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Public Document
No. 31
THIRTIETH ANNUAL REPORT
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Parts I. and II.,
Being Pakts III. and IV. of the Fifty-fifth Annual Repokt of the
Massachusetts Agricultueal College.
January, 1918.
Ending the Thirtt-fifth Year from the Founding op the State
Agricultural Experiment Station.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1918.
Public Document No. 31
THIRTIETH AMUAL REPORT
OF THK
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Parts I. and II.,
Being Parts III. and IV. of the Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College.
January, 1918.
Ending the Thirty-fifth Year from the Founding of the State
Agricultural Experiment Station.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1918.
Publication of this Document
approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.
THIRTIETH ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station.
Part I.
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR AND OTHER OFFICERS.
Part II.
DETAILED REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION.
A Record of the Thirty-fifth Year from the Founding of the State Agricultural
Experiment Station.
CONTENTS.
Part I.
PAGE
Officers and staff, ........... !«
Report of the director, ........•• 3o
Administration, . . . . . ... . . . 3o
Station staff 3o
Maintenance, .......... 5a
Publications, .......... 6a
Mailing lists, .......... 7a
Essentials for needed development, ....... 8a
Work of the year, .......... 9o
Statements of expenditures for special lines of work, .... Ha
Fertilizer law account, . . . . . . . • .11a
Feed law account, ......... 12a
Graves' orchard, .......... 13a
Tillson farm, 14a
Cranberry substation, ......... 14a
Tobacco investigations, ........ 16a
Report of the treasurer, .......... 17a
United States appropriations, ........ 17a
State appropriations, ......... 18a
Report of the department of agricultural economics, ..... 19a
Report of the department of agriculture, ....... 21o
Field A, or the nitrogen experiment, ....... 21a
Field B, comparison of muriate and high-grade sulfate of potash, . . 23a
Field C, chemical fertilizers and manure for market-garden crops, . 24a
Field G, comparison of potash salts, ....... 26a
Comparison of different phosphates, ....... 28a
North corn acre, .......... 29a
North soil test 29o
South soil test, 30a
Grass plots, ........... 31a
Sulfate of ammonia v. nitrate of soda as a top-dressing for permanent
mowings, .......... 32a
Variety test work, .......... 32a
Report of the department of botany, . . . . . . . 33a
Report of the department of chemistry, ....... 39a
Research section, .......... 39a
Fertilizer section, .......... 41a
Fertilizers registered, . ... . . . . . . 41o
Fertilizers collected and analyzed, ....... 41a
Other activities of the fertilizer section, ...... 42a
Vegetation tests, .......... 42a
VI
CONTENTS.
Report of the department of chemistry — concluded. page
Feed and dairy section, ......... 43a
The feeding stuffs law, ......... 43o
The dairy law, .......... 44a
Milk, cream and feeds for free examination, ..... 47a
Water, 47a
Testing of pure-bred cows for advanced registry, .... 48a
Numerical summary of laboratory work, ...... 50a
Report of the department of entomology, ....... 51o
Report of the department of horticulture, ...... 54a
Report of the department of microbiology, ...... 55a
Report of the department of poultry husbandry, ..... 57a
Egg production, . . . . . . . • . . . 57a
Student work, .......... 59a
Report of the department of veterinary science, ..... 61a
Testing of fowl for the detection of bacillary white diarrhcea, . . 61a
Investigations relative to Bacteriujn pullorum infection, . . . 62a
The value of anti-hog-cholera serum in the prevention of hog cholera, . 63a
Part II.
Bulletin 173. The cost of distributing milk in six cities and towns in
sachusetts.
Foreword, ....
Introduction, ....
The problem, ....
Co-operative investigation,
Scope of the investigation.
Processing costs and delivery costs,
Difficulties in obtaining data.
Analysis of costs,
Investment,
Depreciation problems, .
Maintenance,
Working capital, .
Labor, ....
Costs of processing and delivering summarized
Costs classified by size and kind of business,
Investment and size of business.
Percentage analysis of costs.
Comparative costs by localities,
Amherst v. Walpole,
Haverhill v. Pittsfield, .
Springfield v. Worcester,
The producer as a distributor, .
Cost of delivery of special milk,
Cost of collection and distribution of
Motor truck delivery, .
Cost of distribution of cream, .
Significant facts of distribution, showing individual variations.
Some obvious disadvantages of competitive distribution of milk
Suggestions for improving conditions, ....
Bulletin 174. The composition, digestibility and feeding value of
kins, .........
Summary of the results, .......
Composition of the pumpkin, ......
Mas-
wholesale milk in cans.
pump-
55
55, 56
57-62
CONTENTS.
vu
Bulletin 174 — concluded. page
Digestibility of pumpkins, ....... 62-66
Feeding experiments with pumpkins, ...... 66, 67
Feeding pumpkins to milch cows at this station, . . . 67-71
Bulletin 175. Mosaic disease of tobacco, ....... 73
Introduction, ........... 73
Historical summary, ......... 74
Names, . . . . . . . ■ • . . .78
Description of the mosaic disease of tobacco, ..... 78
Occurrence, ........... 80
Economic importance, . . . . . . . . .81
Infectious nature of the disease, . . . . . . .81
Contagious nature of the disease, ....... 82
Pathological anatomy, . . . . . . . . .83
Leaves, ........... 83
Stems, 84
Roots, 85
Fungi and the mosaic disease, ........ 85
Bacteria and the mosaic disease, ....... 86
Dissemination agents, ......... 87
Insects, ........... 87
Workmen, ........... 88
Seed, 89
Fertilization in relation to mosaic disease, ...... 90
Effect of colored light on mosaic disease, . . . . . .91
Experimental data, ......... 93
Biochemical studies, ......... 96
Enzyme activities in healthy and diseased plants, . . . .96
Reaction of mosaic sap with various substances, .... 105
Probable character of the causal agent, . . . . . .110
Prevention and control, . . . . . . . . .113
Summary, . . . . . . . . . . .117
Bulletin 176. The cause of the injurious effect of sulfate of ammonia when
used as a fertilizer, . . . . . . . .119
Part I., Chenaical investigations, ....... 119
Part II., Water cultures 125
Conclusions, ........... 134
Bulletin 177. Potato plant lice and their control, ..... 135
Economic importance of the pest, ....... 135
Description of potato plant lice, ....... 136
Manner of feeding and nature of injury, ...... 136
Life cycle of the potato plant louse, ....... 137
Control measures, .......... 138
Practical considerations and fundamentals of control, . . . 138
Efficiency of various contact insecticides for the control of potato lice, 139
Discussion of results, ......... 140
"Black Leaf 40," 140
"Black Leaf 40" and Pyrox, etc., ...... 141
"Nico-Fume" liquid, ........ 141
Fish-oil or whale-oil soaps, ........ 142
Kerosene emulsion, ......... 142
Miscible or soluble oils, ........ 143
Lime-sulfur, .......... 143
Spraying apparatus, ......... 143
Summary of control measures, ........ 144
Natural agents in the control of potato plant lice, .... 145
Acknowledgments, .......... 146
VIU
CONTENTS.
Bulletin 178. The European corn borer, Pyrausta nuhilalis Hubner, a recently
established pest in Massachusetts, .
Discovery and identification,
Description of the insect, ....
European history, .....
Status of the pest in eastern Massachusetts,
Importation, .....
Present distribution, ....
Food plants, .....
Importance, .....
Character of injury, ....
Life history and habits, ....
Control, . . . . . . .
Co-operation, .....
Bulletin 179. The greenhouse red spider attacking cucumbers and methodi
for its control, ....
Introduction, ......
History and distribution, ....
Food plants, ......
Nature of injury to cucumbers,
Economic importance of the pest on cucumbers,
Life history, ......
Feeding habits and dispersion, .
Natural enemies, .....
Introduction to experiments,
Experiments conducted in the laboratory, .
Fumigation experiments.
Spraying experiments, ....
Summary of materials found to be efficient experimentally
Experiments conducted in commercial greenhouses.
Lemon oil, ........
Linseed oil emulsion, ......
Conclusions drawn from commercial spraying experiments
Prevention, ........
Control measures, . . .
Preventive measures, ......
Repressive measures, ......
Control of red spiders attacking other crops,
Summary, ........
Bibliography, ........
Bulletin 180. Report of the cranberry substation for 1916,
Blueberry culture, .......
Weather observations, ......
Frost protection, .......
Fungous diseases, .......
Storage tests, ........
Tentative practical conclusions based on the results of the storage tests
Resanding, ......
Fertilizers, ......
Insects, .......
The cranberry rootworm,
The gypsy moth, .....
The cranberry tip worm.
The black-head fireworm,
The cranberry fruit worm.
Bog management, .....
CONTENTS.
IX
Bulletin 180 — concluded.
Observations on the spoilage of cranberries due to lack of proper ven-
tilation : —
Introduction, ......
Temperature tests in open and closed cans,
Effect of carbon dioxide on cranberries,
Effect of different relative humidities on spoilage due to carbon dioxide,
Relation of fungi to spoilage due to carbon dioxide.
Effect of carbon dioxide on fungi in the berries, .
Bulletin 181. Digestion experiments with sheep,
Introduction, .....
Composition of feedstuff s (per cent.).
Composition of feces (per cent.).
Weight of animals at beginning and end of each period, and average daily
water consumed.
Digestion coefficients of basal ration used in
coefficients, ....
Computation of digestion coefficients,
Discussion of results,
English hay — basal,
English hay and gluten feed — basal,
English hay, potato starch and Diamond
Gluten feed — present experiments,
Gluten feed — earlier experiments,
Diamond gluten meal, .
English hay fed with wheat gluten flour
gluten flour).
Corn bran, .
Distillers' grains, .
Feterita,
Alfalfa,
Roots and vegetables.
Cabbage, .
Carrots, .
Mangels, .
Pumpkins,
Turnips, .
Comparative summary,
Vegetable ivory meal, .
Vinegar grains.
New Bedford garbage tankage.
New Bedford pig meal, .
Rowen, ...
Soy bean hay,
Stevens' "44" Dairy Ration,
Sudan grass.
Sweet clover,
Complete summary of the averages of all coefficients,
the computation of digestion
gluten meal — basal.
(to note effect of the
wheat
2.35
236
237
238
238
239
241
241
242
249
256
263
265
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
314
316
317
318
319
319
319
321
322
323
324
325
325
326
327
328
328
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330
333
334
IVIassachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
Trustees.
OFFICERS AND STAFF.
COMMITTEE.
Charles H. Preston, Chairman,
. Hathorne
Wilfrid Wheeler, .
. Concord.
Edmund Mortimer, .
. Grafton.
Arthur G. Pollard,
. Lowell.
Harold L. Frost,
. Arlington
The President of the College, ex officio.
The Director of the Station, ex officio.
STATION STAFF.
Administration. William P. Brooks, > Ph.D., Director.
Fbed W. Morse, ^ M.Sc, Acting Director.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D., Vice-Director.
Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer.
Charles R. Green, B.Agr., Librarian.
Mrs. Lucia G. Church, Clerk.
Miss F. Ethel Felton, A.B., Clerk.
Agricultural
Economics.
Alexander E. Cance, Ph.D., In Charge of Department.
Samuel H. DeVault, A.M., Assistant.
Agriculture.
William P. Brooks, Ph.D., Agriculturist.
Henry J. Franklin, Ph.D., In Charge of Cranberry Investi-
gations.
Edwin F. Gaskill, B.Sc, Assistant Agriculturist.
Robert L. Coffin, Assistant.
Botany.
A. Vincent Osmun, M.Sc, Botanist.
George H. Chapman, Ph.D., Research Physiologist.
Paul J. Anderson, Ph.D., Associate Plant Pathologist.
Orton L. Clark, B.Sc, Assistant Plant Physiologist.
W. S. Krout, M.A., Field Pathologist.
Miss Mae F. Holden, B.Sc, Curator.
Miss Ellen L. Welch, A.B., Stenographer.
On leave from March 1 .
- Beginning March 1.
2 a EXPERIMENT STATION
Entomologry. Henrt T. Fbrnald,' Ph.D., Entomologist.
Burton N. Gates, Ph.D., Apiariat.
Arthur I. Bourne, A.B., Assistant Entomologist.
Stuart C. Vinal, M.Sc, Assistant Entomologist.
Miaa Bridie E. O'Donnell, Clerk.
[Jan.
Horticulture. Frank A. Wauoh, M.Sc, Horticulturist.
Fred C. Sears, M.Sc, Pomologist.
Jacob K. Shaw, Ph.D., Research Pomologist.
Harold F. Tompson, B.Sc, Market Gardener.
Miss Etheltn Streeter, Clerk.
Meteorologry. John E. Osthander, A.M., C.E., Meteorologist.
Microbiology. Charles E. Marshall, Ph.D., In Charge of Department.
Arao Itano, Ph.D.. Assistant Professor of Microbiology.
George B. Rat, B.Sc, Graduate Assistant.
Plant and Animal
Chemistry.
Joseph B. Lindset, Ph.D., Chemist.
Edward B. Holland, Ph.D., Associate Chemist in Charge
(Research Division).
Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Research Chemist.
Henri D. Haskins, B.Sc, Chemist in Charge (Fertilizer
Division).
Philip H. Smith, M.Sc, Chemist in Charge (Feed and Dairy
Division).
Lewell S. Walker, B.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
Carlbton p. Jones, M.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
Carlos L. Beals, M.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
James P. Buckley, Jr., Assistant Chemist.
Windom a. Allen, - B.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
John B. Smith, - B.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
Robert S. Scull, 2 B.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
Bernard L. Peables, B.Sc, Assistaiit Chemist.
James T. Howard, Inspector.
Harry L. Allen, Assistant in Laboratory.
James R. Alcock, Assistant in Animal Nutrition.
Miss Alice M. Howard, Clerk.
Miss Rebecca L. Mellob, Clerk.
Poultry Husbandry. John C. Graham, B.Sc, In Charge of Department.
Hubert D. Goodale, Ph.D., Research Biologist.
Miss Grace Macmullen, B.A., Clerk.
Miss Elizabeth E. Mooney, Clerk.
Veterinary Science.
James B. Paige, B.Sc, D.V.S., Veterinarian.
G. Edward Gage, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Animal
Pathology.
John B. Lentz, 2 V.M.D., Assistant.
• On leave.
- On leave on account of military service.
191S.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 3a
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR.
WM. P. BROOKS.
ADMINISTRATION.
Station Staff.
Most of the changes in the station staff during the past year
have been in minor positions. Four men have entered the mili-
tary service. To these, indefinite leaves of absence without
salary have been granted, with the understanding that the posi-
tions given up will be open to them when they are honorably
discharged from the service. These men were all doing satis-
factory work, and their going creates vacancies which it will be
difficult to fill. In very especial degree is this true of Dr. John
B. Lentz, who volunteered for the veterinary service of the
army, and who is now in France. For nearly two years Dr.
Lentz had been in direct charge of the blood test work for the
elimination of bacillary white diarrhoea, and in this position had
shown a spirit, a devotion to duty and a degree of ability which
rendered his services of very unusual value.
Dr. F. H. Hesselink van Suchtelen, who was engaged in an
important line of investigation on the organic matter of soils,
resigned his position in the department of microbiology in
August to accept a chair in one of the leading universities of
Holland, his native country. Dr. Arao Itano, who for several
years has been an assistant in the department of microbiology,
and in that position shown marked ability as an investigator,
has been made assistant professor in the department, and will
pursue a line of investigation closely related to that undertaken
by Dr. van Suchtelen.
The staff has been strengthened during the year by the addi-
tion of two men for important lines of work not previously
adequately cared for.
4a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
W. S. Kroiit, M.A., was made field pathologist in April, and
will devote himself mainly to investigations of crop diseases as
they occur upon the farms and in the gardens of the State.
Mr. Krout, a graduate of Ohio State University, came to us
from the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station where he
had shown peculiar fitness for the line of work he is to follow
in this State.
Stuart C. Vinal, M.Sc, who had for two years as graduate
assistant done valuable investigational work in entomology, was
made full assistant in the department in September, and is to
give his entire time to study of insect problems.
Both Mr. Krout and Mr. Vinal will devote a considerable
share of their attention to the problems affecting our market-
garden interests.
Other changes in station staff require no special comment,
though attention is called to the fact that resignations have in
the majority of cases been due to the offer of higher salaries in
other quarters. The salaries paid here, in subordinate positions
especially, are low, and unless they can be raised it will be in-
creasingly difficult to retain the services of good men.
Appointments and resignations of graduate assistants are not
included as all such appointments are on a yearly basis, and
while one or two reappointments, where conditions warrant and
where acceptable, are the rule, these positions at best are
temporary. The following is a complete statement of all other
changes during the year.
Resig7iatio7iS.
Miss Marcella C. Curry, A.B., Clerk, Department of Poultry Husbandry.
Miss Eleanor Barker, Clerk, Department of Horticulture.
Miss Grace B. Nutting, Ph.B., Curator, Department of Botany.
F. H. Hesselink van Suchtelen, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Microbiology.
C. Theodore Buchholz, V.M.D., Assistant, Department of Veterinary
>Science.
Appointments.
Miss Grace B. Nutting, Ph.B., Curator, Department of Botany.
Miss Ellen L. Welch, A.B., Stenographer, Department of Botany.
Robert S. Scull, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal
Chemistry.
Miss Rachael G. Leslie, Clerk, Department of Poultry Husbandry.
W. S. Krout, M.A., Field Pathologist, Department of Botany.
Miss Mae F. Holden, B.Sc, Curator, Department of Botany.
191S.] PUBLIC DOCLTMEXT — No. 31. 5a
Samuel H. DeVault, A.M., Assistant, Department of Agricultural Eco-
nomics.
Arao Itano, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Microbiology.
Stuart C. Vinal, M.Sc, Assistant, Department of Entomology.
Miss Ethelyn Streeter, Clerk, Department of Horticulture.
C. Theodore Buchholz, V.M.D., Assistant, Department of Veterinary
Science.
Bernard L. Peables, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal
Chemistry.
Leaves of Absence on Accoxint of Military Service.
John B. Lentz, V.M.D., Assistant, Department of Veterinary Science,
from August 31.
Robert S. Scull, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal Chem-
istry, from September 11.
Windom A. Allen, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal
Chemistry, from September 16.
John B. Smith, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal Chem-
istry, from October 5.
Maintenance.
In accordance with the provision by the Legislature of 1912,
the amount received from the State for general expenses was
$5,000 greater than last year. The total revenues of the station
were not quite $4,500 larger than last year, as there were
shrinkages in receipts from sales of crops and in the fees ob-
tained under the fertilizer law. The total revenues are shown
in the following table : —
Total Revenue for the Fiscal Year, Dec. 1, 1916, to Nov. 30, 1917.
State appropriation, $35,000 00
Federal appropriations : —
Hatch fund, 15,000 00
Adams fund, 15,000 00
Agricultural department, sales and labor, .... 4,810 22
Chemical department, sales, cow testing and analytical work, 11,939 54
Miscellaneous receipts from various departments, ... 50 49
Blood tests, 560 31
Fertilizer law, . . . 9,040 00
Feed law, 6,000 00
Cranberry substation, 3,172 02
Graves' orchard, 133 48
Tillson farm, 1,120 55
Total, $101,826 61
6 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The cost of executing the provisions of the fertilizer and feed
laws was $16,132.24, which left for the general work of the sta-
tion $85,694.37. From this amount there was required in round
numbers $12,000 for the cost of cow testing, standardizing dairy
apparatus, making water analyses and performing interdepart-
ment services, thus leaving for investigations approximately
$73,700, which was about $6,000 more than in the previous
year. The treasurer's report will be found on pages 17a and 18 a.
Publication.
The list of publications for the year includes nine bulletins
aggregating 335 pages in the regular series, and two bulletins in
the control series aggregating 94 pages. The arrangement re-
garding circulars, which was mentioned in the last report, re-
sulted in all the circulars for the year being cared for by the
extension service.
Annxial Report.
Twenty-ninth annual report : —
Part I. Report of the Director and Other Officers; 92 pages.
Part II. Detailed Report of the Experiment Station; 307 pages (being
Bulletins Nos. 168-172).
Combined Contents and Index, Parts I. and II.; 20 pages.
Bulletins.
No. 173. The Cost of Distributing Milk in Six Cities and Towns in
Massachusetts, by Alexander E. Cance and Richard Hay
Ferguson; 54 pages.
No. 174. The Composition, Digestibility and Feeding Value of Pump-
kins, by J. B. Lindsey; 18 pages.
No. 175. Mosaic Disease of Tobacco, by G. H. Chapman; 46 pages.
No. 176. The Cause of the Injurious Effect of Sulfate of Ammonia when
used as a Fertilizer, by R. W. Ruprecht and F. W. Morse;
16 pages.
No. 177. Potato Plant Lice and their Control, by W. S. Regan; 12
pages.
No. 178. The European Corn Borer, Pyrausia nuhilalis Hiibner, a
recently established pest in Massachusetts, by S. C. Vinal;
6 pages.
No. 179. The Greenhouse Red Spider attacking Cucumbers and Meth-
ods for its Control, by S. C. Vinal; 30 pages.
1918.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. la
Xo. ISO. Report of the Cranberry Substation for 1916, by H. J. Frank-
lin, and Observations on the Spoilage of Cranberries due to
Lack of Proper Ventilation, by C. L. Shear and Neil E.
Stevens, Pathologists, and B. A. Rudolph, Scientific Assist-
ant, Fruit-Disease Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry,
United States Department of Agriculture; 58 pages.
No. 181. Digestion Experiments with Sheep, by J. B. Lindsey, C. L.
Beals and P. H. Smith; 95 pages.
Bullet ijis, Control Series.
No. 7. Inspection of Commercial Feedstuffs, by P. H. Smith; 30 pages.
No. 8. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, by H. D. Haskins; 64 pages.
Meteorological Reports.
Twelve numbers, 4 pages each.
Mailing Lists.
At considerable expense for time and labor our mailing lists
have been maintained in as live a condition as possible, and at
present are arranged by lists, as tabulated below.
Residents of Massachusetts (general), . . . . . . 11,603
Residents of other States (general), 1,549
Residents of other States (technical and general) , . . . .1 ,068
Exchange list, 249
Massachusetts libraries, 191
Out-of-State libraries, 251
Massachusetts agricultural schools and departments, ... 55
Massachusetts county farm bureaus, 12
Massachusetts Agricultural College and Experiment Station
staffs, 101
Beekeepers, 4,356
Newspapers, 436
Cranberry growers, 1,398
Meteorological, 385
Feed list, " 250
Fertilizer list, 86
Massachusetts milk inspectors, 158
Massachusetts milk dealers, 135
Miscellaneous special lists, 254
United States Department of Agriculture, official list, . . . 3,602 ^
Total, 26,139 2
' Publications are not as a rule sent to all on this list, but only to directors, libraries and
specialists likely to be interested.
2 Of this total, 314 foreign addresses are included under different lists.
8a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
ESSENTIALS FOR NEEDED DEVELOPMENT.
In the last annual report there was presented a statement
covering the more essential requirements for the normal devel-
opment of the station work for the next five years, which was
prepared at the suggestion of the Special Commission on Agri-
cultural Education at the Massachusetts Agricultural College
and the Development of the Agricultural Resources of the Com-
monwealth. Some progress has been made during the year in
meeting these needs.
Arrangements have been completed for the purchase of the
Tillson farm, though it will still be necessary for the next three
years for the station to pay the sum agreed upon for the annual
rent, which, however, under the plan adopted, will be directly
applied toward the payment of the purchase price which will
then be met in full.
Two lots of land are still needed, as described last year, viz.,
the Tuxbury land which is leased for orchard experiments, and
a suitable poultry farm. It seems necessary to present again
these two important projects for development, that they may
be kept in mind by the followers of the station's work.
The Tuxbury land includes a total area of about 30 acres, of
which 18 acres are now leased by the station, and the remainder
consists of sprout land. It is estimated to cost now about
$12,000, but the price is sure to increase. A large part of the
leased land is planted to apple orchard for the experiment with
stock and cion relationships. The trees will barely have reached
the period of most profitable production at the expiration of the
lease. Ultimate ownership is highly desirable, and it seems the
part of wisdom to acquire the property at as early a date as
possible.
The area desired for a poultry farm is about 60 acres, and it
is estimated that such a farm will cost $8,000. We have for
some years been compelled to lease land on which to raise
young stock, and this policy is quite unsatisfactory.
Building needs have not been met and remain as described
last year, viz., house, barn and sheds for the Tillson farm,
buildings for the poultry department, an addition to the build-
1918.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 9a
ing at the cranberry substation, and greenhouses for experi-
mental work at the market-garden field station.
Important additions to the station staff made during the year
have been mentioned, but men are needed to take up addi-
tional lines of work. There is decided need for experimental
work in rural engineering, in floriculture and in forestry. Pro-
vision for this work should be made at as early a date as
possible. Particularly urgent are investigations in rural en-
gineering and in forestry. There will be required, also, mod-
erate increases in salaries for a considerable number of those
now on the station staff. It is estimated that to provide for
the new men and the needed increases will require within five
years an addition to the amount now available for salaries of
$40,000.
Increases for annual support of the station work and equip-
ment were quite carefully estimated in last year's report and
amounted to $30,000.
WORK OF THE YEAR.
The serious situation as affecting the food supply due to the
war suggested the desirability of a careful consideration of the
question as to whether lines of investigation in progress should
not be modified and new ones undertaken. With a view to
getting suggestions from individuals who it was believed are as
well qualified to make such suggestions as any in the State, a
meeting of the advisory council, composed of representatives of
the various agricultural interests, was called in June, The in-
vestigations in progress were quite comprehensively, though of
nece^ity briefly, described, after which opportunity was given
for discussion and suggestions. If we may judge from the fact
that no important new investigations were suggested, it would
appear that the scope of our work as affecting food production
and distribution was regarded by the members of the council
present as fairly satisfactorily covering the ground.
During the past year we have undertaken a few new lines of
investigation. In connection with the oranberrj' substation in
Wareham we have established in co-operation with the Bureau
of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agri-
10 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
culture a plantation of swamp blueberries, with a view to in-
vestigating the possibilities of blueberry culture.
The very high price of the cereal grains has indicated the
probability that under existing conditions Massachusetts may
profitably engage in the production of these grains on a much
more extensive scale than in recent years. A considerable area
on the Tillson farm, and a smaller area on the home grounds of
the station, therefore, are being used for the trial of nine differ-
ent varieties of winter wheat and a new variety of winter rye
and of winter barley.
The chemical department, in co-operation with several other
experiment stations, under the general suggestive leadership of
Dr. H. P. Armsby, is beginning a series of experiments to de-
termine the minimum protein requirements of growing animals.
The solution of this problem should have an important bearing
upon the economy of meat production.
A number of forage crops new in the agriculture of the State
and a considerable number of feeds also relatively unknown
have been under investigation as regards their value and adapt-
ability to local conditions.
Important investigations which should throw light upon the
most satisfactory methods of feeding horses have been begun
during the year. In these investigations the digestibility by
horses of the important feeding stuffs, and their available energy
in the animal economy, will be determined.
Experiments having indicated the superior value of the types
of rust-resistant asparagus produced in the breeding work at
Concord, a considerable area has been set with plants of the
best variety for the purpose of producing seed in such quantities
that the demand of growers of the crop for the new variety
may be met.
As the probable value of soy beans in the existing and pro-
spective food emergency has been quite generally recognized, it
was felt that there would be a large demand for seed, and a con-
siderable area on the Tillson farm, as well as smaller areas on
such of the station plots as could be used for the purpose, were
planted to one of the best varieties.
Fairly satisfactory progress has been made in the investiga-
1918.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 11a
tion into the causes of tobacco sickness, although a hail storm
of exceptional severity did much damage to a portion of the
plots.
The control work of the station has received the usual careful
attention. The high price and scarcity of fertilizers seems to
have suggested unusual activity on the part of those engaged in
the production and sale of relatively worthless articles. An
energetic campaign, believed to have been quite successful, was
carried on with a view to preventing or limiting the amount of
such sales.
The reports from the different departments of station work,
summarizing their activities for the year, will be found follow-
ing the treasurer's report, on pages 17 a and 18 a.
STATEMENTS OF EXPENDITURES FOR SPECIAL LINES OF
WORK.
Fertilizer Law Account, Dec. 1, 1916, to Nov. 30, 1917.
Balance Dec. 1, 1916, $859 81
Total fees, 9,040 00
$9,899 81
Expenditures.
Chemicals, $269 52
Apparatus, 275 08
Salaries : —
Chemical and administrative, . $5,395 32
Clerical, 520 00
5,915 32
Collection expenses: —
Inspector's salary, . . . $722 83
Travel, 773 49
Freight and express, . . . 25 17
1,521 49
Laboratory assistance, 164 97
Official travel, 64 32
Gas, 133 01
Office supplies, 23 79
Miscellaneous supplies, 58 30
Repairs, 12 89
12 a EXPERIMENT STATION.
Publication and mailing : —
Control Bulletin No. 6, . . $870 20
Fertilizer law circulars, . . 8 50
Mailing, 31 05
$909 75
Laundry, 12 70
Legal services, 48 94
Fertilizer experiment : —
Fertilizers, , . . . 2 00
Total, 5
Balance Dec. 1, 1917,
Feed Law Account, Dec. 1, 1916, to Nov. 30, 1917.
Balance on hand Dec. 1, 1916, .... $2,048 07
State appropriation, 6,000 00
[Jan.
),412 08
:87 73
5,048 07
Expenditures.
Salaries : —
Chemical,
Clerical,
Collection expenses : —
Inspector's salary,
Inspector's travel,
Express on samples.
Laboratory assistance.
Gas, ....
Apparatus,
Chemicals,
Office supplies.
Miscellaneous travel.
Telephone,
Repairs, .
Miscellaneous supplies.
Laundry, .
Legal expenses : —
Lawyer's fees,
Travel, .
52,861 30
420 00
$360 00
337 55
6 57
$54 00
27 35
5,281 30
704 12
89 63
35 13
20 82
222 52
2 39
59 07
15 53
11 91
70 75
3 62
81 35
191S.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 13a
Feeding experiment with horses : —
Salary, $300 00
Repairs to building, . . . 878 44
Travel, 104 30
Apparatus, 39 35
SI ,322 09
Publication : —
Control Bulletin No. 5, . . S781 20
Addressing envelopes and mail-
ing, 18 33
799 53
Total, $6,719 76
Balance Dec. 1, 1917, . . . . . . . . $1,328 31
Graves' Orchard, Dec. 1, 1916, to Nov. 30, 1917.
Apportionment, $700 00
Expenditures.
Hauling and spreading manure, mixing fertilizers and
burning brush, $21 05
Pruning, 54 15
Spraying and spray materials, 50 67
Harrowing, 30 90
Thinning, 21 40
Harvesting, 134 30
Barrels, . . . . ' 89 10
Freight on barrels, 6 60
Measuring trees, 1 13
Rent, 75 00
Travel, 59 76
Mowing (1916), 2 00
Care of bees, ....;.... 2 00
Total, 548 06
Balance Dec. 1, 1917, $151 94
Receipts.
Barrels (1916 bill), $29 70
Apples (1917 crop),i 103 78
Total, $133 48
1 Balance of crop valued at $1,000.
14 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
TiLLSON Farm, Dec. 1, 1916, to Nov. 30, 1917.
Expenditures.
Receipts
Apportionment ,
Rent,
Taxes,
Repairs, .
Travel,
Apple orchard: —
1916 crop,
1917 crop,
Corn,
Grasslands: —
1916 crop,
1917 crop,
Pasture,
Soy beans.
Squash, .
Tomatoes: —
1916 crop (seed),
1917 crop.
Wheat,
Totals,
?3S5 00
54 54
12 50
23 24
123 62
205 57
302 97
57 77
289 17
18 70
30 00
36 00
44 77
SI. 67
81,400 00
37 00
13 75
109 50
466 48
111 992
150 00
-1
5 232
180 40
46 20
S2,520 55
1 Crop not yet sold.
- Larger part of crop unsold.
' Winter wheat planted in the fall of 1917
Cranberry Substation, Dec. 1, 1916, to Nov. 30, 1917.
Receipts.
Cranberries, crop of 1916, $1,734 66
Cranberries, crop of 1917, 1,247 85
United States Weather Bureau, .... 125 83
Unneeded apparatus returned and sold, . . 63 68
Bills receivable on Dec. 1, 1917 (estimated).
Cranberries on hand Dec. 1, 1917 (estimated),
Total received and receivable, S4,200 02
S3,172 02
545 00
483 00
1918.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
15a
Expenditures — Bog Accoiint.
Maintenance : —
Tools and similar equipment bought or re-
paired, Sll 58
Oil for engine, etc. (gasoline, kerosene, lubri-
cating), 180 25
Pumping labor, 31 88
Mowing of upland, 57 61
Weeding, 55 93
Lumber and hardware, 3 91
Raking vines after picking, .... 48 15
Resanding the bog, . . . ... . 226 43
Miscellaneous labor, 59 17
Sundries, 4 40
Harvesting : —
Picking cranberries, $456 68
Separating cranl^erries, 38 37
Screening cranberries, 181 69
Packing cranberries and tending screeners, . 57 00
Carting cranberries, 30 39
Coopering and mending boxes, ... 21 55
Packing materials (barrels, crates, etc.), . 214 76
Contingent, 2 50
Improvements : —
Building roads,
Expenditures — Experimental Account
Experimental labor,
Supplies and apparatus,
Office machines and appliances.
Chemicals (including fertilizers and insecticides)
Lumber,
Traveling expenses,
Stenographer,
Printing,
Rental of dry bog for season of 1916, .
Blueberry plantation : —
Sewer pipe,
Constructing flume and pipe line for irri
gating the plantation, . . . .
Transplanting selected wild bushes,
Plowing and harrowing, ....
Cultivating and hoeing, ....
Sundries,
$19 78
10 05
20 81
20 90
5 35
4 48
579 31
1,002 94
9 30
$1,691 55
$1,031 98
204 96
22 69
27 41
60 25
86 13
116 32
25 00
60 00
81 37
16a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Contingent : —
Freight and express,
Telephone, ....
Fuel,
Furnishings, ....
Books, stationery and postage,
Total, $1,836 94
$20 75
19 64
31 50
44 00
4 94
$120 83
Summary of Disbursements.
Disbursements on bog account, ....
Disbursements on experimental account,
Total disbursements,
U,691 55
1,836 94
Tobacco Investigations, 1917.
Expenditures {exclusive of Salaries). ''■
Fertilizers,^
Travel,
Land rental,'
Extra labor,
Cartage,
Photographic work,
Stakes,
Total cost,
$408 46
215 14
110 00
6 75
7 75
8 85
2 16
Materials on Hand.
1 ,000 pounds high-grade sulfate of potash at $240, $120 00
Miscellaneous fertilizers, 8 40
J,528 49
$759 11
128 40
Net cost of investigations, $630 71
Owing to illness Director Brooks was given a leave of absence
from March 1, 1918. The material for the annual report had
been practically all written but not assembled and arranged
before this date.
FRED W. MORSE,
Acting Director.
1 Approximate amount for salaries, 81,583.35.
- One item of $4.31 was not paid out of 1917 apportionment.
2 The rate of rental was to be $40 per acre for open plots and $90 per acre for shade plots, and
this item would be $170; but for 1917 one grower donated the use of 1 acre of land and another
the use of one-half acre, reducing rental by 560.
191S.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
17a
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
ANNUAL REPORT
Of Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer of the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural "Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultur.\l
COLLE E, for the YeAR ENDING JuNE 30, 1917.
United States Appropriations, 1916-17.
Hatch Fund.
Adams Fund.
Dr.
To receipts from the Treasurer of the United
States, as per appropriations for fiscal year
ended June 30, 1917, under acts of Congress
approved March 2, 1887, and March 16, 1906,
Cr.
By salaries,
$15,000 00
$15,000 00
$15,000 00
$15,000 00
18 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
State Appropriation, 1916-17.
Cash balance brought forward from last fiscal year, . . $16,359 90
Cash received from State Treasurer, 38,500 00
fees, 9,641 81
sales, 10,903 08
miscellaneous, 12,418 39
$87,823 18
Cash paid for salaries, $25,558 43
labor, . . • 22,912 62
publications, 2,440 80
postage and stationery, 1,971 85
freight and express, 354 83
heat, light, water and power, .... 482 03
chemicals and laboratory supplies, . . . 2,435 29
seeds, plants and sundry supplies, . . . 2,643 97
fertilizer, 1,056 51
feeding stuffs, 1,670 01
library, 685 23
tools, machinery and appliances, . . . 787 95
furniture and fixtures, 641 61
scientific apparatus and specimens, . . . 546 74
live stock, 446 20
traveling expenses, 4,037 79
contingent expenses, . . . ' . . . 25 00
buildings and land, 3,225 32
balance, . 15,901 00
Total, $87,823 18
1918.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 19a
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS.
ALEXANDER E. CANCE.
The work of the department this year has been prosecuted
along two lines, — first, the regular research projects, and
second, war emergency projects requiring immediate attention
and less thorough inv^estigation.
Regular Projects.
The investigation into methods and cost of tobacco market-
ing has been continued by Mr. S. H. DeVault, research assist-
ant, and is being rounded into shape. As an incident of this
investigation he has been asked by groups of farmers to present
plans for some marketing organization of farmers, by means of
which the production and market distribution of the tobacco of
the Connecticut Valley may be conducted more economically.
Emergency Projects.
(a) Census of Agricultural Production. — The department
holds that any intelligent program of farm production must be
based on a knowledge of the agricultural resources, — land and
equipment, — labor and previous farm practices. There are no
such facts available by towns later than 1905. For this reason
the department initiated and directed such a census in Hamp-
shire, Franklin, Berkshire and Worcester counties, beginning
early in April, 1917. The data were tabulated at the college,
and copies sent to the county farm bureaus and the public
safety committees of the counties and of each town.
(6) Consumption Survey. — A survey of the food and feed
consumption of every town and city in Hampshire County of
5,000 or over population, and 15 towns and cities in Hampden
County, was undertaken by Mr. DeVault and assistants last
spring. The purpose was to ascertain the food and feed needs
20 a EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan.
of the people as determined by the purchases and sales of re-
tailers, wholesalers, fruit stands, restaurants and bakeries,
hotels, boarding houses and transportation companies, to ascer-
tain how many of these products are purchased locally, how
many are shipped in and what is the amount ordinarily stored.
The survey included 403 retail stores, 37 hotels and boarding
houses, 42 fruit stands, 24 restaurants and lunch counters, and
21 bakeries, serving 144,000 people. In general, it was found
that these establishments purchase a comparatively small per-
centage of local products. For example, only 8 per cent, of the
beans, 22 per cent, of the potatoes, 58 per cent, of the apples,
33 per cent, of the eggs, 12 per cent, of the butter, 63 per cent,
of the milk, 32 per cent, of the cabbage and 4§ per cent, of the
meats handled by these establishments are locally produced.
Using the detailed data of this investigation it is possible to plan
to meet the needs of this population in a manner somewhat
more economical and more efficient than at present, and prefer-
ably by the production and use of local products.
The data have been partially tabulated and interpreted, and
copies have been sent back to the local authorities for use in
their food campaign. The department hopes to publish the
results of the survey this year. Only lack of funds has pre-
vented a further and more complete study.
(c) Market Milk Investigation. — In August, 1917, the de-
partment of agricultural economics was asked by the Boston
Chamber of Commerce and the Attorney-General of Massachu-
setts to undertake an investigation of the distributing costs of
twenty or more milk dealers in the city of Boston, to the end
that equitable prices for producing and marketing milk might be
established. Mr. William L. Machmer and Mr. Otto F. Wilkin-
son of the college staff were assigned the field work about
September 1, and in six weeks were ready to make a prelimi-
nary report on twenty dealers handling approximately 12,600,000
quarts of milk and cream annually, a commendable record of
efficiency and economy. A similar investigation of another
group of dealers conducted at the same time cost the State five
to ten times more. These data were used by the Federal Dis-
trict Milk Commission in making their award. The depart-
ment hopes to publish the data as a supplement to Bulletin
No. 173.
1918.1 PUBLIC DOCmiEXT — No. 31. 21a
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
E. F. GASKILL.
The work of the agricultural department has been continued
during the past year along the same general lines followed in
previous years. A large share of the experimental work of this
department has to do with the study of different phases of the
question of soil fertility. This necessitates the care and man-
agement of a large number of field plots. This year the work
has involved the use of 230 field plots, 13 orchard plots, 23
pasture plots, 143 closed plots and 432 pots in our vegetation
experiments.
No experimental work has been started on the newly acquired
Tillson farm, as the buildings there are not suitable for storage.
The crops grown on this farm this year were "war emergency
crops" and hay. Four varieties of winter wheat were sown this
fall to determine whether any of these varieties are suitable for
this section.
The supervision of the field work on the Tuxbury land, on
which are set about 1,100 trees to be used for experimental work,
also comes under this department.
The work of the agricultural department as set forth from
year to year in the annual reports may be considered a report
of progress. No attempt is made to report in full all the ac-
tivities of the department, but to mention only a few of the
more important lines of investigation. The same policy will be
followed this year.
Field A, or the Nitrogen Experiment.
The experiment has been continued for twenty-eight years,
and has had for its object the determination of the relative
value as sources of nitrogen of barnyard manure, nitrate of soda,
sulfate of ammonia and dried blood; also the effect on the no-
22 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
nitrogen plots of turning under the roots and stubble of a
leguminous crop. The field was divided in 1909, and half of
each plot received an application of lime at the rate of 2^ tons
per acre; again, in 1913, the same half of each plot received an
application of lime at the rate of 2 tons per acre. The crops
since liming have been: 1909, clover; 1910, clover; 1911, corn
followed by clover; 1912, corn followed by clover; 1913, Jap-
anese millet; 1914, oats, grass and clover; 1915, grass and
clover; 1916, Japanese millet.
This year the crop was Green Mountain potatoes. The
yields on the different plots are shown in the following table: —
Potatoes.
Fertilizer.
Ferti-
lizer
per
Acre
(Pounds).
Yields per .\cre (Bushels).
Plot
LIMED.
fNLIMED.
Large.
Small.
Total.
Large.
Small.
Total.
0
.1
I
I
e!
[
'!
r
I
»{
.ol
[
Stable manure, '
Nitrate of soda.
Muriate of potash.
Dissolved boneblack.
Nitrate of soda.
Sulfate of potash-magnesia.
Dissolved boneblack.
Dried blood.
Muriate of potash.
Dissolved boneblack.
Sulfate of potash-magnesia,
Dissolved boneblack.
Sulfate of ammonia,
.Sulfate of potash-magnesia.
Dissolved boneblack.
Sulfate of ammonia,
Muriate of potash.
Dissolved boneblack.
Muriate of potash.
Dissolved boneblack,
Sulfate of ammonia.
Muriate of potash.
Dissolved boneblack,
Muriate of potash.
Dissolved boneblack.
Dried blood.
Sulfate of potash-magnesia.
Dissolved boneblack.
8,000
290 'i
150 ■
500 J
290]
300 \
500 J
525]
1.50 [
500 J
300 1
500]
225]
300 '•
500 J
225]
150 \
500 J
150 1
500 J
225]
150
500 J
1501
500/
525]
300 !•
500 J
345.00
333 33
379.67
328.67
343.17
310.67
284.25
300.42
308.50
292.17
318.83
27.67
35.33
34 33
28.00
16.67
19.00
24.00
24.67
21.33
24.08
31.67
372.67
368.67
414.00
356.67
3.59.83
329.67
308.25
325.08
329.83
316.25
349.50
227.33
242.67
299.00
285.67
256.33
209.33
227.67
139 50
200 17
152.50
271.67
21.67
21.00
24.67
16 67
14.00
15 83
20.50
22.00
18.25
19.17
17.25
249 00
263 . 67
323.67
302 33
270 33
225.17
248,17
161 50
218.42
171 67
288.92
1 To equalize the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, this plot received in addition to the
manure: —
Nitrate of soda, 110 pounds per acre.
Sulfate of potash-magnesia, 150 pounds per acre.
Dissolved boneblack 380 pounds per acre.
1918.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 23a
The tubers were examined closely for scab at the time of dig-
ging. On the limed area of all plots there v\-ere some scabby
tubers, but not enough to seriously affect the yield of merchant-
able potatoes except on plots 0 and 10. On plot 0 about 75 per
cent, of the potatoes were scabby, and on plot 10 about 50 per
cejit. were scabby. On the unlimed area of the different plots
there was no scab at all except on plots 0 and 1. On these
about 10 per cent, of the tubers were scabby. The tubers on
the unlimed areas were smaller, smoother and of better quality
than those on the limed areas, but the yield was greater in each
case on the limed areas.
Field B, Comparison of Muriate and High-grade Sulfate
OF Potash.
In this experiment, which has continued for twenty-five years,
a great variety of crops has been grown. The results obtained
under our climatic and soil conditions show that muriate has
proved the better source of potash for the following: asparagus
(eleven years); currants (four years); mangels (two years);
sugar beets (one year); corn, ensilage (one year); corn stover
(seven years); sweet corn stover (one year); squashes (three
years); carrots (two years); onions (two years); celery (one
year); oat hay (one year); vetch and oats (two years); and
alfalfa (one year).
The high-grade sulfate has proved the better source for the
following: asparagus (one year); blackberries (eleven years);
raspberries (eleven years) ; strawberries (eleven years) ; rhubarb
(twelve years); potatoes (twelve years); corn, grain (eight
years); corn stover (one year); sweet corn, ears (one year);
cabbages (ten years); soy beans (five years); alfalfa (four
j^ears); crimson clover (one year); medium red clover (one
year); alsike clover (one year); common red and alsike clover
(one year); and mammoth red clover (one year).
The crops grown this year were: alfalfa, blackberries, cur-
rants, gooseberries, mangels, rhubarb, raspberries and soy beans.
The results obtained are in accordance with those obtained in
previous years, with the exception of raspberries. This year the
better yield of raspberries was obtained on the muriate plot.
24 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Field C, Chemical Fertilizers and Manure for Market-
garden Crops.
In this experiment, which has continued for twenty-seven
years, we have grown practically all of the market-garden crops
common in this State. The object of the experiment has been
to determine the effect of the addition to manure of chemical
fertilizers for these crops; also to compare three materials as
sources of nitrogen and two as sources of potash. The results
obtained this year are shown in the following table : —
1918.
PUBLIC DOCIjTVIENT — No. 31.
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26 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Field G, Comparison of Potash Salts.
This is the twentieth year of the experiment which has had
for its object the comparison of seven different materials that
may be used as sources of potash. There are 40 plots in all,
including 5 check or no-potash plots and 5 plots on which
each of the different potash materials are used. The rate of
application of actual potash has been in previous years 135
pounds of potassium oxide per acre; this year the application
was reduced to 75 pounds. The different materials furnishing
potash are: kainit, high-grade sulfate of potash, low-grade sul-
fate of potash, muriate of potash, nitrate of potash, carbonate
of potash and treater dust. All plots receive annually the fol-
lowing mixture supplying nitrogen and phosphoric acid: —
Pounds
per Acre.
Nitrate of soda,^ 250
Tankage, 270
Acid phosphate, 360
In 1915 all plots received the usual application of nitrogen
and phosphoric acid, but no potash. This year all plots re-
ceived the usual application of nitrogen and phosphoric acid,
and all except the fourth series (plots 25-32) received the
application of potash. On this set of plots the potash was
omitted.
The crop this ,year was Early Canada Flint corn, which, ow-
ing to the late season, was not planted until June 22. The
yield per acre of the different plots is shown in the following
table : —
' Plots 6, 14, 22, 30 and 38, which receive nitrate of potash, receive only enough nitrate of
soda to make up the deficiency in nitrate, — this year, 108 pounds per acre.
1918.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
27 a
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28 a
EXPERIMENT STATION,
[Jan.
Comparison of Different Phosphates.
This experiment was begun in 1897, and has for its object a
comparison of ten different materials that may be used as
sources of phosphoric acid. The data for the first eighteen years
of the experiment were published in Experiment Station Bulle-
tin No. 162.
The materials furnishing phosphoric acid are applied in suffi-
cient quantity' to supply 96 pounds per acre of actual phosphoric
acid. Each plot receives an annual application of the following
mixture furnishing nitrogen and potash: —
Pounds
per Acre.
High-grade sulfate of potash, 160
Nitrate of soda, 364
Sulfate of ammonia, 100
Hoof meal,i 102
The crop this year was Medium Green soy beans. Owing to
an early frost the crop did not yield as well as usual. The fol-
lowing table gives the results obtained : —
(Soy Beans (Yields per Acre).
Plot.
Phosph.\te.
Beans
(Bushels).
Straw
(Pounds).
No phosphate,
Arkansas rock phosphate,
South Carolina rock,
Florida soft rock, .
Slag
Tennessee rock,
No phosphate.
Dissolved boneblack,
Raw bone.
Dissolved bone meal.
Steamed bone.
Acid phosphate,
No phosphate.
16.66
16.86
13.00
15.34
18.48
15.17
17.86
18.97
18.55
18.93
17.69
19.00
18.58
4,234
4,222
3,526
3,750
6,848
3,640
5,044
5,060
5,444
5.062
4,974
4,498
3,322
1 Plots 9, 10 and 11, which receive phosphoric acid in some form of bone, receive only enough
hoof meal to equalize the organic nitrogen.
1918.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 29o
North Corn Acre.
For twenty-seven years there have been under comparison on
this field two fertihzer mixtures. In one, the percentage of
potash is high and that of phosphoric acid low; in the other
(which represents about the average analysis of the commercial
corn fertilizers offered on our markets) the percentage of phos-
phoric acid is high and that of potash low. For twenty-one
years the rotation on this field has been two years grass and
two years corn. The seed (a mixture of timothy, red top and
clover) has usually been sown in the standing corn the latter
part of July. The soil has not had the benefit of a green
manure crop nor an application of manure during the twenty-
six years of the experiment. The turf and corn stubble which
have been plowed under have been the only source of humus.
This year potash was omitted from the mixture containing
the lower amount and cut down in the mixture containing the
larger amount, so that plots 1 and 3 this year received no
potash, and plots 2 and 4 received potash at the rate of 160
pounds of muriate per acre instead of 250 pounds per acre as
in previous years.
The crop this year was mixed grass and clover. The results
obtained are in accordance with those of previous years, viz.,
the combination containing the larger per cent, of potash gives
the larger yield of hay.
North Soil Test.
This is the twenty-eighth year of this experiment, which has
for its object a study of the effect of the continued use of
fertilizers containing single plant-food elements and different
combinations of plant-food elements for different crops; also
the effect of lime added to each fertilizer under comparison.
The west half of each plot received an application of hydrated
lime at the rate of 1 ton per acre in 1899 and again in 1904, and
at the rate of one-half ton per acre in 1907. In 1916, 2 tons
per acre of ground limestone were applied.
The crop this year was cabbages. The following table gives
the yields per acre and the fertilizer schedule: —
30 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Cabbages.
These results are in accordance with those of earlier years
when a crucifer has been the crop. The largest yields are ob-
tained where the mixtures containing phosphoric acid are used>
and on all plots except where the phosphoric acid is used alone
an application of lime increases the yield.
South Soil Test.
This experiment was begun in 1889, and has for its object a
study of the effect of the continued use of fertilizers containing
single plant-food elements and different combinations of plant-
food elements for different crops. The whole field received an
application of lime at the rate of 1 ton per a^re in 1899 and
again in 1904, at the rate of one-half ton per acre in 1907, and
of ground limestone at the rate of 2 tons per acre in 1916.
The following table shows the yields per acre of corn and
stover obtained on the different plots in 1917 and 1915. The
1918.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
31a
increase in yield in 1917 over that in 1915 may be due to the
fact that the variety grown in 1917 was Early Canada, and
that grown in 1915 was Longfellow; or it may be due to the
fact that a crop of sweet clover was plowed under in the spring
of 1917; or it may be due to a combination of these two factors.
Fertilizer
per
Yields per Acre.
Plot.
Fertilizer.
1917. 1
1915. =
(Pounds).
Corn
(Bushels).
Stover
(Pounds).
Corn
(Bushels).
Stover
(Pounds).
1
Nitrate of soda,
160
34 2
1,900
22.86
1,490
2
Dissolved boneblack,
320
18.1
1,600
10.00
760
3
No fertilizer, .
-
12.7
2,400
8.50
615
4
Muriate of potash,
160
40,9
3,300
40.86
1,980
5
Lime,
800
13 8
1,700
5.29
635
6
No fertilizer, .
-
13.9
1,500
10.93
720
7
Manure,
30,000
40.8
5,200
60.79
3,520
,.{
Nitrate of soda.
Muriate of potash.
160 \
160 1
46.1
3,500
34 35
3,385
■■I
Dissolved boneblack.
Muriate of potash.
320 1
160 1
46 3
3,300
37.58
3,250
12
No fertilizer, .
-
15 7
2,100
16.50
960
13
Plaster, .
800
21.7
1,400
10.92
805
f
[
Nitrate of soda,
Dissolved boneblack.
Muriate of potash.
160 1
320 :■
160 J
36.0
5,400
35 15
3,400
' After plowing under a crop of sweet clover.
• Before plowing under a crop of sweet clover.
Grass Plots.
The experiment in top-dressing permanent mowings with
different materials used in rotation has been continued, but
owing to the scarcity of potash this material was not applied
the past season. In the following table will be found the
fertilizer schedule and the yields per acre obtained on each for
this vear : —
Fertilizers.
Hay
(Pounds).
Rowen
(Pounds)
Total
(Pounds).
Barnyard manure, ....
Bone and potash, ' . . . .
Slag and potash ' (earlier ashes plot), .
3,741
2,718
1,422
1,487
1,031
907
5,228
3,749
2,328
' No potash was applied in 1916 or 1917
32 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The average yields to date under the three systems of top-
dressing are : —
Pounds
per Acre.
Wlien top-dressed with manure, 6,006
When top-dressed with bone and potash, 5,824
When top-dressed with wood ashes (slag and potash now used) , . 5,496
The crop this year before cutting gave the appearance of a
large yield, but the weights show a yield smaller than the
average under each of the three systems of manuring.
Sulfate of Ammonia v. Nitrate of Soda as a Top-dressing
FOR Permanent Mowings.
This experiment has been continued for ten years, and has
for its object the comparison of nitrate of soda and sulfate of
ammonia as a top-dressing for permanent mowings. All plots
have received an equal application of potash and phosphoric
acid. Owing to the scarcity of potash, none of this element was
applied in 1916 or 1917. With favorable weather for the pro-
duction of hay in 1916, a normal crop was obtained. In 1917,
the second year the potash was omitted, with weather un-
favorable for the production of good hay, the crop fell much
below the normal.
Variety Test Work.
The testing of different varieties of potatoes, alfalfa and soy
beans has been continued during the past year.
The statement made last year in regard to the relative merits
of Grimm and Common alfalfa is further substantiated by the
results obtained this year, viz., that our results do not show the
Grimm to be an}' better than the Common.
During the past three years we have had under comparison
with some standard varieties several seedling potatoes. None
of these has given promise of being any better than the stand-
ard varieties.
The co-operative work with the United States Department of
Agriculture in testing different varieties of soy beans has been
continued.
Nine varieties of winter wheat were sown this fall, and it is
planned to try a few varieties of spring wheat.
1918.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 33 a
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY.
A. VINCENT OSMUN.
The activities of the department of botany during the last
year have continued mainly along two lines, viz., plant pathol-
ogy and plant physiology. In addition, seed work, corre-
spondence and reorganization of the mycological collection have
demanded increased attention on the part of the staff.
A survey of the season of 1917 in Massachusetts indicates
that, on the whole, conditions were somewhat unfavorable for
the development of parasitic fungi. A late, wet spring, followed
by a period of drought, checked many diseases which early in
the season had threatened serious loss. Occasional short periods
of high humidity were usually accompanied by high tempera-
tures, which prevented development of potato late blight, and
were followed by unusually bright weather not favorable to
uninterrupted development of other diseases.
Early blight of potato inflicted more than the usual amount
of damage before being checked by the dry weather of July.
The tendency on the part of potato growers to delay the first
application of Bordeaux mixture was responsible for much of
the injury from this source. The first application, when the
plants are not over 6 to 8 inches high, is one of the most im-
portant in the spraying schedule, as it is at this stage more than
any other that a coating of the fungicide on the foliage is
needed to prevent the early and late blight fungi from obtain-
ing a start in the tissues. Late blight of potato was severe in
the island counties and along the coast, owing to the continued
high humidity throughout the season, the normal condition in
that part of the State. The disease was present at scattered
points in other parts of the State, but in few instances was in-
jury to the vines sufficient to cause alarm. Later, however,
34a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
this disease caused much rotting of tubers, owing to the wet
condition of the soil, and the loss from this source among stored
potatoes has been heavy. This condition is likely to seriously
affect the quality of seed potatoes next spring. Potato scab
was more prevalent than during the preceding few years, per-
haps in part because of the greater number of amateur growers
and the poor "seed" planted. Rhizoctonia of potato, though
common, did relatively little damage. "Seed" disinfection as
partial insurance against scab and Rhizoctonia is now generally
practiced by experienced growers.
Bean anthracnose was everywhere in evidence on seedling
plants early in the summer, but for the most part, owing to the
dry period which followed, the disease did not progress, and
was serious on the pods only in wet locations and in the island
counties. Field experiments conducted by the department to
determine the efficacy of various fungicidal spraying materials
against this disease were without determinable results because
of failure of the disease to develop. Stem and root rots of
beans, caused by Fusarium and Rhizoctonia were of more fre-
quent occurrence than usual, especially on wet and sour soils.
These diseases present control problems of considerable im-
portance, and should receive attention in the near future.
The onion crop suffered from a Macrosporium blight of the
tops and Botrytis and bacterial rot of the bulbs, all of which
apparently found favorable environment in the hot, wet period
of August. The crop continued to rot badly in storage. The
plans of the department include active investigation of onion
diseases in 1918.
Fruit crops were as a rule freer than usual from disease.
Peach leaf curl was, however, somewhat more abundant, though
usually on trees not receiving a dormant spray. It is hoped
that more growers in this State will adopt the practice of ap-
plying the dormant spray in the fall. This has proved success-
ful where tried, and has several advantages over early spring
spraying. When left until late winter or early spring there is
always danger that a warm period may send the leaf curl
fungus into the bud tissues beyond reach of the fungicide, and
this probably explains occasional failures to control the disease
by dormant spraying.
1918.] PUBLIC DOCmiENT — No. 31. 35 a
Sweet cherries suffered severely from brown rot, but this
disease caused little damage to plums and peaches, except as it
followed hail injury, when the loss from rotting became very
heavy.
Two heavy hail storms, one in the latter part of July, the
other early in August, seriously damaged fruit and tobacco in
the Connecticut Valley and vicinity.
Apples and pears suffered comparatively little from disease.
Mcintosh and Fameuse were, in some orchards, badly scabbed.
Our observations seem to indicate that there are individual
cases of extreme susceptibility to scab among trees of these
varieties, and that in such cases the usual fungicidal applica-
tions are insufficient to control the disease. Bitter-pit and
fruit-spot were much less serious than in 1917, although both
were of more frequent occurrence than usual.
Truck crop growers in the vicinity of Boston were heavy
losers from downy mildew of cucumbers, which was severe both
under glass and out of doors. Preliminary experimental spray-
ing of greenhouse cucumbers for the control of this disease gave
promising results. The work will be continued.
Celery, especially the Golden Self-Blanching variety, was al-
most a complete failure on some truck crop farms, owing to the
severity of crown-rot and heart-rot. Growers are substituting
other varieties because of the susceptibility of this variety to
these bacterial diseases. However, owing to the desirable quali-
ties of Golden Self-Blanching, an effort is being made, through
selection of resistant plants, to develop a strain of this variety
immune to these diseases. Early and late blight of celery in-
flicted but slight damage. This condition made very uncertain
and unsatisfactory the results obtained from spraying with a
number of fungicides on experimental plots located on three
truck crop farms. This experiment will be repeated in 1918
with some modifications.
Heavy frost in September sevci'ely injured many crops. A
large percentage of field corn failed to mature properly, and
fodder corn was greatly reduced in feeding value. Injury to
beans and potatoes was relatively small in most sections.
Although a record number of reports of the occurrence of
plant diseases in the State was received, and correspondence
36 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
was accordingly heavier than usual, this cannot be interpreted
as indicating an abnormal season. It is explained, rather, by
the war-time impetus given to gardening and general crop pro-
duction by the publicity campaign waged in- the State and
throughout the country. Many reports were followed up only
to find slight and isolated outbreaks of diseases. However, an
awakened interest is indicated, and through it much may be
accomplished in the way of suppression of diseases by education
of the public in the use of known methods of control.
While this is recognized as extension work, it has always been
conducted by the station staff because there has been no one
specially assigned to act as extension plant pathologist. How-
ever, on November 1 Mr. W. L. Doran was appointed by the
United States Department of Agriculture as extension specialist
in diseases of truck crops, to work in co-operation with the de-
partment of botany. This arrangement will relieve station
members of the department of much correspondence, and they
should hereafter be able to give correspondingly more time to
research. It will also enlarge the usefulness of extension work
in plant pathology, and help to bring the department into closer
touch with the problems of a larger number of growers.
The possibilities of research in plant pathology have been
greatly enlarged by the addition of a field pathologist to the
department staff. Formerly the amount of field work in path-
ological research which could be undertaken has been small,
owing to the great amount of other work required of the de-
partment. This year spraying experiments on beans and celery
were conducted in Amherst and Arlington, the latter in co-op-
eration with the market-garden field station. In addition, in-
vestigations on diseases of lettuce and cucumbers were started
in the greenhouses of several truck crop growers in Arlington
and in the department greenhouse at Amherst. This feature of
our work will be enlarged the coming year.
Extensive research on a new canker disease of roses, caused
by the fungus Cylindrocladium scoparium Morg., has been under
way for about a year, and results will be ready for early publica-
tion. This work was undertaken at the request of one of the
largest growers of greenhouse roses in New England, who placed
his equipment at our disposal for the carrying out of the more
191S.] PUBLIC DOCITINIENT — No. 31. 37a
practical features of the investigation. It is believed that a
satisfactory means of controlling the disease has been worked
out.
For several years a disease of lawn grass, which is evidenced
by the dying of the grass in round areas a foot or more in diam-
eter, has been under observation. Repeated attempts to de-
termine the cause of this trouble had failed to connect any
pathogenic organism with it until last summer, when our efforts
were rewarded by the isolation of a fungus which we have since
proved to be the causal agent of the disease. The fungus proves
to be an unnamed species of Sclerotium, and will be named and
described in a later publication. Control measures are under
investigation.
Investigations on rust of Antirrhinum, a serious disease of
this floral crop both in the greenhouse and out of doors, have
established a method of control under glass, and results will be
presented for publication at an early date.
The complete results of the investigations on mosaic disease
of tobacco were published in a bulletin issued during the year.
On the completion of this work G. H. Chapman was assigned
to a new project for the study of so-called "tobacco-sick soils,"
referred to in our last annual report.^ This project has been
established on an experimental basis. Three plots for study of
fertilizer and soil reactions, and one for chemical treatment of
soil infected with the root-rot fungus {Thielaxia hasicola (B. &
Br.) Zoff), were conducted during last summer. Many soil
samples have been taken for laboratory tests and much data
gathered on various factors. Physiological studies of Thielavia
are being made with a view to establishing a soil reaction favor-
able to the development of tobacco and unfavorable to the
fungus. This work has awakened keen interest on the part of
tobacco growers, who are more than ever looking to the station
for help in solving some of their important problems.
The project for the study of the response of plants to light,
in charge of O. L. Clark, was extended to include field work
last summer. A number of crops were grown under cloth of
different textures which cut off varying amounts of light, with
a suitable check plot in the open. The tents were so designed
> Twenty-ninth annual report, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, p. 63o.
38 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
as to insure only slight variations from normal of temperature
and humidity. Preliminary results indicate that much of value
may be expected from this feature of the investigation. In the
greenhouse a study of the energy of assimilation under varying
light intensities is being conducted. A method of obtaining a
measure of total daily light also is under experimentation.
Fundamental to the main problem, much work has been done
in the laboratory on the response of stomata to changes in light
intensity and light quality.
The number of seed samples received for purity and germina-
tion tests showed an increase over former years, and more than
the usual number of tobacco seed was sent in for cleaning and
separation. At times the facilities of the department for doing
seed work have been taxed to the limit, and should the work
continue to grow, additional expenditures for equipment and
help will be necessary.
In the work of reorganizing the mycological collection more
than 10,000 specimens have been relabeled and placed in new
packets of uniform size. Steel cases with a capacity of about
9,000 packets have been purchased. In order to house the
complete collection under fireproof conditions about three more
cases should be provided. The herbarium is a valuable adjunct
to research in plant pathology and mycology; it could not be
replaced if destroyed, and should be effectually guarded against
fire and vermin.
In collaboration with the Plant Disease Survey of the United
States Department of Agriculture, a survey of disease conditions
within the State has been conducted for a number of years.
This work recently has been reorganized at Washington, and its
scope and usefulness will be greatly enlarged. It must be
looked upon as forming a foundation for future work in plant
pathology^ and should be given the hearty support of the sta-
tion. The writer frequently has urged the importance of mak-
ing the disease survey a regular station project, and it is hoped
that financial as well as moral support may be given to this
work in the future.
1918.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 39a
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
J. B. LINDSEY.
The work of this department is divided into three distinct
sections, — research, fertilizer, and feed and dairy.
1. Research Section.
(a) During the past year Dr. Lindsey and Mr. Beals have
conducted experiments on the nutritive value of alfalfa; also
considerable digestion work with sheep has been completed,
including studies of the digestibility of Sudan grass, vinegar
grains, alfalfa, sweet clover, carrots and Schumacher's Stock
Feed. Experiments with horses on the digestibility and avail-
able energy in alfalfa, corn, oats, wheat bran, corn bran, brew-
ers' grains, and in rations compounded from the same, have
been completed, and other similar trials are in progress. Studies
on the growth and feeding value of sweet clover and of Sudan
grass have been made.
(6) Dr. Holland, assisted by Mr. Buckle}^ reports that the
work on esterification methods for determining different fatty
acids in butter fat has proved more successful than was antici-
pated. Instead of determining only lauric acid and possibly
myristic acid from the insoluble acids as originally planned, it
has been found possible to determine caproic, caprylic, capric,
lauric and myristic acids quantitatively from the butter fat.
The method is practicable and promises material assistance
in dairy studies. A detailed account of the work has been
accepted for publication in the "Journal of Agricultural Re-
search."
A report has been prepared for publication in the same jour-
nal on the effect of air, light and moisture, singly and in com-
40 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
bination, on olive oil. The investigation covered a period of
six years, and furnished information of particular scientific in-
terest and of practical value.
Co-operative work with the department of entomology on
the problem "why insecticides burn" has been more extensive
than usual, including complete analyses and solubility tests of
a commercial sample of dry lead arsenate, lead arsenate paste
and Paris green, and the preparation of calcium arsenate. In
addition, dry lime sulfur, Stunga meal for earth worms, and
the preparation of a new spray material for combating the red
spider have received considerable attention.
The dehydrating action of lime sulfur has been investigated
for Dr. Stone, formerly of the botanical department, the heat
of combustion made of various samples for the microbiological
department, analysis made and wax content determined of bee
moth excrement for the entomological department, and analy-
sis made of apple syrup for the horticultural department.
Miscellaneous work on arsenicals and the determination of
invert and sucrose sugars in different varieties of strawberries
have consumed considerable time.
(c) Messrs. Morse and Jones state that the relations between
lime and soil acidity have been investigated on the soils of the
fertilizer plots. The capacity of these soils to absorb calcium
from different compounds, as well as the absorption of other
similar bases, has been studied. The residual carbonate of lime
existing in the soils, which at one time or another have been
dressed with lime, has been determined. The true acidity or
hydrogen ion concentration of water solution from the soils has
been determined. The specific effects of different fertilizers
used for years on the same plots have been compared in the
foregoing investigations. A mass of data has been accumulated
that is exceedingly difficult to reduce to practical applications.
The composition of the cranberry and its relations to storage
and decay of the fruit has occupied the time of one of us since
the cranberry harvest this fall. A study of the composition of
the berries, month by month, as they have been received from
storage, has been pursued. The variations in composition pro-
duced by storage at different temperatures, by asph;s-xiation in
close packages and by decay have been compared. The rate of
191S.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 41a
respiration or exhalation of carbon dioxide has been measured as
a guide to the rate of chemical change taking place in the fruit
after being picked.
The latter group of problems was taken up at the request of
the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department
of Agriculture, and will necessarily extend into next year.
The soil problems must also continue in order to follow up
promising leads arising from this year's work.
2. Fertilizer Section.
The work of the fertilizer section, in charge of Mr. Haskins,
with Messrs. Walker, Allen and Scull as assistants, may be
summarized as follows : —
(a) Fertilizers registered.
During the season of 1917, 100 manufacturers, importers and
dealers have secured certificates for the sale of 512 brands of
fertilizer, fertilizing materials and agricultural limes. They are
classed as follows : —
Complete fertilizers, 175
Ammoniated superphosphates, 182
Ground bone, tankage and dry ground fish, 54
Wood ashes, 4
Chemicals and organic nitrogen compounds, 65
Agricultural limes, 32
512
(6) Fertilizers collected and analyzed.
During the year 5,452 tons of fertilizer were sampled, ne-
cessitating the sampling of 12,801 sacks. One hundred and
thirty-six towns were visited; 1,047 samples, representing 441
distinct brands, were drawn from stock found in the possession
of 360 different agents or owners, and 626 distinct analyses
were made. In addition, numerous samples of materials both
single and mixed were officially collected and analyzed for
farmers, so that the total number officially collected and ex-
amined was as follows: —
42a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Complete fertilizers, 140
Ammoniated superphosphates, 198
Ground bone, tankage and dry ground fish, 72
Nitrogen compounds, 99
Phosphoric acid compounds, 28
Wood ashes, 31
Lime compounds, 34
602
Full details regarding the fertilizer inspection work will be
found in Bulletin No. 8, Control Series, published in December,
1917.
(c) Other Activities of the Fertilizer Section.
After the completion of the fertilizer inspection work an op-
portunity was found for the analysis of a great variety of ferti-
lizing by-products which had been sent to the laboratory by
farmers and farmers' organizations; also, during November,
December, January, February and March, much co-operative
analytical work was done on some of the problems of the Agri-
cultural Department, particularly with reference to the analy-
sis of crops grown in certain experiments both in the field and
with pots. They may be briefly summarized as follows: —
Weights, dry matter and duplicate phosphoric acid determinations on
157 samples of rape.
Weights, dry matter and duplicate phosphoric acid determinations on 54
samples of millet seed and straw.
Weights and dry matter determinations on 392 samples of millet seed
and 392 samples of millet straw; also 140 potash, 128 nitrogen and
22 phosphoric acid determinations were made on this series.
Thirty samples of soil and subsoil collected in various sections of the
State have been analyzed for their content of acid soluble potash as
well as for their mechanical analyses.
Five hundred and sixteen different substances have been received and
analyzed for farmers and the various departments of the experiment
station, and may be grouped as follows : —
Fertilizers and fertilizer by-products, 198
Lime products, 22
Soils for lime requirements and organic matter tests, . . . 289
Soils for partial analysis, water soluble constituents, ... 5
516
1918.] PUBLIC DOCmiENT — No. 31. 43 a
Time has been found for co-operative work with the Associa-
tion of Official Agricultural Chemists, Mr. Haskins serving as
referee on nitrogen for the year.
(d) Vegetation Tests.
In this division work has been continued, in co-operation with
the basic slag committee of the Association of Official Agri-
cultural Chemists, in the study of the availability of phosphoric
acid in basic slag phosphate. The work this season was for the
purpose of noting the residual effect of the different phosphates
used during the preceding year.
One series of pot experiments with rape, comprising 18 pots,
has been completed to study the availability of phosphoric
acid in apatite and barium sulfide (Barium-Phosphate).
Another series with millet, comprising 10 pots, has been
completed to study the crop-producing power of Nature's
Wonder Mineral Plant Food, a ground metamorphic rock which
has been advertised and sold under different names to a greater
or less extent in Massachusetts for several years. The results
have not been published, but fully substantiate previous ex-
periments with the material which show that it possesses but
little value as a source of plant food.
3. Feed and Dairy Section.
A summary of the work of the feed and dairy section, in
charge of Mr. Smith, assisted by Messrs. Beals, Peables, J. B.
Smith and J. T. Howard, follows: —
(a) The Feeding Stuffs Law (Acts and Resolves for 1912,
Chapter 527).
During the past year 1,082 samples of feeding stuffs were
collected at 140 places of business. About 1,400 brands have
be^n registered and permits for sale issued. Four cases have
been prosecuted where goods ran substantially below guarantee,
and one case for failure to attach guarantee tags as required by
statute. In addition, a number of samples have been drawn for
the Federal government, and action is still pending. Although
44 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
prices have ruled high and actual shortage has at times existed,
goods offered have, with few exceptions, been as represented.
For the purpose of uniformity with other States requiring
registration of feeding stuffs, the act has been amended so as to
allow registrations to run with the calendar year instead of from
September 1 to September 1.
The results of the year's work in detail can be found in
Bulletin No. 7, Control Series.
(6) The Dairy Law {Ads and Resolves for 1912, Chapter 218).
(1) Examination for Certificates. — Forty-seven applicants
have been examined and found proficient.
(2) Inspection of Glassware. — Seven thousand five hundred
and twenty-two pieces of Babcock glassware have been tested
for accuracy, of which 8 were condemned.
Following is a summary of the last seventeen years: —
Year.
Number of
Pieces tested.
Number of
Pieces
condemned.
Percentage
condemned.
1901,
1902,
1903,
1904,
1905,
1906,
1907,
1908,
1909,
1910,
1911,
1912,
1913,
1914,
1915,
1916,
1917,
Totals,
5,041
2,344
2,240
2,026
1,665
2,457
3,082
2,713
4,071
4,047
4,466
6,056
6,394
6,336
4,956
5,184
7,522
70,600
291
56
57
200
197
763
204
33
43
41
12
27
34
18
4
5
8
1,993
5.77
2.40
2.54
9.87
11.83
31.05
6.62
1.22
1.06
1.01
.27
.45
.53
.28
.08
.10
.11
2.82'
' Average.
1918.1
PUBLIC DOCmiENT — No. 31.
45 a
(3) Inspection of Machines and Apparatus. — During the
months of November and December, Mr. J. T. Howard, the
authorized deputy, inspected the machines and apparatus in
SS milk depots, creameries and milk inspection laboratories.
Three machines were condemned as unfit for use, and minor
repairs ordered in several others.
Following is a list of creameries, milk depots and milk in-
spectors' laboratories visited in 1917: —
1 . Creameries.
Location.
Name.
Manager or Proprietor.
1. Amherst,
2. Ashfield,
3. Belchertown,
4. Cummington,
5. Easthampton,
6. Monterey,
7. Northfield, .
8. Shelburne, .
Amherst
Ashfield Co-operative,
Belchertown Co-operative,
Cummington Co-operative,
Hampton Co-operative, .
Berkshire Hills Co-operative, .
Northfield Co-operative,
Shelburne Co-operative, .
R. W. Pease, proprietor.
Wm. Hunter, manager.
M. G. Ward, manager.
D. C. Morey, manager.
W. S. Wilcox, manager.
F. A. Campbell, manager.
C. C. Stearns, manager.
W. C. Webber, manager.
2. Milk Depots.
Location.
Name.
Manager.
1. Boston,
2. Boston,
3. Boston (Dorchester),
4. Boston (Charlestown),
5. Boston (Charlestown),
6. Boston (Forest Hills),
7. Boston (Dorchester),
8. Boston, .
9. Boston, .
10. Boston (Charlestown),
11. Boston,
12. Boston (Charlestown),
13. Boston (Jamaica Plain),
14. Cambridge,
15. Conway, .
Alden Brothers Branch,
Boston Jersey Creamery, .
Elm Farm Milk Company,
H. P. Hood & Sons, ....
H. P. Hood & Sons, No. 2,
H. P. Hood & Sons, ....
Morgan Brothers, ....
Oak Grove Farm
Plymouth Creamery Company,
Rockingham Milk Company,
Turner Centre Dairying Association,
D. Whiting & Sons, ....
Westwood Farm Milk Company,
C. Brigham & Son, ....
H. P. Hood & Sons
Wm. Johnson.
T. P. Grant.
J. K. Knapp.
N. C. Davis.
N. C. Davis.
N. C. Davis.
A. G. Johnson.
J. Alden.
W. J. Gardner.
C. A. Bray.
I. L. Smith.
J. K. Whiting.
V. E. Clem.
J. K. Whiting.
F. E. Burnett.
46 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
2. Milk De-pots — Concluded.
Location.
Name.
Manager.
16. East Watertown,
Lyndonville Creamery Association, .
H. A. Smith.
17. Everett, .
Frank E. Boyd,
F. E. Boyd.
18. Everett, .
Hampden Creamery Company,
R. T. Mooney.
19. Lawrence,
Jersey Ice Cream Company,
J. N. Gurdy.
20. Lawrence,
Turner Centre Dairying Association,
F. M. Barr.
21. Lawrence,
Willardale Creamery, ....
F. H. Willard.
22. North Adams,
Ormsby Farms,
W. E. Penniman.
23. North Egremont,
Willowbrook Dairy, ....
D. Nanninga.
24. Sheffield, ,
Willowbrook Dairy, ....
F. B. Percy.
25. Shelburne Falls,
H. P. Hood & Sons
R. E. Wetherbee.
26. Southborough,
Deerfoot Farms, ....
S. H. Howes.
27. Somerville,
Seven Oaks Dairy Company,
A. B. Parker.
28. Somerville,
Acton Farms Milk Company, .
J. Colgan.
29. Springfield,
Tait Brothers,
H. Tait.
30. Waltham,
Manhattan Creamery,
A. W. Jenkins.
31. West Lynn,
H. P. Hood & Sons, ....
N. C. Davis.
3. Milk
Inspectors.
Location.
Inspector.
Location.
Inspector.
1. Amesbury,
J. L. Stewart.
16. Gardner, .
H. 0. Knight.
2. Amherst, .
P. H. Smith.
17. Greenfield,
G. P. Moore.
3. Attleboro, .
S. Leiboff.
18. Haverhill, .
J. A. Ruel.
4. Barnstable,
G. T. Mecarta.
19. Holyoke, .
D. Hartnett.
5. Boston,
J. 0. Jordan.
20. Lawrence, .
J. H. Tobin.
6. Brockton, .
G. E. Boiling.
21. Lowell,
M. Marster.
7. Cambridge,
W. A. Noonan.
22. Lynn,
H. P. Bennett.
8. Chelsea, .
W. S. Walkley.
23. Maiden, .
J. A. Sanford.
9. Chicopee, .
C. J. O'Brien.
24. Millbury, .
F. A. Watkins.
10. CUnton, .
G. L. Chase.
25. New Bedford,
H. B. Hamilton.
11. Dedham, .
E. Knobel.
26. Newton,
A. C. Hudson.
12. Everett, .
E. C. Colby.
27. North Adams,
C.T.Quackenbush.
13. Fall River.
H. Boisseau.
28. Northampton,
G. R. Turner.
14. Fitchburg,
J. F. Bresnahan.
29. Pittsfield, .
B. M. Collins.
15. Framingham,
F. S. Dodson.
30. Plainville, .
J. J. Eiden.
1918.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
47 a
3. Milk Inspectors — Concluded.
Location.
Inspector.
LoC.IlTION.
Inspector.
31. Plymouth, .
W. E. Briggs.
39. Ware, ....
F. E. Marsh.
32. Revere,
J. E. Lamb.
40. Watertown,
L. Simonds.
33. Salem,
J. J. McGrath.
4L Wellesley, .
W. A. Berger.
34. Somerville,
H. E. Bowman.
42. Westfield, .
W. H. Junkins.
35. South Hadley, .
G. F. Beaudreau.
43. Winchendon,
G. W. Stanbridge.
36. Springfield,
S. C. Downs.
44. Woburn,
D. F. Callahan.
37. Taunton, .
L. C. Tucker.
45. Worcester, .
G. L. Berg.
38. Waltham, .
G. D. Affleck.
4. Miscellaneous.
Location.
Name.
Manager.
1. Boston,
2. Boston,
3. Greenfield
4. Springfield, ....
Walker-Gordon Laboratory,
Boston Laboratories, Inc., .
Franklin County Farm Bureau,
Emerson Laboratory,
B. W. Nichols.
L. W. Lee.
Miss M. Howard.
H. C. Emerson.
(c) Milk, Cream and Feeds for Free Examination.
As in the past this department has continued to analyze
samples of milk, cream and feeds sent by residents of the State
where circumstances would appear to warrant this procedure.
Work will not be done, however, which belongs more properly
to a commercial chemist. During the year 202 samples of
feeding stuffs, 744 samples of milk, 631 samples of cream, 3
samples of ice cream, 1 sample of condensed milk, and 2
samples of vinegar were analyzed.
(d) Water.
Sixty-six samples of water received in containers furnished by
the experiment station were analyzed. A fee of $3 is charged
for this service, and application for the analysis must be made
in advance. Of the samples analyzed, 50 were from wells, 11
48 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
from springs, 4 from ponds or brooks, and 1 from pond ice.
Water from public supplies is not analyzed, they being under
the jurisdiction of the State Department of Health.
(e) Testing of Pure-bred Cows for Advanced Registry.
Four men have been given regular employment in conducting
yearly tests of Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Shorthorn and
Brown Swiss cows, and in addition extra men are employed as
occasion demands. This work requires the presence of a super-
visor at a farm for at least two days each month. The two-day
test period forms a basis for computing the monthly milk and
fat yield reported by the breeders direct to their respective
cattle clubs. Following is a monthly summary of the work for
the two-day yearly tests : —
1918.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
49 a
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50 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The Holstein tests, usually based on a seven or thirty day
period, require the presence of a supervisor during the entire
test. It is becoming increasingly difficult to secure men for this
work, as it does not warrant continuous employment. During
the year 23 different men have been employed in these shorter
tests, and 158 seven-day, 31 fourteen-day, 38 thirty-day, and
1 sixty-day tests, making a total of 228, have been completed.
This work was conducted at 29 different farms.
4. Numerical Summary of Laboratory Work, December,
1916, TO December, 1917.
There have been received and tested 66 samples of water,
744 of milk, 631 of cream, 3 of ice cream, 1 of oleomargarine,
1 of condensed milk, 202 of feedstuffs, 198 of fertilizers and
fertilizer by-products, 22 of lime products, 289 of soils for lime
requirements, 5 of soils for water soluble matter, 2 tests for
arsenical poisoning, 1 of slum gum, 2 of vinegar, 1 of coal, 8 of
lime-sulfur, 2 of arsenate of lead, 1 of Paris green, 2 of fruit
preserves, 14 of strawberries and 10 miscellaneous.
The fertilizers officially collected numbered 1,047, and the
cattle feeds, 1,082. There have also been tested, in connection
with experiments in progress in the several departments of the
station, 266 samples of milk, 152 of cattle feeds, 50 of faeces,
8 of urine, 157 of rape, 838 of millet seed or straw, and 30 of
soils. The above totals 5,835 samples, and does not include
the work of the research section nor that required by the dairy
law.
1918.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 51a
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
A. I. BOURNE.
The u'ork of the entomology department has followed in gen-
eral lines similar to former years.
The correspondence has called for a much larger amount of
time and effort than usual. Inquiries relative to over 250 differ-
ent insects, as well as many questions on the proper use of
various insecticides, and on pests other than insects, were re-
ceived and answered. This increase was to be expected, in
view of the fact that an unusually large number of persons
throughout the State were taking up the cultivation of small
gardens, many for the first time, in response to the National
Campaign for Food Production. As a consequence, many com-
plaints were received and information requested for the control
of the most common of our insect pests, with which most of the
experienced growers were already familiar, and concerning
which in former years we received few, if any, complaints. It
is safe to state that during the months of June, July and August
the bulk of the daily correspondence was doubled, with a large
increase during the rest of the season over former years.
Aside from the more common insects there were unusually
severe outbreaks of several species which normally are of little
or no economic importance.
The rose chafer, which usually causes more or less injury to
grapes and ornamental stock, such as roses, etc., was this last
season present in very large numbers, and proved a serious pest
to almost all garden crops as well as to young fruit trees.
The chrysanthemum gall midge, a pest to be dreaded by
growers of greenhouse chrysanthemums, owing to the enormous
expense necessary to eradicate it once it has become firmly
established, was reported from several points in the State, and
caused much uneasiness on the part of florists.
52 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The potato plant louse, normally present but in such small
numbers that it can be entirely ignored, u'as this year so abun-
dant and caused such rapid destruction in badly infested fields
that especial attention on the part of the department was called
for, and a bulletin delineating its habits and methods for its
control was prepared and published.
During the early part of August the department received
numerous reports of "greenish caterpillars" defoliating forest
and shade trees, notably maples and beeches, from towns in
Berkshire, Franklin and Hampshire counties. Upon a careful
survey of the infested region the injury was found to be due
principally to two species, — larvse of the two-lined prominent
moth and the green-striped maple worm. An indication of the
nature and extent of this injury may be gathered from the
following report: "Individual trees were often completely
stripped of foliage, and, in some localities, the woods were so
denuded that it appeared like late fall, when half to two-thirds
of the foliage is gone."
Mention may here be made of several species of somewhat
less importance, from an economic standpoint, but of interest
from the fact that they had not been reported to this office be-
fore, or, at least, not as occurring in numbers enough to be a
source of danger. In this class belong the grape-vine tomato
gall midge, asparagus miner, parsnip web-worm and celery and
parsnip plant louse. These, while not occurring in large num-
bers in any particular region, were quite generally present
throughout the State.
Of the common pests, plant lice of all kinds, the squash-vine
borer, flea beetles, cabbage worms of several kinds and the
potato stalk borer were present in large numbers, and caused
a corresponding amount of damage to crops.
As in former years, numerous species brought to this country
from abroad on imported nursery stock were sent to this office
by the inspectors for identification. This work, while calling
for considerable expenditure of time, is, nevertheless, of value
in order to keep the department in touch with insects which
might, if they once became established, develop into serious
pests. An instance of this is the so-called orange-tail moth, a
European species closely related to the brown-tail moth, which
1918.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 53a
was collected by the inspectors during this past year on stock
from two different points abroad.
A new pest, the European corn borer, which from present
knowledge is capable of causing severe injury to the corn crop,
was this season found to be firmly established in the district
immediately around Boston. Taking into consideration the
damage to corn in the more or less restricted area infested dur-
ing the past season, we can readily foresee the terrible losses it
would cause should it ever be able to spread to the large corn
fields of the West. A study of the nature of its attack and life
history, together with a survey of the infested region, was
undertaken, and a preliminary paper giving information thus
far obtained has been published. More extensive work is
planned for the coming season.
The other field work of the department has progressed satis-
factorily. A bulletin on the "Control of the Red Spider in
Greenhouses" is now ready for publication. Further work along
the line of cultural methods of control is planned.
The experiments on the study of the causes of foliage injury
from spraying with pure insecticides have been completed, and
have progressed well with the use of the commercial materials.
The work on the control of the onion fly was checked some-
what during the past season because of an absence of the insects
in the experimental plots and the immediate neighborhood.
Nearly all of the other lines of work are well along toward
completion.
54a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE.
FR.\XK A. WAUGH.
During the year two new projects have been added to our re-
search program. These are (a) studies in peach breeding and
(b) critical studies of tree and leaf characters in varieties of
fruits, especially apples and peaches.
"Work has been practically concluded in the plant-breeding
experiments with beans and peas, and an early publication of
results is contemplated. Important practical results have been
secured in the orchard management experiments, and material
is being prepared for publication dealing with (a) orchard ren-
ovation, (6) soil management in the orchard and (c) varieties
of fruits, especially apples.
A new experimental orchard of 275 trees has been planted in
the town of Buckland as a part of the more extended research
work on problems of reciprocal influences between stock and
cion in graftage.
Experimental work with market-garden crops is getting under
way at the market-garden field station in North Lexington, and
we hope that this line of work will soon come to have consider-
able value to the State. Further experimental work is much
needed with florists' crops and with small fruits, especially
strawberries.
1918.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 55 a
DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY.
CHARLES E. MARSHALL.
The regular work of the microbiology department of the ex-
periment station has been a study of soil fertility under the
Adams fund. In addition to this there has been a limited allow-
ance for milk investigations. The department has also received
support under the De Laval fund, which has provided resources
for the study of milk clarification.
The soil studies were diligently pursued throughout the 3'ear
by Dr. F. H. H. van Suchtelen, who severed his connection
with this institution Sept. 1, 1917. Dr. van Suchtelen, how-
ever, had reached the point where he had formulated certain
directive principles which will be a great aid to the develop-
ment and continuance of the problems involved. Dr. A. Itano
was appointed to take up the work where Dr. van Suchtelen
had dropped it, and has been pursuing it further and endeavor-
ing to carry it through to its concrete application. In this work
he has been assisted by Mr. George B. Ray,
Before Dr. Itano was appointed to take up the study in soil
fertility from the microbiological standpoint he had been giving
considerable time to the study of soy bean preparations for
human food. In the carrying out of this work he not only-
tested out the work that had been done prior to his study, but
he devised several new formulae which possess much merit.
The result of his efforts, which continued over about four
months, has been published.
Dr. Itano, with the assistance of Mr. G. B. Ray and Mr.
James Neill, has prepared cultures of nitrogen-gathering bac-
teria for legumes, and Miss Dondale has distributed these where
requested. The number ordered may be of interest: —
56 a
EXPERIMENT STATION,
[Jan.
For alfalfa,
For red clover, .
For alsike clover,
For sweet clover,
For crimson clover,
For field beans,
For soy beans, .
For peas, .
For cow peas, .
For vetch, .
Total, .
202
17
4
13
14
366
441
80
7
28
1,172
The laboratory has made itself useful to the health of the
community through many tests made for physicians by Dr.
Itano.
The past year milk studies outside of milk clarification were
suspended for emergency food investigations. In the latter
studies it has been aimed principally to survey the situation and
gather material to outline the plan of study for curtailing loss
in the canning of food. In this undertaking Mr. E. G. Hood
and Mr. G. B. Ray have given most generously of their time,
and have furnished valuable assistance. At the time of writing
this report we are planning to make an intensive attack upon
the problems of canning. The results accumulated thus far will
simply be brought together in connection \\'ith the results we
hope to secure in the future work.
Mr. E. G. Hood has also conducted many milk determina-
tions for the town of Amherst, for individuals sending in
samples and for dairy exhibits. He has tested for the town of
Amherst 118 samples, outside material sent in, 32 samples, milk
in dairy exhibits, .369 samples.
The De Laval studies have been pursued throughout the past
year by these graduate assistants: Mr. E. G. Hood, Mr. R. C.
Avery and Mr. S. G. INIutkekar. Miss Louise Hompe, Mr.
H. A. Cheplin and Mr. J. E. Martin began work in September.
Of these men, Mr. Avery enlisted for war service in July, INIr.
Cheplin in November and Mr. Martin in December. Consider-
ing the difficulties under which we have been working, decided
progress may be reported.
191S.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 57a
DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY.
H. D. GOODALE.
Egg Production.
This year's flock is superior to last year's in that a larger pro-
portion matured earher, with a corresponding increase in flock
production early in the season. Thus the mean October pro-
duction of pullets hatched March 18 to April 1 was nearly 12
eggs, as compared with -1 eggs for the flock of corresponding
age a year ago after families of known poor producers were
excluded from the latter.
Although production in the high strains is very satisfactory,
there is room for further improvement, especially in regard to
rate of production. Now that a satisfactory degree of maturity
has been reached much more attention will be paid to rate, but
slower progress may be expected because the demand for space
made in the development of the non-broody strain forces us to
reduce the flock of high winter layers to one-third its present
size.
An intensive study of our data u'ith relation to the winter
cycle of egg production was made during the year. A paper em-
bodying this work has been published. It was concluded, first,
a winter cycle is a definite biological entity, best recognized in
the individual by a pause (usually exceeding ten days in length,
and beginning in December, January or, rarely, February)
following an egg-production period of considerable length;
second, monthly rate of production is not a good index of the
winter cycle; third, many individuals lack the winter cycle and
lay continuously throughout the winter; fourth, this cycle is
perhaps a recessive Mendelian character.
Trap-nest work was begun last fall (1916) on Brown Leghorns
in connection with the work on broodiness. Curiously enough,
58a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
a type of winter egg record was secured from many individuals
that has been practically absent from the Rhode Island Reds,
and which we believe corresponds to the class designated as
mediocre producers by Pearl. They should furnish important
corroborative evidence regarding the inheritance of fecundity.
The trap-nested pullets were transferred again this year to
roosting sheds, this time in July. We find this method a satis-
factory solution for the problem of carrying the birds through
the year and still having the houses ready for the pullets in
September. We shall, however, make the transfer in June the
coming season.
The flock of pullets bred for absence of broodiness numbers
this year about 125 individuals. In addition, we have retained
40 non-broody hens for breeding purposes, besides a number of
males from families of similar breeding. Among the families
tested last season was one in which the ratio of broody to non-
broody individuals was 1 : 3, while several others had a ratio
of 1:1. The normal ratio for our flocks is 19:1. Unfortu-
nately, the exigencies of the situation have resulted in reduced
winter egg production. However, no difficulties are anticipated
in eventually bringing this strain to a plane equally high with
that secured when birds are bred primarily for winter produc-
tion.
As a part of the work on broodiness an endeavor is being
made to produce a strain in which broodiness shall be as in-
tensively developed as possible.
Up to the present the facilities afforded by the present plant
have been fairly adequate for the work in breeding for increased
egg production, since this period has been devoted primarily to
a study of the problem rather than to an attempt to breed for
increased egg production. The steps that must be taken to
secure high annual production are perfectly well defined. Briefly,
they involve the permanent combination in one strain of all
those factors, e.g., non-broodiness, high rate, etc., that make for
high production. The chance of securing the proper combina-
tion in one individual is directly proportional to the number of
individuals studied. It is probably not greater than 1 in 5,000.
But since the genetic composition of the male cannot be directly
observed, but must be inferred from a study of his female rela-
191S.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 59a
tives, and since his sisters almost always differ from each other
in several points, one is as likely as not to select a male cor-
responding to his poorest sister as to his best one. If, however,
numerous matings are made and tested, the chances of mating
good males to good females is increased in proportion to the
number of matings made. Thus the length of the job of pro-
ducing a strain averaging 250 eggs annually depends upon the
scale on which operations are conducted.
We are sometimes asked why we do not keep our layers for
more than one year. The answer is that the pullets require all
the available space. Xow the annual renewal of the laying
flock is a large item on a commercial plant, and absolutely
necessary with available strains of American breeds. However,
there seems to be no biological barrier in the way of securing a
strain that will lay heavily year after year.
The accumulation of data on hatching quality of eggs is being
continued as a part of routine procedure, but it has been
necessary to drop the attempt — as a separate piece of work —
to produce a strain whose eggs all hatch.
The policy of rearing the chicks on clean ground, well isolated
from other fowl, has continued to yield splendid results. Al-
though no culling whatever was practiced during the growing
season, less than 2 per cent, of the pullets were unfit for the
laying houses. Moreover, such measures of isolation as it has
been possible to maintain have thus far secured freedom from
roup among the experimental pullets.
It has been determined that crossing over takes place in the
sex chromosomes of the male fowl.
Student Work.
Each year several seniors undertake a minor problem of in-
vestigation from which interesting preliminary results appear.
Thus Mr. Flint found that winter egg production in Rhode
Island Reds was independent of temperature. Mr. Graham
found that the length of a bird's laying period was the best
index of total production, although the time at which a bird
began laying (maturity) was also a good index. On the other
hand, rate of production during the spring months did not prove
to be a good index, contrary to the report of another station.
60a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
As a master's thesis Mr. Stewart made a study of the rate of
growth of chicks in relation to time of hatching. Individual
weights were made monthly on nearly a thousand chicks. Rate
of growth diminishes progressively from March to May hatches.
This work bears directly on time of maturity and hence on egg
production.
1918.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 61a
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SCIENCE.
JAMES B. PAIGE.
During the past year, in addition to carrying on the usual
activities involved in the receipt and examination of specimens
of pathological material constantly coming in, reporting upon the
findings, and the usual correspondence incident to the work of
the department among the stock owners of the State, there have
been maintained three different lines of control and investiga-
tional work, namely : —
1. Testing of fowl for the detection of bacillary white diar-
rhoea.
2. Investigations relative to Bacterium pidloniin infection.
.3. The value of anti-hog cholera serum in the prevention of
hog cholera.
1. Testing of Fowl for the Detection of Bacillary
White Diarrhoea.
The blood testing has been done by Dr. J. B. Lentz, Dr.
C. T. Buchholz and Dr. G. E. Gage. It was carried on by Dr.
Lentz until July 1, when he enlisted in the national service for
the duration of the war. He is now on leave of absence. Dr.
Buchholz took charge of the work on July 1, continuing with it
until September 15, when he resigned from the department to
engage in general veterinary practice. At this date there was
a suspension of the testing until it was taken up by Dr. Gage
on October 22, and carried on throughout the remainder of the
year.
Notwithstanding the several breaks and interruptions in the
work during the year the records on file in the department show
that there were collected and tested blood samples from 13,531
62 a EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan.
birds. These birds belonged to more than 103 different owners
of poultry in 70 different cities and towns of the State. The
average percentage of reactors among something like 26,000
birds tested since the routine test was started in 1915 has been
found to be 13.5 per cent. It is gratifying to note, in the case
of the second application of the test to flocks previously tested,
in which more than half the birds gave a strong reaction, that
the disease bacillarv white diarrha^a has been eradicated.
2. Investigations relative to Bacterium Pullorum
Infection.
The investigations relative to Bacterium indlornm infection
have been in charge of Dr. G. E. Gage. Regarding these
studies he reports, under date of November 22, as follows : —
The work bearing on the specificity of Bacterium puHonim
antibodies, with special reference to the agglutinins, has been
completed, and will be published in the near future. The re-
sults furnish data for a comparison of the B. imUoruin antibodies
with those of the B. coJi-B. ti/phi-B. dysenterae group of agglu-
tinins, and also data for discussion concerning the diagnostic
value of the agglutination test.
The problem concerning the production of toxin by Bacterium
pullorum has received most of the time at my disposal for ex-
periment station work during the past year. This has proven
a very difficult task in that the determination of a uniform
grade of toxin has been hard to obtain. Data, however, are at
hand which are of interest in Bacterium pullorum studies, and
will be ready for publication some time this fall. They will be
published under some such heading as "The Toxicity of
B. pullorum Products."
The investigation concerning the production of antibodies,
with special reference to the potency and rate of production,
started in August, 1916, is now being continued as outlined at
that time. At the present time a large number of birds, de-
scendants of especially immunized individuals, are on experi-
ment. Attempts are being made to study the progeny this year
to determine potency and rate factors of the agglutinins elab-
orated in such birds descended from stock known to have defi-
191S.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 63a
nite infection. This problem has a direct bearing upon the
routine work of testing breeding flocks for indications of
Bacterium yullorum infection.
3. The Value of Anti-hog Cholera Serum in the Pre-
vention OF Hog Cholera.
The hog cholera investigations, carried on by the writer, are
being prosecuted according to the general plans outlined in an
earlier report. They have for their object the determination of
the value of anti-hog cholera serum in the production of immu-
nity for the prevention of hog cholera, the best methods of appli-
cation, and the development, potency and continuance of
inherited immunity. For use in these studies a herd of from
75 to 150 pigs is kept that is fed largely upon raw garbage
collected about the town.
BULLETiJsr :n"o. its.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS.
THE COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK IN SIX
CITIES AND TOWNS OF MASSACHUSETTS.^
BY ALEXANDER E. CANCE, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, AND
RICHARD HAY FERGUSON, EXTENSION PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CO-OPERATING
WITH OFFICE OF MARKETS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI-
CULTURE.
Foreword.
The facts presented in this bulletin show that the cost of distributing
retail milk by more than 80 distributors, some of them producers, some
of them dealers, was 2.64 cents a quart in 1914 and 1915. It cost 42
distributors in Worcester and Springfield 2.79 cents a quart on the average.
These costs included (1) all labor costs — labor hired, labor of the
members of the family, labor of the operator and proprietor in preparing
the milk for dehvery, and delivering it (labor made up more than half of
the total cost) ; (2) all depreciation or replacement costs on all buildings,
equipment and horses used in preparation or delivery; (3) all maintenance
charges, or cost of upkeep of plant and equipment — repairs, oU, bottles,
etc. ; (4) all overhead or fixed charges and all supplies used but once —
rent, interest, taxes, insurance, license, soap, caps, light, fuel, stationery,
bad debts, spoilage, etc. The charges made were adequate and the figures
obtained mean that, according to the accounts and statements of 85 dis-
tributors, the average milkman in 1914 and 1915 was able to pay himself
wages and interest and account for all expenses and losses when he received
from his retail customers 2.64 cents more than he paid for a quart of milk
delivered at his plant; or 2.79 cents if he lived in Springfield or Worcester.
' Practically all of the data for this bulletin were personally collected by the late Professor
Richard Hay Ferguson, who was responsible also for most of the tabulations and for much of the
bulletin in its present form. Mr. Ferguson died Dec. 1, 1915. This bulletin was his last work.
2 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
Prices have risen since 1915. Labor and supplies of all kinds are higher.
Just how much the increase has been cannot be stated with accuracy.
Retail food prices have advanced nearly 30 per cent. Perhaps 25 per cent,
will fully cover the advance in milk-distributing costs.
Assuming the increase to be 25 per cent, the cost of retailing milk in the
fall of 1916 would probably average 3.30 cents per quart for all distributors
here cited and 3.49 cents per quart for the milkmen investigated in
Springfield and Worcester. The authors vnli not, however, vouch for
these figures. Actual present costs may be Wgher or lower than 3.30
cents or 3.49 cents.
Introduction.
It is well known that for a number of j^ears the price of milk to the
consumer has been increasing. Not long ago milk was retailed at 6 cents
a quart, whereas to-day the price is 9, 10 and, in many instances, 11 cents.
Producers complain that notwitlistanding the increased price paid by
consumers they are, at the prices paid to them, producing milk at a loss
and unless some change is made whereby they can get a fair return for
fimherst
Pittsfield •
Vorcester
'Springfield
-Lr-"^
Location of Cities and Towns Covered in this Investigation.
their product, the whole dairy industry in Massachusetts is doomed. On
the other hand the consumers view with alarm the increase in price and
cannot understand why they must pay 10 cents a quart for milk when the
producer is receiving but 4^ to 5| cents net.
The Problem.
The milk question has many phases and many relations. Some of these
have been indicated in the very enlightening bulletin on the milk situation
in New England, issued in June, 1915, by the Boston Chamber of
Commerce.
The Massachusetts Agricultural College, in its outline of the problem,
has recognized three important lines of study and investigation:
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 6
1. The cost and methods of production.
2. Collection and primary transportation of milk and cream.
3. Methods and costs of distributing; i.e., preparing for delivery and
delivering milk and cream.
Closely related ^^^th all tliree is the problem of milk inspection.
Problems 1 and 2 are quite as important as No. 3, the cost of distri-
bution, but this prehminary study deals mainly with distribution and
incidentally with transportation. Several studies have been made of the
cost of producing milk in the North Atlantic States but, in the authors'
opinion, none of these deal with the problem of milk production on the
typical dairy farms of New England in a detailed and thoroughgoing
way over a sufficiently long period.^ Comparatively little serious work
has been done on the methods and cost of transporting milk.
Co-operative Investigation.
The Department of Agricultural Economics of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College and the Office of Markets of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture formulated a plan for making an accurate, first-hand
study of milk distribution in a number of Massachusetts cities and towns,
perhaps the first study of its kind ever organized.
The data used in this study were collected by agents of the Department
of Agricultural Economics and the Office of Markets during the fall of 1914
and the winter of 1915. Altogether, rather accurate data were obtained
from 85 distributors of milk, each of whom was visited from one to several
times in order to obtain as reliable figures as possible. Several of the
tabulations were made by the Federal Office of Markets, where all the
figures were checked.
Scope of the Investigation.
Recognizing the fact that the cost of distribution may vary according
to the size and location of a town or city, as well as with the size and
method of doing business, it was decided to investigate three groups of
towns.
Amherst and Walpole, each having a population approximating 5,000, —
the former a college town in the Connecticut valley and the latter an
industrial center in the southeastern part of the State, — were chosen as
typifying small town conditions in different parts of Massachusetts. Both
Amherst and Walpole draw their supply of milk from the immediate
' Hanvood, P. M.: What it costs to produce Milk in New England. Mass. State Bd. of Agr.
Cir. No. 9. Boston, Mass., 1914. Hopper, H. A., and Robertson, F. E.: The Cost of Milk Pro-
duction. Cornell University in co-operation with Jefferson County Farm Bureau, Bui. No.
357. Ithaca, N. Y., 1915. Lindsey, J. B.: Record of the Station Dairy Herd and the Cost of
Milk Production. Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. No. 145. Amherst, Mass., 1913. Rasmussen, Fred:
Cost of Milk Production. New Hampshire Coll. and Exp. Sta. Exp. Bui. No. 2. Durham,
N. H., 1913. Thompson, A. L.: Cost of producing Milk on 174 Farms in Delaware County,
N. Y. Cornell Univ. Bui. No. 364. Ithaca, N. Y., 1915. Trueman, J. M.: Records of a Dairy
Herd for Five Years. Storrs Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. No. 73. Storrs, Conn.. 1912.
4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
neighborhood. The greater portion of Amherst's milk is distributed by
dealers, while that of Walpole is marketed by the producers themselves.
Haverhill and Pittsfield, industrial centers of approximately 30,000
population each — the former in the northeastern part of the State, in
the midst of good dairy farms which supply the requirements of the city,
and the latter in the heart of the Berkshires in western Massachusetts
surrounded mainly by the homes of summer residents and drawing its
milk supply from a greater distance — form the second group.
Springfield and Worcester, commercial and manufacturing cities of over
100,000 population, constitute the third group, the one located in the Con-
necticut valley, where the land is given over chiefly to the raising of
tobacco, onions and other intensive crops, while the other is situated in
the center of Massachusetts' best dairjang county. Naturally, in Worces-
ter and Haverhill a rather large portion of the milk is distributed by the
producers themselves. In some cases the producers distribute not only
the product of their own dairies but also that of neighboring farmers, thus
in a measure becoming middlemen.
Table I. — Firms interviewed, classified by Location and Quantity of Retail
and Wholesale Milk, Cream and Ski7n Milk handled daily.
T)
^S
m
(H
(_
"aS
m
^
3
$
oco
Place.
1
Q
3
3
<y
a
03
— S .
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2 ==
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eo
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Amherst, ....
5
3
2
-
-
-
-
-
Walpole, .
5
3
2
-
-
-
~
-
Haverhill, .
22
4
8
7
1
-
-
2
Pittsfield, .
12
3
3
2
3
-
1
-
Worcester, .
31
4
10
10
3
2
1
1
Springfield,
11
3
2
2
3
1
-
-
Totals, .
86
20
27
21
10
3
2
3
Per cent, of number,
100
23
31
24
12
3.5
3
3,5
Routes,
170
22
38
42
38
25
2
3
In each locality sufficient typical distributors were interviewed to insure
the reliability of the figures and the representative nature of the facts.
The distributors interviewed and the volume of business represented were
as follows : —
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK.
Place.
Distributors
interviewed.
Quarts
of Milk and
Cream
distributed
daily.
Total
Number of
Distributors
in Locality.
Total Quarts
daily
Distribution
Estimates.
Amherst,
Walpole, ■
Pittsfield,
Haverhill, .
Worcester, .
Springfield,
1,320
1,409
7,690
10,828
22,809
10,149
5
5
46
40
167
110
20,000
75,000
65,000
In Amherst, Walpole, Haverhill and Pittsfield about 60 per cent, of the
total milk distributed is represented. In Springfield there are approxi-
mately 65,000 quarts distributed daily, and in Worcester 75,000. The
figures presented include approximately 16 per cent, of the Springfield
distribution and 30 per cent, of that in Worcester.
Some idea of the size of the milk business in Worcester and Springfield
and the number and character of distributors may be gained from Tables
II. and III. These figures were obtained in April and September, 1916.
It is interesting that Springfield is suppUed from 694 sources, the milk
passing through the hands of 608 distributors handling a daily average of
27 gallons each. The average milkman in Springfield sells 118 gallons of
milk and cream daily; in Worcester, 107 gallons.
Table II. — Springfield, Sources, Quantities and Methods of seairing City
Milk and Cream Supply.
Number.
Approximate Daily
Quantities.
Number
of City
Sources of Supply.
Milk
(Gallons).
Cream
(Gallons).
Dealers
supplied
directly.
Producers hauling to city,
Individual producers shipping to city, .
Country creameries and milk stations, .
Farmers' stations,
15
650
24
5
1,025
14,480
25
500
-
Totals
694
15,505^
525
560
6
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
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COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK.
s
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8
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
Pkocessing Costs and Delivery Costs.
The costs of distributing milk fall naturally into two classes — prepa-
ration for delivery or processing, and delivery to customers. The trans-
portation of milk from the producer to the dealer is an additional item
of expense, but usually the producer deUvers his milk to the dealer. In
this study the transportation cost has not been considered. The anal3''sis
of costs begins with the preparation of the milk for dehvery and ends
with the collection of monej'' from customers.
Simple as this analysis appears, a number of items cannot well be
idlaA
Distribution
Balance
lOO ~
Cost of Distribution
^ 79 1
franspontation / xlioo *
""Cost ofTra noportc t ion
Farmer Receives
4ioo +
U V
When the consumer pays 9 cents.
charged exclusively either to preparation or to delivery — administration
and clerical expenses, light, telephone, etc.; insurance and taxes, perhaps;
slu-inkage, spoilage and bad debts. In the summary of costs these have
been called "overhead" expenses; usually they might well be distributed
between processing and delivery.
From the standpoint of health, pure, clean milk is as necessary as a good
water supply. Milk just drawn from a healthy cow under sanitary con-
ditions is at its best, and could it reach the consumer in tliis condition it
would be ideal. To preserve it and to overcome the bad effects of un-
healthy stock, unsanitary methods and conditions in the barn and reduce
to a minimum the unavoidable deterioration in handling, transit and
storage, milk has to be "prepared" for the customer. This preparation
may be called "processing," and, so far as the distributors interviewed
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 9
were concerned, consists cliiefly in cooling the milk and bottling, i.e.,
wasliing, filling and capping the bottles. Milk is almost universally deliv-
ered to the consumer in bottles; in fact, only one instance of dipped
milk was discovered; this was in Worcester.
In addition to this, however, some of the larger dealers clarify their milk
by running it through a machine which removes the visible dirt, or pas-
teurize it to retard bacterial development. This materially adds to the
cost of processing. Tables II and III show that only a minor percentage
of the milk distributed in Springfield is pasteurized.
In Haverliill, of 20 distributors visited, but 2 had pasteurizers. In
Springfield 16 were visited and but 1 had a pasteurizer and clarifier. In
Worcester 35 were visited; 2 had pasteurizers and 2 others possessed
clarifiers. Some few distributors produced milk under unusually good sani-
tary conditions, almost always keeping the bacterial count much lower
than in ordinary milk. This they called "special" milk, and maintained
that processing other than cooling and bottling was unnecessary and that
pasteurizing was more likely to prove harmful than helpful to their trade.
Under ordinary conditions the investment in processing machinery was
very small indeed, and the labor involved in caring for the milk was con-
fined to the most ordinary precautions to prevent souring.
Difficulties in obtaining Data.
Many difficulties were met in securing the necessary data to determine
the cost of distribution. Very few producers or dealers kept proper books;
in fact, any sort of bookkeeping was the exception rather than the rule.
CompHcations also arose when the producer distributed the milk, for it
was difficult to separate the items of production and distribution, the
stable, shed, horse and harness being used for both. In many cases, there-
fore, estimates only could be given, but great care was taken that such
estimates should cover the actual cost. The figures quoted are fairly
accurate, and those on the cost of distribution of "special" milk can be
relied upon in every detail, since most fortunately these distributors have
kept accurate records for a period of several years.
Mixed Business. — The greatest problem, however, that confronted the
investigators arose from the fact that in almost all cases the distributors
not only deliver bottled milk directly to the individual consumer, but
deliver wholesale milk both in bottles and in cases to other retailers and
restaurants and also deliver cream both wholesale and retail. By good
fortune figures were obtained from a dealer who kept accurate cost accounts
and dealt entirely in wholesale milk. His accounts show that it cost him
three-quarters of a cent (S0.0076) per quart to collect his milk from pro-
ducers and distribute it in wholesale quantities. This figure is not appli-
cable in most instances, however, for the reason that ordinarily the dis-
tributor does not go out of his way to deliver his wholesale milk; that is
to say, liis route is no longer and his apparent costs vary but little, whether
he dehvers retail milk only or adds a few wholesale deliveries. Careful
10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
thought indicates that an allowance of one-half cent per quart for whole-
sale milk delivered by a retail dealer covers the cost of this service in most
instances; consequently this figure has been uniformly used.
This method of accounting, which very evidently lays the burden of
costs on the retailed milk and rather arbitrarily estabUshes the costs of
incidental wholesale distribution, is presented with full recognition of its
weakness and its limitations. It does not mean that wholesale milk can be
delivered at this cost, nor that a mixed business should not be considered
on its merits; but it is manifestly unfair to assume that it costs as much
to deliver 200 quarts at wholesale to two customers as to deliver 200 quarts
at retail to 200 customers; and, since three-fourths of the quantity is
retailed and nine-tenths of the equipment is for retailing, the arbitrary
figures given are very reasonable interpretations of the facts.
The same question arises as to the delivery of retail cream. Based
somewhat on the cost of delivering retail milk and estimating filling, cap-
ping, boxing and icing, loss of bottles and other contingent expenses, a
charge of 3 cents per quart is deducted for its distribution. These deduc-
tions may be open to criticism but they were reached after making full
investigations and obtaining the opinions of many distributors.
Analysis op Costs.
Cost data may be grouped vmder comparatively few heads : —
1. Investment in land, buildings, horses and all equipment that is
more or less permanent in its nature.
2. Depreciation on buildings and equipment.
3. Maintenance of plant and equipment.
4. Circulating capital, i.e., current operating supplies used but once —
fuel, soap, ice, etc.; and " overhead," i.e., fixed charges, rent, insurance,
taxes, etc.
5. Labor.
As previously noted these items may be assigned to processing, deUvery
and overhead or to processing and delivery.
Investment.
Investment includes the inventory value of real estate, horses and
equipments used in the processing or delivery of milk and the housing of
the horses and equipment. Depreciation was reckoned on aU items of
investment and was charged for one year. Some specific problems may
be mentioned.
Depreciation Problems.
Horses. — No hard and fast rule was followed in determining the depre-
ciation of horses. It was asserted by many that a horse worth $300 after
giving ten years' service could be sold for $100; after five years' ser^^ce,
for $200, thus gi^^ng an annual depreciation in each case of $20. Some
distributors affirmed that no depreciation of horse flesh could honestly be
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 11
charged, since they usually disposed of their horses after three or four years
for more than they cost. Other animals eighteen and twenty years of age
were giving good ser\ice.
Rate of Depreciation. — For these reasons each individual case was
dealt with on its merits under this general formula: first cost of animal,
less the selling price or the present worth, divided by number of years of
service equals the annual depreciation. This method of calculation takes
no account of losses by death; only horses now in service are considered.
Where such losses had occurred in recent years some allowance was made,
however. The figures obtained show that the depreciation of horse flesh
increased in proportion to the size of the town or city, and also of the load
hauled. In Amherst and Walpole annual horse depreciation averaged 7.5
per cent. In Worcester the average was 9.5 per cent.
Buildiyigs. — To compute the investment in buildings and the necessary
allowance for depreciation was also a source of some difficulty. In Walpole
and Worcester a number of dairies were housed in basements, some in
basements of residences. Moreover, the majority of the country dairies
visited are in the barn, stable or shed, a partitioned space in these buildings
being all that is considered necessary for the plant. In all these instances
an estimate was made of the value of the whole building; this was multi-
plied by the fractional space occupied by the milk plant and to this was
added the outlay for fitting up the plant itself. When the valuation was
arrived at, 3 per cent., as a rule, was charged off for depreciation; 2 per
cent, for taxes and insurance; and 5 per cent, for interest. This may be
a trifle high, but in some cases the actual charges for taxes and insurance
were more than 2 per cent.
Equipment. — The equipment varied exceedingly, but without exception
fairly reliable data were obtained. No arbitrary rule was followed in com-
puting the depreciation, since each individual item has a different period
of service and these periods vary with the different plants and users.
Many distributors had experience sufficient to enable the investigator to
arrive at a fairly exact figure; in other plants estimates were necessary.
In a number of cases the equipment was very meager and the methods
employed crude; filling bottles by hand, heating water over a small gas
burner, and washing bottles by hand were not unusual. Except in the case
of the large dealers in the cities and a few of the more progressive pro-
ducers who distribute, live steam was not used for washing or sterilizing
and in several cases the heating apparatus was entirely inadequate.
Harness. — The almost unanimous opinion was that the life of a set
of harness costing from $35 to $40 is five years, provided it is kept in
good repair; the repairs usually amount to $5 a year. This bears out the
statement of harness makers that harness costs $1 a month.
Wagons and Sleighs. — There was very little difference of opinion re-
garding the upkeep and life of wagons and pungs. The price of wagons
ranged from $175 to $275, with a Ufe of approximately eight years. They
are usually varnished every year and painted and overhauled every alter-
12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
nate year. Pungs or sleighs cost an average of S50 and last about fifteen
years, very little being spent on upkeep.
Other Equipment. — Boxes worth 80 cents to $1.25 are good for five
years. There is a difference of opinion as to the relative merits of the
wooden and the steel boxes. Five complete sets of cans are necessary
for the average dealer, one set being replaced each year. This item, how-
ever, should be charged to transportation except in the case of the deUvery
of wholesale milk.
Maintenance.
Maintenance includes the expenditure necessary for the repair and
upkeep of the buildings and equipment, including feed of horses and the
loss of bottles and cans. In general, the outlay necessary to maintain the
plant in working order is maintenance. Such items as grease and oil,
veterinary service, shoeing, stable sundries, brushes, brooms, blankets,
feed bags, carriers, hose, medicine, paint and other sundries required to
keep up the buildings and equipment fall under this head.
Working Capital.
Working capital (or overhead and current supplies) includes such items
as soap, ice, hght, fuel, stationery, telephone, rent, insurance, taxes,
interest on investment, spoilage, surplus, shrinkage and bad bills. It was
difficult in many cases to separate these items, spoilage and surplus being
included by some in shrinkage and by others in bad bills; fuel was con-
sumed for other purposes than the dairy; the telephone included private
use; and insurance, taxes and water rates often covered the residence or
buildings used for other purposes in addition to the dairy. Assessed values
and tax rates vary greatly, but in general 2 per cent, of the actual value
was allocated to taxes and insurance. Insurance averaged about I5 per
cent, for three years. Interest was uniformly computed at 5 per cent, on
the entire investment.
Labor.
Labor is classified as hired, home and personal. Home labor is labor
provided by members of the family, such as assistance in the dairy or on
the milk wagon, but more often in keeping the books. Usually home
labor does not represent an expenditure, but is charged at the prevailing
rates. Personal labor is the labor of the proprietor himself and is valued
at his own estimate, never less than 25 cents per hoar. In no case was
the accepted estimate considered excessive or below a reasonable remun-
eration.
■ There is much individual variation in each of these items, especially
among the producers who board the hired help. The wages paid varied
from $25 to $35 per month and board; the estimates for board vary from
$15 to $30 per month. The time, too, must often be distributed more or
less unequally and arbitrarily between farm work and the preparation and
delivery of milk. In all instances these adjustments were made carefully,
but except as averages they cannot be considered in all respects infallible.
Table IV. — Summary of Total Costs, and Cost per 1,000 Quarts, of distributing Milk and Cream [Forty-two Plants).
Value of —
Total.
Horses.
Milk
Sheds.
lee
Houses.
Stables.
Boilers.
Pumps.
Tanks.
Washers.
Fillers.
Pasteur-
Clarifiers.
Separators.
Ice Chests.
Hameaaee.
Wagons.
PungB.
Boxes.
Cans.
Office.
Sundries.
Per 1,000
Quarts.
Amount.
Investment: —
Total
Per 1,000 quarts,
«37,913 00
3 07
(26,002 00
2 16
(7,320 00
61
(24,333 34
(7,743 92
(1,560 00
(220 00
(4,755 00
(5,508 00
(4,310 00
(1,240 00
(410 00
(2,523 50 (6,121 00
61
(25,871 00
2 15
(6,731 00
56
(2,997 55
25
(2,629 70
22
(1,340 00
(545 OO
(14 15
(170,154 01
Depreciation: —
Total
Per 1,000 quarts,
»3,971 71
33
(780 06
06
(359 60
03
(730 00
(764 58
(150 00
(16 00
(481 00
(509 73
(407 33
(116 00
(41 00
(203 73
(1,372 93
11
(3,787 85
31
(397 56
03
(676 82
05
(376 29
03
(132 00
(64 50
(1*28
4 56
3 83
12 77
(15,338 69
Repairs.
Sundries.
Shoeing.
Feed.
Carriers.
Bottles. Cans.
Maintenance: —
(6,896 31
58
(3,788 31 (4,193 80
31 35
(31,773 52
2 64
(184 67 (7,666 92 (493 85
02 63 04
54,897 41
Per 1,000 quarts,
Rent.
Soap.
Caps.
Ice.
Light and
Oil.
Fuel.
Stationery.
Insurance
and
Taxes.
Interest.
Spoilage
and
Shrinkage.
Bad BiUs.
Sundries.
Circulating capital: —
(3,324 00
28
(1,122 07
09
(2,519 19
21
(7,376 45
61
(1,578 39
13
(3,872 60
32
(1,934 45
16
(3,288 72
27
(8,326 21
69
(2,938 70
24
(6,560 52
65
(3,227 74
27
Per 1,000 quarts.
Labor: -
153,597 45
(22 44
(269,902 50
Milk Distriddted.
Retail: —
Daily (quarts). 24.421,70
Yearly (quarts), 8,913,925.00
Wholesale: —
Yearly (quarts) 2,890,59500
Yearly (quarts) 222.344 00
Total yearly ooat of retail distribution $248,809.39
Cost per quart retail distribution (cents), 2.79
Miles travelled daily, retail,
Cost per mile (cents), retail, .
Quarts per mile daily, retail, .
Quarts per customer daily, retail,
Quarts per horse daily, retail, .
Miles per customer, retail.
Customers: —
Wholesale, ....
Retail, ....
5 s
p o
< H
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 13
Costs of Processing and Delivering summarized.
Table IV is an itemized summary of costs tabulated for 42 plants in
Springfield and Worcester. Facts obtained in these cities are fairly com-
parable and the conclusions are quite as satisfactory as if the data for
all six localities were included in the tabulations. The summary represents
an annual business of approximately 9,000,000 quarts of retail milk,
3,000,000 quarts of wholesale milk and 222,000 quarts of cream out of a
total distribution of about 15,000,000 quarts of retail milk, 4,700,000
quarts of wholesale milk and 300,000 quarts of cream — or about 60 per
cent, of the total deliveries considered in this investigation. The milk of
these 42 distributors was dehvered to about 21,000 customers.
The total investment in plants and equipments amounts to about I5
cents per quart of milk dehvered. The largest investment items are milk
sheds, horses and stables; boilers and ice houses come next but are com-
paratively insignificant.
The chief items of depreciation apply to horses, wagons and harness.
These account for three-fifths of the total depreciation; another fifth is
assigned to milk shed, stable, boxes, cans and boiler. By ascertaining the
first cost, the present value and the time used, most of the items of depre-
ciation are easily calculated.
Nearly $55,000 is classified under maintenance. More than three-fifths
of this is for horse feed and just about 80 per cent, is for feed, repairs
and horseshoeing. Lost bottles and cans are classified as maintenance
and make up most of the remainder.
Circulating or working capital is here used to include overhead and fixed
charges and supplies which are destroyed in one using. The largest item
is interest on the investment, computed at 5 per cent.; the second is ice;
and the third is bad bills. These items, with rent, insurance and taxes,
fuel and loss by spoilage and shrinkage, account for 75 per cent, of this
charge. Other items are soap, caps, stationery, light and oil. Labor of
all kinds is by far the largest item, amounting to nearly three-fifths of
the entire cost, or one and three-fifths cents per quart of milk retailed.
The average cost of processing and retailing milk is 2.79 cents per quart
for an average daily deUvery of 175 quarts of retailed milk per horse the
year round. This cost is arrived at by deducting from the total expenses
one-half cent a quart for the wholesale milk distributed and 3 cents a
quart for retail cream.
14
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
Table V. — Cost per Quart and Percentage of Total Cost for Deprecia-
tion, Maintenance, Circulating Capital and Labor.
Depreciation,
Maintenance,
Circulating capital,
Labor,
Preparation,
Delivery, .
Overhead, .
Percentage.
5.69
20.34
17.06
56.91
100. 00
27.19
55.14
17.67
100.00
Costs classified by Size and Kind of Business,
Perhaps a better analysis of 80 plants is presented in Table VI. In this
analysis an attempt has been made to classify the distributors by size of
business and to set forth the items of cost under processing, delivery and
overhead.
Only three plants do a business exceeding 2,000 quarts daily, hence the
figures for these must be used with caution. Sixty plants do a mixed
business, about three-fourths retail and one-fourth wholesale. Twenty
plants deliver retail milk only. None of the all-retail plants do a daily
business of 500 quarts. They are of one and two wagon capacity and so
far as size of business is concerned should be classified with the "under
500" group.
The actual per quart costs, which include both wholesale and retail milk,
run from about L6 to 2.9 cents per quart. The discrepancy between per
quart costs given in Tables IV, V and VI is accounted for by the fact that
in Table IV only 42 firms are considered and the cost of distributing all
wholesale milk is computed at one-half cent per quart.
Plants of 500 to 1,000 quarts capacity do business most economically —
1.64 cents a quart for all milk delivered and 2.05 cents per quart for miUc
retailed. These costs are 25 per cent, and 22 per cent., respectively,
below the average of all the plants investigated (2.21 cents for all deliveries
and 2.64 cents for retailed milk). Plants of 1,000 to 2,000 quarts dis-
tribute for 1.82 and 2.23 cents per quart. The 27 plants of less than 500
quarts daily capacity average 2.04 and 2.66 cents a quart. The 3 plants
doing a mixed business of more than 2,000 quarts daily and the 20
exclusively retail plants show the highest per quart costs for retailing — •
2.92 and 2.93 cents for all expenses.
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 15
The overhead expense is the smallest item and in reality should be dis-
tributed between processing and delivery. It varies from 12.3 to 18.9 per
cent, of the total cost in mixed, and 14.7 per cent, in retail business.
This item seems to vary directly -nith the size of the business, i.e., with
the quantity handled. The processing expense runs from 24.7 to 31.8 per
cent, of the total. In general this expense varies inversely with the quan-
tity handled. Delivery costs a little more than one-half of the total,
running rather uniformly around 55 per cent. The 1,000 to 2,000 quart
group averaged 57.7 per cent, for delivery but the individual variations
are wide. On the whole the figures show comparatively little correlation
between costs and size of business.
Investment and Size of Business.
The relation between size of business and average total amount invested
in plant and equipment is of interest. The tabulations in Table VII., as
might be expected, show a consistent correlation between investment and
size of business. But when the investment per 1,000 quarts of milk dis-
tributed is considered, this consistent correlation is not shown. The strik-
ingly high investment ($22.61 per 1,000 quarts) of the retail dealers is,
perhaps, rather surprising when compared with an investment of $4.30
per 1,000 quarts in plants during a mixed business of the same size. Enter-
prises of the second and fourth classes have also a very high investment
ratio. One might suppose that a milk-distributing plant could increase
its volume of business by corresponding increase in plant, but an increase
from an average of 360 quarts per day to an average of 710 quarts a day
seems to multiply the total investment nearly six times, whereas men
who do a retail business exclusively have four times the total investment
of those who do a mixed business of the same size.
16
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
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otal costs per quart for
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otal costs per quart for
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VESTM
ses: —
id cleri
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icense,
lilage,
3 ■
8 .
Overhead In
Overhead expeni
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u
< H H 11
18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
PE.R.CnNTAQL5 Of TOTAL Co5T5 PER. QuAUT
BY ^iZE OP Total 5u>3ine55
m
501-
tooo
176
1001-
^000
A
7.6
/.
Over
aooo
18.9
;^6.9:
147
Del (very
Processing
Overhead CZH
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK.
19
Actual Total Lxpense of Milk
DI5TR.15UTION PER QUAUT
O0Z5
fOOI-
^000
501-
iOOO
.0OZ9
0032
0\/er
1000
004-7
roi:
An.
Retgi
j00^3
;>oo^
roi6
IMi \Mi' i.saf Z.H-S^ 2.95^
Delivery ■§ Processing ^^ Overhead [^D
20
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
Table VII. — Percentages of Total Cost per Quart of Wholesale and Retail
Milk (80 Plants), by Size or Character of Business.
I
Under
500
Quarts.
II
500-
1,000
Quarts.
III
1,001-
2,000
Quarts.
IV
Over
2,000
Quarts.
V
All
Retail.
Average.
Number of establishments,
27
20
10
3
20
-
Total cost
SO 0204
SO 0164
SO 0182
SO 0249
SO 0293
SO 0218
Per cent.,
100
100
100
100
100
100
Processing expense.
SO 0065
SO 0046
SO 0045
SO 0067
SO 0090
SO 0064
Per cent.,
31.8
28.1
24.7
26.9
30.7
29. »
Delivery expense,
SO 0114
SO 0089
SO 0105
SO 0135
SO 0160
SO 01214
Per cent..
55.9
54.2
57.7
54.2
54.6
55.7
Overhead expense.
SO 0025
SO 0029
SO 0032
SO 0047
SO 0043
$0 00322
Per cent.,
12.3
17.6
17.6
18.9
14.7
15.0
Investment: —
Per plant
S566
S3,325
$5,279
$20,594
82,277
-
Per 1,000 quarts milk sold, .
4 30
12 84
9 51
19 30
22 61
-
Percentage Analysis of Costs.
The cost analj'sis presented in Table VIII shows the importance of labor
both in processing and delivery, although the percentual importance varies
greatly with the size of the business. The labor item differs also in the
major processes of distribution. The relative importance of the labor item
in the fourth group is the striking feature — 70 per cent, of the processing
expense as contrasted with a maximum of 59 per cent, and a minimum of
46§ per cent, in the other groups. The labor factor in delivery costs is
more uniform but even here the labor item in the fourth group reaches
the maximum — 61.9 per cent.
It is significant that the labor item in preparation is lowest in the third
and the all-retail groups, although the third group shows an actual proc-
essing cost of .45 cents, and the all-retail a co.st of .90 cents per quart.
The principal point of emphasis in the overhead analj^sis, aside from
the notable variation in the importance of the various items, is the high
percentage of shrinkage and spoilage in the "over 2,000" group. Bad
accounts average more than one-eighth of the overhead and, curiously
enough, are percentually highest in Groups I and II, wliich show the
lowest actual overhead. The interest item, of course, varies with the
investment. Its percentual importance averages from about 9 per cent,
in Group I, to 26.3 per cent, (three times as much) in the all-retail group.
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK.
21
Table VIIL — Percentages of Costs in Relation to Size of Business.
Amounts handled and Items of Expenses classified in Groups.
Percentages accordinq to Size or Kind of
Business.
I
II
ni
IV
V
Number of quarts sold daily, .
Under
500.
500-1,000.
1,001-2,000.
Over
2,000.
All Retail.
Number of establishments.
27
20
10
3
20
Average per cent, quarts sold daily: —
Wholesale,
Retail
28.4
71.6
26.1
73.9
23.6
76.4
17.6
82.4
100.0
Preparation expenses in per cent, of
total.
31.8
28.1
24.7
26.9
30.7
Depreciation and maintenance,
Supplies,
Labor,
8.1
33.0
58.9
8.6
34.7
56.6
14 3
39.1
46.6
15.6
14.2
70.2
18.9
34.6
46.5
Delivery expenses in per cent, of total.
55.9
54.2
57.7
54.2
54.6
Depreciation and maintenance.
Supplies,
Labor,
14.8
25.7
59.5
17.8
28.1
54.1
12.5
26.1
61.4
12.8
25.3
61.9
19.3
24.1
56.6
Overhead expenses in per cent, of total,
12.3
17.6
17.6
18.9
14.7
Administrative and clerical salaries,
Light, telephone, stationery, .
Insurance, taxes, license,
Shrinkage and spoilage, .
Bad accounts
Interest,
49.8
13.8
4.6
7.0
16.1
8.7
43.0
6.4
5.1
8.1
15.5
21.9
48.2
6.0
12.0
5.8
13.0
15.0
28.6
6.5
12.5
19.7
12.3
20.4
37.8
9.2
6.6
8.8
11.3
26.3
Expenses in per cent, of receipts: —
Preparation or processing,
Delivery
Overhead
Total expenses in per cent, of receipts,
7.9
13.9
2.9
24.7
5.8
11.1
3.4
20.3
5.0
11.6
3.3
19.9
8.4
17.0
5.7
31.1
9.4
16.7
4.3
30.4
22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
The relation of costs to receipts is the really significant fact to the
distributor. Costs run from a minimum of 19.9 per cent, to a maximum
of 31.1 per cent, of total receipts. This means that the costs of the all-
retail and "over 2,000" groups, for example, absorb 30 to 31 per cent,
of the total receipts, a portion more than 50 per cent, greater than the
part taken by the second and third groups.
This percentage which the expenses bear to receipts may be called the
operating ratio. It is lowest in Groups II and III and highest in Group
IV. The lower the ratio the more economical the operation of the plant.
The operating ratio in any business is very significant. In milk distri-
bution 20 per cent, is probably a low ratio and 30 per cent, a high ratio,
but much more accounting must be done to determine this. In all in-
stances the more expensive distribution is due both to higher processing
and higher delivery costs and, in the fourth and all-retail groups also
to higher overhead expenses.
Comparative Costs by Localities.
Table IX presents comparative cost data by towns. In these figures
no attempt has been made to separate costs into processing and delivery.
All the firms operating in Amherst and Walpole are in the "500 quarts or
under" class; all bat three of the Haverhill and Pittsfield firms are dis-
tributing less than 1,000 quarts per day; hence the firms interviewed
doing a daily business of 1,000 quarts and more are almost all in Spring-
field and Worcester.
The data show plainly the greater cost per quart in the two larger cities,
a cost which is seen in practically all items entering into distribution.
Few conclusions of significance as regards variations by localities can be
drawn from the figures giving total locality costs.
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK.
23
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COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 27
The comparative analysis of costs, including both processing and
delivery, of retailing milk by cities and towois is exhibited in Table X.
Before comparing localities it may be well to note that by far the most
important item is labor, which varies from one-half to more than two-
thirds of the whole distributing cost. This includes only man labor,
horse labor being carried in the other items. This expense is greatest in
Springfield, where it amounts to nearly 2 cents a quart, and lowest in
Haverhill, where it is scarcely more than 1 cent.
Depreciation is the smallest charge, and runs about 6 per cent, of the
total; actually it is lowest in Haverhill and highest in Springfield.
Maintenance and circulating capital show great relative variation.
Both are relatively and actually lowest in Amherst and actually highest
in Worcester and Springfield. The two charges amount to .52 cents a
quart in Amherst, .85 in Walpole, .88 in Pittsfield, .92 in Haverhill, 1.03
cents in Worcester and 1.04 cents in Springfield. In general these items
increase with the size of the town.
Amherst v. Walpole.
Amherst seems to process and distribute its supply of milk more eco-
nomically than Walpole, notwithstanding the labor bill is slightly higher.
Omitting cream, our figures show in round numbers 500,000 quarts of
wholesale and retail milk delivered yearly in Walpole and 471,000 in
Amherst. On this basis, Walpole's labor costs 111.65 per 1,000 quarts,
and Amherst's $11.87; for retailed milk the labor expense is .$12.58 per 1,000
quarts in Walpole and .S13.69 in Amherst. Hired help is a little cheaper
and more plentiful in the eastern part of the State, though the personal
labor in both towns was computed at 25 cents per hour. The time occu-
pied in delivery is the same, though the average milk route in Walpole
is 25 per cent, shorter. Walpole serves more customers per wagon, 180
to 143 for Amherst, but delivers less milk per customer.
The dealers in Amherst, however, expend less for maintenance and
working capital. The lower maintenance is due in part to the greater load
per horse, the average retail load per horse being 175 quarts, in contrast
with 143 quarts in Walpole. It must be noted, however, that Walpole
hauls more per wagon — including wholesale milk and cream, 234 quarts
to 214 for Amherst; the explanation is a two-horse wagon. In working
capital there is a margin of .19 cents per quart (43 per cent, less) in favor
of Amherst. Table X shows that these two items amount to nearly 40
per cent, of the total in Walpole as compared with less than 26 per cent,
in Amherst.
With the exception of the items stationery and shrinkage, the Amherst
figures for circulating capital show a big saving. The greater stationery
charge is accounted for by the use of tickets by several of the Amherst
dealers. The wisdom of this expenditure is justified by the small loss in
bottles and a minimum loss by bad debts. It cost the five Walpole dealers
$340 a year for bottles, or 72 cents per 1,000 quarts of retail milk delivered.
28
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
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COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK.
29
Five Amherst dealers expend $140.69 for bottles, or 37 cents per 1,000
quarts of retail milk; this includes one dealer who does not use tickets.
EHminating this dealer for the sake of accurate comparison, the results
may be presented in tabular form, as follows: —
Number.
Dis-
tribute
1,000
Quarts.
Expend fob
Bottles.
Bad Debts.
Dealers in —
Total.
Per 1,000
Quarts.
Total.
Per 1,000
Quarts.
Walpole,
Amherst using tickets,
5
4
470.5
346.7
$340 00
133 40
SO 72
38
S182
31
$0 40
09
It is significant that of $82 reported as lost through bad debts by Amherst
distributors, $51 were reported by one dealer who did not use the ticket
system. Comparing the figures of Amherst and Walpole dealers who do
and who do not use tickets, it appears that where five Walpole dealers
using no tickets suffer by bad debts a loss of 40 cents per 1,000 quarts
of milk sold at retail, and one Amherst dealer loses similarly 62 cents,
the four Amherst distributors using tickets have but 9 cents of bad debts
for each 1,000 quarts retailed.
Under the ticket sj^stem the cost of collection is somewhat less, but since
the drivers do the collecting it is difficult to approximate this difference.
Tickets, of course, mean cash in advance; just how long in advance
depends on the price of milk, and the amount used per family, since tickets
are usually sold in $1 strips. The price per quart is exactly the same,
whether the customer buys tickets in advance or pays in currency when
the milk is delivered.
Ice cost Walpole dealers $1 per 1,000 quarts ($0,001 per quart) of milk,
and the Amherst dealers 80 cents per 1,000 quarts ($0.0008 per quart).
Haverhill v. PittsfielcL
The difference in the figures for these towns is not marked. Pittsfield
expends a very little less per quart for maintenance and circulating capital,
but this is more than offset by higher labor costs. Labor is comparatively
expensive, due to the competition of the summer homes in the vicinity.
Although Haverhill distributed milk at a lower cost per quart than any
of the four cities, it was not at the expense of service, but rather as the
result of the low labor cost coupled with the number of quarts delivered
per horse, in other words, by getting the best service out of the horse.
Haverhill averages 176.3 retail quarts per day per horse, while Pittsfield
averages but 141.2 quarts per horse. Moreover, Pittsfield distributors
dehver more cream and wholesale milk per route to a smaller number of
customers than do Haverhill milkmen — about 100 quarts as against
75 for Haverhill.
30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
It may be said in passing that the milk supplied by Haverhill dealers
is exceptionally pure and clean. These qualities are popularly supposed
to be expensive. If they are, Haverhill dealers have met the increased cost
by economies elsewhere. The city's entire supply comes from local pro-
ducers. Thus any impure milk can be at once traced to the source of
supply and the producer of exceptionally clean milk be quickly recognized.
Frequent inspections and monthly tests by a competent bacteriologist are
made. The methods of inspection and the publication of the results of
the monthly bacterial analyses have educated the Haverhill public to
appreciate the value of clean milk and have stimulated a healthy rivalry
among the producers and distributors. Only one dealer uses a pasteurizer
and he is the only distributor who purchases milk outside an 8-mile radius.
Springfield v. Worcester.
It costs the Springfield dealers studied 16 per cent, more than Worcester
dealers to distribute retail milk; and 25 per cent, more than the average
of all dealers investigated. Except in the amount spent for maintenance,
all the costs of distribution are lower in Worcester than in Springfield.
As a matter of fact, differences in depreciation, maintenance and overhead
are negligible. The labor item alone requires attention. Worcester has
cheaper labor because a large proportion of the distributors are producers,
and farm labor at $50 a month (cost of board included) is much lower than
labor in the city. In addition to this, a fair proportion of Worcester's
milk supply is distributed by foreign-born dealers who value their services
cheaply.
A short time ago an ordinance was passed doing away with basement
dairies in Springfield. This has been productive of much good, although
it entails considerable expense. Depreciation has naturally increased in
this city but without a corresponding increase in maintenance.
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK.
31
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COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 39
The Producer as a Distributor in Comparison with the Dealer.
Any comparison of costs that fails to recognize the difference between
the business of the producer who distributes his o\\'n milk, or his own milk
plus some purchased from his neighbors, and the dealer who buys all the
milk he distributes, is surely inadequate. The data in Tables XI and XII
are inserted to exhibit this comparison in some detail. The records of
four producers and five distributors whose cost accounts were kept with
unusual care are chosen for this comparison. As usual the figures on cost
per quart (Table XI) are based on milk sold at retail. From the total cost
of doing business 3 cents per quart were deducted for retail cream sold
and one-half cent per quart for milk delivered at wholesale.
The most striking reflection in the whole comparison is the great differ-
ence in costs as between individuals whether producers or dealers. Pro-
ducers' retailing costs run from 2.51 to 1.67 cents per quart, and dealers'
from 2.95 cents to less than half that much, or 1.45 cents per quart. Such
wide variations between individuals indicate the fruitlessness of drawing
any but the most general conclusions from the final averages. It is evident
that much remains to be done in the study of economical and efficient
methods of distribution and in profitable investment in equipment and
buildings.
1. According to these figures, the average producer is able to distribute
retail milk more cheaply, it costing him 2 cents per quart against 2.16 cents
for the dealer. An anal3^sis of the figures, however, shows that the dealer's
investment is about 12 per cent, greater than the producer's per 1,000
quarts of milk handled. There is some difference in maintenance, but on
the whole this is in favor of the dealer.
2. The labor bill of the average dealer is noticeably greater per quart,
notwithstanding he is near his market and saves in time. This is indicated
by the fact that the dealer retails 42 quarts per mile to the producer's 20
— more than double. The dealer almost always has the advantage of
shorter delivery routes. The producer must often travel several miles
from his farm before he reaches his first customer and retrace this distance
after his load has been delivered. In this instance the producer averaged
12| miles per wagon; the dealer, only 6 miles per wagon.
3. The producer has the advantage in depreciation and working capital.
In other words, the dealer invests more in his equipment and buildings,
naturally increasing the depreciation and circulating capital accounts.
The items of shrinkage and bad bills are significant. These two items are
the most important of the overhead costs of the dealers here noted. As
a whole the overhead charges and current supplies, i.e., the circulating
capital, of the dealers per 1,000 quarts handled are more than 60 per cent,
higher than those of th'e producers.
4. The dealer gives better service in pasteurizing and clarifying and his
labor account is also somewhat reduced by use of better labor-saving devices
for washing, fiUing, etc.
40
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
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COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 41
One must bear in mind, however, that the expenses of collecting the
milk are not charged to the dealer. The above figures are calculated
from the time the milk arrives at the dairy or distributing plant until it
reaches the consumer, the cost of transportation from the producer to
the dealer's plant, including freight and haulage from producer to shipping
point and from shipping destination to milk plant, not being included,
whereas the producer's costs include haulage to the city. To this degree
the figures are not comparable. The dealer sometimes collects from the
producer, sometimes pays a higher price for milk delivered at his plant,
sometimes paj^s freight charges. Usually the difference between milk col-
lected by the dealer and milk delivered to the dealer is about one-half
cent per quart.
When milk is shipped from a distance it is usually laid down at the
dealer's plant for a price equal to or less than the local producing dis-
tributor can produce it. In such case the dealer and the producer who
sells his o^Ti milk may both start from their doors with loads of milk equal
in value. When the dealer procures local milk he usually pays one-half
cent per quart more for it if brought to his dairy.
Further analysis, both from a collective and an individual standpoint,
indicates that the variation in the cost of distribution is related closely to
the number of quarts delivered per horse in conjunction with the quarts
delivered per mile. One dealer (No. 14) with three horses delivers 1,600
quarts daily (including 500 quarts of wholesale milk in cans). Although
his mileage per horse (8 miles) is higher than most of the dealers, his ex-
ceptionally heavy delivery, 45.8 quarts per mile, helps to bring his retail
cost down to 1.45 cents per quart. Of the producers, No. 23 delivers at
less cost than others in the group, although his mileage is 15 per horse;
this is accounted for by the large load hauled — 230 retail quarts per
horse — and his comparatively small overhead charges. Producer No. 9
carries 520 quarts on two wagons. His horse load is good and his delivery
per mile (29.3 quarts), retail and wholesale, is larger than any other pro-
ducer in the group — in fact, nearly 50 per cent, above the average.
Table XII will repay careful study. The analysis of cost per 1,000
quarts of milk delivered daily is excellent for comparative study and
reveals very striking individual variations. No. 13, who uses four horses
and travels IS miles, with an average load of 107 quarts per horse to
deliver 430 quarts daily, has high cost items in all respects. His labor
and working capital accounts are nearly thrice those of No. 14 and his
other items twice as great. Dealer No. 24 makes up for his high invest-
ment and large depreciation and overhead costs by a low maintenance
expense and a small labor bill. His labor charge is only one-half that of
No. 13, and S700 less per 1,000 quarts than that of the average producer.
The efficiency of No. 14 has been noted above. His economies extend
to every division of his business. His labor bill is extremely small and
except for horse feed his maintenance costs are very low.
42
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
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COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 43
Cost of Delivery of Special Milk.
Fortunately reliable data were secured from four distributors who had
kept accurate accounts for a number of years. Two of these produced
and distributed what they termed "special" milk — unpasteurized, but
held to be equal in purity and cleanliness to certified milk. The term
"special" is very unsatisfactory. There is no standard for such milk.
Whether the term means anything depends on the producer and seller.
Frequently the milk is of excellent quality. In these instances it is sold
to the consumer at 12 cents per quart. This "special" milk entails extra
care, extra labor and good equipment and requires a special market;
moreover, the distributors must of necessity travel far to dispose of their
product. Distributor No. 1 traversed 47 miles daily to dispose of 350
quarts — but 7.45 quarts per mile traveled. In case No. 2, 15 miles were
traveled daily to dispose of 83 quarts of "special" milk, 19 quarts of
skimmed milk, and 4.9 quarts of cream; disregarding the skimmed milk,
this is equal to 5.86 quarts of "special" milk and cream per mile traveled.
No. 1 has much higher depreciation and maintenance expense than
No. 2, due to the use of a Ford car and White motor truck. The extra
cost, however, is offset by the reduced cost of labor, which is but a trifle
more than a third that of No. 2 ($11.11 as against $31.42 per 1,000 quarts).
At least twelve hours of labor were saved daily at 15 cents per hour. As
in the case of distributors of market milk, the same conclusion can be
drawn from the above figures, namely, economic distribution depends on
the number of quarts per horse, in conjunction with the quarts per mile.
Cost of Collection and Distribution of Wholesale Milk in Cans.
These figures demonstrate the reasonableness of calculating one-half
cent per quart for the cost of delivering wholesale milk, as we have done
in the case of mixed delivery in the figures given in the previous pages.
In this plant the cost was a little more than three-fourths of a cent per
quart including collection from producers. Two hours daily were occu-
pied by a man and two horses for collecting and six hours for delivery.
It is contended, however, that the motor truck is more economical for
wholesale delivery, provided the truck can be kept fully occupied and the
location will permit its use during the winter.
44
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
Table XIV.
Investment.
Depreciation.
Maintenance.
Buildings,
Equipment,
Horses,
Totals,
$1,280
597
600
S38 40
62 50
65 00
S70 50
258 37
82,477
$165 90
8328 87
Circulating capital: —
Ice $100 00
Interest, . 123 85
Shrinkage, 86 68
Other 91 20
Total
Labor
Total costs, .
Milk handled: —
Daily (quarts), .
Yearly (quarts).
Cost per quart (cents),
Cost per mile (cents), .
Mileage' —
Collection,
Delivery, .
Customers, .
Quarts per customer,
Miles per customer.
Quarts per mile, .
Quarts per horse, .
. $401 73
. $803 00
$1,699.50
6000
219,000
.78
24.00
4
15
12
50
1.58
31.60
300
Motor Truck Delivery.
The actual cost figures of motor truck milk delivery are of interest in
view of the increasing prevalence of these vehicles. Notice that the per
mile cost for horse delivery as given above is 24 cents based on about 7,000
miles traveled yearly. The costs below are based on 10,000 miles annually.
Under ordinary conditions the truck equipment would deliver the milk
on the above route in four hours, one-half the time taken by horses.
The operating cost of a motor truck suitable for distribution of whole-
sale milk or of "special milk," where the haul is long or loads are heavy,
is given below. These figures apply to a White motor truck, three-quarters
to 1 ton, in actual operation (1915) by a producing distributor of milk.
Per Mile.
Gasoline, $0.0100
Oil, 0016
Grease, waste, etc., .......... .0010
Running expenses, ........... 0050
Tires, total cost per set, $175; guaranteed mileage, 5,000, . . . .0350
Overhauling and painting after 20,000 miles, approximately $350, . . 0175
Interest 5 per cent, depreciation 20 per cent, on an investment of $2,250
=$562.50 on approximate yearly mileage of 10,000, ..... 0562
Insurance (fire 11 per cent., collision 2g per cent.) on $2,250 = $96.18 on
mileage of 10,000, 0096
Driver, $850 per year, over mileage of 10,000, ...... 0850
Total cost per mile $0.2209
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK.
45
Cost of Distribution of Cream.
The distribution of cream exclusively is analogous to the distribution of
"special" or of certified milk, excepting that the cost of delivery is increased
because the overhead charges are high in comparison with the quantity
delivered. Cream from dealers who delivered a small quantity of cream
to their regular milk customers is not subject to this high overhead charge
and need not be considered here. Only one plant delivering cream exclu-
sively is included in this study. A summarized statement of its expenses
is presented below. These figures take no account of bottles which were
paid for by the customers. Notwithstanding this fact, the long route and
small daily delivery raises the cost to more than 7.5 cents (S0.0759) per
quart, as against 4.5 and 6.1 cents for retailing "special" milk.
Summary of Costs of delivering Cream {One Plant) .
Depreciation, .........
Maintenance, .........
Circulating capital, ........
Labor, ..........
Total yearly cost, ........
Cost p«r 1,000 quarts yearly,
Cream delivered yearly (quarts).
Cream delivered daily (six days a week) (quarts).
Customers, .
Quarts per customer,
Cost per quart to deliver,
Miles traveled,
Cost per mile.
Quarts per mile, .
Miles per customer.
Customers per mile,
$112 23
543 25
399 10
1,155 90
$2,210 48
$75 91
29,120
93.3
95
.98
$0.0759
18
$0.33
5.18
.19
5.3
Significant Facts of Distribution showing Individual Variations.
Table XV is an attempt to exhibit the salient facts of milk delivery by
individual milkmen. Amherst and Walpole distributors are not included;
wholesale dealers and those using motor trucks, cream and skimmed-milk
handlers and those who furnished imperfect data are also omitted.
46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
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MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
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451
218
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COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 49
The per quart costs of retail delivery of the 66 distributors considered
are approximately as follows: —
4, or 6 per cent., less than 1.5 cents.
14, or 21 per cent., between 1.5 and 2 cents.
16, or 24 per cent., between 2 and 2.5 cents.
13, or 20 per cent., between 2.5 and 3 cents.
12, or 18 per cent., between 3 and 3.5 cents.
7, or 11 per cent., over 3.5 cents.
The first striking observation is the wide variation in costs, and the
comparatively imiform distribution between 1.5 and 3.5 cents.
The second is the fact that there is no marked correlation between costs
and size of business; dealers distributing 300 quarts or less and dealers
distributing more than 1,000 quarts daily are found in every group except
the first. The third group contains as many dealers handhng less than 500
quarts daily as any group and more dealers handling more than 1,000
quarts daily than any other group.
Third, considered by groups, the cost per quart of retailing increases
and the size of the retail load decreases from the first to the sixth group.
It should be noted that the high average retail load of the first group is
due to one dealer whose load was exceptionally heavy.
Fourth, some correlation is discernible between the number of quarts
retailed per mile of haul and the cost per quart, the more quarts per mUe
the less the cost; but the correlation is not consistent. The average
delivery for Group III is 29.5 quarts per mile; that of Group V is 30.9
quarts per mile, though the average cost per quart of delivery of the latter
is about 50 per cent, higher than the former. These two factors, how-
ever — the size of the load and the density of delivery (quarts per mile)
— are two very important considerations in milk delivery.
Fifth, the individual variations in the number of quarts retailed per
mile per wagon, within the groups, are very significant. In Group I,
for example, one dealer distributes 23 and another 68 quarts per mile.
In Group II the variations run from 15 to 70; in Group III, from 10 to
70, and in Group V, from 8 to 56 quarts per mile. Under these condi-
tions it is very evident that the costs of milk delivery must vary tre-
mendously.
Finally, the cost of delivery is closely related to the miles traveled per
customer (or, inversely, the number of customers per mile), running from
one-thirtieth of a mile between dehveries in the first group to one-nine-
teenth of a mile in the sixth group. Nothing more strikingly indicates
the individual differences in delivery conditions than the customers served
per mile traveled. The first group contains one dealer with a record of 68
customers and another with only 10 customers a mile. The third group
shows variations between 9 and nearly 60 customers. Group V has one
dealer who serves 62 customers a mile, and another who serves less than
3. The significance of these relationships will be considered under
"Disadvantages of Competitive Distribution."
50 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
Some Obvious Disadvantages in Competitive Distribution of Milk.
The investigation clearly indicates the very wide diversity of costs in
the retailing of milk. At the same time the milk-retailing service under
competitive conditions is fairly satisfactory. The consumer usually gets
his milk on time and in such quantities as he requires. If the quaUty of
milk delivered by one dealer is not satisfactory, several others are available.
It is questionable, however, whether the consumer does not pay roundly
for this competitive service. Several economic disadvantages may be
indicated.
1. Overcapitalization. — The great majority of the plants visited are of
one or two wagon capacity. Eighty-four per cent, of them deliver 1,000
quarts or less daily; 59 per cent., 500 quarts or less; and 23 per cent.,
300 or less. To meet the demands of his customers, comply with the milk
regulations and compete with other milkmen the progressive dealer in-
stalls machinery for washing, filling and capping bottles, clarifying, pas-
teurizing and cooling his milk.
One recognizes that milk is highly perishable and that the time for
the processing is necessarily short. Some dealers, however, have installed
pasteurizers capable of disposing of 400 gallons per hour, although their
total quantity handled is but 900 quarts per day. Some have bottle-fillers
filling 12 bottles at once when handling only 350 bottles daily. This means
running the plant below its capacity. A few dealers have buildings or
horses and wagons much more ample and expensive than necessary. In
some instances the total investment runs to 1.5 cents (S0.015) a quart
sold yearly, whereas the average investment for that size of business is
less than one-half cent ($0.0043) a quart; in other instances the invest-
ment is 3.4 cents a quart when the average is less than 1 cent (.SO. 0095)
per quart for plants of similar capacity.
2. Small Daily Deliveries per Horse. — A load for a good horse over a
good load is 300 quarts of milk in bottles but the investigation disclosed
the fact that the usual load is much less. The average load of 10 dis-
tributors in Springfield is 216 quarts per horse (307 per wagon), and of
28 Worcester milkmen, 234.4 quarts per horse (346.1 per wagon), including
wholesale milk in cans. On the other hand, a rather large percentage of
dealers haul 300 quarts or more per wagon. More than 12 per cent, of
the milkmen retail 15 quarts or less per mile of travel in contrast to
nearly 14 per cent, who average more tlian 55 quarts a mile. The average
delivery is about 32 quarts per mile per wagon. That the size of load
bears a direct relation to the cost of deUvery is shown in Table XV.
3. Long Hauls are usually Uneconomical. — Several instances can be
cited of distributors who traveled from 10 to 15 miles to retail from 100
to 200 quarts of milk. When the distributor is a long distance from his
market or when the distance between stops is great, there is a consider-
able waste both in man and horse labor through lost time. This is some-
what offset by the drivers making their daily entries during these intervals.
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 51
More than 20 per cent, of the routes average 14 miles long and almost
half of them average 13 miles.
4. Loss of Bottles. — In Worcester 30 dealers, delivering 15,809 quarts
per day, claim a loss of $4,913.42 yearly in bottles. Most of the loss in
bottles is the fault of consumers. Bottles are frequently unfit for service
when returned and many dealers state that they destroy such bottles.
Milk bottles are handy receptacles during preserving season, and one
dealer told of a housewife who proudly exhibited 100 quart bottles filled
with preserves and, to add insult to injury, asked him for a sufficient
number of caps to cover them.
5. Bad Debts. — This waste is common to all businesses which extend
credit but the competitive milk dealer suffers more than ordinary loss
because unscrupulous persons have a variety of methods for evading the
pajnnent of small bills. To prevent this loss many dealers make special
trips for collecting. Bad debts cost Springfield and Worcester about 2^
per cent, of all costs of distribution. These losses aggregate $0.54 per
1,000 quarts in Springfield and $0.82 per 1,000 quarts in Worcester. The
loss depends entirely on the class of trade, however, and no comparisons
or general conclusions should be drawn from these figures.
6. Shrinkage. — This loss, seemingly insignificant, amounts to a con-
siderable sum in the course of a year. It cannot, however, be wholly
charged to distribution, as a certain amount is lost in transportation
through carelessness in transit and leaky and dented cans. A good filling
apparatus reduces this loss to a minimum in the dairy and whatever loss
may be sustained in transit is probably borne by the producer who ships
in cans. In general the shipper receives payment for only 8 quarts per
can, though the can usually contains 8j to 8^ quarts.
7. Surplus and Spoilage. — This item is considerable in all towns and
cities visited and it is one of the great and ever-present problems which
the dealer is trying to overcome. Three factors contribute to the problem
of surplus milk : —
(a) Restaurants and lunch counters which close on Sunday.
(6) Decreased demand owing to depopulation of cities during summer.
(c) Excessive production of milk at certain seasons.
The solution of the first factor is the business of the dealer. But to
solve the question of decreased consumption, which occurs regularly and
covers a long period, and of overproduction during certain months of the
year is really the business of the producer.
Closely alUed to shrinkage and surplus is spoilage. Milk which cannot
be deUvered at once is very likely to sour and so become a total loss.
Naturally this waste is more prevalent dining the summer at the time of
surplus production. The producer who delivers his own milk can some-
times regulate the supply by producing more winter milk, by feeding some
milk to calves or pigs, or he may be able to sell it to a creamery. The
small dealer can do little but dump the surplus into the sewer.
