illumination of the office building of the Philadelphia Electric Co.;”
Bartlett; Trans. Tg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 555. ‘Indirect illumination of the general offices of a large com-
pany;” Aldrich and Mailia; Trans. Tllg. Eng. Soc., 1914, p. 103. ‘Some engineering features of office
building lighting;’’ Edwards and Harris; Trans. Tlg. Eng. Soc., 1914, p. 164. School lighting: “School-
house illumination;’? Hatch; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1907, p. 359.“ Public-school room lighting;’” Knight
and Marshall; Trans. Tig. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 553. Library lighting: “ Design of the illumination of the
New York City Carnegie libraries;’’ Marks; Trans. Iilg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 538. Store lighting: “The
lighting of a large store;”” Law and Marshall; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 186. “ Department-store
lighting;”? Shalling; Trans. Tllg. Eng. Soc., 1913, p. 17. ‘‘ Distinctive store lighting;”” Law and Powell;
Trans. Ig. Eng. Soc., 1913, p. 515. “‘ Present practice in small-store lighting;” Law and Powell; Trans.
Tilg. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 435. Factory lighting: ‘Factory lighting;’’ Marks; Trans. Ig. Eng. Soc., 1909,
p. 805. “Mill lighting;” Stickney; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1911, p. 478. “Factory lighting;’? Flexner
and Dicker; Trans. Ilg. Eng. Soc., 1913, p. 470. Show-window lighting: ““Show-window lighting;”” Hen-
ninger; Trans. Tilg. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 178. ‘Show-window lighting;” Wheeler; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc.,
1913, p. 555. Residence lighting: ‘Residence lighting;’’ Cravath; Trans. Mg. Eng. Soc., 1906, p. 164.
“Some home experiments in illumination from large area light sources;”’ Ives; Trans. Ig. Eng. Soc.,
1913, p. 229. “The lighting of a simple home;” Powell; Trans. Tlg. Eng. Soc., 1914, p. 45. Passenger-car
lighting: “The lighting of railway cars;’’ Hulse; Trans. Tllg. Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 75. ‘“TIlumination of
passenger cars;’”? Minick; Trans. Ig. Eng. Soc., 1913, p. 214. ‘‘ Modern practice in street railway illumina-
tion;” Hibben; Trans. Tllg. Eng. Soc., 1913, p. 589. “The illumination of street railway ears;” Porter
and Staley; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1914, p. 25. General: “Indirect illumination;” Curtis and Morgan;
Trans. Tlg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 740. “Daylight ilumination;’”’ Marsh; Trans. Tllg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 224.
“Symposium on indirect, semi-indirect, and direct lighting;” Rolph, Henninger, and Hibben; Trans.
Tig. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 234. Street lighting: “A method of street lighting by incandescent lamps;”
Underwood and Lansingh; Trans. Tllg. Eng. Soc., 1906, p. 115. ‘Lighting of streets by the incandescent
mantle burner system;” Westermaier; Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1906, p. 122. “Street lighting;” Bell;
Trans. Illg. Eng. Soc., 1908, p. 400. “Street lighting by tungsten lamps;’’ Rhodes; Trans. lg. Eng.
Soc., 1909, p. 54. “Some neglected considerations pertaining to street ilumination;” Millar; Trans. Tig.
Eng. Soc., 1910, p. 653. “Street lighting with ornamental luminous are lamps;” Halvorson; Trans. Tlg.
Eng. Soc., 1913, p. 88. Lighting of building exteriors: “The lighting of the Buffalo General Electric
Co.’s building;’”? Ryan; Trans. Tilg. Eng. Soc., 1912, p. 597.
x
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+
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BUILDING OF THE DENVER GAS AND ELEcTRIC Co. AS LIGHTED AT NIGHT.
DEVELOPMENTS IN ILLUMINATION—MILLAR. 625
moting trade, and have had recourse to display street lighting to
supplement the lighting provided by the city. Thus, tungsten clus-
ter lighting has been installed in many cities, particularly the smaller
cities of the country, with a very beneficial effect upon street lighting
asa whole. More recently a competitive form of illumination, known
as the ornamental arc lamp system, in which an inverted arc lamp
is employed, has commanded much attention and is experiencing
notable growth. General civic street lighting is improving slowly,
the average standard of intensities being increased, and somewhat
better design of the illuminants and systems being noted in the more
recent installations.
There is some little development in the way of lighting exteriors of
buildings. Outline lighting of expositions was first carried out in a
notable manner at the Columbian Exposition in 1893, attaining per-
haps its highest development at the Pan-American Exposition in
Buffalo in 1901. The Jamestown Exposition struck a new note in
lighting building exteriors, and in the Panama-Pacific International
Exposition in San Francisco, 1915, we are promised a fuller develop-
ment of the lighting of buildings by concealed sources.
These occasional remarkable installations are, of course, few in
number. There is no general tendency to light the exteriors of
buildings, though a few creditable attempts have been made in this
direction.
PROGRESS IN ILLUMINATION.
Having reviewed briefly the recent developments in the field of
illumination, allow me to direct your attention briefly to the subject
of progress and to
the forces which PROGRESS IN ILLUMINATION
ART OF ILLUMINATION ILLUMINATING PRACTICE
have been respon-
sible for improve-
ments in the past
and to which we
must look for fur-
ther development.
The illumination
which is provided
depends not only
upon the status of
the art but also
upon the degree to
which practice con- Fels,
forms with the art.
It has been stated that the art of illumination is improved as the
materials of illumination are bettered and as the science of illumina-
tion is advanced. It may now be added that illuminating practice
is improved as individuals, manufacturers in the lighting field, con-
73176°—sm 191440
MATERIALS
SCIENCE
INDIVIDUAL
MANUFACTURER
CONTRACTOR
LIGHTING CO.
626 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
tractors in the lighting field, and lighting companies better their
practice. It is to be regretted that in a review of recent progress
in the field of illumination, note must be taken of the fact that
illuminating practice has not advanced as rapidly as the develop-
ment of the materials of illumination and the advance of the
science of illumination would appear to make possible. The art of
illumination has made rapid strides. Manufacturers, contractors,
and lighting companies have improved their practice In many in-
stances. Unfortunately, however, their influence is largely confined
to new installations in stores and to some large manufacturing estab-
lishments. Where the commercial incentive is clearly discernible, old
installations have been brought up to date very generally. With
these exceptions the older installations, dating back 10 years or more,
compare unfavorably with the best that the art affords.
Broadly speaking, a review of recent developments throughout the
entire field must prove encouraging to all who are interested in the
subject of illumination, with the single exception that means have
not yet been devised for bringing old installations up to date and
into conformity with present day knowledge of lighting principles.
FORCES TENDING FOR BETTERMENT IN THE ILLUMINATION FIELD.
The progress of the past few years in the field of illumination
is largely traceable to definite sources, and consideration of these
sources warrants the belief that recent progress may be taken
as an earnest of further progress to be anticipated for the near
future. The Iluminating Engineering Society is a forum for the
discussion of lighting questions. It fosters study in the field,
collects in its transactions most of the important literature of the
art, and seeks to disseminate information regarding illumination.
The Johns Hopkins University Illuminating Engineering Society
lecture course on illuminating engineering laid the groundwork
for educational! courses devoted to the subject, and a committee
on education of the Illuminating Engineering Society is now
seeking to further pedagogic interest and activity along this line.
The national associations of electric companies and of gas com-
panies are doing educational work in this field. The Illuminating
Engineering Society is conducting a campaign of popular educa-
tion. All of these efforts have made for progress, and may be
looked to for future progress. The manufacturers of illumi-
nants and accessories in this country are remarkably progressive.
Their researches and investigations and educational work are
bringing large results throughout the entire field. Lighting com-
panies are awakening to the importance of illumination. While
perhaps the power business in both the electric and gas industries
DEVELOPMENTS IN ILLUMINATION—MILLAR. 627
is assuming greater importance than the lighting business, yet it
is the lighting business upon which the reputation of the company
for furnishing good service or poor service is most likely to de-
pend, and which offers far more opportunity for cultivating pub-
lic good will through acceptable service than does the power
business. Most large electric and gas companies now have on
their staff one or more illuminating engineers, and are devoting
more attention than formerly to the subject of good Ulumination.
IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT.
In. conclusion, allow me to enter a plea for more general atten-
tion to the subject of illumination. It is one of transcending impor-
tance whether viewed from a humanitarian or a commercial stand-
point. Some estimates for the year 1913 of its commercial impor-
tance in this country have recently been published.'| According to
these the manufacturer’s sales of materials employed directly for
illumination in the electric-lighting industry alone aggregated
$65,000,000, while the sales of machinery involved in the generation
of electricity for lighting purposes aggregated perhaps half of this
amount. The revenue of central stations derived from the electric-
lighting business is estimated as exceeding $300,000,000. These
figures suggest in some measure the importance of the electric-lighting
industry and, of course, are in need of supplement by corresponding
figures representative of the gas-lighting industry and of the miscel-
laneous lighting business of the country. But if all such figures were
available, they would only begin to suggest the commercial impor-
tance of artificial illumination to the country. Who shall attempt to
estimate the colossal additions to the wealth of the Nation which it
makes possible through extending the hours of industry ?
The importance of artificial Ulumination in another sense is diffi-
cult to overestimate.
“Health in the home is dependent upon proper sanitation. ‘Cleanliness is next to
Godlmess’; without proper light, cleanliness is next to impossible. Adequate
illumination promotes cleanliness.
“Ophthalmologists tell us that inadequate or otherwise improper illumination
occasions eyestrain which often results in headache and other nervous disorders.
These, if prolonged, sooner or later undermine general health. So, good illumination
affects general health by promoting sanitation and avoiding nervous strain.
‘Good illumination has a more direct bearing upon the health of the eyes. If the
eyes are closely employed upon detailed work, as in sewing or reading, under condi-
tions of illumination which are improper, the eyes are fatigued, and if the occupation
is continued, in spite of the fatigue, vision is impaired at least temporarily, and
_ possibly is injured permanently. As compared with our forefathers we are distinctly
a nocturnal people. We use our eyes a greater number of hours per day. Oculists’
records testify, and the prevalence of eyeglasses evidences, the deleterious effects
upon the vision of the people asa whole. Who shall say what part of the prevalence
1 Editorial, Lighting Journal, January, 1914.
628 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of impaired vision is attributable to improper illumination, that is to say, to the
misuse of light?
“Physiologists tell us that the human eye is naturally adapted for distant vision;
that when focused upon nearby objects, as in most of the work in which it is applied
in our modern life, the muscles are contracted and the focal mechanism of the eye
is subjected to strain. They tell us also that, just as children are physically, intel-
lectually, and morally more susceptible and pliant than adults, so the visual organs
of childrea are delicate and especially liable to injury if used under adverse condi-
tions. In modern life children are called upon for a large amount of home work in
connection with the school systems. ‘This involves application of the eyes in exact-
ing near vision to which they are not naturally adapted, and at a time of life in which
they are peculiarly liable to injury. When to these untoward conditions there is
added that of poor illumination, is it any wonder that we are becoming a bespectacled
race? Of these conditions which operate against ocular welfare some may be beyond
our control, but that of poor illumination is a menace for the existence of which
there is no excuse, since the remedy is understood and is available to all.
“Tight has a marked bearing upon the usefulness of our lives. Artificial light
extends the hours in which we may labor. It makes possible intellectual improve-
ment; it permits added achievement; it makes actual life of 50 years equivalent to
a much longer life in the period antedating the perfection of our modern light sources.
Yet, though these statements are in general correct, it remains true that the precise
measure of added usefulness which artificial light makes possible depends upon the
merits of the illumination. With good illumination one may labor to better effect,
may produce more largely, and the product will be more nearly perfect than with
poor illumination. These facts may be applied to the industries and to the arts, to
manufacture, to the pursuit of knowledge, or to the development of artistic talent.
‘Artificial light is an important factor in promoting happiness. In extending the
hours of activity beyond those which are ordinarily devoted to the duties of life, it
affords opportunity for the pursuit of pleasure. Light reveals the beauties of nature
and of art, whether it be sculpture, painting, or architecture. It is particularly
important in the home where so much effort is expended for the comfort and pleasure
of the family. Few homes are so humble but that some effort is made to render
them attractive. The home usually reflects in its decorations the personality of the
home maker, and, within the limits of the tastes and means of the family, attempt
is generally made to render it homelike and charming. Much of the beauty and
charm are lost in the evening if the rooms are not properly illuminated.’’!
Considering the immense importance of artificial illumination as a
factor in the progress of the country, every advance in the science
of illumination, every improvement in the materials of illumination,
and all progress in the art has a special significance—even a minor
improvement in materials or in the science may have a large general
influence if embodied in standard practice. It is therefore of inter-
est to consider the improvements which have been brought about in
the recent past, the discrepancy between some of the present prac-
tice and the best that the art affords, and the opportunity which
each one of us has to influence one or more lighting installations for
good. Considering the importance of the subject and the progress
being made, it 1s a gratifymg task to undertake to report upon
recent developments, even though such report is recognized as being
but little more than suggestive as to the facts.
1 Mrs, P. 8S. Millar, Froebel Society, Brooklyn, November, 1913.
THE LOOM AND SPINDLE: PAST, PRESENT, AND
FUTURE.
By LuTHER HOoPER.
[With 11 plates. ]
I. PRIMITIVE LOOMS: PREHISTORIC, ANCIENT, AND MODERN.
The spindle and the loom, the one for twisting fiber into thread and
the other for weaving the thread itself into cloth, are prehistoric and
almost universal tools.
These tools, and the methods of using them, have never been sub-
ject to much variation, whether invented by prehistoric man, the
skillful weavers of the ancient world, or the ingenious craftsmen of
the primitive tribes of to-day.
Moreover, it is not only in elementary forms of weaving that this
similarity is found, for if the essential principles of the most modern
spinning and weaving machinery be investigated, it will be seen that
they are identical with those used in the most ancient times. The
complicated textile machinery of to-day is, therefore, simply a nat-
ural development from that used by primitive weavers of all time.
In the present course of lectures my intention is to demonstrate the
principles of the primitive loom and spindle, and trace their gradual
development into the wonderful, but still far from perfect, mecha-
nism of the modern machines actuated by steam power; also to indi-
eate the lines along which textile machinery, in the future, is likely
to be improved.
In this first lecture I shall occupy the time at my disposal by a
description of primitive spinning and weaving appliances, prehis-
toric, ancient, and modern.
Prehistoric examples of the weaver’s art are extremely rare. This
is owing, of course, to the perishable nature of the materials of which
they are composed. Few as they are, however, and consisting, as
they do, of the merest shreds of textile fabrics, they show unmistak-
1Canton Lectures delivered before the Royal Society of Arts, London, February 26,
March 4 and 11, 1912. Reprinted by permission from Journal of the Royal Society of
Arts, September 6, 13, 20, 1912.
A large number of the illustrations are taken from Mr. Hooper's “‘ Hand-Loom weaving ”
and are reproduced by the courtesy of the publisher, Mr. John Hogg.
629
630 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ably that the art of the loom, as well as that of the spindle and nee-
dle, was understood and successfully practiced in what has been
poetically called by an eloquent French writer “The night of time.”
The term “prehistoric” has, of course, only a relative meaning.
Roughly speaking, history begins at the period in human develop-
ment when the use of metal for tools and ornaments supersedes that
of stone. I believe I am right in stating that antiquities of the Age
of Stone are classed as belonging to prehistoric time.
It is generally agreed that most of the lake dwellings of Switzer-
land, which were discovered and eagerly investigated during the last
century, belong to the neolithic, or later stone period. It was amongst
the remains of one of the earliest of these villages, discovered in the
bed of the lake at Robenhausen, that bundles of raw flax fiber, fine
and coarse linen threads, twisted string of various sizes, and thick
ropes, as well as netted and knitted fabrics and fragments of loom-
woven linen cloth, sometimes rudely embellished with needlework,
were found. There were also spindle whorls and loom weights of
stone and earthenware, one or two fragments of wooden wheels,
which might have formed parts of thread-twisting machines, as well
as rude frames which were possibly the remains of simple looms.
It is remarkable that these relics of primitive weaving were found
in the lowest of three villages, which, during successive ages, had
been built on piles on a common site near the margin of the lake.
The linen shreds bear evidence of having been partially burned, and
they were found very deeply buried in the clay which forms the bed
of the lake. It has been supposed that this early village was de-
stroyed by fire, and that to this accident we owe the preservation of
the precious relics. All traces of actual textile fabrics are absent
frem the later villages, although loom weights and spindle whorls
are found in them all.
This theory of accident may be true or not, but however the par-
tially burned specimens of flaxen materials became embedded and
preserved, they demonstrate that the people of the stone age in
| Europe cultivated flax and hemp, prepared and spun the fibers into
continuous thread, doubled and twisted it into various thicknesses
for different uses, and netted, knitted, or wove it into fabrics of a sort
which required a good deal of ingenious contrivance for their pro-
duction.
Keller’s work on the lake dwellers of Switzerland is illustrated with
a large number of lithographic drawings. I have had a few of these
photographed, as they show the construction of the textiles more
clearly than photographs of the actual discolored fragments of cloth
and thread would do.
[Photographs of illustrations from Keller’s “ Lake Dwellings of
Switzerland,” Longman, 1892, were here thrown on the screen. |
—-
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 631
Discoverers of such relics as these are often apt to exaggerate in
their imagination the attainments of the people who produced them.
Thus, Prof. Messekommer, who in 1882 was fortunate enough to find
the most important and probably earliest of the lake dwellers’ vil-
lages at Robenhausen, as already described, says that “he is con-
vinced, from the specimens of textiles there found, that all manner of
weaving was thoroughly known at the very beginning of the lake-
building period.” An expert examination of these fragments, how-
ever, does not bear out his assumption. They are, as we have seen,
all webs of the very simplest kind, and are just such as are woven
by savage people of to-day,
by means of the most ele-
mentary weaving appli-
ances. No traces of tools
for textile work were found
beyond whorls for spindles,
one or two charred spindles
with thread wound on them,
sharp-toothed combs, which
were probably used for pre-
paring the raw fiber, and a
few weights of earthenware,
similar to those which were
used by the Greeks and
Romans for weighting the
warp threads of their up-
right looms.
In reconstructing the life
and operations of ancient
and prehistoric man from
the scanty relics which are
available, it is most reason-
able to imagine that weav-
ing, and in fact work of all :
kinds, was carried on with Fis. 1.—Fragments of linen cloth, woven by the
fhe. maximum -of human prehistoric lake dwellers of Switzerland.
craft and patience and the minimum of mechanical contrivances.
We should not imagine how quickly and easily things might have
been made, but how simply, even though with infinite pains, the work
could have been done. ;
Bearing this in mind let us examine two interesting relics of the
handiwork of a prehistoric weaver shown in figure 1.
These are not, like so many of the fragments, netted or knitted
from a single thread. This is proved by the regular and flat inter-
lacement of its strands, which cross each other at right angles. How-
632 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
_ever small the original webs may have been, a set of threads—the
warp—must in each case have been stretched on some kind of frame.
The intersecting threads—the weft—must also have been passed be-
fore and behind alternate warp threads in regular sequence. This
could only have been done on a loom, however simple, and how simply
a loom may be constructed let me exemplify.
Here is an oblong board, two sticks, and a piece of string.
Tf I wind the string onto the board (fig. 2) and insert the two sticks
between alternate cords at one end, I have made the board and sticks |
into a simple loom, which is typical of the loom of every country
and of all time. It is typical because it has
the essential characteristic of all looms,
which is the crossing of the threads between
the sticks. This cross transforms a collec-
tion of any number of separate strings into
a well-ordered weavable warp, which can
easily be kept free from entanglement. In
fact, without it no weaving could begin,
much less be carried on to any length.
There is a roll of East African weaving
in the ethnographical gallery of the Brit-
i ish Museum. This beautiful strip of cloth
© is 4 inches wide and is a fine specimen of
modern primitive weaving. The pretty
web, with its delicate pattern of checkers,
could quite easily be woven on such a board
as this, no other appliances being necessary
than the two or three sticks and a long thin
£ —_—~ spindle or needle for inserting the weft
cy hy thread.
Fic. 2.—Primitive board loom Here is a tiny board loom, on which I
and See have had woven a copy of one of the border
stripes of the African native web. Figure 3 (pl. 1) is a photograph
of it.
You will notice a number of loops hanging loosely to the unwoven
threads. I need not refer to them just now, except to say that they
are for the purpose of economizing time and facilitating the work.
Without them the weaving would take longer and require a little
more attention, but otherwise could be as well done.
If we take a piece of loom-woven coarse canvas and examine it, we
shall see clearly the stretched threads of warp and the continuous
intersecting thread of weft. If a small fragment of such a piece of
textile had been partially burnt and buried in clay at the bottom of
a lake for 3,000 years or more, then, discovered by a fortunate arche-
ail See 2
Ti i
CYAN
i
lex 2
Si
7, S rt
S|
WSPATESSSSS
\\
EY
[SOOM RW
}
PLATE 1.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper.
—
Be gre 4.228 0, 6.6 @
a alin ee ag ee ge ae te ay i a ey oe RO et eer
gg Ae ay tee os
. a3)
2.4 4h. 8 Oe 2 eee 8 a 2 Be
2. 2.6.) © 6 2b 6 © 4 bo 08 6 2 8-8
aw
ne
Fia. 3.—Copy (iN PROGRESS) OF A PORTION OF AN EAST AFRICAN
WEB.
PLATE 2.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper.
NTT NT TT SO TE ae
coma”
BRITISH COLUMBIA
HRAZIL
ied ee
stele inhi cai Kone os
pelle
MGNTENEGRO
ee SNF TY ee
=}
PYRENEE
Fic. 4.—A COLLECTION OF PRIMITIVE SPINDLES, A DISTAFF, AND SOME LOOM WEIGHTS
FROM VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
(Drawn by the author.)
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 633
ologist, had been pressed between two glasses for preservation in a
museum, it would, I think, when photographed present very much
the appearance of the shred of lake dwellers’ linen cloth (fig 1).
I can best illustrate the method of intersecting warp and weft on
my extemporized primitive loom.
[Here the lecturer gave a demonstration of the simplest kind of
weaving. |
Before proceeding to inquire into particulars regarding the form
of loom used by the lake dwellers, it will be advisable to make a di-
gression in order to describe the art of making thread, which nat-
urally precedes the art of weaving.
There is no natural continuous thread except silk, all others being
artificial. Silk is unwound from the cocoon of the silkworm in
lengths of from 500 to 1,000 yards.
Of this thread primitive man is unaware. But he seems to have
an instinct which teaches him that various vegetable and animal |
fibers, however short they may be, can be twisted together and joined |
up into threads of any required length and thickness, as well as of |
great strength. Weaving is well nigh universal, but even in the few
places where it is unknown the art of making very perfect thread and
netting it into useful fabrics is commonly practiced. :
The process of making thread may be stated very briefly. It con-
sists of (1) stripping and cleaning the fibers; this is called skutching
or ginning. (2) Of loosening and straightening out the cleansed
fibers; this is termed carding. (3) Of drawing the carded filaments
out in an even rove and twisting them together into fine or coarse
continuous thread. This final process is called spinning.
The arts of spinning and weaving have acted and reacted continu-
ally on one another. This was notably exemplified during the eight-
eenth century in this country. At the beginning of the century
weavers were often hindered by having to wait for yarn to weave,
the domestic system of spinning by hand not being sufficient to keep
pace with the production of cloth. This led to the invention of spin-
ning machinery. By means of this machinery the output of yarn
soon became greater than the hand-loom weavers could cope with,
although there was still a growing demand for textile fabrics. The
application of steam power to the loom and many improvements
added to the loom itself increased the speed of weaving and again
equalized the output of the two industries.
There can be no good weaving without good spinning, for good
cloth can not be made of bad thread. Spinning can be done slowly,
of course, without any mechanical aid whatever.
Here is a bundle of fiber ready for spinning. It has been simply |
cleaned and carded. If I draw out a few fibers and, after slightly
damping them with clear water, twist them together with my fingers,
634 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
| you will see that they have been converted, simply by the twisting,
into a strong thread. Thread thus casually made is naturally coarse
and rough, but an expert spinner would make in the same way a fine,
strong, even thread with very few fibers.
If a small stick, having a hook at one
end and a weight at the other, be sus-
pended to the spinning thread, the fur-
ther even twisting of the yarn will
become much easier, because regulated
by the continuous revolution of the
weighted stick or spindle, as such an
appliance is called. The spindle is also
useful for winding the twisted or spun
thread upon.
Figure 4 (pl. 2) shows a collection of
primitive spindles, both ancient and
modern. A moment’s consideration of
it will show how widely distributed and
well-nigh universal this simple indus-
trial implement has been. One great
hoy ee advantage the spindle has over all other
Fre. oar ate (Pres- spinning appliances is that it can be
carried about by the spinner without her
having to discontinue her work. An ancient story by Herodotus
illustrates this point. ;
King Darius chanced to see a Peeonian woman who was carrying a
pitcher on her head leading a horse and spinning flax. He sent spies
after her, and they reported that she filled the pitcher with water,
watered the horse, and returned, continuing all the while to spin
with her spindle. Darius asked if all
the women of Peonia were so indus-
trious; and being told they were,
ordered that ali the Peonians, men,
women, and children, should be re-
moved from their own country into
Persia.
Whether this reward of merit was
appreciated by the Pzonians Herod-
otus does not say.
There is a painting on a Greek vase
of about 500 B. C. which depicts a spinner holding the distaff in a
picturesque and graceful but unusual and, one would think, ineffec-
tive way.
Figure 5 shows the usual method of carrying the distaff, which, it
will be seen, leaves both hands of the spinner free for drawing out
the fiber and twisting the spindle.
(From Sarawak.)
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 635
Figure 6 is from Roth’s “ Natives of Sarawak” and shows the
spindle attached to a small wheel, actuated by a large one, which
keeps it regularly rotating.
With this wheel, as with the weighted spindle, twisting and wind-
ing on are alternate operations. The manner of using the wheel is
as follows: The thread is first tied to the spindle, a convenient length
of fiber being drawn out. The spinner turns the large wheel, which
causes the spindle to revolve and twist the length of fiber, the latter
being held in a line with the spindle. When sufficient twist has been
given to the thread, the spinner adroitly moves the hand holding it
so that the thread is brought at right angles with the spindle. The
rotation of the wheel being continued in the same direction, the
length of spun thread will be quickly wound upon the spindle. These
alternate movements are repeated until the spindle is conveniently
filled up with spun thread.
Spinning wheels working on this principle are widely distributed.
They are still used in China and Japan and various countries of the
East; also in Central America, as well as in many remote islands
where native textile arts still survive. The large spinning wheel,
still used in parts of Ireland, Wales, and Scotland for spinning wool,
works in this manner. In Scotland it is called the muckle wheel.
Spinning with a wheel may have been practiced in Europe in
ancient times, but there is no evidence to prove it. The thread is the
same whether spun with or without the help of a wheel. The best
and finest workable thread ever produced has been spun in India by
means of the spindle, at Dacca, where the famous Dacca muslins are
still woven by hand from hand-spun thread.
The well-known ordinary spinning wheel, sometimes called the
Saxony or German wheel, has been in use since the sixteenth century.
It has an ingenious arrangement by means of which the two opera-
tions of twisting the thread and winding it are done simultaneously.
As, however, it carries the art of spinning beyond the primitive stage,
I must leave its description to my next lecture.
After this rather lengthy but necessary digression we may resume
the inquiry as to the loom in its ancient and primitive form.
The presence amongst the textile relics of the lake dwellers of a
few circular and conical-shaped objects of stone and earthen ware,
gives a clue to the form of loom on which the prehistoric webs were
woven. Such objects, pierced with holes and sometimes elaborately
ornamented, are found in excavations all over Europe. These objects
are precisely like the weights which the Greeks and Romans and
other ancient European peoples used for the purpose of stretching
the threads of warp in their peculiarly constructed upright looms.
(See fig. 4, pl. 1.)
636 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Seeing, then, that similar objects to these are found amongst the
lake dwellers’ relics, it is reasonable to conclude that they were used
for the same purpose, and that the form of the prehistoric loom was
the same as that of the looms of a later period of which we have
representations.
sane : Amongst the vase
Wath 1 & paintings of ancient
il
2 eee cee Greece only four
r= Al
representations of
the loom are found.
= aon sc Two of these are
Fia. 7.—Greek loom. Dee aii vase painting. rou oh though ex.
ue pressive caricatures
painted on Beotian pottery. The loom in each of these sketches is
very definite and, as far as it goes, evidently correct in detail. One
of these painted pots is in the Bodleian Museum at Oxford, and the
other, of which I have a photograph, is in the British Museum.
The subject of the painting is Kirke presenting the noxious potion
to Odysseus (fig. 7).
The loom is simply
a pair of upright
posts with a cross-
piece joining them
together at the top.
Beneath the cross-
piece is a roller or
beam on which the
cloth is: wound as it
is woven. The un-
woven warp Is seen
hanging nearly to
the ground, where it
appears to terminate
in two rows of cir- rs
cular weights. These Fic. 8.—Penelope’s ee he Greek yase painting.
weights keep the
warp threads taut, and two sticks intersect the threads in order to
retain the cross between them alternately, so keeping the warp from
entanglement and preserving an opening for the passing and inter-
lacing of the weft. In the Oxford vase the weft is shown wound on
a kind of mesh such as is used in the making of nets.
Figure 8 is copied from a beautiful Greek vase painting. Its date
is about 500 B. C. This is a much more careful and elaborate paint-
ing, but it tells little more about the loom and its arrangement. The
loom is of the same simple construction, but all the parts are more
LOOM AND SPINDLE—-HOOPER, 637
carefully drawn and the pattern of the web—a highly ornamental
one—is distinctly shown. There are also pegs on the top crosspiece
of the loom on which spare balls of different-colored weft are kept
handy for use. Spare warp was also probably hung from them at
the back of the loom.
The weights at the bottom of the loom in this case are of a conical
shape, very much like those found in Switzerland. There is also at
the back of the loom another stick or beam, which is, I believe, for
the purpose of holding the length of unwoven warp before it passes
through the holes in the weights at the bottom of the loom. The
loose back threads are not shown in the paint-
ing, but the roll of cloth upon the beam indi-
cates that more than a loom’s length of warp
is being manipulated. Probably the artist
shirked the difficulty of representing these
back threads, and so made the front ones
appear to terminate at the weights.
This painting is particularly interesting, be-
cause it shows unmistakably that the elaborate
pattern webs, which the classic poets so often
referred to, were woven on the simplest of
looms by skillful handicraft, not by means of
complicated machinery, as some have sup-
posed. In proof of this, if you will notice the
border of grotesque creatures which Penelope
has just woven, you will recognize its likeness
to the pattern on the robe of a processional
figure, copied from another vase painting of
the same period, which is the subject of figure9. aa iia - ot eae
On a tiny vase in the British Museum there vase painting. 500
is a slight sketch of a lady weaving on a small anes
frame, which she holds on her lap.t In this case the strings of warp
are merely stretched on the frame, and there are no loom weights.
There is, however, a peculiarity in the method of working depicted
which unmistakably links this diminutive loom with those of Kirke
and Penelope, as we shall presently see.
