UMASS/AMHERST
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT. No. 4.
THIRTY-SE\^NTH
ANNUAL EEPOET OF THE SECRETAET
MASSACHUSETTS
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,
TOGETHER WITH THE
SEVENTH ANNUAL REPOKT
OF THE STATE EXPERIMENT STATION.
1889.
BOSTON :
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTIN^G CO., STATE PRINTERS,
18 Post Office Squaee.
1890.
STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTURE, 1890.
Members ex officio.
His Excellency J. Q. A. BRACKETT.
His Honor WJI. H. HAILE.
Hon. HEXRV B. PEIRCE, Secretat-y of the CommonweaUh.
H. H. GOODELL, M. A., President Massachusetts Agricultural College.
Members Appointed by the Governor and Council. Term
Expires.
GEORGE B. LORING, M.D., of Salem 1891
JAMES W. STOCKWELL of Sutton 1892
JAMES S. GRINNELL of Greenfield 1893
Members Chosen by the Incorporated Societies.
Amesbw-y arid Salisbury, . . . WM. H. B. CURRIER of Amesbury, . . 1891
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Barnstable County NATHAX EDSOX of Barnstable, .
Bay State F.H. APPLETON of Peabody(P.O.Lynnfield)
Berkshire ALOXZO BRADLEY of Lee, .
Blackstone Valley VELOROUS TAFT of West Upton, .
Bristol County, N. W. SHAW of North Raynhara, .
Deerfeld Valley J. D. AVERY of Buckland,
Eastern Hampden WM. HOLBROOK, M. D., of Palmer,
- „, S BENJAMIN P. WARE of Marblehead (P. O
-^***^ • • -j Clifton)
Franklin County J. C. NEWHALL of Conway, .
Hampden GEO. 8. TAYLOR of Chicopee Falls, .
Hampshire D. A. HORTON of Northampton, .
Hampshire,Franklin and Hampden, F. K. SHELDON of Southampton, .
Highland HIRAM TAYLOR of Middletield, .
Hillside WM. BANCROFT of Chesterfield, .
Hingham, EDMUND HERSEY of Hingham, .
Hoosac Valley 8. A. HICKOX of South Williamstown, .
„ , . ( J. H. ROWLEY of South Egremont (P. O
Housatomc | Great Barrington), . . . . .
,,,„,, I GEO. J. PETERSON of Marshfield CP- O
Marshfield Ore<.n Harbor^ \
Green Harbor),
3fartha's Vineyard N. S. SHALER of Cambridge, .
Massachusetts E. F. BOWDITCH of Framiugham,
Massachusetts Horticultural, . . E. W. WOOD of West Newton,
Middlesex, W. W. RAWSON of Arlington,
Middlesex North A. C. VARNUM of Lowell,
ifiddlesex South S. B. BIRD of Framingham,
Nantucket CHAS. W. GARDNER of Nantucket, .
Oxford D. M. HOWE of Charlton (P.O.Oxford),
Plymouth County AUGUSTUS PRATT of North Middleborough
Spencer, J. G. AVERY of Spencer, ....
Union C. B. HAYDEN of Blandford, .
Worcester C. L. HARTSHORN of Worcester, .
^^'orcegter North GEORGE CRUICKSHANKS of Fitchburg,
Worcester North-west, . . . WM. H. BOWKER of Boston, .
Worcester South, .... G. L. CLEMENCE of Southbridge, .
Worcester County West, . . . P. M. HARWOOD of Barre, .
Secretary of the Board, WM. R. SESSIONS of Hampden.
Chemist to the Board, C. A. GOESSMANN, Ph. D., LL. D., of Amherst.
Entomologist to the Board, C. H. FERNALD, Ph.D., of Amherst.
Office of the Secretary, Commonwealth Building, Boston.
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THE THIETY- SEVENTH ANNUAL EEPOET
SECRETAKY
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
To the Senate and House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts.
The past year has been a peculiar one in the experience of
the agriculturists of the Commonwealth. The winter of
1888-89 was unusually mild. The ice harvest was thereby
delayed until February, and less than the usual amount wfis
secured. Most of the farmers were enabled to obtain the
amount necessary for dairy purposes. The co-operative
creameries also secured nearly a full supply.
The mild weather of the winter enabled farmers to winter
their stock more cheaply than usual. It is doubtful, how-
ever, whether, on the whole, such a season is to be preferred
even for stock-feedins;. The bracino; weather of a normal
New Eno-land winter is not unhealthful for animals that are
well protected, and the small amount saved in feed it is
believed is more than balanced by the reduced energy caused
by unseasonably mild weather. The lack of snow also
prevented farmers from accomplishing much of the work for
which the winter is usually most favorable. Less wood was
prepared for market, and lumbering and the hauling of rail-
road ties was carried on under peculiar difficulties. While
this kind of work is not strictly agricultural, it is depended
upon by many Massachusetts ftirmers to help out the year's
vi BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
income. INIost of them own, in connection with their farm-
in<'- land, a hirger or smaller amount of woodland, which can
only be made of use to them by giving employment lo men
and teams in the winter months, when farming operations
must be at a standstill. The loss to the farmers in this
direction caused by the mild winter of 1888-89 was severely
felt. The present winter has been of like character, and
the inconvenience and loss of the last season are likely to be
duplicated. The large number of rainy and cloudy days
the past summer and autumn caused our pastures to produce
bountifully. As a consequence, our dairies furnished an
unusual amount of milk and butter during the summer and
early autumn, depressing the price of these products to an
unusual extent. More milk was furnished the milk con-
tractors than the market would take, and they were obliged
to make unusually large amounts of butter. This butter,
w'ith the increased amounts made by the farmers and
co-operative creameries, together with the large amounts
from outside the State, over-loaded the market ; and, as a
consequence, large quantities were put into cold storage,
where they remained for sale at low prices, keeping the fall
and winter prices below what they have been in former
y€flars. Oleomargarine has also been put upon the market
in larger quantities than ever before. This state of things
is not particularly encouraging to the dairymen of the State.
Still, our farmers must make milk and butter; for, while
those whose farms are in favorable locations can profitably
raise market-garden products and small fruits, those living
in more retired locations must depend on the returns from
dairy stock. Sheep-keeping would be profitable, were it
not for the increasing ravages of the dogs. The assessors'
returns of May last show an increase of 4,313 in the number
of cows, and a decrease in the number of sheep of 2,920.
It appears to be only a question of time when sheep will
only be kept on the farms of those who can afibrd to guard
them from the ravages of dogs by shepherds. The encour-
aging feature of the dairy business is the fact that the
fertilizers necessary to keep up the fertility of the soil are
furnished as a waste product. Experiments of chemists
show that the excrements of a well-fed cow in twelve months
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. vii
contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, worth, at the
market price of those articles, more than forty-five dollars.
This smn is no mean addition to the value of the milk and
butter product of the cow. These elements are absolutely
necessary to replace what our crops take from the soil, and
should be counted as part of the income of the business.
But, to realize their value, the utmost care should be exerted
to save the whole, and apply them to the soil in the man-
ner to secure the best possible results. Agriculture has come
to be as close a business as manufacturing, and the same
shrewdness, energy and industry that achieve success in
other callings are necessary to make any branch of agriculture
profitable.
The number of co-operative creameries in the State has
been increased during the year by the estalilishment of four
new ones, — in Ashfield, Belchertown, Worcester and Three
Eivers. One, the Richmond, has been burned and not yet
rebuilt. There are now twenty-eight in active operation,
with several more in process of organization.
I have found great difliculty in getting returns from some
of the creameries. Some of the ofiicers seem to have an
idea that our inquiries are inquisitorial, and for some sinister
purpose. I desire to assure not only the creamery companies
but all organizations and individuals, that the Board of
Agriculture and their Secretary have no wish to use informa-
tion to their injury, and only desire to help on all honorable
schemes for the benefit of Massachusetts aofriculture.
The following table will give a general idea of the con-
dition and work of the co-operative creameries the past
year : —
Vlll
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Jan.
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S S St 5t^ S
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1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 4. ix
In addition, the Lowell Co-operative Milk Association
made 49,674 pounds of butter; average price received per
pound, 29 cents ; number of cans of milk received, 210,000.
Also the Springfield Co-operative Milk Association made
about 83,950 pounds of butter; average wholesale price
received per pound, 27 cents ; average retail price, 32 cents ;
number, of quarts of milk received, 2,263,750. Average
price per quart realized by patrons was three cents.
The farmers' institutes, which the rules of the Board
require each agricultural society to hold, have been usually
well attended. Members of the Board have labored assidu-
ously to make these institutes a success. It is believed
that much has been accomplished in spreading valuable
information among the farmers. Not less than one hundred
and twenty have been held. At least one lecture has been
furnished by a member of the Board or by an expert not a
member, at each institute. The funds necessary to meet
the expenses of these lectures have been furnished from an
appropriation by the Legislature for the dissemination of
useful information in agriculture. Chapter 20, section 10,
of the Public Statutes, empowers the Secretary of the
Board of Agriculture to appoint agents to visit the towns of
the State, to gain information, encourage the formation
of farmers' clubs, and to disseminate information by means
of lectures or otherwise. The Legislature of 1888 was
asked for an appropriation to carry out the intent of this
section. The sum of one thousand dollars was appropriated
for this purpose, and in 1889 twelve hundred dollars was in
like manner placed at the disposal of the Secretary. In
addition to the sum paid for lectures, the printing of a
special bulletin, giving information of the habits and
characteristics of the gypsy moth, a new and dangerous
enemy to agriculture and horticulture, was paid for from
this fund, and distributed throughout the State by the Hatch
Experiment Station. The expense of the crop report issued
monthly during the summer and fall of the last two seasons
was also paid from this fund. The usefulness of this
publication in a State situated like Massachusetts cannot be
as great as a report that would take in the whole country,
because much of the supply of Massachusetts markets comes
X BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
from outside the State. But it is hoped that this may be a
hint to the other States to do likewise. With such a crop
report from each State, the whole might be collated, and
very valuable information as to the probable supply of the
various agricultural products thus be obtained. These crop
reports have been prepared each month by F. H. Fowler,
clerk in this office, whose valuable assistance in all the
labors of the Secretary is hereby acknowledged. It is
believed that a synopsis of the several reports of the past
season prepared by him would be interesting as a matter of
record, and they are here inserted.
Synopsis of Crop Reports.
Early in the spring of 1888 the idea of circulating information
concerning the condition of our principal farm crops during the
growing season was entertained, and, after consultation with the
executive committee, it was decided to try the experiment. It was
presumed that the required information could be most readily
obtained through the medium of the farmers' clubs and granges.
Accordingly a circular was prepared and sent to each of these
organizations, stating the proposed plan, and asking each to
appoint some one to act as our correspondent. In localities
where there was no such organization, parties whom it was thought
would be willing to serve were selected, in order that the State
might be thoroughly covered. The plan was to send blank
circulars, modelled after those used by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, to correspondents about the 20th of each
month, said blanks to be filled out and returned to us on the first
day of the month following. These returns when received were
to be compiled into a crop report or bulletin, and mailed as soon
as practicable to such parties as it was thought would appreciate
them. The first blank was sent out about the 20th of June, and
the first bulletin, consisting of thirteen printed pages, made up of
general remarks, remarks on the weather, remarks on the condi-
tion of principal crops, notes of correspondents, and a table giving
the acreage and condition of principal crops by counties, was
issued about the 7th of July following. Similar bulletins were
issued for the mouths of July, August, September and October.
Six hundred copies of the first bulletin were printed, but before
the close of the season it was found necessary to increase the
number to one thousand. The experiment met with such an
appreciative reception that it was decided to continue the work
1800.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. xi
another year. Consequently, on the opening of the past season,
arrangements were made for the continuation of said work, and it
was decided to enlarge its scope and usefulness by increasing the
size of the bulletins to twenty-four pages ; by giving more atten-
tion to the weather, for which purpose a synopsis of the monthly
reports of the Meteorological Observatory of the Hatch Experi-
ment Station at Amherst were to be added ; by making the notes
of correspondents fuller ; and by devoting the last three or four
pages of each bulletin to extracts upon various agricultural sub-
jects. After the first two bulletins, it was found necessary to
increase the size of the edition to twelve hundred copies. The
following synopses will illustrate the character of the work : —
Synopsis of Bulletin A'o. 1. — Crop Report for May.
The first half of the month was warm and dry. Rain set in on
the morning of the 20th, and fell almost every day during the
remainder of the month. Slight frosts were reported as occurring
on the mornings of the 27th, 28th, and 29th, but scarcely any
damage was done. In the circular sent to correspondents about
the 20th of the month, the following questions were asked :
"1. How much earlier is this season than the last? 2. What
msects are doing the most damage in your vicinity ? 3. Is good
help plenty, and at what cost? 4. What is the outlook in your
section ? " About one hundred returns were received, showing that
the season opened favorably for the farmer, and that it averaged
two weeks earlier than last, although the cold wet weather the last
of the month tended to overcome the unusual earliness of the
season. The tent-caterpillar {CUsiocampa Americana) was re-
ported as being unusually prevalent in many sections, and a short
sketch from Mrs. Mary Treat's work on " Injurious Insects of the
Farm and Garden " was printed, to describe its work and to
suggest methods of extermination. The cranberry-vine worms,
cut worms, Colorado potato beetles, squash bugs, cabbage maggots,
currant worms, canker worms, onion maggots, asparagus beetles
and curculios were also reported as doing more or less damage in
localities where they would naturally be found. Good farm help
appeared to be rather scarce in many localities, and commanded,
on an average, from twenty to twenty-two dollars per month and
board. The general outlook was reported as good. There was
promise of a large hay crop, although dry weather the fore part
of the month checked the growth of grass in some places. How-
ever, this dry weather was very favorable for planting, and seeds
came up well. Wet, cold weather the last of the month, while it
greatly helped grass, had a bad effect on corn.
xii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
In tln3 report was included an article upon "Agriculture in
Massachusetts," by H. G. Wadlin, chief of the Bureau of Statistics
of Labor.
Synopsis of Bulletin No. 2. — Crojy Report for June.
In the circular sent to our correspondents about the 20th of the
month, the following questions were asked : " 1. What insects are
doing the most damage in your vicinity? 2. What date did hay-
ing commence in your vicinity? 3. Is the hay crop up to last
year's crop in quantity and quality? 4. Is the outlook as favor-
able as it was June 1 ? 5. AVhat is the prospect for an apple
crop?" About ninety-five returns were received, indicating that
about the same insects as were reported last month were still at
work. To that list might also be added rose bugs and the " spittle
insects " on grass. Haying commenced, on an average, about
June 20 ; but, owing to unfavorable weather, the work of securing
it was not pushed as rapidly as the condition of the grass would
warrant. In some sections haying commenced as early as the first
week in June, while in others, especially on the western hills, it
did not commence much before July 1 . About one-fourth of the
crop had been secured by the close of the month, and it averaged
well with last year's crop. In quantity it was rather more, but in
quality rather below, owing to so much wet, cloudy weather. As
a whole, the outlook was as favorable as it was June 1. The
apple crop promised to be below an average. In some sections it
was the off year, and in such the crop would be very small. Many
trees set full, but the young apples dropped off badly. The straw-
berry crop was below an average, both in quantity and quality.
Corn, though backward on account of the wet weather, pushed
rapidly ahead during the last week. Potatoes promised well.
There was some complaint of blast on the vines ; but, on the whole,
a good crop might be expected. In general, all crops were grow-
ing finely, and promised good harvests.
In this report was included a letter by John G. Whittier to the
Essex Agricultural Society.
Synopsis of Bulletin No. 3. — Crop Report for July.
The month of July was marked by frequent rains and much
cloudy weather. A severe thunder storm, accompanied by hail,
passed over the eastern portion of the State on the afternoon of
the 17th, doing much damage to crops. On the 23d another heavy
thunder shower passed over Essex County, also doing much damage
to crops. In Boston, with two exceptions, it was the wettest July
for nineteen years, and, with three exceptions, the coolest July for
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. xiii
the same length of time. In the circular sent to correspondents
about the 20th of the month, the following questions were asked :
"1. What is the outlook for a corn crop? 2. Have small fruits
been satisfactory in yield and price ? 3. Have you observed any
rot or scab in potatoes? 4. Has the hay crop met your expecta-
tions in quantity and quality? 5. What is the prospect for a crop
of early max'ket apples ? " About ninety-five returns were received,
from which we learned that the outlook for a corn crop was gen-
erally good. Owing to so much rain, it was late ; but warm,
pleasant weather would insure a good crop. Small fruits were
generally satisfactory in price, but not in yield. The hay crop
met expectations in quantity, but not in quality. During the
month there were very few good hay days, and much hay was
damaged. At the close of the month considerable grass remained
to be cut. Where grass was cut early, a large crop of roweu was
promised. Continuous rains caused streams to swell, and low
lands were so flooded in many sections as to render the gathering
of hay from them almost an impossibility. Potato vines blasted
badly in many sections ; rot and scab followed the blast ; and it
was predicted that in all probability the potato crop would be much
below an average in quantity and quality. Many fields were
already badly injured. The prospect for a crop of early market
apples was only fair at best, and in many sections the yield prom-
ised to be slight. The excess of rain caused weeds to make a
heavy growth, and made the cultivation of crops difficult and costly.
Oats rusted badly.
In this report was included a paper upon "The Law of Trespass,
and how it affects the Farmer," by B. W. Potter, Esq., of
Worcester.
Synopsis of Bulletin iVb. 4. — Croj) Report for August.
The first half of the month was marked by cloudy, muggy
weather, with occasional light rains. The last half was warm and
dry. This warm, dry weather, following so long a period of wet
weather, caused vegetation of all kinds to mature rapidly, and
everything to put on a fall-like appearance. The rainfall for the
month was rather below the average. There was a slight frost at
Chester on the 29th, and at Templeton, on low land not protected
by fog, on the 28th and 29th. In the circular sent to correspond-
ents about the 20th of the month, the following questions were
asked : "1. What is the prospect for winter apples in quantity
and quality? 2. Is the acreage of meadow land reseeded in the
fall increasing in your locality? 3. What is the prospect for late
potatoes, and have you observed rot or scab? 4. Is the amount
xiv BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
of corn grown for ensilage purposes increasing in your locality ? "
About ninety returns were received, from which we learned that
there would be about half a crop of winter apples, of rather poor
quality. On the whole, the acreage of meadow land reseeded in
the fall was reported as increasing. The wet weather of July and
the early part of this month caused potato vines to blast badly.
Rot quickly followed, and it was predicted that there would not be
over half a crop of potatoes. Those that were nearly ripe when
the blast struck them were good, and rotted but little. Those
planted late and only about half matured when the blast came
were almost a total failure. Many fields were not worth digging.
The warm, dry weather of the last two weeks had a tendency to
keep the rot from spreading. Scab has also been prevalent this
season. The amount of corn grown for ensilage purposes appeared
to be increasing in most localities. The Southern white variety
seemed to be the one most generally preferred. Celery rusted
badly in some sections. The corn crop promised to be a good one.
In some sections blight had struck the corn fields, and some of
them were reported as almost worthless. Corn cutting had com-
menced, although most of the crop needed fully a week of warm,
dry weather. The tobacco crop was in general a very good one,
and was harvested in excellent condition ; some damage was done
to the crop by rust and fleas. On land where the first crop of
grass was taken off early, the rowen crop was very large, and at
the close of the month much of it had been secured in excellent
shape. Pastures held out well. Fruits of all kinds were inferior
both in quantity and quality.
In this report was included an extract from an address before
the Housatonic Agricultural Society, by Rev. F. H. Rowley of
North Adams.
Synopsis of Bulletin No. 5. — Crop Report for September.
The weather was quite generally damp and cloudy, with fre-
quent light rains. The rainfall for the month was slightly below
the average. The first week was unusually warm, while the tem-
perature for the remainder of the month was about normal. Slight
frosts occurred during the last ten days of the month, in various
parts of the State, but scarcely any damage was done to crops.
In some sections, high winds, the 10th and 11th, blew off con-
siderable fruit. In the circular sent to correspondents about the
20th of the month, the following questions were asked : "1. Esti-
mated number of baskets of peaches grown in your vicinity this
season; average price per basket? 2. What is the outlook for
success in the future cultivation of the peach in your locality?
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. xv
3. How have the peculiarities of the season affected dairy products
iu quantity and price? 4. Are farmers in your vicinity generally
interested iu agricultural fairs ? " About eighty-five returns were
received, reporting a total estimate of twenty-five hundred baskets
as the peach crop this season, and $1.85 as the average price per
basket. It is evident that the total yield must have been consider-
ably larger. From these returns we also learned that, while many
towns produced a few peaches, very few farmers gave much atten-
tion to the growing of this fruit. Most of our correspondents
report that the outlook for success in the future cultivation of the
peach is not very encouraging. The peculiarities of the season
caused, in some localities, an increase in the quantity of dairy
products, while prices remained about an average. The excess
of moisture and cloudy weather produced an inferior quality of
feed, and this was followed by loss of quality in dairy products.
The farmers of the State, as a whole, are undoubtedly interested
in agricultural fairs, and receive direct benefit from them. The
rowen crop was unusually large, but, owing to unfavorable
weather, much of it was spoiled in trying to secure it. The aver-
age yield was about one ton per acre. The onion crop was below
the average, both in quantity and quality. The cranberry crop was
about three-fourths of an average. Late potatoes were about half
a crop, with quality about three-fourths of an average. The crop
of winter apples was somewhat less than half a crop, of about
three-fourths of an average quality. By the close of the month
corn had been cut and husking had commenced in some sections.
In this report was included an extract from an address before
the Essex Agricultural Society, by Hon. H. G. Herrick of Lawrence.
Synopsis of Bulletin No. 6. — Crop Report for October.
The weather during the month was very much like that of the
preceding months. There was less bright sunshine than usual.
The rainfall was above the average. At Milton the mean temper-
ature j^as nearly two degrees below the forty years' average.
Snow fell in Monroe on the 8th, 11th and 13th. There were no
severe gales. In the circular sent to correspondents about the
20th of the month, the following questions were asked: "1. Is
this year's crop of Indian corn an average one? 2. Are root crops
up to the average in quantity and quality? 3. On the whole, has
this season been a profitable one for your farmers? 4. In your
opinion, what per cent of farms in your town are mortgaged?
5. In your opinion, is the number of deserted farms in your
vicinity greater than it was ten years ago ? " About eighty returns
were received, from which we learned that the crop of Indian corn
XVI
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Jan.
-was fully an average one. Root crops, other than potatoes, were
just about an average in quantity and quality. As to whether the
season had been a profitable one or not, seventy-seven replies were
received, of which forty-four said it had, and thirty-three said it
had not. The following table will give a partial idea of the
extent to which farms are mortgaged : —
.COUNTIES.
3
3
■"I
5 i<
c
S
£
c
u
00
u
o
c
s
o
o
o
s
Barnstable,
Berkshire,
Bristol,
Dukes,
Essex,
Franklin, .
Hampden,
Hampshire,
Middlesex,
Nantucket,
Norfolk, .
Plymouth,
Suffolk, .
Worcester,
2
4
2
1
4
8
5
8
8
1
2
7
19
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
7
1
1
2
4
1
1
1
3
2
3
2
1
1
1
10
1
2
1
2
6 •
1
3
1
2
2
2
3
1
1
1
2
1
5
Totals,
71
9
G
4
10
11
The percentage of mortgaged farms, though in many cases high,
does not necessarily indicate that farming in this State is not a
paying business. Some of these mortgages were no doubt placed
by parties desirous of becoming farmers, but not having sufficient
capital to buy the property outright. Other farms were undoubt-
edly mortgaged in order to raise money with which to make
desirable improvements, and to carry on farming operations with
greater profit. The fifth question, " In your opinion, is the number
of deserted farms in your vicinity greater than it was ten years
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4.
xvii
ago ? " >vas prepared with the view of ascertaining whether deserted
or abandoned farms are increasing in number. Our replies would
indicate that they are not. The following table will give an idea
of the number, as compared with ten years ago : —
COUNTIES.
Number
of Replies.
Yes.
No.
About
the Same.
Less.
Barnstable,
1
1
-
-
-
Berkshire,
4
2
1
-
1
Bristol,
2
-
2
-
-
Dukes,
1
1
-
-
-
Essex,
5
1
2
1
1
Franklin,
9
o
5
1
-
Hampden,
5
3
2
-
-
Hampshire,
8
3
5
-
-
Middlesex,
7
2
5
-
-
Nautueket,
1 1
-
1
-
-
Norfolk, .
5
1
4
-
-
Plymouth,
6
1 '
-1
-
1
Suffolk,
. -
-
-
-
-
Worcester,
23
7
12
2
2
Totals,
77
25
43
4
5
It may be justly said that the number of deserted farms is no
criterion of the prosperity of the farming community. To a
certain extent the presence of deserted farms indicates an advance
in agriculture. No doubt some abandoned farms in the State
ought never to have been cultivated. Some farms are deserted
because the land does not pay for the labor of cultivation, or
because they are so isolated as to make them undesirable as homes.
Improvements in farm methods and farm machinery have had their
influence, and no doubt have added to the number in localities
where the soil is naturally poor, or so rough as to preclude the
use of farm machinery. In some cases a portion of the land
belonging to a deserted farm is absorbed into the farm of a more
successful neighbor, while the house, being of little value as a
XVIU
BOARD OF ACiRICULTURE.
[Jan.
rent, is left unoccupied. The tendency is towards an increase in
the size of farms rather than iu the number, especially in districts
remote from the centres of po[)ulation.
In this report was included an extract from a lecture before the
INIassachusctts Horticultural Society, by Prof. W. 0. Atwater of
Middletowu, Conn.
The most important facts contained in the monthly reports
received from the Hatch Experiment Station are here tabulated, to
show the meteorological conditions affecting agricultural operations
in the western part of the State, particularly iu the Connecticut
valley.
[Latitude, 42° 23' 48.-)" X. Loiujitude, 72° oJ' JO" IF.]
May.
June.
July.
August.
Septem-
ber.
Pressure, in inches : —
Mean reduced to 32° F.,
•.JP.626
29.670
29.619
29.718
29.709
29.7.50
Monthly Ilange,
0.S36
0.991
0.690
0.540
0.980
0.938
Air Temperature, in de-
grees F. ; —
^^ean,
61.4
67.7
69.5
65.5
61.9
46.5
Ilighet^t, ....
SS
90
84
82
79
69.5
Lowest, ....
40
46
54
45
40
21
^^onthly range,
48
44
30 ■
37
39
43
Mean daily range,
19.7
15.9
15.2
18.1
13.4
15.4
Greatest daily range,
33
25
28
31
28
29
iriniiidltij: —
Moan dew point,
.32.8
61.1
62.7
59.0
56.9
39.4
Mean force vapor, in inches,
..^801
.7072
.5892
.6591
.5824
.3349
Wind: —
Prevailing direction.
N.&S.
S.
SW.
X.NE.SW.
SW.
NNE.
Total movement, in railes, .
40.JG
4050
4032
2811
4310
4762
Greatest daily raovemeul, in
miles, ....
405
485
272
213
328
367
Least daily movement, iu
miles, ....
55
28
45
16
34
20
Mean daily movement, iu
miles, ....
130.8
135.8
130
91
143.6
153.6
^fean liourly velocity, .
5.5
5.6
5.4
3.8
6.0
6.4
Maximumpressureper square
ioot, in pounds,
9
11.5
10
6.5
9.75
12.25
Pncipildlioi), in inches.
4.71
5.01
9.09
2.72
3.17
4.58
Ilours bright sunshine.
270
277
182
194
120
129
Weather: —
Mean cloudiness on a scale
of 10
4.2
5.3
5.4
4.3
6.5
6.0
Number of clear days,
13
3
8
7
8
g
Number of fair days.
11
20
5
12
3
6
Number of cloudy days,
4
7
18
12
19
16
Total cloudiness recorded by
sun thermometer, reduced
to percentage.