In the aggregate the question of surplus milk is a big one which many
52 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
dealers, large and small, have wrestled with for years with little success.
An emergency butter and cheese factory managed co-operatively, which
will utilize part of the existing equipment and take care of all the extra
milk, is, perhaps, the best suggestion. Some rehef will come from a form
of contract with the producers which pro\ddes for definite variations in
supply. At best there will always be a loss at this point.
The loss sustamed by 10 dealers in Springfield, delivering 9,600 quarts
wholesale and retail daily, amounted to Sl,661.50 per year, or 52 cents
per 1,000 quarts retailed annually. This does not represent the whole
value of the milk; it was disposed of at the above loss.
8. Duplication in Routes. — ^ The economic waste through duplication
of milk routes was evidenfm all the towns and cities visited. From per-
sonal observation, at an apartment house containing four families, three
milkmen called to deUver 4 quarts of milk; at another fourth-floor tene-
ment three different milkmen climb four flights every day to deUver 6
pints to four famiUes. Between the hours of 3 a.m. and 7 a.m. 42 milk
wagons were observed to pass down Bowdoin Street, Worcester; only one
failed to deposit milk within a distance of 400 yards from the observer.
Similar conditions were found in all the other towns and cities \isited.
In Worcester 103 one-horse milk wagons and 62 two-horse wagons
average approximately 8^ miles per wagon per day; the 64 Worcester
retail routes considered in this study aggregate 565 miles, 8.83 miles per
route. Eight and one-half miles is probably a conservative estimate for
approximately 265 milk wagons distributing milk daily in Worcester.
The total pubUc street mileage within the city Hmits is 220, but several
miles are practically unoccupied. These milk wagons cover approxi-
mately 2,250 miles daily to supply the houses on less than 220 miles of
streets. Probably they travel 10 to 14 times the populated street mileage
every day. -.
Duplication of deUvery routes is common to all retail business, but in
large cities measures have been taken to overcome this waste through
central deUvery agencies, where the parcels are assembled, sorted and
delivered regularly. The system has proved economical but the objections
to this method for the deUvery of milk are too serious to overcome, except
by the establishment of a co-operative milk plant.
9. Another economic waste generally overlooked, common to other
commodities as well as milk, is shipping to other markets than the local
one. Why should Worcester, the center of one of the finest dairying
sections, draw on Maine for its milk supply, when milk produced in the
\icinity of Worcester is shipped to Boston? Other things being equal,
the local market is the best market. Long-distance shipments are expen-
sive to some one, and cause shrinkage and deterioration in quality. The
producei; in Massachusetts is in the very favorable position of having his
market at his very door, yet he frequently seeks one further afield at
necessarily increased cost to the consumer or a smaller return to him.
COST OF DISTRIBUTING MILK. 53
Suggestions for improving Conditions.
1. Keeping adequate accounts to show cost of operation and calling
attention to wasteful methods and inefficiencies. A little study will show
many leaks which can often very easily be stopped.
2. Standardizing distribution. The data indicate the need of deter-
mining what is adequate and eflScient equipment for a 500, 800 or 1,200
quart deUvery. Is a two-horse load with one driver and a helper or the
one-man, one-horse unit the more economical? None of these things
has been worked out.
To answer these questions completely means standardizing the milk-
distributing business; the answer will indicate means of eliminating waste,
lessening costs and increasing service. Many such studies as this must be
made but even this first one indicates some points of attack. Not only
should the individual distributor study his business, but organizations of
distributors should be formed in each town and city for mutual improve-
ment and the discussion of points of economy, and for agreement on some
div-ision of territory to lessen duplication of routes and to protect their
mutual interests.
3. The introduction of the ticket system to lessen collection costs and
save time in deUvery. The investigation indicates that the use of tickets
tends to eliminate loss of bottles and bad accounts.
4. Large daily dehveries per horse and per driver. Several progressive
firms in cities not here considered give a bonus to the driver for all de-
liveries and collections, and a commission on all new business above a
certain minimum. This makes it an object for the driver to increase his
sales, stop at a few more doors, obtain new customers and climb addi-
tional stairs. Long hauls from farm to delivery district are costly and
the longer the initial haul the more milk dehveries necessary in order that
this high initial cost may be offset.
5. Co-operative deUvery. But, after all is said, the final adequate solu-
tion of milk distribution will come only through municipal delivery or
the organization of producing distributors. In small cities and towns a
co-operative milk plant, owned and managed by dairymen, is very feasible.
One plant could easily process and deliver the necessary 2,500 to 10,000
quarts per day and solve most if not all of the problems of economical
and adequate supply.
6. Central milk plants. The problem of milk distribution in large
cities is difficult but the organization of the small milkmen operating in
one section of a city into a distributing agency would cure many ills and
bring about cheaper deUvery. Organization of seUing is an old matter to
manufacturers and merchandisers but not to dairymen. The difficulties
are personal, but sometimes personal jealousies and suspicions are fatal
to progress and profits.
The solution of the milk problem is in the hands of the milk producers
and dealers. If they have sufficient courage, foresight, perseverance and
54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 173.
determination to organize for the study of their own business and the
efficient disposal of their own product, all concerned will benefit.
The dairymen supplying a large percentage of the milk of Erie, Pa.,
have owned and operated their own plant for years. They handle milk,
cream and ice cream and not only distribute an excellent quality of milk
at low cost, but turn over to the producer a much larger percentage of
the consumer's price than he ordinarily obtains. Their success commends
their methods to the attention of progressive distributors.
They point to the following achievements : (1) a pure milk supply with
an amazingly low bacterial count; (2) a lower price than in many other
cities; (3) elimination of duplicate routes, resulting in (4) large deliveries
per horse and driver; (5) concentration in large and convenient plants ;
(6) economical disposal of surplus milk by means of a condensery which
the association operates; (7) better wages to employees and (8) satis-
factory prices to the producers; (9) practical elimination of the difficulties
which usually arise between producer and dealer; (10) no wasteful com-
petition and (11) not a cent paid either in interest or dividends to the
original shareholders; (12) every cent of net receipts has gone to the
producers, to the plant or to a reserve fund.
Not only this, but this method places the distribution on such a basis
that the town authorities could supervise the supply at a minimimi cost by
co-operating with other towns similarly situated. The cost of upkeep of
a laboratory for a chemist and inspector in a small town is prohibitive
at present, but if borne jointly by several towns the expense would be
reduced to a figure well within their means. The advantages obtained by
milk inspection are too well known to need consideration here.
BULLETIE^ ^o. 174.
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
THE COMPOSITION, DIGESTIBILITY AND
FEEDING VALUE OF PUMPKINS.
BY J. B. LINDSEY.
SUMMAEY OF THE RESULTS.
1. The pumpkin contains some 17 per cent, of shell, 73 per cent, of
flesh, and 9 to 10 per cent, of seed and connecting tissue. It is a watery
fruit, showing extremes of 84 to 91 per cent., with an average of 88 per
cent.
2. The whole pumpkin is relatively rich in ash; the seed shows notice-
ably less ash than the remainder of the fruit.
On the basis of dry matter, the entire pumpkin contains rather more
total protein than is found in grains and roots. It also contains some 18
per cent, of total sugars, of which one-third was found to be present in
the form of cane sugar. The fruit minus the seeds contains nearly 43 per
cent, of total sugars, which explains in a measure its desirability as a hu-
man food. The pumpkin seeds are very rich in fat, and are composed
substantially of one-third fat, one-third protein and one-fifth fiber, the
balance being carbohydrates and ash.
3. A number of digestion trials were made with sheep, and showed the
pumpkin to be about 81 per cent, digestible. On substantially the same
water basis, and allowing for the increased food value of the fat, the pump-
kin appears to have about 20 per cent, greater feeding A'alue than mangels
and turnips.
4. Feeding experiments were made with dairj' cows, substituting in the
ration 30 pounds of cut pumpkins for 5 pounds of hay. The results se-
cured indicated that 5 to 6 pounds of pumpkins were equal in food value
to 1 pound of hay. The Vermont station concluded that 2| pounds of
pumpkins were about equal to 1 pound of silage, and that 6| pounds were
fully equal to 1 pound of hay. On plage 66 will be found the conclusions
of other investigators.
56 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 174.
The pumpldii Iiad a tendency to increase temporarily the fat percentage
in the milk, due e^^dentIy to the oil contained in the seed.
5. The seeds appeared to be free from any injurious effects upon the
animals when fed in the amounts found in the entire fruit, contrary to
the notion prevalent among many farmers. In foreign countries they are
often dried and ground, and serve as a very nutritious and harmless food,
if not fed in too large amounts.
6. It is not considered good econom}^ to grow pumpkins exclusively as
a food for either cows or pigs, because of their high water content and
poor keeping quality. For the latter reason it is advisable to feed them
in the late fall or early winter. In one instance a yield of 9 tons is reported
when they were grown exclusively, on which basis they would jdeld about
2,000 pounds of actual food material (digestible organic matter plus fat
multipUed by 2.2) as against 3,000 pounds derived from corn. Their
place in the farm economy seems in a way to have been discovered
by the farmer, namely, in their limited cultivation together with corn.
7. They may be fed cut reasonably fine at the rate of 30 to possibly 50
pounds per head daily, in place of 6 to 10 pounds of ha}', in addition to
hay and a reasonable amount of grain. It is not advised to feed them
with other watery foods such as roots and silage.
They also may be fed (cut fine) to pigs, mixed with a combination of
equal parts, by weight, of corn meal and fine wheat middlings, or with a
mixture, bj' weight, of 95 parts corn meal and 5 parts of digester tankage.
It is doubtful if it pays to cook them. If fed in too large amounts dailj""
they furnish too much bulk but insufficient nutriment, and as a result
the animals are likely to lose in flesh.
COMPOSITION, ETC., OF PUMPKINS. 57
COMPOSITION OF THE PUMPKIN.
The ordinary field pumpkin {Cucurbita pepo) is planted more or less
by New England farmers, frequently in the field with corn. It is used
as a human food, particularly for pies, and is also fed to pigs and to dairy
and beef cattle.
Ulbricht and Kosutany ^ have shown that in twelve different varieties
of the genus Cucurbita the parts were present in the following propor-
tions: —
Per cent.
Shell 17
Flesh, 73
Seed, 2
Seed and supporting tissue, ......... 7
The pumpkin is a watery fruit. We have found variations of from
84.08 to 91.18 per cent., with an average of 87.53 per cent, in four lots
grown on two farms in two different years. In the pumpkin minus the
seeds and connecting tissue variations of from 90 to 94 per cent, were
noted, with an average of 92.78 per cent., while the seeds contained from
43 to 47 per cent. The seeds, it will be noted, were much less watery than
the other portions of the fruit. It was noted that the ripe pumpkins
without the seeds contained 4 per cent, less water than the same material
less mature. The riper the fruit and the drier the autumn the higher will
be the percentage of dry matter.
Other investigators, including Dahlin,^ Braconnet,^ Zeunak,^ Gerardin,^
Wanderleben,^ found in 10 sorts of the entire fruit extremes of from 85.8
to 94.2 per cent, of water, with an average of 90 per cent. Storer and
Lewis, 2 with 5 varieties, noted variations of from 84.3 to 94.6 per cent.,
with an average of 90.41 per cent. HiUs ^ found 87.9 and 90.1 per cent,
in two lots of field pumpkins.
On the basis of the natural moisture the four lots of the fruit examined
by us tested as follows : —
• Landw. Versuchsstationen, 32, p. 231.
* After Ulbricht, already cited.
' Vermont Experiment Station, fourteenth report, Appendix, p. iv., and sixteenth report,
Appendix, p. iii.
58
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 174.
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COMPOSITION, ETC., OF PUMPKINS.
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60 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 174.
In order to make a fairer comparison of the composition of the dry
material, the average results, as shown in table on page 58, have been
calculated to a water-free basis, as shown in table on page 59.
The whole pumpkin contains rather less ash than carrots or mangels,
although it is much richer in mineral matter than the ordinarj^ grains.
The seed is much poorer in ash than the other portion of the fruit. The
dry matter of the entire pumpkin contains rather more total protein
than roots or grain, with a portion of it in the amido form. The seeds
were found to be very rich in true protein. The fiber content of the fruit
is noticeably higher than in roots. The seeds have more fiber than the
other portion, due to the tough seed coat. Nearly all of the fat is con-
tained in the seed, the analysis of the two samples showing an average of
37.49 per cent. The pumpkin contains large amounts of sugars; in the
entire fruit one notes nearly 18 per cent., of which substantially one-third
is in the form of cane sugar, while in the portion free from seeds 42.52 per
cent, total sugars are noted. While sugar was not determined in the
seeds, it is evident that they contain little, being made up chiefly of
protein, fat and fiber.
Ulbricht ^ and Hills ^ made analyses of the ordinary field pumpkins, and
Zaitschek,' of the so-called giant pumpkin {Cucurhita maxima), with the
following results: —
' Already cited.
' Verraont Experiment Station, fourteenth report, Appendix, p. iv., and sixteenth report
Appendix, p. iii.
' Landw. Jahrbiicher 35, p. 245.
COMPOSITION, ETC., OF PUMPKINS.
61
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62 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 174.
These figures agree with those secured in this laboraton-. Thej' show
a high water content in the natural fruit and a relatively high percentage
of crude protein. The seed is shown to be particularly rich in protein and
oil, and quite low in carbohj^drate matter.
DIGESTIBILITY OF PUMPKINS.
A number of digestion trials were made in two successive years, using
two sheep in each case. The pumpkins were fed together with hay and
also with hay and gluten feed as basal rations. The entire details of the
experiment will be pubhshed elsewhere. The coefficients of digestibiHty
only are given in the table on page 63.
COMPOSITION, ETC., OF PUMPKINS.
63
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64 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 174.
One notes wider variations in the digestibility of the different ingredients
by the two sheep than are desirable. Thus, there are extremes of from
75.41 to 89.32 per cent, in case of the dry matter; 67.20 to 83.63 per cent.
in case of the protein; and still wider variations in the fiber.
The coefficients for the pumpkins minus the seeds and connecting tissue
are much higher, and indicate that if the seeds had been removed the
animals would have digested practically the entire fruit.
Careful observations failed to note any whole seeds or large portions
of seeds in the fseces. It seems evident that in case of sheep No. 1 the
pumpkins must have exerted a favorable influence on the digestibility of
the hay.
Zaitschek carried out digestion experiments on the Giant pumpkin with
two steers, feeding a combination of hay and pumpkins. His results are
tabulated below in addition to our own for comparison.
Source.
Z o
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Massachusetts Station (2 sheep), .
Zaitschek (2 steers).
8
2
80.7
81.4
82.3
65.4
72.6
76.6
70.3
_
63.7
61.0
67.5
88.7
89.4
91.6
90.1
68.7
80.1
In spite of the variations in results secured at this station with sheep,
our average results agree surprisingly well with those secured by Zaitschek.
Applying the digestion coefficients to the composition of the pumpkin
in its natural state, we have the following digestible organic nutrients
in 2,000 pounds: —
COMPOSITION, ETC., OF PUMPKINS.
65
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6i
lO lO CO
(M rt IN N
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S N S S
:a -a
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66 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 174.
The above data indicate that on the basis of substantially the same
water content, 2,000 pounds of pumpkins contain some 9 pounds more of
digestible crude protein, 16 pounds more of digestible fiber, 43 pounds less
digestible extract matter, and some 27 pounds more digestible fat than are
contained in a like amount of mangels. Mangels, then, are richer in car-
bohydrate matter, but less rich in protein and particularly in fat than is
the pumpkin. The pumpkin contains more digestible protein than the
ruta baga, about the same amount of fiber, rather less carbohydrate
matter and noticeably more fat. On the basis of total digestible nutrients,
allowing for the increased energy value of the fat, the two roots appear
to have about 20 per cent, less feeding value than the same weight of
pumpkin. These figures, of course, cannot be taken too literally. It is
doubtful if the computation of net energy values — because of the scan-
tiness of the data — would throw any additional light on the relative
values of the several feeds.
FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH PUMPKINS.
A number of experiments are recorded relative to the value of pump-
kins as a feed for cows and pigs. Hills ^ fed three cows in three periods of
fifty-four days each on hay, silage, a grain mixture and pumpkins. Dur-
ing the first and third periods the cows received the hay, silage and grain,
and in the second period, hay, silage, grain and pumpkins. Two and one-
half pounds of pumpkins with 90.1 per cent, of water were substituted
for 1 pound of silage, with apparently like results.
In a second experiment with four cows, feeding pumpkins in the second
of three periods at the rate of 40 pounds per cow daily, he concluded that
6^ pounds of pumpkins with 87.9 per cent, water were equal to 1 pound
of hay.
French ^ fed six Berkshire pigs that were eight months of age on a ration
of wheat shorts and field pumpkins (cooked) with the seeds removed.
The experiment covered five periods of eighty-four days each, and in the
last two periods the pigs consumed an average each of 26 pounds of pump-
kins per day. The average daily gain in live weight was 1.5 pounds, and
the results were considered quite satisfactory.
Burkett ' fed several lots of three pigs on combinations of skim milk,
corn meal and pumpkins cooked and uncooked; also on milk and raw
pumpkins versus milk and corn meal; and on milk, pumpkins and apples,
half and half, cooked, versus milk, corn meal and bran, half and half.
The general conclusion was that cooking did not increase the feeding
value of pumpkins, and that a combination of skim milk, corn meal and
pumpkins gave the most satisfactory results.
Pott * reports that in England pumpkins are quite generally fed to fat-
» Already cited.
* Oregon Experiment Station, Bui. No. 53, p. 22.
* New Hampshire Experiment Station, Bui. No. 66.
* Handbuch der tierischen Ernahrung, etc., II. Band, pp. 424, 425.
COMPOSITION, ETC., OF PUMPKINS.
67
tening pigs, together with ground barley and beans; also to milch cows
at the rate of 25 to over 100 pounds daily, cut fine and mixed with cut
straw; and to fattening cattle as high as 100 pounds daily, preferably
cooked. Pumpkins are also fed in Austria to cows, fattening cattle, pigs
and horses. Pott states that the claim made that the seeds are injurious
is without foundation.
Feeding Pumpkins to Milch Cows at this Station.
In order to observe the effect of pumpkins upon the quantity and
quality of milk and on the general condition of the animals, two grade
Jersey cows were selected and fed with 30 pounds each of pumpkins daily,
in addition to hay and grain. The data and plan are as follows : —
History of Cows.
Name.
Breed.
Age
(Years).
Last Calf
dropped.
Approx-
imate
Milk
Yield
(Pounds).
Fat (Per
Cent.).
Weight
of Cows
(Pounds).
Samantha,
Red III..
Grade Jersey.
Grade Jersey.
11
9
August 25
August 11
36.7
23.5
4.1
3.9
950
910
Plan and Duration of Experiment.
The two cows were fed in three distinct periods of twenty-one days
each, exclusive of the preliminary periods. In the first period they each
received a ration of hay, bran and cottonseed meal and hominy meal;
in the second period the same ration, excepting that 5 pounds of the hay
were replaced by 30 pounds of the pumpkins; in the third period the
ration fed was the same as in the first period. The results secured in the
first and third periods were averaged and compared with those secured
in the second. Five pounds of hay were therefore compared with 30
pounds of pumpkins.
Care of Animals. — The animals were well cared for and turned into
a barnyard about eight to nine hours each day. They were fed twice
daily; the hay was given sometime before milking and the grain just
before milking, while in the morning the grain was given just before, and
the hay just after, milking. Water was supplied constantly by aid of a
self -watering device.
Character of Feeds. — The hay and grains were of the usual good qual-
ity. The pumpkins were grown by one farmer and were the ordinary
yellow field variety of different sizes. Most of them were ripe.
Sampling Feeds and Milk. — The hay was sampled at the beginning and
end of each period by taking forkfuls of the daily weighing, running the
68 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 174.
same through a power cutter, subsampling and placing the laboratory-
samples in large glass-stoppered bottles with proper markings. The grains
were sampled daily by placing definite amounts in glass-stoppered bottles,
and these bottles properly labeled were brought to the laboratory at the
end of each period.
The pumpkins were cut into small pieces before being fed.
The analytical data serving for the digestion experiment also served
for this experiment.
Analysis of the Milk. — The milk of each cow was sampled daily for
five consecutive days of the last two weeks of each period, the samples
preserved with formahn, and the five-day composite sample tested for
sohds and fat.
Weighing the Animals. — The animals were weighed for tM^o consecu-
tive days at the beginnmg and end of each half of the period before the
afternoon feeding.
Analysis of Feedstuffs.
Water.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Hay, .
Bran, .
Cottonseed meal,
Hominy meal, .
Pumpkins, .
11.34
12.45
8.81
11.24
84.77
5.16
6.47
6.37
2.05
1.14
5.14
15.73
41.63
10.41
2.50
31.03
10.27
10.19
4.48
2.10
45.57
50.68
25.91
64.67
7.77
1.76
4.40
7.09
7.15
1.72
Total Feed consumed (Pounds).
Average, Periods I. and III.
Name.
Hay.
Bran.
Cotton-
seed Meal.
Hominy
Meal.
Pump-
kins.
Red III..
Samantha,
378
504
63
84
42
63
42
84
-
Period II.
Red III.,
Samantha,
273
399
63
84
42 42
63 84
630
630
COMPOSITION, ETC., OF PUMPKINS.
69
Daily Feeds consumed (Pounds).
Hay -\-Grain (Periods I. and III.).
Name.
Hay.
Bran.
Cotton-
seed Meal.
Hominy
Meal.
Pump-
kins.
Red III.,
Samantha
18
24
3
4
2
3
2
4
-
Hay+Grain+Pumpkins (Period II.).
Red III..
Samantha
13
19
3
4
2
3
2
4
30
30
Estimated Digestible Nutrients in Daily Rations.
Hay-\-Grain (Periods I. and III.).
Name.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Total.
Nutritive
Ratio.
Red III
Samantha
1.73
2.51
3.60
4.86
7.63
11.03
.53
.83
13.49
19.23
1:7.2
1:7.1
Average, ....
2.12
4.23
9.33
.68
16.36
-
Hay -\-Grain + Pumpkins
(Period II.).
Red III., .
Samantha, .
2.16
2.95
3.05
4.31
8.31
11.71
.97
1.27
14.49
20.24
1:6.2
1:6.4
Average,
2.55
3.68
10.01
1.12
' 17.36
-
The above nutrients were estimated on the basis of actual analysis and
the appUcation of average digestion coefficients. The 30 pounds of pump-
kins fed contained 1 pound more digestible nutrients than 5 pounds of
hay. This was due to the fact that the pumpkins had rather less water
than was expected, and that they contained such a high percentage of
digestible matter. On the basis of digestible matter, 1 pound of hay is
equivalent to some 4| pounds of pumpkins.
70 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 174.
Weights of the Animals (Pounds).
Red III.
Samantha.
Period,
I.
III.
II.
I.
III.
U.
Be^nning, ....
End
915
948
930
930
905
928
1,095
1,140
1,153
1,148
1.095
1,118
Gain or loss,
+33
±
+ 23
+ 23
+45 —5
+23
Average
+ 17
+ 20
+23
Gain or Loss for Both Cows.
Periods I. and III. (hay+grain) = 37 pounds+.
Period II. (hay+grain+pumpkins) = 46 pounds+.
There seems to have been very little difference in the changes in weight
as a result of feeding the two rations.
Total Yield of Milk Products.
Hay -{-Grain {Period I.).
Name of Cow.
Total
Milk
(Pounds.
Daily
Milk
(Aver-
age).
Total
Solids
(Pounds).
Total
Fat
(Pounds).
Average
Per Cent.
Total
Solids.
Average
Per Cent.
Fat.
Red III
Samantha,
364.4
532.1
17.4
25.3
47.88
76.73
17.49
29.11
13.14
14.42
4.80
5.47
Hay+Grain (Period III.).
Red III.,
Samantha
301.6
460.0
14.4
21.9
42.07
69.18
16.47
26.40
13.95
15.04
5.46
5.74
Hay ■\-Grain+ Pumpkins {Period II.).
Red III
Samantha
341.7
495.3
16.3
23.6
48.15
76.08
19.24
29.87
14.09
15.36
5.63
6.03
COMPOSITION, ETC., OF PUMPKINS.
71
Total Yield of Milk Products — Concluded.
Hay -\-Grain {Average, Periods I. and III.).
X.iME OF Cow.
Total
Milk
(Pounds).
Daily
Milk
(Aver-
age).
Total
Solids
(Pounds).
Total
Fat
(Pounds).
Average
Per
Cent.
Total
Solids.
Average
Per
Cent.
Fat.
Average
Per
Cent.
Solids
not Fat.
Red III.,
Samantha,
333.0
496.1
15.9
23.6
45.09
73.08
17.08
27.83
13.54
14.73
5.13
5.61
8.41
9.12
Average, .
414.6
19.7
59.09
22.46
14.25
5.42
8.83
Hay-\-Grain-\-Pumpkins {Period II.).
Red III
Samantha,
341.7
495.3
16.3
23.6
48.15
76.08
19.24
29.87
14.09
15.36
5.63
6.03
8.46
9.33
Average, .
418.5
19.9
62.12
24.56
14.84
5.87
8.97
The yield of milk was substantially the same on each ration. The total
solids showed an increase as a result of feeding the pumpkins, and this
was due evidently to an increase in the percentage of fat in the milk.
Attention has been called to the fact that the pumpkin seeds are rich in
fat. By referring to the average daily rations consumed (page 69) it may
be seen that the ration without pumpkins contained .68 pound daily of
digestible crude fat, and with the pumpkins 1.12 pounds, the excess of .44
pound of pure fat being derived from the pumpkin seeds. This additional
food fat evidently temporarily increased the fat in the milk.
In so far as the results of a single experiment with two cows are concerned
it appears that 6 pounds of pumpkins fuUy replaced 1 pound of hay. On
the basis of digestible nutrients our calculations show that 4| pounds
of pumpkins with 84.8 per cent, of water replaced 1 pound of hay with
11.34 per cent, of water. It is quite possible that 25 pounds of pump-
kins would have replaced 5 pounds of hay with equal results. Because of
the rather wide variations in the moisture content of the fruit, one could
say only on the basis of results secured, that from 5 to 6 pounds of pump-
kins were equivalent to 1 pound of first-class cow hay.
BULLETI]^ l^o. 175.
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO.^
BY G. H. CHAPMAN.
Introduction.
The observations and conclusions reported in the following pages are
the results of several years of more or less continuous investigation on
the part of the writer, and deal with the probable causes, occurrence,
appearance and methods of control of this well-known disease of tobacco
and related plants. Enough has been accomplished so that it is believed
wise to add still another paper to the already long list of literature which
has been pubUshed on this disease. During the time in which these
experiments have been in progress much new literature has appeared
dealing with this subject, some of which has helped the writer by verifying
his results and by bringing out new facts concerning the disease; but, on
the other hand, some of the work appears to have been done in a hasty
manner, and possibly erroneous conclusions drawn in some cases, thus
adding to the large amount of confusing subject-matter which has to do
with this disease. The experiments carried on by the writer were begun
in a general way in 1907, and have been repeated several times during the
years subsequent to that date, new lines of investigation both in the
field and laboratory having been added as occasion demanded. Some
considerable time has been spent in verifjdng the results obtained by other
recent investigators, and an attempt has been made to gather together in
a broad, general way, as well as in detail, aU the reliable information
possible about this interesting disease, as well as to bring out new facts in
regard to it. More attention has been given to the biochemical aspects
of the problem than has heretofore been done by investigators.
> Also presented in part to the faculty of the graduate school of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, June, 1916, as a major thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
doctor of philosophy.
74 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
Historical Summary.
In the following paragraphs is given a brief r^sum^ of the more important
work done on the mosaic disease of tobacco up to the present time, and
as an excellent critical review of the literature, etc., up to 1902 is given by
A. F. Woods 1 in his work on the subject, the same is quoted in full below.
He states : —
Adolph Mayer ^ was the first to make a careful study of the trouble. He demon-
strated that it could not be caused by an insuflfieient supply of mineral nutrients.
He found as much nitrogen, potassium salts, phosphates, calcium and magnesium
present in the soils and plants where the disease occurred as in the soils where the
disease did not occur. He also found that the trouble was apparently distributed
over the field without regard to the soil conditions.
Since tobacco requires much lime, liming the soil was tried, but the disease was
not prevented thereby. Mayer further kept hotbeds in some cases rather moist,
in others dry, and then again, richly or poorly manured with nitrogen; but in no
case could he determine that the conditions in question caused the disease. He
also found that variations in the temperature of the hotbeds apparently had no
effect; neither did crowding, which produced partial etiolation, appear to have
any effect on the disease. Seeds from flowers in which self-fertilization was pre-
vented he found to be just as susceptible to the disease as seeds produced without
such precautions, but on the soil on which the disease had once appeared it was
again produced. According to his observation, also, the trouble was not often
found on soil used for the first time for tobacco. He further proved that the
juice of the diseased leaves injected with the juice of healthy plants did not develop
the disease. He was not able to produce it by injecting diseased juice into other
solanaceous plants. Where the diseased juice was injected into tobacco the same
trouble developed in from ten to eleven days. Heating to 60° C. did not destroy
the infectious substance; at 65° to 75° it was attenuated, and at 80° it was killed.
After Mayer had shown the absence of animal and fungous parasites he sup-
posed bacteria to be the cause of the disease, but all his efforts with bacteria cul-
tivated from the surface of diseased leaves, and also with different mixtures of
bacteria, failed to produce it. Nevertheless, he thought that there must be certain
pathogenic bacteria present in those soils in which the disease appeared, and
therefore proposed to change the soil in the hotbeds and to devote the fields where
tobacco had been cultivated to other crops. He also recommended the use of
mineral rather than organic manures.
These general results were confirmed by several subsequent investigators. Not,
however, till Beijerinck' took hold of the question was much of importance added
to our knowledge of the malady. He proved the absence of bacteria in the devel-
opment of the disease. He showed that the juice of the plant filtered through
Chamberland filters, while remaining perfectly clear and free from bacteria, still
retained the power of infection. A small drop of it injected hypodermically into
the growing bud was sufficient to give the plant the disease. He found that only
dividing (meristematic) cells can become diseased. Diseased tissue kept its in-
fectious qualities even after drying, and retained its injurious properties in the
' Woods, A. F.: Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. U. S. D. A., Bur. Plant Ind. ,
Bui. No. 18 (1902).
2 Mayer, Adolph: Uber die Mosaikkrankheit des Tabaks. Landw. Versuchsstation, 32:
451-467 (1886). Review of the same article in Journ. of Mycology, 7: 332-385 (1894).
» Beijerinck, M. W.: Verhandelingcn der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam. Deel 6: No. 5. See also Centb. f. Bakt., Par., etc., II: 5: 27-33 (1899).
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 75
soil during the winter. Weak solutions of formalin did not kill the virus, but
heating to boiling point did. Fresh, unfiltered juice was more effective than an
equal amount of filtered juice. He found that soil around diseased plants may
infect the roots of healthy plants, but he did not determine whether direct trans-
ference is possible through healthy root surfaces, or whether insects, by injuring
the roots, favored infection. He defines the milder form of the disease as a suffer-
ing of the chlorophyll bodies. Later a general disease of the plasmatic contents of
the cells sets in.
In field conditions as a final stage the swollen green areas become marked with
small dead spots, but these did not appear on plants grown under glass. Under
certain conditions he observed that plants apparently recover from the disease;
i.e., the new growth appeared to recover. He found that the infective material,
whatever it might be, could be transported through considerable distances in the
plant, but could cause the disease only in the dividing cells. He assumed the
virus to be a non-corpuscular, fluid-like material, which had the power of growth
when in contact, in a sort of symbiotic way, with the growing cells, — "a living
fluid contagium."
Shortly after Beijerinck's paper, Sturgis ^ published a critical review of the work
done on the disease up to that time, with numerous valuable results and observa-
tions made in Connecticut, where the trouble is known as "calico" or "mottled
top."
The results obtained by Sturgis and observations made by him on
tobacco in Connecticut bore out the statements of other careful and
critical workers, and greatly cleared up the field for further investigation.
He came to the conclusion that on close, clayey soils the disease may be
more abundant than on an open, porous soil. The disease is not conta-
gious, but he could not state definitely as to its infectiousness; it is not
caused by fungi, nematodes or parasitic insects, and the facts observed
by him were not favorable to the theory of bacterial origin. He also
came to the conclusion that the disease is not inherent in the seed, and
looked upon it as a purely physiological trouble brought about by sudden
interruptions of the normal plant metabohsm. Koning, ^ in his work,
verified much of the work of Beijerinck and Mayer, and Woods' later
verified the work of these investigators and pointed out that in the
diseased leaves there was an excess or excessive activity on the part of
an enzyme belonging to the oxidases, and that the power of oxidation in
the cells was inversely proportional to the amount of chlorophyll present,
using the color as a basis of comparison. He also pointed out that there
was a marked structural difference between the cells of the dark green
and light green areas, and proved to his own satisfaction that the light
green areas are the truly diseased portions, a fact that will be referred to
later in this paper. In a later careful investigation of the disease Woods *
arrived at the following conclusions, which were a great stride forward in
our understanding of some phases of this baffling disease. He states : — •
» sturgis, W. A.: Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept., 250-254 (1898).
2 Koning, C. J.: Die Flecken oder Mosaikkrankheit des hollandischen Tabaks. Zeitschrift
fur Pflanzenkr., 9: 65-80.
' Woods, A. F.: Inhibiting Action of Oxidase on Diastase. Science, n. s.. No. 262, 17-19.
« Woods, A. F., loc. cit.
76 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
The disease is not due to parasites of any kind, but is the result of defective
nutrition of the young di\ading and rapidly growing cells, due to a lack of elabo-
rated nitrogenous reserve food accompanied by an abnormal increase in the
activity of oxidizing enzymes in the diseased cells. The unusual activity of the
enzyme prevents the proper elaboration of the reserve food, so that a plant once
diseased seldom recovers. On the decay of the roots, leaves and stems of both
healthy and diseased plants, the enzyme in question is liberated and remains active
in the soil. The enzyme is very soluble in water and appears to pass readily
through plant membranes. If the young plants take it up in sufficient quantity
to reach the terminal bud, they become diseased in the characteristic way. Under
field conditions there is little danger from infection in this manner, but in the
seed bed the danger is much greater on account of the greater susceptibility of the
young plants to the disease, and the greater amount of free oxidizing enzymes
likely to be in the soil due to the decay of the roots and plants. New or steam
sterilized soil should therefore be used for the seed bed.
I have shown that transplanting, especially when the roots are injured, may
produce the disease. Great care must, therefore, be taken not to injure the roots in
this process or in the subsequent cultivation, or to check the growth of the plants.
There is evidence that rapid growth, caused by too much nitrogenous maniu-e or
too high a temperature, is favorable to the disease. Why this should be the case
has not been determined. It is probably connected with the manufacture of
reserve nitrogen by the cells and its distribution to the rapidly growing parts.
Plants grown under such conditions are less able to stand successfully marked
variations in temperature and moister conditions of soil and atmosphere. Varia-
tions of this kind favor the development of the disease in the less resistant plants.
Close, clayey soils, packing hard after rains and requiring constant tillage, are
not favorable to the even growth of either the tops or roots of tobacco plants. In
moist, cloudy weather the plants will grow too fast, and in hot, dry weather the
soil is likely to bake, checking growth and making probable injury to the roots in
cultivation. Such soils are very favorable to the development of the mosaic
disease, as pointed out by Thaxter. i He found that loosening the soil by liming
and giving partial shade, thus causing a more even condition of growth, very
greatly reduced the disease.
Crops grown under cheesecloth covers protected at the side are said to be re-
markably free from the disease. The plants make a steady rapid growth, much
greater than in ordinary field culture. . . .
The disease is not, so far as observed, produced by a lack of soil nutrients, though
from its nature we would expect that a deficiency of nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
lime and magnesia might favor its development. Koning^ says that manuring
with kainit and Thomas slag diminishes the extent of the disease. Mayer, Beijer-
inck and other investigators, however, agree that the trouble is not caused by the
lack of any soil nutrients. It appears, so far as my own investigations go, that the
trouble cannot be cured by giving the plants additional food of any kind. Over-
feeding with nitrogen favors the development of the disease, and there is some
evidence that excess of nitrates in the cells may cause an excessive development
of the ferments that cause the disease. Very slight attacks of the disease known
as "mottled top" are said not to injure the quality of the leaf to a sufficient extent
to be noticeable commercially, though they may be less elastic and have a poorer
burn and aroma than healthy leaves.
Hunger, ^ in his work on the mosaic of Deli tobacco, verified much of
the work of previous investigators, and later, in carefully planned and
» Thaxter: Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept., Ill, 253 (1899).
* Koning, C. J., loc. cit.
» Hunger, F. W. T.: De Mozaiek-ziekte bij deli Tabak. Med. s'Lands Plantentium, Batavaia.
Deel 1: 63 (1903).
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 77
executed experiments,^ proved that the disease was not contagious but
was highly infectious. He believed that it could be carried from diseased
to healthy leaves simply by touching, especially in the case of the young
leaves, a fact that makes it necessary for the workman to use great care
when looking for the tobacco bud worms, etc., in the buds. He was of
the opinion that a rupture of the leaf was not necessary to induce the
mosaic disease in plants.
Selby 2 a year later showed this to be apparently true for tobacco grown
in Ohio, and Hunger's statements were in his opinion in all respects con-
firmed. He also reported that "Blossoms of various plants were inocu-
lated through the nectar by transmission of nectar from diseased plants,
as by insect visitation. A slender brush of horse hair was used for this
purpose. No evidences of the disease were observed as a result of this
method."
CUnton' was able to produce the trouble on tomatoes by inoculating
with juice from a diseased tobacco plant and from the tomato so infected
was able to reproduce the disease on the tobacco again by inoculation
from the tomato, again showing the infectious nature of the disease, and
that the troubles on the tomato and tobacco were practically identical.
This has been repeatedly verified by the writer and many other investi-
gators.
Jensen,* in his work on the disease, came to the conclusion that the
right way to get at the methods of control of the disease was by experi-
mentation to obtain a resistant strain of tobacco, no matter what the
cause of the disease might be, and he carried on some experiments along
these lines. As yet no definite results have been reported by the in-
vestigators, but the time has probably been too short to obtain results.
Lodewijks^ stated that by subjecting diseased plants to different col-
ored lights he was able to bring about a cure in some cases. He states: —
The mosaic disease cannot be diminished or prevented by lessened light intensity.
Neither diffused nor colored light has any effect on the disease if the healthy leaves
are not able to function in normal daylight. Under the latter condition, however,
diffused light exerts a retardation, red light diminishes the trouble, and blue light
effects a cure. All the results may then be explained by the hypothesis that the
virus formation diminishes with the intensity of the light, while in the healthy
leaves, through the action of the virus, an anti-virus is formed, the action of which
destroys the virus (immunity and antitoxin formation in the case of animals). . . .
Normally in the metabolism of the tobacco plant a substance is formed, the
action of which is opposed to that of the equally normally occurring virus of mosaic
disease, perhaps because it binds itself chemically to the latter.
• Hunger, F. W. T.: Die Verbreitung der Mosaikkrankheit infolge der Behandlung des Tabaks.
Centralbl. f. Bakt. Par., etc., II: 11: 405-408 (1908).
2 Selby. A. D.: Tobacco Disease. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. No. 15, 88-95 (1904).
• Clinton, G. P.: Notes on Fungous Diseases, etc. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept., 1907-08, 857-
858.
• Jensen, H.: Uber die Bekampfung der Mosaikkrankheit der Tabakpflanze. Centralbl. f.
Bakt. Par., etc., II: 15: 440^45 (1906).
5 Lodewijka, T. A., Jr.: Zur Mosaikkrankheit des Tabaks. Rec. Trav. bot. Neerlandais,
VII. (1910).
78 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
Both substances, virus and anti-virus, may be increased by external factors or
conditions. In the first instance the plants become diseased with the mosaic
disease; in the latter an immunity against the disease is brought about. Decrease
in intensity and cure occur if the virus formation ceases or stops, while at the same
time the formation of an anti- virus is taking place normally or is increased. ^
A discussion of Lodewijks' work is to be found later in this paper.
Allard^ in a recent work on the disease states that from the results of
his experiments he is of the opinion that the trouble is not primarily
ph3''siological but is parasitic in nature, but he is unable to throw any
light on the nature of the parasite, and in spite of the conclusions drawn by
him, none of his results, at least in so far as the writer is able to judge, has
in any way weakened the theory that the trouble may be physiological in
nature; and some of his results, from the writer's point of view, seem to
substantiate this idea of a physiological agency. Two points of great
interest are brought out by him, viz., the mosaic as affecting the color
of the corolla by blotching, etc., and the carrying of the disease by certain
aphids. These points have not been noted before. In the following
pages some of his work mU be taken up in detail in so far as it seems to
bear out or refute work done by the writer.
It may be seen from the foregoing r^sum^ that the theory that the disease
is physiological in character has been in the past pretty generally accepted,,
but the identification of the ultimate causes producing the symptoms
varies widely with the different investigators. The writer's conclusions-
with regard to this point are taken up later in this paper.
Names.
By right of priority the term "mosaic" is the one which should be
applied to this disease. It has, however, many local names, and these
sometimes are applied differently to the different manifestations of the
sjTnptoms; among them may be mentioned the following: "calico,"
"brindle," "mongrel," "mottle-top," "string leaf," "frenching," etc.
Other terms have also been used, but they do not in aU cases apply to the
"mosaic" alone, hence they are here omitted. The term "infectious
chlorosis " as suggested by Clinton is perhaps best descriptive of diseases
of this general character, with "mosaic" as a specific type under this
division, there being many other infectious, clilorotic diseases of plants
quite distinct from the mosaic type.
Description op the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco.
Descriptions of the mosaic disease of tobacco have been repeatedly
presented, and the disease itself is so well known that there is little need
of repetition at this point, but a brief r^sum^ of the salient characteristics
» Translation from abstract of Lodewijks' paper in Bot. Centralbl., 114-518 (1910).
' Allard, H. A.: Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. U. S. D. A., n. s., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 40
(1914).
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 79
of the disease ■will be given so that no misunderstanding may arise, as
several other leaf troubles more or less chlorotic in character have often
been confounded with the true "mosaic." The disease may show on the
leaves at all stages of the growth, from the seedling to the mature plant.
It is often difficult in seedlings to diagnose the trouble definitely, as
the slight mottling and curl of the leaves may be due to other factors.
As a rule, in young plants the leaf is rougher and a permanent mottling is
observed, very slight in character, however, and not to be confounded with
the mottling due to normal metabolic processes which occurs under certain
conditions of growth. As the disease progresses, however, the leaf is
found to be divided into light and dark green areas; in mild cases there
does not appear to be any marked leaf distortion, and the light green areas
sometimes verge on the yellow in color. The dark green areas apparently
deepen in color with the intensity of the disease, and in extreme cases the
leaf is much distorted and the dark portions appear blister-like, due to
their more rapid growth. The leaves, as a rule, are much stiffer and
thicker to the touch than are the normal healthy leaves. Sometimes in
the later stages of the disease there are found dry, dead, brown patches or
spots on the leaves, sometimes where the dark green areas were originally,
but more often the light green portions show this extreme condition. Both
the light and dark areas show abnormalities in structure; nevertheless,
the light green areas are the more truly diseased ones, the dark green areas
presenting different characteristics, and although showing changes in
cell arrangement, etc., function more normally in many respects. Most
investigators have held that the light green areas are the diseased portions
of a leaf, but some have been of the opinion that the dark green areas are
the diseased portions. As will be seen from the writer's experiments the
former is the more correct view, as the increase in color intensity and the
blistering of the dark green areas is due to the necessarily increased func-
tioning thrown on these portions of the leaf.
Occasionally a leaf may be distorted in such a manner as to present the
appearance of being little more than a long filament consisting principally
of midrib, with but very little leaf surface. This condition has been
observed by the writer in some instances, but should not be confounded
with a similar trouble occurring on tobacco in certain regions, which is of
an unknown character but which is not the true mosaic as it is not infec-
tious. This latter trouble has been noted particularly in Java, etc., as is
reported by Peters ^ in his work on the diseases of tobacco. It has not
been observed in tobacco fields in this region by the writer.
It is thought that soil and moisture conditions are responsible at least
partially for this disease.
> Peters, L.: Krankheiten und Beschadigung des Tabaks. Mitteil. aus der Kaiser. Anstalt
F. Land- u. Forstwirtschaft. Heft, 13: 64 (1912).
80 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
OCCUBRENCE.
The mosaic disease has been known for j^ears both in Europe and
America, and may be said to be present everywhere that tobacco is grown.
It apparently is a more serious disease in the tropics and in certain parts
of Europe than it is in this country. In New England it has been known
for some time, and, although present to a certain extent each year, is not
of such great economic importance as in some other locaUties. In Massa-
chusetts it is found practically everywhere, and some years appears to be
much more prevalent over widespread areas than in others. As a rule,
however, the disease is not epidemic in character, and often only a com-
paratively few plants in a field will be found affected.
On certain fields, however, — and these most often are such as have
been cropped to tobacco for many years without the practice of cover-
cropping or rotation, — mosaic disease is present year after year, and a
large percentage of the crop is always badly affected, the plants beginning
to show the trouble in from three to four weeks after planting in the field.
The prevalence of the disease in the field, aside from the special cases
above noted, is apparently related in some way to conditions in the field
during the growing season, or during the time the plants are in the seed
bed. There is no question that a large percentage of the infection found
in the field, exclusive of that appearing on the sucker growth after topping,
or due to infection at the time of transplanting, is due to a primary infec-
tion from the seed bed.
While the disease as a rule is first noticed in the field some time after
transplanting, very often the seedlings in the beds are affected. This is
particularly true in the case of old or carelessly treated beds. It is often
very difiicult for the casual observer to identify the disease on the seedlings,
as the macroscopic or visible symptoms are eithel* very slight or lacking.
In this way many plants are transplanted to the field by workmen without
their being aware that they are diseased, and the disease becoming more
pronounced in the later stages of growth, the infection is laid to the soil
in the field, when in reality the infected soil of the seed bed is responsible
and not the field soil. As has been stated, the closest examination of the
seedhngs is necessary to identify the trouble in the seed bed, particularly
in mild cases of infection.
From observations made repeatedly, not only on seed beds but also
experimentally under controlled conditions in the greenhouse with soils
from old beds, afterwards transplanting the seedlings to soil previously
not used for tobacco, and using as checks healthy plants from new soil,
the writer has come to the conclusion that at least 80 per cent, of our
field infections come from the seed bed and do not originate in the field as
is commonly supposed.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO.
81
Economic Importance.
It is very difficult to estimate the loss to growers due to mosaic disease,
as the prevalence in different localities varies greatly, as also does the
intensity of the attack in different seasons. The damage resulting from
mosaic disease is twofold: first the plants when severely attacked are
smaller and the leaves poorer in quality; secondly, the buyer, if he sees
much mosaic in a field, will invariably cut the price a few cents a pound,
as the leaves affected do not in many cases make a valuable wrapper and
are much poorer in quahty. The writer has observed certain fields where
the loss would run into hundreds of dollars from this cause alone. The
amount of damage done by late mild attacks when the plants are maturing,
or appearing on the sucker growth after topping, is practically negligible,
and, so far as can be learned, does not in any way injure the commercial
leaf. It is always well to clean off the diseased suckers, however, as they
present a very ragged appearance, and might injure the sale of the crop
to a certain extent. There is no question but that during certain seasons
the loss due to mosaic is quite large, but an exact estimate of this loss is
difficult to obtain, owing to the many other factors involved.
Infectious Nature of the Disease.
That the mosaic disease is very infectious is well known, and a discus-
sion of the detailed experiments on this point is not necessary. Experi-
mentally it has been repeatedly shown that the juice from all parts of a
diseased plant is capable of transmitting the disease, although it should
be stated that the percentage of infection obtained from the root extract
is considerably lower than that obtained from the leaves. A few of the
results obtained are given in the following table, however : —
Table I, — Infectivity of the Juice from Different Parts of Diseased Plants,
August, 1909.
Pabt op Diseased Plant used
(Plants fhom Field).
Number of Healthy Seedlings
inoculated.
Number of
Plants Dis-
eased Three
Weeks after
Inoculation.
Leaves showing disease, . ' .
CJontrol,
Leaves showing disease,
Control,
Basal leaves (not showing disease),
Control,
Roots,
Control,
Roots
10 (juice; needle pricks),
10 (distilled water; needle pricks),
10 (insertion of tissue into veins),
6 (insertion of healthy tissue into veins),
12 (juice; needle pricks),
5 (distilled water; needle pricks),
21 (juice; needle pricks),
7 (distilled water; needle pricks),
16 (insertion of tissue into veins).
10
9
10
1
14
6
82 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
Later experiments with the roots of other diseased plants gave similar
low results.
It is a very easy matter to infect seedlings at the time of transplanting,
and the writer has repeatedly seen many cases in the field which could
only have been brought about by such infection. It is only necessary to
get some of the juice from the diseased plant on to the hands to transmit
the disease by handling healthy plants, the causal agent gaining entrance
through the broken ends of roots, leaf hairs or broken and abraded leaf
areas. In some of the experiments conducted relative to this point, a
very high percentage of infection has been obtained. In one case where
the juice from a diseased plant was very thoroughly rubbed on the hands,
and 40 healthy seedlings immediately set, no care being used to guard
against bruising the leaves, etc., 31 plants developed the disease in two
weeks' time. In another experiment where 62 seedlings were subjected to
the same treatment, 30 plants developed the disease; in still another,
series of 28 seedUngs, 21 developed the disease. Controls planted at the
same time, handled with a hand rubbed with the juice of a healthy leaf
developed the mosaic in only a few isolated cases. From the above it
can easily be seen that great care should be exercised in the matter of
handling the seedlings, especially diseased seedlings.
Contagious Nature of the Disease.
In spite of the fact that it is held by some investigators that the mosaic
disease is contagious, the wTiter has never been able to satisfactorily dem-
onstrate that it is. Under carefully controlled conditions in the green-
house, guarding against accidental infection, it has been impossible to
demonstrate the contagious nature of the disease. In isolated instances,
indeed, apparent contagion has occurred, but it is believed that these
cases were clue to accidental infection, as the percentage was so low, —
less than 2 per cent., — and under the conditions the plants were subjected
to, such as contact, spraying of the juice on leaves, etc., the percentage
should have been much higher if contagion was to be held responsible.
It is a fact that it is only necessary to break or rupture the trichomes or
hairs on the leaf, subsequently spraying with diseased juice, to obtain
infection, although this method does not give a very high percentage.
It can easily be seen that such a rupture may be very easily brought
about, and hence apparent contagion occur. As is stated elsewhere in
this paper, insect and other carriers may also play a part in these so-
called cases of contagion.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 83
Pathological Anatomy.
Leaves.
As might be supposed, there are great differences in structure between
normal, healthy leaves and leaves affected with the mosaic disease. These
differences are greatest, naturally, in badly diseased leaves. Woods ^ was
one of the first to point out this fact, and his statements have been re-
peatedly verified by the UTiter. He stated that the hght colored areas
were not normal, and that "this difference consists in the fact that in
badly diseased plants the palisade parenchyma of the light colored areas
is not developed at all. All the tissue between the upper and lower epider-
mis consists of a spongy or respiratory parenchyma rather more closely
packed than normal. In moderately diseased plants the palisade paren-
chyma of the light area is greatly modified. Normally the palisade
parenchyma cells of a healthy plant are from four to six times as long as
broad. In a moderately diseased plant, however, the cells are nearly as
broad as they are long, or at most, not more than twice as long as broad.
As a rule, the modified cells of the leaf pass abruptly into the normal cells
of the green area."
From the above it can be seen that Woods was of the opinion that the
light green areas were abnormal or diseased, and that the dark green
areas were normal and healthy. The writer in his observations found
this to be true in general, but occasionally the dark green areas showed a
more closely packed parenchyma than in normal leaves, and always the
palisade layer was well developed and approached the normal in character.
The development or non-development of the palisade layer, as Woods
hinted, is dependent on the degree of severity of the disease. The lighter
the attack the less are the palisade cells and parenchyma tissue altered,
and vice-versa. This the writer found to be true in so far as anatomical
differences were concerned, but as will be noted later, the dark green,
apparently normal, healthy tissue contained some of the infective agent of
the disease.
The structure of the dark green areas varies only slightly from that of
the normal leaf, with the few exceptions above noted, and may be con-
sidered normal in character. The writer has sectioned many leaves in all
stages of disease, and these structural differences have always been found
to occur in the manner above indicated. These differences in structure
have been taken up more or less in detail, as some investigators have held,
and still hold, that the dark green areas are the part diseased, and that
the light green areas are normal, inasmuch as they approach the normal
leaf in color in many cases, most probably basing their assumption on
the fact that the dark areas form blister-like growths and are sometimes
darker in color than normal leaves. No one recently appears to have
> Woods, A. F.: Inhibiting Action of Oxidase on Diastase. Science, n. s., XI., No. 262, 17-19
(1900).
84 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
investigated the structure of the dark and light areas carefully in the case
of the tobacco, except Woods. It was to verify Woods' statements that
the wTiter took up this phase of the matter, and mention will again be
made of it in connection with the biochemistry of the leaf. There can
be no doubt as to the correctness of Woods' contention that the light green
areas are abnormal and diseased; but that the dark green areas are not
diseased, at least in certain cases, cannot be so definitely stated. Their
structure may be somewhat modified by the increased functioning thrown
on the healthy cells. On the other hand, it is fallacious to state that the
light green are the healthy, and the dark green are the diseased, portions
of a leaf.
Plates III. and IV. show three cross sections from leaves. III. showing
the cross section of a healthy leaf; IV,, that of the Hght green area of a
diseased leaf and of a dark green area of the same leaf. It wiU be noted
that the paUsade layer is practically suppressed in IV. (1), or the Hght
green portion, while in IV. (2) the palisade layer approaches the normal
in character except for a closer packing of cells in general. Milder
cases of diseased leaves vary between these limits. These figures are
from caynera lucida drawings of material killed and fixed in medium chrom-
acetic acid. In the material used the normal leaf section is somewhat
thicker than those of the diseased leaf, but for comparative purposes is
perfectly satisfactory.
Stems.
The anatomical differences in the leaves of healthy and diseased to-
bacco plants have been given in the preceding paragraphs, and as it was
desired to carry the investigations further to cover the entire plant, re-
peated examinations were made of both cross sections and longi-sections
of stems of plants in various stages of disease, and also of healthy, normal
plants grown both in the field and greenhouse. It should be stated at
this point that occasionally the writer has observed on the stems of some
badly mosaicked plants a mottling, or, rather, a streaking of the stem, a
portion of which would be darker green than the remainder, and this is
without question a manifestation of the mosaic disease. Sections of such
stems, however, showed absolutely no variation in structure from those of
normal plants, and in no case, although the examinations covered an
extended period of time, was it possible to show any structural difference
between the stems of badly diseased mosaic plants and those of healthy
plants of the same age. Examinations of the stem close to the terminal
apex of the plant revealed the same conditions as those of other parts of
the stem. No differences were observable except in the matter of size and
arrangement of cells, such as would naturally be expected when we take
into consideration the differences in size and development of the stem near
the terminal apex and progressively towards the base.
PLATE III.
Section through normal tobacco leaf: (a) epidermis; (6) palisade cells; (c) parenchyma tissue.
PLATE IV.
oooLfeDQQP^
Sections through mosaic-diseased leaves. (1) Light green area: (o) epidermis; (6) palisade
cells; (c) parenchyma tissue. (2) Dark green area: (a) epidermis; (6) palisade cells;
(c) parenchyma tissue.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 85
Roots.
In the same manner roots of mosaicked and healthy plants were ex-
ammed at various times under all conditions of growth and severity of
disease, and in every case the root structure was found to be normal.
Root tips from healthy and diseased plants showed absolutely no differ-
ences in structure. It might be anticipated that, as the disease first mani-
fests itself in the dividing cells of the leaves, there might be a supple-
mentary differentiation, so to speak, of the meristematic tissue at the
growing point of the root, functioning co-ordinately with that of the aerial
part of the plant. No such condition was observable, however, and, so
far as the writer has been able to find, there is no manifestation of local
cell disturbances in the root such as are found in the leaf tissue.
The causal agent of the disease, however, as has previously been noted,
is without question present in all parts of the plant, and it should not be
stated that it is confined to those parts which show structural variation.
Fungi and the Mosaic Disease.
Almost from the first it has been established that no fungi are asso-
ciated with the cause and development of the mosaic disease of tobacco.
In no ease where careful work has been conducted under conditions elimina-
ting the possibility of accidental infection has any fungus been found
associated with the trouble. Cultures of fungi obtained occasionally
from leaves have always been traceable to careless manipulation or ex-
ternal infection, and the fungus obtained failed to infect healthy plants,
no matter what methods of inoculation were used.
The writer has occasionally obtained cultures on various media such as
oat agar, tobacco leaf agar and prune agar, from the tissue of the so-
called "rusted" spots which are sometimes a late manifestation of the
last stages of the mosaic; but, as with previous investigators, it was found
impossible to infect healthy plants from these cultures, either by needle
pricks, spraying, or inserting the fungus into incisions in the leaf or stem.
These experiments with fungi were made merely to demonstrate to the
writer's own satisfaction that they could not be the causative agents of
the disease, as there might be a possibihty that they were latent in the
plant during the earlier stages of the disease and only developed super-
ficially during the later stages.
According to Jenkins ^ and others these rusted spots which are some-
times observed are primarily caused by a drying out and disintegration of
the cell tissue, which has been weakened -by the disease and which thus
forms a suitable medium, under favorable conditions, for the develop-
ment of secondary fungi and micro-organisms. This view is also held by
the writer as a result of observations extending over a series of years.
» Jenkins, E. H.: Studies on the Tobacco Crop of Connecticut. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui.
No. 180, p. 56 (1914).
86 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
Bacteria and the Mosaic Disease.
Among the manj'- theories advanced regarding the cause of the mosaic
the chief one for some time, particularly among the earlier investigators,
was that of bacterial infection either through the agency of infected soil
or otherwise. Mayer, ^ in his rather extended study of the disease, came
to the conclusion that it was caused by bacteria, but was unable to isolate
the organism. Prilleux and Delacroix ^ claimed to have fovmd an organism
associated with the mosaicked leaves, but their descriptions leave one in
doubt as to whether they were working with the true mosaic disease or
not. It is very probable that they were dealing with another disease
which occurs in France, but which is somewhat different from the mosaic
disease. The next important work on the bacteria supposedly connected
with this disease was done by Iwanowski. * He isolated several organisms
from the juice of diseased leaves, and by reinoculation was able to cause
infection, but only in a very small number of instances. This he explains
by a probable attenuation of the organism when grown on artificial media.
Hunger, < in a very critical review of the bacterial theory, stated that he
was unable in any way to substantiate the findings of Iwanowski, and
that although he observed certain bodies in the cells, he was not able to
classify them as either bacteria or plasmodia, as they disappeared after
heating with phenol chloral hydrate, while the rest of the cell contents
were unaffected. More recently AUard^ has advanced the opinion as
a result of his investigations that the disease is parasitic in nature but
does not attempt to discuss the character of the parasite, and apparently
has made little attempt to demonstrate anatomically the presence or
absence of bacteria. Hunger's work is probably the most satisfactory of
its kind along this line.
The writer has made examinations of diseased plants, sectioning leaves,
stems and even the roots, but has never been able satisfactorily to
demonstrate the presence of bacteria in the tissues. In this work a
variety of stains were used, cliief of which, however, were Ziehl's carbol
fuchsin and Heidenhain's iron hsemotoxylin.
It is to be noted in this connection that all investigators have apparently
confined their studies to the leaves or part of the plant in which the
disease showed itself, and very few attempts, if any, have been made to
study the question of the possible presence of bacteria in tissue far removed
from the diseased portions. In view of the fact that the juice from all
» Mayer, A.: Over de in Nederland dikwijk voorkomende Mozaikziekte der Tabak. Land.
Tijdschr. (1885).
» Prilleux, E. E. and Delacroix, G.: Maladies bacillaires de divers v6g6taux. Compt. Rend.
Acad. Sci. Paris, 118: 668-671 (1894).
' Iwanowski, D.: Uber die Mosaikkrankheit der Tabakspflanze, Zeit. f. Pflanzenkrank, 13:
1-41, pi. 1-3 (1903).
* Hunger, F. W. T.: Untersuchungen und Betrachtungen uber die Mosaikkrankheit der
Tabakspflanze. Zeit. f. Pflanzenkrank, 15: 257-311 (1905).
' Allard, H. A.: Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. U. S. D. A., Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. No. 40 (1914).
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 87
parts of a diseased plant will cause infection, it would be natural to sup-
pose that if bacteria were the causal agent, it should be possible to demon-
strate their presence in the different parts of a diseased plant. This has
never been done, and in the writer's study of the anatomy of diseased
plants it has never been possible to demonstrate the presence of bacteria
in the different tissues. The writer has many times attempted to obtain
cultures of bacteria from diseased tissue, and in some cases cultures of
organisms were obtained on various media, but they proved in every case
to be secondary in character, and were not capable of reproducing the
disease. In the Ught of all later investigations the evidence points over-
whelmingly to the absence of bacteria, in the present-day sense of the
term, as the causal agent of the disease.
Dissemination Agents.
Insects.
The fact that many fungous and bacterial diseases are often transmitted
by insects, as well as other agents, has been long known and thoroughly
estabUshed, but until Allard {loc. cit.) called attention to the fact that
the mosaic disease could be carried by aphids, and one in particular
{Macrosiphum tobaci Perg.), nothing had been published on this phase of
the matter. Allard in well-controlled experiments demonstrated beyond
a reasonable doubt that the disease was so communicated. Clinton
(loc. cit.) made a few observations on the infection of healthy plants by
the tobacco horn worms which had been feeding on diseased leaves, but
was unable to demonstrate that the disease could be so transmitted either
by the excreta ejected by the worm or by its biting and feeding on the
healthy plants. His results were negative in the few experiments made.
Observations made in the field during the progress of the writer's work
have not shown conclusively that the disease is communicated by biting
insects, such as the tobacco horn worm, grasshoppers and a small black
flea beetle of more or less common occurrence in our fields.
Occasionally aphids have been found infesting the leaves of tobacco in
our fields, but so far as could be judged were present in too small numbers
to be active agents in transmitting the trouble. As a rule, comparatively
few aphid infestations are found in our tobacco fields.
In the greenhouse during several winters tobacco plants grown in benches
were infested with white fly, and it was at first feared that they might
carry the infection from diseased to healthy plants in the same benches.
This, however, was not the case, and it has never been possible to demon-
strate positively that the white fly is an active agent in the spread of the
disease. This insect is, of course, of rare occurrence in our fields, but
may possibly do damage in the south. It apparently feeds and breeds
freely under greenhouse conditions on the underside of the leaves.
In order to ascertain more definitely the possibility of infection by these
insects, adult white flies from badly mosaicked leaves were carefully re-
88 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
moved and placed on the underside of the leaves of tobacco plants, en-
closed in a small cloth-covered cage, and were allowed to remain on the
tobacco leaves of the plants in these cages for four days. After this
length of time the plants were removed from the cages and placed on a
bench at some distance from those containing mosaicked plants badly
infested with white fly. On none of the plants did mosaic develop. The
plants were later placed in close juxtaposition to those in the original
benches, which, as indicated, were at this time heavily infested with
the white fly and badly mosaicked, but although the plants remained
until maturity, no cases of mosaic developed on them in spite of a heavy
infestation of white fly.
The writer's observations on the activities of aphids as carriers of in-
fection have not been so extensive as in the case of the white fly, as only
minor infestations of the former occurred in the greenhouses; and the
indications pointed to the fact that, although there were a certain number
of aphids present on the leaves of both healthy and diseased plants, so far
as was observable no cases of infection from this source arose, as the
mosaic developed only on an average of 1 case out of 30, except on the
plants which were artificially inoculated with the juice from diseased
leaves. It should be stated, however, that aphids present in the green-
house were not of the same species as that under consideration by Allard,
and there is no reason to doubt the accuracy of his observations on the
species tabaci Perg.
The question of insects as carriers of the mosaic disease as well as of
many other diseases is still open to discussion ; and it may be that in the
case of the mosaic a very heavy infestation of aphids is necessary to bring
about a successful infection of healthy plants, as the amount of active
infective material carried by such insects would in any case be very small,
and accumulative effects of the activities of several insects might be
necessary to introduce a sufficient amount of the active principle to trans-
mit the disease.
Workmen.
It has been shown that the disease is highly infectious and it has also
.been proved repeatedly by many investigators that it is very easy to
transmit the disease to healthy plants at the time of transplanting. A
workman handling diseased seedlings, and subsequently healthy ones,
will very often infect them. Several instances of tliis have come to the
writer's attention, every other plant for some distance in a row developing
mosaic within a month after transplanting. The same condition has also
been observed by Clinton {loc. cit.) in Cormecticut, and can only be ex-
plained by the fact that the workman's hands were infected through
handling a diseased plant, and the infection then transmitted to healthy
ones, the causal agent being introduced through broken tissue of the
leaves or roots of the seedlings. This method of transmission is particu-
larly striking in the above case, as the same individual plants every other
plant in a row when working the ordinary planter. Of course, there
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 89
have been many cases where every plant for some distance in a row
has developed mosaic, but this might be explained if it is assumed that
both workmen had handled diseased seedlings, or if a number of plants in
the lot were diseased. In time, the causal agent becomes so attenuated
that infection ceases, and the remainder of the row remains healthy.
Experimentally, this method of transmission has also been shown to be
possible, and a high percentage of infection has been obtained. In one
experiment, after thoroughly rubbing the hands with the tissue of a dis-
eased plant, and then pulling and transplanting healthy seedlings, over 80
per cent, of the transplants became mosaicked within a month. Only a
relatively small number of seedlings in this instance were treated in
this way, however, the total being 28, of which 24 developed mosaic
symptoms within three weeks.
Another manner of transmission is by cultivation. If some of the sap
from a diseased plant comes in contact with the tools, etc., employed,
there is a possibility that the infection might be carried to healthy plants
by this means, but the percentage of infection of this character is probably
very low in actual field practice.
The workmen when budding and topping are very often carriers of
infection, as they are not as a rule careful to leave untouched the plants
showing mosaic symptoms but take the plants as they come, and thus
spread the disease to many healthy plants. This method of dissemina-
tion has been very often observed, and perhaps is the most fruitful source
of infection in the field. The subsequent new growth will almost in-
variably be mosaic in character, as will also the suckers developing later.
The amount of damage to the marketable leaves, however, providing the
suckers are removed, is very slight, if any, and cannot be said to injure
the leaf in any way, at least in so far as our observations bear on this
point. If the suckers are left, however, the plants present a ragged ap-
pearance, and the mosaic on the suckers is quite noticeable, and might
injure the sale of the crop at the price it ought to conunand.
Seed.
The causal agent is not carried by the seed, and seed from mosaic
plants has never produced a larger percentage of mosaicked seedlings than
seed collected from healthy plants, when germinated and grown under
the same conditions. It is difficult to conceive of this, as it has been
shown by AUard (loc. cit.) that the tissues closely enveloping the seed in
the pod are capable of causing infection; but the writer has saved seed
from badly mosaicked plants for three successive years, and the seedlings
from such seed showed no signs of the disease, unless infection was pro-
duced artificially through some external agency.
It should be pointed out, however, that there is the possibility that the
vigor of the seed from mosaicked plants may be less than that from healthy
ones, and consequently the plants developed from such seeds, being
weaker, might be more susceptible to the factors active in the production of
90
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
mosaic symptoms. It is impossible to make a definite statement on this
point, however, as the writer has not been able to gather sufficient
data over a series of years to prove or disprove it.
Fertilization in Relation to Mosaic Disease.
It has been repeatedly shown by many investigators (see historical
summary) that a lack of plant food alone will not suffice to produce the
mosaic disease, and the writer has also, in connection with the tomato,
shown that an excess of nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid and lime will
not produce nor intensify the disease. ^
The same has been found to be true for tobacco. In our experiments
on tobacco, the method made use of was to add to each pot the proper
amount of a complete tobacco fertilizer (in this case applied at the rate of
3,000 pounds per acre), and then to add an additional amount of nitrogen,
potash and phosphoric acid in quickly available forms, equal to that
already present. No mosaic was produced in any case, although where
the amount of nitrogen was trebled a rather pecuUar malformation of the
leaves was observed which at first sight might have been mistaken for
mosaic sjonptoms. All inoculations failed to take, however, and the
trouble therefore could not have been the true mosaic.
It has been held that liming would lessen the prevalence of the disease,
but the writer's observations and experiments do not bear out this state-
ment. Under field conditions this may be the case in certain seasons, but
continued observations from year to year on heavily limed areas show no
appreciable lessening of the number of mosaicked plants. Seedlings and
plants grown in the greenhouse in soil kno^AOi to be heavily infected in-
dicated the same results, as also did the work on new soil with mosaicked
seedlings. Here lime was applied in varying amounts at the rate of from
500 to 6,000 pounds per acre. No appreciable effect on the mosaic disease
was observable. The results obtained are given in the following tables : —
Table II. — Effect of Liming on Mosaic.
[New soil, lime, mosaicked seedlings.]
Lime (Pounds per Acre).
New Soil in
Pots (Number
planted with
Mosaicked
Seedlings).
Number of
Plants show-
ing Recovery
One Month
after Planting.
500, .
1,000, .
2,000, .
4,000, .
6,000, .
No lime (check),
' Twentieth Annual Report, Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1908), p. 140.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO.
91
The lime was applied to this new soil, in the different amounts indicated,
one week previous to the setting of the plants.
No appreciable differences were observable in the subsequent growth as
regards intensity of mosaic symptoms, all the plants being comparatively
evenly mosaicked. There was not a single case of recovery.
Table III. — Effect of Liming on Mosaic.
[Infected seed bed soil, lime, seed.]
Lime (Pounds per Ache).
Per Cent
Infection
(Seedlings
Twelve Weeks
Old).
500, .
1,000, .
2,000, .
4,000, .
6,000, .
No lime (check),
12.0
18.4
9.8
21.0
8.6
13.7
The lime was here applied to a soil which was heavily infected, and the
seed sowed very thinly in the flats containing the various amounts of lime
and soil. The seedUngs were allowed to grow in the fiats until they were
counted. They were naturally crowded somewhat, but were free from
insects during the period of growth. It is possible that some infection
may have occurred, however, but there are very strong indications that
liming had no beneficial action in lessening the disease. As the results
are so variable the matter cannot be considered as absolutely settled, but
certainly no consistently favorable results were obtained in this experi-
ment from the use of lime.
Effect of Colored Light on Mosaic Disease.
In connection with work on the mosaic disease of tobacco it had long
been noted, in that section of the Connecticut Valley where the crop was
grown under shade, that the plants appeared in general to be much less
affected with the mosaic disease than were those grown in the open.
This fact has already been noted by Sturgis ^ in Connecticut. Investi-
gations were outlined, in conjunction with other work on this disease
already under way, relative to a study of the effects of various light
conditions on the intensification or reduction of the disease. While the
writer's preliminary work was in progress, Lodewijks ^ published a paper
' Sturgis, W. C: On the Effects, on Tobacco, of Shading and the Application of Lime. Conn.
Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rept., 23, 252-261 (1899).
' Lodewijks, J. A., Jr.: Zur Mosaikkrankheit dea Tabaks. Rec. Trav. Neerlandais, Vol. 7,
107-129 (1910).
92 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
on the effects of colored light on mosaic-diseased plants, and as a
result of his experiments stated that a cure was effected by blue light,
red light diminished the disease, and suffused light checked it somewhat.
In brief, his methods of experimentation and conclusion were as follows : —
The diseased leaves of a plant were covered with a cloth hood of the
desired color, of a sufficient size to allow ample room for growth. The
apparently healthy basal leaves were left uncovered and exposed to the
normal daylight. After a time the hoods were removed, and it was found
that in the case of the plants exposed under the blue hood a cure was ef-
fected; those exposed under a red hood showed a diminution in the
severity of the disease; and in the case of plants exposed to the suffused
light alone the disease was somewhat checked. The cloth used for the
red and blue hoods was a rather coarse cotton material similar to that used
for making flags.
Several investigators had noted the apparent beneficial effects resulting
from growing diseased plants in suffused light, but Lodewijks was the
first to really study the effects produced by colored light, although Bauer
appears to have made some observations on this point. As in no case
could the writer find that Lodewijks in his work had reinoculated from the
apparently cured plants to healthy ones, to prove the presence or absence
of the causal agent, and as it is often present and active in apparently
healthy leaves of diseased plants, as has been shown many times, it was
thought necessary to settle the point as to the presence or absence of the
causal agent in plants treated as in Lodewijks' work.
Method. — The method of treatment of diseased plants was in every
way similar to that employed by Lodewijks as to texture of cloth, methods
of covering the plants, etc. The cloth covers were held away from the
plant by means of wire hoops, and the cloth was tied around the stem of
the plant below the diseased leaves. Plate V. shows a hood in place over
a field-grown plant, and gives a clear idea of the arrangement of the hoops,
etc.
The cloth used was a coarse grade of cotton, and the colors were cad-
mium orange, ox-blood red and indulin blue. ^
Plants showing well-developed symptoms of the mosaic disease were
selected for the experiment, none of which had less than four character-
istically diseased leaves, the lower remaining leaves apparently healthy.
The hoods were placed over the diseased leaves as above noted, and left
on for the required time, in most of the ex-periments twenty to thirty
days. At the end of this period the hoods were removed and the plants
carefully examined for visible symptoms of the disease. Two leaves from
the upper (i.e., the part under the hood) portion of the plant were removed
under absolutely aseptic conditions, the juice expressed and healthy
plants inoculated therewith by means of glass capillaries inserted just
below the terminal leaflets.' Control inoculations with distilled water and
boiled juice were also made at the same time. The plants, after the
' Ridgway, Robert: Color Standards and Color Nomenclature. Washington, D. C. (1912).
PLATE V.
■■w
^mk
I'itTect of cidorcil lislil o" inos;iic (li^eatio; allowing iiietliod of ulUidiing hoods over leaves.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO.
93
removal of the leaves above mentioned, were allowed to grow to maturity
under normal light conditions.
Most of the experiments were carried on in the greenhouse, where tem-
perature and other conditions were under more direct control than in the
field, although field experiments later repeated gave the same results, but,
of course, in this case there was a greater chance of subsequent infection
through careless handling, insect attacks, etc. In the following jjaragraphs
are tabulated the results of a typical series of experiments relative to the
effects of light on mosaicked plants.
Experimental Data.
Red Cloth. — Three plants were covered with the red cloth hoods for
twenty days. The covers were then removed, and in all cases visible
symptoms of the disease were stih present, although the color variation
between light and dark green areas was not so marked as at the beginning
of the experiment. All the new growth, in addition to the leaves diseased
at the time the hoods were put on, also showed the mottling distinctly.
A week after the hoods were removed all the plants still showed the
disease in undiminished severity.
Healthy plants inoculated with the juice from the leaves confined under
the hood became diseased in from nine to eighteen days' time. Controls
inoculated in the same manner with boiled juice from the same leaves,
and with distilled sterile water, remained with very few exceptions
healthy. Table IV. gives the results of the inoculation experiments in
one series.
Table IV. — Result of Inoculation with Juice from Plants grown under
Red Hoods.
Plant No.
Number of
Healthy
Plants Inocu-
lated with
Juice from
Leaves of
Treated Plant.
Number of
Inoculated
Plants show-
ing Mosaic at
the End of
Eighteen
Days.
A-1.
B-L
C-1,
Controls inoculated with boiled juice, 10; diseased in eighteen days, 1.
Controls inoculated with distilled, sterile water, 10; diseased in eighteen days, 0.
From the above results it may be seen that there was a diminution in
the color variation in diseased leaves ; it was not of a permanent character,
the plants all showing the disease in undiminished severity again after a
short exposure to normal daylight. The causal agent of the disease was
still highly infectious.
94 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
In a second series the hoods were allowed to remain over the plants
for thirty days, as it was thought that a twenty-day exposure might
have been too short, but no appreciable variation in the results was
obtained as a result of the longer treatment.
Orange Cloth. — In this series two plants were covered with orange
hoods for a period of thirty days. On removing the covers it was found
that the visible symptoms of the disease were, if anything, intensified.
The growth was somewhat more spindling, the leaves narrower, and the
light and dark green areas very clearly defined. Infection was produced
from both plants by inoculation into healthy plants. The causal agent
was very active and highly infectious.
Bliie Cloth. — The diseased parts of three plants were covered with blue
cloth hoods, as in the preceding experiments, for a period of twenty-five
days. The covers were then removed and a careful examination of the
leaves made. On plants A-2 and B-2 no visible symptoms of the mosaic
disease could be observed, although a slight tendency towards curling was
noticeable on a few of the leaves. The leaves were all uniformly light
green in color, and aside from this, appeared normal. Plant C-2, however,
showed on two leaves a slight mottling. Two weeks after the hoods were
removed, plants A-2 and B-2 did not show any marked symptoms of the
mosaic disease other than a faint mottling of a few leaves, not sufiicient,
however, to seriously injure the leaf. Plant C-2 developed mosaic
again in the same length of time, but not as seriously as before the
treatment. It may be that the mottling on A-2 and B-2 was due to
the maturing of the plant, although tliis mottling is usually distinctive
enough to be readily differentiated from that caused by the mosaic
disease.
Healthy plants inoculated with the juice of leaves from plants A-2,
B-2 and C-2 contracted the disease almost without exception. Controls
inoculated with boiled juice failed to develop the disease. Table V gives
the results of the inoculations.
Table V. — Results of Inoculations ivith Juice from Plants groion under
Blue Hoods.
Plant No.
Number of
Healthy
Plants Inocu-
lated with
Juice from
Leaves of
Treated Plant.
Number of
Inoculated
Plants show-
ing Mosaic at
End of
Eighteen
Days.
A-2.
B-2,
C-2,
Controls inoculated with boiled juice, 6; diseased in eighteen days, 0.
Controls inoculated with sterile distilled water, 6; diseased in eighteen days, 1.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 95
The above results show that when blue light is used there is a suppres-
sion of leaf color variation more or less permanent in character, the
treated plants, with one exception, showing no typical symptoms of the
disease for at least two weeks subsequent to the removal of the hoods.
It cannot be said, however, that the disease was controlled, as inoculation
of healthy plants with the juice from these leaves produced the disease
in nearly every case.
The causal agent of the disease was still very active in the apparently
normal fully recovered leaves, and was highly infectious.
Discussion of Results. — The results of these experiments do not agree
entirely with those obtained by Lodewijks, particularly in the case of
action of the blue light, inasmuch as the plants covered with the blue
hoods, although showing an apparent recovery from the mosaic, still
contained the causal agent of the disease, and by inoculation with the
juice expressed from these plants into healthy plants the disease was
again produced in practically all cases. It should be noted that the
visible symptoms of the disease were suppressed, the reason for which
may be as AUard (loc. cit.) suggests in his work on the mosaic disease of
tobacco. He states, with respect to Lodewijks' observations, "If the
malady in question was true infectious mosaic disease, one is inclined to
believe that covering the young plants temporarily reduced the color
contrasts of the mottled areas. These changes may have led Lodewijks
to conclude that a partial or a complete cure had been effected in his
experiments."
It might be inferred from the above that on the removal of the hoods
exposing the plants to normal daylight, they would soon regain the color
contrast, but this is not entirely so in the case of the blue light, as has
been shown. The apparent recovery, therefore, is not entirely the result
of a suppression of color contrast due to the action of blue light on the
leaves as suggested by Allard, but is undoubtedly so in part.
It is evident that the treatment of plants as above recorded does not
destroy the causal agent of the mosaic disease, whatever may be its char-
acter, the treated leaves apparently still containing the causal agent, very
probably in the same manner as do the parts of a plant which do not show
visible symptoms of the disease, as the stem, lower leaves, roots, etc., the
juice of which is often highly infectious. It would appear from the re-
sults that the new terminal growth subsequent to the removal of the
hoods would develop the trouble, and this was the case in plant C-2, but
not apparently so with plants A-2 and B-2. Lodewijks' opinion, therefore,
that in the plant a "virus" and "anti- virus" are present, and that certain
abnormal conditions cause the "virus" to be produced in excess, bringing
about a mosaicked appearance, while if the "anti- virus" is produced in
excess, immunity is secured, will hardly hold, as it is clearly shown that
even after apparent cure the causal agent is present and active.
It is significant to note that under the influence of blue light both
assimilation and starch formation are decreased, thus bringing about a
96 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
partial starvation, as it were, not, however, serious enough to reduce
greatly the total starch formation and assunilation of the whole plant;
while at the same time the chlorophyll production is very little changed
if a comparison of the color of the normal and treated leaves can be taken
a,s a basis of such a comparison. This latter fact has already been noted
by Lodewijks in his work on the disease.
It is, therefore, indicated by the results obtained in the preceding ex-
periments that the different colors have Httle or no effect on the causal
agent of the disease, but in the case of the blue there is a strong depres-
sion of the macroscopic sjmiptoms of the disease.
Biochemical Studies.
Enzyme Activities in Healthy and Diseased Plants.
The study of enzymes in relation to diseases, particular!}' those of a
so-called physiological nature has not been extensively gone into as yet
by investigators, but it is believed that a study of their activities and
reactions should be made, not only in the case of physiological troubles,
but also those caused by fungi and bacteria, as it is the writer's firm behef
that the activities of a large number of the fungi, and their effects on the
respective hosts, are in a great measure due to the action of either exo-
enzymes or endoenzymes produced by the fungi concerned. There is a
possibility that the future may show a great advance in the study of
host resistance, etc., when the conditions under which enzyme activity
in fungi and bacteria takes place are better known, and plants may pos-
sibly be bred to a condition of producmg either a sap in wliich these
activities cannot take place, or will produce anti-enzymes which will
inhibit the activities of the enzymes contained in the respective fungi.
Although many have made a study of this disease, very few have con-
cerned themselves mth the question of the enzj-nne activities; among
the first to make mention of this phase of the question was Woods {loc. cit.),
who found that the enzymes designated as peroxidases were at least dif-
fusable, and occurred apparently in larger amount in diseased leaves than
in healthy ones; also that their action was t\\dce as strong in the light
green areas as in the darker portions of the leaf. Koning {loc. cit.), as a
result of his investigations, came to the conclusion that the disease was
caused by a certain enzyme, which he stated to be oxidase, and the action
of which he described. He beUeved that it was formed in the plant under
certain conditions. HeintzeP also found oxidizing enzymes present which
were more active, if not present in greater amounts, in diseased plants
than in the normal plants. Woods later (1902), in his work on the mosaic
disease, verified Ixis former observation, and stated further that the
diastase activity was much inhibited in the case of diseased plants. He
attributed the lessened diastase activitj^ to the presence of excessive
« Heintzel, K.: Contagiose Pflanzenkrankheiten ohne Microben mit besonderer Beriicksichti-
gung der Mosaikkrankheit der Tabaksblatter. Erlangen, 46 p., 1 pi. (Inaugural Dissertation)
(1900).
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 97
amounts of oxidizing enzymes, and showed experimentally that diastatic
action is inhibited by the presence of oxidizing enzjanes. This is the
only work that has been accomplished up to the present time, so far as
relates to a study of the enzyme activities involved in this disease. Only
two enzymes have been considered, namely, the oxidase a,nd diastase,
and it should be stated that in the light of later developments in the de-
termination and estimation of enzyme preparations and activities the
results obtained in some cases might well be open to some criticism.
Loew,^ while working with tobacco, discovered the presence of an
enzyme which he called catalase, but he made no observations relative to
its activities in the case of mosaic-diseased plants. The results of the
writer's studies on enzyme activities of healthy and mosaic plants are
detailed below.
Method. — In the experiments here detailed the enzymes under dis-
cussion were studied, in so far as was possible, (1) with regard to their
presence or absence in (a) leaves, (b) seems and (c) roots of healthy and
diseased plants (this was considered necessary, as it has been found that,
irrespective of the parts showing visible symptoms of the disease, the sap
from all other parts also is capable of transmitting the trouble); (2) with
regard to the age of the plant; (3) with regard to the growth of the plant
under different conditions. These will be discussed in detail under their
respective sections.
The methods employed for the estimation were for the most part those
which by experience have been found satisfactory, and in the main give
quantitative results; in some cases the results are more or less qualitative
in nature, owing to our present insufficient knowledge of the methods of
isolation and action of the enzyme involved.
It should be stated that plants used in the experiments were both field
and greenhouse grown, but no essential differences in results were obtained
from the two series. The individual experiments will not be given in
detail, but as the determinations of any given series were made in every
case in the same manner, only average results with the maximum and
minimum readings will be given. The experiments are, however, described
in sufficient detail to enable those interested to follow the methods em-
ployed closely enough to check up the work of the writer.
Catalase (leaves) . — A comparison was made of the catalase activity
of healthy and diseased leaves, as it had been noted as earlj'' as 1908 by
the writer that there was apparently a great difference between the cat-
alase activity of healthy and mosaic-diseased tomato leaves, and later
the same was foimd to be true in the case of tobacco. At that time only
rough determinations were made, but since then the writer has made
hundreds of determinations, the results of wliich have borne out the ob-
servations made then, and indisputably established the fact that there is
a wide difference in the catalase activity of healthy and diseased leaves.
1 Loew, O.: Catalase: A New Enzyme of General Occurrence, with Special Reference to the
Tobacco Plant. U. S. D. A., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 68 (1901).
98 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
In all the experiments freshly collected material was used, and the
determinations made almost immediately after collection. The usual pro-
cedure was as follows : —
A weighed amount of leaf was ground thoroughly with a weighed
amount of acid-washed sand and a certain volume of double distilled water,
and the whole washed into the apparatus with sufficient double distilled
water to bring the volume up to the standard volume used in the particu-
lar series in question. This, of course, gave to each flask a standard con-
stant dilution value. To this mixture was then added a hke volume of
1 per cent, solution of Merck's perhydrol, thus making the H2O2 concen-
tration of the total mixture .5 per cent. The amount of oxygen liberated
in ten minutes was arbitrarily taken as the measure of enzyme activity.
Several different forms of apparatus were used, but for large amounts of
leaf any ordinary water displacement method was fotmd to be very sat-
isfactory. (Care should be exercised where this mode of analysis is used,
to take into account the absorption of oxygen by the water.) In making
determinations where the amount of material was very small, the ap-
paratus designed by Lohnis for use in milk examinations was found to be
more convenient. Practically all determinations were made at tempera-
tures ranging from 17° to 23° C. The action of the catalase is much
accelerated by shaking, as pointed out by Loew, and each test was shaken
imder exactly similar conditions in all the determinations made. It was
found necessary to use this method for the determination of the catalase
activity, as any method involving titration, such as the permanganate
method, was unsatisfactory, due to the reaction of certain constituents
in the tissue with the reagents.
Table VI. shows the relative amounts of oxygen developed in normal
tobacco leaves, and it is to be noted that the catalase of the dark green
leaves was much more active than that of the light green leaves. This
was found to hold true, to a certain ex-tent, for light and dark green leaves
even on the same plant. The basal leaves of older plants, which in some
cases were almost mature, and of a lighter color than the middle and upper
leaves, developed in every case relatively less oxygen. This was partic-
ularly true in the case of Havana tobacco. Broadleaf did not show such
a wide divergence, but it should also be stated that in the Broadleaf plants
employed in the determinations the basal leaves did not show any great
color difference.
As will be noted, some of these experiments were made with plants
grown under field conditions, but a greater number were made with
plants grown in the greenhouse, under control conditions.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO.
99
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100 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
These results show that the catalase activity varies somewhat even in
healthy plants, dependent upon age and also, apparently, on the general
condition of the plant. It shows clearly, also, that in plants of approxi-
matelj^ the same age the catalase activity varies somewhat between plants
with dark green leaves and those with light green leaves.
Even on the same plant this holds true, as can be seen from the results
tabulated below.
Table VII. — Catalase Activity of Light and Dark Leaves from Same Plant.
[Plants nearly mature; procedure as in Table VI.]
Plant No.
Number of
Determina-
tions.
Light Leaves,
Cubic Centi-
meters of
Oxygen
developed
(Average).
Dark Leaves,
Cubic Centi-
meters of
Oxygen
developed
(Average).
Bi,
Xii,
104,
Al7t
51.8
62.0
71.4
58.1
119.8
125.5
93.7
79.3
An examination and determination of the catalase activity in diseased
leaves shows that the amount of oxygen developed is relatively much less
than in the case of healthy leaves. In the table below are given some of
the results obtained from diseased leaves. In these experiments the leaf
tissue was used without reference to the light and dark areas of the in-
dividual leaf. It is significant that the activity is very much less than in
healthy leaves. All the plants used in this series were badly diseased. It
should be stated that in apparently mild cases of the disease the variation
from the normal catalase content was not so great. The results shown
here can hardly be compared with those given in Table VII., as the plants
were not in some cases of the same age, nor were they grown at the same
time.
Table VIII. — Catalase Activity) in Diseased Leaves.
[Plants badly diseased; procedure as in Table VI.]
Plant No.
Number of
Determina-
tions.
Cubic Centi-
meters of
Oxygen
developed
(Average).
Pe.
R.
3a.
Ax, •
Total,
47.2
32.8
54.5
69.6
51.0
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO.
101
In the next table will be found a comparison of the results of catalase
activity in healthy and diseased leaves from plants grown at the same
time and under identical conditions. The plants were inoculated artificially
in as uniform a manner as possible.
Table IX. — Catalase Activity in Leaves of Healthy and Diseased Plants
of Same Age.
[Procedure as in Table VI.]
Leaves.
Number of
Determina-
tions.
Cubic Centi-
meters of
Oxygen
developed
(Average).
Diseased,
Healthy,
52.3
119.0
The values here obtained simply substantiate those given in preceding
tables, but in addition allow of a direct comparison.
The leaf tissue was used in the preceding experiments without regard
to the light and dark green patches on the individual leaf.
It was thought that an examination of the light and dark green areas
of individual leaves of mosaicked plants might give a clue as to whether
the activities of the catalase were inhibited in one or both of these areas
in comparison with a leaf from a healthy plant of approximately the same
age and color.
It was found that the catalase activity of the dark green areas ap-
proached that of the normal leaf of the same color, while the catalase
activity of the light green areas was much below normal, even in the case
of a Hght green normal leaf being used for comparison. The values
obtained are given in Table X.
Table X. — Catalase Activity in Diseased Leaves.
[Comparison of light and dark green areas; procedure as in Table VI.]
Series.
Number of
Determina-
tions.
Cubic Centimeters of Oxy-
gen DEVELOPED (AvERAGE).
Light.
Dark.
X
0
21,
4
3
8
42.1
37.0
54.3
73.6
95.4
103.0
Diastase. — It is a well-known fact that diastase is intimately con-
nected with metabolism in the leaf in practically all clilorophyll-bearing
plants, as well as in many of the fungi, and the relations of the activities
102 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
of diastase in the mosaic disease are of rather significant import, as can
be easily shown. It was pointed out several years ago by Woods (loc. cit.)
that the action of oxidizing enzymes when present in solutions containing
diastase tended greatly, under ordinary conditions, to inhibit the activities
of the diastase. Turning more particularly to the mosaic disease, he made
the observation that in the cells of the light green areas, although they
formed starch practically in a normal manner, so far as could be observed
the starch was not translocated, and that in the morning there was prac-
tically as much starch present as at night, which is not the case in a
normally functioning leaf. In this case it was found that practically all
the starch disappeared in the night and was translocated.
Recently there has been more or less contention as to the exact method
of action of diastase on starch, and within the last two or three years
important investigations have resulted in the opinion, substantiated more
or less in detail, that the diastase of the older writers is not one enzjmae
alone, but is made up of at least two components. The. first of these
breaks down the starches into, or as far as, the erjiihro-dextrine and
achro-dextrine stage, the second component taking up the action from
this point and completely hydrolizing the starch to the sugar compoimds
which are found to be present, as the next step in the process of metabolism.
It was in the Ught of these investigations that the writer took up the
question of the diastase activity in the mosaic disease, and it was found
to be less active in the leaves which showed severe symptoms of the
disease than in those which showed only a slight trace. There was, how-
ever, apparently a greater or less breaking down of the starch in all the
leaves examined, so far as could be determined by the colorimetric methods,
which, although not altogether satisfactory, may be relied upon as much
as any of the present-known methods of determination. At the morning
examinations the starch did not in some cases take on the color of the
normal starch in the healthy leaves, but was accompanied by a yellow
brown to a reddish or violet coloration, dependent somewhat on the
strength of the indicator used. The strength of the iodine solution used
in this case was a fiftieth normal iodine-potassium iodide solution. This
reaction would indicate that the starch to a certain extent had been acted
upon at least partially by the diastatic enzymes, and would indicate also
that it was possibly the first of the components above mentioned which
was more active, and that the second was more or less inliibited in its
action. In the normal leaf, of course, there was a certain amount of starch
present indicated by the blue coloration of the granules. The amount
was slight, however, compared to that in the diseased leaves, and in no
case was there any of the brown or violet color, almost complete hydrolysis
having apparently taken place very rapidly. This would indicate, as
pointed out by Woods, that the oxidizing enzymes, of wliich we will
make mention, and which are present in excessively large amounts in the
diseased areas of the leaf, do play an important role in the controlling
or inhibiting of the activities of the diastatic enzymes, but not on the
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 103
diastase in the old conception of the term. Rather it might be said
the action is on the primary enzyme concerned in diasta ic activity, if the
newer concept of diastatic activity above advanced is true, as it would
seem to be from the unpublished investigations of Roessler of the Uni-
versity of Prague, who was able to separate by salting out from a very
carefully prepared solution of the ordinary diastase at least two compo-
nents having the respective actions above mentioned. In no case, as
indicated by the color reaction obtained, did we get a complete hydrol-
ysis of a large amount of starch, the process only being carried on, ap-
parently, as has been indicated, — as far as the erythro-dextrine and
achro-dextrine stage. It was attempted in our experiments to isolate
or rather separate out diastase in a more or less pure form from the leaves
of healthy and diseased plants, and although certain results were obtained,
it was rather a difficult matter, as in the writer's experience it has been
found that diastase is one of the most difficult of the enzymes to purify
to any extent. The protective colloids, etc., during the purification are
separated away from the enzyme aggregate, and the purer ferment be-
comes less active. The reason for this cannot be very well explained at
the present, but it is the experience of all investigators with diastase that
this is a fact. However, results were obtained which seemed to indicate
that the diseased leaves contain relatively less "diastase" than do the
normal healthy leaves.
Chlorophyllase. — This enzyme has been found to be always present
with chlorophyll in amounts directly proportional to the amount of
chlorophjdl present, and according to Willstatter and Stoll^ does not
bring about an hydrolysis but an "alcoholysis,"
RCOOCsoHsa — C2H5OH . RCOOC2HS — C20H39OH
in the presence of ethyl alcohol. It forms the alcohol phytol, CooHsgOH,
from the radical in the presence of ethyl alcohol and not water only.
Ver}^ httle is known about its action in the plant cell, and although the
writer was able to demonstrate its presence in both healthy and diseased
leaves, no quantitative data were secured as to its relative activity in
healthy and diseased tissue. Until better methods are worked out for
its purification and rapid determination it would be futile to hazard an
opinion in regard to its specific action in the ceUs of healthy and diseased
leaves.
Oxidases and Peroxidases. — Woods (loc. cit.) was one of the first to
observe that in mosaic-diseased leaves the oxidase activity was greatly
increased. Since then it has been found that in the curly dwarf disease
of the potato and sugar beet the oxidase activity is greatly increased in
the diseased leaves as compared with that of the normal. These two
diseases have been for the most part regarded as physiological, and it is
1 Willstatter and Stoll: Unt. uber Chlorophyll XI und XIII. tjber Chlorophyllasa. Liebig's
Ann. der Chemie., 378. 18 (1910); 380, 148 (1911).
104 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
a significant fact that this excessive activity of oxidizing enzymes has
been more frequently noted in diseases of this character than in those
which are caused by bacteria or fungi. The reaction of the host is ap-
parently different in the latter case.
Bunzel^ has noted that the oxidase acti\dty varies with the age of the
plant in the curly dwarf disease of potato, reaching its greatest activity
when the plant growth ceases.
The writer has also found this to be true for tobacco to a certain extent,
and always met with greater activities of the oxidases as the leaves were
approaching maturity. This was marked in the case of normal plants,
but not so much in the case of diseased leaves.
In the writer's examinations of healthy and diseased tissue not only
qualitative colorimetric methods were emploj^ed, but also a simplified
Bunzel's oxidase apparatus was made use of. This has been found to be
the most satisfactory method for the quantitative estimation of oxidase
activity.^
A few of the quantitative results obtained are given in Table XT.
Table XI. — Oxidase Activity in Normal and Mosaic Sap.
[Manometer readings in centimeters of mercury. Bunzel apparatus mod.]
Experiment.
Time in
Minutes.
Normal.
Diseased.
0
0
0
30
—0.60
—0.80
A
60
—1.09
—1.23
,
75
—1.12
—1.29
120
—1.22
—1.43
0
0
0
30
-0.32
—0.50
B,
60
—0.80
—0.70
75
—1.02
—0.96
120
—0.92
-1.21
0
0
0
C
30
-0.51
—0.46
75
-0.63
—0.88
100
-0.70
—0.91
It will be noticed that the mosaic sap is higher in total and average in every instance.
For the qualitative determinations the usual guaiac test was employed.
The guaiac test for oxidases and peroxidases is too well known to require
» Bunzel, H. H. : Oxidases in Healthy and Curly Dwarf Potatoes. Jour. Agr. Research, Vol.
II., 5, 373^04 (1914).
2 Bunzel, H. H.: The Measurement of the Oxidase Content of Plant Juices. U. S. D. A., Bur.
Plant Ind., Bui. No. 238 (1912).
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 105
an extended explanation. The results obtained by this method in every
case showed the diseased leaves to contain much more oxidases than the
healthy ones of the same age; this was also true for peroxidases, but here,
of course, the reaction with guaiac was somewhat masked owing to the
presence of the oxidases and their reaction.
In examinations of the roots of healthy and diseased plants the same
condition was observable; there was always an excessive activity of the
oxidizing enzyme to be noted.
In going over the results of the experiments with the enzymes in ques-
tion, the main point brought to the attention is that there is in all diseased
plants an excessive activity of the oxidizing enzymes, and a corresponding
decrease in the activity of the diastatic enzjnnes and catalase. This at
least indicates a very much disturbed equiUbrium and a consequent
derangement of normal function on the part of the cells. Naturally the
ones most affected by this disturbance are the dividing or meristematic
ceUs, as these are the cells upon which the plant is dependent for its sub-
sequent growth, and any deviation from the normal is more Ukely to be
indicated in the development of these ceUs than in those of the other
parts of the plant. Any change in function induced here will leave its
imprint to a greater or less extent on the cell during its subsequent exist-
ence, hence the pecuUar manifestations of the disease in the leaves.
It is true that plants attacked by parasites sometimes show an exces-
sive activity on the part of certain enzymes, but, as a rule, the disturb-
ance is more local in its nature. It is also a fact that malnutrition, such
as partial starvation, drought, etc., will bring about an excessive produc-
tion or activity of the oxidizing enzj^mes in particular, as has been pointed
out by Bunzel, of general distribution throughout the plant; but this,
except in cases of maturing plants, changes upon restoration of normal
conditions, and tends to become normal.
Reaction of Mosaic Sap with Various Substances.
We have seen that the enzymatic activities of the plant are very much
disturbed in disease; also that it has been impossible to demonstrate the
presence of any forms of bacteria or fungi either in the tissues themselves
or in the expressed juice.
It is a fact, as shown by practically all investigations, that the disease
is very infectious. This fact alone in the minds of many is sufficient to
place the causative agent among the parasitic organisms. The field,
however, is limited to that class of organisms designated as "ultramicro-
scopic" organisms, about which very little is known, and in the case of
plant diseases not even a semblance of the demonstration of the activities
of such organisms has been made.
Owing to the fact that the enzyme activities are much changed, as has
been demonstrated in the preceding pages, and also to the fact that not
only the activities of the oxidizing enzymes are changed, but also the
106 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
activities of others; it was believed by the writer, with Woods and others,
that the disease might be physiological in nature, particularly in so far
as the causal agent, not being a living organism in the ordinary conception
of the word, was concerned.
So httle is known about the action of the so-called ultramicroscopic
organisms that it is an open question in the writer's mind whether this
division should be the dumping ground for all infectious diseases about
the etiology of which Uttle or nothing is loiown.
It is conceivable that other causes, not organic in nature, may be able
to produce the manifestations of parasitism. Under this type of infection
would be included infectious diseases caused by enzjnues or the resultant
product of the activities of a group of enzj-mes.
Certain reactions of the juice from diseased plants tend to confirm this
view, and in the following pages are given the results obtained by the
writer and other investigators relating to the reactions of these juices
with various reagents.
Drying. — It has been shown by various investigators that the dried
leaves of the mosaic-diseased plants retain their infectious quaUties for
a long time. Beijerinck and Allard found that diseased leaves were capa-
ble of causing infection after being dried for periods of two years and
eighteen months, respectively. The writer has used material three years
old, and obtained infection in a great majority of cases. The results
obtained are given below.
Table XII. — Air-dried Mosaic Leaves, fineUj ground and macerated with
Cold, Distilled Water.
[Leaves (herbarium specimens) three years old.]
Number of
Plants
inoculated.
Point of Inoculation.
Number of
Plants
infected.
Per Cent.
Infection.
10
12
7
13
Below terminal leaflets, ....
Main stem near base
Midribs of a basal leaf,
Midribs of a basal leaf,
10
11
.6
12
100
91
86
90
Filtration. — The use of various filters such as the Chamberland,
Berkefeld and Kitasato types, as a means for the separation of bacteria
and other organisms in a fluid, has been widely adopted in recent years,
and more recently filters possessing different sized pores have been used
for differential diagnostic purposes in work on the so-called "ultramicro-
scopic" organisms, enzjTnes and toxins. While these methods are without
doubt of importance, it should always be borne in mind that to obtain
true filtration effects comparatively large volumes of the fluid should
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 107
be used, otherwise there is a strong possibility, particularly in the case
of enzymes, that instead of a filtration occurring at once, a large amount
of certain constituents may be adsorbed (dependent on the nature of
the filter), and that true filtration may not take place until compara-
tively large amounts have been drawn through the filter. The writer
has noted this particularly in work with enzymes, many of which are
strongly adsorbed by various substances. Aside from the "ultramicro-
scopic" organisms, however, the bacteria cannot pass through many
of these filters.
With reference to the causal agent in mosaic sap it has been found that
it passes through both the Chamberland and Berkefeld filters, and even
the finer grade of Berkefeld filter allows the passage of the causal agent.
Beijerinck (loc. cit.) showed that the juice was still infectious after being
passed through the Chamberland filter, and Allard {loc. cit.) and Chnton
{loc. cit.) have both shown that the juice was infectious after passage
through the Berkefeld (normal) filter. The results obtained by the
writer agree with these observations, and also the juice was found to be
infectious after passing it through the fine Berkefeld candle. The Kitasato
filter was also used, and here positive infection was also obtained, although
the percentage was small. The writer attempted to repeat these experi-
ments with the Kitasato filter during the past year, but was unable to
obtain the filter. In all cases relatively large amounts of the sap were
used after filtration through paper.
The average percentage of infection obtained with each filter in the
writer's experiments was as follows : —
Per Cent.
Chamberland (average of 3 examinations, 1911), . . . . .91.0
Berkefeld (normal; average of 5 examinations, 1911), .... 63.0
Berkefeld (fine; one test only, 1914) 47.0
Kitasato (average of 2 examinations, not dated) , . . . . . 40 . 5
The work with the fine grade of Berkefeld and Kitasato filters should
be repeated, but there are suflacient indications to warrant the insertion
of these results at this time.
Resistance to Antiseptics. — The writer has at various limes treated
filtered and unfiltered juice with many of the antiseptics such as are
commonly used to prevent bacterial action.
The following table contains the data and results obtained in one
typical series of experiments of this character: —
108 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
Table XIII.
Antiseptic.
Amount of
Sap used
(Cubic
Centimeters).
Period of
Treatment.
Infection.
Toluol (2 c. c.)
10
2 months.
++
Toluol (2 c. c),
10
4 months.
++
Chloroform (saturated at beginning), .
10
2 months.
++
Chloroform (in excess)
10
2 months.
-
Chloroform (saturated at beginning), .
10
4 months.
+
Chloroform (in excess),
10
3 days.
-+
Thymol (2 per cent.),
10
2 months.
+
Thymol (2 percent.),
10
4 months.
+
Ether (saturated),
10
2 months.
+
Ether (saturated),
10
4 months.
+
Formaldehyde (1-4 H2O, 1 c. c. added),
10
2 months.
-
Formaldehyde (1-4 H2O, 1 c. c. added), .
10
10 days.
-
Carbolic acid (5 per cent., 10 c. c. added).
10
2 days.
-
Chloralhydrate (H nioL), ....
10
2 days.
-
Chloralhydrate (H mol.), ....
10
20 hours.
—
-|-+=very infectious.
+=infectious (over 40 per cent.).
— +=one or two cases of infection, possibly accidental.
— =no infection.
From the preceding table it may be seen that the sap containing the
causal agent of the disease varies greath^ in its reaction to so-called anti-
septics and other compounds. The writer^ has already pointed out in a
previous publication that the influence of certain capillary active sub-
stances on enzymes is very variable, aside from the specific toxic quahties
of certain of these substances. In comparing the reaction of the sap con-
taining the causal agent to certain of these compounds we find that there
is a similarity of reaction to that shown by the enzjmies. In the paper
above cited it was shown that those compounds which changed the sur-
face tension had, as a rule, dependent on their physical properties (hydro-
colloidal or lipocolloidal), a certain definite effect on enzyme activities.
Taking up the discussion of the results in detail we find in toluol a
compound which is not soluble in water to any great extent, and hence,
behaving like a lipocolloid, having no effect on the action of the causal
agent contained in the sap. Toluol, as a rule, has a more or less definite
inhibitory action on living organisms.
Chloroform, when present in the sap not to exceed saturation, behaves
also like a lipocolloid, as it is only very slightly soluble in the water, and
1 Chapman, George H.: The influence of Certain Capillary-Active Substances on Enzyme
Activity. Internat. Zeitschrift fiir Physik.-chem. Biologic., I Band, 5 u. 6 Heft (1914).
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 109
we find in this case that the activity of the agent is not destroj^ed. Chloro-
form in excess, however, does destroy apparently the causal agent of the
disease. It is noteworthy that this action of cliloroform exactly parallels
that found to be the case with enzjones.
Th^Tnol, when used in 2 per cent, concentration is very often used as a
preventive to bacterial action, and also prevents the growth of fungi.
We find, however, that when it is present in concentration not exceeding
2 per cent, in the sap the causal agent still possesses its infectious qualities
for some time.
Ether is a substance which, like chloroform, has lipoid-hke properties,
but which has a definite action on the surface tension, lowering it con-
siderably. Sap containing ether to the saturation point, which lowers the
surface tension from 1 to about .619, was still infectious four months
after treatment, although the percentage of infection was much decreased.
A solution of the sap containing approximately .8 per cent, of actual
formaldehyde was very injurious, and at the end of two months no infec-
tion was obtained. At the end of ten days in one experiment, however,
plants were inoculated and two cases of mosaic disease developed from a
series of eight plants, but it is believed that this may possibly have been
an accidental infection, as in no other instance was infection obtained.
In formaldehyde, however, we have a compound which has a specific
narcotic action on certain enzymes aside from its surface activities.
Where carbolic acid was added to a solution of the sap the active prin-
ciple was apparently destroyed.
In chloralhydrate we have a substance very soluble in water, but not
possessing any relatively great surface activity. It has, however, a specific
toxic action on the causal agent of the disease, and even after twenty
hours no infection was obtained. These results with chloralhydrate are
in complete accord with those obtained in the enzyme work previously
mentioned.
Most of the substances used in the above experiments possess a very
definite toxic action to all organisms, particularly bacteria and fungi.
As to their effect on the so-caUed ultramicroscopic organisms the writer is
unable to state, not having had the opportunity of working with so-caUed
cultures of these organisms. The paralleHsms between the surface-ten-
sion effects of these substances on enzymes and on the sap containing
the active principle of the mosaic disease are very striking.
Having shown that the causal agent is not bacterial or fungous in
character, we must eliminate for the present the supposition of the presence
of a toxin or virus in the pathologist's conception of these terms, as it is
usual to conceive of these substances as being either the product of an
organism or the activity manifested by the organism itself. As to the
production of toxins and viruses by the so-called ultramicroscopic organ-
isms Httle is known. Noguchi was the first to apparently demonstrate
that such organisms do exist, and was able to cultivate an organism
obtained from the brain of patients suffering from infantile paralysis.
110 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
However, these organisms were always mixed with certain bodies probably
of a protein nature, and Noguchi, himself, so far has been unable to state
absolutely which may be the active agent, although he naturally infers
from his inoculation experiments that the organisms found must be the
causative agent owing to the extreme infectious character of the disease.
He, however, states that it is not absolutely clear to him whether the
organism alone or a combination of this organism with the bodies found
in culture associated with it are capable of producing infection. He
does state, however, that in the case of animal pathology no such
symbiotic relationship has so far been observed. From the character of
his statement, however, it is clearly indicated that he does not preclude
the possibihty of such a condition arising.
Probable Character of the Causal Agent.
The question as to the exact character of the causal agent of mosaic
disease has been an extremely interesting one to investigators, and studies
on this phase of the problem have narrowed the field by the eUmination
from consideration of fungi and bacteria, as has previously been shown
not only in this work, but also by many other investigators. This also
precludes the presence of a virus or a toxin resultant from the activities
of such organisms.
This leaves, then, for consideration as the causal agent an "ultrami-
croscopic" or "invisible" organism and the enzjonic activities in their
fullest conception. The reactions of the so-called "ultramicroscopic"
organisms are little known at present, and about the only grounds for
admitting of such a class of organisms is the infection factor, and possibly
reproduction to a certain extent. We do know, however, many reactions
of the class of substances called enzjones and toxins, but fundamentally
the differentiation of the three above mentioned is difficult, and is per-
haps in many cases impossible. Working with filtered sap from mosaic-
diseased plants, we get the following results in comparison with reactions
of some of the so-called "ultramicroscopic" organisms and toxins.
Temperature. — The sap containing the causal agent of mosaic disease
becomes non-infectious; in other words, becomes inactive when heated
to about 80° C. for a short time. It is reported that ultramicroscopic
organisms and toxins are killed or rendered inactive, respectively, by
exposure to heat for any length of time at temperatures somewhat below
100° C. Enzymes are also rendered inactive at temperatures somewhat
below 100° C. All three react practically alike as regards temperature.
The causal agent in mosaic sap, as maj^ be seen, is also rendered inactive
at temperatures below 100° C.
Size. — As to size, nothing can be definitely stated, but it is a fact that
the ultramicroscopic organisms, enzj^mes and toxins must have a diameter
of less than .1 //, otherwise they would become visible under the higher
powers of the microscope. In no case has it been possible to demonstrate
the presence of organisms under even the highest powers available.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. Ill
Reaction to Antiseptics. — It is stated that the ultramicroscopic organ-
isms are not, to any extent, affected by the ordinary antiseptics, and the
same is true for toxins in general. On the other hand, enzymes and their
activities are very strongly affected by the substances usually made use
of as antiseptics, and this is found to be true, with one or two possible
exceptions, in the case of mosaic sap. It has been shown that formalin,
carbolic acid, chloralhydrate, and even chloroform in excess, will inhibit
the activities of the causal agent in mosaic sap, while, on the other hand,
such substances as ether, toluol, thymol and chloroform in dilution have
little or no effect. While all three classes are to a certain extent affected
by antiseptics in general, the enzyme group is most strongly affected, and
in the case of the mosaic we find this reaction; also, as has been pointed
out, the effect of substances possessing marked surface-active properties
is, in the case of mosaic sap, quite analogous to that of these substances
on enzymes. It had been hoped to carry on more detailed work on this
point, but as yet no opportunity has offered to take up this phase of the
matter. AUard^ has studied the effects of alcohol, ether and other sub-
stances on mosaic sap, and an interpretation of his results, with particu-
lar reference to the surface-active properties of the substances under con-
sideration by him, parallel the author's findings in the case of enzymes to
a marked degree. It is believed that more work of this character might
throw considerable light on this matter.
Activity. — So far as can be judged from laboratory results the activity
of the causal agent in mosaic sap is continuous, and as this holds true not
only for organisms but, within limits, for enzymes and toxins as well
this property cannot be made use of for differential purposes.
"Koch's Laws" or "Postulates," so called, are followed by all three of
the classes under consideration, and the same is true in the case of mosaic
disease; the causal agent obeys these laws, and might well be placed in
any one of the classes so far as this property is concerned.
The Kitasato filter has been used by some as a means of separation of
"ultramicroscopic" organisms from enzymes and toxins, and although
the arbitrary use of any one filter as a standard, unless the size of pores,
adsorption properties, thickness of walls, etc., are carefully taken into
consideration, may be open to question, this procedure has been followed
in some instances in animal pathology, and it has been found that the
Kitasato filter held back the organisms and that no infection could be
obtained from the filtrate. In the case of the mosaic disease, however, we
find that apparently, as has been previously indicated in this paper,
where large volumes are used, the causal agent passes through the Kitasato
filter, and we do get infection from the filtrate.
The disease is infectious, but whether the infection may be indefinitely
transferred through several plants with undiminished virulence is open
to question. On some varieties of tobacco this does not apparently take
1 Allard, H. A.: Some properties of the virus of the mosaic disease of tobacco. Journal Agr.
Research, Vol. VI., No. 17 (July, 1916).
112 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
place, but so far as the writer's observations go the virulence of the
causal agent is not lessened appreciably. This property is one of the
strongest points advanced by those favoring the theory of the presence
of a definitely organized parasite as the causal agent of the disease. It
is, however, entirely possible that enzymes or similar substances intro-
duced into a plant even in extremely small quantities, are capable of
regeneration of a certain kind, and indeed it is held by some that enzymes
do grow and even reproduce themselves under certain conditions. The
difficulties encountered in the study of this phase of enzyme work are
very great, however, and it is questionable if such statements can be as
yet definitely accepted.
Organisms, even of the ultramicroscopic class, in their reactions would
not follow the law of proportionaUty, but in the case of mosaic sap and
its reactions we find, by measuring the relative activities and reactions
of the enzjTnes present that apparently a proportionality of reaction for
any one lot of sap does hold. The writer has very often found in the
measurement of the activities of the catalase and oxidase particularly
that not only a fairly definite relation exists between the various enzjTnes,
but that reaction of any one is dependent on the amount of sap used.
Of course, here we are deaUng with a mixture, and it may be open to
question if the measurement of the enzjone activities is a true measure
of the activities of the causal agent.
The whole subject of the differential diagnosis of enzymes, toxins and
ultramicroscopic organisms is an extremely difficult one, and no sharpl}''
dividing lines can properly be drawn between them. It would appear to
the writer that in some cases, at least, it is entirely dependent on the view-
point and interpretation of the investigator as to the class to which certain
diseases should properly be ascribed.
The factors of reproduction and infection, as ordinarily understood,
have proved a stumbling block to the acceptance of the idea that there
may be other forms of matter aside from organisms capable of reproducing
a disease, but there is in reality very little real ground for taking this
attitude. In the case of the mosaic disease there are certainly many reac-
tions which will not allow of placing the causal agent in the class of ultra-
microscopic organisms. The general distribution of the causal agent in
a diseased plant, its exceedingly localized action on the meristematic
tissues, this action being apparently confined to the nascent chlorophyll,
the non-uniformity of response to apparently favorable conditions during
any one season even on one field, and also its individualism as shown by
plants growing together (one often diseased and the other not) are to the
wi'iter indicative of something of a different character.
It is also possible that in the search after the infinitesimal the fact
that a highly organized plant as a whole may react in the same manner
as some of the simpler organisms has been overlooked. It is as a rule not
the presence of an organism alone which is responsible for the manifesta-
tions of disease, but the products of the metabolism of the organism.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 113
If the metabolic processes are changed ever so sHghtly, due to any stunu-
lus, far-reaching effects may be induced throughout the organism, and
this we find to be the case in the mosaic disease, and the writer beUeves
that it is justifiable to look upon the matter in this light, as it is no more
h}T)othetical than the concept of an "ultramicroscopic" parasite, which,
if demonstrated (and no amount of concentration or methods of culture
have indicated in any way the presence of aggregates or colonies), certainly
would become visible if multiplication occurred.
Theoretically is it possible to conceive of an organism, functioning as
such, to be made up of so few molecules of protein, fat and carbohydrate
that it would be impossible to demonstrate its presence? If so, our ideas
of relative size of molecules of protein, etc., must be changed.
Prevention and Control.
The question of the prevention and control of mosaic disease is of prime
importance to the grower, entirely aside from more technical considera-
tions as to the exact cause or causes of the disease, and it is believed that
with reasonable care it is possible for the grower to lessen materially the
amount of mosaic in the field.
Many recommendations have been made regarding treatment of dis-
eased plants after they have once contracted the disease, but so far the
writer has never observed a plant which, once attacked by the disease,
recovered at any subsequent period of its growth. On the other hand,
it has never been observed that the disease killed a plant, at least in this
region.
It is doubtful, owing to the character of the disease, if it can ever be
entirely eliminated on some soils and under certain unfavorable conditions
occurring during some seasons. As has been indicated previously there is
apparently Uttle or no relation to be found between excess or lack of food
materials and the prevalence of the mosaic. It has been in some instances
stated that favorable results have been obtained from the use of lime in
different forms, but this treatment cannot be recommended for various
reasons. Experimentally it has been shown that heavy liming has little
or no effect on the disease once a plant has contracted the disease, and
even when applied to soils from old beds no consistently favorable results
have been obtained (see page 91). Used in the larger quantities it might
be inferred from the results that the lime apparently did exert a beneficial
action, but to apply Hme generally in such amounts would be folly, as
it would in many cases bring the soil to a comparatively neutral or alka-
hne condition, which reaction would favor the development of root rot,
caused by the fungus, Thielavia, and this, once thoroughly established,
in a field or seed bed, is much more injurious to tobacco than is the mosaic
disease.
As has been pointed out, the writer, from his observations, is strongly
of the opinion that much of the field infection may be traced to the seed
114 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
bed, and as a rule those beds which have long been used or carelessly
handled are found to be producers of mosaicked seedlings in far larger
numbers than are found on new beds or on beds which have been carefully
steriUzed either by steam or formalin.
It has been found that the soils of old beds do tend to produce more
mosaicked plants than do those of new beds, although it may be possible
that under field conditions the differences in amount during different
seasons may vary. Soils brought into the greenhouse gave the following
results: —
Table XIV. — Experiments with Soils from Old and New Beds.
[Seedlings transplanted in sterilized soil.]
Soil.
Number of
Seedlings
transplanted.
Number
Diseased Four
Weeks after
Trans-
planting.
Diseased
(Per Cent.).
SoU A (old bed),
Soa21 (old bed).
SoU la, .
Soil B (new bed),
Soil C (new bed),
60
43
50
30
49
75.0
40.0
40.0
10.0
4.0
The soil from the old beds was in very bad condition and had been
very carelessly handled, apparently.
A count of mosaicked seedlings left in these old-bed soils six weeks after
the transplants was taken, showing, respectively, an infection of A, 43
per cent.; 21, 32 per cent.; la, 17 per cent.; B, 6 per cent.; and C, 7+
per cent.
It is evident that some of the seedlings were infected during trans-
planting, probably by handling diseased seedUngs and then healthy ones,
thus transmitting the disease. This method of transmission at the time
of transplanting is very common, as has been pointed out repeatedly.
It has been shown that much of our infection may originally come from
the seed bed as a result of the soil becoming infected for any reason. The
use of tobacco stems and tobacco water has also been found by many
investigators to cause infection. The amount of infection resulting from
watering beds with water extract of diseased stems is, however, prob-
lematical, and it is not believed by the writer that this is an important
factor in mosaic transmission, especially if the stems are steeped in hot
water. The broken, decaying roots of diseased plants left in the beds also
carry the causal agent of the disease as do the stems of diseased plants,
and freezing has apparently little or no effect on it, so the use of stems on
the seed bed should be carefully attended to in order not to apply any
from diseased plants. Where stems and tobacco water are applied year
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 115
after j^ear without attention to this point the bed usually becomes more
seriously infected.
One of the cheapest methods for the control of this disease in the seed
bed, where it can be advantageously carried out, is to change the location
of the beds to soil on which no tobacco has been grown, and to avoid the
use of stems and tobacco water. Occasionally, however, some sUght in-
fection will occur even here, but as a rule not to any great extent. If
proper attention is paid to watering, ventilation, etc., little trouble of
this character is to be expected in new seed beds.
It has been shown in Connecticut and elsewhere that a thorough ster-
ihzation of the seed bed by steam at a boiler pressure of from 70 to 90
pounds is also a satisfactory method for the control not only of fungous
diseases but weeds also, and the same holds true for the mosaic disease.
The writer has seen this tried a number of times with excellent results
where the above-mentioned pressures have been used. Some growers,
however, seem to be of the opinion that the prime value of steaming is to
kill weed seeds, and so use low pressures. While low pressures will kill
weed seeds, it is questionable if they will sterilize the soil sufficiently to
kill the spores of fungi or render inactive the causal agent of the mosaic,
although under laboratory conditions it is rendered inactive at tempera-
tures of about 80°C, equivalent to 176°F. In some of our experiments
conducted some years ago it was strongly indicated that improper partial
sterihzation would not entirely rid the soU of the causal agent of mosaic.
It might be stated here that, in many cases where the growers have
reported failure in the control of diseases after steam sterihzation, inquiry
has usually brought out the fact that too low pressure was used, and as
a result thorough sterihzation was not obtained. Another source of fail-
ure of beds after sterihzation with steam, under high pressure, has been
that the grower has not paid sufficient attention to watering. This mat-
ter should be closely attended to, as a sterilized bed, particularly on light
soils, dries out very quickly, and needs much more attention than is usually
given a bed under ordinary conditions. If the watering is neglected there
is very often a severe checking of the germination of the seed, and in some
cases a partial loss of the bed.
Formalin sterihzation may also be used, and is quite as satisfactory,
especially when used on light soils. On heavy soils it is not quite so con-
venient to apply, however. Where formaUn is used the beds cannot be
sown until all the formalin is out of the soil, which usually takes from ten
days to two weeks. This very often is too long a delay, particularly where
spring sterilization is practiced.
It has been pointed out that the workmen may be a rather important
factor in transmitting the disease (page 88), and in cases where at trans-
planting time diseased seedlings are handled it has been recommended
by Clinton^ that the hands be thoroughly washed in soap and^water
« G. P. Clinton: Chlorosis of Plants with special reference to Calico of Tobacco. Conn. Agr.
Exp. Sta. Rept., 1914, p. 417.
116 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 175.
before again handling healthy seedUngs. If these precautions are taken,
according to Clinton, a considerable amount of mosaic infection will be
avoided at the time of planting.
It has been repeatedly shown that care should be exercised during
early cultivation not to cut the roots or touch broken or abraded leaves
of plants and then subsequently touch other plants, for the disease is
very easily transmitted in this way, as the fine hairs or epidermis may be
broken and infection occur. The amount of infection due to cultivation
is, however, in the wi-iter's opinion, shght, but as much care as is com-
mensurate with efficiency should be exercised by the workmen during
cultivation.
The advisability of the removal of diseased plants is open to question,
and on the whole it cannot be economically recommended unless the
plants can be replaced early in the season. As has been previously pointed
out, the disease may be carried from plant to plant when topping, etc.,
and the subsequent sucker growth will become mosaic. At tlus time, how-
ever, the commercial leaves are of such size that their value will not be
materially impaired, but if possible, to prevent a certain amount of infec-
tion, only healthy or diseased plants should be topped at any one time.
Of course, aU suckers developing later, diseased or otherwise, should sub-
sequently be removed from all plants, not only for the sake of the com-
mercial leaves, but to prevent a ragged looking field, giving the appear-
ance of a large amount of mosaic.
It has been very difficult to associate any particular type of soil with
general occurrence of mosaic disease, but on the whole, from data gathered
at different times, the heavier types of soil in the valley appear to be more
generally favorable for the production of mosaic-diseased plants. This
cannot be definitely stated, however, as the data are complicated by the
fact that in some cases, on both heavy and light soils, the condition of
the SOU as regards organic matter present enters into the question. The
writer has observed that on many heavy soils where comparatively'' large
amounts of organic matter are present during certain seasons, in com-
parison with similar soils deficient in organic matter, the mosaic is much
less. To a certain extent this holds true also for the lighter soils. The
exact relation existing between the mosaic disease and these factors is
at present not enough studied to warrant definite conclusions, but Sturgis
(loc. cit.) was of the opinion that clayey soils were favorable to its pro-
duction. It is a significant fact that many of our tobacco soils are some-
what deficient in organic matter, however. Well-cultivated and conse-
quently well-aerated soils do not apparently produce as many mosaicked
plants as those which are not well cultivated.
Another factor which should be carefully attended to is that of the
moisture conditions in the bed at the time the plants are pulled. It should
not be too moist nor too dry, as in either case the roots are apt to be
broken and infection from handling result more certainly than when the
plants are removed with a minimum of root injury.
MOSAIC DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 117
Summary.
1. The mosaic disease is not caused by fungi or bacteria. It has never
been possible to demonstrate the presence of these organisms in the tis-
sue of any part of the plant.
2. The disease is highly infectious, particularly when inoculated into
young plants, all subsequent growth exhibiting marked symptoms.
3. The disease is not contagious.
4. Until more is known about the action of the so-called "ultramicro-
scopic" organisms, the disease cannot be ascribed to an organism of that
class, as the character and reactions of the causal agent do not in many
respects coincide with reactions of that class of organisms.
5. Many of the reactions of the causal agent are of such a nature as to
indicate that it is either an enzyme, an aggregate of enzymes, or the prod-
uct of enzyme activities.
6. The enzyme activities of diseased plants are greatly altered, far more
than is usually the case in plants which are attacked by pathogenic fungi
or bacteria.
7. As a result of the writer's experiments, it is believed that the disease
is primarily induced by a disturbance in the enzjone activities and their
relation to each other, due to abnormal metabolism, and not by any
parasite.
8. The pathogenicity of a disease is not necessarily a proof that it is of
parasitic origin, as it is conceivable that similar conditions may exist
relative to enzjnue activities, although the extent of such action is not
known at present.
9. On fields where the mosaic disease is prevalent, the primary infec-
tion can usually be traced to the seed bed, and many healthy seedlings
are infected by the workmen when setting the plants. It is estimated
that about 80 per cent, of the infection occurs in this manner.
10. Owing to the nature of the disease the matter of absolute preven-
tion and control is difficult, but with careful attention to details of ster-
ilization of the seed bed, and handling of the plants at time of trans-
planting, a large percentage of infection may be avoided.
BULLETIN No. 176.
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
THE CAUSE OF THE INJURIOUS EFFECT OF
SULFATE OF AMMONIA WHEN USED
AS A FERTILIZER.^
BY R. W. RUPRECHT AND F. W. MORSE.
Part I. — Chemical Investigations.
In a previous report ^ there has been described how the continued use
of sulfate of ammonia on the experiment plots called "Field A" caused
the removal of lime in the drainage waters in the form of calcium sulfate,
and when lime was not present in sufficient quantity there were formed
noticeable amounts of aluminium sulfate and iron sulfate, but that no
accumulation of free acid could be found.
Since comparatively little material had been published on the forma-
tion of salts of aluminium ard iron in soils, it was considered advisable
to continue the investigations, and as the work progressed it was found
that soluble manganese salts were also present in some of the soils to
which sulfate of ammonia had been applied.
The present bulletin is a report of our investigations into the relations
between sulfate of ammonia and salts of aluminium, iron and manganese,
and the quantities of these salts which will injure clover seedUngs.
Soils from plots 1, 6, 7 and 8 of Field A were used to determine how
freely ammonium sulfate solutions would extract manganese from them.
The soils have been fully described in Bulletin No. 185, but for con-
venience the fertilizers used on these four plots mil be described here.
Each plot received dissolved boneblack at the rate of 500 pounds per
acre, and muriate of potash 250 pounds per acre. Plot 1 received 300
pounds of nitrate of soda per acre; plots 6 and 8 received 225 pounds of
1 The work reported in this bulletin, together with the material published in Buls. Nos. 161
and 165, was submitted by Mr. Ruprecht to the faculty of the graduate school of the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College in part fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of
philosophy.
2 Bui. No. 165, "The Effect of Sulfate of Ammonia on Soil."
120 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 176.
sulfate of ammonia per acre; and plot 7 received no nitrogenous fertilizer.
In 1909, and again in 1913, hydrated lime was applied to one-half of Field
A, crosswise of the plots. The total amount in the two dressings was
9,000 pounds per acre.
The ammonium sulfate solutions were used in the manner described in
Bulletin No. 165, viz.: 150 grams of air-dry soil were placed in a large
flask with 750 cubic centimeters solution and shaken frequently for two
hours. The solution was then filtered through paper, which gave a clear
filtrate with a yellowish tint.
Manganese was determined by the colorimetric method described by
Schreiner and Failyer,! in which the manganese salts are oxidized to
permanganate by nitric acid and lead peroxide.
The strengths of the solutions were tenth-normal (N/10) and normal
(N). The results obtained by the extracts from unUmed soils are tabu-
lated in Table I., together with the amounts of iron obtained from the
same soils in our previous work, and reported on page 81 of Bulletin
No. 165.
Table I. — Milligrams Manganese Oxide {Mn-JD^ and Iron Oxide
(Fe.jOg) obtained from 100 Grams Air-dry Soil by Ammonium Sulfate
Solution.
Plot.
Manganese Oxide.
Ikon Oxide.
N/10 Solution.
N Solution.
N/10 Solution.
N Solution.
1,
6
7,
8
Trace.
.88
Trace.
.63
.58
1.52
1.18
1.45
.40
.46
.43
.89
.79
.51
.50
1.21
The stronger solution removed much more manganese than the weaker,
but not in proportion to its strength. The fertilization of plots 6 and 8
with ammonium sulfate evidently produced some manganese compounds
that were readily soluble in the solutions, since there was more manganese
obtained from those plots than from the other two.
From the limed soils of these four plots there was removed no man-
ganese by N/10 or N solutions, but when stronger solutions of am-
moniiim sulfate were used (2^ N and 5 N), traces of manganese were
found in the soil extracts. This would appear to be due to the presence
of enough ammonium sulfate in the concentrated solutions to overcome
the lime and act upon the manganese in the soil.
Since iron had been found by color tests to be generally present in water
extracts from the unlimed soils of Field A, while aluminium could rarely
» Bui. No. 31, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1906.
INJUEIOUS EFFECT OF SULFATE OF AMMONIA.
121
be detected by the precipitation test with ammonium hydroxide, it was
decided to try larger quantities of soil and larger volumes of water, which
would permit subsequent concentration and perhaps yield measurable
quantities of these elements by the usual analytical methods.
Eight kilograms of air-dry soil were put in a percolation jar, the
tubulure of wliich was covered with a piece of linen and plugged loosely
with glass wool. Enough water was added to saturate the soil, which
was then left in the wet condition for two days. Water was then added
in portions of 1 liter at a time, each of which ceased dropping from the
bottom of the jar before another was added. Eight liters were thus used,
and the percolated water was evaporated in a porcelain dish on the water
bath until the volume was reduced to 1 liter, which was next filtered
tlii'ough paper and finally through a porcelain filter under pressure, as
there was a turbidity which paper would not remove.
The clear soil extract was next heated and made slightly alkahne with
ammonium hydroxide. A copious flocculent precipitate formed, which
was collected on a filter, washed and then analyzed. When the filtrate
was further heated and a few drops of ammonia added, a second precipi-
tate, similar to the first, formed and was also analyzed. The two pre-
cipitates differed but little in composition, and the results obtained were
combined in .Table II.
Table II. — Constituents of Precipitate obtained in Concentrated Soil Ex-
tract, expressed as Milligrams in 100 Grams of Soil.
Plot 1.
Plot 6.
Plot 8.
Aluminium oxide (AhOs),
Silica (Si O2),
Manganese oxide (Mn304),
Calcium oxide (Ca 0),
.074
.381
None.
1.955
.152-
.538
1.596
None.
.105
.835
.362
.225
The precipitate was found, to contain but a trace of iron, which is not
tabulated as such, but is really included in the aluminium oxide. The
calcium which separated in the ammonium hydroxide precipitate was
apparently in the form of carbonate, as the precipitate from the extract
of plot 1 effervesced vigorously when dissolved in hydrochloric acid, as
the first step in analysis.
There is a striking difference between the precipitate obtained in the
soil extract from plot 1 and those from plots 6 and 8. The protective
effect of nitrate of soda on the calcium in the soil is shown in contrast to
the depleting influence of ammonium sulfate, with the consequent forma-
tion of salts of manganese and aluminium. No effort was made to esti-
mate possible calcium or manganese not precipitated by the successive
additions of ammonium hydroxide.
122 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 176.
A second series of percolation experiments was tried in which but 1
kilogram of soU was used, and proportionately smaller amounts of water
were percolated through it, until the total percolate amounted to 1 liter.
The percolate was filtered through porcelain and subsequently^ yielded no
precipitate with ammonium hydroxide.
Iron and manganese were both found and determined by the colori-
metric methods. Both limed and unlimed soils from plots 1, 6, 7 and 8
were used in this series. All the extracts yielded colorimetric tests for
iron, but only those from the unlimed soils showed any manganese. The
results on the unlimed soils are given in Table III.
Table III. — Milligrams Manganese Oxide (Mn-Oi) and Iron Oxide
{Fe^Ozj removed in Water from 100 Grams of Unlimed Soil.
Plot 1.
Plot 6.
Plot 7.
Plot 8.
Manganese oxide, ....
Iron oxide
Trace.
.04
1.49
.07
.49
.09
.47
.06
The amounts of manganese from the soils of plots 1, 6 and 8 are closely
like those obtained in the previous series with 8 kilograms of soil.
The iron obtained is about one-half the amount of aluminium oxide
tabulated in the previous series.
There were in the laboratory samples of soil from plots 5 and 6 which
were collected four years before, in 1912. Plot 5 had received the same
amount of sulfate of ammonia that had been applied to plot 6. Both
samples were from the unlimed halves of the plots. One kilogram of each
was treated as in the previous experiment. The exi-racts showed the
presence of aluminium and iron, but were most striking in the tests for
manganese. Plot 5 yielded 2.36 mg. Mn304, and plot 6 yielded 3.18
mg. Mn304, from 100 grams of soil. This shows that the formation
of salts of aluminium, iron and manganese by ammonium sulfate was as
marked four years ago as in 1916.
All these experiments showed that ammonium suKate persistently
formed soluble salts of aluminium, iron and manganese in the soil of
Field A.
It was next decided to secure samples of soils from other fields that had
received ammonium sulfate as a fertilizer over a considerable period of
time. The desired soils were obtained from the agricultural experiment
stations of Ohio and Rhode Island by the kindly co-operation of Director
Thorne and Director Hartwell.
The soil of the Ohio experiment field is a rather heavy clay loam. The
samples were taken from Section C of the continuous five-year rotation
experiment described in Circular No. 144 of the Ohio Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. The plots selected for our purpose were Nos. 8 and 24.
INJURIOUS EFFECT OF SULFATE OF AMMONIA. 123
Since 1893 each plot had received acid phosphate and muriate of potash,
but plot S had not received any nitrogenous fertilizer, while plot 24 had
been dressed with sulfate of ammonia at the rate of 220 pounds per acre
during each five-year period. One-half of each plot had received ground
limestone annually at the rate of 2 tons per acre since 1908, while the other
half had received none during that period.
The plots were seeded with clover at the time the soil samples were
taken in the fall of 1915.
In a letter regarding the samples, Director Thome said: —
For several years there has been practically no clover on the unlimed ammonium
sulfate plots in our work. There are occasionally a few scattering plants, but
probably not 20 plants on the twentieth-acre plot. . . . When ammonium sulfate
is neutralized ^vith Hme we get a luxuriant growth. . . . There are usually at the
beginning of the season as many clover plants on the unlimed as on the limed
land, but they do not get much beyond the nutriment furnished by the seed, and
by harvest have disappeared.
The soil of the Rhode Island experiment field is a sandy loam. The
samples for our use were taken from the permanent plots numbered 23,
25 and 29, which have been repeatedly described in the annual reports of
the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.
All three plots have received acid phosphate and muriate of potash
smce 1893. Plots 23 and 25 have been supplied with nitrogen in sulfate
of ammonia, while plot 29 has had nitrate of soda. Plots 25 and 29 have
at irregular intervals received apphcations of lime, and in 1915 all three
plots received a dressing of it, but in different amounts. Plot 23 received
the equivalent of 500 pounds calcium oxide per acre, plot 25 received 1,500
pounds, and plot 29 received 1,000 pounds. This appHcation of 500
pounds per acre on plot 23 was the first in its history, and was made, as
Director Hartwell stated, ". . . because it was becoming so very unsuit-
able for crop growth."
The soils were prepared for investigation by drying them at a moderate
temperature, and then sifting them through a coarse screen with seven
meshes to the linear inch, which is the same treatment that was used with
the soils from Field A.
The samples from Rhode Island were used in percolation experiments
with quantities of 1 kilogram of soil and 1 liter of percolated water.
The clay of the Ohio soils rendered this method impracticable because
the water percolated very slowly. The Ohio samples were accordingly
put in stoppered bottles, with twice as much water as there was soil by
weight, and shaken continuously for two hours in a machine. The solu-
tions were first filtered through paper and finally through porcelain filters.
Aluminium, iron and manganese were tested for, and when present in
measurable quantities their amounts were determined.
Aluminium could not be obtained in appreciable quantity from any
but the soil from plot 23 of the Rhode Island field. No manganese was
124 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 176.
found in the extracts from any Rhode Island sample, but was obtamed
from all the Ohio samples. Iron was extracted from all but the more
heavily limed soils.
Table IV. — Milligrams of Aluminium Oxide (AWs), Iron Oxide (FeoOz),
and Manganese Oxide {Mn-iO^ removed in Water jrom 100 Grams of
Soil.
[Soils representing Ohio and Rhode Island experiments with ammonium sulfate.)
Ohio plot 8, limed,
Ohio plot 8, unlimed,
Ohio plot 24, limed,
Ohio plot 24, unlimed,
Rhode Island plot 23,
Rhode Island plot 25,
Rhode Island plot 29,
Aluminium
Oxide.
Iron Oxide.
None.
None.
None.
None.
3
None.
None.
Trace.
.05
None.
.03
.27
Trace.
None.
Manganese
Oxide.
Trace.
.16
.03
.64
None.
None.
None.
The Oliio soil which had received sulfate of ammonia (plot 24) without
lime gave a striking reaction for soluble manganese salts similar to our
own soils; but in the soils from Rhode Island the sulfate of ammonia
seemed to exert its influence on aluminium and iron compounds (plot 23).
At a later period samples of soil were received from Prof. F. D. Gardner
of Pennsylvania State College, which were taken from different plots on
the permanent experknent field at that institution. The soil of the field
is a clay loam. The samples were taken from plots 31, 32 and 36.
Plots 31 and 32 had received equal amounts of dissolved boneblack and
muriate of potash. Plot 31 had sulfate of ammonia applied at the rate
of 240 pounds per acre every two years, while plot 32 received 360 pounds
per acre in the same period. Plot 36 received no fertiUzer. This treat-
ment had been in vogue since 1885.
One kilogram of air-dry soil was treated with water by the percolation
method.
Plot 32 with the heavier apphcation of ammonium sulfate jdelded strik-
ingly more iron and a little more manganese than plot 31.
The unfertilized soil, plot 36, yielded the most iron, but a negligible
amount of manganese.
INJURIOUS EFFECT OF SULFATE OF AMMONIA. 125
Table V. — Milligrams of Iron Oxide (FeJOz) and Manganese Oxide
(MnJJi) removed in Water from 100 Grams of Soil.
[Soils representing Pennsylvania experiments with sulfate of ammonia.]
The results of the chemical investigation of the effect of sulfate of am-
monia as a fertilizer in constant use on soils of four different experiment
fields show the accompaniment of soluble salts of either aluminium, iron
or manganese, or all three together, in the absence of a base hke hme. In
the presence of calcium carbonate, water has removed no observable
amounts of aluminium or manganese salts, and bare traces of iron salts,
indicating that Ume either reacts with the ammonium salt promptly, or
subsequently breaks up the salts of aluminium and manganese, and also-
iron salts, almost completely.
Part II. — Water Cultures.
Our investigation of the effects of sulfate of ammonia on the soils of
Field A included in its progress several series of water cultures in wluch
seedlings of rye, barley and clover were used to study the possibilities of
poisonous effects from the presence of soluble substances in the soils. In
the earliest series there were used water extracts made from soils of plots 1,
6, 7 and 8 for the purpose of learning whether the injurious effect of am-
monium sulfate applied to the soil would appear in the solution obtained
from the soil.
The soil extracts were prepared in sufficient quantity by mixing soil
and water in the proportion of 1 part by weight of soil to 2 parts of water,
shaking frequently during a period of two hours, and then allowing the
hquid to clear by settling. The water extract was then carefuUy decanted
from the soil. A part of this extract was filtered through porcelain, under
pressure, to see whether the poisonous substances, if present in the extract,
were colloidal in their nature.
Discs of paraffine, reinforced by wire gauze and punctured with numer-
ous holes, were arranged by means of suitable corks to float on a basin of
water flush with the surface. On these discs the seeds were moistened
sufficiently to germinate, and their radicles then penetrated through the
holes into the water below. The plan was essentially that described in
Bulletin No. 70, Bureau of Soils.
As soon as the seedlings were large enough for the purpose, selected
ones were transferred to wide-mouthed bottles, which contained the soil
extracts. Each bottle contained 250 cubic centimeters, and 4 seedlings
126 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 176.
were supported in each one tlxrough notches cut in the cork stopper. The
different series were grouped as follows: —
Plot 1.
Rye Seedlings.
Unlimed soil, unfiltered extract.
Unlimed soil, filtered extract.
Limed soil, unfiltered extract.
Limed soil, filtered extract.
Clover Seedlings.
Unlimed soil, unfiltered extract.
Unlimed soil, filtered extract.
Limed soil, unfiltered extract.
Limed soil, filtered extract.
The same arrangement was maintained for the soils of plots 6, 7 and 8,
and each extract was tested in three different bottles with a total of 12
seedlings. The cultures were maintained for four weeks, at the end of
which the seedhngs had begun to wilt.
Differences in the seedUngs were noted by the end of the first week.
Those growing in the extracts from the limed soils were noticeably better
as a whole than those in extracts from unhmed soils. Rye seedlings in
the unhmed extracts had reddish stems and grew less rapidly. Roots of
the clover seedUngs in unlimed extracts began to appear stunted; es-
pecially so in the unlimed extracts from plots 6 and 8. When the experi-
ment was discontinued the best seedlings had developed in the extracts
from the limed soils of plots 6 and 8, while the poorest plants were in the
extracts from the unhmed soils of the same two plots. The roots of the
clover in these two extracts were short and thick and lacked branches.
Filtered extracts produced the same results as unfiltered ones.
A lot of barley seedUngs was next used in the unfiltered soil extracts.
At the end of the first week the roots in the unlimed extract from plot 6
began to look stunted. By the end of two weeks the seedlings in aU the
unlimed extracts showed a tendency to wilt and the tips of the leaves
turned white. At the end of the fourth week, when the experiment was
stopped, the seedUngs in the extracts from the limed soils were uniformly
superior to those in the extracts from the unlimed. The poorest seedUngs
were in the extract from the unUmed soil of plot 6.
The strikingly inferior growth of the different kinds of seedlings in the
extracts from the unlimed soils of plots 6 and 8, which had been dressed
with ammonium sulfate, suggested that the poisonous effect might be due
to sulfates of aluminium, iron or manganese, wliich were known to occur
in extracts from those soils.
More culture experiments were accordingly tried from time to time, in
which standard nutrient solutions were used instead of soU extracts. Vari-
INJUEIOUS EFFECT OF SULFATE OF AMMONIA. 127
ous proportions of ferrous sulfate were added in one series, aluminium
sulfate was used in a second series and manganous sulfate in a tliird.
The standard nutrient solution was prepared in two parts: (a) 20.5
grams manganesium sulfate in 350 cubic centimeters of water; and (6) 40
grams calcium nitrate, 10 grams potassium nitrate, 20.56 grams disodium
phosphate in 350 cubic centimeters of water. From each of the solutions
(a) and (6) were taken 100 cubic centimeters and added to 9,800 cubic
centimeters of water, together with a few drops of ferric chloride solution.
This diluted nutrient solution was used in the culture bottles.
Seedlings of red clover were used in all these experiments with nutrient
solutions, because clover had shown the greatest susceptibility to the soil
influences on Field A.
The experiments with sulfates of aluminium and iron have been fully
described in Bulletin No. 161 of this station, and only a summary of the
results is given here.
Effects of the aluminium and iron salts began to show by the end of the
first week, in stunted, tliickened roots, followed in a few days by a smaller
groTviih of leaves, when compared with seedlings in the check nutrient
solutions. Cultures with 43 parts of aluminium in a million, or with
only 44 parts of iron, produced these effects, while in the higher concen-
trations employed the roots were killed.^
Calcium hydrate and calcium carbonate added to the bottles contain-
ing aluminium or iron neutralized their injurious effects in the lower con-
centrations, but were ineffective with high concentrations. Calcium sul-
fate was entirelj^ ineffective as an antidote.
The poisonous effects of the salts appeared to be exerted upon the tips
or growing parts of the roots. The rootlets died leaving a thick, stubby
taproot. Microscopic examinations of the roots by Dr. G. H. Chapman
showed the cells in the growing parts to be either killed or arrested in
their development.
Photographs of the clover seedlings which were published in Bulletin
No. 161 are reproduced here to show the characteristic effects of the
poisonous sulfates of aluminium and iron.
Culture experiments in which manganous sulfate was added to the
nutrient solutions in graduated quantities were begun after it had been
demonstrated that ammonium sulfate fertiUzation was accompanied by
soluble manganese salts in the soils to which no lime had been added.
A solution of manganous sulfate, MnS04.4 HoO, was prepared of Vio
molecular concentration, and measured amounts were made up to 250
cubic centimeters with the nutrient solution. Certain bottles received
fine calcium carbonate and others calcium sulfate, so that the solutions in
those bottles were approximately saturated with the calcium salt.
The scheme of the series is outlined below.
1 In preparing this bulletin it has been noted that in Bui. No. 161, by an unfortunate error in
the decimal point, all figures relating to parts per million of iron in the nutrient solutions are only
one-tenth as large as they should be. This error caused iron to appear much more toxic than
aluminium, as compared in the tables of that bulletin.
128 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 176.
1.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No. 8.
No. 9.
No. 10.
No. 11.
No. 12.
No. 13.
No. 14.
No. 15.
Standard nutrient solution.
With calcium carbonate.
With calcium sulfate.
With 40 parts manganese per million of solution.
With 40 parts manganese and calcium carbonate.
With 40 parts manganese and calcium sulfate.
With 100 parts manganese per million of solution.
With 100 parts manganese and calcium carbonate.
With 100 parts manganese and calcium sulfate.
With 200 parts manganese per million of solution.
With 200 parts manganese and calcium carbonate.
With 200 parts manganese and calcium sulfate.
With 300 parts manganese per million of solution.
With 300 parts manganese and calcium carbonate.
With 300 parts manganese and calcium sulfate.
The experiment was conducted outdoors in the pot yard instead of in
the greenhouse, the seedUngs being put under cover at night and during
inclement weather. The experiment was continued four weeks.
The effect of the manganese was noticed after the first week. The
seedlings with manganese did not grow as fast as the checks, and also
began to show chlorosis of the leaves. The roots did not have a stunted
appearance as was noticed wten iron and aluminium salts were used, but
seemed to be simply underdeveloped. Neither the presence of calcium
carbonate nor calcium sulfate had any beneficial effect. In some cases
the calcium carbonate seemed to aggravate the toxicity rather than alle-
viate it. When the experiment was discontinued the tops in the most
concentrated manganese solutions had died and those in the most dilute
had apparently lost all their chlorophyl.
The tops and roots of the plants were dried and manganese determina-
tions were made on them. The table shows the amounts of manganese
found in 1 gram of oven-dried samples.
Table VI. — Milligrams of Manganese Oxide {Mn^O^ in 1 Gram of Clover
Plants.
Standard,
40 ppm Mn,
100 ppm Mn,
200 ppm Mn,
300 ppm Mn,
Roots.
None.
17.94
58.80
S3. 90
75.31
The results show that manganese is taken up by the plants in consider-
able amounts and is carried into the tops. Concentrations above 100
parts of manganese per million of solution have little effect in increasing
INJURIOUS EFFECT OF SULFATE OF AMMONIA. 129
the amount taken up by the plant. While some manganese is carried
into the tops, most of it remains in the roots.
In order to determine whether calcium carbonate or sulfate had any-
beneficial action in more dilute solutions of manganese a second experi-
ment was undertaken. In this series 10 parts and 20 parts of manganese
in a million parts of nutrient solution were, respectively, compared with
the standard and with equal amounts of manganese supplemented by
calcium carbonate and by calcium sulfate.
At the end of three weeks all the seedlings except those in the standard
solution showed chlorosis by the light green or yellowish color of the
leaves. The more dilute manganese still had a detrimental effect on the
clover plants, but not so marked as in the previous experiments with
higher concentrations. Neither of the calcium compounds exerted any
beneficial effects, but as in the first experiment seemed, if anything, to
increase the injury.
A third series of cultures was conducted during the winter in the green-
house, and concentrations of from 10 parts to 40 parts of manganese per
million of nutrient solution were again tried with and without calcium
carbonate added to the solution. Much cloudy weather caused an in-
ferior growth of the clover plants, but the experiment was continued four
weeks, and at the end there was the same chlorosis of the leaves when
manganese was present. Again, calcium carbonate failed to prevent the
chlorosis in the presence of manganese, and instead apparently increased it.
Masoni,^ Pugliese- and Aso^ have found that iron salts seem to counter-
act the toxicitj^ of manganese. In order to confirm their conclusions one
series of experiments was undertaken using a combination of these two
salts, another series using manganese plus aluminium salt, and still another
series using iron and aluminium together.
To the standard nutrient solution were added 20 parts of manganese
and 2 different quantities of aluminium, 21.6 parts and 43 parts, respec-
tively, per million of solution, with and without calcium carbonate. A
similar series was prepared containing 22 and 44 parts of ii'on per miUion,
respectively.
All the solutions containing iron produced seedlings with darker color
than the rest. The roots in the solutions containing aluminium or iron
became stunted in appearance whether calcium carbonate was present or
not. Manganese and aluminium or iron had no apparent antagonistic
effects when present together in a nutrient solution.
TMs toxicity with calcium carbonate is unlike the results reported by
McCool,^ who found that calcium chloride would counteract the toxicity
of manganese to a marked extent. Tliis may be due to the difference in
the solutions and seedlings used, as he used manganese claloride, calcium
chloride and Canada field peas.
1 Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 44 (1911), p. 85; Abs. E. S. R. 26.
2 Atti R 1st Incoragg. Napoli 6 ser. 65 (1913), p. 289; Abs. Chem. Abs. 9, p. 641.
3 Bui. Agr. College, Tokyo, V. p. 177.
* Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Memoir No. 2 (1913).
130 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 176.
Having found that manganese is carried up into the tops of the plants
the following experiments were tried to determine if there was an increase
in the amount of manganese in the tops of clover grown on plots where
the poor vegetation was thought to be due to manganese.
The first crop of clover analyzed was the same as that reported in
Bulletin No. 161. The tops only were analyzed, and the results were
based on dry matter.
Table VH. — Milligram of Manganese Oxide (MW3O4) in 1 Ch-am of
Clover.
Plot.
Fertilizer.
Limed Soil.
Unlimed Soil.
1
Nitrate of soda, ....
Trace.
.076
5
Sulfate of ammonia,
.054
.193
6
Sulfate of ammonia,
.054
.193
7,
None
.031
.114
8
Sulfate of ammonia,
Trace.
.171
The clover from the limed portions of the plots shows very Uttle differ-
ence between the different plots. The plants from the unlimed portions
show a marked increase of manganese in those plots receiving sulfate of
ammonia.
In the spring of 1915 samples of clover, grass, clover roots, and grass
roots were taken from the limed and unlimed portions of plot 5.^ From
the unlimed end two samples were taken, one of normal looking plants
and another of poor plants. The plants were brought into the laboratory
and the roots carefully washed free of soil, especial care being taken not to
break many of the finer roots. The tops were then cut from the roots,
and the clover separated from the grass, the same being done with the
roots. They were then dried at 75 degrees and ground. The tops were
then analyzed for iron, manganese and silica. The roots were only an-
alyzed for manganese as it is almost impossible to wash them entirely free
from soil which would invalidate the results fo'r iron and silica.
1 Plot 5 is fertilized as follows: (NH4)2S04, dissolved boneblack, low-grade sulfate of potash.
INJURIOUS EFFECT OF SULFATE OF AMMONIA. 131
Table VIII. — Composition of Clover and Grass Tops and Roots, in Milli-
grams per 1 Grayn of Dry Sample.
Iron Oxide
re203.
Manganese
Oxide
Mn304.
Silica
Si02.
Plot 5, limed clover tops,
.63
Faint trace.
1.72
Plot 5, limed grass,
-
.053
19.25
Plot 5, unlimed good clover.
1.14
Trace.
4.82
Plot 5, unlimed good grass, .
1.91
.158
26.64
Plot 5, unlimed poor clover.
1.34
.096
5.36
Plot 5, unlimed poor grass, .
2.97
.272
57.35
Plot 5, limed clover roots, .
-
Trace.
-
Plot 5, limed grass roots.
-
.138
-
Plot 5, unlimed good clover roots.
-
.091
-
Plot 5, unlimed good grass roots.
-
.218
-
Plot 5, unlimed poor clover and grass roots.
-
.245
-
A study of the table shows that the manganese is taken up to a greater
extent by the poor plants, both clover and grass, than by the good plants.
The grass seems to be more tolerant than the clover, much more being
taken up than by the clover. The results would also seem to indicate
that the manganese was not evenly distiibuted throughout the plot, but
was more concentrated in spots. As it was rather difficult to find normal
clover on the plot it might be said that the spots of better plants were
the places of smaller amounts of manganese. A somewhat similar condi-
tion has been found by Guthrie and Cohen ^ on a golf green.
The variations in the iron content of the good and poor plants are so
small as to come within the limit of experimental error. The increased
amount of silica in the poor plants is probably due to their more mature
state.
As the foregoing experiments with manganese salts in nutrient solutions
had shown that calcium carbonate did not counteract the toxicity of the
manganese, while in the field an application of lime to soil supposedly
infertile because of the presence of manganese salts corrected the toxicity,
pot cultures were started to determine whether calcium carbonate in
the soil could counteract the toxicity of manganese.
The soil used was from the unlimed end of plot 7 and the unlimed end
of plot 6. As the soil from the unUmed end of plot 6 already contained a
large amount of soluble manganese it was first extracted by shaking it
for two hours on a mechanical shaker with a volume of water twice that
of the soU. The soil was then air-dried and passed through the large
sieve (7 holes to the linear inch).
1 Agr. Gaz. New South Wales, 21 (1910).
132 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 176.
Earthenware pots 6 inches in diameter and 5 inches deep were used.
Each pot was filled with 2 kilos of the air-dried soil. The lime was applied
to the surface and thoroughly worked in. The manganese sulfate was
applied in solution. The soil was kept at a 25 per cent, moisture content.
The clover seed was first soaked for eight hours in a solution of calcium
h\T)ocliloride, and then seeded on the surface of the soil and pressed into
contact with it. The soil was then covered with a half-inch layer of
washed quartz and sand to act as a mulch. The treatment employed is
shown in the table, there being two pots in each treatment.
The Series of Pot Cultures.
Pot.
Plots.
Soil Treatment.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Plot 6,
Plot 6,
Plot 6,
Plot 6,
Plot 6,
Plot 6,
Plot 7,
Plot 7,
Plot 7,
Plot 7,
Plot 7,
Plot 7,
Plot 7,
Plot 7,
None.
2 tons calcium carbonate per acre.
Extracted with water.
Extracted, and 2 tons calcium carbonate per acre.
Extracted, and 80 pounds manganese sulfate per acre.
Extracted, and 2 tons calcium carbonate and 80 pounds manganese
sulfate per acre.
None.
2 tons calcium carbonate per acre.
80 pounds manganese sulfate per acre.
2 tons calcium carbonate and 80 pounds manganese sulfate per
acre.
100 pounds manganese sulfate per acre.
2 tons calcium carbonate and 100 pounds manganese sulfate per
acre.
150 pounds manganese sulfate per acre.
2 tons calcium carbonate and 150 pounds manganese sulfate per
acre.
The seeds were planted on March 7 and 8, and began to show above
the sand on the 9th, and most of them had sprouted by the 15th, when
all the pots were watered for the first time. The plants came up rather
unevenly, and some replanting was necessary. The replanting was done
with seedhngs sprouted on paraffine plates. On April 3 all the pots were
thinned to 25 plants. The poorest pots at this time were Nos. 3 and 5,
the extracted soil with and without the addition of manganese. All of
the pots treated with manganese sulfate without lime were poorer than
those receiving lime. On April 24 the above differences were even more
striking. The plants on No. 5 had practically all died, while on No. 6,
where calcium carbonate had been added, they made a small growth. AJl
of the plants on the extracted soil were poorer than those on the other
pots. The extraction had probably removed most of the soluble nutri-
ents.
The clover was weighed in both the green and dry states, with the
INJURIOUS EFFECT OF SULFATE OF AMMONIA.
133
results given in Table IX. The crops were subsequently analyzed for
total nitrogen, iron oxide, silica and manganese, the results of which are
shown in Table X.
Table IX. — Gravis of Clover obtained frovi Pot Cultures.
Pot.
Treatment.
Green Weight.
Dry Weight
8.15
1.20
22.55
3.55
7.00
1.05
11.03
1.60
5.88
.70
17.03
2.50
30.00
4.10
32.98
4.65
25.78
3.30
35.23
4.60
25.58
3.00
34.78
4.80
19.80
2.40
34.00
4.95
None,
Calcium carbonate, ....
Extracted with water
Extracted, and calcium carbonate,
Extracted, and manganese sulfate,
Extracted, and calcium and manganese.
None,
Calcium carbonate, ....
Manganese sulfate (80 pounds).
Calcium carbonate and manganese sulfate,
Manganese sulfate (100 pounds), .
Calcium carbonate and manganese sulfate.
Manganese sulfate (150 pounds), .
Calcium carbonate and manganese sulfate.
The soil from plot 6 was noticeably inferior in productivity to that
from plot 7, when used in the pots as well as in the field. This is shown
by comparing pot 1 with pot 7 and pot 2 with pot 8.
Extracting the soil with water diminished the crop, as shown in pots 3
and 4, indicating that soluble plant food was removed by the water,
whether toxins were removed or not.