Olaf Olafsen, in a work on Iceland, published in Amsterdam in
1780, gives an illustration and account of a traditional loom still used
at his time in that country. There are two or three more or less im-
perfect copies of Olafsen’s drawing in English books which show
the striking points of resemblance this loom bears to the looms of
ancient Greece.’
)
}
}
aes
=
i
i
1 Gallery of Greek and Roman life, B. M.
2 One of these is an illustration to the article “‘ Tela,” in Smith’s ‘“ Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Antiquities.”
638 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Looms constructed in the manner which required the kind of
weights found in the lake dwellings, those depicted in use on the
classic vases, and the traditional looms of the north of Europe, all
agree in requiring a method of weaving which differs from that of all
other looms the world over. This peculiarity was noticed by Herodo-
tus, who visited Egypt about 400 B. C., and recorded his impressions.
Speaking of the Egyptians, who appeared to him to do everything
in a contrary manner, he says: “Other nations ”—meaning, of course,
Kuropeans—“ throw the wool upward in weaving, the Egyptians
downward.”
Now, if you will glance again at figures 7 and 8, after you have
noted the point on the Icelandic one, you will see that the webs on
these looms are all being woven from the top. This necessitates beat-
ing the weft upward as the Greek historian says, and also winding .
the cloth upon the top roller. In fact the method of stretching the
warp by the hanging weights and the necessary relative position of
the cross sticks make it impossible to weave in any other way.
The Greek lady weaving on a small frame I referred to is also
shown commencing at the top, although in her case the warp being
stretched upon a frame, it is not necessary to weave in what we should
consider an awkward way; her doing so, however, shows that it was
the custom to which she was used.
The people of ancient Egypt did a large export trade with Kurope
and distant parts of Africa and Arabia in manufactured linen, the
fine linen of Egypt being unrivaled in the ancient world for evenness
and fineness of texture.
Owing, no doubt, to the dryness of the climate of Egypt, and the
peculiar funeral customs of the Egyptians, many specimens of an-
cient Egyptian textiles have been preserved. Linen cloth, which
was woven four or five thousand years ago or even more, may still
be seen and handled, being as perfect as when it was newly cut out
of the loom by the industrious Egyptian weaver.
In the British and other museums many examples of such Egyp-
tian linen textiles may be seen. These linen cloths were unwrapped
from the mummies whose funerals took place under the various dy-
nasties. As to the looms on which these textiles were woven, the few
representations of them which exist show that they were constructed
on a different plan from those of Europe, and bear out the statement
of Herodotus that the Egyptians beat the weft downward instead
of upward when weaving.
Only three pictures of ancient Egyptian looms are known to exist,
and there seem to be no traces or fragments whatever of the looms
themselves.
The drawings of Egyptian looms (figs. 10, 11, and 12) were made
from wall paintings at Bene Hasan and Thebes in Upper Kgypt.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 639
Figure 10 is rather a puzzling one, because the artist has combined
a bird’s-eye view of the loom with a side elevation of the weaver.
The warp, which is a short one, is simply stretched upon the ground.
There are no rollers or loom frame of any kind. The weaver is mak-
ing a carpet or mat, it may be of rushes or grass. The only distinct
facts to be gathered
from this drawing
are that the weft is
' being beaten down
and the web is
growing upward;
also that the warp
is fixed at both top
and bottom.
In figure 11 two
weavers work at a
small upright loom. The weaver to the right is inserting a stick,
with a hook at the end, into the warp. This hooked stick has been
the subject of much discussion, but I believe it is really a spindle with
the weft wound on it, the artist not being able or not having trou-
bled to indicate the thread. Possibly he was an ancient post impres-
sionist, and only represented symbols and souls of things, not their
tome actual appearance
unin
TN
pr
os?
OO DOOGS ior | or sordid detail.
4a 1 The weaver on
the left is evidently
preparing to beat
the weft together
with the comb
which is ready to
descend upon it as
\\5 :
a TaAATAINNLIT 7 we soon as it is in-
mi | _Serted. Here,again,
4 a yo \ the warp is fas-
aw)
tened at the top and
bottom of the loom,
and the web is
growing upward. As the loom has no rollers either at the top or
bottom, only a loom’s length of material can be woven on it.
Figure 12 is a much more effective-looking loom than either of the
foregoing, although there are many puzzling points about it. It has
loom posts, and is evidently a solid structure. There are no rollers
definitely shown, but they may well be there. The arrangement of
sticks at the top may be intended to represent a skeleton roller, and
the bottom one on which the cloth is wound as it is made may be
hidden by the bench on which the very active weaver, wielding the
Fic. 11.—Egyptian loom in use.
640 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
hooked stick, is at work. The cross sticks are shown, but their pur-
pose could never be detected from the picture. There is not much
indication—only a line—as to which is woven web and which un-
woven warp. I imagine the line just above the weaver’s knee is that
of the already woven portion, and that all above is unwoven warp.
Also that the line by the weaver’s left hand indicates where he is
picking up alternate threads to make an opening for the weft which
is wound upon the hooked stick or spindle.
Anyhow, we have here the warp stretched between the top and bot- -
tom bars, or probably rollers, of an upright loom of solid construc-
tion at which the
weaver is at work in
such a position that
he must be beating
the weft downward,
and the web be grow-
ing upward.
Fastening the
warp at both ends to
rollers and weaving
upward are without
doubt great ad-
vances on the an-
cient European
methods of proce-
dure. A further ad-
vance is the inven-
tion of what is now
called the heddle
rod. There is no
direct evidence of
this valuable addi-
tion to the loom either in ancient Europe or in Egypt, but it is
difficult to believe that the extremely fine wide linen of Egypt could
have been woven to the extent it was, without this simple and obvious
appliance. Some of the finest Egyptian webs have as many as 150
threads of warp to every inch of their width, and it seems incredible
that this multitude of fine threads could have been profitably manipu-
lated with the fingers only.
It is possible that the bar across the loom (fig. 12), on which the
weaver is apparently only resting his arm, may be a heddle rod.
This important appliance I must now explain.
Returning for a moment to figure 3, let me call your attention to
the loose loops which I pointed out as time economizers, but did not
further describe.
Fig. 12.—Egyptian loom for linen weaving.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 641
These loose loops are attached one to each thread of the warp,
which is at the back of the lower cross stick. The cross stick makes
one shed or opening for the weft. The loops, on being pulled for-
ward, bring the back threads to the :
front, and so make the second or il | || | |
ot —— — — — —_
alternate opening.
You will see this at once if I add
“i |
loops to my simple loom and insert SAGHHNaeeEan Lf z
a rod to enable me to raise them all
together. TT ] | Titre he
24/23
C 2a — = ==
[| Here the lecturer demonstrated grep = (a mar
the use of the heddle rod (fig. 13).] 4 { Wi ip iI Ni T T a pe
As an appliance for two impor- N \\ \, Ms i
tant branches of textile work—tap-
estry weaving and the weaving of
hand-knotted pile carpets— the
loom, at the point we have now
reached, seems to be capable of no
further development.
Figure 14 is a design for a small tapestry loom from Mrs. Christie’s
“ Handbook of Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving.” !
This loom, simple as it is, can not be improved in its mechanism,
except perhaps in some unimportant details, for the use of the artist
weaver to work out his free designs upon.
All the gorgeous and more or less
elaborately ornamented carpets of the
Att. ceccncsut aa hecunck ieee
an: 7 ancient times to our own, have been
ai |
ih |
| woven on looms of no more compli-
ml
Hy 9 |
Fic. 13.—Loops and heddle rod.
cated construction than this. Added
mechanical contrivances limit the scope
of the craftsman. Freedom of design
is trammeled in proportion to the fa-
cilities invented for the automatic repe-
tition of pattern in the loom.
The six illustrations with which I
conclude this lecture are taken from the
masterpieces of weaving made on looms
fj of no more elaborate construction than
figure 14 at different periods by equally
skilled craftsmen in various parts of
Fig. 14.—Tapestry loom. the world
ba
Figure 15 (pl. 8) is the most ancient piece of ornamental tapestry
weaving known to exist. It is extremely fine in texture, the whole
1“ Handbook of embroidery and tapestry weaving,” John Hogg, Paternoster Row.
73176°—soM 1914 41
642 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
piece being only 4 inches by 14 inches in size. It formed part of the
robe of Amenhilep III, who reigned in Egypt 2000 B. C. The
original is in the Cairo Museum.
Figure 16 (pl. 3) is a piece of Greek tapestry of about 500 B. C.
It was discovered in the relics of a Greek colony in the Crimea.
The original is in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.
Figure 17 (pl. 3) is a fine piece of Egypto-Roman tapestry woven
of colored silk unwoven from Chinese webs. The actual size of the
little panel is 4 inches by 4 inches. It formed part of a child’s tunic
in the fifth century A. D.
Figure 18 (pl. 4) is a piece of Persian weaving of the sixteenth cen-
tury. It may have been woven in Venice by Persian weavers. It is
an exquisite example of hand-knotted velvet pile, there being as many
as 400 knots to an inch. The color and ornamentation are superb.
It it one of the choicest treasures of the Victoria and Albert Museum
collection and is called the Persian cope.
The same museum possesses a set of Brussels tapestry of the six-
teenth century. The figures are life size and are splendidly wrought.
Figure 19 (pl. 4) represents a portion of one of the panels.
The subject of figure 20 (pl. 5) is a modern tapestry by Morris &
Co. The design, “The Passing of Venus,” was made by the late
Sir E. Burne-Jones. The tapestry took seven years to produce and,
-being sent to the recent Brussels Exhibition, was destroyed in the
disastrous fire which took place there, together with many other art
treasures.
All these examples of tapestry weaving were made on such looms
as figure 14 and are really mosaics of plain weaving with a loose weft.
Figure 21 (pl. 6) is a photograph of the tapestry-weaving work-
shop of Messrs. Morris & Co., at Merton Abbey.
In the next lecture I shall deal with spinning machines and the
development of the loom for automatic pattern weaving.
II. SPINNING MECHANISM AND THE LOOM FOR AUTOMATIC WEAV-
ING, PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL,
In the present lecture I shall first deal briefly with the spindle in
its later development from the domestic spinning wheel of the six-
teenth century to the-machines of extraordinary capacity and exact-
ness which supply the enormous quantity of yarn of all kinds required
in the textile industries of to-day. This will clear the way for the
further and more important study of the loom as used for automatic
plain and ornamental weaving.
On the primitive spinning wheel, you will remember, I pointed
out that the spinning of the thread and winding it on to the spindle
were separate alternate operations. On the more modern spinning
wheels the spinning and winding are made simultaneous by means
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper. PLATE 3.
——- 4a
Fia. 16.—GREEK TAPESTRY.
(500 B. C.)
Fic. 15.—EGYPTIAN TAPESTRY.
(Cairo Museum. 2000 B. Cc.)
Fic. 17.—EGYPTO-ROMAN TAPESTRY PANEL.
(Victoria and Albert Museum, )
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper. PLATE 4.
Fi@. 18.—THE PERSIAN COPE.
(Victoria and Albert Museum. )
Fic. 19.—PORTION OF A BRUSSELS TAPESTRY.
(Victoria and Albert Museum.)
(‘souor-omIng “MW Ig oye, OT Aq poustsoq)
“AULSAdV 1 SIYYOIA «SNNAA JO ONISSVd SHL,.— 060 “DI
ce RR
atom ti» ae
query
ae Rae
od
fi
Ik
i
Wz
"G aLV1d
uodoopi—"1 6 | ‘Hodey uriuosy}Ws
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper. PLATE 6.
Fia. 21.—TAPESTRY WEAVING IN THE MERTON
ABBEY FACTORY OF Messrs. Morris & Co.
Fic. 23.—HARGREAVE?’S SPINNING JENNY.
Fig. 24.—ARKWRIGHT’S WATER FRAME.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 643
of a little contrivance called a flier and bobbin attachment to the
spindle.
The first historic hint we have of this invention is from a drawing
in one of the sketchbooks of the great artist-craftsman, Leonardo da
Vinci. But it was not until nearly a century after his death, which
took place in 1519, that the spinning wheel with this clever attach-
ment came into general use.
Figure 22 shows Leonardo’s drawing and the later spinning-
machine attachments which have been derived from it.
In Leonardo’s drawing No. 1 is called the flier. It is firmly fixed
on the end of a shaft or spindle No. 2 A and 2 B. No. 3 is a small
pulley also firmly fixed to the
spindle between the bearings
Cand D. When this pulley is
made to revolve very rapidly,
by means of a cord or belt
from a large wheel, the flier
revolves with it and twists the
thread which is passed
through the hole in the spin-
dle at No. 2 A.
No. 4 is another pulley,
rather larger than No. 3.
This pulley is fixed on a hol-
low shaft, which extends from
the pulley to No. 5. In the
hollow of this shaft the spin-
dle can freely revolve, and on
it the bobbin, No. 6, tightly
fits.
Now, if the different-sized
pulleys, Nos. 3 and 4, be actu-
ated by cords from the same large wheel, the flier will revolve at a
greater speed than the bobbin, the difference in speed being, of
course, in proportion to the difference in size of the pulleys.
The result of this arrangement will be that, if the thread, twisted
by the revolution of the spindle, be passed through the eyes in the
flier, as in the drawing, and fastened to the bobbin, two operations
will take place: (1) The thread will be twisted by the flier; (2) be-
cause the bobbin revolves at less speed than the flier the thread will
be gradually wound upon the bobbin.
No. 7 appears to be a kind of fork fixed to the end of the spindle.
If this fork were pushed to the right the eye of the flier could be
placed at any part of the bobbin, so as to spread the yarn evenly
upon it.
Fic. 22.—First drawing of bobbin and their
attachment for spinning wheels.
644 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Sooner or later this suggestion of Leonardo’s was practically
adopted, and the spinning wheel, fitted with bobbin and flier, came
into general use in Kurope. The distaff and spindle, however, have
not, even to this day, been altogether superseded.
A more compact and convenient contrivance for spreading the spun
thread upon the bobbin is shown above Leonardo’s sketch. In place
of the fork for altering the relative position of the flier and bobbin,
a row of small hooks is placed along the arm of the flier, by means of
which the thread ean be guided on to the bobbin at any part of its
barrel. This is the twisting and winding arrangement with which
the improved spinning wheels of the seventeenth century in Europe
were fitted up.
In order to compare it with Leonardo’s sketch I have to the right
of it (fig. 22) made a diagram of the bobbin and flier of a machine
spindle.
It is old-fashioned now, as a modification of it, called the ring spin-
ner, has taken its place. The principle on which it works, however,
is the same, so, as it is more convenient to compare with the original
sketch, I prefer to use it.
Here Nos. 1 A and 1 B indicate the spindle, which is caused to re-
volve by the pulley, No. 2.
The machine spindle is fixed vertically, a hundred or two being
ranged on one machine.
The flier, No. 3, is fixed at the top of the spindle.
No. 4 is the bobbin standing on a shelf, No. 5. The shelf is made
to rise and fall automatically as the thread is delivered to it from the
flier. This is, therefore, a return to Leonardo’s idea of the shifting
spindle. .
The spindle passes through the bobbin, but there is no hollow shaft
for causing the bobbin to revolve. It simply stands loosely on the
shelf, and when the thread from the flier is attached to it, the revolv-
ing flier drags the bobbin round at a less speed than its own, the
weight of the bobbin acting as a brake. The thread is thus wound
cn more or less quickly, according to the weight of the bobbin.
In the ring spinner before mentioned the bobbin, or paper cop, is
fixed firmly on the spindle and the flier is free. The flier runs on a
ring which encircles the cop and drags upon it. This acts in the same
way, as to winding, but makes it possible for the spindle to revolve at
a much higher speed.
Although thus adopted for machine spinning, the idea of a loose
bobbin was not, I believe, a new one. Spinning wheels had probably
been previously fitted with loose bobbins, such as that shown in the
diagram, above Leonardo’s drawing. In this case the fixed flier is
revolved by a pulley, which is connected by a belt to a large wheel.
The loose bobbin, if not heavy enough to act as its own brake, has a
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 645
string which is lightly attached to some fixed part of the framework
of the machine. This being passed over, the bobbin brake pulley can
be easily made to regulate its drag to a nicety.
At the top of the diagram (fig. 22) are shown two pairs of rollers,
between which the fibers to be spun are being drawn out with such
regularity as few spinners could boast of. In a machine such rollers
are set in a series, at very accurate distances apart, and revolved in
the direction indicated by the arrows. ‘The front pair of rollers
revolve more quickly than the second pair; the second pair than the
third, and so on. Consequently, as the fibers pass between the series,
they are gradually drawn out into a fine fleecy rove which, between
the front rollers and the spindle, becomes twisted into fine even
thread.
This system of drawing out fibers by means of rollers was in-
vented by Paul in 1735 and made practical by Arkwright in 1775,
when he patented it. His right, however, was disputed, and on trial
the patent was annulled, but his adaptation of the system was soon
generally adopted.
When describing, in the last lecture, the primitive spinning wheel
and the distaff and spindle, where the spinning and winding on were
done alternately, I should perhaps have remarked that the finest
threads were always produced in this manner. It is not surprising,
therefore, that very early in the history of machine spinning it was
found that very fine, delicate threads could not be spun on the simul-
taneous principle. To overcome this difficulty Crompton invented
the mule machine, which imitates exactly the alternate twisting and
winding of the primitive method of spinning. It was interesting to
see at the Anglo-Japanese exhibition of 1909 the huge English ma-
chine of 250 spindles imitating with perfect precision the actions of
a pretty girl in the Japanese handicraft section who was spinning
gossamer thread on a primitive wheel, the same kind of wheel which
had been in use in her country for a couple of thousand years or so,
and which, we may hope, will be used for an indefinite number of
thousands of years more by such charming little spinsters.
Messrs. Dobson & Barlow (Ltd.), of Bolton, have courteously sent
me five photographs of spinning machinery of great interest, which
will require little explanation.
Figure 23 (pl. 6) is Hargreave’s spinning-jenny.
Figure 24 (pl. 6) is Arkwright’s water frame, so called because he
used water as a motive power to drive it. It combines the drawing
rollers with the flier and bobbin attachment suggested by the spinning
wheel then in general use.
Figure 25 (pl. 7) is Crompton’s mule, which he used in secret for
some time, and mystified his neighbors by the quantity and quality of
the yarn he produced,
646 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Figure 26 (pl. 7) is a full-sized mule spinning machine by Messrs.
Dodson & Barlow (Ltd.), of Bolton, which works on the same princi-
ple as Crompton’s mule and the Japanese girl I referred to just now.
Figure 27 (pl. 7) is a ring spinning machine, working on the prin-
ciple of this Italian peasant spinning wheel—the driven bobbin and
the loose flier.
[The lecturer here exhibited Italian and Belgian spinning wheels,
having a driven bobbin and a loose flier, and demonstrated how simi-
lar effects were obtained (1) by a separately driven bobbin and flier,
(2) a driven flier and loose bobbin, and (3) by means of-a driven
bobbin and a loose flier. ]
In conclusion, as regards the spindle, although we may congratu-
late ourselves on the performances of these wonderful thread-making
machines and admire the inventive genius which has brought them
to such perfection, it is interesting, though perhaps chastening and
humiliating, to note that the untutored Hindoo spinner, squatting
on the ground with a simple toylike spindle, can draw out and spin
thread as fine, but infinitely stronger, than the most perfect machine
of them all.
I now resume the inquiry as to the development of the automatic
loom from the point arrived at at the end of my last lecture.
Four thousand years ago, more or less, probably at the time when
the people of the stone age in Europe were cultivating flax and spin-
ning and weaving its fiber into coarse cloth, the Chinese were invent-
ing improvements in their primitive weaving appliances in order to
adapt them to the weaving of an infinitely finer fiber than that of flax.
This fiber was obtained by unwinding the case of the chrysalis of the
mulberry-feeding moth, the caterpillar of which is familiarly known
as the silkworm.
Chinese continuous written history goes back to that remote period,
and tells that the annual festivals of agriculture and sericulture,
which are still observed by the Chinese, were instituted by an Em-
peror and his wife, who themselves took leading parts in the festival,
the Emperor plowing a furrow and the Empress unwinding some
silkworm cocoons. This practice their successors have continued to
the present time.
This Empress is still highly honored in China, and votive offerings
are made to her at the festival. She is held in great regard as the
benefactress who taught the Chinese how to prepare the silken thread
for use and to weave it, thus enabling them to become the best and
richest clothed people in the world. This preeminence they have
maintained owing to their original monopoly and expert knowledge
of the cultivation and manipulation of. the strongest, finest, and most
lustrous of all threads now called silk.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper.
Fi@. 25.—CROMPTON’S MULE.
(Bolton Museum.)
Fig. 26.—MODERN SPINNING MULE.
(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.)
=)
Fi@. 27.—RING-SPINNING MACHINE.
(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.)
PPATES (fe
:
Di ce
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 647
The silk fiber, on being unwound from the cocoon, is found to be
a continuous, double thread of about the four-thousandth part of an
inch in diameter. It takes from
eighty to a hundred threads of
natural silk to make up one
thread of the size of the finest
~pun flax. It may be well under-
stood, therefore, that special
preparation of silk thread and
specially delicate appliances are a
necessary for weaving it. This HUN BIE
necessity proved to be, as is pro-
verbially the case, the mother of
many inventions, and there can
be no doubt it is from the origi-
nal Chinese weaving appliances
that almost all succeeding im-
prevements in looms and loom
fit. gs have been derived.
In order to describe the im-
provements in the loom required
for weaving fine silk, reference
must made to figure 28, which
shows. primitive loom fitted with
a heddie rod for the purpose of raising the threads of the warp
alternately with those raised by the shed stick.
Two heddle rods in an up-
right loom would be no great,
if any, advantage; but if the
warp be placed horizontally,
the manipulation of the suc-
cessive openings for the weft
is much more convenient for
the weaver, who sits at the
end of the warp instead of in
front of it.
Figure 29 shows a very
convenient form of Indian
loom with the heddle rods
suspended from the branch of
a tree and having the heddle
loops connected with another pair of rods beneath the warp. The
lower rods have strings hanging from them, each terminating in a
ring. By placing one of his great toes in each ring the weaver can
¥
4) B
C- ——TIm
\!
CT ry
mii
Fic. 28.—Primitive looms. (One fitted
with two heddle rods.)
Fic. 29,
Primitive loom (India, etc.).
648 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
pull down either set of loops at will and make alternate openings for
the shuttle carrying the weft. His hands are thus left free to
manipulate the shuttle.
The addition of a long comb, equal in length to the width of the
warp, Was an immense improvement to the loom. The divisions in
it were originally made of split reeds, hence it was called the reed,
and is still so called, although the divisions are now always made of
steel.
The effect of the long comb, with the warp threads entered in it,
swinging in its heavy
frame (see fig. 30), was
not only that the weft
was beaten together
more evenly and with
less individual strain
on the threads, but the
width of the woven
web was kept auto-
matically the same.
Figure 31 is a longi-
tudinal section of the
essential parts of a
loom at the point of
development now ar-
rived at. It is lettered
for reference. A isthe
roller on which the
warp is wound in the
first instance. B is the
roller onto which the
woven cloth passes.
C C are the sticks pre-
serving the cross
which keeps the warp
— a in order. D is one of
Fic. 30.—The reed fitted in its frame. two pulleys suspended
, from the top of the
loom frame, over which cords pass after being attached to the ends
of the top laths of the two heddles. At E are two treadles which are
tied to the lower laths of the heddles. Between the heddles and B the
reed-is shown suspended.
One treadle is represented depressed. This has pulled down one
heddle and raised the other in consequence of the cord which passes
over the pulley D. This movement has effected an opening in the
TTT
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 649
warp at F, which between the roller B and the reed is wide enough
for passing the weft through.
The successful weaving of plain silk necessitates a development
of the loom to this point. It is therefore reasonable to credit the
Chinese, who until the third century A. D. were the monopolists of
silk and silk weaving, with all these essential contrivances. Subse-
quently to the third century these inventions spread through the East
generally and finally to Europe, first to Spain and Italy, then to
France, Germany, and England. It is remarkable that the loom of
to-day, on which the very best silk fabrics are woven, should in all
essential points be the same as the looms of ancient China.
Fic. 31.—Section of opened warp.
Figure 32 (pl. 8) is from a sketch I drew from life in a Bethnal
Green silk weaver’s workshop a few weeks ago. The weaveress is
making a rich black satin, which will be all but perfect when it is cut
out of the loom, and will require no after artificial finishing to make it
ready for sale. The loom is arranged in the simple manner described,
except that as the weaving of satin requires more heddles than plain
silk eight heddles instead of two only are shown.
The first impression given by figure 33, which is a diagram of an
English loom, is one of sturdy strength. Strength and the perfect
adjustment of the various parts of the loom are prime requisites
where rapid and accurate weaving are desired.
Figure 34 (pl. 8) is from a manuscript of the fourteenth century
and represents an English silk weaver of the period at his loom.
Whether the weaver is in correct costume I can not say, but the loom
and its fittings are quite recognizable and like the loom of to-day,
except for their slightness.
650 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Figure 85 (pl. 9) is from a very old Chinese drawing. It is one of
a set of pictures representing the operations of sericulture. The first
edition of the book from which it is taken is said to be of the twelfth
century A. D.
It is the representation of a very perfect hand loom for silk weav-
ing. The weaver is shown sitting on the edge of a square hole in the
ground, in which a set of treadles are seen. The framework of the
loom is very carefully and solidly constructed. The front or cloth
beam is shown with the reed hanging freely between it and the hed-
dles. The back, or warp beam, is out of the picture, and the warp
Fig. 33.—Typical English hand loom.
slants toward it after passing through the reed and heddles. The
heddles themselves are very carefully fitted up and are worked by
means of the treadles in the pit, which are connected by cords to
levers. ‘These levers may be seen at the top of the picture.
The weaver, sitting in front of the loom, has just, by a blow of
the reed, beaten up the weft and is preparing to open the next shed
and throw the shuttle which he holds ready in his right hand.
It will at once be noticed that the Chinese loom (fig. 35, pl. 9) has
several heddles, instead of only two shown in the English loom (fig.
33). In fact, there are two sets of heddles working together, one set
having 10 and the other 5 heddles.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 651
The loom having two sets of heddles shows that some kind of pat-
tern is being woven. As, however, at present I am speaking of the
loom for plain or satin weaving, the second set of heddles need not
concern. us. .
When the warp threads are very coarse and few in number, two
heddles are sufficient for threading the warp, but when fine silk fab-
rics are to be woven, having three or four hundred threads to an inch,
it is necessary to have several pairs of heddles in order to prevent
the leashes, through which the silk is threaded, from being too
crowded. In this Chinese loom the front harness, as a collection of
heddles is called, consists of 10 separate heddles. In all looms the
threads of the warp are passed through the eyes in the leashes of the
heddles in regular order.
The first thread is passed through the first leash of the first heddle,
the second thread through the first leash of the second heddle, then
through the first of the
third, and so on until ©
all are filled. @)
[The lecturer here
drew a diagram on the 8
blackboard illustrating oh
the method of entering 5
a warp in the harness. | :
To manage this set
of 10, or any even num-
ber of heddles, only 2
treadles are necessary ©
for plain or tabby weav-
ing. The heddles are
first joined together in pairs at the top, each pair having its two
separate pulleys, as in the typical English loom. (Fig. 33.) The
bottom laths of the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth heddles are
then all connected with one treadle, and those of the second, fourth,
sixth, eighth, and tenth heddles are joined to the other treadle.
Now, it is manifest that if the first treadle be depressed half the
warp, consisting of the first and all the odd-numbered threads, will
be drawn down and the second and all the even-numbered threads
will be drawn up. This will make the same opening for the weft as
if there were only 2 instead of 10 heddles.
In order to make this quite clear, the plan and tie-up of the pattern,
as it is called, is given at figure 36. .
This arrangement being at first made for plain tabby weaving of a
close warp of fine threads, it would soon be discovered that by in-
creasing the number of treadles and tying them to the heddles in dif-
ferent ways the interlacements of warp and weft might be varied
©
=
Fs
Vii
fi
Fic. 386.—Plans of tie-up.
652 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
to an astonishing extent and result in the production of an infinite
variety of small patterns.
Figure 37 gives, for example, four designs, which can be made on a
loom fitted with four heddles and four treadles. If the threads of
warp and weft are coarse enough, and the former white and the latter
black, the designs would show as distinctly when woven as they do
drawn out in the diagram.
There is not time, nor is it indeed necessary for our present pur-
pose, to describe the way in which these designs are formed. All
that is required is to note their possibility and to show how this pos-
sibility affected the development of the loom itself.
A further examination of this ancient Chinese loom will show that
not only are there more than two treadles in use, but instead of the
heddles being tied together in pairs, as for plain weaving, each hed-
dle is connected with one of
a set of levers which in.
their turn are joined by a
cord to the treadles.
Figure 38 represents, with-
out other details of the loom,
two typical shedding mo-
eee 86tlons, as any arrangement
wie Meier = =for opening the shed for the
“ weft is called. In both
these motions, as in the Chi-
nese loom, the arrangement
is one of heddles, levers, and treadles connected together by cords.
Below each diagram a longitudinal section of a loom at work is
shown.
Tt is interesting to note that these ancient shedding motions are
still in use. Silk fabrics made on hand looms fitted with these mo-
tions can not be equaled by webs woven on any machine loom yet
invented.
Figure 39 (pl. 9) which I drew from a Bethnal Green workshop, as
it now is, shows a silk loom with precisely the same fitting up as the
Chinese artist has drawn.
To return to the shedding motions (fig. 38), in the right-hand
figure the heddles A A have lead weights, B B, on their lower
shafts. If, therefore, any of the four heddles be wiieed) as soon as
they are Paleaged the weights will bring them down to their normal
position. At the top of the loom, ice C, four short strong levers
are fixed on an iron rod, which passes through a hole in their centers.
From one end of each of these levers a heddle is suspended ; and from
the other end a cord hangs and connects each short lever with a long
Fic. 37.—Simple designs.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper. PLATE 8.
Fia. 32.—BETHNAL GREEN SILK WEAVER.
(From a drawing by the author.)
Fila. 34.—ENGLISH SILK WEAVER, FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
(From an old manuscript. )
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper. PLATE 9,
ers
Fic. 35.—CHINESE SILK-WEAVER’S LOOM.
(Ancient Chinese drawing.)
Fic. 39.—BETHNAL GREEN WEAVING SHopP, 1911.
(From a drawing by the author.)
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 653°
one, D D, which hangs across the loom below the heddles and above
the treadles, which are lettered E.
It will now be seen that if any one or more of the long levers be
tied to any one of the treadles, the -weaver sitting in the loom has
only to select and press a treadle in order to raise any arranged com-
bination of warp threads for the weft to pass under as it is carried
by the shuttle through the opened shed.
rod
6
6
j —.
Fic. 38.—Shedding motions.
The character of the shed made by this motion is shown above.
The horizontal line is the normal position of the warp. The opening
is made by raising certain selected threads.
An examination of the section below No. 2 will show that in it not
only are certain threads of the warp raised, but all others are lowered,
and the horizontal line of warp has disappeared. This is effected by
adding to the motion another set of short levers, marked “ F,” be-
tween the long ones and the heddles, and connecting the lower shafts
of the heddles with them after removing the weights. If, now, for
example, the first thread be required to rise and the second, third,
and fourth threads to sink, the first treadle will be tied to the first
long lever, and also to the second, third, and fourth short levers.