38
38.6
59.3
53.4
66.6
.50.9
Thunder and lightning occurred on the 10th, 14th and 24th of May; the 10th, 11th, 15th,
16th and 28th of June; 7th, Sth, 23d, 29th and 30th of July ; 2d, 14th and 23d of August; 17th
of September; and 1st of October. Frost occurred on 27th of May; 21st and 23d of Sep-
tember; and the 3d, 5th, Sth, 9th, 11th, 12th, 16th, 17th, 19th, 22d, 23d and 24th of Octo-
ber. Snow occurred on northern hills the 13th of October. Meteors were seen on the ISth
of July and the 2l8t of October. Auroras were seen on the 2l8t of October- A solar halo
was observed Jqoe 3, and a lunar halo on August 4.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4.
XIX
In order to present figures relative to other sections of the
Commonwealth, it has been thought best to supplement the above
by the following tables made up from returns received from the
Hatch Experiment Station, the Signal Office at Boston, and from
amateur observers in the towns of Monroe and Leominster. Part
of the information here given was incorporated in the several crop
reports, and part has been obtained since : —
Rainfall.
Month.
Jlonroe.
.Vnihcrst.
Leominster.
Tioston.
May,
3.50
4.71
4.31
4.15
June, ....
5.50
5.01
2.42
2.77
July,
8.25
9.09
8.03
5.80
August, ....
4.1S
2.72
3.G8
3.95
September,
3.13
3.17
3.05
3.19
October, ....
4.13
4.58
5.39
5.31
Weather at Amherst and Boston compared.
Clear Days.
Fair Days. Cloudy D.ij's.
May,
June,
July, .
August, .
September,
October, .
Amher.st
Boston,
Amherst
Boston,
Amherst
Boston,
Amlierst
Boston,
Amherst
Boston,
Amherst
Boston,
13
9
3
4
7
17
11
14
20
14
5
13
12
G
3
8
G
10
4
8
7
12
18
10
12
8
19
14
IG
13
Most of the agricultural societies are in a prosperous con-
dition. The rainy weather of September interfered with the
annual exhibitions of the several societies, causing in some
XX BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
instances a financial loss. This is to be regretted. It is unfort-
unate tliat such organizations are ol:)liged to plan and scheme
for money making ; but, as long as the expenses of the society,
including care of grounds, erection and repair of buildings,
printing, advertising, and all premiums above the amount of
the six hundred dollars of State bounty, must be paid largely
from money received from admission fees, so long must the
officers plan to attract the crowd. This is not altogether a
misfortune. The cattle-shoNV day should be a holiday for
the farmer, a day of recreation for his family ; and, if the
whole community are interested in the affair, so much the
l)etter for the agricultural part of it. The law of the State
and the regulations of the Board require each society to pay
in premiums for strictly agricultural purposes an amount at
least equal to the amount of bounty received from the State.
The expenses and the cost of holiday attractions can in no
case be paid from the bounty. Detailed reports of the
doings of societies are required hy law to be made to the
secretary of the Board.
The thirty-three incorporated societies which held fairs
last fall paid $60,721.25 in premiums and gratuities ; their
total actual assets, as reported to this office, Dec. 1, 1889,
were $783,723.64; and their total actual liabilities were
$172,982.59.
One new society, the Worcester East, located at Clinton-
Lancaster, has been incorporated by the Legislature of 1890.
There is room for improvement in the returns of some of
the societies. In order to have the returns of value, the}'
should all l)e made up on the same system. It is proposed
to issue a detailed circular of instructions along with the
usual blanks for returns next season, so that these variations
may be prevented, and this office have a summary that shall
exhi])it the condition and Avork of each society on the same
basis.
The live stock of the State is almost entirely free from con-
tagious diseases, unless we class tuberculosis with contagious
diseases. Whether it be contagious in the technical sense,
or not, there can be no dou1)t that it is sufficiently prevalent in
the dairy herds of the State to ^varrant not only close atten-
tion from stock owners, but grave consideration ])v the Board
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. xxi
of Agriculture, the agricultural societies and the public at
large. The attention that skilled veterinarians are giving to
it inspires the hope that in the near future the proper methods
of dealing with it may l)ecome known and l)e applied by the
authority of law. The report of the Cattle Commissioners
will be found printed in the appendix of this volume.
The Board of Agriculture have been much interested in
the discussion of the proper course to be pursued in dealing
with the gypsy moth, the new imported pest which last
season ravaged the trees and shrul)bery of Medford. The
best entomological authorities are agreed that, with prompt
and vigorous action, it can be stamped out, and this continent
I)e saved from a pest worse than the Colorado potato beetle.
This can only be done by wise methods, planned and
executed by men having authority of law, and having at
command for the payment of expenses a sum that will
surely be sufficient to accomplish the end in view. It is
hoped the present Legislature will provide l)oth the authority
and the necessary funds.
Massachusetts agriculture is, on the whole, in a prosperous
condition ; but it must be remembered that this is a State of
cities and large towns. Within our 7,800 square miles we
have now 26 cities, and at least 60 towns that have a popu-
lation of between 5,000 and 15,000 inhabitants. The
business of supplying these centres of population with milk,
butter, eggs, fresh fruits and fine vegetables, belongs to
the farmers of the State. Those who furnish the best in
condition, and at the time wanted, wall find a demand and
remunerative prices. But with outside competition, they
cannot keep the market for themselves without the most
earnest effort, applying consummate ability, enthusiasm and
industry, directed by a thorough knowledge of the business.
Those in the remote parts of the State have not the same
advantages, and there we find many discouraged farmers
and some abandoned farms. Returns to this office in answer
to a circular of questions lead to the conclusion that the
number of such farms is not rapidly increasing at present.
Still, there are many farms for sale at a low price. The
States north of us have instituted measures to bring this
class of real estate to the notice of the pu])lic, in the
xxii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
expectation tliat it may load those who may have a desire
for country life to purchase, and thus l)enefit not only
present owners and would-l)c purchasers, but also the State
at laroc. jSIany applications for information in regard to
sucli property in this State come to this office. We have
no relia])Ie information for such inquirers, and are obliged
to refer them to Vermont and New Hampshire. ^lassa-
chusetts should not be behind her neighbors in any good
work. Here is a field that might be worked with good
results. If our Legislature would provide a small sum for
the expense, and give some officer authority to collect
information, we might see good fruit. Our experience, like
that of our predecessors, is, that information or statistics
asked for as a favor are hard to get. Authority of law is
needed to set g-eneral and reliable information.
A directory of the agricultural organizations in the State
is printed in the body of this volume. This is a new feature.
The collection of the data cost time and patience. It will
furnish reliable information often sought after, but to l)e
found nowhere else.
The proper distribution of the fifteen thousand copies of
the "Agriculture of Massachusetts" has been given careful
attention. It is well known that the distribution of a little
more than one-half of the number printed is provided for by
law, each Senator and Representative having twenty-five
copies, and five hundred copies are bound with the public
documents. A certain number have always been committed
to each mcml)er of the Board of Agriculture, and the
secretary of each agricultural society has also received
copies in proportion to the size of the society. Every
farmers' club and grange that has made required returns to
this office has also received a proportionate numljer. This
})lan of distribution covers most of the towns and all the
cities of the State. AVe found, however, last season, upon
investigation, that one hundred towns had no resident
meml)er of the Legislature, member of the Board of
Agriculture or agricultural organization, and so were liable
to be neglected in the distribution. To prevent such
injustice, arrangements were made with a suital)le person in
each of these towns to receive and distribute a num]>er of
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. xxiii
copies. By these several channels copies of the "Agriculture
of Massachusetts " were sent for distribution into each city
and town in the Commonwealth, in numljcrs as nearly as
possible in proportion to the farming population. The
following table is here inserted, to show the distribution of
the hist report, so far as the same was under the control of
the Secretary. The reports sent outside of the State were
sent in response to requests which are continually coming to
this office : —
Members of Board of Agricultiire, .... 512
Incorporated agricultural societies, .... I,o50
Farmers' clubs, 1,183
Granges, 1,850
Towns, as above, 1,030
Given out at office of Secretary, .... 980
On hand and vmaccounted for, 452
7,357
Distribution by States and Territories : Maine, 28 ; New Hampshire,
15; Vermont, 17; Massachusetts, 14,326 (includes by law as above) ;
Rhode Island, 10 ; Connecticut, 29 ; New York, 20 ; New Jersey, 6 ;
Pennsylvania, 10 ; Delaware, 1 ; Maryland, 1 ; Virginia, 5 ; West Vir-
ginia, 1 ; North Carolina, 1 ; South Carolina, 2 ; Georgia, 6 ; Florida,
1 ; Alabama, 1 ; Mississippi, 1 ; Louisiana, 2 ; Texas, 1 ; Oregon, 3 ;
Indiana, 4 ; Illinois, 4 ; .Kentucky, 2 ; Michigan, 4 ; JNIissomn, 3 ; Arkan-
sas, 1 ; Iowa, 2 ; Kansas, 2 ; Nebraska, 4 ; Montana, 1 ; Tennessee, 3 ;
Minnesota, 5 ; Wisconsin, 2 ; North Dakota, 1 ; Oregon, 2 ; Dakota, 1 ;
Arizona, 1 ; Colorado, 1 ; California, 2 ; District of Columbia, 3. Distri-
bution to foreign countries : England, 1 ; Jajian, 3 ; Canada, 4 ; France,
1 ; India, 1 ; Australia, 1 ; Italy, 2 ; Portugal, 1.
Additions to the library in this office are made as the
funds available for that purpose seem to warrant. About
one hundred volumes were added the past year.
The public winter meeting of the Board at Fitchburg the
first week in Decemlier was unusually successful. A larger
number attended these meetings, except the evening sessions,
than have ])een present for several years past. The lectures
were by men of more than local reputation. The subjects
Avere vital ones to JNIassachusetts farmers, and were followed
by intelligent and earnest discussion.
The annual meeting of the Board, February 4, 5 and 6,
was attended by nearly every member of the Board. The
xxiv 150ARD OF AGRICULTUKE. [Jan.'OO.
essays presented were upon important topics, were al)ly
written and were well received.
The death during the past year of two of our oldest and
most valued members, Avery P. Slade and Dr. James P.
Lynde, was noticed by suitable resolutions, which will be
found })rintcd with the records of the annual meeting.
In accordance with an act of the Legislature, the report
of the State Experiment Station is bound with the report of
the secretary of the Board of Agriculture. This report is
increasing in size from year to year, and consequently
increases the size of the "Agriculture of Massachusetts."
This volume should include all annual publications author-
ized by State authority which pertain to agriculture. The
report of the trustees of the Agricultural College and the
report of the Hatch Experiment Station are of interest to
the agriculturists of the Commonwealth, and are as worthy
a place in the annual volume as are the report of the Cattle
Commissioners and the report of the State Experiment
Station. It is inexpedient to include all in one volume, and
I would rcconniiend to the Legislature that the statutes be
so amended as to authorize including all these reports with
the report of the secretary of the Board of Agriculture, and
that the whole be bound in two volumes.
In view of the fact that the value of agricultural literature
to the farmers depends largely upon its coming to hand
during the winter season of leisure, I desire to suggest to
the Legislature and the Board of Agriculture, the propriety
of chaniring the time of the annual meeting of the Board
from the first week in February to a date. early in January.
This change would enable the secretary to issue his report
from two to three weeks earlier in the season than is now
possible.
WILLIAM R. SESSIONS,
Sccrclaru of the State Boai'd of Agriculture.
Boston, Februaiy, 1890.
PUBLIC MEETING OF THE BOAR'D
. FITCHBURG.
PUBLIC MEETING OF THE BOARD
AT FITCHBURG.
The regular winter meetino; of the Massachusetts Board
of Agriculture was held at the City Hall in Fitchburg, on
Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, Dec. 3, 4 and 5, 1889.
The weather on the morning of the 3d was not such as to
tempt people from their homes, as snow was falling ; but
the attendance during the day was exceptionally large, and
the audience manifested a very intelligent and lively interest
in all the proceedings.
The meeting was called to order at ten o'clock by Secre-
tary Sessions, who introduced Mr. George Cruickshanks of
Fitchburg as the gentleman selected by the committee of
arrangements to preside.
The Chairman. It is fitting that we should follow the
custom which has prevailed for several years at the com-
mencement of these meetings, and I will therefore invite the
Rev. Frank Rector of Fitchburg to oifer prayer.
The divine blessing and guidance having been invoked,
the Chairman said : —
At the last annual meeting of the Worcester North Agri-
cultural Society, a unanimous vote was passed to invite
the State Board of Agriculture to hold its next winter meet-
ing in Fitchburg. You have honored us by accepting that
invitation. In behalf of that society I extend to you now a
most cordial welcome. We welcome you as representing in
the highest and best sense the agricultural welfare of this old
Commonwealth. A welcome to the hospitalities of our city
will be extended to you by its chief magistrate in his official
capacity. I now have the pleasure of introducing to you the
Hon. Eli Culley, mayor of Fitchburg.
ADDRESS OF MAYOR CULLEY.
Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen or the State Board
OF Agriculture : — My medical adviser, who, in this in-
stance at least, is my wife, said that, instead of coming out
4 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
into the moist atmosphere of this morning, I had better stay
in bed, as I have been suffering for three days from a severe
headache ; and those of you who are familiar with that trouble
I have no doubt will heartily sympathize with me. I am
also suffering from a sore throat ; but my interest in agri-
culture, although indirect, is so great that I could not absent
myself from this meeting, when I knew that the members of
the Worcester North Agricultural Society, wdiom I esteem
very highly, depended upon me for a few remarks to wel-
come you here on this occasion.
I reo-ret very much that the inclemency of the weather has
apparently deterred so many who are interested in agricult-
ural matters from attending this morning, because I am sure
that the interest which must be created by a meeting of this
kind is so great that all who are engaged in agricultural pur-
suits or who are interested in them must of necessity gain
much that will be of value to them. Still, I believe that
those who are here will make up in interest and I trust in
enthusiasm what they lack in numbers. • I remember that at
one time when I was serving in the army, my company and
another of our regiment had been left behind under the com-
mand of the major, to blockade a back road through which it
was expected that a part of the Confederate troops would
come up on our rear and harass our own troops. We were
detained for live or six hours, but eventually the major hur-
ried us forward, and after we had gone two or three miles
we heard the sound of incessant firing ahead. The major
ordered us to "quick step," and a little later he gave the
order to " double quick ; " and we hurried to the best of our
ability to catch up with our own troops, who were still far
ahead. It took us some two hours to reach the desired
point, and when we got there, after double-quicking it most
of the way for some eight or ten miles, our numbers were
quite small ; perhaps in the two companies not more than
twenty or twenty-live men were in the ranks. When we
were near our own regiment, which was at the front and
under fire at the time, the major looked down the short line
and said, " Well, boys, there are not many of you, but what
there are are good." So I trust it is with you here to-day ;
and I believe it to be so, that, although your numbers are
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 5
comparatively small, you will make up in zeal and en-
thusiasm what you lack in numbers.
Farmers do not usually sow seed in December, and yet I
do feel and believe that the seed which will be sown here
to-day, to-morrow and next day, during the sessions of this
Board, will be such that it will germinate and fructify for
years to come, and that it will bring forth fruit for the honor
and credit and olorv of the agriculture of Massachusetts.
I had the pleasure during the last season of visiting what
may be termed an experimental farm in the neighboring
town of Eindge, N. H , owned by the Cheshire Improve-
ment Company ; and it seemed to me from what I saw there,
from the care that was taken to ascertain in what manner
the best results could be obtained from the fine cattle that
were shown to us, the beautiful horses that w^ere exhibited,
and the products of the soil, — it seemed to me, I say, that
the owners of that farm were doing valuable missionary
work for the interests of agriculture. They were expending
large sums of money in experimenting as to how they could
produce the best cattle, so that the result would be the
greatest product of milk and butter ; what would make the
best horses, both for speed and for purposes of a more
practical nature. They were experimenting in the use of
fertilizers ; and, as I said, it seemed to me that that mission-
ary enterprise, if such it could be termed, was one that must
result in abundant ijood to the ao;ricultural interests of New
England, because, although so much of it was on an ex-
perimental basis, it afforded to those farmers who have not
the money nor the time to expend on such experiments the
opportunity to profit by them, rejecting that which w^as of
no value, and availing themselves of that which had shown
itself to be good and right and best. So I say that a farm
of that kind is of value not only to its own immediate sur-
roundings, but it is of value to all of you who are directly
interested in the pursuits of agriculture.
I might go on and say to you that I am very glad to see
you, wdiich indeed I am, as I feel that you have honored us
by your selection of this city as the place for holding this
annual meeting. It is an honor that we all as citizens of
Fitchburg heartily appreciate, and for which I, as its humble
6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
representative for the time being, most heartily thank you.
I am very ghid indeed to see you here. I believe that the
occasion will be one of profit to you. I trust that your
meetings will be interesting, instructive and profitable ; that
you will feel and believe, when you leave us for your homes,
that something has been added to your knowledge that will
be of value to you for years to come, and that you one and
all will hereafter look back upon this meeting with pleasure
and satisfaction, and I trust that you will look forward in
the future to a repetition of it with as much pleasure as we
in the future shall be glad to see you here again.
The Chairman. I now have the pleasure of introducing
to you the Rev. Charles S. Brooks of Fitchburg, who will
deliver the opening address.
OPENING ADDRESS.
BY REV. C. S. BROOKS OF FITCHBURG.
Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen of the State Board of
Agriculture : — Conventions are mountain summits which
men of various vocations ascend for prospect, inspiration,
deliberation and improvement of plans. You have come up
onto this height of your annual assembly for discovery, and
practical progress in your art of agriculture. I have read
that ' ' Canning used to say that the House of Commons as a
body had better taste than the man of the best taste in it ;
and ]\Iacaulay was much inclined to think that Canning was
right." Your convention doubtless will happily and help-
fully realize this interpretation of Canning, and the summit
of your wisdom will be reached in the ao;<Treo:ate of the
genius of your membership. I am glad to greet you and
participate with you as a company of seers convened to
advance the standard of 3^our craft. I may essay to speak
briefly upon the theme, "The Threefold Vocation of the
Agriculturist."
His ofiicial vocation is that of a husbandman. That goes
without saying. When chosen delil)erately and pursued
enthusiastically as a science and a noble ai-t, it is a vocation
of great area and opportunity. One of your eminent
apostles, Dr. George B. Loring, if therein a little extrava-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 7
gant, still had the salt of truth in his utterance when he
said substantially, " It requires more brains to be a
farmer than to pursue any other calling." It would be
altogether true to say that more brains are found under
some farmers' hats than under many of those in other guilds.
You will not, however, expect me to instruct you how to
transmute your gardens into better gardens, or your rugged
hill-sides into gardens ; how to transpose and relate bowlder
and loam, gravel, seed and tree, into delightful meads and
fair orchards. That task I shall not assume. This rather
will be done by the experts who are to address you.
I venture some suggestions upon two other phases of
your sphere ; for every rounded fiirmer must be at least
three men. First, as I have said, he is to be a husbandman.
And that, he is to be intensively and extensively. AVhen
the remark was made by a gentleman to Mr. Maydole, then
for twenty-eight years a hammer maker of Central New
York, " Well, then, you ought to make a pretty good
hammer by this time," he replied, " No, sir ; I never make a
pretty good hammer, — I make the best hammer in the
United States."
At the centennial exhibition held in Philadelphia, the
Webster plough attracted my attention. It was, I believe,
unusually large, and had with it these words of Daniel
Webster : " When I have hold the handles of my big plough,
with four yokes of oxen to pull it through, and hear the
roots crack and see the stumps all go under the furrow
out of sight, and observe the clean, mellowed surface of the
ploughed land, I feel more enthusiasm over my achievement
than comes from my encounters in public life at Washington."
Every farmer should in his calling aim to be what is for
him colossal. Besides filling full his position as a former,
he is to be a citizen. Under the genius of our American
government, to be a citizen is as really his vocation. You,
gentlemen, are builders of our republic. It cannot succeed
best without your best service, and it can scarcely fail if you
shall give it superlative aid. National stability and grandeur
wait upon your bidding. For look at it. What is our case ?
We are, and are to be, increasingly for the present, a nation
of cities. Already more than one -fifth of our population is
8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
in the cities. Take it in our own Commonwealth, and if the
proportions remain the same as in 1885, we have about fifty-
six per cent of the popuhition in our cities.
Now, if American civilization breaks down, it will be in
our cities. In New York City it did break down. All that
saves New York City to tolcrableness is the fact that it is
ruled measurably at Albany, in the State Legislature. Local
popular government has become there impossible. The rural
vote, the farmer's vote, helps check the corruption. Chicago,
we are glad to note, rises up in some of her exigencies in a
masterful manner, and lays an unequivocal hand upon
anarchism and murder. But the uncorrupted and incorrupt-
ible yeomanry of America are to be the reserve force ready
to come to the front, after having governed well your own
townships, and repress, through State laws, and if need be
through State officers, municipal evils which cannot be con-
trolled by the inhabitants of the cities. You are to be the
counterpoise of metropolitan corruption. Do you raise the
question, "Does not State interference with municipal afiairs
contravene and subvert the principles of popular govern-
ment?" Yes, if by popular government we mean narrowly
local government in individual towns and cities. But no,
when we mean by it the people of a whole State, the cities
included. The whole people are made the arbiters of con-
ditions in their whole domain ; and in emergency we must
resort to the will of the whole people, or under municipal
misrule come to ruin. It is an admitted dictum in national
jurisprudence, that "necessity knows no law." If in our
republic the people do not on exigent occasion rule the cities,
the cities will both rule and ruin the republic.
I estimate the agricultural vote of the United States to
approach one-half of the total vote. If it be so, you hold
not only the balance of civil power, but, in connection with
the contingent you are sure to get from the cities, you hold
the power itself.
Mr. Bryce, in his "American Commonwealth," pens this
ominous sentence: "There is no denying that the govern-
ment of cities is the one conspicuous failure of the United
States." I commend that to you, and those you represent,
for consideration. It is within the power of your class to
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 9
defend and forefend our nation from these perils of the city.
Here in our State, as you make close inspection, your
loftier monumental achievements are not these smooth slopes
carved by untold toil from rugged hill-sides ; not the palaces
and cottages, roofing, as they do, as much plenty and peace
as generally are found under any equal number of roof-trees
the whole world round ; not j^our famous highways and your
network of railways, which have been created by dint of
so mighty courage, patience and expenditure ; but your
loftier monumental achievements are our public sentiment,
our system of laws, our public school system, our higher
institutions of learning, our churches, — all these, so largely
the outcome of your fine citizenship, these are your glory as
citizens, and the crown resplendent you have woven for the
brow of Massachusetts.
In addition to the vocation of agriculture and of citizen-
ship, you have the vocation of manhood. No office have
you more imperative than that. When we lift our eyes
upon the vast areas, practically limitless, stretching before
the agriculturist, upon the mines of exhaustless treasure
inviting and enchanting the capitalist, upon a country
teeming with opportunities of gain for men from all sides of
all seas, we make no doubt but that we are to have here in
all callings, enterprise, daring, achievement. No question
about that. But the higher question, lifting its voice
through the din of ploughshare, mattock, shuttle, anvil and
locomotive, is, "Are we to have manliness in America?"
France has charming stretches of territory ; France has a
free government ; France has men, — but not manhood as a
characteristic possession. Brilliancy of imagination and wit
she has, genius for art and talent for literature ; but not, as
a distinguishing, culminating feature, manliness. There
must be manhood in America, or we are doomed. Fertile
acres, toiling rivers, fountains of petroleum, transcontinental
railways and imperial industries, will not save us. The game
in Europe may be learning or station or fortune or dominion ;
but, while not scorning these, the game of all in America
must be integrity. This, and all other worthy games, are
sure to be won with it. Some astute thinker has intimated
that " America is to be the home of men." The dominant
10 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
type came hither to New England that they might be men.
As our fathers on the coast of Massachusetts founded for
their part the land, so let us finish it.
Gentlemen of the State Board of Agriculture, it is your
hio-li honor and privilege to pursue and dignify this three-
fold vocation of agriculture, citizenship and manhood. With
each strand perfect, they make a threefold cord not quickly
broken.
I take much pleasure in your presence for your annual
winter session here in our city. If it be true that " a poet
is born, not made," it is scarcely less true that a city's
existence is fore-ordained. And so this city of Fitchburg,
which has been called the "Heidelberg of America," has
had its existence predetermined. By its natural circum-
stance God has said to the people of our Commonwealth,
"Here arise and build." For here is the natural northern
gate-way of the State, opening the avenue to the Miller's
River and Deerfield River valleys ; here are, upon the Nashua
River flowing through our limits, various water privileges ;
here are picturesque slopes, presenting charming sites for
residences; and here, divinely set, is Rollstone Hill, appar-
ently of solid granite, prepared and waiting to be converted
to various uses in the construction of the city. And the fiat
of environment is, build here and prosper. And in obedi-
ence this municipality has been planted and has thriven.
Very few cities of the State, I think, can have realized the
per cent of increase since 1880, which Fitchburg has at-
tained ; for, from a population of over twelve thousand then,
WG have advanced, according to cautious estimate, to over
twenty-one thousand, or some seventy-five per cent. A
growth this is, 1 may add, which is founded on substantial
industries, and which promises healthful stability to our city.
We offer you our most cordial salutations and welcome as
you convene for deliberation upon your department of work
in our Commonwealth.
j\Irs. Browning, who has been called " Shakespeare's
daughter," looking out in Florence from her " Casa Guidi
Windows" on the Italy she loved so compassionately,
wrote ; —
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 11
" ' Now, tell us what is Italy ? ' men ask ;
And others answer, ' Virgil, Cicero,
Catullus, Caesar.' What beside, to task
The memory closer ? ' Why, Boccaccio,
Dante, Petrarca.' And if still the flask
Appears to yield its wine by drops too slow, —
' Angelo, Raffael, Pergolese ; ' all
Whose strong hearts beat through stone, or charged again
The paints with fire of souls electi'ical,
Or broke up heaven for music."
Convened to-day in this ancient Commonwealth we love
so profoundly, we may in turn ask, " Now, tell us what is
Massachusetts?" And history may answer, *' Brewster,
and Standish, and Carver." What besides, to task the
memory closer? "Why, Samuel Adams, Joseph Warren,
and John Hancock." And if still the flask appears to yield
its wine by drops too slow, all whose strong hearts beat
through press or ploughshare or platform, or charged again
law and letters and liberty with fire of souls electrical, or
broke up heaven for manhood.
The Chairman. The first lecture will be by a gentleman
who delivered a lecture from this platform before the State
Board of Agriculture sixteen years ago, on " Grape Culture
in Massachusetts." The cultivation of the grape in vine-
yards in Massachusetts was then in its infancy. The first
vineyard planted in northern Worcester was planted by that
gentleman. Others soon followed his example, so that
there are now nearly one hundred acres in vineyards in this
and the adjoining towns, yielding an annual product of from
two to three hundred tons of fruit, and giving an income of
from fifteen to twenty thousand dollars annually. I have
now the pleasure of introducing Dr. Jabez Fisher of Fitch-
burg, who will address you on " Orchard Management."
ORCHARD MANAGEMENT.
BY DR. JABEZ FISHER OF FITCHBURG.
In these days of close competition in all kinds of business,
it behooves the orchardist, if he cares to get in advance or
even to keep abreast of his time, to let no opportunity slip
12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
whereby he may increase his product in the largest degree,
without at the same time correspondingly adding to its cost.
In consideration of this subject, I propose to present very
bricHy a few thoughts arising out of many years' experience,
that may tend to give some light in the direction indicated.