The addition of manganese sulfate to the soil produced a marked de-
pression in yield on both soils when unaccompanied by calcium carbonate,
while the employment of the calcium with the manganese resulted in
each instance in an increase of crop beyond that produced by the calcium
carbonate alone. These results are in accord with field experiments lately
reported by Skinner and Reid.^
Chemical analysis of the clover was confined to the crops from the soil
of plot 7. Manganese was found to increase in the clover tops nearly in
proportion to the quantities added to the soil. The presence of calcium
carbonate in the soil did not prevent the absorption of the manganese to
a marked extent; therefore it would seem to have been an antidote for
the poisonous effect of the manganese within the plant.
The consistent increase of the percentage of nitrogen in the crops
I "Action of Manganese under Acid and Neutral Soil Conditions," Bui. No. 441, U. S. Dept.
Agr., 1916.
134 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 176.
treated with carbonate of lime is striking, and has been noted before in
our field work, and reported in Bulletin No. 161.
There is a singular discordance between the ill results obtained -uith
manganese sulfate and calcium carbonate used together in w^ater cultures
and the good effects produced by their joint action in experiments with
soil cultures. It is possible that in solutions the greater solubility of
manganese sulfate permitted its rapid absorption by the roots in compari-
son with the intake of the less soluble calcium carbonate, and injurious
results were produced in advance of any possible antidotal effect of the
calcium.
Table X. — Percentage Composition of Dry Clover from Pot Cultures.
Pot.
Treatment.
Nitrogen.
Silica.
Iron
Oxide.
Manganese,
Parts in
1,000,000.
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
None,
Calcium carbonate, ....
Manganese sulfate (80 pounds).
Calcium and manganese, .
Manganese sulfate (100 pounds).
Calcium and manganese, .
Manganese sulfate (150 pounds).
Calcium and manganese, .
3.04
3.25
2.88
3.73
3.28
3.71
3.15
3.54
1.03
1.24
.71
1.74
1.00
2.39
.88
2.38
.14
.16
.17
.24
.20
.29
.19
.26
Trace.
Trace.
.345
.345
.640
.599
1.157
.893
The roots were carefully washed free of soD, dried and analyzed, but
the quantities were very small and determinations could not be made in
duplicate in most instances; therefore the figures have not been included
here.
Conclusions.
The positive presence of soluble salts of iron, aluminium and manganese
in soils which have been repeatedly dressed with ammonium sulfate with-
out adding lime; the formation of one or more of these salts in soils that
were extracted with solutions of ammonium sulfate; and the positively
injurious action of manganese sulfate, iron sulfate and aluminium sulfate
on seedUng plants in water cultures and pot cultures when taken together
form a chain of facts w^hich clearly indicates that the injurious effects of
sulfate of ammonia when used freely without the accompaniment of lime
are due to the formation of these soluble salts in the soils of the fields so
dressed.
BULLETIN No. 177.
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
POTATO PLANT LICE AND THEIR CONTROL.
BY W. S. EEGAN.
Economic Importance op the Pest.
Potato plants among other crops have suffered severely from the-
attacks of plant lice during the present summer. The extent of injury-
has varied considerably according to the infestation. Some potato
patches with a mild infestation have shown little injury, and the loss in
yield from this source will be negligible. In other fields, judging from the
extent to which the tops have been killed, the crop will suffer a loss of
from 10 to 50 per cent., and in some instances the destruction has been
so complete that it will hardly pay to harvest the crop.
The potato plant louse (Macrosiphum solanifolii Ashm.) is not a new
insect to this section, but conditions appear to have been ideal during the
spring and early summer for its multiplication to such numbers as to
cause devastation in many places where no measures were taken to check
it. Nor has injury by this pest been exceptional in Massachusetts this
season. Reports from Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Maryland,
Virginia and Ohio indicate that the potato crop of these States has suf-
fered equally as much; and in some of these States, in addition to killing
the potato plants in many localities, these lice were becoming dangerously
abundant on tomatoes. The potato crop of Maine and Canada has also
been severely curtailed during some years in the past due to these pests.
In Massachusetts injury to potato plants by plant lice became evident
during the second week of July, and rapidly increased in severity until
the latter part of the month and early August, when no progressive
injury could be noticed, and an examination of previously badly infested
fields showed these insects present only in very small numbers, and cer-
tainly not numerous enough to cause further material injury this season.
This indicates a period of about three to four weeks' time when the
plajit lice are dangerously prevalent upon potato plants, and reports
from other sections, as well as the past history of outbreaks of this pest,
indicate that this is about the length of time, dating from their first ap-
136 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 177.
pearance in injurious numbers, \\hen damage by these insects need be
feared. During this brief period potato fields showed injury varying
from h'ttle to the complete destruction of the plants. Some patches were
completely free from infestation, wliile others near by, apparently no
more attractive, were badly injured or destroyed before insecticidal treat-
ment could be applied.
The gradual disappearance of the plant lice from the potato plants,
usually about a month after infestation becomes e%'ident, has, in many
cases, been the salvation of the crop. This disappearance is due mainly
to natural controlling factors, such as parasitic and predatory enemies,
weather conditions and disease, all of which contribute to the destruction
of myriads of these insects, and to a natural migration of the plant lice
from potato plants to other host plants during the latter part of July
a,nd August. These factors will be discussed at greater length later.
Description of Potato Plant Lice.
Potato lice are yellowish or greenish in color, with an occasional pink
form. Some are furnished with vnngs and can fly readily, while others
are wingless and have to depend upon crawling for getting about. When
full grown these insects are no larger than a pin head, and because of their
color and small size, and the fact that they occur for the most part upon
the underside of the leaves, plants may be badly infested and considerable
injury result before their presence is noticed.
Manner of Feeding and Nature op Injury.
Plant lice are sucking insects and obtain their food by inserting a
bristle-like beak into the host plant, from which the juices are extracted.
Thus all feeding is done beneath the surface and 'tvithin the tissues of the
plant. On plants badly attacked the leaves begin to turn yellow, curl up,
gradually turn brown and die. Under conditions favoring their growth,
an attack by plant lice of a week or two will suflfice to kill a large portion
of the top of a potato plant, and the development of the tubers must
necessarily be affected on plants thus injured. When a leaf or stem
becomes too dry to afford suitable feeding ground the plant lice crawl to
a fresh leaf, or migrate to other plants and continue their injury.
Where plant lice are abundant enough to cause apprehension, the
underside of the leaves, stems and blossom stalks will be covered with
these tiny creatures, and the plants become covered with honey dew, a
sticky substance excreted by these insects. This honey dew is often
attacked by a black fungus, which, together with the molted skins ad-
hering to the sticky surface, gives the plants an unhealthy appearance
and undoubtedly interferes with proper functioning.
In spite of its minuteness, the beak of the plant louse makes a wound
which furnishes a suitable entrance for disease, and even if the infesta-
tion with plant lice is insufficient to injure the plants, the infection with
disease thus caused may entirely ruin the crop.
POTATO PLANT LICE AND THEIR CONTROL. 137
Life Cycle of the Potato Louse.
Numerous observations have been made on the life cycle and habits
of the potato louse (Bulletin No. 147, Maine Agricultural Experiment
Station), but many important details are yet to be learned. Infestation
of potato plants during the late spring and early summer is accomplished
by a migration of the plant lice, either by flight or by crawling from neigh-
boring vegetation. These new arrivals are all females, and begin at once
to feed upon the sap of the plants. These females lay no eggs, but in a
short time produce living offspring, which are the first of a long series of
females, and these likewise in the course of eight to ten days produce
living young. Plant lice are prolific breeders, a single female often pro-
ducing as many as 20 young per day. It is, therefore, not astonishing
that they should multiply so rapidly and cause such devastation in a
comparatively short time. No males or egg-laying females ever occur
upon potato plants. The first few generations may be wingless, or at
any time winged individuals may appear and fly away to seek fresh
plants for their own feeding and for their progeny, thus causing a more or
less even infestation of potato fields.
After spending a few weeks or months upon potato plants, winged
individuals called "fall migrants" appear and leave the potato plants
for winter hosts, — plants of the same kind as those from which the
spring migration took place to the potatoes. As previously stated, the
migration to the winter hosts here in Massachusetts takes place probably
to some extent during the latter part of July, but mainly during August,
the exact time, however, varying according to seasonal fluctuations of
temperature and moisture, and the condition of the potato plants. The
early drying out or dying of the potato tops will, no doubt, hasten the
appearance of "fall migrants," regardless of whether the drying out is
•due to injury by the plant lice or to other factors.
Observations by Miss Edith Patch, State Entomologist of Maine, seem
to indicate that buckwheat and shepherd's purse are among the winter
hosts sought by these insects. The migration to the winter host plants
is followed by the production of winged males and wingless, egg-laying
females. These females lay glistening brownish black eggs upon the
leaves and stalks, and in this stage the winter is passed.
Control Measures.
Practical Considerations and Fundamentals of Control.
Under the topic "Manner of Feeding and Nature of Injury," discussed
on an earlier page, it was pointed out that plant lice obtain their food by
piercing the host plant and sucking the juices from within, no feeding
being done on the outer surface. Therefore any poison, such as arsenate
of lead or Paris green, which is sprayed over the foliage and must be
eaten in order to be effective, would be absolutely useless against plant
138 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 177.
lice, since these insects pierce beneath the poison before feeding is begun.
Accordingly, a contact insecticide, a material which kiUs by contact with
the body, is required to deal effectively with these sucking insects, and
satisfactory results with an insecticide of this nature can be expected only
when application is absolutely thorough. Each insect must he hit hy the
spray in order to be killed. Careless work will merely lead to a waste of
material, time and energy and to a continuation of the infestation. Such
carelessness, frequently due to ignorance of the essentials of appUcation
rather than intent, is often the source of complaint that material recom-
mended for the control of plant hce is ineffective. Almost invariably
unsatisfactory results with standard contact insecticides are attributable
to improper appUcation. Since potato lice confine then- feeding almost
wholly to the underside of the leaves, care must be taken to direct the
spray upward so that the underside of each leaf will be well covered.
To apply such a spray before the infestation reaches the distinctly
dangerous stage, while it might kill many of the scattered plant lice,
might, on the other hand, be merely a waste of energy, for the amount of
injury which the plant Hce are going to inflict is purely problematical, so
many elements of uncertainty enter in. For instance, weather conditions
play an important part in the welfare of the plant lice. Heavy rains
wash these deUcate insects from the plants, and cold weather retards
their increase. Warm, damp weather is favorable to a parasitic fungous
disease which may destroy the plant lice over large areas. Parasitic and
predatory enemies, when conditions are favorable, often destroy such
numbers of the plant Uce, even after considerable injury to the plants is
evident, that control measures are superfluous. Then, too, the natural
migration of the plant lice from potato plants to the winter hosts is an
element of some uncertainty. The greater amount of injury may be com-
pleted and the plant lice soon be ready to leave the potato plants for the
winter hosts before injury to the vines is extensive enough to become
particularly noticeable. At this time, if the fact were known, it would
hardly appeal to the average grower as an economical proposition to insti-
tute control measures.
All of these factors combine to make the matter of the desirability or
necessity of artificial control measures for potato plant lice often a diSi-
cult one to determine. Furthermore, it has been the observation of the
writer that in many cases where control measures have been carried out,
particularly where improper application made several sprayings necessary,
more actual injury was done the plants by the handling and trampling
incidental to such work with a contact insecticide than, it is probable in
most cases, the plant lice would have inflicted had the infestation been
allowed to run its course.
One appUcation with the proper material, properly applied to the under-
side of the foliage, when the infestation is severe enough to cause evident
wilting of the leaves, can in most cases be made economically and to
advantage, especially if injury is noticeable before the early part of
POTATO PLANT LICE AND THEIR CONTROL. 139
August, when the infestation is more likely to be progressive than other-
wise. This is especially the case with the average garden potato patch.
Over larger areas the practicabiUtj' of applying treatment must be deter-
mined by the severity of the infestation, its seasonal importance, — that
is, whether it is Uable to be progressive or is past the dangerous stage, —
accessibility, available apparatus, etc.
Reference has already been made to the fact that the winter is passed
in the egg stage of the plant louse upon such plants as buckwheat, shep-
herd's purse and possibly various other weeds. On this account "clean
culture;" the destruction by burning of potato vines, weeds and other
refuse about gardens and potato fields after harvest, unless such material
is composted; the burning over of grassy and weedy fields in the vicinity
of potato patches in the late fall or early spring; and late fall plowing
of gardens are worthy of more general practice.
The increased danger to the potato crop from "blight" after infesta-
tion with potato lice has already been pointed out. This should em-
phasize the need of frequent spraying with Bordeaux mixture or similar
fungicide for the remainder of the growing season.
Efficiency of Various Contact Insecticides for the Control of Potato Lice.
During the early part of July, when injury by potato lice began to
cause considerable apprehension, many conflicting reports were received
concerning the efficiency of different contact insecticides recommended for
the control of these insects. On this account, as well as from the fact
that the demand at this time for nicotine sprays so exceeded the supply
in manj' localities that it was impossible to obtain this material, it was
thought desirable to have at hand some more definite knowledge con-
cerning the effectiveness of the various common contact sprays, in order
to be better able to recommend a substitute where any material desired
was unobtainable.
With this end in view a badly infested potato field, already showing
severe injury to the tops, due to the sucking of the plant lice, was selected
to carry out these trials, which were conducted by Mr. A. I. Bourne of
the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station staff and the writer.
All plants treated were thorouglily drenched, the under and upper sides of
the foliage aUke, and carefully tagged, check plants being left for com-
parisons. It must be kept in mind that a satisfactory contact insecticide
combines safety and efficiency with reasonable cost. It must be strong
enough to kill the insects and yet not injure the foUage of the plant to
which it is applied, and the cost of appUcation must not be excessive. It
will be seen from the following report on these experiments that only a
comparatively few dilutions of the materials tried met this test. It was
impossible, in most cases, to make a very accurate estimate of the per-
centage of plant Uce killed, so that where a percentage estimate is given
it is intended to show the comparative efficiency of the various insecti-
cides tried, and is at best only roughly approximate. It is hardly to be
140 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 177.
expected that the spraying operations of the average grower will result as
successfully as those reported here, where all possible care was taken to
thoroughly drench the plants.
It should be kept in mind, however, that it is only necessary to reduce
the numbers of the plant lice 75 per cent, or more, when they can no
longer continue an aggressive attack that will result in serious injurj^ but
must take, figuratively speaking, a defensive position against their ene-
mies. The parasitic and predatory enemies of the plant lice are much
more resistant to contact sprays than the plant lice themselves, and in
no case with the insecticides used where the plants were not injured were
these beneficial insects destroyed, although they were present in numbers
when application was made. The few plant Uce which escape an efficient
spray application fall ready prey to these enemies. A report of the results
of these tests follows : —
Material and Dilution.
Plant Lice killed.
Injury to Plants.
"Black Leaf 40" (1-400) with soap,
"Black Leaf 40" (1-800) with soap,
"Black Leaf 40" (1-800) with Pyrox, no
soap.
"Black Leaf 40" (1-1,000) with soap,
"Black Leaf 40" (1-1,600) with soap,
"Nico-Fiime" liquid (1-750) with soap
Fish-oil soap (1-6),
Fish-oil soap (1-6),
Fish-oil soap (1-8),
Kerosene emulsion (1-9),
Miscible or soluble oil (1-25)
Miscible or soluble oil (1-40)
Miscible or soluble oil (1-50)
Miscible or soluble oil (1-64)
Lime-sulfur, 34° Beaum6 (1-22),
Lime-sulfur, 34° Beaum6 (1-43),
99-100 per cent.,
98-99 per cent.,
98 per cent.,
Not over 75 per cent.,
Ineffective, few killed,
98 per cent.,
98-99 per cent.,
98 per cent.,
Not over 50 per cent.,
90 per cent.,
Perfect kill.
Perfect kill,
98-99 per cent.,
98 per cent..
Ineffective, not over 20 per cent.
Ineffective, . . . .
No in,
No in,
No in,
No in.
No in.
No in.
No in,
No in.
No in,
No in.
|ury.
jury.
jury.
iury.
iury.
jury.
iury?
iury.
jury.
iury.
Plants killed.
Considerable injury.
Some injury.
Some injury.
Some injury.
No injury.
Discussion of Results.
1. "Black Leaf 40." — This material is perhaps the insecticide most
commonly used for the control of plant lice, but any of the other nicotine
preparations of a similar nature now on the market should give satisfac-
tory results. It is a concentrated solution of nicotine sulfate, containing
40 per cent, of nicotine by weight. It was tried with four dilutions —
1-400, 1-800, 1-1,000, and 1-1,600 — in each case, with the addition of
soap at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of the diluted "Black Leaf 40."
Both ordinary hard laundry soap and liquid soap were used with similar
POTATO PLANT LICE AND THEIR CONTROL. 141
results, the hard soap being cut into small pieces and dissolved in boiling
water before adding to the solution. If liquid soap is used, 1 quart should
be added to every 50 gallons of the diluted "Black Leaf 40." In addition
to increasing the effectiveness of this nicotine preparation the soap aids
materially as a spreader, thus insuring a more uniform coating of the
foliage and a more perfect "hit" of the plant lice.
All of the four dilutions tried showed no foliage injury, but only the
1-800 strength met the test of reasonable economy and efficiency. This
strength showed nearly a perfect kill.
The dilution 1-800 reduced to practical terms is as follows: —
"Black Leaf 40," ...... 5 pint.
Hard soap, dissolved in boiling water, . . 2 pounds (liquid soap, 1 quart).
Water, ........ 50 gallons.
Reduction to a small amount would be as follows: —
"Black Leaf 40," ........ IJ teaspoonfuls.
Hard soap, dissolved in boiling water, . . . . . f ounce.
Water, . . . .1 gallon.
The cost of this spray material will depend mainly upon the quantity
of the "Black Leaf 40," or similar nicotine preparation, purchased. In
an amount of 10 pounds, which diluted as recommended (1-800) would
give 1,000 gallons of spray mixture, the cost amounts to but little over 1
cent per gallon. If purchased in an amount as small as an ounce the cost
is increased to something over 4 cents a gallon.
2. "Black Leaf 40" and Pyrox, etc. — The question has frequently been
asked as to whether or not "Black Leaf 40" can be safely combined with
Pyrox, Bordo-lead and other materials, such as arsenate of lead and
Bordeaux mixture, thus reducing the labor involved in making separate
applications. Pyrox and Bordo-lead are a combination of an arsenical
and a fungicide, and are used for the control of leaf -eating insects, such as
the potato beetle, and fungous diseases. "Black Leaf 40" and Pyrox
or Bordo-lead can be safely combined with equally as good results as when
these materials are used separately. However, soap should not be used
with such a combination, and should never be used in any combination
containing Vycox, Bordo-lead or Bordeaux mixture, as an "incompatible
mixture" results. "Black Leaf 40," or any similar nicotine preparation,
may also be safely combined with arsenate of lead or Bordeaux mixture
— but without the addition of soap.
3. "Nico-Fume" Liquid. — This material is somewhat similar to
"Black Leaf 40," being a nicotine preparation containing 40 per cent,
free nicotine. There appears to be little or no difference in the effective-
ness of these two materials, and since the "Nico-Fume" liquid is the more
expensive, it is suggested merely as a possible substitute in case the
"Black Leaf 40" is not obtainable. It was used at approximately the
same strength as the "Black Leaf 40," and with the addition of a like
142 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 177.
amount of soap. Combinations of "Nico-Fume" liquid with other in-
secticides and fungicides can be made with the same restrictions as for
"Black Leaf 40."
4. Fish-oil or Whale-oil Soaps. — These soaps have long been used for
the control of plant lice. Three dilutions were tried, — 1 pound to 5
gallons of water, 1 pound to 6 gallons of water, and 1 pound to 8 gallons,
the soap being cut up into small pieces, dissolved in boiling water, and
diluted with cold water to the required strength. The 1-5 and 1-6
strengths showed high efficiency. The 1-8 strength was unsatisfactory,
not more than half of the plant lice being killed. There was some sus-
picion of foliage injury at the 1-5 strength, but this was not extensive,
and, since some of the tops had been killed by the plant lice, this point
could not be definitely determined. The 1-6 strength proved efficient and
showed no injury. Used at this strength the cost of fish-oil or whale-oil
soap spray is approximately that of the "Black Leaf 40" solution, 1-800;
that is, less than 2 cents per gallon where a quantity of the soap to the
amount of 5 pounds or more is purchased. Since the amount of soap to
be dissolved in case the fish-oil or whale-oil soap is used is greater than
the quantity used with the "Black Leaf 40" solution, the latter is perhaps
somewhat preferable because of the smaller outlay of time and bother
thus involved. These soaps, however, furnish an excellent substitute in
case of difficulty in obtaining the nicotine preparation. Pyrox, Bordo-
lead, Bordeaux mixture or similar materials should never be used with
soap of any kind.
5. Kerosene Emulsion. — This material was made according to the usual
stock formula, as follows : —
Hard soap, . . . . - . . .J pound (liquid soap, J pint).
Water, ........ 1 gallon.
Kerosene, ....... 2 gallons.
The soap is cut into small pieces and dissolved in the water, which
should be boiling. The soap solution is then poured into the kerosene
while hot, and churned back and forth with a spray pump until a creamy
mass is formed and no free oil is present. This can usually be done satis-
factorily in from ten to fifteen minutes. The emulsion formed is a stock
solution, which should be diluted at the rate of 1 part to 9 parts of water
for plant lice.
It was supposed that kerosene emulsion, a standard remedy for plant
lice and other soft-bodied insects, would prove highly effective against
potato lice, but the trials with this material proved disappointing, as not
more than 90 per cent, of the insects were killed. This indicates an effi-
ciency for kerosene emulsion considerably less than that of the "Black
Leaf 40," 1-800, and the fish-oil soap, 1-6. Furthermore, the trouble and
time involved in making the emulsion, as well as the danger of foliage
injury when this material is improperly made, militate against its use
where the other materials referred to above arc obtainable. The cost of
POTATO PLANT LICE AND THEIR CONTROL. 143
the kerosene emulsion per gallon of the diluted spray is something over 1
cent, or approximately the same as for the "Black Leaf 40" and the fish-
oil soap solutions.
6. Miscible or Soluble Oils. — One of the standard commercial brands of
miscible oils was used in these tests, this being tried with four dilutions, —
1-25, 1-40, 1-50 and 1-64. This material in all four dilutions showed a
very high killing efficiency, but even at the greatest dilution, 1-64, showed
distinct oil injury to the potato foliage. In justice to this material, how-
ever, it must be said that the sample experimented with was not perfect,
as there was some free oil evident, an ever-present danger, nevertheless,
with this material. Time did not permit obtaining a fresh sample of mis-
cible oil, so that this material must be placed in the questionably danger-
ous class until further experiments prove to the contrary. The cost of
this material is less than that of any of the other insecticides referred to,
and obtained in any quantity would amount to less than 1 cent per gallon
of diluted spray material,
7. Lime-sulfur. — A standard commercial brand of this material, hav-
ing a density of 34 Beaum^, was used in these tests. Two dilutions were
tried, — 1-22, which is about twice the normal strength for application
to foliage, and 1-43, which is about the usual dilution for foliage spray-
ing. Even at the 1-22 strength this material killed only a comparatively
small number of plant lice, and could in no way be considered an effective
aphidicide. Furthermore, at this strength there was evident foliage in-
jury shortly after application, which took the form of a wilting or droop-
ing of the plants. The next day, however, the plants thus injured seemed
to have entirely recovered.
Spraying Apparatus.
Satisfactory spraying outfits for applying insecticides are equally as
important as efficient spray materials. Ordinary hand atomizers are use-
less, since it would be necessary to turn over every plant so that the under-
side of the leaves could be reached. Such handling would probably result
in as much injury to the plants as the plant lice would be likely to inflict.
For small garden potato patches, perhaps up to a quarter of an acre, a
knapsack or compressed-air spray pump will prove satisfactory. These
pumps bold from 3 to 5 gallons of spray, but the frequent need of refilling
makes them less desirable for use where larger areas are to be treated.
In spraying operations involving fairly large potato fields a barrel pump,
traction outfit, power sprayer or similar apparatus will be found the only
practicable thing.
Regardless of the type of pump used, an extension rod and an under-
spray nozzle at a right angle to the rod are essential in order that the
underside of the leaves may be easily reached. For a knapsack or com-
pressed-air pump a 3 or 4 foot extension rod of iron or brass is perhaps
most convenient. A 4 or 5 foot length of iron pipe is, perhaps, most satis-
factory when directing the spray by hand from a barrel pump, power
144 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 177.
sprayer or similar apparatus, but numerous combinations of rods and
nozzles may be made to increase the spraying area or the number of rows
treated at one time. In the case of traction sprayers or other direct row-
spraying apparatus the common inverted T method is ordinarily used
with two nozzles attached to throw spray in opposite directions, so that
two rows may be treated from each T. By attaching several T's to the
main cross rod, so that the T's come between the rows, a number of rows
may be sprayed simultaneously. It is essential with such apparatus that
the T's be made sufficiently long and the nozzles attached at the proper
angle to thoroughly drench the underside of the foliage. Work with such
apparatus must be done slowly if satisfactory results are to be expected.
Some growers have adopted an arrangement with traction sprayers
whereby a cross piece, located a short distance in front of the nozzles,
tips over the plants. The nozzles are directed forward and downward so
that, theoretically, while the plants are thus tipped over, the underside of
the leaves are covered with the spray. Not only is the efficiency of this
method open to doubt, but the effect upon the plants of such treatment is
worthy of consideration.
A nozzle giving a fine mist spray is essential. The disk and Vermorel
are two types of nozzles well adapted for the work. The disk nozzle
must be of the angle form, which gives a suitable underspray at a right
angle to the rod, and covers a fairly large area, being on this account pref-
erable to the Vermorel nozzle. The Vermorel nozzle cannot be purchased
in the angle form, but a 45° elbow can be obtained or a bend made in the
extension rod to overcome this difficulty. It is fairly well adapted for
use with a knapsack or compressed-air pump.
Where a considerable length of hose is needed it is desirable to have this
as light as possible in order to faciUtate handUng among the rows with
the least possible injury to the plants. One-fourth inch Meruco tubing
has been found highly satisfactory for this purpose, especially for the
leading hose. Attachments for this tubing to rubber or cotton hose of
larger size can be readily obtained. Long-tail hose couplings will also be
found advantageous in preventing a "blow-out" where pressure of any
amount is used.
Summary of Control Measures.
1. Potato plant lice can be readily controlled by the use of a contact
insecticide of "Black Leaf 40" or similar nicotine preparation at the rate
of 1 part of this material to 800 parts water, with the addition of com-
mon laundry soap, dissolved in boiling water, at the rate of 2 pounds
(liquid or soft soap, 1 quart) to 50 gallons of the diluted "Black Leaf 40"
solution. The formula in practical terms is given on an earlier page.
Fish-oil or whale-oil soap at the rate of 1 pound to 6 gallons of water is
about equally as effective, but is less desirable on account of the extra
time and bother involved in dissolving larger quantities of soap.
"Black Leaf 40" can be combined safely with Pyrox, Bordo-lead, Bor-
POTATO PLANT LICE AND THEIR CONTROL. 145
deaux mixture or arsenate of lead, but soap should be omitted when such
combinations are made. These combinations are equally as effective as
when the materials are used separately.
Kerosene emulsion is not highly effective against potato plant lice, and
the labor involved in preparing this material is also against its use.
Tests with miscible or soluble oils seem to indicate that these materials
are dangerous to use upon potato foliage.
Lime-sulfur is ineffective for the control of potato plant lice even at
double the ordinary strength used upon foliage.
2. Satisfactory results with an efficient contact spray can be expected
only when thorough work is done. Each insect must be hit with the spray.
Since plant lice confine their work almost wholly to the underside of the
leaves, the spray must be directed upward from underneath the plants.
An angle disk nozzle or similar underspray nozzle is necessary for such
work. One thorough application with an efficient spray should control
potato plant lice so that a second treatment will be unnecessary. Too
much handling or trampling about the plants will often result in more
injury than the plant lice are likely to cause.
3. The practicability of applying treatment for the control of potato
lice, especially over large areas, must be determined by the severity of
infestation, its seasonal importance, — that is, whether it is likely to be
progressive or is diminishing in severity, — accessibility, available appa-
ratus, etc. If injury to the plants has not been severe enough to kill por-
tions of the tops of the plants to an evident extent before the 1st of
August, it is probable that the injury likely to be done will not exceed the
cost of applying treatment. When severe injury is noticeable before the
1st of August, a thorough treatment should be made at once. Application
before the insects are present in numbers will be merely a waste of time
and energy.
4. The destruction by burning of potato vines after harvest, together
with all weeds and other refuse about gardens and potato fields, unless
such material is composted; the burning over of grassy and weedy fields
in the vicinity of potato patches in the late fall or early spring; and late
fall plowing of gardens are methods of clean culture which may materially
reduce future infestation.
5. Injury by potato lice renders the plants more susceptible to "blight,"
and should emphasize the need for frequent sprays with Bordeaux mixture.
Natural Agents in the Control op Potato Plant Lice.
Many factors contribute to a natural control of potato lice; in fact, to
such an extent that during most seasons in the past their injury has been
unimportant in Massachusetts.
Weather conditions rank very high among controlling influences. Cool
or wet weather offers quite a decided check to aphid development, and
heavy or continuous rains undoubtedly destroy many of these delicate
insects.
146 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 177.
Among the predatory enemies of plant lice, lady beetles and their
young, and the larvae of syrphus flies, are most important. Both as
adults and during the immature stages, lady beetles are voracious feeders
upon plant lice as well as upon other tiny insects. The average person
readily recognizes a lady beetle and knows its beneficial habits, but the
lady beetle young, being of an entirely different appearance, are often
mistaken for injurious forms and unfortunately are destroyed. These
young vary in length all the way up to about a half inch, are bluish or
blackish in color, often with orange spots on the back, and resemble very
much a miniature alligator in general appearance. They crawl about
freely, destroying large numbers of the plant lice. The syrphus fly young
are maggot-like forms, being pointed at the head end and somewhat
broader behind, and are of variable length but average about one-fourth
of an inch. These are ordinarily orange, greenish or whitish in color, are
very sluggish, but destroy, nevertheless, numbers of the plant lice.
Tiny, almost microscopic, wasp-like insects also aid in the destruction
of plant lice, their young living parasitically in the bodies of these pests.
During certain seasons, especially when there is an abundance of warmth
and moisture, a fungous parasite attacks these plant lice and destroys
large numbers. In some localities this disease has been credited with
having practically exterminated the plant lice after they had become
numerous enough to menace seriously the potato crop.
Acknowledgments.
The foregoing is not presented as a "distinct contribution to scientific
knowledge," but is merely an attempt to present in available form facts
already determined by others, together with results of personal observa-
tions and experience.
The writer wishes to acknowledge credit to Bulletin No. 147, Maine
Agricultural Experiment Station, for certain facts and suggestions made
use of in this paper; and is indebted to Mr. A. I. Bourne of the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural Experiment Station staff for assistance in carrying
out the insecticide tests.
The work has been carried out under the direct supervision of Dr. H. T.
Fernald, whose kind co-operation has been of much help.
BULLETi:^r ^o. 178.
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER,
Pyrausta nuhilalis Hiibner,
A RECENTLY ESTABLISHED 'PEST IN MASSACHUSETTS.
BY S. C. VINAL.
Nearly every year we find a new insect pest of foreign origin has become
established in some section of the United States. To the long list of Euro-
pean pests now found in Massachusetts this article adds one more, —
the European com borer or corn pyralid, Pyrausta nuhilalis Hiibner,
recently established in the vicinity of Boston, Mass. This species has
long been recorded as one of the most serious enemies to maize culture in
Europe, and if not checked may in time become a very serious pest to
America's great corn crop.
Discovery and Identification.
During the past summer the writer found many corn plants in the
vicinity of Boston, Mass., being tunneled by light colored caterpillars, the
identity of which was unknown. During July nearly every infested plant
could be readily detected, having its tassel broken over and hanging pen-
dent just above the first two or three spikes. This was due to the larval
tunnels in the pith of the main tassel stalk so weakening it that the wind
readily blew it over.
Early in August moths emerged from pupae collected in the field, and
having Dr. C. H. Fernald's collection of both native and exotic moths
available, a successful attempt was made to determine the species. Speci-
mens of both male and female pyralid moths which corresponded identi-
cally to those obtained from infested corn stalks in eastern Massachusetts
were found in his European collection. These were determined by M.
Ragonet, a French lepidopterist, and were labeled Pyrausta (Botys)
nuhilalis Hiibner. Further proof of the identity of this moth was obtained
by submitting specimens to Mr. H. G. Dyar of the United States National
Museum, Washington, D. C, who determined them to be Pyrausta
nuhilalis Hiibner, a native of Europe.
148 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 178.
Description of the Insect.
When full grown the larva is 1 inch in length; the body is flesh-colored,
often somewhat smoky or reddish above, while the head is flat and dark
brown in color. On close observation a transverse row of four hght
colored spots, with two smaller ones immediately behind them, can be
seen on each abdominal segment. From each of these light colored areas
a short, stout spine arises, and this character distinguishes the European
com borer from the mature caterpillar of the potato and corn stalk borer
(Papaipema nitella Gn.).
The female moth has a robust body, is pale yellow in color and has a
wing expanse of a little over 1 inch. The outer third of the fore wing is
traversed by two serrated lines darker than the rest of the wing, while the
hind wings are light yellow in color.
The male moth has a long, slender body, is slightly smaller in wing ex-
panse, and in color is reddish brown, being much darker than the female.
Between the two serrated lines mentioned above is a pale yellow streak,
and near the middle of the fore wing are two small yellowish spots. The
hind wings are grayish and crossed by a broad band of pale yellow.
European History.
Pyrausta nubilalis is widely distributed in Europe and Asia, having
been reported in literature as occurring in Central and Southern Europe,
West Central and Northern Asia and Japan. Its food plants in these
widely separated localities consist of corn (except fodder corn), hemp,
hops, millet and several wild grasses. Corn and hop plants are severely
damaged by this pest, 50 per cent, of these crops being destroyed in some
sections of Central Europe.
Foreign literature contains a large number of references to the serious
damage caused by the larvse of P. nubilalis, but there is a decided lack of
literature dealing with its biology and control.
Status of the Pest in Eastern Massachusetts.
Importation.
The questions naturally arise as to how, when and where the European
com borer was introduced. At the present time these cannot be definitely
answered, but a few deductive conjectures may be given.
The important European food plants of P. nubilalis consist of corn,
hemp, hops and millet. Of these the only food plant offering ideal condi-
tions for its importation is hemp. This crop is grown to some extent in
Southern Europe, and probably some plants hifested by larvffi of P.
nubilalis were cut and shipped during the fall and winter months to a
cordage company in the vicinity of Boston, Mass. These plants were not
used immediately, and the larvse transformed to pupse in early spring,
and soon emerged as moths. On finding corn plants growing in the
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER. 149
vicinity, oviposition took place and the European corn borer became
established.
Early sweet corn gro\\'Ti in market gardens 10 to 12 miles inland has
been seriously attacked by this pest for the past three or four years, and
from this we might infer that it was imported about 1910.
A survey of eastern Massachusetts showed that some towns located at
the mouth of the Mystic River were more generally infested than others.
At the mouth of this river is located the Charlestown Navy Yard, which
probably has one of the largest "rope walks" in Eastern United States.
Whether the European corn borer was first introduced at the Navy Yard,
or at some cordage company located on the opposite bank of the river, it
has been impossible to ascertain, but enough has been written to show
that it probably was first estabUshed in this vicinity.
Present Distribvtion.
The area infested by the European corn borer in Massachusetts is
approximately 100 square miles in extent, and is located immediately
north and northwest of the city of Boston. The places most severely
infested during the past season were Somerville, Medford, Maiden, Everett,
Chelsea, Revere, Lynn, Saugus, Melrose, Stoneham, Winchester, Arling-
ton, Belmont, Cambridge, Brookline and the following parts of Boston:
South Boston, Brighton, Roxbury and Dorchester.
Food Plants.
At the present time sweet corn is the only valuable commercial crop
seriously attacked by this pest, for the other food plants — hops, hemp
and millet ■ — are not grown within the infested region of Massachusetts.
The most commonly infested weeds and grasses are barnyard grass
{Echinochha crus-galli Beauv.), pigweed {Amaranthus retrojlexus L.) and
foxtail grass {Setaria glauca Beauv.). Dahlia stems are also injured by the
European corn borer. The moths apparently prefer to oviposit on corn,
and will not infest weeds and grasses unless corn plants are not available
in sufficient numbers.
Importajice.
Sweet corn is practically the only corn grown within the infested area,
and the amount of damage caused by the European corn borer depends
upon whether it is an early or late variety. The early crop of sweet corn
is picked during late July and early August, and by reference to the life
history it will be seen that these plants are subjected to the attack of the
first brood of larvae only. The late corn, however, suffers from the attack
of both the first and second broods of larva?. While the early crop may
be damaged to the extent of 10 to 20 per cent., the loss to late corn plant-
ings may be as high as 75 to 80 per cent. This higher percentage of
damage to late corn is caused by the habit of the small second brood
larvae of boring through the husk and tunneling in the developing ear,
making it worthless for market.
150 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 178.
Character of Injury.
With the exception of the leaf blades the whole corn plant above ground
is subject to the attacks of these voracious caterpillars.
The larvse after emerging from the egg either commence feeding on the
unopened staminate flowers borne by the tassel, or immediately pierce the
sheath near its junction with a node. Those which feed on the tassel bore
a hole in the side of the buds and feed on the internal succulent parts.
Soon these small caterpillars leave the tassel buds and enter the tassel
stalks, or terminal internode, where they tunnel through the pith and
finally complete their larval life in this internode. These tunnels so
weaken the terminal internode that it soon becomes broken over, a t3T)e
of injury which is especially noticeable on the early com crop. It is quite
evident that this injury indirectly affects the formation of corn on the
cob by destroying the pollen necessary for fertilizing the com silk.
Those larvse which do not feed on the tassel immediately pierce the
sheath surrounding an internode, usually where the edges overlap at its
junction with a node. Here they feed on the internal surface of the
sheath, excavating a groove halfway around the stalk, and then bore
directly into the pith where they form long winding tunnels. Whenever
the larvse during their tunneling operations reach a node, a rather large
cavity is usually formed. From this cavity the larvae sometimes bore
through the node, but more often they turn and tunnel in the opposite
direction in the originally infested internode. At the termination of the
feeding period nearly all of the central portion of the stalk has been eaten,
and this so weakens the plant that a strong wind is likely to break over the
stalk, thus completing the destruction commenced by the caterpillars.
A number of these stalk-boring larvse very often attack the small stalk
or pedicel bearing the ear, and in some cases may bore directly through
this into the developing ear. This injury to the pedicel causes the ear
to wither and die.
The most serious damage to the crop is caused by the large percentage
of the second brood larvse which immediately enter the ear after hatching.
The injury by this brood to the corn ear is very similar to that caused by
the well-known corn ear worm (Chloridea obsoleta Fab.). Besides feeding
on the kernels in a similar manner to the corn ear worm, the European
corn borer exhibits characteristic tunneling habits and bores through the
cob.
Life History and Habits.
As the life history has not been thoroughly worked out, it is onlj^ pos-
sible to give a brief r6sum6 of it at the present time.
There are two broods a year of the European corn borer. Hibernation
takes place as full grown or nearly full grown larvae, within their tunnels
in the corn stalks, and in some cases in the cob. These larvae pupate in
the spring and emerge as moths, probably the latter part of May. Soon
after emergence the females begin laying eggs on the corn stalks, and in a
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER. 151
few days these hatch. The young larvae begin feeding at once, and quickly'
eat their -way through the sheath before they tunnel in the main stalk.
On reaching maturity, which occurs the latter part of July, the larvse
clear out a portion of the burrow, prepare an opening through which the
adults can escape, and after spinning a thin silken partition across the top
and bottom of this cleared space, transform to pupse. The moths emerge
for the second brood in about two weeks. This brood of larvse becomes
full grown by late fall, but does not transform to pup® at once as in the
first brood. Instead, the winter is passed as larvae within the stalks,
pupation taking place the following spring.
Control.
From the brief sketch of the life history it is apparent that there is no
hope of destroying this pest during the summer by the use of insecticides,
since all of its transformations take place within the plant. Our main
hope lies in the possibility of establishing a system of cultural methods
which will enable us to prevent injury. The fact that the winter stage is
passed in the food plant suggests control measures which should result in
killing the great majority of the hibernating insects. These measures, if
carefully followed, should reduce the injury of the following season ma-
terially.
1 . Burning the Stalks during the Fall or Wi7iter. — While this is un-
doubtedly one of the most effective measures for the destruction of the
hibernating insects which can be adopted, it is somewhat wasteful, for the
stalks are valuable either for feed or as a source of humus so necessary for
maintenance of fertility and texture in the garden soil. Burning, there-
fore, is inadvisable when other effective methods can be used.
2. Burying the Stalks. — In home gardens the stalks may be put in
trenches and covered by at least 1 foot of soil. In larger market gardens
the stalks may be placed in the center of manure piles until decomposed.
In some cases plowing under might be resorted to, but the work must
be thorough or it will be ineffective. Any stalks left on the surface are
likely to harbor a crop of borers for the next season. If corn stalks are
distributed over the land and then cut up by running a disk harrow over
the field in both directions it should be possible to turn them practically
all under.
It should be clearly understood that half-hearted work is of little value.
Occasional stalks which it may seem hardly worth the trouble to clean up
are likely to harbor enough borers to severely infest the spring crop.
3. Feeding the Stalks. — From the economic point of view this is the
best possible means of destroying the hibernating insects, since the value
of the stalks for fodder is not materially affected by the presence of the
insects, and if properly carried out this method must result in the destruc-
tion of practically all of them. Feeding the stalks whole will be relatively
ineffective, since parts not eaten by the animals are likely to harbor in-
sects. Shredding the stalks, whether to be fed green or dry, must greatly
152 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 178.
reduce the chances that any of the msects will survive. Ensilage by-
ordinary methods must prove a highly effective method of destroying the
insects present in the stems or other parts of the affected plants, for it
would seem to be in the last degree improbable that they could survive
under the conditions existing in the silo.
Co-operation.
It has been pointed out that the caterpillars w^hich survive the winter
emerge as moths which ^y freely the folio »mg spring. Consideration of
this fact makes it apparent that no method of control can be even fairly
satisfactory unless all those cultivating corn in an infested district co-
operate to insure as far as may be possible the destruction of all hiber-
nating insects. A few neglected gardens in any vicinity may harbor
enough borers to infest a wide area.
Measures for insuring or compelling satisfactory handling of all infested
material are, therefore, very necessary, and, while the desired end might
possibly be obtained by local organizations of farmers and gardeners and
vigorous action, it seems probable that the matter must be taken in hand
by the State or Federal government if the insect is to be brought under
control.
BULLETIN No. 179.
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
THE GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER ATTACKING
CUCUMBERS AND METHODS FOR
ITS CONTROL.
(Tetranychus bimaculatus Harvey.) (Class, Arachnida; Order, Acarina;
Family, Tetranychidcc.)
BY STUART C. VINAL.
INTRODUCTION.
The minute spimaing mites, commonly called red spiders, have long
been known as among the most troublesome of greenhouse pests, although
they also cause a great deal of damage to flowers, vegetables and trees
growing out of doors. A greenhouse affords an almost ideal environment
for the development and rapid multiplication of red spiders, and as a
consequence we find this pest taking advantage of the opportunity offered
and doing great damage to many of the principal crops grown in green-
houses.
The production of vegetables under glass is an expensive process, in-
volving a large investment of capital and a continual expense- to maintain
such an establishment. To counterbalance this expense the value of the
crop must be proportionally high, and anything which interferes with
the fullest development of the plants reduces the profits materially.
Without doubt the common red spider {Tetranychus bimacidatus
Harvey) is the most widely distributed and destructive pest of green-
house cucumbers. Nowhere in America is the cucumber forcing industry
more highly developed than in the market-garden district of Boston,
Mass., and therefore the injury caused by this pest assumes its greatest
economic importance in this section.
During the last few years numerous inquiries have been received by
the Massachusetts Experiment Station from market gardeners in regard
to the control of red spiders attacking greenhouse cucumbers. Because
of the lack of an efficient method of control very few recommendations
154 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
could be given, and in many cases the injury by these mites resulted in
serious losses. Thus it soon became evident that some line of investiga-
tion should be conducted on the control of this mite attacking greenhouse
crops, and in October, 1915, this problem was assigned to me.
The investigations upon which this paper is based were carried on under
the direct supervision of Dr. H. T. Fernald. The thanks of the ^vTiter
are due Dr. H. T. Fernald, Dr. G. C. Crampton and Dr. W. S. Regan for
their interest throughout the progress of the work. Acknowledgments
are also due the chemistrj^ department of the station for its co-operation,
expecially to Dr. E. B. Holland for his interest and careful manufacture of
man}^ complicated spray materials which led to the discovery of an efficient
control for the greenhouse red spider. The writer is also under obligations
to Mr. H. F. Tompson, professor of market gardening, for suggesting
this research and for much valuable information concerning the efficiency
of control measures when used in commercial houses. To Mr. M. E.
Moore of Arlington and Mr. J. Winthrop Stone of WatertoAvn the writer
gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness for their kind co-operation in
allowing promising materials to be thoroughly tested on a commercial
scale in their greenhouses.
As this paper has to deal primarily with the control of the greenhouse
red spider, other more biological phases will be discussed only briefly,
unless they have a direct bearing upon control measures.
HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION.
The greenhouse red spider of New England was first described by
Harvey in 1893 as Tetranychus bimaculatus. He considered it distinct
from the European species Tetranychus telarius Linn., and later workers
have failed to prove conclusively the identity of these species.
The first account of serious injury caused by this mite in the United
States came from the New England States, where it caused much damage
to greenhouse plants. In 1855 a mite, since described by Banks as T.
gloveri, but now known as T. bimaculatus Harvey, was reported bv Glover
as doing injury to the cotton plants of the south. This injury increased
in importance, and in 1900 the Bureau of Entomology, United States
Department of Agriculture, established a southern laboratory to work on
the control of this pest. With the development of greenhouses in the
west the ravages of the red spider soon appeared and caused serious
damage to greenhouse plants as well as to many cultivated garden plants
and fruit trees. A closely related mite has long been a serious pest of
hop plants in Europe; therefore it is not surprising that our species of
red spider assumes a great importance in seriously damaging hop fields
both in the east and far west.
The red spider, therefore, is very generally distributed throughout the
United States, extending from Maine to Florida and westward to Texas
and California, only a few States in the western arid region being exempt
from the ravages of this pest.
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 155
FOOD PLANTS.
Telranychus bimaculatus is very cosmopolitan in its feeding habits,
having been listed by McGregor as feeding on 183 species of plants,
55 per cent, of which were cultivated, in the southeastern part of the
United States. Much confusion has arisen because of the large number
of host plants and the variability in color of mites feeding on these different
plants. New species have been described based upon these color varia-
tions, but they have been discarded by later workers as synonymous.
Under New England conditions of climate the red spider as a rule does
not seriously damage plants except those which are usually grown in
greenhouses. A few exceptions to this statement may occur near badly
infested greenhouses or during very dry seasons. As this paper has to
deal with greenhouse control, only those plants found most often infested
in, and in the vicinity of, greenhouses will be enumerated.
The greenhouse vegetables most subject to attack are (1) cucumbers,
(2) egg plants and (3) tomatoes.
Cucumbers grown under glass in the market-garden district of Boston
are rarely exempt from the attacks of red spiders. These plants are first
attacked when only two leaves have unfolded, and injury continues until
the death of the plant, which in the majority of cases is due primarily to
the removal of chlorophyll from its leaves by the mites. Egg plants,
although very susceptible to attack, are not generally gro%vn in the vicinity
of Boston. Greenhouse tomatoes appear to be practically immune from
red spider injury except when very young. Several times the writer has
seen a greenhouse containing approximately 1,500 full-grown cucumber
plants, with a row of tomatoes planted at each end of the house. The
cucumber plants were rapidly dying from the injuries caused by millions
of red spiders, while the tomatoes remained unaffected. This was an
extremely severe infestation, and shows to what extent greenhouse to-
matoes are immune. Almost all weeds found in infested greenhouses
harbor mites, and if not destroyed are liable to infect a following crop.
The greenhouse flowers subject to attack are (1) roses, (2) violets,
(3) sweet peas, (4) carnations, (5) chrysanthemums and (6) many others
of minor importance.
In floriculture perhaps the most important infestations occur on roses
and violets, with sweet peas, carnations and chrysanthemums next in
order. Usually a very large number of widely differing plants are grown
in a florist's greenhouse, and many of these will become more or less
seriously infested by the migration of mites from one or more of the above-
mentioned plants. However, these infestations are usually not of great
importance.
The plants in the vicinity of greenhouses subject to attack are (1)
beans, (2) egg plants, (3) celery, (4) tomatoes, (5) strawberries, (6) clover,
(7) grasses and (8) weeds.
Plants subject to attack which are found near greenhouses may serve
156 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
as sources of inside infestation, or may in turn become infested from
plants or parts of plants thrown out of the greenhouse during or after an
infestation. The most important garden crops attacked are the bean,
egg plant and celery. Tomatoes grown out of doors are more susceptible
to red spider injury than when grown in greenhouses. Strawberry plants
are also subject to attack, but usually this does not assume great im-
portance under New England climatic conditions. The most important
plants, as far as the greenhouse man is concerned, are those found around
most greenhouses, consisting of clover, grasses and weeds, as these are
undoubtedly important factors in causing inside infestation.
NATURE OF INJURY TO CUCUMBERS.
The first signs of injury appear soon after the plants have been trans-
planted in the greenhouse, and in the majority of cases on the oldest,
basal leaves. The pests usually attack the leaves of a cucumber plant
progressively; that is, the older, basal leaves first show injury, then those
just above are attacked, and thus the ravages of the pest progress upward
as the plant grows. As a general rule very young, hairy leaves around
the terminal shoot are exempt from attack until the plant becomes very
heavily infested.
The injury is caused by the puncturing of the under surface of the leaf
and the extraction of the liquid contents of the leaf cells immediately sur-
rounding the puncture, which results in a very characteristic and notice-
able injury. In the process of feeding, the green chlorophyll is withdrawn,
leaving a small dead area which soon appears on the upper surface of the
leaf as a small whitish speck. As the mites continue feeding, the removal
of chlorophyll and specking increases until ultimately the leaf becomes
yellowish, lifeless and useless for food assimilation.
The characteristic red spider injury is quite easily recognized, even in
its early stages of development. The normal leaf is opaque, allowing
no light to pass through it, while around hijured areas considerable light
passes through the leaf tissue, due to the lack of chlorophyll in this vicinity.
The contrast between the opaque normal leaf tissue and the lightness
seen around affected areas is especially noticeable when the cucumber
plants have become full-grown and have leaves and terminal shoots
running over the top wires, for at this time the leaves are between the
source of light and the observer walking beneath them. The appearance
on the upper surface of the minute, pitted dead specks or spots, usually
arranged in clusters, will also point to infested areas.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE QF THE PEST ON CUCUMBERS.
The damage caused by red spiders in cucumber houses varies in severity.
The factors influencing this have not been determined, but at least they
are very complicated. The severest injury seems to occur in houses
containing a light sandy soil, while houses having heavj^ soils are better
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER, 157
able to withstand the attacks of this pest. Nearly every cucumber grower
in the Boston district, so far as the writer has been able to determine, is
forced to fight red spiders in order to bring his crop to maturity. In many
cases whole houses of j'oung cucumber plants have been destroyed with
sulfur fumes because the mites were so numerous and the injuries so
severe that it was deemed wise by the grower to destroy the plants and
reset the house. The usual methods used by greenhouse men to combat
this pest consist of severe pruning of infested plants and spraying with
as strong a stream of water as these delicate plants will stand, repeating
this as often as possible without allowing mildew to seriously injure the
leaves. In nearly all cases the mites win out in the struggle for existence,
and shorten the life of a cucumber plant over one month. Under normal
conditions the plant should bear a large amount of fruit during this time.
The loss, therefore, to cucumber men by red spider infestation is due to
shortening the life of the plant during its productive period.
A conservative estimate of the value of the cucumber crop grown
within the market-garden district of Boston is Sl,500,000 per season.
The cucumber growers suffer a loss of approximately $150,000, or 10 per
cent, of the whole crop, from the ravages of the red spider alone. Many
individual growers have estimated their loss between $2,000 and $5,000
annually.
LIFE HISTORY.
An examination of infested cucumbers will reveal the presence of tiny
transparent eggs, resembling minute dewdrops, attached to the under
surface of a leaf or interwoven among the silvery threads which the mites
are capable of spinning. In developing from the egg to the adult stage
the red spider follows one of two distinct courses, depending on the sex.
With the female the egg hatches in about four or five days to a tiny
colorless, six-legged form kno^vn as the larva, which feeds actively for a
little over one day. At the end of this time the larva becomes firmly
attached to the leaf and enters a quiescent premolting period which lasts
for one day. At the termination of this time the skin is shed and there
appears an eight-legged form called the primary nymph or protonymph,
which feeds for approximately one day and then enters a quiescent pre-
molting period. The duration of this period is approximately the same as
that of the larval quiescent stage. From this premolting period there
emerges the secondary nymph or deutonyrnph, which is probably the
most voracious of the immature mites. The deutonymphal stage is
divided into an active feeding period and a quiescent period, each of
which requires one day for its completion, after which the adult female
emerges from the deutonymphal molt. For the development from egg
to adult it takes seven to eight days under favorable conditions of tem-
perature. (See table on page 159.) The stages of the female red spider
and their duration may be represented as follows : —
Tr„fr ToT-n-a Quiescent Proto- Quiescent Deuto- Quiescent aj, u o
iLgg. l.arva. j nymph. II. nymph. III. "^^"'t ?•
-I 1 1 1r— i I 1
4-5 days. 1}^ days. 1 day. IJ^ days. IM days. IJ^ days. 1 day. 15-20 days.
158 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
Immediately following the deutonymphal molt the full-grown female
establishes herself upon a cucumber leaf and feeds for about two or three
days before oviposition takes place. During this short period it mates
^<^en7 U
and shows a tendency to migrate. Following this period for about eight
to ten days it deposits about six eggs per day, thus making a total of
fifty to sixty eggs laid by a single female. The average duration of life
of the adult female in summer is about two weeks, but this period in-
creases as the weather becomes colder.
The development of the male is verj^ similar to that of the female, with
the exception that the second nymphal stage is lacking. The other stages,
however, require a little longer period for development, so that the time
from the egg to the adult is only one day shorter than the development
of the female. The different stages of development and the length of
each stage of the male red spider may bo represented as follows: —
Egg.
Larva.
Quiescent I.
-I I
Nymph.
Quiescent II. Adult (f.
4-5 clays.
days.
134 days.
days.
IJ4 days.
5-7 days.
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER.
159
Development of Female Mite from Egg to Adult.
Date.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1916.
May 21, a.m.,
P.M.,
Hatched.
Hatched.
Hatched.
-
May 22,
A.M.,
P.M.,
Larva.
Larva.
Larva.
Larva.
Larva.
Larva.
Hatched.
Larva.
May 23,
A.M.,
P.M.,
Quiescent I.
Quiescent I.
Larva.
Quiescent I.
Quiescent I.
Quiescent I.
Larva.
Quiescent I.
May 24,
A.M.,
P.M.,
Molted.
Protonymph.
Quiescent I.
Molted.
Molted.
Protonymph.
Quiescent I.
Molted.
May 25,
A.M.,
P.M.,
Protonymph.
Quiescent IL
Protonymph.
Protonymph.
Protonymph.
Quiescent II.
Protonymph.
Protonymph.
May 26,
A.M.,
P.M.,
Quiescent IL
Molted.
Quiescent II.
Molted.
Molted. •
Deutonymph.
Quiescent II.
Quiescent II.
May 27,
A.M.,
P.M.,
Deutonymph.
Quiescent IIL
Deutonymph.
Deutonymph.
Deutonymph.
Quiescent III.
Molted.
Deutonymph.
May 28,
A.M.,
P.M.,
Quiescent III.
Molted (adult 5).
Quiescent III.
Quiescent III.
Quiescent III.
Molted (adult 9).
Quiescent III.
Quiescent III.
May 29,
A.M.,
P.M.,
-
Molted (adult $).
-
Molted (adult ?).
FEEDING HABITS AND DISPERSION.
A mite which has become full-grown, on finding a suitable spot on the
under surface of the leaf, settles down to feed, and the results soon become
apparent on the upper surface. At first this injury shows as a few small
dead or corky specks, but as feeding continues these few are added to
until we find a small area literally made up of them. The mite also im-
mediately begins to lay eggs, which soon hatch into young mites. These,
however, usually remain feeding in the immediate vicinity of their birth,
thus causing more or less concentrated injury at different points on the
leaf where older mites have established themselves, formmg what might
be termed different colonies. As these colonies increase in number the
feeding areas also increase, until fi.nally they coalesce and cover prac-
tically the whole leaf. This is now absolutely useless to the plant and
worthless as a food supply for the large number of mites which inhabit it,
and they therefore migrate to other leaves. This migration may be up
the plant or may extend to the next plant, provided their leaves are in
contact. This new plant may have hitherto escaped injury so that the
basal leaves remain uninjured, while an infestation occurs part way up
the plant. In natural dispersion the migration is nearly always by full-
grown females previous to the egg-laying period. In the majority of cases
dispersion within a greenhouse is accomplished wholly by natural agencies.
In artificial dispersion the most important factors are the men engaged
in pruning, picking or "rolling up" cucumber plants. Thej^ pass from
an infested to a non-infested plant, but carry over infestation on their
clothing, hands or tools. This means of dispersion becomes exceedingly
160 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
important when the plants have become so badly infested that webs
have been spun over the leaves, as the pickers passing from one house to
another carry infestation with them. .
NATURAL ENEMIES.
Red spiders out of doors have a very large number of enemies be-
longing to widely different groups, nine groups of predacious forms em-
bracing thirty-one species having been listed (McGregor, 1917) as attack-
ing the red spider. Under greenhouse conditions, however, red spiders are
exceptionally free from enemies. It appears that the red spider enemies
are unable to develop in the high temperatures which are necessary for
most greenhouse crops. In cucumber houses the wi'iter has repeatedly
examined infested leaves in the hope that some enemy would be found
able to withstand greenhouse conditions and prove useful in the control
of this mite, but these examinations have proved fruitless. On violets
which are gro%vn in a humid atmosphere and at a low temperature, a few
predaceous mites belonging to the order Acarina, family Gamasidcc, are
very beneficial.
INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTS.
Before taking up the experiments conducted on the artificial control
of red spiders a few facts will be summarized in order that the failure of
some fumigants and sprays may be better understood.
Cucumber plants grown out of doors are very delicate and susceptible
to injury of many kinds, while those grown in forcing houses are much
more so. Therefore the sprays and fumigants which can be used with
safety to the foliage are very few, while the red spiders are exceptionally
hard pests to combat. These two opposing factors have been found
extremely hard to satisfy.
Many greenhouse men ask the following question, "Why is fumigation
not effective in controlling red spiders?" It has been known for many
years that these mites are very resistant to fumigation with our ordinary
poisonous gases, such as tobacco and hydrocyanic acid gas. To explain
this peculiarity we must contrast the respiratory systems, through which
all poisonous gases act, of mites and insects. The latter are efficiently
controlled, while only a very few of the former succumb to such treatment.
In insects the respiratory system is composed of several large main
air tubes which repeatedly divide, forming very small tubes which ramify
into all parts of the body. This system of tracheal tubes opens to the
exterior by several small segmentally arranged openings called spiracles,
and through these the poisonous gas enters the air tubes, which conduct
it to every tissue in the body, and produces sudden death.
Although the tracheal system of the red spider is better developed than
in most mites, it is far simpler than in the majority of insects, containing
a much smaller number of tubes.
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 161
The number and location of the spiracles in red spiders have not been
determined because of their minuteness, but they are probably two in
number and are situated in the vicinity of the head region. Therefore,
although the red spider can be killed by fumigation with hydrocyanic
acid gas, it is impossible to do so without severely damaging plant life,
due to the concentration of the poisonous gas required.
An infested plant has at all times every developmental stage of the
red spider on its leaves, but in artificial control methods we need to con-
sider only three general stages.
1. Egg Stage. — At the present time no spray is known which will
affect this stage without severely injuring the plant.
2. Quiescent Stage. — As explained under the life history, the young
larva? on hatching feed for a day, and then settle down on the leaf in a
premolting or quiescent state during which time no nourishment is taken.
These quiescent mites form a new chitinous layer beneath the old external
skin covering of the preceding stage. Thus during this period a red
spider has two chitinous layers covering the body instead of the normal
one, and because of this it has been found very difficult to kill by contact
sprays. By reference to the life history it will be seen that each female
mite passes through three of these quiescent periods before reaching the
adult state. If red spiders in this stage of development are not killed by
the spray material recommended for control, it will be almost impossible
to eradicate this pest unless sprayings are conducted daily.
As soon as the spray applied to an infested plant has evaporated, the
mites will be found inactive, and many workers have concluded that all
mites above the egg stage have been killed. However, if the leaves were
kept under careful observation it would be seen that many of the mites
quiescent at the time of application later molt and establish themselves.
This point has been overlooked by former workers on the control of red
spiders, but is a very important one.
3. Feeding Stages. — A large number of spray materials efficiently
control mites in the active feeding stages, but because of their inefficient
control of the quiescent stages have been discarded.
EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED IN THE LABORATORY.
Fumigation Experiments.
Several fumigation experiments were conducted in the hope that some
gas might be found effective for red spiders without being injurious to
cucumber plants.
(a) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2).
In many commercial forcing houses ' sulfur is burned between crops,
in order to rid the house of all insects, fungous diseases and mites. To
prove whether this was an efficient method, the following experiments
were performed.
162 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
Powdered sulfur was burned at the rate of one-quarter of a i:)ound per
1,000 cubic feet of space in a tight fumigating box containing a badly
infested plant. After twelve hours' fumigation the plant was removed.
Results. — The cucumber plant was severely injured and died. All
mites were killed, those quiescent failed to molt and the eggs did not
hatch. This experiment was repeated several times and the results
checked with those above.
Fumigation with sulfur dioxide is an inexpensive and efficient method
of ridding an infested house of mites between crops.
Painting Sulfur on Steam Pipes. — This is an old practice of florists in
combating the red spider, but has been proved beyond a doubt to be
absolutely worthless.
(6) Hydrogen Sulfid (HoS).
Potassium sulfid (liver of sulfur) dissolved in water has been widely
recommended as an efficient spray for controlling red spiders, and it is
claimed that its efficiency depends upon the fact that it combines with
the carbon dioxide of the air, forming potassium carbonate and hydrogen
sulfid according to the following formula: —
Monosulfid: KsS + HiO + CO2 = K2CO3 + H2S.
Polysulfid: K2S5 + H2O + CO2 = K2CO3 + H2S + 4S.
As an insecticide it is claimed that this sulfid acts by virtue of its caustic
properties and the hydrogen sulfid given off by its decomposition, this
gas being for insects almost as poisonous as hydrocyanic acid gas.
To determine whether hydrogen sulfid could be used with safety to
plants and still be effective in killing red spiders the following experiment
was performed: a plant infested with mites was placed for twelve hours
in a fumigating box containing a 1 per cent, atmosphere of hydrogen
sulfid.
Results. — The plant was severely injured and died, while the mites
and eggs were unaffected.
(c) Carbon Bisulfid (CS2).
Experiments using carbon bisulfid at the rate of 2 pounds per 1,000
cubic feet proved to be inefficient in controlling the mites even after a
twelve-hour fumigation. The plants in this case were not injured. Carbon
bisulfid at a higher rate would be too expensive to use in commercial
houses, and therefore further experiments were discontinued.
(d) Benzene or Benzol (CeHe).
Early in the experiments on the control of red spiders it was found
that benzene vapor had a very active effect upon the mites. However,
this proved to be only a temporary stupefication, and mites which had
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 163
been removed from the fumigating box containing benzene vapor soon
recovered in fresh air. The expense and danger accompanying the use
of benzene precludes its use on a commercial scale.
Nitrobenzene and para-dichlorobenzene were experimentally used as
fumigants, but proved to be as unsatisfactory as benzene, while nitro-
benzene severely injured foliage.
Spraying Experiments.
At present the only kno\\ai method of controlling red spiders is by
the use of sprays. The majority of these act as adhesive sprays, while
only a few are truly contact poisons.
(a) Water.
Water alone has been found very useful in the control of this pest on
certain plants, such as the carnation, violet and rose. The usefulness
of a water spray lies in the fact that frequent syringing dislodges many
mites from the leaves. The majority of these fall to the moist ground
and become permanently pasted into the mud. Frequent use of water
also prevents the formation of webs, which are quite necessary as a means
of travel and dispersal when a leaf becomes thickly populated. Although
water is very useful in controlling these mites on certain plants, others
cannot be gro-uii in a humid atmosphere without being seriously attacked
by fungous diseases, and this is especially true of cucumber plants. The
tenderness of the forcing house cucumber also limits the usefulness of a
strong stream of water.
(b) Adhesive Sprays.
1. Flour Paste. — Perhaps the most widely known and thoroughly
tried adhesive spray is flour paste, recommended by W. B. Parker (1913)
in controlling mites attacking hops in the Sacramento Valley, Cal. He
found that flour paste made according to the following formula proved
to effectively control 99 to 100 per cent, of the mites: 8 pounds of flour
boiled in 8 gallons of water to form a paste, and diluted to make 100
gallons of spray. ^
In order to obtain an accurate estimate of the effectiveness of ^his
spray when used on cucumbers the following experiment was performed:
a stock solution of flour paste was made and diluted according to Parker's
formula. This spray was applied thoroughly to an infested plant.
Results. — The spraj'' has excellent spreading qualities, and as an
adhesive is quite efficient in controlling all mites which at the time of
sprajdng are actively feeding. However, this spray does not affect either
the hatching of the eggs or the emergence of the mites from the quiescent
stages.
> In a recent government bulletin McGregor and McDonough recommend the use of laundry
starch, thus simplifying the process of cooking in forming the stock paste solution.
164 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
2. Soap. — The addition of soap to a spray material increases its
spreading qualities and at the same time adds to its adhesive properties.
For red spider control soap is inefficient as a contact poison, but if used
in fairly concentrated solutions it proves to be an excellent adhesive
spray.
Ivory soap used at the rate of 1^ pounds in 25 gallons of water was
tried as a spray and found to be as effective as flour paste (8-8-100), with
the advantage of being much easier to make and not requiring constant
agitation.
Results. — After this spray has been applied the water evaporates, leav-
ing a brittle film of soap over the mites, which is fairly efficient in sticking
these pests to the leaves. However, nearly all mites which are in the
quiescent stage molt and establish themselves, and quite a few of the
actively feeding mites are able to break the brittle film of soap covering
their bodies and thus become liberated to feed on the leaf as before. The
eggs are not affected.
A common brand of fish oil soap, at the rate of 1 pound in 10 gallons
of water, was applied to mites on cucumbers. The efficiency of this over
ordinary soap proved to be very little, if any.
(c) Sulfur and Compounds of Sulfur.
Sulfur and many of its compounds have been recommended for the
control of red spiders attacking varix)us plants. The following have
been tried thoroughly, but have proved, for the most part, inefficient.
1. Dry Sulfur. — In southern California, where the temperature is
high, dusting plants early in the morning so that the dew on foliage
will cause the particles of sulfur to adhere has been found very» suc-
cessful, especially upon low-growing plants. The use of resublimed
or flowers of sulfur on plants which are not prostrate has proved very
unsatisfactory as a control for red spiders. Many of the market gardeners
of Boston have thoroughly tried out this method without any material
success. Several experiments were conducted, but dusting did not seem
to affect the red spiders in the least, even though the temperature was
high.
2. Sulfur as a Liquid Spray. — This spray has been recommended for
controlling red spiders, but experimentally proves to be of very little
value.
3. Sulfur Compounds, (a) Potassium Sulfid (Liver of Sulfur) KgS. —
This spray has been recommended by McGregor as being very effective
in controlling red spiders attacking cotton. Using 3 pounds of potassium
sulfid to 100 gallons of water, McGregor found that 100 per cent, of the
mites on cotton were killed by this spray. This is an easily prepared
material Vv'hich may be applied with safety to foliage, but at the present
time, on account of the increasing demand for potassium salts for use in
the manufacture of munitions and fertilizers, this is very difficult to
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 165
obtain, while the price is rather high. In using this material on cucumbers
it is necessary to add soap to the solution in order to increase its spreading
qualities.
Results. — This ^ray proved to be efficient in controlling actively
feeding mites, but only a few of those quiescent failed to molt. The eggs
were not affected.
(b) Calcium Sulfid (CaS2). — This spray proved to be of little value
as it killed but few mites. Soap cannot be added to this solution as it
forms an insoluble calcium soap which is precipitated. Had this material
proved of value it could be obtained more cheaply in lime-sulfur, of which
it is a constituent, than in the form of the pure white calcium sulfid.
(c) Sodium Sidfid (NajS). — To determine whether a substitute for
potassium sulfid could be obtained by the use of sodium sulfid, a spray
was made by the following formula: —
Pounds.
Commercial NaOH, . . . . . . . . . • '^h
Flowers of sulfur, . . . . . . . . • . .5
After solution is complete add water to make 100 gallons of spray.
Results. — Although this spray proved to be as effective in killing all
actively feeding mites as did the potassium sulfid solution, its effect on the
quiescent stages was materially less. The eggs were not injured.
(d) Sohible Sulf^ir. — This is a commercial compound made up prin-
cipally of sodium sulfid, and as a spray the results check with those given
above, with the exception that this spray is very apt to injure the foliage.
(e) Barium Sulfur (B. T. S.). — This material, used at the rate of 3
pounds to 50 gallons of water, is not injurious to foliage, but is inefficient
in controlling mites. Soap cannot be added, as it forms an insoluble
barium soap.
(/) Lime-sidfur and Kico-jume Liquid. — This has been recommended
as a spray for spider mites as well as the clover mite (Bryobia), and has
the f ollomng composition : —
Lime-sulfur, commercial (quarts), ........ 2
Nico-fimie (pint), ........... i
Water (gallons), ........... 25
Results. — The application of this material caused considerable injury
to the cucumber foliage, while it was only fairly efficient in controlling
the mites. Several greenhouse men have sprayed -with dilute lime-sulfur
solution, but have found it both inefficient in controlling these pests and
injurious to the foliage. Nicotine sprays are also inefficient when used
alone.
(d) Oil Sprays.
1. Sprays containing Petroleum Oils, (a) Arlington Oil. — This is a
chemically miscible oil containing approximately 90 per cent, petroleum
oil. Used at the rate of 1 part oil in 50 parts of water it was found effective
166 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
in controlling aphids and thrips, but killed only 50 per cent, of the actively-
feeding mites. At the above strength this spray severely injured cucumber
foliage, and even when diluted to 1 part oil in 100 parts of water, injury
still occurred. '
(h) Arlington Oil and Black-Lea J- J^O. — Formula: oil, 1 part to 125
parts of water; Black-Leaf-40, 1 part to 2,000 parts of water. This com-
bination spray is much more active than the ingredients used separately,
but is injurious to the cucumber foliage.
(c) Kerosene Emulsion. — This is recommended as being efficient in
controlling red spiders, but it severely injures tender foliage.
2. Sprays containing Vegetable Oils, (a) Lemon Oil. — This is manu-
factured by the Lemon Oil Company, Baltimore, Md., and. is at present
sold at $1.75 per gallon in 5-gallon lots. It is a completely saponified
oil soap, and is guaranteed to contain the following ingredients: —
Per Cent.
Soap, ............. 6
Vegetable oil,
Potassium carbonate,
Terabenthine (Turpentine?),
Water (not over),
3i
5
85
Of the many commercial insecticides used experimentally m the control
of red spiders this proved the most satisfactory.
Results. — Used at the strength of 1 part lemon oil in 20 parts of water,
or 1 pint in 2^ gallons of water, it killed all actively feeding mites, as
well as those in the quiescent stage, without injuring the foliage. The
eggs are not materially affected by this spray. If young potted cucumber
plants are dipped in the above mixture some injury will result to the
terminal growing point, but if the plants are sprayed this injury does not
occur.
During the spring and summer months of 1916 this spray was thoroughly
tried out on a commercial scale, and proved to be very satisfactory, but
its expensiveness precludes its free use as a general spray for red spiders.
(b) Experiments on the Duplication of Lemon Oil. — With the co-
operation of Dr. E. B. Holland of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experi-
ment Station a number of spray materials were made in order to deter-
mine the killing agent in lemon oil, and for the purpose of duplicating
the efficiency of this oil by a substitute which would be less expensive.
The following table will briefly show the composition of these mixtures
and their relative effectiveness in controlling red spiders: —
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER.
167
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168 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
(c) Linseed Oil Emulsion. — Thus, out of nine mixtures, only those-
containing linseed oil proved at all promising. Mixtures 7 and 8 were
rather poorly saponified (chemically), while 9a and 96 were completely
saponified; but 7 and 8 proved efficient, while 9a and 96 were not. This
could only be explained by the fact that the free linseed oil was really
the toxic agent, and when it was only partly saponified there remained
some free linseed oil which established the efficiency of the spray. Upon
this supposition were based other preparations containing linseed oil
mechanically emulsified in a solution of soap in water. These emulsions
proved to be efficient when a 1 per cent, oil spraj^ was used.
Two types of linseed oil emulsion may be made, depending upon the
length of time these emulsions are to be retained before use.
Experimentally it was found that the most stable stock emulsion could
be made as follows : one-eighth of a pound of Ivory soap (one-half a 5-cent
cake) dissolved in a pint of very hot water. After the soap is completely
in solution add 1 pint of cold water followed by the addition of 1 pint of
raw linseed oil. The oil should be completely emulsified by the use of a
bucket pump. This solution is stable, pro\dded the water contained in
it is not allowed to evaporate. In using this stock emulsion, especially
after it has been kept for some time, it is best to mix one part of stock
with an equal volume of water before diluting to desired strength. One
part of stock emulsion in 20 parts of water proved to be efficient in killing
mites, both in the quiescent and feeding stages.
If spraying is to be done soon after mixing thd emulsion it is best to
increase the amount of water and soap, and make the emulsion as follows:
shave 6 ounces of Ivory soap (1| 5-cent bars) into 1 gallon of hot water.
Add 2 quarts of cold water to cool the solution, then add 1 quart of raw
linseed oil and emulsify with a bucket pump. This emulsion, used at the
rate of 1 part in 9 parts of water, is very efficient, kilhng quiescent and
feeding mites without injury to leaf tissue.
Soy bean oil substituted for linseed oil proves to be efficient, and in
some localities could be used to advantage.
Action of Linseed Oil Einulsion upon Mites. — The majority of oils used
as insecticides are regarded as contact poisons. These poisonous oils
are supposed to enter the body of the insect, either directly through the
thin membraneous chitin of the body segments or by entering the spiracles,
where they immediately pass through the tracheal lining and produce
an active effect upon the internal structures essential to the life of the
insect.
In a previous part of this paper it has been showii that the spiracles
are very few, — probably two in number, — and that the body of a red
spider is covered by a rather thick and continuous coating of chitin. For
these reasons sprays which prove effective in killing aphids are of little
value when applied to mite-infested plants.
Many of the spray materials which have given partial success in con-
trolling mites have a marked adhesive action, and from this property
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 169
linseed oil emulsion derives its efficiency. The spray as made (see "Re-
pressive Measures") contains the amount of soap necessary to hold the
oil in suspension and give the spray material excellent spreading qualities.
Raw linseed oil contains two types of oils, — (1) drying oil and (2) resinous
oil. Upon this fact is based its usefulness in paints, as well as its efficiency
as a red spider spray.
A leaf thoroughly covered by the spray soon becomes dry, the water
evaporating, while the oil and soap become more and more concentrated
as this evaporation continues. Finally there is formed a very thin layer
of oil and soap which gradually settles down on to the leaf surface, cover-
ing all mites which were feeding on the leaf at the time of application.
This film gradually envelops the mite, and the volatile parts of the linseed
oil are given off, leaving behind a resinous or waxy oil which securely
cements the legs of the mite to itself and to the leaf. Thus the mite is
helpless, and the waxy residue of the linseed oil remains, sticking the mite
until it dies of starvation. Without doubt some of its effectiveness may
be due to its being a contact poison, but its most important quality is its
adhesiveness.
Summary of Materials found to be Efficient Experimentally.
No fumigant was efficient in killing red spiders without severely damag-
ing cucumber plants.
Sulfur burned to form sulfur dioxid proved to be very effective in
killing all stages of mites. Although this gas is deadly to plant life, its
appUcation as a fumigant to rid empty houses of all mites is extremely
useful.
Many spray mixtures proved to be efficient in controlling actively
feeding mites, but did not affect those in the quiescent stages of develop-
ment. For the control of all stages above the egg stage lemon oil, a com-
mercial product, and linseed oil emulsion proved to be the most satis-
factory. Soapy solutions should also receive some attention as among
the most readily prepared spray materials, although their efficiency is
only temporary and treatment must be repeated often in order to control
these mites.
EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED IN COMMERCIAL GREEN-
HOUSES.
The materials found to be most efficient in the laboratory experiments
were applied to cucumber plants in commercial establishments in order
to determine the practicability of spraying for the control of these mites
before any recommendations were made.
It was found impossible for the writer to be stationed at these green-
houses during the whole spraying period. Therefore the efficiency of
these sprays under commercial conditions has been determined largely
by the statements of the growers, checked by more or less frequent per-
sonal observations.
170 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
Lemon Oil,
The fii-st of these commercial experiments commenced during May,
1916, and continued until the middle of June. Lemon oil, 1 part in 20
parts of water, was thoroughly tested in sev^eral greenhouse^, and in all
cases the spray proved very efficient, provided it was thoroughly applied
to the infested plants. At the time the first commercial applications
were made the plants were nearly full-grown, and the mites were at that
time rapidly spreading through the houses. All that could be expected
of this spray was to hold the red spiders in check, so that they would not
materially damage the whole house before a good crop of cucumbers had
been picked. Owing to the scarcity of labor it was found impossible to
apply sprays at weekly intervals, and therefore the results were not as
satisfactory as they would have been under other conditions. However,
these sprayings held the red spiders in check and prolonged the life of
the cucumber plants, which would have died early in the season had no
treatment been applied.
In several instances young potted cucumber plants were dipped in a
1 to 20 dilution of lemon oil as they were being set in the greenhouse.
This prov^ed to be injurious to the succulent leader, although the leaves
gave no indication of injury.
Linseed Oil Emulsion.
During the summer of 1916 experimental work on the determination
of the killing property of lemon oil led to the discovery of linseed oil
emulsion and its efficiency in controlling mites. This emulsion has re-
ceived a verj'" thorough trial in commercial greenhouses this season (1917),
and proves to be satisfactory in many respects. The ingredients are
always at hand, the initial cost is low, being one-fourth that of lemon
oil, and the method of preparation is simple.
Experiment No. 1.
Early in the spring of 1917 this spray mixture was thoroughly tested
on a commercial scale in greenhouses located in Watertown, Mass. This
range is naturally divided into two groups. Group I. contained the oldest
cucumber plants and Group IL the youngest. It was decided that appli-
cations should be made to the youngest plants, although they were really
too old for effective spraying. The cucumber plants became badly in-
fested in the seed-plant house before being set out. Therefore this in-
festation became serious soon after the plants were transplanted to the
greenhouses. Severe pruning was resorted to, but this did not hold the
mites in check. For efficient control, these plants should have been
thoroughly sprayed at the time they were transplanted.
Group II. consisted of three greenhouses. In greenhouse No. 1 the
plants were very heavily infested, and were 5 feet tall at the time of the
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 171
fii-st application. In No. 2 the plants were 2| feet tall and generally
infested, although not sho\\ing any noticeable injury to the plants from
the red spider attack. In No. 3 the plants were 4 feet high and rather
severely infested. In each of these houses three applications were made
at weekly intervals.
The final results of these experiments are as follows: the greenhouses
of Group I. were not sprayed, and though the plants were very little
older than those in Group II. they died from the red spider injury after
being in the range approximately three months. In Group II. the plants
were sprayed and produced fruit for over a month longer than the un-
sprayed plants of Group I, Houses No. 1 and No. 3 contained such large
cucumber plants that a thorough application of a spray was found im-
possible, but the ravages of these mites were checked during the spraying
period. Although a complete control was impossible, the productive life
of the crop was lengthened approximately one month. In house No. 2,
containing the youngest cucumber plants in Group II., the control was
much more efficient, primarily because the plants were smaller and a
thorough spraying could be given them. However, even these plants
were too large to insure a thorough application after the first spraying.
Experiment No. 2.
Further tests of the efficiency of linseed oil emulsion were made in
commercial greenhouses at Arlington, Mass. In this establishment all
plants were infested in the seed-plant house while still in pots. Soon after
they were set in the greenhouses the first spray was applied, and one week
later the second application was made. These two applications were
made at the proper time, and controlled the mites so effectually that
during midsummer some of these houses were yielding good crops, while
only a few scattered plants were beginning to show marked red spider
injury. At approximately the same time in former years the plants in
these houses have been severely infested and dying from the ravages of
the red spider. This range of greenhouses consists of twelve large houses,
and therefore it is not surprising that the whole establishment could not
be thoroughly covered each week.
An excellent demonstration of the efficiency of linseed oil emulsion was
made in the seed-plant house. As stated above, when the cucumber
plants were still in pots in this house they were noticeably infested by
red spiders. The grower, knowing that this house contained many mites,
determined that sprayings should be given with special care, in order to
eradicate these pests. Soon after the potted plants were set out in the
seed-plant house the first application was given, care being taken to
cover thoroughly all the leaf surface. One week after this the second
thorough spraying was applied. These applications were made so thor-
oughly that very few if any mites which originally infested the cucumber
plants survived, and the plants attained full growth without showing
any red spider injury.
172 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
Conclusions drawn from Commercial Spraying Experiments.
Sprayings conducted on bright, sunny days with a rather high tem-
perature in the greenhouse resulted in slight injury to the edges of the
leaves, but if applications were made on cool, cloudy days this injury
did not occur.
For a thoroughly efficient control at least three applications should be
given the cucumber plants at weekly intervals, as soon after they have
been set out in the greenhouses as possible.
PREVENTION.
The wTiter has been unable to conduct a thorough test in eliminating
red spiders from the whole range by cultural methods, because it was
found impossible to procure an establishment which would serve for this
purpose. In commercial greenhouses many factors enter into the red
spider problem which cannot be solved unless a suitable range is found
which will eliminate these confusing factors in order that some definite
knowledge may be gained by using preventive measures. However,
under greenhouse conditions, it is the writer's firm conviction that the
red spiders can be totally exterminated from commercial ranges by clean
culture, both within and outside the greenhouse. It is hoped that some
experimental work may be conducted on this important control measure
in the near future. ,
CONTROL MEASURES.
The general biology and development of experimental and commercial
control measures have already been discussed, but only in a general way.
Under this heading the methods used for the prevention and repression
of red spiders will be taken up more in detail. Having established the
efficiency of the repressive measures, only the preparation and application
of spray materials will be considered.
Preventive Measures.
The solution of the red spider control problem in cucumber greenhouses
should be accomplished through preventive efforts rather than by re-
pression, if it is to be done most economically. The commercial grower
should do everything possible to eliminate these pests, both within and
outside his greenhouses.
In the majority of cases cucumber plants are infested either in the
plant house or soon after they have been set out in the greenhouse. The
origin of this infestation may be weeds which have harbored mites through-
out the winter inside the greenhouse, or weeds and grasses immediately
surrounding the house at the base of which the mites winter over and
migrate into the greenhouse early in the spring. The first is very im-
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 173
portant when plants are started very early in the season, while the second
is of importance only after the warm days of spring have started these
outside weeds.
Fumigation of Greenhouses and Equipynent with Sulfur Fumes.
Immediate!}^ before setting the cucumber plants in a house, and before
fumigation is begun, all boards which are to be used either between the
cucumber rows or to make "A" trellises should be taken inside the green-
house. Do not lay the boards on the ground, but stand them against the
steam pipes or in some similar manner to allow the poisonous gas free
access to all parts. Other equipment which has been in any way con-
nected with a previous infestation and is to be used during the cucumber
season should also be placed in the house for fumigation. Do not intro-
duce living plants until after a thorough fumigation and a subsequent
airing of the houses, as sulfur fumes are deadly to plant life.
In fumigating, each house should be tightly closed and sulfur used at
the rate of one-third of a pound to every 1,000 cubic feet of space. (In-
crease to one-half pound in case of houses that are not fairly tight.)
Directions for Fumigation. — "Weigh the required amount of sulfur and
di\ade it into four equal parts upon pieces of paper. This is about the
right number for a 150-foot house. Metal pans with plenty of breadth
are perhaps the best containers for the fumigating operation. First
cover the bottom of each pan with chips that have been soaked in kerosene,
and distribute these containers at various points through the house,
placing beside each the sulfur to be used. When all is in readiness set
fire to the chips, and when these are burning well drop in the sulfur. Be
certain that the sulfur has ignited and then withdraw from the house.
Allow the sulfur fumes to act for at least twelve hours before opening the
house. This fumigation may be done during the day or at night, accord-
ing to the convenience of the grower, and if the method is followed out
careful!)^ the red spiders wall be completely exterminated within the
house.
Special attention should be paid to the house in which potted cucumbers
are to be grown, and fumigation should be very thorough, for in many
cases the seat of infestation occurs here. At the conclusion of the cu-
cumber crop in the late summer the whole house should be fumigated with
sulfur before the plants have died, thus preventing the borders from
becoming infested from throw^n-out cucumber plants, and reducing the
number of red spiders which would otherwise winter over and attack the
next cucumber crop.
Destroying Outside Sources of Infestation.
The next problem which confronts the grower is to eliminate the possi-
bility of infesting the houses from outside sources. Investigation has
shown that many weeds and grasses, often found around greenhouses,
serve as breeding places for these pests, and undoubtedly are the source
174 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
of inside infestation. In the fall red spiders are found in large numbers
on these grassy borders, and being capable of wintering over out of doors,
it follows that a large percentage of those found in the fall will also be
present in the spring, and are quite certain to migrate to the more at-
tractive cucumber plants within the greenhouse.
Methods of Exterminating Grassy Borders.
1. The border for at least 10 feet away from the house should be thor-
oughly cultivated, preventing the gro^^i.h of weeds throughout the season.
2. Where cultivation is not practicable, burning the border may be
resorted to.
3. If neither of the above methods can be employed, kill all vegetation
around the greenhouse by spraying mth sodium arsenite used at the rate
of 1 pound to 20 gallons of water. It must be remembered, however,
that sodium arsenite is a poison, and care should be taken to prevent
animals from grazing on treated borders. Eepeat as often as necessary.
Elimination of Artificial Dispersion.
As described under "Feeding Habits and Dispersion," the most im-
portant factors in artificial dispersion are the men working in the green-
houses. The grower should systematize, as far as it is practicable, all
work which must be done in his houses according to the infestation; for
example, in two greenhouses, one showing red spider injury, the other
apparently free, pruning or "rolling up" of plants should first be done
in the house apparently free from infestation, and later in the infested
house. Also in picking cucumbers, the young houses — which usually
are not as badly infested as older ones- — should be picked first, and
older, badly infested houses last. Special care should be exercised not
to allow the men who have finished picking in a badly infested house to
start pruning or "rolling up " a very young house. Baskets used in picking
cucumbers should never be used in a younger house as a receptacle for
pruned parts of young plants.
The wi'iter realizes that these recommendations are not all applicable
under commercial conditions, but every precaution which is practicable
should be taken if artificial dispersion and infestation are to be reduced.
Repressive Measures.
During the early stages of infestation it is frequently found advisable
to destroy plants which are found to be badly infested. These badly
infested plants should be pulled out before the leaves begin to die, so as
to prevent dispersion due to lack of food.
If a few leaves, usually near the ground, are badly infested the pruning
of these will lessen the numbers of mites materially. In all cases, whether
a plant has been pulled or pruned, the red spiders on these leaves should
be destroyed by burning. Do not throw them outside of the house, but
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 175
destroy them immediately, thus elimmating the chance of infesting plants
surrounding the greenhouse. Pruning is especially useful when judi-
ciously applied to the young plants in a greenhouse. Such pruning should
be supplemented by spraying for a thoroughly efficient control.
Spraying.
If there is any possibility of infestation, spraying should commence
soon after the cucumber plants have been set out in the greenhouse. If
sprajdng is done at this time less material will be used, and a very thorough
application can be given in a minimum amount of time. In experiments
conducted in commercial greenhouses it Vv^as found that red spider sprays
applied to young cucumber plants gave very satisfactory results, while
on older plants these sprays did not prove as efficient. This can be ex-
plained by the fact that a good-sized cucumber plant has a large amount
of leaf surface which must be thoroughly covered by the contact spray
if efficiency is to be expected. This is economically impossible after the
plants have become nearly full-grown, because of the length of time and
amount of material necessary to accomplish it. Early sprajdng will con-
trol red spiders at a minimum expense of time, labor and materials.
Linseed oil emulsion is especially adapted for use in commercial green-
houses on a rather large scale.
If only a few plants need to be treated, lemon oil, manufactured by
the Lemon Oil Company, Baltimore, Md., may be purchased at nearly
all stores carrying insecticides. This, diluted at the rate of 1 part in 20
parts of water, gives a very eflacient spray, but for commercial spraying
this material is too expensive.
Soapy solutions sprayed upon delicate plants on several successive
days prove to be useful. In making this solution a high-grade soap
(Ivory soap) should be dissolved at the rate of 4 ounces in 3 or 4 gallons
of water.
Preparation of Linseed Oil Emulsion.
(a) The necessary articles for preparation are as follows : —
L Bucket pump.
2. Container or mixing tank. This should hold at least 8 or 9 gallons.
For this purpose a small washtub is perhaps the most available. Pails
may be used, provided the materials are mixed proportionally.
3. Ivory soap.
4. Raw linseed oil.
5. Hot water.
(6) The following proportions of materials for 100 gallons of spray are
used : —
1. Five gallons of hot water.
2. One and one-half pounds of Ivory soap. (Six 5-cent cakes or three
10-cent cakes.)
3. One gallon of raw Unseed oil.
176 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
(c) Steps in the preparation of stock solution follow: — •
1. Put the required amount of hot water in the container.
2. Shave the Ivory soap into this and stir until completely dissolved.
3. If at this time the temperature of the soap solution is too hot for
the hand to bear, dilute with 1 gallon of cold water and let it stand until
about body temperature or lukev/arm. The cooling of this solution is
necessary in order to prepa-re a permanent emulsion; otherwise the oil
will come to the surface on standing ("see No. 6). It also prevents the
chemical and physical Icilling properties of the linseed oil from being
changed by heat.
4. Add slowly, while stirring vigorously, 1 gallon of linseed oil.
5. Completely emulsify by using the bucket pump. Pump the emulsion
from the container through the pump and back into the container again,
keeping the nozzle below the surface of liquid. Five minutes' vigorous
pumping should completely emulsify this solution.
6. Set aside for a few minutes while preparing spray tank in order to
see that oil does not come to the surface.
(.d) The following are directions for the preparation of spray tank and
spray : —
1. Fill the 100-gallon spray tank about one-half full of water. If the
water used is too cold, upon the addition of the stock solution the soap
will solidify into small lumps, thus spoiling the emulsion. This may occur
early in the spring, when the water is very cold, but later in the season
ordinary tap water may he used without danger of the soap solidifying
on the addition of the stock solution.
2. Add stock solution made above. (See (c) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.)
3. Agitate. (If lumping occurs, the addition of a few pails of hot
water will remedy this.)
4. Fill the 100-gallon spray tank.
Application of the Spray.
Outfits and Methods of Spraying. — • In commercial greenhouse spraying
either a barrel pump or power sprayer should be employed, the latter
being the more economical, provided it is available and the size of the
establishment warrants its use. For spraying a few plants, or in a very
small greenhouse, perhaps the most satisfactory outfit consists of a com-
pressed air sprayer.
The length of hose necessary in spraying cucumber houses depends
upon the size of the house and the method of growing cucumbers. If
the vertical trellis system is used, in most cases it is best to have the
hose of sufficient length to reach from the sprayer down the middle aisle
and across the opposite end of the house, thus eliminating the necessity
of changing the spraj'^er during the spraying operations. By passing in a
zigzag manner across the house and gradually working backward the
house may be thoroughly covered in the least amount of time. If cucum-
bers are grown on the "A " trellis system the man sprajang should travel
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 177
up on one side of the row and back on the other. In either case a boy
should be employed to guide the hose, so that it will not injure the plants
as it is pulled from one row to the other.
These are the most common methods of spraying, but there are many
modifications which the grower can make according to the conditions
surrounding his houses and the manner of growing his plants.
An extension rod made from small piping with an elbowed tip or angle
nozzle is absolutely necessary for thoroughness in spraying. If cucumber
plants are grown on the vertical trellis system the extension rod should
be about 2| feet in length, while if grown on the "A" trellis system the
rod should be 4 feet in length, as this will allow the man spraying to reach
the basal leaves of the plants readily. It is perhaps more satisfactory
to use a 45° angle nozzle, several of which may be purchased {e.g., Friend
and Simplex angle nozzles^, thus eliminating the necessity of a separate
elbow.
Methods of Application. — From the fact that the red spider as a rule
passes its entire existence upon the under surface of a single leaf, early in
the season, when the plant is only slightly infested, it is plainly necessary
in spraying to cover the entire under side of every leaf. Special attention
should be paid leaves showing typical red spider injury, especially the
lower leaves of the plant, near the ground, as these are usually most
severely infested. To facilitate this under-surface spray an extension
rod with an elbow tip or angle nozzle is essential.
The pressure necessary in power spraying varies from 50 to 125 pounds,
depending upon the type of nozzle. Do not allow the spray to bombard
the under surface of the leaf if a coarse nozzle is used. As this Unseed
oil emulsion is a contact spray, it is necessary that the whole under surface
of a leaf should be covered by a film of this material. If the spray is
deposited on the leaf in fine droplets which do not run together, this can
be remedied by the adjustment of the pressure until they unite to form
a film. If a coarse nozzle is used, as the Simplex, a low pressure will be
required for film formation, while with a fine nozzle, as the Friend, a
higher pressure will be necessary. A preference should be given the
fine nozzle and high pressure, as this is less apt to injure the leaves, while
it proves very satisfactory in forming the film. The success 6r failure of
the spraying depends upon this film formation and thorough appUcation
of the material.
When Applications should he made. — In general greenhouse practice
spraying on bright days is and should be the rule, as with sunshine there
is less danger that conditions favorable for disease will result. In the
application of the linseed oil emulsion, however, spraying conducted on
sunny days with a rather high temperature in the greenhouse may result
in a slight injury to the edges of the leaf, while if spraying is done on
cool, cloudy daj'-s no injury is caused by the apphcations. Therefore, as
far as possible, spraying for the red spider should be done on cloudy days
when the temperature in the house is not over 80°. The injury on bright
178 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
days has never been serious, but should be eUminated as far as possible
by proper management of greenhouse temperature and the selection of
suitable days for spraying.
In order to effectively control red spider infestations, at least three
sprayings given at weekly intervals are necessary.
The first spraying should usually be applied one week after the plants
have been set in the greenhouse. If the young plants show mite injury
before this time the application should be made as soon as possible.
Usually young cucumber plants do not appear to be affected early in the
season. However, on closer examination it will be found that the majority
of these plants harbor a few mites which, if allowed to develop unhin-
dered, will later become so numerous, and the plant so large by the time
injury is noticeable, that an efficient control will be found extremely
difficult and expensive.
Since this spray does not destroy red spider eggs it is clear that a second
application is necessary to kill the individuals which were eggs at the
time of the first spraying. This should be applied seven to eight days
after the first. If the second spray is not applied at the proper time it
will be almost impossible to control these pests, for many mites will
have become adult and laid eggs unless the application is made as rec-
ommended.
Some mites are sure to escape the first and second sprayings, and there-
fore a third application must be given in order to kill these mites, which
if not controlled will rapidly multiply and severely injure the plants.
As previously mentioned in the discussion of the "Economic Im-
portance of the Pest," the loss to cucumber growers due to red spider
infestation consists in shortening the life of the plant during its pro-
ductive period. It is absolutely essential that these three sprayings be
made as directed, otherwise the producing period of the plants will be
reduced at least one month.
Under normal conditions the few mites found early in the season re-
produce rapidly until finally the plant becomes seriously affected by
the injuries caused by their progeny, and usually dies before producing
a full crop. If the mites are held in check by weekly applications early
in the season the length of the period during which these regular applica-
tions are made will later be added to the adult life of the plant. The
longer the spraying period the longer the productive life of the cucumber
plant.
It is therefore of great financial importance to the grower to see that
these sprayings are thoroughly applied at weekly intervals during the
early life of the crop.
Cost of Spraying. — The comparative cost of 100 gallons of spray
containing lemon oil and linseed oil is as follows: lemon oil, $8.75;
linseed oil emulsion, $1.50.
If sprayings are made with a power sprayer it will take a man, with the
help of a boy, approximately three hours to spray thoroughly a green-
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 179
house containing 1,600 cucumber plants about 4 feet high. The material
used ■ndll amount to 100 gallons. Thus the cost of one spraying when
the plants are nearly half grown is approximatel}^ $3.
Spray materials, . . . . . . . . . . . $1 50
Man, three hours, . . . . . . . . . 1 00
Boj', three hours, .......... 50
$3 00
This is a fair estimate of the cost of the 'third sprajdng. The first and
second sprajdngs taken together should cost approximately $3. Thus,
for three applications of linseed oil emulsion to 1,600 plants, the invest-
ment for labor and materials will be approximately $6. This should be
considered insurance on the crop. At the above rate the cost for three
applications is less than one-half cent per plant.
The original investment for spray materials and labor will be repaid
many times over by prolonging the fruit-bearing period of the plants.
CONTROL OF RED SPIDERS ATTACKING OTHER CROPS.
Perhaps a few words relative to the control of these mites attacking
some of the other crops will prove useful, especially to florists. Although
the writer has confined most of his attention to the control of this pest on
cucumbers, it is reasonable to suppose the same control measures will
give as satisfactory results in eliminating this pest on other plants. While
this is true, a few factors must be thoroughly understood in order to
procure these results.
On small or rather smooth-leaved plants, such as the violet, rose,
carnation, sweet pea and bean, the linseed oil emulsion spray as used on
cucumbers does not prove as satisfactory. The reason for this is that the
greater part of the spray applied to these plants runs off the leaf, and not
enough linseed oil is deposited on the mites to render them helpless. To
remedy this difficulty the stock linseed oil emulsion should not be diluted
as much as recommended for cucumber spraying. In some cases where
very delicate plants are to be sprayed the same dilution may be made,
but the solution of soap should be stronger.
In spraying cucumbers a 1 per cent, linseed oil mixture is used. On
plants such as the violet it is best that the original linseed oil stock solution
be diluted only one-half as much, making a 2 per cent, linseed oil mixture
and a more concentrated soap solution.
In the majority of cases proper experimentation by the grower will
furnish satisfactory evidence for the required dilution for eflftciency on his
special crop.
During July and August, 1917, the WTiter had the opportunity of thor-
oughly testing the efficiency of this 2 per cent, linseed oil emulsion for the
control of red spiders attacking violets in the field at Mr. William Sims'
greenhouses, Cliftondale, Mass. This field of violets, containing about
180 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 179.
100,000 plants, was sprayed, using a power sprayer, three times between
July 15 and September 1. The object of this spraying was not to rid the
plants of red spiders, although this undoubtedly could have been accom-
plished, but to keep their numbers so reduced during the dry summer
months that they could not seriously injure the new and tender foliage
or kill the plants as they had done in previous years.
The results were entirely satisfactory, and the violet plants were kept
practicall}' free from these pests. Those plants rather seriously damaged
before spraying began regained their dark green foliage, and during the
middle of August only a few leaves could be found in the field showing
typical red spider injury. Thus the damage caused by red spiders was
reduced to a minimum by spraying, while in previous years and under
similar conditions they had practically stripped the plants of their foliage.
The difficulty of thoroughly applying a spray to the lower surface of
the leaves of a low-growing plant is well recognized, for our modern
nozzles are not adapted to this type of spraying. This difficulty, however,
may be overcome in \dolet spraying bj^ the use of a simple spray nozzle
consisting of a "Skinner System" plug. This plug is often used in green-
houses, where it is inserted at intervals in the side of a water pipe. Water
passes from the pipe through a small hole in the center of the plug, and
then strikes a curved lip which transforms the solid stream to a fine, fan-
like spray. This plug is placed in the end of an extension rod 5 feet in
length, made from one-eighth-inch piping. The rod is then bent until
the fan-like spray travels parallel to the surface of the ground. This
type of nozzle proved very satisfactory, and could be held close to the
plant without injuring the leaves.
SUMMARY.
The common greenhouse red spider (Tetranychus bimaculatus Harvey)
is very generally distributed throughout the United States, extending
from Maine to Florida, and westward to Texas and California, only a
few States in the western arid region being exempt from the ravages of
this pest.
The red spider is very cosmopolitan in its feeding habits. In market-
garden greenhouses the most important vegetable attacked is the cu-
cumber. In floriculture greenhouses the rose, violet, sweet pea, carnation
and chrysanthemum are seriously injured. The most important outside
plants, as far as the greenhouse man is concerned, are those found around
most greenhouses, consisting of clover, grasses and weeds, as these are
undoubtedly important factors in causing inside infestation.
It is estimated that the annual loss to cucumber men in the Boston
market-garden district, due to red spider injury, amounts approximately
to 1150,000, or 10 per cent, of the whole crop.
Experimentation on the control of this mite attacking cucumbers gave
no f umigant which could be used with safety to the foliage. Sulfur burned
to form sulfur dioxide proved to be very effective in killing all stages of
GREENHOUSE RED SPIDER. 181
mites. Although this gas is deadly to plant life, its application as a
fumigant to rid empty greenhouses of red spiders is extremely useful.
Many spray mixtures proved to be efficient in controlling actively
feeding mites, but did not affect those in quiescent stages of development.
For the control of all stages above the egg stage linseed oil emulsion proved
to be the most satisfactory.
The control of the red spider may be accomplished by combining pre-
ventive and repressive measures.
Clean culture, or the eradication of weeds and plants which harbor
mites during the winter period, either within or outside the greenhouse,
is by far the most vital means of prevention in cucumber greenhouses.
Dispersion within the greenhouse may be hindered bj^ destroying plants
or parts of plants which harbor the initial infestation.
Applications of linseed oil emulsion at weekly intervals during the
early life of the plant prove very effective if made with extreme care.
At least three applications must be made for an efficient control.
By checking red spider infestation early in the season the producing
period of the plants is lengthened approximately one month.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The following bibliography includes only the more important economic
works on the red spider: —
Britton, W. E., 1901. "Common Soap as an Insecticide." First Rept. State Ent.,
Conn., pp. 227, 278. (Red Spider Remedy, pp. 271-273.)
Chittenden, F. H., 1901. "Some Insects Injurious to Violet, Rose, and Other
Ornamental Plants." Bull. 27, n. s.. Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agri. (The Two-
spotted Red Spider and Control, pp. 35-42, Figs. 9-14.)
Chittenden, F. H., 1909. "The Common Red Spider." Ciro. 104, Bur. Ent.,
U. S. Dept. Agri.
Ewing, H. E., 1914. "The Common Red Spider or Spider Mite." Bull. 121,
Oregon Agri. Exp. Sta., 95 pp., 30 figs.
Fleet, W. J., 1900. "Some Comparative Trials of Insecticide Pumps in Relation
to the Treatment of Tea Blights and Experiments in the Treatment of Red
Spider." Indian Mus. Notes, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 113-117.
GiJlette, C. P., 1889. "The Red Spider." Bull. 4, Iowa Agri. Exp. Sta., pp.
183, 184. (Greenhouse Control.)
Glover, T., 1855. "Insects Frequenting the Cotton Plant." Rept. U. S. Comm.
Patents, Agri., pp. 64-119, Pis. VI-X. (Reference to red spiders, p. 79.)
Harvey, F. L., 1892. "The Two-Spotted Mite." Annual Rept. Me. Agri. Exp.
Sta., pp. 1.33-146, PI. III. (Original description of Tclranychus himacu^atus
Harvey.)
Maynard, S. T., 1889. "Experiments in Heating Greenhouses." Bull. 4, Hatch
Exp. Sta., Mass. Agri. College. (Reference on control of red spiders, pp.
14, 15.)
McGregor, E. A., 1912. "The Red Spider on Cotton." Circ. 150, Bur. Ent.,
U. S. Dept. Agri., pp. 1-13, 5 figs.
McGregor, E. A., 1913. "The Red Spider on Cotton." Circ. 172, Bur. Ent.,
U. S. Dept. Agri., pp. 1-22, 12 figs.
McGregor, E. A., 1914. "Red Spider Control." In Journ. Econ. Ent., Vol.
VII., No. 4, pp. 324-326.
182 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BUI4LETIN 179.
McGregor, E. A., 1916. "The Red Spider on Cotton and How to Control It."
Farmers' Bull. 735, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agri., 12 pp., 10 figs.
McGregor, E. A., and McDonough, F. L., 1917. "The Red Spider on Cotton."
Bull. 416, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agri., prof, paper, 72 pp., numerous figs.
Morgan, H. A., 1897. "Observations on the Cotton Mite." Bull. 48, La. Agri,
Exp. Sta., pp. 130-135.
Parker, W. B., 1913. "The Red Spider on Hops in the Sacramento Valley of
California." Bull. 117, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agri., pp. 1-41, 6 pis., 9 figs.
Parker, W. B., 1913. "Flour Paste as a Control for Red Spiders and as a Spreader
for Contact Insecticides." Circ. 166, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agri., 5 pp.,
2 figs.
Perkins, G. H., 1897. "The Red Spider." Rept. of Ent., 10th Ann. Rept. Vt.
Agri. Exp. Sta., pp. 75-86, Figs. 1-4.
Quayle, H. J., 1912. "Red Spiders and Mites of Citrus Trees." Bull. 234, Cal.
Agri. Exp. Sta., pp. 483-530, Figs. 1-35.
Quayle, H. J., 1913. "Some Natiiral Enemies of Spiders and Mites." Journ.
Econ. Ent., Vol. VI., pp. 85-88.
Russell, H. M., 1908. "Experiments for the Control of the Red Spider in Florida."
Journ. Econ. Ent., Vol. I., pp. 377-380.
Sirrine, F. A., 1900. "Insects Affecting Carnations." Amer. Florist, Vol. XV.,
No. 613, pp. 909-913, 6 pis. (Red Spiders on Carnations and Control, p. 910.)
Surface, H. A., 1906. "Mites or Red Spiders on Leaves." Pa. Dept. Agri. Mo.
Bull., Div. Z06I., Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 95, 96. (Recommends spraying with
potassium sulfid.)
Taylor, W., 1896. "Notes on Destroying Red Spider." Journ. Hort., Ser. 3,
Vol. XXXIII. , No. 854, pp. 440, 441.
Titus, E. S. G., 1905. "Red Spider on Cotton." Bull. 54, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept.
Agri., pp. 87, 88.
Titus, E. S. G., 1905. "The Cotton Red Spider." Circ. 65, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept.
Agri., 5 pp., 2 figs.
Volck, W. H., 1903. "Sulfur Sprays for Red Spiders." Bull. 154, Cal. Agri.
Exp. Sta., 11 pp., 3 figs.
Volck, W. H., 1913. "The Control of Red Spiders." Monthly Bull. State Com.
Hort., Cal., Vol. 2, pp. 356-363.
Webster, F. M., 1899. "The Chinch Bug. Experiments with Insecticides."
Bull. 106, Ohio Agri. Exp. Sta., pp. 235-256, 5 figs. (Carbon Bisulfid against
Red Spider, pp. 254, 255.)
Weldon, G. P., 1909. "Two Common Orchard Mites." Bull. 152, Colo. Agri.
Exp. Sta., 12 pp., 7 figs.
Weldon, G. P., 1910. "Life History Notes and Control of the Common Orchard
Mites." Journ. Econ. Ent., Vol. III., No. 5, pp. 430-434.
Wilson, H. F., 1911. "Notes on the Red Spider Attacking Cotton in South Caro-
lina." Journ. Econ. Ent., Vol. IV., pp. 337-339.
Woglum, R. S., 1909. "Fumigation Investigations in California." Bull. 79, Bur.
Ent., U. S. Dept. Agri., 73 pp., 28 figs. (Citrus Red Spider, p. 11.)
Woodworth, C. W., 1902. "The Red Spiders of Citrus Trees." Bull. 145, Cal.
Agri. Exp. Sta., 19 pp., 5 figs.
Woodworth, C. W., 1903. "Entomology." Univ. Cal. Agri. Exp. Sta. Rept.,
1901-03, pp. 104-110. (Red Spider Remedies, p. 105.)
Worsham, E. L., 1910. "The Cotton Red Spider." Bull. 92, Ga. Agri. Exp. Sta.,
pp. 135-141, 5 colored plates.
BULLETI]^ l^o. 180.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION
FOR 1916.
BY H. J. FRANKLIN.
The investigations were mainly along the lines pursued in 1915. Many-
storage tests were conducted mth the fruit, the description and results of
which will be found particularly interesting.
Blueberry Culture.
A quarter of an acre was planted with six distinct strains of specially
selected and bred swamp blueberry stock provided by the Bureau of Plant
Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture. This was done
under the direction of Prof. Frederick V. Coville, for the most part on
August 3 1, about 375 plants being set out. The rows were 8 feet apart, and
the plants were set at intervals of 4 feet in the row. Most of these plants
made some gro\vi:h during the fall, and seemed in good condition when
winter began. A check row of unselected stock, taken from a neighboring
swamp and planted on May 18, grew well during the summer. Many supe-
rior wild plants were selected when in fruit and marked for planting in 19 17
as an additional check. It is hoped that the selected blueberry may prove
a satisfactory substitute for cranberries on bogs v/here conditions make the
growing of the latter fruit unprofitable. The commercial growing of the
blueberry may also develop enough to compete with that of the cranberry
in the cultivation of swamp soils, and thus provide a new industry for
Massachusetts.
Weather Observations.
Weather observations were made as in previous years, thermometer
readings and amounts of precipitation being telegraphed daily to the Bos-
ton office of the Weather Bureau during the periods of frost danger, and
frost conditions being telephoned to growers on cold nights when asked
for. The frost damage on the Cape this season was negligible.
184 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
Beginning with the second decade in May, wet weather prevailed more
or less until about the 1st of August, culminating on July 24 in an all-day
rain in which 4.20 inches fell at the station bog in twenty-four hours, this,
because of the previous saturation of the ground, causing the streams to
rise so much that the bogs located in considerable watersheds were generally
flooded in spite of all efforts to keep the water down. It was estimated
that over 1,000 acres of bearing bog on the Cape, either in or a little past
the blooming period, were entirely submerged in this way.
The wet season provided unusual chances to study the effects of water
on the blossoms and small berries. As a rule, the bogs bloomed heavily,
and for a time a record-breaking crop was expected, but an unusually
large proportion of the blossoms failed to set fruit. This failure took place
especially among the under berries, for the crop turned out to be more
"on top" than usual. Almost no berries were commonly found in thick
clumps of vines where the blossoms had been very abundant, while in thin
vines near by there was a fair amount of fruit. These conditions were gen-
eral, though less so on bogs that either had no winter-flowage or had it
taken off early. The wet weather evidently caused this failure of the set,
though it is hard to say definitely how it did so. The rain may have pre-
vented a proper fertilization of the flowers either by washing off the pollen
or by preventing bees from working actively. Perhaps an unusual preva-
lence of fungous diseases induced by the excessive moisture blasted the
blossoms.
It is the writer's present opinion, based on general observation and ex-
perience, that late holding of the winter-flowage so throws the blossoming
period out of its normal season that the danger of its meeting unfavorable
conditions for the setting of the fruit is usually considerably increased
thereby.
That flooding when the berries are small is dangerous was shown by the
effects observed on some bogs submerged for not over fifteen hours with
the blooming period past and crop fully set. These bogs lost half their
berries in spite of the cloudy weather that prevailed when the water was
let off and for three days afterward. The largest of the berries injured
under these circumstances were somewhat over a quarter of an inch in
diameter. Many of the larger berries on some bogs, however, endured
submergence two or three days without apparent injury.
Frost Protection.
In the fall of 1915 tests with new tobacco cloth, used in various ways or
a bog with much moss under the vines, showed no considerable temperatuv' •
advantage.
In the spring of 1916 this cloth was tried on a bog that was fairly e:;
sanded and with only a little moss. Green registering thermometers '^''
used in all the tests. Under one thickness of cloth spread on the
they showed a higher minimum temperature than thermometers r
ered, — by 3 degrees in some cases, though the usual difference 38
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 185
than 2 degrees. Two thicknesses spread on the vines raised the minimum
temperature from 3| to 5 degrees, according to wind conditions, above
that over the unprotected bog. One thickness supported on wires about
hip high gave a medium advantage as compared with the single and
double thicknesses spread on the vines.
In the fall these tests were continued on patches of unpicked vines on
the station bog, and a maximum advantage of about 3 degrees with a
single thickness and of 6 degrees with a double one was obtained. More-
over, this advantage continued after the vines had been covered with the
cloth continuously day and night for nineteen days in a test begun Sep-
tember 25 and ended October 14.
The experience with this cloth justifies the following conclusions: —
(a) This protection is not satisfactory on bogs with much moss under
the vines because of the reduced radiation on such bogs.
(b) Good secondhand cloth is so hard to get that its use is not practi-
cable.
(c) One thickness of new cloth is not enough when spread on the vines.
(d) The difficulties and expense of wire supports prohibit their use.
(e) With two thicknesses spread on the vines, the protection is proba-
bly sufficient for most of the Cape bogs, and this seems the best way to use
it. It is too bulky to handle easily on large areas, but it may be left on a
bog continuously during quite a long cold period without reducing the
protection afforded.
(/) It is better to protect with water if it can be done at reasonable
expense.
Howes ^ berries that had undergone various low temperatures were
picked and examined on November 15, as follows: —
1. Of 433 berries that had endured a temperature of 15^° F., 375 were
entirely sound and 58 were soft. Eighteen of the latter showed unmis-
takably that they had decayed from fungous disease, leaving only 40, or
9.64 per cent., that could have been softened by frost; and perhaps even
this figure should be reduced on account of fungous rot that could not be
distinguished.
2. Of 442 berries that had undergone a temperature of 13|° F., 340 were
sound and 102 soft. Of the latter, 26 showed that they had rotted because
of fungous diseases, this leaving 76, or 18.27 per cent., that might have
been frosted.
3. Of 444 berries exposed to a temperature of 9° F., 200 seemed entirely
sound, 244 being soft. Twenty of the latter evidently had been softened
by diseases, leaving only 224, or 52.83 per cent., that could have been hurt
by frost.
• This variety has been called "Late Howe" in previous reports of the cranberry substation.
The writer is informed that it was first taken from the wild, and cultivated by the late James P.
Howes of East Dennis, Howes being a common family name in that part of Cape Cod. As
" Howe" is evidently a corruption, and as "late" is superfluous, all the varieties that have been
called "Howe" being late, the name Howes is considered more appropriate and is therefore used
in this report.
186 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
The temperatures here recorded were taken with Green minimum regis-
tering thermometers hung just over the vines bearing the berries. The
fruit was well colored when it underwent these temperatures.
Several tests in both 1915 and 1916 showed that the temperature at
which freezing begins among ripened Early Black or Howes cranberries
is at or slightly above 22° F., no softening resulting from exposure to 23°.
The records of minimum temperatures at the station bog from 1911 to
1916, inclusive, show that no temperature low enough to harm well-colored
berries appreciably occurred in any picking season of those six years.
The results of these investigations show that, for bogs in warm or aver-
age locations that are flooded by pumping, it is unprofitable in the long
run to try to protect well-colored berries from frost, especially if the crop
is light.
Fungous Diseases.
These investigations were conducted, as in previous years, in co-opera-
tion with the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department
of Agriculture, Dr. C. L. Shear and his assistant, Dr. Neil E. Stevens,
visiting the Cape several times during the season, the latter spending sev-
eral weeks at the station, and both giving sustained and aggressive atten-
tion to the more technical side of the work during a considerable period in
the growing season and throughout the fall and early winter.
Table 1 is the season's record of the principal Bordeaux mixture spraying
plots, experiments with which have been described in previous reports.
None of these plots were treated this year, but the record is included here
to show the effects on the 1916 crop of the spraying done in former years.
Plots A, B, C, D and E were all sprayed in 1911, 1912 and 1913. The
treatment was continued on plots A, B and D in 1914, but was stopped
on C and E. It was further continued on A (entire plot) and on one-half of
B and one-half of D in 1915. Plots 15 and " 1913" were sprayed in 1913,
1914 and 1915. The whole of plot 15 has been treated with a complete
mixture of commercial fertilizers for several years, as was also the middle
part of A in 1913 and 1914. All the plots were picked with scoops as hereto-
fore. Where two checks were taken they were laid out on opposite sides
of the plot. The entire sections on which D and E are located, being
small, were used as checks. The fruit used in the storage tests was stored,
without separating, in quart cans with the covers on tight, but not sealed,
the berries being taken by hand from different parts of the picking crates,
all the crates picked being thus represented in the cans in most cases.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 187
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REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 189
The table shows that as a rule the areas sprayed in 1915 were less pro-
ductive in 1916 than their untreated checks, and that the fruit from these
sprayed areas was inferior in keeping quality in all cases in 1916. In this
connection the figures given for plots B and D in Table 2, taken from the
last report of the substation (Bulletin No. 168, page 3), are of interest.
Judging by the results of the 1915 and 1916 storage tests given in
Tables 1 and 2, the resistance of the plants to the attack of fungous dis-
eases had been weakened by the injury caused by Bordeaux mixture
described in previous reports.
Three plots, numbered, respectively, B. L. 1, B. L. 2 and B. L. 3, were
sprayed with "Black-Leaf 40" used at the rate of 1 part to 400 parts of
water, 2 pounds of resin fish-oil soap to 50 gallons being added to spread
and stick the spray, on the dates and with the results shown in Table 3.
These plots and their checks were all picked with scoops. The storage-
test fruit was stored, without separating, in quart cans with covers on
tight but not sealed, the berries being taken by hand from different parts
of the picking crates, all the crates being thus represented.
The spray evidently did not much affect the quantity of fruit, and the
storage tests showed no fungicidal value for it. This was not entirely a
fair test, as all the sprayed areas had been treated with complete commer-
cial fertilizer mixtures in 1915, but the impairment in keeping quahty
shown by the sprayed berries as compared with the check fruit was in all':
cases greater than that heretofore found by the writer to have resulted'
from the use of fertilizers. Did this spray have a harmful effect in this;
regard in some way?
Two plots, numbered A. L. 1 and A. L. 2, were sprayed with "Corona"
arsenate of lead, used at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water, on the-
dates and with the results shown in Table 4. These plots and their checks
were picked with scoops, and the storage-test fruit was selected and stored
in the same way as that of the "Black-Leaf 40" plots.
190 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
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REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 191
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192 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
The table shows little if any increase in yield from this treatment. The
berries of both plots, however, showed a rather remarkable improvement
in keeping quality over the fruit of the unsprayed checks, especially when
the small number and lateness of the treatments are considered. In both
cases the two checks were laid out on opposite sides of the plot.
While these tests are not enough to prove a fungicidal value for arsenate
of lead in the treatment of any cranberry disease, their results are sugges-
tive. It should be recalled in this connection that this insecticide is a well-
proved treatment for apple scab. Dr. Shear found that most of the rot
in Early Black berries produced by the station bog this year was due to
anthracnose, a disease caused by a fungus known to science as Glomerella
rufomaculans vaccinii Shear.
To test further the possibility of controlling fungous diseases by putting
copper sulfate in the flowage, experimental flooding sections 23 and 27 of
the station bog were treated, as in 1915, with this chemical in the June
reflow at the rate of 1 part to 50,000 parts of water (1 pound in 6,250 gal-
lons). The treatment was applied June 14 after the sections had been
completely submerged for twelve hours, and the water was then held
thirty hours longer. Even distribution of the chemical was obtained by
pulling it around in a sack in the water as it dissolved. The areas thus
treated showed no definite advantage either in the quantity or the keeping
quality of the fruit, as compared with the untreated flooding sections
adjoining them.
It seemed to be the general opinion among the Cape growers that cran-
berries as a rule kept distinctly better than usual this year in spite of the
wet weather in the first half of the growing season.
The hypertrophy of the tender vegetative shoots, frequently called
"false blossom" by the growers, and for which Dr. Shear has suggested
the name "rose bloom," was unusually abundant on the station bog
this season. It has been thought that the moisture conditions attending
late holding of the winter-flowage, excessive reflowage, deficient drainage
or excessive and continual rainfall greatly favor the development of the
fungus {Exobasidium oxycocci Rostr.) which causes this disease. The late
holding of the winter-flowage in both 1915 and 1916 in conjunction with the
very rainy season may, therefore, partly explain its prevalence on the bog.
An unusual occurrence with this disease was its attack on the blossoms,
its effects hitherto, so far as observed, being confined to the leafy shoots.
As estimated from 3 to 4 per cent, of the Howes blossoms on the station
bog were conspicuouslj^ deformed by the disease between July 20 and
August 1, when this effect was most marked. An occasional Early Black
flower was also affected. A few of the small berries were somewhat
swollen and discolored by the disease, and covered with the spores of the
fungus. That this attack on the flowers and small berries probably was
due mainly to the prolonged spell of wet weather was shown by the prompt
disappearance of the disease on both blossoms and vines when the wet
season ended.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 193
Dr. Shear has recently published a valuable paper ^ on the false blossom
disease that does so much harm in Wisconsin and has heretofore been
reported * as having been introduced into Massachusetts and New Jersey.
Storage Tests.
The description of all these experiments that seemed to give results of
much interest are arranged in the groups listed below. Those in group
No. 1 were planned by the writer and conducted by Prof. F. W. Morse,
research chemist of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
Group No. 2 was planned and carried out by Dr. N. E, Stevens. Nos. 4,
6 (c), 7, 10 and 13 were planned and conducted by the writer. Nos. 3, 5,
6 (a) and (b), 8 and 11 were planned by Drs. Shear and Stevens, and were
carried out by them co-operatively with the writer. No. 12 was planned
and conducted co-operatively by Dr. Stevens and the writer.
Some of the tests were conducted with berries in quart cans, with covers
on tight but not sealed, and others with fruit in bushel picking crates
stored in carefully arranged stacks. A comparison of the percentages of
decay found in the crates and the cans shows strikingly the harmful effect
of the lack of ventilation in the latter, this being so great that it perhaps
invalidates the results of the can tests.
In all the tests, except those of groups 1, 2, 9, 11 and 13, the fruit was
examined by cup samples by the screeners emploj^ed at the station during
the fall, under the writer's supervision, the inspector's cup of the New
England Cranberry Sales Company being used for sampling. The Sales
Company's hand grader was used to facilitate the work. All the berries
stored in cans were included in samples and examined.
The "nine-sample" method was largely used in examining the crates.
In this method nine samples from each crate were counted, one being taken
from the top or surface berries at each end; one from the surface berries
at the middle; one from the berries halfway between the top and bottom
at each end; one from the very center; one from the very bottom at each
end; and one from the bottom at the middle.
The "seven-sample" method was used in examining some of the crated
berries, and the wTiter thinks this method is as satisfactory as any likely
to be devised for determining the condition of berries thus stored, consid-
erable defects in the other methods so far employed having been discovered.
In this method seven samples from each crate were examined, one being
taken from the surface berries of each half of the crate halfway between the
middle and the end; one from each half of the crate halfway between the
top and the bottom and halfway between the center and the end; one
from the very center; 'and one from the very bottom of each half of the
crate halfway between the middle and end.
All the tests except those of the first, second, eleventh and thirteenth
> False Blossom of the Cultivated Cranberry, Bui. No. 444, U. S. Dept. Agr., November, 1916.
« Bui. No. 160, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1915, pp. 99 and 100, and Bui. No. 168, Mass. Agr. Expt.
Sta., 1916, p. 5.
194 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
groups were conducted in the basement of the station screenhouse, this
having a floor and walls of concrete and providing fairlj'- even temperatures.
A Friez hygro-thermograph provided by the Bureau of Plant Industry
and kept in the storage room during most of the period when the tests
were in progress gave the following temperature and humidity records: —
Between September 29 and October 1 the temperature fell from 77° F.
to 60° F. Between October 1 and October 5 it ranged between 61° and
54°. As the mainspring of the hj^gro -thermograph clock broke on October
5 the records were discontinued until October 25. Beginning on that
date the ranges in temperature by weeks were as follows: October 25 to
November 1, from 57° to 53°; November 1 to November 8, from 53° to
47°; November 8 to November 15, from 51° to 44°; November 15 to
November 22, from 47° to 38°; November 22 to November 29, from 51°
to 38°; November 29 to December 6, from 51° to 43°; December 6 to
December 13, from 49° to 40°; December 13 to December 20, from 42°
to 29°; December 20 to December 24, from 41° to 34°.
Between September 29 and October 5 the relative humidity ranged from
95 to 59 per cent., and was subject to much influence from frequent open-
ing of the storage room. Beginning with October 25 the ranges in relative
humidity by weeks were as follows: October 25 to November 1, from 85
to 72 per cent.; November 1 to November 8, from 85 to 69 per cent.;
November 8 to November 15, from 85 to 60 per cent.; November 15 to
November 22, from 73 to 60 per cent.; November 22 to November 29,
from 86 to 53 per cent.; November 29 to December 6, from 75 to 46 per
cent.; December 6 to December 13, from 71 to 50 per cent.; December
13 to December 20, from 72 to 53 per cent.; December 20 to December
24, from 79 to 55 per cent.
The storage room was kept tightly closed from October 25 to December
24, except as the making of observations made entrance necessary. In
spite of this, the fluctuations in relative humidity were marked and rapid,
it evidently being influenced much more by outside weather conditions
than by the stored berries.
The storage tests conducted fall conveniently into groups, as follows : —
1. Weight Shrinkage of Sound Cranberries in Storage is due largely, if not
entirely, to Losses Incidental to the Process of Respiration, not to Loss of
Water by Evaporation. — To determine this. Professor Morse weighed and
analyzed different lots of Howes berries, obtained from the same source,
on various dates and with results as shown in Table 5. Professor Morse
provides the following data concerning this work: —
The cranberries were received at the chemical laboratory the first week in De-
cember.
On December 8, eight approximately equal lots of carefully selected sound berries
were weighed into glass jars. The mouths of the jars were covered with a thin
filter paper held in place by rubber bands, and they were inverted in a slat-bottomed
box and placed in a cool closet, the temperature of which ranged between 35° and
60° F.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 195
The berries were put into jars to prevent too free circulation of air, and the jars
were inverted to permit the heavy carbon dioxide gas to diffuse through the filter
paper and escape. Beginning December 16, and thereafter at fortnightly intervals,
a jar was removed from the closet. The contents were weighed, rotten berries
were picked out and weighed, and a sample of sound berries was used for an esti-
mation of the actual dry matter in the fruits.
Each successive date showed more and more decayed fruit, and on March 17
the last two jars were removed together, because it seemed useless to continue the
experiment further.
Table 5. ■ — Analyses of Cranberries. — Dry-Matter Content at End oj
Various Periods of Storage.
Lot.
Weight
Decem-
ber 8
(Grams).
Date
reweighed
and
analyzed.
Weight
after
Keeping
(Grams).
Loss
(Per
Cent.).
Dry
Matter
in Sound
Fruit
(Per
Gent.).
Weight
of
Rotten
Fruit
(Grams).
A.
B,
c,
D,
E,
F,
G,
H,
153.4
156.8
158.1
158.5
158.6
161.3
161.7
164.9
Dec. 16
Jan. 2
Jan. 16
Feb. 2
Feb. 16
Mar. 3
Mar. 17
Mar. 17
152.7
154.9
154.7
153.8
152.8
154.5
153.2
157.0
1.2
2.1
2.9
3.6
4.2
5.2
4.7
12.12
12.14
11.87
11.94
11.94
12.02
11.82
25.4
44.7
67.6
70.0
85.3
92.7
89.0
Professor Morse remarks concerning these results as follows : —
The loss in weight is due partly to the shrinkage in the decayed berries, which
is caused by decomposition and evaporation.
The sound fruit showed a small but positive diminution in dry matter after the
first fortnight, but not an increasing one. Only by weighing individual berries
could it be positively determined how much the cranberry loses in weight while
yet sound. The small shrinkage in proportion of dry matter indicates that respi-
ratory destruction occurs, as in apples, pears, etc.
2. Temperature of Berries lohen picked. — These investigations were not
storage tests, strictly speaking, but as their results bear on the matter of
cooling previous to storage they are included here.
Air temperatures and temperatures taken among berries in crates as
soon as they were filled by pickers were recorded by Dr. Stevens, as shown
in Table 6.
196 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
Table 6. — Temperatures of Cranberries when picked compared with Air
Temperatures.
Boa WHERE
Temperatures
were taken.
Date, and
Condition of
the Weather
when the
Temperatures
were taken.
Variety of
Berries.
Hour of
Day
Tempera-
tures were
taken.
Air
Temper-
ature in
Shade.
Temper-
ature of
Berries
when
picked
(taken at
Center of
Picking
Crate).
Station,
Oct. 3, clear and
Howes, .
7.30 A.M.
49° F.
49° F.
sunny.
8.30 A.M.
60° F.
62° F,
9.00 A.M.
62° F.
64° F.
9.20 A.M.
62° F.
68° F.
9.40 A.M.
63° F.
75° F.
10.40 A.M.
70° F.
79° F.
11.00 A.M.
70° F.
79° F.
11.30 A.M.
71° F.
81° F.
11.55 A.M.
71° F.
81° F.
2.15 P.M.
70° F.
75° F.
2.55 P.M.
70° F.
74° F.
3.00 P.M.
70° F.
73° F.
Station,
Sept. 20, bright
sun.
Early Black, .
11.10 A.M.
66° F.
81° F.
3.30 P.M.
64° F.
70° F.
4.30 P.M.
61° F.
65° F.
Station,
Sept. 18, .
Early Black, .
11.15 A.M.
75° F.
84° F.
12.45 P.M.
74° F.
85° F.
1.30 P.M.
74° F.
82° F.
3 40 P.M.
67° F.
72° F.
Station,
Sept. -23, .
Early Black, .
9.30 A.M.
75° F.
80° F.
11.30 A.M.
76° F.
87° F.
11.45 A.M.
76° F.
89° F.
Old Colony bog. South
Dennis, Mass.
Sept. 22, .
Early Black, .
11.30 A.M.
73° F.
86° F.
11.45 A.M.
73° F.
89° F.
3.00 P.M.
73° F.
86° F.
KEPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 197
These records show that under ordinary harvesting conditions cranber-
ries attain high temperatures on the vines. It has been found that with
the crate containers commonly used these temperatures do not change
rapidly unless the berries are placed in very cool storage after they are
picked.
The difference between the temperature of the air and that of the ber-
ries when picked is greatest when the sun is highest, and is least early in
the morning and late in the afternoon. Tests with green and ripe berries
in small glass containers failed to show any appreciable difference between
berries of different colors.
3. Hand-'picking v. Scoop-picking as affecting Keeping Quality. — Two
series of tests come under this head, as follows : —
(a) Twelve parallel and adjacent strips of Early Black vines, each ap-
proximately 50 feet long by 5^ feet wide, were picked in alternation with
scoops and by hand on September 18, a single full crate being obtained
from each strip. In the hand-picking, each man was allowed to follow his
own method, and a great difference was observed in the ways in which
they did the work, some tearing the berries from the vines with their fingers
used much like scoop-teeth, and some picking individual berries much as
strawberries are commonly gathered. Six of the crates, three hand-picked
and three scoop-picked, were placed in the storage room at once, the rest
being left in the sun on the bog for several hours. Test No. 1 of Table 7
completes the record of these tests.
(6) Twelve crates of Howes berries, picked by hand and with scoops
in alternation, as in the first series of tests, from an equal number of nar-
row parallel and adjacent strips of vines, were handled as indicated in test
No. 2, of Table 7.
The averages of the table show that the scooped berries kept slightly
better than the hand-picked ones in both series of tests. All this fruit was
stored as it came from the bog without cleaning in any way. The crates
were examined by the "nine-sample" method in determining the rot per-
centages.
198 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
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REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 199
In partial confirmation of the evidence presented above, that scoop-
picking is not especially harmful to the keeping quahty of cranberries, a
recital of the experience with 14 bushel crates of Early Black berries
picked with scoops in two different ways from narrow alternating par-
allel and adjacent strips of vines is here included. In picking seven of
these crates the scoops were allowed to fill to a considerable extent as usual
before emptjang, the berries churning back and forth as they accumulated.
With the other boxes the berries were not allowed to collect as they were
picked, but were poured out of the scoops after each pull through the
vines. The results of the storage of this fruit are shown in Table 8. The
churned berries kept as well as the unchurned. The crates were examined
by the "nine-sample" method.
Table 8. — Picking Test. — The Scoop-churning of Berries during the
Process of Picking does not m.aterially affect Keeping Qualitij.
Percent-
age of
Quan-
Date ex-
Rotten
Date
amined
and
How Berries
■WERE SCOOPED.
picked
and
tity
stored
(Bush-
els).
How stored.
to de-
termine
Partly
Rotten
stored.
Rot Per-
Berries
centage.
found at
End of
Test.
With churning,
Oct. 8
7
Unseparated, in picking crates, .
Dec. 19
29.51
Without churning, .
Oct. 8
7
Unseparated, in picking crates, .
Dec. 19
29.64
4. Relative Keeping Quality of the Upper and Under Berries of the Vi7ies.
— The three tests to determine this were carried out as indicated by
Table 9, the results showing rather conclusively that the berries most
exposed to sun and wind during their gro-ni^h are considerably better
keepers than those produced under the protection of the vines. Moreover,
the top berries were much more highly colored and averaged considerably
larger in size than the others when picked.
These berries were all picked by hand under the supervision of the
writer, who did much of the work himself. They were stored in quart
cans.
200 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
Table 9. — Upper and Under Berries compared as to Keeping Quality.
Percent-
age of
Quan-
Rotten
tity
and
Test
No.
Variety.
Berries.
Date
picked.
placed
in
Storage
Test
(Quarts).
Period of
Storage Test.
Partly
Rotten
Berries
found at
End of
Storage
Test.
Only sound upper
Sept. 30
6
Sept. 30 to Dec.
2
31.55
1, .
Early Black, .
berries.
Only sound under
berries.
Sept. 30
6
Sept. 30 to Dec.
2
38.83
Only sound upper
Oct. 6
14
Oct. 6 to Nov.
20
28.74
2. .
Early Black, . |
berries.
Only sound under
berries.
Oct. 6
12
Oct. 6 to Nov.
21
37.93
•Only sound upper
Oct. 13
6
Oct. 13 to Dec.
9
15.49
8, .
Howes, . . <
berries.
Only sound under
berries.
Oct. 13
6
Oct. 13 to Dec.
9
18.44
It seems to be the general experience with Cape Cod bogs that late
holding of the winter-flowage improves the keeping quality of the berries.
As the writer has observed that late holding of the water frequently re-
duces the quantity of under berries as compared with the amount of fruit
produced in the tops of the vines, the results of these tests may partly
explain this improvement. They also suggest that the generally recog-
nized good comparative keeping quality of the 1916 crop may have been
due largely to the very general failure of the under berries to set in their
usual abundance.
The deeper the scoops are run through the vines in picking, the greater
the proportion of under berries that are gathered and the greater, also,
the quantity of unattached cranberry leaves and sand that gets mixed
with the fruit. On account of the inferior keeping quality of the under
berries here shown, and because of the harm done by admixtures of loose
leaves proved by tests described below (No. 7; page 206), the desirability
of closely scooping berries that are to be stored long is rendered doubtful.
5. Housing promptly v. Leaving Crates of Berries in the Sun on the Bog,
as affecting Cranberry Keeping. — Eight series of tests were carried out in
this connection, four with Early Black and four with Howes fruit. Four
of these were conducted in connection with the picking experiments
described above (No. 3, page 197), Table 7 showing their arrangement
and results. Dr. Stevens took all the temperatures given in this table
with chemical thermometers, their bulbs being plunged to the centers of
the crates. At 8 a.m., September 19, the temperatures of the twelve boxes
of Early Black berries ranged from 68° to 70° F., and at 8 a.m., September
20, they ranged from 61° to 62°, from which there was little change for
several days after.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 201
The records in Table 7 show that as a rule the temperature of berries
left in crates on the bog exposed to the sun for several hours did not change
more than 3 degrees. The temperatures of some of these crates were taken
every thirty minutes from the time they were picked until they were
housed, almost no variation being discovered until very near the latter
time. The averages of percentages given in the table indicate that the
Early Black berries housed at once kept somewhat better than those left
on the bog, whereas these results with the Howes fruit were reversed. This
difference in the storage of the two varieties corresponded with the differ-
ence in the average temperatures of the different lots when housed, the
Early Black berries housed at once averaging to have lower temperatures
when placed in storage than did those left on the bog, whereas the Howes
fruit housed at once had a somewhat higher average temperature when
stored than did that left on the bog.
The four other experiments under this head were carried out in connec-
tion vnth some of the tests of the effect of wetness on cranberry keeping
described below (No. 6 (a), page 201), Table 10 exhibiting their arrange-
ment and results. As in the first four series of tests, Dr. Stevens took all
the temperatures with chemical thermometers at the centers of the crates.
It was partly cloudy all day the day that the Early Black berries used in
these tests were picked. The averages of percentages in the table show
that with both varieties the wet berries kept better after having been left
on the bog, whereas the dry ones kept better when housed at once.
On the whole, the results of these tests were inconclusive, though they
failed to show much harm to the keeping quality resulting from leaving
the crated fruit on the bog for several hours under ordinary harvesting and
storage conditions.
6. Wet and Dry Cranberries compared as to Keeping. — Three series of
tests come under this head, as follows : —
(a) An area 60 feet square laid out on Early Black vines on the station
bog was divided into equal parts by lines running diagonally between the
corners. Two of the opposite triangles thus formed were scooped while the
berries were wet with dew, the other two being left until they were dry.
The ways in which these berries were tested and the results obtained are
shown in test No. 1 of Table 10.
(6) An area 100 by 30 feet laid out on Howes vines on the station bog
was divided into triangles by diagonal lines between the corners. Two
opposite triangles were picked with scoops while the vines were more or
less wet with dew, and the other two when they were dry. The manner of
testing this fruit and the results obtained with it are shown in test No. 2
of Table 10.
202 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
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REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 203
The averages of percentages in the table show that the berries stored
wet rotted more than those stored dry in both series of tests. The wet
berries in the second series were more nearly dry when picked than were
those of the &st series, this apparently accounting for the smaller differ-
ence in the average amounts of rot that developed in the two lots of Howes
fruit. The wet berries left on the bog were perhaps dried a good deal, as
compared with those housed at once, by the high temperatures and free
circulation of the open air, this perhaps explaining their better keeping.
All the berries in these tests were stored in bushel picking crates as they
came from the bog, without cleaning in any way. Their rot percentages
W'ere determined by the "nine-sample" method.
(c) The two tests in the third series are fully explained by Table 11.
The wet berries in these tests were considerably wetter than those in either
of the first two series, the moisture being that of a very heavy dew. All
the crates were stored as soon as the berries were picked. The tempera-
tures given in the table were taken by the WTiter when the fruit was
housed, chemical thermometers being plunged to the centers of the crates.
When the four crates picked on October 4 were stored, the temperature of
those picked the night before was 50° F. The temperatures of the wet
and dry picked berries did not become equalized in storage until some
time during the night of October 6 and 7.
All this fruit was stored without cleaning. The crates were examined
by the "nine-sample" method.
204 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
O
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Percental
of Rotte
and Part
Rotten
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found a
End of
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REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 205
Percentage
of Rotten
and Partly
Rotten
Berries
found at
End of
Storage
Test.
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206 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
The table shows that the results of this test stronglj^ confirmed those
of the first two, giving striking evidence of the harmful effect of excessive
moisture among cranberries in storage.
7. Effects of Admixtures of Vines and Leaves on Cranberry Keeping. —
The four series of tests in this connection were carried out as show^n in
Table 12. The fruit was picked with scoops and was stored in bushel
picking crates. The crates were examined by the "nine-sample" method.
The table shows that these tests gave convincing evidence of the harm-
ful effect of an admixture of unattached cranberry leaves in the storage of
the fruit. They also indicated that the berries keep as well with the ad-
mixture of vines and leaves attached, commonly obtained in scooping,
as any way. The entire removal of the vines and leaves, aside from the
injury done in the process, however, seems to do no harm.
8. Berries separated with Hay den and with White Machines and Berries
screened xvithoxd separating compared as to Keeping Quality. — The berries
used in these two series of tests were handled throughout in the same way.
The three lots of fruit in each series came from the same source, individual
crates of berries as they came from the bog being divided as evenly as pos-
sible into three separate parts by successive pourings into barrels to pro-
duce them, care being taken to handle the berries of the different lots as
nearly alike as possible. As there was no White separator in working
order in East Wareham at the time, all this fruit was carted in open barrels
in a farm wagon (without springs) to the Makepeace screenhouse at
Wareham, two of the lots of each series being there run through Hayden
and White separators, respectively. The berries were received into barrels
from both the Hayden and the White machines, those of the fii'st box (the
"good" box) also being used in the test in the case of the former. The
berries of all the lots were carted back in the open barrels to the station
screenhouse, where they were hand-screened, the fruit in all cases being
received into picking crates placed close to the mouths of the screens and
being stored in those crates. The arrangement and results of these tests
are shown in Table 13. The "nine-sample" method was used in examining
the crates.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1016. 207
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208 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
The figures of the table indicate that, in both tests, the White machine
apparently affected the keeping qualities of the fruit about the same as did
the Hayden. This result is surprising, and must be verified by future
experiments. The difference in the tendency to rot between the separated
and unseparated berries was not as great as in last year's tests. This may
have been partly due to the injury that all the lots of fruit probably re-
ceived in the carting, this perhaps partly hiding the real difference in the
damage done by the various methods of cleaning.
9. The Injury to the Keeping Quality of Cranberries caused by Separators
employing the Bouncing Principle and by the Drop in the Barrel. — That
this varies greatly with different lots of berries was indicated by the results
of half a dozen minor experiments conducted by Dr. Stevens. The range
in the increase of decay caused by these factors in these tests was from
about 14 to about 127 per cent.
A new arrangement devised bj'- the writer for preventing the barrel in-
jury, for use both in screening and in connection -with separators, works
well mechanically and promises to be generally satisfactory, though no
storage tests have been conducted to determine the degree of its effective-
ness. This device is on exhibition at the offices of the New England Cran-
berry Sales Company, Middleborough, Mass., and the J. J. Beaton
Growers' Agency, Wareham, Mass., and it also may be seen at the station
screenhouse at East Wareham at any time during the cranberry season.
10. The Effect of Grading on the Keeping of Cranberries. — The two fol-
lowing series of tests come under this head : —
(a) Two lots of Early Black berries picked in the same location on the
station bog were treated as shown in Table 14. To make sure of their
being well cleaned they were run through a Hayden separator twice imme-
diatel}^ before they were stored. Onlj^ the berries going into the separator
barrels were used in the test. Neither lot was hand-screened. They were
stored in bushel picking crates of the same dimensions and construction.
The Hayden grader was used. A board was in the grader frame in place
of the grader while the second lot was run through. The spacing of the
grader, fourteen thirty-seconds of an inch, was wider than that commonly
used, and it took out from a fifth to a quarter of the entire quantity of
berries put through the separator while it was in use.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 209
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210 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
The figures of the table show that the closely graded berries kept con-
siderably better than the ungraded ones, there being nearly 22 per cent,
more rot among the latter at the close of the test. The cup-counts were
taken with the inspectors' cup of the New England Cranberry Sales Com-
pany.
(b) Two lots of Howes berries were obtained for this series of tests by
dividing boxes of fruit, just as they had been stored when they came from
the bog on October 7, into equal parts by alternate dippings with a quart
measure. They were put through a Hayden separator, with the upper set
of bounce-boards set at the middle notch, on December 26. A board five-
eighths of an inch thick was kept in the grader frame in place of the grader
while the second lot was run through. The grader took out about a quarter
of the quantity of berries separated while it was in use. Only the berries
that went into the barrels from the separator were used. They were poured
from the barrels into boxes and were taken into the warm screening room
a box at a time, so that they might undergo a high temperature no longer
than necessary during the screening. Both lots were carefully screened at
the same time on December 29, the berries being run into picking crates
placed close to the mouths of the screens. They were carefully shaken
down and stored in these crates at once. The arrangement and results of
these tests are shown by Table 15.
It will be seen that after a winter storage of nearly ten weeks almost 32
per cent, more berries showed rot among the ungraded fruit than among
that which had been closely graded. At no time during the test did the
temperature of the storage room range more than 8° above the freezing
point of water, and for considerable periods it ran more or less below it.
The cup-counts given in the table were taken, as in the first series of tests,
with the Sales Company's cup.
While it cannot safely be said that the results of these tests prove that
grading improves the keeping of cranberries, they bring out a point of
much importance. Closely graded berries, being larger and more uniform
in size, are much more desirable in appearance than ungraded ones. If
they also keep better, the advisability of preparing them for market in this
way as a means of inducing greater consumption is much confirmed. If
close grading were generally practiced it could be made a powerful factor
in properly controlling the cranberry market, for, while it tended strongly
to increase consumption on one hand, it would in a sense cut down
production on the other. In the writer's opinion it would be the best possi-
ble means for dealing with overproduction, for if any part of a crop had to
be throwTi away it would be only the berries of inferior size or qua]it3\
The results of these grading tests are entirely in line with last year's
findings of the writer, in the study of ventilation as affecting cranberry
keeping, and with those brought out by Dr. Shear and his collaborators
in their paper published as a part of this bulletin. The small berries as
well as the leaves, conclusive experiments with which are described above
(No. 7, page 206), might be expected to check ventilation, not only by
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 211
CO
^
5ti
<
Percentage
of Rotten
and Partly
Rotten
Berries
found at
End of
Storage Test.
22.0
17.6
20.2
21.9
20.41
27.0
33.2
26.5
24.8
23 0
o
Average
Cup-count
of Berries
at End
of Storage
Test.
95.3
96.7
95.0
97.1
96.0'
04.9
06.6
03.6
08.1
06 3
"5
J5
— i(Mco-a< .-is^ioo-*"?
Method of
Examination to
determine
Rot Percentage.
Seven-sample,
Seven-sample,
H
a
s
s
"o
T3
.9
'u
Dec. 29 to Mar. 7,
Dec. 29 to Mar. 7,
Quantity
of Berries
placed in
Storage Test
(Bushels).
•* U9
"i
o .
'S
J3
.S
1
Whether graded
OR NOT.
Graded,
Not graded, .
o °
-
C'j'
212 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
mechanically reducing the spaces for the passage of air and gases among
the fruit, but also by themselves using up oxygen and giving off additional
carbon dioxide, in this way being especially harmful.
11. The Relative Effect of Barrel and Crate Containers on Cranberry
Keeping in Shipments. — Three lots of Early Black and two lots of Howes
berries, each lot consisting of a barrel and two half-barrel crates, made up
an experimental shipment to determine this. All the berries of each lot
came from the same place on the station bog, the different lots being
picked in various locations, the Early Black on October 2 and the Howes
on October 5. All five lots were run through a Hayden separator and
screened on November 7. On account of difficulties encountered in ar-
ranging for shipping this fruit with other berries in a carload, it was then
kept in open barrels, all of which were nearly full, until November 17,
when it was packed for shipment. The berries shipped in barrels were
packed in the usual way, whUe the crated fruit was placed in 4-quart
baskets like those used as containers for strawberries.^ All the lots were
left in the packed condition in a cold room until November 20, when they
were carted in a farm wagon (without springs) from East Wareham to
Tremont Station. They were kept in the railroad freight-house over night
and placed in different parts of a car on top of a carload of other berries
the next morning. The car left Tremont November 21 and arrived in
Washington, D. C, on Saturday, November 25. They were there left in
the freight-house until the folloAving Monday morning. They were then
taken to Arlington Farm and stored at a temperature of about 50° F,
until December 9. The barrels and crates were opened and stored in a
laboratory, the temperature of which varied from 60° to 85° F., from
Decem.ber 9 until December 14 and 15, when they were sampled and
examined, as follows: —
(a) The eight following samples were taken from each barrel: —
Nos. 1 and 2, two quarts near the top, just below the layer crushed in
heading, — distinguished in Table 16 by the word "top."
No. 3, one quart taken a quarter of the distance down from the top, —
indicated by "J".
Nos. 4 and 5, two quarts taken near the middle, — marked "V'-
No. 6, one quart taken from three-quarters of the distance from the top
toward the bottom, — designated as "f ".
Nos. 7 and 8, two quarts from near the bottom, — distinguished as
"bottom."
The berries were dipped out of the barrels down to the parts sampled,
the samples being taken from all parts of the surface of the fruit exposed by
the dipping, except within 2 inches of the staves.
(6) Four 1-quart samples were taken from each crate of each lot at
various places in the crate, so as to make up as fair an average as possible,
each sample representing different baskets.
• The crates and baskets were furnished through the courtesy of Mr. J. J. Beaton of Wareham,
Mass.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 213
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214 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
The sampling was done by Dr. Stevens. The results of his examina-
tions are given in Table 16. They show that the crated fruit was in much
better condition than that in barrels in all the lots, especially those of the
Howes variety.
The results of these tests accord with the conclusions given in last year's
report (pages 23 and 24) regarding the use of crates instead of barrels as
shipping containers for cranberries. These results were confirmed by
those obtained with shipments of berries from another bog to Portland,
Me., made by Dr. Stevens, but not described here.
12. The Relative DevelopmeJit of Decay in Different Periods of the Storage
Season. — The four series of tests to determine this were conducted as
follows : —
(a) On September 22, 20 quart cans were filled with entirely sound ber-
ries from each of 7 half-filled crates of Early Black fruit picked at the
same time in the same general location on the station bog three days
before. This fruit was stored at once, and the different 20-can lots were
examined one after another at intervals of two weeks.
(6) On October 4, 10 quart cans were filled with sound berries from
each of 12 half-filled crates of Howes fruit picked at the same time and in
the same place on the station bog the day before. These cans were stored
at once, and the different 10-can lots were examined one after another at
weekly intervals.
(c) Quart cans were filled with sound Early Black fruit in lots of 10,
from each of 13 half-filled crates successively, at weekly intervals from
September 20 to December 13, inclusive, the berries all having been
picked at the same time and in the same general location on the station
bog on September 19. The cans of each lot were stored as soon as filled
and were examined at the end of a two-week storage.
(d) Quart cans were filled with sound Howes fruit in lots of 10, from
each of 1 1 half-filled crates successively, at weekly intervals from October
4 to December 13, inclusive, the berries all having been picked at the same
time and in the same location on the station bog on October 3. The cans
of each lot were stored as soon as filled and were examined at the end of a
two-week storage.
The arrangement and results of all these series of tests are given in
order in Table 17. They failed to show any distinct difference in the rate
of rot development in the various periods of the storage season, this general
result differing from that of last year's experiment ^ in this connection..
The WTiter now thinks that the handling of the berries in selecting them
for these tests, and their lack of ventilation in the tightly covered cans,,
may have so affected their keeping as to hide different results that perhaps
would have been obtained under more normal storage conditions. The
description of the tests is included here for its possible value in making
future comparisons, and as a record of work done. Further experiments
along this line should be tried.
1 Bui. No. 168, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1916, p. 18.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 215
Table 17. — Rot Development among Cranberries stored in Tin Cans
in Different Periods of the Storage Season.
Test and Variety.
Quan-
tity of
Berries
used
(Quarts).
Date
stored.
Date ex-
amined
to deter-
mine
Rot Per-
centage.
Total
Number
of
Berries.
Number
of Rot-
ten and
Partly
Rotten
Berries
when ex-
amined
after
Storage.
Percent-
age of
Rotten
and
Partly
Rotten
Berries
found at
End of
Storage.
(o), Early Black,
20
Sept. 22
Oct. 6
11,415
450
3.94
20
Sept. 22
Oct. 20
11,641
1,516
13.02
20
Sept. 22
Nov. 3
11,506
3,069
26.67
20
Sept. 22
Nov. 17
11,630
4,167
35.83
20
Sept. 22
Dec. 1
11,781
5,118
43.44
20
Sept. 22
Dec. 15
11,599
6,316
54.45
20
Sept. 22
Dec. 29
11,412
6,532
57.24
(6), Howes,
10
Oct. 4
Oct. 11
4,903
71
1.45
10
Oct. 4
Oct. 18
4,905
100
2.04
10
Oct. 4
Oct. 25
4,960
228
4.60
10
Oct. 4
Nov. 1
4,961
418
8.43
10
Oct. 4
Nov. 8
4,888
503
10.29
10
Oct. 4
Nov. 15
4,981
776
15.58
10
Oct. 4
Nov. 22
4,948
860
17.38
10
Oct. 4
Nov. 29
4,877
939
19.25
10
Oct. 4
Dec. 6
4,894
1,147
23.44
10
Oct. 4
Dec. 13
5,029
1,494
29.71
10
Oct. 4
Dec. 20
4,821
1,353
28.06
10
Oct. 4
Dec. 27
4,845
1,553
32.05
(c), Early Black,
10
Sept. 20
Oct. 4
5,779
301
5.21
10
Sept. 27
Oct. 11
5,530
308
5.57
10
Oct. 4
Oct. 18
5,602
137
2.45
10
Oct. 11
Oct. 25
5,782
222
3.24
10
Oct. 18
Nov. 1
5,441
240
4.41
10
Oct. 25
Nov. 8
5,363
140
2.61
10
Nov. 1
Nov. 15
5,379
201
3.74
10
Nov. 8
Nov. 22
5,487
220
4.01
10
Nov. 16
Nov. 30
5,693
295
5.18
10
Nov. 22
Dec. 6
5,684
315
5.54
10
Nov. 29
Dec. 13
5,510
307
5.57
10
Dec. 6
Dec. 20
5,763
304
5.28
10
Dec. 13
Dec. 27
6,513
476
8.63
216 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
Table 17. — Rot Development among Cranberries stored in Tin Cans
in Different Periods of the Storage Season — Concluded.
Number
Percent-
of Rot-
age of
Quan-
tity of
Berries
used
(Quarts).
Date ex-
ten and
Rotten
amined
Total
Partly
and
Test and Vabiety.
Date
stored.
to deter-
mine
Number
of
Rotten
Berries
Partly
Rotten
Rot Per-
Berries.
when ex-
Berries
centage.
amined
found at
after
End of
Storage.
Storage.
(d), Howes,
10
Oct. 4
Oct. 18
4.643
118
2.54
10
Oct. 11
Oct. 25
4,730
104
2.20
10
Oct. 18
Nov. 1
4,908
191
3.89
10
Oct. 25
Nov. 8
4,570
117
2.56
10
Nov. 1
Nov. 15
4,546
103
2.27
10
Nov. 8
Nov. 22
4,633
129
2.78
10
Nov. 15
Nov. 29
4,808
116
2.41
10
Nov. 23
Dec. 7
4,747
112
2.36
10
Nov. 29
Dec. 13
4,915
145
2.95
10
Dec. 6
Dec. 20
4.943
155
3.14
10
Dec. 13
Dec. 27
4,849
142
2.93
I
13. Inciibaior Test of Keeping Quality of Cranberries. — A few lots of
Early Black berries were moistened and tested as to their keeping quality in
quart cans, ■with the covers on tight but not sealed, in a chicken incubator
run at a temperature of 80° F. The results seemed to show that the rela-
tive keeping quality of cranberries can be determined in this way in a
period of about forty-eight hours.
Tentative Practical Conclusions based on the Results of the Storage Tests.
1. Cranberries should not be picked wet.
2. Scoop-picking is not particularly harmful to keeping quality.
3. Deep scooping is likely to affect cranberrry keeping adversely be-
cause it gathers maximum amounts of under berries, loose leaves and sand,
these materials being harmful in storage.
4. Cranberries left in the sun on the bog for a good part of the day
during picking seem to keep about as well as those housed at once, under
average storage-house conditions. There might be a great difference in
this regard, however, if cooler storage were practiced, for the relatively
high temperature usually had by the berries when they are picked proba-
bly has a hurtful effect, hence the sooner they are cooled the better.
5. Lack of sufficient ventilation affects cranberry keeping adversely,
apparently by interfering with the process of respiration, not by prevent-
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 217
ing the evaporation of moisture, as suggested in last year's report (pages
6 to 17). Cranberries, like other fruits, are living, breathing organisms
when picked, and must take in oxj^gen and give off carbon dioxide freely
to 'continue their Hfe processes. They may do this for several months
after they are taken from the vines. Lack of ventilation probably affects
them in much the same way that smothering does an animal, — by per-
mitting the accumulation of the carbon dioxide gas given oft' by their
tissues and thus reducing their supply of oxygen. The harmful effect
of the carbon dioxide appears to be prett}^ well demonstrated by the
experiments described by Dr. Shear and his associates in another part
of this bulletin (page 237). This gas appears to collect in injurious quan-
tities among cranberries, both in storage and shipment, because of the
closeness with which the fruit packs together and of the size of the con-
tainers used.
As has been so splendidly demonstrated with apples,^ the rapidity of
the life processes in fruits varies directly with temperature, much more
carbon dioxide being given off at high than at low temperatures. While
cranberries may not behave exactly as apples do, it seems to follow that
low temperatures are important to cranberry keeping both in storage and
shipment, for with such temperatures the need of ventilation is probably
less.
The general problem divides itself naturally into two parts, as follows : —
(a) Storage previous to Shipment — Low temperatures, because of their
retarding effect on the process of respiration and on the growth of rot-
producing fungi, seem most important. The storage house, therefore,
probably should be constructed and managed to maintain such tempera-
tures, without resorting to artificial cold storage, at as little expense as
possible. This in turn, however, is likely in practice to depend largely on
arrangements for free but controllable ventilation. If, as the results of
the experiments described by Dr. Shear and his collaborators on page 238
seem to tend to show, a damp atmosphere does not injure the keeping of
this fruit, the thorough ventilating of the storage room during the night
and on cold days would be the cheapest means of obtaining low tempera-
tures, and they probably should be maintained as far as possible by the
use of dead-air spaces in the walls. To combine satisfactory arrangements
for free but controllable ventilation and for effective heat insulation at a
reasonable expense is probably, therefore, the main problem to be solved
by future builders of cranberry storage houses. Artificial cold storage for
cranberries has not been investigated much yet, and therefore is not con-
sidered here.
(b) Preparation for Shipment. — While a low temperature is still prob-
ably desirable for cranberries after they leave the producer, this factor,
except as it may be utilized by cooling previous to shipment or by shipping
in refrigerator cars, is largely out of his control. He should, therefore,
> F. W. Morse, Bui. No. 135, New Hampshire Agr. Expt. Sta., 1908, and Journal of the Ameri-
can Chemical Society, Vol. 30, No. 5, 1908.
218 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
make the most of careful handling of the fruit in packing and of proper
ventilation for it while in transit and in the market. The latter seems to
call especially for close grading and for the use of as small and open con-
tainers as practicable.
6. The separator problem is still unsolved.
Resanding.