The result of this will be that when the treadle is depressed the first
- 654 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
heddle will be raised and the second, third, and fourth heddles will
sink, thus making the required shed.
These are typical shedding motions. AIl other motions are based
on one kind or the other of these types, each kind having its advan-
tages for certain
classes of weaving.
T have already
-pointed out that
such patterns as
those of figure 37,
woven of single
threads, require the
thread itself to be
coarse in sizein
order to show as de-
signs. But such de-
signs, woven in fine
(ASE SS 5 silk, although indis-
L = =e Ses 2... tinguishable as or-
WD Tail 4; aN cll ee nament, have a
marked effect on the
€) EL Cayguy ty iy ip Caan MO NOR t
VECUKU OREO TOUCOLU DURE aDeUeULY
a A AA AAA Al
appearance of the
ae5e texture of the web.
oF ee The Chinese early
ay =f OLY Y discovered this fact,
cit and it was for their
123 various. beautiful
‘il {= and rich textures
that the woven silks
of China were so
much prized in clas-
sic times.
Figure 40 repre-
AYP. sents the back and
Ml front surfaces of a
square of silk tex-
tile, which might
have been woven in ancient China on a loom fitted up as I have
described. It would require 16 heddles and 16 treadles to weave it,
and the threads are so fine and lie so closely that the whole piece
shown would be only the one-thousandth part of a square inch in size.
Looking at the lower square, which is the front of the material, it
will be seen that the surface is nearly all warp, and that the inter-
sections of the weft only occur at intervals of 16 spaces each way. In
rag ‘ BLL
ct ae
OA ‘|
WV) = gee HA
as3 SALA
mi Hy Va
gs rh}
Bo wa OB: ree LT RAA TAA
hf, Wl AR" At hop 1G (iA Prd Mu SNN ye) wg yp HR)
Fra. 40.—Satin cloth (much enlarged).
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 655
cloth of this pattern the intersections of the weft are invisible; there-
fore its whole surface has the rich texture and glossy appearance
known as satin. In the same proportion as the front of the satin
web is nearly all warp, the back, of course, displays the weft. In
pattern weaving these effects are called, respectively, warp satins and
weft satins.
Satins may be made on different numbers of heddles, from 5 up to
24, Figure 41
shows several of
them drafted on a oo
designers’ ruled oa cae
paper. a none Seno
AE xt ste Hg oon Gneee
aera P om Seenee oS
in the evolution
of the loom was
to adapt it for
distinct pattern
weaving. This
was effected by
adding a second
set of heddles to
the harness, mak-
ing it what is 6)
‘EE EBSESRe ©
called a com- an SERSEe@en
pound harness.
This compound
mounting is
shown in the
Chinese drawing.
The front set of
10 heddles is for
making the ®
groundwork of
the fabric, and
the back set of five is for raising the figure, as the design is usually
called in weaving.
Here is a very simple figure (fig. 42), which will well illustrate the
method of double harness pattern weaving. It is of a kind, too, of
which the Chinese are very fond, having spots of ornamental shape
powdered over a plain ground. Moreover, it could be woven on a
loom fitted up exactly as in the Chinese picture.
The ground of this design is a plain tabby silk. I have already
shown how this can be woven in a harness of 10 heddles by means
of 2 treadles. Five other treadles would, however, have to be added
in order to work the figure harness, one for each heddle.
Fic. 41.—-Satin ties.
656 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
For double harness weaving, too, the leashes of the heddles of the
frout harness have an important peculiarity which must be described ;
for, though simple, it plays a most essential part in all pattern weay-
ing with compound harness.
In this class of weaving each warp thread passes first through the
eyes of the figure harness and then through those of the front harness,
which makes the ground. Now, if both harnesses are alike fitted
with leashes having the ordinary short eyes, only the front one can
affect the shed. This is because any threads raised by the back
harness are prevented from effectually rising in the reed by the leashes
of the front harness.
If, however, the front harness eyes are made long enough to allow
the warp threads to be lifted, the
back harness will be free to affect
the shed at the same time as the
front harness, or to affect it alter-
nately as may be required. The
diagram (fig. 48) will make this
clear.
If, now, we turn again to figure
42, the part played by the figure
harness can readily be explained.
The points to notice are: (1)
Two extra wefts are required for
weaving in the design which has
two separate colors of its own;
(2) the figure is formed by allow-
ing the colored weft in certain
places to pass over two threads of
the warp instead of one; (3) the
necessity for five heddles in the
figure harness is to be gathered from the fact that five different com-
binations of pairs of rising threads are required to complete the
design; (4) as the figure throughout is made by two threads rising
together, two threads together may be entered in each eye of the
figure harness.
If this explanation is clear, it is only necessary to add that in silk
weaving not only 2, but sometimes as many as 20, warp threads are
entered in each leash eye of the figure harness. Therefore, it is
evident that the possible scale of ornamentation and scope for the
designer are immensely increased. For instance, this figure woven
on two threads, as explained, on a fine silk warp of 400 threads to an
inch, would only occupy the sixteenth of an inch in width and height,
but if 20 threads were entered together in each leash eye of the figure
harness the size of the ornament would be increased 10 diameters
and would occupy nearly a square inch of surface.
ee
oss
Fic. 42.—Double harness weaving.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER,. 657
There is, therefore, represented in this old Chinese drawing (fig.
35, pl. 9) a very perfect loom for weaving small designs of simple
construction. The limit of size and elaboration of the pattern in this
kind of loom is, however, reached when the number of figure treadles
and heddles becomes too great for practical use. There is no evidence
of the Chinese hav-
ing endeavored to
weave with an elab-
orate system of hed-
dles and treadles
such as were ingen-
iously devised in
England in the
eighteenth century,
but which, being
very difficult to fit
up and manage,
were soon super-
seded.
Figure 44 (pl. 10),
taken from the same
Chinese book as the
foregoing Chinese
drawing, shows, in a
compound loom, a
figure harness of en-
tirely different con-
struction, which is
evidently made on
the same principles
as the perfected
Kuropean draw-
loom of the eight-
eenth century, on
which were woven
the most sumptuous
and intricate webs which the weaver’s art has ever produced. In this
representation of a pattern weaving loom, instead of the small figure
harness of five heddles, a large one of quite different build is shown.
_ Over this harness an assistant weaver, perched aloft at the back of
the loom, is presiding. He is, in fact, drawing up, according to an
arranged plan, certain groups of threads required for the formation
of a pattern. The all-important part of this picture is the portion
of the loom over which the assistant weaver is presiding.
73176°—sm 191442
Fic. 43.—Double harness shed sections.
658 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Taken by itself, it is a complete loom harness of remarkable capac-
ity. In fact, for automatic pattern weaving, a loom fitted with this
contrivance for raising the warp threads only is as complete in its
way as the perfected primitive loom is for tapestry weaving, as I
pointed out in the last lecture.
Although the Chinese picture represents what is unmistakably a
draw-loom apparatus, it is not clear enough in detail to describe the
machine from. I must, therefore, have recourse toa diagram. (Fig.
45.)
Here, at No, 1, I have represented in diagrammatic form the simple
draw loom and at No. 2 a design on ruled paper suited to its capac-
ity, which is purposely kept very limited for the sake of clearness.
The whole mech-
anism of the draw
loom centers in the
comber board and
leashes which hang
in the loom in
place of the ordi-
nary harness of
few or many hed-
dles. The advan-
tage of the comber
board monture
over the ordinary
heddle harness is
that whatever
width a design
“Went No. 2. may be, even to the
Fic. 45.—Draw-loom diagrams. whole extent of the
warp, the monture
takes up no more longitudinal space in the loom than a harness of
a few heddles.
The comber board, No. 3, is simply a board pierced with a number
of holes equal to the number of threads of the warp which it is to
govern.
In each of these holes a separate leash is hung. Each leash has a
long, thin lead weight at its bottom end; and in its center, instead of
a string loop, a glass eye called a mail, through which a warp thread
is entered.
The comber board in the diagram is only pierced with 72 holes;
consequently it is only for a warp of 72 threads. If it were for 72,000
threads of fine silk, it would not take appreciably more space in the
loom.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 659
The drafted design at No. 2 is made on 18 lateral squares, so that
it would repeat four times in the width of the web to be woven.
The word “comber” board is derived from an older word,
“camber,” which used to signify the repeats of a design as regards
width. The board was called a camber board because the holes
pierced in it were accurately apportioned to the number of threads in
each pattern repeat, and the width of the total number of holes was
the same as the width of the warp.
In this comber board (fig. 45) there are holes for four repeats
of 18 leashes, but only six leashes of each repeat are shown in posi-
tion, as more would confuse the drawing.
The bottom board of the triangular box C is pierced with 18 holes,
the same number as that of the threads in each repeat of the design.
Let us suppose the comber board to be filled with leashes, one sus-
pended in each hole; also that 18 cords are hanging through the holes
in the triangular box at D.
The monture builder now connects, with fine cord, the first, nine-
teenth, thirty-seventh, and fifty-fifth leashes, which are the first in
every repeat with the first hanging cord at D.
He next takes the second leash in each repeat, and connects it in
lke manner with the second cord at D.
He proceeds thus in regular order to connect leashes and top cords
until he reaches the last of the repeats, leashes 18, 36, 54, and 72.
When this work is done it is apparent that if any one cord at D
is drawn up into the triangular box the corresponding leashes in every
repeat will be drawn up through the comber board to a correspond-
ing height.
Moreover, if 72 threads of warp are entered in the leash eyes, the
selected leashes as they rise will raise the threads necessary for the
formation of the pattern shed.
This is the essential portion of the draw loom, and so far is it.
from being obsolete that all the pattern-weaving looms of to-day,
whether worked by hand or power, are identical with it. Thus the
immense textile industry of modern times is indebted to and linked
with the invention and industry of ancient China.
Vast numbers of different methods of drawing up the cords of the
loom were no doubt practiced in the East. Most frequently, as in the
Chinese picture (fig. 44, pl. 10), the weaver’s assistant who did this
work sat above the loom drawing the cords line by line according to
a written or painted draft.
There is no evidence to show what form this part of the Loon had
assumed when the art of silk pattern weaving was introduced into
Sicily in the twelfth century. The rapid devel apreet of silk weav-
ing in Sicily and Italy, which we know took place makes it more
than probable that the convenient method of drawing the cords from
660 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the side of the loom, as shown in this diagram (fig. 45), was invented
soon after the art was introduced. However, when introduced or by
whom invented, it is certain that it was on looms mounted and fitted
up in this manner that the masterpieces of the weaver’s art, made in
Europe from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries, were pro-
duced.
I resume the explanation of the diagram of the draw loom (fig. 45)
at the point D, where the 18 cords are seen to enter the triangular
box C. This box is fitted up with pulleys, 18 in number. Each cord
passes over a pulley and is seen again at E. The collection of 18
cords, called the tail of the monture, is then securely fastened to the
wall of the workshop, or some convenient strong post.
Between F and F another series of 18 cords, called the simple, is
tied to the tail series and fastened to the ground.
A simplified diagram, showing one cord in all its parts, is given
in No. 4.
Now, it will at once be seen that if the cord A be pulled down by
an assistant standing at the side of the loom, the eyes of the leashes
G, through which the warp threads pass, will be pulled up.
It is necessary, then, in the simple, to have as many cords as there
are threads or groups of threads in each repeat of the comber board.
And it is possible to weave on the loom any design, of whatever
length, that can be drawn on the number of threads arranged for in
each repeat.
If we turn to the design No. 2 we shall see that it is drawn on 18
squares, and if we compare the design with the loops tied from the
large guiding cords to the separate cords of the simple, we shall see
that they agree. The black squares in the design represent a tie.
Take the first line, beginning at the left-hand side. Here are six
black squares. If we fellow the dotted line to the first cord of the
_ simple, a group of six ties will be found. Then passing over six
cords, a group of four ties are found which correspond with the four
black squares in the third division of the sketch.
By means of these loops the drawboy, as he was called, selected
the cords for pulling down, and, having gathered them together on
the prong of a large fork, to which a lever was attached, he pulled
the lever and drew the leashes up, thus opening the shed for the
weaver’s shuttle.
The design had to be tied up on the simple cords line by line before
weaving could commence; but when this was once done the drawboy
had only to pull the cords, in regular sequence, in order to repeat the
design continuously in the length of the web.
On this mounting of the loom entered with single threads of warp
any possible interlacements of warp and weft can be worked out. It
may well be called, therefore, the most perfect loom. Its only limi-
”
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 661
tation is in the size of the design. It would require a simple of 400
cords to tie up a design one inch wide for a silk web 400 threads to an
inch.
This difficulty was surmounted by adopting the compound harness
arrangement I have already described. It is shown in the Chinese
drawing of the pattern-weaving loom (fig. 44, pl. 10).
If threads entered singly in the front harness are lifted in tens by
each leash of the figure harness, the design will be woven 10 inches
wide instead of 1 inch; the simple and tie-up being no more exten-
sive or complicated.
More elaborate interlacements of warp and weft were arranged for
by dividing the comber board into two or even three parts, each gov-
erned by a separate set of simple cords, as well as by adding more
warps and rollers to the loom, and additional harnesses of heddles
for binders and stripes of satin, tabby, or tobine effects. In fact,
there seems to be no limit to the different combinations the skillful
designer may invent and provide for in this most perfect and adapt-
able of all craftsman’s tools, the compound draw loom.
In my third lecture I shall describe the Jacquard machine and
some other important weaving inventions of the eighteenth century,
the evolution of the power-driven loom, describe a new circular loom,
and indicate some possible developments of the weaving machines of
the future.
Ill. THE JACQUARD MACHINE; POWER-DRIVEN LOOM.
INTRODUCTION.
In the two previous lectures my chief aim has been to point out the
traditional continuity of the art of weaving and to show that all real
- advances in it have been made by bringing new ideas to bear on old
principles. This method of advance is common not only to the tex-
tile but to all the arts of life. Man, at his best, is not a creator, but
an improver, and all attempts to break with tradition and to produce
something quite original always must end in more or less grotesque
failure.
I have tried to bring this truth out as regards the hand loom and
spindle, and in the present lecture I shall chiefly direct your attention
to the same fact, as exemplified in the development of the mechanism
of the power loom during the last century.
THE MODERN LOOM FOR PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL WEAVING AND ITS
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT.
In the early part of the eighteenth century, weaving, as a handi-
eraft, reached in Europe its point of highest perfection. France,
England, and Italy were the chief countries in which it was
practiced.
=
662 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
At that time, in England particularly, the condition of the textile
craftsman, of whatever grade, seems to have been better than at any
other period of which we have record.
The weaver of the eighteenth century was a prosperous and respec-
table tradesman, whether working in the secluded country village, in
the suburbs of the great towns of the north and east, or near the
metropolis in the pleasant district of Spitalfields, notable as the silk-
weaving quarter of London.
This happy condition of the weaver in the eighteenth century de-
clined to one of misery in the nineteenth. The economic causes of
this change are not far to seek, but form not part of my subject. I
only refer to this period of prosperity, as it marks an important
stage and change of direction in the development of the loom.
Hitherto the motive of inventors was to increase the scope and per-
fection of the loom, as a pattern-weaving tool. The perfection at-
tained and the care bestowed on loom construction are shown in the
beautiful illustrations of Diderot’s Dictionary and other technical
works of the period.
During the latter portion of the eighteenth century, and since, the
chief purpose of invention has been, not excellence of work and ex-
tended capacity of the loom, but economy of time and cheapening of
production.
The interesting business of weaving, from the tying up of the
design to the picking and finishing of the woven cloth, which the
weaver originally did himself, is now divided up amongst half a
dozen “ hands,” who only do one particular portion of the work, and
thus monotonously perform their daily task.
Not only is the weaver’s work to a certain extent degraded, but
the change from wood to iron for loom construction and the use
of steam as a motive power, as well as the subdivision of labor, have
necessitated the grouping of looms in large factories, with all their
inconveniences and attendant evils.
This revolution of industry occupied more than a century and a
half and was effected in some branches of the trade sooner than in
others. The process is, in fact, in the best branches of silk weaving,
still going on.
The first indication of the coming change in the broad-weaving
trade was given as early as 1687, when Joseph Mason patented a
machine which he described as “an engine by the help of which a
weaver may performe the whole work of weaving such stuffe as the
ereate weaving trade of Norwich doth now depend on, without the
help of a draught-boy, which engine hath been tryed and found out
to be of greate use to the said weaving trade.”
It is necessary to the understanding of the mechanism of the im-
portant machine which superseded it, which I shall presently fully
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 663
describe, to have a general idea of this drawboy machine. In order
to give this idea, however, I must first describe the work of the
human drawboy. For the purpose we shall need the diagram of the
draw loom (fig. 44, pl. 10).
[Here the lecturer again briefly repeated his explanation of the
various parts of the draw loom. ]
In a rich silk loom there were often as many as two or three thou-
sand lead weights, called lingoes, hanging three to each leash of the
monture. These weigh altogether a couple of hundredweight. On
an average half of them had to be drawn up at every line of the de-
sign. Moreover, their dead weight would be so increased by the
friction of the mul-
titude of cords and
pulleys that the
boy would have to
raise and hold for
several seconds a
weight equal to a
hundredweight
and a half. This
would, of course,
be impossible but
for some mechani-
eal help. The im-
plement devised
for the boy’s assist-
ance was called the
“drawboy’s fork.”
This is shown at figure 46. The vertical lines in this diagram rep-
resent the cords of the simple.
To the left is a solid stand having two broad uprights joined to-
gether at the top by two parallel bars. A is a block of hard wood,
which fits between the bars, and is held in position by four pairs of
small wheels. These not only support it but allow it to run freely
from end to end of the stand.
This block, with the fork and lever attached, is shown separately
at EK. The fork and lever are hinged to the block at its top and can
be moved from the vertical to a horizontal position. When about to
be used the block is moved till the points of the fork are just beyond
the backmost cord of the simple, the lever being in an upright
position.
By means of the loops tied to the simple, as shown at figure 46, the
required cords are drawn forward and the upper prong of the fork
inserted in the opening thus made. Then, grasping the lever, the
® © oO
Fic. 46.—Drawboy’s fork.
664 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
boy draws it down and holds it. The result of this is that the
selected lingoes and leashes are drawn and held up.
At No. 2 three sections of the simple are shown lettered B, C, and
D. At B the cords are at rest. At C some cords have been selected
and the fork inserted. At D the lever has been pulled over and the
cords drawn over with it.
Figure 47 shows the mechanical drawboy, a machine invented in
the seventeenth century and improved during the eighteenth. It was
attached to the pulley cords of the loom, on which, when the machine
was used, the tie-up of the design was made, instead of on the simple.
The active part
of this machine is
the pecker, which
by means of two
treadles and some
little mechanical
arrangements had
two movements:
(.) - ok timoc ked
from side to side;
(2) it moved, as it
rocked, along the
machine from one
end to the other.
Through holes
in the side cross-
pieces of the
ii
JaQ==
(TL:
= a = frame strong
E is cords terminating
jt |p Gp in heavy weights
=
ie ea | were hung. To
() the tops of these
cords the loops of
each row of tie-
ups were attached in regular succession. Only two rows are shown
connected in the diagram to prevent confusion of lines.
The pecker had a deep notch cut in its points and was of such a
size that as it rocked the cord toward which it inclined caught in
the notch. At the center of the cord a large bead was fixed. When
the rocking pecker came in contact with this bead it pushed it and
its cord down and held it until the second treadle moved the pecker
in the opposite direction.
As the pecker traveled along the shaft each cord was drawn down
in its turn, thus opening the shed, line by line, for the working out
of the pattern.
Fic. 47.—The mechanical drawboy.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 665
The number of lines in the length of a design, of course, had to
correspond with the number of cords in the machine. The drawboy
machine was not to any great extent used for the purpose for which
it was intended, viz, to supersede the drawboy of the compound
figure weaving loom. I suspect the boy was useful in many ways
about the loom, and, moreover, his wages would be no great matter.
But late in the eighteenth century, and well into the nineteenth, the
machine received a good deal of attention and was improved and
adapted for use with the treadle hand loom. It enabled the weaver
to work any complicated system of
heddles, for small-pattern fancy weav-
ing, with only 2 treadles instead of 20
or more.
Figure 48 is from Porter’s Treatise
on Silk (1831). It represents an im-
proved drawboy machine for which
the Society of Arts awarded a prize in
1807. Further improvements were
made later, but it was finally super-
seded by the famous machine which
was perfected by Joseph Marie Jac-
quard, and known in England as the
“ Jackard ” machine.
There can be no doubt that it is to
Jacquard that the credit of rendering
this machine thoroughly practical is
due, although it has been proved that
the fundamental idea of it, which con-
sists in substituting for the weaver’s
tie-up a band of perforated paper was first applied to the draw loom
in 1725, while in 1728 a chain of cards was substituted for the paper
and a perforated cylinder also added.
These early contrivances were placed by the side of the loom and
worked by an assistant. In 1745 Vaucanson placed the apparatus at
the top of the loom and made the cylinder rotate automatically. But
it was reserved for Jacquard to carry the machine to such perfection
that, although many slight improvements have since been made in it,
it remains to-day practically the same as he introduced it in 1801,
notwithstanding the astonishing development of textile machinery
during the nineteenth century ‘oar the universal adoption of the
machine both for hand and power weaving.
Although the invention was iniroduced, to the French public in
1801, it was not till 1820 that a few Jacquard machines were smuggled
Fic. 48.—The mechanical drawboy.
(Early nineteenth century.)
666 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
into England and secretly set up. In spite of much opposition they
soon came into general use, first and particularly for hand looms and
silk weaving, but afterwards for power looms, all kinds of fancy and
ornamental webs being since their adoption woven by their means.
May I here repeat and emphasize that the invention of the Jacquard
machine did not alter m the least the draw-loom method of pattern
weaving? It only took the place of the drawboy and the pulley
box, and substituted the endless band of perforated cards for the
weaver’s tie-up.
The designs, too, drafted on ruled paper, would be worked out
in precisely the same manner, whether for tying up on the cords of
a simple or for punching in a
set of Jacquard cards. Each
| ees card, in fact, takes the place
= of one row of loops of the
tie-up.
The term Jacquard weaving,
then, which one so often hears
used,is a misnomer. Itshould
be draw-loom weaving with a
Jacquard machine, the ma-
chine being only an ingenious
substitute for a less compact
: and manageable adjunct of
Fig) 49-—Jacquard\machine. (iFront the draw loom, an adjunct,
elevalion-) moreover, which, as we have
seen, has continually varied from the time of the invention of this
form of loom. After the draw loom itself I should class the Jacquard
machine as the most important invention in textile mechanism. It
therefore claims a careful description.
Figure 49 is a drawing of the front elevation of a 400 Jacquard
machine. ‘The number 400 refers to the number of needles and hooks
with which the machine is fitted up. These needles and hooks an-
swer to the number of the simple cords of the draw loom. A design
is still technically spoken of as being drafted for so many cords.
The position of the machine in the loom is at the top, where it is
fixed on a solid frame just over the comber board, usually with its end
to the front of the loom, so that the elevation shown in the figure is
parallel with the side of the loom frame.
The machine frame is oblong in shape. It is made of hardwood
for hand looms and of iron for power looms. But in either case it
needs to be of great strength. To the principal frame a smaller one
is hinged at the top, so that it can be raised like a flap.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 667
In this drawing 50 wire hooks are seen standing upright on the
bottom board of the machine. The bottom board is perforated with
as many holes as there are hooks in the machine, in this case 400.
The hooks represented are only one rank out of eight, which the ma-
chine contains. Each hole in the bottom board has a dent or groove
eut across the top, in which
the bent end of the wire hook
rests. This keeps the hook
firmly in position, especially
when the necking cords of
the harness are brought up
through the holes and looped
on to the wire.
Figure 50 gives two sec-
tions of the machine, one
showing it at rest and the
other showing it in action.
In both sections 8 hooks are
drawn, 1 from each rank of 50.
The hooks have the necking |
cords attached at the lower Fic. 50.—Seetions of Jacquard machine.
ends, and just below the smail
hook at the top may be seen a set of eight wires crossing them at
right angles. Each of these wires, called needles, is bent into a loop
or eye, where it crosses one of the hooks, and it is because the hook
is passed through this eye that it is retained in an upright position.
Figure 51 will show this arrangement quite clearly.
Each hook thus resting on the bottom board, and held down by
the weight of the leashes of
the harness, though supported
at the top by the eye of the
needle, through which it
passes, is still free to rise and
raise with it the leash or
leashes to which it is attached.
Leaving the hooks thus
standing, let us consider the
arrangement for lifting them.
_ Fie. 51.—Diagram of hooks and needles in a Above the hooks the section
Oi hee of a solid block of heavy wood
or iron is shown. This block runs from end to end of the machine,
and has projections at its ends which fit into the narrow spaces
between the two pairs of uprights of the machine frame in such a
manner that the block can be caused to slide up and down steadily
but freely.
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668 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
Now, let us look at the block in the drawing of the front elevation
(fig. 49) and then at a drawing showing the block in detail, separately.
The lever for raising the block, being extended to a convenient
length, is connected bya rope to a treadle worked by the weaver’s
foot in the hand loom, or by any ordinary mechanical arrangement
in the power loom.
Figure 52 gives us details of the block (1) as seen in front eleva-
tion; (2) from above; and (3) from the end.
The block, the lever, and the arrangements for sliding up and
down are already explained. But hanging from the block is a kind
of gridiron, called by the weaver a “ griffe,’ which requires careful
notice. . Near each end of the block a flat plate of iron is firmly fixed.
The shape of the plate is shown at No. 3, and between the plates,
eight bars of hoop iron are fitted, as at No. 2.. These bars are placed
diagonally (see No. 3)
and their top edges are
sharpened so as to fit
under the carefully made
small hooks at the top
ends of the upright wires
as they stand in their sev-
eral rows.
The first section of fig-
ure 50 shows the block at
its lowest position, with
the hooks caught on the
bars of the griffe. Should the block now be raised the whole of
the 400 hooks will be drawn up and the whole warp will rise with
them. When released, of course, all will fall together, pulled down
by the lead weights. Again, if the projecting ends of the needles
are pushed inward, the needle eyes will deflect the hooks and remove
them from the griffe, which will then, if the block be raised, rise by
itself, leaving the hooks, leashes, and warp all down, as in section 2.
Tn section 2 the points of the needles are seen to pass through and
project beyond the surface of an accurately perforated board fixed
to the front of the machine frame opposite the needles. Hung in the
frame, hinged to the top of the machine, is a four-sided revolving
bar, or cylinder, each side being perforated so as to match exactly
the perforations of the needle board.
If the flap, with the cylinder in it, be pressed against the board,
and the block raised, nothing different will happen, because the points
of the needles will have been free to enter the holes in the cylinder.
If, however, a card covering all the holes be fixed to one side of the
cylinder and the cylinder then be brought close up, presenting each
side in regular succession, every time the card comes in contact with
Fic. 52.—Details of the block of a Jacquard machine.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 669
the needle points the needles will be pressed inward, push the hooks
off the bars of the griffe, and the block will rise without them.
It follows, then, that if we interpose between the needle points and
the side of the cylinder, as it presses the needle board, a card per-
forated according to an arranged design, wherever a hole is covered
by the card a needle will be pressed in, and consequently a hook will
be pushed off the griffe bar and left down as the block rises.
Each card, therefore, affects, in one way or another, every hook
. in the machine with its necking cords and leashes; and these, of
course, determine the rising or remaining down of every thread of
the warp from edge to edge of the web.
At the back of the machine a shallow box is fitted, containing 400
small spiral springs, one for each needle. When. therefore, any
needle is pressed inward by the
card on the cylinder, its oppo-
site end is forced into the spring ,/ 4 \ Bath
box, but as soon as the pressure | = Vi ip he
is relaxed the needle, driven VA
back by the spring, regains its
normal position, holding the
hook upright.
The mechanical contrivances
by means of which the cylinder
is moved, pressed against the
needle board and rotated as the
block rises and descends, are
most ingenious, and subject to
a great deal of variation. They
are, however, not essential to
the principles of the machine Fic, 53.—Jacquard cylinder and cards.
and can be passed over. But
the method by which the perforated cards are adjusted to the cylin-
der and interpose between it and the needle board must be explained.
Figure 53 shows a detached cylinder and four cards punched with
a pattern called a four-lined twill. This pattern repeats on every
four lines; accordingly only four cards are needed to weave it. At
the ends oF the cylinder, close to the perforations, pegs are fixed and
holes matching these pegs in size and position are punched in the
cards. ‘These pegs hold the card in its proper place, so that its per-
forations correspond exactly with those of the cylinder.
Each side of the cylinder as it rotates, being covered with a card
held close to it by two elastic bands will press against a different set
of needles at each of its four movements. The fifth movement, of
course, brings the first set of needles again into play. When, how-
ever, as is generally the case, more than four lines of design are re-
s$f53 i ffedies es
670 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
quired, the cards have to be laced together in an endless band hung
upon a rack at the side of the loom, and carried around the cylinder.
The most striking advantage of the use of the Jacquard machine
in the textile arts is the facility it gives for a frequent change of de-
sign. It is only necessary to take down one set of cards and hang up
another in order to change the pattern. The result of this facility
was that the early part of the nineteenth century witnessed a perfect
orgy of fantastic ornamentation. The manufacturers of all sorts
of ornamental silk and fine woolen textiles vied with each other in .
the number and originality of the designs they could preduce. The
profession of designer may almost be said to be an outcome of the
invention of Jacquard. Previously to this time the master weaver,
or some person in practical touch with the looms, had arranged the
design, and when once tied up on the loom it was good for a lifetime.
But with the introduction of the new draw engine, as the machine
was called, all this was altered, and restless change of pattern and
fashion was the result.
At first the machine was only adopted in the silk trade for the
weaving of rich brocades and other elaborate materials for dress or
furniture, but ever since its introduction its use has been gradually
extending, all kinds of plain and ornamental textiles being now made
by its means, whether on hand or power looms.
As a work of mechanism it is truly wonderful. It can be made to
govern all the operations of the loom except throwing the shuttle and
actuating the lever by which it itself works. It opens the shed for
the pattern, however complicated, regulates the length of the design,
changes the shuttle boxes in proper succession, rings a bell when cer-
tain points in a design requiring special treatment are reached, regu-
lates the take-up of the woven cloth on the front roller, and works out
many other details, all by means of a few holes punched in a set of
cards. Its great defects are the dreadful noise it makes, the ease
with which it gets out of order, and the difficulty of putting it right.
These render it only suitable for factory use, where noise does not
seem to matter, and where a machinist is constantly at hand to keep
the mechanism in good order.
So far I have traced the development of the hand loom, from its
most primitive form to one of a high degree of perfection, as a tool
for the skillful artificer. Here I must at present leave it and turn
to a brief consideration of the machine loom actuated by steam or
other power.
In order to find the earliest recorded attempt to weave by power
we must carry our imagination back to the latter part of the six-
teenth century and look in on the fathers of the city of Danzig in
council chamber solemnly assembled. They are deciding the fate of
a prisoner accused and found guilty of the crime of inventing a very
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper. PLATE 10
Fic. 44.—CHINESE DRAW Loom.