What I have to say will have special reference to the apple
and the pear, and will be confined to trees that are already
in bearing. A tree, like every other result of vegetative
life, is a wonderful production. It is fixed in, and grows
out of, the soil. It is acted upon by the sunshine and
atmosphere, and is watered by rains. It has a period of
youth, of maturity and of old age. The conditions of sun-
light, air and moisture are much alike throughout any given
district, but all soils within such district do not equally
produce perfect trees. Science has shown us that some soils
contain more of certain substances than others, and that in
this fact largely lies the explanation of the difi'erence in
productiveness. A plant is made up of a variety of elements,
a few existing m considerable proportions, while others are
found only in small quantities, nearly all, however, being
indispensable. Most of these are furnished by the soil and
air in sufficient quantities for perfect growth. A few others
are required in larger amounts than nature unaided is able
to supply, and these it is the business of the cultivator to
provide. It is comparatively easy to ascertain just how
much of each of the various elements are required to produce
an annual crop, as it can all be removed and subjected to
analysis, in order to determine what has been taken from
the soil. In the case of a tree this is. not possible, because
all of the product of any one year in the shape of wood,
leaves and fruit, cannot be isolated ; and therefore guess-
work has to take somewhat the place of actual knowledge of
what is demanded for continued growth and fruitfulness.
Chemical analysis, however, docs give us very nearly the
proportions of the special amendments required, and our
own judgment must be relied upon to indicate the gross
quantities.
Fertilization.
Any fairly good soil will supply all of the elements
necessary for the production of full crops, except potash,
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 13
nitrogen and phosphoric acid, with some lime and magnesia.
The forms in which the first-named three are furnished, their
proportions and aggregate quantities, are those that spe-
cially concern us. Barnyard manure, which is composed of
average hay and grain after having been ground up by the
animal, and a small percentage of its soluble matters taken
out of it for the sustenance of the same, contains all three
in about these proportions per ton : potash, ten pounds ;
nitrogen, nine pounds ; and phosphoric acid, four pounds.
There is no better fertilizer for the production of hay and
grain than barn3^ard manure, which is a complete fertilizer.
For* some special crops it is necessary for the best results to
supplement it with variations of some of its leading con-
stituents. Some of the objections to its use by the
orchardist are : it usually cannot be spared from other
crops ; if bought, it is too costly; if used, it involves for its
best utilization cultivation of the surface, which is not
desirable; it is slowly soluble, and does not minister most
to the demands of the trees when most needed ; and, finally,
its proportion of nitrogen is too large for fruitfulness,
although right for young growing trees. For some years
past I have adopted a plan of management which has given
me much satisfaction. The trees stand in sward. As soon
in the spring as the frost is completely out of the ground
and it is free from surplus water, I spread from a cart a
compounded fertilizer. I wish to furnish for each acre
about seventy-five pounds of potash, thirty pounds of
nitrogen, and twenty-five pounds of phosphoric acid, as the
leading constituents, deeming that a fair annual application
to promote growth and productiveness and holding the best
proportions that experience indicates. The formula used
the past season was made up as follows : —
Cotton-seed meal, 225 pounds.
Muriate of potash, 140
South Carolina floats, 75
Sulphate of ammonia, 60
Nitrate of soda, 20
Ground plaster, 80
Total, 600
14 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
This cost me at the railroad station just about $10.00. To
this I should add, another season, a quantity of sulphate of
magnesia. The merits of this application are ; its small cost,
considering the value of its ingredients ; its ease of handling ;
the large proportion of soluble constituents immediately
available ; and the relative proportions of its components,
which may be varied just as desired. Notwithstanding it
ministers at once to the growth of the grass, on account of
its solubility the trees get a generous share. As soon as
the grass will stand up against the scythe, it is mowed and
placed around the trunks of the trees to a depth sufficient to
kill out and keep out all grass, and of as much width as 'the
varying amount of cut grass will completely cover. This
mowing is repeated through the season as often as the grass
is tall enough, from two to five times, depending upon the
rainfall mainly.
The advantages of this plan as a whole are, that an orchard
is cheaper fed than by animal manures ; it is better fed for
fruitfulness by reason of the different proportion of its con-
stituents, notably the smaller amount of nitrogen ; it is also
better fed on account of its greater solubility, which causes
the leaves to develop rapidly, and at once put on that dark-
green color characteristic of sturdy health, thus promoting a
successful fructification of the bloom and a vigor of growth
throughout the season. The grass when kept short does not
exhaust the soil to the detriment of the trees, either by its
demand for the elements of fertility or moisture. It fills the
soil with dead and decaying roots better than the plough and
cultivator can with manure. The cut grass readily decays,
and, acting first as a mulch and then as a fertilizer, finds its
way back eventually to the soil. When the leaves drop in
the autumn they are evenly distributed among the blades of
grass, and never blow away, thus returning to the soil so
much of fertility. The cost of mowing is not more than that
of cultivation. The fruit will be of a more compact texture,
and will keep longer than with a cultivated surface, and the
trees will be freer from disease and longer lived.
Insects and Their Destruction.
Some years ago, when fair, clean No. 1 apples might be
worth $3.00 per barrel. No. 2, mainly good apples but
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 15
wormy, would sell for $2.00. Now, this proportion will not
hold. The No. 2's under the same circumstances bring from
$1.00 to $1.50. This comes about from the relatively large
proportion of the inferior fruit, which has constantly in-
creased, and, in the absence of an effectual preventive, must
continue to increase. In years of small crops nearly all of
the fruit will be of this poor character, and it is only when
the production is very large that any considerable propor-
tion is free from insect injuries. Various remedies have
been proposed, which are partially effective ; but I know of
only one that is worthy of serious consideration generally.
Arsenical preparations, if properly and persistently applied
at the right time, will be found to be more valuable for this
purpose than any other treatment that has yet been brought
forward. There are three forms in which arsenic has been
used : viz., arsenious acid, or white arsenic ; Paris green, or
the arsenite of copper; and London purple, a waste product
of somewhat uncertain composition. I have experimented
a good deal with white arsenic, but find that it cannot be
depended upon at any strength which will save the foliage
from injury. Paris green is safe, and may be sucessfully
used with sufficient care ; but I give preference to London
purple. Paris green is so heavy a powder that it settles
almost at once in the water, and, unless constantly stirred,
it is impossible to distribute it evenly over the tree. Lon-
don purple is much better in that respect, and probably for
that reason is more effectual and gives better satisfaction.
It should be used at the rate of one pound of the purple to
from one hundred and fifty to two hundred gallons of water.
If stronger than the first, it will be liable to burn the foliage
in spots ; and, if weaker than the latter, it is only partially
efficient. The foliage of pears is more tolerant of it than
apples. An even teaspoonful to two gallons of water is about
right, but as they vary in capacity, I would advise measuring
your teaspoon, so as to make it definite. The liquid can be
best applied by means of an ordinary brass hand-syringe,
with a fine rose. It should be thrown with force in order
to form as fine a spray as possible, into and above the
tree from every side, so as to wet the whole foliage.
That which falls upon the ground is useless, but no harm
16 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
comes from an excess. Two gallons evenly applied will
be sufficient for a tree capable of bearing four barrels as
a full crop. The first application should be made as
soon as the trees are out of bloom, the second say seven
days later, and the third ten days after the second. If
no rain occurs from the time of the first spraying until
three days after the last, the protection should be at its
maximum ; but rains are common at that season, and often
interfere seriously. In such an emergency, the applications
may be made directly after a rain if the foliage is dry, and
it will be useful if only twenty-four hours intervene before
the next rain. Just how this simple operation produces the
effect that follow^s, is not entirely clear in all respects, but it
is probable that the curculio, which is responsible for much of
the deformed fruit, produces this condition by taking bites out
of the skin of the forming apple or pear. Development is ar-
rested at these spots, and as the substance of the fruit around
grows, there is formed a knurl which increases as the speci-
men enlarges. It is possible also that the female eats the chips
she makes when forming the crescent excavation. It is easy
to comprehend how the young codling worm, hatched on the
outside of the skin within the calyx, consumes an atom of
the poison before entering the substance of the fruit.
Thinning Fruits.
Inasmuch as the largest and most perfect specimens are
those that pay the best profit over the cost of production,
I come now to consider the mode of procedure that w^ill
result in the greatest proportion of such, and at the
same time reduce all others to the minimum. This is quite
possible by a small expenditure of intelligent labor applied
at the right time. If the arsenical spraying has been
effectually used, most of the fruits will have been saved
from the injuries caused by insects. When they have
attained the size of from one-half to one inch in diameter, it
will be time to commence a systematic thinning. As a
rule, bearing trees set many more fruits than they can
carry to perfection ; and, for the benefit of those which are
to mature, all others should be removed before they have
made much demand upon the fertility of the soil or the
strength of the tree.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 17
This operation is conducted as follows, preferably by
boys or young men : 1 . Wherever two or more specimens
of the apple or pear set in a cluster, all should be picked oif
except the best one ; 2. All those deformed in any way
that Avould take them out of the No. 1 class at maturity,
should be removed ; 3. All that show the presence of worms
should not only be taken from the tree, but should be
treated so as to destroy the worms, either by feeding to
animals, or by cooking or burying; lastly, all that are
decidedly smaller than the average specimens left should be
removed.
After all this is completed, it becomes a question of judg-
ment whether the fruits remaining shall be further thinned.
Experience only can teach the best point at which to stop
in each individual tree ; but, even with the experience of
years, we shall be likely to finish prematurely. At the time
at which the work is done the fruits are small, and we* do
not and can not appreciate how differently the tree will look
when the fruit has reached its full size ; and the tendency is
ahvays to an underestimate. Perhaps- a good rule is to
allow no fruit within six inches of another in any direction.
Even at this distance, if a tree was evenly filled throughout,
the yield would be enormous.
It is obvious that careful spinying and faithful thinning
combined must result in a greatly superior product, that will
aftbrd a much larger margin for profit if the increased labor
and expense do not consume it all. It is easy to arrive
at the exact cost of each of these operations, but more
difficult to get at the difference in crop value resulting there-
from. From an experience of more than twenty years in
thinning pears, and half as many in apples, I am fully
persuaded that labor expended in this way is worth always
more than twice what it costs, and in some cases more than
five times. A few of the fruits would drop before picking
time, but the great majority of the fruit would have to be
picked by hand finally, and two small ones can be removed
quicker than one full grown. In fact, I am not sure that it
costs an additional cent to take them off early, but I am
confident that it adds to the value of the rem^iining product
from twenty-five to one hundred per cent. It pays the
18 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
largest profit when the crops are the heaviest. When the
yield is immense, the dift'erence in value of the firsts and
seconds is greater than under other conditions. In 1888,
when the apple product was very large, and a great propor-
tion went begging at small prices, first-class fruits sold for
fully three times the price of the others.
Handling and MarTveting.
Having produced a superior article, it is of much impor-
tance that it be utilized to the greatest advantage. If the
fruits are intended for late keeping, they should be picked
early; i.e., before any considerable number of sound speci-
mens drop from the trees, and before they get a high color,
if of colored varieties. They should be at once housed in
the coldest place attainable, out of the influence of the sun-
shine, and as far as possible in an even temperature. Fruits
sweat as a cold pitcher sweats, which is only when it is
colder than the atmosphere that surrounds it ; and every
time this occurs it hastens the process of ripening. If
apples are to be marketed early, and the best quality is
wanted, they may remain on the trees until they obtain a
high color, and show maturity by dropping. Pears should
never be allowed to become eatable while upon the tree.
No fruit should be allowed to drop from the hand or other-
wise, but should be handled precisely as an o-gg. A slight
dent in the surface of an apple made by a fall of only a few
inches will not cause it to rot ; but the spot consists of dried
apple, which injures its good looks and is an obstruction to
the action of the parer. Any rupture of the skin, however
small, starts decay, which is worse in pears than apples.
In assorting fruits for market, it is very important that
the barrels or other packages run even for both size and
quality. The most taking display, and the one which
quickest attracts the buyer, without perhaps his appreciating
the reason, is one in Avh'ich the specimens, while not neces-
sarily of unusual size, are models one of another, no very
large and no small ones, which equally destroy the beauty
»nd attractiveness of the whole. If the crop varies much
in size, it is better to pack the largest by themselves. In
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 19
this kind of business, as in every other, " honesty is the
best policy ; " but he wlio is Iionest simply because it is
politic, will be equally a scamp when he happens to believe
that to be the most politic course.
The limit of time which was assigned me forbids the
further elaboration of the points touched upon, or the men-
tion of others of less moment. To sum up the subject in a
single sentence, I would say, if the orchardist will annually
feed his trees properly and generously, will prevent other
growth from undue interference, will make the best use of
arsenical spraying, will thin his fruits faithfully at the right
time, and handle the product with care, he will be likely to
be as well recompensed for his trouble as the business is
susceptible of.
The CiiAiEMAX. I want to say that this hour has been
reserved for questions and discussion ; it is for you, gentle-
men, to improve it. The doctor will be ready to answer
any questions.
QuESTiox. What varieties of apples have you found the
most profitable ?
Dr. Fisher. If you want to set out an apple orchard
for profit, I doubt if you should talk about varieties at all ;
you should set out one variety, if it is all for money. And
yet I should hesitate before putting all my money into one
variety. The story used to be, that, if you wanted to set
out a thousand apple trees, you should set out nine hun-
dred Baldwins. "Well, what should the other hundred
be?" ' Well, Baldwins." I do not know but that is true
to-day, but I have some doubts about it. I think I get
more money out of Ilubbardstons than I do out of Bald-
wins ; yet I do not think I should advise a man to set out a
tliousand trees of the Hubbardston variety. The market
varies. I do not think that any man can tell what will be
the most popular apple twenty-five years from now. There
is a good deal of guess-work about it. I should say, if you
want to set out a pear orchard for profit, set only the Bartlett.
Still, we want some other varieties.
Question. What do you think of the Rhode Island
Greening ?
20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Dr. Fisher. The Rhode Island Greening on my land
does very well indeed. Most people in this region do not
succeed with it ; I do not know why.
Question. About its popularity in the market?
Dr. Fisher. It is an apple that never is popular until it
is known, and after it is known it is more popular than the
Baldwin. The Rhode Island Greening is not so Avell appre-
ciated in Boston as it is in New York. It will always bring
in New York fifty cents a barrel more than in Boston ; I do
not know why, but it is the ftict. When apples were first
exported to England, the green varieties brought very low
prices ; but they are beginning to appreciate the Rhode
Island Greening there now, and they Avill pay almost as
much for it as for a red variety. For retailing, a red apple
is much better than a green one ; but for cooking purposes
the Rhode Island Greening is far ahead of the Baldwin.
QuESTiox. How about the Gravenstein ?
Dr. Fisher. The Gravenstein is a very fine apple indeed.
It is one of the best apples for exportation. Nova Scotia
has found that out. They are growing enormous quantities
of Gravensteins there.
Question. How about the profit, compared with the
Baldwin ?
Dr. Fisher. There is one great objection to the Graven-
stein. It is an apple that does not ripen all at once, and
therefore you must pick two or three times in order to get
the best results. I have known people who mulched the
ground underneath their trees, and allowed their apples to
drop ; but that, of course, spoiled half of them.
Question. The Northern Spy, doctor?
Dr. Fisher. It is a very fine apple, and brings high
prices, but I think it costs a good deal of money to get it.
The trees are late in bearing, and it must be handled very
tenderly or it does not keep until the time of the year when
it is valuable.
Question. Is it best to trim pear trees? Does not
mulching tend to bring the roots nearer to the surface, so
that a drought will aftect them more, and also attract mice?
Dr. Fisher. After pear trees have arrived at the bear-
ing age there should be very little trimming done. As long
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 21
as the trees grow excessively, make long limbs and a great
many of them, it is necessary to thin them out. It will
never do harm to cut out the dead wood or a crossing limb.
It is not necessary to prune apple trees much, although
occasionally some is required. It is better in all pruning to
do it early. It is better to prevent the growth that you do
not want, than it is to wait till the wood is made and then cut
it out. The time of pruning is not very important, although
perhaps it is better to prune in the fall than in the spring.
If you have a large limb to cut out, it should be done very
carefully, leaving a stump a foot long, more or less, and
then wait until June and cut out the stump ; paint the scar,
and you will never have trouble from it. But, if you
cut out a large limb in April, the chances are that there will
be an oozing of sap, which turns black, runs down the tree,
and it commences to decay. That you can always avoid by
leaving a stump, and cutting it off some time in June. You
may ask, " Then why not prune in June?" It is very bad
to take out much foliage after it has developed ; it checks
the tree amazingly. That is one way of getting a tree into
bearing, when it grows all the time and makes wood largely.
If you put grass about your trees in a wet year, like this
one, the grass decays and becomes mould, and then there
is no trouble from mice ; but when you mulch your trees in
a dry year, the grass dries and becomes hay, and it will be
filled with mice. The simplest protection that I know of is
to surround each tree with tarred paper, tie it together to
hold it in place, and mice will never touch the tree. It will
not cost a tenth of a cent to protect a tree against the
ravages of mice or rabbits all winter.
In regard to the roots coming up to the surface, that is just
the thing that we want. I would like to get the roots of
my fruit trees up to within an inch of the surface, if I could.
The trouble with ploughing is, that you do not allow them
to come within less than six or eight inches of the surface ;
you keep them down out of the way of the influence of the
sun. I mulch to get the roots up as near the surface as I
can. I think my trees do better for it. The ground is
always moist under the mulch, and when the sun comes out
the roots never decay in consequence.
22 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Question. What are the advantages of root-pruning ?
Dr. Fisher. The advantage of root-pruning trees is
precisely that of root-pruning corn. After the crop has
filled your ground with roots, does it do any good to cut off
some of them? It simply prevents the crop from growing
to the extent of its roots. Every tree or plant that is un-
mutilated from beginning to end has a branch correspond-
ing to every root. If you cut off a root in any way, you
either kill the l)ranch corresponding to it or yon make
it stand still ; or, if you cut out a branch of a growing
tree, you kill the root w^hicli corresponds to that branch.
The severing of that root deprives that branch of its
nutriment, and vice versa. That is just what will result
from any cultivation that cuts off the roots of growing
plants.
Question. Have you any remedy for the cracking of
pears, — the Flemish Beauty, for instance?
Dr. Fisher. Yes, sir ; I have a remedy for the cracking
of the Flemish Beauty. It is the remedy that the French-
man applied to his dog. He cut off his tail right behind his
ears. I don't know of any other. I don't think it is possi-
ble to grow the Flemish Beauty as a crop in this part of the
country. Occasionally you get a perfect crop ; but my
experience is, that about nine times out of ten the fruit is
entirely worthless. In city yards, in protected places, I
have known trees to bear several perfect crops, but never in
a field or orchard.
Question. If you have some good trees, would you graft
them with something else ?
Dr. Fisher. I would.
Question. Can you do anything with cherry trees when
knots or warts get on them, except to cut them down?
Dr. Fisher. There is no difficulty if you keep the
black-knot cut out. You must cut it out whenever j^ou find
it, and you nuist look for it, too. It s])reads ])y spores, like
all the other fungi, and if it is cut out in the early stages it
cannot spread from that source. If 3'ou live in a region that
is surrounded by wild cherry trees, cut them all down. It
is no use to fight against the black-knot in your own trees if
wild cherry trees are growing all around you ; you must
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 23
remove the source of infection. You must cut out the knot
and burn it, so that tlie spores cannot propagate.
Question. Does that rule apply to the plum tree as well
as to the cherry?
Dr. FisiiER. Yes, sir ; precisely.
Question. What would you do when they come out all
over a tree simultaneously ?
Dr. Fisher. Why, I should cut in the same way.
Question. Cut at the bottom ?
Dr. Fisher. I should cut at the bottom. If you had a
plum tree in your yard that you valued very highly, and took
a great deal of pleasure in, you might, perhaps, cut out a
hundred knots, where you would not if it was in an orchard.
It is a question of dollars and cents in any case.
Question. Do you consider the black-knot liable to be
communicated to other trees ?
Dr. Fisher. Yes, sir. If you let it alone, you will find
that it will always spread. It has two sets of spores, —
winter spores and summer spores. Both of them will spread.
The only way is to cut them out at any and all times, and
burn them.
Question. What varieties would you graft on the Flemish
Beauty ?
Dr. Fisher. Whatever varieties I wanted. Almost any-
thing will thrive in a good stock.
The Chairman. We will let this matter rest now, and
invite Mr. Augur to take the floor.
Mr. Augur. Mr. Chairman, I was very much pleased
with the lecture that Dr. Fisher has given us, and I hardly
feel like combating it at all. I have not for a Ions; time
heard anything with which I so heartily agreed. In regard
to the black-knot, I would like to say just a word. I have
been into a battle with that, and came out beaten, I must
confess. I had the same idea that he has of cutting it out,
and I calculated to cut out every black-knot that I saw ; but
the time came when it became epidemic, as it were. When-
ever it came on, and almost at the same time, you could see
a green exudation coming out all over the trees, and I had
to cut away a good many trees. I have come to the conclu-
sion that it is better to choose those varieties that are the
24 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
least subject to the black-knot ; Init, in attempting to answer
the question, " Which are those?" I am a little at a loss to
know. The Shropshire Damson, which I consider, aside
from that, the most profitable plum that wx have raised, is
very much subject to it, and we have stopped planting it.
But for that I should call it the best market plum we have.
The Lombard, which is a profuse bearer, is also very much
troubled with the black-knot. It has troubled us so badly
that we have stopped planting that variety. The Imperial
Gage so far has escaped the black-knot, when others have
broken out with it all around it. The German Prune, Pond's
Seedling, and the Niagara, have been comparatively free
from it, although not w^holly so. I would advise those who
are engaged in poultry raising to have a plum orchard for
their poultry yards. In that way they would escape the
ravages of the curculio to a large extent, and the droppings
of the fowls would very materially help to fertilize the trees.
Question. Before you leave that subject, will you state
how long your plum trees have been under cultivation ?
Mr. Augur. I cannot say that they have been under cul-
tivation exactly. They Avere planted pretty thickly in the
hen yard, and being enclosed, and the fowls having a run
there, we do not attempt to raise any crop, and have not
kept up continuous cultivation.
Question. How old are they ?
Mr. Augur. I should say twelve or fifteen years.
Mr. Hawkins of Lancaster. I would like to ask the
jjentleman if he thinks the moist weather Ave have had for
the last two seasons has been conducive to the spread of the
black-knot ?
Mr. Augur. I have not traced it particularly to that.
Mr. Hawkins. I have some forty-five hundred plum
trees, and have not had any l)lack-knot until within two
years ; and as fast as it appears I cut it out. This year I
had to cut out a whole orchard, to get rid of it, and I
attributed it to the moist season.
Mr. Augur. The disease seems to propagate by spores,
and it has certainly seemed to be epidemic. The potato rot
comes from spores, and there are seasons Avhen its ravages
are very much more severe than others, and this last season
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 25
it might very naturally be attributed directly to the wet
season ; but there is something back of that, I think, that we
do not know of.
In regard to the apple orchard, I most heartily concur with
Dr. Fisher in what he said about the matter of pruning. I
wish every one might carry his ideas home, and ponder them
well. I think young trees, just as they are transplanted,
are hardly ever pruned enough, and old trees are almost
always pruned too much.
I like a tree that is well supplied with roots, evenly
balanced root and head ; and when it is compacted, well set
out, I would like to take out three-quarters or more of the
top, and there will be no need of staking ; the tree is there,
it is o-oino; to hold there, and it will orow. And if we can
prune our trees so that we shall have just so many main
branches and so many secondary branches, and prune from
time to time so as to balance the tree, and cut out the super-
fluous branches, I think we shall then have the beau ideal of
a perfect tree. I have looked through Connecticut to find a
perfect orchard, and have not found it. I have not seen one
in Massachusetts, and if there is one within a long distance
I should be happy to go there to get a look at it. We do
not carry an ideal in our minds, and endeavor to bring our
orchards up to it. But, in order to do that, I think we
should start with a perfect tree ; and if we have a perfect
set of trees in an orchard, that orchard will be uniform, and
then, with proper care and culture, as has been recom-
mended, we shall have profitable orchards.
About 1854 I planted an orchard, mainly of three varie-
ties,— the Baldwin, the Rhode Island Greening, and the
Roxbury Russet. I selected those trees from a model. For
the first ten years there was not a missing tree in that
orchard. About that time a man in my employ managed
somehow to spoil one of them by driving over it ; but with
that exception the orchard remained intact for several years
more. Since that time, from one cause and another, perhaps
four or five trees out of the entire number on the two acres
have gone. Aside from that, the orchard is very uniform
and has been very productive, and I think that is what we
should aim at.
26 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Again, I think that on all our farms we have too many
scattering trees. They tempt cattle to hreak through fences,
furnish a breeding-place for worms, and the fruit cannot be
gathered with any profit when the extra time required is
considered. Unless they have unusual merit, I think all
such scattering trees should be removed. If we would
just take them to the wood-pile and set out a new orchard,
selecting choice trees and keeping them up to a good
standard, I think we should vastly improve our farms.
In regard to varieties, I think I should agree with the
lecturer that the most profitable orchard we can have is one
wholly of Baldwins. I speak from my own experience.
The Hubbardston is an apple that does nicely with us. It
wants handling early. They ought to be disposed of by
this time, or before.
Dr. FisHEK. No, sir.
Mr. Augur. I stand corrected for Massachusetts, but
not for Connecticut.
Dr. Fisher. I dispose of mine usually in the month of
January. They bring the best price at that time.
Mr. Augur. I should presume they would. I have
no doubt Dr. Fisher is correct about that in his locality.
There is an apple which has pleased me very much. I do
not know how it has succeeded here, or how much it has
been disseminated. I refer to the Grimes' Golden. At the
New Orleans exhibition I had occasion to see it from difierent
localities. It was rated as the best apple at the exhibition.
It is an apple, I think, of high quality, and it seems to me
that every farmer should at least have some for his own
use ; and as people become better acquainted with it, and
as it is more widely disseminated, I think it will be a
popular mtirket fruit. In the fall I think there is no apple
like the Gravenstein. A gentleman asked me a short time
since as we were riding in a stage, " What do you call the
best apple, all things considered?" "Well," I said, "I
should bo almost inclined to choose the Gravenstein."
When we have a surplus of those apples, we frequently
put them through the evaporator, and they are just as much
finer than any other apple I know of for cooking all through
the year as they are for eating in their season.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 27
Question. How does the Oldenburgh compare with
that ?
Mr. Augur. It is a handsome apple, but I do not
compare it at all with the Gravenstein in quality. There
is a most delicious aroma about the Gravenstein. Stewed
with a little sugar, it makes one of the finest desserts, and
one of the cheapest, too. It does not take very much
sugar, and I know of no fruit, unless it is the peach, that
compares with it for cooking. Where a man has room for
only one apple tree, I should recommend him to put in the
Gravenstein. In the Boston market, when the Porter,
which ripens about the same time, brings $1.25 a barrel,
the Gravenstein brings about $2.00. I think there is about
that difference.
In regard to the Baldwin apple, a commission merchant
from New York was in my orchard this fall, and he com-
plimented me as having the best orchard of Baldwin apples
that he had seen. They were very highly colored, and he
made the remark that the Baldwin, other things being
equal, was valuable in proportion to its color; and I think
so too. A high-colored apple, whether it be a Baldwin or
a Northern Spy, is the apple for me. It has quality, as well
as being more merchantable.
Question. Is there not considerable difference in Bald-
wins ? I mean different kinds ; some that redden up a good
deal more than others ?
Mr. AuGUK. Well, I should not lay so much stress upon
that as upon the environment of the tree. People some-
times ask if there are not two or three kinds of Rhode
Island Greenings. Well, so far as that is concerned, I might
say there are twenty ; but I think it is owing to the circum-
stances and surroundings more than anything else, although
when we are grafting trees we like to select scions from the
very best trees. I think that is always in order, either with
apples or anything else.
A word in regard to the planting of young orchards, —
for our old trees are disappearing, and, in order to have the
next generation supplied with fruit, we must plant orchards.
It seems to me that we should pay very much more atten-
tion to getting a fine quality of nursery stock. I am very
28 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
sorry that the custom is so prevalent of propagating trees
by root-grafting. Some one was asked when was the best
time to begin training a child, and he said a hundred years
before it was born. I think he was right about that. I
think we should get seed from good native seedling stocks,
that are healthy, vigorous, and that have well-developed
seeds. Seedlings are almost always graded into about three
grades, — extra. No. 1 and No. 2. Now, if I could have
my choice, I should want my trees from the extra stock, no
matter what they cost.