The year's experience with the plots, results with which have been dis-
cussed in previous reports, is shown in Table 18. The check areas were in
each case laid out adjacent to and on opposite sides of the plot. All the
plots and checks were picked with scoops. The storage-test berries were
selected by handfuls from different parts of the crates as they came from
the bog and put in quart cans, each can representing one crate. The cans
were stored with covers on tight but not sealed.
This, the sisventh year since resanding was discontinued on plots 0 and
V, is the first one except 1913 in which their yield has been noticeably
reduced as compared with that of the checks. Throughout the season
these unsanded plots presented a marked contrast to the surrounding bog
which was resanded in 1912 and 1914, their vines being comparatively
very thin and sickly in appearance.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 219
si
1^
C3
CO
<»
(5^
05
i
n
e2
Percent-
age of
Rotten
and
Partly
Rotten
Berriea
found at
End of
Storage
Test.
t0-Ht000OT)<0»00M00l««C<Il0t^l«00t"
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OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
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Quantity
placed
in Storage
Test
(Quarts).
000000000000000000000000000000000000
Quantity
of
Fruit per
Square
Rod
(Bushels).
COOOOOOCO-^OOOICDOSOOOt-iO^tPOS*^
Quantity
of Fruit
obtained
(Bush-
els).
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Not since November, 1909,
Spring of 1912 and fall of 1914, .
Spring of 1912 and fall of 1914, .
Spring of 1912 and fall of 1914, .
Not since November, 1909,
Fall of 1911 and fall of 1914,
Fall of 1911 and fall of 1914,
Fallof 1911 and fall of 1914,
Yearly in the fall, 1911 to 1915, inclusive.
Fall of 1911 and fall of 1914,
Fall of 1911 and fall of 1914,
Fallof 1911 and fall of 1914,
Yearly in the fall, 1911 to 1915, inclusive,
Fallof 1911 and fall of 1914,
Fall of 1911 and fall of 1914,
Yearly in the fall, 1911 to 1915, inclusive,
Fall of 1911 and fall of 1914,
Fall of 1911 and fall of 1914,
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220 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
Summary of Table 18.
Plots and
Checks.
Total
Area
(Square
Rods).
When resanded.
Total
Quantity
of Fruit
picked
(Bushels).
Average
Quantity
of Fruit
per Square
Rod
(Bushels).
Average
Percentage
of Rotten
and Partly
Rotten
Berries at
End of
Storage
Test.
Plots 0 and V,
Checks 0 and V, .
Plots N, R and T, .
Checks N, R and T,
18
27
56
Not since November, 1909,
Twice since 1909,
Yearly in the fall, 1911 to
1915, inclusive.
Twice since 1909,
16.66
64.73
32.55
77.87
.93
1.31
1.21
1.39
58.61
49.38
32.10
29.70
The keeping qualities of the fruit of the sanding plots and their checks
were determined by storage tests each year from 1912 to 1916, inclusive.
The results of these tests and their averages are given in the following
table : —
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 221
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222 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
Fertilizers.
The season's results with the station bog fertiUzer plots are given in
Table 20. The area of each plot, as stated in the report for 1912, is 8
square rods, and the variety of berries tested is the Early Black. The
plots are on a peat bog with a covering of sand ranging from 6 to 8 inches
in thickness.
Table 20. — Fertilizer Plots in 1916. Yield and Relative Keeping
Quality of Berries.
Plot.
Fertilizer used.
Date
treated
in 1916.
Date
picked.
Quan-
tity of
Berries
pro-
duced
(Bush-
els).
Quan-
tity of
Berries
in
Storage
Test
(Quarts).
Date
Stored
Berries
were ex-
amined
to de-
termine
Rot
Percent-
age.
Percent-
age of
Rotten
and
Partly
Rotten
Berries
found at
End of
Storage
Test.
1
0. ,
_
Sept. 22
10.67
8'
Dec. 4
46.86
2
N, .
June 24
Sept. 22
9.33
8
Dee. 4
50.21
3
P. .
June 24
Sept. 22
9.00
8
Dec. 4
45.90
4
K, .
June 24
Sept. 22
9.60
8
Dec. 4
53.78
5
0, .
-
Sept. 22
9.20
8
Dec. 4
49.61
6
NP,
June 24
Sept. 22
6.33
8
Dec. 5
57.64
7
NK.
June 24
Sept. 22
6.60
8
Dec. 5
56.33
8
PK,
June 26
Sept. 22
8.00
8
Dec. 7
49.00
9
0, .
-
Sept. 22
9.00
8
Dec. 7
45.14
10
NPK,
June 27
Sept. 22
6.88
8
Dec. 7
43.80
23
Peats,
-
Sept. 22
8.00
8
Dec. 9
39.39
11
NPKL,
June 27
Sept. 23
2.86
8
Dec. 7
59.07
12
NPKcl,
June 27
Sept. 23
6.00
8
Dec. 7
50.98
13
0, .
-
Sept. 23
7.67
8
Dec. 8
41.12
14
Ni.PK.
June 26
Sept. 23
5.50
8
Dec. 8
55.84
15'
NaPK,
June 26
Sept. 23
4.52
12
Dec. 8
63.10
16
NKPi,,
June 26
Sept. 23
7.20
8
Deo. 8
55.81
17
0. .
-
Sept. 23
9.33
8
Deo. 8
39.87
18
NKP2.
June 26
Sept. 23
8.33
8
Deo. 8
47.36
19
NPKii.
June 26
Sept. 23
7.75
8
Deo. 8
53.08
20
NPKo."
June 26
Sept. 23
9.00
8
Dec. 8
59.94
21
0, .
-
Sept. 23
10.33
8
Dec. 8
49.63
*■ The storage-test berries from each plot were stored, without being run through a separator
or otherwise cleaned, in quart cans on the day they were picked, each can being filled with
handfuls of fruit taken from different parts of a separate picking crate, its contents thus rep-
resenting as fairly as possible the contents of the crate as it came from the bog. The covers
of the cans fitted tightly during the storage, but were not sealed.
» Leaf mold worked into a condition in which it could be spread easily with a shovel.
• The figures for plot 15 are probably misleading, as half of that plot was used in spraying tests
with Bordeaux mixture in 1913, 1914 and 1915, and certain effects of that treatment may have
remained in 1916; though, if the whole plot had yielded at the same rate as did the portion
that never had been sprayed, it would have produced only 5.33 bushels. The rot percentage
given for this plot is an average of the percentages obtained in the tests of the fruit of the sprayed
and the unsprayed parts.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 223
Plots 1, 5, 9, 13, 17 and 21 are all untreated checks. The meanings of
the symbols used in the table are as follows : —
0= Nothing.
N =100 pounds nitrate of soda per acre.
P =400 pounds acid phosphate per acre.
K =200 pounds high-grade sulfate of potash per acre.
L = 1 ton of (slaked) lime per acre.
Kcl =200 pounds muriate of potash per acre.
Niii =150 pounds nitrate of soda per acre.
Ni =200 pounds nitrate of soda per acre.
Pi J =600 pounds acid phosphate per acre.
Pj =800 pounds acid phosphate per acre.
In combination they mean, for example, as follows: N2PK = 200
pounds of nitrate of soda + 400 pounds of acid phosphate + 200 pounds
of high-grade sulfate of potash per acre.
As the table shows, the fruit of the fertilized areas this season was, as
a rule, much inferior in both quantity and keeping quality to that of the
checks, this being especially marked with the plots treated with lime and
with the maximum amount of nitrate of soda. Considering aU the expe-
rience with these plots since they were started in 1911, it is the writer's
judgment that, in general, whatever slight advantage in yield has been
gained by the use of the fertilizers has been balanced by the cost of the
treatment, the deterioration in the quality of the fruit and the greater
cost of picking due to the increased vine growth.
Insects.
The Cranberry Rootworm {Rhabdopterus picipes (Oliv.)).
The rearing of the beetles definitely identified the infestation by the
cranberry rootworm {Rhabdopterus picipes (Oliv.)) tentatively recorded in
last year's report (pages 32 and 33). By the beginning of winter the grubs
of this insect nearly complete their growth. They are then, except the
head, for the most part nearly white in color and somewhat over a quarter
of an inch long. They hibernate without growing larger. They do some
feeding in the spring and change into pupae in June. No beetles of the
infestation under observation had yet emerged on June 30, this season, a
collection of the insects taken that day consisting of 4 grubs and 32 pupee.
One beetle was found on July 1, and during the following two weeks they
practically all came out, the period of most rapid emergence extending
from the 3d to the 11th of the month.
It was anticipated that the adults might feed freely on the cranberry
foliage, and at the writer's suggestion an arsenical spray was applied to the
infested area on July 3 and repeated on the 11th and 18th. In the first
two applications, 2\ pounds of "Corona" arsenate of lead and 1 heaping
teaspoonful of white arsenic to 40 gallons of water were used. For the last
treatment the mixture was the same, except that the arsenic was increased
224 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
to 1^ teaspoonfuls' to 40 gallons. The writer suggested only the arsenate
of lead, fearing arsenic would do harm. The latter was added by the fore-
man of the bog to do a thorough job, and fortunately no injury resulted.
The wTiter visited the bog on July 20 and found dead rootworm beetles
in large numbers under the vines, most of them being in a dry and brittle
condition. Only a very few were crawling about. The cranberry foHage
on the infested area showed that the beetles had fed freely upon it. As 6 of
15 beetles, collected July 11 and kept at the station screenhouse, were still
active on the 26th, the condition of those found on the bog on the 20th
seemed to indicate that the spraying had been effective. This bog was
kept under observation until the end of the season, and no evidence of the
continued presence of the pest was discovered, it having been practically
exterminated by the treatment.
Prof. H. B. Scammell has published a valuable bulletin on this insect.^
The Gypsy Moth {Porthetria dispar L.).
Several quarts of egg masses were collected from trees late in December,
1915, and early in January, 1916, and divided into lots of about a half quart
each, two of these being put in cans ^\ith moist sand in the bottom and
placed in the basement of the station screenhouse for checks, the others
being enclosed in cloth netting sacks and submerged for the winter in 3
feet of water in a pond.
The eggs of the check lots hatched almost perfectly. The dates on which
the various submerged lots were taken from the water, and the ^Titer's
estimates of the percentages of eggs that hatched, were as follows: lot 1,
April 2, 25 per cent.; lot 2, April 18, 20 per cent.; lot 3, April 23, 18 per
cent.; lot 4, May 1, 25 per cent.; lot 5, May 5, 20 per cent.; lot 6, May
13, 20 per cent.; lot 7, May 24, 5 per cent. The submergence did not
seem to kill the eggs as readily in these tests as in those reported last j'-ear.
This may have been due to the unseasonable coldness of the spring this
season, which probably caused the water in the pond to warm up more
slowly than usual.
On May 29, 59 gypsy-moth caterpillars from one-eighth to five-six-
teenths of an inch long were submerged on the leaves of an oak branch
just as they were taken from the woods, in 8 inches of water in a washtub.
All but 3 of the worms clung to the branch and went down into the
water with it. At the end of a forty-three-hour submergence, 8 floated
on the surface, 4 had sunk to the bottom of the tub, and 47 still clung
to the leaves. These worms were watched for two days after the close
of the test, but only 1 of the 59 showed any sign of life.
On May 31, 50 caterpillars from one-quarter to five-sixteenths of an
inch long were submerged, as before, on the leaves of an oak branch in 9
inches of water. All these worms clung to the leaves tenaciously when
submerged. After twenty-two hours in the water, 2 floated on the surface,
> The Cranberry Rootworm, Bui. No. 263, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1915.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 225
3 had sunk to the bottom, and 45 still clung to the leaves. They were
then taken from the water, and \^ithin seven hours 26 had nearly or en-
tirely recovered.
On June 1, 152 worms from one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch long
were submerged on the leaves of an oak branch, as before, in 9 inches of
water. After thirty-eight and one-half hours of submergence, 46 floated
on the water, most of them being alive and active, 40 had sunk to the
bottom, and 66 still clung to the leaves. Those clinging to the branch
were then taken from the water and watched, and only a few ever showed
any sign of recovery. As a rule, the worms that came to the surface of
the water were among the largest of those submerged, as was also the
case in later tests, descriptions of which are not included here.
The results of these experiments and of observations of bog flooding
operations, in which the small gypsy caterpillars behaved similarly, have
led the writer to the folio-wing conclusions : —
1. That reflowing for this insect Tvill be most satisfactory if done while
the worms are small and probably before the largest are more than five-
sixteenths of an inch long. The sooner it is done after the eggs are all
hatched the less will be the damage from the feeding of the worms and
the less the trouble from their floating ashore alive, as it is evidently the
habit of the very young caterpillars to cling to their support when sub-
merged.
2. To be entirely effective, even when the worms are small, a flowage
must probably be held nearly forty hours.
Mr. C. W. Minott of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States
Department of Agriculture conducted some interesting investigations
during May and June, 1916, concerning the wind-spread of gypsy-moth
caterpillars on cranberry bogs. With his permission the following con-
densed account of these studies is given here : —
Two bogs in Carver, Mass., were selected for experiments on wind dispersion,
namely. Muddy Pond bog, containing about 100 acres, and John's Pond bog, con-
taining about 44 acres (including pond). Six screens made of cotton cloth tacked
to a frame in two sections, each being 3 by 10 feet, were set up horizontally just
above the tops of the vines at various distances from the neighboring woodlands.
Each screen contained 60 square feet of cloth upon which " tanglefoot " was applied.
Daily examinations of each screen were made and data were taken concerning the
temperature and the direction and velocity of the wind during the dispersion period.
The screens were located on the bogs at various distances, ranging from 400 to
1,200 feet, from woodland infestations. From one screen, located 600 feet from
infested woodland on the northwest and 900 feet on the west, 62 small caterpillars
were removed during the season, or slightly more than 1 to the square foot. A
total of 143 small worms was wind-borne on to the six screens, which indicated
that an average of about 17,000 per acre blew on to the bogs. The infestations
around these bogs are as yet only medium in extent, this showing what may be
expected when the surroundings of bogs become thickly infested. ^
1 Collins, C. W.: Methods used in determining Wind Dispersion of the Gipsy Moth and Some
Other Insects, Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. 10, p. 174, 1917.
226 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
The Cranberry Tip Worm {Dasyneura vaccinii Smith ^) .
The season's observations of the effect of resanding on the abundance
of this pest sustained the conclusions heretofore reported.
One species of Chalcidid (Tetrastichus sp. 2) and, two of Proctotrypid
(Aphanogmiis sp. ^ and Ceraphron sp. ') parasites were reared from the
larVse of the last brood after they had encased themselves in their cocoons
this season. Two of these {Tetrastichus sp.and Aphanogmns sp.) emerged in
only small numbers, but the Ceraphron species had infested a large, though
undetermined, majority of the maggots collected by the writer, and its
adults kept coming out from August 9 to September 14, inclusive, their
period of most rapid emergence being from August 12 to August 22.
The eggs of the tip worm are not "white" as they have been described.*
They are watery translucent in appearance, with scattered pinkish pig-
ment, and are about one-third of a millimeter long. They are elongate,
usually slightly curved from end to end, with rounded and sHghtly nar-
rowed ends and without noticeable surface markings.
The Black-Head Fireworm {Rhopohota vacciniana (Pack.)).
Prof. H. B. Scammell, in cranberry insect investigations in New Jersey
for the Bureau of Entomology, had much success last year in treating
both broods of this insect in the worm stage with a form of nicotine sulfate
known as "Black- Leaf 40." He used 1 part of this insecticide to 400 parts
water, and added resin fish-oil soap at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons
to make the spray spread and stick. When the writer saw the plots
Professor Scammell had treated in this way, they were green and had a
fair amount of fruit, whereas the surrounding bog, and even plots sprayed
with arsenate of lead, had been turned brown by the insect and bore prac-
tically no crop.
The writer tried this treatment against the first brood on two large
plots this season, and while it failed to control the insect entirely, it
checked it so much that the plots remained green while the surrounding
bog was turned rather browm, the contrast being striking.
This insecticide must be tested further before it can be said at what
strength it should be used or how many times it should be applied to either
brood. At the strength in which it has so far been tested it is a rather
expensive treatment, costing about %7 per acre per apphcation. It may be
found, however, that weaker mixtures suffice. At any rate, this treatment
stands at present as the only really effective method of controUing the
first brood of this insect, burning and flooding excepted, and in spite of its
expense it will, therefore, find favor in the management of many bogs.
Two, and perhaps three, applications for the first brood are advisable.
> Bui. No. 175 of the New York State Museum, p. 151.
2 Determined by Mr. A. A. Girault of the Bureau of Entomology.
' Determined by Mr. J. C. Crawford of the Bureau of Entomology.
* Smith, J. B.: Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 178, U. S. Dept,
Agr., 1903, p. 19.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 227
As a treatment for the second brood, it may have to compete with arsenate
of lead, for there is danger of injuring tender foUage, and especially blos-
soms, in spraying with any contact insecticide, and arsenate of lead is far
more effective with the second brood than with the first. Proper treatment
of the first brood with "Black-Leaf 40" may check the pest so well that
a thorough treatment of the second brood will not be so necessary as it is
at present. In any case, not more than one application of "Black- Leaf
40" for the second brood is likely to be desirable.
The writer gave some cranberry uprights sprayed with "Black-Leaf 40"
to some gypsy-moth caterpillars, providing another lot with unsprayed
vines as a check. The latter were eaten much more freely than the former.
This suggests that the effectiveness of this insecticide may be partly due
to a deterrent property.
The second brood of the fireworm did less damage than usual this sea-
son, and less than might have been expected from the abundance of the
first brood. The wet season seemed to check it strongly somehow.
The Cranberry Fruit Worm {Mineola vaccinii (Riley)).
This insect did the least injury this season of any year in the writer's
experience. It has not been less prevalent since 1903. We have no relia-
ble information concerning its abundance in years previous to 1904.
The writer has tried to determine, as far as possible, the relative abun-
dance of this pest in the various cranberry-growing regions. It is most
harmful on Cape Cod and in Wisconsin, being far less troublesome in
New Jersey, the amount of injury on dry bogs (without winter-flowage)
in the latter section, when the writer was there in 1915, being about the
same as that on the flowed bogs of the Cape in the same season. It does
about the same damage on Long Island and Nantucket as in New Jersey,
being far less prevalent there than on Cape Cod. It appears to be almost
if not entirely, unknown on the Pacific coast of Oregon and Washington.
It will be seen that this insect is not usually very troublesome except in
the regions with comparatively cold and dry climates, a heavier total precipi-
tation as well as a higher average temperature being characteristic of the
warmer sections. One might expect from this that any variation in the Cape
Cod climate toward that of the ivarmer regions woidd be likely to tend to
reduce the pest, whereas any variation in the opposite direction would be
likely to lend to make it mare abundant.
Cape Cod Data appear to strongly substantiate this Conclusion. — The
season of 1905 was the worst on record for fruit-worm injury. The Cape
had a lower mean temperature in 1904 than in any subsequent year up to
the present time, and in 1905 had a smaller total precipitation than in any
year since, in spite of the fact that the rainfall in all the last five months
of the year except October was heavy. Of the severity of the winters
1903-04 and 1904-05, the Annual Summary of the New England Section
of the Climate and Crop Service of the Weather Bureau for 1905 (page 3)
remarks as follows: —
228 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
February — the last of the winter months, with its remarkably low temperature
record — completes one of the coldest winters of oflficial record. At Boston the
mean temperature for the three months, December, January and February, 1904-05,
24.8 degrees, is the lowest for the winter months since 1871, excepting 24.4 degrees
in 1903-04, and 24.5 degrees in 1873-74. The winter for New England, as a whole,
was the coldest since the establishment of the weather service of this section in
1884. The mean temperature was 17.9 degrees, and the next lowest is 18 degrees
for the winter, 1903-04.
As far as the "WTiter can determine, the greatest reductions in fruit-worm
activity in recent years, aside from that of this season, occurred in 1906
and 1913. The records of the Weather Bureau show that the total pre-
cipitation of 1906 on the Cape was the greatest of any year since 1904,
May, June and July being especially wet months. The winter of 1905-06
was mostly an open one. Both temperature and precipitation ran abnor-
mally high throughout the greater part of the period beginning with
October, 1912, and ending May 1, 1913, the winter being very open.
As affecting the abundance of the pest in 1916, it should be noted that
September, 1915, was a month of record high temperatures for its season,
that the winter 1915-16 was mostly very open, and that the first half of
this growing season was very wet throughout.
In the latter part of May the WTiter covered large numbers of fruit
worms in their cocoons, in quart cans partly filled with moist sand, with
different measured and uniform depths of sand ranging from three-six-
teenths of an inch to a full inch, and made records of the subsequent
emergence of the adult insects. Unfortunately, no check of worms not
covered with any sand was kept for comparison, but, judging from the^
freedom with which the parasites and moths emerged through three- six-
teenths, one-fourth, three-eighths, one-half, five-eighths, two-thirds and
even three-fourths inch depths, it appears that resanding as commonly
done does not much affect the abundance of either the fruit worm or its
worm parasites. The full inch covering of sand seemed to smother most
of the moths and parasites, though a few of both came out even from that
depth.
The writer liberated a number of apparently female moths from a boat
on a pond on July 25, and three of them were seen to fly to the shore, a
measured distance of about 272 feet, in a single flight, a toy balloon being
anchored in the pond at their point of departure to measure from, and the
measuring being done with twine. This demonstration of this insect's
powers of flight is of interest in connection with the speculation concerning
the annual infestation of bogs from surrounding uplands and from neigh-
boring bogs.
Fruit-worm eggs showed a range in Chalcidid (Trichogramma minuta)
parasitism of from about 25 to 75 per cent, on diy bogs and from none to
about 75 per cent, on those with winter flowage this year. This parasite
was not found at all on half the flowed bogs examined, more than a quarter
of the eggs showing its presence on only 3 out of 30 such bogs. It appeared
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 229
to be entirelj^ absent on some flowed bogs on which it infested from 76 to
89 per cent, of the eggs in 1915. Its great reduction on the flowed bogs
ma}' have been due to the long period of wet weather in the first half of
the groAnng season.
The Braconid (Phanerotovia franklini ^ Gahan) parasitism was found to
range from 24 to about 55 per cent, on dry bogs (without winter -flowage)
and from none to about 33 per cent, on flowed ones. On one bog which
had the -ninter-flowage held until May 25, 24 per cent, of the fruit worms
were infested mth this parasite, and on another, bared of the winter water
on May 14, 21 per cent, were infested, these figures indicating that moder-
ately late holding of the flowage perhaps does not reduce this parasite in
proportion to its host as seriously as was suggested by the writer in last
year's report (page 40.) It should be stated in this connection that the
percentages of Phanerotovia and Pristomeridia parasitism given in this
and previous reports only show the amounts of these parasitisms among
the worms at work in the berries when the examinations were made, and
indicate the parasitism of the entire season only in a very rough way. It
was discovered this year that the parasitized worms leave the berries
somewhat sooner than the unparasitized ones, examinations made toward
the end of the pest's period of activity showing greatly reduced percentages
for the worm parasitism as compared with those made earher. Worms
from the same location on one bog showed percentages of Phanerotoma
parasitism on different dates, as follows: September 3, 33.3 per cent.;
September 6, 40 per cent.; September 13, 2.3 per cent. The percentages
of Pristomeridia parasitism found in this same location were as follows:
September 3, 5.5 per cent.; September 6, 6.6 per cent.; September 13, 0.
Pristomeridia agilis ^ was very scarce this year, the percentage of, its
parasitism being found to range from none to 5| on flowed bogs and from
4^ to about 10 on strictly dry ones.
The examinations by which the percentages of Phanerotoma and Pristo-
meridia parasitism given in this and previous reports were determined
were made by crushing fruit worms between glass slides in such a way as
to expel their viscera through the anal opening, the parasite larva, when
present, apparently always being ejected with them and being found
easily with a good hand lens.
A number of eggs deposited at the same time by Phanerotoma females
under observation in eggs laid by fruit-worm moths in confinement where
they were secluded from parasites, and subsequentlj'' kept in closed bottles,
were examined with a microscope successively at various times after depo-
sition. None of these parasite eggs examined after either thirty-six or
forty-two hours showed any sign of hatching. Two of three examined at
the end of forty-six hours had hatched, but the larvse showed no sign of
life. After forty-nine hours all the eggs had hatched, and some of the
1 This parasite, called Phanerotoma tibialis in the writer's previous reports, has recently been
described as new to science, and given the name here used, by Mr. A. B. Gahan of the Bureau of
Entomology. Cf. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 53, 1917, p. 200.
* The exact identity of the species is still in doubt.
230 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
larvae moved their mouth parts considerably. The weather was cool
during the entire period (July 29 and 30) in which this investigation was
in progress, the maximum temperature in the sun at the station bog
being 80° F. and the minimum bog temperature being 40°.
Cocoons of parasitized fruit worms are usually much smaller and more
delicate than those of unparasitized ones.
Submergence tests were conducted with fruit worms in their cocoons,
as follows: —
1. Six small cheesecloth sacks, each containing 20 cocoons, were sub-
merged to a depth of 2 feet in a pond at 10.30 a.m., September 14. They
were all taken from the water and examined in the afternoon of September
26, and all the worms were found dead, a majority of them being partly
decomposed. Most of them had left their cocoons and were on the inside
of the sacks.
2. Three lots of cocoons of 20 each were submerged in cheesecloth sacks
to a depth of 2 feet in a pond at 9 a.m., September 30. These were all taken
from the water and examined between 11 a.m. and 1 p.m., October 12. All
the worms were found dead, most of them being more or less decomposed.
About half had left their cocoons and were clinging to the inside of the
sacks.
3. Two cheesecloth sacks, each containing 20 cocoons, were submerged
in 2 feet of water in a pond at 3 p.m., October 12. These sacks were taken
out and examined at 5 p.m., October 24. Most of the worms were found
dead and more or less decomposed, as in the previous tests, but 7 were
alive in one sack and 2 in the other.
4. Two cheesecloth sacks, each containing 20 cocoons, were submerged
to a depth of 2 feet in a pond at 8 a.m., October 25. They were taken out
and examined on November 6, 17 being found alive in one sack and 8 in
the other.
In all these tests the sacks were of the same material, were tied up and
submerged in the same way, to the same depth in the same place and for
practically the same length of time. It will be seen that as the season
advanced the submergence had much less effect on the worms. As the
pond grew colder fast while these tests were in progress their results sug-
gested that the temperature of the water largely determined its effect.
At 1 p.m., Jan. 3, 1917, a weighted cheesecloth sack, containing 15 fruit
worms in their cocoons, was placed in the bottom of each of two 1-quart
cans full of water, the water being at a temperature of 59^° F., and the
cans, with their covers on tight, were placed in a chicken incubator to-
gether with Green maximum and minimum registering thermometers, the
incubator being set to run at a temperature of 60° F. As a check on these
cans, two similar cans containing similar lots of fruit worms were placed
in a pail of water at the same time, the temperature of the water in the
cans and in the pail around them being about 35° F. The pail, together
with maximum and minimum registering thermometers, was placed in a
barrel the temperature of the air in which was about 37° F. The barrel
was headed up and buried in hay to keep its contents at an even tempera-
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 231
ture. The cocoons in both the incubator and the barrel were taken from
the water at 9 p.m., January 15, and were examined the next day in a warm
room. All but 9 of the 30 worms that had been in the incubator were dead,
whereas all but 3 of the 30 from the pail were alive. Those taken from the
pail were as a rule very lively after they got warmed up, most of them
crawling actively. On the other hand, none of those from the incubator
became active, the live ones showing they were so only when prodded con-
siderably, their movements even then being very sluggish. None of the
dead worms had begun to decompose. The temperature of the incubator
was shown by the thermometers to have ranged from 52° to 66° F. during
the test. The temperature of the water in the cans kept in it was 57° F.
at the end of the test, and had probably averaged a little under 60°. The
temperature in the barrel had ranged from 31° to 39^° F., that of the
water in the pail being 35° at the end of the test.
This incubator and pail experiment was duplicated by a test carried out
similarly in all details, except that vaseline bottles of 3^-ounce capacity,
with tightly inserted cork stoppers, were used instead of the cans, the
cocoons being submerged at noon, Jan. 29, 1917, and being taken from
the water at 3 p.m., February 13. Of the 30 worms kept in the incubator
16 were dead and 14 aHve at the end of the test, while of the 30 tested in
the pail 27 were alive and only 3 dead. Moreover, the live worms fromi
the bottles in the pail were much more active after they got warmed up>
than were those from the incubator. None of the dead worms had begun
to decompose noticeably. In this test the temperature in the barrel ranged!
from 32° to 36° F. The incubator got out of order twice, — on the seventhi
and tenth days of the test, — its temperature the first time falling to 40°
and the second to 33° F. With these exceptions it ran between 52° and.
62°, and probably averaged about 56°.
Many of the cocoons used in these tests were carefully opened under-
water at the end of the submergence, and, while they were all found to be
largely filled with water, none were without a little air or gas, this indi-
cating that the findings in this regard previously reported by the writer ^
were not quite accurate, the former examinations apparently not having
been sufficiently careful.
The results of these experiments seem to prove that the effect of sub-
mergence of the worms in their cocoons depends largely, if not principally,
upon the temperature of the water, and they suggest that a flowage after
picking, if it is begun before October 1 and continued for twelve or possibly
even ten days, may control this insect as well as late holding of the winter-
flowage usually does. It may be said that such a flooding would interfere
with harvesting, but as late picking is usually a result of late holding of the
previous winter-flowage, and as late holding is most commonly practiced
as a treatment for the fruit worm, this objection does not seem valid.
Flooding practiced annually after picking would probably have a much
less harmful effect on a bog than late holding of the winter-flowage every
year has.
» Bui. No. 160, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1915, p. 113.
232 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
Bog Management.
Prof. H. B. Scammell has recently reported ' a destructive visitation of
the fall army worm (Laphygma jrugi-perda S. & A.) this year on widely
separated cranberry bogs in New Jersey following closely, and evidently
somehow caused by, the removal of the winter-flowage in mid-July. This
insect feeds on a variety of plants, but has not heretofore been known as a
cranberry pest. As its frequent outbreaks, which start in the southern
States, sometimes reach as far north as Canada, by the spreading of the
successive broods of strong-flying moths, in a single season, though it is
unable to endure the winter in the north, there is gi'ound for fearing that
midsummer removal of the winter-flowage may more or less regularly
invite serious trouble from this insect on Cape Cod as well as in New Jer-
sey. This unexpected development must be regarded as a possible com-
plication in connection with certain phases of the biennial cropping system
suggested by the writer in last year's report (page 46).
Late holding of a deep winter-flowage is sometimes dangerous. This
flowage was started off from a bog in Assonet, Mass., on June 10, its with-
drawal being completed on the 11th. When the writer visited this bog on
June 30 the vines seemed completely dead where the flowage had been
deepest (5 feet deep), whereas they showed no injury, aside from the re-
tarded seasonal development of growth, where the water had been shal-
lowest (2 feet deep), their leaves having been well retained and appearing
green and healthy. Where the water had been deepest the leaves were all
off, the buds at the tips of the uprights were gone, and the vines were
brittle and showed no green in the break when broken off. There was a
complete gradation from this condition to that where the flowage had been
shallowest, corresponding with the variation in elevation.
Part of the vines on this bog were set out in the spring of 1914, and part
in the spring of 1915, strips of both plantings running from the lowest to
the highest parts of the bog. The writer is informed by the manager that
the one-year sets where the flowage was deep finally recovered somewhat,
but that the two-year plantings were killed entirely.
A large bog in Rochester, Mass., the winter-flowage of which ranged in
depth from 4 feet to nothing, had this flowage held until May 31 this sea-
son. This is an old bog, with vines well established. Where the water was
deepest the leaves all came off, leaving the uprights alive but bearing only
the terminal bud. On the other hand, there was no abnormal falling of
the leaves where the water was shallow. As on the Assonet bog, there was
a complete gradation in the injury corresponding with the variation in the
depth of the flowage.
A new 60-acre bog at Assonet, Mass., was flowed on the night of May 31,
the vines being completely submerged for forty-eight hours, the water
ranging from 3 feet to a few inches in depth, and averaging about 2| feet.
» Proc. 47th Ann. Meet, of the Amer. Cranb. Grow. Assoc, p. 11, January, 1917.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 233
The flooding and draining were done entirely at night. A few days later
the writer's attention was called to an injury that had resulted. He
visited the bog and found the buds and even the tops of the new growth of
the uprights on parts of it seriously hurt. The injury was mainly on the
central portion of the bog, and centered around a large pile of ashes left
from the burning of stumps and brush when it was built. Vines at con-
siderable distances from this pile showed at most but slight injury, except
in a streak parallel to the end of the dike toward which the wind had blown
during the flooding. Leaves of bushes which had hung down into or stood
in the water of the reflow, around the margin of the bog, showed a marked
and unusual burning injury, and they bore traces of a white powder which
appeared to be ash that had floated in the water from the pile at the cen-
ter of the bog. The situation as a whole led all those who observed it to
conclude that the ash pile had caused the trouble. The pile was estimated
to be 2^ feet deep over an area 25 feet square and about 6 inches deep over
another area 75 feet square. Piles of ashes on bogs are probably danger-
ous because of the lye leached from them. Many unaccountable spots
where vines refuse to grow thriftily on bogs may be the result of effects
remaining from ashes left from the burning of brush piles. It is well known
that alkalies in the soil are inimical to cranberry growth.
A portable sectional bridge devised by the writer for use in carting ber-
ries across bog ditches proved valuable at the station bog this year. With
its help it was easy to cart berries without killing the vines in tracks by
repeated passages of the wheels over the same ground. A light truck
probably could be used to great advantage with this bridge, though the
writer has tried only a horse and wagon with it so far. At any rate, it will
make it possible to much reduce the present expense of removing berries
from bogs. It may be seen at the station bog at any time during the cran-
berry season.
With many Cape Cod bogs a desirable reduction in the cost of resanding
could probably be effected by the development of a sanding rim around the
margin. ' With such a rim the sand for any part of the bog could always
be brought from the nearest point. The rim should be wide enough for a
good roadway, and it should be built level with the bog surface, so that
it may serve as a sanitary catch-basin for floating berries and leaves. If,
as the results of some of the writer's storage ex-periments seem to indicate,
the berries from the marginal portion of a bog, other conditions being the
same, are usually of poorer keeping quality than those from the center,
the condition may naturally be laid to the continual deposition of diseased
cranberry material floating on the surface of repeated flowages and wafted
to the margin by the wind. Thus the possible value of a marginal catch-
basin as suggested becomes evident. The sanding rim would also have
some value as fire protection for a bog.
As the sanding rim becomes sufficiently widened by the removal of
sand in repeated resandings, the bog can be gradually enlarged by planting
234 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
on the inner side of the rim, this increase in property being mostly clear
gain.
The sanding rim can be constructed most advantageously when a
bog is built. Its development after the, bog is planted is attended with
some difficulties. Among these the extra cost of turfing the upland adja-
cent to the bog, and the liability in resanding of seeding the bog more or
less with certain troublesome weeds, should be especially considered.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPOILAGE OF CRAN-
BERRIES DUE TO LACK OF PROPER
VENTILATION.
by c. l. shear and neil e. stevens, pathologists, and b. a. rudolph,
scientific assistant, fruit-disease investigations, bureau of
plant industry.
Introduction.
The injuryto cranberries due to keeping them in tightly closed packages
was brought strikingly to the writers' attention during temperature tests
conducted in the fall of 1916. Uniform samples of Early Black cranberries
from bogs near Wareham, Mass., were put up in pound coffee cans and sent
to Washington by mail. There they were placed in the constant tempera-
ture apparatus used by Drs. Brooks and Cooley of this office, and described
by them in their recent paper. ^
One can from each lot was placed at each of the following temperatures:
Centigrade, 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 degrees (equal to 32, 41, 50, 59 and 68 de-
grees Fahrenheit). They were kept at these temperatures from early in
September until about the middle of November. When the berries were
removed from the cans and sorted, it was found that spoilage at the lower
temperatures had been much greater than the previous experience of the
writers had led them to beHeve could be due to fungi alone. Many of
the spoiled berries had a peculiar lusterless appearance, and were of a
uniform dull red color differing both from normal and from typical
rotten berries.
Among various factors considered as possible causes of this condition
the excessive accumulation of carbon dioxide seemed the most probable.
The work of F. W. Morse,^ Gore ' and others has proven that large amounts
of this gas are given off in the respiration of various fruits, while the studies
of Fulton * indicate that the spoiling of strawberries and raspberries which
he noted in tight packages is due to the accumulation of carbon dioxide.
Fulton foimd that if strawberries were kept in tightly closed bottles for
1 Brooks, Charles, and Cooley, J. S.: Temperature Relations of Apple-rot Fungi. Journal of
Agricultural Research, 8, 139-163, 1917.
' Morse, Fred W.: Effect of Temperature on the Respiration of Apples. Jour. Amer. Chem.
Soc, 30, 876-881, 1908.
' Gore, H. C: Studies on Fruit Respiration, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Chem., Bui. No. 142,
1911.
* Fulton, S. H.: The Cold Storage of Small Fruits, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Plant Indus.,
Bui. No. 108, 1907.
236 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
three days the oxygen of the air was practically exhausted, and more than
35 per cent, by volume of carbon dioxide had accumulated. Under these
conditions, as well as in cartons tightly wrapped, "The fruit softened and
had the characteristic bad flavor of fruit confined in an atmosphere of
carbon dioxide" (3, p. 22).
Dr. Charles Brooks and Dr. E. M. Harvey of this ofl&ce, who have sepa-
rately studied storage conditions in apples and other fruits, examined the
cranberries referred to and were of the opinion that the condition might
very likely be due to the accumulation of an excessive amount of carbon
dioxide. Although it was then too late in the season (November 20) to
undertake a thorough investigation of the subject, preliminary tests were
made which gave results of considerable interest.
Temperature Tests in Open and Closed Cans.
In order to compare directly the keeping of cranberries in open and
closed cans, uniform lots of sound berries were divided, one portion being
placed in tightly closed cans, and the other portion in similar cans with the
covers removed. The result of one of these tests, which is typical of sev-
eral, is given in the following tables : —
Temperature Tests on Howes from State Bog, Massachusetts, beginning
November 21, ending December 16.
Closed Cans.
Tempebatuhb in Degrees C.
Sound.
Spoiled.
Spoiled
(Per Cent.).
20.
15,
10,
5.
0,
328
357
444
472
483
172
147
67
29
20
34.5
29.5
13.0
6.5
4.0
Open Cans.
20,
15,
10,
S,
0,
It will be noted that in all cases the amount of spoilage is greater in the
closed cans than in the open cans.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 237
Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Cranberries.
Several series of tests were made in which cranberries from various
sources (Early Blacks and Howes from Massachusetts, and Howes from
New Jersey) were kept for short periods in an atmosphere of nearly pure
carbon dioxide. It was noticed in each case that at the end of three days
practically a]] the berries in the carbon dioxide were spoiled, whereas ber-
ries from the same lots kept in similar containers with air showed very
little rot even at the end of two weeks.
The berries which had been kept in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide
had the peculiar uniform duU, lusterless, red color which had been noticed
in many of the berries which had spoiled in closed cans. On sectioning
these berries it was found that the tissue of the berry, which is white in a
normal berry, had taken on the same uniform red color. Berries which
have been treated in this manner have a peculiar, bitter taste, which is very
characteristic. They are no longer firm, as in the sound fruit, nor elastic
to the touch as in rotten fruit, but have become flaccid. The same effect
on the berries was readily produced by sealing up a quantity in an air-
tight container, and allowing them to remain at room temperature for a
week.
That this injurious effect is produced by the accumulation of carbon
dioxide is indicated by preliminary tests made in December, 1916. Equal
quantities of sound Early Blacks or Howes were put in similar containers
(Hempel desiccators). One of these desiccators was filled with carbon
dioxide, the other two contained air, but the upper portion of one of them
was filled with a saturated solution of potassium hydroxide, which would
absorb the carbon dioxide almost as fast as given off by the berries. The
berries in the fii'st lot were thus exposed to an atmosphere of carbon
dioxide throughout the test; those in the second lot were exposed to air
containing practically no carbon dioxide; and those in the third to an at-
mosphere in which the carbon dioxide given off in respiration was allowed
to accumulate. The results of one of these tests which was typical of all
are given in the following table : —
Conditions under which Berries
Condition of Berries at End op Test.
WERE KEPT.
Sound.
Spoiled.
Spoiled
(Per Cent.).
C02
Air exposed to water,
Air exposed to KOH solution,
35
56
45
34
39
19
60
40
29
It will be noted that the amount of spoilage, including rot due to fungi,
is greatest in the berries exposed to carbon dioxide and least in the con-
tainer from which this gas was removed, which apparently indicates that a
large portion of the spoilage was due to the carbon dioxide.
238 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 180.
Effect of Different relative Humidities on Spoilage due to
Carbon Dioxide.
Most of the tests described above had been made in atmospheres having
relatively high moisture content. In order to determine whether the hu-
midity of the air in any way influenced the spoilage, a series of tests was
run in which sound cranberries of the Howes variety were kept in tightly
sealed Hempel desiccators which were maintained at constant humidity
by sulfuric acid solutions of different densities. This method has been
described by one of the writers in an earlier paper.^ AU these tests were
made at a temperature of about 24° C.
Chambers having relative humidities of 100 per cent, (saturated atmos-
phere), 75 per cent., 50 per cent., 25 per cent, and approximately 0 per
cent, were used, and so far as could be detected by careful observation
there was no difference in the rate of spoilage at the different humidities.
Relation of Fungi to Spoilage due to Carbon Dioxide.
It is of course possible that one effect of accumulation of carbon diox j
at least in small amounts, may be to make the berries more susceptible to
the attacks of fungi. It seems certain, however, that the injury to the fruit
is in many cases wholly independent of the action of fungi.
On March 13, 1917, we received from Dr. Franklin a box of Pride cran-
berries taken from a crate of fruit which had been kept in storage in the
basement of the screenhouse at the State experimental bog at East Ware-
ham. These were taken to represent the average condition of the spoiled
fruit at the time. This lot contained 271 berries. They were carefully
sorted, and 195 were somewhat softened and flaccid, having much less resil-
iency than the rotten fruit, in which the tissues are more or less destroyed
by the growth of fungi. They had the same general appearance as berries
treated with carbon dioxide, and their condition was believed to be due
to the time and manner in which they had been kept rather than to fungous
disease. Fifty of these berries were taken at random and cultures made by
transplanting the bulk of the pulp from the cranberries, the skin being re-
moved. Of these cultures, but 2, or 4 per cent., produced fungi. Assum-
ing that this represents the average number affected with fungous disease,
deducting 4 per cent, from the total, 195, would leave 187 presumably
free from fungous disease. Cultures were also made from the tissue of the
remaining 76, which had more the appearance and character of fruit at-
tacked b}^ fungi. The results of these cultures showed, however, that 49
of these berries were apparently destroyed by some other cause than fun-
gous disease, thus making a total of 236 out of 271, or 87 per cent., not
destroyed by fungi but presumably by the period and conditions of
storage since picking.
' Stevens, Neil E.: A Method for studying the Humidity Relations of Fungi in Culture.
Phytopathology, 6, 428^32, 1916.
REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1916. 239
From a sample of cranberries of the cherry variety taken July 2, 1917,
at Madrid, Me., which had been kept in the cellar of a house all winter,
50 softened berries were chosen at random and cultures were made from
their pulp, as described above. Twenty of these berries, or 40 per cent.,
jielded the end-rot fungus, while 22 berries, or 44 per cent., showed no
fungi, and were presumably destroyed by the other causes discussed in
this paper.
Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Fungi in the Berries.
That carbon dioxide in high concentrations injures fungi in the cran-
berries as well as the berries themselves is indicated by a test in which equal
numbers of rotten cranberries from a single lot were placed in similar ves-
sels, one of which was filled with carbon dioxide and the other left open.
At the end of one week transfers of tissue were made from each berry. Of
the berries which had been kept in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide 70
per cent, contained no viable fungi and the others yielded Penicillium, or
the end-rot fungus. Of the berries kept in the open vessel only 15 per
cent, contained no living fungi, and the others yielded fungi of six different
species.
The rate at which carbon dioxide is given off by cranberries in storage
and the variation of this rate with temperature, the concentration of the
gas necessary to cause injury, and the concentration which occurs under
storage conditions, have not been determined, and further investigations
on this line are planned. It seems very probable from the facts now in
hand, however, that this spoilage is a considerable factor in the loss during
storage, and throws new light on the results of Dr. Franklin, ^ which indi-
cate the importance of ventilation, as well as on this year's results in
shipping cranberries in tight as compared with ventilated packages.
1 Franklin, H. J.: Report of Cranberry Substation for 1915, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bui. No.
168, 1916.
BULLETIN No. 181,
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
J. B, LINDSEY, C. L. BEALS AND P. H. SMITH.'
Introduction,
The digestion experiments reported in this bulletin were made during
a number of years, beginning with the autumn of 1912. They include
portions of Series XVIII. and XIX. and all of Series XX., XXI. and XXII.,
with the exception of one experiment in Series XXII. Each series in-
cludes a period of time between the early autumn and the following spring.
A few of the results have been given in other publications.
The basal ration in the majority of cases was English hay, or English
hay and gluten feed.
The usual method of conducting the tests was employed, and has been
fully described elsewhere. ^
The composition of the feeds tested in the several series is presented in
the tabulation known as Table I., which is arranged alphabetically.
Table II. is arranged by series, beginning with Series XVIII. It con-
tains the average amount of feces excreted daily by each sheep, the weight
of one-tenth of the feces in air-dry condition, the percentage of dry mat-
ter in the air-dry feces, and the composition of the dry matter.
Table III. contains the weight of the animals at the beginning and end
of each digestion period, and the average amount of water consumed daily.
In Table IV. will be found the digestion coefficients of basal rations used
in the computations which follow in Table V. This table, headed "Com-
putation of Digestion Coefficients," presents the detailed data of each
trial, together with the resulting coefficients. Following the complete
data will be found a summary of the coefficients secured for each material,
together with a discussion of the results.
Table VI. gives an average of the coefficients secured for each feed
tested.
It may be stated that the period in nearly all cases extended over four-
teen days, the first seven of which were preliminary, the collecting of the
feces being made on the last seven. Ten grams of salt were fed each sheep
dailj^ and water ad libitum. The sheep were grade Shropshires, as nearly
as possible of the same age and weight.
1 Mr. Smith and Mr. Beak did the larger part of the analytical work and the tabulations; the
work at the feeding barn was carried out by Mr. J. R. Alcock.
2 Eleventh report of the Mass. State Agri. Exp. Sta., pp. 146-149 (1893).
242 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
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265
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients.
Series XVIII., Mangels, Period 3.
Sheep V.
Item.
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400 grams English hay fed, .
1,400 grams mangels fed.
347.00
228.76
19.67
13.57
34.25
12.03
109.51
13.63
174.24
188.89
9.33
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Amount consumed,
Minus 159.94 grams feces excreted,
575.76
151.42
33.24
23.98
46.28
19.06
123.14
35.67
363.13
65.43
9.97
7.28
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested.
424.34
225.55
9.26
9.05
27.22
22.26
87.47
73.37
297.70
116.76
2.69
4.29
Mangels digested
Per cent, digested.
198.79
86.90
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1.55
4.96
41.21
14.10
103.45
180.94
95.79
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Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 155.50 grams feces excreted,
575.76
147.21
33.24
21.73
46.26
17.86
123.14
35.62
363.13
64.49
9.97
7.51
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested.
428.55
225.55
11.51
9.05
28.42
22.26
87.52
73.37
298.64
116.76
2 46
4.29
Mangels digested
Per cent, digested,
203.00
88.74
2.46
18.12
6.16
51.18
14.15
103.81
181.88
96.29
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Average per cent, digested, .
87.82
9.84
46.20
103.73
96.04
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Series XVIII., Cabbage (Heads), Period 4,
Sheep I.
400 grams English hay fed, .
1,600 grams cabbage (heads) fed, .
357.40
154.56
18.80
12.70
33.06
27.79
111.97
15.21
184.06
97.02
9.51
1.84
Amount consumed,
Minus 131.90 grams feces excreted.
511.96
125.34
31.50
15.44
60.85
17.08
127.18
29.82
281 .08
57.67
11.35
5.33
Amount digested
Miniis hay digested,
386.62
232.31
16.06
5.83
43.77
20.17
97.36
78.38
223.41
123.32
6.02
5.04
Cabbage digested.
Per cent, digested.
154.31
99.84
10.23
80.55
23.60
84.92
18.98
124.79
100.09
103.16
.98
53.26
266 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XVIII., Cabbage (Heads), Period 4 — Concluded.
Sheep II.
Item.
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Amount consumed as above.
Minus 138.19 grams feces excreted,
511.96
131.56
31.50
16.27
60.85
16.64
127.18
33.63
281.08
59.30
11.35
5.72
Amount digested,
Minus hay digested,
380.40
232.31
15.23
5.83
44.21
20.17
93.55
78.38
221.78
123.32
5.63
5.04
Cabbage digested, .....
Per cent, digested,
148.09
95.81
9.40
74.02
24.04
86.51
15.17
99.74
98.46
101.48
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32.07
Average per cent, digested.
97.83
77.29
85.72
112.32
102.32
42.67
Series XVIII., Cabbage (Leaves), Period 5.
Sheep I.
400 grams English hay fed, .
1,200 grams cabbage fleaves) fed.
Amount consumed.
Minus 186.23 grams feces excreted.
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested,
Cabbage digested.
Per cent, digested,
355.20
228.60
583.80
177.27
406.53
230.88
175.65
76.84
20.32
33.12
53.44
32.00
21.44
6.30
15.14
45.71
33.64
27.29
60.93
22.21
38.72
20.52
18.20
66.69
111.82
29.99
141.81
39.35
102.46
78.27
24.19
80.66
179.08
132.69
311.77
75.84
235.93
119.98
115.95
87.38
10.34
5.51
15.85
7.87
7.98
5.48
2.50
45.37
Sheep II.
Amount consumed as above.
583 .80
53.44
60.93
141.81
311.77
15.85
Minus 199.50 grams feces excreted.
189.72
32.46
23.79
40.81
83.91
8.75
Amount digested
394.08
20.98
37.14
101.00
227.86
7.10
Minus hay digested,
230.88
6.30
20.52
78.27
119.98
5.48
Cabbage digested,
163.20
14.68
16.62
22.73
107.88
1.62
Per cent, digested,
71.39
44.23
60.90
75.79
81.30
29.40
Average per cent, digested, .
74.12
44.97
63.80
78.23
84.34
37.39
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
267
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XVIII., Mangels, Period 6.
Sheep V.
Item.
400 grams English hay fed, .
1,800 grains mangels fed,
Amount consumed,
Minus 179.45 grams feces excreted.
Amount digested, . . . .
Minus hay digested , . . .
Mangels digested, . . . .
Per cent, digested.
355:68
312.84
23.23
19.65
33.40
20.08
115.06
21.30
174.67
251 .00
668.52
170.08
42.88
24.07
53.48
22.06
136.36
40.19
425.67
74.20
498.44
231.19
18.81
10.69
31.42
21,71
96.17
77.09
351.47
117.03
267.25
85.43
8.12
41.31
9.71
48.36
19.08
89.58
234.44
93.40
9.32
.81
10.13
9.56
.57
4.29
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 173.44 grams feces excreted.
Amount consumed.
Minus hay digested.
Mangels digested, .
Per cent, digested.
Average per cent, digested.
668.52
164.54
503.98
231.19
272.79
87.20
81.32
42.88
21.90
20.98
10.69
10.29
52.36
46.84
53.48
19.12
34.36
21.71
12.65
63.00
55.68
136.36
41.10
95.26
77.09
18.17
85.31
87.45
425.67
73.52
352.15
117.03
235.12
93.67
93.58
10.13
8.90
1.23
4 29
Series XVIII., Turnips (Swedish), Period 7.
Sheep V.
400 grams English hay fed, .
356.28
23.12
33.21
111.41
179.03
9.51
1,600 grams turnips fed, ....
220.64
16.17
21.14
24.25
157.34
1.74
Amount consumed,
576.92
39.29
54.35
135.66
336.37
11.25
Minus 156.48 grams feces excreted.
149.45
19.70
17.93
39.74
66.19
5.89
Amount digested,
427.47
19.59
36.42
95.92
270.18
5.36
Minus hay digested,
231 .58
10.64
21.59
74.64
119.95
4.37
Turnips digested,
195.89
8.95
14.83
21.28
150.23
.99
Per cent, digested,
88.78
55.34
70.15
87.75
95.48
56.90
268 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XVIII., Turnips (Swedish), Period 7 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
Q
J3
<
a
'B
2
p-
S
a o
2t?
.tea
rt
fe
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 155.75 grams feces excreted,
•576.92
148.59
39.29
20.34
54.35
15.62
135.66
42,70
336.37
64.37
11.25
5.56
Amount digested
Minus hay digested,
428.33
231.58
18.95
10.64
38.73
21.59
92.96
74.64
272.00
119.95
5.69
4.37
Turnips digested,
Per cent, digested,
196.75
89.17
8.31
51.38
17.14
81.08
18,32
75,55
152.05
96.64
1.32
75.86
Average per cent, digested.
88.98
53.36
75.62
81.65
96.06
66.38
Series XIX., English Hay and Gluten Feed, ^Gluten Feed, Period 2.
Sheep V.
550 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed.
484.11
134.33
28.22
1.41
46.09
37.40
152.01
11.75
246.80
77.62
10.99
6.15
Amount consumed.
Minus 226.53 grams feces excreted.
618.44
209.47
29.63
19.38
83.49
26.79
163.76
57.86
324.42
97.92
17.14
7.52
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested,
408.97
285.62
10.25
7.90
56.70
23.97
105.90
94.25
226.50
153.02
9.62
5.16
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested.
123.35
66.13
2.35
34.59
32.73
67.91
11.65
64.67
73.48
69.82
4.46
56.13
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
91.80
167.00
87.60
99.00
94.70
72.50
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 223 grams feces excreted, .
618.44
206.48
29.63
21.62
83.49
26.06
163.76
54.70
324.42
96.65
17.14
7.45
Amount digested,
Minus hay digested,
411.96
285.62
8.01
7.90
57.43
23.97
109.06
94.25
227,77
153.02
9.69
5.16
Gluten feed digested,
Per cent, ration digested, . . . .
126.34
66.61
.11
27.03
33.46
68.79
14.81
66.60
74.75
70.21
4.53
56.53
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
94.70
.78
89.50
126.00
96.30
73.60
Average per cent, gluten feed digested, .
93.25
83.89
88.50
112.50
95.50
73.05
Average per cent, ration digested, .
66.37
30.81
68.35
65.64
70.02
56.33
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
269
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XIX., English Hay, Period 3.
Sheep I.
Item.
Q
<
o
Cm
E
0/
O -JJ
2:
800 grams English hay fed, .
Minus 296.19 grams feces excreted.
696.00
279.99
40.79
32.39
65.77
33.49
215.34
75.71
358.51
128.80
15.59
9.60
English hay digested
Per cent, digested,
416.01
59.77
8.40
20.59
32.28
49.08
139.63
64.84
229.71
64.07
5.99
38.42
Sheep II.
800 grams English hay fed
Minus 315.10 grams feces excreted.
696.00
294.78
40.79
31.04
65.77
30.83
215.34
88.43
358.51
134.84
15.59
9.64
English hay digested,
Per cent, digested,
401 .22
57.65
9.75
23.90
34.94
53.12
126.91
58.93
223.67
62.39
5.95
38.17
Average per cent, digested, .
58.71
22.25
51.10
61.89
63.23
38.30
Series XIX., Pumpkins (Seeds removed). Period 4.
Sheep I.
500 grams English hay fed, .
2,000 grams pumpkins fed, .
437.35
108.40
25.85
9.55
41.20
14.89
137.68
18.79
222.04
62.39
10.58
2.78
Amount consumed.
Minus 180.47 grams feces excreted.
545.75
169.30
35.40
19.67
56.09
21.30
156.47
45.27
284.43
76.54
13.36
6.52
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested,
376.45
258.04
15.73
5.69
34.79
21.01
111.20
85.36
207.89
139.89
6.84
4.02
Pumpkins digested,
Per cent, digested.
118.41
109.23
10.04
105.13
13.78
92.55
25.84
137.52
68.00
108.99
2.82
101.44
Sheep II.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 198.05 grams feces excreted.
545.75
185.99
35.40
24.03
56.09
21.09
156.47
53.23
284.43
80.63
13.36
7.01
Amount digested,
Minus hay digested,
359.76
258.04
11.37
5.69
35.00
21.01
103.24
85.36
203.80
139.89
6.35
4.02
Pumpkins digested,
Per cent, digested,
101.72
93.84
5.68
59.48
13.99
93.96
17.88
95.16
63.91
102.44
2.33
83.81
Average per cent, digested, .
101.54
82.31
93.26
116.34
105.72
92.63
270 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XIX., Vegetable Ivory Meal, Period 5.
Sheep V.
Item.
<u
03
>>
0
<
B
'S
1
C
as
1
550 grams English hay fed, ....
150 grams gluten feed fed
200 grams vegetable ivory meal fed,
484.28
134.90
174.72
28.14
1.50
2.39
45.67
36.37
10.52
153.52
11.74
12.27
245.91
79.97
148.33
11.04
5.32
1.21
Amount consumed,
Minus 252.10 grams feces excreted.
793.90
237.73
32.03
21.78
92.56
37.09
177.53
61.71
474.21
107.74
17.57
9.41
Amount digested
Minus English hay and gluten feed digested.
556.17
408.66
10.25
9.19
55.47
55.79
115.82
109.07
366.47
228.12
8.16
9.16
Vegetable ivory meal digested.
Per cent, digested,
147.51
84.43
1.06
44.35
-
6.75
55.01
138.35
93.27
-
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 241.94 grams feces excreted,
793.90
228.63
32.03
22.41
92.56
33.61
177.53
57.93
474.21
106.82
17.57
7.86
Amount digested,
Minus English hay and gluten feed digested.
565.27
408.66
9.62
9.19
58.95
55.79
119.60
109.07
367.39
228.12
9.71
9.16
Vegetable ivory meal digested.
Per cent, digested,
156.61
89.63
.43
17.99
3.16
30.04
10.53
85.82
139.27
93.89
.55
45.45
Average per cent, digested, .
87.03
31.17
30.04
70.42
93.58
45.451
Series XIX., Pumpkins (Entire), Period 6.
Sheep I.
650 grams English hay fed, .
2,000 grams pumpkins fed, .
483.29
176.20
26.82
13.39
43.50
31.22
151.46
29.71
248.51
76.01
13.00
25.87
Amount consumed.
Minus 253.33 grams feces excreted.
659.49
240.66
40.21
25.63
74.72
30.52
181.17
69.51
324.52
105.98
38.87
9.02
Amount digested
Minus hay digested.
418.83
285.14
14.58
5.90
44.20
22.19
111.66
93.91
218.54
156.56
29.85
4.94
Pumpkins digested,
Per cent, digested,
133.69
75.87
8.68
64.82
22.01
70.50
17.75
59.74
61.98
81.54
24.91
96.29
' One sheep only.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
271
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XIX., Pumpkins (Entire), Period 6 — Concluded.
Sheep II.
Item.
o
a
S
2
"St
a> c3
£
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 228.69 grams feces excreted,
659.49
216.96
40.21
25.75
74.72
27.34
181.17
61.62
324.52
93.38
38.87
8.87
Amount digested
Minus hay digested,
442.53
285.14
14.46
5.90
47.38
22.19
119.55
93.91
231.14
156.56
30.00
4.94
Pumpkins digested,
Fer cent, digested,
157.39
89.32
8.56
63.93
25.19
80.69
25.64
86.30
74.58
98.12
25.06
96.87
Average per cent, digested, .
82.60
64.38
75.60
73.02
89.83
96.58
Series XIX., Cabbage (Whole), Period 7.
Sheep I.
450 grams English hay fed, .
1,600 grams cabbage fed.
398.57
187.68
22.16
22.90
32.48
40.95
126.86
19.33
207.42
100.90
9.65
3.60
Amount consumed.
Minus 192.77 grams feces excreted.
586.25
183.40
45.06
26.50
73.43
22.23
146.19
46.36
308.32
81.29
13.25
7.02
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested,
402.85
235.16
18.56
4.88
51.20
16.56
99.83
78.65
227.03
130.67
6.23
3.67
Cabbage digested.
Per cent, digested,
167.69
89.35
13.68
59.74
34.64
84.59
21.18
109.57
96.36
95.50
2.56
71.11
Sheep II.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 200.09 grams feces excreted,
586.25
189.95
45.06
27.77
73.43
20.97
146.19
53.53
308.32
80.56
13.25
7.12
Amount digested
Minus hay digested
396.30
233.98
17.29
4.88
52.46
16.56
92.66
78.65
227.76
130.67
6.13
3.67
Cabbage digested,
Per cent, digested,
162.32
86.49
12.41
54.19
35.90
87.67
14.01
72.48
97.09
96.22
2.46
68.33
Average per cent, digested, .
87.92
56.97
86.13
91.03
95.86
69.72
272 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. • — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XIX., Carrots, Period 8.
Sheep I.
Item.
u
<
a
S
2
o
li
.t2H
fcl
500 grams English hay fed, .
1,500 grams carrots fed,
443.75
188.10
25.43
16.10
36.08
15.05
153.80
15.52
218.41
139.27
10.03
2.16
Amount consumed.
Minus 211.46 grams feces excreted,
631.85
202.45
41.53
30.55
51.13
24.90
169.32
53.49
357.68
86.85
12.19
6.66
Amount digested
Minus hay digested,
449.40
261.81
10.98
5.59
26.23
18.40
115.83
95.36
270.83
137.60
5.53
3.81
Carrots digested
Per cent, digested,
167.59
89.10
5.39
33.48
7.83
52.03
20.47
131.89
133.23
95.66
1.72
79.63
Sheep II.
Amount consxmaed as above.
Minus 194.84 grams feces excreted.
631.85
186.79
41.53
28.47
51.13
21.01
169.32
49.97
357.68
80.93
12.19
6.41
Amount digested
Miniis hay digested,
445.06
261.81
13.06
5.59
30.12
18.40
119.35
95.36
276.75
137.60
5.78
3.81
Carrots digested,
Per cent, digested,
183.25
94.42
7.47
46.40
11.72
77.87
23.99
154.57
139.15
99.91
1.97
91.20
Average per cent, digested.
93.26
39.94
64.95
143.23
97.79
85.42
Series XIX., English Hay, Period 9.
Sheep V.
800 grams English hay fed
Minus 294.67 grams feces excreted, ■
710.00
279.97
40.75
27.10
60.49
28.11
221.66
81.30
363.53
133.44
23.57
10.02
Hay digested
Per cent, digested,
430.03
60.57
13.65
33.50
32.38
53.53
140.36
63.32
230.09
63.29
13.55
57.49
Sheep VI.
800 grams English bay fed
Minus 317.10 grams feces excreted.
710.00
301.56
40.75
27.38
60.49
29.58
221.66
91.64
363.53
142.35
23.57
10.61
Hay digested,
Per cent, digested,
408.44
57.53
13.37
32.81
30.91
51.10
130.02
58.66
221.18
60.84
12.96
54.99
Average per cent, digested, .
59.05
33.16
52.32
60.99
62.07
56.24
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
273
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XIX., English Hay, Potato Starch and Gluten Meal (Diamond), —
Gluten Meal (Diamond), Period 10.
Sheep III.
Item.
>>
Q
<
a
'S
o
M
PL,
o -g
300 grams English hay fed, ....
125 grams potato starch fed,
100 grams gluten meal (Diamond) fed.
270.81
113.23
94.40
15.60
.81
20.50
42.47
86.85
2.04
141.55
113.23
47.37
6.31
1.71
Amount consumed
Minus 132.41 grams feces excreted.
478.44
127.01
16.41
10.88
62.97
16.70
88.89
35.89
302.15
58.27
8.02
5.27
Amount digested,
Minus hay and starch (100 per cent. ) digested.
351.43
273.01
5.53
4.37
46.27
10.66
53.00
53.85
243.88
200.99
2.75
2.96
Gluten meal (Diamond) digested.
Per cent, ration digested
78.42
73.45
1.16
33.70
35.61
73.48
59.62
42.89
80.71
34.29
Per cent, gluten meal (Diamond) digested, .
83.07
143.20
83.85
-
90.54
-
Sheep IV.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 147.44 grams feces excreted.
478.44
141.26
16.41
14.24
62.97
18.25
88.89
39.64
302.15
63.73
8.02
5.40
Amount digested,
Minus hay and starch (100 per cent.) digested.
337.18
273.01
2.17
4.37
44.72
10.66
49.25
53.85
238.42
200.99
2.62
2.75
Gluten meal (Diamond) digested.
Per cent, ration digested, ....
64.17
70.47
13.22
34.06
71.02
55.41
37.43
78.91
32.67
Per cent, gluten meal (Diamond) digested, .
68.00
-
80.00
-
79.00
-
Average per cent, ration digested, .
71.96
23.46
72.25
57.52
79.81
33.48
Average per cent, gluten meal (Diamond)
digested.
75.54
71.60
81.93
-
84.77
-
274 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XIX., English Hay, Potato Starch and Gluten Meal (Diamond), —
Gluten Meal (Diamond), Period 11.
Sheep IV.
Item.
>>
Q
<
as
St?
400 grams English hay fed, ....
125 grams potato starch fed,
125 grams gluten meal (Diamond) fed,
369.40
112.80
117.25
20.91
1.34
25.93
52.52
118.47
2.16
195.37
112.80
58.86
8.72
2.37
Amount consumed,
Minus 174.32 grams feces excreted.
599.45
166.84
22.25
14.70
78.45
19.60
120.63
47.37
367.03
79.30
11.09
5.87
Amount digested
Minus hay and starch (100 per cent.) digested,
432.61
330.75
7.55
5.85
58.85
13.48
73.26
73.45
287.73
233.93
5.22
4.10
Gluten meal (Diamond) digested,
Per cent, ration digested
101.86
72.17
1.70
33.93
45.37
75.02
60.73
53.80
78.39
1.12
47.07
Per cent, gluten meal (Diamond) digested, .
86.90
127.00
86.40
-
91.40
47.30
Series XIX., Distillers' Grains (Corn), Period 12.
Sheep IV.
400 grams English hay fed, .
125 grams gluten meal fed, .
125 grams potato starch fed,
200 grams distillers* grains fed,
Amount consumed.
Minus 240.66 grams feces excreted.
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay, potato starch and gluten meal
digested.
Distillers' grains digested, ....
Per cent, digested,
359.00
117.51
113.49
187.72
777.72
229.42
548.30
424.80
123.50
65.79
21.72
1.57
3.44
26.73
20.35
6.38
7.92
26.42
'52.87
55.28
134.57
31.20
103.37
59.44
43.93
79.47
115.10
2.36
23.69
141.15
65.64
75.51
71.65
3.86
16.29
184.99
58.44
113.49
86.73
443.65
104.06
339.59
278.40
61.19
70.55
10.77
2.27
18.58
31.62
8.17
23.45
6.13
17.32
93.22
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
275
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficient- — Continued.
Series XIX., Corn Bran, Period 13.
Sheep I.
Item.
u
Q
<
'53
1
St?
2
1
400 grams English hay fed, .
350 grams corn bran fed,
363.48
316.47
22.28
2.72
25.52
16:52
119.33
45.89
188.21
247.32
8.14
4.02
Amount consumed,
Minus 191.02 grams feces excreted.
679.95
180.42
25.00
14.38
42.04
20.82
165.22
45.39
435.63
93.77
12.16
6.05
Amount digested
Minus hay digested.
499.53
214.45
10.62
4.90
21.22
13.02
119.83
73.98
341.76
118.57
6.10
3.09
Corn bran digested,
Per cent, digested.
285.08
90.08
5.72
210.29
8.20
49.64
45.85
99.91
223.19
90.24
3.01
74.88
Sheep II.
Amount consumed aa above.
Minus 234.41 grams feces excreted
Amount digested, .
Minus hay digested,
Corn bran digested.
Per cent, digested,
Average per cent, digested.
679.95
221.52
458.43
214.45
243.98
77.09
83.59
25.00
16.59
8.41
4.90
3.51
129.04
169.67
42.04
24.72
17.32
13.02
4.30
26.03
37.84
165.22
60.54
104.68
73.98
30.70
66.90
83.41
435.53
112.43
323.10
118.57
204.53
82.70
86.47
12.16
7.24
4.92
3.09
1.83
45.52
60.20
Series XIX., Gluten Feed, Period 14.
Sheep V.
650 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed.
584.68
135.78
35.14
1.29
48.47
37.92
184.47
12.65
300.93
77.21
15.67
6.71
Amount consumed.
Minus 237.30 grams feces excreted.
720.46
223.20
36.43
20.47
86.39
29.04
197.12
58.17
378.14
105.94
22.38
9.58
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested,
497.26
344.96
15.96
11.60
57.35
25.20
138.95
112.53
272.20
186.58
12.80
8.78
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, digested.
152.30
112.09
4.36
337.98
32.15
84.78
26.42
208.85
85.62
110.89
4.02
59.91
276 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XIX., Gluten Feed, Period 14 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
'3
a.
E
o
M 1-
o -g
's
fe
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 262.21 grams feces excreted,
720.46
247.05
36.43
21.49
86.39
27.18
197.12
69.87
378.14
118.50
22.38
10.01
Amount digested
Minus hay digested,
473.41
344.96
14.94
11.60
59.21
25.20
127.25
112.53
259.64
186.58
12.37
8.78
Gluten feed digested,
Per cent, digested,
128.45
94.54
3.34
258.91
34.01
89.69
14.72
116.36
73.06
94.63
3.59
53.50
Average per cent, digested,
103.32
298.45
87.24
162.61
102.76
56.71
Serie.s XIX., English Hay and Gluten Feed, — Gluten Feed, Period 15.
Sheep V.
650 grams English hay fed, .
125 grams gluten feed fed.
Amount consumed.
Minus 246.94 grams feces excreted.
Amount digested, . . . .
Minus hay digested.
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested,
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
587.73
113.59
701.32
233.51
467.81
346.76
121.05
66.70
106.57
33.62
2.61
36.23
20.88
15.35
11.09
4.26
42.45
163.22
44.26
29.35
73.61
26.34
47.27
23.02
24.25
64.22
82.62
185.02
9.28
194.30
65.36
128.94
112.86
16.08
66.36
173.28
311.90
66.97
378.87
112.55
266.32
193.38
72.94
70.29
108.91
12.93
5.38
18.31
8.38
9.93
7.24
2.69
54.23
50.00
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 280.06 grams feces excreted.
701.32
264.94
36.23
21.75
73.61
29.67
194.30
77.04
378.87
127.00
18.31
9.48
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested.
436.38
346.76
14.48
11.09
43.94
23.02
117.26
112.86
251.87
193.38
8.83
' 7.24
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested.
89.62
62.22
3.39
39.97
20.92
59.69
4.40
60.35
58.49
66.48
1.59
48.23
Per cent, gluten feed digested,
78.90
129.89
71.28
47.41
87.34
29.55
Average per cent, ration digested.
64.46
41.21
61.96
63.36
68.39
51.23
Average per cent, gluten feed diges
ted, .
92.74
146.56
76.95
110.35
98.13
39.78
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
277
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients
Series XX., English Hay, Period 1.
Sheep I.
Continued.
Item.
u
%
>>
u
Q
j3
<
a
'S
o
u
o
s
a)
a o
o -g
fa
800 grams English hay fed
Minus 281.27 grams feces excreted,
737.36
260.32
44.32
26.73
53.24
26.16
239.13
70.75
381.94
126.89
18.73
9.79
English hay digested,
Per cent, digested,
477.04
64.70
17.59
39.69
27.08
50.86
168.38
70.41
255.05
66.78
8.94
48.67
Sheep II.
800 grams EngUsh hay fed, ....
Minus 291.37 grams feces excreted,
737.36
269.63
44.32
27.93
53.24
26.42
239.13
75.74
381.94
129.62
18.73
9.92
English hay digested
Per cent, digested,
467.73
63.43
16.39
36.98
26.82
50.38
163.39
68.33
252.32
66.06
8.81
47.96
Average per cent, digested.
64.07
38.34
50.62
69.62
66.42
48.32
Series XX., Pumpkins (Entire), Period 2.
Sheep I.
500 grams English hay fed, .
2,000 grams pumpkins fed, .
449.50
268.40
27.96
20.94
30.66
38.03
145.10
34.92
231.62
145.63
14.16
28.88
Amount consumed.
Minus 223.14 grams feces excreted.
717.90
211.14
48.90
23.42
68.69
27.03
180.02
57.13
377.25
93.09
43.04
10.47
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested,
506.76
287.68
25.48
10.62
41.66
15.84
122.89
100.12
284.16
152.87
32.57
6.79
Pumpkins digested.
Per cent, digested,
219.08
81.62
14.86
70.96
25.82
67.89
22.77
65.20
131.29
90.84
25.78
89.27
Sheep II.
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 203.70 grams feces excreted,
717.90
193.41
48.90
25.09
68.69
23.87
180.02
50.71
377.25
83.99
43.04
9.75
Amount digested
Minus hay digested
524.49
287.68
23.81
10.62
44.82
15.84
129.31
100.12
293.26
152.87
33.29
6.79
Pumpkins digested
Per cent, digested,
236.81
88.23
13.19
62.99
28.98
76.20
29.19
83.59
140.39
96.40
26.50
91.76
Average per cent, digested.
84.93
66.98
72.05
74.39
93.62
90.52
278 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. ■ — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Coyitinued.
Series XX., Pumpkins (Entire), Period 3.
Sheep I.
Item.
u
Is
Q
<
'53
1
o
fe
550 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed, .
1,200 grams pxunpkins fed, .
495.00
136.65
191.04
30.15
2.51
13.87
36.23
34.91
29.94
159.09
11.30
27.49
256.96
81.58
98.90
12.57
6.35
20.84
Amount consumed,
Minus 248.90 grams feces excreted.
822.69
236.31
46.53
25.62
101.08
30.51
197.88
62.06
437.44
108.34
39.76
9.78
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay and gluten feed digested.
586.38
435.84
20.91
11.43
70.57
45.53
135.82
122.68
329.10
243.75
29.98
11.62
Pumpkins digested,
Per cent, digested.
150.54
78.80
9.48
68.35
25.04
83.63
13.14
47.80
85.35
86.30
18.36
88.10
Sheep II.
Amount consumed as above,
Mintis 255.64 grams feces excreted,
81,2.69
242.78
46.53
28.19
101.08
30.83
197.88
62.49
437.44
110.78
39.76
10.49
Amount digested
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, .
579.91
435.84
18.34
11.43
70.25
45.63
135.39
122.68
326.66
243.75
29.27
11.62
Pumpkins digested
Per cent, digested,
144.07
75.41
6.91
49.82
24.72
82.57
12.71
46.23
82.91
83.83
17.65
84.69
Average per cent, digested.
77.11
59.09
83.10
47.02
85.07
86.40
Series XX., Pumpkins (Entire), Period 4.
Sheep I.
412 grams English hay fed, .
112 grams gluten feed fed, .
2,000 grams pumpkins fed, .
373.07
102.73
234.40
22.72
2.09
10.48
27.42
26.56
34.81
120.99
8.49
36.87
190.86
60.82
113.24
11.08
4.77
30.00
Amount consumed.
Minus 216.87 grams feces excreted.
710.20
201.77
44.29
20.62
88.79
28.20
166.35
58.93
364.92
88.79
45.85
8.23
Amount digested
Minus hay and gluten feed digested.
505.43
328.30
23.67
8.68
60.59
34.55
107.42
93.23
276.13
181.21
37.62
9.35
Pumpkins digested.
Per cent, digested,
177.13
75.57
14.99
76.95
26.04
74.81
14.19
38.49
94.92
83.82
28.27
94.23
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
279
Table V. ■ — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XX., English Hay and Gluten Feed, — Gluten Feed, Period 5.
Sheep I.
Item.
<0
p
ji
<
0
o
a o
550 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed, .
497.86
136.71
29.92
2.67
43.21
36.54
159.22
11.39
251.62
79.82
13.89
6.29
Amount consumed, . . . t
Minus 197.54 grams feces excreted,
634.57
188.22
32.59
19.20
79.75
26.76
170.61
44.16
331.44
90.14
20.18
7.96
Amount digested
Minus hay digested.
446.35
318.63
13.39
11.87
52.99
22.04
126.45
109.86
241.30
166.07
12.22
6.71
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested.
127.72
70.34
2.02
41.09
30.95
66.45
16.59
74.12
75.23
72.80
5.51
60.56
Per cent, gluten feed digested,
93.42
75.66
84.70
145.65
94.25
87.60
Sheep II.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 221.18 grams feces excreted.
634.57
211.36
32.59 79.75
23.19 30.77
170.61
51.87
331.44
97.12
20.18
8.41
Amount digested
Minus hay digested,
423.21
318.63
9.40
11.37
48.98
22.04
118.74
109.86
234.32
166.07
11.77
6.71
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested,
104.58
66.69
28.84
26.94
61.42
8.88
69.60
68.25
70.70
5.06
58.33
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
76.50
-
73.73
77.96
85.50
80.45
Average per cent, ration digested,
68.52
34.97
63.94
71.86
71.75
59.45
Average per cent, gluten feed diges
ted, .
84.96
75.66'
79.22
111.81
89.88
84.03
Series XX., English Hay, Period 6.
Sheep IV.
800 grams English hay fed, .
.
717.84
44.22
53.41
230.28
272.99
16.94
Minus 300.50 grams feces excreted.
288.33
25.63
27.59
84.97
139.85
10.29
Amount digested
429.51
18.59
25.82
145.31
233.14
6.65
Per cent, digested,
60.08
42.04
48.34
63.10
62.51
39.26
1 One
sheep on
Jy.
280 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation
Series XX
OF Digestion Coefficients
, Soy Bean Hay, Period 7.
Sheep V.
Continued.
Item.
400 grams English hay fed,
Minus 29.03 grams waste,
Amount consumed,
400 grams soy bean hay fed.
Minus 55.1 grams waste.
Amount soy bean hay fed,
Amount consumed,
Minus 284.68 grams feces excreted
Amount digested, .
Minus hay digested.
Amount soy bean hay digested.
Per cent, digested.
367.68
27.24
340.44
353.08
51.00
302.08
642.52
270.13
372.39
214.48
157.91
52.27
22.39
1.64
20.75
23.41
2.77
20.64
41.39
30.69
10.70
8.30
2.40
11.63
26.95
1.74
25.21
56.00
3.76
52.24
77.45
27.80
49.65
12.61
37.04
70.90
120.19
9.57
110.62
123.15
22.93
210.84
87.25
123.59
74.12
49.47
49.36
189.51
13.86
175.65
143.21
21.13
122.08
297.73
116.69
181.04
114.17
66.87
54.78
8.64
.43
8.21
7.31
.41
15.11
7.70
7.41
3.69
3.72
53.91
Sheei) VI.
400 grams English hay fed, .
400 grams soy bean hay fed.
Amount consumed.
Minus 287.90 grams feces excreted.
Amount digested
Minus hay digested.
Soy bean hay digested.
Per cent, digested,
Average per cent, digested.
367.68
353.08
720.76
273.65
447.11
231.64
215.47
61.03
56.65
22.39
23.41
45.80
29.99
15.81
8.96
6.85
29.26
20.45 74.
26.95
56.00
82.95
25.31
57.64
13.48
44.16
78.86
120.19
123.15
243.34
94.16
149.18
80.53
68.65
55.75
52.56
189.51
143.21
332.72
116.86
215.86
123.18
92.68
64.72
59.75
8.64
7.31
15.95
7.33
8.62
3.89
4.73
64.71
59.31
Series XX., Carrots, Period 8.
Sheep IV.
500 grams English hay fed, .
1^500 grams carrots fed.
Amount consumed.
Minus 228.61 grams feces excreted.
Amount digested
Minus hay digested.
Carrots digested, . . . .
Per cent, digested,
449.85
196.95
646.80
216.81
429.99
283.41
146.58
74.42
30.23
20.31
50.54
28.25
22.29
12.09
10.20
50.22
35.72
22.12
57.84
22.79
35.05
17.86
17.19
77.71
146.34
17.39
163.73
58.69
105.04
98.05
6.99
40.19
225.95
135.12
361.07
98.39
262.68
146.87
115.81
85.71
11.61
2.01
13.62
4.93
5.22
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
281
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients
Series XX., Carrots, Period 8 — Concluded.
Sheep V.
Continued.
Item.
Q
JS
<
c
"S
o
II
C3
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 200.63 grams feces excreted,
646.80
190.44
50.54
25.27
57.84
21.10
163.73
47.95
361.07
88.24
13.62
7.88
Amount digested,
Minus hay digested
456.36
283.41
25.27
12.09
36.74
17.86
115.78
98.05
272.83
146.87
6.74
5.22
Carrots digested
Per cent, digested,
172.95
87.81
13.18
64.89
18.88
85.35
17.73
101.96
125.96
93.22
.52
25.87
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 208.06 grams feces excreted,
646.80
198.49
50.54
29.56
57.84
20.84
163.73
51.41
361.07
88.48
13.62
8.20
Amount digested
Minus hay digested
448.31
283.41
20.98
12.09
37.00
17.86
112.32
98.0 ;
272.59
146.87
5.42
5.22
Carrots digested,
Per cent, digested,
164.90
83.73
8.89
43.77
19.14
86.53
14.27
82.06
125.72
93.04
.20
9.95
Average per cent, digested, .
81.99
52.96
83.20
74.74
90.66
17.91 >
Series XX., Carrots, Period 9.
Sheep IV.
550 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed,
1,000 grams carrots fed.
497.04
137.03
114.00
30.97
3.04
11.18
37.78
36.41
12.67
151.30
10.63
9.69
263.72
80.36
79.22
13.27
6.59
1.24
Amount consumed.
Minus 250.91 grams feces excreted,
748.07
240.07
45.19
27.03
86.86
28.28
171.62
59.30
423.30
116.31
21.10
9.15
Amount digested
Minus hay and gluten feed digested.
508.00
393.12
18.16
9.86
58.58
47.48
112.32
103.64
306.99
223.65
11.95
9.^
Carrots digested
Per cent, digested,
114.88
100.70
8.30
74.24
11.10
87.61
8.68
89.68
83.34
105.20
2.02
162.90
Two sheep only.
282 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients
Series XX., Carrots, Period 9 — Concluded.
Sheep V.
Continued.
Item.
1
>>
Q
<
a
2
o
1 .
Co
II
2
1
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 233.76 grams feces excreted,
748.07
222.94
45.19
25.06
86.86
25.95
171.62
53.57
423.30
109.73
21.10
8.63
Amount digested,
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, .
525.13
393.12
20.13
9.86
60.91
47.48
118.05
103.64
313.57
223.65
12.47
9.93
Carrots digested
Per cent, digested, . . . i .
132.01
115.80
10.27
91.86
13.43
106.00
14.41
143.71
89.92
113.51
2.54
204.84
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above.
748.07
45.19
86.86
171.62
423.30
21.10
Minus 210.84 grams feces excreted,
200.99
24.58
23.17
48.84
96.06
8.34
Amount digested,
547.08
20.61
63.69
122.78
327.24
12.76
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, .
393.12
9.86
47.48
103.64
223.65
9.93
Carrots digested
153.96
10.75
16.21
19.14
103.59
2.83
Per cent, digested,
135.05
96.15
127.94
197.52
130.76
228.23
Average per cent, digested,
113.85
87.42
107.18
145.27
116.49
198.66
Series XX., English Hay, Period 10.
Sheep VII.
600 grams English hay fed, .
Minus 244.84 grams feces excreted.
Amount digested
Per cent, digested,
546.00
235.85
310.15
56.80
35.65
20.42
15.23
42.72
44.50
21.25
23.25
52.25
174.83
70.68
104.15
59.57
277.37
115.74
161.63
58.27
13.65
7.76
5.89
43.15
Sheep VIII
•
600 grams English hay fed, .
Minus 228.90 grams feces excreted.
.
546.00
220.06
35.65
19.89
44.50
21.04
174.83
65.67
277.37
105.52
13.65
7.94
Amount digested, ....
Per cent, digested, ...
325.94
59.70
15.76
44.21
23.46
52.72
109.16
62.44
171.85
61.96
5.71
41.83
Average per cent, digested, .
58.25
43.47
52.49
61.01
60.12
42.49
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
283
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients • — Continued.
Series XX., New Bedford Pig Meal, Period 11.
Sheep IV.
Item.
Q
<
a
S
o
It
as
1
550 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed,
200 grams New Bedford pig meal fed.
455.35
137.18
182.40
30.96
2.96
35.84
39.02
34.94
43.03
146.35
11.48
16.69
227.64
81.46
80.80
11.38
6.34
6.04
Amount consumed.
Minus 295.87 grams feces excreted.
774.93
281.73
69.76
42.71
116.99
40.68
174.52
70.43
389.90
121.09
23.76
6.82
Amount digested
Minus hay and gluten feed digested,
493.20
367.37
27.05
9.84
76.31
47.33
104.09
101.01
268.81
200.92
16.94
8.86
New Bedford pig meal digested, .
Per cent, digested.
125.83
68.99
17.21
48.02
28.98
67.35
3.08
18.45
67.89
84.02
8.08
133.77
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 295.20 grams feces excreted,
774.93
281.18
69.76
45.24
116.99
38.94
174.52
69.14
389.90
121.59
23.76
6.27
Amount digested,
Minvis hay and gluten feed digested, .
493.75
367.37
24.52
9.84
78.05
47.33
105.38
101.01
268.31
200.92
17.49
8.86
New Bedford pig meal digested, .
Per cent, digested,
126.38
69.29
14.68
40.96
30.72
71.39
4.37
26.18
67.39
83.40
8.63
142.88
Average per cent, digested, .
69.14
44.49
69.37
22.32
83.71
138.33
Series XX., English Hat and Wheat Gluten Flour, Period 12. i
Sheep VII.
600 grams English hay fed, ....
554.70
37.00
39.77
173.73
289.00
15.20
40 grams wheat gluten fed, ....
36.66
.32
33.88
.04
2.28
.14
Amount consumed
591.36
37.32
73,65
173.77
291.28
15.34
Jlinus 238.80 grams feces excreted.
227.70
19.17
22.72
66.08
111.53
8.20
Amount digested
363.66
18.15
50.93
107.69
179.75
7.l"4
Minus wheat gluten (assumed to be all di-
gested).
36.66
.32
33.88
.04
2.28
.14
Hay digested,
327.00
17.83
17,05
107.65
177.47
7.00
Per cent, digested,
58.95
48.19
42.87
61.96
61.44
46.05
' To note effect of wheat gluten flour.
284 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XX., English Hay and Wheat Gluten Flour, Period 12 — Concluded.
Sheep VIII.
Item.
C
o
Q
<
a
2
Oh
s
o
It
2:
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 235.59 grams feces excreted,
591.36
224.59
37.32
19.81
73.65
23.96
173.77
62.80
291.38
110.11
15.34
7.91
Amount digested,
Minus wheat gluten (assumed to be all di-
gested).
366.77
36.66
17.51
.32
49.69
33.88
110.97
.04
181.17
2.28
7.43
.14
Hay digested
Per cent, digested,
330.11
59.51
17.19
46.46
15.81
39.75
110.93
63.85
178.89
61.90
7.29
47.96
Average per cent, digested, .
59.23
47.33
41.31
62.91
61.99
47.01
Series XX., Vegetable Ivory Meal, Period 13.
Sheep IV.
500 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed, .
200 grams vegetable ivory meal fed.
460.10
137.70
182.50
29.45
2.96
2.17
33.59
35.58
8.61
148.24
11.31
15.09
237.46
81.72
155.22
11.36
6.13
1.41
Amount consumed,
Miniis 263.03 grams feces excreted.
780.30
248.69
34.58
23.80
77.78
32.60
174.64
61.05
474.40
121.64
18.90
9.60
Amount digested
Minus hay and gluten feed digested.
531.61
370.64
10.78
9.40
45.18
44.27
113.59
102.11
352.76
207.47
9.30
8.75
Vegetable ivory meal digested.
Per cent, digested.
160.97
.88.20
1.38
63.59
.91
10.57
11.48
76.08
145.28
93.60
.55
39.01
Sheep V.
Amount consumed as above,
780.30
34.58
77.78
174.64
474.40
18.90
Minus 242.74 grams feces excreted.
229.05
23.14
30.53
54.35
111.73
9.30
Amount digested,
551.25
11.44
47.25
120.29
362.67
9.60
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, .
370.64
9.40
44.27
102.11
207:47
8.75
Vegetable ivory meal digested.
180.61
2.04
2.98
18.18
155.20
.85
Per cent, digested,
98.96
94.01
34.61
120.48
99.99
60.28
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
285
Table V. — CoiMputation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XX., Vegetable Ivory Meal, Period 13 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
Is
Q
<
c
2
PL,
C o
1
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 237.89 grams feces excreted.
780.30
224.04
34.58
24.22
77.78
28.92
174.64
53.03
474.40
108.17
18.90
9.70
Amount digested
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, .
556.26
370.64
10.36
9.40
48.86
44.27
121.61
102.11
366.23
207.47
9.20
8.75
Vegetable ivory meal digested,
Per cent, digested,
185.62
101.71
.96
44.24
3.59
41.70
19.50
129.22
158.76
102.28
.45
31.91
Average per cent, digested.
96.29
67.28
28.96
108.59
98.62
43.73
Series XX., English Hay .\nd Gluten Feed, — Gluten Feed, Period 14.
Sheep IV.
550 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed.
509.41
138.14
31.94
2.94
35.40
37.45
165.25
11.81
263.63
79.74
13.19
6.20
.\mount consumed.
Minus 271 grams feces excreted.
647.55
257.02
34.88
25.42
72.85
26.63
177.06
70.22
343.37
125.24
19.39
9.51
Amount digested, .
Minus hay digested.
390.53
320.93
9.46
12.78
46.22
17.70
106.84
110.72
218.13
171.36
9.88
5.94
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested.
69.60
60.31
27.12
28.52
63.45
60.34
46.77
63.53
3.94
50.95
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
50.38
-
76.15
-
58.65
63.55
Sheep V.
Amount consumed as above,
!Minus 250.96 grams feces excreted.
647.55
238.11
34.88
24.76
72.85
26.22
177.06
60.22
343.37
116.58
19.39
10.33
Amount digested,
Minus hay digested
409.44
320.93
10.12
12.78
46.63
17.70
116.84
110.72
226.79
171.36
9.06
5.94
Gluten feed digested
Per cent, ration digested, ....
88.51
63.23
29.01
28.93
64.01
6.12
65.99
55.43
66.05
3.12
46.73
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
64.07
-
77.25
51.82
69.51
50.32
286 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XX., English Hay and Gluten Feed, — Gluten Feed, — Period 14 -
Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
la
m
<:
n
s
as
1
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 246.79 grams feces excreted,
647.55
234.80
34.88
23.74
72.85
25.71
177.06
60.34
343.37
115.69
19.39
9.32
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested.
412.75
320.93
11.14
12.78
47.14
17.70
116.72
110.72
227.68
171.36
10.07
5.94
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested.
91.82
63.74
31.94
29.44
64.71
6.00
65.92
56.32
66.31
4.13
51.93
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
66.47
78.61
50.80
70.63
66.01
Average per cent, ration digested.
62.43
29.36
64.06
64.08
65.30
49.87
Average per cent, gluten feed diges
ted, .
60.31
-
77.34
51.311
66.26
60.16
Series XXI., English Hay and Gluten Feed, — Gluten Feed, Period 1.
Sheep IV.
550 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed, .
491.43
135.48
33.96
4.55
37.10
38.33
157.55
10.07
248.91
80.08
13.91
2.45
Amount consumed,
Minus 236.19 grams feces excreted
626.91
219.61
38.51
26.27
75.43
23.85
167.62
57.80
328.99
102.86
16.36
8.83
Amount digested, .
Minus hay digested.
407.30
280.12
12.24
12.90
51.58
15.95
109.82
96.11
226.13
149.35
7.53
5.98
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested.
127.18
64.97
31.78
35.63
68.38
13.71
65.52
76.78
68.73
1.55
46.03
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
93.87
-
92.96
136.00
95.88
63.27
Sheep V.
550 grams minus 1.86 grams waste
548.14 grams English hay fed.
150 grams gluten feed fed.
equal
s
489.76
135.48
33.84
4.55
36.98
38.33
157.02
10.07
248.06
80.08
13.86
2.45
Amount consumed.
Minus 222.51 grams feces excreted.
625.24
206.82
38.39
29.24
75.31
23.70
167.09
52.64
328.14
92.72
16.31
8.52
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested.
418.42
279.16
9.15
12.86
51.61
15.90
114.45
95.78
235.42
148.84
7.79
5.96
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested.
139.26
66.92
23.83
35.71
68.53
18.67
68.50
86.58
71.74
1.83
47.76
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
102.79
-
93.16
185.00
108.12
74.69
Two sheep only.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
287
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients -
Series XXI., English Hat and Gluten Feed, — Gluten Feed,
Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Continued.
- Pebiod 1 -
Item.
<
a
1
C
o
^
S
a o
<D 03
2
fS
Amount consumed as for Sheep IV.,
Minus 211.77 grams feces excreted,
626.91
195.55
38.51
25.99
75.43
22.37
167.62
48.50
328.99
90.38
16.36
8.31
Amount digested
Minus hay digested.
431.36
280.12
12.52
12.90
53.06
15.95
119.12
96.11
238.61
149.35
8.05
5.98
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested.
151.24
68.81
32.51
37.11
70.34
23.01
71.07
89.26
72.53
2.07
49.21
Per cent, gluten feed digested,
111.63
-
96.82
228.00
111.46 84.49
Average per cent, ration digested.
66.90
29.37
69.08
68.36
71.00 47.67
Average per cent, gluten feed diges
ed.
102.76
-
94.31
183.00
105.15 1 74.15
Series XXI., English PIay, Period 2.
Sheep VII.
700 grams English hay fed, .
Minus 301.12 grams feces excreted.
Amount digested
Per cent, digested.
623.84
281.40
342.44
54.89
43.11
30.93
12.18
28.25
47.10
27.32
19.78
42.00
200.01
82.25
315.97
130.74
117.76 185.23
58.88 58.62
17.65
10.16
7.49
42.44
Sheep VIII.
700 grams English hay fed, ....
Minus 256.07 grams feces excreted.
623.84
238.91
43.11
26.88
47.10
25.87
200.01
63.88
315.97
112.51
17.65
9.77
Amount digested,
Per cent, digested,
384.93
61.70
16.23
37.65
21.33
45.08
136.13
68.06
203.46
64.39
7.88
44.65
Average per cent, digested, .
58.30
32.95
43.54
63.47
61.51
43.55
288 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXI., Vegetable Ivory Meal, Period 3.
Sheep IV.
Item.
fa
550 grams English hay fed
150 grams gluten feed fed, ....
200 grams minusl.86 grams waste equals 198.14
grams vegetable ivory meal fed.
Amount consumed,
Minus 258.16 grams feces excreted,
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay and gluten feed digested.
Vegetable ivory meal digested,
Per cent, digested.
486.20
135.66
176.54
798.40
243.01
555.39
416.65
138.74
78.59
32.48
4.73
2.10
36.51
38.05
9.41
158.21
9.90
15.45
39.31
24.45
83.97
32.37
183.56
61.36
14.86
10.79
51.60
51.45
122.20
114.31
4.07
193.81
.15
1.59
7.89
51.07
245.05
80.55
146.83
472.43
115.26
357.17
231.18
125.99
85.81
13.95
2.43
2.75
19.13
9.57
9.56
7.86
1.70
61.82
Sheep V.
550 grams minus .7 gram waste equals 549.3
grams English hay fed.
150 grams gluten feed fed
485.58
135.66
32.44
4.73
36.47
38.05
158.01
9.90
244.72
80.55
13.94
2.43
200 grams minus 1.43 grams waste equals
198.57 grams vegetable ivory meal fed.
176.93
2.11
9.43
15.48
147.15
2.76
Amount consumed,
798.17
39.28
83.95
183.39
472.42
19.13
Minus 253.24 grams feces excreted.
238.55
33.64
32.08
53.72
109.14
9.97
Amount digested,
559.62
5.64
51.87
129.67
363.28
9.16
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, .
416.23
10.78
51.42
114.18
230.94
7.86
Vegetable ivory meal digested,
143.39
-
.45
15.49
132.34
1.30
Per cent, digested,
81.04
-
4.77
100.06
89.94
47.10
Sheep VI.
550 grams English hay fed, ....
486.20
32.48
36.51
158.21
245.05
13.95
150 grams gluten feed fed, ....
135.66
4.73
38.05
9.90
80.55
2.43
200 grams minus 1.57 grams equals 198.43
grams vegetable ivory meal fed.
176.81
2.10
9.42
15.47
147.06
2.76
Amount consumed,
798.67
39.31
83.98
183.58
472.66
19.14
Miniis 248.26 grams feces excreted,
233.44
26.61
31.96
58.99
106.22
9.66
Amount digested
565.23
12.70
52.02
124.59
366.44
9.48
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, .
416.65
10.79
51.45
114.31
231.18
7.86
Vegetable ivory meal digested,
148.58
1.91
.57
10.28
135.26
1.62
Per cent, digested,
84.03
90.95
6.04
66.45
91.98
58.70
Average per cent, digested,
1
81.22
142.38 >
4.13
72.53
89.24
55.87
> Two sheep only.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
289
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXI., English Hay and Wheat Gluten Flour, Period 4. i
Sheep VII.
Item.
<
s
p-i
.a
1
700 grams English hay fed, ....
40 grams wheat gluten fed
621.95
37.18
40.99
.29
47.21
34.51
203.19
.03
312.77
2.20
17.79
.15
Amount consumed,
Minus 293.60 grams feces excreted.
659.13
278.48
41.28
26.20
81.72
25.84
203.22
84.71
314.97
131.70
17.94
10.03
Amount digested,
Minus 40 grams wheat gluten (assumed to be
all digested).
380.65
37.18
15.08
.29
55.88
34.51
118.51
.03
183.27
2.20
7.91
.15
English hay digested,
Per cent, digested, . . . .
343.47
55.22
14.79
36.08
21.37
45.27
118.48
58.31
181.07
57.89
7.76
43.62
Series XXI., English Hay, Potato Starch and Gluten Meal (Di.amond), —
Gluten Meal (Diamond), Period 5.
Sheep IV.
300 grams English hay fed, ....
125 grams potato starch fed,
100 grams gluten meal (Diamond) fed.
269.61
111.95
90.97
18.52
1.03
20.03
41.06
91.05
1.87
132.95
111.95
45.46
7.06
1.55
Amount consumed,
Minus 135.77 grams feces excreted.
472.53
126.67
19.55
15.76
61.09
17.64
92.92
33.21
290.36
56.23
8.61
5.83
Amount digested,
Minus hay and starch (100 per cent.) digested.
343.86
265.62
3.79
6.85
43.45
8.61
59.71
55.54
234.13 2.78
191.72 3.03
Gluten meal (Diamond) digested.
Per cent, ration digested, ....
78.24
72.77
19.38
34.84
71.12
4.17
64.26
42.41
80.63
32.29
Per cent, gluten meal (Diamond) digested, .
86.00
-
84.80
-
93.30
Sheep V.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 113.25 grams feces excreted.
472.53
107.36
19.55
17.71
61.09
15.07
92.92
23.48
290.36
46.02
8.61
5.08
Amount digested,
Minus hay and starch (100 per cent.) digested,
365.17
265.62
1.84
6.85
46.02
8.61
69.44
55.54
244.34
191.72
3.53
3.03
Gluten meal (Diamond) digested.
Per cent, ration digested, ....
99.55
77.28
109.40
9.41
37.41
75.33
13.90
74.73
52.62
84.15
..50
41.00
Per cent, gluten meal (Diamond) digested, .
-
91.20
-
120.10
32.25
1 To note effect of wheat gluten flour.
290 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXI., English Hat, Potato Starch and Gluten Meal (Diamond), -
Gluten Meal (Diamond), Period 5 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
o
Q
<
2
u
1
11
.11
i
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 132.14 grams feces excreted,
472.53
125.27
19.55
16.95
61.09
17.15
92.92
31.17
290.36
54.46
8.61
5.54
Amount digested,
Minus hay and starch (100 per cent.) digested.
347.26
265.62
2.60
6.85
43.94
8.61
61.75
55.54
235.90
191.72
3.07
3.03
Gluten meal (Diamond) digested,
Per cent, ration digested
81.64
73.49
13.30
35.33
71.93
6.21
66.46
44.18
81.24
35.66
Per cent, gluten meal (Diamond) digested, .
89.70
-
86.00
-
97.20
-
Average per cent, ration digested, .
74.51
14.03
72.79
68.48
82.01
36.32
Average per cent, gluten meal (Diamond)
digested.
95.03
-
87.33
-
70.20
32.25'
Series XXI., Distillers' Grains, Period 6.
Sheep IV.
300 grams English hay fed, ....
269.25
17.91
20.11
89.42
135.32
6.49
125 grams potato starch fed.
112.84
-
-
-
112.84
-
100 grams gluten meal (Diamond) fed.
91.06
1.06
41.09
2.03
45.17
1.71
200 grams distillers' grains fed.
193.74
4.48
51.15
28.50
91.40
18.21
Ajnount consumed,
666.89
23.45
112.35
119.95
384.73
26.41
Minus 196.28 grams feces excreted,
186.29
17.90
28.15
45.25
,86.46
8.53
Amount digested,
480.60
5.55
84.20
74.70
298 .27
17.88
Minus basal ration digested.
354.86
2.66
44.68
62.19
240.53
2.95
Distillers' grains digested, ....
125.74
2.89
39.52
12.51
57.74
14.93
Per cent, digested,
64.88
64.51
77.26
43.89
63.17
81.99
Sheep V.
Amount consumed as above.
666.89
23.45
112.35
119.95
384.73
26.41
Minus 190.84 grams feces excreted,
181.18
19.84
29.70
39.90
83.30
8.44
Amount digested
485.71
3.61
82.65
80.05
301.43
17.97
Minus basal ration digested,
354.86
2.66
44.68
62.19
240.53
2.95
Distillers' grains digested, ....
130.85
.95
37.97
17.86
60.90
15.02
Per cent, digested,
67.54
21.21
74.23
62.67
66.63
82.48
' One sheep only.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
291
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXI., Distillers' Grains, Period 6 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
Q
J3
a
o
Ah
.11
i
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 189.96 grams feces excreted.
666.89
180.41
23.45
19.75
112.35
28.16
119.95
42.09
384.73
80.99
26.41
9.42
Amount digested,
Minus basal ration digested.
486.48
354.86
3.70
2.66
84.19
44.68
77.86
62.19
303.74
240.53
16.99
2.95
Distillers' grains digested, ....
Per cent, digested,
131.62
67.94
1.04
23.21
39.51
77.24
15.67
54.98
63.21
69.16
14.04
77.10
Average per cent, digested, .
66.79
36.31
76.24
53.85
66.32
80.52
Series XXI., Corn Bran, Period 7.
Sheep IV.
300 grams English hay fed
271.41
18.40
19.24
87.20
140.06
6.51
125 grams potato starch fed,
109.78
-
109.78
-
100 grams gluten meal fed, .
91.55
.88
40.81
1.85
46.50
1.51
200 grams corn bran fed.
180.48
2.35
15.38
23.84
134.49
4.42
Amount consumed.
653.22
21.63
75.43
112.89
430.83
12.44
Minus 164.70 grams feces excreted.
157.47
14.74
22.55
36.25
77.19
6.74
Amount digested, ....
495.75
6.89
52.88
76.64
353.64
5.70
Minus basal ration digested,
354.56
141.19
2.70
43.84
60.55
243.00
2.89
Corn bran digested,
4.19
9.04
16.09
110.64
2.81
Per cent, digested.
78.23
178.29
58.78
67.49
82.27
63.57
Sheep V.
Amount consumed as above.
653.22
21.63
75.43
112.89
430.83
12.44
Minus 157.82 grams feces excreted,
150.86
14.92
28.12
29.43
71.72
6.67
Amount digested
502.36
6.71
47.31
83.46
359.11
5.77
Minus basal ration digested.
354.56
2.70
43.89
60.55
243.00
2.89
Corn bran digested
147.80
4.01
3.47
22.91
116.11
2.88
Per cent, digested,
81.89
170.63
22.56
96.10
86.33
65.16
292 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. ■ — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXI., Corn Bran, Period 7 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
a
>>
P
to
<
a
1
Oh
S O
2
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 169.38 grams feces excreted,
653.22
162.10
21.63
18.75
75.43
22.08
112.89
40.61
430.83
74.58
12.44
6.08
Amount digested
Minus basal ration digested,
491.12
354.56
2.88
2.70
53.35
43.84
72.28
60.55
356.25
243.00
6.36
2.89
Corn bran digested
Per cent, digested,
136.56
75.66
.18
7.66
9.51
61.83
11.73
49.20
113.25
84.21
3.47
78.51
Average per cent, digested,
78.59
152.19
47.72
70.93
84.27
69.08
Series XXI., New Bedford Garb.\ge Tankage, Period 8.
Sheep IV. ^
550 grams English hay fed, ....
150 grams gluten feed fed
150 grams New Bedford garbage tankage fed.
497.86
136.58
137.21
34.65
4.67
21.57
36.19
38.05
30.21
167.93
9.97
13.27
246.00
81.53
69.87
13.09
2.36
2.29
Amount consumed,
Minus 286.48 grams feces excreted.
771.65
272.18
60.89
35.87
104.45
42.98
191.17
67.58
397.40
117.31
17.74
8.44
Amount digested
Minus basal ration digested.
499.47
425.07
25.02
11.40
61.47
51.23
123.59
120.97
280.09
232.55
9.30
7.42
New Bedford garbage tankage digested.
Per cent, digested,
74.40
54.22
13.62
63.14
10.24
33.90
2.62
19.74
47.54
68.04
1.88
82.09
Sheep V.
550 grams English hay fed, ....
Minus 29.28 grams waste hay,
497.86
26.36
34.65
1.83
36.19
1.88
167.93
8.76
246.00
13.27
13.09
.62
English hay consumed, ....
150 grams gluten feed fed, .
150 grams New Bedford garbage tankage fed.
471.50
136.58
137.21
32.82
4.67
21.57
34.31
38.05
30.21
159.17
9.97
13.27
232.73
81.53
69.87
12.47
2.36
2.29
Amount consumed
Minus 244.60 grams feces excreted.
745.29
231.78
59.06
32.43
102.57
43.57
182.41
48.05
384.13
100.10
17.12
7.63
Amount digested,
Minus basal ration digested.
513.51
407.41
26.63
10.87
59.00
49.93
134.36
115.02
284.03
223.12
9.49
7.12
New Bedford garbage tankage digested.
Per cent, digested,
106.10
77.33
15.76
73.06
9.07
30.02
19.34
145.80
60.91
87.18
2.37
103.48
1 Exclutle d from average.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
293
Table Y. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXI., New Bedford Garbage Tankage, Period 8 — Coyiduded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
o
Q
J3
<
'S
o
M •-
St?
2:
1
Amount consumed as for Sheep IV., .
Minus 247.68 grams feces excreted,
771.65
235.27
60.89
33.48
104.45
39.57
191.17
54.70
397.40
100.56
17.74
6.96
Amount digested
Minus basal ration digested,
536.38
425.07
27.41
11.40
64.88
51.23
136.47
120.97
296.84
232.55
10.78
7.42
New Bedford garbage tankage digested.
Per cent, digested,
111.31
81.12
16.01
74.22
13.65
45.18
15.50
116.80
64.29
92.01
3.36
147.00
Average per cent, digested,
79.22
73.64
37.60
131.30
89.60
125.24
Series XXI., English Hay, Period 9.
Sheep IX.
600 grams English hay fed, ....
533.40
37.66
39.95
172.66
268.89
14.24
Minus 14.24 grams waste
14.01
1.29
.90
4.64
6.87
.31
Amount consumed,
519.39
36.37
39.05
168.02
262.02
13.93
Minus 228.28 grams feces excreted.
217.07
21.73
22.58
62.75
102.56
7.45
English hay digested
302.32
14.64
16.47
105.27
159.46
6.48
Per cent, digested,
58.21
40.25
42.18
62.65
60.86
46.52
Sheep X.
600 grams English hay fed, .
Minus 244.22 grams feces excreted,
English hay digested, .
Per cent, digested,
533.40
37.66
39.95
172.66
268.89
232.72
21.29
21.25
70.17
111.59
300.68
16.37
18.70
102.49
157.30
56.37
43.47
46.81
59.36
58.50
14.24
8.42
5.82
40.87
Sheep XI.
600 grams English hay fed, ....
Minus 2.43 grams waste, ....
533.40
2.36
37.66
.27
39.95
.09
172.66
.85
268.89
1.12
14.24
.03
English hay consumed, ....
Minus 257.55 grams feces excreted.
531.04
245.24
285.80
53.82
37.39
23.13
39.86
23.89
171.81
74.80
267.77
114.79
14.21
8.63
English hay digested
Per cent, digested,
14.26
38.14
15.97
40.07
97.01
56.46
152.98
57.13
5.58
39.27
Average per cent, digested.
56.13
40.62
43.02
59.49
58.83
42.22
294 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN ISl.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXI., English Hay and Wheat Gluten Flour, Period 10.*
Sheep IV.
Item.
>>
Q
2
'S
o
o
.a
%
f^
800 grams English hay fed, .
Minus 60.57 grams waste,
English hay consumed,
714.96
60.57
654.39
49.55
4.20
45.35_
52.26
4.43
47.83
235.29
19.93
215.36
359.20
30.43
328.77
18.66
1.58
17.08
50 grams wheat gluten fed, .
Minus 34.71 grams waste,
Wheat gluten consumed,
47.48
34.71
12.77
.42
.31
.11
42.35
30.95
11.40
.04
.03
.01
3.88
2.84
1.04
.79
.58
.21
Amount consumed.
Minus 264.12 grams feces excreted.
667.16
252.60
45.46
24.30
59.23
25.51
215.37
74.01
329.81
118.27
17.29
10.51
Amount digested
Minus wheat gluten digested,
414.56
12.77
21.16
.11
33.72
11.40
141.36
.01
211.54
1.04
6.78
.21
English hay digested, .
Per cent, digested.
401.79
61.40
21.05
46.42
22.32
46.67
141.35
65.63
210.50
64.03
6.57
38.47
Sheep VI.
800 grams English hay fed, .
50 grams wheat gluten fed, .
714.96
47.48
49.55
.42
52.26
42.35
235.29
.04
359.20
3.88
18.66
.79
Amount consumed,
Minus 288.47 gram.s feces excreted.
762.44
275.89
49.97
27.56
94.61
28.14
235.33
77.17
363.08
131.65
19.45
11.37
Anaount digested
Minus wheat gluten digested,
486.55
47.48
22.41
.42
66.47
42.35
158.16
.04
231.43
3. 88
8.08
.79
EngUsh hay digested, .
Per cent, digested,
439.07
61.41
21.99
44.38
24.12
46.15
158.12
67.20
227.55
63.35
7.29
39.07
Average per cent, digested.
61.41
45.40
46.41
66.42
63.69
38.77
i , ...... ..... .. - .3
To note effect of wheat gluten flour.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
295
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXI., English Hay and Gluten Feed, — Gluten Feed, Period 11.
Sheep V.
Item.
Q
<
.9
o
o
2;
550 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed, .
499.40
137.31
42.65
4.63
50.94
38.57
152.27
10.50
240.01
81.10
13.53
2.51
Amount consumed,
Minus 198.58 grams feces excreted,
636.71
187.88
47.28
28.13
89.51
26.55
162.77
42.63
321.11
82.38
16.04
8.19
Amount digested
Minus hay digested.
448.83
294.65
19.15
15.78
62.96
27.00
120.14
95.93
238.73
153.60
7.85
6.90
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested,
154.18
70.49
3.37
40.50
35.96
70.34
24.21
73.81
85.13
74.35
.95
48.94
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
112.30
73.00
93.20
231.00
105.00
38.00
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 193.37 grams feces excreted,
636.71
183.55
47.28
30.78
89.51
25.79
162.77
39.61
321.11
79.50
16.04
7.87
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested.
453.16
294.65
16.50
15.78
63.72
27.00
123.16
95.93
241.61
153.60
8.17
6.90
Gluten feed digested, .
Per cent, ration digested.
158.51
71.17
.72
34.90
36.72
71.19
27.23
75:67
88.01
75.24
1.27
50.94
Per cent, gluten feed digested.
115.40
15.00
95.10
259.00
108.50
51.00
Average per cent, ration digested.
70.83
37.70
70.77
74.74
74.80
49.94
Average per cent, gluten feed diges
ed.
113.85
44.00
94.15
245.00
106.75
44.50
Series XXI., Feterita, Period 12.
Sheep V.
550 grams English hay fed, .
150 grams gluten feed fed, .
200 grams feterita fed, .
495.94
137.25
179.18
41.96
4.68
3.23
47.86
38.35
23.71
151.61
10.14
2.51
240.97
81.94
143.75
13.54
2.14
5.98
Amount consumed.
Minus 244.74 grams feces excreted.
812.37
229.57
49.87
35.51
109.92
35.72
164.26
49.56
466.66
98.59
21.66
10.19
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay and gluten feed digested.
582.80
449.56
14.36
17.72
74.20
61.21
114.70
121.31
368.07
242.18
11.47
7.84
Feterita digested
Per cent, digested.
133.24
74.36
-
12.99
54.79
-
125.89
87.58
3.63
60.70
296 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients • — Continued.
Series XXI., Feterita, Period 12 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
a
■J
p
C
1
S X
Is
i
Amount consumed. as above,
Minus 243.61 grams feces excreted.
812.37
228.55
49.87
32.25
109.92
39.63
164.26
48.43
466.66
97.57
21.66
10.67
Amount digested,
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, .
583.82
449.56
17.62
17.72
70.29
61.21
115.83
121.31
396.09
242.18
10.99
7.84
Feterita digested
Per cent, digested,
134.26
74.93
~
9.08
38.30
~
126.91
88.29
3.15
52.68
Average per cent, digested.
74.65
-
46.55
-
87.94
56.69
Series XXI., English Hay, Period 13.
Sheep XII.
700 grams English hay fed, .
Minus 259.31 grams feces excreted,
English hay digested, .
Per cent, digested.
634.55
52.48
57.87
197.09
309.85
243.98
31.96
26.15
68.39
109.38
390.57
20.52
31.72
128.70
200.47
60.69
39.10
54.81
65.30
64.70
17.26
8.10
9.16
53.07
Sheep XIII.
700 grams English hay fed, .
Minus 6.43 grams waste,
Amount consiuned,
Minus 266.30 grams feces excreted
English hay digested, .
Per cent, digested,
634.55
6.23
628.32
250.38
377.94
60.15
52.48
.38
52.10
33.40
18.70
35.89
57.87
.27
57.60
26.49
31.11
54.01
197.09
2.54
194.55
72.71
121.84
62.63
309.85
2.98
306.87
108.97
197.90
64.49
17.26
.06
17.20
8.81
8.39
48.78
Sheep XIV.
700 grams English hay fed
Minus 280.22 grams feces excreted.
634.55
263.60
52.48
33.95
57.87
28.42
197.09
76.73
309.85
115.91
17.26
8.59
English hay digested
Per cent, digested,
370.95
57.64
18.53
35.31
29.45
50.89
120.36
61.07
193.94
62.59
8.67
50.23
Average per cent, digested,
59.49
36.77
53.24
63.00
63.93
50.69
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS AVITH SHEEP.
297
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients ■ — Continued.
Series XXI., Sweet Clover (Green), Period 14.
Sheep IV.
Item.
"S
>>
Q
<
c
"3
g
s
St.
■z
500 grams English hay fed, .
1,600 grams sweet clover.
442.15
264.80
35.81
25.31
39.93
45.89
138.13
89.50
216.17
96.53
12.11
7.57
Amount consumed.
Minus 302.46 grams feces excreted.
706.95
274.48
61.12
35.74
85.82
30.11
227.63
86.41
312.70
112.50
19.68
9.72
Amount digested, ....
Minus hay digested.
432.47
260.87
25.38
13.25
55.71
21.16
141.22
87.02
200.20
138.35
9.96
6.18
Sweet clover digested, .
Per cent, digested,
171.60
64.80
12.13
47.93
34.55
75.29
54.20
60.56
61.85
64.07
3.78
49.91
Sheep VI.
1,600 grams sweet clover fed.
Minus 26.14 grams waste, ....
264.80
24.94
25.31
2.27
45.89
2.47
89.50
11.78
96.53
8.11
7.57
.31
Sweet clover consumed, ....
500 grams English hay consumed.
239.86
442.15
23.04
35.81
43.42
39.93
77.72
138.13
88.42
216.17
7.26
12.11
Amount consumed,
Minus 270.07 grams feces excreted,
682.01
245.33
436.68
260.87
58.85
34.32
83.35
28.07
215.85
72.59
304.59
100.81
19.37
9.54
Amount digested
Minus hay digested,
24.53
13.25
55.28
21.16
143.26
87.02
203.78
138.35
9.83
6.18
Sweet clover digested,
Per cent, digested,
175.81
73.30
11.28
48.96
34.12
78.58
56.24
72.36
65.43
74.00
3.65
50.28
Average per cent, digested.
69.05
48.45
76.94
66.46
69.04
50.10
Series XXII., Sudan Grass (Green, Second Crop), Period 1.
Sheep'lV.
500 grams English hay fed
433.50
33.42
39.75
131.31
218.05
10.97
1,600 grams Sudan grass (green, fourth cut-
ting) fed.
367.00
24.44
44.29
104.79
190.67
11.81
Amount consumed,
809.50
57.86
84.04
236.10
408.72
22.78
Minus 316.87 grams feces excreted,
294.78
39.71
35.93
72.78
135.72
10.64
Amount digested
514.72
18.15
48.11
163.32
273.00
12.14
Minus hay digested
268.77
9.36
20.27
90.60
143.91
4.52
Sudan grass digested,
245.95
8.79
27.84
72.72
129.09
7.64
Per cent, digested,
65.41
37.97
62.86
69.40
67.70
64.69
298 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. • — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Sehies XXII., Sudan Grass (Green, Second Crop), Period 1 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
0
"4,
<
.S
o
§1
M J-
i
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 318.78 grams feces excreted,
809.50
295.99
57.86
42.56
84.04
33.62
236.10
72.75
408.72
135.68
22.78
11.37
Amount digested
Minus hay digested,
513.51
268.77
15.30
9.36
50.42
20.27
163.35
90.60
273.04
143.91
11.41
4.50
Sudan grass digested
Per cent, digested,
244.74
65.09
5.94
24.30
30.15
68.07
72.75
69.42
129.13
67.69
6.91
58.51
Average per cent, digested,
65.25
30.14
65.47
69.41
67.70
61.60
Series XXII., English Hay, Period 2.
Sheep IV.
800 grams English hay fed, ....
Minus 285.59 grams feces excreted.
685.36
265.88
52.02
36.77
59.28
27.49
218.84 337.75
70.96 120.34
17.48
10.32
English hay digested
Per cent, digested,
419.48
61.21
15.25
29.31
31.79
53.63
147.88
67.57
217.41
64.37
7.16
40.96
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above.
Minus 276.71 grams feces excreted.
685.36
256.90
52.02
38.18
59.28
30.85
218.84
65.18
337.75
112.32
17.48
10.38
English hay digested,
Per cent, digested,
428.46
62.52
13.84
26.61
28.43
47.96
153.66
70.21
225.43
66.75
7.10
40.62
Average per cent, digested, .
61.87
27.96
50.80
68.89
65.56
40.79
Series XXII., Sudan Grass (Dry, Second Crop), Period 3.
Sheep IV.
400 grams English hay fed, ....
353.00
28.45
33.43
107.49
174.63
9.00
500 grams Sudan grass (dry, fourth cutting)
fed.
390.60
33.55
53.00
129.99
167.68
6.37
Amount consumed,
743.60
62.00
86.43
237.48
342.31
15.37
Minus 309.29 grams feces excreted,
290.42
38.92
38.57
67.61
135.92
9.41
Amount digested,
453.18
23.08
47.86
169.87
*206.39
5.96
Minus hay digested
218.86
7.96
17.05
74.17
115.26
3.69
Sudan grass digested
234.32
15.12
30.81
95.70
91.13
2.27
Per cent, digested,
59.99
45.07
58.13
73.62
54.35
35.63
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
299
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXII., Sudan Grass (Dry, Second Crop), Period 3 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
o
Q
<
2
O
2
a 2
P.
1
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 313.86 grams feces excreted.
743.00
292.83
62.00
40.53
86.43
36.84
237.48
68.73
342.31
137.31
15.37
9.43
Amount digested,
Minus hay digested,
450.77
218.86
21.47
7.96
49.59
17.05
168.75
74.17
205.00
115.26
5.94
3.69
Sudan grass digested
Per cent, digested,
321.91
59.37
13.51
40.27
32.54
61.40
94.58
72.76
89.74
53.52
2.25
35.32
Average per cent, digested.
59.68
42.67
59.77
73.19
53.94
35.48
Series XXII., Sudan Gr.-^.ss (First Crop, Third Cutting), Period 4.
Sheep IX.
700 grams Sudan grass (third cutting, dry)
fed.
Minus 270.21 grams feces excreted,
Sudan'grass digested
Per cent, digested,
616.00
258.02
357.98
58.11
45.40
21.11
24.29
53.50
73.24
27.56
45.68
62.37
220.47
74.23
146.24
66.33
268.02
130.04
137.98
51.48
8.87
5.08
3.79
42.73
Sheep XI.
700 grams Sudan grass (third cutting, dry)
fed.
Minus 292.87 grams feces excreted,
616.00
278.93
45.40
26.22
73.24
30.96
220.47
77.60
268.02
138.32
8.87
5.80
Sudan grass digested
Per cent, digested,
337.07
54.72
19.18
42.25
42.28
47.73
142.87
64.80
129.70
48.39
3.07
34.61
Average per cent, digested, .
56.42
47.88
60.05
65.57
49.94
38.67
Series XXII., Sudan Grass (First Crop, Second Cutting), Period 6.
Sheep IX.
700 grams Sudan grass (second cutting, dry)
fed.
Minus 266.71 grams feces excreted.
616.49
251.56
59.61
26.54
95.49
34.03
205.41
64.90
246.53
119.29
9.433
6.79'
Sudan grass digested,
364.93
33.07
61.46
140.51
127.24
2.64
Per cent, digested,
59.19
55.48
64.36
68.40
51.57
28.00
[ :
300 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation' of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXII., Sudan Grass (First Crop, First Cutting), Period 7.
Sheep XI.
Item.
o
la
P
<
'S
p
o -^
.■sa
1
700 grams Sudan grass (first cutting, dry) fed,
Minus 5.57 grams of waste, ....
615.44
5.23
61.97
.69
88.93
.49
204.33
2.15
250.73
1.84
9.48
.05
Amount consumed,
Minus 283.26 grams feces excrete 1,
610.21
266.94
61.28
27.01
88.44
38.36
202.18
67.96
248.89
126.34
9.43
7.26
Sudan grass (first cutting) digested,
Per cent, digested,
343.27
56.25
34.27
55.92
50.08
56.63
134.22
66.38
122.55
49.24
2.17
23. dl
Sheep XII.
700 grams Sudan grass (first cutting, dry) fed.
Minus 94.43 grams of waste, ....
615.44
81.92
61.97
10.78
88.93
9.72
204 . 33
29.42
250.73
31.09
9.48
.91
Amount consumed,
Minus 253.21 grams feces excreted,
533.52
239.33
51.19
24.87
79.21
35.47
174.91
58.73
219.64
112.58
8.57
7.68
Sudan grass (first cutting) digested.
Per cent, digested, . .
294.19
55.14
26.32
51.42
43.74
55.22
116.18
66.42
107.06'
48.74
.89
10.38
Sheep XIII.
700 grams Sudan grass (first cutting, dry) fed.
Minus 278.76 grams feces excreted.
615.44
263.73
61.97
26.69
88.93
37,50
204.33
67.80
250.73
124.11
9.48
7.62
Sudan grass (first cutting) digested,
Per cent, digested,
351.71
57.15
35.28
56.93
51.43
57.83
136.53
66.82
126.62
50.51
1.86
19.62
Average per cent, digested, .
56.18
54.76
56.56
66.54
49.50
17.67
Series XXII., English H-vy, Period S.
Sheep IV.
800 grams English hay fed, .
Minus 295.57 grams feces excreted,
English hay digested, .
Per cent, digested.
719.36
279.11
440.25
61.20
49.28
29.20
20.08
40.75
59.35
29.50
29 85
50.30
236.60
77.65
158.95
67.18
357.23
133.42
223.81
62.65
16.90
9.35
7.55
44.67
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
301
Table V. — Computation of Digestion* Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXII., English Hay, Period S — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
<
'S
2
o
It
.t;W
s
fe
800 grams English hay fed
Minus 282.37 grams feces excreted.
719.33
266.70
49.28
28.51
59.35
28.86
236.60
72.62
357.23
127.51
16.90
9.20
English hay digested,
Per cent, digested,
442.66
61.54
20.77
42.15
30.49
51.37
163.98
69.31
229.72
64.31
7.70
45.56
Average per cent, digested.
61.37
41.45
50.84
68.25
63.48
45.12
Series XXII., Vinegar Grains, Period 9.
Sheep IX.
250 grams vinegar grains fed,
550 grams English hay fed, .
230.55
495.72
5.79
35.59
47.40
41.49
46.41
167.55
116.01
239.18
14.94
11.90
Amount consumed.
Minus 309.94 grams feces excreted,
726.27
297.60
41.38
27.14
88.89
37.91
213.96
78.21
355.19
145.44
26.84
8.90
Amount digested
Minus English hay digested,
428.67
302.39
14.24
14.59
50.98
21.16
135.75
113.93
209.75
150.68
17.94
5 36
Vinegar grains digested,
Per cent, digested.
126.28
54.77
-
29.82
62.91
21.82
47.02
59.07
50.92
12.58
84.20
Sheep XI.
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 318.83 grams feces excreted.
726.27
297.05
41.38
29.11
88.89
39.63
213.96
76.55
355.19
143.45
26.84
8.32
Amount digested,
Minus English hay digested.
429.22
302.39
12.27
14 59
49.26
21.16
137.41
113.93
211.74
150.68
18.52
5.36
Vinegar grains digested, ....
Per cent, digested,
126.83
55.01
:
28.10
59.28
23.48
50.59
61.06
52.63
13.16
88.08
Average per cent, digested, .
54.89
-
61.10
48.80
51.77
86.14
302 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. • — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXII., Vinegar Grains, Period 10.
Sheep IV.
Item.
o
C3
p
.a
<
's
E
t-l
+3
250 grams vinegar grains fed,
550 grams English hay fed, .
231.33
495.00
5.95
36.23
46.77
43.07
46.54
159.10
116.45
244.33
15.61
12.18
Amount consumed,
Minus 285.43 grams feces excreted.
726.33
272.59
42.18
25.60
89.84
35.38
205.64
69.10
360.78
143.14
27.79
8.37
Amount digested, ....
Minus English hay digested,
453.74
301.95
16.58
14.85
54.46
21.97
136.54
108.19
217.64
153.93
19.42
5.48
Vinegar grains digested.
Per cent, digested,
151.79
65.60
1.73
29.08
32.49
69.47
28.35
60.92
63.71
54.71
13.94
89.30
Sheep VI.
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 281.57 grams feces excreted.
726.33
268.28
42.18
28.97
89.84
37.00
205.64
63.07
360.78
130.46
27.79
8.77
Amount digested
Minus English hay digested,
458.05
301.95
13.21
14.85
52.84
21.97
142.57
108.19
230.32
153.93
19.02
5.48
Vinegar grains digested, ....
Per cent, digested,
156.10
67.48
-
30.87
66.00
34.38
73.87
76.39
65.60
13.54
86.70
Average per cent, digested,
66.54
29.081
67.74
67.40
59.66
88.00
Series XXII., Stevens' "44" Dairy Ration, Period 11.
Sheep IV.
250 grams of Stevens' "44" Dairy Ration fed,
550 grams English hay fed, .
Amount consumed,
Minus 269.57 grams feces excreted.
Amount digested, ....
Minus English hay digested,
Stevens' "44" Dairy Ration digested
Per cent, digested,
227.65
499.13
726.78
257.14
469.64
304.47
165.17
72.55
9.49
33.69
43.18
26.90
16.28
13.81
2.47
26.03
61.35
41.08
102.43
31.09
71.34
20.95
50.39
82.14
29.32
164.56
193.88
125.20
111.90
13.30
45.36
112.82
247.47
360.29
122.50
237.79
155.90
81.89
72.58
14.66,
12.33
26.99
7.97
19.02
5.55
13.47
91.88
1 One sheep only.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
303
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXII., Stevens' "44" Dairy Ration, Period 11 — Concluded.
Sheep VI.
Item.
Q
<
.s
'S
o
S
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 277.79 grams feces excreted,
726.78
266.18
43.18
30.93
102.43
34.10''
193.88
65.85
360.29
126.28
26.99
9.02
Amount digested,
Minus English hay digested.
460.60
304.47
12.25
13.81
68.33
20.95
128.03
111.90
234.01
155.90
15.97
6.55
Stevens' "44" Dairy Ration digested,
Per cent, digested,
156.13
68.58
~
47.38
77.23
16.13
55.01
78.11
69.23
10.42
71.08
Average per cent, digested.
70.57
26.03'
79.69
50.19
70.91
81.48
Series XXII., New York Alfalfa (Third Cutting), Period 2.
Sheep IV.
800 grams New York alfalfa (third cutting)
fed.
Minus 306.21 grams feces excreted.
Alfalfa digested,
Per cent, digested.
700.96
42.27
105.92
248.28
291.11
293.69
24.73
28.43
131.78
97.59
407.27
17.54
77.49
116.50
193.52
58.10
41.50
73.16
46.92
66.48
13 39
11.16
2.23
16.66
Sheep VI.
800 grams New York alfalfa (third cutting)
fed.
Minus 4.57 grams waste, ....
700.96
42.27
105.92
248.28
291.11
13.39
4.14
.17
.27
2.19
1.47
.03
Amount consumed
696.82
42.10
105.65
246.09
289.64
13.36
Minus 330.53 grams feces excreted.
315.33
30.27
33.61
134.99
105.13
11.32
Alfalfa digested
381.49
11.83
20.04
111.10
184.51
2.04
Per cent, digested,
54.75
28.10
68.19
45.15
63.70
15.27
Average per cent, digested, .
56.43
34.80
70.68
46.04
65.09
15.97
Series XXII., English Hay, Period 13.
Sheep XII.
700 grams English hay fed, ....
636.09
45.73
51.78
211.56
311.81
15.20
Minus 268.70 grams feces excreted.
256.15
23.54
24.23
78.46
121.20
8.68
English hay digested,
379.94
22.19
27.55
133.10
190.61
6.52
Per cent, digested,
59.73
48.52
53.20
62.91
61.13
41.89
1 One sheep only.
304 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients ■ — Continued.
Series XXII., English Hay, Period 13 — Concluded.
Sheep XIII.
Item.
S
03
P
<
c
■J
o
.11
2;
1
700 (minus 1.67 grams waste) equals 698.33
grams English hay fed.
Minus 281.36 grams feces excreted.
634.57
266.79
45.63
25.43
51.65
26.68
211.06
80.12
311.07
125.87
15.17
8.70
English hay digested,
Per cent, digested,
357.78
57.96
20.20
44.27
24.97
48.37
130.94
72.04
185.20
57.54
6.47
42.65
Average per cent, digested,
58.85
46.40
50.77
62.48
60.34
42.77
Series XXII., New York Alf.\l,fa (Third Cutting), Period 14.
Sheep XII.
700 grams New York alfalfa (third cutting)
fed.
Minus 269.07 grams feces excreted.
638.75
257.96
44.37
22.13
99.45
27.42
221.65
114.64
260.10
84.59
13 16
9.18
Alfalfa digested,
Per cent, digested,
380.79
59.61
22.26
50.15
72.03
72.43
107.01
48.28
175.51
67.48
3.98
30.24
Sheep XIII.
700 grams New York alfalfa (third cutting)
fed.
Minus 277.50 grams feces excreted.
638.75
265.04
44.37
21.89
99.45
26.53
221.65
121.39
260.10
86.32
13.16
8.91
Alfalfa digested
Per cent, digested,
373.71
58.50
22.50
50.68
72.92
73.32
100.26
45.23
173.78
66.81
4.25
32.29
Average per cent, digested.
59.06
50.42
72.88
46.76
67.15
31.26
Series XXII., Rowen, Period 15.
Sheep XII.
700 grams rowen fed.
Minus 259.10 grams feces excreted,
Rowen digested
Per cent, digested.
636.09
51.65
82.88
179.06
300.80
249.25
33.97
32.83
57.08
110.19
386.84
17.68
50.05
121.98
190.61
60.81
34.23
60 39
68.12
63 37
21.69.
15.18
6.51
30.01
Sheep XIII
700 grams rowen fed.
Minus 257.74 grams feces excreted.
636.09
247.04
51.65
33.18
82.88
32.93
179.06
57.17
300.80
109.56
21.69
14.20
Rowen digested, ....
Per cent, digested.
389.05
61.16
18.47
35.76
49.95
60.27
121.89
68.08
191.24
63 57
7.49
34 53
Average per cent, digested.
60.99
35.00
60.33
68.10
63 47
32.27
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
305
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Continued.
Series XXII., Sweet Clover (Green), Period 16.
Sheep IX.
Item.
u
Q
■i
<
I
E
0)
P o
hS >-
.11
1
400 grams English hay fed, .
1,600 grams sweet clover fed,
359.48
232.00
25.92
10.67
32.57
49.79
109.03
62.13
182.04
101.52
9.92
7.89
Amount consumed.
Minus 246.07 grams feces excreted
591.48
228.30
36.59
27.36
82.36
28.67
171.16
72.71
283.56
107.38
17.81
9.94
Amount digested, .
Minus hay digested.
363.18
208.50
9.23
11.66
53.69
15.63
98.45
68.89
176.18
109.22
7.87
4.46
Sweet clover digested, .
Per cent, sweet clover digested,
154.68
66.67
-
38.06
76.44
29.56
47.60
60.96
65.96
3.41
43.22
Shee-p XI.
Amount consumed as above.
591.48
36.59
82.36
171.16
283.56
17.81
Minus 231.36 grams feces excreted,
214.52
24.89
25.91
69.78
102.26
8.51
Amount digested,
376.96
11.70
56.45
101.38
181.30
9.30
Minus hay digested,
208.50
11.66
15.63
68.89
109.22
4.46
Sweet clover digested,
168.46
.04
40.82
32.49
72.08
4.84
Per cent, sweet clover digested, .
72.61
.03
81.98
52.29
71.00
61.34
Average per cent, sweet clover digested,
69.64
.03
79.21
49.95
68.48
52.28
Series XXII., Sudan Grass (Green), Period 17.
Sheep XII.
400 grams English hay fed
352.28
24.69
30.79
117.63
169.27
9.90
1,600 grams Sudan grass (green, first cutting)
313.28
22.49
44.58
95.02
136.43
14.75
Amount consumed
665.56
47.18
75.37
212.65
305.70
24.65
Minus 235.01 grams feces excreted,
215.74
16.27
24.18
58.53
109.14
7.62
Amount digested
449.82
30.91
51.19
154.12
196.56
17.03
Minus hay digested
207.85
11.36
15.70
72.93
101.56
4.26
Sudan grass (green, first cutting) digested, .
241.97
19.55
35.49
81.19
95.00
12.77
Per cent. Sudan grass (green, first cutting)
digested.
77.23
86.93
79.61
85.45
69.63
86.57
306 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Table V. — Computation of Digestion Coefficients — Concluded.
Series XXII., Sudan Grass (Green), Period 17 — Concluded.
Sheep XIII.
Item.
1
>>
U
P
<
1
Amount consumed as above,
Minus 253.04 grams feces excreted.
665.56
235.78
47.18
26.83
75.37
24.38
212.65
65.90
305.70
110.13
24.65
8.54
Amount digested,
Minus hay digested,
429.78
207.85
20.35
11.36
50.99
15.70
146.75
72.93
195.57
101.56
16.11
4.26
Sudan grass (green, first cutting) digested, .
Per cent. Sudan grass (green, first cutting)
digested.
221.93
70.84
8.99
39.96
35.29
79.16
73.82
77.69
94.01
68.97
11.85
80.34
Average per cent. Sudan grass (green,
first cutting) digested.
74.04
63.45
79.38
81.57
69.30
83.46
Discussion of the Results.
Having presented in the foregoing pages a statement of the general
purpose of these experiments, an explanation of the tables, and the data
of the composition of the feeds and feces, as well as the detailed data
of the experiments, including the computation of the digestion coefficients,
it is intended in the pages which follow to state briefly the general character
of each feed, summarize the coefficients secured, and draw such conclu-
sions as the results indicate.
In noting the variations which occur when the same feed is fed to
different sheep, the fact must not be lost sight of that digestibility is
made up of a number of processes. Armsby states the matter clearly
when he says "digestibility in ruminants is a very complex affair,
depending on many factors; ... it may be characterized as a series of
fermentations effected in part by a variety of organized ferments, and
in part by enzymes secreted by the digestive organs or contained in the
feed itself. Changes in the composition of the contents of the digestive
tract, or in the rapidity with which they move forward through it, can
hardly fail to influence in a variety of ways the course of these fermenta-
tions, and it seems, on the whole, rather surprising that they go forward
as rapidly as they do."
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
307
Simimanj of Coefficients of English Hay
— Basal.
Lot.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
1
XIX.
3
I.
59.77
20.59
49.08
64.84
64.07
38.42
1
XIX.
3
II.
57.65
23.90
53.12
58.93
62.39
38.17
1
XIX.
9
V.
60.57
33.50
53.53
63.32
63.29
57.47
1
XIX.
9
VI.
57,53
32.81
51.10
58.66
60.84
54.99
Average,
58.88
27.70
51.71
61.45
62.72
47.26
2
XX.
1
I.
64.70
39.69
50.86
70.41
66.78
84.67
2
XX.
1
II.
63.43
36.98
50.38
68.33
66.06
47.96
2
XX.
6
IV.
60.08
42.04
48.34
63.10
62.51
39.26
2
XX.
10
VII.
56.80
42.70
52.25
59.57
58.27
43.15
2
XX.
10
VIII.
59.70
44.21
52.72
62.44
61.96
41.83
Average,
60.94
41.12
50.91
64.77
63.12
51.39
3
XXI.
2
VII.
54.89
28.25
42.00
58.88
58.62
42.44
3
XXI.
2
VIII.
61.70
37.65
45.08
68.06
64.39
44.65
3
XXI.
9
IX.
58.21
40.25
42.18
62.65
60.86
46.52
3
XXI.
,9
X.
56.37
43.47
46.81
59.36
58.50
40.87
3
XXI.
9
XI.
53.82
38.14
40.07
56.46
57.13
39.27
Average
57.00
37.55
43.23
61.08
59.90
42.71
4
XXI.
13
XII.
60.69
39.10
54.81
65.30
64.70
53.07
4
XXI.
13
XIII.
60.15
35.89
54.01 •
62.63
64.49
48.78
4
XXI.
13
XIV.
57.64
35.31
50.89
61.07
62.59
50.23
4
XXII.
2
IV.
61.21
29.31
53.63
67.57
64.37
40.96
4
XXII.
2
VI.
62.52
26 61
47.96
70.21
66.75
40.62
Average,
60.44
31.24
52.26
65.36
64.58
46.73
5
XXII.
8
IV.
61.20
40.75
50.30
67.18
62.65
44.67
5
XXII.
8
VI.
61.54
42.15
51.37
69.31
64.31
45.56
5
XXII.
13
XII.
59.73
48.52
53.20
62.91
61.13
41.89
5
XXII.
13
XIII.
57.96
44.27
48.37
72.04
57.54
42.65
Average,
60.11
43.92
50.81
67.86
61.41
43.69
Grand average
59.47
36.31
49.78
64.10
62.35
46.34
308 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Five distinct lots of hay were used in these experiments. The hay was
cut when in bloom from an old mowing, and was composed largely of
Kentucky blue grass {Poa pratensis) and sweet vernal grass (Anthoxan-
thum odoratum) with an admixture of more or less clover. The results,
on the whole, are reasonably uniform, although one notes occasional
variations, particularly in the fiber and also in the protein, due evidently
to the individuality and perhaps to particular condition of the sheep.
The last two lots were evidently of somewhat better quality, or per-
haps cut a little earlier than the first two, for they showed a somewhat
superior digestibility. All five lots were more fully digested than is
timothy hay. Note that the fiber in the hay has a digestibility slightly
above the extract matter. This is characteristic of many coarse feeds.
Summary of Coefficients of English Hay and Gluten Feed
— Basal.
Lot.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Hay.
Gluten
Feed.
Fat.
1
1
XIX.
2
V.
66.13
34.59
67.91
64.67
69.82
56.13
1
1
XIX.
2
VI.
66.61
27.03
68.79
66.60
70.21
56.53
1
2
XIX.
15
V.
66.70
42.45
64.22
66.36
70.29
54.23
1
2
XIX.
15
VI.
66.22
39.97
59.69
60.35
66.48
48.23
2
2
XX.
5
I.
70.34
41.09
66.45
74.12
72.80
60.56
2
2
XX.
5
II.
66.69
28.84
61.42
69.60
70.70
58.33
2
2
XX.
14
IV.
60.31
27.12
63.45
60.34
63.53
50.95
2
2
XX.
14
V.
63.23
29.01
64.01
65.99
66.05
46.73
2
2
XX.
14
VI.
63.74
31.94
64.71
65.92
66.31
51.93
3
3
XXI.
1
IV.
64.97
31.78
68.38
65.52
68.73
46.03
3
3
XXI.
• 1
V.
66.92
23.83
68.53
68.50
71.74
47.76
3
3
XXI.
1
VI.
68.81
32.51
70.34
71.07
72.53
49.21
4
3
XXI.
11
V.
70.49
40.50
70.34
73.81
74.35
48.94
4
3
XXI.
11
VI.
71.17
34.90
71.19
75.67
75.24
50.94
Average,
66.59
33.25
66.39
67.75
69.91
51.89
In many cases it was thought wise to use a basal ration composed of
English hay and gluten feed in order to secure a combination better
balanced as regards protein and carbohydrates than is hay. Gluten feed
was selected to be used with the hay because it contained a moderate
amount of protein and is usually quite fully digested. In Series XIX. a
combination of 650 grams of hay and 125 grams of gluten feed mas used,
and in the other cases 550 grams of hay and 150 grams of gluten
feed.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
309
The results of Period 14, Series XX., are rather surprising, and in a
way hardly to be explained, being noticeably below Series XXI., Periods
1 and 11, which are reasonably uniform. They will be discussed further
in considering the digestibility of gluten feed. Series XIX., Period 15,
has more hay in proportion to gluten feed, and the coefficients are some-
what below the other series, with the exceptions mentioned.
Summary of Coeffi,cients of English Hay, Potato Starch and Diamond Gluten
Meal — Basal.
Lot.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Hay.
Starch
and
Gluten.
Fat.
1
XIX.
10
III.
73.45
33.70
73.48
59.62
80.71
34.29
1
XIX.
10
IV.
70.47
13.22
71.02
55.41
78.91
32.67
1
XIX.
11
IV.
72.17
33.93
75.02
60.73
78.39
47.07
2
XXI.
5
IV.
72.77
19.38
71.12
64.26
80.63
32.29
2
XXI.
5
V.
77.28
9.41
75.33
74.73
84.15
41.00
2
1
XXI.
5
VI.
73.49
13.30
71.93
66.46
81.24
35.66
Average
73.27
20.16
72.98
63.54
80.67
37.16
In order to study the digestibility of fiber in distillers' grains and corn
bran, a basal ration composed of a limited amount of hay plus potato
st':irch and Diamond gluten meal was used. This ration naturally con-
tained but little fiber, and would permit the intestinal juices and ferments
to exert their maximum effect upon the fiber of the two by-products.
Sheep IV. in Series XIX. received 100 grams more hay and 25 grams
more gluten meal daily in the combination than did the other three sheep.
The coefficients of this basal ration are fairly uniform, excepting that
Sheep V. appeared to have digested noticeably more of the ration than
did the other sheep.
310 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Summary of Coefficients of Gluten Feed {Present Experiments).
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Brand.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XIX.
2
V.
-
91.80
167.00
87.50
99.00
94.70
72.50
XIX.
2
VI.
-
94.70
-
89.50
126.00
96.30
73.60
XIX.
14
V.
-
112.09
337.98
84.78
208.85
110.89
59.91
XIX.
14
VI.
-
94.54
258.91
89.69
116.36
94.63
53.50
XIX.
15
V.
Clinton
106.57
163.22
82.62
173.28
108.91
50.00
XIX.
15
VI.
Clinton
78.90
129.89
71.28
47.41
87.34
29.55
XX.
5
I.
Clinton
93.42
75,66
84.70
145.65
94.25
87.60
XX.
5
II.
Clinton
76.50
-
73.73
77.96
85.50
80.45
XX.
14
IV.
Clinton
50.38
-
76.15
-
58.65
63.55
XX.
14
V.
Clinton
64.07
-■
77.25
51.82
69.51
50.32
XX.
14
VI.
Clinton
66.47
-
78.61
50.80
70.63
66.01
XXI.
1
IV.
Buffalo
93.87
-
92.96
136.00
95.88
63.27
XXI.
1
V.
Buffalo
102.79
-
93.16
185.00
108.12
74.69
XXI.
1
VI.
Buffalo
111.63
-
96.82
228.00
111.46
84,49
XXI.
11
V.
Buffalo
112.30
73.00
93.20
231.00
105.00
38.00
XXI.
11
VI.
Buffalo
115.40
15.00
95.10
259.00
108.50
51.00
Average, .....
91.59
-
85.44
142.41
93.77
64.41
The gluten feed represented in these trials comprised three different
lots of the same general type of chemical composition. It contained
approximately 9 per cent, of water; and in dry matter the ash varied from
.95 to 3.49 per cent., the protein from 25.47 to 28.29 per cent., the fiber
from 7.30 to 8.70 per cent., the extract matter from 56.86 to 59.70 per
cent., and the fat from 1.56 to 4.94 per cent. In general appearance the
three samples resembled each other closely. The variations in percentage
of ash and fat indicated some little difference in the manufacturing process,
but not sufficient to warrant any noticeable variations in the digestibility
of the several lots. In fact, the gluten feed used in Series XIX., Periods
2 and 14, and the same series, Period 15, were two different lots, and yet
they resemble each other closely in digestibility.
Here follow the results of a number of early experiments. The process
of manufacture was somewhat different, more of the germ being retained
resulting in a higher fat percentage. The ash also was not much over
1 per cent, because the evaporated steep water was not added. Eather
wide variations are noted as in the later experiments.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
311
Sununary of Earlier Work with Gluten Feed.
Digestion Coefficients.
Year.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
1893
-
2
II.
75.53
-
85.97
39.92
78.44
82.25
1893
-
2
IV.
80.44
-
83.94
46.28
84.37
80.58
1894
-
5
III.
89.35
-
88.69
94.69
88.93
92.74
1894
-
5
IV.
91.11
-
88.88
104.56
89.76
95.61
1896
-
-
-
87.00
-
86.00
77.00
90.00
81.00
1906
-
8
IV.
93.78
78.07
89.26
123.46
93.42
75.70
1906
-
8
V.
97.83
98.67
92.91
128.92
97.03
79.68
1909
XI.
7
IV.
92.25
85.05
90.02
107.23
92.30
76.29
1909
XI.
7
V.
99.24
93.69
92.22
153.69
97.98
77.29
1909
XII.
4
IV.
94.58
-
91.22
127.83
96.09
77.09
1909
XII.
4
V.
95.18
-
89.65
146.29
97.60
57.82
1909
XII.
14
II.
75.30
-
68.83
63.62
83.32
67.06
. 1909
XIV.
3
I.
99.18
77.54
87.31
134.91
103.30
97.79
1909
XIV.
3
II.
90.98
34.40
83.32
119.00
99.04
81.26
1909
XIV.
5
III.
85.81
51.15
81.84
81.74
94.04
79.46
1909
XIV.
5
IV.
101.55
64.83
88.58
147.10
108.24
84.21
Average Results.
Present experiments,
EarUer experiments,
91.59
90.57
85.44
86.79
142.41
106.01
93.77
93.36
64.41
80.36
Averages are rot particularly satisfactory, especially when the figures
from which they are made up vary widely among themselves. The fore-
going averages show, however, the gluten feed to have a high digestibility.
A study of the numerous results brings out at least two striking facts.
In the first place, in some experiments the coefficients are very much
higher than in others. Thus, Series XX., Period 14, gave results very
noticeably below the others.
It is the belief of the writer, however, that at least a part of the varia-
tion is due to the lessened activity of the digestive processes, ever though
such a condition may not be indicated by any outward signs. The
changing from one ration to another may also change the mtestinal flora.
In the second place, it is observed that in a number of instances the
gluten feed appears to be over 100 per cent, digestible. It seems reason-
able to assume that this is due to its favorable effect in increasing the
312 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
digestibility of the hay; this condition was particularly pronounced in
case of the fiber and to a lesser extent in the extract matter, and is in
accord with the accepted teaching of the favorable influence of a protein
concentrate on the fiber and extract matter of a basal ration ha\ang a
wide nutritive ratio.
The digestibility of the protein varied in proportion to the digestibility
of the extract matter, and is shown to be quite well utilized. The fat
show^ed wide variations, due in part to the small amount present, and in
part to other causes. The ash content of gluten feed is not large, and in
most cases more ash was excreted from the total ration than was con-
tained in the gluten feed fed, so that coefficients for this ingredient cannot
be deduced.
Average Coefficients for All Results.
Different lots, 7
Number of single trials, ......... 32
Dry matter 91.08
Ash,
Protein 86. 12
Fiber 124.21
Nitrogen-free extract, . . . . . . . . .93.57
Fat 72.39
The average results for all samples indicate very clearly that gluten
feed is a highly digestible nitrogenous concentrate, and that in all prob-
ability it exerts a favorable influence upon the digestibility of a basal
ration having a wide nutritive ratio.
Summanj of Coefficients for Diamond Gluten Meal.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XIX
XIX
XIX
XXI
XXI
XXI
10
10
11
5
5
5
IV.
III. I
IV.
IV.
V.i
VI.
83
68
87
86
109
90
143
127
83.8
80.0
86.4
84.8
91.2
86.0
100
100
100
90.5
79.0
91.4
93.3
120.1
97.2
47.3
Average, I
Average of previous results (8),
86
87
-
85.0
88.0
100
93.0
88.0
93.0
« Results from Sheep III. and V. omitted from average.
A combination of 300 to 400 grams of hay, 125 grams'of potato starch,
and 100 to 125 grams of Diamond gluten meal were fed as a basal ration
in order to study the digestibility of distillers' dried grains and corn
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
313
bran. It seemed worth while in this connection to get at the digestibility
of the Diamond gUiten meal. In order to accomplish this the digestion
coefficients found for the hay were applied to the hay consumed, and to
the resulting product was added the amount of starch consumed, which
was assumed to be entirely digested. The sum of the hay and starch
digested was taken from the total amount digested, and the remainder
represented the gluten meal digested. The coefficients used for the hay
in case of Series XIX. represented an average of those secured by using
the results from Sheep I., II., V. and VI., all of which agreed closely.
Those used in Series XXI. were the average of those for Sheep VII., VIII.,
IX., X. and XI., as IV., V. and VI. had not been used in getting the
digestibility of this lot of ha5^ The coefficients for the hay were as
follows : —
Series.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XIX
XXI.,
59
57
2S
37
52
43
62
61
62
60
47
45
The nutritive ratio of the basal ration in Series XIX. averaged 1:6.5
and in Series XXI., 1:6.8.
In passing, attention is called to the fact that the ash, fiber and fat
content of gluten meal are quite low, showing less than 2 per cent, of
each on a dry-matter basis, and the coefficients secured were, as might
be expected, of uncertain value, although it is reasonable to assume that
these several constituents were quite fully digested.
The content of protein and extract matter, on the other hand, on the
basis of dry matter, was 45 and 50 per cent., respectively, showing this
feedstuff to be made of these two food groups in nearly equal proportions.
A study of the coefficients secured shows some "uade variations. Sheep
III., Series XIX., for some reason gave quite low results, and in Series
XXL, Sheep V gave results considerably above the others. In making
the average, therefore, it seemed "wise to omit the coefficients obtained
with these two sheep. The results show the gluten meal to have a high
digestibility; in fact, it is believed that if a method sufficiently accurate
were available it could be shown that the meal was practically all utilized.
The coefficients given for previous results represent eight single trials
with four different lots, and were secured a number of years ago with
gluten meal made by a little different process and averaging 40 per cent,
protein and 54 per cent, extract matter in dry matter. The latter co-
efficients are ia substantial accord with those recently secured.
314 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Summary of Coefficients showing Effect of High-grade Wheat Gluten Flour
upon Digestibility of Hay.
i
o
Ph
0.
o
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
.i
1
3
.a
1
3
O
1
3
O
1
.a
1
3
O
.a
1
3
O
1
3
o
XX.
XX.
10 and 12,
10 and 12,
VII.
VIII.
59 57
60 60
48
46
43
44
43
40
52
53
62 60
64 62
61
62
58
62
46
48
43
42
Average,
; 59
58
47
43
41
52
63 61
62
60
47
42
The object of this trial was to observe the effect of a high-grade wheat
gluten flour, composed largely of protein, upon the digestibility of the
hay. In the hay experiment 600 grams were fed to each of two sheep,
and in the experiment immediately following 40 grams of the gluten were
added to the hay.
The hay contained in dry matter 6.66 per cent, ash, 8.36 protein,
32.08 fiber, 50.40 extract matter and 2.50 fat, and had a nutritive ratio
of 1:12. The wheat gluten contained in dry matter .86 per cent, ash,
92.41 protein, .11 fiber, 6.23 extract matter and .39 fat, being nearly pure
gluten meal, with traces of ash, fiber and fat, and a small amount of ex-
tract matter. The nutritive ratio of the hay-gluten mixture was 1:6.
A study of the comparative coefficients of the hay when fed with and with-
out the gluten — assuming the gluten to have been entirely digested — •
indicates that the latter improved the digestibility of the hay slightly,
particularly the fiber, extract matter and fat. The protein, on the other
hand, showed an apparent lessened digestibility, due perhaps to the fact
that the protein of the gluten was not completely assimilated.
Applying the coefficients secured for the hay when fed by itself to the
same hay fed in combination with wheat gluten, and subtracting the result
from the total amount of hay plus gluten digested, we find that in case
of one sheep 47.48 grams, and in case of the other, 33.95 grams, were
digested against 36.36 grams fed. This indicates that in one case at
least the gluten was not only fully digested but improved somewhat the
digestibility of the hay.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
315
Summary of Coefficients showing Effect of High-grade Wheat Gluten Flour
wpon Digestibility of Hay — Continued.
o
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
1
^
1
■3
1
1
■a
1
0
1
-a
■♦J
3
0
-a
1
0
1
"3
1
1
XXI.
41
VII.
55
55
36
28
45
42
58
59
58
59
44
42
1 In case of hay alone, period 2.
This experiment was with a new lot of hay, testing in dry matter 6.59
per cent, ash, 7.59 per cent, protein, 32.67 per cent, fiber, 50.29 per cent,
extract matter and 2.86 per cent, fat, and having a nutritive .ratio of
about 1:17, being very wide. The wheat gluten was the same as the lot
previously fed, and the combination of 700 grams hay and 40 grams
wheat gluten had a nutritive ratio of 1:5.7. In other words, the addition
of 40 grams of gluten to 700 grams of hay produced a much narrower
ration than if the hay had been fed by itself. A study of the coefficients
shows no particular improvement in the digestibility of the hay as a
result of adding the gluten, although such an improvement was antici-
pated.
Applying the coefficients secured for the hay when fed by itself to the
same hay fed in combination with wheat gluten, and subtracting the
result from the total amount of hay plus gluten digested, we have 38.58
grams of gluten digested as against 37.18 grams fed, showing the gluten
to have been completely digested.
Summary of Coefficients showing Effect of High-grade Wheat Gluten Flour
upon Digestibility of Hay — Concluded.
13
.2
o
CD
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
1
M
1
3
o
-a
1
o
M
1
O
1
0
.a
1
o
.a
1
.a
3
o
XXI.
XXI.
101
10 ^
IV.
VI.
61
61
57
57
46
44
37
37
47
46
43
43
66
67
61
61
64
63
60
60
38
39
45
45
Average,
Average of all trials (5),
61 1 57
58 57
45
43
37
36
46
44
43
46
66
62
61
61
63
61
60
60
38
43
45
43
I In case of hay alone, periods 2 and 9.
316 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
The hay was the same as fed in the former trial; the gluten was a new
lot, but did not vary in composition much from the previous sample used.
Unfortunately, Sheep IV, and VI. were not used in testing the digesti-
bility of the hay, and the coefficients represent the average obtained by
using Sheep VII., VIII., IX., X. and XI. It is evident in this trial that
the gluten did improve the digestibility of the hay somewhat, particularly
the fiber and extract matter.
Experiments by numerous investigators ^ have shown that when a
ration containing considerable starch, and having a nutritive ratio of
1 :12 or more, is fed to ruminants more or less of the starch is found in the
feces, and if to this ration a protein concentrate is added the starch dis-
appears, and the digestion coefficients, not only of the extract matter
but also of the fiber, are improved. In our own case the addition of a
small amount of a very rich protein food to hay improved the digestibility
of the latter, but not in as marked a way as was expected.
Suvimary of Coefficients of Corn Bran.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XIX
XIX
XXI
XXI
XXI
13
13
7
7
7
I.
II.
IV.
V.
VI.
90.08
77.09
78.23
81.89
75.66
210.29
129.04
49.64
26.03
58.78
22.56
61.83
99.91
66.90
67.49
96.10
49.20
90.24
82.70
82.27
86.33
84.21
74.88
45.52
63.57
65.16
78.51
Average
Average of previous trials (2),
Average of all previous trials (6),
80.59
71
71
-
43,77
55
60
75.92
65
71
85.15
75
80
65.53
83
80
The com bran represents the hull or skin of the kernel, together with
pieces of broken germ and more or less of the starchy i^ortion which it
is not possible to separate by mechanical means. It is often found in
the markets of Massachusetts, and has been offered at a very reasonable
price. In dry matter it contained 1.08 per cent, ash, 6.87 per cent, protein,
13.86 per cent, fiber, 76.33 per cent, extract matter and 1.86 per cent,
fat. While low in ash and protein, its fiber content is not excessive, and
it is quite rich in extract matter.
The hay-gluten meal-starch combination served as the basal ration.
For some reason Sheep I., as indicated by the digestion coefficients, ap-
peared to have utilized the bran quite fully. The results secured with
the other sheep were as uniform as was to be expected, although Shee])
II. and V. apparently made less use of the protein, while the latter sheep
gave a high coefficient for the fiber.
1 See brief r6sum6 in Die Ernahrung d. landw. Natzthiere, by Kellner, sixth ed., pp. 53, 54.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS "WITH SHEEP.