(From an ancient drawing. )
Fic. 54.—NARROW SILK WEAVER AT WORK. °
(From a drawing by the author.)
LOOM AND SPINDLE——HOOPER. 671
ingenious machine for weaving narrow tape several breadths at a
time.
The council, having carefully considered the machine, and bear-
ing in mind the state of the trade, were “afraid that by this inven-
tion a great many workmen might be reduced to beggary.” ‘They,
therefore, mercifully ordered the machine to be suppressed and the
inventor of it to be privately strangled or drowned!
The weaving trade has always been divided into two great
branches. The broad weavers made stuffs for garments and furni-
ture seldom less than 21 inches wide. The narrow-branch weavers
make ribbons, laces, tapes, braids, galloons, and such like goods, and
of course when these were only woven in
single widths on hand looms vast num-
bers of persons were employed in weay-
ing them. There was a great demand
for such goods in the middle ages.
Figure 54 (pl. 10) shows a narrow
weaver at work on a hand loom. I dis-
covered him the other day in a small
trimming factory near Piccadilly Cir-
cus. The loom he is working at is an
actual survival of the eighteenth cen-
tury. There are several others in use at
the same factory, where braids and
trimmings for high-class furniture are
always being made.
Attempts were made at various times
in the seventeenth century to introduce
the machine tape loom, but complaints
and rioting prevented them succeeding.
It was not until the eighteenth century
that prohibitions were finally revoked, and the Dutch bar loom, as it
was called, came into general use.
An illustration of this loom is given in the great French mechani-
cal encyclopedia published in 1786. It is reproduced in figure 55.
The reason why the ribbon loom was so readily made workable by
power was because it did not require the one movement which has
always been the great obstacle in the way of weaving broad webs
on machine looms—that is, the throw of the shuttle. Nay, not so
much the throw, but the catch of the shuttle.
Figure 56 shows the graceful operation on which good weaving
depends, an operation which has never yet been successfully imitated
by machinery and probably never will be.
The operations of the loom in weaving are four in number: To
open the shed, to throw and catch the shuttle, to beat the weft to-
Fie. 55.—Dutch bar loom.
672 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
gether, and to wind up the woven cloth. All these, except the second,
are comparatively easy to arrange for, even in broad weaving, by
means of a power-driven turning shaft furnished with cranks and ec-
centrics, fitted up in some convenient position in the loom. In narrow
weaving the spaces of warp are so small that the passing through
of the several shuttles presents no difficulty ; consequently the inven-
tion of a practical automatic machine loom for narrow weaving was
an early one.
Many attempts were made in the seventeenth and early part of the
eighteenth century to weave broad webs by power, but they all failed
to solve the problem of the shuttle. It has been partially overcome
since, but the great defect of the machine loom to-day is in the driv-
ing and catching of the shuttle.
The invention which partially solved
the difficulty and eventually rendered
the machine loom practicable was the fly
shuttle, intended by John Kay, its in-
ventor, for use on the hand loom. Its
purpose was to enable the weaver to
weave, without the aid of an assistant,
wider webs than he could manipulate
with the hand shuttle.
Figure 57 represents the batton used
for the fly shuttle and should be com-
pared with the hand shuttle (fig. 56).
The difference between hand shuttling
and fly shuttling can almost be distin-
guished by comparing the two shuttles
used. The hand shuttle is slightly
curved and adapted nicely to the posi-
tion of the weaver’s fingers. The fiy shuttle, on the contrary, is
rigidly straight, so that it flies along in front of the reed, without any
bias, from one end of the race to the other.
Comparing the battons, it is seen that the race block of the fly-
shuttle batton is elongated at the ends. On these ends the shuttle can
stand clear of the cloth which is being woven, and which is, of course,
never wider than the reed.
These elongated ends have a bar of wood so fixed in the front that
there is just room for the shuttle to run in and rest between it and
the back of the shuttle box, as the elongated end is called.
Above the shuttle there is a thin, smcoth iron bar, and on this the
driver (enlarged at F), made of tough leather, is fitted so that it will
easily slip from end to end of the box. Both boxes are furnished
with drivers and are fitted up in exactly the same manner. The two
Fic. 56.—Hand shuttling.
Se es
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 673
drivers are connected by a thin, loose cord, having at its center a
handle. The loose cord is suspended from the bar above it merely
in order te keep it off the level of the web. ‘To drive the shuttle
across the race, the weaver grasps the stick, after placing the shuttle
in the box near the driver, and, with a sudden jerk to the side he
wishes to send the shuttle, pulls the driver along the bar with just
suflicient force to drive the shuttle into the opposite box. By a
slight turn of the wrist—which is difficult to acquire and impossible
to imitate by a machine—the opposite driver is brought forward to
meet the shuttle as it enters the box. If this be properly done there
will not be the least rebound, and the weft will be laid evenly and
straight. If, on the contrary, the shuttle be allowed to rebound, the
shoot of weft will be loose, and when beaten down by the reed will
show kinks and loops. Moreover, the edges of the web will be
uneven.
Previously to this invention all attempts to pass the weft through
the shed in machine looms failed to achieve anything like the speed
of the hand-thrown shuttle; consequently they could not compete
with the hand loom. Even when the fly-shuttle method was adopted
the difficulty of catching the shuttle baffled the skill of inventors for
many years.
The attempts of inventors to produce an automatic broad-weaving
machine resulted in the construction of many weird though ingenious
contrivances bearing more or less likeness to the hand loom in general
use. Many of these were patented by their inventors, but failed to
prove practically useful. It was not till 1786, when Dr. Edmund
Cartwright devoted himself and his fortune to mechanical invention,
that a practical broad-weaving power loom was evolved. Dr. Cart-
wright established a weaving and spinning factory at Doncaster,
but after spending £30,000 and nine years in experiments he was
obliged to give it up. He had, however, succeeded in devising a
power loom for plain weaving, which it was believed could compete
with the hand loom. Several! of his looms were bought by a Man-
chester firm and set up in a factory. They are said to have performed
their work well, but the factory was, shortly after its starting, burned
down by an infuriated mob of hand-loom weavers.
Figure 58 is a photograph from one of Dr. Cartwright’s designs
for a power loom. A careful examination of it and its specifications
shows that the doctor had many ideas which were long afterwards
adopted by improvers of power-loom machinery.
Figure 59 is a drawing of a machine loom constructed by a Mr.
Horrocks a little later than Dr. Cartwright’s time. It is said to have
become largely used. It more closely resembles the fiy-shuttle hand
73176°—sM 1914-43
674 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
loom than any of the other inventions. I should think it was only
capable of weaving very faulty cloth.
By the end of the eighteenth century, it is said, there were 20,000
power looms at work in Great Britain against 250,000 hand looms.
The power looms, like the hand looms, were constructed mostly of
wood, and must have been clumsy and uncertain in their perform-
ances. Owing, too, to the greater strain of power weaving they
must have quickly worn out.
@ :
= 5
Fig. 57.—F ly-shuttle batton. Cp
It was a long time before a convenient form for the power loom
was generally adopted. Curiously enough, the form at length set-
tled on was designed for a hand loom in 1771.
The inventor of this loom (fig. 60) was a Mr. Almond, who ex-
hibited and worked it before the Society of Arts, and received a
prize of £50 for his encouragement. Its chief feature is the inverted
batton. It has also extra rollers, by means of which the length of the
loom is greatly diminished.
A power loom erected for Mr. Monteith, a Glasgow manufacturer,
about the beginning of the nimeteenth century by a loom builder
named Austin is extremely like Almond’s hand loom.
Mr. Austin presented a model of this loom to the Society of se
of which figure 61 (pl. 11) is a representation.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—-HOOPER. 675
Having settled on a general form suitable for the power loom,
inventors next directed their attention to strengthening it and per-
fecting, as far as they could, its various parts. Take-up motions,
contrivances for detecting broken threads, quickly stopping the loom,
throwing the shuttle, etc., occupied their attention, and the loom
became more and more accurate
in its different performances as
time went on.
Iron took the place of wood
all through the machine and
the loom, actuated by steam
power, has by now become, ex-
cept in the matter of working SS
the shuttle, a very perfect auto- \
matic machine.
Figure 62 (pl. 11) isa modern steam machine loom for weaving silk.
You will notice at once how the levers for driving the shuttle, and the
shuttle boxes, have increased in size and strength. It was found that
in order to catch the shuttle and prevent it rebounding its entry into
the opposite box had to be resisted. This rendered it necessary that
the shuttle itself should be enormously increased in weight, and that
_ Fic. 58.—Dr. Cartwright’s machine loom,
="
AN raceme SERN CLS
: UENN|
‘ph
ik
Fic. 59.—Horrocks’s machine loom. Fic. 60.—Almond’s ioom.
great force should be used in driving it. Half the power expended
in actuating the machine loom is required thus to drive the shuttle
into the opposite opposing box.
The addition and adaptation of the Jacquard machine to the power
loom was not attempted till late in the nineteenth century, but when
that was done the loom had arrived at the point of development at
which we find it to-day. Te.
Sem yoe
676 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
A few months ago my attention was called to an illustration in the
Manchester Guardian which represented a new weaving invention,
and, on reading the description of it, I found that the inventor—
Mr. Whalley, of Clitheroe—claimed to have solved the problem of
the shuttle, which I have pointed out has been the chief obstacle in
the way of weaving by power.
Figure 63 (pl. 11) is a photograph of the new loom, which appears
to me to be likely to revolutionize the construction of machines for
weaving by power.
Although at first sight this loom seems to be altogether different
from previous inventions, an examination of it proves that in most
essential points the tradition of weaving, which I have attempted to
explain, still governs it. Three great advantages are claimed for
it—(1) it is practically noiseless; (2) the weft has no jerk or strain
upon it; (3) very little power is required to drive it. In addition to
this, webs of between 11 and 12 feet wide are woven on it.
There is not time for me to give an adequate description of this
important invention, but I must notice its salient points, and show
(1) how it differs from the ordinary power loom and (2) how the
traditional principles of weaving are still carried on in it.
First, as to points of difference: All the operations of the loom are
worked out by its simply turning on its own accurately centered axis.
By an uninterrupted circular movement in one direction the warp
is drawn off the warp beam, the shed is opened, and the weft inserted,
the weft itself is gently pressed close instead of being beaten together,
and the woven web is delivered and rolled on to the cloth beam with-
out any strain or jerk whatever.
There is no shuttle. A case for the flexible cop of wound weft
takes its place. The cop itself is of enormous length and holds a
hitherto unheard-of quantity of yarn.
While the whole loom and its fittings revolve, the cop case remains
stationary, balanced in the shed, and allows the weft to be drawn off
it continuously in one direction, as, at each revolution, the successive
sheds are opened. This forms, of course, a spiral thread in the
woven cloth, the cloth itself being produced in the form of an enor-
mous tube. As the cloth passes on to the cloth beam an automatic
knife cuts it at a place where specially woven doup selvages are made.
So far all is new. The rest of the mechanism is an ingenious
rearrangement of the traditional parts of a loom. The description
of these essential parts requires a diagram of a section of the loom,
which we have in figure 64.
In the center of the section is the steel axis, which runs the whole
length of the loom.
The perforated comber board, instead of being straight and hori-
zontal, as in the ordinary Joom, is circular, and is duplicated, the
holes being most accurately pierced.
LOOM AND SPINDLE—HOOPER. 677
The holes in these circular comber boards are very close together,
and there are as many holes as there are threads of warp.
In each of these holes there is a long steel needle, with its eye in
the center, the needle itself being rather more than twice as long as
the space between the two comber boards.
These needles fit loosely into the holes of the comber boards, so
that when they reach, as the loom revolves, a position above the hori-
zontal center of the machine they rest against the central core of the
loom. —
But when in turn the needles come below the horizontal center they
project through the holes of the outer perforated circle as shown in
the drawing.
A thread from the warp beam is drawn through the eye of each
needle, and, when passed through the circular reed and fastened to
the cloth beam, will, of
course, follow the movement
of the needle as it falls
against the core at the top
or projects through the holes
of the outer comber ring.
This is shown at Nos. 3 and
4, which are longitudinal
sections.
An endless band of cards,
similar to those used for the
Jacquard machine fits to the
outer rim and governs the
design. Where these cards
have holes in them the needles fall through and draw down the warp
thread entered in them, but where the card is plain the needle retains
its position. This is shown at No. 5, where an open shed is repre-
sented.
No. 2 shows the cop of weft in its case in position for working,
where it is retained by two smooth bowls of bosses fixed in their
places on the stand or underframework of the loom. The opened
shed surrounds the cop case, passes along it, and when it leaves it it,
of course, incloses the weft.
By -an arrangement at the top of the loom the reed is slightly
pushed forward so that it gently presses the weft into its place as
it passes a certain point. Very little pressure is sufficient, as only
a few inches are affected at a time.
- Time forbids me to attempt a description of other details of the
circular loom, some of which, no doubt, will be altered and improved.
But sufficient has, I hope, been described for the general idea of the
machine to be understood, and its great achievement, the continuous,
Fig. 64.—Section of Whalley’s loom.
678 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
wefting contrivance, to be appreciated. Although the hopes of the
inventor of this cicular loom may not at once be realized, I shall be
surprised if the principle on which it works does not eventually be-
come universally adopted for power-weaving machines, especially for
plain or small-patterned webs.
Weaving in vast quantities, and cheaply imitating in inferior ma-
terials rich damasks and brocades of important and elaborate design
is, I hold, neither wise nor desirable. The use of machine looms for
this kind of work is therefore to be deprecated. The tender manip-
ulation required for weaving the varying textures of the finest webs
made in the eighteenth century, and in China and the East generally,
is only possible on a loom as sensitive as the perfected draw loom, and
by a craftsman who, understanding every detail of the mechanism, is
capable of controlling it. If such perfect work be required it must
be done on a hand loom.
This loom, however, need not be as cumbrous as the old draw loom
nor as noisy and intricate as one fitted with the Jacquard machine.
If I may don the mantle of the prophet, I should say three things
will be retained and will continue the tradition of the past in the
hand loom of the future. With an indication of these I must con-
clude my lectures.
1. The skillful manipulation of the hand shuttle for work not too
wide for it, and of the fly shuttle for broader webs, can not be im-
proved upon. It will therefore be retained.
2. The perforated comber board (fig. 45) which, as I have showed,
was an ancient Chinese invention, must be retained. Probably,
however, some arrangement of metal needles, such as those of the
circular loom just described, will be substituted for the string leashes
with their mails and lingoes. But all the upper complications of
strings and cords will be dispensed with.
3. The principle of working out the design by punching holes in a
band of cards will be retained, although the Jacquard machine itself
will, I imagine, be superseded by an electromagnet placed above the
comber board. This magnet will attract the metal needles and
raise the warp, some arrangement being made.so that only those
needles wanted for making the required shed will be raised.
Everything else may go, and new contrivances be introduced, but
it is on some such hand loom as this that I can imagine the master
weaver of the future being able, not only to produce webs as exquisite
as those of the best weavers of the past, but to carry the art forward
to a higher degree of perfection than it has ever yet attained.
Smithsonian Report, 1914.—Hooper. PLATE 11.
Fic. 61.—AUSTIN’S MACHINE Loom.
Fig. 63.—WHALLEY’S CIRCULAR MACHINE LOoM.
THE DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL OF 1913.4
By Cyark W. Heruerineton.
THEORY OF THE ORGANIZATION OF THE PLAY SCHOOL.
A.—THE IDEA SUMMARIZED, WITH COMMENTS.
The play school is a school ‘organization with its program of activi-
ties and methods based on the central idea of uniting the sponta-
neous play life of the child who needs and desires leadership, with
society’s demand that he be instructed. It is an effort to solve the
problems of elementary education by harmonizing the child’s extra
home educational experiences through combining in one institution
the functions of the play center and the functions of the school;
hence the term “play school.”
Further, the plan correlates, through a simple administrable
grouping of the chid’s natural activities and through an expansion
of the idea of leadership, many of the apparently divergent ideals
and methods in modern education which began with Rousseau, and,
stimulated by recent profound social changes, have resulted in great
educational restlessness and experimentation.
For the little children the plan absorbs naturally what is sound in
the results of educational experience since Froebel’s time and extends
the process to the tender years of infancy. Fer.the larger children
it brings together in a practical school scheme and extends down
the scale of years the valuable results and the ideals that initiated
them in many recent educational efforts, namely, the outdoor school,
the vacation school, gardening, manual training, organized excur-
sions, camps, activities of the Boy Scouts and Campfire Girls, “ train-
ing for citizenship,’ intensive individual development, ete.
The plan correlates and gives a balanced relationship between
physical education, moral education, and cultural education. It lays
the real foundation for vocational training and guidance. Above
1 A report to Prof. Charles H. Rieber, dean of the summer session of the University of California, on the
Demonstration Play School conducted during the summer session of 1913. The part of the report explain-
ing the theory of the play school and describing its activities is an amplification of the brief outline sub-
mitted to Dean Rieber in the winter of 1912. The first draft of this report was submitted to several educa-
tors for criticism, and the author is especially indebted to Dr. E. C. Elliott, of the University of Wisconsin;
President E. C. Stanford, of Claik College; Dr. C. E. Rugh, of the University of California; and Prof. M. V.
O’Shea, University of Wisconsin.
Reprinted by permission from the University of California Publications, Education, vol. 5, No. 2, pp.
241-288, July 30,1914. The second part, ‘‘ The Summer Demonstration,’’ pp. 279-288, is here omitted.
2 679
680 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
all, it establishes in school practice one of the more recent educational
discoveries—the necessity of leadership in play from imfancy to
maturity and the educational superiority of leadership in play to
instruction in work. It bridges the gap between play and work.
Therefore the play school may be defined as an outdoor school
and play center combined; where the teacher’s interest is centered
in the children and their activities, not merely in subjects of study;
where the educational efforts, including the moral and social, are put
on a basis of practical living experience radiating into the whole
environment; and where children are considered both as free active
agents and as immature social creatures requiring aid, social control,
and discipline. Instead of teaching subjects it organizes activities
out of which subjects develop, as they have in racial history. The
activities organized are the natural, more or less distinct, phases of
the child’s complete lfe. The usual school subjects develop as
phases of these activities.
In spite of the inclusiveness of this ideal the play school plan as
presented is not considered an invulnerable or perfected solution of
the elementary school problem. No school scheme can be perfect
so long as something is to be learned about child nature, or so long
as society progresses, and no individual can present a perfect solu-
tion. That is a race problem. But the plan seems to meet in gen-
eral the fundamental test of flexibility for progress with every
advance in knowledge of child nature, education, or social need.
Again, the plan is not presented in a spirit of antagonism toward the
public school, but just the reverse. The widespread discontent with
the public school is recognized, and my idea of the cause of this dis-
content is expressed. The plan proposes a step in organization and
method that will make modern ideals and tendencies consistent and
efficient in educational results and that will command the sympathy
and support of the more progressive and intelligent parents and
teachers. This sympathy and support are essential if the public
school is to fulfill its functions.
The play school is not even presented as something entirely new.
The scheme of organization and interpretation of activities are new,
at least in form; and the extent of application of the idea of leader-
ship and the degree of fusion of the functions of the child’s play
center and the school are new in emphasis. Yet the educational
efficiency of the activities has been demonstrated in numerous
schools, in modern playgrounds, and in boys’ and girls’ organizations.
The whole idea has been approximated in many private efforts and
in a few public schools. The convergence toward a fusion of the
school and play center is seen, on the one hand, in the tendency of
the school to organize the play life of the child, well illustrated at
Gary, Ind., and, on the other hand, in the tendency of the best year-
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—HETHERINGTON, 68h
round playgrounds to organize activities that are usually considered
school functions.
My own ideas! have been the product, first of reform-school work
and then of intimate contact with the educational results of the lower
schools through years of college teaching and experience in organizing
play and recreation.
While the essential elements in the theory of the play school—
namely, the identification of play with spontaneous living, and edu-
cation with the process of living, both controlled by social conditions
and depending in results on leadership—are as sound for the organi-
zation of secondary and higher education and even the molding of
adult sentiments and customs as for the organization of the education
of infants and children, yet this report is confined to the latter prob-
lem, because it is fundamental to the rest and because the problems
of organizing activities and leadership are quite different after the
capacity to work has been established.
B.—DIVISIONS OF THE REPORT.
An interpretation of the general theory of the play school, a descrip-
tion and explanation of its activities are given in divisions C and D,
and conclusions concerning the demonstration of the summer of 1913
are given in part two of this report [here omitted].
C.—INFLUENCES DETERMINING THE ORGANIZATION OF THE
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL.
The school as a social institution and the school process, typified
by the curriculum, require a perpetual reinterpretation and reorgani-
zation corresponding to advancing knowledge of child nature on the
one hand, and the demands of social progress on the other. Since
the play school is a reinterpretation, it must be treated from both
these standpoints.
1. Cano Lire AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS.
(a) THE CHILD’S SPONTANEITY AND PLAY.
A larger interpretation of the child’s nature, especially in his play
life, must be based on the fact that he is not merely a reflex mecha-
nism responding to external stimuli, but a spontaneously active crea-
ture, driven by internal needs and hungers that are fundamental
springs of conduct. Hungering for activity, experience, and expres-
_ 1T first formulated the play-school scheme as a school for subnormal children after two years’ work ina
juvenile reformatory, and presented it in 1899 while a fellow in Clark University to G. Stanley Hall. Dr.
Hall urged at that time the organization of such a school in Boston, but it could not be financed. Later I
used the term “play school’ in my university extension of physical education and play in Missouri, especi-
ally in the campaign for the organization of playgrounds under the school boards of rural towns with the
hope of fusing the functions of the play center with the school. I left the University of Missouri before any
part of the larger idea was realized.
682 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
sion, he develops his organic, nervous, emotional, and intellectual
powers in the process of gaining adjustment.
Spontaneously curious about his own activities and those of nature,
animals, and man, he imitates them all until he masters their emo-
tional and ideational content. He is spontaneously a manipulator of
things, a juggler of impressions, and he constructs with things and
ideas. He is spontaneously linguistic and “talks’’ until he can ex-
press what he observes, thinks, and feels. He is spontaneously social
and enters into social relationships and organizations. He is spon-
taneously suggestible and educable; he is a follower, an imitator, a
hero worshiper, craving leadership and instruction in ways of acting
that will satisfy his hungers and give him adjustment.
This spontaneous expression of energy under the stimulus of
hungers, controlled by instincts and modified by experience and social
tradition and susceptible to leadership, is play. Play is not the popu-
lar “just play’’ nor the schoolman’s “mere play.” It is identical
with the child’s spontaneous living. Its relation to work will be
considered later.
If time permitted, it would be possible to show that play began to
evolve with the capacity to use experience and choose ways of acting,
i. e., with the beginning of the evolution of intellect. It is just as
deep in meaning as either the intellect or the will. Its function is to
develop the latent plastic powers of rational man and keep him
flexible through adult life. Play is the central element in the scheme
of human nature that makes volition possible.
Infancy, biologically speaking, is a period for parental care during
which time systems of nervous connections, feelings, and ideas are
developed together through play in order that the nerve paths may
be controlled in volitional or rational conduct.t Without play man
is inconceivable; play makes volition and rational living possible.
There is no meaning to the phrase ‘mere play,’’ for play is the most
important activity in life.
Play is nature’s method of education. Why? Because education,
in its broadest sense, is identical with the process of living. More
specifically, it is learning how to live through experience. But ex-
perience comes only as the result of activity, and play is the funda-
mental form of all developmental activity. It is spontaneous living.
Out of the various reactions upon the environment that we call
experience comes the development of the instincts and emotions and
the experience that makes for knowledge, character, and adjustment.
Schools, books, libraries, laboratories, and museums are only
devices to give opportunities for activity. All these are worthless
and the teacher is impotent without the activity of the individual to
1 These theoretical interpretations are drawn from a forthcoming volume on the Nature and Function
of Play.
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—HETHERINGTON, 683
be educated; and play, as has been said, is the primary form of
this activity.
So striking is the child’s expression of his energies, so broad his
curiosity, and so intense his delight in his activities, that the most
conspicuous thing about him is his struggle to gain an education;
and his struggle is rational. He is as much ‘‘interested”’ in activities
that develop his organic, nervous, and character powers as he is in
getting information, and vice versa.
The child wants a real education; and he wants to get it in the
only satisfactory way—just as the race got it, through experience.
For years educators have been going to the child with their ‘‘priceless
products of racial experience,’ and the child has said (by his reac-
tions): ‘‘Go to; I don’t want your canned goods. I want the fresh,
juicy fruit of experience gained through my own activities’’—and he
gets it, though frequently it is of indifferent quality and often posi-
tively bad.
In his play, which is his real life, the child educates himself, even
without instruction or aid. The result, however, depends always
upon the character of the activities, and this is determined partly by
the individual child’s temperament, partly by his opportunities, and
largely by the example and leadership supplied in his environment.
Through these forces comes development, and character and ideals
are formed. It is the duty of education as a social effort to feed
the spontaneous life-hungers of the child with the wisdom of the race.
Cooperation must be given that the play life may be broad, rich, and
wholesome. Hence, individual leadership is essential.
Leadership means study, suggestion, direction. It may mean con-
trol in which discipline in work and duty have a place; it never means
mere domination. This cooperation and leadership in the child’s
struggle for activity, experience, and self-expression, the play school
proposes to give completely.
(b) RELATION OF PLAY AND WORK IN EDUCATION.
Disagreement concerning these principles may arise through old
misinterpretations and confused notions about the relation between
play and work. The fact that the child must learn to work can not
be overemphasized, for he has needs, supplied during the early years
by the home, that later he must satisfy through work. Moreover, if
he is to become an efficient social bemg he must learn to perform
duties that frequently are not pleasant and his adjustment will be
flexible and complete in proportion as he masters the essential culture
of the race. Born into a complex social order that is the product of
long ages of social evolution, he must not only learn to work but
acquire the capacity to work according to the conditions of modern
society.
684 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
The ability to satisfy needs, to perform onerous duties and to
acquire culture demands the capacity for long-sustained volitional
effort under the control of an idea of need or duty. This is work in
its developed form. This capacity to work is not achieved suddenly.
It is an acquired trait. The infant has no capacity to work; the
capacity is acquired, in the normally developed individual, during
the period between birth and maturity.'. It appears in late infancy
and we exploit it in school by the sixth year. It develops very
gradually up to the age of 7, more rapidly from 7 to 12, and increas-
ingly fast during adolescence.
The rise of the capacity for work is associated with and directly
dependent upon a correlated and parallel development of (1) the
power for volitional action in the plastic nervous system through the
developmental stimulus of activity in play; (2) the development. of
the capacity for volitional attention through the exercise of reflex
attention in the instinctively controlled activities of play; (3) the
development of the capacity for sustained enthusiastic effort through
the exercise of the emotion of expectancy which holds attention in
the emotion-suflused activities of play; and, finally, (4) the develop-
ment of a moral sense of purpose or responsibility or ambition, which
comes with a maturing of the social self.
The growth of all these nervous and mental powers that make
work possible begins in the simple and instinctive activities of the
infant which every one recognizes as play. The young child can be
educated in no other way. But later the development may be con-
tinued either through play or work as above defined, and it is just
here that the confusion arises concerning the relationships of play
and work in education. To anticipate my conclusions, play, because
of its emotional accompaniment, is a more efficient developer of all
the fundamental powers used in work than work itself.
The child’s activities develop progressively (1) in the muscular
strength used; (2) in the variety, complexity, duration, and coordi-
nation of movements; (3) in the number of instincts and desires and
the form and intensity of their expression; (4) in the breadth of the
associative processes used; and (5) in the span of sustained effort in
the accomplishing of a desired end.
Now, the activities exhibiting this progressive development may
frequently be considered either play or work, according to the point
of view. From the standpoint of the child there are only two classes
of activity—internally impelled activity, or play, and externally
impelled activity, or work. Any activity from the child’s standpoint,
1 The roots of both play and work are present from the beginning. The struggle to satisfy physical
needs or escape discomforts expressed by vocal, facial and general bodily movements may be called the
roots of work. The struggle to satisfy sense, nervous, and mental needs, or the spontaneous actions and
reactions of adjustment, may be called the roots of play. It is in these latter activities primarily that all
the higher powers for work and play are developed.
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—-HETHERINGTON, 685
no matter what the powers used, the energy expended, or the duration
of the effort, is play if it is internally impelled and satisfies the de-
veloping life hungers and instincts of the age period.
From the standpoint of the adult, or objectively considered, the
activities of the child that are sustained and have a purpose or future
aim are apt to be called work; but, obviously, this is an interpreta-
tion of child life in adult terms. The adult, if he is an efficient social
being, must work and he must recreate. No such situation exists
normally in child life. The child gains his economic adjustment
through the home. His play is both recreation and work and it is
neither recreation or work; it is life. Before maturity his play
activities are differentiated into the capacity for work and the need
for recreation. The child’s play is not recreation as usually under-
stood and we can not insist on that too strenuously. Play is the
child’s chief business in life. In these internally impelled activities
he lives and learns how to live. In them he should gain his primary
development and life adjustment.
Play is as broad as the child’s developing life. The activities
frequently take forms that are not efficient from the adult or educa-
tional standpoint; but to identify the child’s play with ‘‘fooling” or
‘futility’ only, shows a twisted understanding of child nature that
is a very subtle survival of medievalism in modern educational
thought. This is exhibited in the shrinking from the idea of play
as an educational force.
There need be no quibbling about the fact that a high capacity
for work can be developed, has been developed generally in the past
through work, though the efficiency of the majority of individuals
developed by this method alone can be questioned. But the essen-
tial point to be recognized is that, all through childhood, play is
superior to work as a developer of the nervous and mental powers
used in work because of its emotional content. Moreover, the
degree of development of the power for work depends upon the
breadth and richness of the play experience.
Play is more intense, varied, and of greater duration because of
the sustaining power of enthusiasm which postpones the onset of
fatigue and reduces the consciousness of effort which characterizes
the volitional attention of work. Therefore, as power is a product
of activity, play is a better developer of nervous energy and volitional
attention than work. It is essentially the developer of enthusiasm,
which is the very essence of play.
Enthusiasm is expectancy: the emotional side of the instinct of
attention, long drawn out or combined with the idea of an activity
that will satisfy a hunger or developed desire. It is developed like
any other capacity—through exercise in activities that feed the
nervous and mental hungers and exercise the impulses characteristic
6386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
of age periods. Enthusiasm is the spirit of healthy childhood. It
carries the burden of sustained volitional effort until the capacity
for sustained effort is established as a habit.
Play, therefore, is a better developer than work of the whole work
mechanism. It develops organic vitality, nervous energy and skill,
interests, volitional attention and enthusiasm together, as a unified
and efficient working whole. Work is less effective because it dis-
associates the development of the capacity for enthusiasm from the
development of the capacity for volitional effort and attention in
realizing aims.
The capacity to work, therefore, as a part of the capacity to live,
is best developed in the child’s natural life or play. It is developed
only in a negative way when the child sits still and does things
foreign to its nature in obedience to the commands of adults. Such
lack of activity depresses vitality and inhibits the development of
the nervous system, volitional enthusiasm, and experience. It is one
of the several factors that have caused children to ‘‘forget how to
play.”