Question. Are not those grades fixed according to size
rather than quality? That is the way they do it in the
catalogues.
Mr. Augur. I think there is a great deal in the character
of the seeds. You take any number of apple seeds, and
you will find two, three, four or more grades. There will
be those that are very plump and those that are very
diminutive. If we select fully developed seeds, they will
produce the finest seedlings, of course. We should take
advantage of the best heredity we can get, and that is the
starting point. An orchard so selected and so planted could
hardly fail to do well. It does not matter how much you
pay for the trees. If you pay fifty cents for one tree,- and
could get the other at a dime, I should take the higher cost
one in preference to the other, for I should then have some-
thing reliable to start with. I will venture to say that you
may go around Fitchburg or any other place, and look over
the orchards, and you will find two-thirds of the trees not
what they ought to l)e. A great many trees that are set
out from nurseries have roots only on one side, and conse-
quently you will find a great many leaning trees in the
orchards.
Question. Has not the wind something to do with that
in some localities ?
Mr. Augur. When the wind blows, it is the one-sided
trees that get over. I like to have the wind blow, and if a
tree does not stand it, let it go. But when you have an
orchard that has come to maturity, do very little pruning.
I know an orchard in our town that was bought by a clergy-
man, and he thought he was doing the best thing possible
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 29
when he put a man into it who did not know very much
about pruning to do that work. After the pruning was done,
I happened to pass the orchard, and I thought to myself,
"Well, one more pruning and you have your fire-wood."
The orchard was just ruined, in my opinion, by that exces-
sive pruning, which left just a little tuft on top of four or
five main branches, and aside from that the tree was gone.
The next season the trees will undoubtedly be full of
suckers, which will be a nuisance ; and I consider trees
which have been pruned in that way, three or four large
branches taken oft", just about ruined. I would rather an
old orchard should be a little too thick, than to have it so
mercilessly pruned. But what is better is to go in and thin
out, as Dr. Fisher has said, any dead wood and any
branches that cross each other, and then let it alone and get
what you can from it.
Question. I would like to ask the gentleman if he has
had any experience with the Newtown Pippin ?
Mr. Augur. I have a few trees of Newtown Pippins, and
I rather value them, but I do not consider it a profitable
apple for market. On the Hudson it formerly did remark-
ably well, and brought very high prices in England ; but
even there it does not at the present time hold its former
ascendency. It needs high culture.
Question. I would like to ask Mr. Augur if he has any
preference in regard to localities ?
Mr. AuGUE. Yes, sir ; I would not advise any one to
plant an apple orchard in the vicinity of a city on land that
is good for truck gardening. But if a man has an old past-
ure which has not been ploughed for a good many years,
where the land is rather heavy, I think that answers very
well.
Professor Stockbridge. We have two experts here, and
I think we ought to pump them thoroughly. Some very
important matters have been brought out by Dr. Fisher and
Mr. Augur, and I have one question which I would like to
ask. A few years ago we were told to cultivate our or-
chards, but not to undertake to grow two crops, — a crop of
trees and a crop of hay. It was everywhere said that you
must cultivate your orchards, keep them clean like a hoed
30 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
field ; and to this day I think that through the Middle
States the peach orchards are kept cultivated. In Florida
the orano-e groves are all kept thoroughly cultivated.
Now, Dr. Fisher does not hold to cultivation ; he would
keep an orchard in grass, and mulch the trees so as to get
the roots near the surface. I would like to know from
Mr. Augur what advice he would give in that respect. It
is a very important matter.
Mr. Augur. It certainly is. I think that it depends
somewhat upon circumstances. I have an orchard that was
planted in 1869, which I kept in cultivation I think four
years. The trees then had a good stand. We had been
raising peaches, grapes and other fruits, and of course it is
necessary for us to have hay. We have to devote a consid-
erable portion of land to hay for our stock. As I said, that
orchard was planted in 1869. In 1872 or 1873 it was
seeded down to grass, and has not been ploughed since. It
has been pruned and it has been top-dressed. I presume
Dr. Fisher will criticise me on this point ; but I will say
that the hay from that orchard has been taken to the barn ;
but the orchard is coming very nicely into bearing. At the
end of summer, or perhaps about this time, we clean out all
our manure and top-dress the orchards.
Professor Stockbridge. Then I would like to ask another
question, which perhaps should be put to Dr. Fisher. Pro-
vided you cut that grass and carry the hay to your barn, is
any damage done if you increase the per cent of fertilizers
which you put upon the land ?
Dr. FisiiEK. I want to make this point emphatic, — that
you cannot grow hay and apples on the same land. I want
you to cut your grass before it becomes tit for hay, while
the blades are not more than six or eight inches high, and
its roots are correspondingly only six or eight inches long.
If you wait until the grass is three feet high and the roots
are three feet long, approximately, and then cut the grass
and take the hay to your barn, you have stolen from your
soil both moisture and fertilizing properties, and you can-
not bring them back.
Mr. Augur. In that connection I would like to say that
I think there are sometimes evils o-rowing out of cultivation.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 31
I will mention a case which will give my idea. I knew a
small orchard that was set out some years ago which was
treated as a garden, with pretty high fertilization. Those
trees grew enormously. They grew too much and grew too
late, and at the end of about six or eight years that cul-
tivation ceased, and then the other extreme was taken up,
of cutting the hay and removing it. Well, the revulsion
was so great that those trees came to a stand, and very soon
began to decay. I presume if the cultivation had been kept
along, they would have continued fruitful perhaps for a
period of years. But it seems to me that excessive culture
is bad. What we want is a moderate, uniform growth, in
which the terminal buds shall l)e formed as early as August,
and no further extension of growth after that. Let the sap
be elaborated and the wood well ripened up. I have at
home specimens of peach trees that have failed prematurely,
and I find that those })each trees, during a period of two
years of their growth, made an enormous amount of wood,
and I think they suffered in consequence.
In regard to the matter of mulching, I fully believe in
that. I have as little fear as Dr. Fisher has in regard to
the roots coming near the surface. I saw in one of the
papers some remarks of Professor Budd of Iowa, depre-
cating mulching on account of trees winter-killing ; and the
thought occurred to me that very likely cultivation might
have been given up and a revulsion occurred similar to that
of which I spoke in the orchard which was cultivated like a
garden. I think we should go along uniformly, not give
excessive culture ; and, if we stop culture, be sure to pro-
vide sustenance, so that the trees will not stop growing, but
continue right on.
The Chairman. I have l)een requested to call upon Mr.
Hawkins of Lancaster to give his experience in the cultiva-
tion of the plum in the hen yard.
Mr. A. C. Hawkixs of Lancaster. On this plum ques-
tion I must say I have been rather beaten this year on
account of the black-knot, which w^as discussed this fore-
noon. For eight years I have been quite successful in cul-
tivating this variety of fruit. The trees have been set in
hen yards, about fourteen feet apart, and the only fertilizers
32 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
have been the droppings of the fowls, and a coating of ashes
once i-n two or three years. The trees have gro\vn thriftily,
and after they were three years of age they have borne
bountifully. This black-knot, which I think has increased
on account of the excessive moisture we have had for two
or three years, has not decreased the crop as yet, but this
fall there is a great deal more of it than I have ever seen
before. I do not know what the outcome will be ; but if I
should go over some of my trees and cut oft' all the knots,
there would be very little left. I think I have about forty-
five hundred plum trees now, and perhaps only a hundred
or two are afiected badly, so that I do not fear anything
serious for a year or two. I am setting new trees every
year, and I shall not be discouraged until they all go. I
think in setting plum trees or any fruit trees great care
should be exercised in selecting the trees. Last year I set
about two thousand plums and pears ; and, as I could not
get satisftictory prices in this section, I went personally to
the nurseries in Geneva and Rochester and other parts of
New York where they are grown as a business, and made
my own selections ; and I found it saved me a great deal of
money, and I got trees of a quality that it was impossible
to get of the ao-ents. I learned from these dealers that
many of the trees that are purchased and sold at high prices
to the general dealer are only second or third quality. You
can go there and buy the very best quality of trees, true to
name, for twenty-five per cent less than you must pay to
agents for poor stock.
Question. What about the curculio?
Mr. Hawkins. I have no trouble from them. A small
proportion of the fruit gets stung by the curculio, but the
fowls run among the trees and destroy all the increase.
Question. How many fowls does it take to destroy the
insects on an acre ?
Mr. Hawkins. I should say that five hundred fowls to
the acre would keep down any increase of the curculio ; and
if the trees arc set outside of the hen yard, and care is taken
to gather all the fruit that drops from the stings of the cur-
culio and it is fed to the fowls and hogs, the grub in the
fruit will be destroyed, and there will be no trouble. At
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 33
least, I lind it so, and I have two thousand trees outside the
hen yard. I have average crops every year. It may he that
I raise so many that the curculio cannot sting them all.
Question. Do you ever spray your trees with Paris
green ?
Mr. Hawkins. I have never had occasion to.
Mr, Augur. I would like to ask which varieties of your
plums have been most troubled with the black-knot? Have
you noticed any difference in the varieties ?
Mr. Hawkins. My worst trees in that respect are the
Damson and the Purple Gage. I have an orchard of Lom-
bard trees that have been set for ten years, and they have
never had knots enough on them to injure the crop to any
extent. The Quackenboss seems to be the freest from the
disease in my locality.
Mr. Augur. Have you the Niagara?
Mr. Hawkins. I have. I suppose they are the same as
the Bradshaw. That is what the growers tell me at Geneva.
Mr. Augur. There is a little difference between them, I
think.
Mr. Hawkins. They call them the Niagara in order to
sell them for a new thing ; but they are practically the Brad-
shaw, as far as I can see. I bought a few at a high price,
but they all bore Bradshaw plums.
The Chairman. The hour of adjournment has come, but
Professor Humphrey, of the Experiment Station, is present,
and I know we should all be glad to hear from him on the
subject of the black-knot.
Professor Humphrey. Mr. Chairman and gentlemen, I
am not here to talk to-day, but when I saw the eye of the
secretary on me I knew 1 was in for it. This question of
the black-knot is one on which I have not much to add to
what has been said in the bulletin of the Hatch Experiment
Station of the Agricultural College for October, which some
of you I presume have read. I can tell you in a very
few words what we know about the black-knot. It would
take a good many more to tell you what we do not know.
The swelling in the branches known as black-knot or wart
on cherry and plum trees is caused by the attacks of a
little plant. It is just as truly a plant as the plum tree that
34 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
it attacks. The disease is propagated by reproductive or-
gans known as spores, which are analogous in their function
to the seeds of the higher plants. This plant is one of the
thousands and thousands of so-called fungi, which constitute
a very large brood of small, largely microscopic plants,
which attack either dead and decaying plants and animals,
or living plants. Those which attack living plants, like the
black-knot fungus, are known as parasitic fungi, because
they live on and at the expense of the plants which they
attack, drawing their nourishment from them ; having no
power of elaborating nourishment for themselves, as the
green plant, a plum tree, for instance, has, but depending
entirely upon the nourishment elaborated by the plum tree
for its food. The reproductive organs or spores are very
small in all the fungi, microscopic in size, and so naturally
very light. They are readily carried by the v/ind and by
very slight currents of air. The early history of the de-
velopment of the black-knot fungus we do not know. We
do not know definitely how it first penetrates the branches ;
we can judge of that only from its analogy to other fungi.
The spores presumably infect the branches of a plant by
producing little germinating threads which grow out from
the spore and push their way, you might almost say dissolve
their way, perhaps by some chemical action on the surface
of the branch, into the interior of the branch, through the
dead cells of the bark into the living, active cells of the
new wood, living at the expense of the nutritive material
which has been elaborated by the plum or cherry tree. The
body of the fungus is composed, like the body of all the
fungi, simply of little whitish, nearly transparent threads,
microscopically small, Avhich ramify in all directions through
the tissues at whose expense the fungus is growing. The
interior of any of the cells, when examined through the micro-
scope, shows plainly these branching, ramifying threads. The
swelling, which gives the name " knot" or " wart," is due,
undoubtedly^ to an abnormal stimulation of the branch by
the fungus growing into it. The cells of the young wood,
which are the active, living cells of the branch, increase and
multiply very largel}^ and you have a large, stout, suc-
culent knot in the early stages. That knot becomes a mere
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 35
shell later. That is due, not to the action of the fungus at
all, but to a secondary cause, — the attacks of an insect
which finds suitable food in the swollen, juicy, succulent
tissues of the knot. But in the early stages of the knot,
before it is attacked by the insect, you will find a juicy,
sappy mass produced by the rapid increase locally of the
cells of the young wood and the inner bark, caused by
the abnormal stimulation and development produced by the
presence of the fungus in the tissues. Finally, along in
earl}^ summer, the threads of the fungus penetrate and
work their way through the surface of the knot, and their
ends stick out all over it, forming a sort of bloom, in
appearance to the naked eye very much like the natural
bloom of the plum fruit. That bloom is composed, as I
have said, of the ends of the fungus threads, which have
penetrated the surface of the knot and stand closely packed
together all over that surface, like the pile of velvet plush,
on a microscopically small scale ; and a little piece of that
end gets chopped off, and there is a new spore. That spore,
although it is simply the chopped-oif end of one of those
threads, has the powder of producing a new fungus, if it falls
in a suitable phice, under suitable circumstances of moisture
and warmth. These we may call the summer spores. The
fungus also produces, as Dr. Fisher says, a second kind of
spores, which we may call winter spores. These spores do
not get ripe and ready for dissemination until about Feb-
ruary or March, and then the threads are formed, not on
the surface, like the summer spores, but in the little cavi-
ties. By the time they are formed, the juicy interior of
the knot has been largely eaten away, and there remains a
black crust or scab over almost the entire surface, which
may be readily broken down by pressure, on account of the
almost entire absence of any solid substance beneath, due
to the l)orings of the insect which attacks it. But, if this
crust be examined hy the naked eye, or with the aid of a
hand lens which magnifies a little, it may be seen that it
is filled with little cavities ; and an examination of those
cavities would show little elongated sacs, in each of which
are eight winter spores. Now, when the spores become
fully ripe, they escape through these cavities into the air
36 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Jan.
and are carried about, as I have said, by the wind, by very
light currents of air, because they are so very small and
light ; and finally, if they fall where there is considerable
moisture, which is usually needed, they propagate the dis-
ease in a new place. It is probable that they do not, as a
rule, germinate very rapidly, — probably not until some of
the warmth of spring comes, although they can stand a
pretty cold temperature.
In these two ways — by the quick germinating and super-
ficially produced summer spores, and by the internally pro-
duced and more slowly germinating winter spores — the
fungus is propagated and spread. The only remedy that
we know now is that which has been mentioned, — of cutting.
It is a shame that such a pesky little thing as the black-
knot fungus should get the upper hand of us as it has done.
It should call for less heroic treatment.
Of course this whole subject of plant diseases and vege-
table pathology is a new one. It is a field which has not
been very much worked. The economic, practical side of it
is one which has been very little worked, because there have
not been many people who have had an opportunity to do
it. Many of the experiment stations are offering to some of
us who are fond of that kind of work, and want to do it,
opportunities to do it ; and we are going to do our best to
turn out results. Of course work of this kind is extremely
slow. There are hardly more than a dozen men in the
country who are engaged in that kind of work, and of course
that number of men will not make rapid progress ; but we
hope to make steady gains, take up one thing after another,
and get something more out of it than we know now. In
this black-knot question there is work for one man for half
a life-time, almost.
Dr. Fisher. I would like to make one suggestion aris-
ing out of the remarks of Professor Humphrey. Cut out
the black-knot before you see the l)loom in the summer, and
in the winter cut out the black-knot before Februn-y.
Adjourned to quarter past one.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 37
Atternoon Session.
The meeting was called to order at 1.30.
The Chairman. The lecture this afternoon will be by a
gentleman whose name is almost a household word in every
rural home in this land, as a practical and successful florist
and market gardener for over forty years, and as an author
whose name reaches far beyond the limits of this country ;
and, this being the first time that he has appeared before a
New England audience, it gives me great pleasure to intro-
duce Mr. Peter Henderson of New Jersey, who will address
you on " Market Gardening as a Business."
MARKET GARDENING AS A BUSINESS.
BY PETER HENDERSON OF JERSEY CITY HEIGHTS, N. J.
Market gardening is not the profitable business it was
twenty years ago, yet we have so simplified our operations
of late years that even at the lower prices there is still a fair
profit in the business, — certainly more than in ordinary
farm crops. To many present the most that I can say about
market gardening will be nothing new ; but an experience of
forty years in the business of actual practice and observa-
tion may enable me to tell some of the younger men a
few things that may be of benefit.
There are thousands of farmers whose lands are near to
the smaller towns, hotels, watering places and summer
boarding-houses, where, if the farmer would devote a few
acres to fruits or vegetaliles, or both, there is scarcely a
doubt that it would be found that every acre so cultivated
would be much more profitable than if devoted to ordinary
farm crops. In most cases success would 1)e proportioned
to the quality of the land ; but no one need hesitate to begin
the cultivation of either fruit or vegetable crops on any soil
that will raise a good crop of corn, hay or potatoes. The
farmer, when he grows to supply a local demand, such as
for hotels, boarding-houses, etc., has a great advantage in
selling direct to the consumer. A few years ago an old
friend told me of his unusual success in this line. His farm
adjoined a village of two thousand inhabitants, which was
to some extent a summer resort. He had one year a large
38 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
surplus of strawberries and sweet corn, and had many appli-
cations for the fruit and corn by the village people. About
three hours daily Avere used in delivering the products to
his customers, and at such prices as paid him a clear profit of
$175 per acre, which was five times as much as the average of
his farm crops. In addition, the sale of the strawberries
created an mcreased demand for cream, which was sold
at higher prices in consequence.
I have said that the degree of success will usually be in
proportion to the quality of the soil ; so, when it can be
done, select land that is level, and well drained by having a
gravelly or sandy subsoil, and not less than ten inches in
depth of good soil. If you are not a judge of soil, look
around the neighborhood and observe the farm crops ; if
these are not strong and vigorous, rest assured that the soil
is not such as will answer for market-ijarden work. Ao;ain,
get as near to your market as possible, and see that the
roads leading thereto are good. This is particularly
important if your market is a large city like New York,
Boston or Philadelphia ; if you are growing for a local mar-
ket,— supplying a small town at retail, — this is not so
important. The business of market gardening, though
healthful and fairly profitable, is exceedingly laborious, from
which anyone not accustomed to manual labor would quickly
shirk. The labor is not what might be called heavy, but
the hours are long, — not less than an average of ten hours a
day for both summer and winter. No one should engage in
it after passing middle life, neither is it fitted for men of
feeble constitution ; for it is emphatically a business in
which one has to rough it, and if it is to be prosecuted
successfully, the owner must put his shoulder to the
wheel at least as strongly as his roughest employee. The
most successful market gardener I ever knew was John
Riley. I put him as foreman in charge of my market gar-
dens when he was but twenty-one years of age. In six years
I sold him the place he had charge of, consisting of eight
acres, two thousand sashes, horses, implements and crops,
for twenty-one thousand dollars. He paid three thousand
down (which he had saved from his wages and what I
had paid him for boarding the men) , and in three years paid
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 39
ofl' the mortgage of eighteen thousand dollars, solely
from the profits gleaned from his eight acres and two thou-
sand hot-bed sashes. This was in war times, however, when
the profits were nearly four times what they are to-day ; but
Eiley would have made market gardening a success almost
under any circumstances. He was strictly methodical. He
worked an average of eight men summer and winter, and,
no matter what work was being done, whether inside or out,
he worked the whole in solid phalanx, leading always
himself. He was ignorant and uneducated, — could hardly
write his name ; but no Jersey market gardener ever
made his mark so prominently as he.
The capital required for beginning market gardening
in the vicinity of any large city should not be less than
three hundred dollars per acre for anything less than ten
acres. The first year rarely pays more than current
expenses, and the capital of three hundred dollars per acre
is all absorbed in horses, wagons, implements, sashes,
manures, seeds, etc. If the capital is insufficient to procure
these properly, the chances of success are correspondingly
diminished. Above all, be careful not to attempt the culti-
vation of more land than your capital and experience
can properly manage. More men are stranded, both on the
fiirm and garden, in attempting to cultivate too much, per-
haps, than from any other cause.
It has been the practice in the past to use hot-bed
sashes almost exclusively for the purpose of forcing vege-
tables, or forwarding plants for use in the open ground.
But of late years greenhouses are being largely used, both
for the purposes of forcing lettuce, radishes, beets and
cucumbers, as also for growing plants of early cabbage,
cauliflower, lettuce, celery and tomatoes ; and, in either case,
we believe that in well-constructed greenhouses not only is
the work better done, but that the saving in labor in
three years will more than ofl'set the greater cost of the
greenhouses. We ourselves grow immense quantities of
vegetable plants of all kinds, all of Avhich are now started
in greenhouses, in the following manner : We make our
first sowing February 1, in our greenhouses, where the tem-
perature will average about seventy degrees ; that is, about
40 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
sixty degrees at night, and about eighty degrees during the
day. When there is not the convenience of a greenhouse, a
hot-bed will answer the same purpose. A hot-bed, made
with manure, about two feet deep, in a proper nuinner, pro-
duces just about the same temperature and general conditions
as a well-appointed greenhouse will. We now invariably sow
the seed in shallow boxes (those used in the importation of
tin), which are one and three-fourths inches deep and about
twenty inches long by fourteen wide. We use any light,
rich soil for the purpose, sowing enough seed in each box
to produce one thousand to fifteen hundred plants, or, if
sown in the hot-bed, without the boxes, each three by six
foot sash should grow about five thousand plants ; but we
find it more convenient to use the boxes than to sow in the
soil, put direct on the bench of the greenhouse, or on the
manure of the hot-bed. The plants sown on February 1,
in a temperature averaging seventy degrees, will give plants
fit to transplant in about three or four weeks. We then use
the same kind of shallow boxes, putting in the bottom
of each about three-fourths of an inch o^ loell-rotted manure.
Over that we place an inch of any ordinary rich light
soil, smoothing it so as to have it as level as possible.
In these boxes, which are fourteen by twenty inches, we put
an average of about one hundred and fifty plants. After
transplanting into the boxes, they are continued to be
grown in the same temperature for about ten days ; they
are then placed in a temperature averaging fifty-five
degrees, where they are allowed to remain for ten or twelve
days, and finally are placed in cold-frames. The boxes
should be placed as close to each other in the cold-frames as
they will stand, — about eight boxes fill a sash, thus holding
about twelve hundred plants. If the weather is cold, they
are matted ; if not, the sash will be sufficient protection.
For the y)ast five years we have each season grown about
half a million of cabbage, cauliflower, celery and lettuce
plants in this way, and have never failed to get fine plants,
much superior to those raised by the old cold-frame plan of
sowing in the fall.
Plants sown on the 1st of February are transplanted into
the boxes about the 1st of March, and are fit to be placed in
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 41
the cold-frames about March 10 or 15, and make fine plants
to transplant to the open ground any time after the 1st of
April, if they have been carefully attended to by watering,
airing and protecting from frost. These dates refer particu-
larly to the vicinity of New York City, where we can plant
out usually in the open ground all kinds of cabbage,
cauliflower and lettuce plants from April 1 to 10. If in dis-
tricts where they cannot be planted out sooner than the end
of April, then the sowing should not be made before the
15th of February; and the process of transplanting, etc.,
gone through as before stated, so that the plants will be
in condition to plant in the open ground by the end of
April. In sections where cabbage cannot be planted in the
open ground before the 1st of May, the sowing should
be delayed until nearly the 1st of March, and the process of
transplanting in the boxes or frames the same.
Twenty-five years ago the market gardeners of New Jersey,
mainly located in Hudson County, grew better vegetables
than the Long Island men ; but their limited area of land,
getting less and less annually, in consequence of the inroads
made by buildings, does not allow them to give their lands
the needed relief of laying a portion yearly down to grass,
so that their grounds have become actually surfeited with
manure; and, for this reason, vegetables, such as cabbage,
lettuce and celery, do not now average as good as those
grown on Long Island, or other districts adjacent to New
York, where the land is cheap enough to allow one-third to
be put down annually with some grass or clover crop. I
believe that, in a garden of fifteen acres, if one-third is laid
down in grass each year, and the balance kept under the
plough, the gross receipts will be greater and the profits
more than if the whole fifteen acres were under tillage ; for
less labor would be required, and manure tells better on sod
land than on land under tillage.
The subject of manure is one of never-failing interest to
the gardener and farmer. I can tell you nothing new on the
subject, except to say that the dried peat moss, now being
used in the cities for bedding, is likely to be of great value
to the market gardener, if it can only be had in sufficient
quantities. We have had it in use in our own stables for
42 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
about two years, and find it not only more economical than
straw for bedding, but its absorbing qualities make it of
great value for fertilizing purposes. We can buy ordinary
straw manure in our vicinity for one dollar per team load ;
but we are buying all we can get from stables where the
moss is used at two dollars per team load, believing it to be
of twice the value of ordinary straw manure. It is claimed
that the source of supply of the peat moss in Europe is
almost inexhaustible, and it is now offered by three or four
firms in New York, at prices ranging from twelve to four-
teen dollars per ton, and it is hoped competition will bring
it yet still lower. It is now used exclusively as bedding
by some of our largest horse-car stables and express com-
panies in New York and vicinity ; and one of our largest
livery stable men in Jersey City, who has been using it for
two years, says he would rather use peat moss for bedding
at fourteen dollars per ton than he would straw for nothing,
so much more satisfactory does he find it in all respects for
his horses. There are no doubt many swamps in the United
States composed of peat moss, which may some day prove
gold mines to their discoverers, as these deposits in Ger-
many must now be proving to their owners.
The ordinary stable manure is yet used almost exclusively
by the market gardeners of Hudson County, N. J., and
that, too, at the rate of seventy-five tons to the acre. Very
little phosphates or other concentrated manures are used on
our lands, which are continually under tillage ; these are
always more telling on land broken up from sod, where the
fibrous roots of the sod stand in lieu of stable manure.
The subject of market gardening is too large to attempt
any detail of general culture ; but I would advise all that
intend engaging extensively in the business of market gar-
dening to have greenhouses attached to the business to a
greater or less extent ; not only that they need never fail to
give a good return for capital invested, whether for use in
forcing vegetables, fruits or flowers, but, in addition, a mat-
ter of much importance is, that the labor of the workmen
can be utilized as well in midwinter as in midsummer. This
enables the employer to keep his hands all the year round,
instead of having the annoyance of hiring inexperienced
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 43
men when the work begins in spring. From my first begin-
ning of the l)usiness, now over forty years ago, we have
always used greenhouses in connection with our out-door
gardens, and in consequence have been able to keep our old
hands, at least twenty-five of whom have been with us from
ten to thirty years. We pay these men nearly twice the
wages of inexperienced workmen, and find it has paid to do
so; for, in all the years we have been in business, we have
never passed one where the balance has not been on the
right side of the ledger.
The Chairman. I notice that there are quite a number
of market gnrdeners in the audience, and Mr. Henderson
will be glad to answer any questions that may be asked.
QuESTiox. In relation to tlie growing of celery, are
there any new varieties to take the place of the old ones ?
Mr. Hexdersox. The best answer to all questions of
that kind is to tell for what the demand comes. As seeds-
men, we find that we are now selling more of the White
Plume than any other variety. There are some sections
where it may not do as well as some other variet}^ ; but we
probal)ly sell one-third more of White Plume than any other
kind of celery seed. Of course a good deal depends on
where your market is.
Now, the way you grow celery in Massachusetts is entirely
difterent from the way we grow it in New York. You allow
suckers to come up, and very sensibly, I think, sell it in that
way ; because the portions of celery where it branches with
suckers are the most tender and the best eating. But we of
New York have got into the habit of tearing all the side
shoots oft". We grow it coarser, and it does not branch so
much. Therefore I say that varieties grown in one section
may not answer in another. There is a variety known as
the Golden Self-blanching that was introduced some two
years ago, that, in sections where it will grow well, I think
is one of the very best. It is shorter and specifically heavier
than any other variety, but for some reason or other there is
a weakness of constitution which prevents its growing in
certain sections. In our section it does not grow at all ;
but I saw it growing about Binghamton, N. Y., last year,
44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
in a way that led me to think that, if we could grow it in
the vicinity of New York in that way, we w^ould grow
nothing else. I think on some of your lands here it would
be excellent.