317
The results are higher than those formerly secured by us, where the
corn bran was fed together with hay, excepting those for protein and fat.
It is evident that the fiber is quite well digested, much more so than that
contained in wheat and oats. Comparing the corn bran with corn meal
on the basis of net energy values it is found that if corn meal is placed
at 100 corn bran equals 82.
Summary of Coefficients of Distillers' Grains.
Sekies.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XIX
XXI., .
XXI
XXI
12
6
6
6
IV.
IV.
V.
VI.
65.79
64.88
67.54
67.94
64.51
21.21
23.21
79.47
77.26
74.23
77.24
16.21
43.89
62.67
54.98
70.55
63.17
66.63
69.16
93.22
81.99
82.48
77.10
Average,
Average of all pre^-ious trials for
corn grains (17).
Average of all previous trials for
rye grains (2).
66.54
79
58
36.31
77.05
73
59
44.44
95
67.38
81
67
83.70
95
84
The object of this experiment was to study particularly the digestibility
of the fiber. For this purpose the grains were added to the hay-Diamond-
gluten-meal-starch basal ration, which was quite low in that ingredient.
Distillers' grains represent the residues from the manufacture of dis-
tilled spirits. Those containing a high protein percentage are derived
largely from corn. On the basis of 10 per cent, water the two samples
contained 26.51 and 23.76 per cent, of protein, and may be considered of
fair quality. The best grades usually contain 30 or more per cent, of
protein. On the dry matter basis the average of the two samples con-
tained 2.07 per cent, ash, 27.92 per cent, protein, 13.67 per cent, fiber,
46.69 per cent, extract matter and 9.65 per cent. fat.
In the present experiments variations are observed in the percentages
of the several ingredients digested. It is rather surprising that such
differences occur in the percentages of fiber digested. It is evident, in
spite of the low fiber content of the basal ration, that the sheep did not
utilize the fiber from the distillers' grains very well, which indicates that
other grains than corn were used in the mash. Previous trials with corn
grains showed higher coefficients for the total dry matter and for the
extract matter and fat (see above), while the coefficients for the fiber
were believed to have been too high. It seems probable that in the
former trials, where the distillers' grains were fed with hay, the addition
of the former increased the digestibility of the hay fiber. It is believed
that the extent of the digestibility of distillers' grains will depend upon
318 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
the kind of grains composing the mash. If much rye, barley and wheat
are used the coefficients, especially those for fiber, will be lower than
when corn is the predominating grain.
Sianmary of Coefficients of Feterita.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XXl., .
12
V.
74.36
-
54.79
-
87.58
60.70
XXI
12
VI.
74.65
-
46.55
-
87.94
56.69
Average,
74.51
-
50.67
-
87.58
60.70
Texas Station, i .
88.99
-
90.03
50.00
96.60
74.52
Corn for comparison (12), .
90
-
74
57
94
93
Feterita, or Sudan durra, is one of the grain sorghums, which include
also Kafir, milo, durra and kaoliang. According to Morrison "it has
slender stems carrying more leaves than milo but less than kafir, and
erect heads bearing flattened seeds. Over much of the drier western
portion of the gram sorghum belt these crops are more sure, and even
on good soil return larger yields than corn." It has been stated that
the average crop is 25 bushels per acre, with a maximum of 80 bushels
(56 pounds) for feterita. The sample tested by us came from a carload
received by an eastern grain dealer, and contained 10.41 per cent, water.
Its dry matter consisted of 1.80 per cent, ash, 13.23 per cent, protein,
1.40 per cent, fiber, 80.23 per cent, extract matter and 3.34 per cent,
fat. In chemical composition it resembles corn, being a little higher in
protein and lower in fat. Hay and gluten feed served as a basal ration,
and the feterita constituted 30 per cent, of the total ration. The results
of the trial agree closely. It is surprising, however, that in total dry
matter the coefficients fall so much below corn. Neither the protein nor
the fat appear to be as well digested; the extract matter, however, ap-
proaches in digestibility that contained in corn. Corn contains sub-
stantially 85.7 pounds of digestible organic nutrients in 100, and on the
basis of our results feterita contains 71.06 pounds, thus indicating that
the latter has only 83 per cent, of the nutritive value of corn. There
are no data from which to compute its net energy value. It is doubtful,
however, if such data would show any wide variations from that secured
as a result of digestion data. Further experiments with the feterita
should be made, however, before drawing positive conclusions. ^
1 See note 2.
* Since the above was written, Fraps of the Texas Station, Bui. No. 203, reports results with
this grain showing higher digestion coefficients than those secured by ourselves. These co-
efficients are inserted above, together with our own.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
319
Summary of Coefficients of Alfalfa.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XXII
12
IV.
58.10
41.50
73.16
46.92
66.48
16.66
XXII
12
VI.
54.75
28.10
68.19
45.15
63.70
15.27
XXII., .
14
XII.
59.61
50.15
72.43
48.28
67.48
30.24
XXII., .
14
XIIJ.
58.50
50.68
73.32
45.23
66.81
32.29
Average,
....
57.74
42.61
71.78
46.40
66.12
23.62
Average all previous trials third
cutting (6).
Average all previous trials (109), .
58
60
44
50
70
71
40
43
70
72
42
38
The alfalfa was quite free from foreign material. It represented the
third cutting, and was grown in the State of New York. It averaged in
drj'- matter 6.49 per cent, ash, 15.34 per cent, crude protein, 35.06 per
cent, fiber, 41.13 per cent, extract matter and 1.98 per cent, crude fat.
The results are satisfactory and are quite uniform with those previously
secured. The fiber in alfalfa hay has relatively a low, and the protein a
high, digestibility.
Roots and Vegetables.
It is generally assumed that roots and vegetables are quite fully di-
gested by animals. Relatively few digestion trials have been made to
determine the rate of digestibility and to note the effect, if any, of such
materials upon the digestibility of feeds with which they are fed.
(a) Cabbages.
The whole cabbage, the head minus the outside leaves, and the leaves
themselves were analyzed and digestion experiments carried out. The
whole cabbage contained 88.27 per cent, water, and its dry matter con-
sisted of 12.20 per cent, ash, 21.82 per cent, protein, 10.30 per cent, fiber,
53.76 per cent, extract matter and 1.92 per cent. fat.
The heads minus leaves contained 90.34 per cent, water, and the dry
matter consisted of 8.22 per cent, ash, 17.98 per cent, protein, 9.84 per
cent, fiber, 62.77 per cent, extract matter and 1.19 per cent. fat.
The outside leaves contained 80.95 per cent, water, and the dry matter
consisted of 14.49 per cent, ash, 11.94 per cent, protein, 13.12 per cent,
fiber, 58.04 per cent, extract matter and 2.41 per cent. fat. The exterior
leaves contained about twice as much dry matter as the heads.
Cabbage is rich in protein, — in fact, considerably richer than the
legumes, — on an equal moisture basis. It is rich also in ash, particularly
the leaves, which may have been due in part to the adherence of soil
particles. The percentages of fiber and fat are relatively low.
320 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
The cabbage was fed in combination with hay, and con.stituted 25 to 34
per cent, of tlie dry matter of the total rations, the latter having nutritive
ratios of from 1 :6.6 to 1 :9.
Suminartj of Coefficients for Cabbage.
Whole Cabbage.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XIX
XIX
7
7
I.
II.
89.35
86.49
59.74
54.19
84.59
87.67
109.57
72.48
95.50
96.22
71.11
68.33
Average,
87.92
56.97
86.13
91.03
95.86
69.72
Heads Minus Leaves.
XVIII.,
XVIII.,
4
4
I.
II.
99.84
95.81
80.55
74.02
84.92 124.79
C8.15 99.74
103.16
101.48
53.23
32.07
Average,
97.83
77.29
76.54
112.27
102.32
42.67
Leaves.
XVIII., . . 6
XVIII., . . 5
I.
II.
76.84
71.39
45.71
44.23
66.69
60.90
80.66
75.79
87.38
81.30
45.37
29.40
Average
74.12
44.97
63 .«0
78.23
84.34
37.39
The whole cabbage was quite well digested, with an average dry matter
percentage in case of the two sheep of 88 per cent. The fiber averaged
91 per cent, digestible, showing in case at least of one of the sheep that it
had improved the digestibility of the fiber in the hay. The extract
matter also had a high digestibility (96 per cent.).
The heads proved rather more digestible than the whole cabbage,
namely, 98 per cent., the protein 77 per cent., and both the fiber and
extract matter over 100 per cent. It seems evident that the cabbage
exercised a beneficial effect upon the hay with which it was fed.
The leaves did not prove as digestible as the center, although one
notes that the dry matter averaged 74 per cent, digestible, the protein
64 per cent., the fiber 78 per cent, and the extract matter 84 per cent.
The whole cabbage, head minus leaves, and leaves would contain of
digestible organic matter, on the basis of our data, in 2,000 pounds, the
following: —
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
321
Water
(Per
Cent.).
Protein
(Pounds).
Fiber I^^Vter* ^^'
(Pound8).!(Matt^^ (Pounds)
Total
Fat X 2.2
(Pounds).
Nutritive
Ratio.
Whole cabbage, .
Head,
Leaves,
88.3
90.3
81.0
43.88
26.73
29.02
21.92
19.32
38.80
120.74
123.20
185.24
3.12
1.17
3.38
193.40
171.82
260.50
1:3.4
1:5.4
1:8.0
Because of the less moisture content the leaves show a larger amount of
total organic nutrients than either the total cabbage or the interior. On
the basis of 88.3 per cent, water, — that found in the whole cabbage, —
the interior shows 207.2 and the leaves 160.4 pounds of digestible organic
nutrients per ton. The whole cabbage, head and leaves, have the following
relative values based upon digestible organic nutrients and natural
moisture, or an equivalent moisture content of 88.3 per cent.: —
Equal
Moisture
Basis.
Whole cabbage,
Head, .
Leaves,
100
106
83
(b) Carrots.
Summary of Coefficients of Carrots.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash. Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XIX..
XIX.,
XX.,
XX.,
XX..
XX.,
XX.,
XX.,
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
I.
II.
IV.
v.
VL
rv.
V.
VI.
89.10
94.42
74.42
87.81
83.73
100.70
115.80
135.05
33.48
46.40
50.22
64.89
43.77
74.24
91.86
96.15
52.03
77.87
77.71
85.35
86.53
87.61
106.00
127.94
131.89
154.59
40.19
101.96
82.06
89.58
148.71
197.52
95.66
99.91
85.71
93.22
93.04
105.20
113.51
130.76
79.63
91.20
25.87
9.95
162.90
204.34
228.23
Average,
100.95
64.40
89.05
129.47
104.75
114.66
Two different lots of carrots were fed. They averaged 87.64 per cent,
water, and in dry matter contained 9.56 per cent, ash, 10.11 per cent,
protein, 8.53 per cent, fiber, 70.71 per cent, extract matter and 1.09 per
322 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
cent. fat. They are low in protein, fiber and fat, and quite high in ash
and in extract matter.
In the first and second experiments they were fed in combination with
hay, and constituted about 30 per cent, of the total dry matter which
had a nutritive ratio of 1 :10 to 1 :13.6. In the third experiment they were
fed together with hay and gluten feed, and composed about 15 per cent,
of the dry matter of the ration, which had a nutritive ratio of 1 :7.6. Sheep
IV, in Series XX., Period 8, showed such a low rate of digestibility that
the results were not included in the average. With this exception the
coefficients resulting from the hay and carrot combination agree reasonably
well, and show 88.76 per cent, of the dry matter to have been digested.
The protein and extract matter are also shown to have been quite well
assimilated. The fat is so small in amount that the results have no
particular meaning. In most cases a high fiber digestibility is observed;
in fact, more was apparently digested than was consumed.
Where the carrots were fed with hay and gluten feed more of the dry
matter was apparently digested than was fed. Thus one observes co-
efficients of 117 for the dry matter, 107 protein, 145 fiber and 116 extract
matter. This, it is believed, was due to the coefficients used for the
digestibility of the basal ration, composed of hay and gluten feed. These
coefficients for some reason averaged only 62.43 for the dry matter, as
against 68.4, the average for all of the other experiments. If, however,
one uses the average figure of 68.4, the coefficients for the dry matter of
the carrots vary from 67.4 to 101.66.
The coefficients as a whole indicate that carrots were quite fully utilized,
and that they seemed to improve the digestibility of the basal ration with
which they were fed. It is proposed to study this matter more fully.
(c) Mangels.
Summary of Coefficients of Mangels.
Series.
Period. Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein. Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XVIII.,
XVIII.,
XVIII.,
XVIII..
3
3
6
6
V.
VI.
V.
VI.
86.90
88.74
85.43
87.20
1.55
18.12
41.31
52.36
41.21
51.18
48.36
63.00
103.45
103.81
89.58
85.31
95.79
96.29
93.40
93.67
-
Average
Average of all previous trials (6),
87.07
84
30.58
50.94
59
95.54
78
94.76
94
-
Four single trials were carried out with one lot of mangels which con-
tained 83.10 per cent, of water, — ^less than is found usually in this root.
In the dry matter there was 6.10 per cent, ash, 5.84 per cent, protein,
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
323
6.3S per cent, fiber, 81.40 per cent, extract matter and .28 per cent. fat.
The mangels were very low in protein, fiber and fat, and high in extract
matter. They were fed in combination with hay only, and constituted
from 40 to about 47 per cent, of the total dry matter of the combined
ration, which had a nutritive ratio of 1:11 to 1:13. The coefficients are
quite satisfactory, showing the dry matter to be 87, the protein 51 and
the fiber and extract matter 95 per cent, digested. It is possible that
the mangels improved the digestibility of the hay somewhat, but it is
regretted that they were not fed also with a combination of hay and a
protein concentrate in order to note if they would not have had a more
pronounced effect.
(d) Pumpkins.
Summary of Coefficierds of Entire Pumpkins.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XIX.,
XIX..
XX.,
XX.,
XX.,
XX.,
XX.,
6
6
2
2
3
3
4
I.
II.
I.
II.
I.
II.
I.
7.5.87
89.32
81.62
88.23
78.80
75.41
75.57
64.82
63.93
70.96
62.99
68.35
49.82
76.91
70.50
80.69
67.89
76.20
83.63
82.57
74.81
59.74
86.30
65.20
83.59
47.80
46.23
38.49
81.54
98.12
90.84
96.40
86.30
83.83
83.82
96.29
96.87
89.27
91.76
88.10
84.69
94.23
Average
80.69 j 65.40
76.61
61.05
88.69
91.60
F
*umpkins minus Seeds and Connecting Tissue.
XIX
XIX
4
4
I.
II.
109.23 105.13
93.84 59.48
92.55
93.96
137.52
95.16
108.99 101.44
102.44 83.81
Average 101.54
82.31
93.26
116.34
105.72
92.63
Two lots of pumpkins, grown on two different farms in successive years,
were used. One lot was tested whole, and also without the seeds and
connecting tissue. The whole pumpkins averaged 87.53 per cent, water,
and the dry matter contained 7.74 per cent, ash, 15.60 per cent, protein,
15 per cent, fiber, 49.37 per cent, extract matter and 12.29 per cent. fat.
The edible portion contained 94.58 per cent, water, and its dry matter
consisted of 8.81 per cent, ash, 13.74 per cent, protein, 17.33 per cent,
fiber, 57.56 per cent, extract matter and 2.56 per cent. fat.
Wider variations occur in the digestibility of the different ingredients
by the two sheep than are desirable. In case of Series XX., Periods 3
324 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
and 4, where the pumpkins were fed with a basal ration of hay and gluten
feed, the coefficients for the fiber, extract matter and fat appear to be lower
than when the basal ration consisted of hay only. One would expect
contrary results, for the combination of hay and pumpkins had a nutritive
ratio of 1:9 to 1:11, and the hay, gluten feed and pumpkins a ratio of
approximately 1:7.5. The lower digestibility of the pumpkins in the
hay-gluten-feed-pumpkin ration may have been caused by the extra
amount of total dry matter fed (approximately 100 grams daily).
The coefficients for the pumpkins minus the seeds are considerably
higher, and, so far as one is able to judge from the results, indicate that
the pumpkins had a favorable effect upon the digestibility of the hay.
When the entire fruit was fed no seeds or parts of seeds were found in the
feces.
In general, it may be said that th^ entire pumpkins appear to be fairly
well digested, but not quite as fully as are mangels, turnips and carrots.
Their relative feeding values will depend considerably upon their content
of dry matter. The large percentage of fat in the pumpkin tends to
increase slightly its feeding value pound for pound over most of the root
crops.
(e) Turnips.
Summary of Coefficients of Turnips.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XVIII..
XVIII..
7
7
V.
VI.
88.78
89.17
55.34
51.38
70.15
81.08
87.75
75.55
95.48
96.64
56.90
75.86
Average,
88.98
53.36
75.62
81.65
96.06
66.38
One lot only of Swedish turnips was tested, which contained 86.21 per
cent, water; the dry matter tested 7.33 per cent, ash, 9.58 per cent,
protein, 10.99 per cent, fiber, 71.31 per cent, extract matter and .79 per
cent. fat. They were rather richer in protein and fiber than mangels,
and somewhat lower in carbohydrate matter. At the same time they
may be regarded as carbohydrate in character. They were fed together
with hay, and constituted 38 per cent, of the total ration, which had a
nutritive ratio of 1 :10.4. The results with the two sheep agree very closely,
the sheep digesting 89 per cent, of the dry matter, 76 per cent, of the pro-
tein, 82 per cent, of the fiber and 96 per cent, of the starchy matter.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
325
Comparative Summary of Coefficients for Roots and Vegetables.
Digestion Coefficients.
Digestible Or-
Water
(Per
Cent.).
ganic Nu-
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
trients in 2,000
Pounds
(Basis, 88 Per
Cent. Water).
Whole cabbage,
88
88
57
86
91
96
70
193
Carrots, .
88
101
64
89
129
105
115
233
Mangels, .
83
87
31
51
96
95
-
196
Turnips, .
86
89
53
76
82
96
66
204
Pumpkins,
88
81
65
77
61
89
92
212
The total dry matter of the carrots appears to be more fully digestible
and the dry matter of the pumpkin less digestible than that of the mangels,
turnips and cabbage, the coeflBcients of which are quite uniform. The
protein shows a high and uniform digestibility excepting that contained
in the mangels. The fiber — excepting in the pumpkins, with its hard
shell and seed covering — is shown to be quite well digested, as is also the
extract matter. The fat is not of much consequence excepting in the
pumpkin, which contains over 12 per cent, with a high digestion coefiicient.
On a uniform moisture basis of 88 per cent., the total digestible organic
nutrients (including the fat multiplied by 2.2) do not vary widely from
each other, with the exception of the carrots, which merit further study.
Summary of Coefficients of Vegetable Ivory Meal.
Sehies.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen -
free
Extract.
Fat.
XIX., .
5
V.
84.43
44.35
-
55.01
93.27
-
XIX.,
5
VI.
89.63
17.99
30.04
85.82
93.89
45.45
XX..
13
IV.
88.20
63.59
10.57
76.08
93.60
39.01
XX.,
13
V.
98.96
94.01
34.61
120.48
99.99
60.28
XX.,
13
VI.
101.71
44.24
41.70
129.22
102.28
31.91
XXI.,
3
IV.
78.59
193.81
1.59
51.07
85.81
61.82
XXI.,
3
V.
81.04
-
4.77
100.06
89.94
47.10
XXL,
3
VI.
84.03
90.95
6.04
66.45
91.98
58.70
Average,
.
88.33
78.42
18.47
85.52
93.84
49.18
Corn meal for comparison,
88
-
67
-
92
90
326 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
This material represents the sawdust or shavings from the vegetable
ivory, or the corozo nut {Phytelephas niacrocarpa). A complete report
on its composition, digestibility and feeding value has been published
elsewhere. 1 The details of the several digestion tests, however, were not
given. The nut is used in the manufacture of buttons and similar ma-
terials; the residue is practically tasteless and of a tough, horny nature.
Animals will not eat it when fed by itself, but usually consume it readily
if mixed with one or more grains. It averaged in composition 10.76 per
cent, water, and in dry matter 1.25 per cent, ash, 5.36 per cent, crude
protein, 8.01 per cent, fiber, 84.37 per cent, extract matter and 1.01 per
cent. fat. Its extract or carbohydrate matter is nearly all in the form of
mannan, yielding mannose on hydrolysis.
The material in all cases was fed with 550 grams of hay and 150 grams
of gluten feed as a basal ration, and constituted some 30 per cent, of the
total ration.
A glance at the results show that the coefficients secured in Period 13
(hitherto unpublished) are noticeably above the others. This is believed
to have been caused by the use of the coefficients secured for a basal ration
of hay and gluten feed, which gave 62 as the digestibility of the dry matter
as against 66 for the basal ration of hay and gluten feed employed in the
other e.xperiments. The average of the coefficients secured in Periods 5
and 3 (as published) gave 84 for the dry matter and 92 for the extract
matter, and are believed to be more nearly correct.
The coefficients secured for the protein, fiber and fat are not surprising,
in view of the smallness of the amounts present in the ivory meal in com-
parison with the total amounts of these ingredients consumed. The
larger part of the ivory meal consists of carbohydrate matter, and it was
quite well digested. How the mannan was decomposed in the digestive
tract is not clear; it was found, however, to have largely disappeared in
the feces. The ivory meal evidently is as fully digested as corn meal, and
our published results of experiments with dairy animals demonstrate it to
have considerable nutritive value.
Summary of Coefficients of Vinegar Grains.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen -
free
Extract.
Fat.
XXII
XXII
XXII
XXII
9
9
10
10
IX.
XI.
IV.
VI.
54.77
55.01
65.60
67.48
29.08
62.91
59.28
69.47
66.00
47.02
50.59
60.92
73.87
50.92
52.63
54.71
65.60
84.20
88.08
89.30
68.70
Average
Dried brewers' grains for comparison
(5).
60.70
61
-
64.42
81
58.10
49
55.97
57
82.57
89
1 Beals and Lindsey: Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. VII., No. 7.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
327
Vinegar grains were put out by the Fleischmann Company, Chicago,
and represent the residue in the manufacture of yeast, or possibly of
yeast and distilled liquors. They tested 7.63 per cent, water, and the
dry matter contained 2.54 per cent, ash, 20.39 per cent, protein, 20.12
per cent, fiber, 50.33 per cent, extract matter and 6.62 per cent. fat. They
were fed together with hay to four sheep. For some reason Sheep IX. and
XI. did not digest them as well as did Sheep IV. and VI. The average
results from the four sheep show that in total digestible matter, fiber and
extract they compare well with dried brewers' grains, although the pro-
tein of the latter is more completely utilized. They are certainly an
addition to our supply of protein concentrates, and can be used in the
grain ration in a similar way to dried brewers' grains.
Summary of Coefficients of New Bedford Garbage Tankage.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XXL, .
XXL, . .
XXL, .
8
8
8
IV. 1
V.
VI.
54.22
77.33
81.12
63.14
73 06
74.22
33.90
30.02
45.18
145.8
116.8
68.04
87.18
92.01
100.0
147.0
Average,
79.22
73.64
37.6
131.3
89.6
123.5
1 Excluded from average.
This tankage represents the garbage collected in the city of New Bed-
ford which was treated by the so-called Cobwell process. Briefly stated,
the method of treatment consists in removing, so far as possible, from the
material as received, all glass, tin cans, banana and orange peel, after which
the residue is placed in large iron tanks and treated with benzine to re-
move the fat, which process also takes out the larger part of the water.
It is then run over conveyors, and any other objectionable material is
removed, after which it is ground.
The tankage contained 8.53 per cent, water, and in dry matter 15.72
per cent, ash, 22.02 per cent, protein, 9.67 per cent, fiber, 50.92 per cent,
extract matter and 1.67 per cent. fat. It was in good mechanical con-
dition, was fed with hay and gluten feed, and constituted about 18 per
cent, of the ration, which had a nutritive ratio of 1 :7.
Sheep IV. digested the tankage poorly, and it has seemed wise to
exclude the coefficients from the average of those secured with the other
two sheep.
The protein was not well digested, which indicated its inferiority as
compared with material derived from slaughterhouses. This was con-
firmed by subjecting the tankage to the action of the alkaline permanganate
method for determining nitrogen availability, and the securing of an
328 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
availability coefficient of 44.66. Any nitrogenous matter testing below
50 by this method is considered of poor quality. The extract matter was
quite well utilized, and likewise the small amount of fat. The fiber for
some reason appeared to be completely digested, which is not probable.
The non-nitrogenous matter of the tankage was quite well utilized,
but the protein is likelj'' to prove inferior to the better grades of animal or
vegetable nitrogenous concentrates.
Summary of Coefficients of New Bedford Pig Meal.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XX., .
XX
11
11
IV.
VI.
68.99
69.29
48.02
40.96
67.35
71.39
18.45
26.18
84.02
83.40
133.77
142.88
Average
69.14
44.49 69.37 22.32
83.71
138.33
This material according to the manufacturers was composed of 73 per
cent, garbage tankage, 18 per cent, standard middlings, 7 per cent, pre-
pared, molasses feed and 2 per cent, linseed meal. It tested 8.80 per cent,
water, and the dry material consisted of 19.65 per cent, ash, 23.59 per
cent, protein, 9.15 per cent, fiber, 44.30 per cent, extract matter and 3.31
per cent. fat.
The sheep digested the entire mixture fairly well. Evidently the
addition of the vegetable concentrates improved the digestibility of the
total protein in the mixture. The fiber was poorly digested, but the
extract matter and particularly the fat showed high coefficients.
It is quite reasonable to assume that garbage tankage is likely to vary
considerably in quality.
Summary of Coefficients of Rowen.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash. Protein.
Nitrogen-
Fiber, free Fat.
Extract.
XXII
XXII
15
15
XII.
XIII.
60.81
61.16
34.23
35.76
60.39
60.27
68.12
68.08
63.37
63.57
30.01
34.53
Average,
Average previous trials (12),
60.99
65
34.40
60.33
70
68.10
66
63.47
65
32.27
47
Rowen represents the second gro\vth of meadows, and contains in
addition to the grasses a considerable admixture of clover. The samples
tested contained 9.13 per cent, of water, and in dry matter showed 7.19
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
329
per cent, ash, 8.14 per cent, protein, 49.02 per cent, extract matter, 2.39
per cent, fat and 33.2G per cent, fiber. While of satisfactory appearance
it was inferior in composition to the average, which has been shown to
test 11.4 per cent, protein and 24.1 per cent, fiber on a 14 per cent, water
basis.
The digestion tests agree exceedingly well, but confirm the analysis,
showing it to be rather less digestible than the average of previous trials.
Summary of Coefficients of Soy Bean Hay.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XX
XX
7
7
V.
VI.
52.27
61.03
11.63
29.26
70.90
78.86
49.36
55.75
54.78
64.72
53.91
64.71
Average,
Average previous trials (4),
56.65
60
20.44
74.88
73
52.56
57
59.75
64
59.31
44
The medium green soy beans were grown upon the station grounds,
and were cut to put in the silo about the middle of September. They had
not suflSciently matured to warrant their use as a seed crop. At the time
of making the test the hay contained 11.73 per cent, of water, and, on a
dry matter basis, 6.63 per cent, ash, 15.86 per cent, protein, 34.88 per cent,
fiber, 40.56 per cent, extract matter and 2.07 per cent. fat. The tough,
fibrous nature of the straw is in evidence in the high fiber content of the
hay. Sheep V. was not able to digest the hay as well as Sheep VI. The
results for the latter sheep agree fairly well with the average of the four
other trials reported.
With the exception of the protein the ingredients in soy bean hay appear
to be about equal in digestibility to those contained in average English
hay. The higher digestibility of the protein is due to the presence of the
beans. It is believed soy beans should be ensiled with com rather than
made into hay.
Summary of Coefficients of Stevens' "44-" Dairy Ration.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
XXII., .
XXII
11
11
IV.
VI.
72.55
68.58
26.03
82.14
77.23
45.36
55.01
72.58
69.23
91.88
71.08
Average,
70.57
26.03
79.69
50.19
70.91
81.48
330 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
The Stevens' "44" Dairy Ration is one of the numerous proprietary-
dairy rations offered in Massachusetts markets. It is claimed to be a
mixture of a great variety of the most desirable grains and by-products.
It had 8.94 per cent, water, and in dry matter 4.17 per cent, ash,
26.95 per cent, protein, 12.88 per cent, fiber, 49.56 per cent, extract matter
and 6.44 per cent. fat. Its high fiber content indicated the presence of
some unsatisfactory material, and this was confirmed by the digestion test.
The mixture proved to be fairly well digested, but not equal in total
digestibility to mixtures of bran, cottonseed meal, gluten feed and corn
or hominy meal. The fiber digestibility was considerably below that
secured for hay, whUe the extract matter was below what one would
expect in high-grade material. The protein, on the other hand, was
quite well digested.
Digestibility of Svdav Grass.
This grass {Andwpoqon sorghum var.) was introduced into the United
States in 1909, and has been tried at this station for a number of years.
A full report on its merits will be given elsewhere. The green material
contained from 76.5 to 80.42 per cent, of ^\ater when cut, and the hay
averaged 14.47 per cent, of water. On the basis of dry matter the two
samples of green material averaged 6.84 per cent, ash, 13 per cent, crude
protein, 29.10 per cent, fiber, 47.13 per cent, extract matter and 3.93 per
cent. fat. The hay averaged in drj- matter 8.93 per cent, ash, 13.85
per cent, crude protein, 33.85 per cent, fiber, 41.80 per cent, extract
matter and 1.53 per cent. fat. The green material was fed with English
hay, and the ration had a nutritive ratio of 1:8.3. The Sudan hay in
three out of four experiments was fed exclusively, and had a nutritive
ratio of 1 :5.7.
Summary of Coefficients of Sudan Grass.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Condition of Grass.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
XXII.
XXII.
17
17
XII.
XIII.
Green, first crop
(heading).
Green, first crop
(heading).
77.23
70.84
86.93
39.96
79.61
79.16
85.45
77.97
. 69.63
68.97
86.59
80.34
Average
74.04
63.45
79.39
81.71
69.30
83.47
XXII.
XXII.
1
1
IV.
VI.
Green, second crop,
Green.second crop,
65.41
65.09
37.97
24.30
62.86
68.07
69.40
69.42
67.70
67.69
64.69
58.51
Average,
65.25
31.14
65.47
69.41
67.70
61.60
XXII.
XXII.
3
3
IV
VI.
Dry, second crop, .
Dry, second crop.
59.99
59.37
45.07
40.27
58.13 73.62
61.40 72.76
54.35
53.52
35.63
35.32
Average
59.68
42.67
59.77
73.19
53.94
35.48
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
331
In Period 17, first crop, Sheep XII. digested the material rather better
than Sheep XIII.
In Period 1 the green material, second crop, scarcely in head, was cut
and fed in September. At the same time, some of it was made into hay
and fed later. The total dry matter of the hay was over 4 per cent, less
digestible than the same material fed green. Strange to say, the fiber
showed a somewhat higher digestibilitj^ in the hay, while the extract
matter was noticeably less digestible. As might have been expected,
the fat (ether extract) showed a lower digestibility in the hay, due probably
to the fact that the sheep were able more thoroughly to extract such sub-
stances out of the green plant. For some reason the sheep digested the
second crop (green) less fully than they did the first. The latter was cut
in 1917, and the former in September, 1916. Whether the lessened
digestibility was due to the climatic variations prevailing in two different
years, or because a second growth was actually not as digestible as the
first, it is not possible to say. The average of the coefficients of the two
lots of green Sudan grass follows, together with green barnyard millet,
sorghum and corn for comparison.
Average Coefficients for
Comparison.
Number
of
Different
Lots.
Single
Trials.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Sudan grass,
Barnyard millet (blossom),
Sorghum (past blossom), .
Corn fodder (dent) milk, .
2
3
2
7
4
6
4
17
69.64
70.00
65 00
70.00
47.30
56.00
42.00
39.00
72.42
65 00
44.00
62.00
75.56
73.00
55.00
64.00
68.50
71.00
73.00
77.00
72.54
58.00
64.00
76.00
The above comparison indicates that Sudan grass in digestibility is
fully equal to other important green feeds.
Summary of Coefficients of Sudan Hay.
Nitro-
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Character of Hay.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
gen-free
Ex-
tract.
Fat.
XXII.
7
IX.
Before heading, first
56.25
55.92
56.63
66.38
49.24
23.01
XXII.
7
XII.
Before heading, first
55.14
51.42
55.22
66.42
48.74
10.38
XXII.
7
XIII.
crop.
Before heading, first
crop.
57.15
56.93
57.83
66.82
50.51
19.62
Average,
56.18
54.76
56.56
66.54
49.50
17.67
332 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
Summary of Coefficients of Sudan Hay — Concluded.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Character of Hay. ^^^
Ash.
Pro-
tein.
Nitro-
Fiber, g^^-ff «
tract.
Fat.
XXII.
XXII.
XXII.
6
4
4
IX.
IX.
XI.
Heading, first crop.
Full blossom, first
crop.
Full blossom, first
crop.
59.19
68.11
54.72
55.48
53.50
42.25
64.36
62.37
47.73
68.40
66.33
64.80
51.57
51.48
48.39
28.00
42.73
34.61
Average,
56.42
47.88
55.05
65.57
49.94
38.67
XXII.
XXII.
3
3
IV.
VI.
Heading, second
crop.
Heading, second
crop.
59.99
59.37
45.07
40.27
58.13
61.40
73.62
72.76
54.35
53.52
35.63
35.32
Average
Average of all of above, ....
59.68
57.49
42.67
50.11
59.77 73.19
57.96 68.19
53.94
50.98
35.48
28.66
Results at Texas Experiment Station.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Character of Hay.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Nitro-
gen-free
Ex-
tract.
Fat.
_
39
60
62
73
Iand2
land 2
land2
land2
Headed, .
Full tassel.
Headed, blooming,.
Late, mixed with
crab grass.
-
30.00
23.50
15.00
32.20
17.70
58.30
64.20
57.30
63.10
58.60
60.20
62.80
57.60
41.80
52.60
59.60
48.70
45.20
61.10
61.10
Average,
Timothy hay, for comparison
Barnyard millet, well headed, ....
55
57
24.80
39.00
63.00
49.40
48.00
64.00
61.20
50.00
62.00
52.90
62.00
52.00
54.00
50.00
46.00
In the above trials an effort was made to note the digestibility of Sudan
grass cut at successive stages of growth. The results do not indicate any-
particular difference. The second cutting of hay appeared to be more
digestible than the first. Whether this would hold true in all cases is of
course not estabUshed. It is just thfe opposite from the results secured
with the green Sudan grass. The probability is that much will depend
upon the climatic conditions prevailing during gro^vth. If the weather
should be warm, with plenty of sunlight and moisture, it is possible that
the second growth would fully equal and perhaps exceed the first growi;h
in digestibility.
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
333
Results recently reported' from the Texas Experiment Station are
somewhat below those secured by us, at least in case of the fiber. If one
should eliminate the protein coefficient of Period 39 the remaining protein
coefficients would be some two points above the Massachusetts figure.
In all of the trials one notes particularly the high digestibility of the
fiber and the low coefficients secured for the extract matter and fat.
This holds true also for the millet. The digestibility of Sudan grass is
shown to be above that for timothy, and equal to barnyard millet. The
difficulty in curing satisfactorily the coarse grasses, of which Sudan and
millet are examples, render them less satisfactory for hay than that ob-
tained from the finer grasses.
Digestibility of Siveet Clover.
Sweet clover (Melilotus Alba) is a biennial legume found quite widely
distributed in southern Canada and the United States. The two samples
used were grown on the experiment station grounds. The clover was fed
green to the sheep, beginning about June 12 and ending June 26, At the
close of the trials the clover was budding to early blossom, and the lower
portion of the stalks was woody. The two samples averaged 84.50 per
cent, of water, and in dry matter contained 7.08 per cent, ash, 19.40 per
cent, protein, 30.29 per cent, fiber, 40.10 per cent, extract matter and 3.13
per cent. ash. The green clover was fed with hay, and the rations had an
average nutritive ratio of 1 :6.4.
Summary of Coefficients of Sweet Clover
Nitro-
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Condition of Clover.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
gen-free
Ex-
tract.
Fat.
XXI.
14
IV.
Early blossom,
64.80
47.93
75.29
60.56
64.07
49.91
XXI.
14
VI.
Early blossom,
73.30
48.96
78.58
78.58
74.00
50.28
Average
69.05
48.44
76.93
69.57
69.03
50.10
XXII.
16
IX.
Budding,
66.67
-
76.44
47.60
. 65.96
43.22
XXII.
16
XI.
Budding,
72.61
-
81.98
62.29
71.00
61.34
Average
69.64
-
79.21
49.95
68.48
52.28
Average of both samples, ....
69.45
48.45
78.07
59.76
68.76
51.19
Alfalfa' for comparison,
61.00
-
74.00
42.00
72.00
38.00
Clover' for comparison,
66.00
-
67.00
53.00
78.00
65.00
' Bulletin No. 203, 1916.
' Henry and Morrison.
334 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 181.
s
weet Clover Hay, Wyoming Stai
ion, Bulletin
No. 78.
Series.
Period.
Sheep.
Condition of Clover.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Nitro-
gen-free p .
Ex- *^'^-
tract.
-
XIV.
1.2,3
Rank, late cut,
60.88
65.79
75.46
33.63
72.04
30.94
Alfalfa ' hay for comparison, ....
Clover 1 hay for comparison, ....
60.00
62.00
45.00
58.00
74.00
61.00
46.00
53.00
70.00
68.00
28.00
54.00
1 Massachusetts Station.
Sheep IV. in Series XXI., and Sheep IX. in Series XXII. did not seem
able to digest the clover as well as the other two sheep. The slight
variation in the stage of gro\vth of the clover appeared to be without
influence on its digestibility. The young sheep IX. and XI. did not
digest the fiber as well as did the old sheep IV. and VI. Sweet clover cut
previous to blooming appeared to be quite well utilized, and showed
rather higher coefficients than those for alfalfa or clover cut in bloom. The
results of the Wyoming Station with sweet clover hay cut at an advanced
stage of growth indicate that with the exception of the fiber it is as fully
digestible as either alfalfa or clover hay.
Table VI. — Complete Summary of the Averages of All Coeffi-
cients, ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY.
Ration.
Niunber
of
Single
Trials.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Nitro-
gen-free
Ex-
tract.
Fat.
Alfalfa
4
57.74
42 61
71.78
46.40
66.12
23.62
Cabbage (entire), .
2
87.92
56.97
86.13
91.03
95.86
69.72
Cabbage (heads), .
2
97.83
77.29
76.54
112.27
102.32
42.67
Cabbage (leaves), .
2
74.12
44.97
63.80
78.23
84.34
37.39
Carrots, .
8
100.95
64.40
89 05
129.47
104.75
114.66
Corn bran.
5
80.59
-
43.77
75.92
85.15
65.53
Distillers' grains, .
4
66.54
36.31
77.05
44.44
67.38
83.70
English hay — basal.
23
59.47
36.31
49.78
64.10
62.35
46.34
English hay and gluten feed — basal
14
66.59
33.25
66.39
67.75
69.91
51.89
English hay, potato starch anc
gluten meal (Diamond) — basal
English hay and wheat gluten floui
(to note effect of the flour).
Feterita, ....
6
5
2
73.27
58.00
74.51
20.16
43.00
72.98
44.00
50.67
63.54
62.00
80.67
61.00
87.76
37.16
43.00
58.70
Gluten feed, ....
16
91.59
152.58
85.44
142 41
93 77
64.41
DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
335
Table VI. — Complete Summary of the Averages of All Coeffi-
cients, ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY — Concluded.
Ration.
Number
of
Single
Trials.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Nitro-
gen-free
Ex-
tract.
Fat.
Gluten meal (Diamond), '
6
86.00
-
85 00
100.00
93.00
-
Mangels,
4
87.07
30.58
50.94
95.54
94.76
-
New Bedford garbage tankage,
3
79.22
73.64
37.60
131.30
89.60
123 50
New Bedford pig meal, .
2
69.14
44.49
69.37
22.32
83.71
138.33
Pumpkins (entire).
7
80.69
65 40
76.61
61.05
88.69
91.60
Pumpkins (seeds removed), .
2
101.54
82.31
93.26
116.34
105.72
92.63
Rowen,
2
60.99
34.40
60.33
68.10
63.47
32.27
Soy bean hay, ....
2
56.65
20.44
74.88
52.56
59.75
59.31
Stevens' "44" Dairy Ration,
2
70.57
26.03
79.69
50.19
70.91
81.48
Sudan grass (green).
4
69.64
47.30
72.42
75.56
68.50
72.54
Sudan hay
8
57.49
50.11
57.96
68.19
50.98
28.66
Sweet clover (green),
4
69.45
48.45
78.07
57.76
68.76
51.19
Turnips,
2
88.98
53 36
75.62
81.65
96.06
66.38
Vegetable ivory meal,
8
88.33
78.42
18.47
85.52
93.84
49.18
Vinegar grains
4
60.70
-
64.42
58.10
55 97
82.57
1 See page 312.
INDEX.
INDEX.
PAGE
Advanced registry, testing of pure-bred cows for, . , . . . 48a
Agricultural production, census of, ....... . 19a
Alfalfa, digestion coefficients, ......... 319
Antirrhinum, rust on, .......... 37a
Bacillary white diarrhoea, testing of fowl for, ...... 61a
Bacterium jndlorum infection, investigations relative to, . . . . 62a
Barium-Phosphate, vegetation tests with, ...... 43o
Bean diseases, anthracnose, ......... 34a
Stem and root rots, .......... 34a
Beans, spraying experiments with, ....... 34a, 36a
Blueberry culture at the cranberry substation, ...... 183
Bulletin No. 173. The cost of distributing milk in six cities and towns in
Massachusetts, ......... 1
Bulletin No. 174. The composition, digestibility and feeding value of
pumpkins, ..........
Bulletin No. 175. Mosaic disease of tobacco, ......
Bulletin No. 176. The cause of the injurious effect of sulfate of ammonia
when used as a fertilizer, .......
Bulletin No. 177. Potato plant lice and their control, ....
Bulletin No. 178. The European corn borer, Pyrausta nubilalis Hilbner, a
recently established pest in Massachusetts, ....
Bulletin No. 179. The greenhouse red spider attacking cucumbers, and
methods for its control, .......
Bulletin No. 180. Report of the cranberry substation for 1916; and ob-
servations on the spoilage of cranberries due to lack of proper
ventilation, ....
Bulletin No. 181. Digestion experiments with sheep.
Butter fat, determination of fatty acids,
Cabbages, digestion coefficients.
Carrots, digestion coefficients, .
Celery diseases, ....
Spraying experiments.
Chemical work, numerical summary.
Chrysanthemum gall midge.
Control work, ....
Dairy law, ....
Feeding stuffs law, .
Feed law account.
Fertilizer law, ....
Fertilizer account,
Corn borer, European,
Character of injury by.
Control, .....
Necessity for co-operation.
Description, ....
Discovery and identification.
History in Europe, .
5.5
73
119
135
147
153
183
241
39a
319
321
36a
36a
50a
51a
11a
44a
43a
12a
41a
11a
147
150
151
152
148
147
148
340
INDEX.
Corn borer — Concluded.
In Massachusetts, food plants,
Importance,
Importation,
Present distribution.
Life history and habits.
Corn bran, digestion coefficients.
Cost of distributing milk in six cities and towns in Massachusetts,
Cows, pure-bred, testing for advanced registry, .....
Cranberries, observations on the spoilage of, due to lack of proper ventila-
tion, ..........
Effect of carbon dioxide on cranberries, .....
Effect of carbon dioxide on fungi in the berries, ....
Effect of different relative humidities on .spoilage due to carbon dioxide
Relation of fungi to spoilage due to carbon dioxide.
Temperature tests in open and closed cans, ....
Cranberry, composition of, and its relations to storage and decay.
Cranberry substation, Wareham, accounts.
Report for 1916
Blueberry culture.
Bog management.
Injury to bogs by fall army worm.
Injury to bogs from late holding of winter flowage.
Portable bridge for carting berries across bog ditches,
Sanding rim, value of.
Fertilizers, . . .
Frost protection, .
Temperature at which freezing of ripened berries begins.
Fungous diseases, .....
Control by use of copper sulfate in the flowage
"False blossom," .....
Spraying, effects of, .
With arsenate of lead, . .
With Black-Leaf 40 and resin fish-oil soap.
With Bordeaux mixture.
Insects, black-head fireworm,
Cranberry fruit worm.
Parasitism,
Submergence tests,
Cranberry rootworm,
Cranberry tip worm, .
Gyp.sy moth,
Resanding, .
Storage tests.
Berries separated with Hayden and with White machines and berries
screened without separating compared as to keeping quality,
Effect of admixtures of vines and leaves on keeping.
Effect of grading on the keeping of cranberries,
Hand-picking v. scoop-picking as affecting keeping quality.
Housing promptly v. leaving crates in the sun on the bog as affect
ing keeping, ........
Humidity records, ........
Incubator test of keeping quality of cranberries, .
Injury to keeping quality caused by separators employing the
bouncing principle and by the drop in the barrel.
Relative development of decay in different periods of the storage
season,
P.\GE
149
149
148
149
150
316
1
48a
235
237
239
238
238
236
40a
14a
183
183
232
232
232
233
233
222
184
186
186
192
192
186
191
190
187
226
227
228
230
223
226
224
218
193
206
206
208
197
200
194
216
208
214
INDEX.
341
l^ranberry substation — Concluded.
Report for 1916 — Concluded.
Storage tests — Concluded. page
Relative effect of barrel and crate containers on cranberry keeping
in shipments, ......
Relative keeping quality of upper and under berries,
Temperature of berries when picked,
Temperature records, .....
Tentative practical conclusions based on results of the storage tests.
Preparation for shipment.
Storage previous to shipment, .
Weight shrinkage in storage.
Wet and dry cranberries compared as to keeping.
Weather observations, .....
Creameries visited in 1917, .....
Cucumbers, the greenhouse red spider attacking,
Cultures for legumes, ......
Dairy law, examination for certificates,
Inspection of glassware, .....
Inspection of machines and apparatus,
Diamond gluten meal, digestion coefficients.
Diamond gluten meal, potato starch and English hay, digestion coefficients.
Digestion experiments with sheep, ......
Digestion coefficients of basal rations, ....
Digestion coefficients, complete summary, arranged alphabetically
Computation of, ....... .
Discussion of results with summaries of coefficients.
Alfalfa,
Cabbages,
Carrots,
Corn bran, .
Diamond gluten meal,
Diamond gluten meal, English hay and potato starch (basal),
Distillers' grains, ........
English hay (basal), .......
English hay and gluten feed (basal), ....
English hay, potato starch and Diamond gluten meal (basal),
Feterita, .........
Garbage tankage. New Bedford, . . . . ' .
Gluten feed, earlier experiments, .....
Present experiments, .......
Gluten feed and English hay (basal), ....
Mangels, .........
Pig meal. New Bedford, ......
Potato starch, English hay and Diamond gluten meal (basal).
Pumpkins, entire, .......
Minus seeds and connecting tissue, ....
Roots and vegetables, comparative summary of coefficients,
Rowen,
Soy bean hay.
Stevens "44" Dairy Ration,
Sudan grass,
Sudan hay, .
Sweet clover,
Turnips,
Vegetable ivory meal,
Vinegar grains,
212
199
195
194
216
217
217
194
201
183
45a
153
55a
44a
44a
45a
312
309
39a, 241
. 263
. 335
. 265
. 306
. 319
. 319
. 321
. 316
. 312
. 309
. 317
. 307
. 308
. 309
. 318
. 327
. 311
. 310
. 308
. 322
. 328
. 309
. 323
. 323
. 325
. 328
. 329
. 329
. 330
. 331
. 333
. 324
. 325
. 326
342
INDEX.
Digestion experiments with sheep — Concluded. page
Feces, composition of, ........ . 249
Feedstuffs, composition, . . . , . . . . . 242
Water consumed, .......... 256
Weight of animals, .......... 256
Wheat gluten flour, effect of, on digestibility of hay, .... 314
Distillers' grains, digestion coefficients, ....... 317
Egg production, ........... 57a
Broodiness, ........... 58a
Hatching quality of eggs, ......... 59a
Raising chicks on clean ground, ....... 59a
Winter cycle of, ......... . 57a
European corn borer, ......... 53a, 147
Feeding stuffs law, change in, . . . . . . . . . 44a
Feed law account, ........... 12a
Fertilizer experiments, Barium-Phosphate, ...... 43a
Chemical. fertilizers and manure for market-garden crops (Field C), . 24a
Comparison of muriate and high-grade sulfate of potash (Field B), . 23a
Comparison of phosphates, ........ 28a
Comparison of potash salts (Field G), . . . . . . 26a
Cranberry substation, ......... 222
Fertilizers for corn, comparison (North Corn Acre), .... 29a
Nature's Wonder Mineral Plant Food, vegetation tests with, . . 43a
Nitrogen experiments (Field A), ....... 21a
Soil tests 29a, 30a
Sulfate of ammonia v. nitrate of soda as a top-dressing for hay, . . 32a
Yields of hay with different top-dressings (Grass Plots), . . . 31a
Fertilizer law account, . . . . . . . . . .11a
Fertilizers collected and analyzed, ........ 41a
Registered, ........... 41a
Feterita, digestion coefficients, ........ 318
Food and feed consumption, survey of, ...... . 19a
Frost injury to crops, .......... 35a
Fruit crop diseases, apple scab, ........ 35a
Brown rot, ........... 35a
Peach leaf curl, . . . . . . . . . . 34a
Fruits, tree and leaf characters in varieties of , . . . . . . 54a
Garbage tankage, New Bedford, digestion coefficients, .... 327
Gluten feed, digestion coefficients, . . . . . . . .310
Gluten feed and English hay, digestion coefficients, ..... 308
Gluten meal. Diamond, digestion coefficients, ...... 312
Graves' Orchard account, . . . . . ... . . 13a
Green-striped maple worm injuring foliage, ...... 52a
Hay, English, digestion coefficients, ........ 307
Hay, English, and gluten feed, digestion coefficients, ..... 308
Hay, English, potato starch and Diamond gluten meal, digestion co-
efficients, .......... 309
Hay, sulfate of ammonia v. nitrate of soda as a top-dressing for, . . . 32a
Hay, yields with different top-dressings, ....... 31a
Hog cholera, value of anti-hog cholera serum in the prevention of, . . 63a
Insecticides, chemical work with, ........ 40a
Insects common in 1917, ......... 52a
Chrysanthemum gall midge, ........ 51a
Cranberry, ........... 223
European corn borer, . . . . . . . 53a, 147
Green-striped maple worm, injuring foliage, ..... 52a
Onion fly, control, .......... 52a
Potato plant louse, . , , , ; . . . . 52a, 135
INDEX.
343
Insects common in 1917 — Concluded.
Red spider, greenhouse, .......
Rose chafer, .........
Two-lined prominent moth, larvae of, ....
Inspection of imported nursery stock, .....
Ivory meal, vegetable, digestion coefficients, ....
Lawn grass, disease of, ....... .
Legumes, cultures for, ........
Light, response of plants to, .......
Lime and soil acidity, relations between, .....
Mailing lists, .........
Mangels, digestion coefficients, ......
Market-garden crops, chemical fertilizers and manure for (Field C),
Yields per acre, 1917, .......
Market-garden field station, experimental work started.
Market milk investigation, .......
Marketing investigations, cost of milk distribution.
Tobacco, .........
Milk, cost of distributing in six cities and towns in Massachusetts,
Cost of collection and distribution of wholesale milk in cans.
Motor truck delivery.
Cost of delivery of special milk,
Cost of distribution of cream.
Costs, analysis of, .
Capital, working, ....
Depreciation, ....
Buildings, ....
Equipment, ....
Harness, .....
Horses, .....
Wagons and sleighs, .
Investment, ....
Labor, .....
Maintenance, ....
Costs by localities, ....
Amherst v. Walpole,
Haverhill v. Pittsfield, .
Springfield v. Worcester,
Costs classified by size and kind of business.
Costs, difficulty of obtaining data,
percentage analysis in relation to size of business.
Cream, cost of distributing.
Disadvantages of competitive distribution,
Bad debts, .....
Duplication in routes, .
Long hauls uneconomical,
Long-distance shipments,
Loss of bottles, ....
Overcapitalization,
Shrinkage, .....
Small deliveries per horse.
Surplus and spoilage.
Distribution by producer and by dealer compared.
Individual variations in cost of distributing.
Investigation, scope of, .
Investment and size of business, relation between.
Processing and delivery costs, ....
Summary, .......
PAGE
153
51a
52a
52a
325
37a
55a
37a
40a
7a
322
24a
25a
54a
20a
1
19a
1
43
44
43
45
10
12
10
11
11
11
10
11
10
12
12
22
27
29
30
14
9
20
45
50
51
52
50
52
51
50
51
50
51
39
45
3
15
8
13
344
INDEX.
Milk — Concluded.
Suggestions for improvement,
Accounts,
Central milk plants,
Co-operative delivery, .
Large deliveries per horse.
Standardizing distribution.
Ticket system.
Milk depots visited in 1917,
Inspectors visited in 1917,
Market, investigations,
Studies in, .
Mosaic disease of tobacco,
Bacteria in relation to,
Biochemical studies.
Causal agent, probable character of.
Activity, .
Size,
Temperature, effect on.
Enzyme activities in healthy and diseased plants,
Catalase, .
Chlorophyllase,
Diastase, .
Oxidases and peroxidases.
Mosaic sap, reaction of, with various substances.
Drying,
Filtration,
Resistance to antiseptics.
Contagious nature of.
Control, prevention and, .
Description,
Dissemination agents,
Insects,
Seed, ....
Workmen,
Economic importance,
Fertilization in relation to.
Fungi in relation to.
Historical summary,
Infection from seedbed,
Infectious nature of.
Light, colored, effect on, .
Experiments at this station.
Discussion of results.
With blue cloth.
With orange cloth.
With red cloth,
Work of Lodewijks,
Lime, effect on,
Occurrence,
Pathological anatomy,
Leaves,
Roots,
Stems,
Prevention and control,
Care in handling, .
PAGE
53
53
53
53
53
53
53
45a
46a
20a
56a
73
86
96
110
111
110
110
96
97
103
101
103
105
106
106
107
82
113,
78 '
87
87
89
88
81
90
85
74
80
81
91
92
95
91
94
93
91
90
80
83
83
85
84
113
116
INDEX.
o4o
Mosiac disease of tobacco — Concluded.
Prevention and control — Concluded
Seedbed, changing location of,
Seedbed sterilization,
With formalin, .
With steam,
Summary, . . . .
Mycological collection, reorganization of
Nature's Wonder Mineral Plant Food, vegetation test
Needs for development of station,
Nitrogen experiment (Field A),
Yields per acre, 1917,
Olive oil, effect of air, light and moisture.
Onion diseases, .....
Fly, control of, ....
Orchard, experimental, started in Buckland,
Peach breeding, studies in, .
Phosphates, comparison of, .
Yields per acre, 1917,
Pig meal. New Bedford, digestion coefficients,
Plant disease survey, ....
Plant diseases, prevalence in 1917,
Apple scab, .....
Bean anthracnose, ....
Stem and root rot,
Brown rot, . . . . .
Celery blight, .....
Crown rot, .....
Root rot, . . . . .
Cranberry, fungous diseases of, .
Lawn grass, disease of, .
Mildew of cucumbers,
Mosaic disease of tobacco,
Onion blight, .
Root rot.
Peach leaf curl,
Potato blight, .
Rhizoctonia,
Scab, .
Rose canker, .
Rust on Antirrhinum,
Plants, response to light,
Potash, comparison of muriate and high-grade sulfate
Salts, comparison of (Field G),
Yields per acre, 1917,
Potato diseases in 1917, .
Potato plant lice and their control.
Control measures,
Summary,
Control, natural agents in,
Description,
Economic importance,
Life cycle.
Nature of injury,
Period of injury,
Spraying apparatus for,
with,
(Field B),
PAGE
115
115
115
115
117
38a
4.3a
8a
21a
22a
39a
34a
52a
54a
54a
28a
28a
328
38a
33a, 35a
35a
34a
34a
35a
35a
35a
35a
186
37a
35a
73
34a
34a
34a
33a
34a
34a
36a
37a
37a
23a
26a
27a
33a
135
137
144
138, 145
136
135
137
136
135
143
346
INDEX.
Potato plant lice and their control — Concluded.
PAGE
Trials of contact insecticides for the control of, . . . .
139
Black-leaf 40
. 140
Black-leaf 40 and Pyrox, . .
. 141
Fish-oil or whale-oil soaps, .......
. 142
Kerosene emulsion, ........
. 142
Lime-sulfur, .........
. 143
Miscible or soluble oils, .......
. 143
Nico-fume liquid, ........
. 141
Potato plant louse, prevalence in 1917, ......
52a
Potato starch, English hay and Diamond gluten meal, digestion coefficients
309
Publications in 1917, . . . . . ...
. 6a
Pumpkins, composition, digestibility and feeding value.
. 55
Composition of, ........ .
. 57
Digestibility of, ........ .
. 62
Feeding experiments with, . . . .
. 66
Feeding to milch cows, ........
. 67
Summary, ..........
. 55
Pumpkins, digestion coefficients, ........
. 323
. 147
Red spider, greenhouse, .........
. 153
Bibliography, ..........
181
Enemies, ..........
160
Food plants, ..........
155
History and distribution, . . . . . .
. 154
Summary, ..........
180
Red spider, greenhouse, attacking cucumbers, .....
153
Control measures, .........
172
Preventive, ..........
172
Artificial dispersion, elimination of, .... .
174
Destruction of outside sources of infestation.
173
Grass borders, methods of exterminating, ....
174
Fumigation, .........
173
174
Spraying, ..........
175
178
Linseed oil emulsion, preparation of, ....
175
Methods
176
Outfits,
176
Time of applications, .......
177
Dispersion, artificial, ........
159
Natural, ..........
159
Economic importance, ........
156
Feeding habits, .........
159
Fumigation experiments, ........
161
Benzene or benzol, ........
162
Carbon bisulfid, .........
162
162
Sulfur dioxide, ..........
161
Life history, ...........
157
Materials efficient for control, summary, ......
169
Nature of injury, ..........
156
Prevention, ...........
172
Spraying experiments in commercial greenhouses, . . . .
169
Conclusions, ..........
172
Lemon oil, ..........
170
Linseed oil emulsion, ........
170
INDEX.
347
Red spider, greenhouse, attacking cucumbers — Concluded
Spraying experiments in the laboratory.
Adhesive sprays, flour paste, .
Soap, .....
Oil sprays : —
Petroleum, Arlington oil,
Arlington oil and Black-leaf 40,
Kerosene emulsion.
Vegetable, lemon oil, .
Experiments on duplication of lemon oil.
Linseed oil emulsion.
Action on mites.
Sulfur and compounds of sulfur.
Barium sulfur, ....
Calcium sulfid, ....
Lime-sulfur and Nico-fume liquid.
Potassium sulfid.
Sodium sulfid, .
Sulfur, drj%
Sulfur, liquid.
Sulfur, soluble, .
Water,
Red spider, greenhouse, attacking other crops,
Violets, .
Report of director.
Treasurer,
Reports of departments : —
Agricultural economics.
Agriculture,
Botany, .
Chemistry,
Entomology, .
Horticulture, .
Microbiology, .
Poultry husbandry, .
Veterinary science, .
Roots and vegetables, comparative digestion coefficients,
Rose canker, control of, .
Chafer, a serious pest,
Rowen, digestion coefficients, .
Seeds, purity and germination tests,
Sheep, digestion experiments with,
Soil fertility, studies in, .
Tests, ....
Yield of cabbage, 1917 (North Soil Test),
Yields of corn, 1915 and 1917 (South Soil Test)
Soy bean hay, digestion coefficients.
Station: —
Essentials for needed development,
Buildings,
Land, poultry farm,
Tillson farm,
Tuxbury land, .
Men for new lines of work.
Maintenance, .
Staff
Changes in, .
PAGE
163
163
164
165
166
166
166
166
168
168
164
165
165
165
164
165
164
164
165
163
179
179
3a
17a
19a
21a
33a
39a
51a
54a
55a
57a
61a
325
36a
51a
328
38a
241
55a
29a, 30a
30a
31a
329
8a
8a
9a
5a
la
3a
348
INDEX.
Station — Conchided.
Work of the year,
Asparagus, rust-resistant,
Control work,
New lines of work,
Blueberry culture,
Experiments in feeding horses.
Experiments to determine minimum protein requirements of
ing animals, .....
Experiments with small grains in Massachusetts,
Investigation of forage crops new to Massachusetts,
Soy beans grown for seed,
Tobacco sickness, progress in the study of,
Stevens "44" Dairy Ration,
Storage of cranberries,
Sudan grass, digestion coefficients,
Sudan hay, digestion coefficients,
Sulfate of ammonia, cause of injurious efTect, when used as a fertilizer.
Chemical investigations,
Soil used. Field A,
.Ohio,
Pennsylvania, .
Rhode Island, .
Composition of roots and tops of grass and clover from Field A,
Pot cultures with soils from Field A, .
Water cultures, extracts from soils of Field A,
Standard nutrient solutions, .
Survey of food and feed consumption.
Sweet clover, digestion coefficients, .
Tillson Farm account.
Tobacco investigations, account,
Marketing investigations.
Mosaic disease of.
Tobacco-sick soils, study of.
Trees, injury by insects, .
Truck crop diseases.
Extension specialist in.
Turnips, digestion coefficients.
Two-lined prominent moth, larvae of, injuring foliage.
Variety test work, alfalfa.
Potatoes,
Soy beans, .....
Winter wheat, ....
Vegetable ivory meal, digestion coefficients,
Vegetation tests, .....
Vinegar grains, digestion coefficients.
Water, analysis of, ....
Wheat gluten flour, effect of, on digestibility of hay,
Work of the year 1917, .....
PAGE
9a
10a
11a
9a
9a
10a
grow-
Public Document
No. 31
THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT
OK THE
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION
Parts I and II
Being Parts III and IV of the Fifty-sixth Annual Report
OF THE Massachusetts Agricultural College
January. 1919
Ending the Thirty-sixth Year from the Founding of the State
Agricultural Experiment Station
BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS
32 DERNE STREET
1919
I
Public Document
No. 31
THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION
Parts I and II
Being Parts III and IV of the Fifty-sixth Annual Report
OF THE Massachusetts Agricultural College
January, 1919
Ending the Thirty-sixth Year from the Founding of the State
Agricultural Experiment Station
BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS
32 DERNE STREET
1919
Publication of this Document
approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.
THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station.
Part I.
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR AND OTHER OFFICERS.
Part II.
DETAILED REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION.
A Record of the Thirty-sixth Year from the Founding of the State AGRictrLruEAL
Experiment Station.
CONTENTS.
Part I.
Officers and staff, .
Report of the director,
Report of the treasurer, .
United States appropriations,
State appropriations.
Report of the department of agricultural economics,
Report of the department of agriculture, .
Top-dressing permanent mowings,
Report of the department of botany.
Report of the department of chemistry,
Research section, .....
Fertilizer section, .....
Feed and dairy section, ....
Numerical summary of laboratory work.
Report of the department of entomology, .
Report of the department of horticulture.
Work in pomology, .....
Work at the market-garden field station.
Report of the department of microbiology.
Report of the department of poultry husbandry.
Report of the department of veterinary science,
Blood test of fowls, .....
Bacterium pullorum studies,
Hog cholera investigations.
PAGE
la
3a
10a
10a
11a
12a
13a
14a
20a
27a
27o
29a
32a
38a
39a
Ma
44a
46a
48a
50a
52a
53a
55a
55a
Part II,
Bulletin No. 182. Soy beans as human food, .....
Bulletin No. 183. Rose canker and its control, ....
Bulletin No. 184. Late dormant versus delayed dormant or green tip treat-
ment for the control of apple aphids, ......
Bulletin No. 185. Inheritance of seed coat color in garden beans,
Bulletin No. 186: —
Part I. The composition, digestibility and feeding value of alfalfa,
Part II. The value of corn bran for milk production.
Bulletin No. 187. The clarification of milk, .....
Bulletin No. 188. The nutrition of the horse, .....
1
11
47
59
105
142
155
243
IVIassachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
OFFICERS AND STAFF.
Trustees.
COMMITTEE.
Charles H. Pheston, Chairman,
Wilfrid Wheeler,
Edmund Mortimer,
Arthur G. Pollard,
Harold L. Frost,
The President of the College, ex officio
The Director of the Station, ex officio
Hathorne.
Concord.
Grafton.
Lowell.
Arlington.
STATION STAFF.
Administration. Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Acting Director.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D., Vice-Director.
Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer.
Charles R. Green, B.Agr., Librarian.
Mrs. Lucia G. Church, Clerk.
Miss F. Ethel Felton, A.B., Clerk.
Agricultural
Economics.
Alexander E. Cance, Ph.D., In Charge of Department.
Agriculture.
Consulting Agriculturist.
In Charge of Cranberry Investi-
WiLLiAM P, Brooks, Ph.D.
Henry J. Franklin, Ph.D.
gations.
Edwin F. Gaskill, B.Sc, Assistant Agriculturist
Robert L. Coffin, Assistant.
Botany.
A. Vincent Osmun, M.Sc, Botanist.
George H. Chapman, Ph.D., Research Physiologist.
Paul J. Anderson, Ph.D., Associate Plant Pathologist.
Orton L. Clark, B.Sc, Assistant Plant Physiologist.
Webster S. Krout, M.A., Field Pathologist.
Mrs. S. W. Wheeler, B.Sc, Curator.
Miss Ellen L. Welch, A.B., Clerk.
2a EXPERIMENT STATION.
Entomolcgy. Henry T. Fernald, Ph.D., Entomologist.
Arthur I. Bourne, A.B., Assistant Entomologist.
Miss Bridie E. O'Donnell, Clerk.
[Jan.
Borticultvire. Frank A. Waugh.i M.Sc, Horticulturist.
Fred C. Sears, M.Sc, Pomologist.
Jacob K. Shaw, -' Ph.D., Research Pomologist.
Harold F. Tompson, B.Sc, Market Gardener.
Miss Etheltn Streeter, Clerk.
Meteorology.
Microbiology.
John E. Ostrander, A.M., C.E., Meteorologist.
Charles E. Marshall, Ph.D., In Charge of Department.
Arao Itano, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Microbiology.
Plant and Animal
Chemistry.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D., Chemist.
Edward B. Holland, Ph.D., Associate Chemist in Charge
(Research Division).
Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Research Chemist.
Henri D. Haskins, B.Sc, Chemist in Charge {Fertilizer
Division) .
Philip H. Smith, M.Sc, Chemist in Charge {Feed and Dairy
D ivision) .
Lewell S. Walker, B.Sc, Assistayit Chemist.
Carleton p. Jones, M.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
Carlos L. Beals, M.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
John B. Smith, ' B.Sc, Assisia7U Chemist.
Robert S. Scull, ^ B.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
Harold B. Pierce, B.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
Miss Esther S. Mixer, B.A., Assista?it Chemist.
James T. Howard, Inspector.
Harry L. Allen, Assistant in Laboratory.
James R. Alcock, Assistant in Animal Nutrition.
Miss Alice M. Howard, Clerk.
Miss Rebecca L. Mellor, Clerk.
Poultry Husbandry. John C. Graham, B.Sc, In Charge of Department.
Hubert D. Goodale, Ph.D., Research Biologist.
Mrs. Nettie A. Gilmore, Clerk.
Miss Ruby Sanborn, Clerk.
Veterinary Science. James B. Paige, B.Sc, D.V.S., Veterinarian.
G. Edward Gage, * Ph.D., Associate Professor of Animal
Pathology.
John B. Lentz, ' V.M.D., Assistant.
' On leave on account of military service.
On leave.
1919.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 3a
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR.
FRED W. MORSE, ACTING DIRECTOR.
The most noteworthy happening in the affairs of the experi-
ment station was the leave of absence and subsequent resigna-
tion of its director, Dr. WilHam P. Brooks, who had adminis-
tered its affairs since 1906. On account of ill health he felt
obliged to accept a leave of absence March 1, and later re-
quested to be relieved of the director's responsibilities, which
was done Oct. 1, 1918. Dr. Brooks has not retired from the
service of the experiment station, but as consulting agriculturist
will continue to give it the benefit of his wealth of experience
and knowledge.
The work of the experiment station was noticeably handi-
capped during the year by the departure, one after another,
of members of the staff for war service. It was only right that
those members should be assured of their positions upon the
completion of their war service, but it was found impracticable
to secure other workers to take their places temporarily, so the
completion of some investigations was necessarily postponed.
In one permanent and two temporary positions women have
been employed in the place of men, with complete satisfaction;
but as a rule college women do not prefer scientific studies, and
the number of women trained for our lines of work is very
limited.
Leaves of Absence.
H. T. Fernald, Ph.D., Entomologist, Dec. 1, 1917, to April 30, 1918.
Wrn. P. Brooks, Ph.D., Director, ill health, March 1 to September 30.
J. K. Shaw, Ph.D., Research Pomologist, Sept. 1, 1918, to Feb. 28, 1919.
Leaves of Absence on Account of War Service.
John B. Lentz, V.M.D., Assistant, Department of Veterinary Science,
from Aug. 31, 1917.
Robert S. Scull, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal
Chemistry, from Sept. 11, 1917.
4a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Windom A. Allen, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal
Chemistry, from Sept. 16, 1917.
John B. Smith, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal Chemis-
try, from Oct. 5, 1917.
G. Edward Gage, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Animal Pathology, from
Feb. 1, 1918.
George B. Ray, B.Sc, Graduate Assistant, Department of Microbiology^
from August, 1918.
Frank A. Waugh, M.Sc, Horticulturist, from Aug. 1, 1918.
Resignations.
Miss Rachael G. Leslie, Clerk, Department of Poultry Husbandry.
James P. Buckley, Jr., Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal
Chemistry.
Bernard L. Peables, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal
Chemistry.
Miss Elizabeth E. Mooney, Clerk, Department of Poultry Husbandry.
Samuel H, DeVault, A.M., Assistant, Department of Agricultural
Economics.
Miss Grace MacMullen, B.A., Clerk, Department of Poultry Husbandry.
Burton L. Gates, Ph.D., Apiarist.
Wm. P. Brooks, Ph.D., Director.
Appointments.
Miss Elizabeth E. Mooney, Clerk, Department of Poultry Husbandry.
Harold B. Pierce, B.Sc, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal
Chemistry.
Mrs. Nettie A. Gilmore, Clerk, Department of Poultry Husbandry.
Miss Esther S. Mixer, B.A., Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal
Chemistry.
Miss Ruby Sanborn, Clerk, Department of Poultry Husbandry.
Temporary Appointments.
Miss Mary Garvey, Assistant, Department of Plant and Animal Chemis-
try, May 1 to July 31.
Miss Margaret Scoville, Assistant, Department of Microbiology', July
1 to August 31.
The work of the experiment station is intended to be the
pursuit of different lines of scientific investigation and what-
ever inspection or control duties it may have assigned to it
by legislative statutes. There are always calls for advice and
information, however, which the members of our staff can give
and do give, since it is impracticable to limit ourselves ab-
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 3L 5a
solutely to the two lines of work mentioned, as will be noted
in the reports of the different departments. The publications
of the experiment station are confined to the primary lines of
work of its staff*, and the list for 1918 follows: — ■
Annual Report.
Thirtieth annual report : —
Part 1. Report of the Director and Other Officers; 84 pages.
Part II. Detailed Report of the Experiment Station, being Bulletins
Nos. 173-181; 348 pages.
Combined Contents and Index, Parts 1. and II.; 24 pages.
Bulletins.
No. 182. Soy Beans as Human Food, by Arao Itano; 10 pages.
No. 183. Rose Canker and its Control, by P. J. Anderson; 36 pages.
No. 184. Late Dormant verstis Delayed Dormant or Green Tip Treat-
ment for the Control of Apple Aphids, by W. S. Regan; 12
pages.
No. 185. Inheritance of Seed Coat Color in Garden Beans, by J. K.
Shaw and J. B. Norton; 46 pages.
No. 186. I. The Composition, Digestibility and Feeding Value of
Alfalfa; II. The Value of Corn Bran for Milk Production,
by J. B. Lindsey and C. L. Beals; 50 pages.
No. 187. Clarification of Milk, by C. E. Marshall and E. G. Hood,
together with Lieut. R. C. Avery, S. G. Mutkekar, Lieut.
William L. Payne, Mary L. Chase, Harry L. Cheplin, Louise
Hompe, John E. Martin, Conrad H. Lieber, James Neill,
Louis P. Hastings, John Yesair and Lieut. E. L. Davies;
88 pages.
No. 188. The Nutrition of the Horse, by J. B. Lindsey; 22 pages.
Bulletins, Control Series.
No. 9. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, by H. D. Haskins, L. S.
Walker and H. B. Pierce; 76 pages.
No. 10. Inspection of Commercial Feedstuffs, by P. H. Smith; Grain
Rations for Dairy Stock, by J. B. Lindsey; 24 pages.
Meteorological Reports.
Twelve numbers, 4 pages each.
While most of the farmers of the State pursue a diversified
agriculture, there are numerous special lines with problems that
are unrelated to other lines Therefore some of our bulletins
6 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
are mailed only to the specialists who may be directly interested
in them. A system of popular presentation of all the work of
the experiment station would be desirable, but it is difficult
to work out.
The past year has been the first under the new relationship
between this institution and the State, and there have been
found both advantages and disadvantages under the arrange-
ment. It may seem unreasonable to dwell in detail on the
disadvantages, but it is done to call attention to certain regula-
tions which may handicap the efficiency of the experiment
station. It is now necessary to include in the annual budget
all the requirements of the station for men and equipment for
the ensuing fiscal A'ear, so that it may be approved b}^ the
Legislature. Should an important problem arise in the course
of the year, neither specialist nor special apparatus could be
procured for its solution, and the experiment station could not
undertake its investigation until a new budget could be ap-
proved by the next Legislature, unless the problem came within
the scope of its present staff and equipment.
The cranberry substation had an exceptionally prosperous
year. The crop was one of the largest exer secured from the
bog, and the prices were very high. The receipts under the
new conditions must be remitted to the State Treasurer. The
financial statement for the year follows : —
Cranberry Substation, Dec. 1, 1917, to Nov. 30, 1918.
Receipts.
Cranberries, crop of 1917, . ...
Cranberries, crop of 1918, ....
United States Weather Bureau, .
Miscellaneous receipts, ....
Bills receivable on Dec. 1, 1918 (estimated),
Cranberries on hand Dec. 1, 1918 (estimated).
Total received and receivable, $9,720 20
Expenditures — Bog Account.
Maintenance, $839 03
Harvesting, 2,924 32
$3,763 35
$1,158 52
4,919 36
136 67
5 65
$6,220 20
1,800 00
1,700 00
1919.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 3L
7a
Expenditures —
Experimental Account.
Blueberry plantation,
S90 92
Labor, ....
817 07
Maintenance, .
499 86
Office maintenance, .
310 94
Travel, ....
223 23
L,942 02
Total exi^enditures.
55,705 37
The inspection of fertilizers and of feeding stuffs has been
reported in detail in Control Bulletins Nos. 9 and ]0. The
financial statements for the two inspections are given here.
It will be noted that the fertilizer inspection cost nearly $2,000
more than was received for registration fees from the manu-
facturers. To remedy this situation the fertilizer law was
amended by the Legislature of 1918 by imposing a supplemen-
tary fee of 6 cents per ton on the amount of fertilizer sold
during the year, which is expected to raise sufficient additional
revenue to insure an adequate inspection. The text of the
amendment is given in Control Bulletin No. 9.
Fertilizer Law Account, Dec. 1, 1917, to Nov. 30, 1918.
Balance Dec. 1, 1917,
1559 41
Total fees.
Expenditures.
7,007 50
Apparatus,
$331 11
Chemicals,
291 73
Collection expenses: —
Inspector's salary, .
$854 33
Travel, . . . .
652 52
Freight and express.
26 57
1,533 42
110 06
Gas,
Labor,
60 24
Laundry, .
5 29
Miscellaneous supplies.
34 01
Office supplies, .
38 32
Publication: —
Bulletin No. 8,
$670 80
Circular,
15 60
Mailing,
.4 40
Aon en
$7,566 91
8a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Repairs, ....
Salaries : —
Chemical,
Clerical,
Telephone,
Travel, miscellaneous,
Total,
Overdraft Dec. 1, 1918,
$5 63
$5,521 99
660 50
6,182 49
16 67
182 40
. $9,482 17
. $1,915 26
Feed Law Account, Dec. 1, 1917, to Nov. 30, 1918.
Balance on hand, Dec. 1, 1917, . . . $1,328 50
State appropriation, . . . . . 6,000 00
^328 50
Apparatus,
Chemicals,
Collection expenses : —
Inspector's salary, .
Travel, .
Express,
Furniture and fixtures.
Gas,
Labor,
Laundry, .
Legal advice,
Travel, .
Miscellaneous supplies,
Office supplies, .
Publication : — ■
Bulletin No. 9,
Mailing,
Repairs, .
Salaries : —
Chemical,
Clerical,
Travel, miscellaneous,
Expenditures.
$511 66
796 47
20 36
$25 00
18 09
$330 10
7 00
5,044 15
557 50
$75 14
384 27
1,328 49
52 75
61 31
75 39
10 99
43 09
75 68
54 03
337 10
5 35
3,601 65
53 08
1919.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
9a
Feeding experiments: —
Apparatus,
$195 59
Feedstuffs,
54 40
Livestock,
25 00
Remodeling barns, .
405 14
Salaries,
88 33
Total,
Balance Dec. 1, 1918,
$768 46
),926 78
$401 72
The financial report of the treasurer and the reports of the
heads of departments are appended.
FRED W. MORSE,
Acting Director.
10 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
ANNUAL REPORT
Of Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer of the JVIassachusetts Agricul-
tural Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, for the Year ending June 30, 1918.
United States A])2)ropriaiions, 1917-18.
Hatch Fund.
Adams Fund.
Dr.
To receipts from the Treasurer of the United
States, as per appropriations for fiscal year
ended June 30, 1918, under acts of Congress
approved March 2, 1SS7, and March 16, 1906,
Cr.
By salaries, $14,913 95
Chemicals and laboratory sup-
plies, 42 05
Seeds, plants and sundry sup-
plies, 34 00
Labor, 10 00
By salaries, S14,529 96
Fertilizer, . . / . 78 29
Seeds, plants and sundry sup-
plies, . 33 23
Labor, 358 52
$15,000 00
$15,000 00
$15,000 00
$15,000 00
1919.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
11a
State Appropriation, 1917-18.
Cash balance brought forward from last fiscal year,
Cash received from State Treasurer, .
fees, .
sales, .
miscellaneous,
$15,901 00
46,000 00
10,638 10
9,448 87
3,651 37
.$85,639 34
Cash paid for salaries, ......
$21,349 02
labor, ......
24,558 56
publications, . . . . " .
505 88
postage and stationery.
1,266 08
freight and express, . .
330 09
heat, light, water and power.
433 07
chemicals and laboratory supplies.
1,383 72
seeds, plants and sundry supplies, .
2,493 67
fertilizer, ......
1,442 22
feeding stuffs, .....
1,760 54
library, ......
413 94
tools, machinery and appliances, .
355 04
furniture and fixtures, ....
472 38
scientific apparatus and specimens,
289 42
live stock, ......
191 72
traveling expenses, ....
3,797 22
contingent expenses, ....
25 00
buildings and land, ....
1,636 85
balance, ......
22,934 92
Total,
55,639 34
12 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS.
LORIAN P. JEFFERSON.
The work of the department of agricultural economics has
been along two lines. During the early part of the year Mr.
S. H. DeVault, research assistant in the department, continued
his study of the supply and distribution of cigar-leaf tobacco
in the Connecticut valley. The preparation of his monograph
on the subject was nearing completion when he resigned, June
1, 1918, and went into the army. The monograph is being
completed by other members of the department, and it is
expected that it will soon be ready for publication.
A study of food distribution in the city of Holyoke is now
under way, the field work being done by Mr. D. W. Sawtelle,
instructor in agricultural economics, and Mr. A. S. Thurston,
who has been temporarily secured as assistant in the depart-
ment. The study has included such questions as the area
which receives the bulk of its supplies through Holyoke; the
methods and facilities of transportation of foods into the city
and reshipments to other markets; the sources of supply of
foods consumed in the city; the community market as a
method of distribution; the place of hucksters in local market-
ing of foods; and, specifically, the milk supply of the city,
the feed business and local slaughtering of live stock. Some
interesting charts are being prepared for use in the monograph
which is to embody the findings of this study.
1919.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 13a
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
E. F. GASKILL.
The experimental work of this department has been con-
tinued along the same general lines as previously reported.
The study of different phases of the question of soil fertility
has required about the same number of field plots.
The crop on Field A (the nitrogen experiment) was corn,
and the results are in close agreement with those obtained
in previous years.
On the potash field (Field G) the crop was soy beans, and as
in previous years the crop did not show any striking response
to potash.
Potatoes were grown on the phosphate field, and while the
yield was only fair on most of the plots, yet, as has usually
been the case with this crop, the better yields were obtained
on the plots receiving the quickly available phosphates.
The north corn acre gave on the average about 23^ tons of
hay per acre but, owing to the drought, no rowen crop.
On Field B, where muriate and sulfate of potash are com-
pared, the various crops this year gave results in close agree-
ment with those of previous years.
The orchard work has been continued as in previous years,
with the exception of that at the Graves' Orchard, which was
discontinued because of the expiration of the lease of the
orchard .
As a result of our work in testing different varieties of soy
beans, we have three varieties of yellow beans, which have
not yet been named, which give promise of being very useful
in this State. None of these varieties, however, yields as well
as our Medium Green variety. It is believed these yellow
varieties will be found the better varieties for some of the more
elevated areas where the growing season is not as long as it
is here in Amherst.
14 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
An attempt was made to learn something about the varieties
of winter wheat best adapted to this section. Nine different
varieties were sown the previous fall and came through the
winter in splendid shape. The varieties and their yields are
shown in the following table: —
Source.
YiELD.s PER Acre.
Variety.
Grain
(Bushels).
Straw
(Pounds).
Red Rock,
Poole,
Red Cross,
Minnesota Reliable,
Turkey Red, .
Ohio 8106, .
Gladden, . . ,
Trumbull,
Portage,
Michigan, Agricultural College, East Lansing, .
Indiana, Edgar Logan, Goshen,
Indiana, Harry Greene, Goshen,
Illinois, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ur-
bana.
Illinois, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ur-
bana.
Ohio, A. S. Booco, Jeffersonville,
Ohio, Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster,
Ohio, Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster,
Ohio, Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster,
35.8
34.5
34.1
35.1
37.6
30.0
31.5
41.9
40.4
2,975
2,625
2,450
3,500
3,500
2,800
4,200
3,500
2,800
Three varieties of spring wheat were also sown, but the
yields were very unsatisfactory. ,
Top-dressing Permanent Mowings.
An experiment to determine the effect of applying annually
different manures on grassland was begun in 1886 by the late
Dr. Goessmann, and, with certain changes in the arrangement
of plots and modifications of the fertilizer schedule, has been
continued under the direction of Dr. Brooks until the present
time. Results from year to year have been published by Dr.
Goessmann and later by Dr. Brooks in the annual reports of
the experiment station, but no attempt has been made to bring
all the data together in one article. Believing that the experi-
ment has continued long enough to show the value of such a
system of top-dressing permanent mowings, and wishing to
make certain changes in the fertilizer schedule, it is thought
an opportune time to review the whole experiment and bring
the data together.
The experiment consisted of two periods, the first beginning
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 15 a
in 1886 and continuing through 1892: the second beginning
in 1892 and continuing through 1918. The field used in both
periods consists of 9.6 acres, and Hes on the east side of the
pubUc highway. It is divided into a north and a south field
by a road leading from the highway to other fields beyond the
mowing, while an open ditch at right angles to the road divides
it into east and west sections. Previous to 1886 this area was
an old worn-out mowing covered with a w^orthless growth on
the more elevated portions and a growth of sedges on the
lower portions. The work of tile draining the area and pre-
paring the seed bed is described in detail by Dr. Goessmann
in the eighth and ninth annual reports of the Massachusetts
State Experiment Station.
During the first part of the experiment a study was made of
the effect of top-dressing permanent mowings with manure,
bone and potash and ashes where each material was used on
the same plot year after year. The yields on the different plots
for the years 1889 through 1892 are given in the eighth, ninth
and tenth reports of the Massachusetts State Experiment
Station. The average yield of hay and rowen on the entire
area for the year 1889 was 3.67 tons per acre; for the year
1892, 3.39 tons per acre.
In 1893 the plots were rearranged and the following fertilizer
schedule adopted : —
Plot.
Fertilizer.
Per Acre.
1
2
3
Wood ashes (ton),
Manure (tons),
Fine-ground steamed bone (pounds), .
Muriate of potash (pounds), ....
1
8
600
200
The fertilizers were used in rotation as a top-dressing; that
is, the plot that this year received manure will next year receive
wood ashes, and the plot receiving the bone meal and potash
mixture will next year receive manure, etc. Under this system
there is one plot each year top-dressed with manure, one top-
dressed with bone meal and potash, and one top-dressed with
ashes.
16 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
In addition to the regular application of fertilizers, nitrate
of soda at the rate of 150 pounds per acre was added two
different years to note its effect on both the hay and rowen
crops. The increase in the rowen crop due to this treatment
was approximately 600 pounds per acre.
That part of plot 3 lying east of the ditch was plowed in
1900, and in 1901 and 1902 it was planted with a cultivated
crop. After the removal of the hay crop in 1902, that portion
of plot 3 west of the ditch and that portion of plots 1 and 2
east of the ditch were plowed. After harrowing several times,
all plowed portions were reseeded. At this time plots 1 and 2
east of the ditch were subdivided into a north and a south
half, and two different mixtures of grass seed sown. On the
north half of each plot was sown a mixture known as the fescue
mixture, and made up as follows: —
Timothy, .
Red top.
Red clover,
Alsike clover,
Kentucky blue grass,
Meadow fescue, .
Tall fescue.
Pounds
per Acre.
6
On the south half of each was sown the timothy mixture,
made up as follows: —
Pounds
per Acre.
Timothy, ........... 18
Red top, ........... 8
Red clover, .......... 5
Alsike clover, .......... 4
These two mixtures are compared in Table V.
Plot 3 was reseeded with the timothy mixture.
A few variations in the fertilizer schedule are noted. In
1912 the application of ashes was discontinued, and a mixture
of basic slag and muriate of potash substituted. In 1916, 1917
and 1918 no potash was applied, and in 1918 the slag was
omitted.
The present system of applying fertilizers in rotation has
been in practice twenty-six years. Some portion of each plot
1919.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
17a
has been in grass each year. All plots, with the exception of
that portion of plots 1 and 2 west of the ditch, have been
reseeded once.
The results for this year (1918) represent the yields on plots
a portion of which have been continuously in grass for thirty
years, and a portion of which have been continuously in grass
for sixteen years.
Table I. — Yields per Acre under the Three Systems of Top-dressing,
1918 (Pounds).
Fertilizers.
Hay.
Rowen.
Total.
Barnyard manure,
Bone and potash, 1
Slag and potash,!
2,193
3,157
3,444
1,203
323
1,285
3,396
3,480
4,728
!
1 No potash was applied in 1916, 1917 and 1918, and no slag in 1918.
The average yield for the entire area this year was 3,976
pounds.
Since 1915 it has been necessary to omit the potash three
years and the slag one year; therefore a better idea of the
merits of the system may be obtained by considering the
yields up to that time.
Table II. — Yields j^er Acre under the Three Systems of Top-dressing
(Pounds).
Fertilizers.
1915.
Average,
Hay.
Rowen.
TotaL
1893-1915.
Barnyard manure, ....
Bone and potash
Wood ashes,!
3,519
3,231
4,399
2,172
2,320
2,704
5,691
5,551
7.103
6,007
5,898
5,610
! Beginning in 1912 a mixture of slag and potash has been substituted for the wood ashes.
The different items entering into the cost of the production
of hay vary greatly on different farms. The figures given in
Table III. represent the average prices of fertilizer on the
farm and of hay in the barn in Amherst. The figures in the
18 a
EXPERIMENT STATION,
[Jan.
column "Increase due to the use of fertilizers" are obtained
by subtracting 2,000 pounds from the preceding column,
"Yield per acre of hay and rowen." It is generally considered
by all who are familiar with this field that it would produce
better than one ton per acre of hay and rowen without any
fertilizer. Wishing to be on the conservative side, it was
assumed that this area w^ould produce one ton per acre without
any fertilizer; and therefore the figures in this column, 2,000
pounds less than the total product of hay and rowen, are
assumed to represent the increase due to the use of fertilizer.
The labor of harvesting the crop has not been considered in
the following table. This item will vary greatly on different
farms, but must be considered in judging the real economy
of any scheme of fertilization.
Table III. — Increase in Yield due to the Use of Fertilizer. — Its Value
arid Cost.
Year.
Fertilizers.
Hay and
Rowen
(Average
Yields per
Acre).
Increase
due to Use
of
Fertilizers.
Value of
Increase.
1,933
$17 40
2,846
25 61
2,610
23 49
3,079
27 71
4,234
38 11
Cost of
Fertilizers
and
Applica-
tion.
1911
1912
1913
1915
Manure,
Bone and potash
Ashes,
Manure,
Bone and potash
Slag and potash
Manure,
Bone and potash
Slag and potash
Manure,
Bone and potash
Slag and potash
Maniire,
Bone and potash
Slag and potash
3,933
4,846
4,610
6,079
$15 67
15 20
15 20
15 20
15 20
The area of plot 1 is 3.97 acres; of plot 2, 2.59 acres; and
of plot 3, 3 acres; and it undoubtedly will be asked whether
the soil is of uniform character, and whether all three plots
are equally well suited for the production of hay. In Table IV.
are presented data for a period of twenty-three years (1896-
1918) in answer to this question.
1919.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
19 a
Table IV. — Fertilizers Used and Average Yields -per Acre on Each Plot
for Twenty-three Years.
Number of Years fertilized with —
Hay and
Rowen
(Average
Yields
per Acre).
Plot.
Manure.
Bone
and Pot-
ash.
Ashes.
Slag
and Pot-
ash.
Bone.
Slag.
Noth-
ing.
1, . . .
2, . . .
3, . . .
8
8
7
6
7
7
5
5
6
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5,872.5
5,435.0
5,487.5
Considering the average yields per acre on the different plots,
there does not appear to be any difference that could be said
to be due to unequal soil or moisture conditions.
Table V. — Comparison of Yields of Timothy and Fescue Mixtures.
Year.
Hat and Rov/en (Yields
PER Acre, Pounds).
1903, .
1904, .
1905, .
1906, .
1907, .
1908, .
1909, .
1910, .
1911, .
1912, .
1913, .
1914, .
1915, .
Average,
I ■ Z=.
The timothy mixture gave the better yield the first year after
seeding; since then the fescue mixture has given the larger
crop. At the present time there is very little timothy on either
plot, it having been replaced very largely by blue grass. The
fescue mixture would seem to be the better of the two for use
on fields of this character, which are to be kept in grass a
number of years.
20 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY.
A. VINCENT OSMUN.
The work of the department during the last year has followed
along lines indicated in previous reports. Satisfactory progress
has been made on old and new projects, although war con-
ditions and the unusual weather of the last growing season,
which brought many calls into the field, interrupted and often
seriously interfered with orderly and consistent attention to
regular, projected research. War emergency projects of various
organizations and agencies received attention from members
of the staff. In general, the benefits from work of this sort
have not appeared proportionate to the time and expense
involved. A large part of such activities are properly ex-
tension work, and should not be confused, as was often the
case, with the research functions of the experiment station.
Much of the so-called co-operative war emergency work be-
tween outside agencies and State men was too hurriedly and
loosely organized to be effective, and often it seemed ill-advised
from the start. In perspective it appears that proper use of
State forces would have been more effective and efficient in
accomplishing certain ends. However, the important work of
the department was kept to the fore, and the interference of
transient outside activities with regular projects was minimized
as much as possible.
Investigations having as their object the control of lettuce
drop, a disease caused by Sclerotinia lihertiana, have been under
way for several years. Control measures have been tried out
in the department greenhouse and on a commercial scale in large
lettuce houses in Arlington. Eminently satisfactory results
have been obtained from repeated trials. In addition to green-
house work on this disease fundamental study of the causal
fungus has been conducted in the laboratory. A bulletin em-
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 21a
bodying the results of this work should be ready for early
publication.
Mr. Clark's study of light in relation to plant growth was
again carried to the field last summer, with striking results.
The unique tents which provide varying light intensities for
the growing crops which they screen have proven very satis-
factory for this work. Laboratory studies in connection with
this project have continued.
At the suggestion of Dr. Neil E. Stevens of the Bureau of
Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture,
certain physiological studies in connection with the problem of
controlling decay of ripe strawberries were undertaken last
summer. A large amount of laboratory work has been done by
Mr. Clark, and this will be continued next season.
The work under the general project for investigation of so-
called tobacco sick soils, in charge of Dr. Chapman, has pro-
ceeded in accordance with plans previously outlined. Impor-
tant results have been obtained both in the laboratory and in
the field. This work is becoming increasingly valuable to the
tobacco growers, and they, in turn, have shown their apprecia-
tion of it. In connection with this project a study of meteoro-
logical factors in relation to the tobacco crop has been made,
and the data gathered are practically ready for publication.
Experimental spraying of celery for the control of early and
late blights, conducted by Mr. Krout, has continued through
two seasons. This work has been done on plots laid out as
parts of commercial fields in the eastern part of the State and
at the market-garden field station. Data already obtained
indicate that an efficient method of control is at hand. Another
season's work on this project should provide sufficient results on
which to base definite conclusions and recommendations which
can be adopted by growers.
The project for investigation of onion diseases is referred to
elsewhere in this report.
The growing season of 1918 was preceded by a winter notable
for its severity. Periods of extreme cold caused unprecedented
winter injury and killing of trees and shrubs. Scarcely any
species escaped entirely, and some native species of trees which
have remained hardy through previous winters were killed
22 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
outright. The peach crop was almost a total failure on account
of fruit buds being killed, and many peach orchards suffered
heavily from killing back of wood and death of trees. Many
trees and shrubs which were only partially killed or injured
by the winter conditions failed to recuperate on account of the
unfavorable growing conditions which prevailed throughout
the following summer. The month of June was abnormally
cold, and vegetation was checked to a considerable degree.
Late in the month killing frosts occurred on two days, causing
a large amount of damage to garden and truck crops, especially
in the eastern part of the State. A long period of drought,
extending through June, July and August, occasionally broken
by rainfall insufficient to compensate for the extreme dryness,
caused vegetation to suffer severely. To the weather conditions
may be attributed much of the trouble which interfered with
crop development. Potatoes especially were seriously affected.
So unusual and general was the injury to potatoes that the
time of the pathologists was severely taxed by calls to the field.
After a State-wide investigation it became evident that potatoes
were suffering from a combination of conditions which were
often so complicated as to make diagnosis most difficult and
frequently uncertain. In general, however, two distinct types
of injury usually resulting in early death of the vines were
apparent. Careful study in field and laboratory convinced the
writer that these were due directly or indirectly to drought and
to a fungus of the genus Phoma. The potato is very susceptible
to lack of moisture, and where planted on light soil or on hill-
sides the crop suffered, as a rule, in proportion to the drying
out of the soil. Premature yellowing, wilting and dying of the
vines were the marked characteristics of this trouble. It seems
doubtful if it was in any way associated with the type of
fertilizer used, although it was perhaps less severe in a few
cases where stable manure was employed. This, however, is
attributable to the better water-holding capacity of soil con-
taining abundant organic matter. Absence of potash in com-
mercial fertilizers has been advanced by some investigators
as one factor responsible for this condition. In the course of
our field investigations we found a number of plots where
potash in the usual amounts had been applied, but with no
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 23 a
apparent diminution of the trouble as a result. Irish Cobblers
and Green Mountains were about equally affected by this
trouble, but the former, an earlier variety, usually succumbed
first. Dibble's Russet was noted as especially resistant to
drought conditions.
The presence of the fungus Phoma in a large number of fields
throughout the State, the typical stem lesions caused by the
fungus, and the uniformity with which these appeared under
certain conditions, furnish strong evidence that this so-called
disease was responsible for a considerable amount of damage to
the potato crop last season. Laboratory tests, not yet com-
pleted, indicate that the fungus is at least mildly parasitic
under conditions of moisture. After examination of a few
fields in which Phoma was in evidence, it became apparent
that the injury from the fungus was practically limited to low-
lying areas, usually of rather heavy moisture-holding soil.
Where a field consisted of both high and low land there was
a gradual diminution of the trouble along the upward slope,
and often a merging into the trouble previously attributed to
drought. At a distance Phoma infected plants are yellow and
stunted in appearance. This condition is followed by wilting
and dying of the tops. Such plants invariably show conspicuous
brown lesions on the stem, and these often in combination form
a complete girdle. Typical Phoma pycnidia appear on the older
lesions. Pure cultures of the fungus were obtained from which
inoculation experiments are in progress. The present incom-
plete knowledge of this fungus makes impossible any definite
conclusions as to whether Phoma may be considered a serious
destructive parasite of the potato. However, preliminary
studies in the field and laboratory and careful observations
incline us strongly to the opinion that the Phoma disease of
potato will not, under normal seasonal conditions, prove of any
consequence. We believe the weather to be a prime contribut-
ing factor in the parasitism of the fungus, and that the disease
need not be considered in the general schedule of treatment
for diseases of this crop.
Mosaic disease and leaf roll of potato were unusually preva-
lent and severe. Few fields of the Green Mountain type were
free from mosaic, and a rather careful survey indicates that
24 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
the average for the State was above 20 per cent of diseased
plants. As high as 80 per cent was noted. The estimated
reduction of yield due to mosaic is from 10 to 80 per cent.
Leaf roll was more frequently observed on Irish Cobblers.
These and certain other so-called degeneration diseases are
communicable through the tubers. They are, as a rule, more
abundant where home-grown ''seed," or "seed" from one to
several -generations from the north, are used. While northern-
grown potatoes are by no means free from these diseases, it is
apparent that climatic conditions in Massachusetts tend to
increase them. Except in the higher regions of the State,
progressive increase of these diseases and consequent degenera-
tion invariably attend attempts to grow potatoes from the
same stock year after year. As the production of suitable
seed potatoes in our higher altitudes is inadequate to the
demands of the entire State, it is evident that if the potato
yield of the State is to be increased or even maintained growers
must depend largely on northern-grown ''seed." Only properly
inspected and certified "seed" should be accepted, because
many northern fields are badly infected with tuber-communi-
cated diseases. A movement has been initiated through the
extension service, to promote and encourage the practice of
planting only good "seed" potatoes. General adoption of this
practice would result in much benefit to- the potato growers,
and would increase the State's total production without in-
creasing the area devoted to the crop. An effort also will be
made to have non-susceptible varieties substituted for the
Green Mountain type.
The more common potato diseases were by no means entirely
absent last season, although the troubles above discussed were
responsible for a large part of the losses previous to harvesting
the crop. In July early blight was rather severe in some fields,
but the ravages of this disease were checked by the drought.
Late blight was present in many fields, but the outbreak was
light and little damage in the field resulted. However, heavy
rainfall in September, before the bulk of the crop was harvested
and stored, gave the fungus of this disease a start in the tubers,
and the result has been heavy losses in storage.
The wet weather of September also proved detrimental to
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 25 a
the onion crop. Those onions which went into storage prior
to that time have for the most part kept in prime condition.
In many fields, however, the crop was pulled and allowed to
remain on the ground throughout the rainy period, and during,
that time a serious bacterial rot was started, which since has
ruined large quantities of onions in storehouses. Neck rot,
which ordinarily is common among stored onions, has been
negligible in amount this year. Owing to this condition the
department's investigation of onion diseases has been confined,
for the most part, to this bacterial rot and studies in the coatrol
of smut. Field plots are planned for the season of 1919.
It is worthy of note that serious outbreaks of ''white pickle,"
a form of cucumber mosaic which causes stunting and de-
formity of cucumber fruit, occurred at several points, both
out of doors and in greenhouses. This is a physiological disease
related to mosaic of tobacco, potato, tomato and other plants.
Knowledge of the disease is incomplete, but it has been shown
that it may be transmitted through the agency of plant lice
and possibly other insects, and that control measures must
include insect eradication and destruction of diseased plants.
The disease will be kept under observation, and it may become
worth while to institute investigations of its nature and control.
In addition to project work, many activities have engaged
the attention of the department staff. The usual amount of
seed work, examination and diagnosis of diseased plant ma-
terials, identification of weeds and other plants, and corre-
spondence dealing with a variety of subjects are some of the
things which demanded a goodly share of time. The appoint-
ment of an extension plant pathologist, noted in our last
annual report, has relieved the writer of a large part of the
responsibility involved in correspondence concerning plant
diseases, and at the same time this feature of our work has
greatly increased. The plant disease survey has required more
attention than in past years, and several members of the staff
were appointed assistant collaborators in this work with the
Bureau of Plant Industry.
The work of overhauling and cataloguing the mycological
collection has been completed by the curator, and now awaits
the purchase of additional steel cases in order that the work
26 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
of filing may be brought to completion. It is hoped that this
may be realized the present year. The value of the collection
has been greatly enhanced through the easy accessibility which
its reorganization has brought about, and it now stands as one
of the chief assets of the department. Mrs. Wheeler and her
predecessor, Miss Grace B. Nutting, deserve much credit for
the excellent work which they have done on this valuable
collection.
1919.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 27 a
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
J. B. LINDSEY.
It is customary to outline briefly the work accomplished and
in progress in this department each year. The following report
is presented for 1918.
1. Research Section.
Work on the chemistry of butter fat has been continued. A
study of the composition of the fat produced by four cows has
been partially completed, and further studies along the same
line are in progress to ascertain the limits of variation during
different stages of lactation.
Considerable time has been devoted to preparation of work
for publication, and two articles have appeared in the ''Journal
of Agricultural Research," one relating to improved methods by
esterification for the determination of caproic, caprylic, capric,
lauric and myristic acids, and another on the influence of air,
light and moisture on the stability of olive oil. The observa-
tions on the latter subject have covered a period of six years.
In co-operation with the department of entomology, a pure
crystalline acid calcium arsenate (CaHAs04.H20) was pre-
pared in quantity, and has been employed in experimental
work. A description of the method of preparation has been
published in the "Journal of Economic Entomology."
A study of the comparative effects of sulfate and muriate of
potash on the soil of Field B has been completed, and has
resulted in the finding of no appreciable differences in the
chemical properties of the two different fertilizer plots.
A preliminary study has been undertaken of the changes
which occur when cranberries are stored. It has been found
that the sugars were the principal group of constituents affected,
28 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
they being used in the respiration of the fruit. Measurements
of the rate of exhalation of carbon dioxide by the fruit showed
that it followed the law of acceleration of chemical action with
rise in temperature. Further studies on a number of varieties
are in progress.
Studies of the residual effects of liming the different plots of
Field A to which various fertilizers have been applied for a
series of years has shown that the true acidity remains nearly
constant for several years, although the lime content steadily
decreases. Ammonium sulfate accelerates the leaching of
calcium, while nitrate of soda serves to lessen such an effect.
Ammonium sulfate produces a noticeably higher hydrogen ion
concentration in the soil moisture than any other common
fertilizer material.
An experiment in the protein requirement of growing calves
has been in progress at the request of the agricultural committee
of the Council of National Defense. The experiment was begun
in January, 1918, with eight calves, and was completed in
July. Four of the calves received the high, and four the low,
protein diet. A number of digestion experiments were made
as the experiment progressed. The tabulated data showed that
the calves on the high protein diet made a slightly better
growth than those on the low protein diet, although observa-
tions failed to detect any differences. The experiment is now
being repeated.
Digestion and metabolizable energy experiments with horses
have been in progress during five months of each year
since 1916, and the following feedstuffs studied: English hay,
alfalfa, corn bran, wheat bran, brewers' grains, corn meal,
whole corn, and rations composed of corn, oats, bran and
brewers' grains. It is hoped that sufficient data will soon be
accumulated to warrant the publication of a bulletin on the
subject.
Digestion trials have been completed with sheep on velvet
bean meal, carrots, barley screenings, and a number of pro-
prietary feed mixtures. The results will be published as soon
as circumstances warrant.
Two experiments have been completed with corn bran as a
component of a grain mixture for dairy cows. The results of
1919.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
29 a
these experiments, together with those on alfalfa and rowen,
are now in press.
Forage crop observations are continued from year to year.
Observations with sweet clover and Sudan grass confirmed
previous conclusions. We succeeded the past year in getting a
second growth of sweet clover by cutting just before the first
growth began to bud. The second growth failed for two pre-
ceding years, possibly because the first cutting was delayed
a little too long. We fail to see any use for this crop except
as a soil renovator. One crop yearly is about all that can
be secured. Sudan grass proves an addition to our list of
green crops, but the writer fails to see any distinct advantage
to it over barnyard millet. It needs hot weather for its de-
velopment, and the seed which has been purchased of the most
reliable dealers has not proved very satisfactory. A rather
better second crop can be secured than with barnyard millet
if the months of July and August are quite warm.
2. Fertilizer Section.
The work of the fertilizer section, in charge of Mr. Haskins
with Messrs. Walker and Pierce as assistants, may be sum-
marized as follows: —
(a) Fertilizers registered.
During the season of 1918, 93 manufacturers, importers
and dealers have registered for sale 408 brands of fertilizer,
fertilizing materials and agricultural limes. They are classed
as follows: —
Complete fertilizers, .....
123
Ammoniated superphosphates,
163
Ground bone, tankage and dry ground fish, .
37
Wood ashes, ......
4
Chemicals and organic nitrogen compounds,
51
Agricultural limes, .....
29
Ground rock, ......
1
408
30 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
(6) Fertilizers collected and analyzed.
The collection comprised 981 samples representing 380 dis-
tinct brands. In making this collection 111 towns and 322
different agents were visited; 17,784 sacks were sampled,
representing 9,086 tons of fertilizer. Six hundred and eighteen
analyses have been made during the year's inspection, al-
though only 596 of these were published in the fertilizer
bulletin. The analyses not published were largely private
fornxulas not offered for sale and not registered, but were
officially collected. The registered brands analyzed are as
follows: —
Brands.
Complete fertilizers, .....
Ammoniated superphosphates, .
Ground bone, tankage and dry ground fish,
Nitrogen compounds, ....
Phosphoric acid and potash compounds, .
Wood ashes, ......
Lime compounds, .....
Totals
133
108
214
151
53
35
70
24
39
25
52
4
35
25
596
372
On July 1, 1918, a new supplementary fertilizer act went
into effect. Its principal features are provisions for the col-
lection of a 6-cent tonnage fee which is supplementary to the
usual registration fee. It provides somewhat greater freedom
to the executive in prescribing and enforcing such rules and
regulations as may be necessary to the smooth working of the
act, and defines certain conditions in composition of the fer-
tilizer product which must be fulfilled or registration may be
refused. The full text of the act, as well as complete details
regarding the fertilizer inspection work, will be found in
Bulletin No. 9, Control Series, published in October, 1918.
(c) Further Work of the Fertilizer Section.
Time has been found during the season, when it would not
interfere with the regular fertilizer inspection work, for the
analysis of the usual variety of fertilizing by-products forwarded
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 31a
by farmers. During the winter months the usual co-operative
analytical work has been accomplished for the agricultural
department to complete studies both in the field and in pots.
This work may be summarized briefly as follows: —
Dry matter and nitrogen determinations and complete ash analysis in
duplicate on 5 samples of corn grain and 5 samples of corn stover.
Dry matter, nitrogen, potassium oxide and sodium oxide determinations
in duplicate on 5 samples of corn cob.
Dry matter and nitrogen determinations and ash analysis in duplicate
on IS samples of cabbage.
Dry matter determinations on 7 samples of cabbage.
Dry matter, nitrogen and potassium oxide determinations in duplicate
on 10 samples of strawberries.
Weights and dry matter determinations on 264 samples each of millet
seed and straw.
Weights, dry matter and duplicate nitrogen determinations on 57 samples
each of millet seed and straw.
Weights, dry matter, nitrogen and potassium oxide determinations in
duplicate on 60 samples of miUet seed and straw.
Weights, dry matter, nitrogen, potassium oxide and phosphoric acid
determinations in duplicate on 12 samples each of millet seed and
straw.
Weights, dry matter, nitrogen and phosphoric acid determinations in
duplicate on 12 samples of millet seed and straw.
Two hundred and seventy-four different substances have
been received and analyzed for farmers and various depart-
ments of the experiment station, and may be grouped as
follows: —
Fertilizers and fertilizer by-products, ...... 149
Lime products, ......... 3
Soils for lime requirements and organic matter tests, . . . 122
274
(d) Vegetation Tests.
A pot experiment has been conducted with millet, compris-
ing 12 pots, to study the effect of a mixture of peat, phosphate
rock and lime treated with bacteria by a patented process.
A field experiment with corn, comprising 15 one-fortieth
acre plots, has been conducted to study the value of a ground
rock known as Nature's Plant Food, and also a mixture of
32 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
apatite and barium sulfide, known as Barium-Phosphate, as
sources of plant food.
Co-operative field experiments have also been conducted by
county agricultural agents in four different parts of the State
with a variety of crops, and an experiment with carrots has
been conducted on the experiment station grounds to study
the value of Nature's Plant Food as a fertilizer. The dry
matter determinations on these crops have not as yet been
completed.
3. Feed and Dairy Section.
(a) The Feeding Stuffs Law (Ads and Resolves for 1912,
Chapter 527).
During the past year 176 dealers located in 108 different
towns were visited at least once, and about 1,200 samples of
feeding stuffs W'ere collected and analyzed. One thousand,
two hundred and forty-six brands of feeding stuffs were regis-
tered for sale, not all of which, however, were found by the
inspectors.
It is to the credit of the manufacturers and dealers that few
violations of the feeding stuffs law came to our attention,
even under the unfavorable conditions due to the war. Early
in the year one dealer was prosecuted and found guilty for
selling a so-called meat scrap decidedly below guarantee.
Further details regarding the feeding stuffs inspection will
be found in Bulletin No. 10, Control Series.
(6) The Dairy Law {Acts and Resolves for 1912, Chapter 218).
(1) Examination for Certificates. — Twenty applicants have
been examined and found proficient.
(2) Inspection of Glassware. — Three thousand, one hundred
and twenty pieces of Babcock glassware have been tested
for accuracy, of which 10 were condemned.
Following is a summary for the last eighteen years: —
1919.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
33 a
Year.
Number of
Pieces tested.
Number of
Pieces
condemned.
Percentage
condemned.
1901,
1902,
1903,
1904,
1905,
1906,
1907,
1908,
1909,
1910,
1911,
1912,
1913,
1914,
1915,
1916,
1917,
1918,
Totals,
5,041
2,344
2,240
2,026
1,665
2,457
3,082
2,713
4,071
4,047
4,466
6,056
6,394
6,336
4,956
5,184
7,522
3,120
291
56
57
200
197
763
204
33
43
41
12
27
34
18
4
5
5.77
2.40
2.54
9.87
11.83
31.05
6.62
1.22
1.06
1.01
.27
.45
.53
.28
.08
.10
.11
.32
73,720
2,003
(3) Inspection of Machines and Apparatus. — During the
months of November and December, Mr. J. T. Howard, the
authorized deputy, inspected the machines and apparatus
in 82 milk depots, creameries and milk inspection laboratories.
One machine was condemned, and minor repairs ordered in
several others.
FolloW'ing is a list of creameries, milk depots and milk
inspectors' laboratories visited in 1918.
1. Creameries.
Location.
Name.
Manager or Proprietor.
1.
Amherst, ....
Amherst,
R. W. Pease, proprietor.
2.
Ashfield
Ashfield Co-operative,
Wm. Hunter, manager.
3.
Cummington, .
Cummington Co-operative,
D. C. Morey, manager.
4.
Easthampton, .
Hampton Co-operative,
W. S. Wilcox, manager.
5.
Monterey,
Berkshire Hills Co-operative,
F. A. Campbell, manager.
6.
Northfield,
Northfield Co-operative, .
C. C. Stearns, manager.
7
Shelburne,
Shelburne Co-operative,
W. C. Webber, manager.
34 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
2. Milk Depots.
Location.
Name.
Manager.
1. Boston
Alden Brothers Branch,
VVm. Johnson.
2. Boston (Dorchester),
Elm Farm Milk Company,
J. K. Knapp.
3. Boston, .
T. P. Grant Company,
T. P. Grant.
4. Boston (Charlestown),
H. P. Hood & Sons
N. C. Davis.
5. Boston (Charlestown),
H. P. Hood & Sons, No. 2,
N. C. Davis.
6. Boston (Dorchester),
Morgan Brothers, ....
A. G. Johnson.
7. Boston,
Oak Grove Farm, ....
J. Alden.
8. Boston, .
Plymouth Creamery Company,
VV. J. Gardner.
9. Boston (Charlestown),
Rockingham Milk Company,
C. A. Bray.
10. Boston (Charlestown),
Turner Center Dairying Association,
I. L. Smith.
11. Boston (Charlestown),
D. Whiting & Sons, ....
J. K. Whiting.
12. Boston (Jamaica Plain),
Westwood Farm Milk Company,
V. E. Clem.
13. Cambridge,
C. Brigham & Son
J. K. Whiting.
14. Conway, .
H. P. Hood & Sons
W. E. Roberts.
15. East Watertown,
Lyndonville Creamery Association, .
H. A. Smith.
16. Everett, .
Frank E. Boyd
F. E. Boyd.
17. Everett, .
Hampden Creamery Company,
R. T. Mooney.
18. Lawrence,
Jersey Ice Cream Company,
J. N. Gurdy.
19. Lawrence,
Turner Centre Dairying Association,
F. M. Barr.
20. Lawrence,
VVillardale Creamery
F. H. Willard.
21. North Egremont,
Willowbrook Dairy, ....
D. Nanninga.
22. Sheffield, .
Willowbrook Dairy, ....
F. B. Percy.
23. Shelburne Falls.
H. P. Hood & Sons, .
R. E. Wetherbee.
24. Southborough, .
Deerfoot Farms, ....
S. H. Howes.
25. Somerville,
Seven Oaks Dairy Company,
A. B. Parker.
26. Somerville,
Acton Farms Milk Company, .
T. Colgan.
27. Springfield,
Tait Brothers
H. Tait.
28. Waltham, .
Manhattan Creamery,
A. W. Jenkins.
29. West Lynn,
H. P. Hood & Sons
N. C. Davis.
1919.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
35 a
S. Milk hispectms.
Location.
1. Amesbury,
2. Amherst, .
3. Arlington,
4. Attleboro, .
5. Barnstable,
6. Boston,
7. Brockton, .
8. Cambridge,
9. Chelsea,
10. Chicopee, .
11. Clinton, .
12. Dedham, .
13. Everett,
14. Fall River,
15. Fitchburg,
16. Framingham,
17. Gardner, .
18. Greenfield,
19. Haverhill,
20. Holyoke, .
21. Lawrence, .
22. Lowell,
23. Lynn,
Inspector.
J. L. Stewart.
P. H. Smith.
A. Bain.
P. C. Blatchford.
G. T. Mecarta.
J. O. Jordan.
G. E. Boiling.
VV. A. Noonan.
W. S. Walkley.
C. J. O'Brien.
P. S. Grady.
E. Knobel.
E.G. Colby.
H. Boisseau.
J. F. Bresnahan.
F. S. Dodson.
H. O. Knight.
G. P. Moore.
J. A. Ruel.
D. Hartnett.
J. H. Tobin.
M. Marster.
H. P. Bennett.
Location.
24. Maiden, .
25. Millbury,
26. New Bedford,
27. Newton, .
28. North Adams,
29. Northampton,
30. Pittsfield,
31. Plain ville,
32. Plymouth,
33. Revere, .
34. Salem,
35. Somerville,
36. South Hadley,
37. Springfield,
38. Taunton,
39. Waltham,
40. Ware,
41. Watertown,
42. Wellesley,
43. Westfield,
44. Winchendon,
45. Woburn, .
46. Worcester,
Inspector.
J. A. Sanford.
F. A. Watkins.
H. B. Hamilton.
A. C. Hudson.
C. T. Quackenbush.
G. R. Turner.
B. M. Collins.
J. J. Eiden.
W. E. Briggs.
J. E. Lamb.
J. J. McGrath.
H. E. Bowman.
G. F. Beaudreau.
S. C. Downs.
L. C. Tucker.
G. D. Affleck.
F. E. Marsh.
L. Simonds.
W. A. Berger.
H. F. Moody.
G. W. Stanbridge.
D. F. Callahan.
G. L. Berg.
4. Miscellaneous.
L0C.\^TI0N.
Name.
Manager.
1. Boston,
2. Boston
Walker-Gordon Laboratory,
Boston Laboratories, Inc., .
B. W. Nichols.
J. E. Oslin.
(c) Water.
Fifty samples of water received in containers furnished by
the experiment station were analyzed. A fee of $3 is charged
for this service, and application for the analysis must be made
in advance. Water from public supplies is not analyzed,
being under the jurisdiction of the State Department of
Health.
36 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
(d) Other Work.
In connection with the work required under the preceding
headings this department has continued to analyze samples
of milk, cream and feeds sent by residents of the State where
circumstances would appear to warrant the procedure. Work
is not done, however, which belongs more properly to a com-
mercial chemist. During the year 226 feeds, 543 milks, 430
creams, 1 condensed milk and 26 vinegars have been analj^zed.
One hundred and forty-five feeds and 163 samples of milk
have been analyzed in connection with feeding experiments
conducted by the experiment station.
Seventy-three moisture tests on corn have also been made
for the purpose of determining yield on a uniform basis for
corn contests conducted by the State Department of Agricul-
ture and the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of
Agriculture.
An investigation was also conducted to determine the most
accurate method for determining butter fat in condensed milk
and ice cream.
Work included under this heading supplements the work
required under the feed and dairy laws, and can be done at
such a time as to keep equipment and staff utilized during the
entire year.
(e) Testing of Pure-bred Cows for Advanced Registry.
Four men have been given regular employment in conduct-
ing yearly tests of Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire and Shorthorn
cows, and, in addition, extra men are employed as occasion
demands. This work requires the presence of a supervisor
at a farm for at least two days each month. The two-day
test period forms a basis for computing the monthly milk
and fat yield reported by the breeders direct to their respective
cattle clubs. This work is done at cost, and the funds re-
ceived kept in separate account by the experiment station
treasurer. As the work must be self-supporting, breeders are
required to pay for tests before papers are forwarded to tfie
cattle clubs. Following is a monthly summary of the work
for the two-day yearly tests: —
1919.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
37 a
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38a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The Holstein tests, usually based on a seven or thirty day
period, require the presence of a supervisor during the entire
test. During the year 25 different men have been employed
in these short tests, and 160 seven-day, 25 fourteen-day and
42 thirty-day tests, making a total of 227, have been com-
pleted. This work was conducted at 23 different farms.
4. NuMEKicAL Summary of Laboratory Work, December,
1917, to December, 1918.
There have been received and tested 50 samples of water,
543 of milk, 430 of cream, 1 of condensed milk, 3 of butter,
226 of feedstuff's, 149 of fertilizer, 122 of soil, 3 of lime prod-
ucts, 2 of organic substances for arsenic, 26 of vinegar, 1 of
coal, 2 of arsenate of lead, 73 moisture tests on corn for corn
contests, and 4 miscellaneous.
The fertilizer control work involved the collection of 981
samples, and the feed control, 1,200 samples. There have
also been examined, in connection with experiments made by
the diff'erent departments of the station, 163 samples of milk;
145 of cattle feed; 44 of feces and 35 of urine; mineral analyses
on 5 samples each of corn grain, stover and cob, on 18 samples
of cabbages, and on 10 samples of strawberries; weights and
dry matter determinations on 264 samples each of millet
straw and seed; weights, dry matter and nitrogen determina-
tions on 57 samples each of millet seed and straw; weights,
dry matter and nitrogen determinations and partial mineral
analyses on 144 samples each of millet seed and straw. The
above totals 5,175 samples, and does not include the work of
the research section, cow testing or the dairy law.
1919.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 39a
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
H. T. FERNALD AND A. I. BOURNE.
During 1918 the attention of the workers in this department
Avas largely taken up with the continuation of investigations
already under way, and in the attempt to solve problems of
immediate importance. During the absence on leave (till
May 1) of the head of the department, the direction and execu-
tion of the work was in charge of Mr. Bourne, who conducted
it in a most satisfactory way. The death of Mr. S. C. Vinal
in September put an end to further work on the European
corn borer by the station. The results of that work are
referred to later in this report. His death has been a serious
blow to the progress of the work of this department, for he
was a man of great promise, and the researches he had already
made were of much value. No steps have thus far been taken
to fill his position.
Correspondence during the year has been larger than usual,
and requests to visit different places for personal inspection
and advice as to the treatment of insects present have been
many. These visits have been to gardens, orchards, city
parks and other places in various parts of the State, and have
covered a wide range of insects. Telephone calls for advice
have also been very numerous, and with the correspondence
and inspections have taken much time. The assignment of
Mr. Q. S. Lowry to this State as a United States Extension
Service agent has, to some extent, relieved the station staff
of this work, but there were periods when every one was
occupied in these lines for days at a time. Demonstrational
work on the control of particular insect pests was frequently
requested, and a number of demonstrations were made during
the season. Several houses were fumigated with hydrocyanic
acid gas, at the request of their owners, for relief from various
household pests.
40 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
A plot of land conveniently located near the laboratory
was obtained last spring for use as a garden, and here the
various garden pests were studied and methods for their
control tested under conditions which could be determined
and to some extent regulated. The results were so satisfactory
that this w^ork will be continued.
Tests of the standard insecticides to determine their action
and the causes of burning of foliage have been continued. Pure
materials have been tested until we know what to expect
from them. Commercial brands are now being tried in the
same way. The past year has shown that arsenite of lime
cannot be safely recommended for use under conditions such
as usually are present with the sprayer, too many precautions
being required to obtain safety. Further study of this sub-
stance has, therefore, been discontinued, and arsenate of lime
has been taken up in its place.
Work on the digger wasps as parasites has made good
progress, but a topic of this nature demands either the entire
attention of the worker, or a long period before final results
can be expected. The former not being possible here under
existing conditions, no results are as yet ready to report.
The study of the European corn borer was begun in 1917
by the late Mr. S. C. Vinal, who continued it till his death
in September, 1918. The records and observations he made
have been brought together by Mr. D. J. Caffrey of the
United States Bureau of Entomology, who was also working
on some phases of the problem under a co-operative agreement
between the station and the bureau, and are now ready for
publication.
Investigations as to methods for controlling the onion
maggot, continued from previous years, were practically
limited in 1918 to tests of the success of traps in catching
the adult flies. Six traps were placed in an area of about
one-fourth of an acre, and during the months of INIay and
June about 48,000 flies were captured, about 4,500 of which
were those of the onion maggot. While it cannot be claimed
that these flies were taken before, rather than after, their
eggs had been laid, the fact that this field was practically
free from the maggots may have some significance in this
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 41a
connection. These experiments will be continued and elabo-
rated.
Observations to determine the existence and, if present, the
importance of a second brood of the codling moth in Massa-
chusetts have been made for a number of years. The con-
clusion had about been reached that no second brood is present
in more than a few scattered individuals. Last summer,
however, a brood of considerable size was noted, and it has
been decided to carry these observations further.
For ten years the dates of appearance of the young of
several of the common scale insects have been recorded in
the hope that the range in this time, even in the most widely
different seasons, would not be so great as to prevent the
fixation of a date for treatment to be given them. A study
of the results has now finally destroyed this hope, but has
unexpectedly pointed out a new aspect of the subject which
may lead to equally desirable results though in a totally
different way. This subject, therefore, is being continued,
to obtain more data for use with the new basis of research.
At the request of the Food Administration, tests of a material
known as Nature's Plant Food were made to ascertain its
value, if any, as an insecticide and also as an insect repellent.
About 20 tests were made with this substance on 7 different
kinds of insects, both under laboratory and field conditions,
with check tests in all cases. The evidence obtained from
these experiments was that the material is not an insecticide.
As a repellent, it was compared with ground limestone and
sifted road dust. The tests indicated that its value as a
repellent is no greater and no less than that of any other
inert substance of equal fineness and adhesiveness and applied
in the same amounts. Where these factors are equal, the
selection of the material to use should be entirely on the basis
of cost.
Several ''proprietary insecticides" of unknown value have
been tested during the year. Kling Kill Insecticide, put out
by the Commercial Chemical Company, St. Paul, Minn., and
claimed by its manufacturers to incorporate several new and
radical ideas in insecticide manufacture, was given some atten-
tion. The absence of copper and lead from its composition
42a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
seemed to make it particularly worth testing, these substances
being at the time so costly because of war conditions. It
proved to be a very slow poison even when larvae had eaten
very freely of sprayed leaves, requiring about twice as long
to become effective as a standard arsenate of lead. On the
other hand, it appeared to be slightly repellent to young
larvfe. When applied at the minimum strength recommended
by the manufacturers, leaf injury, even on mature leaves,
always followed; when applied at an increased strength to
obtain killing efficiency equal to that of a standard spray,
the burning became so serious that its use was out of the
ciuestion.
The scarcity of nicotine sulfate (fiorty per cent) in some
parts of the State during the time when the potato aphis was
abundant led to the use of many substances as substitutes.
Among these was sulpho-napthol (now spelled Sylpho-Nathol),
which was frequently used and sometimes highly recommended.
To ascertain whether this material had any real value for
this purpose a series of tests was made, both in the laboratory
and in the garden. The results indicate that, to be of any
value against plant lice, Sylpho-Nathol must be used as strong
as 13^ fluid ounces per gallon of water. At this strength,
however, burning of the leaves always occurred, and though
the plants often recovered and made new growth, the check
they suffered was as great as would have been produced by
the plant lice unless these were unusually abundant.
Plant Lice Killer, manufactured by the Sterling Chemical
Company, was also tested to some extent, though not available
until rather late in the season for complete data, the object
being to determine the best dilution for aphid control and its
value for this purpose. Considerable difficulty was met with
in preparing the material for use, owing to its oily nature,
and, when prepared, constant agitation was necessary to
keep it from separating out of the mixture. It was found,
however, when properly mixed and maintained, to be a very
effective material for use with aphids, — proportions of 1
to 15 and 1 to 20 of water killing practically all the insects
reached, and 1 to 30 killing about 90 per cent of them. On
foliage, the strength of 1 to 15 injured only the most tender
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMFAT — No. 31. 43a
leaves, though twelve types were tested, including most of
the common garden plants and several kinds of trees. When
applied at 1 to 20 no injury to any foliage was observed.
In such tests as here reported for Kling Kill Insecticide,
Sylpho-Nathol, Nature's Plant Food and Plant Lice Killer,
attention should be called to the fact that tests of any material
made during only one season, and, of course, on a relatively
small scale, should not be regarded as conclusive, but merely
as indicating the probable value of the material. Frequently,
too, manufacturers, after the tests of one season, change or
modify their formulas so that tests another year might give
different results for this reason.
A series of parallel tests was conducted during the summer
of 1918 with home-made Bordeaux mixture, Pyrox and Insecto,
to determine their value against potato pests. Nicotine
sulfate 40 per cent in 1 to 800 dilution was added to each of
these during the potato plant louse period of activity. The
Insecto had rather poor suspension ciualities as compared
with the other two, giving poor distribution on the plants,
and frequently clogging the nozzle. The best distribution
was obtained with the home-made Bordeaux, but Pyrox was
not far behind in this regard. The flea beetles were well
controlled by all three materials, and the nicotine sulfate
combined without difficulty with them all and was efficient
against the plant lice. Although not entomological in nature,
it may be stated that the rows to which the home-made
Bordeaux was applied kept green and alive the longest and
produced the largest crop; those treated with Pyrox, next.
44 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE.
J. K. SHAW AND H. F. TOMPSON.
Work in Pomology.
Dr. Shaw makes the following report of the work in
pomology : —
Investigation work in this department has proceeded along
lines previously laid down. Absence on sabbatical leave from
September 1 and the lack of a graduate assistant have reduced
the amount of work done during the year, but with the return
of normal conditions this will be soon regained.
Work on the plant breeding project was practically con-
cluded with the publication of Bulletin No. 185, on "The
Inheritance of Seed Coat Color in Garden Beans." There
are other data on hand which may, on study, be deemed worthy
of publication.
Observations on local variations in temperature were con-
tinued by the transfer of the equipment from eastern Hampden
County to stations in Amherst and vicinity.
The root and scion orchard continued to make fair growth,
and should yield data of increasing interest and value. A
reserve stock of trees for replacing any that may die is being
maintained. Data on the propagation of known roots of
trees will be available for publication the coming spring.
An orchard of 100 trees for future use in the peach breeding
project was planted, but no actual breeding work was possible,
owing to the destruction of the buds by severe cold. Prospects
are now favorable for active work the coming season.
Owing to lack of assistance little was done on the variety
study project, but active work will be undertaken the coming
year.
In the pruning experiment a few trees of the Baldwin,
Rhode Island Greening and King varieties were killed back
by the severe cold, but all such trees have started up anew,
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 45a
and the type of pruning designed for them may be again
applied. Most of the trees made an excellent growth, and
the effects of the different methods of pruning are beginning
to appear.
The extreme cold of the winter of 1917-18 is without prece-
dent, and we may hope that it will not occur again for many
years. Lower minimum temperatures have occurred, but the
number of extremely cold days greatly exceeded that of any
other winter on record. The records of the meteorological
department show twenty-three days with a temperature of
zero or lower; of these, twelve were — 10° or lower and
4 were — 15° or lower, while the minimum of — 22.5° occurred
on both Dec. 30, 1917, and Feb. 2, 1918. Severe cold began
about December 10 and continued almost without interruption
until February 24.
Such severe weather must cause great damage to the fruit
interests. The peach crop was practically all destroyed
throughout the State, and there was considerable injury to
the trees. Many Baldwin apple trees were killed outright
or severely injured, and there was more or less damage to
other varieties. As is always the case when there is general
winterkilling, there was great variation in the amount of
damage done. While the factors involved in winterkilling
are very complex, certain of them may be quite clearly seen.
1. The Location of the Trees. — Those located on low
ground without free outlet for cold air, and w'ith extensive
hillsides or plateaus above offering conditions which favor
the cooling of the air, show more damage than trees located
where air drainage is good.
2. The Variety. — Bakhvin, Gravenstein, King and Rhode
Island' Greening were among the varieties suffering most.
Oldenburg, Wealthy, Mcintosh, Yellow Transparent, Northern
Spy and Ben Davis are some of the varieties rarely injured.
3. The Condition of the Tree. — Lack of vigor due to neglect,
poor soil conditions or the production of a heavy crop in the
season of 1917 rendered the tree more susceptible to injury.
Often in young orchards, trees of excessive vigor, which had
grown late in the fall and failed to ripen their wood, were,
badly damaged.
46 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
4. In some cases young trees of comparatively hardy varieties
suffered from root killing. These trees started to leaf out
in the normal manner, but soon ceased growth and died.
Evidently the seedling root was less hardy than the top and
thus more easily injured. This sort of injury was most common
in the eastern part of the State, where there was little or no
snow on the ground.
The enumeration of these conditions favoring injury sug-
gests the remedies. Greater care should be exercised in choos-
ing sites that have free outlet below for cold air, and not
too great expanse of hillsides above from which cold air can
flow down upon the orchard. We cannot afford to discard
the Baldwin nor perhaps the other rather tender varieties,
but we can take all possible precautions to avoid injury.
Good orchard care, to secure vigorous but not excessive
growth and thorough ripening in the fall, is desirable from
all points of view. Root injury is not extensive in Massa-
chusetts, but in those parts of the State where the snow
covering is likely to be light it may be worth while with
hardy varieties to plant one-year trees, and put them deep
enough so they may root from the scion.
Work at the Market-garden Field Station.
Mr, H. F. Tompson makes the following report of the work
at the market-garden field station in North Lexington: —
During the first full year of the market-garden field station
the following projects have been started : —
1. Limited variety test to show the comparative qualities
of leading standard varieties of the common garden vegetables,
to compare with them certain new or improved sources pre-
sented to the trade.
2. The establishment of a one-fourth acre plot of Martha
Washington asparagus.
3. The beginning of a ten-year experiment to determine
the value of green manure as compared with stable manure
and a standard commercial fertilizer on a variety of vegetable
crops grown in regular rotation.
4. Test of the efficiency of the tar felt discs in the control
of the cabbage root maggot on the early crop.
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 47 a
5. Test of spray mixture in the control of early blight on
Golden Self-Blanching Celery, carried on in co-operation with
the department of plant pathology and reported by them.
6. Special test of twelve leading varieties of celery, carried
on in co-operation with experiment stations in New Hampshire,
Connecticut and Rhode Island, to determine the best varieties
for market in the respective States.
7. Test of bush beans to compare the freedom from disease
of seed grown in the irrigated section of the West and in
Louisiana.
8. Production of seed from parsnips, onions, carrots, beets
and spinach.
9. Test of Nature's Plant Food on beans and spinach.
Several other minor experiments have been under way, as,
for instance, the growing of celery 4, 5 and 6 inches apart in
the row to learn the most profitable distance for setting; the
test of varieties of lettuce for frost resistance; the planting
of spinach of several varieties to winter over, to test hardiness.
48 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY.
CHARLES E. MARSHALL.
Investigations in the department of microbiology during
the past year have been confined to two lines of work, — the
canning of food and a study of milk clarification. On account
of the w^ar situation the soil investigations were suspended
until normal conditions are resumed.
While we have secured many satisfactory results from our
canning investigations, nevertheless the work has been left
incomplete because of the changes in our staff due largely
to the demands of war service elsewhere. It is our hope that
we may resume this work with canning as opportunity and
facilities offer.
One portion of the clarification investigation has been com-
pleted and is now issuing in bulletin form. The other portion
is still under way.
The publications of the department for the past year may be
listed as follows: —
"Soy Beans as Human Food." A. llano. Mass. Exp. Sta. Bulletin No.
182. March, 1918.
"A Method for the Counting of Certain Protozoa in the Soil." A. Itano
and G. B. Ray. Soil Sci., 1918, Vol. V., pp. 303-310.
"Clarification of Milk." C. E. Marshall and E. G. Hood. Mass. Exp.
Sta. Bulletin No. 187, November, 1918.
The analytical work of the laboratory has been heavy during
the past year, and may be cited as follows: —
Milk samples, 1,095
Physicians' specimens, ........ 136
Water specimens, ......... 6
1919.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
49 a
Also, in accordance with our practice, we have distributed
legume cultures where requested. The number follows: —
For alfalfa,
For soy beans,
For beans,
For peas, .
For cow peas.
For white clover.
For red clover, .
For sweet clover,
For alsike clover.
For crimson clover,
For vetch,
98
96
110
60
3
4
20
12
12
2
3
Total,
420
50a EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan.
DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY.
H. D. GOODALE.
Improvement in egg production continues steadily. Pullets
laying 200 or more eggs have become very common. More-
over, many birds continue to lay for several weeks after the
completion of the three hundred and sixty-five day period.
The average production of the high lines (269 birds) is nearly
three dozen eggs more than the average flock production in
1915-16.
Eliminating Broodiness. — Starting with foundation stock
that was extremely broody, a strain of Rhode Island Reds
has been established that is almost as free from broodiness
as White Leghorns. In the original flock, 87 per cent became
broody, with an average of 4.9 broody periods for each broody
hen. In the non-broody line of Reds, 19.8 per cent became
broody, with an average of 1.9 times broody. Corresponding
figures for the Leghorns at the Storrs Contest, fifth report,
are 13.6 per cent broody, with an average of 1.3 broody
periods per bird.
Fortune has favored us, and the quick establishment of a
non-broody line of high producers seems assured through the
appearance of non-broody males in the high lines.
One of the most important results of this year's work is
the proof that high winter production descends directly from
mother to daughter; at least, this is true for the Rhode
Island Reds, since the offspring of high-producing Rhode
Island Red females by a Cornish male (poor winter layers)
were high producers.
The isolation method of rearing chicks continues to give
the same fine results, as always. Roup and colds can be
prevented as long as an unbroken quarantine is maintained.
1919.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 51a
A technical study of the mode of inheritance of winter egg
production has been completed, and the results are in course
of publication. This study deals with the following points: —
1. The applicability of Pearl's explanation to our data. This is demon-
strated.
2. The develo]3ment of another explanation.
3. The applicability of this explanation to the data. This is demon-
strated, and the points of its superiority over Pearl's explanation pointed
out.
4. Proof that both explanations have weaknesses, which makes neces-
sary a state of suspended judgment in regard to their validity.
5. Methods of proof for future use are presented.
Another study, also in press, has demonstrated that the
so-called interstitial cells of the hen's ovary are probably
eosinophilic leucocytes.
52 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SCIENCE.
JAMES B. PAIGE.
The policies adopted several years ago for the conduct of
the work in the veterinary department have been adhered
to during the past year in so far as the unusual conditions
of war have permitted. Two lines of work of an experimental
character have been considerably disturbed by war conditions.
These are referred to in detail below.
As usual there has been received in the department a large
number of letters from stock owners throughout the State
asking for information regarding the cause and nature of
diseases that have appeared among their domestic animals,
together with requests for suggestions as to the treatment and
suppression of the same. In every instance these communica-
tions have been answered by letter, and, in many instances,
bulletins from one source or another have been sent, giving
more detailed information than could be furnished by letter.
In addition to the correspondence referred to above there
has come to the department about the usual number of speci-
mens from sick or dead animals, with a request that an exami-
nation be made of the material for purposes of diagnosis and
the suggestion of a line of treatment for the cure of the disease
or the prevention of its spread to other animals on the farm.
In most instances the examination of this material has enabled
us to give to the stock owner information that has been of
distinct benefit to him in dealing with the particular disease
in question. It will be understood, of course, that in some
instances, on account of the selection of the specimen for
examination by the layman not familiar with pathological
conditions, the preservation and packing of the same for
transportation, delays in transportation and consequent de-
1919.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 53 «
composition, some of the material received has been in such
condition that an examination could give no satisfactory data
for a report or advice to the stock owner. In every instance,
however, after the specimen has been received and examined,
a detailed report in the form of a personal communication
has been forwarded to the party from whom the specimen
has come.
The examination of specimens from the stock owners has
been of value not alone to those from whom the materials
have come, but also to the students taking courses in the
department, for they are thus enabled to study specimens of
diseased tissue which it might be difficult to obtain in such
abundance and variety by any other means.
For several years prior to February, 1918, the department
staff has been engaged in three different lines of work, two
of which were strictly experimental in their nature, and the
third, a control measure for the suppression and elimination
of a disease of poultry. With the development of war con-
ditions in 1917 and 1918 it became necessary to suspend the
control work and one line of experimental study. The emer-
gency conditions due to the war have also seriously interfered
with the prosecution of the second line of investigational work.
Blood Test of Fow^ls.
From February, 1915, to February, 1918, there has been
carried on by the department a line of control work for the
suppression and elimination of bacillary white diarrhea in
fowls. Blood samples have been collected from flocks of
fowls in nearly one hundred towns of the State. These have
been brought to the veterinary laboratory and used for making
the agglutination test for the diagnosis of bacillary white
diarrhea. Upon the completion of the test a report has been
sent to the owner of the birds from which the blood samples
were taken, and detailed information given for the subsequent
treatment of the flock in order to eliminate the diseased birds
and to protect the healthy individuals from infection. During
the three years that the work has been in progress there have
been about 35,000 birds tested, with the most satisfactory
results from the disease suppression point of view.
54 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
For a period of about a year and a half prior to July, 1917,
Dr. J. B. Lentz was in charge of the blood-test work. On
the above date he was granted an indefinite leave of absence
to enable him to enlist in the national service. After a time
spent in several different military camps in this country he
was sent overseas for service in veterinary lines of work,
with the rank of captain. At the present writing he is still
in service overseas.
In order to continue the testing, Dr. C. T. Buchholz was
secured to begin work on July 1, 1917. He carried on the
work very suc^cessfully for a period of about two and one-half
months, when he resigned to accept a position as a veterinary
practitioner in his home State of Pennsylvania.
After a brief suspension of the work following the retirement
of Dr. Buchholz, it was resumed in October, 1917, by Dr. G.
E. Gage, associate professor of animal pathology. It was
carried along by him until Feb. 1, 1918, when he was given an
indefinite leave of absence to enable him to enter the military
service of the country. As a member of the Yale Medical
Unit he has been overseas for several months in charge of
certain lines of pathological and serological work connected
with the service. n
With the retirement of Dr. Gage it again became necessary
to suspend the testing of birds. It was hoped that the sus-
pension would be only temporary, contingent upon securing
the services of a suitably trained pathologist and bacteriologist
to enable us to again resume it. After prolonged search it
was found impossible to find a pathologist and bacteriologist
outside the service who was willing to vacate the position he
then held to accept a temporary appointment in the veterinary
department to engage in this control work. On this account
we have not been able to do the testing that we had hoped to
do prior to the coming of the present hatching season.
When the work was suspended in February of 1918, a circu-
lar letter was addressed to every poultryman and applicant
for the test who had had birds tested, advising that there
would probably be a suspension of the work, and suggesting
the advisability of his keeping his tested stock for the hatching
reason of 1919. Where this has been done the poultrymen
1919.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 55a
who had stock tested in 1917 or 1918 are experiencing but
little trouble in securing sufficient eggs from healthy birds to
meet their requirements for hatching the present season.
With the return of either Dr. Gage or Dr. Lentz to the
department, it is expected that the fowl testing will be resumed.
Bacterium Pullorum Studies.
In an earlier report the following studies relative to B.
puUorum by Dr. Gage were outlined: —
1. Bacterium pullorum infection.
2. A comparison of the antibodies of B. pullorum with those of the
B. coli-B. iyphi-B. dysentera' group of agglutinins.
3. The toxicity of B. pulloruvi products.
These several studies were incomplete in February, 1918,
when Dr. Gage left the department for service in the army.
The data have been preserved, and the work will be completed
and details published upon his return. It is to be hoped that
the completed projects may throw some light upon the manner
in which bacillary white diarrhea is spread among chicks and
adult birds, and possibly give us a simpler and shorter method
for making the blood test without a sacrifice of the accuracy
which is characteristic of the present complicated method.
Hog Cholera Investigations.
The studies now being made by the writer relative to the
prevention of hog cholera by the use of anti-hog cholera
serum, and the endurance of the acquired immunity to the
disease possessed by pigs born of mothers that are either
naturally immune or have been made so b}^ the simultaneous
treatment with serum and virus, have been continued through-
out the year, use having been made of a herd of from 75 to
150 pigs that are fed largely upon raw garbage for purposes
of experimentation.
In carrying on these investigations several difficulties have
been encountered that have interfered with the work to a
greater or less extent. The most important of these has been
the securing of a suitable supply of serum and virus for the
56 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1919.
treatment of the young pigs. The firm from which the supply
was obtained up to the present year has devoted so much
time and attention to the preparation of the various biological
products used in the army for the treatment of the soldiers
that it became necessary for them to discontinue the manu-
facture and distribution of some of their biological products
for the treatment and prevention of disease of domestic ani-
mals. This has been a serious handicap in the hog cholera
studies that are being carried on in the department, because
of the fact that it has no longer been possible to obtain the
same series of preparations that have been used in the earlier
investigation, and which it was hoped could be continued to
the completion of the experiment.
BULLETIN No. 182.
DEPARTMENT OP MICROBIOLOGY.
SOY BEANS {GLYCINE HISPIDA) AS HUMAN FOOD.
BY ARAO ITANO.
INTRODUCTION.
For centuries the importance of soy beans as human food has been
well known in oriental countries. Kellner/ Atwater 2 and others^ bear
testimony to this importance by their studies of the chemical composi-
tion, digestion and assimilation. Soy beans have furnished the chief
source of protein to the people of Japan and China; they are in universal
use, and have played the role of meat and milk for these nations. A lack
of animals, the economic conditions and religious rites have all had their
influence in making soy beans the leading protein food crop in this, one
of the most densely populated sections of the globe. Although a great
favorite and very important, the position of the white bean of the United
States is scarcely comparable with the conspicuous place occupied by the
soy bean in these eastern countries. It is the richest, cheapest and most
productive of all legumes, and is prepared by nearly as many methods for
human consumption as cow's milk.
At this particular time, when this country as well as others is searching
out economical food and food production, it may be well to inquire into
this article of food and its methods of preparation for humans, for it is
doubtless one of the most promising in sight.
This being a popular presentation, the technical and theoretical dis-
cussions of the subject will be held for future treatment. Not only from
the standpoint of food supply, but also from the standpoint of nitrogen
supply to the soil and industrial uses, the soy bean occupies a very im-
portant place.
1 O. Kellner: U. S. Dept. Com., Bur. For. and Dom. Com., Special Agents Series, No. 84,
Pt. I., 35.
2 W. O. Atwater: Farmers' Bull. No. 142, 1902, U. S. Dept. of Agr.
3 The Japanese investigations. Bulletins from College of Agriculture, Tokyo and Sapporo,
Japan.
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 182.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND DIGESTIBILITY.
Table I. — Chemical Composition of Dry, Ri-pened Soy Beans. ^
Soy Beans from —
China.
Hungary.
France.
United
States of
America
(Goess-
mann).
Japan.
Crude protein, .
Fat, .
Crude fiber.
Starch,
Ash, .
Other organic matter,
38.69
17.87
12.69
3.49
5.39
21.01
31.21
18.29
12.78
3.51
5.63
28.09
34.92
15.53
12.81
3.53
5.97
26.53
33.36
21.89
5.35
34.18
42.05
20.46
4.53
4.19
28.82
Table I. plainly indicates the very high percentage of protein, 31.21 to
42.05 per cent., and of fat, 15.53 to 21.89 per cent., which compares with
beef (round steak), containing an average of 19 per cent, proteins and
12.8 per cent. fats.
While it is a well-estabUshed fact that these substances, namely, pro-
teins and fats, are essential materials in animal nutrition, the results of
recent investigations indicate that individual proteins differ in their
digestibility and nutritive value, and that this difference is due to the
particular amino acids which they jield upon hydrolysis. The interpre-
tation, however, of such experimental results as have been thus far secured
"is somewhat confused. In case of the soy beans, the digestibility of the
crude protein and fat is estimated at somewhere between 65 and 92 per
cent., and 70 and 80 per cent., respectively, by the different investigators,
such as Oshima,^ Kellner ^ and others. Although these figures may not
necessarily be indicative of actual food value, the relative merit of the
soy bean as human food is very significant.
The author feels that there is still much to determine in the case of
vegetable and animal proteins, and that we have not 3'et reached the
stage in our knowledge where definite recommendations can be made.
Prauswitz'^ conception, one of many, may have some bearing in the case
of this particular food, for the preparation of soy beans does seem to have
a distinctive effect upon their digestive and assimilative values. It is
possible that the fundamental differences in the nature of the nutrients,
or proteins, may be disregarded. The long-continued, successful use of
soy beans in oriental countries, over two thousand years, cannot be con-
sidered Hghtly in scientific interpretation.
> M. Inouye: Bull. 2, 209, 1894-97, College of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan.
2 K. Oshima: Bull. 159, p. 191, 1905, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Exp. Sta.
3 O. Kellner: U. S. Dept. Com., Bur. For. and Dom. Com., Special Agents Series, No. 84,
Pt. I., p. 35.
« Prauswitz: Ztschr. Biol., 35 (1897), p. 335.
SOY BEANS AS HUMAN FOOD. 6
HUMAN FOOD PREPARED FROM SOY BEANS.
The various*food articles prepared from soy beans which are known to
the author are named below (names in parentheses indicate the Japanese
name) : —
1. Soy bean milk (toniu).
Ordinary method employed in Japan.
Toniu from the soy bean meal.
Author's method.
Synthetic toniu.
Condensed.
Evaporated (yuba).
2. Soy bean curd (tofu).
Fresh tofu.
Frozen tofu (kori tofu).
Fried tofu (abura-age).
3. Baked beans.
4. Boiled beans.
5. Roasted beans.
6. Powdered beans.
Roasted.
Raw.
7. Green beans.
8. Soy bean pulp (kara).
9. Fermented boiled beans (natto).
10. Ripened vegetable cheese (miso).
11. Soy bean sauce (shojna).
12. Vegetable butter and ice cream.
13. Oil (table use).
14. Lard (cooking).
Soy Bean Milk (Toniu).
The author suggests a Japanese term, toniu, meaning milk from beans,
to designate the hquid preparation from soy beans, the so-called "milk"
from soy beans, to avoid confusion of terms. The toniu may be prepared
by any one of the following processes, varying somewhat in quality and,
accordingly, adaptation to use.
The Ordinary Method employed in Japan.
1. Soak the beans in water for twelve hours at room temperature,
changing the water frequently.
2. Grind the beans to a fine smooth paste by means of a grinder, prefer-
ably a millstone, adding water to the ground mass from time to time,
to the amount of three times the bulk of beans.
3. Boil the mass to foaming for one hour.
4. Strain through fine cheesecloth. The strained fluid should be white
and opaque.
Note. — The toniu thus prepared resembles cow's milk. This is indi-
cated in Table II. Upon standing, fat globules separate out on the
4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 182.
surface. After standing several days souring takes place as in cow's
milk. It can be used very satisfactorilj^ for various family foods, as in
the preparing of bread, cake, vegetable stews, soups, chocolate, candies,
etc. It has a sHght vegetable flavor which may be objectionable to some
people for drinking purposes, although it is used to a considerable extent
in oriental countries.
Table II. — Composition of Soy Bean Milk compared with Coiv's Milk
(Per Cent.)}
Water,
Albuminoids, .......
Fat
Fiber,
Ash
Non-nitrogenous extract including carbohydrates.
Milk sugar,
Cow's Milk.
86.08
4.00
3.05
.70
5.00
Table II. indicates ' the similarity in composition between toniu and
cow's milk.
Toniu from the Soy Bean Meal}
1. Add water to the amount of five times the bulk of the bean meal.
2. Let it stand for twelve hours at room temperature.,
3. Boil it to foaming for one hour.
4. Strain through fine cheesecloth. The strained fluid should be white
and opaque.
Author's Method.
1. Add water to the amount of five times the bulk of the bean meal.
2. Inoculate the content with B. coli and with B. lactis osrogenes as
used in salt rising bread.
3. Let it stand for sixteen hours at room temperature.
4. Boil to foaming for one hour.
5. Filter through fine cheesecloth.
6. Add table salt to the amount of one-half teaspoonful per quart.
The addition of 5 per cent, milk sugar (lactose) improves the taste, and
may be desirable unless the milk is intended for diabetic patients.
1 M. Inouye: Bull. 2, 212, 1894-97, College of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan.
2 The soy bean meal may be obtained by grinding the beans in a wheat flour mill; a fine cofifee
mill works satisfactorily also. This preparation may be used in the same manner as the previous
product.
SOY BEANS AS HUMAN FOOD. 5
Note. — The advantage of tliis method over the others may be sum-
marized as follows : —
1. Elimination of disagreeable flavor.
2. Adjustment of taste.
3. Reducing the probability of flatulence in the alimentary canal.
4. Adaptability as a liquid food for diabetic patients.
The results of further investigation of the method and also of its nutri-
tive value are withheld for the present.
Synthetic Toniu.
Toniu of very high quality, which resembles cow's milk very closely in
composition, can be produced through both chemical and biological
means; in fact, the author has been informed that this end has been
accomplished in one of the London chemical laboratories. The author,
however, doubts its practicabiUty for domestic use.
Condensed Soy Bean Milk {Condensed Toniu). ^
1. Add 4 grams of dipotassium phosphate and 600 grams of cane sugar
to 4 liters of soy bean milk.
2. Concentrate the solution in vacuo to a very thick liquid.
Note. — It can be used like condensed cow's milk for the preparation
of chocolate, etc. It gives an agreeable taste, but has a very feeble odor
of raw beans.
Evaporated Soy Bean Milk (Yuba).
1. Boil the soy bean milk until a film is formed on the surface.
2. Collect the film and cut it in any shape desired.
Note. — The film consists of coagulated albuminoids and fat. It may
be used as an article of food, cooked in soup, etc.
Table III.
Soy Bean Curd (Tofu).
Chemical Composition of Some Preparations {Per Cent.)
Water.
Protein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrate,?.
Ash.
Fresh tofu,
Frozen tofu,
Fried tofu,
Tofu cake (kara), ....
Yuba,
88.11
18.72
57.40
84.49
18.31
6.29
48.65
21.96
5.28
49.65
3.38
28.65
18.72
1.58
18.00
1.64
2.33
.57
8.04
11.82
.58
1.65
1.35
.66
2.22
Table III. indicates the chemical composition of various preparations
from soy bean milk. The digestibihty of the nutrients in tofu has been
1 T. Katayama: Bull. 7, 113, 1906-08, College of Agriculture, Tokyo. Japan.
2 K. Oshima: Bull. 159, 28, 1905, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Exp. Sta
6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 182.
found to be as high as 95 per cent, for protein, 95 per cent, for fat, and
99 per cent, for carbohj^drates.^ Thus the composition and the digesti-
bihty of tofu estabhsh it as a very nutritive food substance.
The methods of preparation of these articles will be given in the follow-
ing pages.
Fresh Curd (Tofu).
1. Prepare the soy bean milk either from whole beans or from bean
meal as described pre\'iously.
2. Add 2 per cent, of any one of the following substances while it is
hot, stirring constantly : —
(a) Mother liquid of sea salt.^
(b) Magnesium and calcium chloride solution.^
(c) Saturated solution of alum.^
(d) Vinegar.^
3. Filter off the liquid.
4. Press the precipitate in a wooden frame.
5. Let the pressed curd float in a large quantity of fresh cold water
in order to free the coagulum from chemicals added.
Note. — In Japan tofu is prepared and sold in the market as baked
goods are in this country. Its preparation may be too involved for the
domestic kitchen. Among the coagulants the mother liquid of sea salt
and the magnesium mixture are preferred to the others because the
excess of these substances is almost completely removed by immersing in
cold water.
Frozen Tofu {Kori Tofu).
1. Cut the fresh tofu into small pieces.
2. Subject the pieces to freezing.
3. Dry in vacuo after freezing.
Note. — The product thus prepared can be preserved for years and
transported very easily. Freezing hastens the removal of water. The
final product is porous and can be eaten in soups.
Fried Tofu (Abura-age).
1. Cut the frozen tofu into the desired size.
2. Fry it in rape-seed oil, sesame-seed oil, or in a large quantity of lard
until the surface becomes brown.
Note. — It makes a very palatable, rich food, and may be eaten like
fried egg or meat, or in soup.
' When eaten with rice.
- This is commonly used.
3 Mix the saturated solution of magnesium and calcium chloride in proportion of 4 : 1. (The
author's recommendation.)
* Recommendation of the author.
* Recommendation of the author; ordinary table vinegar.
SOY BEANS AS HUMAN FOOD.
Baked Beans.
1. Soak the beans, suspended in a cloth bag, in a large quantity of hot
water over night. (Soaking for twenty-four hours in cold water which
is changed occasionally will give the same result.)
2. Change the water, when hot water is applied, in the morning and an
hour or two before cooking.
3. Add 1 teaspoonful of soda per quart of beans and boil until the beans
become soft.
4. Bake like other beans.
Note. — The characteristic strong flavor of the beans is removed by
soaking before cooking; the addition of soda makes the beans soft. Cook-
ing with salt pork, potatoes, onions, molasses and other substances makes
the beans more palatable to some tastes.
Boiled Beans.
Treat the beans as in the case of the baked beans, and boil them in
a double boiler four to five hours until they become soft.
Note. — The addition of any one of the articles recommended for use
with the baked beans may make the beans more agreeable to some people.
Roasted Beans.
1. Roasting can be done either in an oven or in an ordinary corn popper.
2. Roast until the skin of the bean is burst by popping.
Note. — The beans can be kept soft by immersing them in a syrup
while thej^ are hot. Thus very wholesome candy is prepared.
Powdered Beans.
Roasted.
1. Roast as in the roasted beans.
2. Let them stand until cool to harden them.
3. Grind them in a coffee mill or any other suitable grinder.
Note. — The powder can be used as salad dressing or cooked with
cookies like peanuts and other nuts, or employed as a substitute for coffee.
Raw (Soy Bean Meal).
Grind the raw beans to a fine powder.
Note. — One part of bean meal mixed with 4 parts of wheat flour in
bread makes a quite palatable bread, which is very nutritious; it is also
used for biscuit, muffins, etc. Bread made of soy bean meal alone is
recommended for diabetic patients, as it contains only very small amounts
of starch, sugar and dextrin. ^
1 A. L. Winton: Conn. State Exp. Sta. Rept., 30, 153-165, 1906.
8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 182.
Green Beans.
1. Pick them when the beans are three-fourths to full grown.
2. Boil them in salt water.
3. Discard the pods.
4. Serve the beans with butter or milk.
Note. — The pods are tough and they can be removed easily on
boiling.
Soy Bean Pulp (Kara).
1 . This is the residue after the milk is extracted in the process of prep-
aration of so.y bean milk.
2. Cooked like any other vegetable with proper seasoning.
Note. — Makes a very rich dish; an addition of green onions, cabbage
or parsnip may improve it.
Fermented Boiled Beans (Natto).
1. Boil beans for five hours.
2. Wrap inside of a straw bundle.
3. Smoke them in a closed cellar by building a wood fire and closing
the door.
4. Let them ferment in a warm, moist atmosphere at 40° C. for twenty-
four hours.
Note. — In making the bundle rice straw is preferred. This may not
be suited to American palates on account of its peculiar flavor, which is
due to the ripening protein. This recipe may also be undesirable on
account of the difficulties involved in the process.
Table IV. — Chemical Composition of Natto {Per Cent.).''-
Nitrogen proteids, .......... 4.033
Nitrogen of amides, .......... 1.892
Nitrogen of peptone, .......... 1.617
Total nitrogen, 7.542
The relatively high percentage of total nitrogen may be due to the loss
of carbon as carbon dioxide during the fermentation.
Ripened Vegetable Cheese ^ (Miso).
1. Preparation of "mother miso," or koji.^
2. Steam soy beans for twenty-four hours.
3. Rub into a thick, uniform paste.
1 K. Yabe: Bull. Vol. 2, 72, 1894-97, College of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan.
2 Koji used for manufacturing miso is similar to that used in making sak6, — Japanese rice
wine. It consists of barley or rice with a culture of certain forms of fungi, chiefly Aspergillus
oryzse. It contains diastatic, inverting and proteolytic ferments.
SOY BEANS AS HUMAN FOOD.
9
4. Add proper amount * of koji, salt and water.
5.' ]\Iix well and store in a vat at 15° to 20° C.
6. Let it ferment for a certain period of time according to the variety
of miso.
Note. — Preparation of miso at home is not easily done because of the
complexity of the technic, although it is very often practiced in Japan.
Koji is sold in Japan on the market from special factories. It can be
used very extensively for preparing soups, cooking vegetables, making
sandwiches, etc. Different kinds of miso are produced through the use
of different manipulations and components.
Table V. — Composition of Red and White Miso {Per Cent.)?
^
S!
•^
^_j
J-
3
s
O
J^
CB .
Q
J.
"S
i
>>
Q
id
c
'S
2
fa
~ 6
s
3
5
."p
1^
o
s
e
o
U
<
Is
0
White miso, .