The capacity to work from its simplest to its highest form is
acquired most efficiently by living out in activity, broadly and in-
-tensely, the hungers and instincts characteristic of each age period;
living them out in a social environment that supplies not only pro-
gressively greater opportunities for activity, experience, and self-
expression, but progressively greater opportunities for accomplish-
ment under a leader who molds ideals, and under social contacts
charged with emulation. By realizing-a progressive series of aims
in play, the child learns how to work and to achieve life through
work. This is the law of child progress.
If the capacity to work does not come out of these inspirations to
live and work, nothing this side of a new ancestry can give it, and
the individual is a subject for an institution for the socially dependent.
The developing work mechanism will be used in fulfilling social
duties and obligations, when the social spirit in the child’s instine-
tive loyalty, cooperation, self-subordination, and capacity for leader-
ship is converted gradually into a consciousness of social relation-
ships, interdependence, and obligations. This can be accomplished
through the socializing influence of a progressive social experience
under a leader who has in the background of his consciousness a
social aim.
Again, the work mechanism will be used in acquiring racial culture
and a higher adjustment through the use of books when social expe-
rience and leadership bring a consciousness of their worth. This will
come early in some, later in others, probably not at all in many, but
until books are attached to the central and developing enthusiasms
aoeie ae ame Cn, tee
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—-HETHERINGTON, 687
in life, as aids in living, they will not be used extensively by the
masses.
Vocational training and guidance are but a phase of this work-
play program and not the first or most important one, since a voca-
tion is but one form of adult adjustment, arising out of the child’s
progressive adjustment. A vocation is an individual matter realized
through living, and in this living the individual should develop an en-
thusiasm for life and work; should discover, under leadership, his
individual capacities and attach the enthusiasm and the capacity to
that specialized social thing, an occupation.
Better educational results in general and a broader and _ higher
capacity to work are secured by organizing the child’s natural self-
sustaining activities than by forcing upon him those foreign to his
nature. To lay the foundation during childhood for efficient citizens
and workers, the hunger for life, the power for sustained activity, the
enthusiasm in doing and ideals in living must evolve together.
This natural method of developing workers will produce, has always
produced, citizens to whom work is ‘‘play” because it carries the
enthusiasm of play.
The difficulty in appreciating the law of learning how to work is
the universal, thought-warping tendency of adults to interpret child-
life in adult terms. The attitudes toward play and work need to be
restated: (a) From an adult standpoint, play is a form of activity
set over against the effort required by the driving necessities of adult
needs; (6) from the child’s standpoint, play is living; work is effort
that has no connection with instinctive or emotional tendencies; (ce)
from an educational standpoint, play is a developer of all the funda-
mental powers of the plastic growing organism; work is an educa-
tional aim that is to be realized through living out interests charac-
teristic of the several stages of child development until the work
mechanism is established.
The law, then, of the relations of play and work in education may
be stated as follows: Play, as internally impelled activity is practically
the only method of education during infancy; is the most efficient
method all through childhood; retains a conspicuous place during
youth and even in adult life, as indicated by the modern attitude
toward leisure time. Work, as externally impelled activity, has
little place in the life of the infant, a subordinate though gradually
developing place in the life of the child, but an increasingly important
place during youth.
(c) PERFECTING NATURE THROUGH LEADERSHIP.
In many fields of human effort, notably in engineering and the
production of .domesti¢ animals.and plant forms, man has-progressed
by.learning nature’s laws and cooperating with nature-or controlling
6388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914,
and perfecting her processes. In education, man has neglected, even
fought nature.
This is shown most conspicuously in the traditional attitude toward
play and the neglect of its physical, intellectual, and moral meaning.
Considered without traditional bias, education holds no antagonism
between play as the living out of hungers and instincts, and work as
a developing capacity for efficient living in a highly complex, special-
ized civilization. Such antagonism is medieval and frequently car-
ries with it a survival of asceticism. The traditional school evolved
its organization for the convenience of the teacher in transmitting
information to a physically passive child. Play frequently inter-
fered with the teacher’s program, hence was interpreted as a product
of the imps. Does not this attitude still survive ?
Because play has been despised, the programs for moral education
are weak and bloodless. Morals and character in child life come out
of living under influences that mold associated ideals and instinctive
ways of acting; not out of drill in abstract precepts or in thinking
about conduct disassociated from real conduct, however valuable the
latter may be when supplementary to the laboratory method, which
is directed play. Ethical instruction, to be dynamic, must be built.
on a broad foundation of instincts tramed in play, under a leader
who has the ethical aims and who wil fix the ethical ideal. This is
a practical program for the masses.
In the unnatural conflict between the mental and the physical this
bias in educational thought is even more apparent. The traditional
school has dealt with one narrow phase of child nature. It still
recognizes organic and nervous education with begrudging stinginess
and is attempting to bolster the traditional program with a “school
hygiene” that, as a substitute, is utterly futile. This superficial and
unscientific attitude is carried over from a phase of philosophical
speculation that has no place in education. Physical education is
discussed as though it were a subject of study in the curriculum,
instead of one attitude in considering the whole educational process,
of which it is the basic part. Physical education, as a special field of
educational effort, arose because of the twist in educational thought
created by the rise of asceticism. It persists because of a survival
of asceticism. Because of this bias, the programs for physical educa-
tion in most schools are pathetically superficial and the children show
it. Vigorous, big muscle play is nature’s method of physical educa-
tion and bulks large in the efficient program.
So obsessed is our consciousness with the idea that education is
something which comes from books, and so dominant has been the
intellectual or cultural idea, that the masses of children are prevented
from getting an educational experience. We insist that they shall
master the tools of learning before they get any experience, and then
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—HETHERINGTON, 689
that they shall take it secondhand. At one extreme there develops
a group of individuals having the capacity to acquire large masses
of book learning with a small foundation in practical experience; and
at the other, a group who may or may not have had real experience,
but who have a contempt for books and no realization of their value
as essential aids in living or as sources of inspiration for a higher
adjustment.
Modern literature on teaching is strewn with the word “motiva-
tion.” Every effort to find a motive for an activity or a subject of
study is a search for its basis in a hunger or instinct which underlies
the child’s spontaneous life. This search represents generally the
attitude of the adult, with an adult’s interest, trying to find some way
of attaching that interest to the child’s native tendencies. It illus-
trates the breadth of the psychic gap between the teacher and the
child and the dominance of the attitude of teaching rather than
leading.
Why not shift the problem from the organization of “subjects of
study” that are selected products of racial achievement, to the organi-
zation of the child’s own spontaneous active life; from the attitude
of teaching primarily to that of leading (which includes teaching) ?
Why not abandon our indifference toward the child’s play and recog-
nize it as complete living, from his viewpoint, as well as the dominant
source of all educational values? Why not put our aims and our
specialized adult interests in the background of our consciousness
and enter into the child’s life from his point of view, meeting his
hunger for life and his desire for leadership with the resources of the
adult? In this way we can make his activities a source of inspiration
to him and perfect theu results from an educational standpoint.
Does not this attitude complete modern tendencies in educational
thought? Willit not make public education efficient for the masses ?
In this larger conception of education, leadership is the prime
essential. Teaching is but a part of the. leadership for which the
child’s hunger is as conspicuous as his hunger for education. He
craves life intensely, but his imagination outruns his skill and judg-
ment. His resources are limited; his attention is fleeting; his enthu-
siasm breaks down. He must have leadership if his activities are to
be satisfying or educationally efficient. Though he rebels at domina-
tion, he constantly appeals for help in finding something to do and in
achieving his desires; and when leadership is given and accepted, he
will submit to endless direction, and, as age advances, to increasingly
severe discipline. This is proven daily on the play field and in boys’
and girls’ clubs.
By entering into the child’s life, it is a simple matter to lead him
so as to loop the cultural material of the race to his hungers and thus
73176°—sM 191444
690 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
achieve results not possible under the subject-of-study teaching
program. That process is inverted. It must be recognized, however,
that there are enormous variations in children’s capacities for progress
in various activities and in their susceptibility to suggestion.
Here appears a danger. A vast difference exists between learning
nature’s laws in the development of child life and cooperating with
her or perfecting her processes through the child’s susceptibility to
leadership, and the skillful exploitation of that susceptibility to
satisfy the vanity of parents or teachers whose minds are cataleptic
under the obsession of some educational fetish. We are in some
danger of entering into an age of child prodigies.
Objections are raised that education is inefficient because it is
made too easy. Signs of a reaction have appeared. Now, whatever
of justice there may be in criticisms of ‘teaching through play,” no
justice exists in criticisms of the leadership of play. This leadership
has its biological roots in the evolution of the interrelationships
between parent and child, and play is not “easy” in the sense of being
devoid of effort or hardship. Both the intensity and the duration
of extreme effort in many forms of play activities are so striking that
few adult activities can be compared with them.
Play is interesting, but to interpret education as something unin-
teresting strikes the very nervous system of education with a palsy;
and to say that because anything is interesting it 1s educationally
undesirable is surely a survival of asceticism. We have failed in
education because we have ignored play and divorced education
from life.
The dominance in education of the play motive, or real living in
obedience to real present needs during child life, does not mean that
there shall be no discipline. Living is discipline. The child, like
his ancestors from the beginning, is driven by hungers and controlled
by instincts that are nonspecific. His conduct is largely the product
of experimental experience, which frequently causes pain as well as
pleasure. So was the conduct of his ancestors. As a result of racial
experimentation, the child is born into a complex network of ways
of acting, both good and bad. Lacking judgment and perspective,
he is apt to imitate the bad examples in his social environment as
well as the good, thus forming habits, ideals, and character that are
bad for him and for society. To mold the ideals developing in the
child’s experience is the function of the parent and society’s repre-
sentative of the parent, the leader, or teacher. Discipline by adults,
like leadership, has its roots in the biological relationships of parent
and child.
Practically all the bad habits known to childhood and youth are
the product of our neglect of this function of leadership. Vices
develop in play. This is the negative argument for putting moral
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—HETHERINGTON. 691
education on a laboratory basis of directed play. The danger here
is that, with the prevalent notion about “teaching,’’ the tendency will
be to control the experimentations too strictly and to control ideals
before there has been experience.
To summarize, it would seem, therefore, that education will be
efficient when we bring the resources of adults to aid the child in his
struggle for activity, experience, and self-expression, and when adult
leaders meet the child’s hunger for guidance with the spirit of a
superior playfellow and with the discipline of leadership. This the
play school proposes to do.
2. Socran ProGRESS AND THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION.
(a) INDUSTRIALISM, THE HOME, AND THE PLAY AND SCHOOL CENTER.
While the play school is primarily a product of child study, it is
also demanded by the new educational conditions attendant upon
social progress. No phenomenon of our civilization is more striking
than the rise of modern industrialism, no force more potent in its
influence on the home and child life.
In the past the home was the center of life and experience. The
majority of homes were not only the centers of family life, but they
were industrial and social centers, furnishing large opportunity for
the child to see and participate in all the essential human activities.
The factory took from the home both the industrial occupation and
the machinery of manufacture, with all their stimulus and opportunity
for child activity. Hence, the function and the size of the home
have contracted, and with the contraction the function of the home
as a social center has declined. Entertainments are sought outside
in commercial amusement centers, with a further contraction of
educational stimulus in the home. Moreover, the size of the family
has decreased, leaving children not only without generous opportu-
nities for activity, but without even the stimulus of an adequate
character-building companionship. In a word, modern industrialism
has squeezed the educational juice out of the home.
And, if we are to believe social workers, the squeezing process will
continue. Criticism that places on parents the blame for their failure
to supply educational needs which the home supplied a generation
ago, misses the mark. Speaking broadly, parents are helpless.
Even the most earnest frequently find themselves at their wits’ end
in trying to meet the life needs of their children. The masses have
neither training for the problem, educational resources in the home,
nor the financial ability to meet the need at home or in private
enterprises.
With the continued domination of industry over our social life,
the home will probably be less and less able to fill the educational
needs of the child, and a greater gap between parental life and child
692 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
life will develop. Adults must be specialists in order to be efficient,
and they must struggle for leisure in order to have any degree of
completeness in life. Both these conditions and the habits of adult
life flowing out of them are foreign to child nature and life. So, if
the influence of industrialism continues, the gap between the child
and adult is bound to widen. Like all differentiations in the organic
world, the greater the unlikeness the greater will be the interde-
pendence. The child is dependent upon adult resources and organ-
izing skill in order that he may have life; and the adult, who is to
be the product of this child life, is dependent upon the child’s living
his complete life. The failure to supply that complete life gives us
adults who are mere cogs in the wheel of a complex machine. This
is the social educational situation even now.
Instead of the home and its immediate environment supplying
practically all the opportunities for the child’s activities, experiences,
and expression, these functions are now divided among three insti-
tutions—the home, the school, and the play-center.
The home is still the center of domestic life, though even in the
best homes it is greatly narrowed in its educational possibilities.
Many homes are merely places in which to sleep and eat. Though
they still have great educational influence, their educational resources
are practically nil.
The school has absorbed an increasing amount of the child’s time,
but it has not, except in a few cases and in a limited way, even
attempted to supply what has been eliminated from child life by
modern social changes. As a prominent educator puts it: a genera-
tion ago, a boy had three months’ schooling and nine months in
which to get an education; now he has nine months schooling and
three months in which to gain an education. Actually, the situation
is even worse; since during the three months he has few opportunities
for activities that educate.
The public playground is coming to fill the need for educational
activity and experience otherwise limited by a physical environment
that is unnatural, and a social one that is complex and specialized.
At present most playgrounds are inefficient, because of public ignor-
ance as to their functions and the prevalence of poorly trained
directors.
The public playground is a child’s community social center, and
it should supply and does now supply, under expert play directors, not
only the space, equipment, and companionship which are beyond the
economic and social resources of the home, but the adult leadership
that is essential.
Experience has shown that leadership is the first essential of a
successful playground, for three groups of reasons:
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—HETHERINGTON. 693
(1) The playground is a democratic institution open to all children;
hence, unless directed, apt to be dominated by the bully or the tough
gang. It concentrates the bad manners, antagonisms, and vices of
children; hence it is apt to be a breeding place for evil unless in
charge of a director who is trained to convert these very tendencies
into sources of moral discipline.
(2) The playground brings together a large miscellaneous group
of children of different ages, temperaments, social training, and habits
of play. This makes the play organization complex and beyond the
democratic organizing power or self-control of children. The play
breaks down without the superior skill and control of the adult leader
who may, by bridging the difficulties of organization, make the play-
ground the most efficient agency in existence for training in demo-
cratic citizenship.
(3) The playground is an institutional center for child life; a sub-
stitute for certain educational functions of the home, which the
home can no longer perform adequately. The supervision formerly
supplied by the parents in activities in which they were experts can
no longer be supplied in the new activities. Few parents can be
experts in child nature or the technique of a vast variety of activities
that satisfy the progressive educational needs of children. This
function must be taken over in its large and difficult phases by the
professional trained leader. His influence should radiate from his
center of business into the surrounding community, the home, and
the school. Since the playground is a laboratory of conduct and its
activities are the foundation for a modern democratic system of
moral education, the director becomes the main influence for effi-
ciency in this highest phase of education.
As the home approaches the apartment type and the family the
one-child type, under the pressure of modern social conditions, the
relative importance of the play center and school increases.
In this social situation child welfare requires a new spirit and a new
organization of the school and playground. Both are extra-home
institutional centers of child life and both exhibit the inefficiency of
an incomplete organization.
As the playground is a center of life and education organized
from the child’s standpoint, and the school is a center of child expe-
rience and education organized from society’s standpoint, the two
institutions should be combined to unite the two points of view, and
unify the child’s educational experience. It is not sufficient that a
- playground space be added to the schooi or that a group of manual
or other activities be added to the games of the playground. The
play center and the school center must become one in spirit, aim, and
organization.
694 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
A triangular division of child life under three classes of institutions
and the dual organization of extra-home activities are inefficient, not
only educationally, but administratively. Experience has shown that
children in cities will not or can not go more than one-quarter or one-
half of a mile to a play center. Therefore, the provision of adequate
playgrounds within reach of every city child, and the organization
of a staff of leaders, under some municipal administrative body apart
from the board of education, puts a double burden upon the tax-
payers.
So far as the small town and country are concerned, few would sug-
gest, after the recent campaign for a wider use of the school plant,
that a play center should be located anywhere except at the school;
still, where they have been so located, the functions of the play center
and the functions of the school have not been identified.
The public school is the institution concerned with the education
of the child; it must provide all his extra-home educational activities
if its functions are to be efficiently realized. As indicated before, this
is a different problem from the recreation of the adult.
(b) NEW EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS AND THE PLAY-SCHOOL IDEA.
Social progress has changed not only the relationships between the
home and the play center and the school, but it has brought a new
social conscience concerning education. We are in a period of edu-
cational discontent, restlessness, and experimentation—a part of
the general social discontent. Every man who thinks and who is
sensitive to the spirit of the time reacts upon the educational situa-
tion and usually has some “new” idea or variation of the educational
program. Several new types of school and a generous number of
new educational efforts, both without and within the public-school
system, have been organized and promoted sufficiently to attract
public notice.
Of the new types of school one or two are significant. First there
is the vacation school, which is successful from the standpoint of
child welfare and child interest. But it is simply a recognition of
the fact that the child’s education is going on 365 days in the year and
that the school must replace the home and community in supplying
opportunity for experience.
Then there are the open-air schools, which have proved that our
‘‘model” ventilating schemes are delusions and that the most rational
way to ventilate a school is to do away with most of the school walls.
Now we are about to see the time-worn school idea run its vicious .
circle again. ‘Adequate provision” is to be made for children need-
ing the fresh-air school. So (according to the program) masses of
children will be kept indoors to be devitalized and subjected to a
string of diseases with their train of adult weaknesses, while the
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—HETHERINGTON. 695
tubercular and the anemic will have the privilege (until they get well)
of the only type of school any child ought to have.
Ayers says that the open-air school will take its place in the history
of education as marking one long step toward that school system of
the future in which the child will not have to be either feeble-minded
or delinquent or truant or tubercular in order to enjoy the best and
fullest sorts of educational opportunity. Even in the colder see-
tions of the country and during the severest winters, children can
be made comfortable in the open air most of the day and for most of
their activities. Until this common-sense standard is realized,
school hygiene will progress with one leg paralyzed. ‘
Significant for the future of the open-air school is the widespread
rebellion among parents against putting their children in the public
schools because they ‘‘will be shut indoors” or because they are
‘never well.”’ Naturally, a large number of private outdoor schools
are catering to this sentiment. Closely associated is the organization
of country day schools, such as exist in Buffalo and Minneapolis,
indicating that well-to-do parents are willing to pay high rates of
tuition to have their boys go to the country each day.
Several new movements are strikingly significant of the trend in
educational organization. Most of these are focused on the adoles-
cent, yet the principles involved and their solution extend into the
preadolescent period. Conspicuous among these movements is
that of the Boy Scouts, with its highly elaborated program of ac-
tivities and honors for achievements. ‘This organization and that of
the Campfire Girls are phases of the great movement for directed play
and leisure time. They have arisen and attracted public attention
because of the widespread feeling that masses of children are growing
up incapable, resourceless, and irresponsible. Hence the new deyo-
tion to a program for achievement as a means of character devel-
opment.
The Junior Republic, boys’ cities, civic activities and responsi-
bilities for boys, all indicate the rising social consciousness that
children have their own sense of values and responsibility. This
sense is just beginning to be organized for educational purposes,
Increasingly as the years progress, the imagination is stirred by the
relationship between approaching adulthood and the adult’s activi-
ties. Since the results depend upon leadership, we have-a host of
social problems rising out of our past neglect.
Some of the “‘new schools,’”’ however, in which ‘‘real work”’ is the
central idea of the program, have failed to achieve their ideals because
the programs are based on ignorance of child nature or on the old
notions of play or “work” that is a mere imitation of specialized
adult occupations. Where these efforts have succeeded, especially for
696 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
the younger children, leaders have organized ‘‘play”’ instead of ‘‘work”’
without knowing it.
The gardening movement, geography excursions, and the shift
in nature study-from that of plucked and dissected symbols to
a study of nature in action—changing, growing, eating, repro-
ducing, struggling nature with all its vital human relationships—
all these activities emphasize the fact that “learnmg’’ must be a part
of life and built on vitalizing, mind-filling experience.
The focal pomt of thought in these movements drifts toward the
organization of the child’s whole life experience on a concrete labor-
~atory basis. Jt involves a recognition of child capacities and needs
previously furnished in natural contacts with a simple adult life now
passed away.
Vocational training and guidance are receiving their emphasis.
Adjustment for the masses is the aim, but vocational adjustment
is only one phase of life—the adjustment of the adult. Avocational
or recreational adjustment, social adjustment, citizenship adjustment,
and domestic adjustment are coordinate, and they all depend upon
the developmental or educational adjustment durmg the years of
growth. Obviously shallow is a vocational training and guidance
that is not based on educational provisions that allow the child all
his early years for enthusiastic living and achieving until the work
mechanism is established and talents, interests, or capacities are
developed, and until expert leaders who are guiding this living process
may discover individual tendencies and adaptabilities. Further-
more, a vocational training that is not based on organic, nervous,
intellectual, and moral development, and that is not coordinated with
a social and recreative adjustment and a preparation for citizenship
and domestic life adjustment, is bound to produce workers that are
but inflexible cogs in the wheel of a gigantic machine which will
inhibit. both individual and social progress.
The new efforts for backward and exceptional children reveal the
recognition of the fact that our wonderful school mechanism has
failed in results for great masses of children. The consciousness is
growing that the universal ‘‘child’”’ when differentiated into individuals
is as variable as the number of children and that each must be edu-
cated in a variable and adaptable program. This is perfectly prac-
tical when activities rather than subjects of study are organized.
The campaign for school hygiene has become almost hysterical.
Accumulating evidence has shown the physical, mental, and moral
effects of long hours, confinement and overpressure in mental work.
Nevertheless, there is a demand for a broader manual training, a
larger nature study, a fuller ‘‘physical education,” and an efficient
moral education—all interpreted as “subjects of study’’ and added to
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—HETHERINGTON. 697
the old subjects, together with new phases of the arts, sciences, and
literature pushed by a variety of individuals from the viewpoint of
their own adult specialized interests.
Consequently, school hygiene will come out of the same door
wherein it entered, so far as its larger functions are concerned,
unless child life is put squarely on its two hygienic legs in school
organization—the one an open-air life, and the other a program of
activities instead of subjects of study.
Our educational fetish, the three R’s, blocks the way. Certainly
children must acquire the tools of a cultural adjustment; but is the
learning to read and write and count at an early age more sacred
than the health of our children and an enthusiasm in life that gives
capacity to live and work efficiently? At present the danger is that
the fetish will be imposed at 5 or even 4 years of age and some few
children are able to learn to read and write during these tender years
for the edification of ambitious teachers and vain parents. The
point is not what some children can do, nor that they should not learn
these essentials of a cultural adjustment during childhood. It is
that to make reading and writing a requirement to which all other
activities are subordinated, say up to the child’s ninth year, is insup-
portable from a broad educational standpoint.
The time has come when men are beginning to realize that the
stifling of the child’s developing enthusiasms in life through a back-
warping, chest-cramping, nerve-breaking, mind-deadening desk and
schoolroom program of ‘‘studies’’ is as cruel as the Spanish Inquisi-
tion. :
The tendencies noted point to the solution. All the vital special
desires in education can be met, the overcrowding eliminated, the
program increased to 8, 10, or 12 hours a day and through 365 days
in the year, the present injury to health replaced by a positive con-
struction of vital and nervous powers of which health is an index,
moral education placed squarely on a laboratory basis, with each
child treated as an individual as well as a creature to be socialized,
and the ‘‘learning”’ increased both in quantity and quality by rein-
terpreting the school as an open-air, educationally fused play and
school center, and by shifting the emphasis in the school program
from subjects of study to the organization of activities which evolve
with the aid of leadership into specialized, adult interests.
This solution, as indicated by the effect of recent social changes
on educational practice, is also demanded by the social changes to
come. Society has reached the age of human engineering, with
child education as its foundation. The knowledge and skill are at
hand. In the past, man’s human engineering efforts were confined
to correction and cure; medicine was the dominant human engineer-
698 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
ing science. In recent years we have learned how to prevent many
individual and social ills. The sciences of prevention are now domi-
nant and ‘“‘hygiene”’ is in the air. But anew thought is already here—
constructive effort. Social correction and medicine are still advanc-
ing, prevention is commanding public opinion, but both are more or
less futile without a foundation of constructive engineering. And
education is the core of all constructive engineering which deals with
the individual.
Education is now the dominant science, the source of appeal in
all social effort as well as in the efficient adjustment of the indi-
vidual. Of the three forces determining what any individual shall
be at maturity—heredity, activity, and environment—with the
three corresponding sciences—eugenics, education, and social econ-
omy—activity alone is the source of power in the individual after
birth. The environment sets conditions for activity, therefore
influences its result; but activity itself is the developer of all power,
and education the science of constructive effort with the individual.
Old, neglected, despised education has become the new inspiration
in human engineering.
Even the universities feel the new responsibility and schools of —
education are arising, still dominated by the old narrow ideas of
education as an intellectual process, but destined to fulfill their real
function, producing engineers of child life and child adjustment to
meet the requirements of an advancing civilization. This is the
hope for democracy and civilization.
3. THe Puay ScHoot A REINTERPRETED SCHOOL.
The play school is proposed as the next step in the evolution of
the elementary school. (1) It is suggested as the extra-home
institutional center of child life in which the school and the playground
are educationally fused and their aims identified; and where the
child’s whole daily active life not supervised by the parents shall —
be spent through the entire year from early infancy until the capacity
to work consciously for adjustment has been established. (2) It is
proposed as a center in which children shall learn to live and to work
with enthusiasm by living completely in their activities, which include
the whole physical and social environment and are organized to
satisfy fully the child’s hungers for experience and self-expression.
(3) It is proposed as a center for complete leadership, where the
interest is centered in the child, not in subjects of study.
The aims of the play school may be summarized as follows:
(1) To organize the opportunity for a compléte play life in order
that the child may develop his powers, learn the meaning of his
environment, and discover himself. .
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—HETHERINGTON, 699
(2) To furnish leadership for the fundamental activities in order
that organic, nervous, and volitional powers for activity with enthu-
siasm, and the capacity for work may be established.
(3) To connect the play tendencies and interests with materials
for activity that will feed and develop stable interests and then con-
nect these interests with the resources of society, especially literature.
(4) To secure close observation, clear thinking, skilled execution,
and free linguistic expression in connection with all activities.
(5) To mold the instinctive and emotional reactions in all activities
in order that sound moral habits, moral judgment, and social ideals
may be established and come to control all developing powers for
complete adult adjustment.
D.—THE PROBLEM AND ANALYSIS OF ACTIVITIES.
The proposal to organize activities instead of supjects of study
shifts the practical problem in education to the study of activities
and the educational leadership of these activities.
Educators have been devoted to the investigation of methods of
teaching special subjects of study. They have spent relatively little
time in studying the nature or the function of the child’s spontaneous
life activities and the relation of these activities to his development—
organic, nervous, intellectual, and moral—or to his adjustment.
Leadership in the organization of activities requires a knowledge and
skill that makes the organized activities as natural as the unorgan-
ized, but more certain of educational results.
The child’s activities may be studied from many standpoints, of
which the following are examples:
(1) From the standpoint of the motor-mechanism used—
The locomotor, or big-muscle mechanism;
The manual, or small-muscle mechanism;
The vocal and linguistic mechanism;
The sense-attention mechanism, etc.
(2) From the standpoint of the regulating process involved—
The instinctive and emotional processes;
The intellectual processes.
(3) From the standpoint of the initial sources of the activities—
(a) The hungers; organic hungers and needs for food, and the psycho-motor
hungers for activity, experience, and expression, or
(6) The stimuli of sense situations.
(4) From the standpoint of the genesis of the form of activities with interests,
motives, beliefs, habits—
The hungers;
The instincts;
Experience as a result of reactions upon environmental situations;
Imitation;
Conscious judgment.
700 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
(5) From the standpoint of the educational results or values of the activities—
(a) For the development of the organism—
Organic development with a system of habits;
Nervous development with a system of habits;
Instinctive and emotional development with a system of habits;
Intellectual development with a system of habits and ideas, and
(b) For the adjustment of the organism to phases of racial activity and
culture—
Economic, or vocational adjustment;
Recreative, or avocational adjustment;
Fellowship adjustment;
Citizenship adjustment;
Domestic adjustment.
(6) From the standpoint of a practical educational leadership of the activities for
complete child living.
All these points of view are important in the investigation of
activity and in the training of the leader or teacher, but for the
practical problems of educational leadership the last point of view
is essential and may include all others. It is distinctly the leader’s
or teacher’s viewpoint. It demands a classification of the child’s
activities that gives the more or less distinct, but natural, phases of
his complete active life; and that makes it possible to administer his
complete living. This classification is essential further as a basis for
the organization of a progressive educational ‘curriculum’ of activi-
ties: First, that will use all the mechanisms and regulating processes;
second, that will feed all the hungers, provide for reactions upon the
whole environment and give opportunity for full expression of all
valuable budding interests; third, that will hold true all through
childhood, tending to evolve naturally into the racial forms of activity ;
and, fourth, that will give all the educational values.
All those demands seem to be realized tentatively in the following
classification: (a) Big-muscle activities; (6) manipulating and man-
ual activities; (c) environmental and nature activities; (d) dramatic
activities; (e) rhythmic and musical activities; (f) social activities;
(g) vocal and linguistic activities; and (h) economic activities.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ACTIVITIES.
A description of each of these groups of activities will make its
educational meaning and the whole classification clear. No signifi-
cance, except one of convenience in description, is attached to the
order of the groups as given.
It will be observed that the activities in each group begin early
and continue through childhood; that they arise out of some hunger,
instinct or innate capacity in human nature; that these same traits
have given rise to some phase of racial life or culture; and that each
group has some special value in the development and adjustment of
the child.
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—-HETHERINGTON, 701
(a) BIG-MUSCLE ACTIVITIES.
The big-muscle activities are fundamental to all others. They
arise out of the primary hungers for activity; begin in the random
movements of the infant; develop through the various stages
of locomotion and diverge during childhood under the influence of
special instincts into such special forms as gymnastics, games, dancing,
and athletics.
(1) Gymnastic plays arise from the self-testing impulse. They are
‘personal motor achievement plays and express the enthusiasm for
self-realization.
(2) The dancing activities add pleasure in rhythm. They begin
in spontaneous forms and take on traditional forms through imitation,
developing the sense of rhythm, as well as the capacity for artistic
expression in body movements. They also have deep social mean-
ings and influences, especially during the adolescent years.
(3) Games and athletics arise from the hunting and self-protecting
instincts and from the gregarious, egoistic, and fighting instincts
which find expression in rivalry, and which have been such powerful
forces in the rise of civilization. These instincts develop progressively
in games of fleeing, chasing, hiding, seeking, capturing, and escaping,
and later, team games of conquest.