Mr. Peterson. I represent a district where there are
large tracts of marsh land being reclaimed from the ocean.
Have you any idea as to the probability of making aspara-
gus and celery grow profitably on those lands, — marsh
lands, which formerly produced nothing but salt hay?
Mr. Henderson. If sufficiently drained, and if you can
get rid of the salt. You must get rid of salt from the soil.
But the best test for any such crop as that is first to experi-
ment with corn. If corn will grow, anything will grow ; if
corn will not grow, then you need not try anything else.
Such land as you refer to- would be just the very soil for
asparagus, if you could get it clear of water and clear of
salt. There is an impression abroad that salt is necessary
for asparagus. I do not think it is necessary at all, and
certainly neither asparagus nor anything else will grow if
there is salt in the soil to any extent, because that is quickly
fatal to all sorts of vegetable life.
Mr. Hall. I would like to inquire whether it would be
necessary to put sand or fine gravel on that marsh land
before celery or asparagus will grow there ?
Mr. Henderson. I think not, sir. It does not make
any diflference what the crop is, — you must first get rid of
the water. We have sections in the vicinity of Jersey City,
the marshes leading from Jersey City to Newark, where
thirty years ago they put up extensive works and pumped
up the water from open drains ; and they had the finest
growth, I think, I ever saw of fruit and other trees. But
for some reason they failed to continue the removal of water
from the soil, and the whole thing died. In Lancashire,
England, they have marshes, I presume, of the same char-
acter as those to which the gentleman has referred ; and
they have now steam pumps drawing water -continually and
removing it from the ditches, so that the water stands at
least four feet below the surface of the soil, and in that way
they get the best vegetable crops produced in England.
Mr. A. H. Fitch. Permit me to make a remark in
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 45
answer to the question just asked in regard to marshes. I
am familiar with the swamp lands of Kalamazoo, which per-
haps is the place where the most celery is raised of any place
in the United States. The bottom land between the bluff
and the river is half a mile wide and is several miles long.
Kight years ago it could be bought for from ten to fifty
dollars an acre, within half a mile of the inhabited part of
the city. To-day you could not get it for three hundred
dollars an acre. It was an old cedar swamp. Through this
run streams coming from the bluff, and ditches have been
dug perhaps every forty rods or so ; and by putting down
planks a foot or two wide, you can dam the water back suf-
ficiently to keep the celery well watered. Fields of thirty
acres of celery are not uncommon there. Most of the land
about Kalamazoo of that sort is appropriated to the grow-
ing of celery. That swamp land has been cleared of roots,
and made so light that when you walk upon it it feels like
an ash heap. It is so easy to cultivate, and so light, that it
is exactly the place for raising celery.
Question. I should like to inquire the best way to blanch
celery.
Mr. Henderson. That question is one not very easy to
answer, there are so many ways now. We adopt the old
plan of planting it about four feet apart, and turning the
soil against the plants on each side with the plough. By
the way, they have a plough in Philadelphia made by the
Planet Jr. Company of that city, that they say (I have
not seen it) has lessened the work of planting celery to a
wonderful extent, but it has not yet got to New York.
When I speak of turning the soil with the plough, I refer
to the first blanching, while the plant is growing out in the
ground ; but for the great mass that is grown in the winter
we still adopt the plan of narrow trenches, putting it in
about the width of from nine to twelve inches ; and we
trench to the depth of the height of the celery, and cover
it up as the weather gets colder. In some sections of the
country, particularly in the vicinity of Rochester, they are
now getting large sheds especially adapted as houses for
growing it in winter. I think that is probably a better
plan. That is what we have adopted about New York,
46 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
because, of course, there is always danger of a continued
wet season destroying it when we put it in those open
trenches, exposed to the weather. There is probably yet
room for other improvements.
QuESTiox. How much frost will it stand without injury?
Mr. Henderson. That depends a good deal upon its
condition. Celery that is grown in the open ground, say
in this section of the country, if there has been no frost
until about the 1st of November, nothing to temper it,
would be destroyed probal)ly by a temperature ten degrees
below the freezing point ; indeed, it is probable that five
degrees below the freezing point, under certain conditions,
would destroy it. But if it has been gradually tempered off
by chilly nights and a temperature down to just approaching
the freezing point, then it will stand fifteen degrees below
that point. That is where the difiiculty comes, in all these
things. It is the condition of the plant that will determine
how much frost it will stand.
Mr. Fitch. May I add a word in regard to blanching?
There are two methods of raising this crop in Kalamazoo.
In one the celery is planted in furrows, about five feet apart,
and a foot deep. By and by it is filled up, and in the space
l)etween there is another row of celery set, so that they
have two crops a year. There are two methods of l^lanch-
ing it. One is to crowd the celery together and })ress the
earth up over it, and do it repeatedly, until j^ou have it
the desired length. The other method is, after you have
earthed it up the first time, take boards twelve or fourteen
inches wide, depending upon the growth of the plant, and
set them close to the celery and stake them up. It is a
rather expensive method, but some think it a better way.
When I was there three years ago, I found that one person
was tr3'ing something like drain tiles especially made for
the purpose. I have not learned wdiat his success was. As
you may well imagine, it requires an immense amount of
toil to do it, because the tile as well as the boards will take
up much room, and cost a great deal of money.
Mr. W. W. Rawson of Arlington. I think the gentle-
man has made a mistake in regard to the extent of the ter-
ritory in Kalamazoo that is covered with celery. I think it
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 47
is about three hundred acres. I was there about two years
ago, and I found that many of the celery growers preferred
blanching the celery with loam instead of using boards.
As far as self-blanching celery is concerned, I do not believe
there is any such thing. It is not fit to eat until after it has
been loamed up. You may call it " self-blanching," or any-
thing you please. With regard to the variety of which the
lecturer says he sells so much, of course he will sell more
of it than any one else. He being the originator of it, the
rest of the seedsmen would send to him for it ; hence his
larger demand for that than for any other variety. But in
this part of the country we use the Boston Market, Arling-
ton, and Paris Golden. This latter is the celery that has
been referred to by one gentleman. It has only been
introduced into this section about two years. I think
the first that I saw in the market here was year before
last. This last year it was grown quite extensively, and
to those who grew it it was quite profitable. I do not know
what will happen next year, but the demand for seed is very
large.
In reference to the amount of capital which the lecturer
spoke of as necessary to carry on a market garden of ten
acres, he perhaps stated it rather mildly when he said three
hundred dollars. That is not enough. Five hundred dol-
lars per acre is little enough for anything in the vicin-
ity of Boston. And as regards hot-houses, they are, of
course, useful in the spring of the year, l)ut they can be
used to better advantage in the winter season. He also
spoke of manures. This is quite an item with us here
in New England. We purchase manure from stables in
Boston, using it for heating purposes mostly before it
is placed upon the land ; that is, placing it in the hot-beds,
where some of us have two or three thousand sashes.
It takes a large quantity of manure for that number of
sashes, — a cord to eight sashes. The price of manure here
is about the same as in New York. They have commenced
using peat to some extent in the stables in Boston, and a
representative of a peat concern came on here some two
years ago to introduce it ; but he found that he could sell
but very little peat in Boston, for the reason that the farm-
48 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
ers would not take the manure from stables where peat was
used, because they wanted it for heating purposes.
With reference to the other parts of the lecture, I can con-
cur with tlie lecturer in every instance ; but I think in most
cases it will depend about as much upon the man as it will
upon anything else that you have. That is, the man must
know his business, especially in these days. It would do
very well in war time for any of us to plant what we pleased,
there was a profit in it every time ; but things have changed.
There is not a profit in everything you can put in the ground.
I have had a large experience, and I find that the older I
become the more I have to grow, and the less the profit seems
to be.
Mr. Kinney. I do not know but the celery question is
assuming too large proportions ; but, being engaged in mar-
ket gardening in the vicinity of the small city of Worcester,
and knowing that almost all the celery furnished that city
comes from Kahimazoo, it seems to me that it is about time
we knew how to grow it. I think I have grown more
White Plume celery than any one else in Massachusetts, —
I know I have grown more than any one else in Worcester ;
and I have never got half enough to supply the demand.
The more I have, the more I want. Some of the best hotels
in Worcester will not take anything else if they can get
that. The Arlino;ton and the Boston Market go a-begging
if they can find the White Plume. There are a good many
reasons why the White Plume is better than any other
celery. It looks better. Now, there are very few people
who care to eat celery, but many people like to look at
the handsome leaves of the White Plume. AVhen the Kala-
mazoo people can grow their celery and send it to us with
the leaves intact, then they will have something that will be
a great improvement on what they send us now. I do not
think it makes very much difterence whether a man raises
anything which is good to- eat, or not. If it looks well, it
will pay him to raise it ; and if it looks well, he will take all
the premiums wherever he exhibits it, whether it is good or
not, — it may be potatoes, it may be celery, it may be
squashes, or anything else. I am sorry it is so.
We are not discussing small fruits, but I may speak about
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 49
the strawberry. Years ago, in New York City, I saw a
pint of strawberries, and inquired the price. I sat down
and counted my money, and decided that I should have
enough to carry me home if I bought tlie strawberries. I
bought them because they looked so handsome. They were
the Jucunda. I did not think they were very good. I in-
quired where they came from, and I found they had tra-
veled five hundred miles by rail, and had been on exhibition
two days before I saw them. I made up my mind that was
what I wanted to grow ; and I began to grow Jucunda straw-
berries. Now, it was not because they were good that I
could sell them for seventy- five cents a quart when others
only brought thirty or forty, but because they were hand-
some. That is the reason the White Plume will sell, and
does sell. Now, I want to know how we can keep it and
sell it in winter, after Thanksgiving. It is delicate, and we
cannot keep it.
Mr. Henderson. The gentleman is entirely mistaken
about that. We keep the White Plume as long as we keep
anything else. You will find plenty of White Plume celery
in the New York market in February and March. In regard
to the new Golden Self-Blanching, which is a sport from the
old Sandringham, I think it is the best celery extant to-
day, in places where it will grow, because it is much more
solid than anything that I know of among the older cele-
ries ; and, as far as ornamentation goes, this Golden Self-
Blanching is almost equal to the White Plume. That,
coupled with the fact that it is much more solid and of
better flavor, I think will make it the celery in the future.
Question. I would like to ask the lecturer how he
keeps it.
Mr. Henderson. Simply trench it in the usual way.
There is one thing in keeping celery that is of vast impor-
tance to understand. It must be put in the trenches as late
as you can possibly get it in.. In my district they begin
putting it away about the first of November, and do not
finish until about the end of November. They sometimes
get caught by frost, but not often. Then you must run the
risk of keeping one-third of the crop out, with the expecta-
tion that the frost will not touch it, and thereby getting it
50 BOARD OF AGRICULTGRE. [Jan.
late. Before celery blanches, the first thing it does is to
root; and if the temperature is low when it is put away, it
does not form roots, and consequently stays in the condition
in which it is put in until the season comes round for it to
root and grow and blanch. Sometimes they will even bank
it up and put it away in those narrow trenches, with the
object of keeping it late. But I have not the least doubt
that, if proper houses are made, as is the case in the vicinity
of Rochester, it can be kept as late as any other variety.
Mr. HowLAND. I want to ask a question in regard to
growing asparagus. I have a bed of asparagus that I
have fed with nothing but commercial fertilizers since it was
set. I have read in the writings of prominent market gar-
deners in this country that asparagus can be made to thrive
and produce a large crop with no other fertilizer than nitrate
of soda. My bed is prepared with a compound made of dis-
solved bone, potash and nitrate of soda, — a thousand pounds
of bone, five hundred of potash, and five hundred of nitrate
of soda. I do not see but it has done as well as a bed close
by it, that has been fed with stable manure. Now, the
question I would like to ask the speaker is, if he has ever
had any experience that enables him to say whether or not
asparagus will thrive and yield as large crops if fed with
nitrate of soda alone as with a complete manure, — com-
mercial fertilizers or stable manure ?
Mr. Hendeksox. I cannot answer that question. I have
had no experience with nitrate of soda.
Secretary Sessions. Cannot Mr. Hersey answer that
question ?
Mr. Hersey. I have never tried nitrate of soda alone,
and cannot answer the question. From other experiments
tried on other crops, I should very much doubt Avhether it
would be a good plan to use nothing but nitrate of soda.
But asparagus can be grown successfully many 3'ears, I
know, with commercial fertilizers alone. I think it can be
grown better than by the use of barn manure. I am quite
satisfied that it is better to feed Avith commercial fertilizers
than to depend on l)arn manure ; and I am also quite certain
that the cost will not be much more than one-half.
Mr. HoAVLAND. An eminent authority has stated that
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 51
nitrate of soda was sufficient for a good crop of asparagus.
It seems to me it is worth while for farmers who grow that
vegetable to ascertain whether that statement is true, or
not. He also recommends it as an excellent fertilizer for
celery, used alone. He puts the matter rather strong. He
says he tried it with success. It seems to me it would be
well for us to test it.
Mr. Hersey. I would say that I tried an experiment one
year on asparagus with nitrogen, and I could not see that it
increased the crop at all. I could not see that there was
any larger crop that year or that there has been since, Avhere
it was put on than where it was not. Of course it might be
owing to the condition of my soil. I think that every farmer
and every gardener has got to understand his own soil before
he can fertilize it to the best advantage. There may be soils
where nitrogen would be just the material that was needed,
and then there may be other soils where it will do no good
at all. I do not think that you can lay down rules by
which 3^ou can instruct farmers as to the best thing that they
can put on any particular crop. I think that we have got
to manage our fjirms practically, by the wisdom which we
gain for ourselves. I think that we must keep our eyes
open and watch carefully all of the operations on our farms,
and learn by our own experiments what is best for us. I do
not think that we can settle anything here in regard to the
application of any particular fertilizers on any particular soil
that we know nothing about.
The Chairman. I would like to inquire if there is any
gentleman present who has had any experience with the
application of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda, or in
any form, in the cultivation of asparagus or celery. I will
call on volunteers. If there is any gentleman present who
has had any experience in that matter, let him stand up and
declare himself. Now is a good time.
Secretary Sessions. I hope no gentleman will be bashful
if he has ever had any such experience, because it is an
important point.
Mr. Peterson. Nitrogen is supposed to be productive
largely of stalk and leaf, and not so much of seed. In one
instance I had a piece of oats which produced a most
52 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
remarkable crop, and it was attributed to the fact that the
fertilizer applied was composed mostly of nitrogen. I can-
not speak from any scientific knowledge, only from observa-
tion ; but the crop was so heavy on that little piece of land
where nothing but that material was put on, that it took
two of us to clear the oats away from the mowing machine
when they were cut down.
Mr. Lyman. In using nitrate of soda, you will, if you
are not very careful, be likely to injure the crop. That is
especially so with celery and also with asparagus. It seems
to cause the celery to grow hollow. You must be very
careful not to use too much.
Mr. Samuel AVheeler. I have had some experience in
the use of nitrate of soda on small fruits, and I have used
it on asparagus a little, — not, however, entirely alone. I
find it is something that must be used very judiciously, and,
as Mr. Hersey has stated, we must use our own intelligence,
our own thoughts, in the application of it. I think if very
many tried to apply it to lettuce or any small vegetable like
that, they would be very apt to make a mistake. In regard
to the use of commercial fertilizers on asparagus, there is
under my observation a piece that has been set out perhaps
for half a dozen years ; nothing but commercial fertilizers
has been used on this piece ; it is growing better from year
to year, and the parties who own it have been very much
pleased and satisfied with the results obtained from the use
of those fertilizers. I have not grown asparagus very
largely, but I have a small piece on which I discontinued
the use of barnyard manure some number of years ago,
and that piece has had, in addition to commercial fertilizers,
nitrate of soda applied ; and I cannot see any difference
from year to year when that is put on as a partial fertilizer
instead of the fertilizers compounded for that purpose, hav-
ing all the ingredients in one. I will say that the piece has
continued to increase in productiveness for the last number
of years, and I will also state that we have had the name
of sending in some of the very best asparagus that has been
sent to the commission house where we have sent ours.
Mr. Augur. One word in regard to the use of nitrate of
soda on strawberries. I can emphasize the remark which
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 53
was made respecting the need of caution. We made an
application one year of nitrate of soda, and to our very
o^reat detriment. We could see that it did damage as for as
it was applied. I suppose we applied too much. I merely
mention this to show that those who attempt to use it should
use it with very great caution.
Question. I would like to ask the gentleman the formula
which he uses for asparagus, and the time of application?
Mr. Wheeler. We commenced using the Stockbridge
fertilizer especially prepared for asparagus, and used that
for one or two years. For the last two years I think we
have used the Bay State, manufactured by Tucker & Co. of
Boston. We apply it in the spring. I think we have put
on at the rate of fifteen or sixteen hundred pounds to the
acre.
Question. How many applications ?
Mr. Wheeler. Only one application. We like it very
much better than we do barnyard manure, because it leaves
the ground free from lumps or any impediment to the
coming up of the asparagus. We get stouter and better
shoots than we do when barnyard manure is applied.
Mr. Jefts of Ashby. I find that nitrogen in some cases
makes a good show, in others no show at all. If there is
sufficient nitrogen in the land itself, we cannot expect any
result from the use of nitrate of soda. I remember two
years ago trying to raise potatoes with nitrate of soda alone.
The soil was worn out, and of course I raised no potatoes.
That same year I tried potash and phosphoric acid, with
the same result. I tried nitrogen and phosphoric acid, with
the same result, — no potatoes to speak of. I put the three
together, thus getting everything that was wanted by the
soil, and then I got a good crop of potatoes.
Mr. HowLAXD. I will state that one bed of asparagus
which I have has had nothing but commercial fertilizers
upon it for twelve years, and the crop does not seem to
depreciate in size or quality. I find this advantage, to-
gether with others which the gentleman spoke of who pre-
ceded me, that, besides the absence of lumps and having
the soil in much better condition, we have very many less
weeds, which is quite an item. The fact that this bed of
54 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
mine, which has been set twelve years, succeeds, together
with the fact that the soil is in good condition and we have
less weeds to fight, etc., is certainly a recommendation to
me of commercial fertilizers for asparagus as well as for a
good many other things, for the very same reasons.
The Chairman. I would like to inquire of Mr. Haslam
if he has had any experience in the use of nitrate of soda ?
Mr. Haslam. I have been raising asparagus for thirty
years, and have now nine acres. I have raised it with all
kinds of fertilizers, — commercial fertilizers, barnyard man-
ure, etc. What I am using at the present time is one-half
mixed commercial fertilizers and the other half bone, nitrate
of soda and potash or ashes. My reason for using those
materials is this. The result for the next year with aspar-
agus depends on the growth you get after you get through
cutting this year. For the first month no fertilizer has any-
thino; to do with it. You can take half an acre with no fer-
tilizer upon it, and another half acre with fertilizers upon
it, and the result will be just the same up to about the first
of June ; after that your fertilizer becomes solul^le, and your
crop begins feeding upon it. I put on some of the fertilizers
in a soluble form, so that the crop can take them up. I put
on the other, so that after I get through cutting it will be
soluble and furnish food for the asparagus. That is the idea
I have, and I think I obtain the best results in that way. I
tried a few rows with clear nitrate of soda, and I saw no dif-
ferent results from it than where I applied nothing but
ground bone. But I think, as has been said here, that a
combination is needed. You analyze asparagus, and you
will ascertain just what it needs ; and you want to give it a
little more than what the analysis requires. A friend of
mine who has an asparagus bed sent to Amherst to learn
what was needed for a crop of asparagus. The formula fur-
nished was two hundred pounds of bone-black, five hundred
pounds of ground bone, and I think about a hundred pounds
of muriate of potash. The gentleman tried it, and he tried
just twice that amount on a part of the bed, and he found
that he got a good deal better asparagus with the larger
amount. I use a ton and a half to the acre, and I think I
get well paid for it.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 55
Mr. Paul of Dighton. I have experimented a little with
nitrate of soda upon strawberries. I used it two years, and
I am satisfied that upon strawberries on my land it did no
good. A neighbor of mine is raising spinach to some ex-
tent. He has used various applications, and finds nothing
that gives such results in proportion to the expenditure as
nitrate of soda applied in the spring of the year for an early
growth.
Secretary Sessions. Is not that true, Mr. Paul, of dan-
delions also ?
Mr. Paul. I am not certain whether he has tried it upon
dandelions, or not ; I presume it may be so.
Mr. . If you will allow me a moment, I would like
to say, as one who has had more than ten years' experience
in the manufacture of fertilizers, that the success or failure
of any particular fertilizer depends materially upon the
previous methods of cropping, as Mr. Hersey has told us,
to whose opinions we all listen with great respect, and also
on the previous methods of fertilizing the soil. I think we
can profitably spend a few moments in listening to the views
of the lecturer on the selection and use of fertilizers.
Mr. Henderson. We have had very little to do with
commercial fertilizers. Our whole operations in Hudson
County have been on land for which we pay a hundred
dollars an acre per annum ; consequently, every foot is
tilled, and we find that the necessity comes for stable man-
ure. We try if possible to get a mixture of cow and horse
manure. Since we have been using this peat moss we have
gone around to the livery stables from which we get our
manure, and made the stable men sprinkle over the bedding
each day just about as much bone-dust as you would put of
sawdust on a floor, and in that way we get it in a condition
suitable for the plants to take up when we get it on the
soil. The longer my experience in gardening matters has
been, the more I am satisfied that the great object is to get
the commercial fertilizers, such as bone-dust, in a condition
to be taken up by the roots of plants. Now, I am an exten-
sive grower of roses. We used to think that we could take
bone-dust and sow it over our beds or bunches of roses, and
get good results. We find that practically it gives hardly
56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
any results ; and we now use about four parts of loam, one
part of cow manure, and about one-thirtieth part of bone-
dust, for the soil that we use to grow our' roses in. It
makes hardly any difterence whether it is roses or roots or
what the article is you are going to force, you want about
the same kind of soil. AVe keep this compound heaped up
at least twelve months before we want to use it, and then it
is in the best condition to be taken up by the plants. We
find that the result has been something wonderful, compared
with the practice that we used to follow of using the fertil-
izers when we put in the soil. It takes twelve months for
these fertilizers to decompose in the soil before we use it,
and that I think can be carried through the whole catalogue
of manures. If we use stable manure, it will be always best
to use it in connection with a commercial fertilizer, and thus
get the mechanical eft'ect of the stable manure and the nutri-
tive effect of the fertilizer at the same time.
Question. Do I understand that it would be better to
mix the ground bone with the manure this winter for next
spring's crop?
Mr. Henderson. Yes, sir. I wish to say, in regard to
using this peat moss to which I referred, that it would be
used in the ordinary way with cow manure ; and I think
such manure is much better with peat moss, because that is
such an absorbent of everything connected with manure.
We sow this bone-dust, or whatever concentrated fertilizer
we use, on the bedding, and it is absorbed and mixed with
the manure and thrown into the heap in the usual way.
Mr. Edson. I would like to ask the lecturer if he has
had any experience with the asparagus beetle. I find it
much easier to raise asparagus than it is to keep it from the
beetle.
Mr. Henderson. I have had no experience with it. I am
glad to say the beetle does not trouble the asparagus in our
vicinity.
The Chairman. Has Mr. Hersey had any experience with
the beetle ?
Mr. Hersey. I have had all the experience with him that
I care about having. He has been on my farm for the last
five years, but I have got a little used to him. I suppose
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 57
what is wanted is to know what is the remedy, for we all
know he is very destructive. But that question is one which
I hardly feel able to answer. It is said that Paris green
will kill him, but for some reason or other it will not kill him
on my soil. I think he grows just as well when the plants
are covered with Paris green as he does when they are not.
London purple is undoubtedly preferable to Paris green, as
it sticks to the plants better ; but I have had greater success
in killing him with pulverized lime than with anything else.
I use air-slacked lime, but I believe it is generally understood
that unslacked lime is the best. I have my doubts, how-
ever, about that. The slug of the beetle is a sticky thing,
and if any dry substance can be made to stick to him (and
almost anything will that touches him), it is pretty sure
death. I think he is killed by putting a little of this fine
lime on him, just the same as the currant worm is killed.
The currant worm when small can be killed with ashes or
with lime in the same way, by its sticking on its body. I
think that is the reason why lime is better than Paris green ;
it sticks on the outside of the bug, and kills him. There is
more difficulty in taking care of a bed that is not cut than
there is of one that is cut. If you have young asparagus on
your place, the beetles will get on in large numbers. They
will leave an old bed entirely, and go to the new bed. Then,
if you cut the asparagus on the new bed, the beetle goes
back to the old bed ; he wants to be on the young growing
plants. One year I did a thing that I think was the best I
ever did. I had a large asparagus bed, of perhaps fifty
thousand plants ; and just after I cut my asparagus I mowed
it down close to the ground and burned it off, and the
beetles with it. That thinned them out so much that they
did not trouble me again for a number of years. But I
have been induced to plant new beds within a year or two,
and I have suffered more from the beetle this last year than
I have for several years before. When you cut your bed up
to the 20tli of June you get clear of the bugs, so that there
will be very few, if any, carried over; but when they are
thick in the spring, after you have cut your crop, they are
carried over through the winter, and the next year you will
find that they will injure your crop very much by eating the
58 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
buds. They will be so thick that they will eat off the tops
of the buds before they get high enough to cut. I know of
no remedy. Of course it will not do to put on any poison ;
it will not do even to put on fine lime. That is one of those
questions which are coming up every year, as to wdiat we
shall do to conquer the creeping things of the earth. Some-
times it seems as if they were going to conquer us, but
then we find a remedy, and something else comes in ; so I
suppose they are going to keep on coming, and thus we have
got to grow wiser and wiser if we would succeed in our
agricultural projects.
Mr. Stone of Watertown. It was said by Mr. Hender-
son that asparagus does not require salt. I think that
five out of ten men use salt. I know the best asparagus bed
I ever saw in my life is a bed which belongs to one of my
neighbors, and that bed has not had a spoonful of manure
or any kind of fertilizer whatever for ten years except salt.
That bed, which occupies an acre and a quarter, has netted
not less than four hundred dollars a year, and from that to
six hundred. The owner says he would not take the trouble
to give it a coat of manure if you would give him the
manure. The salt not only does the work of fertilizers, but
it keeps the weeds down ; and it is the cleanest bed that I
have known of for years, it produces the largest stalks, and
is the best paying bed that I have seen in the town.
Mr. Henderson. I think the gentleman will have to look
to some other cause. The reason why I am so positive in
the belief that salt is no benefit to asparagus, is the fiict that
asparagus beds grown in the vicinity of New York Bay,
where the wdiole atmosphere is impregnated with salt, give
us no better crops than inland, where there is no salt spray
whatever, and yet the beds are not treated with salt. I live
about half a mile from the bay, and on moist days you can
feel the salt on your lips ; and yet asparagus grown there is
certainly no better than it is twelve miles inland. I have
examined the question very thoroughly, and while this is, of
course, negative evidence, still, there is the fact that where
the atmosphere and soil are impregnated with salt there is no
apparent benefit to asparagus, or, in fact, to anything
else.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 59
Mr. Hersey. I do not like to occupy so much of the
time, but this question is of importance, and as I have had
positive practical experience in this matter, I feel that I
should be doing injustice if I did not give it. When I com-
menced raising asparagus, forty years ago, I thought I must
do as the books said, and so I began to raise asparagus with
salt ; but, always wishing to know from my own practical
knowledge what was best, I began experimenting. So I
raised side by side asparagus with salt and asparagus with-
out salt, and it took but a very few years to settle to my
satisfaction that the salt was of no possible use, but rather a
damage, to the asparagus. It was a damage to its size, it
was a damage to its flavor. I carried asparagus into Boston
that had been raised without the use of salt, and got three
or four cents a bunch more for it than those who carried in
asparagus raised with salt. I have raised asparagus without
salt an inch and five-eighths in diameter, and that is big
enough ; you do not need to grow it any larger than that.