59.27
89.78
22.13
10.18
5.10
1.09
6.31
8.32
.95
5.99
7.70
Red miso,
50.16
48.66
32.28
12.48
6.46
2.31
2.72
10.40
1.18
10.84
12.40
Table V. indicates a high percentage of substance soluble in cold water.
This fact makes it very convenient material to be used in soups. A
trace of alcohol is present also.
Soy Bean Sauce (Shoyu).
1. One part each of beans, wheat and common salt and 2 parts of water
are used.
2. Roast and pulverize wheat.
3. Steam and mash the beans as in case of miso. Cool to 40° C.
4. Add powdered wheat in the proportion of 70 parts of the caked
beans to 30 parts of the wheat by weight. Mash and mix thoroughly.
5. Add spores of Aspergillus oryzoe, then mix. Spread upon wooden
vessels or trays, about 3 liters per tray. The trays are stacked away in
a cellar where the temperature is kept somewhat above 40° C. (After
twenty to twenty-five hours, the mycelium of the fungus will be found;
evolution of CO2 and heat is observed as the fermentation proceeds;
after about six days the growth of the fungus is completed, and an abund-
ance of yellowish spores, "perithecia," is present. The temperature is
kept approximately at 27° to 28° C.) Dry the material and grind. This
is the shoyu-koji.
6. Heat the required amount of water and salt to 115° to 118° C.
Cool to room temperature.
* The amount to be added varies according to the kind of miso desired.
2 K. Oshima: Loc. Cit. p. 30.
10
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 182.
7. Mix shoyu-koji with the salt solution.
8. Allow the mixture to ferment in casks for one to two years with
frequent stirring.
9. On the completion of fermentation, filter and press.
10. Allow filtrate to settle for two or three days.
11. Remove the clear supernatant liquid and heat it at 70° to 100° C.
in a double boiler from two to three hours.
12. To improve the taste it is common to add a certain quantity of
sugar or sweet sak6 during the heating process.
Note. — This sauce is mainly manufactured in zymo factories in Japan,
for its preparation at home is too difficult. It is a thick, dark brown
liquid and used extensively in Japan and China. It may be used in
American kitchens for soups, gravies and vegetable stews, and makes a
good substitute for Worcestershire sauce or any other table sauce. It
has very slight food value, but its merit lies in its flavor, which seems
to sharpen the appetite and accelerate the digestive functions.^
Table \l. — Chemical Composition of Shoyu (Per Cent.)^
NUMBEB
Specific
Gravity.
Water.
Protein.3
Carbohydbate.
Free
Acid,
mostly
Lactic.
Ash.
Com-
mon
Salt.
Phos-
phoric
Acid.
OF
Sample.
Glucose.
Dextrin.
1, . .
2, . .
3, . .
1.185
1.190
1.208
62.39
62.82
60.58
9.28
9.53
9.15
2.70
3.33
5.85
.69
.69
1.43
1.18
1.33
.92
18.48
18.70
20.14
16.03
15.67
17.47
.53
.51
.46
Vegetable Butter, Ice Cream, Oil (Table Use) and Lard (Cooking) .
The manufacture of these articles from soy beans needs further in-
vestigation. To say anything further concerning their economical and
industrial importance at the present time would be premature.
1 Pawlow: The Work of the Digestive Glands, London, 1902.
2 K. Oshima: Bull. 159, 32, 1905, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Exp. Sta.
3 Consists of soluble albumin, peptone and further cleavage products. Eisei Shiken Jho:
Bull. Imp. Sanit. Lab., Tokyo, No. 8, 35, 1897.
BULLETIN No. 183.
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY.
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL/
BY P. J. ANDERSON.
INTRODUCTION.
Rose canker is a serious disease of greenhouse roses which was first
described in 1917. It has probably been long prevalent in America, but
has escaped notice largely on account of its obspure symptoms and con-
sequent difficulty of diagnosis. Its ravages were formerly assigned to
other causes or left unexplained. Rose growers who first brought it to
the attention of this station in November, 1916, stated that they had
been suffering severe losses for at least four years. After conditions in
the rose houses had been investigated, the situation was considered so
serious that work was immediately begun to determine more of the nature
of the disease, and especially to find a remedy for it. The investigation
was started in co-operation with L. M. Massey, pathologist of the Ameri-
can Rose Societj^, who first observed the disease two months before this,
and had already decided that its seriousness warranted a thorough inves-
tigation. Research at the Massachusetts station has been largely confined
to determination of the best methods of controlling the disease and inves-
tigation of such facts in the life history of the causal fungus as have a
direct bearing on control measures. Massey undertook investigation of
other phases of the disease, and has recently published his results (1917).
A successful method of control has been evolved and is presented in this
bulletin, but it is hoped that, as a result of long-term experiments now in
progress in commercial houses, this method will be improved and, pos-
sibly, other easier methods found. However, since this will require a
number of years, the present method is published in order that rose
growers who are troubled with the disease may have the benefit of all
that we already know about canker and its control.
1 The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. A. Vincent Osmun, head of the department of botany
at this station, for much valuable assistance, suggestions and criticism of the manuscript of this
bulletin.
12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
Only roses under glass are known to be affected. Some varieties, e.g.,
Hoosier Beauty, are more susceptible than others, but there is yet no
evidence that any are immune. Massey (1917) observed the disease on
Hoosier Beauty, Ophelia, Hadley, Russell, Sunburst, American Beauty
and many seedlings. It has been reported only from the northern and
eastern United States, but closer observation will probably show that
it has a much wider range.
SYMPTOMS.
The disease is most easily recognized by brown dead areas (cankers)
in the bark of the stems. These are more frequent and larger at the
crown than higher up, but any part of the stem or branches may be at-
tacked. Crown cankers may be below the surface, just at the surface,
or, more often, extending up the stem, sometimes several inches (Plate I.,
Fig. 1). They may be confined to one side or may girdle the stem. The
young canker is blue-black or purplish in color and smooth, but as it
becomes older the part above ground becomes reddish brown, dry, hard
and cracked longitudinally. The margin is definite, and the dead area
becomes sunken. Frequently the part of the stem immediately above
the canker is swollen (Plate II.). When the subterranean part of the
canker becomes old it fs soaked and "punky," and the bark may be
rubbed off between the thumb and forefinger, or it may rot away entirely
(Plate I., Fig. 1). Sometimes a callus is formed around the edge of the
canker.
Two types of cankers occur on the stem and branches higher up. The
larger ones start from wounds, especially the stubs which are left after
the blossoms are cut (Plate I., Fig. 2). Cankers from these stubs run
back down the stems. The canker may stop at the first live branch
below, but very commonly it continues to progress downward, and each
successive branch dies as it is encircled by the descending canker. Can-
kers may also start from other wounds besides cut stubs. They are
usually oval in outline and may be several inches long. The second type
of aerial canker does not originate with wounds, but starts directly in
the healthy green bark. First, small round purple areas appear, some-
times singly but more often in groups. As these increase in size the cen-
ters become light brown and the margins remain dark, giving a "bird's-
eye" effect. When they occur in groups they coalesce and form large
irregular dead areas in which, however, the individual cankers may still
be distinguished for some time (Plate III., Fig. 2).
The depth of the canker varies, depending on such factors as the age
of the part attacked, size of the infection court, environmental condi-
tions and probably others. This is particularly a disease of the bark,
and commonly the discolored area will be located outside the cambium
entirely. But in more severe cankers it may extend to, or entirely through,
the pith. If the shoot is young and has not yet hardened, the canker goes
deeper and the entire shoot dies. This is frequently evidenced in the
PLATE I.
Fig. 1 . — Old canker running up from the crown.
Fig. 2. — Canker running down from a cut atub.
PLATE II.
Canker on a lateral branch showing hypertrophy.
PLATE III.
Fig. 1. — Canker resulting from coalescence of a number of small ones from stomatal infections.
Fig. 2. — Five cankers on a single stem.
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 13
sudden wilting and dying of shoots which have grown up rapidly from
below the surface of the ground. Older shoots are rarely killed outright.
Only occasionally have we seen entire plants killed by this disease.
One, several or all of the shoots of a plant may be attacked. Dead " brush "
and dead small shoots are usually much in evidence in affected houses.
The seriousness of the disease, however, lies not in the number of plants
killed but in the fact that affected plants are small and weaker, resulting in
diminished yields of inferior roses. The diseased plants cannot be forced,
no matter how much fertilizer is applied and how well they are cultivated.
New shoots do not grow from beneath the surface of the soil, but all
come from the tops. These latter symptoms are the ones which the
florist usually notices first, and, in fact, may be the only ones he notices.
Diagnosis of this disease is rendered difficult by two natural develop-
ments in the life of the rose plant which may easily be confused with
disease: (1) Many varieties of roses naturally turn black at the crown
very early; this, however, is a superficial blackening, and rarely runs
up much above the surface of the ground. (2) The bark of all rose stems
cracks with age, especially at the base, just as the bark of trees does.
These two developments often resemble canker so closely that even
one experienced in diagnosis may be misled.
DESCRIPTION OF THE CAUSAL FUNGUS.
Rose canker is produced by the parasitic growth of a fungus, Cylin-
drocladium scoparium Morg., within the tissues of the host (rose plant).
Previous to 1917 this fungus had not been reported as a parasite. It was
first found in Ohio by Morgan (1892) growing on an old pod of the honey
locust {Gleditsia triacanthus L.). Seven years later it was reported again
by Ellis and Everhart (1900) as growing on dead leaves of the papaw
tree {Asimina triloba Dunal), and described as a new species, Diplocladium
cylitidrosporum E. and E.; but a study of the type materials of the two
species by Massey showed them to be the same. As far as the literature
shows, these are the only times that the organism had been observed up
to 1916, and both times as a saprophyte.
The body of the fungus is composed of (1) mycelium, (2) sclerotia,
(3) sporophores (conidiophores), and (4) spores (conidia). These four
parts, or organs, of the fungus are here described separately.
Mycelium.
The mycelium is the part of the parasite which lives inside the tissues
of the rose stem. It is composed of many microscopically slender, branch-
ing, tubular threads (hyphoe) which grow in every direction through the
host cells for the purpose of securing nourishment from them for the
fungus. Incidentally, in this process, the cells are killed and turn brown,
thus producing the canker. The hypha? are 4 to 6 " in diameter, and are
divided by cross-walls (septa) into cells 5 to 20 times as long as their
14
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
Fig.
-Old mycelium, showing
chlamydospores.
diameter. The manner of branching and septation is shown in Fig. 1.
When the myceUum is young the walls are thin and not constricted, or,
at most, only slightly constricted, at the septa. The contents consist
of homogeneous protoplasm. Both the walls and contents are colorless,
and when seen in
mass, in pure cul-
ture, look like white
cotton. But when
the mycelium be-
comes older it be-
comes brown, the
hypha? are gnarled
and twisted, deeply
constricted at the
septa, the cells short
and oval or globose,
giving one the im-
pression of strings
Fig. 1.- Young mycelium of beads (Fig. 2).
from culture. The cells now con-
tain large drops of
reserve food, and the walls are thick. These cells are probably more
resistant to adverse conditions, and serve to carrj^ the fungus through
unfavorable periods. They may be called chlamydospores. Their diam-
eter is much greater than that of the ordinary hyphse, as indicated^by
the figures.
SCLEROTIA.
Sometimes the surface of old cankers is dotted over vnth minute shining
black pimples (Plate II.). They are usually not much larger than a pin
point and never as large as a pin head.
To the naked ej'e they look like pycnidia,
but microscopic examination always
proves them to be sterile balls of thick-
walled pseudoparenchymatous fungous
cells (typical sclerotia) . Thej^ are directly
under the epidermis, but this does not
obscure their shining black prominence.
In certain culture media they are pro-
duced in great abundance. The cells are
much like the chlamydospores; in fact,
the sclerotia seem to be only a further
development of the chlamydospore-forming hypha*, and all gradations
between the two maj' be found. Their function is probably the same
as that of the chlamydospores. A thin cross-section of one is shown in
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. — Thin section through a
sclerotiuni.
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL.
15
Fig. 4. — Tuft of conidiophores
on a dead rose stem.
CONIDIOPHORES.
The conidia, or ordinary spores, — as distinguished from the chlam-
ydospores, — are borne on special upright branches, — conidiophores.
These are produced in great abundance in artificial culture, but are
rarely seen on the cankers. The writer has found them occasionally just
at the surface of the ground on young shoots
recently killed by the pathogene. But in
badly infested rose beds which are kept wet
they are produced in great abundance on
dead shoots and parts of the rose plants
which are cut off and left to decay on the
ground under the bushes. To the naked eye
the dead shoots seem to be dusted over in
patches with a white powder. Under a
strong hand lens — or better, a binocular
microscope — each particle of this white
powder is seen to be composed of a tuft of
slender-stalked "brooms" with glistening white heads. One of these
tufts is shown in Fig. 4. Each httle broom is a conidiophore with its
mass of conidia on the apex. The number of conidiophores in a tuft
varies from 5 to 40, or more. No de-
tails, further than shown by Fig. 4, can
be made out
under the bin-
oculars. Under
the compound
microscope,
however, it is
possible to de-
termine accu-
rately the struc-
ture of these
little brooms.
Examined in
the dry condi-
tion they ap-
pear as in Fig.
5, where the
conidia are
cemented to-
gether into a solid head. But when mounted in water the cement
which holds them together dissolves, many of them float away, and
the head becomes loose as represented in Fig. 6. The main stem of the
conidiophore may be unbranched up to just below the conidia, as repre-
sented by Fig. 5, or it may show one or more monopodial branches at
Fig. 5. — Conidiophores and
conidia as seen in a dry
condition.
Fig. 6. — Conidiopliores as seen when
mounted in water, many of the conidia
washed away.
16
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
various heights. The spores are frequently borne on lateral branches
of this stem (Fig. 6), while the main stem is continued upward and
terminates in an enlarged club. The ultimate branchlets, and one or
two series below them, are usually in threes, as shown in Fig. 5, but
twos are not uncommon. In regard to the dimensions of the co-
nidiophore, Morgan (1892) writes: "the fertile hyphaj have a simple
septate stem 5 to 7 /^ in thickness, and are dissolved above into a level-
topped cyme of branches; their height, exclusive of the spores which
easily fall off, is 125 to 150 z'." Ellis and Everhart (1900) give the di-
mensions as 50-110 X 5-6 //. In pure
culture the writer has found them taller
than the above measurements; an average
of 50 conidiophores grown on potato agar
gave 291 ^t, and the diameter of the stalk,
6.6. fi.
CONIDIA.
The conidia are
long, cylindrical,
obtuse at each end,
hyaline, divided
into 2 cells by a
septum at the
center (Fig. 7). The
contents are at first
homogeneous, but
later show vacu-
oles or oil drops
(Fig. 8). Morgan
(1892) gives the dimensions as 40-50 x 4 // at the apex, and 3 /^ at the
base; Ellis and Everhart (1900), 40-50x4-5/^; Massey (1917), 36-55 x
3.3-4.51 fi, with an average of 48.3 x 4.13 /i. The writer found the aver-
age of 50 on a young potato agar culture to be 48.8 x 5.1^; 50 on a
two-months' culture, 39.2 x 4.03//; 50 produced on a pod of Gleditsia,
41x4.1/^.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE FUNGUS.
Before any measure of control could be intelligenth^ attempted it
was first necessary to become intimately acquainted with the life history
of the causal organism (the pathogene) . In the studies which are recorded
below most attention was directed to those points which appeared to
have a direct connection with control. Nevertheless, in order to become
familiar with the entire life cycle, certain phases of development which
have no obvious connection had to be investigated. For convenience in
discussion, the life history is treated under three heads : —
1. Germination of the spores.
2. Parasitic life of the fungus (pathogenesis).
3. Saprophytic life of the fungus.
Fig. 7. — Germinating conidia.
Fig. 8. — Old conidia.
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 17
Germination of the Spores.
The life cycle begins with germination of the spores. The first essential
condition for germination is the presence of water. Spores never ger-
minate except when they are directly in water. A moist atmosphere is
not sufficient. Germination takes place through the production of one
or more tubes from each of the two cells of the spore. Usually the tubes-
do not start at the same time; one in each cell begins to grow, and this
is later followed by another. Four germ tubes to each spore is the most
frequent condition, but there may be more or fewer. The tubes may
come out from any place on the surface of the spores, as illustrated in
Fig. 7. They elongate very rapidly at laboratory temperatures, quickly
develop septa, branch repeatedly and soon a mycelium is produced.
The brown thick-walled cells of the mycelium, which we have called
chlamydospores, germinate by the production of slender hyaline germ
tubes similar to those of the conidia and under the same conditions.
Other detached cells of the mycelium also possess the power of germina-
tion. Especially is it common to see germ tubes arising from the cells of
the main stem of the conidiophore when detached and kept in water.
Such germ tubes usually arise from the end walls of the cells, and may
grow directly through one or more old cells before emerging.
Temperature Relations.
The relation of temperature to germination of spores was studied
carefully in the hope of evolving some method of control by keeping the
rose houses at temperatures which are unfavorable for germination and
thus retarding progress of the disease. The general effect of variation
of temperature and the maximum, minimum and optimum temperature
for germination were determined by the following method : —
Method. — Viable spores from a young, pure culture were transferred to a drop
of water in the center of a glass slide. The slide was supported on two short glass
rods in a Petri dish, used as a moist chamber. A few drops of water placed in
the bottom of the dish kept the air humid and prevented drying out of the drop
containing the spores. The Petri dish was then kept at the desired constant tem-
perature in incubator, refrigerator or constant temperature room. Observations
were taken and percentages of germination counted at regular intervals. No figures
are based on the results from a single slide. Each result tabulated represents the
average of several slides. Tests at high or low temperatures were controlled by
duplicates at ordinary room temperatures.
The results of the tests are summarized in Table I.
18
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
Table I. — Effect of Temperature Variation on Spore Gerrnvnation .
Temperature, Centigrade
(Degrees).
Period before starting to
germinate (Hours).
Percentage of Germina-
tion in 24 Hours.
5
-
0
S-9, .
24
1 (2 per cent, in 48 hours).
12, .
5
95
15, .
17, .
Not observed before 7 hours, when
about 20 per cent, had started.
4-5
95
95
20, .
4i
95
22-23,
3-4
95
25-26,
2-3J
95
28, .
30, .
Not observed before 6i hours,
when 95 per cent, had germinated.
6^
95
95
31, .
6i
70
33.5,
6i
21 (Erratic and abnormal)
36, .
4
70
37.5,
-
0
40, .
'
-
0
It is apparent from these tests that spores germinate at any tempera-
ture between 8° and 36° C. Between 12° and 30° the percentage of
germination was almost total, ranging from 95 to 100 per cent, (all
marked 95 per cent, in the table). Within these limits there was prac-
tically no variation of percentage due to temperature. In other words,
if the optimum temperature is to be determined by percentage germina-
tion alone, it is very wide. Below 12° the percentage drops off rapidly
until at 8° to 9° we get but 1 per cent, in twenty-four hours. Germina-
tion ceases altogether below this. Between the temperatures of 31° and
36° it is difficult to express the effects of temperature in percentages.
Not only is germination erratic, varying greatly in slides apparently
treated alike, but it may also be so abnormal that it is difficult to de-
termine just what constitutes germination. The spores assume peculiar
shapes by the development of knobs or, more commonly, globose swellings
twice the diameter of the spores. These vary in number and location,
but most frequently they are on the ends of the spores. Very slender
unbranched germ tubes may grow for a time from these. The percentage
of spores affected does not gradually diminish to form a regular curve.
Thus, in one test at 36°, 70 per cent, were affected in this way. But
at 37.5° there was no germination or change in the spores which could
be detected with the microscope. The effect of temperature v£.riation
is more apparent in the tivie required for germination to begin than in
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 19
the final percentage of germination. In this respect there is a rather
regular curve. The optimum is at about 25°, where germination begins in
two to three and one-half hours. At 12° it required five hours, and at S°
no germination was apparent until after twenty-four hours. The fact that
spores do not germinate at a certain temperature does not mean that
they are dead. Spores kept for two daj's at 5° showed not the least indi-
cation of germination, but when brought back to ordinary room tem-
peratures they quickly germinated to over 95 per cent. Experiments
to be described later show that spores may be kept for long periods at
temperatures both lower and higher than indicated in this table and
still retain their viability.
Apparently there is little opportunity for retarding the progress of the
disease by maintaining temperatures in the house, unfavorable to the
fungus, because the optimum temperature for spore germination is ap-
proximately the same as the optimum for growing roses. The latitude
of the germination optimum is also unfavorable to such a method of
control.
Effect of freezing the Spores.
It is a well-known fact that the spores — especially the conidia — of
many fungi are quickly killed by freezing, and this weakness may be
utilized in checking disease. The purpose of the present investigation
was to determine whether the spores of Cylindrocladium can be killed by
freezing, and if so, how much exposure is required. Two methods were
used.
First Method. — Petri dishes containing young cultures with abundance of spores
were exposed to out-of-door temperatures of — 3° to - — 10°C. Checks were first
made at room temperatures to test the viability of the spores. Spores were re-
moved from the frozen plates at regular intervals and put to germinate in moist
chambers at ordinary room temperatures, as described above in spore germination
tests. By this method the spores were dry when frozen.
After about two hours the percentage of germination began to decline;
in eight hours it had fallen to 10 per cent.; in twelve hours, to less than
1 per cent.; and at the end of fourteen hours there was no germination
whatever. All checks germinated 95 per cent.
Second Method. — Spores were transferred from plates along with a portion of
the agar to drops of water on slides. All was macerated until the spores were well
distributed through the water. They were immediately put outside to freeze and
one slide brought into the laboratory at the end of each hour and tested for ger-
mination.
The results were very similar to those obtained by the first method.
Freezing for one hour seemed not to affect them at all; in two hours the
percentage dropped to from 75 to 80 per cent.; in three hours, to 30 per
cent.; in six and one half hours, to 25 per cent.; in ten hours, to 1 per
cent. From 1 to 2 per cent, germinated even after exposures of twenty-
20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
four hours, but these were spores in the center of the drop of water, or
directly in the agar, which seemed to give them some protection. There
was no germination whatever after thirty-six hours.
The first method more nearly approximates natural conditions, but
under any conditions we may safely draw the conclusion from these
experiments that all spores are killed by freezing during thirty-six hours.
Thermal Death Point of Spores.
Investigation of this point was undertaken with a view to the possi-
bility of sterilization by heat. Thermal death point is defined as the
lowest temperature at which an organism is killed by an exposure for ten
minutes. Since tliis point might be different for spores than for mycelium,
each was tried separately.
Method. — Spores from a young culture immersed in a drop of water were placed
in a thin pipette tube, sealed at one end and covered with a rubber cap at the
other. The tubes were then dropped into vessels of water kept at the desired
temperature. Each vessel was supplied with a thermometer, and could be iieated
by a Bunsen burner when necessary. After ten minutes the tubes were removed,
the sealed end filed off, and the spores forced out through it on to a glass slide
by pressing the rubber cap at the other end. The slides were then put in moist
chambers as previously described in germination tests. These were kept at ordi-
nary laboratory temperatures. Temperatures at intervals of 1°, from 40° to 55°,
were tried. All tests were made in duplicate several times.
Up to and including 46° the spores did not seem to be affected by ten-
minute exposures. Above this the percentage remaining alive declined
very rapidly to the absolute thermal death point of 49°, At this tem-
perature none ever germinated.
It was also found that spores can be killed at lower temperatures than
49° by exposing them for longer periods. In some previous experiments it
had been determined that they are killed by an exposure to 37.5° for
twenty-four hours. At 42° they are killed in two hours. To determine
the efTect of varying the period of exposure at a given temperature, 40°
was selected as a standard, and spores exposed (in drops of water on
slides in Petri dishes) during periods differing by intervals of one hour.
They were then brought back to room temperature and tested as above.
The results of this series are given in Table II.
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL.
21
Table II. — Germination of Spores after Exposure to a Temperature of
40° C.
Period of Exposure (Hours).
Time required
after Removal to Room
Temperature before
beginning to germinate.
Percentage of
Germination after
24 Hours at Room
Temperature
(20-24° C).
9, 12, 14, 18, 20,
95 per cent, in 3J hours.
Not observed sooner.
2J hours. Just starting.
3 hours. Just starting.
60 per cent, after 5 hours.
At least longer than 4
hours.
1 per cent, in 7 hours.
At least longer than 6
hours.
Over 95
Over 95
Over 95
Over 95
50
3
0 5
0
0
It will be noticed that the longer the period of exposure, the longer the
time required for germination after being removed to room temperature.
There was no decrease in the percentage of germination until after four
hours. From this point it dropped rapidly to less than 1 per cent, in
six and one-half hours, and no germination whatever after seven and one-
half hours.
Effect of Desiccation on the Spores.
The length of time during which spores are able to live in a dry condi-
tion may have an important bearing on dissemination of a fungus and
spread of a disease. Neither the thinness of the walls nor character of the
spore contents of Cylindrocladium would lead one to expect great lon-
gevity. The following method was used to determine longevity at
ordinary room humidity : —
Method. — The lids of Petri dishe.s, containing pure cultures of Cylindrocladium
with abundance of conidia, were lifted enough to allow the thin film of agar to
become hard and dry within a day or two. At intervals of one day spores were
transferred from these dishes to drops of water on slides in Petri dishes, as pre-
viously described for other germination tests. The percentages of germination
were determined after the spores were kept in moist chambers for twenty-four
hours. All checks — made from the cultures before tilting the lids — germinated
to over 95 per cent. Several hundred spores were transferred for each test. Three
different Petri dish cultures were used at different times.
In every trial the percentage of germination began to decline after
twenty-four hours. In two days it had dropped to 25 per cent.; in five
days, to 10 per cent. After ten days not more than 1 per cent, germinated,
and in no case was any germination observed after drying for fifteen days.
22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
The longevity of conidia, then, appears to be very limited when kept
in a dry condition. When the atmosphere is kept ver_y humid they live
longer, at least several weeks, but no careful investigation has been
undertaken to determine just how long with each degree of humidity.
If water stands on them, even in the culture dish, they germinate and
then quickly die if dried out at once.
Parasitic Life of the Fungus.
Pathogenicity.
In order to prove that an organism is the causal factor of a certain
disease there are four requirements — called the four rules of proof —
which pathologists all agree must be fulfilled. These are: (1) find the
organism constantly associated with the disease; (2) isolate the organism,
grow and study it in pure cultures; (3) produce the disease again by
inoculation from these pure cultures; (4) reisolate the organism and prove
by culture its identity with the organism which was first found. These
four rules were complied with by Massey (1917), and the pathogenicity
of Cylindrocladium scoparium established. The present writer has also
given the four rules repeated test, and obtained results similar to those
of Massey. These experiments are not described in detail here, but
only certain notes on each of the four steps recorded.
1. Constant association of the pathogene with the canker is not so
easy to establish as in most fungous diseases because the fungus can rarely
be seen with the naked eye on cankers in rose houses. Nevertheless, the
writer has occasionally been able to find a white band of conidia around
cankers on young shoots just at the surface of the ground. Almost always
when a canker is kept in a moist chamber for twenty-four hours or longer
the mycelium grows out as long, straight, white hypha^, which can readily
be recognized as peculiar to Cyhndrocladium by one who has become
acquainted with the appearance of this fungus. Also, after a few days
in the moist chamber, conidia usually begin to develop on the surface.
The presence of the pathogene in old cankers is also often betrayed bj'
sclerotia, — small, flat, shining black specks just under the epidermis.
Yet the writer has often found cankers in which the organism could not
be determined in any of the above ways. There seems to be only one
absolutely sure way of determining association of the pathogene in all
cases, and that is by making isolations, which is really a part of the sec-
ond rule of proof.
2. The following has been found the most satisfactory method of
isolation : —
Method. — The surface of the canker is first sponged with mercuric chloride
1-1,000. Scalpels and steel needles are kept in a jar of 95 per cent, alcohol. The
epidermis, or at least a thin outer layer of the canker, is then peeled off with a
scalpel from which the alcohol has been burned over a Bunsen. Another scalpel
sterilized in the same way is used to cut out a portion of the peeled canker. It is
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 23
then removed -with a flamed needle to a flask of sterile water, washed, and trans-
ferred to a potato agar slant — or somcthnes poured plates are used. One or two
drops of lactic acid are added to the tube of agar when slanted. The acid not only
prevents growth of bacteria, but also seems to make the medium more favorable
for the growth of Cylindrocladium. Occasionally other agars, such as corn meal,
oat, lima bean, Czapek's and Cook's No. 2, have been successfully used, and there
is no objection to them. The almost constant use of potato agar in the present
investigation is due more to habit and convenience than to any advantage over
other media. In the case of small initial cankers the epidermis was not peeled
off. The mj'celium grows up into the air and into the agar very quickly, and after
some experience one is able with the naked eye to distinguish within twenty-four
hours the growth of Cylindrocladium from that of other fungi he is apt to meet
with on roses. But if there is any doubt, he has but to wait another day or two,
and spores are produced by which this fungus can be absolutely identified.
Other methods of isolation besides tissue transfers have been successfully used.
Where spores are present, or where they have been developed in moist chambers,
cultures are very easily made by touching them with the tip of a sterile platinum
needle, — first thrusting the needle into the agar so that more spores will adhere, —
and then transferring to agar slants. When the sclerotia were first discovered on
the cankers there was some question as to their connection with Cylindrocladium.
Some of them were picked out under the binoculars with a sterile needle, freed
from all clinging rose tissue, washed in sterile water, and transferred to agar plates.
In this way, also, pure cultures were obtained.
By the first method described, the organism has been isolated in pure
culture from hundreds of tj'pical cankers. In order to determine the very
youngest stages, a number of stems showing the little round lesions (de-
scribed under "Symptoms"); from the size of a pin point to several
millimeters in diameter, were brought into the laboratory, washed merely
with sterile water, and transfers made as above. Pure cultures were
obtained from even the smallest of them.
The relation of the pathogene to dead stubs was also determined in
this way. After the flower is cut, one or more shoots quickly grow out
from below the cut end of the stem. The topmost one, however, is usually
some distance below the cut surface, and a viseless stub is left from 1 inch
to 3 or 4 inches long. This stub usually dies slowly from the apex back
to the first branch, where it is apt to stop. When the canker disease is
prevalent in the house, however, the dying frequently does not stop at
the first shoot but continues down the stem, and the shoots die as they
are encircled by the descending dead area. Frequentlj' the fruiting bodies
of various species of fungi, such as Pestalozzia, Phoma, etc., can be found
on these stubs, but in other cases no spores could be found. A large
number of them were collected from a house knowTi to be infested, and
transfers made. Cylindrocladium was obtained from over half of them.
After they were found to be infested in some cases, more attention was
directed to them and the sclerotia frequently observed. It was from
these sclerotia that the pure cultures mentioned above were obtained.
Study of the fungus in pure culture will be described later.
3. Plants were inoculated in four different ways: —
24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
Methods of Inoculation. — (a) Stems wounded, inoculated with agar in which
the fungus was growing, kept moist several days with moist cotton, ih) Same as
(a), but the plants not wounded, (c) Wounded, spores sprayed over the plants
with an atomizer, and kept for several days under a bell jar. {d) Same as (c),
but plants not wounded. All these methods were controlled by checks treated in
the same way except for applying the fungus.
Typical cankers were produced by all four methods of inoculation.
The shortest incubation period — time between inoculation and first
appearance of symptoms — was four days on the wounded plants and
five days on the unwounded ones. The rate of development of the canker
after it first appears varies greatly. On some plants which were first
wounded and kept under bell jars the cankers were over a centimeter
across in two weeks, but if the bell jars were removed and the humidity
of the air diminished, the cankers grew very slowly. Small aerial cankers
usually soon stop growing altogether unless several of them occur close to-
gether, or unless they are kept very moist. Crown cankers grow more
rapidly than cankers higher up, but their rate of growth becomes de-
cidedly slower as they advance above the surface of the soil.
4. Reisolations were very readily made from a number of the cankers
produced by artificial inoculation. The fungus was obtained in pure
culture, and easily identified by its cultural and morphological characters
as Cylindrocladium scoyarium.
Infection Court.
The artificial inoculations described above indicate that a wound is
not necessary for infection. All observations indicate, however, that a
wound is a very favorable infection court. A great many of the basal
cankers start from the union of stock and scion; aerial cankers from the
cut surfaces of stubs and from various bruises made by tools, etc. Even
where no wound appeared, it seemed possible that there might be small
wounds not readily visible to the naked eye. In order to determine
whether such was the case, and if not, to determine whether any natural
openings in the epidermis serve as infection courts, artificial inoculations
were made by spraying spores with an atomizer on what, as far as could
be seen with the naked eye, seemed to be perfectly healthy stems. As
soon as cankers began to appear they were cut out, fixed, imbedded in
paraffin, cut into serial sections and stained. Twenty-four cankers
varying from the size of a pin point to 2 millimeters in diameter were
used and cut serially to a thickness of 8 n-. In no case was any wound
through the epidermis discovered. But in every case a stomate was
located directly at or very near the center of the canker. In the larger
cankers there were several stomates, and it was not always possible to
determine the point of entry. In the smaller ones, however, only one
was present, and it was always appfoximately at the center. A number
of infections were also discovered which were so small that they had not
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 25
been seen when the material was fixed. In some cases the affected cells
extended no farther than 5 or 6 rows below the stomate.
There does not seem to be any reasonable doubt that the stomates
serve as infection courts, and that the little round lesions on the smooth
stems are largely the result of these stomatal infections.
The Mycelium in the Host Tissues.
In order to follow the course of the mj'celium after it has entered the
rose stem, and to determine its effect on the host tissues, cankers in every
stage of development, from that where they are not yet visible to the
naked eye up to the old, fully developed lesion, were sectioned, stained
and studied.
Method. — The mycelium is very difficult to follow in unstained sections, but
after some experimenting a simple taethod of treatment was found by which the
mycelium could be very distinctly differentiated in the host cells. Cankers were
fixed in Gilson's fluid, dehydrated gradually, and cut with a slide microtome from
95 per cent, alcohol, i The sections were then stained one minute in a saturated
solution of safranin in 95 per cent, alcohol, excess safranin removed by trans-
ferring to 95 per cent, alcohol for one minute, stained one minute in 1 per cent,
gentian violet in clove oil, and cleared in clove oil, the oil washed out with xylol
and the sections mounted in balsam. This method is very rapid and any number
of sections can be stained at one time.
Before describing the behavior of the mycelium in the tissues it will
first be necessary to review briefly the structure of a normal rose stem.
Fig. 9 represents a cross-section of a stem of about the age when cankers
are most frequent.
Normal Structure of the Stem. — On cutting through a rose stem with
a knife, one very readily notices that it is composed of three distinct
parts, (1) a rather succulent outer cylinder of bark, (2) a central soft
white pith, and (3) a hard cylinder of wood between the two. The cell
elements which occur in each of these will be enumerated in order, be-
ginning with the outside.
First, the stem is covered with a smooth, thin, waterproof coat, — the
cuticle. Just beneath this is the one layer of rather flat cells composing
the epidermis. Next in order are three or four layers of cells with heavy
walls and no intercellular spaces. This is the collenchyma. The cuticle,
epidermis and collenchyma form an air-tight, water-tight covering of
the stem, uninterrupted except by the stomates. These microscopic
breathing pores, which are not so numerous on the stem as in the leaves,
are guarded and strengthened on either side by crescent-shaped pro-
jecting cells. The structure of the stomate can best be understood by
reference to the figure. It will be noticed that there is a free passage
between the guard cells into the stomatal cavity beneath, and from here
to the loose, thin-walled cells of the next underlying tissue, the chloren-
1 Very small cankers were imbedded in paraffin, sectioned and stained in the usual way; but
for larger cankers this was found to be unnecessary, and a long and tedious process.
26
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
chj-ma. Except under the stomates, where it is thicker, the chlorenchyma
is composed of three or four layers of cells containing around the inside
of the walls the green chloroplasts which give the color to the bark. Next
in order are the large thin-walled cells of the inner cortex, the lowermost
EPIDERffllS
Fig. 9. — Transection of a healthy rose stem.
of which contain abundant starch grains in storage. Next there are
areas of angular, very thick-walled cells, the bast fibers. The walls are
so thick that there is hardly any opening (lumen) through the center.
In longisection these are seen to be shaped like long, sharp-pointed pencils,
with the sharp ends overlapping. Their function is to give rigidity and
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 27
strength. The areas of bast fibers do not form a complete cylinder, but
the inner cortex tissue runs down between them. Just under each bast
area there is a region of tissue called phloem. It contains long tubes
(sieve tubes) through which the elaborated plant food passes down through
the stem from the leaves. Each sieve tube is accompanied by a line of
small slender cells (companion cells), which appear in transection as
though they were cut out of the corners of the sieve tubes. The remain-
ing cells of the phloem are box-like cells called phloem parenchyma. The
phloem is bounded below by the cylinder of thin flat cells, the cambium,
which marks the line of cleavage between the bark and wood.
The wood, or xjdem, is composed mostly of four kinds of cells: (1)
Box-like parenchyma cells which compose the broad medullary rays as
well as the narrow rays one cell in width. (2) Long tubes of large diam-
eter (trachesB) through which the water mainly passes from the roots
to the parts above. The walls are strengthened by spiral or annular
thickenings. (3) Vertically elongated cells (tracheids) of smaller diameter
and thicker walls, also water carriers. These make up the greater portion
of the wood. (4) Wood fibers, somewhat smaller in diameter, with thick
walls and long tapering points. They cannot be distinguished from the
tracheids in transection. Although the walls of all the xylem elements
are heavy, they are all marked with pits so that liquids have only a thin
membrane through which they must pass to go from one cell to the next.
The pith (not shown in the figure) is composed of cells of only one
kind, large or small, somewhat isodiametric (parenchyma). The walls
are very thin.
Path of the Mycelium. — The germ tube, when it attacks the host, is
very slender and easily passes between the guard cells down into the
stomatal cavity. It could then readily pass between the loose cells of
the chlorenchyma and inner cortex, but it does not choose to progress
this way. Only rarely has the mycelium been seen progressing for any
considerable distance between the cells, but it immediately passes into
the cells by means of holes which it is able to dissolve through the walls.
From this time on the mj^celium is entirely intracellular except for the
short distances through which it sometimes passes from one cell to an-
other. It branches profuselj^, but the host
cells do not become filled with mycelium.
Rarely are more than one or two strands
seen in a single cell, except in very old
cankers. It is very slender and delicate
at first, but in age becomes brown and
takes on the various cell forms previously
described for the mycelium. It seems to
prefer the starch storage cells of the inner ^'''- lO-- Young mycelium in
, . , , , . . the cells of the inner cortex.
cortex, and m cankers of medmm age is
always found most abundantly in these cells (Fig. 10). However, the
other cells are not immune. Mycelium may be found quite abundantly
28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
ill the collenchyma, the hea\y walls of which seem to offer no resistance
whatever to the progress of the invader. Occasionally it has been found
even in the epidermal cells. The first bar to its inward progress is the
area of bast fibers. It does not pass through these at once, but in verj^
old cankers it has been observed even in the bast fibers. There is, how-
ever, an eas3^ path between the bast areas through the flaring outer ends
of the medullary rays, which do not stop at
the cambium but extend up between the
phloem areas. From here the hj^pha? can
easily pass laterally into the phloem. Pass-
ing down into the X3dem elements the invader
finds its progress made much easier bj' the
presence of pits in all the walls. It does not
confine itself to the medullary rays, but passes
Fig. 11. — Mycelium in the laterally into the other elements. The mj'-
ceiis of the medullary rays. celium has been found in every element of
the xylem, least of all, however, in the wood
fibers. Often in old cankers the tracheae may be found almost clogged
with mycelium, frequently in the form of chlamydospores. The method
by which it passes through the walls is shown in Fig. 11. From the
xylem it passes down into the pith, where it finds progress easy through
the thin walls.
Effect on the Host Cells. — All of the cankers do not extend to the pith.
A great many of them, for some unexplained reason, never go deeper than
the bark. The fact that the affected plants stop growing, and do not
send up any more shoots from below the cankers, is probably due to
destruction of the phloem, which prevents any food passing down to
the lower stem or roots. The cells somewhat in advance of the invading
hypha; first become filled with a brown, finely granular substance which
gradually becomes coarser and later mostly disappears, possibly being
used by the parasite, and the cells are left almost empty. The starch,
nuclei and chloroplasts also disappear. The walls are not affected except
for the holes through which the hyphge pass. The whole effect on the
host seems to be entire disorganization of the cell contents. There is no
hyperplasia, hypertrophy or other abnormal cell change in the canker.
To be sure, there is often a swelling just above the canker, which is pro-
duced by an increase both in the size and number of cells of the inner
cortex. This is, however, probably due to the amount of elaborated food
which is stopped here because it cannot now continue downward on its
normal course. As the canker becomes older, the cells of the bark col-
lapse, being now empty. The cracks which then appear in the bark may
be due to the contraction of the dying tissue, or to the expansion of the
growing stem, or both. The cells of the xylem and pith do not collapse,
but the affected tissues turn brown.
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 29
Saprophytic Life of the Fungus.
Early in^this investigation it was discovered that the canker pathogene
does not necessarily live all the time on the rose plant, but that it is also
a natural inhabitant of the soil. This was first proved by isolating it
under sterile conditions from soil 4 and 5 inches below the surface in
the rose beds. Then it was found that when sterilized soil is inoculated
the mycelium spreads rapidly through it and lives and grows normally
there for a long time. Since these pure cultures in soil have been used
rather extensively in this investigation, the method of making them is
described here and omitted in all future references.
Method. — Milk bottles of 1 quart capacity were used. Thirty-three cubic
inches of rose soil, moisteued until muddy, was put in each bottle. The mouth of
the bottle was then plugged with cotton and the whole sterilized in an autoclave.
After it was cool it was inoculated by transferring a small bit of agar containing
mycelium to the surface of the soil. Soil so treated becomes entirely infested in
twelve to twenty-one days at ordinary room temperature.
Longevity of Mycelium in the Soil.
Before undertaking control measures it was very essential to know
whether the fungus lives indefinitely in the soil, or whether it starves out
and dies when the rose plant is not present to furnish nourishment. On
March 27, 1917, eight milk bottles of soil were inoculated. At the end of
every month clods of soil were transferred from these bottles to acidified
agar plates. It has been found that when soil particles containing living
mA'celium are transferred to agar plates the mycelium begins to grow out
on to the agar within twenty-four hours, and in a few days produces
spores by which it can be definitely identified. The soil bottles were
kept in a dry culture room. No water was added to them, but the soil
is still somewhat moist at this writing. One year from the date of inocu-
lation every plate isolation gave pure cultures of Cylindrocladium. There
seems to be no doubt, then, that it will live for a year at least, and prob-
ably indefinitely, in the soil without the rose plant being present.
Growth on Other Substrata.
The longevity of the mycelium may possibly be increased by passing
a part of its existence on substrata other than the living rose plant and
the soil. The abundant growth and production of spores on dead and
decaying rose twigs on the soil has previously been referred to. Dead
rose leaves were sterilized and inoculated with spores in moist chambers,
and it was found that the mycelium grows luxuriantly and produces some
spores on them. Pods of the honey locust and leaves of the papaw
tree — substrata on which the fungus was previously reported — were
inoculated in the same way. The fungus grew normally on both, produc-
ing spores in great abundance on the pods, and less abundantly on the
leaves. The great variety of artificial media on which it can be made to
30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
grow in the laboratory also indicates a wide range in feeding habits.
Other kinds of decaying vegetable matter in the soil were not tried, but
it would not be surprising if it were found capable of hving on a great
number of them.
Depth of Penetration of the Soil.
In the soil isolation tests the fungus was not found below 5 inches, but
this was not conclusive, since the method of isolation proved not to be
entirely satisfactory, and only a few isolations were made. The soil in
the milk bottles was never more than 4 inches deep, but the fungus grew
as luxuriantly at that depth as at the surface of the ground. In order
to test its ability to penetrate to greater depth, glazed drain tiles 2 feet
long were closed at the bottom with an inch of cement, filled with soil,
plugged with cotton at the top and sterilized. The soil was then inocu-
lated on the surface. Holes had been drilled at regular intervals through
the side of the tiles. These were corked, and after the whole was steri-
lized the corks were made air-tight and water-tight by covering them
with melted paraffin. In order to determine whether the fungus had
penetrated to a certain depth a cork at that depth was removed, a portion
of the soil next to it transferred to an agar plate, and the hole immedi-
ately made tight again, all operations being carried out under aseptic
conditions. Unfortunately the soil became dry too quickly, due to the
large opening at the top, and it was found necessary to pour more water
on to the top of the soil. At this writing the fungus is growing through-
out the entire depth of soil in the tiles, and has been isolated from the
lowest holes, almost 2 feet below the surface. Whether it was washed
down by the water or grew down naturally is not certain, but at present
the fungus is growing normally in every particle of soil 2 feet below the
surface. If it could be washed down by the water in the tiles, there is
no reason why it should not be washed down by water in the rose houses.
Judging from these results, and what is known about the penetration of
other soil fungi, there seems to be no reason for doubting that the myce-
lium may exist several feet below the surface, depending to some extent
on the character of the soil.
Rate of Grouih of the Mycelium.
The rapidity with which mycelium grows through soil is dependent
on the temperature. The optimum, maximum and minimum tempera-
tures for growth were determined for the purpose of finding which tem-
peratures in the greenhouse are favorable and which unfavorable to
the spread of the fungus.
Method. — When the milk bottles of infested soil are kept in a dark place the
progress of the white mycelium downward can be readily observed through the
sides of the bottles. A number of bottles were inoculated, and when the mycelium
was well started downward the limit was marked accurately by blue pencil lines
around the bottles. The bottles were then placed simultaneously in incubators,
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL.
31
ice boxes and constant temperature rooms, wherever a constant temperature could
be maintained for a week at a time. A new line was drawn at the end of every
forty-eight hours.
The results of this test are tabulated in Table III. An examination
of this table shows that the optimum temperature for growth is 26 to
27° C, the minimum is just above 8.5°, and the maximum between 30°
and 32°. At the optimum, the mycelium grows at a rate of approxi-
mately three-fourths of a centimeter per day; in other words, it requires
about forty days for the mycelium to grow through 1 foot of soil. The
results ofTer little hope of maintaining in the greenhouse a temperature
very unfavorable to the growth of the fungus.
Table III. — Effect of Temperature VariatioJi on Rate of Mycelial Growth
in Soil.
Temperature, Centigrade (Degrees).
Number of
Measurements.
Daily Growth
in Centimeters.
5,
8.5,
14,
16,
21-22,
23-25,
25,
25-26,
25.5-26.5
26-27,
30,
32-3o,
37.5,
10
10
20
150
170
170
130
90
30
25
40
30
10
Effect of freezing the Mycelium .
It is very important to know whether soil can safely be used in the
benches after being frozen out of doors. The following tests were made
to determine this point : —
Method. — Eight bottles, each containing 33 cubic inches of soil, were plugged,
sterilized and inoculated with Cylindrocladium. After seven months the soil was
thoroughly infested with the fungus, and probably contained all modifications
of the mycelium which ever occur in the soil. Transfers were made and the fungus
in all found to be alive. Thap, before the ground froze in November, four of the
bottles were exposed outside, one on top of the ground, one just under the surface,
one 6 inches down, and one a foot below the surface. The other four were kept in
the laboratory for controls. Some of these bottles were brought in each month of
the winter to see whether the fungus was still alive.
32 MASS, EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
The last test was made May 10, after the bottles had experienced the
coldest winter on record in jSIassachusetts. The fungus was still living
in the soil. Apparently, then, soil cannot be made safe by exposing it
during the winter out of doors.
Thermal Death Point of Mycelmm.
Anticipating soil sterilization by heat, the thermal death point for
the mycelium was determined.
Method. — The same method was used as for determination of the thermal
death point of spores, except that bits of agar containing mycelium were inserted
into the sealed tubes, and after exposure for ten minutes to the desired temperature
were transferred to sterile agar plates. If the mycelium was still alive it quickly
began to spread to the agar. Temperatures between 42° and 55° C at intervals of
1° were tested.
Up to and including 48° the treatment seemed to have no effect on the
mycelium. At 49° it was sometimes killed and sometimes not. It never
grew after ten minutes' exposure to 50°. We may therefore consider 50°
the thermal death point. It will be noticed that the thermal death points
of mycelium and spores differ by only 1 degree. The mycelium tested
contained, besides the ordinary white mycelium, also the dark bodies
with thick walls which we have called chlamydospores and sclerotia.
As was the case with spores, so also the mycelium may be killed by a
longer exposure to a lower temperature. Based on an exposure during
one hour, the thermal death point was found to be 48°.
DISSEMINATION.
In deciding on a method of controlling a disease it is of prime impor-
tance to find out how the pathogene is spread about, where it comes
from, how it reaches the host. In the present case a threefold question
is involved: (1) How did the fungus get into rose houses in the first
place? (2) How is it spread from the houses of one rose grower to those
of another? (3) On the premises of a single grower, how does it pass
from house to house, bench to bench, or plant to plant? In the light
of what has been learned concerning the life history and habits of the
pathogene, we may undertake to answer these three questions.
1. Original Source of the Pathogene.
The fungus, from all that is known of its past history, is a native of
America. Since it has been reported but a few times, it probably is not
very common out of doors. As greenhouse roses are grown in the section
of the country where it has been reported, it would not be far-fetched
to imagine the fungus being carried into rose houses with rotted leaves,
where it was able to adapt itself to parasitic life on the rose. It is not
necessary to assume, then, that this is an imported pathogene. Early
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 33
in the course of the investigation it was suspected that it might have
been brought over from Europe on Manetti stocks, which are used almost
exchisively by rose growers for gi-afting. The Manetti is moderately
susceptible to the disease, as may be readily determined by examination
of Manetti shoots coming from below the graft in a badly diseased house.
Pure cultures have frequently been made from these shoots. Massey
(1917) also made infection experiments and found Manetti roses suscepti-
ble. In the course of these investigations hundreds of Manetti stocks
from Scotland were examined for lesions, numerous tissue plants were
made, hundreds more were kept in moist chambers to bring out the
fungus, and thousands of them watched carefully for a year after being
planted in sterilized soil in order to see whether the disease developed.
All results were negative, and up to the present we have no reason to
suspect that the fungus is being imported on Manetti stock. It would
be very helpful if we knew how widely the fungus is distributed over
this country in its natural state, and whether it is being carried into the
houses again and again. Various investigators have worked on the
fungous flora of the soil and published lists of species isolated, but none
of them mentions Cylindrocladium. This may indicate that it is only
local in its distribution, or may be due merely to difficulties of isolating
it. There seems to be little doubt that it infests the soil about rose
houses where the disease occurs and where infested soil has been dumped
out.
2. Spread from One Grower to Another.
Plants are continually being sent from one grower to another. Small
cankers on these would be overlooked even if the sender was familiar
with the disease. Not only could the mycelium be sent in the plant
itself, but particles of soil adhering to the plants could easily carry it.
It has been proved by laboratory tests that infested particles of soil
may be kept dry for at least three months, and probably longer, without
killing the mycelium. The disease may be spread in other ways, but
this one would be sufficient to account for the present known distribution.
3. Local Dissemination.
There are a number of ways in which the fungus spreads from one
part of a house to another, or from one plant to another, (a) It may
grow for long distances through the soil and enter the plant below the
surface of the soil. That infection can take place in this way has been
repeatedly proved by setting clean plants in infested soil and thus pro-
ducing the disease on them. (6) If the fungus is in the potting soil it would
be effectually distributed in the beds when the plants were transplanted
to them, (c) Where "own-root" plants are grown the soil in the cutting
bench maj^ be infested, and the disease is then carried with the cuttings
when they are planted in the benches, (d) It is easily carried from one
part of the house to another on tools, clothes and shoes of workmen.
34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
(e) Insects, centipedes and worms carry the spores, as has been proved
in the laboratory by permitting them to pass over sterile plates after
being on dead twigs bearing spores. (/) The water used in watering the
plants is usually driven from the nozzle with enough force to splash spores
and bits of mj^celium from the soil or debris on the ground up to the
stems. Probably most of the stomatal infections above ground are
started in this way.
The spores of many fungi are so light that they float around in the
air and are wafted about by very light air currents. It does not seem
likely that the spores of Cylindrocladium are carried about to any great
extent in this way. They are bound together in solid heads of spores,
which are probably too heavy for currents of air such as usually occur
in rose houses. That they can be dislodged and blown some distance
by strong air currents was proved in the laboratory by passing a strong
current of air from a fan over spores growing on a dead rose stem, and
exposing agar plates 1, 2 and 3 feet away. Colonies of the fungus devel-
oped on all of them, but it is hardly probal^le that so strong an air current
would normall}^ occur in rose houses. They could also be blown about
on dust particles, but the soil in rose houses is rarely permitted to become
dry enough to form dust.
OCCURRENCE OF TWO SPECIES OF CYLINDROCLADIUM
ON ROSES.
During these investigations a second species of Cylindrocladium has
frequently been isolated. It was first taken from the roots of a plant
which had typical cankers on the crown. Later it was secured a number
of times from crowns and from dead areas of the plant above the ground.
It was commonly isolated directly from the soil in the rose beds, from
the surface to S inches down. Except for its size, it resembles C. scoparium
so closely that the writer was at first inclined to consider it but a dwarf
variety of that species. The spores are only about one-third as large
as those of C. scoparium. Although numerous isolations have been
made, no transition forms between the two have been found. The small
form has been grown through many generations in culture, and has
remained constant on all media.
Infection experiments were carried out, but all attempts to produce
the disease by the same inoculation methods as were used for the larger
form gave only negative results. The fungus grows and produces spores
on the dead tissue about wounds and on cut stubs, but seems to lack
ability to spread to healthy tissue. The small form then appears to be a
saprophyte, while the larger one is a parasite.
In order to determine whether there are cultural differences by which
they could easily be distinguished, the two forms were grown simul-
taneously on five standard culture media. They show very marked
diagnostic differences. Such differences in morphology, pathogenicity
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL.
35
and cultural characters are certainly marked enough to be considered
specific rather than varietal. Since no species of Cylindrocladium other
than C. scoparium has been described, a new name, Cylhidrocladium
parnnn, is proposed for this small form.
The morphological differences and the cultural characters and differ-
ences of the two species are given in parallel columns below.
Morphological Characters.
Since some morphological characters vary somewhat with the condi-
tions under which they are grown, all measurements given below were
taken from potato agar plates grown sinmltaneously under the same
conditions, and each is the average of fifty measurements.
C. scoparium.
Size of spores, 48.8 x 5.1 f^.
Height of conidiophore, 291 fi.
Diameter of conidiophore stalk, 6.6 /^.
C. parvum.
Size of spores, 16.8 x 2.5 /u.
Height of conidiophore, 130 fi.
Diameter of conidiophore stalk, 4.25 /^.
Cultural Characters.
Most soil fungi can easily be grown on a great variety of artificial
media. The characters of the colony differ markedly with the medium
used, and very frequently species of fungi, like bacteria, can be distin-
guished more easily by macroscopic cultural characters than by micro-
scopic morphological characters. Obviously, to grow each fungus on
all the possible media, or even a great number of them, would be almost
an endless task. Five common media, all easy of preparation, have there-
fore been adopted by the writer as standard for all diagnostic work.
These five are (1) potato agar (ace. Thom. Bui. 82 U. S. D. A., Bureau
of An. Industry); (2) sugar potato agar (the same as the potato agar
except for addition of 3 per cent, of cane sugar); (3) gelatin (150 grams
gold label to a liter of water); (4) sugar gelatin (same as above with
addition of 3 per cent, of cane sugar) ; (5) Czapek's synthetic agar (ace.
Waksman in Soil Sc. 2: 113). Petri dishes, each with a single colony
started at the center, were used. They were kept in the diffused light of
the laboratory at the ordinary laboratory temperature.
Every reference to a color in the description below refers to the color
given under that name in Ridgway's "Color Standards and Nomencla-
ture," 1912. Color "in reverse" in these descriptions refers to the color
of the colony when examined from the bottom of the dish. This color
may be due to (1) a pigment in the medium itself (extra-cellular), (2)
intracellular pigments {i.e., the natural color of the mycelium), or (3)
very frequently it is due to a combination of the two. Sometimes a dis-
tinction is made between them, but for diagnostic work such a distinction
usually adds difficulty instead of simplifying determination. Most
emphasis is placed on those characters which appear within the first
36
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
week after the colony is made. If one has to wait two or three weeks or
longer for a character to appear, the long waiting makes diagnosis tedious,
and one of the principal purposes of this method of diagnosis is defeated.
The more important characters for distinguishing these two species are
italicized. Many minor distinguishing characters are not mentioned.
Potato Agar.
C. scoparium.
Growth only moderately good.
Starts with abundant, perfectly white,
raised, aerial mycelium, but soon falls
flat at the center, which becomes cov-
ered with spores after two or three
days. Always more or less aerial
mycelium out toward the margin, which
is rather coarse and tow-like. Not a
decided color in reverse during the first
week, but a dilute cream color to buff.
At the end of the second week it turns
to avellaneous or wood brown, and
after three weeks still darker, Rood's
brown. Margin of colony crenulafe or
wavy.
C. parvum.
Only moderately good growth. My-
celium finer and denser than C. sco-
parium, perfectly white. Spores pro-
duced in great abundance. The edge
entirely throughout its growth remains
very even and forms a perfectly round
colony. Practically no color — possibly
a very faint buff — develops in reverse
even after three weeks' growth.
Sugar Potato Ag.^r.
C. scoparium.
Very rank growth, abundance of
spores, entire plate covered in two
weeks. Dense opaque color appears in
reverse after three days; vinaceous
purple to hcematite red at the edge, dark-
ening to russet or chocolate at the center.
At the end of a week a large central area
appears almost black, but examined more
closely shows various shades of reddish
brown, chestnut and bay. Entire reverse
opaque after two weeks. The brown
color is due to the extremely abundant
production of sclerotia and chlamy-
dospores on this agar.
C. parvum.
Rank, white growth of a very much
finer texture than C. scoparium. Abun-
dant production of spores. Color in
reverse, ivhite, or at most, only cream
color at end of one week. This is one of
the best diagnostic characters. At the
end of two weeks it has passed through
gray and drab gray to a clear wood
brown, with minute patches of army
brown here and there which show
chlamydospores under microscope. The
red-brown colors of C. scoparium never
appear.
Gelatin.
C. scoparium,
very poor, consisting
Growth very poor, consisting of a
thin covering of coarse radiating hj-phae.
Very few spores. Stops growing after
about ten days. Gelatin turned to a
watery liquid which at the end of a
week is orange rufous, but gradually
turns darker to Sanford's brown. Lique-
faction extends some distance beyond
the margin of the colony.
C. parvum.
very scanty,
Growth very scanty, so much so
that it is necessary to look at the plate
against a black background to see it
at all during first week. Gelatin lique-
fied. No color at first, but becomes
dilute old gold by end of second week.
This medium is hardly suitable for dis-
tinguishing the two.
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL.
37
Sugar Gelatin.
C. scoparium.
Rank growth of coarse radiating
aerial mj-celium, but few spores. Gela-
tin liquefied. After about four days a
striking brilliant carmine color begins
to appear in reverse, due to a pigment in
the gelatin. This gradually spreads to
the whole plate and becomes darker, an
ox-blood red. This is probably the best
diagnostic cultural character for this
species. The mycelium covers the
plate in ten days.
C. parvum.
Fine tangled aerial mycelium and
more abundant spore production than
for C. scoparium. Gelatin liquefied.
Covers entire plate in two weeks. At
the end of a week the colonies vary from
Mars yellow to raw sienna in reverse,
and at the end of two weeks have darkened
to amber brown and Mars yellow. The
color during the entire development of
the colony is in strong contrast to the
carmine and ox-blood of C. scoparium.
Czapek's Agar.
C. scoparium.
Growth moderately good, aerial
mycelium thin. Spores abundant. At
the end of a week the colors in reverse
are much the same as for potato agar, —
claret brown, russet or amber, with a
brick-red color suffused through it. At
the end of two weeks the center is prac-
tically black, fading through broivn and
red tints toward the margin. The red
color is due to a pigment in the me-
dium; the brown, to the chlamydo-
spores and sclerotia. Irregular edge.
C. parvum,.
Finer and denser aerial growth of
mycelium. During the first week the
reverse remains pearly white; later it
changes to dilute wood brown, then Rood's
brown and at the end of two weeks ap-
proaches Natal brown. None of the
red tints of C. scoparium ever appear.
Margin much more even than that of
C. scoparium. Abundant production
of spores in distinct concentric zones.
Latin Description of Cylindrocladium parvum.
Cylindrocladium parvum n. sp. Album effusum; conidiophoris
erectis, base simplicibus, apice ternate vel dichotomice ramosis, 130 x 4-^5fj-;
conidiis cylindraciis, medio obscure 1-septatis, hyalinis, 16.8 x 2.5/^.
Hab. in caulibus emortuis et radicibus rosarum et in humo, Massachu-
setts in A^ner. bor. — Simile C. scopario.
CONTROL.
Every method used in the control of an}' fungous disease is an appli-
cation of one of four principles: (1) exclusion of the fungus, (2) eradica-
tion of the fungus, (3) protection of the host, or (4) immunization of the
host. Although practically all the work of the present investigation
has been on the second of these principles, there are possibilities of using
all four of them in the control of rose canker. These four are first con-
sidered separately below in the order named, and finally a general scheme
of treatment is recommended.
38 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
Exclusion of the Pathogexe.
By exclusion we mean preventing a fungus from entering a given
territory in the first place, whether this territory be a country, a State,
a region or only one rose house. Since this disease seems to be pretty
generally distributed over the country already it is obviously impossible
to exclude it from the United States, and probably from any particular
State or section. But it is entirely possible to exclude it from the house
of a rose grower who finds that none of his plants are already affected,
or where new houses are being erected at some distance from old ones.
The whole practice, then, consists of taking every possible precaution
against carrying any diseased stocks, cuttings or infested soil into the
house. Every plant brought in should be carefully examined, and, if
there are any suspicious cankers in the bark, it should be discarded. All
new plants and cuttings should be taken whenever possible only from
houses known to be free from the disease.
Eradication of the Pathogene.
By eradication we mean the absolute destruction or removal of the
fungus from the rose beds or from the whole house, so that it is no longer
present in the plants or in the soil, pots, debris, manure or anywhere
else from which it can return to the plants. The practice of this method
is of course necessary only when it has been impossible to exclude the
pathogene and it has become established in the house. Up to the present
this has proved to be the most successful principle applied to controlling
canker.
The ultimate aim is to eradicate the fungus from the plant itself, but
the application of direct methods, such as excision of cankers, pruning
of? of dead parts, or even absolute destruction of entire plants when
cankers are found on them, is altogether useless because the soil all about
the plants is infested. From the soil the fungus can grow back into
the roses as fast as it can be cut out. Spraying or dusting is of course
useless, also, because no fungicide can reach the mycelium in the inner
tissues of the plant; and also it is not possible to cover the parts of the
plant below the surface of the ground where infection commonly occurs.
Obviously, then, eradication resolves itself into destruction of the path-
ogene in the soil; in other words, soil disinfection. Of the various methods
of disinfecting soil only two have appeared to be at all practicable: (1)
by heat, and (2) application of chemicals. Freezing, as previously men-
tioned, is not effective. Desiccation would take entirely too long. Other
methods are either too expensive or too difficult of application. In the
course of the present investigation both heat and chemicals have been
successfully used.
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 39
Disinfection by Chemicals. Laboratory Tests.
Some of the chemicals which have been used in the past for disin-
fecting soil for the control of other fungous diseases are formaldehyde,
sulfuric acid, copper sulfate, sulfur, lime-sulfur. The results obtained
by the use of these same chemicals for other fungi could not be used
directly in the present investigation because every fungus . differs in its
resistance to a given chemical. It was first necessary to determine what
concentration and what quantity of solution per cubic foot was needed
to kill the fungus. These facts could be determined more accurately
and conveniently in the laboratory than in the greenhouse. The method
used in all these tests was as follows : —
Method. — Milk bottles, each containing 33 cubic inches of soil, were steam
sterilized and inoculated from pure cultures of the fungus. When the soil was
entirely infested (requiring from twelve days to three weeks) it was stirred into
a loose condition with a sterile glass rod, and the proper amount of chemical in
solution, at the strength to be tested, poured in under aseptic conditions. Since
the soil did not dry out as rapidly in these bottles as it would under natural con-
ditions in the greenhouse, it was emptied into sterilized porous flowerpots after a
few hours. It was found after several trials that the pots dried out too rapidly
if left in the open laboratory. Thereafter they were covered with bell jars which
were tilted enough to allow free circulation of air beneath them, and the length of
the drying process could then be regulated. After eight to ten days in the pots,
clods of the soil were transferred from various portions of the pots to sterile agar
plates. If the fungus was still alive it spread to the agar; otherwise there was* no
growth whatever from the clods. At first, the solutions were applied at the rate of
1 gallon to the cubic foot of earth. Afterwards, 2 gallons per cubic foot were used.
When dry chemicals, such as sulfur, were tested the required amount was thor-
oughly stirred into the infested soil of the bottles with a sterile rod and no water
added.
Formaldehyde. — First tests were at the rate of 1 gallon per cubic foot
at the following concentrations: 1-500 (1 part of commercial formalde-
hyde to 500 parts of water), 1-400, 1-300, 1-200 and 1-100. None of
these concentrations gave complete success. On the transfers from the
last two, however, only a few of the clods contained living mycelium.
This indicated a lack of complete penetration by the solution. In the
next series of tests the same concentrations at the rate of 2 gallons per
cubic foot were used. The 1-100 and 1-200 then gave absolute control,
while the 1-300 usually did; but occasionally a single clod developed a
mj'celium on the agar. The death point concentration lies somewhere
between 1-200 and 1-300. But to be well within the margin of safety,
1-200 (1 pint of commercial formaldehj^de solution to 25 gallons of water)
was decided upon as the best strength to use in the greenhouse.
Sidfiiric Acid. — This chemical has been successfully used in the past
in the control, particularly, of certain root diseases of nursery trees. At
the rate of 2 gallons per cubic foot, concentrations of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 8
per cent, were used. The 5 per cent, solution killed most of the mj^celium.
40 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
but not all of it. The 8 per cent, killed all of it. The death point con-
centration lies between 5 and 8 per cent., but such a high concentration
is hardly practicable in the rose house, and the exact point was not de-
termined.
Copper Sulfate. — Concentrations of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10 per cent, were
used at the rate of 2 gallons per cubic foot. The 5 per cent, seemed
hardly to check the fungus, but 10 per cent, proved entirely effective.
Such a high concentration seemed prohibitive for application to soil, and
no more accurate determination was made.
Lime-sulfur. — This mixture proved to be worthless, even when applied
at a concentration of 1 part of commercial product (32° Baume) to 10
gallons of water, and at the rate of 2 gallons per cubic foot.
Dry Sulfur. — Finely ground suKur flour was added to the soil and
thoroughly stirred in. First, 10 grams per bottle were used, and when
that proved to be ineffective 10 grams more were added, etc. All results
were negative, even up to the rate of 7 pounds of sulfur to a cubic foot
of soil. This test was performed at a laboratory temperature of 19° to
24° C. Perhaps if higher temperatures had been used the sulfur would
have been more effective. Dry sulfur seems to be worthless at the tem-
peratures tested.
Soot. — There is an idea prevalent among florists that soot has fungi-
cidal value, but plant pathologists seem never to have made any extensive
experiments with it. The same method and rates as for dry sulfur were
tried. At the rate of 4 pounds per cubic foot soot did not kill the fungus,
but at the rate of 7 pounds no growth of the pathogene occurred.
Of all the chemicals tried, formaldehyde seemed to be the only one
which would give control at concentrations which could safely be used
on the soil.
Greenhouse Tests with Formaldehyde.
The greenhouse tests on the use of formaldehyde were begun before
the laboratory tests were completed, and at a time when it appeared
that a concentration weaker than 1 pint to 25 gallons would be sufficient.
As a result, the tests on a large scale were made with a concentration of
about 1 pint to 40 gallons, but, on the other hand, more solution was
applied per unit of soil. Two houses, each capable of growing more than
1,000 rose plants, were thoroughly soaked with the solution. One of
the houses contained raised benches; the other, ground beds. Both had
previously grown diseased roses. The soil was replaced by soil from
outside the houses before sterilization. In the light of what we now know
of the habits of Cylindrocladium, it is safe to assume that this soil was
infested, because soil from the benches in previous years had been thrown
out near it. After soaking the soil thoroughly the houses were closed.
Fumes of formaldehyde were so strong in the closed houses that it was
not possible to remain in them. After the soil had dried sufficiently both
houses were planted with roses which had been potted in soil sterilized
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 41
with steam, and which had been kept under conditions as sterile as pos-
sible. Three months after planting, no disease had appeared in either
house. Soon afterward it began to appear in the house with the ground
beds, and gradually increased until, almost a year after planting, it was
generalh' prevalent throughout the house. In the bench house, however,
no disease has as yet been found, although plant-to-plant inspections
have been made frequently throughout the year. The fact that a con-
centration of formaldehj'de weaker than 1 pint to 25 gallons controlled
the disease in the bench house is probably due to the longer action of the
more concentrated fumes, and probabh', also, partly to the greater
amount of the solution applied. The lack of control in the ground bed
house can be easily explained in the light of our studies on the depth of
penetration of the mycelium in the soil. The surface soil was disin-
fected, but it was not possible to disinfect it down as far as the mycelium
grows. After the formaldehj-de had evaporated the deep mycelium
began to grow upward, and during that period the plants remained
healthy; but, after the mycelium had grown up to the surface again,
the cankers began to appear and the roses became as badly affected as
before the house was treated. Two conclusions may be drawn from
this experiment: (1) the soil can be disinfected effectively by the use
of formaldehyde, and (2) ground beds cannot be sterilized by this method.
Disinfection by Heat. Laboratory Tests.
The feasibility of destroying any fungus bj' application of heat to
the soil manifestly depends, first of all, on the thermal death point of
all stages of that fungus. As has previously been described, this point
for Cylindrocladium was found to be 50° C. This comparatively low death
point indicated that the soil could be readily disinfected by steaming,
because a temperature much higher than 50° C. can be easily obtained
by the use of steam.
Time required to disinfect Soil by steaming. — This was further confirmed
by the following tests : —
Method. — Sterile Petri dishes were filled with soil which was thoroughly in-
fested with mycelium. After removing the lids they were subjected to steam at
a temperature of 90° to 95° in an Arnold sterilizer for the desired length of time.
The lids were then replaced and the soil allowed to cool, when clods of it were
transferred to agar plates as described above. Exposures of five, ten, fifteen, twenty
and thirty minutes were tried.
No mycelium appeared on any of the transfers, even after five min-
utes' exposure. Shorter periods of exposure were not tried because of
the uncertainty of securing penetration by steam in less than five minutes.
But, to determine what effect shorter exposures would have on mycelium,
tests were made by the sealed tube method described for thermal death
point tests. In these tests the mycelium was killed in less than one
minute when exposed to a temperature of 95° C.
42 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
From these tests we may conclude that soil can be disinfected by steam
in less than a minute if penetration is obtained. Apparently effective-
ness is limited only by the time required for the steam to penetrate every
particle of the soil.
Greenhouse Tests of Disinfection by Heat.
Heat may be applied to the soil by steam or by hot water. The first
method has been in use in the greenhouses for the disinfection of the
soil used in potting since the beginning of this investigation. Perforated
steam pipes were laid a foot apart in a large pit. Soil a foot deep or more
was piled over them and the steam turned into the pipes. Burlap or other
coverings may be used to cover the soil and make it retain more of the
steam. Soil thermometers were used to determine the temperature.
It is only necessary to keep the temperature above 50° C. for ten min-
utes. A higher temperature, of course, makes for additional safetj'.
The one or two hours of heating frequently recommended for other
diseases is onh^ wasted time and expense, being entirely unnecessary for
this fungus. Thousands of plants have been potted in soil disinfected
in this way during the last j'ear, and canker has never appeared on any
of them. No doubt other methods of steam disinfection, such as the
inverted pan method, would be equally effective. Either method could
probably be used just as effectively on the benches, but the formalde-
hyde treatment is efficient, and quicker and easier of application.
If there is any reason to suspect the presence of the fungus in the
manure which is used to mulch the beds it may be disinfected in the same
way as the potting soil. Soil for the cutting bench may also be treated
in the same way.
The second method of applying heat — by the use of boiling water —
is now being tested. It should be just as effective as steam, and at the
same time much more rapid. The boiling water is forced through the
water pipes ordinarily used in the house, and is applied to the soil through
a hose with a long nozzle and a handle which will not become heated.
The water should be applied until a thermometer inserted into the soil
at anj^ point and at any depth registers above 50° C. Higher temperatures
make for additional safety. This method has the disadvantage of
leaving the soil in poorer condition for working. The hot-water
method is still in the experimental stage, and is not far enough along
to warrant any recommendations.
Disinfection of Pots, Tools, etc.
In starting new houses with clean plants and clean soil, it is very es-
sential that everything which is used should be free from any form of
inoculum. The first danger is from pots which have been previously
used, and which are apt to contain mycelium or spores in the particles
of earth which still cling to them. They can be sterilized by immersing
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 43
in boiling water for ten minutes. Steaming is just as effective. The
method used is simply a matter of convenience.
Usually a grower, when he finds disease in his houses, finds it imprac-
ticable to destroy all his roses and start all over again. Therefore he
retains some of his old houses and starts disinfection operations on one
or more, from which he has removed all the plants. This inevitably
results in the constant danger of carrying some infested soil or parts of
plants from the infested to the clean houses. Every possible precaution
should be taken to guard against this, because a failure here means that
the work must all be done again. All sorts of tools offer an easy means
of conveying the inoculum. Whenever possible an entirely different
set of tools should be used in the clean houses, and no tools from the
other houses brought in under any conditions. But, if this is not possible,
the next best alternative is to sterilize the tools before bringing them in.
The method of sterilizing them is not so important as thoroughness.
They may be dipped in boiling water, steamed, or a barrel of Bordeaux
mixture or formaldehyde — preferably stronger than 1 pint to 25 gallons
in this case — may be used for soaking the tools.
It may be necessary to sterilize other things besides pots and tools,
e.g., boots and clothes of workmen. Every grower, after learning the
habits of the pathogene, must decide for himself on the best way, under
his own conditions, of keeping his houses clean.
Protection of the Host.
By protection we mean the placing of a barrier between a plant and
a pathogene which would otherwise attack it and cause disease. This
is well exemplified in the extensively used practice of spraying plants,
the fungicide forming a poison barrier through which the fungus cannot
penetrate. The humicolous habit and underground method of attack
of the canker fungus seem to preclude any hope of important benefit from
spraying. There is one place in the propagation of roses, however, where
a fungicidal covering might be beneficial. Scions and cuttings should,
whenever possible, be taken from houses known to be clean. If they
are taken from houses in which the disease occurs there is always a
possibility of spores being lodged on them, even where lesions have not
as yet appeared. To either wash o& ahd kill these spores or, at least, to
prevent germination where they are, it has been the practice during this
investigation to dip all such cuttings in a fungicide before grafting or
planting.
Comparative Value of Different Fungicidal Coverings.
In order to find the best fungicide to use for dipping, and also to secure
data for use in case spraying should be found advisable at any time, the
comparative value of a number of fungicides was tested in the laboratory.
44 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
Method. — Glass slides were sprayed with the fungicide to be tested and per-
mitted to dry for varying periods of time. Then spores of the fungus in a drop of
water were transferred to the center of the sprayed slide, which was then kept
in a moist chamber for twenty-four hours. Checks on unsprayed slides were
always made at the same time. Percentages of germination were counted at the
end of twenty-four hours, and observations were taken for several days to see if
there was any further development; but none of the results in these tests were
modified by later observations. When a dry fungicide was used it was dusted on
to the slide without water. All checks in these tests germinated over 95 per cent.
Lime-sulfur. ■ — Concentrations of 1-10, 1-30 and 1-50 commercial
lime-sulfur solution were used. The 1-50 concentration proved to be
useless from the start. The 1-30 seemed to check germination at first,
but after it had been on the slide four or five days over 50 per cent, of
the spores germinated. The 1-10 concentration entirely prevented
germination when fresh, but after a week the control was erratic, with
over 50 per cent, germination on some of the slides. Commercial lime-
sulfur seems to be useless for control of this fungus.
Dry Sulfur Flour. — Slides were very heavily dusted and the germina-
tion tests made at about 25° C. The presence of the sulfur had no effect
whatever on the spores. They germinated just as well as the checks.
Dry sulfur appears to be even less effective than the lime-sulfur.
Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. — This fungicide prevented germina-
tion twenty-four hours after being dried, but when tried a week later was
only 25 per cent, efficient. This would hardly be a safe fungicide.
Lime. — Milk of lime sprayed on the slides from an atomizer pre-
vented germination from the first, and was just as effective as Bordeaux.
Milk of lime is not suitable for dipping cuttings. The lime test was
made with a different end in view.
Bordeaux Mixture. — This fungicide was made up at a strength of
4-4-50. Germination tests were made every day for twenty-one days
after the slides were sprayed. No germination occurred in any of these
tests. These fungicidal tests clearly indicate Bordeaux mixture as the
most suitable solution for dipping cuttings.
Treatment of the Walks in the House.
Undoubtedly the walks between the benches of a house which has
previously grown diseased roses are infested with the pathogene. One
could easily think of a great many ways in which small particles of soil
from the walks could be carried into the benches. It is therefore necessary
either to keep the fungus killed out of the surface of the walks by repeated
applications of some fungicide or to cover the walks with some sub-
stance which will be a barrier through which it cannot pass up to the
benches. In the beginning of this investigation the walks were kept
sterile by frequent applications of formaldehyde. This proved unsatis-
factory because the fumes of formaldehyde often injure the roses, pro-
ducing dead spots on the leaves. This was abandoned and a search
ROSE CANKER AND ITS CONTROL. 45
begun for something more suitable. Up to the present, lime gives the
best promise of making a satisfactorj' barrier. Sterile bottle tests show
that the mycelium will not grow in soil containing air-slaked lime at
the rate of I5 pounds per cubic foot. Neither will spores germinate in
the presence of lime. Until something more satisfactory is found it is
recommended that all walks in the houses be kept covered with lime.
Not only will this furnish an effective barrier to the fungus coming up
from below, but it will also prevent growth of spores and other inocula
brought in from other houses on the shoes of workmen and visitors.
Immunization of the Host.
By immunization we mean either the development of varieties of roses
which are immune, — at least highly resistant, — or rendering them
immune by injection or feeding through the roots with some chemical.
No work has been done along either of these lines in regard to rose canker.
From the first it has been noticed that some varieties of roses are more
susceptible than others. No doubt in the course of time desirable varieties
will be found or developed which will not suffer from canker. How soon
that will be no one can predict. A rose breeder of wide national reputa-
tion told the writer that he had spent most of his life producing four or
five varieties of roses. It is a long process, and until such varieties are
developed it will be necessary to resort to such emergency measures as
have been described in this bulletin.
Summary of Control Measures.
In the light of all that we know about rose canker and its causal path-
ogene the following measures are recommended for its control : —
1. Carefully inspect the rose house to see if canker is present. If
not, employ every means to prevent its entering, — import as few roses
as possible from other houses; examine carefully every plant brought in;
reject any with suspicious dead areas in the bark.
2. If it is present on the roses it cannot be eradicated from the infected
plants. The only hope lies in starting new plants from clean cuttings in
clean soil, and guarding against infection at every step in the plant's
development.
3. Dip the cuttings in Bordeaux mixture.
4. Sterilize the pots by dipping for ten minutes in boiling water.
5. Sterilize the potting soil and cutting bench soil by steaming to a
temperature of over 50° C. for ten minutes or more. Suspected manure
should be treated in the same way.
6. Use raised benches, not ground beds.
7. Remove old soil if diseased roses have been grown in it, and soak
the benches thoroughly with (1) formaldehyde at the rate of 1 pint to
25 gallons, or (2) boiling water.
46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 183.
8. Sterilize the bench soil by one of these two methods. If formalde-
hyde is used, apply at the rate of 2 gallons per cubic foot. If boiling
water is used, apply until every part of the soil is heated above 50° C.
9. Use a different set of tools in the clean house, or sterilize all tools
before bringing them in.
10. Keep the walks in all houses covered with lime.
LITERATURE CITED.
Morgan, A. P., 1892. "Two New Genera of Hyphomycetes." Bot. Gaz. 17:
190-192.
Ellis, J. B., and Everhart, B. M., 1900. "New Species of Fungi from Various
Localities, with Notes on Some Published Species." Btil. Tor. Bot. Club 27:
49-64.
Massey, L. M., 1917. "The Crown Canker Disease of the Rose." Phytopathol-
ogy 7: 408^17.
BULLETIN No. 184.
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
LATE DORMANT VERSUS DELAYED DOR-
MANT OR GREEN TIP TREATMENT FOR
THE CONTROL OF APPLE APHIDS.
BY W. S. REGAN.
In carrying on field experiments during the summer of 1917 for the
control of potato plant lice, commercial Ume-sulfur solution, among
other materials, was tested as to its effectiveness. Although this was
used at the rate of 1 gallon to 22 gallons of water, about twice the ordinary-
summer strength, and in spite of the fact that every precaution was
taken to drench thoroughly all parts of the plants, the percentage of
plant lice killed was so small, under 10 per cent., that it could in no way
be considered of value as an aphidicide at a strength safe to use upon
potato foliage.
Object of Comparative Tests.
The results of these tests led the writer to question just how effective
the usual dormant strength, 1 to 8, of Hme-sulfur would prove against
apple aphids when apphed at the delayed dormant period, just after the
eggs have hatched. With a view to determining this point, a number of
tests have been carried out during the past several weeks. In these
experiments commercial lime-sulfur solution was used alone and in com-
bination with nicotine sulfate, and several brands of proprietary mis-
cible oils were also tried out in comparison. Tests were also made to
determine the effect of lime-sulfur and miscible oils upon the unhatched
eggs.
Delayed Dormant Period indicative of Complete Hatching of
Aphid Eggs.
Remarks might be prefaced here by the statement that the term
dormant is taken to mean the condition of the buds in the winter or
early spring before they begin to swell. By late dormant is meant the
swollen condition of the buds at the time just before they spht open, or
48 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 184.
in other words just before the buds show the least bit of green. This
condition would normally be reached during the early part of April in
Massachusetts. The term delayed dormant is applied to that period in
the development of the cluster buds and foliage when they have ex-
panded from a quarter to a half inch.
It is more or less axiomatic that the hatching of the aphid eggs is about
coincident with the first splitting of the apple buds, and that by the
time the buds have expanded from a quarter to a half inch, the delaj^ed
dormant period, practically all of the eggs have hatched and the young
plant hce have migrated to the new growth for food. Observations
have confirmed this. Twigs brought in from the field and examined on
April 17 had numerous plant lice eggs upon them, but none of these
had hatched. The buds were in the late dormant condition. Twigs
brought in on April 19 were found to have a few newly hatched individ-
uals, which had migrated to those buds just beginning to expand and
show the least bit of green available for feeding purposes. From the
19th to the 24th of April, newly hatched aphids appeared in increasing
numbers. After the latter date only a few new indi\dduals appeared,
which could be readily determined by their size. It is evident from this
that under favorable weather conditions such as existed during the
period mentioned the time of maximum emergence is rather brief. The
presence of a few newly hatched individuals on some of the twigs on
May 1 indicated that a small number of belated aphids were still hatching
from the eggs, but in no case observed had the foliage expanded beyond
about half an inch before hatching was completed. No viviparously
produced aphids were in evidence at this time.
Object of Delayed Dormant Spraying.
In the past the practice of sprajdng with lime-suKur for the control of
San Jose scale has been confined for the most part to the dormant or late
dormant season. Comparatively recently, however, the practice of de-
layed dormant spraying with lime-sulfur has been quite generally advo-
cated, based on the assumption that such treatment is fully as effective
as dormant or late dormant season applications against the San Jos6 scale,
and that apple plant lice in their active stages would offer less resistance
to this insecticide than the unhatched eggs. In other words, it is beUeved
by some that a delayed application of lime-sulfur at full dormant-season
strength, just after the buds have split open and have expanded perhaps
not over half an inch, will control the San Jos6 scale, and to quite an
extent the apple plant lice as well. Applications at this time, practice
has shown, can be made with little or no eventual injury to the foUage.
Our tests, so far as the efficiency of the delayed applications of lime-
sulfur in controlling plant lice is concerned, have by no means borne out
this conclusion. From the standpoint of the fungicidal value of lime-
sulfur, delayed dormant applications appear to have some advantage
over those of the dormant season.
TREATMENT FOR CONTROL OF APPLE APHIDS. 49
On the other hand it has been recognized by some that only by the
addition of nicotine sulfate to the lime-sulfur solution, when this is ap-
plied as a delayed dormant spray, can the aphids be satisfactorily con-
trolled. This would indicate that the nicotine sulfate is mainly respon-
sible for the control of the plant lice, and that the only reason for delaying
the lime-sulfur treatment and combining it with nicotine sulfate is to
make necessary only one application instead of two. Then, too, some
advocate the addition of an arsenical to the above combination, at the
delayed dormant period, for the control of bud moth, case bearers, etc.,
making possible, theoretically at least, by this insecticide combination
the control of San Jos6 scale, apple aphids and certain foliage feeders by
one application.
Comparative Tests for the Destruction of Aphid Eggs under
Laboratory Conditions.
The first tests were made for the purpose of determining the com-
parative efficiency of lime-sulfur solution and miscible oils against the
unhatched aphid eggs. The lime-sulfur was a fresh sample of a com-
mercial concentrate, having a density of 34° Beaum^. This was used at
the strength recommended upon the container for dormant appUcations,
1 to 8. Two proprietary miscible oils were tested, these being diluted
1 to 15, the usual dormant-season strength. Although both samples
were fresh from the manufacturers, one was evidently imperfect as there
was some free oil present. In the tests, however, this imperfect sample
showed to less advantage in destrojdng the eggs than the well-prepared
sample, a rather unexpected outcome, perhaps, in view of the presence
of free oil. These tests, as in the case of those following in which the aim
was to determine the comparative killing efficiency, were carried out in
the laboratory, where careful counts could be made and results checked.
Dipping the infested apple twigs was resorted to rather than spraj'ing,
in order to insure uniformity of treatment, as by the latter method any
variability of application might lead to an improper interpretation. On
examination, shortly after the infested twigs were brought in from the
field, it was impossible to make any estimate of the probable number of
eggs that would hatch, since a large percentage of the eggs were apparently
dead from some cause, as indicated by their shriveled condition. Twigs
of as nearly the same size and degree of infestation as possible were se-
lected for insecticide treatment and check, the average length of the
twigs being about 8 inches. No definite percentage of efficiency can be
given for the tests against the eggs. The results should be taken as
merely comparative and in the way of a generaUzation, and are perhaps
in need of further verification both in the laboratory and under field con-
ditions. The tests against the unhatched eggs were begun when the
buds were in the late dormant condition and at such a short time before
hatching occurred that it was impossible to carry out verification checks.
The results are given in the following table : —
50
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 184.
Comparative Efficiency of Lime-Sulfur ar^d Miscihle Oils against Apple
Aphid Eggs in the Late Dormant Period under Laboratory Condi-
tions.
Material and
Dilution.
Hatch on Treated
Twigs.
Hatch on Check.
Injury to
Twigs.
Lime-sulfur, 1 to 8, .
Miscible oi! A, 1 to 15,
Miscible oil B, 1 to 15, .
No hatching on three
twigs.
Thirty-eix eggs hatched
on three twigs.
Seven eggs hatched on
three twigs.
Twenty-nine eggs hatched.
Twenty-four eggs hatched,
Fifty-four eggs hatched, .
No injury.
No injury.
No injury.
Discussion of Results.
Wliile these results can hardly be accepted as conclusive, for the reasons
given above, it seems evident that lime-sulfur thoroughly applied at the
late dormant period is highly effective under favorable conditions in
destroying the aphid eggs, and is certainly more efficient against this
stage of the insect than miscible oils. Of course, in dipping the twigs it
is to be expected that better results would be obtained than in the ordinary
practice of orchard spraying, and it is also true that under field conditions,
as will be pointed out under the topic "Action of Lime-sulfur and Miscible
Oils upon the Aphid Eggs," discussed later, the intervention of rain
between the time of application and the normal hatching period might
alter results to a marked degree. This may account to some extent for
the frequent ineffective control of apple aphids by the dormant or late
dormant season lime-sulfur treatment, with which absolute thoroughness
is practically impossible under field conditions, and which has also the
added element of uncertainty of results due to the meteorological factor
just mentioned. The hatching of a comparatively small number of eggs
that have survived treatment might result in quite a severe infestation
before the season is far advanced. There is also to be considered the
possibilit}^ of reinfestation from other sources by migrants in the case of
the green apple aphis. The destruction of the eggs or suppression of the
stem mothers in the spring does not always guarantee freedom from
these insects during midsummer, when supplementary treatments are
sometimes desirable or necessary. The miscible oils do not appear to be
very effective against the aphid eggs, even with absolute thoroughness of
application; and it is probable that a sufficient number of eggs would
withstand the treatment, to produce a severe infestation later in the
season, unless other measures were taken for control.
Action of Lime-sidfur and Miscible Oils upon the Aphid Eggs. — Obser-
vations as to the killing power of the lime-sulfur against the aphid eggs
indicate that the effectiveness of this material is due mainlj' to a me-
chanical action. On twigs examined after dipping, it was noticed that as
the lime-sulfur dried it tended to stick down the eggs and mat the twig
1
TREATMENT FOR CONTROL OF APPLE APHIDS. 51
pubescence over them in such a manner that the deUcate insects were
apparentl.v unable to force their way from the eggs. This fact — that
the action of Hme-sulfur against the unhatched eggs appears to be mainly
mechanical — presents an element of great uncertainty concerning results
that would obtain under field conditions. For instance, the occurrence
of a rain between the time of application and the normal hatching time
for the eggs might alter results to a great extent, as many of the eggs
which are stuck down and potentially unable to hatch would probably
thus be liberated, so that hatching might result. This contingency
emphasizes the desirability of making the application of the lime-sulfur
at the late dormant period if success against the aphid eggs is aimed at,
in order to make the space of time between treatment and the normal
hatching period as brief as possible, and to eliminate any unfavorable
meteorological factors that might lessen the efficiency. As will be shown
later the various elements that combine to make aphid control by lime-
sulfur treatment against the eggs during the dormant or late dormant
periods a matter of much uncertainty, as compared with other practices
discussed later, miUtate against its use at either of these periods, unless
no other treatment against the aphids is intended, in which case the late
dormant treatment should give the most satisfactory results. No such
mechanical action was evident in the case of the miscible oils, so that
whatever killing of the eggs may have resulted from the use of these
insecticides was undoubtedly of a chemical nature.
COMPAEATIVE TeSTS FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF THE LiVING ApPLE
Aphids.
These tests were made against living apple aphids on twigs whose
foliage showed varying degrees of expansion from just after the splitting
open of the buds, the real delayed dormant period, up to a development
of three-fourths of an inch or more, the latter being tested mainly to
determine the extent of foliage injury Jikely to result from the treatment.
Full dormant-season strength of lime-sulfur and miscible oils was used
and this same strength of lime-sulfur in combination with nicotine sul-
fate, observations being made both as to their killing power and their
effect upon the foliage. Careful counts were made of the number of
living plant lice present upon the twigs before and after the dipping
treatment, and from this the killing efficiency of each material could be
readilv estimated. The results follow : —
52
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 184.
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TREATMENT FOR CONTROL OF APPLE APHIDS. 53
Discussion of Results.
Efficiency of Lime-sulfur against the Aphids. — It is evident from the
foregoing that Ume-sulfur alone appUed at the delayed dormant period
even at full dormant-season strength is practically worthless in con-
trolling apple aphids. Actual count shows this material to be under 10
per cent, efficient, and in every case the delicate, recently hatched aphids
were the onlj^ ones affected. In addition to those killed, a few were more
or less permanently incapacitated, judging from their feeble condition,
but even if these were included in the "kill," it would alter the results
given only slightly. The count to determine the number of plant hce
killed was made at later periods of the day on which treatment was
applied and on subsequent daj-s until all deaths due to the treatment
could be checked up. It should be kept in mind that all the twigs were
thoroughly dipped and that the ordinary orchard spraying would prob-
ably be even less effective, unless perhaps the apphcation of the spray
under pressure might possibly dislodge some of the plant Uce and thus
counterbalance the less thorough application. Observations made after
treatment showed that the older plant lice were apparently unaffected
and were quietly feeding, except where the coating or drying out of the
buds by the lime-sulfur made it necessary for them to seek suitable feed-
ing places elsewhere.
Action of Lime-sulfur upon the Aphids. — The action of the lime-sulfur
upon the j'oung plant lice, the only stage of the active insects against
which it appears to have any particular effect, seems to be mainly me-
chanical, in that it sticks these delicate young to the twigs in such a
manner that death is probably the result of starvation. Death occurred
very slowly in some cases, since the insects were often found feebly
struggling to liberate themselves several hours after the treatment.
Foliage Injury by Lime-sulfur. — The effect of the lime-sulfur upon the
opening foliage was noted both in the laboratory and upon field-sprayed
trees, where more rehable data of this nature could be obtained. While
a number of elements may enter in to affect results, such as the variety
of apple, weather conditions, pressure under which the apphcation is
made, etc., our tests showed that little or no eventual injury results from
the use of dormant-season strength lime-sulfur where the buds have not
expanded beyond a half inch. Upon sprayed trees, where expansion
beyond this point had occurred, injury was more evident, but even on
treated trees, with the foliage out three-fourths of an inch to an inch or
more, an examination several weeks after application showed Httle other
than tip injury in most cases. It seems advisable, however, from the
standpoint of thoroughness if for no other reason, to confine such spray-
ing within the delayed dormant period. It was noted that the long
pubescence on foliage that had expanded to about half an inch, but had
not unfolded to any extent, appeared to shed the lime-suLfur readily or
absorb it only in occasional spots, which resulted in injury at these
54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 184.
points; whereas the shorter, matted pubescence of the bark and bud
scales absorbed it readily, and on this account more injury was often
caused to those buds just splitting open than to those slightly more
advanced.
Efficiency of Lime-sulfur and Nicotine sulfate combined against the
Aphids. — Previous tests have shown that nicotine sulfate at the dilu-
tion 1 to 800 is practically a perfect aphidicide. The addition of lime-
sulfur probably increases its efficiency very little, so that the only logical
reason for the use of this combination at the delayed donnant period is
for the purpose of saving labor by combining two operations — the San
Jose scale treatment and aphid treatment — in one. Laboratory tests
where absolute thoroughness of application by dipping was possible
showed this combination to be 100 per cent, effective. The effectiveness
of this combination under field conditions would depend mainly on
thoroughness of application.
Action of the Lime-sulfur-nicotine sulfate Combination wpon the Aphids.
• — As already indicated the action of lime-sulfur in killing the aphids
appears to be mainly mechanical, — by sticking them to the plant so
that in most cases death is probably the result of starvation. The action
of the nicotine sulfate in killing the aphids is rather slow, requiring from
about half an hour to twenty-four hours or more for different individuals.
Immediately after the dipping there was no evidence that the treatment
had any effect upon the aphids. In about fifteen minutes, however,
considerable restlessness was apparent and inside of half an hour a num-
ber of the plant lice had begun to drop from the twigs, some being pre-
cipitated rather forcefully as if from strong muscular contraction. These
lay struggling feebly but unable to crawl, gradually becoming dark
colored and motionless. Those plant lice that survived the treatment for
a number of hours appeared after a few hours to be paralyzed and in-
capable of either locomotion or feeding, but were feebly moving their
legs and antennae and excreting honey dew in abnormally large amounts.
An examination of the twigs forty-eight hours after treatment showed all
the plant lice to be dead. The fact that nicotine sulfate kills rather
slowly may account for the occasional reports that this material is in-
effective against plant lice. Examination of treated plants shortly after
application might readily lead to this conclusion, but if sufficient time is
allowed before examination there will be no question as to its effective-
ness.
Foliage Injury by the Lime-sulfur-nicotine-sidfate Combination. — A
comparison of the effects from the use of full dormant-season strength
lime-sulfur alone and in combination with nicotine sulfate on apple foli-
age in various stages of development from the first splitting of the buds
to a development of an inch or more showed no noticeable difference.
Even at the latter period of development the amount of foliage injury
was not serious.
TREATMENT FOR CONTROL OF APPLE APHIDS. 55
Efficiency of Miscible Oils against the Aphids. — Tests against the living
aphids with two brands of proprietary miscible oils showed a killing
efficiency of 100 per cent, for each of these.
Action of Miscible Oils upon the Aphids. — The killing action of miscible
oils upon the aphids seems to be almost instantaneous. In fact on twigs
examined shortly after dipping no movement of the aphids could be
noticed. The action is evidently of a strictly chemical nature.
Foliage Injury by Miscible Oils. — While spraying with miscible oils
for the control of San Jos6 scale is usually confined to the dormant or
late dormant season, our tests would indicate that this material, if perfect,
can be used at full dormant-season strength during the delayed dormant
period with no more injurj' to the foliage than results from the use of
lime-sulfur. At this period in tests conducted both in the laboratory and
in the field onty sHght tip injury resulted; but where the fohage had
developed to three-fourths of an inch or more, the injury from the use of
the miscible oils seemed to be shghtly greater than that resulting from
the lime-sulfur treatment. Even this was not serious and was readily
overcome as the season advanced. From the foregoing it is evident that
where the use of miscible oils for orchard sprajdng is practiced the most
economical time for application is during the delaj^ed dormant period,
when one application will serve for both the San Jos6 scale treatment and
aphid control.
Conclusions.
1. The delayed dormant period is usually indicative of the complete
hatching of apple aphid eggs. At this time the buds have expanded
from a quarter to a half inch.
2. Lime-sulfur solution at full dormant-season strength is less than
10 per cent, effective against the living aphids when applied at the de-
layed dormant period.
3. Lime-sulfur applied at the late dormant period, before the buds
split open and just before the hatching of the aphid eggs, appears to be
highly effective, under favorable conditions, in destroying the eggs, but
the elements of thoroughness of application and unfavorable meteoro-
logical conditions present such unoertainty as to results that this treat-
ment can hardly be recommended as an effective control.
4. If lime-sulfur is to be used as a control for San Jose scale and no
special treatment for apple aphids is to be made later, best results against
aphids, if present, are likely to be obtained by a late dormant-season
application just before the eggs hatch. Treatment at this time should
also be thoroughly effective against the scale.
5. The appUcation of the lime-sulfur (1 to 8) and nicotine sulfate
(i to 800) combination applied at the delayed dormant period gives
practicallj^ a perfect control for apple aphids and makes unnecessary a
separate earher appHcation of lime-sulfur for San Jose scale. The per-
56 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 184.
centage of efficiency will depend mainly upon thoroughness of applica-
tion.
6. The ordinary dormant-season treatment of apple orchards with
miscible oil against San Jose scale, if applied thoroughly at the delayed
dormant period, should result in practically a perfect control of apple
aphids also.
7. Delayed dormant appUcations of full dormant-season strength hme-
sulfur, lime-sulfur and nicotine sulfate combined, and miscible oils, if
perfect, can be made without material injury to apple foliage. Even
when the foliage is considerably more advanced, little severe injury
usually results. This fact, if taken into account, might make unnecessary
separate appUcations for early and late budding varieties. As the foliage
becomes more advanced, however, the success of the treatment involves
greater difficulty, since the aphids are very difficult to reach when they
have the spreading leaves for protection.
8. The action of lime-sulfur in destroying both the aphid eggs and
living insects appears to be mainly mechanical, by sticking them to the
twigs.
9. The action of nicotine sulfate in killing the living aphids is slow,
requiring from about half an hour to twenty-four hours or more for different
individuals. Death appears to be due to paralysis.
10. Miscible oils are practically instantaneous in their killing action
against the Hving aphids. The action is probably of a chemical nature.
Acknowledgments. <,
The writer is greatly indebted to Mr. A. I. Bourne of the Massachu-
setts Agricultural Experiment Station staff for assistance in carrying out
the insecticide tests, and to Dr. H. T. Fernald for his kind suggestions
and assistance.
Bibliography.
1908. Gillette, C. P., and Taylor, E. P. "Orchard Plant Lice and Their Reme-
dies." Bulletin 134, Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station.
1910. Wallace, E. "Spray Injury Induced by Lime-sulfur Preparations." Bul-
letin 288, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station.
1911. Shafer, G. D. "How Contact Insecticides Kill." Technical Bulletin 11,
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.
1914. Tartar, H. V. "On the Valuation of Lime-sulfur as an Insecticide." Journal
of Economic Entomology, Vol. VII., p. 463.
1915. Parrott, P. J., and Hodgkiss, H. E. "The Status of Spraying Practices for
the Control of Plant Lice in Apple Orchards." Bulletin 402, New York
Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.
1915. Shafer, G. D. "How Contact Insecticides Kill." Technical Bulletin 21,
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.
1916. Mclndoo, N. E. "Effects of Nicotine as an Insecticide." Journal of Agri-
cultural Research, Vol. VII., No. 3, p. 89, United States Department of
Agriculture.
TREATMENT FOR CONTROL OF APPLE APHIDS. 57
1916. Parrott, P. J., Hodgkiss, H. E., and Lathrop, F. H. "Apple Aphids and
Their Control." Bulletin 415, New York Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Geneva, N. Y.
1917. Quaintance, A. L., and Baker, A. C. "Aphids Injurious to Orchard Fruits,
Currant, Gooseberry and Grape." Farmers' Bulletin 804, United States
Department of Agriculture.
1917. Parrott, P. J., Hodgkiss, H. E., and Lathrop, F. H. "Plant Lice Injurious
to Apple Orchards" (II.). Bulletin 4.31, New York Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Geneva, N. Y.
1918. Thayer, P. "Delayed Applications of Lime-sulphur." Monthly Bulletin,
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Vol. III., No. 3, p. 82.
BULLETIN ]Sro. 185.
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE.
THE INHERITANCE OF SEED COAT COLOR
IN GARDEN BEANS.
BY J. K, SHAW AND JOHN B. NORTON.
Introduction.
Investigation of inheritance in garden beans at this station was begun
in 1907 by Mr. C. S. Pomeroy, then assistant horticulturist, who made
several crosses during that summer and grew the Fi generation in 1908.
Additional crosses were made during the same summer. In the fall of
1908 this crossed seed and that of the Fi generation above referred to fell
into the hands of the senior writer, who has been responsible for the con-
duct of the investigations since. In the summer of 1913 the junior author
came into the work and has since borne a large share. During all this
time Prof. F. A. Waugh has had general supervision, and his helpful
criticisms and suggestions made from time to time are gratefully ac-
knov/ledged.
Review of Literature.
A number of investigators have given time to the study of the in-
heritance of seed coat color in beans. Mendel (1) after his classical experi-
ments with peas gave some attention to beans, but he discovered little
beyond the fact that he had here a more complex problem than that pre-
sented by peas, and he was not able to apply the simple 3:1 formula to
explain his results.
Emerson (2) made many crosses of different horticultural varieties, and
observed among other things the behavior of seed coat color. He con-
sidered that the mottled offspring exliibited characters not visible in either
parent. In a later paper (3) the same author gives the numbers of seeds
resulting from a cross of a dark brown and a yellow brown, and from a
cross of a black and a white variety. The results of these crosses were
similar to those of Burpee Stringless, Giant Stringless, Challenge Black
Wax and White Marrow.
60 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
Further investigation showed Emerson that the theory of mosaics
could not explain the behavior of mottled beans resulting from crosses of
non-mottled parents, and he advanced (4) a theory suggested by Shull,
which supposed one factor was responsible for mottling in fixed races and
a different factor responsible for mottling in heterozygous forms mentioned
above, which is visible in heterozygous individuals only.
In another paper (5) Emerson discusses this theory, and develops
another theory suggested by Spillman, which supposes mottling to be
due to two factors which may exist separately in the heterozygous mottled
forms or coupled in those forms which breed true to the mottled characters.
By this theory the facts reported in the present paper may be explained.
Tschermak carried on numerous investigations of the inheritance of
seed coat color in beans along with others with stocks and peas. In his
most recent paper (22) he analyzes his results, and is able to account for
most of them in a satisfactory fashion by means of simple Mendelian
factors.
Shull (17) advanced the hypothesis of the appearance of the mottling
factor only in heterozygous individuals referred to above.
Kajanus (13) reports investigations of the inheritance of colors and color
patterns in garden beans, especially of the behavior of a violet marbled
type of mottling due apparently to distinct factors. He reports also on
the chemical nature of the pigments involved.
Jarvis (11) and Tracy (19) have given excellent descriptions and a quite
stable nomenclature of common bean varieties, and Freeman (7) describes
several types of the Mexican frijoles and teparies, P. acutifolnis var.
latifolius.
Methods.
At first, commercial seed procured from the trade was used, but begin-
ning in 1909 steps were taken to breed pure races, and earlier crosses made
with plants grown from commercial seed were, so far as possible, repeated.
Evidence indicated that a few of these earlier parents were probably
hybrids, and such crosses have been ignored in the consideration of results.
In all cases the plants used for crossing have been externally true to type,
but as will appear later, it is probable that in some varieties two or more
races have been encountered. In such cases no external differences have
been observed in the parent plants, though their behavior on crossing
revealed different genetic composition.
In making the crosses the procedure of Emerson has been generally
followed; that is, emasculation and pollination have been performed in
one operation. This method has given sometimes 30 per cent, or more of
successful attempts, and at other times a very low percentage of successes.
This is probably due in part to unfavorable environmental conditions, and
in part to variations in the procedure, — usually the selection of a female
blossom that was not sufficiently mature. In a few cases the resulting
plants have been like the female parent, indicating that self-fertilization
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS. 61
had taken place before the foreign pollen was introduced, or at least before
it could take effect. Some of the crossing was done in the field and some
in the greenhouse during the winter. In the latter case the blossoms were
not covered, while in the former a one-fourth pound manilla bag was tied
tightly ov'er the flower stalk for five or six days, after which it was torn
open, and, if the attempt seemed successful, left to indicate the seed pod
at the time of harvest.
In all cases four generations from the cross have been grown. In each
generation except the fourth a certain number of plants chosen more or
less at random have been self-fertilized by enclosing them during the
blossoming period in cheesecloth or, in a few cases, waxed paper sacks.
Neither of these is satisfactory. Both weaken the plant, the waxed paper
sacks more than the cheesecloth ones. It has been the invariable observa-
tion that there is a progressive weakening of the plants through the four
generations. First generation crosses are invariably strong, vigorous
plants, often seemingly more vigorous than the parent varieties, while the
fourth generation plants are decidedly weak and unproductive. Whether
this is due to the repeated self-fertilization or to the weakening effect of
covering the plants does not appear. Possibly both have contributed to
the result observed.
The blossoms have been more or less infested with thrips. None have
been observed on covered plants, but it is entirely possible that there
may have been cases of such infestation, and that in rare cases a grain of
foreign pollen was introduced in the blossom of a plant supposed to be
self-fertilized. A few irregularities that may have been due to such a
cause have been observed. Nevertheless, the probability that such cases
are extremely rare is indicated by a number of considerations. Bean
blossoms are commonly self-fertilized before they open, and, according
to our observation, thrips does not infest unopened buds. The pollen-
carrying ability of thrips cannot be large, and it appears that it does
not commonly enter beneath the bags, or it would have been observed
in the many examinations of the covered plants. And finally, cases
arousing suspicion of the entrance of foreign pollen are extremely rare.
Recording Data.
The method of securing records of the plants has been previously
described (16). It consists, essentially, in assigning to the expression of
each supposed Mendelian character a special letter designation. The
plants have been examined for blossom color, pod color, and for seed
coat color. This involves going over the plants not less than three times,
and in most cases two examinations have been made for each character,
involving examination of the plants six times. In order to identify the
individual plants, each is assigned a number in order. The seeds are
planted about 6 inches apart, and a small tag bearing its number is early
attached to every fifth plant. Thus, in order to ascertain the number of
62
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
any plant, one has to examine only a very few plants along the row before
finding one bearing a tag with its number. Wlien any plant is self-fertilized
the fact is noted on the card along with the rest of the record for that
plant. A record of J:he original crosses is kept so that one may trace
readily the ancestry of any individual plant back to the original parents.
As soon as the seed was well matured a Sngle bean from each plant
representative of those on that plant has been selected and preserved.
Unfortunately mice gained access to a portion of these seed samples and
destroyed many of them. Still, samples representing a majority of the
plants grown escaped destruction and are available for examination.
Many of the pigments found in the seed coats are subject to change with
age, and due allowance must be made in the study of old seed.
It has been said that an attempt was made in recording observations
to designate the expression of each independent character by a separate
letter. The letter used, the color which each stands for, and the name
of a variety bearing each color character are as follows : —
Seed Coat Color.
A.
White,
B.
Buff,
C.
Yellow, .
D.
Medium or bright red
E.
Dark or purplish red,
F.
Coffee brown, .
G.
Black,
H.
Olive,
L.
Eyedness,
O.
Dark mottled, .
P.
Light mottled, .
Flower.
A.
White,
B.
Light pink,
C.
Pink,
D.
Crimson, .
E.
Waxy pink.
Found in —
Davis Wax.
Blue Pod Butter.
Giant Stringless.
Red Valentine.
Mohawk.
Burpee Stringless.
Challenge Black Wax.
Certain crosses.
All eyed beans.
Red Valentine.
Golden Carmine.
All white and eyed sorts.
Burpee Stringless.
All black seed sorts.
Blue Pod Butter.
Certain crosses.
The first eight letters stand for separate and quite distinct colors, most
of which may be found in one or more of the varieties used. The color H
does not appear in any of the varieties used, but does appear in several
of the crosses. Attempts have been made to distinguish different eye
sizes in eyed beans. There is no doubt that eye size is inherited, but the
data secured do not appear clear and definite enough to warrant any
positive conclusions; therefore only a brief general report on different
eye sizes is made.
Mottled beans are of two distinct kinds, — one, designated as "dark
mottled," includes those sorts where the darker color or colors predomi-
nate, of which there are many varieties other than Red Valentine, the
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
63
one cited; the other, called "light mottled/' includes those varieties of
the Horticultural type. The different blossom colors have been more
fully explained in a previous publication (15).
Varieties used.
During the eight years that the investigations have been in progress
twenty-one varieties have been used in the crosses yielding results deemed
worthy of consideration. A few others have been used in a very limited
way. Including reciprocals, more than 120 different crosses have been
made, some of which have been repeated two or three times.
The principal varieties used, their blossom and seed coat color, and the
letters used to designate them, are as follows : —
Variety.
Blossom.
Seed Coat.
Color.
Letter.
Color.
Letter.
Black Valentine, .
Pink
C
Black
G
Blue Pod Butter, .
Crimson,
D
Buff
B
Bountiful,
Pink, .
C
Greenish buff,
B
Burpee Kidney,
White, .
A
Red mottled eye.
EOL
Burpee Stringless, .
Light pink, .
B
Coffee brown.
F
Challenge Black Wax, .
Pink, .
C
Black
G
Creaseback, .
White, .
A
White
A
Currie, . . . .
Pink, .
C
Black
G
Davis Wax,
White. .
A
White
A
German Black Wax,
Pink, .
C
Black
G
Giant Stringless, .
Light pink, .
B
Yellow,
C
Golden Carmine, .
Light pink.
B
Light mottled, .
EP
Golden Eyed Wax,
White, .
A
Yellow eyed,
CL
Keeney Rustless, .
White, .
A
Dark red eyed mottled,
EOL
Longfellow,
Light pink.
B
Red mottled.
DO
Low Champion,
Light pink, .
D
Red
D
Mohawk,
Light pink,
B
Dark red mottled.
EO
Prolific Black Wax,
Pink, .
C
Black
G
Red Valentine,
White, .
A
Red mottled.
DO
Wardwell,
White, .
A
Dark red mottled eye.
EOL
Warren, . . . .
Light pink, .
B
Dark red, .
E
Warwick,
Light pink, .
B
Red mottled,
DO
White Marrow,
White, .
A
White
A
The nomenclature is according to Jarvis (11), and for a full description
of the several varieties the reader is referred to his paper or that of Tracy
(19).
64 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
An examination of the above table reveals several more or less constant
correlations between blossom color and seed coat color. All white or
eyed beans are accompanied by white blossoms. So far as the knowledge
of the writers goes this is always true, unless it may be in some cases of
eyed beans, when the eye is unusually large. With this reservation no
certain exceptions have been observed among either commercial varieties
or the crosses made. With the exception of Red Valentine, all totally
pigmented or mottled beans show more or less color in the blossom. A
few plants in certain lots of Red Valentine have shown slight color in the
blossom, while in other lots a careful examination showed no colored
flowers. As is shown later, more than one strain of Red Valentine has been
encountered, and this may account for the occasional appearance of
slightly tinged flowers. There are a number of commercial varieties
having pigmented seeds and white flowers.
In these varieties black beans and pink flowers alwaj^s go together, and
this seems to be generally the case among commercial varieties whether
the bean is solid black or black mottled, unless the mottling is confined to
a distinct e3^e. Our records show a number of instances where a black or
black mottled bean is said to have been accompanied by a white flower,
but such cases are very few among manj' where the flower is pink, and
we are inclined to ascribe them to erroneous observations, usually of blos-
som color. Certain pigmentation of the plant as a whole seems to accom-
pany certain blossom colors. The crimson flower of Blue Pod Butter is
alwaj^s accompanied by a deep purplish coloration of the entire plant. It
is probable that the factor producing the pink flower and black coloration
in the seed coat always causes also fine purplish lines on the stems and
possibly a darker foliage than is found in non-pigmented plants.
Pod color is undoubtedly independent of other coloration of the plant,
except that green podded plants have slightly darker green foliage than
wax podded varieties.
The purplish coloration characteristic of the foliage of Blue Pod Butter,
found also in crosses when it is one of the parents, extends to the seed pods
whether they are green podded or wax podded. In many cases a more or
less obscure reddish or crimson splashing appears on the outside of the
seed pod. This is frequently, but apparentlj^ not always, associated with
mottled seeds. It is clearly seen in varieties of the Horticultural class.
Often it does not show until the pod is about to ripen, and disappears
with complete maturity. On account of these facts it has been found dif-
ficult to secure accurate data bearing on the genetic behavior of this
character. Moreover, our attention has been directed more especially to
other characters. Our observations indicate that it is a character worthy
of more careful study directed especially upon this point.
As has been previously intimated, the inheritance of pigmentation in
beans is exceedingly complicated. Many independent factors are involved,
and through various interrelations of these, varied colors and color pat-
terns are produced. These colors and color patterns are not limited in
number to the letter designations given. To put it in another way, many
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS. 65
of the letters have been used to designate more than one color, or colors,
of different genetic origin, but alwaj^s similar colors, and usually those
that on first encountering we could not certainly differentiate. For ex-
ample, the B seed colors of Blue Pod Butter and Bountiful are similar
in appearance, but of entirely different genetic constitution, and can be
with some difficulty distinguished from each other in the field. It has
been the aim to use a given letter within a given cross always for the same
color character, and it is thought that this has been usually successful.
The appearance of pigment in the seed coat of beans is usually the ex-
pression of a complex factor or the concurrence of several factors. In the
absence of any one of the elements of this factor complex the beans are
unpigmented. If this be the case, crosses of non-pigmented beans may
give rise to pigmented offspring. One such cross has been encountered in
this work, that of Davis Wax X Michigan White Wax. This does not
signify that such crosses are rare, for only three have been made in the
course of this work, the other two, Creaseback X Burpee's Fordhook
Favorite, and Wliite Marrow X Burpee White Wax, yielding only non-
pigmented offspring. As previously reported, numerous crosses of plants
bearing white flowers have given rise to plants with pigmented flowers,
but all these have been accompanied by pigmented seeds. Had the pos-
sible results from intercrossing non-pigmented beans been realized from
the first a much larger number of such crosses would have been attempted.
Crosses of Pigmented with Non-pigmented Beans,
We have a white-coated bean whenever one or more elements of the
factor complex for pigmentation are absent, and crosses of such plants
with pigmented plants have shown dominance of pigmentation. The pro-
portions of pigmented and non-pigmented beans in the F2 generation
have been approximately 3:1, yet most crosses show departures from this
ratio that, in view of the large numbers involved, may be significant.
These results are shown in Table I. In some crosses there is an excess of
pigmented beans and in others a deficiency. We have been unable to
settle upon any theory that will explain in detail these seeming irregu-
larities. If the non-pigmented parent lacks more than one element of
the pigment complex an excess of non-pigmented beans in F2 would
result, — an explanation of the observed excess of white beans that may
or may not be correct. It is possible that the excess of pigmented beans
might be explained on the basis of a complex pigmentation factor were it
thoroughly understood, but we are unable at present to offer adequate
explanation of all the departures from a 3:1 ratio that have been observed.
Some of the crosses involving Creaseback show very great departures
from a 3:1 ratio. In 97a and 331a the number of white beans is very few.
Both these must be crosses, for Creaseback is a pole bean, and pole beans
have appeared in considerable numbers in 97a, and most of the beans in
331a were entirely unhke Warwick, the female parent. This behavior of
Creaseback will be more fully discussed later.
66
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
Table I. — Crosses of Pigmented rvi
,h Non-Tpigmented Beans.
Cross
No.
Parent Varieties.
F2.
Fa and F4 (Pig-
mented
Parents only).
33
Blue Pod Butter (P) X White Marrow (\V), .
Pigmented.
77
W^ite.
35
Pigmented.
410
White.
157
34
White Marrow (W) X Blue Pod Butter (P), .
57
23
87
38
Totals
134
58
497
195
Ratios,
2.31
2.55
/
67
Burpee Stringless (P) X White Marrow (W). .
54
17
302
68
93
68
White Marrow (W) X Burpee Stringless (P), .
46
14
175
61
Totals,
100
31
477
154
Ratios,
s.n
3.10
1
129
Currie (P) X White Marrow (W), .
122
49
1.59
57
59
Ratios
249
2.70
/
184
White Marrow (W) X German Black Wax (P),
84
32
22
3
6
Ratios
Z.6S
3.67
/
230
White Marrow (W) X Golden Carmine (P), .
12
13
110
3
Ratios,
1.71
Jf.33
/
249
Golden Eyed Wax (P) X White Marrow (W),
118
36
185
70
56
250
White Marrow (W) X Golden Eyed Wax (P),
18
129
63
27
Totals
136
40
314
83
Ratios
S.iO
3.78
1
268
White Marrow (W) X Keeney Rustless (P), .
14
81
18
21
Ratios,
2.00
I
3.86
1
298
White Marrow (W) X Prolific Black Wax (P), .
33
11
63
28
Ratios,
3.00
2.25
)
309
Red Valentine (P) X White Marrow (W),
71
22
66
88
34
310
White Marrow (W) X Red Valentine (P), .
33
9
56
28
17
Totals
104
33
122
51
Ratios
3.15
/
2.39
/
31
Blue Pod Butter (P) X Creaseback (W),
144
65
520
134
32a
Creaseback (W) X Blue Pod Butter (P),
5
3
26
11
1
32
Creaseback (W) X Blue Pod Butter (P),
73
30
155
49
Ratios
2.1,3
/
3.16
/
97
Challenge Black Wax (P) X Creaseback (W),
145
37
238
136
65
Ratios
3.92
1
S.66
/
97o
Challenge Black Wax (P) X Creaseback (W),
101
1
29
60
2
247
Golden Eyed Wax (P) X Creaseback (W), .
10
3
65
97
19
Ratios
3.33
/
S.i2
/
296
Creaseback (W) X Prolific Black Wax (P), .
2Q
17
-
-
Ratios,
1.53
/
-
-
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
67
Table I. — Crosses of Pigmented ivith Non-jngmented Beans — Concluded.
Cross
No.
Parent Varieties.
F2.
F3 and F4 (Pig-
mented
Parents only).
331
331a
332
Warwick (P) X Creaseback (W),
Warwick (P) X Creaseback (W),
Creaseback (W) X Warwick (P),
Totals (omitting 331a),
Ratios
Challenge Black Wax (P) X Davis Wax (
Ratios,
m,
Pigmented. White.
30 9
38
48
78
S.
243
Pigmented. White.
7
27
131
104
103
110
242
329
The Inheritance of Pigment Patterns.
The disposition of pigments over the surface of the bean may be even,
in which case we call it self-colored; or the pigments may be irregularly
disposed, revealing the separate colors in short stripes or splashes, when
we have a mottled bean. The mottling or the self-color may be limited
to a more or less well-defined area around the hilum, giving us an eyed
bean. These tw^o pigment patterns, mottling and eyedness, will be
separately considered.
Mottlmg.
There are many varieties of beans with mottled seeds. The colors
involved are various, and the type of mottling differs in different varieties.
The inheritance of the various colors is dealt with in a later section. The
various types of mottling are without difficulty separated into two classes,
— a light mottling shown in various varieties of the Horticultural class,
and a dark mottling shown by Red Valentine, Refugee and many others.
Many crosses involving both types of mottling have been made, and the
mottling always breeds true. There are also many crosses where only
non-mottled parents have yielded mottled beans, both of the light and
dark mottled types. But in no case have these mottled beans bred true.
This is in accord with other investigations, and a theory to account for
the facts has been set forth by Emerson (4) on the suggestion of Spillman.
This theory supposes that mottling is brought about by two factors,
Y and Z, which are coupled in the case of true-breeding mottled varieties,
but may be separately borne by distinct varieties, and in such cases are
inherited independently. Individuals from such crosses bearing both
Y and Z are mottled and always heterozygous, while those bearing either
one are not mottled. Whether or not this is the final and complete ex-
planation of mottling in beans, it serves to exi^lain the results thus far
obtained.
The following crosses of mottled beans have bred true, yielding only
mottled progeny: —
68
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
Cross
No.
Parent Varieties.
Total
Number of
Progeny.
215
258
262
273
274
Golden Carmine X Mohawk,
Red Valentine X Keeney Rustless,
Wardwell X Keeney Rustless,
Mohawk X Red Valentine, .
Red Valentine X Mohawk, .
77
109
168
78
281
Golden Carmine is of the light mottled type, and Keeney Rustless and
Wardwell are mottled-eyed beans; all the others are of the common
dark mottled type.
Table II. shows the results of crossing mottled and self-colored varieties.
In all such crosses the Fi generation has yielded only mottled beans.
The r2 generation has been composed of mottled and self-colored beans
in proportions approximating 3:1, though rather wide departures will be
noted. These departures are subject to the same comments as those in
crosses of pigmented and non-pigmented beans shown in Table I. All
extracted self-colored beans have bred true and mottled beans have
proved homozygous in mottling in some cases and heterozygous in others,
as shown in the table. None of the mottled varieties in this table are of
the light or Horticultural type. Wardwell and Keeney Rustless have
mottled eyes. Golden Eyed Wax has a self-colored eye, while the other
self-colored varieties are totally pigmented and of various colors.
Table II. — Crosses of Mottled until Self-colored Beans.
Cross
No.
Parent Varieties.
Fi.
F3 and Fj.
19
Blue Pod Butter (S) X Mohawk (M), .
Mottled.
8
Self.
Mottled.
55
43
Self.
21
20
Mohawk fM) X Blue Pod Butter (S), .
7
1
-
Totals
15
55
21
Ratios,
S.75
2.62
: /
23
Blue Pod Butter (S) X Red Valentine (M),
23
26
15
9
Ratios,
3.29
2.89
: 1
29
Blue Pod Butter (S) X Warwick (M), .
38
10
90
157
37
30
Warwick (M) X Blue Pod Butter (S), .
106
51
16
109
3
Totals, .
144
61
106
40
Ratios
2.3G
2.65
: /
54
Mohawk (M) X Burpee Stringless (S),
24
54
-
57
Burpee Stringless (S) X Red Valentine (M),
32
13
82
8
24
58
Red Valentine (M) X Burpee Stringless (S),
63
30
180
127
31
Totals
95
43
262
55
Ratios,
2. SI
: /
4.76
: /
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
69
Table II. — Crosses of Mottled with Self-colored Beans — Concluded.
Parent Varieties.
Fa.
F3 and F4.
Challenge Black Wax (S) X Warwick (M), .
Ratios,
Currie (S) X Mohawk (M)
Mohawk (M) X Currie (S)
Totals,
Ratios,
Currie (S) X Red Valentine (M),
Red Valentine (M) X Currie (S),
Totals
Ratios,
Giant Stringless (S) X Mohawk (M), .
Mohawk (M) X Giant Stringless (S), .
Totals, .......
Ratios, .......
Giant Stringless (S) X Red Valentine (M),
Red Valentine (M) X Giant Stringless (S),
Totals, .......
Ratios,
Prolific Black Wax (S) X Red Valentine (M),
Red Valentine (M) X Prolific Black Wax (S),
Totals,
Ratios, .......
Blue Pod Butter (S) X Refugee (M), .
Ratios, .......
Blue Pod Butter (S) X Wardwell (M),
Wardwell (M) X Blue Pod Butter (S),
Totals
Ratios,
Burpee Stringless (S) X Wardwell (M),
Ratios, .......
Giant Stringless (S) X Keeney Rustless (M),
Ratios, .......
Giant Stringless (S) X Wardwell (M), .
Ratios, .......
Wardwell (M) X Golden Eyed Wax (S),
Ratios, .......
Longfellow (M) X Golden Eyed Wax (S), .
Ratios, .......
Mottled.
34
158
20
178
116
287
403
27
180
207
10
35
45
3.75
15
2.14
4
4.00
42
2.00
Self.
13
1
41
6
47
1
50
151
201
1
2
2
4
1
9
5
14
1
14
75
89
4
2.00
Mottled.
136
179
3.61
68
12
26
117
201
77
176
194
54
53
107
95
122
136
72
231
23
12
1.64
94
56
78
111
172
11
9
5.50
43
41
3.31
81
55
44
18
2.31
3
19
1.00
Self.
52
/
34
7
41
1
46
19
65
/
7
23
30
1
36
22
58
/
28
47
75
1
14
/
28
30
58
1
2
1
13
/
34
1
19
/
3
1
70
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
In cross 54, Mohawk X Burpee Stringless, in the F3 and F4 genera-
tions, 54 plants jdelcled only mottled beans. This is explained by the
fact that only two parent plants were involved, and both happened to be
homozygous for mottling.
In Table III. are shown the results obtained from crosses of mottled
and white varieties. In all such crosses the Fi beans have been mottled,,
and all extracted whites have bred true. Extracted self-colored beans
have sometimes bred true and sometimes yielded self-colored and white
in approximately a 3:1 ratio, never mottled beans. As shown in the
table, the usual result in F2 seems to be a 9:3:4 proportion.
Table III. — Crosses of Mottled with White Beans.
Cross
No
Parent Varieties.
F2.
F3 AND F4
(Mottled Par-
ents only).
M.
S.
W.
M.
11
18
7
1
149
45
81
17
5
28
14
15
8
10
18
6
9
121
16
124
5
19
S.
W.
141
230
309
309o
310
327
366
331
33I0
332
Davis Wax (W) X Keeney Rustless (M),
White Marrow (W) X Golden Carmine (M), .
Red Valentine (M) X White Marrow (W),
Red Valentine (M) X White Marrow (W),
White Marrow (W) X Red Valentine (M),
Ward well (M) X White Marrow (M),
White Marrow (W) X Burpee Kidney (M), .
Warwick (M) X Creaseback (W), .
Warwick (M) X Creaseback (W), .
Creaseback (W) X Warwick (M), .
17
11
82
38
16
32
6
5
8
8
5
22
7
1
2
25
24
12
2
7
34
13
9
5
3
8
1
3
2
101
5
21
36
3
4
3
11
10
29
3
2
3
26
6
10
6
13
3
3
8
3
6
37
14
Cross 141, Davis Wax X Keeney Rustless, jdelded no self-colored
beans. It will be shown later that Davis carries the coupled factors YZ,
and as soon as pigment is introduced yields mottled beans. This being
true, and Keeney Rustless also bearing YZ, no self-colored beans can
appear. In cross 309 it is evident that two strains of White Marrow
are involved, the one in 309a being like Davis Wax in bearing the
coupled YZ, and the other strain only one of these factors, thus permitting
the appearance of self-colored beans. In crosses 331 and 332 there are
certain irregularities due to Creaseback that will be discussed later.
Most of our crosses among self-colored beans have yielded only self-
colored progeny, no mottled or white beans appearing. A list of such
crosses follows: —
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS,
71
Cross
No.
Parent Varieties.
Total
Number of
Progeny.
43
Burpee Stringless (S) X German Black Wax (S)
419
44
German Black Wax (S) X Burpee Stringless (S),
437
50
Golden Eyed Wax (E) X Burpee Stringless (S),
410
55
Burpee Stringless (S) X Prolific Black Wax (S),
75
81
Challenge Black Wax (S) X Golden Eyed Wax (E),
459
87
Challenge Black Wax (S) X Prolific Black Wax (S),
-
112
Golden Eyed Wax (E) X Currie (S), ....
879
189
Giant Stringless (S) X Golden Eved Wax (E), .
266
190
Golden Eyed Wax (E) X Giant Stringless (S), .
213
237
Golden Eyed Wax (E) X Prolific Black Wax (S),
419
346
Black Valentine (S) X Prolific Black Wax (S), .
108
349
Blue Pod Butter (S) X Warren (S), .
18
350
Bountiful (S) X German Black Wax (S), .
11
351
Bountiful (S) X Prolific Black Wax (S), .
75
354
German Black Wax (S) X Bountiful (S), .
81
362
Prolific Black Wax (S) X Bountiful (S)
56
Crosses of a number of self-colored varieties have yielded only mottled
individuals in Fi, and mottled and self-colored individuals in Fo, in what
seems to be roughly a 1:1 proportion. These are shown in Table IV.
Table IV. — Crosses of Self-colorsd Varieties yielding Mottled Progeny.
Cross
No.
Parent Varieties.
F2.
Fs AND F4
(Mottled Par-
ents only).
M.
S.
M.
S.
1
Blue Pod Butter X Burpee Stringless, .
159
146
165
170
2
Burpee Stringless X Blue Pod Butter, .
78
88
28
22
Totals
237
234
193
192
3
Blue Pod Butter X Challenge Black Wax,
36
39
25
30
4
Challenge Black Wax X Blue Pod Butter,
92
125
38
28
Totals,
128
164
63
58
5
Blue Pod Butter X German Black Wax,
7
16
8
5
6
German Black Wax X Blue Pod Butter,
48
27
26
35
Totals,
55
43
34
40
11
Blue Pod Butter X Giant Stringless,
2
1
11
12
12
Giant Stringless X Blue Pod Butter,
26
51
20
32
Totals
28
52
31
54
15
Blue Pod Butter X Golden Eyed Wax,
20
22
10
11
16
Golden Eyed Wax X Blue Pod Butter,
25
32
43
42
Totals
45
54
53
53
21
Blue Pod Butter X Prolific Black Wax,
69
59
27
42
22
Prolific Black Wax X Blue Pod Butter,
84
91
39
51
Totals
153
150
66
93
343
Low Champion X Blue Pod Butter,
36
26
38
48
72
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
Extracted self-colored individuals have bred true, and no unpigmented
beans have appeared. We may note at this point that Blue Pod Butter
is one of the parents of all these crosses. The explanation of this is
that Blue Pod Butter is the only self-colored bean bearing the factor Y,
all other self-colored varieties carrying the other factor for mottling,
designated as Z; and as, according to Emerson's theory, mottling can
result only when Y and Z are both present, the variety named is
the only self-colored variety that can produce mottling when crossed
with the other self-colored variety used. While the proportion 1:1 is
held quite closely when the total numbers of reciprocal crosses are con-
sidered, it may be noted that in all cases except the crosses involving Blue
Pod Butter with Golden Eyed Wax and Challenge Black Wax there is an
alternate preponderance of mottled and self-colored beans in the two
members of the reciprocal crosses, a fact that may have a significance,
or be onlv a chance occurrence.
Table V. — Crosses of Self-colored with White Beans yielding Mottled
Progeny.
F3
AND
F4
F2.
(Mottled
Par-
Cross
No.
Parent Varieties.
ENTS only).
M.
S.
W.
M.
s.
W.
7
Blue Pod Butter (S) X Davis Wax (W), .
14
3
6
36
19
18
-
21
8
Davis Wax (W) X Blue Pod Butter (S), .
38
13
16
9
12
40
13
8
3
33a
Blue Pod Butter (S) X White Marrow (W), .
-,
41
24
-
33
Blue Pod Butter (S) X White Marrow (W), .
74
17
22
93
82
135
12
23
60
145
34
White Marrow (W) X Blue Pod Butter (S). .
40
17
23
21
47
31
85
9
7
8
22
67
Burpee Stringless (S) X White Marrow (W), .
38
16
17
124
102
11
23
48
5
38
34
68
White Marrow (W) X Burpee Stringless (S), .
35
11
14
100
59
11
19
23
73
Challenge Black Wax (S) X Davis Wax (W), .
182
68
84
72
32
40
209
29
28
6
129
Currie (S) X White Marrow (W), .
63
58
49
35
9
3
31
12
30
184
White Marrow (W) X German Black Wax (S),
59
19
32
17
3
49
J
4
249
Golden Eyed Wax (S) X White Marrow (W), .
40
22
23
14
18
52
15
28
250
White Marrow (W) X Golden Eyed Wax (S), .
12
6
4
21
53
14
8
9
12
298
White Marrow (W) X Prolific Black Wax (S), .
19
14
11
10
20
4
2
6
4
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
73
At least two of the white varieties used in this work, Davis Wax and
White Marrow, seem to carry the factors for mottUng, and in most cases
they have jielded in F2 mottled, self-colored and white beans in what is
probabI,y a 9:3:4 ratio. Crosses with these varieties are shown in Table
V. All extracted whites have bred true, and extracted self-colored beans
have either bred true or yielded self-colored and mottled beans in approxi-
mately a 3:1 ratio. In several cases mottled beans have been extracted
which bred true, thus indicating that in some cases at least both Davis
and Wliite Marrow carry both Y and Z ; that is, they are really mottled
beans lacking pigment. In cross 33a no mottled beans appear, probably
because Blue Pod Butter and the particular strain of Wliite Marrow
involved carry the same mottling factor, and both likewise lack the other
one. It is certain that a different plant of Wliite Marrow was used and
one from a commercial stock, while in 33 and 34, individuals of a selfed
strain were used, and this strain was not derived from the plant used in
33a.
In the cross of Golden Eyed Wax X Wliite Marrow (Table V.) the
behavior as regards mottling is as expected from the above considera-
tions. In another cross of what were supposed to be the same varieties
no white beans appeared. The behavior of the progeny was exactly
what would be expected of a cross of Golden Eyed Wax X Warwick.
Warwick and White Marrow were grown next to each other in the row,
thus making it easy to make an error in obtaining blossoms. We are
therefore inclined to believe that the irregularity was due to such an
error in pollination.
According to Emerson's theory of mottling all mottled varieties have
the constitution PYZ in which formula P indicates the factor for pig-
mentation and YZ the coupled factors for mottling. Non-mottled pig-
mented beans can have only one of these factors bearing either PYz or
PyZ. White beans may be either pYZ, pYz or pyZ. The possible re-
sults of intercrossing these types of beans are as follows : —
Case No
Cross Constitution.
Color of Beans.
Proportion of
Mottled, Self and
White in F2.
M.
S.
w.
1,
2.
3,
4,
5,
6,
7,
8.
PYZ X PYz,
PYZ X PyZ,
PYZ X Pyz,
PYZ X pYZ, .
PYZ X pYz,
PYZ X pyZ,
PYZ X pyz.
PYz X PyZ,
m X s, .
m X s, .
m X s, .
m X w,
m X w,
m X w,
m X w,
s X s,
3
3
3
3
9
9
9
2
1
1
1
3
3
3
2
1
4
4
4
74
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
Case No
Cross Constitution.
Color of Beans.
Proportion of
Mottled, Self, and
White in Fa.
M.
S.
W.
9, .
10, .
11, .
12, .
13, .
14, .
15, .
16, .
17, .
18, .
19, .
20, .
21, .
22, .
PYz X Pyz,
PYz X pYZ,
PYz X pYz,
PYzJXtpyZ.
PYz Xfpyz,
PyZ X Pyz,
PyZ X pYZ,
PyZ X pYz,
PyZ X pyZ,
PyZ X pyz,
Pyz X pYZ,
Pyz X pYz,
Pyz X pyZ,
Pyz X pyz,
s X s, .
s X w, .
s X w, .
s X w, .
s X w, .
s X s, .
s X w, .
8 X W, .
s X w, .
s X w, .
s X w, .
s X w, .
s X w, .
sXw. .
9
6
9
6
9
4
3
3
6
3
4
3
6
3
3
3
3
3
3
The results secured in the work here reported can be quite satisfactorily
explained on the above theory. All crosses of mottled beans have yielded
only mottled beans, as shown on pages 67 and 68.
Some crosses of self-colored beans have yielded mottled progeny.
(See Table IV.) In most such crosses Blue Pod Butter is one of the
parents. If it has the constitution PYz then the other members of the
crosses must be PyZ. Self-colored beans of either of the above types,
when crossed with mottled beans, have yielded mottled and self-colored
beans in the proportion of approximately 3:1, as shown in Table II.
The mottling factors of white beans are not so readily determined,
and there seems to have been more than one strain of some of the white
varieties used. Davis Wax seems always to carry the coupled factors
YZ. (See Tables III. and V.) It is probable that there are three strains
of White Marrow, as follows : —
Constitution.
Found in Crosses —
pYZ
pyZ
pYz
33, 34 (case 10), 67, 68, 129, 184, 249, 250, 298 (case 15),
309a (case 4).
230, 309, 310, 366 (case 6).
.33a (case 11).
Crosses involving Creasehack. — In crosses involving Creaseback the
beans in F] have always been black or nearlj^ so. In the cross with Chal-
lenge Black Wax the beans were nearly black, but with faint signs of
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
75
mottling. In later generations black beans predominate, with some
signs of indistinct mottling in some cases. The occasional appearance of
mottling suggests that one or both raottUng factors are carried by Crease-
back. The fact that mottling appears with Blue Pod Butter which in
all other crosses seems to carry the Y only, and with Challenge Black
Wax which carries the Z, indicates that Creaseback must carry both
Y and Z, or that more than one strain has been used. If coupled factors
are present there should appear beans breeding true to the mottled
character. No such cases have been clearly shown. If we assume that
the appearance of solid or nearly solid black beans is due to the presence
of an additional factor X, which renders the black color epistatic to
mottling, we have a hypothesis that is fairly well supported by the limited
data available. These data are shown in Table VI. Crosses 31 and 32
Table VI. — Crosses involving Creaseback.
Parent Varieties.
Fs AND F4.
Cross
No.
F2.
MOTTLED
PARENTS.
SELF
PARENTS.
M.
S.
101
5
42
71
150
38
52
113
10
22
W.
53
3
12
30
42
1
36
4
15
M.
9
S.
7
W.
3
M.
4
1
12
1
4
6
9
5
54
11
10
1
5
2
S.
59
279
217
28
11
26
134
117
8
9
160
155
14
10
2
3
44
123
3
9
14
132
43
76
4
26
W.
31
32
31o
32o
97
97a
976
• 97c
247
296
Blue Pod Butter X Creaseback, .
Creaseback X Blue Pod Butter,
Blue Pod Butter X Creaseback,
Creaseback X Blue Pod Butter,
Challenge Black Wax X Creaseback,
Challenge Black Wax X Creaseback,
Challenge Black Wax X Creaseback,
Challenge Black Wax X Creaseback,
Golden Eyed Wax X Creaseback, .
Creaseback X Prolific Black Wax, .
6
8
8
8
30
22
78
1
6
18
2
3
37
1
1
33
3
3
17
1
were among the earlier crosses made, and while no individual records of
mottled beans in r2 were kept, it is evident that mottling did occur, but
it was very faint and nearly obscured by black in most cases. There
were a few dark mottled beans, however, and one of these being selfed
gave the proportions of mottled, self-colored and white beans shown in
the table. In crosses 31 and 32, Table VI., Creaseback may have the
formula yZ, for in this case, assuming the presence of X in Creaseback
76
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
and a formula of Yz for Blue Pod Butter, we should get a proportion of
6 mottled, 42 self-colored, and 16 white, which proportion is rather closely
approximated in both crosses 31 and 32. The crosses with Challenge
Black Wax seem to present different combinations of characters. Number
97 was one of the early crosses, and the obscure mottling earlier referred
to appeared, but no record was preserved. Cross 97c was made later
when the appearance of mottling was more clearly appreciated, and these
two may be of the same nature. Crosses 97o and 976 are probably alike,
and the failure of any white seeded beans to appear in 97a due to chance.
We are unable to explain the small proportion of white beans, unless it
may be on the basis of difference in the pigment complex earlier referred
to.
In cross 247, Golden Eyed Wax X Creaseback, no mottled beans are
recorded in F2, but in later generations obscurely mottled beans do appear,
and it is not impossible that a closer study of the r2 generation would have
revealed their presence. Unfortunately these samples are among those
destroyed.
This variety is worth further study and a full comprehension of its
behavior, and the reasons therefor would probably throw much light on
the inheritance of pigmentation, not only in beans but in a general way.
Another variety that apparently behaves in a similar way is Crystal
Wax. Owen^ reports that crossed with Round Pod Kidney (Brittle Wax)
there appeared in Fj colored and dark mottled, nearly black beans, and
the F2 plants were 10 mottled, 24 self-colored and 10 white, nearly all of
the self-colored seeds being black.
Mottling Patterns.
Among the commercial varieties of mottled beans two prevailing types
of mottling are evident. Both show as a ground color a sort of buff or
ecru. In the darker mottling, represented by Red Valentine and Refugee,
this color prevails over only a small part of the seed, while in the lighter,
represented by varieties of the Horticultural class, it covers three-fourths
or more of the surface. Some evidence indicating that this buff color is
the same thing in both light and dark mottled beans will be presented
later. When crossed, the darker type of mottling seems to behave as a
simple dominant in the single cross that has been made.
Table VII. — Light and Dark Mottling.
Parent Varieties.
F2.
F3 AND F4.
Cross
No.
0 Parents.
0 Parents.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
215
Golden Carmine (0) X Mohawk (0), .
1
1
33
6
10
21
' Report N. J. Experiment Station, 1906, p. 456.
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
77
In the above table and the one following, 0 represents the dark or Red
Valentine type of mottling, and o the Hght or Horticultural type.
The behaiaor of "Wliite Marrow and Davis Wax in crosses with colored
beans indicates that both these varieties possess one or both of the factors
for mottling, as has already been shown (page 73). There is no evidence
that the factor, O, for dark mottling is present in either variety. Crosses
of these two varieties with Blue Pod Butter (Table V.) yield no dark mot-
tled beans, indicating that Blue Pod Butter does not possess the 0 factor.
Therefore Blue Pod Butter may be described as PYzo, and the two white
varieties as pyZo or pYZo. All dark mottled varieties may be described
as PYZO. All other pigmented self-colored sorts used in these experiments
may be described as PyZO, except Warren, which is probably like Blue
Pod Butter so far as mottling factors are concerned.
The results of crossing Wliite Marrow and Davis Wax with a number
of pigmented varieties are shown in Table VIII. A study of the results
Table VIII. — Mottling Factors in White Beans.
Parent Varieties.
Fa AND Fi.
Cross
No.
F2.
0 Parents.
o Par-
ents.
S Par-
ents.
O.
0.
S.
W.
0.
22
25
4
21
3
3
30
12
5
16
51
17
18
25
1
3
5
46
27
19
4
9
7
2
6
29
17
5
0.
4
11
7
2
3
6
1
25
5
17
0
0
2
13
18
3
4
14
4
S.
9
23
2
30
9
6
18
4
4
5
23
9
11
3
10
2
2
W.
16
2
2
14
2
3
29
9
6
0
0
28
6
1
3
16
7
1
o.
7
107
19
33
9
126
94
18
11
15
21
209
61
28
38
30
W.
22
11
2
39
30
5
3
16
11
S.
4
3
5
21
11
52
28
78
13
5
84
55
45
38
52
W.
230
309
368
327
327a
141
67
68
184
73
249
250
White Marrow (W) X Golden
Carmine (M).
Red Valentine (M) X White
Marrow (W).
White Marrow (W) X Burpee
Kidney (M).
Ward well (M) X White Mar-
row (W).
Ward well (M) X White Mar-
row (W).
Davis Wax (W) X Keeney
Rustless (M).
Burpee Stringless (S) X White.
Marrow (W).
White Marrow (W) X Burpee
Stringless (S).
White Marrow (W) X German
Black Wax (S).
Challenge Black Wax (S) X
Davis Wax (W).
Golden Eyed Wax (S) X White
Marrow (W).
White Marrow (W) X Golden
Eyed Wax (S).
33
6
10
17
14
39
23
42
141
20
8
11
9
4
4
9
12
17
51
26
5
5
2
2
16
12
19
68
22
6
7
13
3
4
2
2
17
14
32
84
33
4
1
2
4
21
27
5
34
26
7
here shown indicates that the factor O just described is associated with
the Z mottling factor. If this be the case, on crossing a colored bean
PyZO with a white bean pYZo we should get in F2 a proportion of six
78 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
dark mottled, three light mottled, three self-colored, and four white, which
is in harmony with the results shown in the table. No dark mottled beans
could breed true, and no extracted light mottled beans could jdeld self-
colored offspring.
In cross 230 Golden Carmine, which must be, according to the fore-
going hypothesis, of the constitution PYZo, when crossed with White
Marrow yields no dark mottled beans, but does yield self-colored beans.
White Marrow must therefore be pyZo, and the proportion in F2 one of
9:3:4. The self-colored beans in F3 and F4 are from the heterozygote
parents, and are not, like the other light mottled beans, extracted from the
heterozygote. In cross 309a no self-colored beans are produced. Red
Valentine must, from its appearance, be PYZO, and Wliite Marrow must
be pYZo, The theoretical F2 proportion — 9 dark mottled, 3 hght mot-
tled and 4 white — is closely approximated. In cross 366 Burpee Kidney
is like Red Valentine and Wliite Marrow pyZo as in cross 230, the non-
appearance of light mottled beans in F2 being due to small numbers. In
cross 327 Wardwell, a bean with a dark mottled eye, when crossed with
White Marrow yields no light mottled beans, while in 327a light mottled
beans appear, but no self-colored ones. This can be explained on the
assumption that in cross 327 the White Marrow plant used was of the pyZo
strain, while in 327a a plant of the constitution pYZo was used.
In cross 141, Davis Wax X Keeney Rustless, no self-colored beans are
produced, and as in all other crosses of Davis Wax it has the formula
pYZo, while Keeney is PYZO.
In crosses 67 and 68 Burpee Stringless must be PyZO and White Mar-
row pYZo. On the assumption that the O and Z factors are associated or
coupled, the failure of light mottled progeny to appear in the proportion
18:0:6:9 must be due to the small numbers involved, and this lot belong
properly on the second hne above, it being of the same constitution as
the F2 heterozygote. Similar cases are found in crosses 181 and 73. The
appearance of a single self-colored plant from a light mottled parent in
cross 68 is unexplained unless it be a stray plant. Such a plant undoubtedly
did appear in a lot all of which were supposed to be from a light mottled
parent plant. It is not thought that these seeming irregularities are suf-
ficient to throw serious doubt upon the general theory of the inheritance
of types of mottling, but they are recorded in order to fully present the
facts as they have appeared.
Besides the tj-pes of motthng here discussed a wholly different type has
been encountered in certain crosses involving White Marrow. This is a
fine marbling or cloudy mottling, bluish, brownish or bluish black in color.
It is similar to that shown by the variety Cut Short. Data bearing on this
are limited. In a cross of Prolific Black Wax X White Marrow this type
of mottling appeared, sometimes covering the whole bean and sometimes
confined to a limited area, giving an eyed bean. Three plants with this
type of mottling yield the parent type and white in the numbers of 6:9,
20:4 and 5:1, respectively. They have been extracted from both self-
colored and dark mottled parents.
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS. 79
The Behavior of Eyedness.
In many varieties of pigmented beans the pigment is centered around the
hilum, producing the eyed bean. The eye may be restricted to a very
small area near the hilum, or it may extend over nearly the entire bean, and
in some varieties there are found detached circular spots on the dorsal
or lateral portion of the bean. In most if not all such cases the pigmented
area around the hilum is large. Leopard Wax is a variety of this sort. The
pigments and different types of mottling found in totally pigmented beans
may occur in any size or type of eye. In most cases the edge of the pig-
mented area is not sharply defined, but in others it is clear-cut and definite.
No varieties with this sharply defined edge have been used in the crosses
here reported, but they have been extracted from certain of the crosses.
The behavior of crosses of totally pigmented and eyed beans made in
the course of this work is shown in Table IX. It closely resembles that
of a monohybrid, but the proportions in the r2 generation are somewhat
at variance with the expectation. The total number of plants in F2 is
1705, and the ratio 3.9:1. Nearly all crosses show an excess of
totally pigmented beans. The progeny of heterozygous parent plants in
F3 and F4, totaling 2,069, show a ratio of 3.02:1. Why this difference in
the behavior in heterozj^gous plants occurs, it is impossible to explain at
present. We can only repeat the suggestion made with reference to results
shown in previous tables (page 65). All extracted eyed beans have bred
true, and in all cases the beans of the Fi generation have been totally
pigmented.
In Table X. are shown the results of crosses of eyed and white beans.
In all these crosses totally pigmented beans are produced in Fi. In the
F2 generation totally pigmented, eyed and white beans are produced in
the proportions shown. It is probable that these plants are of four classes
and may yield all three tj^es, totally pigmented and eyed, totally pig-
mented and white, or they may be homozygous for total pigmentation.
Eyed beans may be pure or may yield eyed and white.
These results are in harmony with the conclusions of Emerson (5) and
Tschermak (22), and indicate that total pigmentation is dependent upon
two characters, — P for pigmentation and T, which spreads the pigment
over the entire bean, and the absence of which, Pt, causes an eyed bean.
As has been the experience of previous experimenters we have found
no beans with the formula pt. However, we have used only five white
seeded sorts, and only three pi these at all extensively. The white beans
extracted from an eyed parent in crosses 249, 268 and 327 should be of
this constitution, and should yield no totally pigmented beans on crossing
with an eyed form. Unfortunately, none of these few white seeded plants
were self-fertiUzed or retained for seed, making it impossible to test this
theory. »
The fact that eye sizes differ has been mentioned. While too few
accurate data have been collected in the course of these experiments to
make any definite report, it is evident that these eye sizes are inherited
80 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
Table IX. — Crosses of Eyed with Self-colored Beans.
Cross
No.
Parent Varieties.
Fa.
Fs and F4
(Totally Pigmented
Parents).
16
50
190
237
112
240
191
258
27
28
201
Blue Pod Butter X Golden Eyed Wax, .
Ratios
Golden Eyed Wax X Blue Pod Butter, .
Ratios
Golden Eyed Wax X Burpee Stringless,
Ratios, ......
Giant Stringless X Golden Eyed Wax, .
Ratios, ......
Golden Eyed Wax X Giant Stringless, .
Ratios
Golden Eyed Wax X Prolific Black Wax,
Ratios,
Challenge Black Wax X Golden Eyed Wi
Ratios, ......
Currie X Golden Eyed Wax,
Ratios
Red Valentine X Golden Eyed Wax, .
Ratios,
Golden Eyed Wax X Red Valentine, .
Ratios
Keeney Rustless X Burpee Stringless, .
Ratios, ......
Giant Stringless X Keeney Rustless,
Ratios, ......
Red Valentine X Keeney Rustless,
Ratios,
Bl^e Pod Butter X Wardwell,
Ratios
Wardwell X Blue Pod Butter,
Ratios,
Burpee Stringless X Wardwell,
Ratios,
Giant Stringless X Wardwell,
Ratios,
Totally
Pigmented. Eyed
41
6.9
117
31
7.7
110
3.9
42
87
3.3
157
3.7
186
3.5
191
4.8
256
6.3
14
4-7
5
15
7.5
4
4-0
39
3.3
25
35
28
26
40
48
43
Totally
Pigmented. Eyed
79 3"
65
S.l :
200
125
154
103
93
3.
79
80
3.
225
130
3.
70
192
2.
114
36
3.
60
4.
59
55
6.
54
26
13
131
123
104
S.7
53
8
6.
120
42
3.
38
34
26
74
38
25
46
35
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
81
in definite proportions. Larger eye sizes show more tendency to break
up than smaller ones. It is probable that the formula Pt above referred
to should be taken to indicate the smallest eye size observed, and that
Table X. — Crosses of Eyed with White Beans.
F2.
Fs AND F4.
TOTALLY 1
PIGMENTED 1
PARENTS. 1
Parent Varieties.
No.
M
M
Ph-O
S-a
>,^
>,^
t3
<u
•B
a>
■0
»
\
^B
>.
IS
^6
>.
J3
>>
la
S3
H
w
e=
H
w
es
W
ts
W
141
Davis Wax X Keeney Rustless,
17
1
2
45
14
4
5
18
-
-
-
247
Golden Eyed Wax X Creaseback, .
9
1
4
45
68
3
4
4
20
18
1
12
249
Golden Eyed Wax X White Marrow,
51
17
23
19
9
133
11
5
4
12
44
12
10
3
250
White Marrow X Golden Eyed Wax,
15
3
4
62
4
25
31
6
21
8
56
268
White Marrow X Keeney Rustless, .
4
8
7
26
7
18
6
9
2
39
9
327
Wardwell X White Marrow, .
25
9
5
22
23
4
5
7
7
20
21
9
6
the larger eye sizes are due to the presence of other factors. If there are
two additional factors for eye size they could yield four homozygous
eye sizes, and there are without doubt at least that number known.
There could be also four heterozygous forms which might exhibit other
sizes. Thus the following formulae may express various eye sizes: — ■
Formula.
Eye Size.
Found in —
Ptrs,
PtRs
PtrS.
PtRS
Very small eye, ....
Small eye
Medium eye,
Large eye
Maule Butter.
Golden Eyed Wax.
Keeney Rustless.
Leopard.
Of course the characters R and S could be carried by any totally pig-
mented bean, but could not appear until a cross with some eyed form was
made.
82
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
The Inheritance of Pigments.
Thus far we have dealt with the inheritance of pigment patterns without
reference to the particular colors involved. All the pigment patterns
studied carry many different colors. So far as we have been able to see,
there is no relation between the behavior of pigment patterns and the
pigments themselves. We will now consider the manner in which the
several pigments behave in inheritance.
It is evident that there are two classes of pigments found in the varieties
of colored beans used in these experiments. One class appears as some
shade of red or purplish red, and is found in Red Valentine, Golden
Carmine, Mohawk and similar colored varieties. This pigment is readily
soluble in water, as shown by laboratory tests and indicated by the readi-
ness with which such seeds fade when exposed to the action of dew and
rain in the field. The light reds, such as Red Valentine, take on the
purplish color when treated with alkali, and the purplish reds of Mohawk
change to a bright red in acid solutions. The former are unchanged in
acid solutions and the latter in alkaline solutions. These reactions indi-
Table XI. — Crosses of Blue Pod Butter ivith other Self-colored Varieties.
Cross
Parent Vabieties.
Fi.
F3 AND F4 (Va-
rious Colored
Parents only).
No.
Various
Other
Colors.
B.
Various
Other
Colors.
B.
1
2
3
4
5
6
9
10
11
12
21
22
15
16
352
3431
347/
349
Blue Pod Butter X Burpee Stringless,
Burpee Stringless X Blue Pod Butter,
Blue Pod Butter X Challenge Black Wax, .
Challenge Black Wax X Blue Pod Butter, .
Blue Pod Butter X Currie, ....
Currie X Blue Pod Butter
Blue Pod Butter X German Black Wax, .
German Black Wax X Blue Pod Butter, .
Blue Pod Butter X Giant Stringless, .
Giant Stringless X Blue Pod Butter, .
Blue Pod Butter X Prolific Black Wax,
Prolific Black Wax X Blue Pod Butter,
Blue Pod Butter X Golden Eyed Wax,
Golden Eyed Wax X Blue Pod Butter,
Brittle Wax X Blue Pod Butter,
Blue Pod Butter X Low Champion, .
Blue Pod Butter X Warren,
176
116
57
174
25
71
10
63
8
45
123
101
35
37
5
44
1
56
40
18
53
7
11
6
12
1
30
48
34
14
20
1
12
2
231
156
37
95'
33
43
51
98
3
38
87
134
31
45
23
30
38
82
236
26
51
18
23
66
90
5
50
106
68
22
22
20
2
26
15
15
26
10
7
22
3
26
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
83
cate that this pigment is anthocyan. In order to distinguish this from
the other series it is called the red series.
The other class of pigments encountered in this work shows itself in
the various shades of j'ellow, coffee brown and black seen in Giant String-
less, Burpee Stringless and all the Black Wax varieties. This pigment
does not fade in the field, and seems only slightly soluble, or possibly in-
soluble, in water, but dissolves in alcohol and alkalies. Not enough work
has been done with it to determine its identity, and this series of colors is
referred to in this paper as the yellow-black series.
The variety Blue Pod Butter is, as previously explained, different from
most other varieties in seed coat color and in other characters as well.
The flower is deeper colored than any other variety and the whole plant
deeply tinged with purple. The seed is of ecru or buff color, not seen in
other self-colored varieties except Bountiful, which is similar. This buff
color is of the same appearance as the ground color in all mottled beans.
In Table XI. are shown the results of crosses of Blue Pod Butter with
other varieties of various solid colors. In all these crosses the Fi genera-
tion shows no self-colored buff beans, but all are mottled. In F2 we get
a proportion of 1 buff or B bean to 3 of various other colors. In all cases
the extracted buff beans have bred true to seed color, and also they carry
the deeply colored flowers and purplish foliage of Blue Pod Butter. Of
the beans shown in the colunm headed "various other colors" in F2,
one-fourth are of solid color and yield only solid colored beans in F3 and
F4, while three-fourths are mottled and break up in F3 in the same manner
as do the Fi plants. In no case has a soUd colored bean jaelded a buff bean
like those borne by Blue Pod Butter. In Table XII. are shown crosses
Table XII. — Crosses of Blue Pod Butter with Mottled Varieties.
Cross
F2.
Fa AND F4 (Va-
rious Colored
Parents only).
No.
Various
Other
Colors.
B.
Various
Other
Colors.
B.
23
29
30
19
20
27
28
Blue Pod Butter X Red Valentine,
Blue Pod Butter X Warwick, .
Warwick X Blue Pod Butter,
Blue Pod Butter X Mohawk,
Mohawk X Blue Pod Butter,
Blue Pod Butter X Wardwell, .
Wardwell X Blue Pod Butter, .
23
39
105
9
7
5
33
7
10
51
1
4
4
10
26
15
106
230
16
92
14
52
16
130
7
87
103
17
45
3
6
27
32
of Blue Pod Butter with mottled beans. Their behavior is similar to the
crosses shown in Table XI., except that homozygous mottled beans
84 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
appear. These facts suggest that Blue Pod Butter lacks some factor
possessed by the other varieties, and, furthermore, that it is associated
•with a mottling factor. We have called this factor M. We have already
adopted the explanation of the phenomenon of mottling by assuming a
formula for Blue Pod Butter of PTYz, — that is, Blue Pod Butter lacks
one of the mottling factors, Z, while the other varieties shown in Table
XI. have this factor Z. Blue Pod Butter, then, lacks both Z and M,
while all the other varieties carry these factors. We can then express
the constitution of Blue Pod Butter by the formula PTYzmo, and Burpee
Stringless, for example, by PTyZMO, and the evidence is that Z and M
are always associated, or that we have another case of apparently perfect
gametic coupling. The varieties other than Blue Pod Butter must possess
additional determining factors for the various colors exhibited. These
will be dealt with later.