_ These big-muscle activities are the developers of the organic powers
and the fundamental nervous powers; i. e., they are the educational
source of vigor, resistance to disease, and general nervous vitality
and skill. They lay the foundation for (adult) capacity to labor.
They establish wholesome forms of recreation. While regarded
usually as mere muscular exercises or ‘‘pastimes,’’ these activities,
especially the games, carry the discipline of the racially old instincts
at the foundation of character, and are therefore primarily instinct
educators and fundamental in their influence on character develop-
ment. They carry the “social spirit’? and discipline the social in-
stincts, emotions, and enthusiasm. Hence, in the education of children
they must be given a large place and be guided carefully as the most
important laboratory activities in the moral phase of education.
(b) MANUAL ACTIVITIES.
The manipulating and manual activities arise out of the manipu-
lating impulse which satisfies the hungers for activity and sense ex-
perience. Gradually, under the influence of the ‘‘constructive” im-
pulse, imitation, and self-expression, the various manual activities
arise. These tendencies in human nature, coupled with needs for
food, protection, and expression, have developed the industrial enter-
prises and graphic arts of man. In the child they begin in general
manipulation, expanding along the lines of construction with blocks
and miscellaneous materials; modeling, scribbling, drawing, coloring;
702 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
and then construction with tools in paper, wood, stone, and iron, and
in plastic materials, textiles, foods, etc. When the child expresses
esthetic feelings and ideas in these activities the manual arts appear.
This manipulating impulse, combined with the social, gives a large
number of plays and games. Each of these tendencies is represented
in the complex occupations, crafts, arts, modes of expression, and
recreations of the adult. They give the spontaneous beginnings of
activities which, when developed, include a large part of applied
science.
Under leadership the values of these activities in the development
of nervous powers for manual skill, in the ability to think in mechan-
ical terms, and to design and execute, in the expression of esthetic
ideas and the development of esthetic feelings, and in the discipline
of elemental traits of character, are well recognized. As Dewey
showed, they may be organized to unite the individual’s social feel-
ings and thoughts with the industrial problems of the race. For the
masses they underlie economic adjustment and industrial adapta-
bility. They are important for the nervous, moral, and esthetic sta-
bility of the nonindustrial classes.
Leadership in these activities is needed from infancy to maturity,
first for cultural education, then for vocational and recreative results.
In this leadership, the ages between 7 and 10—the critical, yet most
neglected years—when impulse and skill are furthest apart, need
special attention.
(c) ENVIRONMENTAL AND NATURE ACTIVITIES.
Environmental and nature activities fall into two related classes:
(1) Excursions and (2) nature experimentations. The instincts that
have led to the world’s exploration and to the development of the
natural and physical sciences are here expressed.
(1) The excursions arise from the exploring, foraging, and migra-
tory instincts, and arouse great enthusiasm. They begin with the
creeping of the infant and continue all through environmental activi-
ties of later years. These excursions give some of the organic and
nervous values of big-muscle activities; they develop the self-pre-
serving instincts and powers; they give the opportunities for obser-
vation, the collection of information, and the satisfaction of curiosity
concerning nature and civics. Leadership easily perfects the educa-
tional values in the spontaneous tendencies to these activities, as
indicated in the following suggestions, which grade naturally by age
periods.
For the little children, short trips give opportunities for broader
“free play”’ activities in the environment, for a larger sense experi-
ence, for collections, for learning the names of natural objects, for
simple observational games, and for instruction concerning things
which catch the attention.
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—-HETHERINGTON. 703
For the larger children, excursions cover the three ideas of adven-
ture, nature observation, and civic observation, as follows: (a) Half-
day “hikes” or week-end camping trips, including outing or ‘“scout-
ing” arts; (b) trips to the fields, woods, and bodies of water, or to
farms, or to plant or animal experimental stations; with observations
on the geographical features, on plants and animals and their breeding
processes; with collections, maps, etc.; (¢) trips to industrial and
commercial institutions, to historic places, to civic institutions and
centers, to public-service centers, etc., each with investigations.
From these natural activities the larger geography expands.
(2) The second half of the environmental and nature activities,
nature experimentations, arise from curiosity about nature and the
experimental manipulation of natural forces. They fall into three
groups: (a) There is playing and experimenting with physical
nature,‘ namely, playing with water, air, heat, mechanical devices,
sound, light, and electricity. These activities begin in the same
manipulating tendencies that are the foundation of the manual
activities, but diverge under the control of different instincts. They
grade naturally by age periods and through leadership develop prob-
lems in physics. (6) There is playing and experimenting with ani-
mals: namely, playing with pets; feeding and caring for animals,
training them; capturing, raising, and taming wild animals; breeding
animals, etc. (c) There is playing and experimenting with plant
nature, namely, planting, raising, and caring for plants and flowers;
experimental gardening to find out what nature will do and also for
the economic value of the produce.
The two latter groups of nature activities with the field observation
and collections give all the essential elements in the relations of plants
and animals to the life of man, and give, through leadership, the
natural basis and enthusiastic interest in the problem of nature study
and ‘civic biology.”
The specialized sciences have no place in child life. These nature
activities give what is natural to child life and interest and lay the
foundation for a more advanced study later.
4 The content of these physical experimental plays will be better illustrated by the following outline:
Water: Playing with water, pouring, wading, splashing, watching objects in water, throwing objects into
water, building dams and water wheels, watching the action of water on land, ‘‘erosion models,” etc., which
develop problems in fluids. Air: Playing with air, sailboats, kites, windmills, aeroplanes, which develop
problems in air pressure, air currents, wind, temperature, humidity, rainfall, ete. Heat: Watching fire,
making fires, observing friction and heat, playing with toy steam engines, thermometers, which develop
problems in heat, combustion, expansion and contraction, and other effects of heat. Mechanical devices:
Playing with hoops, tops, pulleys, wheels, toy machines, gyroscopes, pendulums, levers, watching thrown
objects, balancing objects, etc., which develop problems in motor dynamics. Sound: Vocalization, beating
and drumming, blowing on toy instruments, ‘‘listening to shells,” speaking tubes, and telephones, experi-
menting with conduction through air, water, and timbers, with vibrating bodies, echoes, ete., which de-
velop problems in vibration, noises, tones, music, ete. Light: Playing with reflectors, mirrors, prisms,
lenses, water refraction, glasses, telescopes, which develop problems in light, color, optics, time, etc. Elec-
tricity: Experimenting and playing with magnets, batteries, induction coils, telephones, telegraph instru-
ments, dynamos, electric motors, electric lights, etc., which present problems in electrodynamics.
704 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
(d) DRAMATIC ACTIVITIES.
Dramatic activities arise out of the imitative and dramatic tend-
encies and the hungers to experience the form and content of con-
duct, and express environmental situations. In the adult these
tendencies and hungers have developed the dramatic arts. In the
little child, dramatization intensifies ideas and bears the same rela-
tionship to an appreciation of conduct that manipulation bears to
knowledge of physical nature. The child interprets conduct through
his own motor activities and later expresses an ideal. In all classes
of children these activities grip the imagination. They correlate
and give added zest to other phases of activity. Under leadership
they plant rich associations that give immediate educational values
and help develop the capacity for some of the higher recreative arts
in the adult.
Leadership for the little children should supply opportunities for
a broad range of imitative dramatization of single, social, and en-
vironmental situations. For the larger children, leadership should
be given in the dramatization of social situations, in the construc-
tion of plots from stories and history, in the use and adaptation of
plays, and in the development of simple pageants. These latter
forms of dramatization will lead toward the celebration cf holidays.
(e) RHYTHMIC AND MUSICAL ACTIVITIES.
Rhythmic and musical activities arise out of vocal and manual
experimentations and the pleasures derived from rhythm, tone,
and melody. These pleasures, with their emotional relationships,
have created the musical arts of man. In the child, rhythmic and
musical activities begin in crude vocalization, bodily movements,
and drummings, and develop through various stages of complexity.
There are (1) bodily rhythms, as running, stamping, marching, skip-
ping, etc., up to dancing; (2) vocal rhythms and tones, as counting,
repeating sounds and tones, leading up to poetry and singing; (3)
drummings and beatings with sticks, fingers, or cans, picking sounds
on strings and blowing sounds on bottles or shells, leading up to the
use of drums, cymbals, and string or wind instruments.
These are all music activities to the child, but the music of the
race is highly evolved, and it has a complex written language. It
is a simple matter to organize the musical activities characteristic
of each age period, but the transition to the musical activities of the
racial type or to an appreciation of these is achieved for the masses
only through a broad association or skilled leadership. Individuals
differ enormously in musical capacities. All children should have
their musical impulses developed to the point of adjustment in the
community social recreative life.
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—-HETHERINGTON, 705
In the transition three methods of leadership or instruction are
possible: (1) The natural musical activities of the child may be
organized and led into the racial type; (2) the gap may be bridged
through play methods of instruction; or (3) music may be interpreted
as a formal subject of study that can be taught only by formal meth-
ods under the discipline of instruction. The last is the traditional
method and is essential for any advanced skill. The second method
secures results, especially with the little children. The first method
is used frequently in boys’ clubs and in the organization of children’s
orchestras.'. It has been highly refined on one side for training in
rhythm by Dalcroze.2 This method has back of it the power of
instinct; it opens the channels of natural development to leadership;
it can be supplemented by all other methods as desired.
(f) SOCIAL ACTIVITIES.
Social activities arise out of the social instincts and hungers. These
instincts have amalgamated all human instincts for the development
of society. Their expression in the child gives social experience
and they frequently take the form of experimentation with human
nature.
The play school is a child’s social center. In addition to the
social life involved in each group of activities, there is a general
social life and spirit. All the social relationships of the special
activities are looped up in this larger social unity. It involves all
human relationships in the school and it radiates into the social
environment and the home. In these activities are expressed all
the impulses of developing human nature in social relationships.
Social attitudes, habits of speech and manners of address are devel-
oped which contain many inconsistencies and conflicts, and which
change in emphasis and importance by age periods; but fuse gradu-
ally into a system of ways of acting that determines the adult’s
social adjustment. In addition, there are the developing ideas and
habits in the relationship of boys and girls, that differentiate during
the adolescent years into sex habits and ideals and lay the founda-
tion for adult domestic adjustment. Therefore in the general social
life of the play school, and in the social life connected with each
special group of activity conduct must be guided by each leader
according to accepted social standards of individual and group fair-
play, good humor, courtesy, justice and common sense, yet ideal
social relationships. The foundation for social and _ citizenship
adjustment, sex hygiene and domestic adjustment must be estab-
lished in this leadership.
1 See Dykema, in Chubb, Festivals and plays in school and elsewhere.
2 Sadler, M. E., The Eurhythmics of Dalcroze.
73176°—sM 1914——45
706 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
A special social hour should be organized to coordinate the social
side of the activities and to give the opportunity for establishing
democratic ideals. From this the leadership should extend to the
spontaneous group organizations in and out of the play school.
(g) VOCAL AND LINGUISTIC ACTIVITIES.
Vocal and linguistic activities arise from the vocalizing and com-
municative instincts. These instincts are the primary elements in
the evolution of the languages and the literatures of the world. In
the child, these activities begim in vocalization and develop through
imitation and the need for communication into the vernacular.
Linguistic activities are associated with each group of activities.
The child tends to vocalize his thoughts and feelings. He is the great
questioner. Conversations arise. Thus he develops language as a
tool and elaborates a system of ideas. Both these tendencies should
be perfected through leadership. Language is the tool of knowledge
and rational adjustment. Conversation consciously developed
through sympathy or elicited and directed, is the method that gives
progress in language power, thought and systematic information,
and carries with it the living motive.
In the activities interests develop that, under leadership, are
expressed in narratives and discussions, and these are the opportuni-
ties for mind “fertilization,” as well as the elevation of experiences
to the level of general ideas and conscious understandings. These
conversations are also distinctly language lessons and should be
guided carefully as such.
With the development of the activities and interest under leader-
ship, the need arises for a written language and it should be taught
at this time. When gained as a tool, it should be used, not in read-
ing unrelated stuff, but in connection with the activities as a source
of informatioy, and as a real phase of living.
For the little children, story-telling of a rational kind should have
a prominent place and later this function should become supple-
mentary in helping the individual select stories to read, that are
adapted to his needs. It has been demonstrated that leadership will
bring children to the realization that there is a literature to cover
each interest and satisfy each desire in life.
Numbers for the child are a linguistic activity and should be devel-
oped in connection with his games and later manual and environ-
mental activities.
The absorption of a foreign tongue, naturally by its use in play,
is another phase of these linguistic activities, and when the environ-
ment makes it desirable can be easily brought about.
i i
DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL—-HETHERINGTON, Oe
(h) ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES.
Economic activities arise out of organic hungers, the acquisitive
impulse and economic needs and desires. The child is dependent
and gains his economic adjustment through the family, but the neces-
sity of labor to produce wealth and of paying others for wealth
desired is ever present, and frequently arouses economic activities
which need guidance. So leadership should be given in earning
mouey by service or effort that produces economic values. The
organization of vacant-lot gardens aad leadership in marketing pro-
duce is important. The opportunities for house and yard repairs at
home and in the neighborhood need leadership. Taking contracts,
with the figuring of materials, cost and profits, are frequently possible
even among children. Banking, the use of the United States postal
_ savings depositories, and personal bookkeeping are phases of these
activities. The dramatization of store and house with buying and
selling familiarizes the child with the social forms of exchange.
SUMMARY.
If the analysis of the several classes of activities as given is practi-
cally correct, then we have a natural grouping of child activities sus-
ceptible of practical organization and administration for efficient
educational results when considered from any standpoint of educa-
tional theory or practice. Criticism and continued experience will
doubtless dictate some changes, but the classification shows at least
the possibility of organizing several groups of activities:
(1) That include all the spontaneous and traditional tendencies in
child life.
(2) That express, in child form, the human tendencies that have
created civilization.
(3) That retain in natural and related forms the germs and expand-
ing lines of every subject of interest that has arisen with adult
civilization.
(4) That give the opportunity for so directing the child’s living
forces, that he will expand naturally according to his capacities into
an inheritance of some part of the race achievements.
(5) That meet the demands of every aim of education whether of
development or adjustment, and therefore that relate the claims of
physical, moral, vocational, and cultural education.
(6) That simplify the problem of cooperation between the play-
school center and the home.
(7) That present the basis for a school program which will not
devitalize children who are subjected to three or four hours of it, and
may be extended to the whole waking life for 365 days in the year,
making every child physically, intellectually, and morally stronger.
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SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF EDUARD SUKESS (1831-1914)2
By Prerre TERMIER,
Of the Paris Academy of Sciences.
Eduard Suess, member and former president of the Imperial
Academy of Sciences of Vienna, dean of the foreign associates of the
Paris Academy of Sciences, peacefully and painlessly passed away
on the night of the 25th of April, 1914, in Vienna, at the age of 83
years. His death is mourned by the geologists and geographers
of the whole world, for all looked upon him as a master, whose au-
thority was supreme and whose intuition was well nigh infallible;
and there is not one among them who has not in some way been his
disciple, and who has not received from this man of genius with his
clear ideas and his exact method the taste for profound problems and
the enthusiasm indispensable to persevering researches.
He was born on the 20th of August, 1831, in London, of a Jewish
family, then recently come to England from Austria and who soon
returned to that country. His father was a trader, a willmg wan-
derer, like so many others of his race. Indeed, if one would under-
stand Eduard Suess, this origm must never be forgotten. He was
the man called to show and explain to us the face of the earth; to
lead us, as by the hand, along all the shores and in the labyrinth of
all the mountains of this planet; to make of us citizens of a humanity
greater than all the nations and more enduring than all histories;
this man was a splendid type of that old race, that nation elect, to
whom universal supremacy was at one time promised, and whom we
now see wandering without respite along sorrowful ways, moving
across the continents and the oceans of the earth.
The young Eduard studied first at Prague, then at Vienna, and
very early attracted attention through his taste for the study of fossils,
minerals, and rocks, a study which soon became an irresistible passion.
In 1852, then only 20 years old, Eduard was appointed assistant at
the Hofmineralenkabinett in Vienna, a kind of practical school of
geology and mineralogy installed in the buildings of the Hofberg;
his scientific career was begun. A first note on the Graptolites of
Bohemia appeared in this same year, 1852. In 1854, he published a
memoir on the Brachiopods of the Késsen beds, and in 1855, a study
1 Translated by permission from Revue générale des Sciences pures et appliquées, Paris, June 15, 1914.
709
710 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
on the Ammonites of the Hallstatt beds. This was a very decided
trend toward paleontology, and even toward the most. philosophical
paleontology, that which seeks to reconstruct the filiations of living
beings and to learn the laws of their mysterious evolution.
In spite of the brilliant qualities which shone in his first essays,
the University of Vienna did not appear at all eager to open its doors
to the new paleontologist; and the difficulties he encountered while
seeking his doctorship more than once very nearly discouraged him, and
almost led him to enter commercial life where his family would have
been happy to have placed him. Success came, however, in 1857, and
Eduard Suess was designated professor extraordinary of paleontology
at the university. He retained this position until 1862. The death
of Zippe having at that time made vacant the chair of geology, Suess
succeeded him at first as professor extraordinary, then, in 1867, as
professor ordinary. The paleontologist was transformed, little by
little, into a geologist; and this geologist successively preoccupied,
with local stratigraphy in the immediate vicinity of Vienna, then
with Alpine stratigraphy, was later to turn to the Alps and by the
prolonged contemplation of this great chain of mountains, to become
a master of structural geology, and a little later the uncontested
master of all geology.
Eduard Suess possessed in an extreme degree the qualities which
make the professor worthy of the name, and even those accomplish-
ments which make great orators; his nobility of presence, the beauty
and solemnity of his features, the softness and warmth of his voice,
the ease of speech and abundance of imagery; the continual tendency
to soar in lofty flights to the summits of his philosophy, into those
high regions above the clouds where the noise of human conflict does
not reach; the gift of animating all he touched, and, by the splendor
of form and enthusiasm of utterance, of making ideas and objects
live; finally, the love of conquering, of instructing, of increasing his
own store of knowledge, and of fully engaging his audience. From
the very first year of his course the professor became celebrated.
People crowded the amphitheater; they followed bim on excursions
which he directed to the environs of Vienna. His reputation extended
throughout the whole city. His book on the Viennese subsoil, ‘‘ Der
Boden der Stadt Wien,” appeared in 1862, revealing a new way of
considering geology and of connecting it with human geography
and sociology. In the same work were considered the relations
between the formation and composition of the subsoil and the life of
the citizens. This book soon passed from the confines of science into
the midst of average culture and decided the political career of
Eduard Suess; for he had two careers running parallel, one devoted
to the highest and most disinterested science, the other, that of an
ardent citizen, a passionate defender of municipal interests and
LIFE OF EDUARD SUESS—TERMIER. 711
political liberty. It was in 1863, less than a year after the publica-
tion of ‘‘Der Boden der Stadt Wien,” that he entered the municipal
council of Vienna where he remained for 10 consecutive years. Resign-
ing in 1873, he returned to it in 1882, not to leave the council defi-
nitely until 1886. In 1873, he had been elected deputy; and for
many years he was in the Austrian Chamber, one of the orators of the
left, one of the most resolute adversaries of the ultramontaine party,
one of the leaders of the liberal party, the Fortschrittspartei.
It is difficult to believe to-day that the man who in 1875 wrote
‘Die Entstehung der Alpen,” and from 1878 to 1883, the first volume
of ‘‘Das Antlitz der Erde’’—those books whose principal character-
istic is their calmness—is the same man who simultaneously became
excited in parliamentary contests and startled his adversaries by the
vivacity of his attacks and his quick repartee. The identity of the
great scholar and the man of politics reappears, however, in the
speeches of the latter. At all times—say those who have heard him
in the chamber—his eloquence aroused in him a sort of poesy, without
analogy or precedent, a poesy in which are seen to pass in review the
earth and its inhabitants, nm which are heard chords of universal
harmony. Thus, for example, he compared the abrupt dawn of
glory and influence of the old English universities to the sudden
appearance in the sky at a point until then hidden from the con-
stellated firmament, of a new star, such as Mira Coeli, whose light,
although unsuspected, existed, nevertheless, for centuries, and pro-
ceeded toward our gaze in fathomless space. Sometimes, wishing to
speak of the train of great thoughts and worthy ideas which travel
from nation to nation bettermg mankind everywhere, he described to
the astonished and mute assembly that isolated reef at the extreme
tip of South America, where navigators have placed a cask, sheltered
by no pavilion, and belonging to no one. Each ship that passes sends
off toward this desolate rock a little boat and the sailors who climb
its sides place in the cask letters addressed to their native lands, and
from it take the letters which they find there bearmg the address of
the countries toward which they are bound. The sailors’ letters thus
wander about from port to port without being directed by anyone
and they proceed slowly but surely toward their distant goal. Full
of such figures, this manner of speech belongs to Eduard Suess; it is
his style; and never was a style more personal than his.
In the memory of the Viennese the name of Eduard Suess will ever
remain connected with two great municipal works: The imtroduction
of drinking water and the regulation of the flow of the Danube.
They still say in Vienna, ‘‘Suess’s water,’ when to a stranger they
praise the purity and freshness of the water used in that great city,
and which since 1873 has replaced the unwholesome water of the
Danube and the lakes. That is justice to Suess, for it was he who
112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
first indicated the sources which were advisable—the mountain
springs come to light in the Alpine region not far from Schneeberg
on the borders of Styria and of Lower Austria—and he it was who
strove with tireless energy from 1863 to 1866 before the municipal
council for the adoption of that project. It required seven years to
complete the work, and it was on the 24th of October, 1873, that the
new water commenced to flow and was greeted by the joyful cries of the
people of Vienna. The good people had indeed reason to applaud;
the mortality in the city was almost abruptly diminished by one-
half. The regulation of the Danube was achieved in 1875. by opening
a new river bed from Nussdorf to Stadlau. In the eyes of Suess this
was but the very small beginning of a gigantic project, through which
the Danube was one day to be set right across the whole Empire from
Passau to the Gates of Iron; but this beginning, due to Suess more than
to any other man, was of great benefit. It protected the life and prop-
erty of the mhabitants along the banks of the river, bringing to the
center of the capital the most beautiful river route of Austria and
permitting the creation and development all along the regulated bed
of the river of a new faubourg, built and equipped for commerce and
industry.
Even after retiring from affairs, and until the last years of his life,
Eduard Suess continued to be interested in municipal and political
struggles. He remained always the citizen of Vienna, with all the
force of the beautiful word “citizen.” On the last night of every year
he was accustomed, with some political friends, to make a pilgrimage
to the Reichsbrucke, and there, above the muddy waters that flowed
past as the years roll on, to drink a glass of wine to the glory and
prosperity of the city, his city, one of the first objects of his thoughts.
But, then, who could say how his thoughts were divided—what frac-
tion went to the city, what other to the Empire, what to the earth,
and what to humanity ?
Contemporaneously with his political career, the scientific career of
Suess developed, just as brilliant, just as fecund, it seemed, as though
the first had not existed. In 1866 he published a memoir on the
Loess;.in 1869, his ‘‘ Remarks on the salt deposit near Wieliczka’’; in
1871, a study on the tertiary continental faunas of Italy; in 1872,
his book on the structure of the Italian Peninsula; in 1875, his “ Die
Entstehung der Alpen” (Origin of the Alps); in 1877, his considera-
tions of the earthquakes of southern Italy and a little brochure, “Die
Zukunft des Goldes’”’ (The Future of Gold). From 1878 on he com-
menced the writing of ‘‘Das Antlitz der Erde,” and this was a labor
uninterrupted for 30 years. He remained professor of geology at
the university until 1901, or a total of 39 years. In 1901 he asked
for retirement. At first replaced by Uhlig, one of his best pupils,
LIFE OF EDUARD SUESS—-TERMIER. T18
yet after the death of Uhhg he had the consolation of seeing his own
son, Franz-Eduard Suess, take possession of this same chair. The
incomparable joy of being succeeded by a son who continues the work
of the father and who is known to be worthy of so doing, that joy
known to but few men of genius, was not refused him.
He had been a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences for
a long time when in 1893 he was made its vice president. In 1899
he was elected president of this illustrious company, and kept that
honorable position for 12 years. Named correspondent of the
Academy of Sciences of Paris in 1889, he took his place, some time in
1900, among the foreign associates, succeeding Frankland. Honors
came to him in proportion as his authority and reputation increased;
the man himself remained modest, indifferent to titles, disdaining
riches, voluntarily bound to a family life, austere and simple, his soul
shut to personal ambitions, open only to noble ideas, to the disin-
terested cultivation of science, to the love of his fellow citizens, and
of all mankind, to the tender affections which are born and cherished
in the atmosphere of the domestic hearthstone.
An admirable life, deserving of happiness, and which indeed at-
tained it in the measure at least in which a man of such great com-
prehension can be happy. Eduard Suess knew the ineffable sweetness
of a peaceful life, in the midst of a numerous and closely united
family. This existence had its hours of sorrow, but these do not
come without consolation and never bring with them despair. He
saw his six children grow up around him and later numerous grand-
children, and in his family circle, delightfully intimate, when he ceased
to work, to think, to teach, when he stopped to chat or smile, he had
only to lend ear to the rumblings from without. Among these
rumblings, some no doubt the inarticulate sounds of the great city,
came one sound which he well knew, for he had heard it from his
youth, the sound of praise. An honor discreet and lasting, the gift
of universal acclamation, accorded by the unanimous admiration of
all who cultivated the same science, were interested in the same
problems and had the same ideal; an appreciation expressed con-
stantly by the receipt of an enthusiastic letter, a book bearing an
inspired dedication, a visitor who presented himself with the pious
and grateful attitude of a pilgrim, full of love, at the shrine of some
sanctuary of former times.
_ The end was worthy of the entire life and lingered serene and
splendid like ‘the twilight of a beautiful day.” Until the spring of
1913 the aged master enjoyed good health and old age, which never
affected his intelligence, touched his physical strength but timidly as
with regret. His age was betrayed only by hesitation and difficulty
in walking. Once seated, he seemed as he was ten or a dozen years
714 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
before, almost young in appearance with his beautiful grave face a
little pale and his magnificent eyes where one could almost see the
reflection of the illimitable oceans, and which looked, tender and full
of feeling, into the depths of one’s soul. He spoke with a deep, ex-
pressive, richly modulated voice, in which the glow of former intense
or high-wrought emotions was extinguished, and there remained but
hushed sonorousness and quiet feeling. Then around the circle of
his listeners a murmur would pass and they would give their close
attention, fearing lest they lose a word, an accent; they would have
wished to fix this instant of inestimable value in the passage of time
which, alas, never stops. Thus we see him in 1903 at the Geological
Congress in Vienna, keeping aloof from the sessions and official
receptions, but willingly receiving his friends of every country with
a marked predilection for his friends of France. Thus we see him
again nine years later in August, 1912, at Innsbruck, come from his
Hungarian village expressly to preside at the reunion of the geologists
of the Alps, at the principal function of the excursion organized by
the Geologische Vereinigung. This was the last manifestation of his
scientific activity. Is it not fitting that this last effort was made by
the author of ‘ Die Entstehung der Alpen,” on behalf of the geology
of the Alps and in the presence of the investigators through whom
the Alps have become better understood? Before this time, in 1905,
Eduard Suess had sojourned several weeks in the Basse-Engadine;
and from this trip of 1905, the last in which he had been able to make
excursions on foot among the rocks themselves, hammer in hand,
and to make personal observations, he made announcement of his
full and entire compliance with the doctrine of great ‘“‘nappes de
recouvrement,”’ or overthrust, a compliance soon formulated in a note
to the Academy of Sciences of Vienna, “Das Inntal bei Nauders,”’
and affirmed more briefly still in 1909, in the last volume of ‘“ Das
Antlitz der Erde.’’ Now, in 1912, controversies had ceased and our
reunion at Innsbruck, gay and fraternal, had a character almost
trumped. 3% ele
Now, in the soil of Hungary, in the cemetery of the little town of
Marczfalva, repose the mortal remains of Eduard Suess, until the
day when the angel—
* * * swinging open the gates,
Shall, faithful and joyous, make gleam again
The tarnished mirrors, quicken the dead flames.
The Hungarian plain has become the tomb of him who so much
loved and so well understood the mountains. But the Alps are not
far off; they cut across the horizon; and indeed we know that in
their mad journey toward the Carpathians, their waves of stone passed
even here. The place is, therefore, not ill chosen to shelter the dust
LIFE OF EDUARD SUESS—TERMIER. 715
of the man who was the incomparable singer of all these things.
Neither the steps nor the cries of the living come to trouble the sleep
of the master. From time to time, however, a geologist will come,
who, full of respect and gratitude, will meditate before the solitary
slab, praismg God for having instilled so much grandeur and such a
reflection of his divinity into the souls of the giants of the human
race.
I have cited above the principal works of Eduard Suess. It is
necessary to add to the list I have given many short notes and arti-
cles on different subjects: Tectonics, comparative geology, volca-
noes, seismology, questions on the origin of meteorites, the question
of the composition and the structure of the moon, the question of the
recent displacement of the coast lines, and many others. The
majority of the notes were published in the “‘comptes rendus”’ of the
Academy of Vienna; the articles almost all appeared in the Neue
Freie Presse, of which Suess was for a long time one of the scientific
chroniclers. But that which is essential in both is found in the last
chapters of ‘Das Antlitz der Erde.”’ Among the colossal labors of
Eduard Suess, those which immediately attract attention, those
which will endure for an indefinite time on their own merits without
becoming obsolete, to preserve for centuries the glory and majesty
of the beautiful ruins, are the two books, “‘ Die Entstehung der Alpen”’
and “Das Antlitz der Erde.”
“Die Entstehung der Alpen” is a small work of 168 pages, pub-
lished in Vienna in 1875, composed of 8 chapters. The author brings
up and defends the idea that in the formation of mountains the pre-
ponderating réle is played by horizontal displacements, moving in
one direction. Each chain is a whole, thrust from the same quarter
over the preexisting formations, which resist, and on which the com-
pressed zone advances. There is but one cause which has produced
the whole Alpine system; this cause is a thrust from the south or
southeast. Characteristics analogous to those of the Alps are mani-
fested in the Balkans, in the Caucasus, in the chains of the American
northwest. * * * Each chain is the work of a very long period,
and its formation is the sum of a multiplicity of occurrences. The
author insists on the coincidence of the Alpine zone with geosyn-
clines. He remarks—and no one before him had cared to do it—on
the magnitude and the generality of certain marine transgressions;
for example, of the Cenomanian transgression. He foresaw the period-
icity and the quasigenerality of transgressions and recessions. In
the next to the last chapter he invites us to make with him the tour
of the earth; he shows us in Europe and in the east of northern
America the predominance of thrusts toward the north; he calls
our attention to those immense regions of the surface of the
716 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
earth which seem refractory to folding, and which are traversed by
fissures whose direction almost follows the meridian; he makes us see
that in central Asia the overthrust of the chains is usually toward
the south. The conclusion of this rapid journey around the globe
is that in terrestrial deformation there is no simple geometry; that
the mountains result from the irregular and unequal contraction of
a planet devoid of homogeneity; finally, that this lack of homogeneity
goes back to the period of consolidation of the lithosphere. It could
not become hard all at once; it presented for a long time the appear-
ance of an archipelago of scoriaceous masses floating on a fluid and
incandescent sea. The earth was then a variable star.