I feel as sure that salt is of no use on my land for asparagus
as I am that I stand here to-day ; but I am not going to say
that there may not be a spot upon this earth where salt may
be beneficial to asparagus. It may be so, and if there is one
man who has found out that he has a piece of land that can
be manured with salt, why, he would be a fool if he did not
use it.
Professor Stockbridge . I have the impression that these
difierent opinions about the use of salt can be reconciled.
Our friend the lecturer, whose land is down by New York
Bay, where the air is so full of salt that in an ordinary day
he can feel it upon his lips, must know that his soil is full
of salt. What does he want of any more to grow asparagus ?
My friend Mr. Hersey lives down in Hingham, where the
sea breezes are blowing salt all over him and all over his
asparagus beds. What in the world does he want to use
salt for? Now, I should like to have the gentleman who
has told us about that asparagus bed which has grown such
splendid crops for ten years with salt alone, state where
it is.
Mr. Stone. It is in Watertown, four miles and a half
from Boston.
60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Professor Stockbridge. Then that illustrates the old
saying, that what is one man's meat is another man's
poison.
Mr. Peterson. I would suggest that possibly some of
these articles mentioned may have a mechanical effect upon
the soil. Salt may have some mechanical effect as a mineral
in the soil, and that may account for the results which have
been described. I know that the application of beach sand,
which I made at the suffo-estion of Professor Goessmann, has
given me better results than if I had applied a dressing of
manure. My point is this : that any common sand applied
to low and heavy soil acts mechanically, and elaborates the
plant food which is in the earth and which is essential to
the growth of plants. I do not know much about salt. I
live within five minutes' walk of a beach, and I have no
difficulty in growing anything after a little experience ; but
some things have bafiled and vexed me until I have gained a
knowledge of their nature, and then I have generally suc-
ceeded. Cabbages, especially, I can grow right on the
borders of a salt-marsh ; and I get splendid crops of cauli-
flower.
Mr. Rawson. I wish the lecturer, he being very familiar
with cauliflower seeds, would describe the different kinds of
cauliflower and their growth, particularly on Long Island.
Mr. Henderson. The Algiers, the Erfurt and the Snow-
ball have been almost exclusively used in our locality. The
Algiers has been grown almost entirely for a late crop on
Long Island ; but it has failed so completely for the last
two or three years that they are now using the Snowball
and Erfurt instead, using the early varieties for the late
crops. These are the only kinds that are now used in our
vicinity.
Dr. Fisher. If the gentlemen will bear with me a
moment, I should like to introduce the antidote along with
the poison. The poison seems to have taken hold pretty
strongly. People are talking here about raising plants with
nitrate of soda, raising plants with salt. It cannot be done.
It is pure nonsense. Plants do not feed on salt, they do
not live on nitrate of soda. You might just as well say
that because a man uses pepper with his dinner, you will
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUjVIENT — No. 4. 61
feed him for the next week on pepper. Pepper is good for
him, therefore feed him on pepper ! It would be just as
sensible as it is to talk about feeding plants with salt, or
even with nitrate of soda. What is nitrate of soda? It is
a single constituent. What is a plant ? It is made up of a
dozen or twenty. Will one constituent take the place of
twenty? By no manner of means. You have got to furnish
to the plant all those things which the plant needs, and it is
nonsense to talk of furnishing one of them to the exclusion
of the others. There are three things that plants especially
call for in larger quantities than soils furnish. There are
three principal constituents which plants of all kinds require
more than any others. Those are potash, phosphoric acid
and nitrogen. Those are the three things which plants feed
upon. Nitrate of soda does not contain them ; ground bone
does not contain them ; ashes do not contain them. You
have got to give your plants all three, in order to have
healthy, thriving, successful plants ; and it is nonsense to
talk about furnishing any one of them with the idea that
it is going to produce a plant. What is the use of nitrate
of soda? Plants that have not nitrogen in them will be
benefited by the application of nitrogen in the form of
nitrate of soda. The soda itself is of very little use ; it is
merely the vehicle in which the nitrogen is conveyed. The
object, as I take it, of applying nitrate of soda to any of
the early crops, is this. If you feed them with barnyard
manure, for instance, there is not enough of that barnyard
manure soluble in the spring to feed the plants, especially
there is not enough of nitrogen ; and if you give them a
little nitrate of soda in addition, it is all very well. The
idea that nitrate of soda of itself is going to grow a crop, is
nonsense. It is only one of the constituents that contribute
to the making of your crop. There are some special things,
like sand, that will in some cases favor the production of a
crop on account of the mechanical condition into which they
put the land. But there is no nourishment in sand, no
nourishment in salt. You must furnish everything that the
plant needs, and especially those three things which ex-
perience has found to be necessary beyond what the soil
furnishes.
62 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Secretary Sessions. If the soil is richer in one of those
ingredients than in the others, a special application of those
in which it is deficient may be of profit. Ought we not,
therefore, to find out the condition of the soil in that
regard ?
Dr. Fisher. I think it is a waste of time to expend it in
that direction. If I have a merino mill and want to produce
some merino goods, I do not ask whether there is some
material stored away perhaps in one of the back rooms of
my factory, but I furnish the cotton and wool and make my
goods. If I want to produce a thousand yards of merino, I
must furnish to that factory the complement of cotton and
wool to make it with. If my factory happens to have a lot
of cotton on hand, it does not influence me at all, and it
does not influence me on my land. I do not ask my land
anything about it.
Secretary Sessions. I do not believe that the doctor, if
he had plenty of cotton in his mill, would go to the expense
of duplicating the cotton as well as buying the wool. That
is the point I wish to make.
Dr. Fisher. I might not do it for one year. Suppose
you had a quantity of cotton on hand ; you would furnish
wool enough to go with it, but you would not expect your
mill was going to furnish you every year with that amount
of cotton. That is the principle.
Secretary Sessions. No, not at all.
Dr. Fisher. A man experiments a little, and concludes
that his land does not want potash, and he never applies any
more potash in the whole course of his life. That is all a
mistake. Furnish to every plant just what the plant needs,
and call the soil nothing but the mere shell in which the work
is done.
Mr. Paul. There is one very practical point with which
those who are cultivating asparagus have to deal, and that is
the beetle. The asparagus beetle appeared early at the
South, and worked its way into south-eastern Massachu-
setts. It appeared there a year before it was found in the
vicinity of Boston. I have a field of two acres, and the
beetles came into that field, and I had a great deal of trouble
with them. I think I expended one year in labor, and about
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 63
a hundred dollars In the purchase of remedies, in trying to
check them. There was no application that could be made
to the asparagus that would kill them, I tried various things
which did not seem to have any effect at all, because their
method of feeding was different from that of the beetles that
we had been accustomed to. I supposed at one time that I
should have to plough up the field. I finally conceived the
idea of turning my fowls, of which I sometimes keep quite
a number, into that field, after I got through cutting the
asparagus. I put probably seventy or eighty hens, with as
many or more chickens, into the field. They gave the beetle
a check, and from that time forward I have followed the
same practice every year, and have had very little trouble
with the beetle. My impression is, that if asparagus growers
will inclose their fields and put their fowls in after cutting,
they will find no difficulty in dealing with them. Otherwise,
if they attempt to deal with them in the ordinary way, it
will be many years before they can be checked. I have
watched the habit of the beetle enough to understand that in
a short time after it appears a parasite also appears. In new
sections where it appears it goes ahead of the parasite ; and
if you can check it until the parasite makes its appearance,
you will have no difficulty. I cut everything I can during
the period of cutting, whether it is small or large, so that
the beetle will have no food. A large majority of these
insects lay their eggs and disappear before we get through
cutting, but very many of them remain to propagate their
kind later. I am very well satisfied — more so in regard to
this than almost any other point that I have had experience
with in farming — that by following the course I have
suggested the beetle can be checked.
Mr. W. H.' Teele of Acton. The asparagus beetles
came to my bed about three years ago, and they increased
very rapidly last year. I made up my mind that something
must be done. I tried Paris green last year, I tried air-
slacked lime, I tried clear lime, and neither did any good.
Then I thought my application of the Paris green was
wrong. Of course I tried putting it on by hand, and I
wanted to find some way by which I could put it on and not
have it cost me much. So I told my boy to go and get the
64 BOAKD OF AGEICULTURE. [Jan.
horse, and I took two barrels of water out to the bed. I have
two watering-pots with fine nozzles that I use to sprinkle
my potatoes with ; and after mixing Paris green with the
water, I sprinkled the asparagus beds with the mixture,
using those watering-pots, and the result of two applications
was that I got rid of the beetles. Speaking of the parasite,
I will say that I found a little bug, something like the lady-
bug, on my asparagus, and I found that this was an enemy
that was following the beetle. I think it wMll destroy it in
the end.
Mr. Hall. I would like to ask Mr. Henderson if there
is a method of putting lime on soil that is so clayey that
after a heavy rain it bakes, so that that soil can be made
permanently more friable.
Mr. Henderson. I cannot answer that question to my
satisfaction, there are so many influences that might affect
the soil which would prevent the action of the lime upon it.
I do not think that any special rule can be given. In practice
we prefer to use lime on heavy soils, but I must confess to a
crood deal of io:norance in the matter.
Mr. Hall. How is it generally used?
Mr. Henderson. It is generally used on heavy soils
rather than on lio;ht soils.
Mr. Hall. I would say that I was recommended within
a few days to put the lime out in little piles in the fall, cover
it with soil, and let it remain there until spring and then
spread it.
Mr. Henderson. I should say that that would l)e a
very sensible method of doing it, but I have had no large
experience with it.
Mr. Augur. Professor Storer of your State, who per-
haps is as good authority as can be quoted, speaks very
highly of the use of lime, particularly for clay soils, in
making them more friable. I would like to say this. We
have been very greatly troubled this year by mildew and
grape rot, and I am going to try the effect of gas-lime,
about ten or fifteen bushels per acre. I shall sow it this
winter while the ground is bare, partly as an insecticide
and partly for the benefit of the lime itself upon the soil.
I tried it a few years ago with apparent success, and another
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 65
vineyardist in our State has tried it repeatedly, and he re-
gards it as a very excellent application, put on in the fall.
There is quite an acrid character to it that seems prejudicial
to growth ; but, if applied moderately in the fall of the year,
I think it will prevent the breeding of spores, and that the
fruit will be better the succeeding year.
Secretary Sessions. Is it your pleasure to take note of
the few questions that we have here, or do you wish to
pursue the subject of market gardening still further?
In response to this question, there was a general call from
the audience for " Questions."
Secretary Sessions. The first question is, " How can we
rid our cucumbers, grown under glass, of lice?" I will call
on Mr. Rawson to answer.
Mr. Raw^son. I cannot answer the question. I cannot
do it myself, and therefore I cannot tell anybody else how
to do it. I can get rid of them in hot-beds, but under glass
I have not been able to do it. If there are any lice on them
when they are put under glass, they wnll be pretty sure to
stay there. The method of getting rid of them in a house
is by very moderate smoking. We cannot smoke a house
so strongly as we do for lettuce, because we would destroy
the leaves and also destroy the cucumbers.
Secretary Sessions. Mr. Wood of West Newton can
tell us something about boiling sulphur, which perhaps
might apply here.
Mr. Wood. If you ask that question with regard to
keeping cucumbers free from vermin, I do not know that
it has ever been attempted. I have used sulphur for the
destruction of vermin under glass, more especially in the
grapery, where I have had serious trouble with the red
spider. It is well known that sulphur is the very best
antidote for that insect, and at the same time it is a pre-
ventive of mildew. Those are the two troubles which we
have had with our grapes grown under glass. I have also
found it successful in destroying the thrip. I do not think
it would be effectual in destroying the black or green aphis ;
but I have not had any difficulty in destroying them upon
cucumbers by the use of tobacco. The cucumber plant will
not stand so severe fumigation as some other plants, but
66 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
when taken in season, and followed for two or three nights,
I have never had any trouble in destroying them. Sulphur
is a dangerous article to use, as you all know. The fumes
of sulphur are fatal to all forms of life. I have used a por-
celain dish, holding perhaps two quarts. I take a paper of
the flour of sulphur, put it into that dish to the depth of
perhaps an inch or an inch and a quarter, place it over the
blaze of a lamp and boil as you would boil sugar ; and so long
as you keep a supply of water in the kettle there is no more
danger in boiling it than there is in boiling so much water ;
but if you allow the water to evaporate and burn the dregs
which will remain in the bottom of the kettle, you will
destro}^ all the foliage in the house. Many who have tried
it have met with mishaps in consequence of being careless.
Or, if you attempt to boil it in a dish and do not take the
proper precautions to prevent the flame from reaching it, the
sulphur will ignite, and then you get fumes instead of vapor.
But if care is taken in using it there is no more danger
than in fumigating with tobacco, and it is entirely efiectual
in destroying the red spider and mildew.
Question. Would not that method be more successful in
killing poultry lice than anything else that could be em-
ployed ?
Mr. Hawkins. The best way is to burn the sulphur, but
you must first drive out the hens.
Mr. Wood. It is a practice among greenhouse people,
when they have an opportunity to get their plants all out,
to burn sulphur ; then they get the fumes, which are fatal
to all kinds of life, animal or plant. The object of using
the vapor instead of the fumes is that we can use it where
our plants are, and use it at all seasons of the jeav to com-
bat two of the worst enemies that appear in our green-
houses under glass ; that is, mildew and the red spider.
Secretary Sessions. The next question is, " Is there any
remedy for the cabbage worm?" I would like to call on
Dr. Cragin.
Dr. Cragin. My experience with the cabbage worm has
been very limited. Whenever I have been called into contact
with it, I have used black hellebore, pulverized. I use it
also for the currant worm. I believe it is far more safe than
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 67
many of the articles that have been used. I was conversing
to-day with a gentleman who told me that he bought a cab-
bage at the market to put with the boiled dish which he was
having, and it made all those who ate it very sick indeed.
He did not know what was used on it. I have used helle-
bore for a number of years, and have never found any diffi-
culty from it, — it may be that others have ; but it stops the
ravages of the cabl)age worm wherever I have applied it,
with only one application.
Secretary Sessions. You said, "black hellebore." Is
that any different from the white hellebore?
Dr. Cragin. It comes in a paper. You can get it at
most of the druggists'.
Secretary Sessions. Is it not white hellebore instead of
black ? Is not that the name of it ?
Dr. Cragin. I have always called it black hellebore.
Secretary Sessions. I l)uy it as Avhite helleliore. Can
Mr. Augur give us any light on the cabbage worm ques-
tion ?
Mr. Augur. I can say that we have made brine strong
enough to bear up an egg, and applied it with a sprinkler
when the l)utterfly first appears, repeating it two or three
times, and we have found that to be effectual. It will not
injure the cabbage. The cabbage will stand it and seem to
thrive under it.
Mr. Hall. I would like to ask if any one here has
experimented to ascertain the difference between ploughing
manure in and leaving it on the surface for the next year's
crop ?
Secretary Sessions. Mr. Hersey. He knows almost
everything.
Mr. Hersey. I know pretty near enough to know I don't
know anything. I want to say that I tried that experiment
some ten or fifteen years ago, when it was more the belief
that manure lost a great deal of its substance by remaining
on the surface through the winter than it is now. I took an
oblong piece of land and manured it all alike. I took what
we call kelp, sea-weed, which comes ashore on our beaches, —
a material that most people believe loses three-quarters of
its substance by lying on the surface, — and spread it on this
68 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
land ; and possibly a third was ploughed, two strips across
it, in the fall, just as soon as the manure was spread; the
other three strips were allowed to remain with the manure
on the surface. The next spring the whole piece was
ploughed. That gave two ploughings where the manure was
ploughed under in the autumn. There was no perceptible
difference in the crop, which was corn. It was so near alike
that no one could see where the strips were. It was not
measured accurately, but I got quite a number to examine it
to see if they could tell where the manure was spread on
the surface and where it was ploughed in at once. I have
also tried other experiments in growing corn, by spreading
the manure on in the autumn and allowing it to lie on the
surface, and then spreading on the same amount in the
spring by the side of it. When you do this there will be a
diflerence of very nearly five bushels of corn to the acre
more where the manure is spread in the autumn, over the
crop on the land where it is spread in the spring. The land
seems to change its nature,, in a measure, where the manure
is spread on the surface. I apprehend that this is because
of the fact that the land is covered during the winter. As
you well know, we are within five or six miles of the sea-
shore, and we do not have the amount of snow which you
have in the interior of the State; and therefore our land
lies exposed a very considerable portion of the winter sea-
son, and no doubt some of the plant food is lost by being
blown away ; and where it is covered all winter the manure
soaks into the land, so that when the corn comes up there is
a larger quantity of fertilizing material that is available for
the growth of the crop than Avould be available from that
which is applied in the spring. I think there is where a
portion of the gain is obtained. Of course the result will
depend very much on the location. In the interior it may
not make as much difference as it would with us, and possi-
bly it might make more. I can only speak of the effect
which it has had on my own soil. I am satisfied now that it
is for my interest to cart out all the manure that I have and
spread it on my land in the autumn, and also all that is made
during the winter. Of course I would not spread it on a
steep side-hill.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 69
Mr. Rowley. I am one hundred and fifty miles from the
sea-shore, and I wish to corroborate what Mr. Hersey has
said in regard to spreading manure in the autumn, having
had long experience both in spreading it in the autumn and
in the spring. There is a very decided advantage in spread-
ing manure in the autumn rather than in the spring, espe-
cially for the corn crop. The corn starts earlier and matures
earlier ; it seems to keep ahead the whole season. The land
is lighter, does not get packed down as hard. I believe it
is a matter of economy to take the manure out of the stable
as fast as made, and spread it at all times of the year and
let it remain on the land. I practice it through the winter.
I would not put it on a side-hill, especially if the ground
was frozen. I am hauling it out now, when the ground is
not frozen, and I have never met with any loss, that I am
aware of, by so doing.
Mr. Edson. I would like to say a few words in regard
to that. In my practice I cart out all my dressing and
put it on the land in the fall. I have practiced the other
method, but I am fully satisfied that that is the best plan.
If you haul out your manure in the fall and winter and put
it on the g-round, it o-oes into the sod and is readv for the
corn when you reverse the sod. The liquid parts of the
manure soak into the sod, and 3^ou get an early start of
grass. Let it be until the 20th of May, or as late as you
can, before you plough it, and then when you plough the
sod under you have a crop of grass, which is a good fer-
tilizer in itself. I find that corn planted under such circum-
stances comes up with a very good color, grows right up
quick ; and, no matter how dry the season may be, there
will not be a leaf of that corn that will roll. That green
mass lying at the bottom supplies moisture and keeps the
corn green. Then in the fall (I always plough up two years
in succession) I sow a bushel of rye to the acre, and put on
the manure again. By the 20th of May the rye will be
headed out, and I will have all that I can turn under with
the plough. By doing that I get two heavy crops, and
leave my land in a great deal better shape than it was
before for grass. I find that is the most successful Avay of
raising corn. I have been experimenting for five years now
70 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
with a single acre. All the manure that has been put upon
that acre has been six or eight loads of sea- drift. It is quite
light land, and with that six or eight loads of sea drift and
the rye that I plough under I keep it going year after year ;
and, if I should state the cost of the corn I have obtained,
I don't suppose there are many here who would believe it.
I gather the corn when it is just glazed over, and cut the
fodder up and put it into the silo. Professor Goessmann
tells us that it is worth four dollars a ton put into the silo.
I kept an account of the cost of the corn grown on that acre
last year, and it figures up thirty-two dollars and ten cents,
including ploughing, cultivating, seed, taxes, interest, and
everything of the kind. I have plenty of sea-drift, and
there is no expense connected with that except that of haul-
ing it. I had eight tons of green fodder, which is worth
thirty-two dollars, according to the professor's estimate of
the value. I had forty-five bushels of com, that cost me
just ten cents.
Qlestiox. I would like to ask Dr. Fisher if he thinks it
is advisable to keep apples out of doors in some cold place ?
Dr. Fisher. Xo, sir. The trouble is, that the tempera-
ture is not uniform ; it is cold niorhts and warm dav-times.
That is what we want to avoid. It is better to put them in
the cellar, although it may be warmer than the average tem-
perature out of doors, because of the uniformity. I have no
difficulty in keeping Hubbardstons until the middle of
Febnuiry, Greenings until the last of March, and Baldwins
until the middle of May.
Secretary Sessions. TVhat is the advantage of your cold
storage house ?
Dr. Fisher. It is of no advantage, except that it is very
uniform in temperature. There is no ice in it for refrigera-
tion. I cool it down by opening it when it is colder outside
than in ; I shut it up as soon as the temperature outside be-
comes warm. "When we have cold nights in the autumn I
have no difficulty in cooling the apples down, but if warm
days come on I find it difficult sometimes to cool them down.
Question. A good many people head their barrels up,
thinking the apples keep better in that way. What is your
idea about that ?
1890.] PUBLIC DOCU]\IEXT — No. 4. 71
Dr. Fisher. They keep better so, but I never want to
cover them up and send them to market a month after-
wards. I want my apples to be sorted the day before they
go to market, whatever time it may be. I can see them and
handle them better if they are in boxes, open to inspection.
Question. "Would you say that the same rules would
apply to the keeping of turnips and other garden roots that
apply to apples ?
Dr. Fisher. I think the same rules would apply, except
that they should be covered with something. But I would
harvest them as late as possible, because the difficulty there
is that the turnips will sprout if joii put them in a warm
cellar, and you therefore want to leave them out just as late
as ]:)Ossible, and then put them in the coolest place you. can
find. If you can cover them with leaves or an^^thing of the
sort so as to keep the temperature uniform, they will keep
as long as possible.
Secretary Sessions. I have one more question, " AMiich
is the best early potato ? " I would like to have Mr. Pierce
of "West Millbury answer it, if he will.
Mr. Pierce. That is rather more of a question than I
feel qualified to answer. In my experience this year the
Pearl of Savoy has been the best. They rotted consider-
ably, but after the rotten ones were taken out there was a
pretty good crop left. Next to that I w^ould place the
Beauty of Hebron.
Mr. Howe of Dudley. M}^ experience in raising potatoes
has been very little. The question of the use of salt was
discussed this afternoon. I will say that I experimented
with salt in raising potatoes this year, and it was a total
failure. The salt was applied with chemical fertilizers, and
not one-half of my seed came up. That satisfied me as to
the expediency of using salt.
Mr. Peterson. Has any one had any experience with
regard to the time of planting potatoes to prevent the rot ?
]Mr. GoDDARD of New Ipswich. I was very successful
this year with my potato crop. I have always sprouted my
early potatoes before planting them in the spring. I plant
them just as early as the soil is fit to work, consequently I
have never been much troubled with the rot. This year my
72 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
early potatoes were ripe before the rust touched them. I
have a number of varieties that did not rot at all. Many of
them were dug last October, and they were just as nice
potatoes as ever grew. I use a very little salt, and do not
experience any difficulty. I always have the fertilizer well
mixed with the soil before I drop the seed. I do not know
that the salt was any benefit, but it certainly did not do any
damage.
Mr. George B. Andrews. With regard to the question,
" What is the best potato?" I would say that I think the
New Queen is certainly a week earlier than the Beauty of
Hebron, and is fully as good a potato. I have grown it
for two years on sod that was never ploughed before, with
chemical fertilizers, following the Rural New Yorker's
French system. We have had two bad potato seasons,
but I have not had a rotten potato on the farm. I have
used no barnyard manure.
Mr. GoDDARD of Barre. Two years ago I had an experi-
ence that was a little new. It seemed to me it was difierent
from what I had ever heard of then, and I have not heard
of anything of the kind since. My potatoes rotted very
badly, and I was advised that the sooner I dug them the
better it would be. So I had them dug, and every potato
that was not sound was left in the field. Those that were
carried in were placed on the floor and allowed to remain
long enough to be thoroughly dried. By the way, the
ground was pretty wet when they were dug, and a good
deal of dirt adhered to them, and of course it was not
possible to tell aljsolutely whether they were sound or not ;
but, as I say, they were allowed to lie on the floor until they
were thoroughly dried. Then they were carefull}^ looked
over, and a good many were found to be decaying. I
intended to put into the cellar only such as were perfectly
sound. Before spring I was obliged to pick over those
potatoes three or four times, and every time found a good
many decayed potatoes. Now, what I was coming to
was this. Those potatoes were dug about the middle of
September. Near the last of October I discovered that in
one corner of the field there were perhaps twenty or twenty-
five hills that had been overlooked. I dug them up, and I
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 73
did not tind a potato that had any signs of rot about it. I
suppose that those that had rotted had completely decom-
posed. I did not find one rotten potato, but I did find just
about as many sound ones as I had found when I dug the
others. I put these in the cellar by themselves, and looked
at them frequently. There was only a small quantity of
them, perhaps half a Inishel ; but I found, although they
remained there until spring, but one potato that was de-
cayed, and that had a little dry rot on one end. Now, the
point is this. I had always been instructed that as soon as
potatoes began to rot the sooner they were dug the better.
That experience upset that theory in my mind.
Mr. BowKEE. I am very glad to get the experience of
my friend from Barre, because it confirms the experience
that I have had on my form this year, which is located only
a mile from Mr. Goddard's. I was persuaded by my fore-
man to leave one-half of the potatoes until late in the fall.
He said that he had heard that if they were dug late they
would not rot. I insisted that they should be dug early ;
but I finally said to him, "I will compromise with you.
We will dig one-half the field early, and the other half
we will let rest until late in the fall." Now, the potatoes
that were dug early have nearly all rotted, are in a fearful
condition, while the potatoes which were dug late are
keeping fairly well in the cellar. But I have this to say,
that the quality of the potatoes which were dug late is not as
good as the quality of those that were dug early ; that is to
say, there is a flavor about them which I do not like ; but
they are keeping much better in the cellar than those which
were dug early. Now, perhaps some of you saw the very
interesting bulletin that was put out by our Hatch Experi-
ment Station in October, in which they described this rot as
a fungus growth, which attacked first the leaves and then
traveled down the stalk of the plant into the tuber. They
recommended that the potatoes that were attacked in that
way should be dug, and the tops cut off" and burned, so
that this germ of rot, or this fungus,' should be destroyed.
I did not get that bulletin until all of the vines on my
field were dead from this fungus growth, or I should have
tried the experiment ; but I think it would be well for our
74 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
experiment stations to take up this matter and see if this
fungus does travel down the stalk and into the tuber, and,
if it does, if cutting ofl' the stalk and burning it will pre-
vent its o-etting into the tuber.
Dr. Thomas Palmek. I do not happen to be a farmer
working with my hands on my own acres, but, fortunately
or unfortunately, I have a little farm in the outskirts of the
town here. I made a little experiment in regard to the
time of planting potatoes last year and the present year,
that I would like to state. I planted two kinds very
early, — the Early Rose and the Beauty of Hebron. I
planted half an acre of each. I planted the first as soon as
the frost was out of the ground. They were dug early,
were free from rot, and are now keeping very finely, while
those phmted late last year would not pay for digging, and
this year a good many of them have rotted. That is my
experience.
Adjourned to 7.30.
Evening Session.
The meeting was called to order at 7.30, Mr. Cruick-
shanks in the chair.
The Chairman. The committee of arrangements have
added something to the programme for this evening, and
I have the pleasure of introducing to you the Masonic jNIale
Quartette, who will sing us a song.
The quartette, consisting of Messrs. C. E. Keyes, W. M.
Barber, W. E. Macurda and L. M. Bartlett, sang a medley,
which was loudly applauded, and in response to the encore
they sang the favorite army song, " We are tenting to-night
on the old camp ground," which was also heartily applauded.
The Chairman. The lecture upon the programme for
this evening has for its title "Impressions received from
Rambles in the West," by Prof. Levi Stockbridge of Am-
herst, whom I have the pleasure of introducing to you.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 75
IMPRESSIONS RECEIVED FROM RAMBLES IN THE WEST.