It has been said that we have two series of pigments in beans, — one
bearing the red series, eAddently anthocyan, and the other what we have
called the yellow-black series. The crosses given in Table XL, excepting
343, 347 and 349, are of the latter nature, while these two crosses and
three in Table XII. are crosses with varieties exhibiting colors of the red
series. These behave like those given in the previous table so far as the
relation of their colors to the B of Blue Pod Butter is concerned.
If we assume that it is the factor just discussed that is the determining
element for the class of pigment borne, and assume, further, that there
are two of these pigment modifiers, one of which, M, brings about the
formation of the yellow-black pigments, and the other, which we may call
M', the formation of those of the red or anthocyan series, we have a theory
that seems to explain the facts alreadj^ presented and others shown later
as well.
The production of a totally pigmented bean, then, rests on the presence
of several factors. First, we must have P, in the absence of which we have
a white bean; second, T, in the absence of which the bean has an eye;
third, the presence of M or M', the former causing beans of the j'^ellow-
black series, and the latter, pigment of the red series. If neither or only
one of the mottling factors Y and Z are present the bean is self-colored,
while if both are present a mottled bean results. If P and T are present
and M and M' absent, the bean is buff-colored, shown in Blue Pod Butter
and the lighter shades in mottled beans. All colored varieties used in these
experiments carry Y or Z or both; and the factor M or M' or both are,
when present, always associated Tvith the factor Z.
The Behavior of the Yellow-Black Determiners.
When the factors P, T and M are present, a buff or ecru colored bean
is produced. The presence of certain additional factors modifies this to
the various colors of the yellow-black series. These colors are black,
designated by G; coffee brown, designated by F; yellow, designated by
C; and a possible light brown or olive brown, designated by H. The first-
I
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
85
named color, G, is found in all black wax beans; the second, F, in Burpee
Stringless; and the third, C, in Giant Stringless and Golden Eyed Wax.
The color H is of a somewhat uncertain nature and our records are doubt-
less somewhat confused. It is probable that more than one character has
been recorded as H. There is reason to believe that additional determiners
of this series may exist, but our data are too fragmentary to afford a basis
for any positive assertions. In Table XIII. are shown the results of cross-
Table XIII. — Crosses of Varieties carrying Yellow-hrown Determiners.
Pabent Varieties.
Fi.
Fs AND F4.
Cross
No.
F2.
G
Parents.
F Par-
ents.
C Par-
ents.
G.
F.
C.
G.
F.
C.
F.
C.
C.
190
50
81
43
44
Golden Eyed Wax (C) X Giant
Stringless (C).
Golden Eyed Wax (C) X Burpee
Stringless (F).
Challenge Black Wax (G) X Golden
Eyed Wax (C).
Burpee Stringless (F) X Challenge
Black Wax (G).
Challenge Black Wax (G) X Burpee
Stringless (F).
C
F
G
G
G
34
84
55
24
2
14
17
all
9
16
5
22
14
51
124
180
101
3
6
17
63
3
8
44
156
21
86
57
23
7
71
ing several varieties carrying yellow-brown determiners. Golden Eyed
Wax X Giant Stringless yields only yellow beans like the parental vari-
eties. In cross 50, a yellow (C) by coffee brown (F), we get apparently a
simple monohybrid, the two varieties differing in that only Burpee String-
less possesses the determiner F. In all crosses involving Challenge Black
Wax the Fi seeds were black. In cross 81 Challenge Black Wax must
carry G and F, for coffee brown beans like those of Burpee Stringless were
extracted in F2 and later generations. It probably carries also the j^ellow
determiner C, for no beans lacking all three determiners appeared. In
the F2 generation the proportions should be 12:3:1, assuming that F is
epistatic to C and G epistatic to F. The proportions on record are 34:2:16.
There is reason to believe that some of the plants recorded as C were really
F. The progeny of one C plant were mostly F. Usually it is not difficult
to distinguish the two colors, but in this case it is probable that some errors
were made. In crosses 43 and 44 we probably have a monohybrid, the
Challenge Black Wax carrying the determiner G which is lacking in
Burpee Stringless. Both carry the F and C determiners.
Following the notation used, the formulae for these varieties seem to
be as follows : —
Golden Eyed Wax PtyZMm'OgfC
Giant Stringless PTyZMm'OgfC
Burpee Stringless, PTyZMm'OgFC
Challenge Black Wax, PTyZMm'OGFC
86 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
In Table XIV. are shown the results of crossing Burpee Stringless and
Golden Eyed Wax with two other black wax varieties, — ProUfic Black
Wax and Currie. These crosses differ from those shown in the preceding
table in that two new colors designated as H and B make their appearance
in relatively small numbers.
Burpee Stringless carries the yellow-black modifier M and the deter-
miners F for coffee brown, and C for yellow. Prolific Black Wax probably
carries the F and possibly C, though other crosses of this variety seem
to show that it lacks C, in which case its non-appearance here may be
explained by the small numbers involved. It also carries the black de-
terminer G and possibly another one, H, for olive brown, though the be-
ha\aor of this color is not at all well understood.
In other crosses of this table buff-colored beans (B) appear. According
to our hypothesis this can occur only when the modifier M is absent, or,
if present, only when all determiners are absent. In these varieties M is
present, therefore they must carry no determiner in common. Golden
Eyed Wax carries the determiner C, and this must be absent in the vari-
eties Currie and Prolific Black Wax. The absence of B beans from the
Fj generation may easily be due to the small number involved.
In one cross of Golden Eyed Wax with Currie, H beans appear, while
in the other none are recorded. This may be due to the absence of a de-
terminer for H in the strain of Currie involved. As elsewhere stated the
behavior of the type recorded as H is uncertain and not well understood.
The data presented in Table XIV. indicate the formulae for Currie of
PTyZMm'OGFc, with the possible additional determiner H, and for
Prolific Black Wax, of PTyZMm'GFc and possibly the H in addition.
The latter may carry also the determiner C, preventing the appearance of
buff beans, but as other crosses indicate that it does not carry C, it is
regarded as more probable that the absence of B beans is due to the small
numbers involved.
In Table XV. are shown the results of the crosses of Blue Pod Butter
with Burpee Stringless (coffee brown), and with two yellow seeded sorts.
All these crosses but one give black mottled beans in Fi. While none of
the mottled beans breed true in later generations, as has been already
explained, there have been many cases where solid black beans have bred
true. The appearance of these black beans is explained on the hypothesis
that Blue Pod Butter carries the black determiner G, but does not have
the yellow-black modifier M, and the lack of this prevents the G determiner
from acting. On crossing with a variety carrying M, the G takes effect,
producing a black or black mottled bean. In cross 16a no black beans
appear. It is probable that another strain of Blue Pod Butter which
lacked the G determiner was used in this cross. It must have carried the
determiner F, for F is always epistatic to C, and could not be carried by
Golden Eyed Wax. No B beans appear in Fo, owing, doubtless, to the
small numbers, for they do come out in later generations as extractives
from F parents, and some of them breed true.
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
87
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I
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS. 89
Beans classified as H appear in Fg in the crosses with Burpee Stringless
only, but they do appear scatteringly in later generations of most of the
other crosses. Too small numbers are involved to determine its nature
and relations. It is not always easy to separate the several colors F, C and
H in making field observations. These colors seem to develop in the ripen-
ing beans somewhat in order of their epistasis, the olive H first, and so on
up to the coffee brown, and even black, provided determiners for these
higher colors are present. The fact that several selfed plants recorded as
H gave rise to offspring made up partially or wholly of F beans in crosses
1 and 2 raises the suspicion that these parent plants really carried the
determiner F, but for some reason failed to develop their true color. Pos-
sibly the weakening effect of covering the plant, which has been already
discussed, may have had this effect.
The yellow color C is more positively determined in the field, and the
records seem clear. Extracted C beans either breed true or yield B beans
in the proportions 3C:1B. According to our hypothesis there might be a
9:7 proportion in cases like this when the heterozygote is a hybrid, as
Mc mC. Such a heterozygote would be yellow, and would yield 9 yellow
to 7 buff. No such proportion is approached among the offspring of
G parents, but in the other columns are shown a few cases that approach
such a proportion. Their number is too few to be sure whether they are
9:7 or 3:1 proportions. The total numbers of such offspring in the table
are 172 G, F, H and C beans to 73 buff. This is a considerable excess of
buff beans, and supports the idea that some of these proportions are
really 9 :7. If such cases do occur the buff beans would be of three kinds,
some lacking the modifier M, some the determiner and some lacking
both. This raises the question whether these can be distinguished from
each other. While this cannot be answered positively, we are quite sure
that more than one kind of buff beans does appear. Some further evidence
will be presented on this point in connection with a discussion of the
relations between seed coat and flower colors.
In Table IV. are shown the results of crossing self-colored varieties
where mottled progeny resulted. This showed equal numbers of self-
colored and mottled beans, in harmony with the hypothesis of Emerson.
In Table XVI, are shown those crosses which involve Blue Pod Butter
and black wax varieties, separating the self-colored beans into black and
buff. These appear in approximately equal numbers and both breed
true. It was early observed that buff beans generally bred true in all
crosses, and comparatively few were planted. This accounts for the
small numbers given in the right-hand column of the table. Our records
show some half dozen plants scattered through the several crosses that
were called smoky black or brown. None of them were self-fertilized,
and it is impossible to say whether they represented types that appear in
very small proportion, whether they were mutations, or whether they were
the result of environmental conditions. We are inclined to attribute them
to the last-named influence. If the constitution of Blue Pod Butter is
90
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
represented by the formula PTYzmG, and that of the black wax varieties
by PTyZMG, either or both having possible additional hypostatic de-
terminers, we have in effect a simple monohybrid based on the presence
or absence of the modifier M with its accompanying mottling factor Z.
This gives a proportion 3M:lm. Two of the plants carrying the modifier
are heterozygous and mottled, while one is homozygous and is solid
black. Inasmuch as Y and Z are confined to different gametes, according
to Emerson's hypothesis, no zygote PTyzm is possible. Thus we have the
theoretical proportion 1 black, 2 mottled, 1 buff, which is borne out by
the facts presented in the table.
Table XVI. — Crosses of Blue Pod Butter with Black Wax Varieties.
Parent Varieties.
Fi.
F2.
Fs AND F4.
Cross
GBO
G Par-
B Par-
No.
Parents.
ents.
ents.
G.
GBO.
B.
G.
GBO.
B.
G.
B.
3
Blue Pod Butter X Chal-
lenge Black Wax.
GEO
21
36
18
6
25
29
53
-
4
Challenge Black Wax X Blue
Pod Butter.
GBO
64
110
53
11
29
14
71
8
5
Blue Pod Butter X Currie, .
GBO
5
20
7
2
2
1
37
-
6
Currie X Blue Pod Butter, .
GBO
23
33
13
28
64
26
134
-
9
Blue Pod Butter X German
Black Wax.
GBO
6
4
6
-
-
-
21
-
10
German Black Wax X Blue
Pod Butter.
GBO
15
47
12
11
25
15
23
-
21
Blue Pod Butter X Prolific
Black Wax.
GBO
48
73
48
27
52
26
253
43
22
Prolific Black Wax X Blue
Pod Butter.
GBO
31
70
34
45
81
46
68
70
The variety Bountiful has seeds that bear some resemblance to those
of Blue Pod Butter. They have been recorded bj^ the same symbol, B.
The flowers are pink instead of crimson, and the plants do not show the
marked purplish tinge. It has been used in crossing to a limited extent
only. In Table XVII. are tabulated the results of crosses with two black
wax varieties. From the results of other crosses we have assigned to the
black wax varieties the black, brown and, in some cases at least, the
yellow determiner. In these crosses with Bountiful all these colors appear
as well as the H color, the behavior of which we do not clearly under-
stand. This indicates that Bountiful does not possess any of these de-
terminers. Buff-colored beans appear only in small numbers, indicating
that it does not lack the modifier M. If we assign to Bountiful the formula
PTyZMgfc, and to the black wax varieties the formula PTyZMGFC,
the results of crossing would be in harmony with the limited data shown
in Table XVII.
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
91
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92
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
The Behavior of the Determiners of the Red Series.
According to the hypothesis already presented (see page 82), some
varieties carry a modifier which gives rise to a series of colors different
from the yellow-black series just considered. Only two members of this
series have been clearly recognized in this work, — one a dark or purplish
red designated by E, seen in Mohawk, and a lighter red seen in Red
Valentine which we have called D. Beans of the darker shade are changed
to the lighter on immersing in acid solutions, and a reversal of this is seen
on treatment with a solution of potassium hydrate. The darker alkaline
color seems to be dominant, and the limited data presented in Table
XVIII. indicate that crosses of these determiners behave as a simple
Table XVIII. — Crosses of Light Red with Dark Red Varieties.
Parent Varieties.
Fi.
F3 AND F4.
Cross
No.
F2.
E Parents.
D Par-
ents.
E.
D.
E.
D.
D.
215
258
Golden Carmine X Mohawk,
Red Valentine X Keeney Rustless,
E
2
26
9
81
16
26
7
62
monohybrid. As no light red beans appear in cross 215, both Golden
Carmine and Mohawk must carry the factor E. No signs of a buff-
colored bean have appeared in cross 258, therefore it is assumed that
both Red Valentine and Keeney Rustless carry the factor D, while the
latter variety carries the factor for the purplish red determiner E, which
is lacking in Red Valentine.
The relations of Blue Pod Butter and the several varieties of the yellow-
black series have already been discussed. Table XIX. shows in a similar
way the relations of Blue Pod Butter and varieties of the red series. The
hypothesis of the "red" modifier M' as necessary for the expression of
these colors has already been advanced. Upon this hypothesis and that
of the two determiners E and D the facts shown in the table can be fairly
well explained, though a few cases are rather difficult of explanation.
Blue Pod Butter carries the determiner E but lacks the modifier M'.
When this is supplied by crossing with Red Valentine, Low Champion or
Warwick, dark red E beans appear in dominant proportions. For some
reason the Fi beans in the Warwick crosses appear to have been lighter in
color, and were recorded as light red, or D. In later generations undoubted
dark red beans appear. WTiether this is due to some environmental
influence or to an unknown genetic influence cannot be stated. This
has been recorded in two different years, and can hardly be an error of
observation.
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
93
Table XIX. — Crosses of Blue Pod Butter with Varieties of the Red
Series.
Fa
AND F4.
Fs.
Cross
Parent Vahieties.
Fi.
E Parents.
D Par-
No.
ents.
E.
16
D.
7
B.
7
E.
26
D.
B.
17
D.
B.
23
Blue Pod Butter (B) X Red Valen-
Dark red
_
tine (D).
16
343 \
347/
Blue Pod Butter (B) X Low Cham-
Dark red
30
14
12
7
4
7
30
16
pion (D).
y
17
57
7
3
11
29
Blue Pod Butter (B) X Warwick (D),
Light red
26
13
10
17
9
98
39
5
29
7
3
63
64
29
30
Warwick (D) X Blue Pod Butter (B),
Light red
75
30
51
44
16
-
28
-
19
Blue Pod Butter (B) X Mohawk (E),
Dark red
8
1
1
10
16
4
6
36
-
20
Mohawk (E) X Blue Pod Butter (B),
Dark red
6
1
4
-
-
-
-
27
Blue Pod Butter (B) X Wardwell (E),
Dark red
5
-
4
34
78
4
7
3
8
18
11
1
28
Wardwell (E) X Blue Pod Butter (B),
Dark red
25
8
10
28
46
49
43
13
16
21
11
39
The Interrelations of the Yellow-black and Red Series,
All the varieties showing pigments of the red series are mottled beans
with the exception of Warren, and Warren has not been crossed with
varieties of the yellow-black series. Therefore all crosses between red
and yellow-black varieties shown in Table XX. are mottled in the &st
generation. Owing to this fact the colors of both series may usually be
seen on examination of the Fi beans. It is possible to separate the beans
of the F2 generation into three classes, as shown in the table. The yellow-
brown beans are partly self-colored and partly mottled, showing only
yellow-brown or black, as the case may be. A larger number are mottled,
showing these colors and also light or dark red, or both. A third class
shows only red, and these are always mottled. No solid red bean of any
shade of color has ever appeared from the crosses shown in Table XX.
All plants listed in the yellow-black column breed true to these colors,
and the same is true of those belonging to the class of red beans. Those
in the middle column break up exactly like the Fi generation. These
facts are shown in the columns under F3 and F4.
In crosses 198, 119, 191, 194, 115 and 52, buff beans appear in small
numbers in F3 and F4, but none have been observed in the F2 generation.
In the other crosses more have been observed. If the parent varieties
possess a determiner in common the chances of a buff bean appearing
would be small, and this may explain their absence. Probably if the
94
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
numbers involved were larger they would appear in many crosses where
they are not shown.
According to the hypotheses already advanced, these crosses involve
varieties whose constitution may be expressed by PYZmM' X PyZMm',
each variety possessing one or more determiners in addition. The mottled
beans of the yellow-black series, appearing from these crosses, are the
heterozygotes lacking the determiners E and D. No such beans have
bred true.
Table XX. — Crosses of Varieties of the Yellow-black loith the Red Series.
Parent Varieties.
Fa AND F4.
Cross
No.
F2.
y-b-|-r Parents.
y-b Par-
ents.
tPar-
ents.
y-b.
y-b-fr.
r.
y-b.
y-b-fr.
r.
y-b.
r.
240
239
198
57
58
288
119
95
201
191
193
194
115
116
52
Golden Eyed Wax (y-b) X Red
Valentine (r).
Red Valentine (r) X Golden
Eyed Wax (y-b).
Red Valentine (r) X Giant
Stringless (y-b).
Burpee Stringless (y-b) X Red
Valentine (r).
Red Valentine (r) X Burpee
Stringless (y-b).
Red Valentine (r) X Prolific
Black Wax (y-b).
Currie (y-b) X Red Valen-
tine (r).
Challenge Black Wax (y-b) X
Warwick (r).
Giant Stringless (y-b) X Ward-
well (r).
Giant Stringless (y-b) X
Keeney Rustless (r).
Giant Stringless (y-b) X Mo-
hawk (r).
Mohawk (r) X Giant String-
less (y-b).
Currie (y-b) X Mohawk (r), .
Mohawk (r) X Currie (y-b), .
Keeney Rustless (r) X Burpee
Stringless (y-b).
12
5
20
10
21
13
20
1
2
2
49
8
3
36
20
55
15
36
14
33
3
6
5
90
19
6
15
10
8
5
17
2
11
1
6
8
32
9
2
12
8
18
20
25
12
13
10
11
3
3
23
11
7
9
17
27
11
16
15
2
7
16
12
41
11
44
17
9
5
7
32
14
13
18
4
49
10
10
U
11
16
6
4
7
16
29
10
11
2
8
6
9
1
13
6
6
2
3
80
41
25
102
202
117
36
85
24
30
72
15
76
26
5
37
15
8
25
A detailed study of the records of the progeny of crosses like those
shown in Table XX., giving consideration to the manifestation of the
various pigments, leads to conclusions already advanced in the discussion
of the crosses belonging within each series (page 84). Some five or six
varieties of red mottled beans have been crossed with a similar number
belonging to the yellow-black series. The results do not lend themselves
readily to tabular presentation, therefore they are dealt with in a text
discussion. These facts are in addition to those shown in Table XX.
Red Valentine crossed with Golden Eyed Wax yields buff beans in
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS. 95
small numbers, indicating that these parents possess no determiners in
common. One plant with red mottled beans yielded in the next genera-
tion red mottled and buif beans in the proportion of 3:1, indicating that
the parent plant was heterozygous for the factors M and D. Red Valen-
tine X Giant Stringless gives results of the same nature, and they indi-
cate the same constitution as that of Golden Eyed Wax. In one cross of
these two varieties, dark red and even black beans appeared. This is so
contrary to the usual exjierience that it is thought they are due to acci-
dental crossing in the field, or some other accident of similar nature.
In crosses of Red Valentine with Burpee Stringless we have coffee
brown, yellow and light red mottled beans, as would be expected from
the formulae already advanced. Buff beans also appear in small numbers,
indicating that these two varieties have no determiner in common. Dark
red mottled beans appear in numbers greater than those of light red
mottled beans, and so distributed as to make it doubtful if they are the
result of accident. Their presence can be explained on the supposition
that Burpee Stringless carries the determiner E. Small numbers of olive-
brown, or H, beans appear as in other similar crosses. The constitution
indicated for Burpee Stringless is PTyZMm'FCEd, which is in harmony
with the one previously advanced.
Dark red mottled beans have been extracted from crosses of Red
Valentine with Prolific Black Wax, indicating that Prolific Black Wax
carries the alkaline determiner E. This type, self-fertilized, yields dark
red mottled and light red mottled beans in the proportion 25:12, probably
a simple 3:1 ratio. Buff beans also appear in small numbers, indicating
that these two sorts have no determiner in common. Coffee brown, or
F, beans appear in considerable numbers, and when selfed sometimes
breed true, or may yield yellow (C), buff (B) and olive-brown (H) beans
in proportions subordinate to the coffee brown. In this as in other crosses
involving Red Valentine, the parent type, light red mottled, always
breeds true when extracted.
Warwick has a coat color apparently very similar to or identical with
Red Valentine. The blossom color is light pink, while the usual strains
of Red Valentine are white. This indicates a different pigmentation for
the two varieties, which may or may not affect the color of the seed coat.
When crossed with Challenge Black Wax, Warwick gives in the Fi genera-
tion a mottled bean showing black and red similar to those where Red
Valentine is involved. In later generations there is a greater complexity
among the mottled beans. Coffee-brown and yellow beans are extracted,
also the buff, or B beans, all in rather small numbers. These solid-colored
beans all breed true or yield other hypostatic or recessive colors in com-
paratively simple proportions. Among the mottled beans various shades
of black, violet, brown, red and yellow may be seen, and in addition the
buff color always showing in mottled beans. Beans of these complex
colors segregate into self-colored beans or mottled beans of less complex
natures. We have observed no case where a mottled bean showing colors
96 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
of both the red and yellow-black series has bred true. From crosses
similar to the one just discussed we have extracted black mottled beans
similar to Refugee that have bred true, though not in large numbers.
Mohawk has a seed coat color somewhat similar to Red Valentine and
Warwick, but the red color is darker and is changed to a bright red by-
acid solutions. It is assumed to carry the alkaline modifier E. When
crossed with Giant Stringless it yields in r2 numerous plants with coffee-
brown beans, indicating that Mohawk carries the determiner F. When
crossed with Burpee Stringless no yellow beans appear, for both these
varieties carry F, and the hypostatic yellow color cannot appear.
Keeney Rustless crossed with Burpee Stringless yields many black beans.
This may be explained by assuming that Keeney Rustless carries the black
determiner G but not the modifier M, which prevents the appearance of
the black color. It does carry M' and E, and is therefore a dark red bean.
Burpee Stringless supplies the modifier M which with the determiner G
brings forth the black color. The cross Keeney Rustless X Burpee String-
less may be expressed by PmM'GfcED X PMm'gFC. It is probable that
Burpee Stringless carries an E also. Buff-colored beans appear in this
cross, indicating a lack of common determiners.
Wardwell crossed with Giant Stringless and Burpee Stringless yields
progenies similar to those resulting from a cross of the latter two varieties
with Mohawk so far as pigments are concerned. Both Mohawk and
Wardwell carry the determiner F, but it is not expressed owing to the lack
of the modifier M. "When this is supplied by Giant Stringless or Burpee
Stringless coffee-brown flecks appear in the mottled beans, and various
types of mottled beans and both mottled and self-colored beans of the
yellow-black series may be isolated.
Crosses involving CreasebacJc.
In Table VI. were presented the manifestation of color patterns in
crosses of Creaseback with Blue Pod Butter and Challenge Black Wax. In
Table XXI. are shown the same crosses, giving the proportion of plants
exhibiting the various seed coat pigments involved. In the discussion of
Table VI. (page 74) it was brought out that Creaseback must carry the
determiner G, and its formula according to the hypotheses followed is
pyZMG. As soon as the factor for pigment is introduced by Blue Pod
Butter, which may be assumed to have here the formula PYzmG, black
beans appear making up all the Fj generation, and in F2 there follows what
is probably a 9 :3 :4 proportion with the buff of Blue Pod Butter and white.
The exact proportion is 9.21:2.55:4.31 when all lots sho-^ving the three
colors are combined. Where black seed parent plants show only buff or
white progeny besides black, and where buff seed parent plants yield
white seeded progeny, there is evidently a simple 3:1 proportion.
In cross 97, Challenge Black Wax X Creaseback, there is evidently a
simple 3 : 1 proportion based on the presence or absence of the factor for
pigmentation. Cross 97 as tabulated is derived in part from a cross made
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
97
in 1909 and in part from a cross made in 1911, which exhibited similar
behavior. In the 1911 cross there were four Fj plants, two of which gave
the progeny just referred to, and the other two gave the progeny shown
in cross 97a. Why these show such a different proportion we do not know,
for 97a must have been a successful cross, as proved by the appearance
of pole beans in normal proportions. It may be that the pollen grains
were not of the same constitution, or possibly stray pollen grains carry-
ing only black were involved in the F^ generation. The facts are here
presented in the hope that they may be suggestive to some other
investigator.
Table XXI. — Crosses involving Creaseback.
F2.
F3 AND F4.
Cross
Parent Varieties.
fi.
G Parents.
B Par-
No.
ents.
G.
Ill
B.
33
A.
65
G.
155
B.
46
A.
67
B.
61
A.
31
Blue Pod Butter X Creaseback,
G
21
118
33
131
34
119
32
Creaseback X Blue Pod Butter,
G
55
13
33
66
75
103
65
14
31
16
22
97
Challenge Black Wax X Creaseback,
G
295
-
79
269
136
-
75
-
-
97a
Challenge Black Wax X Creaseback,
G
101
1
29
60
2
"
Crosses of other varieties with Creaseback are not shown in the table
because the results were complicated and somewhat uncertain. With
Golden Eyed Wax the Fi generation gave only black beans, and in F2,
10 black to 3 white. In F3 and F4 there appeared also coffee-brown (F)
and yellow (C) seeded plants in moderate numbers. One coffee-brown
plant bred true in the 9 progeny grown.
When crossed with Warwick the results were complicated beyond hope
of comprehension. In the cross Creaseback X Warwick the Fi generation
is recorded as black with faint signs of mottling, while in the reciprocal,
which may have involved a different strain of the parent varieties, the
Fi beans were distinctly mottled, showing many distinct shades of pig-
ments. Apparently about all the pigments of both the red and yellow-
black series were involved.
The behavior of the pigments in these reciprocal crosses does afford
some further evidence bearing on the hypothesis of a factor discussed on
page 75 and there called X. One strain of Warwick X Creaseback gives
the expected number of white beans, the ratio being 24 self-colored, 5
mottled and 9 white. Another strain yields no white beans but gives 30
self-colored and 7 mottled in both cases, approximately four times as
98
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
many self-colored as mottled. If there is a factor X in Creaseback which
inhibits the expression of mottling as previously suggested, the following
gametes should be formed: PYZX, pYZX, PyZX, pyZX, PYZx, pYZx,
PyZx, pyZx. The zygotes formed would yield 9 mottled without X, 27
withX; 12 self-colored and 16 white. The 27 "mottled" beans with X
do not show mottling, making a to^al of 39 self-colored, 9 mottled and
16 white, or nearly four times as many self-colored as mottled. Of the
mottled beans 6 should show colors of both series, and 3 those of the red
series only, which are the actual numbers shown in the F2 generation of
this cross.
Crosses involving Davis Wax.
As has already been shown, Davis Wax, a non-pigmented bean, carries
factors for light mottling which appear as soon as pigment is supplied.
When crossed with Blue Pod Butter the Fi generation is light mottled,
like beans of the Horticultural group. In F2 there are produced light mot-
tled, buff and white beans in the proportion, presumably, of 9:3:4. In
later generations these behave as shown in Table XXII. It is possible
Table XXII. — Crosses involving Davis Wax.
Cross
No.
Parent Varieties.
Fi.
Fo.
F3 AND F4
(BEP Parents).
BEP.
B.
A.
BEP.
B.
A.
7
8
Blue Pod Butter X Davis Wax, .
Davis Wax X Blue Pod Butter, .
BEP
BEP
14
38
3
16
6
22
50
17
49
8
53
0
10
3
18
12
16
to derive from this cross light mottled races that breed true as well as
the parent types, as is shown in the table. No black beans appear, as the
modifier M is not present.
Among these light mottled progeny there appear some plants that
produce what seem to be bud sports, in which the darker reddish color
predominates over the surface of the bean. These may appear as single
pods or as branches bearing several pods, and rarely a portion only of
the beans in a single pod is affected. If these dark mottled beans are
planted they breed true to seed coat color, while the plants with light
mottled seed may breed true in this character, or may give rise to plants
bearing bud sports as before. Limited observations suggest that these
sporting plants exist in definite proportions. The fact that such plants
have appeared so often in the breeding work here reported, and that dark
mottled beans are frequently seen in seed of varieties of the Horticultural
type offered for sale, suggests that this peculiarity of bud sporting is a
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS. 99
frequent and possibly a constant character of beans of this class. At
any rate, we have here a peculiarity which would doubtless yield interest-
ing results on further and more specific investigation.
Reciprocal crosses of Challenge Black Wax and Davis Wax yielded
complicated progenies. Dark mottled beans appear because the former
variety carries the factor O for dark mottling, which acts with YZ from
Da^^s Wax to bring about this result. Challenge Black Wax carries the
modifier M, and Davis Wax brings in M', so that we get beans of both
the yellow-black and red series. Owing to the complicated nature of the
progeny of this cross it is not shown in tabular form.
Crosses involving White Marrow.
The only other white variety that has been used at all extensively is
White Marrow. The color pattern factors are rather complex, and the
pigment factors much more so. Owing to this the crosses of White Marrow
with the several varieties used will be taken up one by one. Apparently
White Marrow carries several pigment modifiers and determiners in a
latent condition, owing to the absence of the pigmentation factor P.
When it is crossed with another variety carrying P, and perhaps several
additional modifiers and determiners, we have very many classes of
beans which are, extremely difficult to segregate.
Crosses of White Marrow and Blue Pod Butter. — Three crosses of these
varieties have been made, including reciprocals. As previously indicated
(page 73), the Fi beans have light red (D) stripes and splashes on the
usual buff (B) ground color. In the next generation these split up, show-
ing, in addition to the two colors mentioned and the parent forms, con-
siderable numbers of coffee-brown (F) and yellow (C) beans. No black
beans have appeared in this cross, a fact that may be explained on the
hypothesis that the particular strain of Blue Pod Butter used lacked the
factor G.
We have been led to conclude that Blue Pod Butter lacked both modifiers
M and M'. The appearance of both series of colors in the progeny of this
cross leads to the conclusion that White Marrow carries both modifiers
in an inactive state, owing to the lack of the factor P. When both are
present the M' is epistatic to M, and the beans are classified as of the
red series.
Beans showing the dark red color have yielded in some cases only the
parent color (E), and in other cases various combinations of dark red
(E), light red (D), yellow (C), buff (B) and white, but we have no record
of coffee-brown beans (F) from this parentage, though they do appear in
small numbers from light red (D) parents. Yellow (C) parent plants
yield progeny of similar color, and, in addition, buff (B) or white or both
in subordinate numbers. In a few cases our records show light red (D)
beans in small numbers, which occurrences are difficult to explain. They
are rather too frequent to be mere accidents. Further investigation
should lead to interesting results.
100 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
Crosses of White Marrow with Golden Eyed Wax. — The progeny of this
cross are less complicated than others having White Marrow in the
parentage. The first generation beans, being mottled, show both yellow
and red splashes. Those of the F2 generation, showing only yellow either
in solid color or mottling, either breed true or yield white beans in the
expected ratio. Among some three hundred plants the records show two
buff (B) seeded plants. These are probably accidental strangers, yet they
may be a definite class occurring in smaU numbers; if so, no explanation
of their occurrence can be presented.
Crosses of White Marrow with Burpee Stringless. — Other crosses have
shown that Burpee Stringless has a constitution similar to Golden Eyed
Wax, with the addition of the determiner F, making the bean coffee
brown. The beans of the Fi generation were of a yellow-ohve mottled
color. In the next generation a variety of colors appeared among the
mottled beans, — coffee brown, yellow, olive, chocolate brown and red.
In later generations these differentiated clearly into the coffee brown of
Burpee Stringless, yellow (C), light red (D), buff (B) and white. Self-
colored coffee-brown seeds have given all brown, brown and yellow, brown
and white, and mixed progeny including all three types. Light red,
hght mottled seeds have bred true, and have yielded white seeded plants
in the usual proportion of 3:1.
Crosses of White Marrow with German Black Wax. — The results of this
cross are similar to the previous one with the addition of the epistatic
black (G). There is the same confusion of colors in the Fi generation,
but on further segregation they separate into black, coffee brown, yeUow
and white. The light red also appears and apparently dark red (E) also,
though in small numbers.
We have no case where a parent plant of this color has been bred. One
yellow seeded plant, being selfed, yielded yellow and white in a 3:1 pro-
portion, and one solid black of the F2 generation yielded a mixture of
black and coffee brown.
Crosses of White Marrow with Red Valentine. — This cross differs from
those just considered in that Red Valentine belongs to the red series.
There are red, black or brown beans appearing, but j^ellow does appear in
many of the mottled beans. One plant of mostly sohd yellow beans pro-
duced a progeny of yellow and light red mottled beans, the former in
larger numbers. There is a tendency to produce the dark mottled bud
sports referred to on page 98. There are other complications in this cross,
some of which can be explained only on the supposition that the White
Marrow plant used as a parent was heterozygous in its nature. This
might well be, for so long as the factor P is absent the pigment modifiers
and determiners might be interchanged without the external appearancfe
being changed.
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS.
101
The Genetic Constitution of the Varieties used.
In the following table is given the genetic constitution as indicated by
the investigations here reported. It is not asserted that these are correct
in ail cases, even should the general hypotheses here presented prove
sound. Moreover, there are doubtless in a given variety different strains
of indistinguishable external appearances, especially among the non-
pigmented varieties.
Blue Pod Butter,
Bountiful, .
Burpee Stringless,
Challenge Black Wax,
Creaseback,
Currie,
Davis Wax,
German Black Wax,
Giant Stringless, .
Golden Carmine, .
Golden Eyed Wax,
Keeney Rustless, .
Longfellow,
Low Champion, .
Mohawk,
ProUfic Black Wax,
Red Valentine,
Wardwell, .
Warren,
Warwick,
White Marrow,
PTYzmm'oGfcHEd
PTYzmm'oGFcHEd
PTYzmm'ogFcHED
PtYZmM'OgFCHED
PTyZMm'OgFChEd
PTyZMm'OGFChED
pTYZMm'OXG
pTyZMm'oXGFCHED
PTyZMm'OGFcH
PTyZMm'OGfCHED
PTyZMm'OGfCHeD
pTYZmM'oged
PTyZMm'OGFCHED
PTyZMm'OgfChEd
PTYZmM'ogfchEd
PtyZMm'OgfChed
PtYZmM'OGfcHED
PT YZm M' Ogf cheD
PTyZmM'OeD
PTYZmM'OgFcHED
PTyZMm'OGFcHE
PTYZmM'OgfcheD
PTYZmM'OgfcHeD
PTYZmM'OgfCheD
PtYZmM'OgFcHED
PTYzmM'ED
PTYZmM'OgfcHeD
pTYZMM'ogfCheD
pTyZMM'ogfChedpTYz
pTyZMM'ogfCheD
The significance of the letters is as follows : —
P is the factor for pigmentation, without which the bean is white. Pre-
sumably this factor is the one causing the production of the basic chro-
mogen.
T is the factor for totality of pigmentation, without which the bean is
an eyed bean if P is present.
Y and Z are the factors for mottling, which are coupled in mottled vari-
eties but may exist separately in non-mottled varieties, and if brought
together in crossing give mottled beans which break up in later generations.
M and M' are the two modifiers, M giving rise to the beans of the yellow-
black series and M' to those of the red series. They doubtless represent
102 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
one of the enzymes that are beUeved to be necessary for the production
of sap colors in plants.
O is the factor for dark mottling in mottled beans, in the absence of
which we have the light mottled type of the Horticultural class, provided
P, Y and Z are all present.
X represents a blackening factor found only in Creaseback.
The remaining letters of the formula are the determiners which in the
presence of other necessary factors determine the color of the seed coat.
The significance of the colors is as follows: G, black; F, coffee brown;
C, yellow; E, dark red; D, light red (see page 84).
Summary.
It is evident from these and other investigations that the inheritance of
seed coat color in beans is very comphcated, and difficult to explain fully
and satisfactorily. The problems involved are interesting, and the plants
convenient to handle for purposes of investigation. They provide excel-
lent material for the fruitful investigation of Mendelian inheritance.
In this work 21 varieties have been used in making over 120 different
crosses, involving more than 40,000 plants. The work continued over a
period of eight years.
There are certain correlations in the pigmentation of the plant. All
white or eyed beans are accompanied by white flowers; all black or black
mottled beans by dark pink flowers. Mottled beans, other than black
mottled beans and those of various yellow and brown colors, are usually
accompanied by Hght pink flowers.
In a general way the crosses of pigmented and white beans show a 3:1
ratio, but there are some rather wide departures which may or may not
be of genetic significance.
The inheritance of mottling may be explained by the double factor
hypothesis of Emerson and Spillman. Crosses of two mottled varieties
have in all cases given only mottled progeny. Crosses of mottled and
self-colored varieties have yielded mottled beans in Fj, and the parent
types in a 3:1 ratio in F2. Crosses of mottled and white varieties have
given mottled beans in Fi, and usually mottled, self-colored and white in
a 9:3:4 proportion in F2.
In most cases crosses of two self-colored varieties have given only self-
colored progeny. The principal exceptional variety is Blue Pod Butter,
which, when crossed with most self-colored varieties, yields mottled
progeny none of which breed true to the mottled character. White vari-
eties may carry the character for mottling, which can show itself only
after crossing with a pigmented sort. Creaseback is peculiar in that it
seems to carry factors for mottling and an additional factor causing a
blackenmg which nearly or quite obscures the mottled pattern.
There are two types of mottling, — the dark, seen in Red Valentine and
Refugee and many others, and the light, seen in varieties of the Horticul-
tural class. The former behaves towards the latter as a simple dominant.
SEED COAT COLOR IN GARDEN BEANS. 103
Apparently the factor for the dark motthng is associated with one of the
mottling factors. "Wliite beans may jdeld light mottled beans, but none
have yielded dark mottled beans.
There is evidently needed to produce a totally pigmented bean a factor
for total pigmentation. If it is absent when the factor for pigmentation
is present we have an eyed bean. Eye size is evidently governed by one
or more factors, but these investigations do not afford definite data regard-
ing their relations.
Pigment patterns and pigment colors are controlled by distinct factors.
According to the hypothesis presented in this paper, any color shown in
a bean seed is, in most cases, dependent on three or more factors. The
basic factor for pigmentation may be modified into either one of two
series, — one including the various yellows, browns and black; and the
other, different shades of red. The third factor, called a determiner, finally
determines what the color is to be. In some cases the determiners bring
about the color through causing an alkaline or acid condition. Possibly
in some cases the color is determined by the degree of acidity or alkalinity.
The two modifiers discovered are apparently associated with one of
the mottling factors, but the determiners are free and independent, though
standing often in an epistatic or hypostatic relation to one another.
Bibliography.
1. Bateson, W. 1902. Mendel's Principles of Heredity, p. 78. Cambridge.
2. Emerson, R. A. 1902. Preliminary Account of Variation in Bean Hybrids.
In Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. 15th Ann. Rpt., pp. 30-43.
3. . 1904. Heredity in Bean Hybrids. In Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. 17th Ann.
Rpt., pp. 33-68.
4. . 1909. Factors for Mottling in Beans. In Ann. Rpt. Amer. Breeders'
Assoc, Vol. 5, pp. 368-376.
5. . 1909. Inheritanceof Color in the Seeds of the Common Bean. In Nebr.
Agr. Exp. Sta. 22d Ann. Rpt., pp. 67-101.
6. . 1914. The Inheritance of a Recurring Somatic Variation in Variegated
Ears of Maize. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Research Bui. 4.
7. Freeman, G. F. 1912. Southwestern Beans and Teparies. Ariz. Agr. Exp.
Sta. Bui. 68.
8. Halsted, B. D. 1905. Notes upon Bean Crosses. In N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 26th
Ann. Rpt., pp. 478-480.
9. . 1906. Experiments with Bush Beans. In N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 27th Ann.
Rpt., pp. 454-466.
10. . 1907. Experiments with Bush Beans. In N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 28th Ann.
Rpt., pp. 340-343.
11. Jarvis, C. D. 1908. American Varieties of Beans. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Exp.
Sta. Bui. 260.
12. JoHANNSEN, W. 1908. Uber Knospenmutation bei Phaseolus. In Zeitschrift
fvir Induktive Abstammung und Vererbungslehre, Band 1, p. 1.
13. Kajanus, Birger. 1914. Zur Genetik der Samen von Phaseolus vulgaris.
In Zeitschrift fiir Pflanzenzuchtung, Band 2, p. 378.
14. Mann, Albert. 1914. Coloration of the Seed Coat of Cow Peas. In Jour.
Agr. Research, Vol. 2, pp. 33-56.
15. Shaw, J. K. 1913. The Inheritance of Blossom Color in Beans. In Mass.
Agr. Exp. Sta. 25th Ann. Rpt., pp. 182-203.
104 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 185.
16. Shaw, J. K. 1911. A System of recording Mendelian Observations. In Amer.
Nat. Vol. 45, p. 701.
17. Shull, G. H. 1907. The Significance of Latent Characters. In Science, Vol.
25, pp. 792-794.
18. . 1908. A New Mendelian Ratio and Several Types of Latency. In Amer.
Nat. Vol. 42, p. 433.
19. Tracy, W. W., Jr. 1907. American Varieties of Garden Beans. U. S. Dept.
Agr. Bur. Plant Indus. Bui. 109.
20. TscHERMAK, E. VON. 1901. Wcitere Beitrage iiber Verschiedenwerthigkeit der
Merkmale bei Kreuzung von Erbsen und Bohnen. In Zeitschrift fiir das land-
wirthschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich. Band 4, pp. 641-731.
21. . 1904. Weitere Kreuzungsstudien an Erbsen, Levkojen und Bohnen.
In Zeitschrift fiir das landwirthschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich.
Band 7, pp. 533-638.
22. . 1912. Bastardierungsversuche an Levkojen, Erbsen und Bohnen mit
Riicksicht auf die Faktorenlehre. In Zeitschrift fiir Induktive Abstammung
und Vererbungslehre, Band 7, pp. 81-234.
BULLETI]^ No. 186.
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
Part I .
THE COMPOSITION, DIGESTIBILITY AND
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
BY J. B. LINDSEY AND C. L. BEALS.
SUMMARY AND SUGGESTIONS.
1. Green aKalfa contains from 70 to 80 per cent, of water, 2 to 2.5 per
cent, of ash, 2.9 to 4.7 per cent, of protein, 4.2 to 12.8 per cent, of
fiber, 7.98 to 11.3 per cent, of extract or starchy matter, and not over 1
per cent, of fatty matter.
2. Alfalfa hay of good quality should average about 14 per cent, of
water, and on this basis will contain some 7 to 9 per cent, of ash, 13 to 14.5
per cent, of protein,^ 27 to 33 per cent, of fiber, 33 to 36 per cent, of starchy
matter and 1.5 to 2 per cent, of fat. The earlier it is cut the less fiber
and the more ash and protein it wiU contain,
3. Alfalfa resembles red clover quite closely in chemical composition,
although it is like!}'' to be slightly lower in protein and starchy matter.
Both alfalfa and clover contain considerably more protein and less fiber
and extract matter than do the cereals and grasses.
4. A complete chemical study of the different food groups composing
the alfalfa has not been made. In early blossom an average of 71.1 per
cent, of its total nitrogen has been found to exist as true protein, and 28.9
per cent, as non-albuminoid nitrogen. One sample has shown 10.17 per
cent, in the form of amino acids, and fully 88 per cent, as true protein.
In the carbohydrate group from 3.9 to 16.8 per cent, of pentosans, and
as high as 4.71 per cent, of galactan, have been found.
5. Alfalfa, red clover and timothy hay contain about the same amount
of digestible organic nutrients in 1 ton (950 to 970 pounds) ; while rowen
averages 1,028 pounds, or 8 per cent, more; and gluten feed, 1,556 pounds,
or 64 per cent. more.
1 Cut before bloom, alfalfa may contain 20 per cent, protein.
106 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
6. Comparing these several feeds, however, on the basis of net energy-
values, as suggested by Armsby, one finds red clover to have 13 per cent,
more energy value, timothy hay and rowen 20 per cent, more, and gluten
feed 160 per cent. more. This lessened energy value of the alfalfa has been
shown to be due to its causing an increased metabolism in the animal
organism.
7. In case of an average of three experiments (I, II and III) with cows,
the dry matter in a ration composed of alfalfa, beet pulp and corn meal
produced substantially as large a yield of milk and milk ingredients as
did a like amount of dry matter in one composed of first-cut mixed hay,
beet pulp and corn gluten products. The alfalfa seemed to act as a slight
stimulus to production. In these experiments alfalfa and hay each fur-
nished about 71 per cent, of the total dry food of the rations.
8. The animals showed a total gain in live weight of 13 poimds on the
alfalfa ration, and 481 pounds on the hay ration, indicating that the less
energy value of the alfalfa might have been responsible for this difference.
9. The protein contained in the alfalfa, beet pulp and corn meal ration,
of which 78.2 per cent, was from alfalfa, seemed to be fully as effective in
the formation of normal milk as did the protein contained in the hay, beet
pulp and corn gluten ration.
10. The diuretic effect of the alfalfa appeared to be without influence
in lessening the yield of milk and milk ingredients.
11. In case of the average of two experiments (IV and V), alfalfa proved
slightly superior to rowen in the volume of milk produced. The difference,
however (4.2 per cent, on the basis of equal amounts of dry matter in the
two rations), was not sufficient to warrant any marked claim of superior-
ity. This slight stimulating effect may be due to the superiority of the
protein contained in the alfalfa.
12. The fat percentage in the milk produced on the alfalfa ration did
not keep pace with the increased milk yield, for a like amount of dry
matter in the alfalfa and rowen rations produced a like amount of milk
fat.
13. The herd made a total gain in live weight of 16 pounds on the
alfalfa ration, and lost a total of 24 pounds on the rowen ration, differ-
ences not sufficient to warrant any particular conclusion.
14. A good quality of rowen appears to be nearly as satisfactory a
source of, roughage for milk production as a like amount of a similar
quality of alfalfa.
15. One experiment (VI) showed that a ration composed of one-half
first-cut hay and one-half alfalfa, together with a little wheat bran and
corn-and-cob meal, gave as satisfactory results as one consisting of first-
cut hay, wheat bran, corn-and-cob meal and gluten feed. The former
ration contained substantially home-grown products, and would render it
unnecessary to purchase grain, the alfalfa furnishing the necessary extra
protein required, and the corn-and-cob meal the necessary extra digesti-
ble matter.
16. One experiment (VII) indicated that reasonably good results can
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA. 107
be secured from a roughage ration composed of two-thirds alfalfa and one-
third corn stover, together with a grain ration of corn-and-cob meal. If
the stover is well cured and kept under cover it will give more satisfactory
results than if left in the open during the winter. The yield of milk, how-
ever, on such a ration would not be quite equal to the yield on one com-
posed of first-cut hay and a grain mixture of equal parts of wheat bran,
corn-and-cob meal and gluten feed.
17. Too high an estimate should not be put upon the alfalfa, for while
studies at this station and elsewhere have shown it to contain more pro-
tein than most other sources of roughage, and to equal wheat bran in
feeding value, it is quite inferior as a source of energy or fat production
to most of the concentrates.
18. In the light of our present knowledge it is preferable, particularly
in the eastern states, not to use alfalfa as the entire source of roughage
for milk production, but to feed one-half alfalfa and one-half hay, or two-
thirds alfalfa and one-third corn stover, or 10 to 15 pounds of alfalfa and
1 bushel of silage daily. Such combinations, together with a grain ration
of 70 to 80 per cent, corn-and-cob meal, and 20 to 30 per cent, wheat
bran or oats or barley, ought to give quite satisfactory results.
INTRODUCTION.
In the year 1914 this station published Bulletin No. 154, entitled "Al-
falfa," which related primarily to the growing of the crop in Massachu-
setts, based upon the results of home and co-operative experiments. It
included specific directions for the general management of the crop.
The present bulletin summarizes the analyses and digestion trials made
with alfalfa, both at this station and elsewhere, and presents the results
of seven feeding experiments relative to its effect on milk production and
its place in the dairy ration.
Alfalfa belongs to the same family of plants as the clover, pea and bean.
The family name is Leguminosa, and these plants are usually spoken of
as legumes. It has been cultivated both in Asia and Europe for a long
time, being known in Germany and France under the name of Luzerne.
It has been grown with great success in California and in the hot semi-
arid regions of the southwestern portions of our country. Of late years it
has been cultivated with success in the northwestern States, and more
recently it has been grown with considerable success in different portions
of the Middle Atlantic and New England States. It is an especially deep-
rooted perennial, and needs, among other things, a well-drained soil hav-
ing a water table several feet below the surface, and an abundance of lime.
THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA AND RED
CLOVER.
The composition of these plants will vary more or less, depending upon
the stage of growth at which they are cut, and whether the material is
derived from the first, second or third cutting. The analysis of medium
108 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
red clover is used for comparison. In order to make the analyses com-
parable, they have been brought (in case of the green samples) to sub-
stantially a like water basis. In case of the hays, a uniform moisture
content of 14 per cent, has been employed.
Table I. — Chemical Composition of Green Alfalfa and Red Clover.
Num-
ber of
Analy-
ses.
Water
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Ash
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Protein
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Fiber
(Per
Cent.).
Extract
or
Starchy
Matter
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Alfalfa, average, ' .
Alfalfa, average,' .
Clover, average, ' .
Clover, average,' .
Alfalfa, before bloom, '
Clover, before bloom,'
Alfalfa, in bloom,'
Clover, in bloom, '
Clover, in bloom,'
Alfalfa, in seed,' .,
Clover, in seed,' .
r- . '■
143
6
85
13
11
2
27
36
3
6
2
74.7
74.7
73.8
73.8
80.1
80.0
74.1
72.5
72.5
70.2
70.2
2.4
2.0
2.1
2.4
2.3
2.1
2.5
2.0
2.5
2.2
2.7
4.5
3.4
4.1
4.1
4.7
3.6
4.4
4.1
4.6
2.9
4.5
7.0
7.8
7.3
7.5
4.2
4.7
7.8
8.2
7.9
12.8
8.6
10.4
11.5
11.7
11.5
7.9
9.0
10.4
12.1
11.8
11.3
13.1
1.0
.5
1.0
.8
.8
.6
.8
1.1
.8
.6
.8
Table II. — Chemical Composition of Alfalfa Hay {Red Clover Hay for
Comparison).
Num-
ber of
Analy-
ses.
Water
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Ash
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Protein
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Fiber
(Per
Cent.).
Ejrtract
or
Starchy
Matter
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Alfalfa, average, ' .
Clover, average, ' .
Clover, average,' .
Alfalfa, first cutting, ' .
Alfalfa, first cutting,' .
Alfalfa, second cutting, '
Alfalfa, second cutting,'
Alfalfa, third cutting, '
Alfalfa, before bloom,'
Clover, before bloom, '
Clover, before bloom,'
Alfalfa, in bloom, '
Clover, in bloom,'
Alfalfa, in seed, > .
250
76
15
46
3
33
1
17
11
2
1
31
1
8.1
7.0
7.8
8.3
6.7
8.3
5.8
9.0
9.2
6.9
9.6
9.3
7.7
6.7
14.0
12.6
13.5
13.1
14.5
13.6
13.2
13.8
20.2
17.9
15.3
13.9
13.2
11.7
26.6
25.2
24.6
29.0
27.5
29.6
32.7
26.8
18.8
17.6
24.4
28.1
25.7
26.5
35.1
38.1
37.6
34.0
35.8
32.9
33.2
34.7
33.9
40.1
35.0
33.0
37.8
38.7
2.2
3.1
2.5
1.6
1.5
1.6
1.1
1.7
3.9
3.5
1.7
1.7
1.6
A study of the analyses of both the alfalfa and clover shows that these
plants resemble each other closely in general chemical composition. They
' Feeds and Feeding, 15th edition, 1915, Henry & Morrison.
' Analyses made at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
109
contain considerably more protein than do the cereals and grasses, and
less fiber and extract matter. If anything, the alfalfa is likely to be
slightly richer in protein than the clover, and to contain a little more
extract matter. Much, however, depends upon the exact stage of growth,
the season and the soil on which the crops are grown. ^
THE DIGESTIBILITY OF ALFALFA HAY.
The general statement may be made that a food is valuable at least in
so far as the animal can digest and assimilate it. A large number of
digestion trials, principally with sheep, are on record, of which the fol-
lowing is a summary: —
Table III. — Coefficients of Digestibility of Alfalfa Hay {Other Feeds for
Comparison) .
Num-
ber of
Single
Trials.
Dry
Matter
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Ash
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Protein
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Fiber
(Per
Cent.).
Extract
or
Starchy
Matter
(Per
Cent.).
Crude
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Alfalfa, average, 2 .
Clover, red, average,'
109
25
60
59
50'
86'
71
59
43
64
72
66
38
57
Alfalfa, first cutting,' .
Alfalfa, second cutting,'
Alfalfa, third cutting,'
53
21
6
59
62
58
54 »
52'
442
67
76
70
42
44
40
72
74
70
38
40
42
Alfalfa, bud to bloom,'
Clover, in bloom,'
74
4
60
62
58
70
62
43
53
72
68
39
54
Corn fodder, dent, mature for
comparison,'
30
66
23
45
63
73
70
Timothy, average for com-
parison,' ....
58
55
39
48
50
62
50
Rowen (largely of grasses),' .
12
65
-
70
66
65
47
In making a study of the above summary one notes, in case of the
average results, that the digestibility of the dry matter of the alfalfa is
about the same as of the clover. The crude protein of the alfalfa is no-
ticeably more digestible than that of the clover (12 per cent, more), while
1 As alfalfa begins to blossom, its nitrogen content has been found to consist of 71.1 per cent, of
true protein and 28.9 per cent, of so-called amids, although variations from these averages are pro-
nounced (Mentzel u. Lengerke's Kalendar). Hart et als.. Research Bulletin No. 33, Wisconsin
Experiment Station, found in a sample .31 per cent, of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia, 1.03
per cent, as an acid amid, and 10.17 per cent, as amino acids; the remainder, 88.49 per cent., existed
as true protein. Headden, in Bulletin No. 124, Colorado Experiment Station, gives a considerable
amount of data on the chemistry of alfalfa, recognizing sucrose, glucose and starch, 2.89 per cent,
of galactanand from 11.44 to 13.38 per cent, of pentosans. Pott (Handbuch d. thier. Ernahrung
II Band p. 55) reports from 13.9 to 16.8 per cent, of pentosans. Lindsey and Holland found 4.71
per cent, of galactan in the alfalfa seed.
' Feeds and Feeding, 15th edition, 1915, Henry & Morrison.
» Lindsey's compilation, twenty-third report of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment
Station, 1911. "'"" "-.-— -* " ........w .^ ..u.. a i,-^cuu>^ ■
110 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
the crude fiber shows a lower digestibility (11 per cent. less). The extract
matter of the alfalfa is more digestible than that of the clover.
The second cutting of alfalfa hay appears to be more digestible than
the first and third cuttings, which are nearly equal in digestibility.
Comparing alfalfa in bloom with clover in bloom, one notes the same
differences as in the average analyses of all samples : namely, that in case
of the alfalfa the crude protein and extract matter are more digestible,
and the crude fiber less digestible, than in the clover hay.
A comparison of our own results tells substantially the same story, as
the following data show: —
Table IV. — Coefficients of Digestibility of Alfalfa and Clover Hays {Our
Results) ,
Exrtact
Num-
Dry
Crude
Crude
Crude
or
Crude
ber of
Matter
Ash
Protein
Fiber
Starchy
Fat
Single
(Per
(Per
(Per
(Per
Matter
(Per
Trials.
Cent.).
Cent.).
Cent.).
Cent.).
(Per
Cent.).
Cent.).
Alfalfa hay,
6
60
45
74
46
70
28
Clover hay, ....
4
62
58
61
53
68
54
In comparing the total digestibility of alfalfa hay with that of other
feeds we have the following figures: alfalfa and clover, about 60 per cent.;
timothy, 55 per cent.; rowen (largely of grasses), 65 per cent.; dent corn
fodder, 66 per cent. It is evident, therefore, that in point of digestibility
alfalfa and clover are rather more digestible than timothy hay, but less
digestible than mature corn fodder or well-cured rowen.
Applying the average digestion coefficients to the average analyses of
the several feeds, we have the following digestible nutrients for 1 ton : —
Table V. — Digestible Nutrients in One Ton.
Crude
Protein
(Pounds).
Crude
Fiber
(Pounds).
Extract
Matter
(Pounds).
Crude
Fat
(Pounds).
Total
Nutri-
ents
(Pounds).
Relative
Diges-
tion
Values;
Alfalfa
=^100.
Relative'
Net
Energy
Values;
Alfalfa
= 100.
Alfalfa. .
199
229
505
17
950
100
100
Red clover.
149
272
503
35
959
101
113
Timothy hay,
60
330
550
30
970
102
126
Rowen,
158
318
524
28
1,028
108
120 «
Gluten feed,*
446
110
948
52
1,556
164
260
I T.in
dsey's calc
ulations.
« For
compariso
a.
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA. Ill
One notes that of the several coarse fodders, alfalfa furnishes by far
the most digestible protein. Thus, timothy hay yields only 60 pounds,
clover and rowen 149 and 158 pounds, and alfalfa substantially 200
pounds in a ton. Alfalfa furnishes the largest amount of protein of any
of the more common and useful coarse fodders. In case, however, of the
total digestible nutrients, one notes but little difference between the
timothy, clover and alfalfa. Rowen yields 8 per cent, more, while such
a concentrate as gluten feed contains 64 per cent, more, than alfalfa.
Total digestible matter, however, is not the most satisfactory unit of
measure of the energy value of feedstuffs.
The unit known as net energy, obtained by deducting from the total
energy in the feed the energy losses in feces, urine and heat radiated, is
the best known method of comparison. On this basis Armsby's method
of calculation, as indicated in the last column of the table, shows red clover
to have 13 per cent, more net energy value than alfalfa, timothy hay 26
per cent., rowen 20 per cent., and gluten feed 160 per cent. While experi-
ments conducted with the aid of the respiration calorimeter demonstrate
these differences, it may be difficult to show such noticeable variations
with the aid of ordinary feeding experiments.
FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH ALFALFA.
Experiments I, II and III.
Alfalfa, Beet Pulp and Corn Meal v. Hay, Beet Pulp and Corn Gluten
Products for Milk Production.
The three experiments immediately following were made by the re-
versal method with two groups of six and one group of eight cows.
The objects of the several experiments were: —
1. To compare the effect of the dry matter and the protein in the two
rations on the yield of mUk and milk ingredients, and on the gain or loss
in weight.
2. To see if the protein derived largely from alfalfa was as satisfactory
for milk production as that secured largely from corn by-products.
3. To note if the diuretic effect of the alfalfa caused any noticeable
milk shrinkage.^
4. To observe the possible adverse effect on milk production of the
increased metabolism, caused by the alfalfa.
The rations were designated as the alfalfa and hay rations. The former
consisted of alfalfa as the total roughage, plus beet pulp and corn meal;
the latter, of hay as the roughage, plus beet pulp, gluten feed and gluten
meal. The affalfa ration naturally derived its protein largely from al-
falfa, while in the hay ration a large part of the protein came from the
gluten products. The digestible nutrients in each ration should be about
the same.
^ Research Bulletin No. 33, Wisconsin Experiment Station,
112 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table VI. — History of Cows.
Experiment I.
Cows.
Breed.
Age
(Years).
Last Calf
dropped.
Served.
Milk
Yield,
Begin-
ning of
Trial
(Pounds).
Samantha II, .
Cecile II, .
Betty III,
Fancy III,
Betty II. .
IdaSII, .
Grade Holstein,
Pure Jersey, .
Grade Ayrshire,
Grade Jersey,
Grade Ayrshire,
Pure Jersey, .
7
3
3
8
10
3
Oct. 31.1915
Nov. 11, 1915
Sept. 14, 1915
Feb. 24, 1916
Aug. 31, 1915
Jan. 29, 1916
Dec. 27, 1915
Jan. 13, 1916
Apr. 3, 1916
Jan. 18, 1916
Mar. 16, 1916
40
17
22
29
21
25
Experiment II.
Colantha,
Grade Holstein,
3
June 19, 1916
Sept. 15, 1916
23
Mary,
Grade Holstein,
6
Sept. 1, 1916
-
31
Samantha II, .
Grade Holstein,
7
Aug. 14, 1916
Dec. 27, 1916
32
Samantha III,
Grade Holstein,
3
Aug. 6, 1916
Oct. 30, 1916
23
Red III, .
Grade Jersey,
11
Aug. 18. 1916
Nov. 12, 1916
31
White,
Grade Holstein,
7
Aug. 27, 1916
Nov. 17, 1916
41
Experiment III.
Cecile II, .
Betty II, .
Samantha II,
Colantha,
Red IV, .
Ida II, .
White,
Samantha III,
Grade Jersey,
Grade Ayrshire,
Grade Holstein,
Grade Holstein,
Grade Jersey,
Pure Jersey, .
Grade Holstein,
Grade Holstein,
Oct.
14,
1916
Oct.
25,
1916
Aug.
14,
1916
June 19,
1916
Sept
26.
1916
Dec.
27,
1916
Aug.
27,
1916
Aug.
6,
1916
Jan.
16,
1917
Apr.
16,
1917
Nov
7,
1916
Oct.
20,
1916
Feb.
28,
1917
Feb.
15,
1917
Oct.
27,
1916
18
29
25
20
21
26
27
19
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
113
Table VII. — Duration of Experiments.
Experiment I.
Dates.
Hay-ration Cows.
Alfalfa-ration Cows.
Length
of
Period
(Weeks).
Apr. 10 through May 14, 1916,
May 26 through June 29; 1916,
Samantha II, Cecile II,
Betty III.
Fanny III, Betty II,
Ida II.
Fancy III, Betty II,
Ida II.
Samantha II, Cecile II,
Betty III.
5
5
Experiment II.
Oct. 20 through Nov. 23, 1916,
Dec. 4, 1916, through Jan. 7,
1917.
Colantha, Mary, Saman-
tha II.
Samantha III, Red III,
White.
Samantha III, Red III,
White.
Colantha, Mary, Saman-
tha II.
5
5
Experiment III.
Jan. 29 through Mar. 4, 1917,
Mar. 15 through Apr. 18, 1917,
Cecile II, Betty II, Sa-
mantha II, Colantha.
Red IV, Ida II, White,
Samantha III.
Red IV. Ida II, White,
Samantha III.
Cecile II, Betty II, Sa-
mantha II, Colantha.
5
5
Care of Animals. — The animals were well cared for in all cases, and
turned into a barnyard from four to nine hours daily, depending upon the
weather conditions. They were fed twice daily; the hay was given some
time before milking, and the grain just before milking in the afternoon,
while in the morning the grain was given just before and the hay just
after milking. Water was supplied constantly by the aid of a self-watering
device. During the winter' the barn wings were kept at a temperature of
about 50° F. with the aid of steam heat.
Character of Feeds. — The hay was of mixed grasses with some clover,
cut upon the station farm. An effort was made to have it of as uniform
quality as possible in each experiment. The alfalfa in the first experiment
was said to be second cutting, grown in Michigan. It was bright, leafy
and sweet, but rather coarse. In the second experiment about one-third
of the alfalfa was from the same source, and two-thirds were second and
third cutting grown upon the station farm. In the third experiment it was
third cutting grown upon the college farm.
The beet pulp in the first and second experiments was molasses beet
pulp, and in the third experiment, plain dried pulp, — all of good quality.
The gluten feed and Diamond gluten meal were of the usual satisfactory
quality. The same may be said of the corn meal, except that it was rather
moist, and it was necessary to purchase it in small amounts to prevent
heating.
114 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Sampling Feeds and Milk. — The hays were sampled at the beginning,
middle and end of each half of the trial by taking forkfuls of the daily
weighings, running same through a power cutter, sub-sampling and placing
the laboratory samples in large glass-stoppered bottles; these bottles prop-
erly labeled were brought to the laboratory immediately. The grains
were sampled daily by placing definite amounts in glass-stoppered bot-
tles, properly labeled, and brought to the laboratory at the end of each
half of the trial. Dry matter determinations were made and samples pre-
pared for complete analysis. The milk was sampled for five consecutive
days in each week, preserved with formalin, and the composite analyzed
for total solids and for fat by the Babcock method, and for nitrogen. The
method of sampling consisted in mixing the milk as soon as drawn with
the aid of a perforated tin disk attached to the end of a stout tin handle,
by moving the same up and down gently for a number of times, and then
taking out a definite amount with a small long-handled tin dipper.
Table VIII. -
- Analyses
of Feeds (P
er Cent.).
Feed.
Water.
Dry Matter.
Ex;
peri-
ment.
Ash.
Crude
Pro-
tein.
True
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Ex-
tract
Mat-
ter.
Fat.
I
Hay, . . .
11.62-13.15
8.02
9.13
7.37
35.07
46.27
2.61
II
Hay, .
11.22-11.67
6.34
8.10
7.20
35.19
48.12
2.25
III
Hay. .
10.25-11.04
6.46
8.42
7.35
34.06
48.66
2.40
I
Alfalfa.
12.85-15.16
7.24
14.93
11.40
41.22
35.14
1.47
II
j Alfalfa (old).
12.65-14.18
7.22
15.31
11.12
40.56
36.52
1.39
[Alfalfa (new),
12.43-12.81
7.92
17.41
14.04
31.42
41.42
1.83
III
Alfalfa,
11.21-11.79
7.16
14.89
11.83
35.75
40.05
2.15
I
Beet pulp. .
11.40-11.98
4.41
10.40
7.65
17.72
66.86
.61
II
Beet pulp, .
12.23-12.76
4.09
10.31
-
18.24
66.73
.63
III
Beet pulp, .
10.21-13.53
2.79
11.02
-
21.22
64.28
.69
I
Gluten feed,
8.41-10.85
5.11
30.08
21.39
7.13
54.95
2.73
II
Gluten feed.
10.25-11.63
4.82
30.99
-
7.13
54.64
2.42
III
Gluten feed.
9.47- 9.72
6.00
31.54
-
8.03
53.36
2.07
I
Gluten meal.
8.61- 8.96
.87
48.78
46.23
1.46
47.95
.94
II
Gluten meal,
9.26- 9.88
1.20
49.38
-
1.63
46.88
.91
III
Gluten meal,
8.32- 8.67
1.04
50.50
-
1.76
45.74
.96
I
Corn meal, .
14.53-16.40
1.70
10.34
9.52
1.72
82.61
3.63
II
Corn meal, .
13.27-13.64
1.51
10.37
-
2.62
81.42
4.08
III
Corn meal, .
11.53-11.65
1.32
10.49
-
2.51
81.76
3.93
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
115
The analytical data are expressed in dry matter because of variations
in moisture. From an analytical standpoint the hays resemble each other
closely; the same may be said of the alfalfa, except that the sample in
the third experiment contained somewhat less fiber. The albuminoid
matter was determined by the Stutzer method, which includes both the
amino acids and the acid amids. In view of the fact that the amino acids
are supposed to be valuable in protein sjoithesis, the Stutzer method of
separation is not held to be of as much importance as formerly. The hay
contained 14.5 per cent, and the alfalfa 22.64 per cent, of its nitrogen
in the non-albuminoid form.
The beet pulp used in the third experiment showed rather more fiber
and a little less extract matter, because of the lack of the molasses.
The several lots of the different grains were quite uniform in character.
The one sample of gluten feed on which a non-albuminoid nitrogen test
was made showed some 29 per cent, of this ingredient, indicating the ad-
dition of considerable "steep water" in its manufacture.
Table IX. — Average Daily Ration consumed per Cow {Pounds).
Experiment I.
Num-
ber of
Cows.
Character
OF Ration.
Alfalfa.
Hay.
Beet
Pulp.
Gluten
Feed.
Gluten
Meal.
Corn
Meal.
Alfalfa,
Hay,
16.47-24.50
18.96
16.00-24.00
18.77
4.00-5.00
4.17
4.00-5.00
4.17
3.31-7.75
4.55
.00-6.00
1.83
1.00-3 00
2.33
Experiment II.
Alfalfa,
Hay,
19.14-22.83
20.65
17.77-22.00
19.96
3.00-5.00
3.67
3.00-5.00
3.67
.75-3.8
1.73
0.00-4.00
3.17
4.00-6.00
5.13
Experiment III.
Alfalfa,
Hay,
16.00-22.00
20.63
15.69-22.00
20.36
3.00-4.00
3.13
3.00-4.00
3.13
.00-2/00
.75
2.67-4.50
3.39
3.09-5.16
4.32
The reason for presenting the above concise tables is to give the inter-
ested student an idea of the amounts fed daily in the two different rations,
116 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
and to emphasize their uniformity. In the first experiment more corn
meal was fed than gluten products, because of its larger moisture
content.
Table X. — Estimated Dry and Digestible Nutrients in Average Daily
Rations (Pounds).
Experiment I.
Dry
Matter.
Digestible Nutrients.
Character op
Ration.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Total.
Nutri-
tive.
Ratio.
Alfalfa, .
Hay.
23.82
23.93
2.23
2.44
3.37
4.09
9.28
8.48
.22
.27
15.10
15.28
1:5.9
1 :5.4
Experiment II.
Alfalfa,
Hay,
25.64
25.31
2.66
2.67
3.28
4.29
10.08
9.09
16.27
16.30
1 :5.2
1 :5.2
Experiment III.
Alfalfa,
Hay,
24.84
24.72
2.39
2.61
3.28
4.23
9.76
8.65
15.71
15.74
1 :5.7
1 :5.1
The above data were secured by applying average digestion coefficients
to the analyses of the several feeds, and multiplying by the amounts
of dry matter consumed daily. It is at best but an estimate. It serves,
however, to give the reader an idea of the uniformity of the two rations,
in so far as digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio are concerned.
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
117
1 . The effect of the total dry matter contained in the two separate rations,
and aUo the effect of the dry matter in the hay and in the alfalfa upon the
yield of milk and milk ingredients.
Table XI. — Total Dry Matter consumed in Each Feed and in the Com-
plete Ration {Pounds).
Experiment I.
rS
Alfalfa.
Hay.
Beet
Pulp. »
Gluten
Feed.
Gluten
Meal.
Corn
Meal.
Total.
s
a
Is
3
6
3
6
'3
1
i
3
(V
r
o
i
OJ<J
p
d
o
a
•B
6
3,421
16.29
3,455
16.45
773
3.68
349
1.67
447
2.13
809
3.85
5,003
5,024
Experiment II.
6
3,775 17.99
3,711
17.69
675
3.21
325
1.54
602
.87
930
4.44
5,380
5,313
Experiment III.
8
5,116
18.26
5.093
18.20
777
2.76
190
.68
866
3.09
1,071
3.82
6,964
6,926
Totals.
12,312
-
12,259
-
2,225
-
864
-
1,915
-
2,810
-
17.347
17,263
I Beet pulp was fed in each half of each trial in substantially like amounts.
A study of Table XI indicates that the total dry matter consumed in
each ration was substantially the same, the most noticeable variation
being in Experiment II. The total dry matter consumed in the three
experiments was nearly the same, differing by only about one-half per
cent.
The dry matter consumed in the form of alfalfa and in hay in the three
experiments (12,312 pounds and 12,259 pounds) likewise shows a varia-
tion of substantially only one-half per cent.
118 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XII. — Total Milk and Milk Ingredients produced.
Experiment I.
Num-
ber
of
Cows.
Character'^of
Ration.^
Milk
pro-
duced
(Pounds).
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds).
Nitro-
gen
(Per
Cent.).
Nitro-
sen
(Pounds).
6
6
Alfalfa, .
Hay. .
4,916
4,870
12.78
13.47
628.1
655.9
4.21
4.73
206.6
230.5
.51
.54
25.10
26.38
Experiment II.
6
6
Alfalfa, .
Hay, .
4,856
4,776
13.21
13.20
641.5
630.5
4.57
4.53
222.1
216.3
.54
.54
26.42
25.61
Experiment III.
8
8
Alfalfa, .
Hay, .
0,094
6,087
14.04 855.6
14.18 862.9
5.02
5.10
306.2
310.4
.59
.60
35.73
36.46
Totals.
Alfalfa, , . . 15,866
Hay, . . . 15,733
13.34
13.62
2,125.2
2,149.3
4.60
4.79
734.9
757.2
.55
.56
87.25
88.45
. — ._,.., ,
Table XII shows that in Experiment I the milk yield favored the al-
falfa ration by about 1 per cent., while in the second experiment the dif-
ference was about 2 per cent. In the third experiment the difference was
very slight, — only 7 pounds. The total of the three experiments gives a
yield of 15,866 pounds for the alfalfa ration, and 15,733 pounds for the
hay ration, a difference of about nine-tenths of 1 per cent, in favor of
the alfalfa.
In Experiment I, for some reason, the yields of total solids and total
fat were noticeably greater (4.4 and 11.1 per cent.) on the hay ration.
These results, however, were not made emphatic by the two other experi-
ments; hence one is in no way justified in assuming that the alfalfa in-
fluenced the milk composition, A definite amount of dry matter, there-
fore, in each of the rations produced substantially the same results in the
yield of milk and milk ingredients. One sees that the alfalfa stimulated
slightly the yield of milk without correspondingly increasing the solids.
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
119
Table XIII. — Gain or Loss in Live Weight (Pounds).
Gain.
Loss.
Net.
Experiment.
Alfalfa
Ration.
Hay
Ration.
Alfalfa
Ration.
Hay
Ration.
Alfalfa
Ration.
Hay
Ration.
I
II
Ill,
105
63
26
292
60
136
73
108
7
+105
—10
—82
+292
+53
+136
Totals,
-
-
-
+13
+481
i: i^_
^
In Experiment I, when several of the animals were somewhat advanced
in the milking period, each herd showed an increase in live weight. In
Experiment II the cows were comparatively fresh and not as much gain
was noted; in this experiment the alfalfa ration produced a slight de-
crease in the weight of the herd. In Experiment III, conducted during
the winter and early spring, a decrease was also noted when the alfalfa
ration was fed. It may be remarked that in each experiment it was our
object to feed slightly less nutrients than calculations showed to be neces-
sary to maintain weight and to meet the demands for milk, so that the
full effect of each ration would be felt. It seems evident that while the
alfalfa and corn meal ration fully maintained the milk yield, it was
not as effective in increasing the live weight as was the hay and gluten
ration.
S. The effect of different forms of protein on the yield and character of the
milk.
Table XIV. — Protein consumed in the Feeds and Rations (Pounds).
Alfalfa.
Hay.
Beet
Pulp.i
Gluten
Products.
Corn
Meal.
TOTAiS.
Experiment.
Alfalfa
Ration.
Hay
Ration.
I
II, ... .
Ill
510.8
631.2
761.8
315.4
306.0
428.8
80.4
69.6
85.6
323.0
398.0
497.2
83.7
06.4
112.3
674.9
797.2
959.7
718.8
773.6
1,011.6
Totals,
_. .....
1,903.8
1,050.2
235.6
1,218.2
292.4
2,431.8
2,504.0
3
1 Beet pulp was fed in each half of each experiment in substantially like amounts.
120 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XV. — Protein Found in the Milk (Pounds).
Experiment.
I
II
Ill
Totals
558.8
In case of the alfalfa ration, the total amount of protein consumed
in the three experiments was 2,431.8 pounds, of which 1,903.8 pounds, or
78.2 per cent., came from the alfalfa, and 528 pounds, or 21.7 per cent.,
came from the beet pulp and corn meal. In the hay ration, of the total
of 2,504 pounds consumed, 1,050.2 pounds, or 41.9 per cent., came from
the hay, and 1,453.6 pounds, or 58.1 per cent., came from the beet pulp
and corn gluten products.
The total protein in the milk (N X 6.25) produced by the alfalfa ration
was 545.3 pounds, and by the hay ration 558.8 pounds, showing that the
alfalfa ration, in which 78.2 per cent, of the protein was derived from
alfalfa, produced as much milk protein and substantially as much milk
solids as did the hay ration; or, in other words, that the protein of the
alfalfa was fully as satisfactory a source of protein for milk formation as
was that in the hay and corn gluten. An objection might be raised to
this conclusion because 528 pounds of protein (21.7 per cent, of the total
amount fed) was derived from beet pulp and corn meal, and this amount
of protein was nearly equal to the amount produced in the milk. It must
be remembered, however, that of the 528 pounds, scarcely two-thirds
would be digestible and hence available for milk production. Although
it is quite possible that the protein from the beet pulp and corn meal was
also utilized for the formation of the nitrogenous matter in the milk, it is
fairly safe to conclude that the alfalfa protein proved fully as satisfactory
a source for milk formation as did that contained in the hay and corn
gluten products. Hart and Humphrey^ have more completely demon-
strated this by feeding to two cows a ration composed of alfalfa and
starch, and they found that the protein in the alfalfa was equal to that
contained in a ration composed entirely of corn products.
3. The diuretic effect of the alfalfa.
The same authors have shown in two experiments with two cows that
the substitution of alfalfa in place of corn products caused a marked in-
crease in the excretion of urine and a shrinkage in the milk yield, in some
cases amounting to substantially 25 per cent.
> Loc. cit.
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
121
Because of the number of cows involved, it was not practicable to.
determine the urine output nor the water drunk. On the basis, however,
of the voliune of milk as well as the total solids yielded, as stated in Table
XII, it did not appear in the five weeks' period that the alfalfa exerted
any adverse effect. A study of the daily records of individual cows, espe-
cially during the transition period from the hay to the alfalfa ration, con-
firms this conclusion. In fact, the alfalfa seemed to act as a slight stimulus
to production. Whether this was due to the favorable character of the
proteins or to other causes is not clear.
4. The influence of the increased metabolism caused by the alfalfa on the
yield of milk and on live weight.
Armsby^ has shown that by increasing the metabolism alfalfa is de-
cidedly inferior as a source of energy to timothy hay, in the proportion of
34.1 to 48.63 therms of net energy per 100 pounds of dry mattter; i.e., a
decrease of some 30 per cent.^ Inasmuch as the dry matter in alfalfa and
in hay comprised some 71 per cent, of the total dry matter contained in
each of the two rations, it would seem as though the influence of the
increased metabolism caused by the alfalfa would be noticeable, even
though the hay was not what might be classed as timothy. The yields
of mUk and milk solids fail to show any unfavorable effect of this factor.
Only in the case of the live weight (Table XIII) produced does one notice
a possible adverse effect of the alfalfa, which might be attributed to its
inferior energy value.
Additional Experimental Data.
Table XVI. — Total Rations Consumed by Each Cow (Pounds).
Experiment I.
Cows.
Alfalfa.
Hay.
Beet
Pulp.s
Corn
Meal.
Gluten
Feed.
Gluten
Meal.
Fancy III, .
Betty II, .
Ida II,
Samantha II,
Cecile II, .
Betty III, .
735.0
609.5
611.0
857.5
576.5
589.5
714.5
604.5
602.5
840.0
560.0
620.5
140
140
140
175
140
140
151.0
151.0
151.0
271.0
116.0
116.0
35.00
52.50
52.50
210.00
35.00
105.0
87.5
87.5
35.0
70.0
■105.0
1 The Nutrition of Farm Animals, pp. 660, 663.
2 Most other hays (mixtures of grasses) are also shown to be quite superior to alfalfa as a source
of energy.
' The same amount fed in each half.
122 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XVI. — Total Rations Consumed by Each Cow
Experiment II.
Concluded.
Cows.
Alfalfa.
Hay.
Beet
Pulp.
Corn
Meal.
Gluten
Feed.
Gluten
Meal.
Samantha III, ....
735.0
700.0
105
175.0
26.25
140.0
Red III
700.0
665.0
140
140.0
135.64
-
White,
799.0
770.0
140
210.0
96.25
105.0
Colantha,
697.0
700.0
105
183.8
35.00
140.0
Mary,
670.0
622.0
105
183.8
35.00
140.0
Samantha II, ... .
735.0
735.0
175
183.8
35.00
140.0
Experiment III.
Red IV,
700.0
688.0
105
144.5
35.00
93.5
Ida II,
700.0
700.0
105
144.5
35.00
105.0
White,
770.0
770.0
105
162.1
-
157.5
Samantha III,
770.0
770.0
105
144,5
-
137.0
Cecile II, .
560.0
549.0
140
108.2
-
105.0
Betty II, .
770.0
727.0
105
180.6
70.00
105.0
Samantha II,
735.0
731.0
105
180.6
70.00
105.0
Colantha, .
770.0
765.0
105
144.5
-
140.0
Table XVII. — Changes in Live Weight (Pounds).
Experiment I.
Cows.
Fancy III,
Betty II
Ida II,
Samantha II, .
Cecile II,
Betty III
Totals,
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
123
Table XVII. — Changes in Live Weight (Pounds)
Experiment II.
Cows.
Samantha III, . .
Red III
White
Colantha
Mary,
Samantha II
Totals
Concluded.
Experiment III.
Red IV, .
Ida II,
White,
Samantha III,
Cecils II, .
Betty II, .
Samantha II,
Colantha, .
Totals, .
Table XVIII. — Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients.
Experiment I.
Alfalfa Ration.
Cows.
Milk
(Pounds).
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds).
Nitro-
gen
(Per
Cent.).
Nitro-
gen
(Pounds).
Fancy III,
Betty II, .
Ida II,
Samantha II,
Cecile II, .
Betty III, .
1,044.4
687.2
791.0
1,186.0
549.7
656.2
11.97
12.96
13.45
12.33
14.42
12.52
125.01
89.06
106.39
146.23
79.27
82.16
3.82
4.32
4.68
3.85
5.06
4.04
39.89
29.69
37.02
45.66
27.81
26.51
.46
.53
.51
.50
.61
.51
4.80
3.64
4.03
5.93
3.35
3.35
Totals,
4,914.5
-
628.12
-
206.58
-
25.10
124 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XVIII. — Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients — Continued.
Experiment I. — Concluded.
Hay Ration.
Cows.
Milk
(Pounds).
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds).
Nitro-
gen
(Per
Cent.).
Nitro-
gen
(Pounds).
Fancy III,
Betty II, .
Ida II, ...
Samantha II,
Cecilell, .
Betty III, .
992.7
631.3
670.5
1,280.3
581.0
714.2
12.77
13.82
14.38
12.79
14.95
13.28
126.77
87.25
96.42
163.75
86.86
94.85
4.36
4.95
5.26
4.36
5.56
4.56
43.28
31.25
35.27
55.82
32.30
32.57
.50
.56
.58
.51
.62
.54
4.96
3.54
3.89
6.53
3.60
3.86
Totals,
4,870.0
-
655.90
-
230.49
-
26.38
Experiment II.
Alfalfa Ration.
Samantha III, .
630.1
14.00
88.21
4.75
29.92
.59
3.72
Red III, .
847.2
13.12
111.15
4.82
40.84
.52
4.41
White,
953.1
12.54
119.52
4.48
42.70
.52
4.96
Colantha, .
689.8
13.10
90.36
4.19
28.90
.55
3.79
Mary,
874.8
12.71
111.19
4.10
35.86
.50
4.35
Samantha II, .
861.0
14.06
121.06
5.10
43.91
.60
5.17
Totals,
4,856.0
-
641.49
-
222.14
-
26.42
Hay Ration.
Samantha III, .
621.7
14.09
87.60
4.72
29.34
.60
3.73
Red III, .
631.5
13.51
85.32
5.00
31.58
.55
3.47
White,
954.7
12.75
121.72
4.45
42.48
.53
5.06
Colantha, .
709.1
13.03
92.40
4.25
30.14
.54
3.83
Mary,
955.2
12.58
120.18
4.21
40.21
.46
4.39
Samantha II,
903.9
13.64
123.29
4.71
42.57
.59
5.33
Totals,
4,776.1
-
630.49
-
216.32
25.61
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
125
Table XVIII. — Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients
Experiment III.
Alfalfa Ration.
Concluded.
Cows.
Milk .
(Pounds).
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds) .
Nitro-
gen
(Per
Cent.).
Nitro-
gen-
(Pounds).
Red IV. .
Ida II,
White,
Samantha III,
Cecilell, .
Betty II, .
Samantha II,
Colantha, .
775.0
877.0
865.4
648.1
597.6
950.3
711.2
669.3
14.54
14.41
13.13
13.94
15.50
13.87
13.76
13.48
112.69
129.38
113.63
90.35
92.63
131.81
97.86
90.22
5.44
5.40
4.73
4.72
6.03
4.89
4.65
4.42
42.16
47.36
40.93
30.59
36.04
46.47
33.07
29.58
.60
.57
.54
.61
.64
.57
.61
.58
4.65
5.00
4.67
3.95
3.82
5.42
4.34
3.88
Totals,
6,093.9
-
855.57
-
306.20
-
35.73
Hay Ration.
Red IV, .
738.2
14.72
108.66
5.43
40.08
.62
4.58
Ida II,
756.2
15.05
113.81
5.75
43.48
.61
4.61
White,
883.9
13.45
118.88
4.83
42.69
.58
5.13
Samantha III,
662.8
14.31
94.85
4.88
32.35
.61
4.04
Cecilell, .
583.1
15.15
88.34
5.72
33.35
.63
3.67
Betty II, .
899.2
14.25
128.13
5.22
46.94
.59
5.31
Samantha II,
893.8
13.55
121.11
4.74
42.40
.59
5.30
Colantha, .
670.0
13.30
89.11
4.34
20.08
.57
3.82
Totals,
6,087.2
-
862.89
-
310.37
-
36.46
Experiments IV and V.
Alfalfa V. Rowen for Milk Production.
The claims made for alfalfa as a coarse fodder par excellence for milk
production led us to compare the same with the second cutting of grass
known as rowen.
Two experiments were conducted with four cows each by the reversal
method. The methods followed in the experiments, such as care of cows,
sampling of feeds and milk, are the same as those described in previous
experiments of a similar nature.
126 MASS. EXPEEIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
O
t5
I
I— I
X!
^ a
4,73
6.43
5.25
3.90
Milk
Yield,
Beginning
of Trial
(Pounds).
OO rt ,-( lO
CO (M (M <M
to ca
■S 3
6i
o o >o >o
o ira CO >o
03 1>- 03 C5
>
Oct. 27, 1916
Si
Jan. 10, 1917
Sept. 19, 1916
Aug. IS, 1916
Sept. 1, 1916
00 tX — 1 to
Grade Jersey
Grade Jersey,
Grade Holstein,
to
}f
o
O
Fancy III,
Red III
cs ir3 Ci
OO rt rt
t^ r^ t- r^
O O M P
ph a o o
•-I M > .
iS >> " s
■§ I I ^
o w Pi 2 U
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
127
Table XX. — Duration of Experiments.
Experiment IV.
Dates.
Rowen-ration Cows.
Alfalfa-ration Cows.
Length
of
Period
(Weeks).
Feb. 26 through April 1, 1917, .
April 12 through May 16, 1917, .
Mary, Red III,. .
Fancy III, Peggy,
Fancy III, Peggy,
Mary. Red III, .
5
5
Experiment V.
April 26 through May 23, 1917,
June 3 through June 30, 1917,
Red IV, Ida II, .
Cecile II, Betty II,
Cecile II, Betty II,
Red IV, Ida II, .
Character of Feeds. — The rowen represented the second cutting of
grass. It was well cured and in good condition, but it did not show a
digestibility equal to the average, as the results stated below will show.
The alfalfa was of good quality; it was grown in New York State, and
while rather coarse was said to be third cutting. The corn meal and bran
were of the usual good quality.
Table XXI. — Coefficients of Digestibility secured for Rowen and Alfalfa.
Trials.
Dry
Matter.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Rowen
Average {previous trials).
Alfalfa
Average (previous trials, third
cutting).
2
12
4
6
61
65
58
5S
34
43
44
60
70
72
70
68
66
46
40
63
65
66
70
32
47
24
42
It will be noted that the digestibility of the protein in the rowen was
noticeably below the average. The alfalfa coefficients agreed well with
the average results of other trials.
The protein in the rowen showed a digestibility inferior to that of the
protein in the alfalfa, while the fiber in the alfalfa was noticeably less
digestible than the fiber in the rowen. The low digestibility of the fiber
in the alfalfa is characteristic of the plant.
128 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XXII. — Analyses of Feeds (Per Cent.).
Water.
Dry Matter.
Ex;
peri-
ment.
Feed.
Ash.
Crude
Pro-
tein.
True
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Ex-
tract
Mat-
ter.
Fat.
IV
Rowen, ....
10.29-11.13
8.87
12.59
10.05
28.57
45.93
4.04
V
Rowen,
9.08-10.96
7.66
11.99
10.48
26.33
50.36
3.66
Average,
-
8.27
12.29
10.27
27.45
48.15
3.85
IV
Alfalfa,
11.84-12.17
7.21
15 58
12.59
33,13
41.89
2.19
V
Alfalfa,
11.58-11.87
7.05
16.29
13.16
29.65
44.68
2.33
Average,
-
7.13
15.94
12.88
31.39
43.29
2.26
IV
Grain mixture, i
12.23-12.65
3.32
12.60
-
5.10
74.50
4.48
V
Grain mixture, '
13.07-13.18
3.43
13.02
-
5.24
74.80
3.51
1 The grain mixture consisted of 30 per cent, bran and 70 per cent, corn meal.
Applying the digestion coefficients secured by our experiments to the
analyses of rowen and alfalfa, the following amounts of organic nutrients
are found to be digestible in 2,000 pounds of dry matter.
Tablk XXIII. — Digestible Organic Nutrients in 2,000 Pounds Dry
Matter (Pounds).
Feed.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
1
Totals.
Rowen,
Alfalfa
I
147.48
229.54
373.32
288.72
606.69
571.43
24.64
10.85
1,152.13
1.100.61
The alfalfa furnished 82.06 pounds more of digestible crude protein
than did the rowen, but less digestible fiber and extract matter, and
rather less total digestible organic nutrients. While the rowen contains
noticeably less digestible protein, the above computation indicates that
it should prove approximately as valuable for milk production as alfalfa.
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
129
Table XXIV. — Total Rations consumed by Each Cow (Pounds).
Experiment IV.
Rowen.
Alfalfa.
Grain Mixture.
C0W3.
Rowen
Ration.
Alfalfa
Ration.
Mary
626
610
210
210
Red III
663
665
195
210
Fancy III
768
770
350
350
Peggy
630
630
210
210
Totals
2,687
2,675
965
980
Experiment V.
Red IV
Ida II
Cecile II
Betty II
Totals
Totals (both experiments),
504
504
476
2,072
4,759
504
504
476
578
2,062
4,737
168
168
196
224
756
1,721
168
168
196
224
756
1,736
The totals show that in the two experiments substantially like amounts
of rowen or alfalfa and grain were fed.
Table XXV. — Total Dry Matter consumed in Each Feed (Pounds).
Experiment.
Rowen.
Alfalfa.
Grain Mixture.
Rowen
Ration.
Alfalfa
Ration.
IV
2,401
1,864
2,354
1,828
845
657
857
V
657
Totals,
4,265
4,182
1,502
1,514
About 2 per cent, more dry matter in the form of rowen was fed than
in alfalfa, while the dry matter in the form of grain was about the same.
If the rowen was equal to the alfalfa, one would expect fully as good
results in milk yield and live weight.
130 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XXVI. — Gain or Loss in Live Weight (Pounds).
Gain.
Loss.
Net.
Experiment.
Rowen
Ration.
Alfalfa
Ration.
Rowen
Ration.
Alfalfa
Ration.
Rowen
Ration.
Alfalfa
Ration.
IV
V, . . . .
26
5
10
59
18
37
30
0
+8
—32
—20
+36
Totals,
•-
-
-
-
-24
+16
There appeared to be a slight gain on the alfalfa and a slight loss on
the rowen ration.
Table XXVII. — Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients.
Experiment IV.
Rouxn Ration.
Cows.
Milk
(Pounds).
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds).
Nitro-
gen
(Per
Cent.).
Nitro-
gen
(Pounds).
Mary,
Red III, .
Fancy III,
Peggy,
770.2
596.1
1,132.9
609.0
12.62
14.26
13.34
15.51
97.20
85.00
151.13
94.46
4.17
5.52
4.89
6.23
32.12
32.90
55.40
38.25
.52
.61
.49
.62
4.01
3.64
5.55
3.78
Totals,
3,108.2
13.761
427.79
5.10'
158.67
.551
16.98
Alfalfa Ration.
Mary,
737.4
12.51
92.25
3.94
29.05
.51
3.76
Red III, .
608.3
13.42
81 63
5.01
30.48
.59
3.59
Fancy III,
1,272.1
13.03
165.75
4.47
56.86
.53
6.74
Peggy.
650.7
15.43
100.40
6.36
41.38
.63
4.10
Totals,
3,268.5
13.46'
440.03
4.821
157.77
.561
18.19
Experiment V.
Rowen Ration.
Red IV, .
638.4
15.13
81.46
5.91
31.82
.59
3.18.
Ida II. .
555.6
14.75
81.95
5.74
31.89
.57
3.17
Cecile II, .
478.3
15.14
72.41
5.69
27.22
.62
2.97
Betty II, .
727.1
13.39
97.36
4.42
32.14
.50
3.64
Totals,
2,299.4
14.491
333.18
5.351
123.07
.561
12.96
1 Average percentages obtained by dividing total pounds of solids, etc., by total pounds of
milk.
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
131
Table XXVII. — Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients — Concluded.
Alfalfa Ration.
Cows.
Milk
(Pounds).
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds).
Nitro-
gen
(Per
Cent.).
Nitro-
gen
(Pounds).
Red IV, .
Ida II, .
Cecile II, .
Betty II, .
554.4
540.2
490.7
714.6
14.26
14.04
15.26
13.69
79.06
75.84
74.88
97.83
5.03
5.03
5.93
4.87
27.89
27.17
29.10
34.80
.59
.56
.59
.56
3.27
3.03
2.89
4.00
Totals,
Totals rowen,
Totals alfalfa.
2,299 9
5,407.6
5,568.4
14.24'
327.61
760.97
767.64
5.17'
118.96
281.74
278.73
.57'
13,19
29.94
31.38
I 1
1 Average percentages obtained by dividing total pounds of solids, etc., by total pounds of
milk.
In Experiment IV the alfalfa ration apparently increased the yield of
milk 5.2 per cent., while in Experiment V the yield was the same on each
ration. The total yield for both experiments was 5,407.6 pounds on the
rowen, and 5,568.4 pounds on the alfalfa, or an increase of 3 per cent, in
favor of the alfalfa. The rowen ration produced a total yield of 760.97
pounds of solids as against 767.64 pounds for the alfalfa; the total jdeld
of fat was 28L74 pounds on the rowen ration, and 278.73 pounds on the
alfaKa; the yield of nitrogen was 29.94 pounds on the rowen ration, and
31.38 pounds on the alfalfa.
The following table shows the amount of milk and mUk ingredients pro-
duced by 100 pounds of dry matter derived from each of the two rations: —
Table XXVIII. — Milk and Milk Ingredients proditced by 100 Pounds
of Dry Matter {Pounds).
Ration.
Milk.
Solids.
Fat.
Rowen,
Alfalfa
93.77
97.76
13.19
13.48
4.89
4.89
In case of the volume of milk, and to a less degree in case of the total
solids, the yields were rather in favor of the alfalfa ration. The fat per-
centage, on the other hand, did not keep pace with the increase in the
milk yield. Note (Table XXVII) that in Experiment IV, with the rowen
ration, the percentage was 5.1 as against 4.82 for the alfalfa ration; and
in Experiment V, 5.35 for the rowen ration as against 5.17 for the alfalfa
ration. The per cent, of solids not fat was substantially the same in each
132 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
experiment, namely, 8.66 against 8.64 in the fourth, and 9.14 against 9.07
in the fifth. On the basis of dry matter, the fat yield was the same with
each ration.
Experiment VI.
Alfalfa, English Hay and Grain v. English Hay and Grain for Milk Pro-
dxiction.
The object of this particular experiment with milch cows was to compare
the feeding value of a ration composed of equal parts of alfalfa and Eng-
Ush hay, corn-and-cob meal and a little bran (mostly home-grown products)
with that of one consisting of EngUsh hay, bran, corn-and-cob meal and
gluten feed, in order to see whether reasonably satisfactory results could
not be secured from the use of alfalfa as a considerable source of protein,
in place of purchased protein in the form of bran and gluten feed.
Plan of the Experiment. — Eight cows which had calved during the late
summer and autumn were divided into two groups of four each and fed
by the reversal method. One group of four received the so-called alfalfa
ration at the same time the other four were receiving the EngUsh hay and
purchased grain ration. In the second half of the trial the feeding was
reversed.
Table XXIX
. — History of Cows.
Cows.
Breed.
Age
(Years).
Last Calf
dropped.
Served.
Milk
Yield,
Begin-
ning of
Trial
(Pounds).
Samantha
Fancy II,
Samantha
Cecile,
Red III,
Daisy II,
Ida, .
Betty II,
II,
Grade Holstein,
Grade Jersey,
Grade Holstein,
Pure Jersey, .
Grade Jersey,
Grade Jersey,
Pure Jersey, .
Grade Ayrshire,
8
4
2
6
6
2
4
4
Sept. 23, 1911
Oct. 28, 1911
Nov. 1, 1911
Nov. 21, 1911
Sept. 23, 1911
Nov. 17, 1911
Nov. 16, 1911
Nov. 9, 1911
Nov.": 7, 1911
Dec. 10, 1911
Dec. 10, 1911
Mar. 12, 1912
Nov. 6, 1911
Mar. 25, 1912
Feb. 24, 1912
Jan. 8, 1912
28.1
30.6
28.9
23.7
20.2
28.0
31.1
I : - . .
Table XXX. — Duration of Experiment.
D.4TES.
Alfalfa-ration Cows.
English Hay-ration Cows.
Length
of
Period
(Weeks).
Dec. 28, 1911, through Jan.
24, 1912.
Feb. 9 through Mar. 7, 1912,
' '-
Samantha, Fancy II, Sa-
mantha II, Cecile.
Red III, Daisy II, Ida,
Betty II.
Red III, Daisy II, Ida.
Betty II.
Samantha, Fancy II, Sa-
mantha II, Cecile.
4
4
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
133
An interval of fifteen days was allowed between the two periods of the
experiment.
Character of Feeds. — The hay was fine and of fair quaUty, coming from
a meadow that had been in grass for a number of years. The alfalfa was
grown upon the college grounds, and was of excellent quality. The corn-
and-cob meal was excellent, and the bran and gluten feed of average
qualit3\
The method of care and feeding, weighing of the animals and samphng
of the feeds and milk were the same as previously described.
Table XXXI. -
Analyses of Feeds (Per Cent.).
Feed.
Water.
Ash.
Crude
Pro-
tein.
True
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Ex-
tract
Matter.
Fat.
Totals.
Alfalfa (farm).
11.20
7.25
15.66
11.79
28.62
35.54
1.73
100
Alfalfa (experiment station), .
10.14
7.88
16.85
13.79
24.86
38.89
1.38
100
English hay
9.49
5.58
8.63
7.74
28.45
45.64
2.21
100
Wheat bran, ....
12.43
6.02
15.46
-
9.68
52.04
4.37
100
Corn-and-cob meal.
16.04
1.28
8.27
-
4.38
66.92
3.11
100
Gluten feed, ....
9.97
.82
25.74
-
6.64
53.37
3.46
100
Table XXXII. — • Total Rations consumed by Each Cow (Pounds).
Alfalfa Ration.
Cow.s.
Hay.
Alfalfa.
Bran.
Corn-and-
cob Meal.
Gluten
Feed.
Samantha, .
Fancy II,
Samantha II,
Cecile,
Red III, .
Daisy II,
Ida, .
Betty II, .
Totals, .
336
326
280
278
336
336
308
304
336
329
224
224
280
280
308
298
2,408
2,375
448
196
140
168
168
140
140
168
168
1,288
134 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XXXII. — Total Rations consumed by Each Cow (Pounds) — Con-
cluded.
English Hay Ration.
Cows.
Samantha, .
Fancy II,
Samantha II,
Cecile,
Red III, .
Daisy II,
Ida. .
Betty II, .
Totals, .
Hay.
663
5S3
663
586
762
442
594
604
,767
Alfalfa.
Bran.
448
Corn-and-
cob Meal.
616
Gluten
Feed.
112
84
112
84
56
56
84
84
672
Table XXXIII. — Average Daily Ration consumed per Cow (Pounds).
Character of Ration.
Hay.
Alfalfa.
•Rnn Corn-and-
^'^'»°- cob Meal.
Gluten
Feed.
Alfalfa
English hay, ....
10.7
21.3
10.6
2
2
•5.8
2.8
3
1
The above tables show that the average cow on the aKalfa ration con-
sumed 10.6 pounds of aKaKa and 10.7 pounds of hay, or 21.3 pounds of
roughage, and in addition, 2 pounds of bran and 5.8 pounds of corn-and-
cob meal; while on the hay ration the average cow ate 21.3 pounds of
hay, 2 pounds of bran, 2.8 pounds of corn-and-cob meal and 3 pounds of
gluten feed. Different cows naturally varied from this average, depending
upon their individual requirements. It was a comparison of ration against
ration, and not one single feedstuff against another. If similar rations
were used by a dairjonan, in case of the hay ration he would be obliged
to purchase 2 pounds of bran and 3 pounds of gluten feed for each animal;
he could produce the hay and the corn-and-cob meal upon the farm. In
case of the alfalfa ration he would find it necessary to purchase only the
2 pounds of bran daily, and he could grow the remainder of the ration.
In fact, the animals probably would do about as well if the bran were
omitted and the corn-and-cob meal correspondingly increased.
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
135
Table XXXIV. — Estimated Dry and Digestible Nutrients in Average
Daily Rations (Pounds).
Character of
Ration.
Dry
Matter.
Digestible Organic Nutrients.
Nutri-
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Total.
tive
Ratio.
Alfalfa. .
English hay,
25.78
26.09
2.30
2.07
3.32
3.95
9.98
9.76
.41
.46
16.01
16.24
1 :6.17
1 :7.11
The above results were calculated from actual analyses and average
digestion coefficients. The two rations do not vary greatly from each
other; the total digestible nutrients are about the same and Ukewise the
extract matter. The amount of digestible fiber in the hay ration is a httle
higher and the protein a httle lower. The daily protein consumption is
somewhat higher in the alfalfa ration. One would expect substantially
similar results from the two rations. Of the 2.3 pounds of digestible pro-
tein in the alfalfa ration, L28 pounds, or 55.8 per cent., was from the
alfalfa hay, and the balance of 1.02 pounds from the hay and grain. In
the hay ration L05 pounds, or nearly 50 per cent., of the protein was from
the hay, and the balance of 1.02 pounds from the grain.
Table XXXV. — Gain or Loss in Live Weight (Pounds).
Alfalfa Ration.
03
c3
M
ja
•3
Q
■a
1
a
1
a
C3
3
Beginning, ....
827
677
777
873
805
726
1,062
930
-
End
815
675
772
880
783
708
1,030
900
-
Gain or loss.
—12
—2
— 5
+7
—22
—18
—32
-30
—114
English
Hay
Ration.
Beginning, ....
End
860
832
675
657
827
761
895
890
777
793
725
720
1,068
1,040
942
925
-
Gain or loss.
—28
—18
—66
—5
+16
—5
—28
—17
-151
' '
The cows lost somewhat in weight on both rations.
136 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XXXVI. — Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients.
Alfalfa Ration.
Cows.
Total
Milk
(Pounds).
Daily
Milk
(Pounds).
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat (Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds).
Samantha,
702.2
25.07
15.96
112.07
6.25
43.89
Fancy II, .
667.0
23.82
13.23
88.24
4.73
31.55
Samantha II,
829.9
29.64
13.28
110.21
4.48
37.18
Cecile,
762.8
27.24
13.64
104.05
4.85
37.00
Red III, .
664.6
23.73
13.60
90.39
5.24
34.83
Daisy II, .
516.6
18.45
14.15
73.10
4.93
25.47
Ida, .
655.6
23.41
14.59
95.65
5.67
37.17
Betty II, .
741.4
26.48
13.41
99.42
4.52
33.51
Totals,
5,540.1
24.73
13.96'
773.13
5.06'
280.60
English, Hay Ration.
Samantha,
766.9
27.39
14.79
113.42
5.69
43.64
Fancy II, .
641.5
22.91
13.49
86.54
4.81
30.86
Samantha II,
841.1
30.04
13.28
111.70
4.41
37.09
Cecile,
663.4
23.69
13.81
91.62
5.08
33.70
Red III. .
632.7
22.60
13.68
86.55
5.39
34.10
Daisy II, .
547.3
19.55
13.56
74.21
4.65
25.45
Ida, .
720.0
25.71
14.43
103 90
5.78
41.62
Betty II, .
788.6
28.16
13.74
108.35
4.91
38.72
Totals,
6,601.5
25.00
13.86'
776.29
5.09'
285.18
!._...' 1
I Average percentages obtained by dividing total pounds of solids and of fat by total pounds
of milk.
Table XXXVII. — Average Composition of the Milk (Per Cent.).
Chabacter of Ration.
Total Solids.
Fat.
Alfalfa,
English hay.
13.96
13.86
5.06
5.09
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
137
Table XXXVIII. — Dry and Digestible Matter required for Maintenance
and to produce Milk and Milk Ingredients (Pounds).
Dry Matter.
Digestible Nutrients.
Character of
Ration.
100
Pounds
Milk.
1 Pound
Solids.
1 Pound
Fat.
100
Pounds
Milk.
1 Pound
Solids.
1 Pound
Fat.
Alfalfa
English hay, .
104.24
104.33
7.47
7.56
20.57
20.49
64.73
64.94
4.64
4.69
12.78
12.76
The tables showing the yield of milk and milk ingredients, the com-
position of the milk and the dry and digestible matter required to pro-
duce milk all point to the fact that the two rations were equally effective.
Only in case of live weight were the results rather against the hay ration.
Experiment VII.
Alfalfa, Corn Stover, Corn-and-cob Meal and Bran v. English Hay, Corn-
and-cob Meal, Gluten Feed and Bran for Milk Production.
In Experiment VI the feeding effect of a ration composed of one-half
English hay, one-half alfalfa, together with a large amount of corn-and-
cob meal and a little bran, was compared with a ration of English hay,
corn-and-cob meal, gluten feed and bran.
In the present experiment (VII) a ration composed of alfaKa, cut corn
stover and a large amount of corn-and-cob meal with a small amount of
bran was compared with a ration of English hay and substantially Uke
amounts of corn-and-cob meal, gluten feed and bran.
The question to be answered is, "Can the farmer by growing alfalfa
and corn get along without purchasing grain?"
Plan. — Eight cows were used and fed by the usual reversal method.
Because the cows calved at diiYerent times the eight animals were not all
fed between the same dates, but in groups of two.
Table XXXIX. — History of Cows.
Cows.
Breed.
Age
(Years).
Last Calf
dropped.
Served.
Milk
Yield,
Begin-
ning of
Trial
(Pounds).
Samantha
Red III,
Betty,
Betty II,
Amy,
Amy II,
Samantha
Red III,
Grade Holstein,
Grade Jersey,
Grade Jersey,
Grade Ayrshire,
Pure Jersey, .
Pure Jersey, .
Grade Holstein,
Grade Jersey,
10
8
9
6
6
4
10
8
Aug. 26, 1913
Aug. 23, 1913
Nov. 23, 1913
Oct. 18, 1913
Dec. 9, 1913
Dec. 17, 1913
Aug. 26, 1913
Aug. 23, 1913
Nov. 19, 1913
Nov. 2, 1913
Apr. 13, 1914
Jan. 9, 1914
Mar. 14, 1914
Jan. 30, 1914
Nov. 19, 1914
Nov. 2, 1913
19.4
24.5
29.3
26.4
30.1
24.1
21.0
20.5
138 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XL. — Duration of Experiment.
Dates.
Alfalfa, Corn Stover,
Corn-and-cob Meal
and Bran Ration
Govt's.
English Hay, Corn-
and-cob Meal, Glu-
ten Feed and Bran
Ration Cows.
Length
of
Period
(Weeks).
Nov. 19 through Dec. 23, 1913,
Jan. 3 through Feb. 6, 1914, .
Dec. 24, 1913, through Jan. 27, 1914,
Feb. 6 through Mar. 12, 1914,
Jan. 21 through Feb. 24, 1914,
Mar. 4 through Apr. 7, 1914,
Feb. 28 through Apr. 3, 1914,
Apr. 11 through May 15, 1914,
[
Samantha,
Red III,
Betty II,
Betty,
Amy II,
Amy,
Samantha,
Red III,
Red III,
Samantha,
Betty,
Betty II,
Amy,
Amy II,
Red III,
Samantha,
The care and feeding of the animals, time of weighing and method of
sampUng feeds and milk were the same as in the previous trial.
Character of Feeds. — The hay was of quite satisfactory quahty, tim-
othy predominating; the alfalfa hay was also of average quaUty. The
corn stover was stooked out of doors, and was subject to weather condi-
tions. The corn-and-cob meal was made from corn grown upon the
station grounds, while the bran and gluten feed were purchased.
Table XLI. —
Analyses
of Feeds {Per Cent.).
Feed.
Water.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
English hay.
11.30
6.04
9.32
29.09
42.50
2.06
Alfalfa hay.
11.90
6.56
14.45
27.99
36.95
2.04
Corn stover.
33.15
4.44
5.96
23.24
32.47
.88
Grain mixture, .
11.16
2.92
17.09
7.76
57.32
3.91
Bran, ....
11.54
5.89
15.58
10.47
51.27
4.80
Corn-and-cob meal,
[
12.74
1.33
7.94
5.30
69.16
3.27
Table XLII. — Total Rations consumed (Pounds).
English
Hay.
Alfalfa
Hay.
Corn
Stover.
Grain
Mixture.
Bran.
Corn-and-
cob Meal.
English hay ration totals, .
Alfalfa ration totals, .
t
5,873
4,143 1,966
2,240
684
1,559
-3
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.
139
Table XLIII. — Average Daily Ration consumed per
Cow {Pc
unds).
Character of Ration.
English
Hay.
Alfalfa
Hay.
Corn
Stover.
Grain
Mixture.
Bran.
Corn-and-
cob Meal.
English hay,
Alfalfa
21
14.8
7
8
2.44
5.57
The "grain mixture" was composed of a mixture, by weight, of 30
parts wheat bran, 35 parts gluten feed and 35 parts corn-and-cob meal.
The above tabulations show that a ration composed of hay and a grain
mixture was compared with a ration of alfalfa, some corn stover, a large
amount of corn-and-cob meal and a rather limited amount of bran. On
the basis of dry matter, the alfalfa ration contained 80 per cent, alfalfa
and 20 per cent, corn stover.
In case of the grains, 65 per cent, of the amount fed with the English
hay would have to be purchased, and only 30 per cent, of that fed with
the alfalfa.
Table XLIV. — Estimated Digestible Nutrients in Average Daily Rations
(Pounds) .
Character of Ration.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Total.
English hay
Alfalfa
1.89
2.25
4.32
3.18
9.08
9.54
.44
.38
15.73
15.35
; ]
The alfalfa ration furnished rather more digestible protein than the
English hay ration, although it is believed the latter ration contained all
that was needed by the animals. The English hay ration, as nearly as
can be estimated, contained rather more total digestible nutrients than
the alfalfa ration. This was due to the rather high moisture content of
the corn stover .fed as a portion of the alfalfa ration. On the basis of
digestible nutrients, one would expect slightly better returns from the
English hay ration.
Table XLV. — Gain or Loss in Live Weight (Pounds).
English Hay Ration.
C3
03
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1,137,
045
870
907
727
830
1,122
955
-
End
1,147
960
892
903
727
785
1,170
955
-
Gain or loss,
+10
+ 15
+22
-4
I±:
-45
+48
ris
+46
140 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table XLV. — Gain or Loss in Live Weight (Pounds) — Concluded.
Alfalfa Ration.
— —
d
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905
867
870
713
770
1,075
970
-
End
1,167
915
850
860
700
734
1,075
975
-
Gain or loss,
ti
—23
+ 10
—17
—10
—13
—36
±
+5
—84
"■■-1
It is evident that the cows gained slightly on the hay and grain ration
and lost somewhat on the alfalfa, corn stover and grain ration. Cow
Amy was not in very good condition and lost noticeably in weight during
both feeding periods.
Table XLVI. — Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients.
English Hay Ration.
Cows.
Total
Milk
(Pounds).
Daily
Milk
(Pounds).
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat (Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds).
Red III
705.8
21.9
13.61
104.23
4.85
37.14
Samantha,
768.0
21.9
15.73
120.81
5.75
44.16
Betty,
998.3
28.5
13.84
138.16
4.71
47.02
Betty II, .
1,000.2
28.6
13.90
139.03
4.73
47.31
Amy,
972.9
27.8
13.81
134,36
5.09
49.52
Amy II,
727.4
20.8
15.15
110.20
5.77
41.97
Red III, .
713.2
20.4
14.28
101.84
5.30
37.80
Samantha,
762.3
21.8
14.82
112.97
5.33
40.63
Totals,
6.708.1
24.0'
14.33'
961.60
5.151
345.55
Alfalfa Ration.
Red III
740.5
21.2
14.40
106.63
5.52
40.88
Samantha,
658.1
18.8
15.54
102.27
5.96
39.22
Betty,
837.4
23.9
13.51
113.13
4.69
39.27
Betty II, .
970.1
27.7
14.17
137.46
4.92
47.73
Amy,
835.4
23.9
13.87
115.87
5.10
42.61
Amy II, .
789.2
22.6
14.89
117.51
5.59
44.12
Red III, .
637.4
18.2
13.96
88.98
5.19
33.08
Samantha,
691.5
19.8
14.98
103.60
5.37
37.13
Totals,
6,159.6
22.01
14.37'
885.45
5.26'
324.04
• Average.
FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA. 141
It is very evident that the hay and grain ration gave noticeably larger
returns of milk and milk ingredients than did the alfalfa ration. The
alfalfa ration produced 8.2 per cent, less milk and 8.6 per cent, less milk
solids than did the English hay ration.
The writer is convinced that the milk shrinkage on the alfalfa ration
was due largely to the corn stover. While of good quality it was stooked
out of doors and brought to the barn every few days and cut fine before
being fed. It varied considerably in moisture content, depending upon
the weather. If the stover had been brought from the field in November
and stored under cover, in all probability more satisfactory results would
have been secured.
142 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Part II.
THE VALUE OF CORN BRAN FOR MILK
PRODUCTION.
Summary and Suggestions.
1. Corn bran contains noticeably less ash, protein and fat, and some-
what more extract or starchy matter, than does wheat bran.
2. Digestion experiments with sheep recently made at this station
showed that 80 per cent, of its dry matter was digestible as against 66 per
cent, for wheat bran.
3. A definite amount of dry matter contained in a ration composed of
hay, gluten feed, ground oats, cottonseed meal and corn bran produced,
in an average of two experiments, substantially as much milk and rnilk
ingredients as a like amount of dry matter in a ration composed of hay,
gluten feed, ground oats, cottonseed meal and wheat bran.
4. The gains in live weight were about the same on each ration.
5. Corn bran, if properly combined in a grain ration, is likely to give
as satisfactory returns as wheat bran. It may constitute 30 per cent, of
the ration, together with 30 per cent, cottonseed or linseed meal, 20 per
cent, corn or hominy meal, and 20 per cent, gi-ound oats; or a ration
may be combined consisting of 40 per cent, corn bran, 20 per cent, gluten
feed, 20 per cent, cottonseed or linseed meal, and 20 per cent, ground oats
or barley. A combination of corn bran, gluten feed and corn meal would
not be satisfactory because of a deficiency in ash, and because aU three
constituents would be derived from corn.
The Experiment in Detail.
What Corn Bran is. — Corn bran is the hull or skin of the corn kernel,
together with a small amount of the germ, and the starchy portion which
it is impossible to separate out in the process of^ manufacture of various
corn products, such as starch and glucose. The' bran thus obtained was
formerly dried and sold by itself, but at present it is more often sold as a
constituent of hominy feed or proprietary mixed feeds, or is mixed with
corn gluten as a component of gluten feed. It is still sometimes found in
the markets of Massachusetts, and has been offered at a reasonable price.
It has been shown, by means of experiments' conducted at various times,
1 Massachusetts Experiment Station Bulletin No. 181, p. 316.
VALUE OF CORN BRAN FOR MILK PRODUCTION. 143
to be well digested by ruminants ; its energy value as compared with corn
meal at 100 is equal to 82. In the minds of many feeders corn bran is
considered a quite inferior product, and at best of doubtful feeding value.
Method of conducting the Ex'periment. — In order to demonstrate its
value two feeding experiments with cows were carried out at this station
during 1917 and 1918. In one case six and in the other eight cows were
fed by the reversal method, for two periods of five weeks each, on a basal
ration of hay, gluten feed, ground oats and cottonseed meal.^ Half of
the cows in each case received in addition 4 pounds of corn bran during
the first periods of the experiments, while the other half received a like
amount of wheat bran. In the second periods the corn and wheat brans
were interchanged. At the outset the cows used in each experiment were
as carefully mated in regard to yield of milk and period of lactation as
possible, so that the two herds receiving the different rations would vary
in general performance but very little. Their names and arrangement
may be found in Tables I and II.
1 A little cottonseed meal was added to each ration in the second experiment in order to insure
against the possible ill effect of having too great a proportion of the grains derived from corn in
the corn bran half of the trial.
144 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
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VALUE OF CORN BRAN FOR MILK PRODUCTION. 145
As in all feeding experiments, a sufficient preliminary period was al-
lowed at the beginning of each trial for the cows to become accustomed
to the rations, and for their alimentary tracts to become emptied of what-
ever food they may previously have been receiving. For the same reason
a transitional period was allowed between the two halves of each experi-
ment. These periods were of at least ten days' duration. The exact
dates are given in Table II.
The amounts of hay and grains fed the various cows daily were care-
fully calculated for each animal, on the basis of its milk and maintenance
requirements,^ and from personal knowledge of the particular animal's
appetite.
The general care and management of the animals, as well as the methods
of sampling milk, hay and grain, were similar to those already described
in the foregoing experiments. The hay which was used in the rations
was raised on the experiment station farm, and was of average uniformity
and good quality. All the grains were of standard quality. The daily
and total amount of each feed per cow may be found in the following
table, as well as the average and total amounts per herd: —
' T. L. Haeker, Minnesota Bulletin No. 140, p. 56.
146 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
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VALUE OF CORN BRAN FOR MILK PRODUCTION. 147
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148 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
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VALUE OF CORN BRAN FOR MILK PRODUCTION. 149
Table III. — Analyses of Feeds {Per Cent.).
Experiment I.
Average
Mois-
ture. »
Dry
Matter. >
Dry Matter.
Feed.
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Hay
Corn bran.
Wheat bran,
Gluten feed.
Ground oats.
/ 11.63
1 10.252
f 12.90
I 11.81
1 11.33
\ 10.97
f 10.44
\ 10.30
1 11.16
I 10.23
88.37
89.752
87.10
88.19
88.67
89.03
89.56
89.70
88.84
89.77
1 6.35
1 1.05
1 7.13
j 4.72
1 3.88
8.28
7.76
17.23
30.52
11.52
32.39
11.79
10.23
7.13
11.67
50.32
78.19
60.90
54.78
67.71
2.66
1.21
4.51
2.85
5.22
Experiment II.
Hay, ....
11.34
10.58
88.66
89.42
5.88
7.83
33.68
50.35
2.26
Corn bran.
12.62
11.59
• 87.38
88.41
1.31
7.36
12.62
77.36
1.35
Wheat bran,
11.55
11.99
88.45
88.01
7.05
16.31
11.25
59.90
5.49
Gluten feed.
9.42
9.29
90.58
90.71
3.87
29.66
8.17
55.49
2.81
Ground oats.
10.66
10.39
89.34
89.61
3.72
11.99
n.88
66.91
5.60
Cottonseed meal.
9.60
9.11
90.40
90.89
6.23
38.64
13.10
34.77
7.26
1 The two figures in each case represent the average of three samples taken in each half of the
trials.
^ In case of cows Samantha IV and Colantha II special samples of hay had to be taken during
the second half of the experiment for moisture determinations, and the figures derived are as
follows: Samantha IV, moisture 10.38, dry matter 89.62; Colantha II, moisture 9.86, dry mat-
ter 90.14.
The variations in composition of the hay and grain used were com-
paratively slight. The average analyses of the corn and wheat brans
used in the two experiments compare as follows on the dry-matter basis : —
Table IV. — Average Analyses of the Corn and Wheat Brans {Per Cent.).
Ash.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Corn bran,
Wheat bran, ....
r— ■ — -.-'-^ '-^ - ' -—^
1.18
7.09
7.56
16.77
12.20
10.74
77.78
60.40
1.28
5.00
150 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Wheat bran contains more ash, protein and fat, and noticeably less
extract or starchy matter, than does the corn bran. In using corn bran
as a component of a dairy ration these differences, particularly the ash
and protein, would have to be given consideration.
By applying the percentages of dry matter of the various feeds as given
in Table III to the amounts fed (Table II), the amounts of dry matter
fed can easily be obtained. Only the totals for the herds and the aver-
age per animal for each herd are given in Table V.
Table V. — Total Amount and Average Daily Amount of Dry Matter
consumed (Pounds).
Experiment I.
Corn Bran Ration.
•
Hay.
Corn
Bran.
Wheat
Bran.
Gluten
Feed.
Ground
Oats.
Cotton-
seed
Meal.
Total
Daily average, .
3,834
18.26
733
3.50
-
593
2.83
374
1.78
-
Wheat Bran Ration.
Total, ....
Daily average, .
3,840
18.26
747
3.55
596
2.84
375
1.79
-
ExPERrMENT II.
Car?} Bran Ration.
Total
Daily average, .
5,155
18.42
984
3.52
-
333
1.19
444
1.59
470
1.68
Wheat Bran Ration.
Total, ....
Daily average, .
5,153
18.41
-
988
3.53
333
1.19
444
1.59
469
1.68
During the two experiments the total amount of dry matter consumed
by the cows receiving the corn bran ration was 12,920 pounds, while the
cows receiving the wheat bran ration consumed substantially the same,
or 12,945 pounds. Of these totals, 1,717 pounds represented corn bran
and 1,735 pounds wheat bran. For convenience the average daily amounts
of dry matter consumed per cow in the two rations of both experiments
are here tabulated.
VALUE OF CORN BRAN FOR MILK PRODUCTION. 151
Table VI. — Average Daily Aviount of Dry Matter consumed per Cow
(Pounds).
Ration.
Hay.
Corn
Bran.
Wheat
Bran.
Gluten
Feed.
Ground
Oats.
Cotton-
seed
Meal. I
Corn bran,
Wheat bran,
18.34
18.34
3.51
3.54
2.01
2.02
1.73
1.74
1.59
1.59
An application of the percentage composition of each feed as given in
Table III to the above figures would give the amounts of protein, fat,
fiber, etc., each ration contained, and this in turn multiplied by average
digestion coefficients- would give the approximate digestible nutrients in
each ration.
Table VII. — Estimated Dry and Digestible Nxdrients in Average Daily
Rations {Pounds).
Dry
Matter.
Digestible Nutrients.
Nutri-
Character of
Ration.
Protein.
Fiber.
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Total.
tive
Ratio.'
Corn bran,
Wheat bran,
26.39
26.42
1
1.92
2.23
4.12
4.01
9.75
9.16
.44
.52
16.23
15.92
1 :7.72
1 :6.40
. ... , 3
It wdll be seen that the dry and digestible matter consumed in each
ration was almost identical. The digestible protein contained in the corn
bran ration was some 14 per cent, less than that in the wheat bran ration.
It is believed, however, that a surplus remained after making the usual
allowance for maintenance and milk requirements.
' Used in Experiment II only.
' Coefficients used were the results of determinations made with sheep. Lack of space pro-
hibited printing them here.
' Fat taken to equal 2.2 times carbohydrates.
152 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 186.
Table VIII. — Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients.
Experiment I.
Corn Bran Ration.
Dates.
Cows.
Milk
(Pounds).
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds).
Oct. 24 through Nov. 27,
1917.
Dec. 8, 1917, through Jan.
11, 1918.
Peggy,
Samantha II,
Colantha II,
Colantha, .
Samantha III, .
Samantha IV, ' .
559.7
981.7
797.6
633.0
691.4
896.9
16,20
12.99
13.12
12.63
13.82
12.93
90.67
127.52
104.65
79.95
95.55
116.00
6.95
4.61
4.43
4.11
4.90
4.18
38.90
45.26
35 33
26.02
33.88
37.60
Totals,
Average,' .
4,560.3
13.47
614.34
4.76
216.89
Wheat Bran Ration.
Oct. 24 through Nov. 27,
1917.
Colantha, .
Samantha III, .
601.2
699.4
12.45
13.56
74.85
94.84
4.19
4.89
25.19
34.20
Samantha IV, .
837.4
12.59
105.43
4.15
34.75
Dec. 8, 1917, through Jan.
11, 1918.
Peggy,
Samantha II,
605.6
1,058.1
16.17
13.01
97.93
137.66
6.80
4.53
41.18
47.93
Colantha II, ' .
871.6
13.12
114.35
4.33
37.74
Totals,
4,673.3
625.06
-
220.99
Average, 2 .
-
13.38
4.73
-
Experiment II.
Corn Bran Ration.
Feb. 20 through Mar. 26,
1918.
Red IV, .
Colantha, .
945.1
584.8
13.65
12.63
129.01
73.86
5.07
4.03
47.92
23.57
Samantha III, .
672.4
13.68
91.98
4.66
31.33
Samantha IV, .
851.3
12.82
109.14
4.10
34.90
Apr. 6 through May 10,
1918.
Fancy III,
Peggy,
889.0
496.9
12.42
15.28
110.41
75.93
4.35
6.21
38.67
30.86
Samantha II,
886.6
12.91
111.46
4.43
39.28
Colantha II,
675.9
13.67
92.40
4.59
31.02
Totals,
6,002.0
-
797.19
-
277.55
Average,' .
r
-
13.28
-
4.62
-
1 See footnote, Table II.
2 Average obtained by dividing total pounds of solids and fat by total pounds of milk.
VALUE OF CORN BRAN FOR MILK PRODUCTION. 153
Experiment II — Concluded.
Wheat Bran Ration.
Dates.
Cows.
Milk ^^^^
(Pounds), ci^^^)
Solids
(Pounds).
Fat
(Per
Cent.).
Fat
(Pounds).
Feb. 20 through Mar. 26,
1918.
Apr. 6 through May 10,
1918.
Fancy III,
Peggy,
Samantha II,
Colantha II,
Red IV, .
Colantha, .
Samantha III, .
Samantha IV, .
933 3
552.0
1,004.8
765.8
832.8
463.9
633.9
828.9
12.61
15.20
12.84
13 33
13.68
12.99
13.63
12.78
117.69
83.90
129.02
102.08
113.93
60.26
86.40
105.93
4.42
6.24
4.36
4 31
5.02
4.36
4.78
4.18
41.25
34.44
43.81
33.01
41.81
20.23
30 30
34.65
Totals,
Average,! ,
6,015.4
13.29
799.21
4.65
279.50
' Average obtained by dividing total pounds of solids and fat by total pounds of milk.
The total milk produced in the two experiments on the corn bran
ration was 10,562.3 pounds, and 10,688.7 pounds on the wheat bran ra-
tion, an increase of 1.19 per cent, in favor of the latter. The total solids
produced on the corn bran ration amounted to 1,411.5 pounds as against
1,424.3 pounds for the wheat bran. The corn bran ration produced 494.4
pounds of fat as against 500.5 pounds on the wheat bran ration, an in-
crease of 1.3 per cent.
Table IX. — Gain or Loss in Live Weight (Pounds).
Ration.
Experiment I.
Experiment II.
Totals.
» Gain.
Loss.
Gain.
Loss.
Corn bran, ....
Wheat bran, ....
93
91
32
8
86
106
18
50
+ 129 J
i
+ 139 4
A slight gain was made on each ration.
BULLETIIsr I^o. 18T
DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
Part I
I. INTRODUCTION.
The Significance op the Clarifier.
The use of the clarifier has been an outgrowth of the employment of
the "separator" in an attempt to clarify or purify milk. Since the func-
tion of the "separator" is to remove the fat from milk, the addition of a
new function to this machine presented complications not easily overcome
in a single machine, for as improvement takes place in the primary purpose
of the separator, retrogression may be instituted in the secondary, as in
this case, — the clarification or purification of milk. The separation of
fat from milk is not desired in clarification, yet it is desirable to accomplish
what the separator also succeeds in doing in part, — the removal of for-
eign and unwholesome elements so far as this is possible. A single-
purposed machine is susceptible of higher development simply because
it does not have to compromise with other and foreign purposes. Ac-
cordingly, there is good reason, as a basis, for endeavoring to perfect a
machine which wUI perform the single function of clarification in its
highest degree.
What is Clarification?
It is the work of this comparatively new machine, known as a clarifier,
which has been subjected to careful study in this laboratory. Its func-
tion, not its mechanism, has been studied.
Milk is poured into the machine from which it emerges as milk. In its
passage through it has lost that substance which adheres to the bowl of
the machine, — the slime. The problem before us, therefore, takes this
form : What is the slime, and in its removal from milk has it improved or
injured the milk? The fullest answer which can be given at this time is
the substance of this continued thesis. The categorical reply to this
question cannot be given till the close of this laboratory's studies, which,
156 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
it is to be hoped, may eventually have fairly covered the field compre-
hensively as well as quite intensively.
The present attitude toward the clarifier is reflected by the Commission
on Milk Standards^ wliich offers a status on clarification. Summing up
the points bearing upon milk purification by the clarifier are found these
views : —
Favorable : —
(a) It removes visible dirt.
(b) It removes inflammatory products, including many of the causative germs.
(c) It performs the work of the strainer, but in a much more efficient manner.
Against : —
(a) It removes visible dirt, but not all disease-producing germs, and hence mis-
leads the consumer as to the real purity of the milk.
(6) It does not remove urine or the soluble portion of feces; nevertheless the
milk appears clean.
(c) It adds another process requiring the handling of the milk, complicating the
situation.
/ (c?) It largely destroys the value of the dirt test, though no more so than good
straining.
(e) It breaks up clumps of bacteria and distributes them through the milk.
(/) The exact nature of the material removed is not yet fully understood.
The essence of the above assertions is found in the bewildering effect
it produces on the mind of a critical reader, for it both asserts and
does not assert. When the summary concludes thus: "The exact nature
of the material removed is not j^et fully understood," it neutrahzes the
first effect produced and causes a fog to settle on the rather precocious
opinions preceding. It is unfortunate that the reader is left to speculate
concerning the realities which actually lie submerged beneath this opales-
cent atmosphere. It is fitting, therefore, to analj^ze these statements, not
exhaustively, but a little more closely, just for the purpose of indicating
their looseness.
Putting several of these statements together, the thought is thrown
into one or two channels: —
(a) It removes visible dirt.
(6) It performs the work of a strainer, but in a much more efficient manner.
(c) It removes visible dirt, but not all disease-producing germs, and hence mis-
leads the consumer as to the real purity of the milk.
(d) It largely destroys the value of the dirt test, though no more so than good
straining.
In other words, it removes visible dirt more effectively than any strainer.
"Confusing the consumer," "the total elimination of organisms," and
"the effect on a test" have no relation to its claim. It may be said, too,
that straining of milk must be as reprehensible in misleading the consumer
as clarifying, for does it not prepare the consumer for a more sightly
product? Yet straining is upheld. The authors feel confident that such
assertions as the above will mislead the reader.
1 U. S. PubUc Health Service, Public Health Reports, Vol. 2, No. 7, p. 17.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK. 157
Again, "it does not remove all the disease-producing organisms."
It would be a rare centrifuging machine which would claim such a func-
tion as eliminating all pathogenic micro-organisms, in the light of what is
known about centrifuging out such forms. Selective elimination of this
nature savors of the superhuman at present, and implies more than is
possible. The clarifier is the product of human effort.
"It destroys the value of the dirt test." This is rated as an unfavorable
quality, yet is considered favorable in the case of straining. One might
ask whether it is desirable to remove as much dirt as possible, or allow it
to remain simply to make the dirt test, occasionally applied, effective?
If the authors were to sum up these statements as they stand, they
must conclude that the clarifier is a far more efficient strainer, which is
allowed, apparently, than any now in use.
A criticism of the clarifier, very peculiar because of its subtle nature, is
introduced : —
" (6) It does not remove urine or the soluble portion of feces; neverthe-
less the milk appears clean." The implication here is far-reaching, for
the reader might think that there is such a machine or device, on the one
hand or on the other, and that such a claim is made for the clarifier or a
centrifuge. Why such an assertion is left in its baldness for lay readers to
digest the writers cannot understand. Does any device accomplish it,
does even pasteurization of milk, which is a sort of panacea advocated by
this commission for all milk trouble, overcome what is intimated? That
such products exist even in the best of milk, in an infinitesimal degree,
cannot be denied, but it seems a strange assertion in connection with a
review of clarification. Why not explain?
Here is another very interesting assertion (this is properly made):
"(e) It breaks up clumps of bacteria and distributes them through the
milk." This is well-founded, but what is the result? The need of an
answer to this is apparent and it should accompany the statement.
Does the commission know? In a general way, how often is such a
reason given?
"(c) It adds another process requiring the handling of the milk, com-
plicating the situation." Here, too, is one of those statements which are
so commonly brought forth to "clinch" an argument. Has man ever
hesitated to utilize a new device, when such a device, so far as he can de-
termine, improves the product, even if it does entail a new movement?
It corresponds very closely with the exclamation of a certain writer who
had done no particular work with the clarifier, and who closed his review
with, "What next?"
The authors have perhaps colored this very brief analysis too highly
by specific selections, but not without a purpose. They have not even
done it to criticize, although criticism may be merited in a way. The
object has been to bring conspicuously before the reader the confused
condition of minds and the lack of knowledge as well as the existence of
certain substrata of prejudice relevant to a new device (the clarifier)
158 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
designed to meet a specific demand which had been fostered by the fre-
quent use of another device (the separator) for clarification.
On the other hand, criticism could be easily framed from a review of
literature of manufacturing firms which has for its purpose the setting
forth of the merits of the clarifier. Wliile the specific statements have
a modicum of truth and a basis in fact, the reader is left to deduce a
quantitative estimate which is very misleading. There exists a sinister
purpose beneath the surface which is not commendable. How, for in-
stance, is the reader to gather the significance of a photograph of slime
deposit when he knows nothing about its relation to the milk? Is he to
infer that milk which may be highly infectious to man is rendered safe
when passed through a clarifier? Such a statement and many others, by
inference, are highly reprehensible, and should not be tolerated by in-
telhgent men. If the clarifier cannot prove its value per se, then it is rightly
questioned and should be weighed in the balance of exacting scrutiny.
Let this new contribution be judged by its work stated in concrete and
sane speech. It is only fair to the public to have sanitarians and manu-
facturers alike deal frankly and honestly with such matters as clarification.
Such statements need study, and some of them should not have been
written before a careful investigation had been made.
Clarification aims to assist in the purification of milk. Does it do it
or does it not, and to what degree? This is the definite goal toward which
the work of this laboratory has been directed. At the start it is frankly
allowed that the best way to secure pure milk is to have a sound cow and
obtain the milk free from dirt and disease contamination. This is a
recommendation difficult to execute. Human knowledge and performance
are weak. It seems impracticable to many minds. The clarifier is
offered as a means to assist in accomplishing what man as a machine fails
to do. The performance of the clarifier is bound up in what is re-
moved in the slime, and in how the removal of this slime affects the milk
from which it has been eliminated.
II. SLIME.
Slime is that material which is removed from the milk during the process
of clarification, and which adheres to the bowl of the clarifier. It consists,
speaking in a general manner, of the so-called leucocytes or epithelial
cells of milk, or corpuscular elements of milk, so-called fibrin which exists
in milk in the form of microscopic shreds, traces of casein, traces of fat,
traces of milk sugar, inflammatory products such as garget at times,
bacteria, yeasts, molds which succeed in entering the milk, and the in-
soluble dirt which may be present in the milk, or other foreign insoluble
particles which may find their way into the milk, — in short, anything
which may be suspended and not in solution in milk and which will respond
to centrifugalization.^
1 A clarifier is a centrifuge, accordingly these terms are employed interchangeably as well as
centrifugalization and clarification.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK. 159
These substances which make up the slime will be subjected to individual
scrutiny as progress is made.
Amount of Slime removed.
The amount of slime removed by the clarifier depends upon many
factors, as may be guessed from its component parts. Besides the in-
fluence of the constituents of milk, temperature, acidity or age of milk,
individuality of the cow, the condition of the machine, the number of
revolutions of the bowl, and probably many other factors determine the
amount of slime within its total limitations or the amount which is possible
within a given amount of milk. Then, too, as clarification proceeds, the
character — perhaps more specifically and accurately the consistency —
of the slime changes, which is doubtless attributable to the mechanical
action of the clarifier.
Determination of the Weight of Slime.
As a rule, in literature moist weight is employed to report the amount
of slime. If conditions were identical when clarifjdng, the clarifiers the
same, the amount of milk passed of the same measurement, then possibly
a fairly representative lot of determinations could be established. This
seems very difficult, however, as will be gathered later. Owing to this
fluctuation in the moisture content, it is essential that the moisture be
eliminated to constant weight before comparisons can be satisfactorily
made and a true interpretation of the amount estabhshed. For many
purposes this additional labor may be avoided and the moist weight will
serve. Accordingly, it was found desirable early in the work to establish
the variatiouo in the determinations of the amount of slime from different
sources, since difficulty was met in the interpretation of results when based
upon moist weight alone. The determinations furnished are based on
clarification of milk at the same temperature, the same mUk and the same
age of milk, the use of the same machine, the same number of revolu-
tions per minute, — in short, the same methods and procedures throughout.
It is therefore a test of methods and procedures, and has its very im-
portant bearing upon slitne determination. The weights are always re-
corded as moist or dry weight.
160 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table I. — A Determination of the Weight of Slime under Moist and Dry
Conditions.
[Thirty pounds of milk used for each sample; milk was held at 70° F.J
Number
of Test.
Slime.
Sample.
MOIST WEIGHT IN —
DRY WEIGHT IN — .
Grams.
Per Cent,
of MUk.
Grams.
Per Cent,
of MUk.
I
1
2
6.7100
6.5905
.049
.048
1.6217
1.6017
.011
.011
II,
1
2
5.6425
5.7036
.041
.041
1.3136
1.3836
.009
.010
Ill
1
2
6.7544
6.4483
.049
.047
1.6317
1.5180
.011
.011
IV
1
2
4.4049
4.0133
.032
.029
1.1150
.9540
.008
.007
V
1
2
4.8775
4.6215
.035
.033
1.1551
1.2510
.008
.009
VI
1
2
5.1382
5.0012
.037
.036
1.3598
1.2746
.009
.009
VII
1
2
3
4
5.8314
6.4810
4.8073
4.3109
.042
.047
.035
.031
1.3770
1.6286
1.0482
.9965
.010
.011
.007
.007
VIII
1
2
6.6093
6.7741
.048
.049
1.5088
1.6839
.011
.012
IX
1
2
5.8910
6.0158
.043
.044
1.4629
1.4715
.010
.010
X
1
2
3
4
4.5792
4.2663
4.8683
4.5678
.033
.031
.035
.033
1.1793
1.0558
1.2783
1.1552
.008
.007
.009
.008
XI
1
2
3
4
6.2538
6.0309
6.1542
6.0529
.045
.044
.045
.044
1.5084
1.4379
1.4725
1.4218
.008
.010
.010
.010
XII
1
2
5.3230
5.3092
.039
.038
1.2436
1.2552
.009
.009
XIII
1
2
3
4.6834
4.6892
4.7127
.034
.034
.034
1.2756
1.2417
1.2526
.009
.009
.009
XIV
1
2
3
4.6806
4.7212
4.6300
.034
■ .034
.034
1.2756
1.2526
1.3900
.009
.009
.010
XV
1
2
7.1353
7.0018
.052
.051
1.9734
1.9546
.014
.014
XVI,
1
2
7.0210
7.1330
.051
.052
1.9232
2.0017
.014
.014
XVII,
1
2
5.8702
5.8702
.043
.043
1.3654
1.3821
.010
.010
Literature is quite consistent in the amount of slime given off in clarifica-
tion. The necessity for constant weight is evident from the preceding
table if exact determinations for comparison are to be made.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
161
The Dctenninations of Others. — Bahlman' says the weight of material
deposited in the clarifier from 725 gallons of milk was 2| pounds. As an
average, then, 1 gallon of milk jdelded 1.6 grams of moist sludge (.044 per
cent.) equivalent to .6 gram (.01 per cent.) of dried material.
In his "Studies on the Clarification of Milk," Hammer^ gives the follow-
ing amounts of slime secured from different lots of milk: • —
Table II. — Amounts of Slime obtained from Different Lots of Milk
{Hammer) .
Pounds of
Milk
Clarified.
Amount of
Slime
Deposited
in Cubic
Centimeters. '
Per Cent,
of Slime
Removed.
Pounds of
Milk
Clarified.
Amount of
Slime
Deposited
in Cubic
Centimeters. '
Per Cent.
of Slime
Removed.
635
70
.024
953
65
.015
837
125
.032
1,249
125
.022
725
90
.027
1,147
250
.048
1,150
70
.013
1,356
125
.020
918
70
.016
1,241
100
.017
1,169
45
.008
There has been contributed to this theme the experience of Mcln-
erney:* —
Table III. — Amowwi of Slime obtained from Different Quantities of Milk
{Mclnerney).
Experiment.
Milk used
(Ounces).
Slime
obtained
(Ounces).
Per
Cent, of
Slime.
1,
2,
3,
4,
6.
6,
7,
82,964
87,680
88,960
89,088
84,480
84,480
84,480
5.64
7.65
6.98
6.49
6.80
12.62
8.25
6.45
.0063
.0092
.0080
.0073
.0076
.0149
.0091
.0076
» Bahlman, Clarence: Milk Clarifiers. Am. Jour, of Public Health, 1916, Vol. VI, No. 8, p. 856.
» Hammer,- B. W.: Agricultural Experiment Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture and
Mechanic Arts. Research Bulletin No. 28, January, 1916.
• This appears to be moist slime measiu-ed in cubic centimeters.
* Mclnerney, T. J.: Clarification of Milk. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion. Bulletin No. 389, April, 1917, p. 496.
162 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
The author states: "After all the milk had been passed through, the
machine was taken apart and the amount of slime deposited on the walls
was carefully removed, placed in a bottle, and weighed." He does not
say whether it is moist weight or dry weight.
It is apropos that the extensive work of Lieutenant Davies^ be in-
serted here, inasmuch as it contributes very suggestive data. The authors
present it exactly as it was found. The results secured furnish informa-
tion upon slime-yield nowhere else to be found, and it has these advantages:
The amount of slime is measured from milk of individual cows, and where
it has been possible to point out abnormaUties this has been done. In the
interpretation of Lieutenant Da vies' results it will be well to keep in mind
that very small amounts of milk were used, which usually leads to a high
percentage of moisture in the slime; that the weight is moist weight which
is subject to great fluctuation; and that the diagnosis of abnormaUties
appears crude because no intimate study has been made. Yet these data
are far more suggestive of what is involved in the process of clarification,
so far as sUme production is concerned, than can be gleaned from almost
any other source.
Clarification of Certified Milk (Da vies).
Methods.
De Laval Clarifier No. 95 was used in this work, its capacity being well
suited for the work, the quantities of mUk from each cow being very variable
and usually small. In place of the tank suppUed with the clarifier a funnel
was fitted so that given quantities could be easily measured. At the same
time there was the advantage that every bit of milk could be passed through
the bowl without rinsing with water; also no particles of dirt could remain on
the side. While the latter was of no consequence with the certified milk, it
does make a difference with the ordinary market milk.
Three bowls were used; this allowed plenty of time for washing and steriliz-
ing them. The bowl shell was weighed while quite dry before the test. The
milk was clarified immediately after being drawn, 4 quarts being used where
possible; if less than 4 quarts, then all the milk was clarified. The bowl was
allowed to run down itself, any attempt to stop it quickly seemed to shake
the sUme film off on to the discs, and weighing was impossible. The bowl was
wiped dry and weighed; the amount of slime was calculated in per cent, of
milk clarified.
The cows were tested as often as circumstances would allow. No attempt
was made to keep any definite order, it being found best to test whenever the
1 Lieut. E. L. Davies was connected with this department as a graduate assistant at the time
this work was done. It was, however, executed independently of this bulletin and as a minor
thesis. He was majoring in microbiology and pursuing dairying as one of his minors in his
graduate work. He became restless when the war opened and tried many times to enter the
Canadian service, but was refused on account of physical disability. He was invited by Prof.
Dan H. Jones of the Ontario Agricultural College to become a member of the bacteriological staff.
Remaining there for a period, and removing his physical disability at the same time, he again
became restless for active service. He was accepted into the officers' school. After several
months of training on this side, together with local service, he was sent to France. He experienced
active service in the trenches at once. Within six weeks he was shot down by Germans whom he
was making prisoners.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
163
milk and clarifier were ready together; in this way no inconvenience due to
waiting was caused the milker.
In the table on pages 163-175 the breed of the cow is designated by the initial
letter of the breed, a prefix "R" designating "registered," prefix "G" desig-
nating "grade." Example, G. G., — Grade Guernsey.
Ages are given in years and months approximately. Weeks in lactation
calculated from the first week of lactation.
Number of tests made, 440, with 74 different cows.
1 cow tested 11 times.
1 cow tested 10 times.
5 cows Rested 9 times.
14 cows tested 8 times.
13 cows tested 7 times.
12 cows tested 8 times.
9 cows tested 5 times.
6 cows tested 4 times.
6 cows tested 3 times.
5 cows tested twice.
2 cows tested once.
Sixty-five, or 14.7 per cent., showed bloody slime. Seventy-four, or 16.8
per cent., gave .1 per cent. sUme or over. Average sUme for 440 tests,
.067 per cent.
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 1. R. J., age, 12 years,
6 months.
June 16
July 1
12
14
13.9
12.5
.090
.195
Bloody.
July 8
15
12.2
.070
July 9
15
13.3
.060
July 18
16
12.0
.065
July 21
16
11.0
.145
Bloody.
July 28
18
12.5
.100
Bloody.
Aug. 3
19
12.0
.055
No. 19. G. H., age, 11 years,
June 20
35
12.5
.115
June 24
June 25
July 10
35
35
37
9.5
10.7
9.5
.340
.187
.030
Very swollen udder,
slime bloody.
Swelling nearly gone,
bloody.
July 22
39
8.7
.060
July 29
July 30
40
40
6.3
5.3
.215
.105
Swollen udder, slime
pussy and bloody.
Swollen udder.
Aug. 10
41
7.0
.065
Bloody.
No. 21. G. H., age, 2 years,
8 months.
June 9
June 16
20
21
8.0
7.4
.095
.040
June 23
22
7.4
.020
164 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
Milk
Slime
in Lac- /p",,^„\ (Per
tation. (Pounds), ^ent.).
Remarks.
No. 21 — Continued.
No. 22. G. H., age, 14 years,
No. 23. G. J.,
7 months.
age, 2 years.
No. 24. G. J., age, 9 years.
No. 26. G. A., age, 3 years,
4 months.
No. 48. R. A., age, 8 years,
4 months.
July 6
July 20
July 23
July 31
June 18
June 19
June 20
July 3
July 6
July 24
June 9
June 16
June 26
July 8
July 29
June 11
June 17
June 30
July 1
July 31
Aug. 10
June 9
June 26
July 6
July 8
July 13
July 27
July 29
Aug. 6
June 16
June 24
June 30
July 3
July 10
July 14
July 20
24
26
26
27
18
19
20
22
24
2
3
5
5
9
10
55
57
58
58
60
61
61
62
14
15
16
16
17
17
18
7.4
.925
6.8
.015
6.8
.060
7.3
.045
11.0
.295
14.8
.292
14.0
.180
16.0
.110
17.9
.130
17.1
.015
11.3
.052
10.5
.030
10.7
.080
9.9
.050
9.6
.075
16.5
.115
15.0
.035
14.8
.065
13.3
.045
13.8
.095
13.2
.025
9.0
.065
8.2
.050
7.9
.035
7.2
.045
6.4
.095
7.8
.060
8.1
.055
6.8
.010
15.8
.090
16.0
.062
15.7
.075
14.0
.090
14.9
.150
12.6
.095
14.2
.235
First milking.
No trouble.
Sore teat.
Bloody.
No trouble.
Swollen udder.
Swollen udder.
Slime bloody, udder
swollen badly.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
165
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 48 — Continued.
July 23
18
13.7
.080
July 31
19
13.2
.020
Aug. 8
20
13.6
.020
No. 52. R. J., age, 6 years,
3 months.
June 16
June 23
13
14
11.1
10.2
.075
.035
June 26
14
11.4
.025
July 1
15
10.5
.025
July 23
18
10.4
.075
Aug. 1
19
10.6
.065
Aug. 3
19
11.1
.070
No. 56. G. J., age, 6 years,
6 months.
June 9
June 19
6
7
15.4
11.8
.060
.295
June 20
7
12.5
.070
June 25
8
12.5
.047
1
July 1
9
12.2
.055
«
July 20
12
11.6
.055
July 28
13
10.2
.075
'
Aug. 6
14
11.0
.020
No. 54. G. J., age,
June 9
30
7.0
.165
Bloody.
June 18
31
6.0
.095
June 26
32
7.0
.055
July 1
33
7.1
.050
July 20
36
8.5
.025
July 27
37
7.9
.045
Aug. 1
37
6.2
.030
Aug. 10
38
3.2
.110
No. 59. G. H., age, 13 years.
June 20
30
6.5
.055
June 25
30
10.5
.075
July 6
32
11.1
.045
July 18
33
10.0
.050
July 24
34
10.0
.065
Bloody.
July 30
35
10.3
.035
Aug. 8
36
10.7
.085
No. 60. G. H., age, 12 years.
June 15
32
7.8
.160
Hind quarter sore.
June 24
33
7.3
.085
Bloody.
July 1
34
5.8
.095
Pus like.
166
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
■ Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 60 — Continued.
July 13
36
5.2
.070
July 22
37
3.8
.045
July 31
38
5.0
.100
Bloody.
No. 82. G. H., age, 11 years,
July 3
-
11.0
.385
First milking.
July 4
-
12.2
.260
July 21
3
15.8
.030
July 28
4
17.1
.060
Aug. 8
6
15.1
.085
No. 63. G. S., age, 10 years,
June 8
23
13.5
.100
June 18
24
12.4
.080
June 24
25
12.8
.040
Bloody.
July 10
27
11.7
.065
No. 64. G. S., age, 10 years.
June 8
40
3.8
.138
June 15
41
3.6
.140
•
No. 66. G. H., age, 11 years.
June 11
48
9.5
.085
June 17
49
8.8
.060
July 1
51
11.4
.045
July 18
53
8.8
.080
July 19
53
9.2
.095
July 28
54
8.5
.085
Bloody.
No. 68. G. G., age, 5 years,
1 month.
June 11
June 23
32
33
8.0
8.7
.085
.070
Bloody.
July 7
36
7.2
.060
July 22
38
7.0
.040
Aug. 1
39
6.5
.055
No. 69. G. H., age, 4 years,
8 monthS;
June 17
July 1
10
12
19.4
18.2
.140
.032
July 7
13
19.2
.105
Bloody.
July 14
14
17.2
.060
July 20
July 30
15
16
18.0
16.8
.115
.105
Bloody, swollen
ter.
Bloody.
quar-
No. 71. G. H., age,
June 8
47
20.8
.050
June 12
47
17.4
.070
June 18
48
16.0
.065
June 23
49
15.3
.070
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
167
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds)
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 71 — Continued.
July 9
51
15.0
.015
July 13
51
18.8
.060
July 21
52
14.8
.080
July 29
64
11.9
.065
Aug. 6
55
15.1
.020
No. 72. R. G., age, 6 years,
9 months.
June 11
June 17
45
46
6.0
6.0
.070
.140
June 26
47
5.0
.026
July 7
49
7.7
.075
No. 75. G. G., age, .
June 9
19
13.5
.110
Bloody, sore teat.
June 10
19
13.5
.100
June 15
20
11.0
.060
June 25
21
10.0
.060
July 3
22
10.0
.065
July 22
25
8.4
.055
July 28
26
9.4
.070
Aug. 10
28
5.6
.025
No. 76. G. G., age,
June 10
18
13.5
.085
Sore teat.
June 19
19
13.6
.100
Sore teat.
June 26
20
10.5
.040
July 1
21
10.1
.105
Sore quarter and teat.
July- 7
22
9.5
.050
July 20
24
9.0
.090
July 28
25
8.8
.085
Aug. 3
25
8.5
.090
No. 77. R. J., age, 4 years,
9 months.
June 12
June 16
50
50
7.8
9.3
.035
.065
June 25
52
8.0
.035
July 3
53
9.5
.050
July 21
55
14.8
.055
July 28
56
8.1
.045
No. 78. G. G., age, .
June 23
-
14.8
.065
July 7
-
12.2
.040
July 21
T
12.0
.065
July 29
-
11.1
.015
168
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 80. R. A., age, 5 years,
2 months.
June 24
July 3
-
9.5
8.9
.025
.040
July 8
-
8.5
.055
July 13
-
6.5
.020
July 20
-
7.5
.040
July 30
-
8.0
.050
No. 82. G. G., age, .
June 10
-
15.1
.105
Bloody.
June 17
-
12.2
-.. .065
June 23
-
11.0
.115
Sore teat.
July 3
-
11.0
.075
July 9
-
10.0
.060
July 21
-
8.5
.085
July 29
-
10.1
.070
Aug. 3
-
10.0
.080
Bloody.
No. 84. G. A., age, 6 years,
4 months.
June 10
June 19
21
22
8.7
6.7
.075
.040
June 25
23
5.0
.071
July 3
24
6.1
.080
July 10
25
6.0
.060
No. 88. G. H., age, 5 years,
6 months.
June 11
June 20
31
32
8.0
7.0
.090
.080
June 30
33
6.0
.030
July 3
34
5.2
.056
July 8
35
4.5
.046
No. 93. G. H., age, .
June 19
5
10.2
.085
June 30
6
9.3
.027
July 13
8
8.5
.065
July 21
9
11.2
.055
July 31
11
8.4
.055
Aug. 6
12
7.5
.035
No. 94. G. H., age, 10 years.
June 9
14
19.3
.145
June 15
15
16.2
.085
June 23
16
16.0
.085
July 6
18
13.5
.045
July 9
18
13.5
.050
July 14
19
15.1
.050
CLAEIFICATION OF MILK.
169
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 91 — Continued.
No. 97. G. H., age, 10 years,
No. 101. R. A., age, 5 years,
6 months.
No. 102. G. A., age, 10 years,
2 months.
No. 103. R. A., age, 11 years,
4 months.
No. 104, R. A., age 11 years, .
No. 105. G. J., age, 3 years,
9 months.
No. 106. G. H., age, 4 years.
July 24
July 29
Aug. 6
June 30
July 3
July 8
July 20
June 10
June 18
July 1
July 7
July 10
July 21
Aug. 3
Aug. 8
June 12
June 26
July 10
July 23
July 31
July 18
July 30
Aug. .3
June 8
June 12
June 25
July 1
July 9
July 21
July 30
June 19
June 30
July 21
July 29
Aug. 3
18
20
21
22
24
25
12
13
16
18
18
14.4
11.6
13.0
12.0
10.8
10.4
11.0
10.2
16.3
13.8
10.5
14.0
14.0
10.0
10.0
20.8
19.2
18.8
17.5
17.5
14.4
14.8
14.3
8.5
6.5
7.5
7.8
7.4
6.8
7.5
14.8
14.4
14.2
12.6
13.4
.060
.050
.040
.055
.060
.055
.035
.020
.035
.065
.085
.085
.055
.065
.060
.190
.280
.105
,095
.100
.045
.060
.090
.070
.045
.030
.010
.035
.020
.010
.035
.080
.020
.020
.055
Bloody.
Bloody.
Bloody.
Bloody.
Bloody.
Bloody.
Bloody.
170 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 107. G. H., age, 3 years,
8 months.
June 15
June 30
18
20
9.2
10.7
.095
.040
July 3
20
10.5
.060
July 9
21
10.0
.015
Bloody.
July 27
24
10.3
.095
Bloody.
July 28
24
9.4
.010
Aug. 8
25
9.0
.045
No. 108. R. H., age, 3 years,
10 months.
June 17
June 19
27
27
14.5
14.5
.070
.035
June 24
28
13.5
.060
Bloody.
July 1
29
13.5
.055
July 7
30
12.0
.105
Bloody, quarter
swoUen.
July 14
31
12.3
.015
July 18
31
11.0
.055
July 27
32
11.0
.055
Aug. 1
32
11.5
.045
Aug. 6
33
11.2
.055
No. 110. R. H., age 5 years,
4 months.
June 17
June 23
33
34
12.3
10.0
.055
.070
July 1
35
10.2
.045
July 7
36
10.4
. .100
July 27
38
11.8
.055
July 28
39
8.8
.080
Aug. 6
40
8.5
.095
Bloody.
No. 111. G. H., age, .
July 23
-
12.0
.100
Bloody.
Aug. 3
-
9.0
.085
Bloody.
No. 112 , G. H., age, 3 years.
July 13
-
8.8
.055
July 23
-
10.7
.055
July 29
-
10.0
.080
Aug. 8
-
10.5
.050
No. 113. R. J., age, 4 years,
5 months.
June 25
June 26
-
5.0
5.0
.165
.095
First milking.
June 30
1
10.3
.125
Bloody.
July 7
2
10.8
.060
Bloody.
July 14
3
12.2
.030
July 27
5
12.4
.040
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
171
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Poimds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 113 — Coniinuffd.
July 29
'
11.3
.065
July 30
6
10.8
.125
Bloody.
No. 115. G. H., age, .
July 13
-
10.3
.020
July 31
-
11.5
.005
Aug. 3
-
13.8
.120
Bloody.
No. 116. R. H., age, 5 years.
June 11
100
7.0
.150
June 15
100
7.6
.052
July 11
103
7.0
.075
July 19
104
7.8
.075
July 24
106
6.5
.045
July 29
107
6.0
.090
July 31
107
6.3
.050
Aug. 10
108
5.8
.045
No. 117. G. H., age, 3 years,
11 months.
June 12
June 30
33
35
11.3
12.0
.077
.075
Bloody.