The influence of the book was great. It was short, readable, per-
fectly clear; it revealed a new geology, unsuspected, immediately
accessible; it is written in language simple and beautiful. * * *
It has directed young geologists of every country toward the study
of the mountains; it definitely destroyed the old theories. It substi-
tuted, in the minds of all geologists, for the principle of direction the
principle of continuity; it accustomed investigators to the idea of
transportations of strata; it fixed attention on the great movements
of advance and of retreat of the sea. In a word, it was the preface
of ‘Das Antlitz der Erde,”’ the prelude of that incomparable sym-
phony.
“Das Antlitz der Erde”’ is an essay on geologic synthesis, extended
to cover the entire earth; and it is the first essay of its kind. The
work, of gigantic dimensions, comprises three volumes. The first
appeared in 1883; the last part of the third in 1909. Twenty-six
years were required for the complete achievement of this magnificent
work. It is well known that by the care of M. Emmanuel de Mar-
gerie the entire book has been translated into the French language
and published in Paris under the title, “‘La Face de la Terre.”” The
last part of the-third volume of this French edition is at present in
press! ‘Lia Face de la Terre” is enriched with notes, maps, and
cuts, added by the translator, which happily supplement the text
and illustrations of the German edition.
The general plan of ‘Das Antlitz der Erde” will be recalled. The
first volume comprises two parts—the movements of the outer crust of
the earth and the mountain ranges. Thesecond volume is given to the
third part of the work, the oceans. The third volume, much more
voluminous than the first two, embraces the fourth part, which is
the detailed study, not only geographic, but also, and especially,
geologic, of the face of the earth. The first half of this third volume is
composed of 9 chapters, in which the author describes entire Asia,
and northern Europe. The second half comprises 18 chapters, in
which are delineated, first, the rest of Europe, the east of northern
1 This volume has since been issued.
LIFE OF EDUARD SUESS——-TERMIER. yagi
America, the chains of northern Africa, the old Laurentian conti-
nent, the immense African Plateau, and the chains of the Cape, the
chains of the islands of Oceania, the mountain systems which extend
the length of the west coast of the two Americas; followed by general
considerations on folds, on the depths, on the manner of formation
and the distribution of volcanoes, on the moon and recent geologic
theories, and, finally, observations on life.
The book is an exposition of the planet viewed from without, as
travelers from other stars of the solar system would see it. It con-
tains scarcely any theories. The author does not seek to explain or
to convince; he shows. He leads his reader by the hand; he makes
him see the peaks and the abysses; he makes him touch the seams
and fractures with his hand; he leads him along the shores, not only
those of to-day, but also those of the ancient seas; and he goes over
with him step by step the traces, three-fourths effaced, the wrin-
klings, the foldings of former times. In the company of the master
one soars on geologic time as on the air of this earth. The impression
is singular, immediate, unforgettable; one knows no longer, indeed, at
what epoch in the duration of time, life came on this earth; and there
are seen, sketched simultaneously on the face of the planet, the
ancient features and the present features. <A vision, giddy, often
confused and troubled, like those which pass, on a high mountain,
under the eyes of the Alpinist, a day of heavy cloud and violent wind;
‘a vision a little cloudy, a little sybilline, in which there are mist and
clearness, thunder and great silence, diluvian floods and sun-fétes,
days and nights of inordinate length, and which recall ““A Legend of
the Centuries,” in which man was lacking.
The usefulness of such a book is to arouse great and growing enthu-
siasm and to create an interest in this luminous science through all
their lives among hundreds of young men who without that incen-
tive would have done nothing or would have groped about in the
dark, to enlarge our thoughts, to give us the taste for general prob-
lems and the thirst for synthesis. It can be said without exaggeration
that Eduard Suess had his part, often a preponderating one, in all the
geologic discoveries of the end of the nineteenth century and the first
years of the twentieth. The geologic sciences, which have advanced
with giant steps for 30 years, would not without him have advanced
so rapidly. He did not say all, he made few personal observations,
he did not foresee everything—but by his intuitions, truly those of a
genius, of relations and their causes, he incited, prepared, made pos-
sible decisive observations, observations which have revolutionized
our ideas and illuminated our knowledge.’ Among the most impor-
tant discoveries, among all those which have changed the aspect of
geology, there figures in the first rank the verifying, in mountain
chains, the structure in great nappes, which makes of these mountains
718 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1914.
immense piles of strata misplaced and drifted. This discovery is not
of Eduard Suess—if it is of any one man, that man is Marcel Ber-
trand 1—but who would have dared, even dream of it, before having
read ‘Der Entstehung der Alpen” and the first volumes of “Das
Antlitz der Erde”? And when Suess in the chapters of Volume 3,
which he consecrated to the Alps, adopts in his turn this manner of
seeing, and speaks of the Helvetian nappes, the Lepontine nappes,
the Austro-Alpine nappes, thrown one on the other, this theory so
new and so audacious, seems to spring spontaneously and naturally
from what he taught formerly.
Genius never lacks detractors. The author of “Das Antlitz der
Erde” has often been criticised and cried down. One of the bitter-
nesses of his life was the incomprehension and ingratitude of some of
his pupils; one of his consolations, on the other hand, was the imme-
diate and lasting success of his book in foreign lands, and especially
in France. He has been reproached on the score of obscurity and
lack of preciseness; but this lack of clearness and preciseness is usu-
ally, in the nature of things, the result of the imperfections of our
knowledge, of the insufficiency of observations, of the difficulty of
the problems confronted. ‘When Suess affirms,” as I said in 1910,
in reviewing the last volume which had just appeared, “one is quite
certain that he does not deceive; when he is unprecise, it is because
preciseness at that time is impossible; when he is obscure, it is
because he has not yet understood, and because he finds obscurity
preferable to the clearness of an illusion created complete in all its
parts by hisimagination.”” His splendor of style has been reproached,
and, as it has been called, his geopoesy, as though the writer of
genius were master of his tongue, as though the eagle could flutter
about after the manner of a barnyard fowl. Finally, he has been
reproached with not taking sides in the warmly controversial ques-
tions, with preserving an indecisive, timid attitude, by which was
shown his embarrassment. This last reproach would be grave
enough if addressed to a theorist; but Eduard Suess was never a
theorist. This man once accustomed to teaching and to conquering,
ardent also in political disputes, had for a long time ceased to argue
on scientific matters; he was content with seeing, and after having
seen, with showing. No mind has been more intuitive, or more
exclusively intuitive than his. * * *
1““The concept of overthrusts in the Alps was first described in detail by Albert Heim and later developed
by Marcel Bertrand; but neither of these geologists was the author of the idea of the great overthrust sheets,
which owes its at present accepted form to Maurice Lugeon.””—BAiLEY WILLIS.
oe Page.
ss SES LOS GE SS ol 2 Si xi, 24, 110, 111, 115, 123, 131, 132
Fepertion Astrophysical Observatory: :. 22.2.2. s5 555 foie es lees Gee 89-95
CMP AOE Oise IRON) Smee ec. 2tYs s Srl is i222 eae oe gee eee 137
oT DIS Ee ohn ES eas ee ae ea ea 15, 28, 38, 39, 130
Mayaor, exeavanlOns at (NAVINC) .2 22522522220 c2 202 0-5c0e ceases cecaneeseee. 579
Pmt Wee enUNINS ACM. 4225S. + vo ec dca teh aoe teeta ee x xy LQ
Advisory committee on printing and publication. ...................2....-- 24,117
mMeroayinanmicalshaportory, Uanpley.<. 2.222... .2...-..260.505cecneeedeee 8-10, 98
Aeroplane, the first man-carrying, capable of sustained free flight (Zahm)... -. 217
ETOMEMed. SiOstiny OL (WTIPNL) 22252 5c2. L225 3552 ie aed ide loeadeods shscekee 209
Agriculture, Secretary of (member of the Institution).............-...-2.2... %
Pecan CeCe. Pana os testo ae Oooo oes esta dl doc oe eats as 22,23, 112
GETCLASS a nee Pipe ais: ca cea ne xi, 90, 91, 92, 94, 115
RRS erie onion miyiere sere te sey ie Se 2222 2k ode soos bet sh hoes 15, 16
Avaerican Historical: Association, reports of?.....-...:.:...2...2...22.2- 23, 115, 116
Americanists, Nineteenth International Congress of...................2-2--2-- 25
Beuucmweam school of Archeolory im China-~ .<. ... 2 22.24.92 242 455242005084 -6 20
Mimumenen wvOUlG = — 2. 2 2h 285552-- Sere etc ere ee oe 111
fice DVT I TERS A a ae MRP 18, 92, 123
Antenn», homceotic regeneration of the, in a Phasmid or walking-stick (Schmit-
0 BELE Eo paegeg ae ch SI a Se a ee ee a PP EPR 523
meintopolopieal research In, eastern Asta...2 0.2 o52¢.5.-02--12.25- 288 ees a
0) Phy Be 2 Sade Gadies enone Ure PEE EO: Bon ere Seat: Pe eon Sempre ay 112
Appalachian Valley in Maryland, geologic history of the..................... 11.12
J CUDEIRS, Leb dh ee eens eee ee ee eee ee lil
Art collections, national, need of a building for....................222.....2. 130
Praener EMO aehy Olacct. . 2 ae aoe Fo Soto h isl: Gees att Bau See eee ee 130
PuRInioeratMe COG, Ore see sas 26 2 So Rte: ae ental s See ee a ee 41, 42
Asia, anthropological research in eastern..-.-..-.---- Pt RRR pr et Pee ye 17
the early inhabitants of western (Luschan)................--22..-204.- 553
panopuysical Observatory --..--..-=+...0.--.2..:. re ee 4, 7, 32, 33
NGrARY: Olas eae. oe ene sD S6 eee ees oe eee 102
PibhiextionsOlo:: —o20. 252 aes SSE STS Soe ee 23, 115
RE POTU ON esas 525 22 ee clone canes ay ere ale ieee ee ee OO Oy
mEMOspHeric air, relation Of, to Luberculosis./....---..:-..--.-.-.-0-.aah-e- 18, 19
um sCONSUICULION. OF ENE (IUVE).2. <.can- soe os oak ses e ome os ces se Seed tee 183
Attorney General (member of the Institution)... .. .... 22.4 <.sy2 8-2 ejqesje ds oc « x
EEBORy, FODCEG SEAM LOl, (DEQUCKE eo. =. - <- Sas nj geeeie- os ox.s-cee cess» 7, 118, 119, 123
B.
EEE eu LUE eRe ete re Reae> denis wane Sea geeewee 108
ee MAIO ISI IIe OP aoe Ce ee Se aE ne Ls eh thn 4 i, 2, 33, 34, 122, 123, 126
Baekeland, L. H. (some aspects of industrial chemistry) -................... 223
Pee ouncy, eumcer ( PSaUeeh) 6-85 ee Lire ot Seek eee 43, 96, 100, 124, 125
LETS WSPUETET EST a] coor = ers ce cane le eg ee he ROR ela 3, 5, 100, 124
719
720 INDEX.
Page
Baker? A oe te sees see ee oe eee oe Ne rete soe Shanes hn at eral era etate Cistoe Seles oR ae xi
Baker Biramikit sock oes Sr MEER DU eee eh ded be, thes SCRE WA Re xi, 24
report om Zoolopical Parkisico sien eae Sa eee ee aes 76-88
(the National Zoological Park and its inhabitants).............. 445
Balloon pyrheliomettys- 2442321 .ck ee eee Sen ae dla ere eee eee 92, 94
Ballou Howard: Mis ae eee Sah oe eet hc a eae als eee eS 60
Banks (Nat hanaes essa ch coc e eee aoe ie ecticls canes 2 Senieei nc een eee 114
Barnes; Howard Tiss s0s 2 bots: 3 So ESAS PSE Poss EL rs RS ee 11
Bartselie- Palit: hope es eta see: hea ar ge as Ete eee Res eee 14
1513710] (2) gk 5 tyes ei Si ele ea Ne es eR ESD nth eS ES 2 x
IBA UCL, Ae eet sehen Le ec ta einen cine MU cite ea ars 3 coe Sein Ae age ei Sn 111
Bears Study Or tMmeniGane ste es Coes ci mates vn Vasein a ato cial ens ae ne ees 16, 132
Becquerel, Paul (latent life: its nature and relations to certain theories of
contemporairy bidlogy)ia..sssSsscee66 Dunks tee ne bas cont ae 2 Sete Ger epee 537
Bell Alexander Graham (Regent).2:222.252222222 2202.-- Og PELE Re x 2121 126
BENE dict: AMOR Ets 65s p ate tebe: owes 2 ements ae See eiiee aera xt
Bonjumin ye Mancusi S27 S20 RE Ses coe tS e Se Be eee ee De xis
| 55S exe raved Y 0) G0 a Ys eee ea hag Pitan epee ac anal - a Tobsapaere sp airaie Sei Sh. So 11
| 5 (SS wee 1 Bee 0th fe ei epee se ae gets tere Ae te ark eh et insta SoS ily
1 Qated EEK Ace oon eer sei Bataan s sR mie a Le Raha A eel oto aS 2 17
Blackwelder: Eliot +2 St 1h 2 oe hfe ties Pee Re eae cer eee plat A
iBioehe Adolp he: sh 7. 25 5. Se 2 oe ee ee ee eee eee LET
1s] Geli, Owes 56555 sece s5- S58 so 2 Sear see Se ce acc eSokss Seeds se Seas i525 112
1 (Gy Y cpl Sto 0 7 A ae ee li a ey els lc aes See ete SS ot ERS he x1, 55, 56, 57,62
[BxOmeanceSly ied G ENTG deen ges wee atu ea SESH oS SSeS S525 5 56
Bonds A Russell, and Walker, Jc Bomarde:to=. -f)e-20 Seng teen ee ae eee 112
Boreletimile «4: 3dr ab oe tes pic is tones tones ele epee 110
[eyoutul sla) GPO s ONE (0 eee is REE Se ao aaa tees Ham an Wace ere es ae eee Oa WEE See 130
Bose, J. ©. (plant-autographs and their revelations)..........--...--.-.-.-..-- 421,
Bosler. Jean (modern. theories of the sum): 22720222 2c. ots te oe cee: tee 153
TOSSR IN Gre Thy § lee ocean aes corr ease Sebo esnamag ass ticle oe ade SoeSScs5 36c 40
Bottom of the seas, geology of the (de Launay).....-........-.2.-22...--22.-- 329
Boys Cy Viree-2 Lac See 2 bS2 S 8 Se leacrerta ie n= alate ove ale tage miele opiate i ageic pease ta at 110
raockletn ad: Giessen eee he cor ten Peer eae Ree ere er eee ore meer 38
Brain. Wrecdericke= noes erer ens 8 car eee ree nel etal a aie = ae ee ata 13
Brockett.“ raul. “assistant iibraniaw.2:: 927-0. 2t tect te sce eevee anes deities x
report OMMibTaryses "cee =. as See eee Weide sean s eraaiee 96-103
Bronzes, Chinese, an examination of (Ferguson)..............--.------+--+--- 587
brooks» MliredtHewecneF = ee 822 Mees sens ree eee aie nein tee ee 110
prow t@hanmasthns 222") -ns43 ss seek eee oes ee Sas eee oe Bite Am ces 59
Brown GOs saeco sas ee eke see ens MER CEREADN chester eet cies. Siena ee xi
A BY equth ip © fea eile ali Meat REN Stalk Foal ha. ate latinas py ieingts 5. Mids aarreay I Pin snd on 112
Bryan, William Jennings, Secretary of State (member of the Institution).....- a3
ryan pls Wer vste wanes ce ree me keels SEI eee ee es ae eee eet)
Bpirekland¢ James. <i remees es aks sets Bee M se eT ea cirnercaye cote arene 112
Bureau of American Ethnology...-. tee se aeberebesiere inte ae ens oy oalston Fee 7, 29-31, 45-66
LibmaryOltwet eee seit e hee oie eee eee 64, 102
pUbLCATIONS OI. =. +--+ sete ee ee eee 23, 62-64, 114
TOPOTH ONG spec ssc. sles cies see See eee 45-66
Burkbart..Ott0 Gace cas $s Sacaess os esos ee ee erence oer es ee een ee aa eee 65
Burleson, Albert Sidney, Postmaster General (member of the Institution)... -. x
Bashnpll, a): dy te: 2254520 cote oe eek ae ets ate oe epee ee 38, 59
Butlers Charles Henry, .2.s222.0. saceae 24 sale tee ans ok ae oe ee ee 20
By gtom, Oyrusse: 2c. sc eiate as elem eee eee = reo are ert Re ele eee 61, 62
INDEX. (ou
ei Page.
Cadell, H. M. (the Klondike and Yukon goldfield in 1913) ..................- 363
Canadian Rockies, geological explorations in the...................22..2.-.- 10, 11
Cashmere, Dutch East Borneo and, expedition to...............2.00.0.02.---- 15
pear perinimy A. Beanie ee bets os acs one ds ho! no eoltecey) ee 56
Chamberlain, Hrances Lea '\(bequest) s: 32.2...) 4.2! do.dzeb.l2lde. A pad! 162d
Ghamberlain Leander T.; (bequest): 2.2.05 - sx). 2 a2su tie. athe eek es 6, 28, 42, 125
7 DTER BESS Rs Oe mee © SEE 129
Chemistry, some aspects of industrial (Baekeland)-...................--....--- 223
Chief Justice of the United States ge saat cays oveseidas a. ba. ouerek SeeGh x
Chin, the story of the (Robinson). . SRA SR ase CUS TS Oe ee
China, American School of eencoleer 1 ae et ee Se eke me Ie PRN SI A ee 20
biolopresinwonein Morihies. 2502455 2o 8 ee 8 ey cn 131
Chinese bronzes, an examination of (Ferguson)...................-.--------- 587
Pmesioe taslesy ire Wry (Repel )iss2 200.252 c2c.5 020816 2.402552 l 1S cee x, 2
Sitka Howard. editor ol the Luostitution:....~. - 205... 5. See ase eeee X, x1, 24
FOpUrOny pe DMEALONSY: 284280 c2 2. blk 2522S oa Be ee 107-117
Ciel eAN TG) or TE 0) OPE eS ce ere ee eee i ce Came mt 109
an iC ny remem nee Mente Se 0 3.52 PLL Io lke Wee etete ne ee xt
meter MELO Walt ite eae oe cee e ne ot a = ce BeuRS ae Sots eee 112
OUSSES hd Hiei “oo ne os ae ee eeentens weber Re org cree Ce Wd, 112
Climate and tuberculosis.......... SE EOUTEE 1: WME RSE rom eel t= aes SE
Climates of geologic time (Sehuchert).. ey NAL RR DR A A its ie RPA MEN eh 201
Commerce, Secretary of (member of the Institution)........---....----...-.- 7%
Gannitier on printing and publication. 22.2223. .ec web S. Socks sensiec oa 24
Beaieteros i MierOnONAl srt te fen. spl 5 = el 3 5 oR see alt eee ae 25
POM EN EM AITICe ( NEPCM) ohn soot eee hs ed co ess Aad icra cee saat eee oles
PANN TAOH Om bNOratOHlCEnVe))o 2 ob ek ore wt ae eee oes 183
Goniwinutions to knowledge; Smithsonian: 2-3. -t....-<.-ce-2 <j = Lamnrd- as oak 21, 107
od GES G ET a Ie ih ei SA IA coe A ERR YS ae ae a Ae Ps ener Ro 114
eee GiGeed eens se eee Nene cee SAE LISS TENE ee ee 112
NEGLI LON Cape op a alen als Coa aA Re RE BEANS 20, 112, 124
mete PELCMORICK Vice ten seme ence are oo elec i ae a he eee ne eee ee xi, 112
CSECiR Sig D9 00 ull este te aes Aad ile ee ei pie! BAL eens ae MNS aL a Rae IUD Be EL 113
EAB REORO CN Oo oo ot aS oe a oe let one a ca ae A pele AO ee xi
Gurtin, Jeremiah..........2-.--.2--- EIS Ce eM fs lie ss 62
Remewies, Glomm Wits 22. acc ee eee saad eure ae sol teicuers gee) J): 22, 129, 218
Susaman, Joseph A... 2222202225; SP ae eos feces cer her Hd sees eee 113
De
ELT. VME NESS cot Ts 1S ee enna eee Ge Ee ee aes Pe ETS: ae xi, 100
Medel, LD oe Gl Se See ee epee | Ree Le ae ee er eewe yet: p 2, 122, 126
cara Josephus, Soren, of the Navy (member of the Institution). ....... x
Deeb ter ofimeAmencan Revolution, report of: 5... = 02a. o3 os snayeee 23, 116
Me SERIE Dice eye Ee Spe ec ele ieee encrnicns Maia Siete ns «9 a 110
Seid Bs SO. SHON CR ays cpaaiey ctes «Pepe 0d Bee cents es are. tea 112
de Launay, L. (geology of the bottom of the seas). ..........-........-.. sidou, 183s
Demonstration play school of 1913, the (Hetherington)... ...............-.- : L679
Rr NC EILCR 3 a Bo te att ie soca 5 wine ea dan oe ee 112
PTI ta eas bate sne: vie: DO Rew delay Sky oe kg » eredae <a
MiSEeIUOTS a NMea Me Tincesee oe P 2 e Letanc ie soe SN 59, 62, 114
Depopulation, deforestation, and malaria, the réle of, in the decadence of cer:
spetiretetoner (EepMait) oi. 0g oS a Min Sat ecw cs aedececnu dy teormisD, 29s
73176°—sM 1914—__46 ee
7122 INDEX.
Page.
DOW AUER. EROTIT as Bera ta cpee ge eee hh ner area N eee NR ctv SU Rery te Baas faeces er 112
Dewey; Liyster vais. ovs sca. LOPE Ee PO OLE TER SS ae Ti oe 48
Dickson; FNS ice. 5 ose cect ha epee Pee SOU ES URS chee Sta 112
Pimock; Mrs: Henry: Foose crore 5 see Se a ahaha ae oe ee ce arm tna ch 26
d’Ocagne, M. (remarks on logarithms apropos to their tercentenary) .....-..--- 175
Dorsey, Harry. W., chief clerk of the Institution. ae gr x
Drought, notes on some effects of extreme, in Waterber Z, South Neca (@viataia): 511
JU FaTS| eX \ cepa 671g MARR ee en eas I ED ee es eM ROMER ee aU tee ee Cli LL 110
AUB) UIE NTA eb op. yin ees) Neen opens eae Pas wis SRA IC ER ZS LSELY IGE MAPS, CASO Sat 61
Dutch East Borneo and Cashmere, expedition to... 2. ...2.2222220 220.2025. 15, 1380
E.
Bart by formand constitution of thex(Stewart)ie ote cece ee ee ae eee 161
AM dandy ar les yl iis 2 Seats ss Noch ee Nea ee aU aR eek Ray mn ce gage g eater Smet il
oatite PNT OMSTe Tinie tersen settee Yee Le SEAN Bei a tae ee ees SV ee et 22
Hectic phenomenarolthe suns. 2 Aske cee. eee ee seer oes eee 158
HleC ONS ama bE Ole ee testator tlie rene a ye meee mere eee aes De ee eee 184
DIVE} OFF) X25 0) oY ee el lag aa en ne ae ee ea ome ate ed Ria pe. tad Gole eia 112
1 Olek gt OO eae he ete ee eee hee Pete ptae art Maem Sennen Sakae Renin atelis 8. es 112
Hetablisnment«the Smithsonian os i oe Oss ee ee eee ce eee 1
Bihnolooy,youreatt-of Americans: 35 65s scece ne ee een ere 7, 29-31, 45-66
Hibrary toh ses tess erences ee ee nee 64, 102
publicatronsvoie: -co 20-8 tee eee 23, 62-64, 114
J Oen oe vats el oa celles Sie memcct eens ee steel iniae et ea Me tN a inase amet kate ae ci 3 112
Bive »AcaS-(constiiutionson-thevatom)jche ese oe eee eee oe aoe cee eae 183
Hxcavations at Abydos (Neville) sos: eee eee en ee eee see ee 579
EKECUULVerCOMMIL Lees TOPOL Ol-pi12 a ocee cc eo secs yee oe ce eee ence ree 118-121
iP peditions: Omi nsOnvaMan se eee ee ete ONE eck one Sah a = areas 130-131
Expedition to Dutch East Borneo and Cashmere.............-.-..------------ 15
Explorations, geological, in the Canadian Rockies.............-...---------- 10, 11
xescamelnes andhes te {96 ae ae i RS Rec ee Ce Oke Bn eee 8
eapligaawes (OQ) Ebenm) ass aan ema ete mea ar ctor cere ype eae 249
Bi.
Hairbanks, Charles, W. (Regent)x..2.ci2k.scte secs eee SN far rar mL NNR S x, 2
Rarcand. LlvaM os tons sects) acheter = crore eis eet er ee Se Se 58
Bersacens J..C.\(an- examination of Chinese: bronzes) 4.222122. 2eeen see eee 587
Hora Scott (Regemb) acs. cece outtake tem senee amen ese oe DN eek ese ea x, 2, 122
RS WARS ists VV GUGM ee gai OREN ate ge agate SUS enc) enn epee ye tee a ea cieeee le x1, 30, 49, 50, 108
ina nCes Olt be TT MSti tition cane Men Seas ois oi I Nake cepa eae nee 6-8, 118-121
Bisheries, United States Direauiol= siee0 eee ee eee 3
Putzeerald: (iter. (bequest)<+- 5243 see sss 7 VS i oeAs ise eee oe 6, 126
laces Miowr tim SS Uhec ROLE: Cos 80 POSEN E RL Ae Shee J Went, See aera ee 108
1 OVO) #2 30rd ere Aig A ON iy Iho Gilace rt pee aula a eaichiel wath As Be 108
HOPS: SAIN CS so eta ke ee ek 8 SR eT BREN SO A 1h
Form and constitution of the earth, the (Stewart).............-..---.------+--- 161
Hoss echinodermsiins Elbnoisess cote ee ee ee ee ee ee 13, 14
Fossil remains, vertebrate, in Montanass! 82.25.02. oo sec le ce Be ohec anaes 13
HONOR iia Thane beers e bt eRe as Gh ey Men ee ae tice Vite A EID cen xi, 89, 90, 110, 115
Brachten bene, 1.60 Jie. set cage ct 6p eee eee os ee oe ee xi, 56, 57, 58, 62, 114
Bredenicksen. Nicer ccs soe 25 each CER ONE e es CUO See 2 ee ee 61
Freer. (Gharlestl peri si 02 7. fis 0 y ST GEE oR aban slt Sohn SAREE Ree Pee ee 20, 28, 41, 180
= reer’ Gallery-opArtce.:ceeeipcsse seat es eee AN 8) fe eee 130
Freire-Marréco, Parbarac:.. 2 sck.cee Se os Sees Seb ee ee eee 63
ce
Page
Cee D Lea eeee Sem ee artes eee Ste Siereiaiala(e wie id\ Sins) x earae uae Weld ee Seen oie areas 11
Garrison, Lindley Miller, Secretary of War (member of the Institution)........ x
OS OTR E TRS TEG ECL Ds. RS re lg tee ell EP xi
Geologic history of the Appalachian Valley in Maryland...................-.. 11,12
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies.............-.-.---.-------- 10, 11
UIBME VAM E ANULUN Re coe acre oh = eel. Sao Nee at toa ao Sree eee 12,13
(Winited(Statesscc- soso ee a ae eek ie ace earned 12
Reaweie ime, climates Of (OCHUCKET) oo oo. css coe 25 aie ely os ne ass 277
Geology of the bottom of the seas (de Launay)...........--..-.----------+0+- 329
iwelithelnatemationalConeness Ola. cesccsncsee = oe ee eines is aes 25
Bepree Wasaineton Memorial Building. oo. so. Sect oo on aeineiaince wai 25
DeeMPOMe MMAR eso cts o aia rrala(aia/afo.nc's 6 oa Sates s ses es ee Sic s +a op ae eee 60
CUS Bee Cee OY Ae NSS Dee Sees ee eae ene enema ac 12, 40
Beer OM PIG tees an set ae rn Pic fcr ivs ose ce BD ae oe mote anh a ne ano xi
CFT FILS a FETE Tae a ea a ec ea CIS 61
ETL, Te SLC ee argo al a oe aM meet eI 1811 15 5)="
Siu Gates GLEN ATS SA ERS CRE I oe ey er ee ee eee meee Pee ei a)
SENET 10 SU EG NS ads Ses I ae ee areee ea are ne Eger i 277
Goldfield, the Klondike and Yukon, in 1913 (Cadell)....-..-. pietaearln toe teas 363
eariae et rota Aten arte ee ee es oka oie ail 2 od be a's ee a ae ee cee ee ee
Brremrucicions YUKON == 2.8 ence oo. 2 sso os ose nhs nieces es Be a erecta 381
Goligksamhn ied eS seseeeeesea ce Ss 2 CR TO eee es eS ey ARN ea Sal
Permee mG PESTO Was ee nae esc chic os a eee ates Seen ccs ae eaanees 4
Borie te caMGere so an aeee ene Loe tn 0's See See ee oes Fo oe ae 112
Gravier, Ch. (recent oceanographic researches).......-.---.--+-------+---+-- 353
Gray, Andrew (gyrostats and gyrostatic action)............-..-----.----+.-- 193
Merve GEOIPO (IVECCNL) -- oo. cee cnon= sca se eee eae Nene x, 2, 122,128
2 ESLER Nee ee IS ee ce ot ne Ee See PS 51
Gull, herring, habits and behavior of the (Strong)...........-.---.------------ 479
ruta te Vegl Bee eins Mt O mena Gir ieaeel PaO ial eed ee ea aa ENE eee Ly i
report on International Catalogue. --....-.....--------- 104-106
UE jai du Cise SG RB Sa ie A aan het ie ae aniie ee ahs eae tee ie eine xi, 62
Gyrostats and gyrostatic action (Gray).......--.--- AN Se cee a na ae 193
AS i
Bette StMCOM, (MOMUCKE) eo ace e ec tine aclcin cca Sc © Sem wielaete isis senile ie See (es
eee COMES ia occ octet ees oe cca tev aoe nee ee Dae wee seme Afb
iloos pleoebroic (Joly )-2-<~ 2.5. s226.02 2-5 sam= Fae ns 2 + os eetremires Ieee sem 313
Panmititon, James. (bequest)! Cio22 LA Ie. Jo. PIPPIN a 3. Sse 7,118
Pendmond, John Hays. jt. 2. .socscsees 2s. eos 2 be coo oe LES ee eg 129
miarrimaneAlasks) Series 5 <> 4 See eee Wak Meee Thee Ayre aes LOS 22-23, 113
Peering vy Mast dy Pikencs See oc: Oey eas Sats sean d tetrad ns ses tee ae ee 16
ariman trust 1nd, Tesedrehes Wnder...2522 2272.25 eee 16, 17, 1382
Poy Gitta & Neel oe Slee eh Nie a ts all ee eee nee 39
cy SVEGEEDSS 70) ae fag Sap cepa ble a el op tle ah ety acre petite Eth 62, 63, 114
=) eG alah Eel ete ete pee da an i eee SC 100
eRe CUNANIOM 1c ooo csa2 ce waen css sos sts aare tes cece soe oon tte 111
O55 Sr LTS ronan Dat hae este 0 trek eet Sok pata te ae em at A Strap oe 108, 109
PreBaetoon JOHA Oil (Ct Olh) 2 sas -2-~csasct atest toate eos eee x 21430
Pemumersdn ohn b.-tHemonial.- S072. . g. cht ecw e ee cae Rees ter ome 127-128
oo Robe SSS tee (URW DY seh ele ag alpctalesietgee go eso bs ele ei ame eae eine cant Lie A 62, 114
1a Ty ok Tig PERS 0) RMR ae i ae pe ae eee este it 3
Herring gull, habits and behavior of the (Strong).....------------------------ 479
724 INDEX.
Page
Hetherington, C. W. (the demonstration play school of 1913)................-- 679
JB AeS oA fa BS ae bi Soo vad iene Pa sete les ae viet Nears oon EI eh see x1, 52, 53, 60, 62
Fille de Eb. property clerk of the Inswttnon. 222202 220.2 ss ec en tee tee >.<
DSO) [Ped byevay iene Lae Ae eek nee rarahele Renae ers Recep yi Se pepe neha s pared a ate aes Se ity egy 3 108
ERisisdale AG uy Seen Ra OE Ro ee ets oie Leen te Sterne men Sete ea a ay 18, 109, 123
PATER COCK PAS MSs seta ate cones Bote a ere a Mla re eye ea ae ag re 114
POS Hy Wie its aoe eae PEE EL ee PS Ue ens Oise See xi, 24, 29
reportjon, bureawor Ethnolopy sss: fe oe ees eee yaaa ae eee 45-66
Hadekins: /Phomas|G. (bequest) nics saocas teases toe eeeaers sae 41, el, AAS
Hodgkins fund, researches under the Bee ASE aie 1a Rie Ape least’ Anstey el desire! 17-19, 123
BEN OEE CG Mie atc. ie are carte Ione cal acres A ak gaia arash rere a ge 112
Hollis: vilenry Krench (Recent): e270 ee, cee cert pe et sete eee eee ee re
Le Feibonreys A WBN UNTESW co Nel & Bee cpeaer rine eae cp ae nae soe eh naa Eg ce a Cine Sa cy i xi, 58
Homeotic regeneration of the antennz in a Phasmid or walking-stick (Schmit-
SIGMSOM gricteter coc crates kien wee poesia ajarsre Rierave ie casio wyeraia ere cate neeie enetatala Se he ener ee 523
Hooper, L. (the loom and spindle: past, present, and future)..............-.-- 629
Hioueh: Wialtene os: 22 jc dos heacs cee e aoe ons e= canes eer eee en me eee xi, 113
Houston, David Franklin, Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institution). 52
Sieh ee 6 at Dee 0 aedeagus Rene ree cine eanraen kre PRR ALE MCP REE ect 5. 0 xi
Bie llicicne Niles ame eaten, eee s Menem Oe = OE SEEN xi, 17, 109, 112
Humphreys, W. J-.-.-.---- aerate OR AERA DRS amen Nr eat duit ht Ines OS oo 110, 129
iEiminsaker:;, Jerome © 252 235.0 fees oe oe eee cece oe ae eee 98, 130
Huntington, Blisworth <5. < aon ee at tt ee ee Sb lets rT eek 110
I.