BY PROF. LEVI STOCKBRIDGE OF AMHERST.
What, and where the West is located, is a matter of great
uncertainty to-day. In the public mind, it has been con-
stantly changing during the last forty years, and very rap-
idly during the last twenty. In my boyhood days, the
West, — the far-away and almost unknown AVest, was in
the Genesee and Black Kiver valleys of New York. And
then, passing over the region in the south-west part of that
State, it was located along the valleys of the Ohio Eiver
and its northern tributaries, and the shores of Lake Erie.
At that time the " Great North-west" was the territory of
Michigan, respecting which as fabulous stories were told of
the opportunities for getting rich quickly and by head-work
alone, as have since been rehearsed of more distant regions.
Soon the West was described to us as the boundless prairie-
land of Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin, with a soil so fer-
tile that the only implements of tillage needed to secure the
most marvelous crops, were a plough to turn the sod, and
an axe to cut a hole in it, to insert the seed corn ; and all
centering at a mud-sunken shanty town at the south end of
Lake Michigan, called Chicago. Then the Rock River
country was the West, and its location gradually receded
until it reached and crossed the Mississippi, and spread out
in eastern Iowa. Here it lingered within reach of navigable
waters for several years, for it was found that when the land
carriage of farm crops was so extended, and the roads so
bad, that it took two days' time and a pair of horses to
convey enough of the crop to a place of sale to procure a
pound of tea and a year's supply of family salt, the West
had lost its immense attractions. Then Texas, with its
measureless area and uncertain and disputed boundaries,
was annexed to our south-western limits ; and soon after,
by force or fraud, — or both. New Mexico and California
were gathered in, and our West halted by the waters of
the Pacific Ocean. The precious metals were soon dis-
covered in the rocks and sands of the latter State, fol-
lowed l)y a gold fever, rising higher and higher, until it
reached the point of a frenzied craze, and men lost their
76 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
heads. At this juncture our settled Western limits did not
advance by pressure of population or effort to secure homes ;
but, ignoring all ordinary motives, one Avild, mad rush was
made, without regard to distance, dangers or difficulties, for
the place Avhere it was said the shining ore could be gath-
ered in handfuls. To reach the diijoino-s, some risked a sea
voj^age of eleven thousand miles ; others dared disease and
death in the fetid swam[)s of the Isthmus ; and many others
took their lives in their hands, defying all the horrors of the
little-known continental desert, the barriers of untrod snow-
capped mountains and wild canons, the trackless alkaline
plains, the animosity of lurking savages, and laid their way
directly westward from the waters of the great river to those
of the Pacific Ocean. Obstacles before unheard of or en-
countered hedged up their way. Many perished of weari-
ness, of cold and starvation, and others fell by savage hands.
Some, after indescribable sufferings, worn and exhausted,
reached the goal sought, to find all ability to labor gone,
and that the adage was true, — that all is not gold which
glistens. They all suffered ; a few received a recompense,
most did not ; but they marked out trails and passes west-
ward, of immense value in the subsequent development of
our domain. By their hardihood and pluck a great State
was established in the region of the setting sun ; but it was
not the West, — it was only California.
Then came that to the North, sudden convulsion, to the
South, the long and deliberately planned War of the Re-
bellion, for the dismemberment of the nation, and the
extension and perpetuation of slavery. For a time the
Union of the fathers appeared to be rent in twain from
East to AVest, and there were mutterings in the air, that the
Western and North-western States had so little direct con-
nection with the parent States bordering on the Atlantic,
that they would set up for themselves ; that California, discon-
nected from all the others by two thousand miles of roadless
deserts and impassable mountains, swarming with implacable
foes, was beyond the reach of the forces of freedom, and
would fall into the hands of those of slavery. The masses
trembled in fear of the impending calamity, but soon rallied
under the leadership of far-seeing, sagacious and courageous
1890,] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 77
men. These, while marshaling forces for the field and
providing materials of war, devised plans and instituted
measures in the way of quick and easy communication to
connect these scattered peoples, and to make their varied
interests one, in the protection of, and benefits to be re-
ceived from, the central government. At that time the
railroad systems of the Eastern States were developed west-
w^ard to and beyond the Mississippi. Our engineers had
become expert and fertile in resources for overcoming, so
far as then encountered, the obstacles presented by nature
to railroad construction ; and capital had been encouraged
by success to make great expenditures for grand achieve-
ments. Impelled by these three forces, — the necessity, the
skill and the courage, — the great continental railway sys-
tem developed. The arid plains, the broad rivers with
treacherous quicksands and shifting channels, the towering
mountains with their perpendicularly walled gorges and
canons, were passed, and a continuous track extended from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, binding the Union together with
a cable of steel. Other similar efforts and successes fol-
lowed, which with their laterals have given easy access to
more territory than can be fully and wisely utilized during
a century to come, and made ou7' West to be almost any
and every spot between the "great father of waters " and
the Pacific, and between Canada and the republic of Mexico.
In the manifold obstacles to be encountered and overcome,
the countless expense to be incurred, the grandeur and
magnitude of the whole conception, the rapidity of its
execution, — the world's history furnishes no parallel; and,
for one, I am proud of the fact, that the sagacity, the in-
domitable, unyielding pluck, reeded to complete the first
line, was furnished l)y a son and citizen of Massachusetts.
But there is one phase of this matter which should be here
noted, because of its influence on the West and its people.
Notwithstanding the fact that the conception and plan of a
Pacific railroad was by private individuals, acting in a private
capacity, it was of national importance ; essential to the
government for the proper administration of the affairs of
its vast area, and the expense of construction would be
national in magnitude. In its own interest it should aid this
78 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
most important of public enterprises. But it was burdened
with the responsibility and cost of carryinof on a gigantic
war, and had no ready money ; it could guarantee bonds,
and was the owner of millions of acres of land along the
proposed lines of construction. The land had then no
money value, but certainly would have by the development
of the enterprise. The scheme of " land grants " to aid rail-
road construction through our public domain was therefore
inaugurated, and eventually extended, for purposes honest
and dishonest, to all points where a road could be con-
structed, and whether it was, or ever would l)e, needed. The
first road built received twenty-five million acres of land,
and other roads a much larger grant in proportion to their
importance. This land was in alternate sections, with sur-
veyed government land on each side of, and contiguous to,
the railroad track, which made it more valuable than govern-
ment land farther back. In most instances the avails of its
sale were sorely needed to pay construction debts, and the
most extraordinary efibrts were made for this purpose. The
railroad corporations were actually transformed into great
land trading and speculating companies. The East, both
country and city, was flooded with flaming hand-bills, circu-
lars and advertising cars, decked out withAYestern products,
setting forth the C|uality and desirableness of their lands in
the most preposterous tenns. Their desert lands were rep-
resented as the best stock-breeding sections of the Morld,
and the government lands of the same kind were free to all
comers. A few dollars invested in a band of calves would
increase so rapidly that in a very few years they would be
countless, and a mine of wealth to their owner. The com
and wheat lands of their prairies and river bottoms were
more fertile than the Garden of Eden ; would yield eighty
bushels per acre of the former and forty of the latter, and
were absolutely exhaustless. Their mountains were rich
with mines of gold and silver, and the sands of their moun-
tain streams yellow with the golden grains. From the Rio
Grande to Manitoba the climate was delightful ; the dry,
pure air of their high plateaus made them a perfect sani-
tarium ; and, the nearer you went to the polar circle, the
more agreeable it became. Copious streams flowed from all
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 79
the mountain gorges, which could be so utilized for irriga-
tion as to make the husbandman independent of the fickle-
ness of the weather. They expatiated upon the generosity
of the government ; there was a homestead and a tree-plant-
ing law ; and they rang all possible changes on " free homes
in the West," " land for the landless," " Uncle Sam is rich
enough to give us all a farm," It was net only in the
Eastern States that these representations were made, but
they had their agents in every country and city of Europe.
Free transportation tickets were oftered to land buyers and
settlers ; and soon the boom was on, and on hard. There
was a rush westward, not only of the landless and those
seeking homes, but of the titled nabobs of Europe, ready to
take up whole counties, and of speculators and sharpers
from ever}' where ; and the last were first in the field. Semi-
oflacials of the railroads, and their friends who were in the
railroad ring, took the lead. They knew, or could deter-
mine, where the railroad centres were to be, and secured all
adjacent lands within the five-mile limit. By the time the
first construction trains reached those points, a town was
began. Stakes tipped with red flannel are set in squares in
the grass, indicating the line of proposed streets. Abutting
lots are marked on these, and at once tents or brush booths
are going up, and these signs adorn their fronts : '' Building
lots for sale;" "Land-Office;" "Real Estate Agency;"
"Money to loan;" " liobbie & Co., Brokers, money ex-
changed;" "Saloon, all kinds of the best of liquors;"
" Guns, rifles and ammunition ;" and, looking in at the open
door of one or a half-dozen of them, you would see a couple
of barrels covered with rough boards, and on these a dice-
box, a pack of cards, a faro bank, and a black bottle.
Visit this locality a month or six months afterwards, and all
is still, and the ground is littered with all kinds of trash, but
empty bottles and old tin cans do most abound. It was found
that a mistake was made ; the projectors did not understand
"the tip," or were purposely deceived; and therefore the
" town" has moved on. Or else, at your second visit, you
will find frame houses on the streets, decorated with the
same signs ; stone and brick foundations going in for banks,
churches, school-houses and quite likely a theatre. Money
80 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
is plenty, everybody (but the lambs) is getting rich ; but
yet, not a sod has been turned on the adjacent land, and the
whole country is in its native wildness. Between these at-
tractive railroad points and fancy "town sites " the scene
changes ; but the bottom motive power and the controlling
actors are the same. The railroad in the form of friends is
abroad in the land. All the desirable railroad lands arc
taken at a nominal price (to be resold of course for a con-
sideration), and all the desirable government sections be-
tween have been secured " in ways that are very peculiar,"
under the homestead and tree-planting acts ; and they can
always find as many names to be used as there are desirable
sections to be covered in, but which in due time turn back
to the projectors of the scheme, who become the owners of
domains of from ten to fifty thousand acres, but all for sale
at a speculator's profit. These parties are not here to stay,
except with an "if; " and, with an " if," they unload and
"light out."
But now comes the great army of honest, guileless
settlers, hundreds of thousands of them seeking homes.
Many of them are from fairly comfortable homes in the
Middle States ; other many are from New England, with
New England loves, and New England a part of their
very being. They have believed the story of " land for the
landless, free homes for the emigrant ; " they come to make
homes of broad acres and to leave them to their children,
surrounded by all the blessings of Eastern life, but which
Western conditions cannot produce, and money cannot buy.
Along the great trunk lines they crowd, accompanied by
wife and children, and bearing a few household goods
and ffods. Mincjled with forei2:ners babblins; in an unknown
tongue, and jostled ])y land sharks and sharpers, they swarm
around the land-offices, to obtain the first title to that mag-
nificent fann of which they have heard so much, and which
in their mind's eye they have so often seen. But they find
that somebody has been there before them ; land is not so
free or so near at hand as they supposed. Their Uncle Sam-
uel is not at home to walk out along the railroad, and
stake off the alternate sections for their occupancy. But
they are told that there is such land as they want at a dis-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 81
tance, — " no better land in the world than that up around
Devil's Lake or out in the north part of Burleigh County."
' ' The best stock ranges are out in the Bad Lands of
Montana." " Gold is abundant in Nevada, and the claims
are not half taken." The great crowd looks downcast; but
it scatters from the offices of the loaners and exchangers
of money, from the land-offices and real estate dealers, from
the rambling toad-stool villages, and disappears in the vast
expanse of prairie, plain, mountain range and sequestered
gulch, to find, if possible by searching, the home wdiich they
supposed was ready to receive them.
This country, thus opened, thus advertised, and thus set-
tled, is the Wei<t, over wdiich we are to ramble, and we had
better be off before another like invasion arrives. Now we
are at Casselton, in the great valley of the Red River of the
North. It is one boundless expanse of dark, friable soil ;
and here and there to the farthest horizon we see the smoke
of steam threshers on the wheat fields, and the teams
moving wheat in the straw to the machines, grain to the ele-
vators and water for the boiler. The scene is new, it is
enchanting and expanding. Roving free, we find wx are
on the great wheat farm of Mr. D. and soon at the cen-
tral office. To the Yankee's questions come these answers :
" Seventy thousand acres in the ranch, twenty-nine thou-
sand acres in wdieat this year, the rest unbroken sod."
' ' The average yield is forty bushels per acre ; the machines
thresh on the average fifteen hundred bushels a day each ; it
costs from a cent to a cent and a half a bushel to thresh it."
" The expense of growing it, from the plough to the eleva-
tor, is about twelve or fifteen cents a bushel ; this land is all
soil, and of the best down as far as you can dig." "It
has been waiting here for the plough, and growing richer
and richer for thousands of years, and it will produce wheat
for a thousand to come without exhaustion." " The air
is so pure and dry we don't feel any cold, and the win-
ters are agreeable."
Thanking the gentleman for his politeness, and still
rambling free, in due time we find ourselves far away on
the wheat fields, and among the men, the teams and thresh-
ing machines. The latter are all steamers, and burning
82 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
straw, which is a Western phase of economy, and a novelty
to New England eyes. The rush of steam, the roar of the
thresher, the flying dust and smoke obscure everything ;
and for a short time you are confused, but soon discover
that there is order and a controlling head behind the dusty
screen. And you run up against a live Yankee from Con-
necticut, the boss of four sections (about twenty-six hun-
dred acres) of this land, its teams, implements and crops.
He is glad to greet anything in the way of a fresh Yankee
or tender-foot, ready to talk, and knows his business. With
some banter and giving news from the East, questions for
information are put, but for brevity's sake only the answers
are given: "Have been out here four years, summer and
winter, but came as an emigrant, not after this job." "In
some respects I like it better than old Connecticut ; get fifty
dollars a month the year round, but all don't get that."
"Don't have an3"thing to do in the winter but take care of
the stock (the teams) ; there is no field work that men or
teams can do." "Well, now, the crops do fall off some;
don't average more than fifteen bushels to the acre ; but we
shall take up some new land next year, and fallow some of
the stubble, taking a crop once in two or three 3'ears."
" There is not so much capital in this establishment as you
might think ; preferred stock of the railroad was bought at
seven dollars a share, and swapped to the company, at a
hundred dollars a share, for this land at a twisted two dollars
an acre." " Don't know how much money they make or
lose." "Know that bankruptcy is common around here,
but they are all right ; these great Western arable farms
will be cut up and sold out when the times are right, and
prices high enough." " You expect to get a slice then, do
you not?" " I shouldn't wonder." " Those fellows up on
Goose Creek brag well ; they may get twenty-two bushels
an acre this year, but last year they didn't get ten ; I guess
it will average about like ours." " That ditch is for a pipe
to bring water from the wind mill at the creek to the eleva-
tor; it is two miles long." "Ten feet seems deep to you
for a water pipe, but in August we dug out junks of frost
down nine feet." " Summers are short, but we can begin
early ; are sowing when two or three inches are thawed out
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 83
on the surface ; what frost is below that can thaw when it
gets ready, — the wheat will grow." "I don't find any
fault with the climate ; it's good if you like it ; and when
you fellows down East are shivering around in your winter
fogs, you can come out here and get warm, however low the
thermometer is." "Yes; shall finish threshing to-morrow,
and the next day the men will go to burning the straw ; and
the teams, four mules and driver and a two-plough gang,
will commence ploughing at that line, and go straight away
yonder four miles across the four sections and back ; and
they will alternate, traveling sixteen miles one day and
twenty-four the next, and will keep it up until the ground
freezes." We thanked the man for his time and information,
and turned away with the impression that we had seen only
the best side, the outside, the glossed side of the afiair.
As we did so, he called after us, " Say, you, if you ever
go round old Connecticut way, salute it for me ; for I call
it home, and the old folks are there yet."
Now we find ourselves well up the Little Missouri River,
in the Bad Lands of Western Dakota. AVinding and twist-
ing our way along for many a weary mile among the clay
buttes, the scene constantly wilder and more forbidding, a
sudden turn of the trail brings us face to face with a typical
cow-boy. He is mounted on a thin-necked, sharp-eared,
bright-eyed, restless broncho. Hanging in a case at the
horn of his saddle is a Winchester rifle ; on his right hip a
heavy revolver, and a large hunting knife in its case on the
left ; around his person two leather belts filled with car-
tridges, one for the rifle, one for the revolver; moccasins
on his feet ; leather leggins ; a brown corduroy coat and a
brown felt hat large enough for an umbrella ; his face is
bearded and browned ; he looks the bandit (and here is
where such roam uncaught), and you almost expect to
hear the order, " Stand and hold up." To the inquiry,
" Does this trail lead to Mr. C.'s ranch?" came the answer,
in a bright, cheery voice, as his countenance lighted up with
a smile, "No; here you are, and yonder is the shack."
"Are you Mr. C. ? " "I am, and am glad to see you."
" Well, you look like a galloping arsenal. What do you
load yourself down with all that artillery for ? " " It is
84 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
sometimes mighty handy to have it around ; a man ought
always to have it on here, and its presence may prevent the
necessity for its use." In a few moments we are at the
shack, which, we notice as we approach, is about fifteen feet
square, seven feet liigh, made of poles about five inches
through, sides and top, interspaces filled with clay, and
daubed over top and sides with the same material. All
around the eaves antlered heads were fastened, on which
were hanging the carcass of a deer, saddles, harness, yokes,
lariats, etc. ; and through the open door could be seen an
earth floor, bunks, blankets, skins, a sheet-iron stove, and a
few cooking utensils. We alight, and stand at the home
and head quarters cattle ranch of a college graduate born
and reared in Philadelphia, and now three years a cow-boy.
He was evidently pleased with the visit, as evinced by the
hearty exclamation, " Gentlemen, I am glad to see you here ;
it does a fellow good to see somebody from God's country
once more. How is all the world — the men, but especially
the girls — down East ? " He seems glad to see a new fiice, and
to talk to somebody besides the two stolid helpers he has in
his employ ; and so we will let him talk, and see what we
can learn of him, his business, the country in which he lives
and its people.
"After college graduation, and casting about awhile for
something to do, I concluded the professions were so
crowded I should have hard work to squeeze in anywhere ;
in fact, people were getting pretty thick in Philadelphia.
There was a good deal said about the chances to make
money in the stock business out here ; and, having a little
capital with wdiich to start, I thought I would come and
grow up with the country, as Greeley advised. Could not
have gone much farther if I had tried. Could not have
found a place where I could have a cleaner sweep and
swing; have pure, free air, free water, free land ; free of all
law and law officers but those shooting irons ; free of all
the dissipations of civilization ; free of all human kind,
except an occasional fellow to whom we point our rifles,
and the section gang ten miles away down at the railroad.
Business don't amount to much yet ; think I have about
eight hundred head of stock, old and young, and shall begin
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 85
to sell next year. Cannot show them to you ; don't know
where they all are, but shall have them all back on the
range within a month, but may have to go a hundred miles
after some of them down to the reservation. This is the
worst-looking country, and the hardest to find anything in,
that man or pony ever trod ; but there is feed enough, and
it is the best to winter stock in there is in the whole realm.
They huddle into these gulches and ravines, and do not
drift before the blizzards ; and when the storms are over
they nose their way out of the snow, rustle around and fill
themselves with willow and cotton-wood browse. I don't
lose more than about fifteen per cent of them in a year, from
cold, snow, wolves, bears, cats, and accidents, all combined ;
but away south on the plains, drifting before storms, freezing
and starvation are liable to clean out from fifty to ninety per
cent; and if it doesn't take cow-boys, too, they are lucky.
We don't do much in the winter, and would not do anything
but eat, sleep, and keep a fire, if the cattle did not rove ;
but they do sometimes, when we have to rustle around
and keep them on the range, regardless of snow, wind or
weather. Game? Yes, game is plenty, and we get it
without much trouble when looking after cattle. We get
letters occasionally, and papers ; and I know that a month
ago Philadelphia still stood on the banks of the Delaware ;
but can't say that I know much of the prevailing fashions
there, and care less, for I know we are in the full swim of
fashion out here. The mail comes every day down at the
station ; but that is ten miles away, and in winter that is
farther than a hundred miles anywhere in the East. In the
summer we get down there once a week sometimes ; then
again we are away on the range, and don't bring around
once a month. We don't have the advantage of lectures,
conventions, balls and circuses ; but we don't care much
about that, for our business is about equal to a perpetual
circus. Oh, we sha'n't starve, with eight hundred head of
stock around us, and deer's heads sticking out of every
other bunch of scrub. We get some canned goods, coflee,
tea, salt, etc. ; should like fresh vegetables and apples. We
have deer-skins in abundance, and that supplies most of our
want of dry goods. Our establishment is rather primitive,
86 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
in fact, not quite up in style to that of Abraham the great
ranchman of the East ; but you know ' man wants but little
here below, nor wants that little long.' But you give me a
call in July next year, and you will find me in style. I am
going to have my mother and sister here then. Before
they come I shall tear this shack down and build a new
one, — a nice one with two rooms; am bound it shall have
every modern convenience, if it costs me fifty dollars.
I am bound that they shall have a good time here, and see
the West as it is, and its people as they are. We will have
all the people of the county here, and we will have a social
time."
"Mr. C, how large is this county?" "I don't know
exactly, but I think about as large as the State of Vermont."
"How many inhabitants in it?" "I don't know of any
fixed inhahitants but the section gang at the railroad, but
there are some scattered around ; a squad of cavalry comes
along occasionally, and there may be one then.", " I doubt
not, Mr. C, your mother will be delighted to meet your
friends and neighbors, and to see the country in which her
son has pitched his tent." " I don't know about that, but I
know she will be delighted to see me, and I shall to see her ;
and the beaus won't be so thick but that I can have that
sister of mine to myself for a time ; and for the rest I don't
care."
Mr. C. entertained us on the fat of the land, and appar-
ently regretted our departure ; and we left wdth the impres-
sion that the next time we raml)led that way, not a track
of the scholar and ranchman would be found in the Bad
Lands, but we should learn that he, and what capital he had
saved from that which he brought from the East, had gone
back there, and the country left to grow up without him.
But now the scene changes ; we are running west on
the North-western Railroad in the south-western part of
Minnesota, and near the Dakota and the Iowa line. We are
in a region famous for its wide-spreading prairies and good
quality of soil. The horizon is far, far away in all direc-
tions, and the view unobstructed. Along the track side are
occasional reaches of turned sod or stubble. From the
moving train it is difficult to clearly distinguish human
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 87
habitations away from the little villages, but at intervals
smoke is seen to rise, and there are stacks of grain or hay.
We run to the end of the road, and find ourselves in a little
village three years old. A conspicuous object is a grain eleva-
tor ; there are several shanty stores, a half hotel, half board-
ing-house, a land-office, real estate agency, a broker's office,
and two or three saloons. A school-house was under way,
" as an advertisement ; " but they were " not so advanced as
to think of churches." There was a dealer in all kinds
of agricultural implements, machinery and vehicles, which
were scattered around promiscuously in the prairie grass
over an acre of land. AVe are hardly domiciled for the
niffht before most of the villao-ers know we are not there
to sell patents, lend money or buy land, but rather to
see the land which is sold, the men who have bought it, how
they like it and its surroundings, what they propose to do
with it, and how they live. This information given, we
have ceased to be an object of special attraction. We
inquire for other settlements or villages in the region, and
are told there are none ; for roads out of this metropolis
into the out country, and receive for reply, " Roads ! it is
all road ; go where you please, — there is nothing to hinder."
As the next morning's sun lighted up the scene, that re-
mark was fully appreciated. Grass — brown, dry grass —
under foot in every direction, and not an object to obstruct
the view or attract attention. But how far does this expanse
extend, who owns this land, and what is beyond it, are
curiosity-provoking thoughts ; and we start out due south-
west by compass for a long tramp of discovery. As we
advance, the horizon recedes. The prairie, which appeared
so absolutely level, is found to gently undulate in long,
smooth swells. These swells come plainer and plainer to
view as we move on, and behind fall away to the horizon.
For miles the scene is the same ; and it would l)e very
monotonous but for the occasional whir of a prairie chick
out of the grass, whose flight is hastened rather than re-
tarded by the gun we bear.
After miles of tramping, the field-glass brings to view a
something at the horizon which is unusual and artificial
rather than natural, and the course is laid in that direction ;
88 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
as we advance, it comes plainly into view, and after a walk
of two miles we find we are approaching the dwelling of a
homesteader. As we draw near, we note it and its sur-
roundings. It stands on the summit of a prairie roll ; is a
board shanty about twenty feet square, with a stove-pipe
chimney. There is a small glass Avindow on the side of
approach, where it seems there should also be a door : but,
as there is none, we conclude the front door is on the back
side. We notice there is a pole barn, covered, roof and
sides, heavily with straw, which is black by a year's ex-
posure ; ofl' to the left is a stubble field, and beyond, a
dozen head of cows and young cattle feeding. Near the
barn are two stacks of wheat and four or five of hay, and
scattered around the premises sundry farm implements and
a good two-horse wagon, but no other vehicle.
But we are now too near to be longer unnoticed, and our
approach is announced by the sharp bark of a fine collie dog.
By the time we are within speaking distance, a man is seen
coming from the barn, a boy of about seven years of age
and a girl of five from the direction of the hay stacks, and a
woman appears at the door. A glance showed that all
were comfortably and neatly dressed, had an intelligent but
a sort of scared, quizzical look, as much as to say, " Who
are you ? where did you come from ? what brings you here ?
— but we are glad to see even you." Salutations were
exchanofed without much embarrassment on either side.
They were told that we had fiillen in with their place while
roving out from C, but that we were from the East, " Are
you?" said the woman, with animation ; " We are from the
East." "From what State, madam?" " From Ohio." "Then
we were neighbors ; Massachusetts is my home." That was
enough ; all embarrassment Avas removed, and conversa-
tion flowed freely respecting the East and the West. With
occasional leading questions to draw it out, the home-
steader's story was practically as follows, told sometimes by
the husband and sometimes by the wife : —
" We had a good little farm in Ohio in a thickly settled
neighborhood, with school, church, store and post-ofiice
close by. But there was a mortgage on the farm which
we could pay ofi" only slowly, everything we had to sell was
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 89
so low. A good opportunity occurred to sell out, and we
concluded to do it, get out of debt, and take what we had
left, come West, get a larger farm for nothing, fit it up and
begin anew. Good recommendations led us to this locality,
of which, however, we had no actual knowledge until we
reached here. We did not find it just as we expected. We
supposed we could get a location near the railroad and con-
venient to town privileges, but nothing could be home-
steaded there. Then there was no wood for fuel or timber
or fences. We wanted to both keep stock and make crops,
and a good barn shelter for them and a house for ourselves.
The timber to do this must be brought from the far north
through Chicago or St. Paul, and it would all cost more than
we could afford. We could not go farther, and disliked to
go back, and finally concluded to make the best of the
situation as a trial.
" We got here in July, year before last, and you can see
what we have done. We brought a few household o-oods
with us, and soon after getting here we bought a pair of
horses, a wagon, and all the rig, some tools and two cows.
That season we built the house, a part of the barn, set over
a piece of sod for spring wheat, and cut and stacked a lot of
hay, some for the stock and more to burn. I have now
grown two fair crops of wheat of two hundred bushels each,
a little corn, and all the prime roots and vegetables we
wanted. The cattle have increased, and we are better off
than when we lived on this spot in a two-horse wagon. We
haven't got everything we want yet, — water, for one thing.
You see that pile of dirt out there ? that is where we are
digging a well. We are down now forty feet, but five or
six feet more will bring it. To this time we have brought
all we have had a mile and a half, in barrels, from the sink
down yonder. This soil is good, and no mistake, — better,
I think, than it was in Ohio.