July 20
38
12.8
.055
July 31
39
13.6
.040
Aug. 6
40
11.7
.060
No. 118. G. J., age, 5 years, .
June 16
30
10.8
.045
June 26
31
10.3
.030
July 7
33
9.7
.020
July 23
35
7.2
.035
July 28
36
8.5
.035
No. 119. G. H., age, 5 years,
2 months.
June 15
June 26
35
36
9.8
9.8
.107
.075
Sore teat.
July 18
39
7.8
.040
July 19
39
7.5
.060
Aug. 1
41
6.8
.080
Aug. 10
42
6.2
.055
No. 120. G. G., age, .
July 24
-
10.6
.055
Bloody.
Aug. 1
-
10.1
.090
Aug. 8
-
13.1
.070
No. 125. R. H., age, 7 years,
6 months.
June 11
June 16
33
33
18.5
19.0
.127
.235
June 17
33
18.5
.205
172
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 125 — Continued.
June 18
34
19.0
.155
No trouble found at
any time with this
June 19
34
18.0
.147
cow.
'
June 20
34
20.0
.155
June 24
35
17.9
.185
July 1
36
16.4
.185
July 8
37
14.7
.235
July 13
37
12.9
.100
July 22
39
15.3
.120
No. 127. G. S., age, .
June 12
43
13.5
.110
Bloody.
June 19
44
13.1
.065
June 30
45
12.5
.065
July 3
46
12.5
.090
July 13
47
12.4
.115
July 18
48
12.0
.105
July 21
48
12.0
.070
July 29
49
12.5
.080
Aug. 10
50
12.0
.055
No. 130. G. H., age, 4 years,
2 months.
June 18
June 25
25
26
14.8
13.2
.077
.055
July 1
27
12.2 '
.065
July 6
27
10.8
.100
July 13
28
11.0
.125
Bloody, udder swollen.
July 23
29
11.3
.085
July 28
30
11.5
.090
No. 131. G. H., age, .
June 26
-
14.5
.115
Bloody, sore teat.
July 7
-
16.5
.070
July 22
-
15.6
.060
July 30
-
12.0
.060
No. 133. G. A., age, 4 years,
3 months.
June 11
June 16
15
15
15.0
14.5
.027
.060
June 23
17
11.3
.055
July 7
18
12.1
.060
July 21
20
11.0
.095
Bloody.
July 29
21
11.5
.046
Aug. 6
22
10.8
.030
Bloody.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
173
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. 134. R. A., age, 3 years,
11 months.
June 15
June 20
• 55
55
6.5
6.5
.080
.035
June 24
56
5.0
.060
No. 135. G. H., age, .
July 24
-
7.5
.090
July 28
-
8.4
.130
Cow sick.
Aug. 8
-
11.0
.095
Bloody.
No. 136. G. H., age, .
July 23
-
9.2
.140
Aug. 6
-
14.2
.070
No. 141. G. A., age, 2 years,
10 months.
June 12
June 18
20
21
9.8
9.8
.095
.075
June 24
22
9.6
.015
July 8
23
8.5
.0,55
July 9
23
8.6
.045
July 13
24
7.0
.025
July 27
26
7.6
.035
July 29
26
8.6
.045
Aug. 10
27
8.8
.055
No. 143. G. H., age, 3 years,
10 months.
June 12
June 15
8
8
9.4
8.7
.075
.075
Bloody.
June 26
10
7.5
.105
July 9
12
6.5
.010
July 11
12
5.8
.070
Aug. 10
12
6.5
.050
No. 144. R. A., age, 3 years,
6 months.
June 10
June 17
35
36
9.6
9.7
.105
.020
Bloody.
July 6
38
8.8
.020
July 8
38
7.6
.045
July 13
39
8.5
.080
July 29
41
7.6
.035
Aug. 10
42
8.1
.055
No. 147. G. A., age, 3 years,
9 months.
June 20
June 23
40
40
5.8
.040
.050
July 3
42
5.0
.076
Bloody.
July 8
42
5.0
.085
July 22
44
3.8
.105
174
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.).
Remarks.
No. m— Continued.
July 27
45
2.8
.030
July 31
45
4.3
.090
Two milkings.
No. 148. R. A., age, 2 years,
10 months.
June 8
June 9
28
28
10.0
10.0
.072
.080
Very bloody, udder
bruised.
June 10
28
10.0
.085
Bloody.
June 20
29
9.5
.045
June 24
30
9.4
.095
Bloody.
July 3
31
7.5
.070
July 23
34
5.9
.045
July 31
35
4.9
.075
Aug. 3
35
5.3
.035
No. 149. R. A., age, 2 years,
11 months.
June 19
June 23
25
25
8.2
7.6
.052
.050
July 6
27
6.9
.055
July 14
28
5.6
.055
July 20
29
7.2
.025
Aug. 1
30
6.1
.050
Aug. 6
31
6.5
.015
Aug. 8
31
6.5
.030
Blood
No. 150. R. G., age, 3 years,
4 months.
June 18
June 25
38
39
8.0
7.3
.080
.070
July 6
40
7.0
.055
July 18
42
6.0
.030
July 22
42
6.2
.060
July 28
43
6.0
.060
No. 152. R. H., age, 2 years,
8 months.
June 9
20
11.5
.080
Bloody.
June 24
22
9.8
.027
July 6
24
8.8
.010
July 9
24
9.0
.055
July 20
26
9.7
.050
July 24
26
9.3
.080
Bloody.
July 30
27
9.2
.050
Aug. 3
27
10.4
.020
No. 153. G. A., age, 3 years,
4 months.
June 6
June 18
28
29
14.1
11.4
.057
.070
June 26
30
11.8
.085
CLAEIFICATION OF MILK.
175
Cow.
Date.
Weeks
in Lac-
tation.
Milk
(Pounds).
Slime
(Per
Cent.)
Remarks.
No. 153 — Continued.
July 3
31
11.3
.075
July 8
32
10.4
.020
July 21
34
11.0
.010
July 30
35
9.8
.025
No. 81. R. A., age, 5 years,
1 month.
June 12
58
2.5
.106
No. 154. R. G., age, 2 years,
9 months.
June 11
July 6
15
18
8.0
7.8
.085
.040
Bloody.
July 9
19
7.6
.040
July 23
21
7.0
.045
July 30
22
7.0
.055
Aug. 3
22
6.0
.070
No. "B." G. G., age, .
Jime 10
-
8.4
.095
June 19
-
10.6
.012
July 3
-
9.0
.045
July 14
-
9.0
.045
July 22
July 31
-
9.5
8.6
.105
.015
Bloody, swollen
der.
ud-
Aug. 10
8.0
.080
Bloody.
No. "B." G. G., age, • .
June 10
-
9.3
.042
June 18
-
11.5
.040
June 25
-
11.1
.015
Bloody.
July 7
-
10.9
.050
July 21
-
10.5
.060
Aug. 1
-
10.0
.015
No. 28
Aug. 6
-
19.1
.065
Aug. 8
-
17.9
.055
Fresh milking.
From the figures in the preceding table conclusions may be drawn which
will more or less summarize the results. It was found difficult to take figures
for illustrations which were not influenced by some factor other than that
under discussion.
1. Different individuals vary greatly in the amount of slime given, even
when apparently perfectly normal conditions exist. The following averages
of individuals illustrate this : —
Per Cent.
No. 125, . . .' 168
No. 107 .051
No. 115 048
No. 64, 139
176
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
2. The individuals vary greatly in the amount of slime given at different
milkings; in successive tests No. 107 gave .095, .04, .015 and .095 per cent.
No. 26 varied even more, from .095 to .01 per cent.
3. A few cows seem to be fairly constant in the amount of sUme. Nos. 125
and 118 illustrate this very clearly.
4. The amoimt of sUme is affected by sore teats and diseased or bruised
udder. No. "B" averages .056 per cent, for two successive tests, the follow-
ing test she gave .105 per cent. On inquiry of the milker it was found that
the cow's udder was bruised. Nos. 48, 75, 76, 108, also illustrate this.
5. It cannot be said that large amounts of sUme indicate sore or diseased
udder. No. 125 in eleven tests never gave less than .1 per cent., and no
trouble could be found. Nos. 16 and 94 both gave very high tests, but without
apparent cause.
6. The presence of blood in the sUme cannot be said to indicate a diseased
udder in so far -as close examination would reveal. Bloody sUme is not con-
fined to cows giving high amounts of sUme.
7. The period of lactation does have an influence. Cows just freshened
give a high per cent, of shme; it is often continued for several weeks. In
late lactation the tendency seems to be to give a high per cent., yet this does
not always hold good. Many of the tests given in the table show that cows
which have been milking for a long period give very small amoimts of slime.
8. The relation between amount of milk secreted and sUme is in no way
clear; it is doubtful if there is any such relation.
The Determinations of this Laboratory. — To Lieutenant Da vies' data may
be advantageously added further determinations of slime from different
breeds and individual cows, together with a few determinations made upon
cormnercial milk from different sources. One of the significant things
which comes to light in these determinations, which were made incidental
to other work, is the tendency to remain more or less constant over succes-
sive days. This does not appear in Lieutenant Davies' work.
Table IV. — Amount of Slime from Different Breeds.
Certified Milk.
[Five pounds of milk used.]
Cow.
Breed
Condition.
Slime (Dry Weight in Grams).
53
77
78
72
85
100
30
127
Jersey,
Jersey,
Guernsey,
Guernsey,
Ayrshire,
Ayrshire,
Holstein,
Shorthorn,
Normal, .
Normal, .
Abnormal,
Normal, .
Normal, .
Normal, .
Abnormal,
.2041
.1732
.26931
.2590'
.3387'
.2588
.2646
.3650
.2435'
.2800'
.2882
.3710
.2928
.3266
-
3.8232
1.2086'
.5963'
.4917'
.5055'
.5984
.4342"
.4567'
.5058'
.4974'
.6171
.7494'
.7207'
.9793'
.6715'
.2492
.2506
.3390
, .3111
.3462
.2020
1.7008
1.1392
1.0180
1.1713'
.2140'
1.3065'
1 Weights made on successive days.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
177
Table IV. — Amount of Slime from Different Breeds — Concluded.
Commercial Milk}
[Ten pounds of milk used.]
Slime (Dry Weight in Grams).
Cole, .
Adams,
Farm,
1 . 14080
.80275
.84500
1.1881
.7946
.8305
1.2210
.8231
.9834
1.0141
1 . 1385
1.1423
From the above study it will be gathered that the amount of slime from
cows of the same breed and different breeds is subject to great variation,
but the daily production from a cow or from a herd, when determined on
successive days, appears to be quite uniform.
Effect of Temperature upon the Amount of Slime.
The temperature of the milk at the time of clarifying exerts some in-
fluence upon the amount, as is illustrated in the accompanying tables.
The cause of this is not patent unless it may be due to the coalescence of
colloidal particles, thus diminishing the extent of surface of the combined
particles and increasing the effect of the centrifugalizing forces.
Table V. — Effect of Temperature on Amount of Slime Removed.
[Twenty pounds of commercial milk used in each test.]
Sample.
Temperature
(Degrees F.).
Slime (Grams,
Dry Weight,
in Duplicate).
I, .
55
1.9812
1.9474
75
, 1.9664
1.9353
100
1.9888
-
1.9800
n, .
•
55
2.0181
2.1736
75
2.3984
2.4226
100
2.6228
2.5358
Ill, .
55
75
1 1897
1.3322
95
1.5948
IV, .
55
1.2342
1.2679
75
1.3168
1.3786
95
1 . 1244
1.2300
V, .
55
.9631
75
1.0524
95
1.4778
* "Commercial" and "market" as applied to milk are used interchangeably, meaning the
ordinary milk that is sold.
178 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table V. — Effect of Temperature on Amount of Slime Removed — Con-
cluded.
Sample.
Temperatiire
(Degrees F.).
Slime (Grams,
Dry Weight,
in Duplicate).
VI,
VII,
VIII,
IX,
X,
1.4493
1.7300
1.6632
1.6493
.4210
.3735
.4485
.5093
.6140
.5840
1.0643
1.0433
1.0366
1.1601
1.3069
1.3357
.9360
.9282
1.0009
.9667
1.0092
1.0050
.9849
1.0345
1.0545
1.1404
1.1468
1.2180
Table VI. — Effect of Higher Temperatures on Amount of Slime Removed
{Commercial Milk).
Sample.
90° F.
110" F.
125° F.
140° F.
Held
90° F. for
Three
Hours.
I
II
.9097
1.0545
1.1783
1.2691
1.3367
1.3358
1.6268
1.6804
1.1385
1.1423
Influence of Time and Acidity upon the Amount of Slime.
That the elements of time and acidity operate with temperature became
evident as the work proceeded. It is illustrated in the table below.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
179
Table VII. — Effect of Time and Temperature on Amount of Slime
Removed.
[A single sample of commercial milk was used in this test.]
Time.
Temperature
(Degrees F.).
Grams (Moist
Weight).
At once,
24 hours,
48 hours.
At once,
24 hours,
48 hours,
72 hours,
90 hours.
At once,
24 hours,
48 hours,
72 hours.
1.1015
1.1219
1.2715
1.3034
1.2732
1.0384
1.3680
1.93301
1.2085
1.4677
1.6412
1.9322
1 High acidity.
Discussion. — It is readily deducible from the above evidence that the
amount of shme differs widely when secured from the milk of the same
cow, from milk of different individual cows, and from mixed milks, whether
the mixed milks have the same origin or not. It is also manifest from the
work of this laboratory that samples from the same milk when clarified
under the same conditions yield practically the same amount of slime.
It follows, therefore, that the causes for these variations must be found in
the condition of the animal, the conditions which surround the manipula-
tion of the milk, and the conditions w^hich are involved in the clarification.
From Lieutenant Davies' investigations it seems clear that with the
beginning of the period of lactation there is a great increase of slime.
This may be attributable to the colostral milk in which colostral cells are
numerous. Evidence also seems to point directly to inflammatory con-
ditions of the udder as a cause of increase; garget and other products of
inflammation and germ action within the udder are common, probably
much more so than is usually recognized. As high as 20 per cent.' has
been given as the average appearance of garget in milch cows. This does
not seem unreasonable when one reflects on the sensitive nature of the
mammary gland, and the injuries to udders so frequently encountered by
milkers, giving rise to restricted or general mastitis. Doubtless the
variability in cell-content must influence the amount of slime to a con-
siderable extent. This may or may not be associated with inflammatory
processes. The so-called fibrin may be a variable quantity. These are
matters which we shall treat in greater detail later.
Whether milk is dirty or clean, whether many micro-organisms are
present or not, whether it is fresh from the cow or has stood for some time,
whether it has been held at a low or high temperature, are all in some way
related to the variation in the amount of slime obtained.
Again, the clarifier itself and the manner of manipulation have a de-
« Ernst, W.: Milk Hygiene, translated by Mohler and Eichorn, p. 85.
180 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
cided influence upon the slime produced. Whether the machine is run
at high speed or low speed, whether the temperature of the milk is high or
low, whether the machine has passed quantities of milk or only a small
amount, whether it is one size or another and whether it is one make or
another, — all exert a modif jang influence on the amount of slime thrown
out.
If, for instance, the amount removed when it is greater in one case than
in another is to the credit and efiiciency of the machine, wiU depend on
whether the material so removed is dirt or some normal content, as
leucocytes. However, it would seem that in the light of the primary
purpose of a clarifier the greater the amount of slime removed the better.
This will have to be passed over, however, for it has not been the object
of the writers to test the efficiency of clarifiers of different manufacturers,
or even the different makes of a single manufacturer. This has been
studiously avoided.
Food Value of Slime,
The average amount of slime estimated in terms of the entire milk is less
than five one-hundredths of 1 per cent. This weight includes foreign
elements, as dirt, hairs and such other materials as are likely to find their
way into the milk. Only the normal elements, as the so-caUed leucocytes,
the so-called fibrin, fat and casein, can in any sense be regarded as possess-
ing food value. Inasmuch as the 3| per cent, of fat and the 3 per cent,
of casein existing in slime (see analyses below) represent only 3^ and 3 per
cent, of five one-hundredths per cent, of the milk, in other words, .00175
and .0015 per cent, of the milk, the conclusion of analysts, that the
food value of slime is neghgible, is warranted. There is interest attached,
however, to the seeming fact that the protein not only comes from
the casein that is thrown out, as suggested by Mclnerney, but that it
takes the form of purin bodies, too, as suggested by North. The fat also
appears not only to be the fat of milk but, as Bahlman states, the fat of
epithelial cells and other detritus. Evidently the cellular elements fur-
nish a recognizable source of some of the material or substances found in
the slime; hence, when taken together with the large number of corpus-
cular elements eliminated in the slime which will be shown later, they
cannot be overlooked in the interpretation of milk clarification. This
raises a question at once, which, so far as the authors are aware, has not
been answered: Do these cellular elements in any manner contain a con-
stituent or constituents which contribute to nutrition? The work of'
McCoUum and Davis, ^ McCoUum, Simmonds and Pitz,^ Osborne and
Mendel,^ Hopkins and Neville,* and others suggests the possibihty that
1 McCollum, E. v., and Davis, M.: The Nature of Dietary Deficiencies of Rice. Journal of
Biol. Chem., 1915, Vol. XXIII., p. 181.
2 McCollum, E. v., Simmonds, E. V., and Pitz, W.: The Relation of the Unidentified Dietary
Factors, the Fat-soluble A and Water-soluble B, of the Diet to the Growth-promoting Properties
of Milk. Jour, of Biol. Chem., 1916, Vol. XXVII., No. 1, p. 33.
3 Osborne, T. B., and Mendel, L. B.: Milk as a Source of Water-soluble Vitamine. Jour, of
Biol. Chem., 1918, Vol. XXXIV., No. 3, p. 537.
« Hopkins, F. G., and Neville, A.: A Note concerning the Influence of Diets upon Growth.
Biochem. Jour., 1913. Vol. VII., p. 97.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
181
in these corpuscular elements there may exist what may be called nutri-
tional activators, or bodies which in very small quantities are essential to
body maintenance.
Chemical Analyses of Clarifier Slime.
Analysis by Bahbnan. *
Protein (nitrogen x 6.38) ,
Fat. .
Milk sugar,
Crude fiber,
Silica,
Oxide of iron.
Oxide of alumina,
Calcium phosphate,
Potassiunl phosphate.
Sodium and potassium chloride.
Per Cent.
67.9
3.4
7.8
2.2
3.8
.5
.6
3.6
6.2
.1
Undetermined,
96.1
3.9
100.0
Analysis by Mclnerney. *
ExPERIME^fT.
Fat (Per
Cent.).
Water
(Per
Cent.).
Total
Solids
(Per
Cent.).
Ash (Per
Cent.).
Nitro-
gen (Per
Cent.).
Casein
(Per
Cent.).
1,
2,
3.
4,
6,
6,
7,
8,
4.0
5.0
3.4
3.2
4.0
5.0
3.7
4.0
70.13
71.86
70.04
69.92
75.50
71.01
71.35
70.87
29.87
28.14
29.96
30.08
24.50
28.99
28.65
29.13
4.17
2.73
3.81
3.00
2.74
3.36
2.59
2.83
.43
.23
.71
.14
.31
.10
.49
.27
2.74
1.46
4.52
.89
1.97
.63
3.12
1.72
A^
revag
B|
4.0
71.33
28.67
3.15
.33
2.13
Analysis by North. '
Per Cent.
Total solids, .............. 30
Fat, . . . ' .3
Ash, ...............' 3
Nitrogenous organic compounds, .......... 24
» Bahlman, Clarence: Milk Clarifiers. Am. Jour. Pub. Health, 1916, Vol. VI, No. 8,
pp. 855, 856.
» Mclnerney, T. J.: Clarification of Milk, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station.
Bulletin No. 389, AprU, 1917, p. 499.
» North, Charles E.: The Creamery and Milk Plant Monthly, Vol. II, No. 1, p. 19.
182
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
We may conclude for the present, at least, that the slime cast out by the
clarifier has no nutritional significance, for in amount it is negligible and
in quality value there exist no definite data.
This laboratory has concerned itself with some determinations of fat in
sUme to ascertain whether breed or amount of slime affected the per cent,
of fat present. No relation can be seen by the authors. The following
tables will contribute information which makes this conclusion reason-
able: —
Table VIII. — Determination of Fat in Slime from Different Breeds.
Cow.
Breed.
Weight
of
Slime
(Dry).
Per
Cent.
of
Fat.
Weight
of
Slime
(Dry).
Per
Cent.
of
Fat.
Weight
of
Slime
(Dry).
Per
Cent.
of
Fat.
Weight
of
Slime
(Dry).
Per
Cent.
of
Fat.
53
Jersey, .
.2041
4.3
-
-
-
-
-
-
77
Jersey, .
.2588
6.5
-
-
-
-
-
-
78
Guernsey,
' .
.2928
5.0
.3939
4.9
-
-
-
-
72
Guernsey,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
85
Ayrshire,
.5984
3.9
.4342
3.8
.4567
3.9
.5058
3.8
100
Ayrshire,
.7494
3.5
.7207
3.6
.9793
3.6
-
-
30
Holstein,
.3390
3.5
-
-
-
-
-
-
127
Shorthorn,
1.7008
3.5
1.1713
3.6
1.3065
3.5
-
-
Likewise no relation can be established between total solids of the cow's
milk and the slime produced.
Table IX. — Determination of Total Solids in Slime from Different
Cows.
Cow 127.
Cow 72.
Cow 100.
Cow 85.
Cow 53.
Weight
of
Slime
(Dry).
Per
Cent.
of
Solids.
Weight
of
Slime
(Dry).
Per
Cent.
of
Solids.
Weight
of
Slime
(Dry).
Per
Cent.
of
Solids.
Weight
of
Slime
(Dry).
Per
Cent.
of
Solids.
Weight
of
Slime
(Dry).
Per
Cent.
of
Solids.
1.1713
12.22
.2472
12.75
.7207
12.20
.4567
12.31
.2693
12.55
1.3065
11
97
.2740
12.50
.9793
11.78
.5058
12.42
.2590
12.90
1.1940
11
80
.2245
12.08
.6715
11.60
.4974
12.45
-
-
1.0472
11
51
.2317
12.45
-
-
-
-
-
-
.8930
11
85
.2962
12.49
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.6843
11
86
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.3548
11
90
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
183
The same holds true when these determinations are followed over
several successive daj^s. Possibly the differences are so small that they
do not become sufficiently evident against the fluctuations in the amount
of slime eliminated. -
Table X, — Determination of Total Solids in Slime over Successive Days
Thurs-
day.
Fri-
day.
Satur-
day.
Sun-
day.
Mon-
day.
Tues-
day.
Betty III: —
Forenoon, .
Afternoon, .
Red IV: —
, Forenoon, .
Afternoon, .
Weight of slime (dry),
Per cent, of solids,
Weight of slime (dry),
Per cent, of solids, .
Weight of slime (dry).
Per cent, of solids.
Weight of slime (dry),
Per cent, of solids, .
.1440
14.6400
.4385
.1289
12.1290
.1043
13.7300
.4607
14.0900
.4970
14.4900
.2064
13.2800
.1551
13.0800
.4452
13.9500
.4205
.0941
12.9900
.1127
13.6600
.4418
13.5700
.4113
13.5000
.1127
12.9800
13.7300
.1082
12.7800
.4455
14.0200
Leucocttes (so-called) in Slime.
That the clarifier throws out of the milk a large proportion of the so-
called leucocytes is the testimony from various sources. The number
eliminated, moreover, is usually determined by the examination of milk'
before and after clarification. It is desirable, therefore, to treat this
particular subject more fully in connection with other corpuscular ele-
ments under the discussion of mUk. Determinations, however, which
have been made from slime directly are quite Umited because of the great
possibility of error and the difficulties involved, but are helpful in arriving
at a knowledge of the clarifier situation. Hammer ^ has estimated as
many as 830,000,000 to 1,120,000,000 per cubic centimeter of moist slime.
The estimates of this laboratory are based on certified and market milk
and upon individual cow's nulk. The authors do not deem this method as
accurate as the determination of leucocytes in milk before and after
clarification. This attempt at determination does indicate forcibly that
the cellular elements of milk make up a no mean portion of the total slime
eliminated.
1 Hammer, B. W.: Agricultural Experiment Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture and
Mechanic Arts. Research Bulletin No. 28, January, 1916.
184 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XI.
— Leucocytes 'per Gram in Slime from
Certified Milk.
Sample.
Cow.
Number
per Gram.
Sample.
Cow.
Number
per Gram.
1, . . . .
33
104,000,000
14, .
56
90,000,000
2,
77
19,500,000
15,
77
-
3,
33
72,800,000
16,
24
20,000,000
4,
77
62,400,000
17,
33
420,000,000
5,
77
20,500,000
18,
62
670,000,000
6,
146
30,900,000
19,
146
200,000,000
7,
33
40,000,000
20,
77
330,000,000
8,
77
32,000,000
21,
56
442,000,000
9.
33
28,000,000
22,
24
390,000,000
10,
77
24,500,000
23,
62
80,000,000
11,
33
70,000,000
24,
62 and 33
300,000,000
12,
62
-
25,
62 and 33
600,000,000
13,
146
3,000,000
Note. — The slime was macerated in a definite quantity of physiological solution and the
cells determined in the suspension. All cells, however, are not released from the slime by this
method.
Table XII. — Leucocytes per Gram in Slime from Commercial Milk.
Sample.
Number
per Gram.
300,000,000
400,000,000
200,000,000
Savplb.
Number
per Gram.
350,000,000
270,000,000
420,000,000
Note. — This slime was treated in the same manner as in the case of certified milk.
Further discussion of this subject will be deferred to the discussion of
corpuscular elements of milk, on page 196.
The Fibkin (so-called) in Slime:
The constituent of milk which has been designated as fibrin because it
responds to the methods of staining fibrin is approximately completely
removed, as wiU be gathered from the tables given later (see page 202).
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
185
Table XIII. — Presence of Fibrin in
Slimes from
Certified Milk.
Sample.
Cow.
Fibrin.
Sample.
Cow.
Fibrin.
1
33
*+
14
56
+ ,
2.
77
+
15,
77
+
3,
33
+
16.
24
+
4,
77
+
17,
33
+
5,
77
+
18,
62
+
6,
146
+
19,
146
+
7,
33
+
20,
77
+
8,
77
+
21,
56
+
9,
33
+
22,
24
+
10,
77
+
23,
"
62
+
11.
33
+
24,
33 and 62
+
12,
62
+
25,
33 and 62
+
13,
146
+
The Dirt in Slime.
By dirt is meant those extraneous substances which find their way into
milk from without, or after the milk has left the udder. All milks, whether
certified or ordinary market milk, contain some dirt. It appears, however,
in different quantities in different milks, and the amount present in a gen-
eral way corresponds closely to the grade of the milk.
An analysis of the dirt found in or gaining entrance to milk has resulted
in the recognition of definite substances associated with the cow, stable,
milker or utensils. Some of the materials are feces, dust, hairs, straw,
hay, epithelial cells, — in short any loose material on the cow or easily
detached from the cow, the milker, the stall; substances floating in the
air as the result of stirring hay or bedding or any dusty articles in the
stable; material adherent to the pail; and other foreign matter reaching
the milk through flies, straining, etc.
In this particular connection our interests center in what the clarifier
may do toward undoing what has been done in milking and handling milk.
During the process of milking, as a rule, the dirt is added; then an effort
is made to remove it by straining and render it harmless by pasteuriza-
tion. The clarifier is now added as a means to assist in the removal of
dirt.
It is evident that the clarifier as a centrifuge cannot remove that portion
of the dirt which goes into solution. No centrifuge can do this as long as
the solution diffuses throughout the whole mass; accordingly, this should
not be charged against the machine, because it is beyond the reach of
any present practical device, mechanical or otherwise.
186 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XIV. — Does an Increase in Dirt Mean an Increase in Bacteria
in Clarified Milk and Water?
1. Determine by adding definite quantities of dirt to water, and esti-
mate number of bacteria per cubic centimeter before and after clarifica-
tion.
Bacteria per Cubic
Centimeter.
Before.
After.
Sample I, .5000 gram in 1 liter,
Sample II, .5000 gram in 1 liter,
Sample III, .2000 gram in I liter
Sample IV, .1000 gram in I liter,
30,000
40,000
30,000
10,000
40,000
50,000
20,000
10,000
2. Determine by adding similar quantities of dirt to milk, estimating
the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter before and after clarification.
Adding .5000 Gram of Dirt to Milk Containing 100,000,000 Bacteria per Cubic
Centimeter.
Bacteria per Cubic
Centimeter.
Before.
After.
Sample I, . . .
Sample II,
160,000,000
225,000,000
75,000,000
175,000,000
Adding .2000 Gram of Dirt to Milk Containing 15,000,000 Bacteria per Cubic
Centimeter.
Sample III,
50,000,000
8,000,000
Adding .1000 Gram of Dirt to Milk Containing 22,000,000 Bacteria- per Cubic
Centimeter.
Sample IV,
40,000,000 30,000,000
A determination of the solubility of dirt was undertaken to set before
the reader just the nature of the dirt problem. The first series of deter-
minations was made by placing a combination of dry manure, curryings
and dust of definite weight, which might get into milk easily, into water
as a menstruum, then the suspension and solution were filtered or clarified.
Later, milk was employed as a menstruum in place of water.
CLAEIFICATION OF MILK. 187
Table XV. — • Determinations of Solubility of Dirt.. InsohMe Dirt Re-
moved by Filtration.
No. 1. Grams.
Weight of dirt added to 500 cubic centimeters of water, ....... 1049
Weight of dirt recovered, ........... .0889
Weight of dirt entering solution, .......... .0160
Per cent, of soluble dirt, 16.
No. 2.
Weight of dirt added to 500 cubic centimeters of water, ....... 1000
Weight of dirt recovered, ........... .0798
Weight of dirt entering solution, .......... .0202
Per cent, of soluble dirt, 20.
No. 3.
Weight of dirt added to 500 cubic centimeters of water, ...... .2031
Weight of dirt recovered, ............ 1700
Weight of dirt entering solution, .......... .3310
Per cent, of soluble dirt, 12.
Table XVI. — Determinations of Solubility of Dirt. Insoluble Dirt Re-
moved by Clarification.
No. 1. Grams.
Dirt added in 1 ,000 cubic centimeters of water, ........ 5000
Dirt recovered from clarifier, .......... .4210
Dirt lost as soluble, ............ .0786
Per cent, entering solution, 15.
No. 2.
Dirt added in 1,000 cubic centimeters of water, ....... .5000
Dirt recovered from clarifier, .......... .4210
Dirt lost as soluble 0786
Per cent, entering solution, 16.
Dry manure is evidently more soluble than the dirt used in the preced-
ing tests.
Table XVII. — Determinations of the Solubility of Dry Manure in Water.
No. 1. Grams.
Manure (dry) added to 1,000 cubic centimeters of water, . . . . . .2000
Manure recovered, ............. 1535
Manure entering solution, ........... .0465
Per cent, of solubility, 23.3.
No. 2.
Manure (dry) added to 1,000 cubic centimeters of water, ..... .2000
Manure recovered, ............. 1520
Manure entering solution, ........... .0480
Per cent, of solubility, 24.
No. 3.
Manure (dry) added to 1,000 cubic centimeters of water, ..... .2000
Manure recovered, ............. 1501
Manure entering solution, ........... .0499
Per cent, of solubility, 24.5.
188 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
An attempt to add dirt to certified milk and recover or determine it
after passing the clarifier was undertaken by the method of differences.
This, however, is subject to the error in clarifying the same sample of milk
in two lots; the possibility of such error can be ascertained by consulting
page 160. Even though the same conditions are observed throughout as
considered previously, except the addition of dirt, the error resulting in
clarification is real, and the method of differences here used cannot be
accepted as absolute. So difficult is it to extract dirt from slime and weigh
it that the results must be considered as indicative only.
If, for instance, an addition of a solvent to the slime for releasing the
dirt is made, the solution of the dirt is increased. When 1 per cent, of
KOH is added to dry manure the per cent, of solution goes to 28.5, 32.5
and 32, instead of 24 and 24.5, as in the case of water.
To illustrate the results obtained by the addition of about .2000 to
.5000 gram of dirt to one liter of milk, the following determinations are
given : —
Table XVIII. — Solvbility of Dirt in Milk.
No. 1.' Grams.
Slime from 1 liter of normal milk, . . . . . . . . . 2 . 2504
Slime from 1 liter of normal milk + .5000 gram dirt 2.9123
Difference representing dirt recovered, ......... .6619
No. 2.
Slime from 1 liter of normal milk, . . . . . . . . . 1 . 1276
Slime from 1 liter of normal milk + .5044 gram dirt, ...... 1.5519
Difference representing dirt recovered, ......... .4243
No. 3.
Slime from 1 liter of normal milk, ......... 1.7432
Slime from 1 liter of normal milk + .2000 gram dirt, ...... 1.9340
Difference representing dirt recovered, . . . . . . . . . . 1908
I In this case the difference represents more dirt than was added.
In the above samples the certified milk or normal milk represented the
minimum amount of dirt present in milk; accordingly, it doubtless had
little effect on the results obtained. While it is unjustifiable to say that
the amounts recovered from the slime, after the milk has had added a
definite amount of dirt and has been through a clarifier, indicate the effi-
ciency of the clarifier in removal of dirt, it is justifiable to infer that a
portion of the insoluble part is removed. A lack of exact methods, as
heretofore hinted, by which dirt is separated from the remainder of the
slime precludes drawing more definite conclusions or giving more satis-
factory data.
The removal of dirt has been approached from another angle, which will
help in understanding the nature of dirt in milk in its relation to clarifica-
tion. In one instance 5 pints of commercial milk were passed through
the Wisconsin Sediment Tester, using individual discs of cotton for each
pint. The milk was then allowed to pass directly into the clarifier receiv-
ing can and clarified immediately. The slime eUminated by the clarifica-
tion was tested by macerating the slime and centrif uging. Visible amounts
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
189
of dirt were present in the bottom of the tubes. From this one gathers
that the clarifier still removes dirt after the milk has been passed through
the cotton disc of the Wisconsin Cotton Disc or Sediment Tester.
In another instance this trial was made with 2 pints of commercial
milk. Dirt was recognized after submitting the milk to the same pro-
cedures as above. Evidences of dirt appeared on the clarifier bowl also.
A little different form of experimentation was then adopted to demon-
strate the efficiency of the clarifier in removing insoluble dirt. Definite
quantities of milk were run through the clarifier; a sample of clarified
milk was taken from time to time, centrifuged and examined for dirt.
Table XIX gives the results of this experiment.
Table XIX. — Efficiency of Clarifier in Eliminating Dirt.
[All samples of milk showed presence of dirt before clarification. Claimed maximum efficiency
of clarifier, 45 pounds.]
Lot.
Pounds of
MUk.
Centrifuge Test.
I,
10
No dirt observable.
20
No dirt observable.
30
No dirt observable.
40
No dirt observable.
50
Slight trace observable.
60
Slight trace observable.
70
Slight trace observable.
80
More dirt observable.
II,
20
No dirt observable.
40
No dirt observable.
60
Slight trace observable.
80
Slight trace observable.
Ill
20
No dirt observable.
40
No dirt observable.
60
Slight trace observable.
80
Slight trace observable.
IV.i
10
No dirt observable.
20
SUght trace observable.
30
Slight trace observable.
40
More dirt observable.
50
More dirt observable.
60
More dirt observable.
70
Original dirt observable.
80
Original dirt observable.
1 Sawdust was present.
190 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
It is legitimate to claim that the cotton disc in the Wisconsin Sediment
Tester is as good a strainer as is employed, but it is not wholly efficient.
The clarifier removes insoluble dirt which has not been removed by the
tester. Again, the clarifier removes insoluble dirt to such an extent when
running within its prescribed limitations that it is impossible to detect
it by any methods used by the investigators. Of course, dirt which has
gone into solution is beyond reclamation. It is doubtless true that the
clarifier is the most efficient strainer known when the specific gravity of
the dirt is not lighter than the milk. It practically removes all insoluble
dirt.
MiCRO-OKGANISMS IN SlIME. ^
It is possible to study the number of micro-organisms in the slime
eliminated from milk as well as the number of micro-organisms before and
after clarification. It would be better to use the slime in this determina-
tion were it feasible to release the micro-organisms from the slime, since
in the determination before and after clarification colonization with its
difficulties interferes to such an extent as to vitiate the results.
To demonstrate this difficulty in the release of micro-organisms from
slime, and at the same time to indicate the micro-organisms eliminated
from milk which do not reveal themselves in the counts before and after
clarification, the following tables are introduced. In these efforts it is
doubtful whether 50 per cent, have been made available for counting.
CLAEIFICATION OF MILK.
191
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192 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
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CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
193
Table XXI. — Releasing of Micro-organisms from Slime.
Certified Milk.
[One liter employed for each sample.]
Bacteria per
Cubic
Centimeter
in Milk.
Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter —
Sample.
In First
Suspension.
In Second
Suspension.
In Third
Suspension.
Before clarification
10,000
5.000
500
200
After clarification,
10.000
3,000
200
100
Before clarification,
15,000
4,000
1,000
100
After clarification,
10,000
1,000
500
100
Before clarification,
2,500
2.000
1,500
150
After clarification,
2,300
1.700
500
200
Before clarification.
14.000
4,200
2,500
_i
After clarification.
12,000
3,000
1,000
-I
Before clarification.
4,000
2,000
500
200
After clarification,
6,000
2,000
300
100
Before clarification,
15,000
1,500
1,100
300
After clarification.
18,000
1.000
500
200
Before clarification.
500
800
400
40
After clarification.
600
2,000
300
10
' Less than 100.
Commercial Milk.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Cen-
timeter
in Milk.
Weight
of
Slime
from
Milk.
First Suspension.
Second Suspension.
Sample.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Cen-
timeter.
Weight
of
Slime.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Cen-
timeter.
Weight
Slime.
Before clarification, .
After clarification, .
Before clarification, .
After clarification,
Before clarification, .
After clarification, .
400,000
350,000
75,000
50,000
320,000
280,000
.9150
i .9910
.8940
40,000
17,000
20,000
25,000
75,000
40,000
• .0300
.0340
1 .0450
16,000
1,000
1,000
6,000
I .0200
.0130
194
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XX points out that, when the slime is built up to the same amount
as the original milk from wliich it has been obtained by means of sterile
physiological salt solution, the number of organisms recovered when
agitated may be even more than in the original determination in the milk
before clarification. It further shows that agitation has a decided effect
in releasing the micro-organisms probably from both the slime and colonies,
but, on the other hand, it doubtless falls very much short in its purpose.
Table XXI reveals the effect of repeated maceration and agitation upon
the releasing of micro-organisms from slime.
Both tables seem to reveal the fact that estimates made from milk before
and after clarification have little value.
To bring out the results obtained by other laboratories and by this
laboratory in efforts to count organisms in sHme, it is pertinent to insert
the following tables, but these should be interpreted in the light of the
preceding attempts to release the micro-organisms. No other conclusion
can be drawn from these figures than the most conspicuous failure to"
determine the number of micro-organisms in slime, and yet this is the
most reliable approach available at the present time. The values secured
by repeated macerations and suspensions are far in advance of any other
determinations of micro-organisms.
Some of Hammer's findings are as follows: —
Table XXII. —
Micro-organisms Found in Slime (Hammer).
Pounds of
Milk
Clarified.
Slime
(Cubic Cen-
timeter).
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
of Slime.
Pounds of
Milk
Clarified.
Slime
(Cubic Cen-
timeter).
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
of Slime.
635
837
725
1,150
918
1,169
70
125
90
70
70
45
38,000,000
830,000,000
31,000,000
1,445,000,000
710,000,000
790,000,000
953
1,249
1,147
1,356
1,241
65
125
250
125
100
675,000,000
860,000,000
435,000,000
278,000,000
680,000,000
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
195
Table XXIII. — An Attempt to Estimate the Ntmiber of Bacteria in the
Slime Removed from Certified Milk as Produced by Individual Cows.
Sample.
Cow.
Number of
Bacteria
per Gram
of Moist
Slime.
Sample.
Cow.
Number of
Bacteria
per Gram
of Moist
Slime.
1, . . . .
33
570,000
20
77
650,000
2.
77
300,000
21,
56
290,000
3,
33
30,000
22,
24
110,000
4,
77
20,000
23,
62
145,000
5,
77
430,000
24,
62 and 33
17,000
6,
146
68,000
25,
62 and 33
550,000
7,
33
50,000
26,
33
360,000
8.
77
33,000
27,
77
200,000
9,
33
90,000
28,
33
152,000
10,
77
52,000
29,
77
300,000
11,
33
50,000
30,
33
100,000
12,
62
-
31,
77
150,000
13,
146
45,000
32.
33
100,000
14,
56
540,000
33,
77
500,000
15,
77
-
34,
33
200,000
16,
24
220,000
35,
77
100,000
17,
33
60,000
36,
33
570,000
18,
1 62
110,000
37,
77
300,000
19.
146
580,000
Table XXIV. • — An Attempt to Estimate the Number of Bacteria in the
Slime Removed in Market Milk.
Sampl?!.
Number of
Bacteria
per Grain of
Moist Slime.
. 750,000,000
15,000,000
26,000,000
25,000,000
900,000
60,000,000
50,000,000
6,000,000
Sample.
10,
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
Number of
Bacteria
per Gram of
Moist Slime.
35,000,000
1,500,000
4,200,000
4,500,000
3,200,000
2,800,000
4,000,000
196
MASS.- EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187
The results of counting the micro-organisms in sHme are therefore un-
satisfactory, yet it is evident that very large numbers are imbedded in it,
sufficient at times, so far as the tables are concerned, to overthrow the
counts obtained in milk before and after clarification. It is only through
the study of the micro-organisms in slime, and the suspension of specific
organisms which will be given later, that any adequate notion of what
occurs in this respect is obtained.
For purposes of illustrating the operation of the clarifier in the action
on micro-organisms, the following table is furnished. Other than this
little significance is to be given to results shown.
Table XXV. — Bacteria per Gram of Moist Slime in the Three Seeming
Layers.
Sample VI.
Sample IX.
Sample XII.
Bottom
Middle
Top
(Direct,
Plate,
f Direct,
I Plate,
f Direct,
1 Plate,
30,000,000
1,500,000
30,000,000
1,100,000
30,000,000
7,000,000
350,000,000
200,000,000
450,000,000
200,000,000
600,000,000
160,000,000
50,000,000
24,000,000
45,000,000
12,000,000
42,000,000
118,000,000
III. MILK.
When milk is subjected to clarification slime is removed. What com-
poses slime and what its significance is has been considered in the forego-
ing discussion. Apparently the nutritional value of milk has not been
materially altered so far as can be determined at present; corpuscular
elements have been removed, suspended dirt has been eliminated, micro-
organisms have been thrown out in large numbers. These, however,
have been determined through the slime. It now remains to study the
modifications of milk itself, including, as it does under natural circum-
stances, all of these elements.
Corpuscular Elements op Milk.
The so-called leucocytes are very greatly reduced in numbers by clari-
fication. This will be established bj'- attached data. Whether this re-
moval has any particular meaning per se other than demonstrating the
efficiency of the clarifier under normal or abnormal conditions cannot be
stated positively in the light of our present knowledge. However, the large
numbers present in inflammatory processes of the udder have a significance
from the standpoint of toxic products and pathogenic micro-organisms,
and accordingly may be considered objectionable. The thought, too,
of enormous numbers existing in milk due to inflammation, whether
local or general, is reprehensible in the same way that visible dirt affects
the value. Nevertheless, in normal milk large numbers are found, but
CLAEIFICATION OF MILK.
197
whether they possess any inherent qualities as food value or other
significance cannot at the present time be satisfactorily interpreted.
The removal of leucocytes or other corpuscular elements, as colostral
cells, from milk bears directly upon the interpretation of the efficiency of
clarification, in that such products as garget, etc., are removed, and,
further, a measure is established.
The determinations made by the Biochemical Laboratory of Boston,
quoted by Parker,^ by Hammer, ^ and by this laboratory, are therefore
appended to illustrate the above views.
Table XXVI. — Effect of Clarifying Milk on Cell Counts {Boston Biochem-
ical Laboratory).
Machine A working at 6,000 Revolutions per Minute.
Date.
Minutes
Elapsed
after
Starting
the Run.
Tempera-
ture
of Milk at
Sampling
(De-
grees F.).
Average
Number of
Cells per
Field in
Unclarified
Milk.
Average
Number of
Cells per
Field in
Clarified
Milk.
May 14, 1915
5
80
17.0
9.0
25
80
12.0
8.0
35
85
17.0
4.0
45
72
17.0
4 0
47
74
-
13.0
May 18, 1915,
20
80
4.0
2.2
50
82
4.3
2.3
65
78
13.0
3.4
75
78
8.0
2.4
85
83
6.3
1.2
120
75
3.2
2.3
May 19, 1915
20
76
13.6
6.0
50
74
6.8
5.4
60
106
8.0
4.0
115
96
7.0
5.0
May 20, 1915
20
98
7.0
4.0
50
74
6.7
4.3
80
80"
27.6
10.5
90
88
20.2
12.6
100
78
18.2
12.0
110
72
19.0
5.0
115
78
17.0
1.0
1 Parker, H. N.: The City Milk Supply, 1917, pp. 257, 258.
2 Hammer, B. W.: Agricultural Experiment Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture and
Mechanical Arts. Research Bulletin No. 28.
198 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XXVI. — Effect of Clarifying Milk on Cell Counts — Concluded.
Machine B working at 5,400 Revolutions per Minute.
Date.
Minutes
Elapsed
after
Starting
the Run.
Tempera-
ture
of Milk at
Sampling
grees F.).
Average
Number of
Cells per
Field in
Unclarified
Milk.
Average
Number of
Cells per
Field in
Clarified
Milk.
May 14, 1915,
5
78
11,0
3.0
25
79
82.0
2.0
35
85
9.0
5.0
45
84
9.0
1.0
May 17, 1915
20
94
8.0
6.0
60
88
11.0
9.0
75
92
17.0
5.0
80
88
4.0
4.0
85
88
4.0
2.0
90
90
24.0
4.0
May 19, 1915
20
92
5.7
1.1
50
88
7.2
3.8
60
90
6.8
3.0
65
94
5.6
2.2
May 21, 1915
20
86
14.5
14.0
50
74
14.0
13.0
70
78
13.0
11.0
85
80
14.7
11.8
95
80
19.0
17.0
105
72
22.0
19.0 ,
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
199
Table XXVII. — Cells per Cubic Centimeter before and after Clarification
{Hammer) .
Temperature of Milk.
Number of
Cells per
Cubic
Centimeter
before
Clarification.
Number of
Cells per
Cubic
Centimeter
after
Clarification.
Per Cent.
of Cells
thrown out.
58,
56,
68,
55,
46,
43,
41,
51,
44,
54,
54,
50,
61,
43,
60,
46,
48.
^48,
48,
68.
67,
64,
60,
54,
60,
66,
59,
52,
59,
73,
70,
266,000
120,000
441,000
572,000
407,000
390,000
171,000
258,000
276,000
376,000
177,000
293,000
448,000
303,000
426,000
276,000
156,000
208,000
832,000
198,000
484,000
610,000
282,000
405,000
216,000
442,000
209,000
301,000
281,000
367,000
182,000
209,000
184,000
230,000
206,000
52,000
290,000
259,000
227,000
247,000
93,000
116,000
220,000
193,000
95,000
265,000
140,000
197,000
274,000
202,000
93,000
159,000
226,000
90,000
378,000
489,000
152,000
145,000
186,000
244,000
158,000
203,000
216,000
302,000
169,000
110,000
102,000
135,000
23
57
34
55
44
37
46
55
20
49
46
10
69
35
36
27
40
24
73
55
22
20
46
64
14
45
24
33
23
18
7
47
45
41
200 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XXMI. — Cells per Cubic Centimeter before and after Clarification
(Hammer) — Concluded.
Temperature of Milk.
Number of
Cells per
Cubic
Centimeter
before
Clarification.
Number of
Cells per
Cubic
Centimeter
after
Clarification.
Per Cent.
of Cells
thrown out.
159,000
324,000
205,000
308,000
258,000
218,000
287,000
267,000
146,000
196,000
216,000
288,000
253,000
220,000
194,000
120,000
393.000
421,000
73,000
173,000
95,000
157,000
129,000
112,000
206,000
184,000
61,000
131,000
89,000
•149,000
132,000
140,000
140,000
95,000
212,000
316,000
Average,
297,481
177,442
54
47
54
49
50
49
28
31
58
33
59
48
48
36
28
21
46
25
39
Table XXVIII. — Leucocytes per Cubic Centimeter in Certified Milk be-
fore and after Clarification.
Sample No. Cow.
Before.
After.
Per Cent.
Reduction.
1
33
455,000
65,000
85
2
77
26,000
11,000
58
3
33
494,000
56,000
88
4
77
440,000
234,000
46
5
77
208,000
30,000
85
6
146
117,000
13,000
88
7
33
182,000
19,000
89
8
77
141,000
11,000
92
9
33
174,000
23,000
86
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
201
Table XX^'III. — Leucocytes per Cubic Centimeter in Certified Milk before
and after Clarification — Concluded.
Sample No.
Cow.
Before.
After.
Per Cent.
Reduction.
10,
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18.
19,
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25,
77
33
62
146
56
77
24
33
62
146
77
56
24
62
62 and 33
62 and 33
163,000
260,000
150,000"
81,000
340,000
31,000
97,000
520,000
80,000
55,000
21,000
364,000
260,000
200,000
370,000
200,000
21,000
21,000
13,000
17,000
35,000
13,000
17,000
190,000
26,000
13,000
7,000
39,000
26,000
25,000
52,000
20,000
Table XXIX. — Leucocytes per Cubic Centimeter in Commercial Milk
before and after Clarification.
Sample No.
Before.
After.
Per Cent.
Reduction.
1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
250,000
230,000
130,000
200,000
290,000
400,000
65,000
30,000
12,000
20,000
50,000
30,000
The tables furnish an understanding of the leucocytic situation in
clarification. If nothing else is to be attributed to the ejection of cellular
elements, it can be safely said that the clarifier does perform its function
very satisfactorily in removing normal corpuscular elements, and, farther,
should there be accumulations or aggregations due to inflammatory
conditions, it doubtless eliminates every particle of this heavier suspended
mass, inasmuch as the surface is reduced and its power to remain sus-
pended long in the milk destroyed. What is gained by this act is to be
202
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
estimated by the general understanding that, so far as possible, all traces
of inflammatory products should be removed from milk. This is to be
done whether any tangible reason can be given or not at present; it is
the consensus of opinion that at times, at least, these products are dan-
gerous, especially the micro-organisms giving rise to them.
The Fibrin (so-called) in Milk.
A substance which has been designated as fibrin is visible in milk when
treated with a fibrin staining process. This is ahnost invariably removed
by clarification. It cannot be our purpose to assign to this particular
substance any role other than existence, in accordance with results of
staining. That such results are obtainable can be best verified by actual
trial.
Table XXX. — Presence of Fibrin in Certified Milk hejwe and after
Clarification.
Sample No.
Cow.
Before.
After.
1,
2.
3.
4,
5.
6,
7,
8,
9.
10,
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19,
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25.
33
77
33
77
77
146
33
33
62
146
56
77
24 ■
33
62
146
56
24
62
33 and 62
33 and 62
CLAEIFICATION OF MILK.
203
Table XXXI. — Presence of Fibrin in Covimercial Milk before and after
Clarification.
Sample No.
Before.
After.
Sample No.
Before.
After.
1,
+
—
4,
—
—
2,
+
+
5,
-
—
3,
—
—
6,
+
-
MiCRO-OEGANISMS IN MiLK.
This particular aspect of the work seems to be the most popular for
testing the efficiency of the clarifier, and yet it has a faulty basis which is
not always considered in conclusions. Microbial counts may tell a very
misleading falsehood unless the full story is told and the conditions are
fully understood.
Several contributions have been made upon the removal or non-removal
of bacteria by the clarifier. Dr. J. Arthur McClintock ^ divided clarifiers
into three types, — A, B and C.
Out of 26 tests made with type A, he obtained a reduction of 29.7 to
55.1 per cent.
Out of 22 tests made with type B, he obtained a reduction of — 3.5 to
29.8 per cent. Only two instances of increase occurred among the 22
tests. These account for the — 3.5 per cent.
Out of 12 tests made with type C, he obtained a reduction of — 631 to
35.9 per cent. Only in one instance among these 12 tests did he have an
increase, which alone accounts for the — 631 per cent.
These results are so different from those which follow that the reviewer
hesitates to accept them without further data, and does not feel at liberty
to accord with the deductions from his study of the different types of
clarifiers. There must be influences at work which the writer failed to
record.
There may be gleaned an astounding statement from A. J. Hinkelmann,-
in which he says: "I have found that the pathogenic bacteria commonly
met with are precipitated much more readily than are the non-pathogenic."
Such selective power on the part of the clarifier almost bespeaks super-
human capacity. It also indicates that if an organism is pathogenic
(which, of course, has onlj;- restricted application, depending upon species
of animal affected and other conditions) it possesses a distinctive specific
gravity. This scarcely seems credible, although it can be understood
that some organisms are heavier than others. The division, however,
1 McClintock, J. Arthur: An Investigation of Clarification of Milk. The Milk Trade Journal,
1916, Vol. IV, No. 6, p. 10.
- Hinkelmann, A. J.: Micro-organic Weight. Reprint from the Illinois Medical Journal,
issue of March, 191G.
204
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
can scarcely be made from pathogenesis alone, if present knowledge has
any weight. More may be said concerning this later, in connection with
some evidence which the authors may wish to furnish.
A table furnished by W. A. Stocking^ illustrates results commonly
obtained with commercial milk.
Table XXXII. — Effect of a Centrifugal Clarijier xipon the Germ-content
of Milk (Stocking).
Bacteria
Sample No. before
Clarifying.
Bacteria
after
Clarifying.
Numerical
Increase.
Per Cent.
Increase.
1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,000
15,000
60,000
133,000
370,000
9,000
22,000
156,000
197,000
643,000
3,000
7,000
96,000
64,000
273,000
50
46
160
48
73
The seemingly universal increase given bj^ Stocking is not borne out
by other workers who furnish extended studies. The explanation for
this may be found in the character of the milk used.
Parker quotes the findings of the Biochemical Laboratory of Boston.-
1 Marshall, C. E.: Microbiology, 1917, p. 390.
2 Parker, H. N.: The City Milk Supply, pp. 257, 258.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
205
Table XXXIII. — Effect of Clarifying Milk on the Bacterial Count
{Biochemical Laboratory).
Machine A, working at 0,000 Revolutions per Minute.
Date.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
in Un-
clarified
Milk.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
in
Clarified
Milk.
Numerical
Increase. '
Per Cent.
Increase. '
May 14,1915
1,700,000
1,900,000
200,000
12
1,250,000
920,000
—330,000
-26
950,000
1,500,000
550,000
58
780,000
1,200,000
420,000
54
-
1,330,000
-
-
Average
1,170,000
1,370,000
200,000
17
May 18, 1915
360,000
360,000
0
0
710,000
880,000
170,000
24
950,000
960,000
10,000
1
800,000
980,000
180,000
23
750,000
850,000
100,000
13
900,000
1,080,000
180,000
20
Average
745,0002
851,6662
76,666
10
May 19, 1915
1,350,000
1,220,000
—130,000
—9
1,600.000
1,300,000
—300,000
—19
850,000
420,000
—430,000
-50
950,000
500,000
-^50,000
—47
Average,
1,187,5002
860,000
—327,500
—27
May 20, 1915,
410,000
270,000
—140,000
—34
230,000
190,000
-40,000
—17
600,000
580,000
—20,000
—3
860,000
1,000,000
140,000
16
660,000
500,000
—160,000
—24
650,000
700,000
50,000
7
750,000
610,000
—140,000
—18
Average,
594,285
550,000
—44,285
—7
' This column added by the authors.
2 Corrected from table.
206 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XXXIY. — Effect of Clarifying Milk on the Bacterial Count (Bio-
chemical Laboratory).
Machine B, working at 6,400 Revolutions per Minute.
Date.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
in Un-
clarified
Milk.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
in
Clarified
Milk.
Numerical
Increaae. '
Per Cent.
Increase. '
May 14, 1915,
1,100,000
650,000
—450,000
—40
1,030,000
820,000
—210,000
—20
600,000
1,010,000
410,000
68
450,000
900,000
450,000
100
Average
795,0002
845,000
50,000
6
May 17, 1915,
1,070,000
580,000
—490,000
—45
780,000
980,000
200,000
25
800,000
950,000
150,000
19
1,150,000
780,000
—370,000
-32
850,000
750,000
-100,000
-12
900.000
1,400,000
500,000
55
Average,
925,000
906,666
—18,334
—2
May 19, 1915
900,000
800.000
—100,000
-11
1,110,000
910,000
—200,000
—18
780,000
660,000
—120,000
—15
870,000
930,000
60,000
7
Average,
915,000
825,000
—90,000
—10
May 21, 1915
200,000
180,000
—20,000
—10
90,000
130,000
40,000
44
280,000
240.000
—40,000
—14
130,000
170,000
40,000
30
550,000
750,000
200,000
36
760,000
820.000
60,000
8
Average, . . ^ .
335,000
381,666
46,666
14
1 This column added by the authors.
' Corrected from table.
In this table it will be noted that there are cases of increase and cases
of decrease in the number of bacteria. In this particular this work is at
variance with the conclusions drawn from Stocking's table.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
207
Clarence Bahlman^ made eight tests of market milk in which he finds
an average increase of 27 per cent.
Table XXXV. — Effect of Clarifying Milk on the Microbial Count
(Bahlman).
Test No.
1.
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
Average
Bacteria per Cubic
Centimeter.
Raw.
630,000
900,000
1,400,000
455,000
418,000
3,150,000
2,160,000
1,380,000
1,312,000
Clarified.
750,000
980,000
1,800,000
730,000
580,000
4,005,000
2,800,000
1,720,000
1,670,000
Per Cent.
Increase
Bacteria.
19
9
28
60
30
27
30
25
27
These results correspond closely with those contributed by Stocking.
All tests have shown an increase in numbers.
From Hammer 2 are gathered some modifications which give the nu-
merical increase and decrease of micro-organisms in milks containing'
germ-contents within certain limitations.
• Bahlman, Clarence: Milk Clarifiers. Amer. Jour, of Pub. Health, 1916, Vol. VI, No. 8.
' Hammer, B. W.: Studies on the Clarification of Milk. Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta., 1916. Bulletin
No. 28.
208 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XXXVI. — Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter before and after Clari-
fication {Hammer) .
[Original count under 100,000 per cubic centimeter.]
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
before
Clarification.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
after
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Change in
Number.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
before
Clarification.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
after
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Change in
Number.
61,500
58,500
— 5
12,700
13,450
6
70,000
61,000
—13
25,800
26,300
2
48,000
71,500
49
22,200
23,800
7
19,530
20,400
4
24,850
20,250
—19
41,000
41,000
0
8,200
7,950
—3
11,650
15,850
36
6,700
6,700
0
83,000
98,500
19
63,000
78,000
24
20,250
15,400
-24
30,500
46,500
52
35,500
31,500
—11
97,000
78,000
—20
91,500
95,500
4
45,500
51,000
12
67,500
70,500
4
22,500
26,700
19
38,000
35,000
—8
16,250
17,300
6
61,000
62,000
2
19,150
20.000
4
56,500
46,500
—18
7,150
9,250
29
35,500
126,500
256
8,300
7,000
—16
24,500
24,500
0'
75,500
111,000
47
24,500
24,500
0
73,500
149,500
103
18,500
53,000
186
15,000
28,500
90
48,500
43,000
—11
37,500
35,000
— 7
32,500
36,000
11
48,500
63,500
31
19,050
20,150
6
71,500
147,500
106
42,000
41,000
—2
36,500
50,000
37
7,900
6,500
—18
26,000
53,500
106
5,700
6,150
8
97,500
132,000
35
18,450
24,400
32
59,000
63,000
7
9,900
11,100
12
1 Corrected from table.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
209
Table XXX^'II. — Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter before and after Clari-
fication {Hammer) .
[Original count from 100,000 to 500,000 per cubic centimeter.]
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
before
Clarification.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
after
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Change in
Number.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
before
Clarification.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
after
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Change in
Number.
257,000
247,000
—4
450,000
345,000
-23
227,000
219,000
—4
460,000
435,000
—5
179,500
150,500
—16
190,000
392,000
106
226,000
233,500
3
365,000
450,000
23
142,500
139,000
—2
105,000
141,000
34
107,000
117,000
9
141,500
177,000
25
128,000
121,000
—5
142,500
194,000
36
111,000
101,000
-9
460,000
605,000
32
101,000
64,500
—36
430,000
1,235,000
187
131,000
149,500
14
340,000
495,000
46
400,000
450,000
12
390,000
540,000
38
480,000
560,000
17
260,000
400,000
54
233,000
320,000
37
179,000
238,000
33
260,000
435,000
67
Table XXXVIII. — Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter before and after Clari-
fication (Hammer).
[Original count over 500,000 per cubic centimeter.]
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
before
Clarification.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
after
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Change in
Number.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
before
Clarification.
Bacteria
per Cubic
Centimeter
after
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Change in
Number.
1,185,000
1,470,000
24
970,000
705,000
—27
5,450,000
5,700,000
5
580,000
655,000
13
1,885,000
1,800,000
—5
645,000
385,000
-40
1,050,000
1,095,000
4
2,385,000
2,985,000
25
2,110,000
2,265,000
7
765,000
1,275,000
67
960,000
1,080,000
12
1,590,000
1,870,000
18
550,000
1,110,000
102
545,000
785,000
44
Fifty-one comparisons were made on samples showing less than 100,000
organisms per cubic centimeter. In 3 cases (6 per cent.) the bacterial content
before and after clarification was the same; in 14 cases (27 per cent.) there was
a decrease during clarification varying from 2 to 24 per cent., and averaging
210 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
12 per cent.; while in the remaining 34 cases (67 per cent.) there was an in-
crease during clarification varying from 2 to 256 per cent, and averaging 41
per cent. If the total 51 samples are considered there was an average in-
crease of 24 per cent.
Twenty-seven comparisons were made on samples containing from 100,000
to 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter in the unclarified milk; 9 comparisons
(33 per cent.) showed a decrease during clarification varying from 2 to 36 per
cent, and averaging 12 per cent., while 18 comparisons (67 per cent.) showed
increases varying from 3 to 187 per cent, and averaging 43 per cent. Con-
sidering all of the samples there was an average increase of 25 per cent.
Fourteen comparisons were made on samples containing more than 500,000
bacteria per cubic centimeter in the unclarified milk; only 3 comparisons
(21 per cent.) showed a decrease during clarification, 1 of 5, 1 of 27, and 1 of
40 per cent, (averaging 24 per cent.), while 11 comparisons (79 per cent.)
showed increases varying from 4 to 102 per cent, and averaging 29 per cent.
There was an average increase of 18 per cent, when the total 14 samples are
considered.
The number of samples of milk under 100,000 bacteria per cubic centi-
meter does not show a larger percentage of decreased counts than the
samples between 100,000 and 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter; in
fact, the milk samples of over 500,000 bacteria showed a less increase than
the samples with a lower number of organisms. All the samples were
market milk samples; accordingly, the histories of the samples are un-
known. This makes it difficult to draw any specific conclusions.
Hammer's work is, however, very interesting in cormection with the
results of this laboratory, which will be furnished later.
A general critical review of the clarifier tests has been written by Prof.
E. G. Hastings for the Journal of the American Medical Association for
March 24, 1917. His conclusion intimates that the clarifier may not be
a progressive step in the purification of milk. This is a somewhat hasty
conclusion without his having investigated the results of its action a
little more closely. Too much is superficially apparent in its action to
turn it aside with the w^ave of the hand and the cynical remark, "What
next?" An extended acquaintance with the machine and its operations
will at least suggest very subtle problems, perhaps much more illuminat-
ing if solved than any which have been attacked thus far, and causes one
to speculate about milk questions which have been heretofore untouched
or remotely surveyed. From time to time these suggestions will be
hinted at in the text.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
211
T, J. Mclnerney^ has contributed the following table, which indicates
the effect of clarification upon the bacterial count in fresh and old milk: —
Table XXXIX. — Effect of Clarification on the Bacterial Content of
Fresh Milk (Mclnerney).
Bactehia per Cubic
Centimeter —
Increase —
EXPEPIMENT.
In
Unclarified
Milk.
In
Clarified
Milk.
Per Cubic
Centimeter.
Per Cent.
1,
700
1,600
900
128.57
2,
2,300
2,400
100
43.48
3,
641
1,825
1,184
184.71
4,
1,250
2,483
1,233
98.64
5.
563
2,900
2,337
415.10
6,
1,400
1,475
75
5.36
7,
525,
1,100
575
109.52
8,
6,000
9,000
3,000
50.00
9,
10,000
30,000
20,000
200.00
10.
■■
1,100
1,400
300
27.27
11.
5,000
10,000
5,000
100.00
12,
4,000
4,000
0
-
13,
4,500
18,000
13,500
300.00
14,
3,600
5,000
1,400
38.39
15,
2,100
2,600
500
23.81
16,
3,650
5,550
1,900
52.05
17,
7,000
20,000
13,000
185.71
18,
5,480
12,125
6,645
121.26
19,
10,000
13,000
3,000
30.00
20,
11,320
13,600
2,280
20.14
21,
4,280
8,000
3,720
86.91
22,
4,600
4,250
—350
-
23,
1.600
4,100
2,500
156.25
24,
15,000
22,000
7,000
46.67
25,
53,000
71,500
18,500
34.90
26, .
60,000
156,000
96,000
160.00
27, .
5,675
5,775
100
1.76
28,
10,200
11,000
800
7.84
Av
erage
•
8,410
15,739
7,329
87.15
» Mclnerney, T. J.: Clarification of Milk. Cornell University Agr. Exp. Sta., 1917. Bulletin
No. 389.
212 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XL. — Effect of Clarification on the Bacterial Content of Old and
Dirty Milk (Mchierney).
Bacteria per Cubic
Centimeter —
Increase —
Experiment.
In
Unclarified
Milk.
In
Clarified
Milk.
Per Cubic
Centimeter.
Per Cent.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
830,000
40,000
494,000
133,500
15,000,000
37,800,000
1,500,000
370,000
600,000
55,000
19,000,000
248,000
558,750
190,000
83,400,000
1,590,000
4,420,000
13,900,000
110,000
6,400,000
197,500
30,000,000
40,000,000
3,200,000
643,000
1,300,000
175,000
160,000,000
425,000
1,863,300
237,000
91,030,000
1,831,000
5,700,000
13,070,000
70,000
5,906,000
64,000
15,000,000
2,200,000
1,700,000
273,000
700,000
120,000
141,000,000
177,000
1,304,550
47,000
7,630,000
241,000
1,280,000
1,574.70
175.00
1,195.55
47.94
100.00
5.82
113.33
73.78
116.67
218.18
742.10
71.37
233.48
' 24.74
9.15
15.16
28.96
Average,
9,778,191
21,000,694
11,222,503
114.77
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
213
James M. Sherman^ has also furnished his results of the bacterial
counts before and after clarification.
Table XLI. — Effect of Clarification on the Bacterial Count of Milk
(Sherman).
Test No.
1.
2,
3,
4,
5,
6.
7,
8,
»,
10, . . .
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19,
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
Average,
Bacteria pek Cubic
Centimeter —
Machine.
Before
Clarification.
After
Clarification.
A
3,700
6,100
A
3,800
6,300
A
5,500
8,500
A
2,900
6,300
A
4,200
6.200
A
4,100
6.200
A
3,400
7,400
A
3,900
6,100
A
3,400
4,900
A
3,000
4,900
A
3,200
6,800
A
4,300
9,600
B
3,300
5,600
B
5,900
7,300
B
9,300
13,800
B
4,800
7,600
B
1,800
3,100
B
2,500
3,300
B
2,900
3,700
B
11,400
13,400
B
4,300
6,400
B
3,600
4,500
B
10,300
13,400
B
7,800
9,300
-
4,720
7,120
Again there is the decided increase of micro-organisms following clari-
fication.
Although realizing that the usual interpretation of microbial counts in
this connection has no basis in actual truth, and there can be no increase
because the milk passes through the clarifier so quickly that there is no
1 Sherman, James M.: Bacteriological Tests of Milk Clarifier. Jour, of Dairy Science, 1917,
Vol. I, No. 3, p. 272.
214 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
time for multiplication, and, further, in the slime large masses of organ-
isms are found, this laboratory has felt it desirable, nevertheless, to
undertake the determination of the number of organisms in milk before
and after clarification, not so much for the purpose of contributing to
what has already been given, but rather for the piu-pose of knowing what-
is really involved in the determination and what interpretation of the
results obtained may be given. Since the operation of clarifying is so
short, it is difficult to believe that any multiplication takes place, as has
already been stated above. If none takes place then it must be a dis-
ruption in colonies, which leads the student to wonder whether there is
greater efficiency in micro-organisms liberated from a disrupted colony as
compared with the same organisms imbedded in the colony. This will
appear later.
The authors' studies were carried out under the following conditions : —
The clarifier used was No. 98 De Laval. It was run by a ^-horsepower
motor at uniform speed of 7,200 to 7,300 revolutions per minute. The
temperature was maintained at 60° C. when clarifying. As soon as the
machine reached full speed the milk was passed tlirough. The bowls,
discs, etc., were sterilized in an autoclave at 15 pounds pressure for thirty
minutes. The milk both before and after clarification was thoroughly
mixed prior to taking the samples, which were placed in sterile flasks.
In the case of certified milk, the milk was obtained from the milker in
the "certified" stable; in the case of the commercial milk, from the
receiving room of the college dairy. The commercial milk came from the
farmers in the vicinity of the college, and was not above the average
commercial milk. It doubtless reached the clarifier sooner than it would
had it been sent to a city from Amherst, then clarified after reaching the
city.
For estimating the number of bacteria in mUk, the Standard Methods
of the American Public Health Association were employed. An effort
was made to adhere to these methods in all of our work so far as
feasible.
A determination of the number of bacteria cast out by the clarifier into
the slime has been undertaken both by a direct count, mathematical cal-r
culation, and by repeated maceration and clarification. Methods and
discussion will be reserved until after some facts have been placed before
the reader.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
215
Table XLII, — Bacteria in Certified Milk from Individual Cows before and
after Clarification.
Sample No.
Cow.
Number of
Organisms
in 1 Cubic
Centimeter
of Un-
clarified
Milk.
Number of
Organisms
in 1 Cubic
Centimeter
of
Clarified
Milk.
Per Cent.
Increase.
1,
2,
3,
4,
5.
6,
7,
8,
«.
10,
11.
12,
13,
14,
15,
16.
17,
18,
19,
20,
21.
22,
23.
24,
25,
26,
27,
28.
29,
30,
31,
32,
33,
33
77
33
77
77
146
33
77
33
77
33
62
146
56
77
24
33
62
146
77
56
24
62
62 and 33
62 and 33
33
77
33
77
33
77
33
77
5,000
1,100
4,000
2,000
1,100
1,700
4,000
1,600
12,000
9,000
4,000
4,000
1,500
3,800
11,000
3,600
100
500
1,000
2,000
4,000
1,900
2,000
100
5,000
1,700
1,500
1,300
1,000
3,000
800
1,800
1,500
2,000
800
3,000
2,000
1,000
3,000
2,200
5,000
6,000
8,000
3,000
1,100
1,200
5,000
9,000
1,200
500
400
1,200
800
1,000
1,100
600
200
6,000
1,000
500
2,000
1,000
1,500
1,300
600
1,000
—60
—27
—25
—9
76
—45
212
—50
—11
—25
—72
—20
31
—18
—66
400
—20
20
—60
—75
—42
—70
100
20
—41
—66
53
—50
62
—66
—33
216 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XLII. — Bacteria in Certified Milk from Individual Cows before
and after Clarification — Concluded.
Number of
Number of
Organisms
Organisms
in 1 Cubic
in 1 Cubic
Per Cent.
Increase.
Sample No.
Cow.
Centimeter
of Un-
Centimeter-
of
clarified
Clarified
Milk.
Milk.
34
33
700
1,900
171
35
77
700
5,000
614
36
33
5,000
2,000
—60
37
77
1,100
800
—27
Table XLIII. — Bacteria in Commercial Milk before and after Clarification.
Sample No.
Number of
Bacteria in
1 Cubic
Centimeter of
Unclarified
Milk.
Number of
Bacteria in
1 Cubic
Centimeter
of Clarified
Milk.
Per Cent.
Increase.
1,
2,
3,
4,
5.
6,
7,
8,
9,
10,
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
250,000
100,000
75,000
20,000
5,000
125,000
130,000
25,000
20,000
350,000
30,000
40,000
30,000
10,000
16,000
900,000
200,000
65,000
50,000
12,000
70,000
400,000
48,000
35,000
250,000
40,000
50,000
20,000
10,000
33,000
260
100
—13
150
14
—44
207
92
75
—28
33
25
—33
106
The following superficial and provisional conclusions may be drawn
from these tables : —
1. In the case of fresh certified milk about 70 per cent, of the tests give
an increase in bacterial content in unclarified milk over the same milk
clarified. This leaves 30 per cent, showing an increase after clarification.
2. In the case of commercial milk about 85 to 90 per cent, show an
CLARIFICATION OF MILK. 217
increase in the bacterial content after clarification over the same milk
unclarified.
3. The slime sediment reveals a deposit of bacteria which of com-se
must come out of the milk undergoing clarification (see page 190).
There seems to be a tendency, which is not universal because the milk
from different cows varies so, for milk at the time of milking (70 per cent,
of the cases) to undergo a reduction in the number of bacteria after clari-
fication as revealed by plating, while milk which stands increases in its
number of bacteria after clarification in direct proportion to the time that
it is permitted to stand before clarification.
This would indicate that fresh certified milk is freer from colonies and
has a greater number of single organisms, and these single bacteria are
thrown out with the slime (see "Slime," page 195), in some cases to a
considerable extent. In certain instances, however, colonies have formed
and are disrupted, thus increasing the bacterial content of certified clari-
fied milk (30 per cent, of the cases).
The commercial milk appears to admit of so much colonizing with the
subsequent disruption by the clarifier that a high percentage (85 to 90
per cent.) of samples will give an increased number of bacteria after clari-
fication. Since a large number of bacteria is found in the slitne, and
there is little opportunity for multiplication during the process of clari-
fication, the increase in the number of bacteria is only apparent and not
real.
Thus far we are substantially in accord with the report of the Biochem-
ical Laboratory of Boston, Hammer and Bahlman. Assuming that micro-
organisms have no time to multiply, it follows that although a count-
increase is evidenced by the plating method, the number is actually
reduced by those appearing in the slime.
Serial Counts of Micro-organisms in Clarified and Unclarified Milk over a
Period of Time.
Together with the single bacterial counts of milk before and after clarifi-
cation should be considered two-hour counts of milk, certified and market,
unclarified and clarified, extending over seventy-two hours. This study
will give a more precise knowledge of the effect of clarification upon the
germ-content of milk in spite of the errors creeping in from colonization
and plating. It will be seen at once that the graphs depict a situation not
revealed by the single count before and after clarification, and they corre-
spond more closely with actual experience. This taken together with,
other factors, as the character of fermentation resulting from clarification
(see page 240), has great significance.
218
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
I
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The conclusion may be drawn from these graphs that there is no great
distinction to be made between clarified and unclarified milk so far as
bacterial counts are concerned. Yet when the character of change is
contrasted, microbial influences are patent as between the unclarified and
clarified samples.
Incidental questions having more or less relation to the previous dis-
cussion may arise. Some of these questions have been anticipated in our
work, and have been added as illuminative material.
228
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XLFV. — A Determination of the Niimher of Bacteria per Cubic
Centimeter in Clarified and Unclarified Commercial Milk Held at 14° C.
and Plated at Intervals of Twenty-four Hours.
Test.
Sample.
At Once.
24 Hours.
48 Hours.
72 Hours.
I. .
Before clarification.
After clarification.
3,600,000
2,600,000
1,750,000
3,100,000
5,600,000
5,200,000
250,000,000
250,000,000
II,
Before clarification,
After clarification,
36,000
34,000
800,000
525,000
67,100,000
50,600,000
80,000,000
40,000,000
III,
Before clarification,
After clarification,
3,600
2,100
-
4,100,000
3,700,000
7,500,000
15,000,000
IV,
Before clarification.
After clarification.
28,000
39,000
9,958,000
9,950,000
210,000,000
220,000,000
350,000,000
400,000,000
V. .
Before clarification.
After clarification,
2,500
2,350
2,300
3,200
230,000
190,000
25,000,000
39,000,000
VI,
Before clarification.
After clarification.
7,750,000
6,340,000
40,000,000
27,400,000
539,000,000
465,000,000
752,000,000
441,000,000
VII,
Before clarification.
After clarification,
4,000,000
2,740.000
14.600,000
19,600.000
201,000,000
209,000,000
400,000,000
187,000,000
VIII. .
Before clarification.
After clarification.
500,000
450,000
20,400,000
13,500,000
120,000,000
160,000,000
237,000,000
135,000,000
IX,
Before clarification,
After clarification,
330,000
240,000
14,500,000
10,000.000
41,200,000
40,000,000
166,000,000
100,000,000
X,
Before clarification, .
After clarification.
4,500,000
4,000,000
21,200,000
19,200,000
340,000,000
210,000,000
750,000,000
450,000,000
XI,
Before clarification.
After clarification,
1,500,000
1.200.000
20,000,000
25,000,000
500,000,000
420,000,000
650,000,000
560.000.000
Table XLV. — A Determination of the Number of Bacteria per Cubic Centi-
meter in Clarified and Unclarified Certified Milk Held at 10° C. and
Plated at Intervals of Twenty-four Hours.
Test.
Sample.
At Once.
24 Hours.
48 Hours.
I
Before clarification.
After clarification, .
940
580
1.000
1,050
900
600
II,
Before clarification.
After clarification. .
1,450
4,200
2,200
3,700
2.400
4,600
Ill
Before clarification,
After clarification, .
1,800
2,600
1,740
2,500
2,000
3,200
IV
Before clarification,
After clarification. .
980
810
1,150
860
1,000
650
V
Before clarification,
After clarification, .
1,400
i;200
1.100
1.750
1.000
1,200
VI
Before clarification,
After clarification, .
4,000
3,000
4,000
3,100
4,300
2,500
VII
Before clarification,
After clarification, .
5,000
4,000
4,700
5,000
2.300
1,400
vni
Before clarification.
After clarification. .
3,000
4,100
2,300
2.000
3.500
2,500
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
229
Incidentally only, it is interesting to note the effect of repeated clari-
fication upon the same sample. From this it may be seen that neither
the slime nor bacteria are removed to such an extent that repeated clari-
fication will not eliminate more bacteria and more slime.
Table XLVI. — Effect of Repeated Clarification on Bacterial Count of
Same Sample of Market Milk.
Bac-
teria
per
Cubic
Centi-
meter
in
Milk.
Weight
of
Slime
in
Grams.
Second
Clarification.
Third
Clarification.
Fourth
Clarification.
> .
Bac-
teria
per
Cubic
Centi-
meter.
Weight
of
Slime
in
Grams.
Bac-
teria
per
Cubic
Centi-
meter.
Weight
of
Slime
in
Grams.
Bac-
teria
per
Cubic
Centi-
meter.
Weight
of
Slime
in
Grains.
Before clarification, .
After clarification, .
Before clarification, .
After clarification, .
Before clarification, .
After clarification, .
50,000
70,000
7,000
17,000
25,000
18,000
3.122
2.091
3.265
74,000
48,000
25,000
11,000
9,000
22,000
1.379
1.002
1.315
48,000
40,000
11,000
22,000
1.236
.927
.865
40,000
.925
In connection with the singlfe and serial bacterial counts it will be
pertinent to study also the effect of clarification upon specific organisms
in different substances, for in this manner a possibility is furnished of
gaining some adequate notion of how the clarifier acts in centrifuging out
certain types of organisms.
Table XLVII. — Effect of Clarification on Pure Cultures of Bacteria.
B. suhtilis.
Suspended in •
Before
Clarification.
After
Clarification.
Result
or Per Cent.
Removed.
First Test.
Water
Broth (A. P. H. A.), . .
Skimmed milk, .
Second Test.
Water,
Broth (A. P. H. A.), .
Skimmed milk, .
Whole milk,
105,000
95,000
107,000
75,000
90,000
95,000
92,000
7,000
15,000
48,000
2,000
18,000
25,000
56,000
93.3
84.3
55.2
97.0
80.0
74.0
40.0
230 MASS. EXPEEIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XLVII. — Effect of Clarification on Pure Cultures of
Bacteria — Continued.
B. colt.
Suspended in —
Before
Clarification.
After
Clarification.
Result
or Per Cent.
Removed.
First Test.
Water,
Broth (A. P. H. A.), .
Skimmed milk, .
Whole milk,
Second Test.
Water
Broth (A. P. H. A.), .
Skimmed milk, .
Whole milk.
480,000
465,000
495,000
530,000
370,000
395,000
315,000
400,000
118,000
115,000
375,000
320,000
90,000
135,000
215,000
280,000
76
75
28
40
76
66
31
30
B. cyanogenes.
Water,
20,000
7,000
65
B. megatherium.
Water,
10,000
3,000
B. subtilia.
Water, .
Gum tragic- water.
70,000
70,000
10,000
55,000
B. subtilis.
Specific
Gravity.
Suspended in —
Before
Clarification.
After
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Removed.
1.000
1.003
1.005
1.009
Water
Water+1 per cent, gelatin, .
Water+2 per cent, gelatin,
Water+4 per cent, gelatin, .
100,000
138,000
110,000
120,000
5,000
25,000
40.000
48,000
95
82
64
60
B. subtilis.
1.000
Water
65,000
3,000
95
1.003
Water+l per cent, sucrose, .
116,000
5.000
94
1.011
Water+3 per cent, sucrose, .
126,000
13,000
89
1.023
Water+6 per cent, sucrose, .
95,000
12,000
87
1.026
Water+8 per cent, sucrose, .
103,000
18,000
83
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
231
Table XLVII. — Effect of Clarification on Pure Cultures of
Bacteria — Continued.
Streptococcus
pyogenes.
Suspended in —
Before
Clarification.
After
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Removed.
First Test.
Salt solution,
2,120,000
370,000
83
Whey solution.
1,750,000
550,000
68
Certified milk,
Second Teat.
2,600,000
2,100,000
19
Salt solution,
2.370,000
345,000
85
Whey solution.
2,000,000
850,000
69
Certified milk,
Third Test.
1,900,000
1,870,000
16
Salt solution.
2,000,000
450,000
77
Whey solution,
1,750,000
700,000
60
Certified milk.
1,400,000
1,000,000
27
Staphylococcus albus.
Salt solution,
Whey solution,
Certified milk,
Salt solution,
Whey solution,
Certified milk,
Salt solution.
Whey solution,
Certified milk,
First Test.
Second Teat.
Third Teat.
130,000
10,000
91
175,000
44,000
75
705,000
285,000
59
800,000
44,000
94
420,000
143,000
66
870,000
460,000
47
1,200,000
180,000
93
400,000
82,000
79
950.000
540,000
43
232
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XL VII. — Effect of Clarification on Pure Cultures of
Bacteria — Continued.
B. prodigiosus.
Suspended in •
Before
Clarification.
After
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Removed.
First Test.
Salt solution,
Whey solution, .
Certified milk, .
Second Test.
Salt solution.
Whey solution, .
Certified milk, .
Third Test.
Salt solution.
Whey solution, .
Certified milk, .
700,000
400,000
1,350,000
3,100,000
2,290,000
3,400,000
830,000
2,000,000
1,970,000
230,000
170,000
1,100,000
840,000
1,250,000
2,600,000
220,000
1,400,000
1,370,000
67
57
18
72
45
22
73
30
30
B. tumescens.
Salt solution.
Whey solution,
Certified milk.
Salt solution.
Whey solution.
Certified milk.
Salt solution.
Whey solution.
Certified mUk,
First Test.
Second Test.
Third Test.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
233
Table XLVII. — Effect of Clarification on Pure Cultures of
Bacteria — Concluded.
B. noli.
Suspended in —
Before
Claxification.
After
Clarification.
Per Cent.
Removed
6.200,000
1,230,000
80
4,590,000
4,300,000
6
5,510,000
4,355,000
21
2,800,000
440,000
84
1,800,000
1,600,000
11
2,800,000
2,590,000
7
1,300,000
440,000
66
1,650,000
1,270,000
23
2,895,000
2,750,000
5
First Test.
Salt solution.
Whey solution, .
Certified milk,
Second Test.
Salt solution,
Whey solution, .
Certified milk,
Third Test.
Salt solution.
Whey solution, .
Certified milk, .
Streptococcus lacticus.
First Teat.
Salt solution.
Whey solution, .
Certified milk.
Second Test.
Salt solution,
Whey solution, .
Certified milk, .
Third Test.
Salt solution.
Whey solution, .
Certified milk,
4,500,000
3,500,000
1,000,000
700,000
720,000
600,000
400,000
430,000
1,060,000
1,500,000
1,300,000
800,000
120,000
60,000
540,000
35,000
70,000
600,000
66
63
20
82
91
10
91
82
43
Note. — 1. Salt Solution. — Prepared by adding 8.5 grams of sodium chloride to 1,000 cubic
centimeters of distilled water. Sterilized by autoclaving at 15 pounds for thirty minutes.
2. Whey Solution. — Prepared from whey secured from the college dairy. Egg albumin was
added to the whey, and heated for two hours in the flowing steam. It was then filtered clear
through filter paper. To this was added 1 per cent, of bacto-gelatin and sterilized intermittently.
3. Certified Milk. — Fresh certified milk secured from the college herd.
4. In each of the experiments 1,000 cubic centimeters of the material was employed. The pure
culture under test was added directly from a twenty-four-hour mOk or broth culture, after the
quantity of culture to be used had been determined.
5. The specific gravity and viscosity of the whey menstruum were approximately that of cer-
tified milk, as determined by preliminary experiments with pyknometer and viscosimeter.
6. Room temperature in which experiments were conducted varied from 19* to 23° C, so that
clarification was conducted within this range of temperature.
234
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XL VIII. — Effect of Clarification on Pure Cultures of Molds and
Yeasts.
Ehizopus nigricans spores.
Before Clarification.
After Clarification.
Test No.
100 Dilution.
100 Dilution.
1,000
Dilution.
1
2
3
10, or 1,000 per cubic centimeter,
30, or 3,000 per cubic centimeter,
11, or 1,100 per cubic centimeter,
1, or 100 per cubic centimeter,
Sterile,!
Sterile,
Sterile.
Sterile.
Sterile.
Penicillium glaucum spores.
1
10, or 1,000 per cubic centimeter,
Sterile
SterUe.
2
40, or 4,000 per cubic centimeter.
1, or 100 per cubic centimeter.
Sterile.
3
20, or 2,000 per cubic centimeter.
2, or 200 per cubic centimeter.
Sterile.
Oidiuni lactis spores. *
Before Clarification.
After Clarification.
Test No.
1,000 Dilution.
100 Dilution.
1,000
Dilution.
1
2
3
14, or 14,000 per cubic centimeter, .
24, or 24,000 per cubic centimeter, .
11, or 11,000 per cubic centimeter, .
Sterile,
4, or 400 per cubic centimeter,
X, or 100 per cubic centimeter,
Sterile.
Sterile.
Sterile.
Saccha'romyces cerevisicB.
1
200, or 200,000 per cubic centimeter.
1, or 100 per cubic centimeter.
Sterile.
2
370, or 370,000 per cubic centimeter.
1, or 100 per cubic centimeter.
SterUe.
3
120, or 120,000 per cubic centimeter,
3, or 300 per cubic centimeter.
Sterile.
Aspergillus niger spores.
1
16, or 16,000 per cubic centimeter, .
6, or 600 per cubic centimeter.
Sterile.
2
7, or 7,000 per cubic centimeter.
4, or 400 per cubic centimeter.
Sterile.
3
5, or 5,000 per cubic centimeter.
1, or 100 per cubic centimeter.
SterUe.
Note. — Molds were grown in pure culture; spores were swept up with sterile filter paper and
introduced into 1,000 cubic centimeters of sterile milk. After thorough agitation mUk was clari-
fied under sterile conditions. Counts were made immediately before and after.
Cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisice were grown on wort medium at room temperature for three
days; 5 cubic centimeters of the culture were inoculated directly into 1,000 cubic centimeters of
SterUe milk. After thorough agitation, milk was clarified under sterile conditions. Counts were
made immediately before and after.
1 "Sterile" means that no colonies appeared when plates were made of the dUutions indicated.
« Oidium was grown directly in sterUe milk at room temperature for three days, untU small
colonies appeared on surface.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
235
Table XLIX. — Effect of Three Clarifications on Pure Cultures.
Streptococcus pyogenes.
Suspended in —
First
Clarification.
Second
Clarification.
Third
Clarification.
Per
Cent.
Re-
moved.
Before.
After.
Before.
After.
Before.
After.
First Test.
Salt solution,
2,120,000
370,000
370,000
80,000
80,000
14,000
99
Whey solution, .
1,750,000
550,000
550,000
250,000
250,000
75,000
95
Certified milk, .
2,600,000
2,100,000
2,100,000
-
-
800,000
69
Second Test.
Salt solution,
2,370,000
345,000
345.000
78,000
78,000
15,500
99
Whey solution, .
2,000,000
850,000
850,000
325,000
325,000
100.000
95
Certified milk, .
1,900,000
1,870,000
1,870,000
1,200,000
1,200,000
900,000
52
Third Test.
Salt solution.
2,000,000
450,000
450,000
95,000
95,000
22,500
98
Whey solution, .
1,750,000
700,000
700,000
370,000
370,000
110,000
93
Certified milk, .
1,400,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
600,000
600.000
400,000
71
Staphylococcus albus.
First Test.
Salt solution,
130,000
10,000
10,000
1,200
1,200
100
99
Whey solution, .
175,000
44,000
44.000
7,500
7,500
1.600
99
Certified milk, .
705,000
285.000
285.000
147.000
147,000
56,000
92
Second Test.
Salt solution,
800,000
44,000
44.000
3,300
3,300
200
99
Whey solution, .
420,000
143,000
143.000
31,000
31,000
3.600
99
Certified milk, .
870,000
460,000
460.000
260,000
260,000
126,000
85
Third Test.
Salt solution.
350,000
31,000
31,000
1.500
1,500
100
99
Whey solution, .
400,000
82,000
82,000
21.000
21,000
4,000
99
Certified milk, .
950,000
540,000
540,000
350.000
350.000
75,000
92
236
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table XLIX. — Effect of Three Clarifications on Pure Cultures —
Continued.
B. tumescens.
Suspended in —
First
Clarification.
Second
Clarification.
Third
Clarification.
Per
Cent.
Before.
After.
Before.
After.
Before.
After.
Re-
moved.
First Test.
Salt solution,
31,000
20,000
20,000
1,000
1,000
70
99
Whey solution, .
20,000
2,000
2,000
6,000
6,000
60
99
Certified milk, .
33,000
70,000
70,000
8,400
8,400
4,100
87
Second Test.
Salt solution,
22,500
3,000
3,000
1,000
1,000
550
93
Whey solution, .
13,000
6,000
6,000
500
500
150
98
Certified milk, .
32,000
10,000
10,000
2,500
2,500
1,300
96
Third Test.
Salt solution.
40,000
3,000
3,000
750
750
200
99
Whey solution, .
20,000
5,000
5,000
600
600
500
97
Certified milk, .
77,000
16,000
16,000
4,800
4,800
2,400
97
B. coli.
First Test.
Salt solution,
6,200,000
1,230,000
1,230,000
350,000
350,000
90,000
98
Whey solution, .
4,590,000
4,300,000
4,300,000
1,850,000
1,850,000
660.000
83
Certified milk, .
5,510,000
4,355,000
4,355,000
4,000,000
4,000,000
3,625,000
32
Second Test.
Salt solution,
2,800,000
440,000
440,000
210,000
210,000
50,000
98
Whey solution, .
2,775,000
2.375,000
2,375,000
1,130,000
1,130,000
430,000
84
Certified milk, .
2,800,000
2,590,000
2,590,000
2,400,000
2,400,000
1,900,000
32
Third Test.
Salt solution.
1,300.000
440,000
440,000
62,000
62,000
26,000
93
Whey solution, .
1,650,000
1,270,000
1,270,000
620,000
620,000
320,000
80
Certified milk, .
, 870,000
1,700,000
1,700,000
950,000
950,000
750,000
14
CLARIFICATION OF MILK.
237
Table XLIX. — Effect of Three Clarifications on Pure Cultures —
Concluded.
B. prodigiosiis.
Suspended in —
First
Clarification.
Second
Clarification.
Third
Clarification.
Per
Cent.
Before.
After.
Before.
After.
Before.
After.
Re-
moved.
First Test.
Salt solution,
144,000
14,000
14,000
13,000
13,000
1,600
91
Whey solution, .
153,000
99,000
99,000
24,100
24,100
15,000
90
Certified milk, .
1,100,000
1,100,000
1,100,000
600,000
600,000
420,000
61
Second Test.
Salt solution,
700,000
230,000
230,000
82,000
82,000
17,000
97
Whey solution, .
400,000
170,000
170,000
90,000
90,000
47,000
88
Certified mUk, .
1,350,000.
1,100,000
1,100,000
800,000
800,000
550,000
59
Third Test.
Salt solution.
830,000
220,000
220,000
75,000
75,000
30,000
96
Whey solution, .
2,000,000
1,400,000
1,400,000
630,000
630,000
340,000
83
Certified milk, .
1,970,000
1,370,000
1,370,000
1,312,000
1,312,000
796,000
59
Streptococcus lacticus.
First Test.
Salt solution,
4,500,000
1,500,000
1,500,000
375,000
375,000
125,000
97
Whey solution, .
3,500,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
400,000
88
Certified milk, .
1,000,000
800,000
800,000
360,000
360,000
300,000
70
Second Test.
Salt solution.
700,000
120,000
120,000
36,000
36,000
8,400
98
Whey solution, .
720,000
60,000
60,000
20,000
20,000
1,500
99
Certified milk, .
600,000
540,000
540,000
300,000
300,000
80,000
86
Third Test.
Salt solution,
400,000
35,000
35,000
12,000
12,000
1,200
99
Whey solution, .
430,000
70,000
70,000
40,000
40,000
10,000
97
Certified milk, .
1,060,000
600,000
600,000
60,000
60,000
50,000
95
238 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
Table L. — Streptococci Suspended in Milk Subjected to Clarification.
I. Bacterial count of whole milk J Before clarification, 33,000 1 ,
before adding streptococci. ^After clarification, 16,000 J
Bacterial count of same milk /Before clarification, 29,000,000
after adding streptococci
; /Before clarification, 29,000,000 \„^ , .
S . , , ,. „^ „,^„ ^„„ ^24 per cent, mcrease.
\After clarification, 36,000,000 J ^
II. Bacterial count of whole milk J Before clarification, 75,000 1.. ^ .
/ >60 per cent, mcrease.
before adding streptococci. (_ After clarification, 120,000 J
Bacterial count of same milk /Before clarification, 2,000,000 \
after adding streptococci. \After clarification, 3,700,000/
80 per cent, increase.
Colonization of Bacteria in Milk.
Little can be stated with any degree of assurance eoncerning colouiza-
tion of bacteria in milk. That colonization occurs, and that the degree of
colonization is irregular in different milks, can be attested in several ways.
One of these methods is set forth in what might be wisely designated as
the provisional conclusions offered by many of the workers who have
determined the number of bacteria before and after clarifying, assuming
that the increased count is due to the breaking up of the colonies formed.
This is, of course, indirect evidence, and must be regarded as tentative
until something more direct can be provided. Little is known of a definite
character concerning what bacteria will do in this respect, so that any
conclusions based upon this precarious factor may go far astray. Knowl-
edge of exact value upon this subject is almost entirely lacking. Again,
the tendency of bacteria to grow into colonies is daily recognized, and yet
there are conditions of cultures which do not favor such developments.
What can be said about milk, and to what extent does the colony vitiate
our crude plating methods and our comfortable conclusions based on
them? This is important and is made conspicuous by a shroud of
ignorance.
Efficiency of the Individual Organism Free and in Colony.
This leads to the next step, which is also of significance. Does the
individual organism in a colony exercise the same degree of physiological
efficiency as when the organism is alone and acting in an individual role?
We are told by Mclnerney^ that bacteria increased more rapidly in
unclarified than in clarified milk, yet a greater degree of change, as the
production of acid, is recorded in the milk influenced by clarification than
in the check culture unclarified and uninfluenced. This also occurs in a
pure culture of lactic bacteria when shaken. This suggests, possibly,
that per individual the clarified culture is doing greater work. What
values shall be attached to the individual germ free as against the
same germ in a colony? This we must know if we are going to interpret
1 Mclnerney, T. J.: Clarification of Milk. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bulletin No. 389,
April, 1917.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK. 239
milk clarification, provided the present explanation which accounts for
the increased number of bacteria after clarification is tenable. At present
our knowledge is too restricted to draw stable conclusions.
Other Considerations.
Centrifugal force has been repeatedly and commonly employed to eject
micro-organisms when in suspension, which is the case in hand. Its
values for this purpose are in a very general way understood. From the
largest micro-organism with limited surface as compared with its content,
to the minutest with its extensive surface as compared with its content,
there seems to exist a gradation in effectiveness. In other words, the
large organisms are easily ejected, while the minutest are with difficulty
cast out. In the case of some of the invisible viruses the capacity to
produce disease is not reduced materially by centrifugalization. In the
foregoing tables it is apparent that the larger micro-organisms, as the
spores of Oidium ladis and the cells of Sacch. cerevisice, respond readily
to centrifugal force, while such organisms as B. prodigiosus respond
poorly. Likewise, colonies seemingly act as large and small cells. Again,
it is well known that micro-organisms contain a variable amount of fat,
as B. tuberculosis. Fat is easily determined, too, in varying amounts in
mold and yeast cells when subjected to certain conditions of growth.
The presence of fat must influence the specific gravity of cells, which in
turn is closely related to results from centrifugalization. The age of
a microbial cell, or the stage of development, is also bound up with its
specific gravity, due probably to the degradative changes taking place.
This is easily seen in the development of a culture when the old cells
settle to the bottom.
It is verj^ evident from physical laws that the material in which micro-
organisms are suspended has a very important and peculiar influence in
their sedimentation by mechanical force. Milk, with its higher specific
gravity and viscosity, acts as a deterrent in the removal of micro-
organisms by centrifugalization, as is clearly evidenced by the preceding
tables for specific organisms. In spite of deterrent influences referred to,
micro-organisms are removed from milk in as large quantities as 75 per
cent, and over. Inasmuch as the plate colony-counts probably represent
colonies removed from milk, the percentage may rise much higher. The
results presented in the preceding tables, in which the work of the clarifier
upon specific organisms is shown, have an illuminating bearing on the
action of the clarifier in its practical application to market milk.
In considering micro-organisms in milk it is necessary to remember
the "ebb and flow" of species. All who are students of milk have
learned that in the course of fermentation-development certain types
of micro-organisms in milk gradually reach the crest of their growth
then gradually decline in numbers, as the rise and fall in numbers of the
many species which are present in fresh milk, and which practically dis-
240 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
appear as conditions change. This is also discernible in the ascendency
and decline of the lactic group followed by other types wliich appear and
disappear, leading finally to complete decomposition of the milk. This
"special growth-curve" which appears when conditions are favorable is
a factor in clarification, for by this mechanical act the conditions for
microbial development are apparently somewhat altered, and accordingly
there is resulting a more or less kaleidoscopic change. It follows, there-
fore, that an additional factor to those already controlling the stages of
alteration or fermentation in milk has been introduced, naturally yielding
somewhat different changes in the course of milk fermentation.
The removal of large numbers of bacteria by clarification, as has been
established, must exert some influence upon the changes which take place
in the clarified milk. Especially will this be true if the types which yield
more readily to centrifugalization are cast out in large numbers and the
types which seem to respond but poorly remain behind. The balance
of growth equilibrium is disturbed. When conditions of growth are so
complex as in milk, it can at once be surmised that owing to the great
variation in the germ-content of milk, both in numbers and kinds, the
results must be widely different. It seems that there ought to be evidence
which will correlate this great change in germ-content with alterations in
clarified milk as different from unclarified. It will not be possible to
furnish all of our data at the present writing. Only such evidence as has
led us into a more intimate study of these changes will be given.
When unclarified and clarified milk of the same original sample is
permitted to stand for some time at low temperature (15° C), so that the
fermentation changes appearing do not rush by unnoticed, \dsible altera-
tions are evident. The precipitated casein resulting from such a fer-
mentation may be collected then on a sterilized filter paper, and, after
covering carefully, allowed to stand at ordinary temperatures for some
time. The difference in the fermentation changes of the unclarified and
clarified milk casein is usually strikingly manifest. This demonstrates
that in the unclarified milk and casein there exist organisms which pre-
ponderate over those in the clarified milk and casein. Hence the clarifier
has ejected certain types of organisms in sufficient numbers to control
the character of the fermentation in the clarified milk and casein. Whether
these changes can be explained by the elimination of Oidium lactis and
other molds and yeasts (see page 234) cannot be definitely stated at
present.
These observations have induced us into undertaking to demonstrate
the factors involved in these differences. To this task our energies have
been directed, and some of the data are at present available, but it is
felt that the answer should be given as a single answer and as completely
as possible.
CLARIFICATION OF MILK. 241
IV. SUMMARY.
1. It is evident that our present knowledge of clarification does not
enable us to reach a scientific interpretation.
2. An intimate study of clarification not only reveals facts which assist
in its understanding, but also leads us into depths beyond our reach. It
is constantly presenting suggestions concerning milk investigations which
have not been considered heretofore through established channels. A
fertile field for research is opened.
3. The slime eliminated and the comparison of the clarified milk with
the unclarified seem to offer, at the present time, the best approach to
the study of clarification.
4. The amount of slime eliminated from milk is variable, and dependent
upon —
The condition of the cow, whether normal or abnormal.
The period of lactation.
The age or freshness of the milk.
The acidity of the milk.
The temperature at the time of clarifying.
The amount of corpuscular elements.
The amount of insoluble dirt in the milk.
5. The food value removed from milk through the elimination of slime
may be disregarded, unless there are contained within some of the ele-
ments of the slime nutritional activators, as the so-called vitamines,
which seems improbable.
6. Masses of cells are thrown out in the slime. This is especially em-
phasized when any inflammation exists in the udder. Garget, existing as
it does in ropy, tenacious form, is completely ejected. What significance
is to be attached to normal cells, so far as the authors are concerned,
cannot be stated from our present knowledge.
7. A fibrinous material responding to fibrin stains is practically wholly
eliminated from milk in clarification.
8. Practically all insoluble dirt is removed in clarification. The clari-
fier is the most effective strainer employed in the diary. Its efficiency
in this respect is greater than that of the cotton filters of the Wisconsin
Sedimentation Tester. Dirt in solution, of course, is not subject to the
action of a centrifuge or clarifier, inasmuch as it diffuses throughout the
whole mass.
9. Micro-organisms are found in large numbers — yes, in masses — in
the slime. These come from the milk, since there is no other source, and
there is not suflScient time to multiply while passing through the clarifier.
In certified milk there is also a reduction shown after clarification, as
revealed by the plating method. In market milk the number is usually
increased after clarification, as revealed by the plating method. This is
doubtless due to the disruption of colonies. Besides the above evidence
there are the results of repeated clarification of milk and pure cultures,
242 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 187.
the action of clarification upon pure cultures, and the results secured by
direct counts, — all of which testify to the elimination of micro-organisms
by the clarifier in no small degree. No differentiation between pathogens
and non-pathogens can be made. The larger the micro-organisms, speak-
ing generally, the greater the proportion cast out.
10. Frequently, yes, commonly, the action of the clarifier upon the micro-
organisms is so significant as to alter their respective power or capacity
for change in the mUk. This is easily detectable by the appearance of
clarified and unclarified samples when observed from day to day over a
period of time. It is also readily determined by filtering out the curd,
when formed, upon filter paper, and allowing it to undergo fermentation
for a few days under proper conditions.
In Part II we shall consider this alteration in clarified milk as com-
pared with unclarified milk. The work has progressed to a point that
it is safe and only fair to say that an intimate study is confirming the
general statements above.
BULLETII^ ^o. 188.
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE.
BY J. B. LINDSEY.
Part I
SOME RESULTS OF IMPORTANT INVESTIGATIONS.
A. Early Investigations.
Much work has been done, especially in Europe, concerning the prin-
ciples which underlie the nutrition of the horse, and many experiments
made to test the practical application of the knowledge secured. Among
the Europeans who have studied these matters most thoroughly may be
mentioned Boussingault ; Baudement; Sanson; Grandeau, LeClerc, Bal-
lancey and Alikan; Lavalard; Muntz and Gerard; Wolff and Kellner;
Zuntz, Hagermann and Lehmann. In the United States many experiments
have been made concerning the most suitable feeds and feed combinations
for horses. Worthy of especial mention is the one conducted by McCam-
bell of the Kansas Experiment Station ^ with the government horses at
Fort Riley.
The early investigations were based largely on the analysis and digesti-
bility of the feeds fed and the relation of digestible nutrients to mainte-
nance and work performed. Some of the more important conclusions, in-
cluding particularly the modifications of rations and methods of feeding
are mentioned below.
1. Of the total food consumed, ^ is needed for maintenance in a state of repose,
^ for bodily repair, and ^ for work performed; or ^^ for maintenance
in repose and ^z for bodily repair and work. (Grandeau-Lavalard.)
2. Work of Grandeau and his associates, 1882-94.
(a) Maize was utilized in varying proportions with oats, depending upon the
time of year and relative cost.
(6) Straw was gradually substituted for hay, followed finally by the complete
removal of the hay.
(c) Beans were fed in place of brewery by-products.
« Bui. No. 186, Kans. Exp. Sta.
244 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 188.
(d) Limited amounts of oil cakes were used in the ration.
(e) The nutritive ratio was widened from 1: 4.5 to 1: 7.1.
(/) Glucose was found to be completely digested; starch, from 76 to 98 per
cent. ; cellulose that could be hydrolyzed, from 40 to 68 per cent. ; and
crude cellulose, from 32 to 58 per cent.
(g) The average horse of 1,000 pounds needed for —
Maintenance, at rest, .76 pound of digestible protein plus 8.8 pounds of
carbohj'drates (including fat multiplied by 2.4) which contains 15,000
to 16,000 calories and has a nutritive ratio of 1: 10 to 1: 11.
Maintenance and repair, 1 pound digestible protein plus 9.9 pounds di-
gestible carbohydrates (including fat multiplied by 2.4) which con-
tains 20,000 calories and has a nutritive ratio of 1:10.
Light Work, 1.3 pounds digestible protein and 11.6 pounds digestible
carbohydrates (including fat multiplied by 2.4) which contains some
25,000 calories having a nutritive ratio of 1:7. This amount is suf-
ficient for horses doing 500,000 kilogrammeters of work daily.
3. Experiments in the French army.
The following nutrients were found to be needed per 1,000 pounds of live
weight as a result of experiments made by military officers on French
army horses in 1887-89, the ration being composed largely of oats
and hay: —
Time of peace, 1.1 pounds digestible protein plus 10.8 pounds digestible car-
bohydrates, having a nutritive ratio of 1:9.
Time of war, 1.35 pounds digestible protein plus 10.8 pounds digestible car-
bohydrates; nutritive ratio of 1:8.
4. Lavalard found that omnibus and hack horses needed 1.45 pounds digestible
protein plus 10.4 pounds digestible carbohydrates; nutritive ratio of
1 : 7 per 1,000 pounds live weight.
5. A few of Wolff's conclusions may be mentioned (1876-85). '
(a) For maintenance of a 1,100-pound horse on hay alone, 23.1 pounds were
required containing 1.26 pounds of digestible protein and 9.25 pounds
of total digestible organic nutrients, with a nutritive ratio of 1: 6.3.
(6) An average day's work for a farm or draft horse of 1,100 pounds, in good
condition, is 2,000,000 kilogrammeters, which requires 5.09 pounds
of digestible nutrients plus 9.25 pounds for maintenance, or a total
of 14.34 pounds containing 1.90 pounds protein and having a ratio
of 1:6.6.
(c) When fed an average quantity of hay exclusively, a 1,100-pound horse
cannot take over 26.4 pounds, and can do but little work on such a
diet. The addition of some clover hay enables the horse to do about
one-fourth of a day's work, while if given a full diet of alfalfa, 26
pounds, the horse is able to do fully one-half an average day's work.
(d) The ordinary food for the work horse is like amounts of hay and oats (13
pounds of hay and 13 pounds of oats for a 1,100-pound horse). The
proportions of each can be varied, depending upon the amount of the
work required.
(e) The carbohydrates furnish the chief source of heat and energy for the
horse.
(/) One kilo of oats (2.2 pounds) added to a work ration enabled the horse to
do substantially 530,400 kilogrammeters more of work, and 1 kilo of
maize, 700,000 kilogrammeters. Maize proved a very satisfactory
food to improve the weight and appearance of the horse.
(g) The horse bean when fed in an amount not exceeding 2 pounds daily
proved quite satisfactory as a source of increased protein in the ration,
but as a source of energy it hardly equaled oats.
1 Grundlagen f. d. rationelle Futterung des Pferdes, 1886.
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE. 245
The above results and others that could be cited were based largely
upon digestible nutrients in the foods fed and their relation to work per-
formed, and did not take into consideration the energy expended in digest-
ing the different kinds of feeds resulting in the loss of varying amounts
of heat, nor the heat radiation resulting from the increased metabolism
caused by certain feedstuffs.
B. Recent Investigations and the Application of Calorimetbt.
The development and application of calorimetry, and its use in studying
the intake and outgo of energy, has proved of great help in increasing our
knowledge of the principles of nutrition and the nutritive value of animal
feeds. The following calorimetric units and methods are employed in
measuring the utilization of energy : —
(a) The Calorie. — The heat which is given off by a food when combined
with or burned in oxygen is the measiu-e of its total energy. The unit of
■energy is termed the calorie, and represents the amount of heat required
to raise 1 kilogram of water 1° C. (Armsby has recently introduced the
term therm, or larger unit, meaning the amount of heat necessary to raise
1,000 kilograms of water 1° C.) According to Stohman, Berthelot and
Ilubner the heat units, or number of calories, in 1 gram of protein or car-
bohydrates are 4.1, and in fat, 9.3, and the total energy of a food is the
amounts of protein and carbohydrates multiplied by 4.1, and of fat mul-
tiplied by 9.3.
(6) The Kilogr ammeter. — This represents the mechanical equivalent of
a definite amount of heat, and is equal to the energy required to raise 1
kilogram of water 1 meter high.
A calorie of heat is equivalent in mechanical energy to that required to
raise 427 kilograms 1 meter high (or 427 kilogramme ters), and this unit
is called kilogram-calorie.
To convert digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat into kilogram-
meters, multiply the grams of protein or carbohydrates by 4.1, and the
fat by 9.3, and these products by 427.
(c) The Respiratory Quotient. — The relation of the oxygen consumed
to the carbon dioxide given off has been termed by Pfliiger the respiratory
quotient, and is determined by dividing the volume of the carbon dioxide
by the volume of oxygen.
In case of carbohydrates, glycogen, starch and sugar, the coefficient is
equal to 1; in case of albuminoids, .729; ^ of fat, .700; and of alcohol, .666.
An animal in a state of repose consumes a definite amount of oxygen
in the breaking up or burning of the food, and gives off a definite amount
of carbon dioxide, the measurement of which forms a basis for the food
required for maintenance. The consumption of oxygen and the exhala-
tion of carbon dioxide are rapidly increased the moment any work is per-
formed. This method has been used with the horse by introducing tubes
* After Lavalard, already cited, p. 123; according to Kellner, p. 75, .765.
246 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 188.
into the trachea and measuring at intervals the intake and outgo of the
respiratory gases.
(d) The Respiration Calorimeter. — The apparatus consists of an air-
tight room in which the animal is placed for different periods of time, and,
in addition to collecting the feces and urine, the carbon dioxide exhaled
and the heat radiated are accurately measured. It has been employed
particularly in nutrition experiments with man, neat cattle, dogs and even
smaller animals.
An illustration of the value of the calorimetric method over chemical an-
alysis and digestibility may be cited in the experiment conducted by Wolff,
who found that a horse weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds) required
6 kilos of oats and 6 kilos of hay, equivalent to 5,547 grams of digestible
organic nutrients (minus fiber), to keep him in a state of maintenance and
to enable him to perform 1,450,000 kilogrammeters of work. Of these
nutrients 3,551 grams were necessary for maintenance, leaving 1,996 grams
available for work. This amount — 1,996 grams — is equivalent to
3,478,030 kilogrammeters of work (1,996 multiplied by 4.1 calories equals
81,836 calories, which, multiplied by 425, equals 3,478,030), whereas the
work actually performed was 1,450,000 kilogrammeters, or 41.7 per cent.
Even this percentage was found by other experimenters to be too high,
and is explained on the ground that the horse was particularly accustomed
to such work. Ziintz and Lehmann, by the use of the respiratory quotient,
found that the percentage of similar work in relation to digestible nutrients
was reduced to 26 per cent., and Laulonie, by the same method, secured
22 per cent. In other words, after the maintenance requirement is satis-
fied, the horse seems to be able to make use of about 25 per cent, of the
remaining energy in the form of a definite kind of work (net efficiency of
the animal, Armsby).
It has been found further by Ziintz and Hagermann, in an extended
series of experiments, that the net efficiency of food in case of the horse
varies widely, depending upon the character of the work performed. Thus,
in case of walking without a load, the average efficiency was 35 per cent.;
in different grades of ascent, at a walk without a load, from 33.7 to 36.2 per
cent.; and with a load, 22.7 per cent. In case of work at a slow trot with-
out a load the net efficiency was 31.96 per cent., and with a load, from 23.4
to 31.7 pet" cent. On the basis of these studies formulas have been worked
out for the amount of food required for definite kinds of work, but it is
hardly practicable to employ them under conditions ordinarily prevailing.
By this method of procedure Ziintz has determined the net energy value
of a number of foods for the horse, and the results have led to a reduction
in the amount of coarse food supplied, and an increase in the amount of
concentrates, thus requiring the animal to expend less energy in mastica-
tion and digestion, and to care for less inert matter in the intestinal tract.
A former ration for the bus horses of Paris, composed of oats, corn, beans,
bran, hay and straw, contained 18.5 kilos of dry matter, while a ration
based on the results of recent investigations, composed of oats, corn, beans.
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE.
247
molasses and chopped straw, contained only 12.5 kilos of dry matter, and
proved to be less cumbersome, furnished a like amount of energy, caused
less digestion disturbances and was more economical,
C. Summary of Investigations,
The many investigations made, some of which have been mentioned,
have led to a number of important practical deductions concerning the
nutrition of the horse which are stated below.
1. Horses need a definite amount of nutrients per 1,000 pounds of live
weight for maintenance, and an extra quantity for work. This amount
depends upon the size and temperament of the horse and the character
and extent of the work performed.
2. In addition to the data already presented, the following recent state-
ments by Kellner and Armsby concerning the nutrients and energy re-
quirements of the horse are worthy of especial mention : —
Far Horses of 1,000 Pounds' Live Weight {Kellner).
Light Work.
Medium
Work.
Hard Work.
Dry matter (pounds),
Protein,
Pat, . . ...
Carbohydrates, .
Total (fat X 2.2),
Starch equivalent.
18-23
1.0
.4
9.8
11.7
9.2
21-26
1.4
.6
11.3
14.0
11.6
23-28
2.0
.8
13.7
17.5
15.0
For Horses of 1,000 Pounds' Live Weight (Armsby).
Light Work
(2 Hours).
Medium
Work
(4 Hours).
Hard Work
(8 Hours).
Digestible protein.
Net energy (therms).
1.0
7.6
1.4
11.1
2.0
18.2
Armsby adopts Kellner's protein standards and substitutes therms of
energy for the customary fat and carbohydrates, or starch equivalent. He
bases his knowledge of therms of net energy in feeding stuffs ^ utilized by
horses largely on the work done by Ziintz and Hagermarm. The feeding
stuffs used by these experimenters were comparatively few in number,
3, Fat should not be supplied to horses to a greater extent than is
recommended for dairy animals, and 1 pound per 1,000 pounds of live
weight should be regarded as the extreme amount.
1 The Nutrition of Farm Animals, by H. P. Armsby, p. 721.
248 MASS. EXPERIMENT ^TATION BULLETIN 188.
4. The proportion which the protein of the food should bear to the car-
bohydrates and fat (nutritive ratio) has been a matter of considerable
study and dispute. The International Congress of Nutrition ^ in 1900 dis-
cussed the matter and concluded that a relation of 1 : 6 to 1 : 7 was the most
suitable. Lavalard ^ states, as a result of his experiments, that 1 : 6 to 1:9
are permissible and satisfactory. Kellner^ states that for horses doing
work at a walk a ratio of 1 : 10 is allowable, but that for hard work, and
especially work done at a trot, a ratio of 1: 7 is preferable, because in such
cases extra protein is needed to furnish maximum amounts of blood in
order to carry the oxygen required for the rapid breaking down of the food
material.
5. Experience has taught feeders, especially in European countries,
that it is advisable to crush the coarse grains before feeding, and to cut
the roughage and make a mixture of the two. The cut roughage aids in
absorbing any moist feeds, particularly molasses, and also serves as a
distributor of the heavy concentrates.
6. French investigators have reconunended the substituting of corn,
barley, rye, oil cakes, sugar and molasses for oats, and the reducing of the
coarse fodders to a minimum, particularly for hard-worked horses, — as
low in some cases as 6 pounds daily per 1,000 pounds live weight.
7. Cut straw has been highly recommended in place of hay because it
is cheaper, is less likely to cause colic, contains less foreign material than
hay, and serves as an excellent medium for the distribution of the grain.
8. A mixture which the French authority, Lavalard, recpmmends con-
sists of 8 pounds of oats, 9 pounds of corn, 1 pound of beans, 5 pounds of
molassine meal, and 7 pounds of chopped straw. This mixture contains,
of digestible nutrients, 1.7 pounds protein, .47 pound fat, 11.52 pounds
carbohydrates, 27.5 pounds total dry matter, and 27,712 calories of energy
and is sufficient for hard-worked horses of 1,100 pounds weight.
9. For roughage the coarser hays, including alfalfa and clover, are recom-
mended, also oat, wheat and barley straws.
10. Kellner recommends also as satisfactory concentrates, in addition
to the cereals (excepting wheat), linseed, cocoanut and palm nut meal in
amounts not exceeding 1 to 2 pounds daily. He states that corn, small
amounts of brewers' grains, rice and linseed meals can be used in order
to reduce the amount of oats to a minimum.
11. In the United States relatively large amounts of corn are fed, while
on the Pacific coast barley of good quality predominates. In the semi-
arid regions Kaffir corn and alfalfa have been used satisfactorily, particu-
larly the latter.
12. The amount of water required daily depends upon the size of the
animal, the work performed, and the time of year. The time of watering
— whether before or after feeding — is a matter of minor importance.
Horses become accustomed to both methods, and care should be taken
to avoid sudden changes from the accustomed method.
1 L' Alimentation du Cheval, pp. 100, 101
» Die Ernahrxing d. landw. NQtzthiere, Sechste Auflage, p. 455.
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE. 249
13. Horses are, as a rule, of a nervous temperament, and it is advisable
to avoid anything that will prove a -source of irritation to the intestines,
and that will induce extra water consumption. Inferior fodder, especially
moldy stuff, should never be fed.
D. Books on Horse Nutrition.
The Nutrition of Farm Animals, Armsby. Chapter XIV. Published by the
Macmillan Company, New York, 1917.
The Productive Feeding of Farm Animals, Woll. Chapter XXIV. Published by
J. B. Lippincott Companj% Philadelphia, 1915.
Productive Horse Husbandry, Gay. Published by J. B. Lippincott Company,
Philadelphia, 1914.
Feeds and Feeding, Henry & Morrison. Chapters XVIII, XIX, XX. Published by
the Henry & Morrison Company, Madison, Wis., 1915.
A Digest of Recent Experiments on Horse Feeding, Langworthy. United States
Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 125, 1903.
Die Ernahrung d. Landw. Niitzthiere, Kellner, Sixth Edition, Part III, Chapter V.
Published by Paul Paray, Berlin, 1912.
Grundlagen f . d. rationelle FUtterung des Pferdes, Wolff. Published by Paul Paray,
Berlin, 1886.
L'Alimentation du Cheval, Lavalard. Published at Librarie Agricole de la Maison
Rustique, Paris, 1912.
Le Cheval, Lavalard. Published by Librarie De Firmin Didot et Cie, Paris, 1888.
Les Aliments du Cheval, Duchambre et Curot. Published by Asselin et Houzeau,
Paris, 1903.
250 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 188.
Part II.
FEEDING TRIALS WITH HORSES.
Results and Suggestions.
(a) Alfalfa for Horses.
1. On the basis of 1,000 pounds' live weight, a ration composed of 1.7
pounds of oats, 6.8 pounds of corn and 8.5 pounds of alfalfa hay did not
prove sufficient for horses doing reasonably hard farm work (Kansas
ration).
2. Fed such a ration the horses appeared quite restless and nervous,
and lost in live weight, indicating insufficient food and possibly an unfavor-
able action of the alfalfa upon the nervous system,
3. An increase of 10 per cent, in the above ration checked the loss of
live weight, but not the restless, hungry condition.
4. The substitution of a timothy hay mixture for a portion of the al-
falfa seemed to check in a measure the restless condition of the horses.
5. During the fall months the same grain ration was maintained, but
timothy hay was substituted for all of the alfalfa. The horses fully main-
tained their weights and appeared quieter than when the alfalfa ration
was fed. This may have been due in part, at least, to the fact that less
work was required daily than in the early part of the season.
6. A combination of one-fifth oats and four-iifths corn, together with
a mixture of one-half alfalfa and one-half timothy, is likely to prove more
satisfactory than a ration in which alfalfa constitutes the entire roughage.
7. A combination of one-third oats and two-thirds corn and timothy
hay appears to be quite satisfactory, and furnishes sufficient protein for
horses doing ordinary work. Only when quite hard work is required is it
necessary to increase the protein by feeding alfalfa or a small amount of
a protein concentrate. In such cases the roughage should be reduced and
the amount of grain increased.
(6) Brewers' Dried Grains for Horses.
Brewers' grains, when prepared from perfectly fresh material, may
constitute from 15 to 25 per cent, of the daily grain ration for horses, and
may replace a like amount of oats.
(c) Velvet Bean Feed for Horses.
1. Velvet bean feed represents the ground bean and pods of a tropical
legume.
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE. 251
2. At this station a ration composed of oats, corn, wheat bran and 20
per cent, velvet bean feed was fed to two farm horses for a period of three
months, and gave quite satisfactory results.
3. Wliile it would be possible to increase the amount of this feed in the
mixture, it would hardly be advisable because the pods render the feed
less digestible than corn.
4. Some lots have been found upon the market more or less moldy, due
to imperfect drying. • Such material is quite unfit for horses. Care should
be taken to feed only well-dried, sweet material.
(d) Linseed Meal for Horses.
1. During a period of two months the horses received a ration of oats,
corn and 7 per cent, linseed meal. They ate the mixture readily and ap-
peared in excellent condition during the entire time.
2. It is preferable in feeding this material to have the other grains with
which it is mixed at least coarsely ground, otherwise the linseed meal
separates out and is not likely to be eaten as readily. The addition of 5
to 7 per cent, of linseed meal to the grain ration for hard- worked horses
should prove very helpful.
(e) Rations for Work Horses.
The amount of roughage fed may vary between 1 and IJ pounds daily
per 100 pounds' live weight. Alfalfa may constitute one-half of the
roughage. The amount of grain to be fed will depend, naturally, upon
the character and amount of the work performed. From 1 to 1.4 pounds
daily per 100 pounds of live weight should prove sufficient under most
conditions.
I. IV. •
100 pounds of oats. 125 pounds of brewers' dried grains.
400 pounds of corn. 100 pounds of oats.
5 hay and i alfalfa. 225 pounds of corn.
50 pounds of wheat bran.
Timothy or mixed hay.
II.
100 pounds of oats. * •
200 pounds of corn. 100 pounds of velvet bean feed.
Timothy or mixed hay. 150 pounds of oats.
200 pounds of corn.
50 pounds of wheat bran.
III. Timothy or mixed hay.
100 pounds of brewers' dried grains.
150 pounds of oats. *^I-
200 pounds of corn. 100 pounds of oats.
50 pounds of wheat bran. 180 pounds of corn.
Timothy or mixed hay. 20 pounds of linseed meal.
Timothy or mixed hay.
252 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 188.
Hominy meal or crushed barley may be fed in place of one-half of the
cracked or whole corn if desired. Molasses may constitute 10 per cent,
of the grain mixture. It may be diluted somewhat with water and mixed
with the grain. It aids in preventing colic. Inferior hay — weedy or
moldy — and musty grain are to be avoided as causes of digestion dis-
turbances,
A. Alfalfa for Horses.
The Kansas Experiment Station/ co-operating with the United States
Department of Agriculture, conducted a series of experiments in the feeding
of work horses, using the artillery horses at Fort Riley (937 in all), with
an average weight of 1,165 pounds. The work performed was called rapid
light draft, and consisted of marching and drilling, drawing heavy wagons
and guns often at a trot or gallop. Among the many rations tried was one
composed, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of live weight, of 6.8 pounds of
corn, 1.7 pounds of oats and 8.5 pounds of alfalfa hay, which contained,
according to calculations made by the experimenters, the following di-
gestible nutrients : —
Kansas Ration.
Protein, ....
. 1 . 655
Carbohydrates,
8.720
Fat, ....
.408
Total (fat X 2.2),
. 11.270
Nutritive ratio,
. 1:5.800
The aKalfa experiment was conducted with 17 horses for one hundred
and forty days, and during the test the horses showed an average gain of
25.6 pounds per head. It was stated that they showed no signs of short-
ness of wind, softness, lack of endurance, laxative effect or excessive
urination. The amount of grain was reduced 19 per cent, and the
amount of hay 30 per cent, from that consumed in a check ration of
prairie hay and oats. The observers explain the satisfactory results on
the ground that a small amount of alfalfa hay was fed with a relatively
large amount of corn, a combination requiring a minimum amount of
energy for its digestion.
The 1,000-pound horse, working eight hours daily, requires, according
to Armsby et als.,"^ 2 pounds of digestible crude protein and 18.2 therms of
net energy. The horses in the Kansas alfalfa ration received 1.67 pounds
of digestible crude protein and 13.41 therms of net energy.
On the basis of digestible matter the following comparison can be made
of nutrients required per 1,000 pounds' live weight for medium to hard
work: —
' Bui. No. 186.
' The Nutrition of Farm Animals, p. 711.
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE.
253
Authority. Protein.
Carbo- -p^,
hydrates. ^''*-
Total
(Fat X 2.2).
Nutritive
Ratio.
Alfalfa ration,
Lavalard's standard for comparison,
Grandeau's standard for comparison,
Kellner's standard for comparison, * .
Kellner's standard for comparison, 2 .
1.655
1.330
1.920
1.600
2.170
8.721
11.170
10.920
12.500
13.700
.408
.400
.600
.800
11.26
12.50
12.83
14.20
15.87
1 :5.8
1 :8.3
1 :5.7
1 :7.9
1 :6.3
1 Medium work.
2 Hard work.
It appears that while the Kansas ration contained ample protein on
the basis of accepted standards, it was deficient in total digestible nutri-
ents and in therms of net energy. It seems to have been successful for
the army horses doing the regular work required of them, but it is doubt-
ful to the wTiter if it would prove sufficient in amount for horses doing
medium to hard farm work.
Experimental.
In order to test the efficiency of this ration, two young western horses
designated as Tom and Joe, which were purchased the winter previous,
and which had been doing farm work during the spring and summer, were
placed, Sept. 11, 1916, on the Kansas ration. Tom received 2f pounds of
oats, 9| pounds of cracked corn and 12 pounds of alfalfa hay, and Joe
received 2\ pounds of oats, 9 pounds of cracked corn and 11 pounds of
alfalfa. The hay fed for the first three weeks was grown upon the station
grounds, Vv^as fine, but mixed with more or less foreign grasses. On Octo-
ber 6 it was replaced with a coarser but better grade, this second cutting
said to have been grown in Michigan. The ration was fed in three por-
tions daily, and the horses weighed on each Monday morning before feed-
ing and watering.
Weights.
Tom.
Joe.
September 17,
September 24,
October 1, .
October 8, .
October 15, .
October 22, .
October 29, .
November 6,
November 13,
1,415
1,305
1,415
1,295
1,415
1,29Q
1.425
1,285
1,405
1.285
1,410
1,285
1,400
1,280
1,415
1,310
1,425
1.335
254 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 188.
Although, as has been previously shown, this ration was deficient in
both total digestible nutrients and therms of net energy, the horses held
their weights, due in all probability to the light work performed during
the autumn months. They appeared hungry and very restless, the latter
condition, in the opinion of the writer, being in part at least, a result of
the influence of the alfalfa upon the nervous system.
Beginning in the spring of 1917 the two horses which had been used on
digestion experiments the preceding winter were worked on the farm and
fed the Kansas alfalfa ration. On the basis of live weight Tom received
daily 2f pounds of oats, 10| pounds of cracked corn and 12 pounds of al-
falfa, and Joe received 2| pounds of oats, 9 pounds, 14' ounces of corn and
11 pounds of alfalfa.
Weights.
Tom.
Joe.
April 23,
April 30,
May 7,
May 14,
May 21,
May 28,
June 4,
1,390
1,310
1,390
1,280
1,390
1,290
1,400
1,295
1,380
1,285
1,370
1,275
1,370
1,260
It was necessary to work them lightly during the first month. As the
work was increased in amount they began to show a gradual loss in weight
and to appear very nervous and hungry. Because of such conditions, and
of the additional spring work required of them, the ration was increased
10 per cent. June 4, Tom receiving 13.2 pounds of alfalfa, 3 pounds of oats
and 11.5 pounds of corn, and Joe receiving 12.1 pounds of alfalfa, 2.7
pound of oats and 10.9 pounds of corn.
Weights.
Tom.
Joe.
June 11,
June 18,
June 25,
July 2,
July 9,
July 16,
1,390
1,275
1,400
1,280
1,400
1,275
1,410
1,270
1,420
1,270
1,430
1.300
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE.
255
These rations contained the following pounds of digestible nutrients
and therms of net energy : —
Protein.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fat.
Total
(Fat X 2.2).
Therms.
Fed.
Required.
Tom, ....
Joe, ....
Grandeau standard.
2.56
2.37
2.69
14.02
13.05
.59
.54
17.80
16.60
17.96
22.21
20.72
25.48
23.66
In so far as weights and digestible nutrients were concerned, the horses
appeared to have received sufficient food for the work they were doing.
The therms fed fell below the standard theoretically required, which leads
one to question whether this standard is not too high. The horses still
appeared rather restless and hungry, although they performed their daily
task in a more satisfactory way. Beginning July 16 the ration was modi-
fied by reducing the amount of alfalfa fed daily to each horse to 10 pounds,
and adding 6 pounds of timothy mixture to Tom's ration and 5 pounds to
Joe's ration, the grain remaining as in the ration preceding. The object
of the change was to attempt to reduce the restless action manifested by
the horses, which in a measure was successful, and their weights were
maintained.
Weights.
Tom.
Joe.
July 16,
July 23,
July 30,
August 6,
August 13, .
August 20, .
August 27, .
September 3,
1,430
1,300
1,430
1,300
1,415
1,270
1,410
1,270
1,410
1,280
1,420
1,300
1,410
1,270
1,410
1,300
Beginning September 4, hay was substituted for the entire amount of
alfalfa, the grain ration remaining constant. The calculated digestible
nutrients and weights of the horses follow: —
256 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 188.
1
cm'
X
d
1
Thebms.
E
In
o
1
i
■a
'3
Tom,
1.87
2.85
13.36
.52
19.22
1 :9.3
20.00
25.48
Joe, .....
1.70
2.66
12.55
.47
17.94
1 :9.5
18.80
23.66
Grandeau's standard (1,400-
pound horse).
Lavalard's standard (1,400-
pound horse).
2.69
1.86
-
-
17.96
17.20
-
-
-
TFez^Ais.
Joe.
September 10,
September 17,
September 24,
October 1, .
October 8, .
October 15, .
October 22, .
October 29, .
1,300
1,310
1,275
1,290
1,300
1,330
1,320
1,295
The weights were well maintained, indicating that for the work per-
formed sufficient nutriment was being supplied. The work was rather
irregular during this period, and may be considered as light.
The combination of hay, corn and oats evidently was sufficient in total
digestible nutrients, but rather deficient in protein, according to Grandeau,
for horses doing moderate work. The therms of energy were noticeably
below the standard. The ration conformed more closely to that set by
Lavalard, who accepts one with less protein and a wider nutritive ratio
than other investigators. It is well known that horses keep in good con-
dition and do satisfactory work on rations composed of hay, corn and oats.
It seems probable, therefore, that only in case of quite hard work is it
desirable to increase the protein requirement above the amount furnished
by such a combination. Less corn and more oats, i.e., rather more pro-
tein and less starch, or a somewhat narrower ration, is desirable in the
warm summer months.
While recognizing the large number of horses in the Kansas experiment
and the satisfactory results secured, on the basis of our own observations
and the accepted feeding standards it seems to the writer that the amounts
of the several feeds are not likely to be sufficient, nor the combination
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE.
257
particularly satisfactory, for most work horses. It is believed that for
each 100 pounds of live weight a pound of roughage is a reasonable allow-
ance, and that one-half of this roughage may consist to good advantage
of alfalfa, and the balance of a timothy mixture.
B. Brewers' Dried Gr.'^ixs for Horses.
Brewers' dried grains, the residue of the beer breweries, contain from
20 to 28 per cent, of protein, 13 to 17 per cent, of fiber, 5 to 7 per cent,
of fat, and from 40 to 46 per cent, of extract matter. They contain more
protein, fat and fibre than oats, some 14 to 20 per cent, less extract mat-
ter, and possess about 15 per cent, less net energy value. Voorhees ^ of
the New Jersey station, as a result of feeding trials, stated, " That on the
whole a pound of dried brewers' grains was quite as useful as a pound of
oats in a ration for work horses." Foreign investigators have stated that
they can replace one-half of the oat ration. In New England, while they
have been used more or less, one fails to learn of their general employ-
ment as a part of the daily ration. If used especially for horses, it is quite
important that they be dried before being allowed to sour or decompose.
This station has fed them as a component of horse rations with satis-
factory results. The same two horses that were used in the alfalfa experi-
ment were employed. They did moderate farm work which consisted
principally of plowing, harrowing and teaming.
Ration I.
5 pounds of ground oats.
3 pounds of brewers' grains.
8 pounds of cracked corn.
2 pounds of wheat bran.
15 pounds of timothy mixture.
The ration contained the following digestible nutrients in pounds and
net energy value in therms on the basis of 1,000 pounds of live weight: —
Atjthoritt.
Protein.
Total
(Fat X 2.2).
Nutritive
Ratio.
Therms.
Brewers' dried grain ration, ....
Kellner's standard (moderate work),
Lavalard's standard (moderate work), .
Grandeau's standard (moderate work),
1.76
1.40
1.33
1.92
12.00
12.62
12.50
12.83
1 :5.9
1 :8.0
1 :8.3
1 :7.9
15.1
The above comparisons indicate that the ration fed contained sub-
stantially sufficient digestible protein and total nutrients. The horses
were weighed weekly in the morning, before feeding and watering.
» Bui. No. 92, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.
258 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 188.
Weights.
Tom.
Joe.
May 22.
May 29,
June 5,
June 12,
June 19,
1,400
1,240
1,400
1,280
1,400
1,275
1,425
1,285
1,425
1,290
It seemed evident that for the work performed the horses were receiving
sufficient nutrients to keep them in normal condition, although they did
not materially add to their weight.
Ration II.
On June 19 the ration was modified slightly by replacing 2 pounds of
the oats with 2 pounds of the brewers' grains, thus increasing the protein
slightly, while the total nutrients received were nearly the same.
Weights.
Tom.
Joe.
June 26,
July 3,
July 10,
July 17.
1,420
1,260
1,415
1,250
1,420
1,240
1,400
1,240
During this period there seemed to be a slight loss in weight. Whether
this was due to the warm weather or to the modification of the ration is
not clear.
Ration III.
On July 17 the horses were put back on to Ration I and continued
until August 14.
Weights.
Tom.
Joe.
July 24,
July 31,
August 7,
August 14,
1,420
1,300
1,415
1,270
1,410
1,285
1,405
1,270
Slight shrinkages in weight were noted.
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE.
259
Ration IV.
On August 14, because the horses were doing somewhat less work, Ra-
tion I was reduced 1 pound each of oats and cracked corn.
Weights.
August 21, .
August 28, .
September 4,
September 11,
Joe.
1,305
1,310
1,265
1,295
It will be seen that the rations fed the two horses from about the middle
of May until September 11 contained from 3 to 5 pounds of the brewers'
grains out of a total of 18 pounds of grain (or from 17 to 28 per cent.)- At
the beginning the horses weighed 1,400 and 1,240 pounds, respectively,
and at the close, 1,435 and 1,295 pounds. During this time variations in
weight were noted, due perhaps partly to increase or decrease in work, and
partly to weather conditions. The horses kept in uniformly good condition
throughout the season, indicating that the brewers' grains in the amounts
fed exerted no adverse effect upon them.
The writer is inclined to favor Rations I and II as satisfactory combina-
tions, especiallj'' if the brewers' grains can be purchased for less than the
oats. It is not advisable under most conditions to include too large an
amount of brewers' grains in the ration, for the reason that they will fur-
nish too much protein and not sufficient digestible matter.
C. Velvet Bean Feed for Horses.
The velvet bean, of which there are many varieties, is a tropical legume
and is grown largely in Florida, Alabama and Mississippi. It needs a
long season for its maturity and is rarely grown north of Savannah. It is
a rank grower, the vines trailing on the ground to a length of from 15 to
75 feet; they are difficult to secure for hay, and have been used largely
for grazing. It is now more common to pick the best of the beans and use
them without hulling for cattle, or hulled as a food for pigs. Machinery
has been devised for drying and grinding the unhuUed beans, thus pro-
ducing the velvet bean feed, and it is said that the industry is increasing
rapidly.
260 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 188.
Analysis and Digestibility of Velvet Bean Feed {Bean and Hulls).
Composition.! ^?^
Pounds
Digestible
in 2,000.
Water, .
Ash,
Protein,
Fiber, .
Extract matter.
Fat,
Total, .
12.00
5.11
16.80
12.85
49.00
4.24
100.00
32.7
252.0
161.9
833.0
68. 7
1,348.3
In chemical composition the feed does not vary greatly from wheat
bran, except that it has rather more fiber derived from the bean pods. It
contains about 175 pounds more digestible organic nutrients per ton than
bran, and should have a somewhat greater feeding value.
The present spring the experiment station fed it as a component of a
ration to the two station horses which were being used on general farm
work and which had been employed in digestion experiments the previous
winter.
Ration I.
Ration I, which we began feeding in May, was composed of a mixture
of —
Oats,
Corn,
Velvet bean feed,
Wheat bran, .
Pounds.
. 100
. 160
. 40
40
The velvet bean feed constituted 11.7 per cent, of the ration. The
horses ate the ration freely, Tom receiving 18 pounds and Joe 17 pounds
daily, in addition to 15 pounds of hay.
Ration II.
On June 8 the ration was modified bj'' increasing the velvet bean feed to
60 pounds and decreasing the corn to 140 pounds in the mixture.
The velvet bean constituted nearly 18 per cent, of the mixture, and each
horse received a little over 3 pounds a day. The weights of the horses
follow : —
Tofn.
Joe.
June 3,
June 10,
June 17,
June 24,
1.395
1,345
1.370
1,400
1,280
1,245
1,265
1,285
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE.
261
During this period these horses were working eight to nine hours daily
for 51 days each week, doing plowing, harrowing and similar farm work.
They maintained their live weight, but were not in as good flesh as was
desired.
Ration III.
On June 24 the hay was increased to 18 pounds daily, and so continued
until July 15, for the reason that they acted rather hungry, and it was
thought a little more bulk would render them more contented.
Weights.
July 1,
Julys,
July 15,
Joe.
1,270
1,300
1,300
The work during the above time was of about the same character, but
on the whole not as difficult as during June. The live weight appeared to
be maintained, but apparently did not increase.
Ration IV.
On July 15 the grain mixture was increased to 20 pounds for Tom and
19 pounds for Joe, in addition to the 18 pounds of hay, and so maintained
until September 1.
Weights.
Tom.
Joe.
July 22,
July 29,
August 5,
August 12, .
August 19, .
August 26, .
September 2,
1,400
1,300
1,390
1.290
1,410
1,320
1,395
1.320
1,400
1,320
1,405
1,325
During the above period Tom appeared stationary and Joe increased
about 25 pounds in weight. Tom is a long-bodied, long-legged horse and.
not as compact of build as is Joe. In spite of the fact that the live weight
was not substantially increased, the horses appeared in better condition
than in the early summer. The horses were quite fully employed during
August in harrowing, plowing and drawing manure.
The estimated pounds of nutrients and therms of energy contained in
the daily ration on the basis of 1,400 pounds live weight follow: —
262 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 188.
Protein.
Total
(Fat X 2.2).
Nutri-
tive
Ratio.
Therms
fed.
Therms
needed
(Armsby).
Feeds: —
15 pounds hay + 18 pounds grain equals
18 pounds hay + 20 pounds grain equals
Authority: —
Kellner's standard for comparison
(moderate work).
Kellner's standard for comparison
(hard work).
Lavalard's standard for comparison
(moderate work).
Grandeau's standard for comparison
(moderate work).
2.43
2 76
2.00
2.80
1.86
2.20
20.37
23. 37
17.70
24.50
18.10
17.96
1 : 7 4
1 : 7.4
8.0
7.7
8.3
7.9
20.40
23.00
25.5
25.5
It is believed that 15 pounds of hay and 18 pounds of grain, of which
velvet bean feed constituted some 3 pounds, were sufficient for the work
the horses did from week to week. It is possible that during a few days,
or for a week at a time, the nutrients were not sufficient. The other ration,
consisting of 18 pounds of hay and 20 pounds of grain, probably was more
than was needed.
The horses ate the ration, of which velvet bean feed comprised some 18
per cent-, continuously for over three months, and the results were in
every way satisfactory.
D. Linseed Meal as a Grain Supplement for Horses.
Beginning September 1 the two horses Torft and Joe were fed a grain
ration composed by weight of 100 pounds of whole oats, 160 pounds of
whole corn, and 30 pounds of old process linseed meal. Tom received
daily 20 pounds of the mixture and Joe 19 pounds, in addition to 18
pounds of hay. This ration was continued until September 28, when it
was slightly modified by decreasing the linseed meal to 20 pounds in the
mixture, or about 7 per cent. The reason for the reduction was that the
linseed did not mix evenly with the corn and oats, owing to the fact that
they were not ground or crushed; hence considerable would separate out
and the horses were inclined to leave a little. Horses do not seem to care
particularly for the linseed if fed unmixed, but will eat a reasonable amount
readily if constituting a part of a mixture. This ration was continued
until November 11. The horses did regular farm work during this j^eriod,
but did not average as many hours daily as earlier in the season, and the
work would be considered only moderate.
THE NUTRITION OF THE HORSE.
263
Weights.
Tom.
Joe.
September 2,
September 9,
September 16,
September 23,
September 30,
October 7,
October 14, .
October 21, .
October 28, .
November 4,
November 11,
1,405
1,395
1,405
1,435
1,445
1,450
1,440
1,425
1,415
1.410
1,425
1,325
1,315
1,330
1,345
1,350
1,370
1,340
1,340
1,340
1,350
1,360
Digestible Nutrients in Ration {Pounds).
Protein.
Total
(Fat X 2.2).
Nutritive
Ratio.
18 pounds hay + 20 pounds grain equals
Kellner's standard (hard work).
3.11
2.80
24.04
24.50
1 :6.7
1 : 7.7
On the basis of the calculated digestible nutrients it is evident that tlie
horses were receiving all the food necessary for eight hours of hard work
daily. The work actually performed could only be called moderate, which
explains to an extent the gain in live weight. It is believed that the addi-
tion of 5 to 10 per cent, of linseed meal to a grain ration composed of one
or more cereals will prove helpful, especially to hard-worked horses, and
will be eaten without trouble.
INDEX.
INDEX
PAGE
Advanced registrj', testing of pure-bred cows for, ..... 36a
Alfalfa, composition, digestibility and feeding value, ..... 105
Chemical composition of alfalfa and red clover, ..... 107
Digestibilitj' of alfalfa hay, .109
Feeding experiments with alfalfa, . . .111
Alfalfa a. rowen for milk production (experiments 4 and 5), 125
Alfalfa, beet pulp and corn meal v. hay, beet pulp and corn gluten
(experiments 1, 2 and 3), . . . .111
Diuretic elTect of the alfalfa, ....... 120
Effect of different forms of protein on yield and character of milk, 119
Effect of dry matter in the two ration.s on yield of milk and milk
ingredients, .117
Influence of increased metabolism caused by the alfalfa on yield of
milk and live weight, . . .121
Alfalfa, corn stover, corn-and-cob meal and bran r. English hay,
corn-and-cob meal, gluten feed and bran for milk production,
(experiment 7), . . . . . .137
Alfalfa, English hay and grain v. English hay and grain for milk pro-
duction (experiment 6), . . . . . . 132
Summary and suggestions, ........ 105
Alfalfa for horse.s, 250, 252
Aphids, apple, control of, ......... 47
Bibliography, . . . . . ... • . .56
Conclusions, ........... 55
Definition of terms, .......... 47
Delayed dormant, ......... 48
Dormant, . . . . . . . . . . .47
Late dormant, . . . . . . • . . .47
Delayed dormant spraying, object, ....... 48
Eggs, laboratory tests for destruction of, . . . . ■ .49
Eggs, period of hatching, ......... 48
Lime-sulfur, action upon aphid eggs, ....... 50
Action upon living aphids, ........ 53
Foliage injury, .......... 53
Lime-sulfur and nicotine slilfate, action upon aphids, . . . .54
Foliage injury, .......... 54
Miscible oils, action upon aphid eggs, ...... 51
Action upon living aphids, ........ 55
Foliage injury, . . " . . . . . - .55
Object of comparative tests, ........ 47
Apple aphids, control of, . . . • . . • • • .47
Asparagus, Martha Washington, . ... . . • • • 46a
Bacillary white diarrhcea, testing fowl.s for, ...... 53a
268
INDEX.
Bacterimn pullorum studies, .....
Beans, inheritance of seed-coat color.
Bibliography, .......
Blossom color and seed-coat color, correlation between
Crosses of pigmented with non-pigmented beans.
Literature, review of, . . .
Methods of recording data.
Methods used in the investigation.
Pigment in beans due to a complex factor,
Pigment patterns, inheritance of,
Eyedness, .....
Crosses of eyed with self-colored beans
Crosses of eyed with white beans.
Eye size, .....
Factors for, .
Mottling, crosses of mottled beans.
Crosses of mottled with self-colored beans
Crosses of mottled with white beans, .
Crosses of self-colored beans yielding mottled progeny,
Crosses of self-colored beans yielding only self-colored progeny,
Crosses of self-colored beans with white beans yield
progeny, .....
Dark mottling, .....
Factor determining pattern.
Factors, ......
Light mottling, ....
Pigments, inheritance of, .
Crosses of Blue Pod Butter, factors involved.
With beans of the red series,
With beans of the yellow-black series, .
With mottled varieties.
With other self-colored varieties.
Crosses of Bountiful with black wax varieties
Crosses involving Creaseback,
Crosses involving Davis Wax,
Crosses involving White Marrow, .
Red determiners, behavior of.
Red series, ......
Yellow-black and red series, interrelations.
Yellow-black determiners, behavior of,
Yellow-black series, ....
Summary, ......
Varieties used in the investigation.
Genetic constitution of, ...
Bordeaux mixture, value as an insecticide.
Brewers' dried grains for horses.
Bulletin No. 182. Soy beans as human food, .
Bulletin No. 18-3. Rose canker and its control,
Bulletin No. 184. Late dormant v. delayed dormant or gr
for the control of apple aphids.
Bulletin No. 185. The inheritance of seed-coat color in gar
Bulletin No. 186: —
Part I. The composition, digestibility and feeding value of alfalfa
Part II. The value of corn bran for milk production,
Bulletin No. 187. Clarification of milk, ......
mottled
een tip treatment
den beans.
P.\GE
55a
59
103
64
65
59
61
60
65
67
79
80
81
79
81
68
68
70
71
71
72
76
77
73
67, 76
82
84
92
86
83
82
90
98
99
92
82
93
84
83
102
63
101
43a
250, 257
1
11
47
59
105
142
155
INDEX.
269
Bulletin Xo. ISS. The nutrition of the horse,
Butter fat, chemistry of, ...
Cabbage root maggot, experiment.s in control of
Calves, protein requirements of,
Canning investigations, .
Celery blight, ....
Spraying experiments.
Chemical work, numerical summary,
Clarification of milk.
Codling moth, ....
Color in garden beans, inheritance of.
Composition of alfalfa.
Control work, ....
Dairy law, ....
Feeding stuffs law, .
Feed law account.
Fertilizer law, ....
Fertilizer law account, .
Corn bran as a feed for dairy cows, .
Compared with wheat bran for milk production
Summary and suggestions,
WTiat corn bran is, .
Cows, pure-bred, testing for advanced registry.
Cows, value of corn bran in ration, .
Cranberries, chemical changes in storage
Cranberry substation, accounts,
Cucumber mosaic or "white pickle,"
Dairy law, examination for certificates.
Inspection of glassware.
Inspection of machines and apparatus
Digestibility of alfalfa hay.
Digestion experiments with calves, .
With horses, ....
With sheep, ....
Digger wasps, . . ...
Director, resignation of, .
Egg production, ....
European cprn borer,
Feed law account, ....
Feeding experiments with cows, alfalfa.
Corn bran, ....
Feeding experiments with horses,
Feeding stuffs inspection.
Feeding trials:
Alfalfa,
Kansas experiments,
Massachusetts experiments, .
Brewers' dried grains.
Linseed meal as a grain supplement,
Rations for work horses, etc..
Fertilizer experiments, Barium-Phosphate,
Comparison of muriate and high-grade sulfate of
Comparison of phosphates,
Comparison of potash salts (Field G),
Fertilizers for corn (North Corn Acre),
potash (Field B)
PAGE
243
27a
46a
28a
48a
21a
21a
,47a
38a
48a
, 155
41a
59
108
7a
32a
32a
8a
29a
7a
28a
142
142
143
142
142
36a
28a
142
27a
6a
25a
32a
32a
33a
109
28a
28a
28a
40a
3a
50a
40a
8a
111
142
250
32a
250
252
252
253
250
257
251
262
251
32a
13a
13a
13a
13a
270
INDEX.
Fertilizer experiments — Concluded.
Green manures v. stable manure for vegetables,
Nature's Plant Food, ....
Nitrogen experiment (Field A),
Orchard, ......
Prepared peat, .....
Top-dressing permanent mowings (Grass Plots),
Fertilizer inspection, .....
Fertilizer law account, .....
Fertilizer law, supplementary, ....
Food distribution in Holyoke, study of.
Forage crop observations, Sudan grass,
Sweet clover, ......
Grass Plots, comparison of timothy and fescue mixtur
Experiments in top-dressing permanent mowings
Hog cholera investigations, ....
Horse, nutrition of, .....
Books, .......
Feeding trials, alfalfa, - .
Brewers' dried grains, ....
Kansas experiments, ....
Linseed meal as a grain sui)i)lement,
Massachusetts experiments, .
Rations for work hor.ses,
Results, ......
Velvet bean meal, ....
Investigations, application of calorimetry, .
Early,
Recent, ......
Sxmimary, ......
Horses, digestion and energy experiments with,
Inheritance of seed-coat color in garden beans, .
Insecticides, tests, arsenite of lime,
Bordeaux mixture, home-made,
Insecto, ....
Kling Kill Insecticide,
Nature's Plant Food,
Plant Lice Killer,
Pyrox, ....
Sylpho-Nathol,
Insecto, value as an in.secticide.
Insects, cabbage root maggots.
Codling moth.
Digger wa.sps, .
European corn borer.
Onion maggot,
Scale insects,
"Kling Kill Insecticide, VQ,lue of,
Legumes, culture for.
Lettuce drop.
Light, relation to plant growth,
Linseed meal for horses, .
Market-garden field station.
Milk, clarification of,
Clarifier, significance of, .
Corpuscular elements of milk,
PAGE
. 46a
.31a, 47a
. 13a
. 13a
. 31a
. 14a
. 29a
. 7a
. 30a
. 12a
. 29a
. 29a
16a, 19a
14a
. 55a
. 243
. 249
250, 252
250, 257
. 252
251, 262
. 253
. 251
. 250
250, 259
. 245
. 243
. 245
. 247
. 28rt
. 59
. 40a
. 43a
. 43a
. 41a
. 41a
. 42a
. 43a
. 42a
. 43a
. 46a
. 41a
. 40a
. 40o
. 40a
. 41a
. 41a
. 49a
. 20a
. 21a
251, 262
. 46a
48o, 155
. 155
. 196
INDFA'.
271
Milk— Co ltd inh (I.
Development of niicro-orguiiisins in chirifiecl ;uk1 unclurified milU
Effect of clarification on fermentation changes of milk,
On micro-organisms in certified and commercial milk,
On nmiiber of micro-organisms in milk,
On pure cultures, ....
Effect of repeated clarification on bacterial
Effect of temperatme on clarification.
Effect of three clarifications on pure cultures
Fibrin (so-called) in milk,
Micro-organisms in milk, .
Milk, colonization of bacteria in.
Efficiency of individual organi.-^ms free and in colony.
Slime, amount removed.
Clarification of certified milk (Davies),
Methods,
Effect of temperature on.
Slime, definition, ....
Dirt in,
Fibrin (so-called) in.
Food value of, .
Leucocytes (so-called) in.
Micro-organisms in.
Summary, .....
Milk production, alfalfa and corn v. purchased grain.
Corn bran, value for.
Mowings, top-dressing for (Grass Plots), .
Mycological collection, ....
Nature's Plant Food, as a fertilizer, .
As an insecticide, ....
Nitrogen experiment (Field A),
Nutrition of the horse, ....
Onion diseases, bacterial rot, .
Smut,
Onion maggot, .....
Orchard, fertilizer experiments.
Peach-breeding experiments.
Pruning experiments.
Root and scion experiments.
Winterkilling, .....
Peach-breeding orchard, ....
Phosphates, comparison of, .
Plant diseases, celery blight.
Cucumber mosaic or "white pickle," .
Lettuce drop, .....
Onion, bacterial rot,
Smut,
Potato, early blight.
Late blight, .....
Leaf roll, .....
Mosaic, .....
Phoma disease, ....
Rose canker, .....
Strawberries, decay.
Plant growth, relation of light to.
Plant Lice Killer, value of, .
PAGE
217
239
214
2().S
229
229
228
237
202
203
238
238
159
162
162
177
158
185
184
180
183
190
241
137
142
14«
25«
(, 47a
41a
1.3a
243
25a
25a
40a
13a
44a
44a
44a
45a
44a
13a
21a
25a
20a
25a
25a
24a
24a
24a
23a
23a
11
21a
21a
42a
272
INDEX.
Potash, comparison of muriate and high-grrade sulfate (Field B),
Potash salts, comparison of (Field G),
Potato diseases, early blight,
Late blight,
Leaf roll,
Mosaic, .
Phoma disease,
Potato diseases due to poor seed.
Potato injury due to drought, .
Poultry, elimination of broodiness,
Inheritance of winter egg production,
Pruning experiment,
Publications in 1918,
Chemistry department.
Microbiology department,
Pyrox, value of.
Rations for work horses.
Report of director,
Treasurer,
Reports of departments, agricultural economies.
Agriculture,
Botany, .
Chemistry,
Entomology, .
Horticulture, .
Microbiology, .
Poultry husbandry, .
Veterinary science, .
Rose canker and its control,
Causal fungus, description,
Chlamydospores, .
Conidia,
Conidiophores,
Mycelium, .
Sclerotia,
Causal fungus, life history.
Germination of the spores.
Effect of desiccation on the spores.
Effect of freezing the spores,
Temperature relations.
Thermal death point of spores,
Parasitic life of the fungus.
Infection court,
Mycelium in the host tissues.
Effect on host cells.
Normal structure of stem,
Path of myceliimi.
Pathogenicity, .
Saprophytic life of the fungus.
Depth of penetration of the soil,
Effect of freezing the mycelium.
Growth on other substrata.
Longevity of mycelium in soil.
Rate of growth of mycelium.
Thermal death point of mycelium,
INDEX.
273
Rose canker and its control — Concluded.
Control, .....
Eradication of the pathogene,
Disinfection of pots, tools, etc.,
Disinfection of soil by chemicals.
Greenhouse tests, .
Laboratory tests,
Disinfection of soil by heat,
Greenhouse tests, .
Laboratory tests, .
Exclusion of the pathogene, .
Immunization of the host.
Protection of the host, .
Fungicidal coverings, comparative value of.
Treatment of the walks in the house.
Summary, .....
Cylindrocladium, two species compared.
Cultural characters,
Morphological characters.
Dissemination,
Local, .....
Original source of the pathogene,
Spread from one grower to another,
Efifect on the plants.
Literature cited,
Symptoms,
Scale insects.
Seed production.
Seed-coat color in garden beans, inheritance of.
Soils of Field A, study of residual effects of limini
Soils of Field B, study of comparative eiTects of sulfate
Soy beans as human food,
Baked beans, .
Boiled beans, .
Chemical composition and digestibility.
Fermented boiled beans (natto),
, Green beans, ....
Powdered beans.
Ripened vegetable cheese (miso),
Roasted beans,
Soy bean curd (tofu),
Soy bean milk (toniu).
Soy bean pulp (kara).
Soy bean sauce (shoyu), .
Vegetable butter, ice cream, oil and lard.
Soy beans, varieties.
Station staff, .....
Changes in, .
Station, State control of.
Work affected by the war.
Strawberries, decay of, .
Sudan grass as a forage crop, .
Sweet clover as a forage crop, .
Sylpho-Nathol, value as an insecticide.
Tobacco, supply and distribution.
Tobacco-sick soils, study of.
and miu^iate of potash
7
5
3
8
9
10
13a
la
3rt
6a
3a, 20a, 48a, 53a
21a
29a
29a
42a
12a
21a
PAGE
37
38
42
39
40
39
41
42
41
38
45
43
43
44
45
34
35
35
32
33
32
33
13
46
12
41a
47a
59
28o
27o
1
7
274
INDEX.
Variety tests, bush boans,
Celery, ....
Garden vegetables, .
Soy beans,
Spring wheat, .
Winter wheat.
Velvet bean feed for horses,
Water analysis,
Weather of 1918, as affecting crops,
Orchards,
Wheat, spring,
Winter, ....
Wheat bran, compared with corn bran for milk production
W'interkilling of fruit trees, . .
PAGE
. 47a
47a
. 46a
. 1.3a
. 14a
. 14a
250, 259
. 35a
. 21a
. 45a
. 14a
. 14a
142, 143
45a
^
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