Hlnoiss fossil echinodennsiine 22.2852 o ce esse aes Seach ce eee ae een eee 13,14
Tllumination, recent developments in the art of (Millar)...-.................. 611
indian: probable origi of the American tec. hoe oe oe ake enn een ee 17
Industrial chemistry, some aspects of (Baekeland).-............-..-......-.-.- 223
Inhabitants ot western Asia, the early (muschan)s.2.. 20-2222 ofa tee 553
Interior, Secretary of the (member of the Institution)...-.........-..--...... x
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature..................----.-.----- 8, 33
TEPOrl/ One Wo. sete eee 104 |
international tixchanbes: 302255 Si. ree See sane ote carecins one re eet eee Tou
ME POLE OM ey cretsfalere, aye a) ya keke ae eke rear eke ree errr 67
iethmian Canale Commissions... Weta ses is = oes ec cets Sale ee eee eR 12
J.
TRUMAN GUStAY, 5 -.0-c2055- Ao ost aSeese nsec r oie ste pee eee 112
Johnson, D. S. (history of the discovery of sexuality in plants).............. 383
Foly;.J.(pleachroic haloes). :.-.60.542-3-05e45= «oo ast cath: Se eee 313
Jones, L. R. (problems and progress in en pathology ).-.-.22fe¢ seterle sere 407
Smid Nei Mie ne oe toh oioeiele anue samia’s Sod slaes ses aeins see loc ee ee eee ae 38
K:
UEP SVT Sams GPW ty Oe et ee ara SETI apse eels 3 Barc ake es oh Sea ee eae 110
Reamo OgU es aan teins ate <n.c oe Ie ee Rte eRe a er eo eee ee 112
AGIs di 0 ante eel hr erie ferennn hana ie eerie ree ce nants rd. lll
Kellor, Henry G.;and Macleod, 3-3. Rirti 22.5 28220206206 0. Seca eee 112
Wlskoime. Alived too. 22252220 sc 22a. foes SiO Soe an ane ies Soe ee 100
Klondike and Yukon goldfield in 1913 (Cadell) .....-.-.----.--<4--n2+-s--00 363
Knopi, ®. Adalphus i. 22.022 525s gencin intic ate ole ele aces teins toe eee 18, 123
Keri g wiles SW). Ae eo an te Sh oe 2 Re Se ee xl
“ Page
BSCE BER GTG. tot ke SP ed DA eS Bate oe a ee Sa ae ee 113
PBS BT Cee a A ae SRN No Se Mino mite Cue aah StS wie NRIEL: core 109
iermcbert A. ilht. 43 ons aa tewl ls fo daeordt ori. Ghnaninobee bh vee wa 60
L.
Labor, Secretary of (member of the Institution)...........................-- ne
MACHOL PAN hase ks as ot oe Soca ee bad Pee ath cat ete See OY a PURO
marbesches Mrancis! = {2222592502406 4204 5 $ oo BE PORTO ONE? xi, 58, 54
Lane, Franklin Knight, Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institution). K
Panrlev samuel Piermont. 2 :sio0..2s2.82te sees s tee cbeceebee ses eee te OEM 3,4
Vaneloy-acrodrome, flights of, 19142. .......2..5-2.524 2422 seth RE 9, 217
Aerodynamical Laboratory: 4222..2.4.2222.2224 222520848 8, 98, 123, 129, 130
daxmemereises ss 2.ch bt estest acted eblie leek iatctee slo eee 129
Latent life: its nature and relations to certain theories of contemporary biology
BERPOUUIGEC here Mian 2 6 2m a Safe aatnc,s la sans Seisie aa cae seas Sosa sey ee see ses 537
mer ORenOldson 4 so.2i 44042420. et IRR, BR OS SURE SOG. 111
Lady 8 LAOS SSI Sy SR Ye, Se ee Sane a ae eR IE Bo YA id de 65
Ween saae(DEQUCEL) aa ssf skCe tent tli l tl beet kt tt teehee 6 ee 6, 125
wo eh LOLS Qi Re A a ie ere ees ho eee ae 1a | ne xi
1B Sg il ie ga NPE EN Sk ee nl 110
“es BEEING Ty Se 2S aR SR OS Ae AE RTE a NOR” le RO 110
Pespers John sts 5255 2.t.ne SPE e BER Oe eS SEO 40
Mecwtone Pr redernek Vj. cote sc ecescn 6 oc See c see eo ee xi
Parity. SintbasoMmian: of =025 2 Sess tenets sc oot tet ROR IB Be PORE) seh 24-25
FEPOFb OMe ese ase ee Se Fs ee PE 96-103
Prfe zones-in the Alps: :-::-..--........2++222004 pupeeetarieetatewaocse Vee 15, 16
Padre ttenry Cabot (Regent)... 22222202: .222shseesse2052209222088 x, 2, 122, 128
Mase, Moimis (HegiLest) = -2.452 525. +biten ties e eich est esecac ces JIE em 5, 124
Logarithms, remarks on, apropos to their tercentenary (d’Ocagne)...........- 17
Loom and spindle, the: past, present, and future (Hooper).................. 629
MIS MEIC HOWALE Ola Ae aie. nee Gao hoe eee 2 ee te ee 132
Luschan, Felix v. (the early inhabitants of western Asia)...._............... 553
M.
McAdoo, William Gibbs, Secretary of the Treasury (member of the Institution). x
RieelmvOs hn aIMes ay. ayes as ene tee eal coe eS ac oes eee eh ee Oe OE 108
Mericod. aa. it...and Keller. Henry G. 2... 2.2.0 2. .o2-c0c2- on oe ied eee 112
McReynolds, James Clark, Attorney General (member of the Institution) ...-. xe
Malaria, depopulation, deforestation, the réle of, in the decadence of certain
MAL OMAE CCON AUG) eset meme ete deer ae LV ERS ET kre at hae yee enene eee. Beieees 593
Man-carrying aeroplane, the first, capable of sustained free flight (Zahm). - . - . 217
Marais, E. N. (notes on some effects of extreme drought in Waterberg, South
PRMLCA Recher seats Leet eta ieee ee eee or TOL Ne Se Ne Se 511
Riatsn all wearkeresn sees ekee RM nee SRA tee mene Rs Scie Ae © ec ie bs ee SP oe Reena 61
Marshall, Thomas R., Vice President of the United States (member of the
«TURUNEN SE SE ape Ale note a eta Martel ea ae trial pan gabe I Spt KZ Aeeise
meryianG. Eleistocene cave Gepodit il/i2jo22 07s bot St Bette ticki “ie: 12
“UE Oe a te ao trae ca a Ah ely kaa ek rae Nee ee Ad Pei hc fa Mt 114
“oh SRT A ee ae eT, RCS SERA Pa Ba ae eet A ee ee nM dh bala ge xi, 114
Semriord: (aeOrse Oss nis ce pte eee en see Eek eas Rees nies e ene Wek ees xi
"sg ES) ga a I SS SS ee he RA GS el tat 28, 39, 100, 108, 109
OTST SCs SET ETS TES AEM a Bes re I MOMSEN Ae bey UA SAM apa ted Shi te 16, 132
oe ETI GCS a NE Bee eed Tule flr Mi peertecbr ara g ated QP 8 mee xi, 24, 25
726 INDEX.
2 Page.
Meyer,“ Hupenes, jk-.idjiaje/Sisienstndctais ss be ECR eee so ee agee cee 20
Mirehelsom alr a mriGs sis ene tie eerie state eee tee eS ee: xi, 55, 56, 61
Millar, P. S. (recent developments in the art of illumination)............... 611
ANA rf Ga eS Sh mom pc tahc he Gske wasiete se eS EIC TIS Se ee a oe IRE Ee ae 110
Maller sGernitis,; jtaiso2.4-< ole Saisonc airs setae seein aero Caos ae xi, 15, 109
Miscellaneous collections, Smithsonian. ...-.-..........:.......--..- 21,22, 107-110
Molluscan faure of Virsimia-coast=). a7 eae oe enone eee ee eee 14, 15
Montana, vertebrate fossiliremains imi. 5 344.202 isd. ss cst ee epee ee 13
Mooney, dames stot) sits*ieveles oaz hse sists eld Ave ergata ieee xi, 30, 50, 51, 65
Moores Riley) ose kes is so SEE sone seal cece cos che eeeen aaa 38
Moorehead) Warren Ko.) o252202 225 2c kb eso cb ORY = teat: aeeaeg are 60
Morley (Sylvanus G -).(.eeeshs ce scoc ck. oka s wesiteemied: beameeseeeeee< 63
Maint eue iain es ers: $2 fates se cle eee a ie ie cate ie OU Snes fo tema eae ee 60
N.
Naples zoological station, Smithsonian table at...............-.---22.22--+- 19
National Gallery of Art....... oeiStas Siblga sass e oawise Se ase melee Moen ee 41-42
National Marseumescs . thc shee oe Oo er i boo RRS ee 8, 27-29
laibrary Ofsted os elke gi teh e e/ Seperate eo ee 99-102
publications Of. seco cst cbc eek. seek ee cele eee Zane
TOPORG OM oa 2 ec in we poe cys ere wre a erect ea 35-44
National Zoological Park and its inhabitants (Baker)..............:....-.-. 445
See also Zoological Park.
Navaile; 1. (excavations at Abydos):: .- 2.2.22. -t2ss-52224-5-. ceptor tee 579
Navy, Secretary of the (member of the Institution). .....:.......---....--..- x
INGerOlom yates alee woot eee ss he Soe ree hee nce eee eee ae eee 33
Neumann FB elax oy ee see SP pets SE Es Se gd eta S aeecetee 60
Nightingale, Roberti@s. 2. se2.050) 255.2 cce. die 2s. ett es 5 hemos abeeee 65
Nitrogen, atmospheric, fixation Of 4.24842 Vee os ewes: sere eeetes cnet 229
Nordmarin,' Charleses). Js hetesett iy sais see ees cee oat sdetiose bee lil
O.
@berholsers tarry Coe. sce sates cvsre eee recs a so0s | cveyere asec topeg yee hier as ea eee 113
Oberhwummieryhy. 3c ce ey Sokike cies eae ce Sete se eee cree a ee 111
Oceanosraphic researches, recent, (Gravier) “296 2 2. eee See ee ee 353
Oceanography; ceology. of bottom’ of seas?! 4. Yi Os ISI IT 225 BOOT RS oe 329
@'Hern,- H.-P. (explosives) -..:125222i:2sescs 22s dtett ct sceeee eee ee 249
@airis; the-tomb of: -+.22222422 2442252. tee PO, BUR ee ae 579
iP
aime’ VOMMAELO WAL aol Se rciss epee oecs Set cera lone sine eos eo te epee 109
‘Painter, TS tase at tA card th ep ietiane tee ol cbeee tee bree Glas ene eterna 19
Palmer yWallvamc ayo eh Uiteen iat: Garcia dea Sayan phe ULpaak ene erences ac Rae 40
Panama CeOlogicall SURVEY Olesya) sau mann selaye Ge cetera ny Von ease Ue oe 12,13
Pareja. BYranGise@) occa: ce etn cis Gao ake Seat ete ne eet el ee 61
pastor Wally. JR ce nb ont a foto tbc at oie een ieee fee. a eee 111
Pathology, plant, problems and progress in (Jones). ......-------------+-4:-: 407
BEATS SA eS aici cs Sirs reese ne la tae create eee it ep 112
IRE POr VAN ea cae cece ec Beas RIG oe RC ate eg PORES 2, 34, 122
Ferret: chron by At ce 8 5 ioe tat oS Pe Bec a ca gen Ie tage SUN ceded Oa - 110
Piclaman WOW Mc 2c so foes hea Ne, Sek eC NE ane ee 124
Pittier. shemiiy -Seae. ts. 2o seein ucizscices soa Mee ee oe aE ee ee ee 109, 114
Plant-autographs and their revelations (Bose). .......-.-...-.-------++-------- 421
Plant pathology, problems and progress in (Jones)..........-..-.---+---+--+--- 407
Plants, history of the discovery of sexuality in (Johnson). .......------------ 383
ae
INDEX. ri il|
Page
Play school of 1913, the demonstration (Hetherington)....................---- 679
Peisioeene cave ceposit.in Maryland:.. 52/000. 4.. see. 2s. occ s eee 12
PPOUCOT ERC MIRIOCAN OLY pant (ae eon oe cu neh iee esse Sct vec saaee ee ees 313
ie tritcriicmbtetenierere ee ret aie se ot tS eon ee De 110
Poore, George W. (bequest) eye oe ee eee enn EE ORE Ca aren se 4,124
Postmaster General (member of the Institution). ............... 20.2 02.2-00 x
President of the United States (member of the Institution)................... x, 129
Reet OINCMIR Ol ec sc afa Gs oc crea kisi ee eat tlk ve ee ee 23
Prntime and publication, advisory committee on.................2..--.42.%4 24,117
Publication, advisory committee on printing and.................-...2..-.-- 24,117
Publications of the Smithsonian and its branches......................-...-- 20, 128
EOVWORWOMen nase seaecioe sia fas eos ole b.ctc eee nse Sie sinion ys SOE 107-117
UP LISELI Ts Le ae aa re a Ree ee ee IG Sr 110, 111
Pere marmeety, DALOOM. - oS ig ef 82 here yyaits aca dees sank seeded 92, 94
R:
Reeth OAPI Oc eet een) ee aah ioe oa se Seis aioe sel nase Oe ails See 112
Pao Otte SUI, THO CADDOU)......-020.-ss-25-50 0225+: less ceee eee es 137
_S.QINSRYG 11a | aa SR ee ee ee ee Spe a ae ee eS cee 183, 313
PPACROLED, Wyo ee on se Ve ee eS BS Fe Sata aS ooataiaes a cin as Cree 109
Repay Sites SeleMN See ie aera ene Soe oe oh veh esis coe anes Moe 17,110
Rathbun, Richard, assistant secretary in charge of the National Museum ...-. x, X14,
113, 128
IPE VOT es My MES EE pec a ole 35-44
EDS ELEL TE Veo a a ea ee yt ce i re RIN PS eA 15, 39, 130
Pre Gis Oa ee Sie ae ocien o.25 Se Lawn hehe ae = =< e tee eae xi
ecieMe Ord. “prize A WATdem tO... .c0. 526. - ce vee e eee soe eee oo eee ae 17
°C EPs FEET Spe SB a A a pe ee CC RU oh a 129
Redfield, William Cox, Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institution)... x
Bee ier eae hate eet och ee lars arn 2 Mees cn bie ane = a =4)4 se See 39
Regeneration, homeeotic, of the antenne in a Phasmid or walking-stick
BE CIENt ROUSER) 4. os. nas cae ete ee Soe coos at ae ane Se epee 523
Ie BL Oh DATS ELUM GLOM =, 2a caia oe See ese i oe Siew n Seimei non oe ee owe!
PIOCCCOINEH Diss eas. oe sate Bo ea ee eee 122-132
report of executive committee of................- 118-121
Regnault, F. (the rdle of depopulation, deforestation, and malaria in the de-
BAMEnCG OR CEnAMITIALIONS) 6 see Pathe asin Sas anata CEES EIR 593
Beery) euCAIBOTy 12 DEQUCKL oo. race ica cnr. 2 sclas Sloe ain eie oe cles OS oe 5, 7, 118, 124
PEPE EST UCOs Una ae nn Tee has 2 1 2 Seas. Sosa < Sow ee 65
Peceoaren COMporaiton. inc o-: 2ieiae ee seme! sat Sis atone Maes = chase = gh 19, 124
ireeearciies and OxPlOrAtlONs: =22.2. 2- - = adaey PS Ys IN an Be bs a ce aibs «Eee a St 8
under Harriman trust fund. Bee ere aie Dee SEN #3. 4: ag iede se 16, 17, 132
the-Hodekine funds: ... 52.2.2) s.< -theb? Aso? Jqsaehberey 17-19
ionees, Win iiande Jones (bequest): *-..2.-.-,---.-2-2=-s2--:-.-5----s ehebeee 7,118
LEG ce iga fetg ie a 3 ae a a eee oe eee ee eee me ee 109, 129
UE ESTED DMN, OE SG SS nO ee a ee ee 100
eta ae OUCEL heme eet mses et OM cod Gane nee ee cde ts See oe xi, 113, 114
RegpeweLGerd WWTEIRGGY NY os eater ters Se Ok as Set tee one cl ok seamen 63
Beers! MEPHOSG Wie (TeRBMU seats Ae an se a <span oo ays oe we eee ees ee pa iE 4
Robinson, Louis (the story of the chin)..... Sra eeinkie S's Pad ve eens Ss cle Ae 599
Rapee i Neen cone ne tomer elses ae nal aimceicie ee ceca s wee Lhe Seine ep 108, 114
IERIE OR. Ey, Mave eh hes. fn ieee See Ga se ow ck cme Cmae eee a semee ows 62
ap AARC Ue ese aan Ss iatiaians 7 Sex Sars Ea a ee ey se ye ae en es 108
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SaitordtWalliam wMirsssrssrsssstl tte ees ee eee eee eee ne ee ee 114
DapUn eH WarGs mena ste anit heiaject S8 chs 5.5 tat enters renee ee eg ee 111
Sargent mEroment Baer cackiy hs Osi OMe Ae ee aie ee oh ee eS eee LS eee 56
Sehater whiAs...4 eves ieee tA sek Se Shh aee sake ns.ss a ae ce eee ee 111
Schmit-Jensen, H. O. (homceotic regeneration of the antenne in a Phasmid
Gr walkane= sticks) .ris nc Ses ee eee ates eae ae, Me eee S009 ke sai 523
Schiuchented@ harass seas ees ares ae ra a Nata SPE erence gar AeeN moe eC 114
(chmatesioieeologic tame) sss 2 ee ee ee 277
SPEGTLGT UNE obs 5 aay Setar M aroha A meet lh iy io oe abies cel Raa sea Rher FL es 61
Scotembarmest Kel foyrraatc 2 mlaaes nie sap 9 ALON Soe REEL AIA ONAL Tare 08 SIRO eer reese one er 112
CMVOT eGEOR OVA Bee Lt srr aie a5 en UTE ee ease aca a Pra nSy SRSE aPe NN eet Sea ae 129
ROKGLIWOUC KS PSTN Leathe’ sence geans pasertalh crete ies rar Reed SoSits aha tad nc, ng a ep xi
SRD eye) a zh eke] hls tee eee eta Aa See Re a RAN a A eer ei AR ea icy 3 100
Sexuality in plants, history of the discovery of (Johnson)............-..-.-.----- 383
Shepherd Bas. and: Day, Arthur li: 3). shod baa ee cise ne ana ee 112
Silhenmigin: VAu thie, yee oes.) eau ah Pi eh Gre Many pee a 2 a 0 4 Shes te peo en 12
Sim playa pea eerste Peet cisco aioe csoenire cic elmer eee oer Net weet eee eee 20
RS OWS" 2) 0011 (ey 2+ (7D) a a Pe a ean eae eleaMaveD ut Soin febtwedht seers year xi
report oud ntermational Hxchanges-< 9229.22 5=-: eee 67-75
Srailite.< To Wee. c mee erer tea are oc ceeyers Sola pmeiatte bide bhi eee So x
isl ae C at 2 Er Gel 2 ease A Se en Ne Soy Dera Ree mrarnemeae sy ANS oP ns ight:
Smiths J: Donaldmand Rosen sNscceace estes Ba te. cen e.cinti eco eret ee ee 114
SiiEeusonn Anes) (OCGIESE Sec Soceeece aq seams Hoe Beeeicclen = eee eee 4,6, 118
Smithsonian table at Naples zoological station. .........---.-.-2-.-------22-2-- 19
Solamridiatwonpnvesticaimlomsrsse-.aseeeneenes eek ocmciece coer cece ee 18, 91, 131
SOWEEDYepAl GG Oca cccacitene faye oi soci oce moae ne nee ee Ee rs tee eee eee Seana 131
pS] CNEL ovat EYER 000) (6 Ip ae a eR IRR! cP rene AMD Ca onire die iene tieH Besa Ah Tins 6: 19
Spindle, the loom and: past, present, and future (Hooper)..............-.-.- 629
Sprague; sosepha White (bequest) s..2ba--sececise nl) oe one cone Se ee eee 6, 126
Sprmncenpr rae oe Ue ea thee en hae ning clean Rowe enki ek Cone Reem 13
Stability of aeroplanes (Wright)...............---- cee atte Snes eine Se eee 209
roa islions BK eh igaca co: U8 iG Pete Menipe ae omnes ey ht Aetna el eee A Mima tena Aah Gr ala 3.2 05 8.5.05 7 114
Stare oushydwalm Ce ae oe wee hes er Re Ne ae Se A ee ee On ere eee 19
State; secretary of (member'o! ‘the Institution) = 222-4 8 ce ee ee oe x
Ste mercer Meo semen eaten eae teevee ee eee ne ait ame xi, 15, 16, 24
Stevenson MincssMerC serene een hen ee OMrete apt vey Gunn creeinre Ses oh ey Orc eR Yaa Niet ae See we eee xi On0e
Stewart, i. B.)(form. and ‘constitution of the earth)*2 <u 282) 2. s-42.-- 22 Sonne 161
Sudne, Wiliam. Cece) Sao a 8 hes Peete eS Ss in aie srk ee a ng er ce eee
SERa COT See Nore ert Orne ee RRS A Ais A ee ee 129
Strong, R. M. (habits and behavior of the herring gull)..............--- ieee 479
Suess, Eduard, sketch of the life of (Termier)..--:2:2:::.V2U-S72 9 eeee 709
Sun; modern. theories of the (Bosler)........: 2002) 200 Qe a os 153
radiation-of the-(Abbot):-ss2-<<.stesee2 sO RR ORS one 137
Swartton. doh Res o2. 22s ereca eee kee weer ee eae od ee Oe LO ft xi, 51, 52, 132
Ty:
Pate eur y Wisk< Ja ste ee Solan ee cloe tre Saree eee owralc ook Sa ob one Sere aera 57
Malm) BRATS BS oo Sie easels Swi eter cus ohh are ch o> syst ch Sees made evra sas Leal Ora a ey a ae ate 110
Westie ‘cl 2 005s ah See ee en as MEE hes Ae Eh ee a ee ee en eee ocera cade 56
‘Termier, (P2\(sketch of the life.of Eduard Suess) 22 5) ~ o50 oe 2 a oe 709
SUS TASER ELS BAU Sy AUTEN 3 Pe 2 rst cance aren, Svsk Sm She ere eI eA ooo RN ea 60
UM ioyostoroe Dy la eee a ae Oe es ae ea Sis em meee ee harass Peo bee 112
ily Ko Ketajngoyaatye) (yiq7) capa, Reh ama OS gaan Es AU SBE ELE STS NCNM AM RTM NL ea ees OY ec 114
Tomb sopOsitisstherae a. tea sie: oh oe tee Anis een sores oe 579
:
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INDEX. 729
Page
Treasury, Secretary of the (member of the Institution)....................--- x
Pirie BCC ORIG a Wiset ie cnn = onan cst wows ce wees - cesses byl de eRe anes ete 24, 34, 74, 96
Tuberculosis, relation of atmospheric air to.......-------------------+-++----+- 18-19
Bane CNRS MOM AM eters oar 9 Se acts vos os ale else one ges ee ase saa 38
U.
OES Ng TDS Sign he ae re nT eo 28, 40
Vis
a aii LB a GCA ee ee nen Sea 18
Vertebrate fossil remains in Montana. . as Jc pee 13
Vice President of the United States Guember on me Thstieutiony!. EO ee oe
“RISES. “SIGIE TS 128 DPR ee Ee i ee a a a ener ye est 113
Meainic ConA MOLUSCAN TAUNA OL. sca... s 2c cscs. oes tee dee ele cee @ eee oce 14,15
W.
Walcott, Charles D., Secretary of the Institution.. x, xi, 20, 40, 108, 110, 126, 128, 129
(AUS SE SBT BS Sas Sg ee a oP Se 108
Malker J seermard, and bond: Aj Russell... -... 2.2 2-22.22 see oe eile coenls 12
Walking-stick, femereue regeneration of the antenne ina Phasmid or (Schmit-
UVSERSUETN eS Me SS OES ie or rr nr 523
War, Secretary of (member of the Institution).............-......-.2-.-222--- x
Wraglaloyoninc, (ChiesiGte ASS -eticoe dos. oa oe CHOte Spo e MEE at eenoenA Re Anas aeae 38
“ELL nea Lea) DG Sie ee re eel, Ao a ee N 111
Waterberg, South Africa, notes on some effects of extreme drought in (Marais)... 511
Peon Ten WU MLC StaLes-cns. sea ccscc+- ss’ <<22ssecssese+ ene ees 3, 92, 131
OS pn, TENG eRe OI oe ee re ee eee 14
LTE RE., SANTO g/L Jal 2st or 2 2) 01 8) ere ce Se ere x, 2, 122
Same aur ae) een ne Semi ces cise a swiisjome bes Scisbicad Secs ochre xi
White, Edward Douglass, Chief Justice of the United States (Chancellor of the
Lm TACO) 5 eee SUS 2 Se eae COE See SS MI Seer i rele area eer ete x22,
Bien eer ee ne Sey ee ie Fe thie ay tutti Aa salto e Seals wind 1 wate 40
Wilson, William Bauchop, Secretary of Labor (member of the Institution)... . S
Wilson, Woodrow, President of the United States (member of the Institution). x, 129
OUNCES COMER Lt TSA i yO ane Pg 38
uteresy, Clean OMe ea Ss Fa cis rey eared A se Nees cet tarp eae Sale Many al earwoneke 38
Deere OCES CONT OS 2 at waked ea Eee oe iar ais bo teatuieldn wit warata sae eye eiele 61
WT Syacle rs ANC aiid VON ee S008 Soh Lt oe Ale ae a PO ae eae ato Etre 129
(RIAD rity of acraplaneE ofl tice. 222k bist haere are emer sseree 209
x.
in er TU le Be oe eC eee 119
Yukon goldfield, Klondike and, in 1913 (Cadell).............--..-..---------- 368
Z.
SARIS alone ete ene Nn a eee Pree ee eh es Bee et ele cates 111
VS iT ENS DE SS SR AE aa ea ee ee 98, 109, 129, 130
(the first man-carrying aeroplane capable of sustained free flight)... 217
Zoological Park, the National, and its inhabitants (Baker)................---- 445
INGTON a ee tee ey ers sr i tee ee a hae 4,8, 31, 132
animals in the collection. <-.-.o222 54.252 ce- lee as 78-82
RIP POVeMent sans ses ocean hes owta Salle rie 82-84
rete sy ots a Oa AD als Re fe Pe aan nr eee ER a Rasen ee 85-88
BOROUOE Saee ene ama coe Eee and ea aola sera 76-88
Zoological station, Smithsonian table at Naples............--..-..----------- 19
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to a i OTC a tr ae ae eee Woes ee PEEP eI y oleat? oir FAR
; By Arete Mey AD, VA : Rompe. eaedovirs Fag ea, sat Ei ig tiene
a ek seen i auton sanity iG iwoi iecawies ico sehua ered sme Peicihy, |
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Bite 9 Vaghwun et te) ate phd Se ewe Uren ec armip Nes ee Mi fe eta ye
SS ie a ok ee BR akin ns Dalal Ane obo ee A> Leen ne cee iy, wohad, eR a
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tk. = Bat to attain dy handle buaeett ‘aes Sey: eerie 3 eek yO Rime Ga Aiea J
ae BRS si prin < Vigal ink oe ay eee il Perel nts ehh Bae eek Rk sha tn at Baar age ;
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rf a Br -euoitabsa ‘ais te einer) babel addai i fads i a eres woihoott Rt: i,
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DEBE, PSNR Fal URW RS OF EG AH) PEEL Ly acc etter: et BOUL Onan
het ast <7. cape ae Fin ine aegihaiaral to' ond ta toaben hoor « Coewau ace wed hag SISO St
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