" The climate, — Avell, you should live in it a year or two
to appreciate it. If it is good, it is good ; but when it gets
on a tantrum you had better stand from under. A blizzard
struck us last year in May, and we had a terrible one the
18th of the following October. Describe a blizzard ? No ;
I don't know any words which meet the case. The wind
90 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
sweeps across this open country, roaring, howling and
shrieking in a way nobody can describe ; the little ice
needles are driven by the wind into and through everything.
Then the cold is awful, and nothing but hay to burn ; and
quite likely you will be caught without enough in the house
to last through the storm. If you want to appreciate a
blizzard, come, see and feel it, but be caught in it at your
peril. If one had come in October, the tirst fall we were
here, none of us would have been here to tell the story.
"Prairie fires? You would think so; and the grass is
about dry enough to burn now. When the fire gets going,
and a high wind gets behind it, it seems as if the whole
world and all in it were going to burn up. The smoke and
heat go ahead of the fire, and it is dark as night, and you
are almost suffocated. Hardly know which to choose — a
prairie fire or a blizzard. On some accounts we have the
most dread of the fire, and keep the grass mown and fed
back a hundred rods from the place, and then plough a
fire-guard inside and outside of that line ; so that we have
escaped thus far. But fires have swept over whole counties
here, and cleaned out everything, — villages and all.
"As yet, there is practically nothing that farmers can raise
to sell in this region but wheat, and that might about as Avell
be burned as sold. It is hard to find a man here who raises
more than about two hundred bushels, and he cannot take or
send that much to the Chicago market. Either way, the
freights and commissions will take the whole crop.
"On the way out you probably noticed elevators once
in twenty or thirty miles all along the railroad. The
railroad ring own them all, whatever may be the name
painted on their brown sides. Oh, yes ; they are ready
to buy wheat; 'but the crop is not a desirable one, and
the market is glutted ; but if you cannot hold it, draw it in,
— we will give what the market will afford.' They have
a sure thing, and can wait ; the farmer generally cannot ; so
the crop goes to the elevator, and of course in the worst pos-
sible time. ' There never was such a glut ; ' it is hard, but the
best they can do is forty-five cents a bushel. That won't do
for the farmer at all ; but it is thirty miles to the next eleva-
tor, which is tAvo days' journey from home, and when he gets
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 91
there he is in the power of the same ring ; and so the wheat
raiser surrenders, and the weighing commences. A bag
or two is emptied, when the buyer discovers the wheat is not
up to standard, is not well cleaned; he won't have it; the
farmer may take it back, or throw off ten per cent for re fan-
ning. The farmer yields again from necessity, thinking it
is but one load, and it is soon in the machinery ; but
' Cash is short to-day, and we cannot pay now possibly, but
will be ready and cash it when the whole crop is delivered.'
The farmer goes home a wiser but not a happier man ;
but the buyer gets his whole cro}), and nearly all others that
are in the vicinity, in kindred ways. That is how and
where we get our money.
"We are comfortable, as comfort goes out here; but
yet we have, as you see, no roads ; a month in the fall,
six weeks in the spring, and after every great rain, we
are mud-bound, however great our necessities. We could
not get land nearer the village and depot ; it is ten miles
there, and somebody owns the land all the way, and is hold-
ing it for a rise. We have no schools, no society, no meet-
ings, no doctor ; yet people die out here."
During this conversation we were sitting on a wagon-seat
placed on the ground ; thinking it was taking a gloomy turn,
we arose as if to go, but were cordially invited to walk into
the house and take a cup of tea, to " strengthen us" for a
ten-mile tramp to the village. The little boy ran to the
hay stack from which he came on our arrival, and immedi-
ately returned bringing some loose hay and a handful of
twists. We then discovered that he and his sister had been
engaged in twisting and piling hay for use during winter
blizzards. Entering the house, we noticed it had really but
one room, with two small windows ; there was a bed in one
corner, from beneath which peeped a trundle-bed ; there
was a large sheet-iron stove, a small table, a chest ; shelves
around the walls, on which were pans of milk and an assort-
ment of crockery and tin-ware ; in a closet near the stove
sundry cooking utensils, four chairs about the room, and all
neat and tidy. In a wonderfully short time the burning hay
made the steam whistle from the spout of the tea-kettle, and
soon "a humming cup of tea" was presented us. That
92 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
sipped, we thanked them for their hospitality, bade them
good-by, and took our compass course north-east for town.
As we turned away, the woman said, pleasantly, " If you
meet anyone who wants to buy an improved claim, send
them this way ; " and I received the impression that she
meant all she said, and a good deal more.
During the two following days w^e are riding in different
directions oyer this much-boomed section of country, and
find farmers long distances apart, in out-of-the-way places ;
some in side-hill " dug-outs," some in turf shanties with
a single window and earth for a floor, and some establish-
ments of the kind abandoned and claim given up. Occasion-
ally we found a settler and his wife who appeared bright and
cheerful ; but most them, especially the wives, bore a sorrow-
ful countenance, as if the lioht of their lives had gone out.
We have not time to particularize and make comparisons
here ; and only stop to say we left the section with the im-
pression that the family interviewed during our first day's
ramble were country nabobs in that land ; and, if they did
not sell out, have probably finished their well, and have an
abundance of water.
But now we are away across the continent to the south-
west ; have passed through the canons and gorges of the
Rockies ; have looked with awe at the snow-covered Spanish
Peaks ; have succeeded in the struggle up Pike's Peak trail
to the summit ; and have reached a dry, thirsty and barren,
though boomed, land, and stop to take breath at Las Vegas,
New Mexico. We cannot stop to describe its wonderful hot
soda and sulphur springs, or their boasted curative properties ;
but hasten to tell of a discoveri/ we thought we made here,
but afterwards found to be as common all over the Western
country as hay-seed. It was what might be called a profes-
sional emigrant. We saw a sturdy man with a pair of good
mules grading around the railroad hotel (the Montezuma).
He looked and talked like a Yankee ; not quite that, but
certainly he was not a foreigner. At noon, when roving
on the outskirts of the village, we noticed the same man
with the team put out, and feeding from the rear end of
the wagon. Himself, a woman and three children were
seated on the ground near by, eating their dinner from tin
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 93
plates held in their laps, the food reservoir being an iron
spider, and their drinking cup an old fruit can. There was
a fire smouldering a few feet away, between three flat stones
set edgewise. Near by on the ground was the canvas-
covered top of t'.ie wagon, which for the time being was
evidently serving the purpose of a tent, and in which were
a few household goods, — boxes, bundles, and what looked
like bedding. At a little distance, browsing in the sage brush,
were two Indian ponies, for riding when the party was on
the move. The man and his wife appeared to be about
forty five years of age, the children — two boys and a girl
— about twelve, ten and seven. Salutations were given
and received ; and, as there was no bashfulness on their part,
a rattling conversation was soon on the flow. The story,
told with little interruption or prompting, was as follows : —
" We are of Massachusetts origin, but were born and
reared in central New York, and commenced married life
there on an inherited farm about twenty years ago. The
farm was a good one, we think now ; but we caught the
Western and the lumber fever, and sold out and went to
northern Michigan and bought in the woods. Stayed there
most three years, but didn't like it ; didn't like logging,
didn't like the woods, didn't like the stumps, couldn't stand
the cold in winter nor the mosquitoes in summer, and so sold
and went to Wisconsin. Did not buy there, but rented a
place for one year ; but found it to be Michigan over again,
so concluded to try the prairie country ; and went out to
Nebraska and bought an improved claim with a good turf
house and some tools on it, but no barn.
"The first year was a good one, so far as crops were
concerned ; but neighbors were few and far between, and
they were Dutch or something of the kind, — we couldn't
understand their lingo. We had to burn up most of our
corn for want of wood, for there was none in that country.
There was little market for what we had to sell, and what
there was was so far away that it didn't pay to go for it.
"The second year was a bad one. There was a great
drought. The crops and grass all dried up, and we sat up
nights to watch, fearing the prairies would burn over in
July. That winter we had blizzard after blizzard, and it
94 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
seemed as if we should freeze solid and blow away ; and I
believe we should, if we had not been completely snowed
under ; as it was, we froze our ears lying in bed.
" The third year was good enough, but, with the cost of
building a pole barn, we did not get ahead any, but rather
fell behind.
" The fourth year promised splendidly. Corn, wheat and
grass o-rew as we never saw them in York State. But one
day, just as wheat was beginning to turn, we noticed a sort
of cloud coming up from the south-east and coming directly
towards us, growing darker as it came ; and then it began to
roar like Niagara at a distance, or near by, for that matter ;
the sunlight went out, and almost before we knew what the
matter was the locusts came down upon us. They flew into
our faces and caught in our hair, and filled the house before
we could shut the door and window ; they completely cov-
ered the ground and all the plants there were on it ; and the
gnawino;, oratino;, whirrino; roar was awful. It did not take
them long to eat every particle of a plant there was on the
farm and all the surrounding country, and to scratch up
their roots, and the last that came starved for want of fodder,
makino; a smell about as bad as a slaughter house. There
was nothing left for us, and we ' lit out' and went down to
Kansas, where I got a job on the railroad. I made up my
mind that locusts were too much for us, and the first man
who wanted that farm and try his hand with them would have
it, and he did ; and we took a year to look around and find a
place where a man could live and have a decent show.
" The next spring we went oft' south-west a hundred miles
in the State, and bought out a fellow and went to work.
Times were lively there, so far as settling up the country
was concerned ; Init the emigrants were a mongrel crowd
from every part of the world. They were late in coming in,
and it rained all the time until the middle of June, and the
land could not be worked. Half of them could not get
cover, and when hot weather came on they took the shakes,
and kept it up all summer. What crops they got in didn't
do any too well, and were not grown when a stinging frost
came in September and killed everything. That was a tough
winter : it seemed as if those foreigners would starve, and
1890. J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 95
we were not much better off. Some of them went off, and
loads of provision were bought by somebody to feed those
who stayed.
" After that the look ahead wasn't bright, there wasn't
grain enough in the country for spring planting ; so, as
soon as we could travel, Ave put our claim into the hands of
an agent to sell, and, rigging up a prairie schooner, headed
for Colorado, thinking as hard luck followed all trials at
farming, we would try mining for a change. It was a long
journey and a rough one, but we struck Pike's Peak after a
while, and went on up to Denver. There were people
enough, and hurrah enough, and mining talk enough, there ;
but no mines. So we kept on west into a crack of the
mountain so narrow and so deep that sunlight didn't reach
the bottom, and it was crookeder than a meadow brook;
but it led at last to a mining town that was hanging around
promiscuously in the sides of the ledges, and called Black-
hawk. It didn't take more than two days for me to find out
that we were out of place. I could not find any leads, veins
or color of gold on the surface, I wouldn't work in a dark
hole a thousand feet deep down in the bowels of the moun-
tain, and I couldn't make salt shovelino; and washino; gravel
down in Clear Creek with a gang of Chinamen. But I had
my team, and could get good wages hauling rocks to the
smelter ; so we concluded to stop awhile, and we did for
eighteen months, but all the time trying to get information
so that the next move should be a good one, and a final one.
Our plans were finally laid, and we are so far on our way to
carry them out, and have only stopped here for a few weeks
to rest and refit. We have started for southern California,
to go into fruit raising; for, from all we can learn, that is
the coming thing. But of all the countries man or beast
ever traveled over, this along here caps the whole ; it is all
in hummocks tipped up or tipped down, there is no rain, no
water unless it smells of brimstone, nothing grows on it but
sage brush ; and this journey I reckon is like going through
purgatory to paradise."
We did not dispute him, but bade the family good-by,
impressed by the sad, weary, hopeless look stamped on the
face of that wife and mother ; and also that men of a certain
96 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
mental mold are like plants, indigenous, and it is unnatural
that they should take root and thrive as exotics.
But we will take the train and hie away across the deserts
to California, and see what our chronic emigrant will see
when he reaches the end of his long journey, and gets into
the full swim of his "coming thing." We are now in
the vicinity of Los Angeles, and it is the beautiful month
of June, when the hills and valleys of New England are in
all their glory of verdure and bloom, the air loaded with
sweet perfume and vocal with the music of singing birds ;
but here the great range of view is brown and sere. The
wild oats, the only native herbage on the hill-sides, are
seeded and dead. Here and there are green spots of grove
or vineyard, but they only serve to make the great sweep
of country look more forbidding. The traveled roads are
inches deep with a fine, almost impalpable dust, the color
of yellow snuff, and about as pungent to eyes and nostrils.
As teams or equestrians pass along, it rises and settles upon
and in everything, leaving its dirty hue. Far away in the
line of the road we are pursuing we notice a dense cloud
rising, and we remark to the driver of our vehicle, "A
rain is coming up yonder ; we thought you did not have
rain here at this season of the year." He gave us a quiz-
zical look, as much as to say, " You are a green one ; " and
replied, " I reckon it will be a dry one, but wait and see."
We did not have long to wait before we found the cloud
was dust raised by a flock of two thousand sheep, who, as
they moved along nipping here and there a tuft of dry herb-
age, raised so thick a cloud of dust that only the outer edge
of the flock could be distinctly seen. Sheep, dog and shep-
herd were coughing and sneezing ; all were of dark snuff"
color, all looked haggard and dejected, and the last de-
mented,— at any rate, he was uncommunicative. We re-
marked to our driver, " This is a hard-looking country now,
but I suppose you have rain in the winter, and the country
looks fine." His reply was, " Yes, perhaps so ; the country
is fine enough, ])ut it rains all the time, the roads l)ecome a
perfect porridge, the bottom drops out, tourists don't come,
you can't get around, business is dead, and we den up. Give
me the dry season, dust and#all."
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 97
As we passed along the road in another section, at many
a spot men were cutting down orange groves, trees from six
to ten inches in diameter. An inquiry of one of the bosses
brought the information that the scale had got the better of
them ; that as they grew larger they needed more water,
which could not be had ; and they must go into some other
business, he hardly knew what, on account of the water
question.
We retired from the scene with the impression that the
country had been boomed to death, and that, when our
chronic emigrator reached it from New Mexico, he would
be impressed in the same way, and find swarms of sympa-
thizers, if their " grin and bear it" would let them talk.
But we are away, and pass on to the north, to a section
famous for the rugged grandeur of its scenery, and find our-
selves near the south fork of the American Kiver in the
Sierras, where gold mines in all forms and conditions of
deposit and development are said to abound, and to have
yielded untold millions. We find nothing inviting here but
the wild sublimity of the mountains, and the reputation that
they contain gold, which by searching may be found. A
little exploration discloses the fact that simple placer mining,
hydraulic mining and stamp mining are being practiced ;
and in due time we find ourselves at a mining camp, con-
sisting of one small shanty, one man, and one dark hole
down into the mountain rock, at the surface of which is a
rough windlass, with a crank to be turned by hand. Our
approach was discovered, and hailed by a hearty, " How are
you? Are you lost, or only looking for something?" We
replied, "Both." "Well," said the man, "come inside
and tell all about the country you came from and its people,
and how you came to be here." The invitation was accepted,
and we stood in the mining home of two graduates of a
Massachusetts college, whom we knew to l)e good geolo-
gists, mineralogists and chemists. News from the East was
eagerly sought, and from friends near and far. The con-
versation gradually drifted to personal experiences among
mines and mining camps during the three years then passed,
and this is the story, told in few words : —
" C. is half owner of all there is here, but got discouraged,
98 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
and about eight months ago went off to Nevada City and got
a superintendent job there ; but I have stuck to this mine off.
and on, thinking we could not be mistaken, and if indications
were good for anything we should get something worth hav-
ing if we could contrive to live until we got the shaft deep
enough.
" When we first came out here we thought we knew about
rocks and metals, but went into the employment of Sargent,
down at Georgetown, to get a practical knowledge of mining
as a business. After eight months there we took a month to
visit mines in all directions to see the character of the rocks
in which the metal was found, and the different methods of
approach and reduction. We then started out independently
on an extended prospecting tour. We found several places
that miners would call a good prospect, but in our opinion
the best show was here. Therefore we secured a patent,
got suitable tools, and began work sinking a shaft. Near
the surface we struck a quartz vein, and got some beautiful
specimens of free gold, and thought our fortune was made ;
but it was so thin it yielded but little, and soon pinched out.
The shaft is now seventy feet deep ; at intervals as we went
down we found a little color, but did not strike it rich, and
more than once we were dead broke. It is pretty difficult
in such a place to tell what the show may be a day or a week
ahead.
*' Soon after C. went away, just for a change, a friend of
mine went with me over into Placer County, to a place that
C. and I had spotted, and secured a right and went to work
sinking a shaft in decomposing talcose slate rock, in which
veins of soft, gold-bearing quartz frequently occur. We
worked hard for several months, and, as the rock was not
hard, we got down about forty feet, but did not find a trace of
anything ; and I got discouraged, and thought I had rather
put work into our old mine. So one morning, just after I
reached the bottom of the shaft, I said to A., ' What will you
give me for all my right, title and interest in this hole?'
His reply was, ' I had rather sell than buy ; but I will run
for luck, and give you fifty dollars ; but yon shall wait for
your pay until I take it out of the mine.' ' It is yours,'
said I, and did not strike another blow, but got up top of
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 99
the ground and tramped back here. Then something hap-
pened, the like of which has happened before in this coun-
try. A. got into the hole which I left, took up my pick and
went to work ; and before night of that day he uncovered a
pocket of soft, clayey material, about the size of a barrel,
out of which he took twenty-five thousand dollars' worth of
gold. The news was not long in getting over here, and it
made me and this whole mountain so blue that it fairly smelt
of sulphur. That find had one good effect on me, — I got
my fifty dollars, and a little more as a present, otherwise I
should not have received, as really I did not expect, a single
cent. But A. was afiected in a difierent way ; he thought
he saw himself a millionaire in the near future, and hired
gangs of men, and put up costly machinery ; but to this
time he has not found a trace of color, and quite likely will
not, and will exhaust his whole find. That is the way it
goes here. A knowledge of rocks and minerals, and even
practical experience, are all at fault in this business.
" Before C. and I began for ourselves, we visited all kinds
of mines, saw all sorts of mining operations, ran against all
classes of miners, from the old forty-niners down to the
tender-footed ; and we have found but two classes who in
the long run have made more than a fair living, and they
are : first, those who by accident have made a rich find,
like A., and had sense enough to leave the business at once ;
and second, those who dug shafts or tunnels into the moun-
tains, ' salted' them well, told stories of their fabulous rich-
ness, stocked them, iucreasing the number of shares as long
as they could find fools to buy, and then disappeared with their
pile ; or still others, who owned fairly good paying mines,
but stocked them at a thousand times their real value, sold
the stock, and retired millionaires. The rank and file of
the immense army of gold seekers have been roving helter-
skelter through all the wild mountain gorges of the West
and California. You will find their abandoned pits and
tunnels where you would not have believed the foot of man
had ever trod ; and each tells of great and bright hopes
blasted.
' ' I know this region well ; it has the reputation of being
the best mining section in the whole country ; and, if you
100 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
will pay the expenses of the trip, I will take you around,
let you see for yourself and invest if you wish, for you will
find the chances are plenty."
We accepted his very reasonable proposition, and tramped
and climbed and rode for a week among mountains and
mines ; saw gold taken from the stamp mills in the form of
quicksilver amalgam, saw it washed from the " putty " banks
and caught on the sluice ripples, saw it cradled out of the
creek sands and pounded out of crumbling quartz in an iron
mortar ; interviewed mine superintendents and day work-
men, and were confirmed in the impression that our guide
and friend knew what he had previously told us, and that
practical mining in the mountains was quite unlike that
which is done in the stock markets of New York and San
Francisco. Those two young men are now in New England,
and successful, in important and responsible positions.
But, you may ask, are there no contented, happy house-
holds, no towns and cities of solid growth ; nothing that is
bright and encouraging in a business line, in the West? Yes,
we answer, many and much every way ; l)ut that side of
the story has been told a thousand times in a thousand ways
by all the known methods of creating public opinion. Our
path has been behind the scenes, as it were, among the
producing classes, who alone create the necessity for towns
and cities, and who sustain them ; whose voice the great
public rarely hears, and wliose struggles and deprivations
are not known or appreciated. Land, as a gift on a wide
prairie in the West, costs more, when the comforts and con-
veniences of Eastern homes are placed upon and around it,
than the same does here. The rich may emigrate to such a
locality ; but the poor man or the one in moderate circum-
stances, with a family, never should. Within the last few
months a great crowd of emigrants have been making a
wild rush for Oklahoma, as if pursued by a devastating
prairie fire, or a horde of blood-thirsty, screeching savages.
That rush was not made because those people were in search
of land for homes, and there was none to be had except in
Oklahoma, for there were millions of unoccupied acres be-
hind as good as those before. Neither has this vast emigra-
tion from the East to the AYest been caused by pressure of
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 101
population on food supply. Throwing out the areas of
water, we have 540,204,160 acres of land on the east side
of the Mississippi River. Allowing that one-third of this
is mountain range and unimprovable land, we have left to
produce food, six acres each for every man, woman and
child of our sixty millions of people ; and it is agreed that
an acre and a fourth of well-cultivated land will yearly
produce the food of an adult human being. The provoking
cause of the vast emigration from the East to the West
during the last twenty years has not been a natural one, the
necessity of food or the disproportion between cultivable
land and people ; but it has been the innate propensity of the
Aryan race to rove and wander, which has been artificially
excited for speculative purposes.
Adjourned to Wednesday, at 9.30.
102 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
SECOND DAY.
The meeting opened at the hour appointed, Mr. Cruick-
SHANKS in the chair.
The Chairman. The lecture this morning will be on
the " Economical Feeding of Dairy Stock," by Prof. W. W.
Cooke of Burlington, Vt., Secretary of the Vermont Board
of Agriculture.
ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF DAIRY STOCK.
BY PROF. W. W. COOKE OF BURLINGTON, VT.
In taking up the subject of economical stock-feeding, we
shall treat it as including the whole system of the care of
stock, from the planting of the crop to the putting of it into
the mangers ; for the economical farmer will find abundant
chances for the use of economy in all the different stages in
his care of stock. In order of time, the first chance for
economy is in the determining what crops can be most
profitably raised for fodder.
Our farmers nowadays do not need to be taught that farm-
ing to be profitable should use up on the farm the crops
raised to prevent the plant food they contain from being
carried off the farm ; and they also ought not to need to be
instructed that more profit comes from feeding what is raised
on the farm than from feeding what is brought from outside
of the farm.
In planning what crops to raise, the farmer needs to take
into account, of course, the kind of stock, and the purpose
for which he is going to raise the food, and get what is
adapted to his purpose.
Most of the forage crops raised on the fiirm are useful for
feeding to the dairy ; but there is a wide difference in the
cost of raising the same amount of feeding value in these
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 103
different crops. This is a subject that has received too little
attention from our farmers. They are too likely to judge of
the cost of a crop by its gross weight, without regard to its
feeding value.
In order to know the comparative cost of crops, we must
know first the comparative cost of raising the crops per acre,
then the amount raised, and this is as far as most farmers go
into the problem ; l)ut this is not far enough. If it costs the
same number of dollars to raise two tons of hay and two tons
of corn stover, we cannot say that one is as economical as the
other. The two tons of hay may be dry and the corn stover
wet. The water of course has no feeding value, and we
must take that out of the weight before we can correctly
compare the two feeds ; but, having done this, we are not
yet in a position for a correct answer to the problem, for of
this dry matter not all is digested, and the indigestible part,
having no feeding value, must not be taken into account.
We do not then arrive at the proper basis for comparison
until we go down to the number of pounds of digestible
material per acre in the different crops, as compared with
the cost of producing them. We are then ready to calculate
how many dollars it has cost to raise one ton of digestible
feeding material in each of the different crops.
Most of the experiment stations have published tables
which give the composition and the digestible parts of the
different crops ; so that it becomes a mere matter of arith-
metic for any one who knows how much it costs him per
acre to raise the different crops to figure out the real cost to
him of their feeding value, and which crops are for him the
most economical.
The principal coarse fodders raised at the present time in
New England are the various soiling crops, hay and clover,
corn fodder, roots and ensilage. On subjecting these various
crops to the above-mentioned calculation, it will be found that
hay and clover are the cheapest, soiling crops next, then corn
and ensilage, and lastly roots. In most places in New Eng-
land pasture is still cheaper than any of these. But the
question of pasturage is governed so entirely by the local
condition of the farm that we may leave it out of account.
The price of labor in New England is so high that roots are
104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
too expensive for general use, and we need therefore give
them no further consideration ; which narrows the problem
of crops down to hay and clover, soiling crops, and the corn
plant. Soiling as a system of stock-feeding is but little used
in New England, and yet it deserves more attention than has
been given it.
There are few farms that have such excellent pastures that
the stock can be carried through from spring until ftill with-
out some supplementary feeding. It is a noteworthy sign of
the times, that each year more and more farmers see the force
of this remark, and make preparation for carrying their cows
over the drought of midsummer and early fall. On many
farms the pasture will carry the cows until the middle of
August, and a crop of corn suitable for soiling can be ma-
tured by this time. Of all soiling crops corn is undoubtedly
the best, where the crop is not needed until late enough in
the fall to raise the crop ; but it should always be remem-
bered that the corn crop, to be valuable, must be nearly
matured, and must be planted far enough apart so that it
will ear.
For those whose pastures begin to fail early, some more
elaborate system of soiling is necessary ; and probably the
most valuable crops next to corn are clover and peas and
oats.
But a better method than resorting to soiling lies open
for most of us, and that is winter dairying. This allows the.
cows to go dry during July and August, and therefore there
is no need of supplementary feeding until a first-class corn
crop is ready for them in September. Whatever addition
to the pasture they may need during July and August, may
be as readily supplied with hay as the more expensive soiling
crops.
Many of our farms are situated so that they need to
produce milk the whole year round. This will usually
happen in the vicinity of cities, where land is high and pastur-
age expensive. What might be called a model system of
economical stock-feeding for such conditions, would be the
keeping of the cows off from pasture entirely, keeping them
in the stanchion every night in the year, and allowing them
a few acres in which to move around for exercising during
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 105
the summer, using ensilage and grain twelve months in the
year, and re-enforcing this with hay during the winter, and
with green crops during the summer, the green crops to
furnish a])0ut one-third of the ration in summer. Such a
plan would be very economical of land, since, on this plan,
land of medium quality will keep a cow to the acre the year
round, and constantly increase in fertility with no outlay for
commercial fertilizers. Having obtained the fodder, the
next question that confronts the stock-feeder is, how and
when to feed it. The when can be answered much more
easily than the how.
A half- century ago the feeding of the stock used to
begin the first thing in the morning, usuall}^ before five
o'clock, and continue at frequent intervals until late in the
evening. The frequency of feeding has gradually decreased,
until at the present time it has been narrowed down to feed-
ing either twice or three times a day. The tendency at the
present time is very strongly toward omitting the noon-
day meal and feeding the cows only morning and night,
allowing them a day of rest in which to remasticate and
digest the morning meal, the same as they have always been
allowed a night of rest for the evening meal.
At a recent meeting of the experiment station directors
this question came up, and a census showed that nearly tAvo-
thirds were feeding but twice a day. The same remark
applies to watering. Twice a day is sufficient in all cases,
and where green fodder is given, once a day is usually
enough. This allows a very economical use of the farmer's
time. He can feed, milk, and clean the stables the first
thing in the morning, and go about his other business for
the rest of the forenoon ; a few minutes spent in watering at
noon, and he can leave them aoain until nio;ht.
As to whether warm or cold water should be given,
doctors have decidedly disagreed. Many practical farmers
adduce proof from their own experience that warm water
pays. It is at least a noteworthy contribution to the litera-
ture of this subject, that, out of four stations that have tested
the subject in the most careful manner, three have found no
gain by warming, and the other a gain which, at the utmost,
amounts to less than fifty cents per cow per winter. There
106 BOAED OF AGRICULTUKE. [Jan.
is a growing belief, among those Avho have most carefully
studied the subject, that the question is not one of warm or
cold water, but rather of warm or cold barns. If the ani-
mals are well housed in good, warm stables, warming the
water will be of no advantage. But if the barn is full of
cracks, and the animals are compelled to drink out of doors
and stand shivering in the cold afterwards, everything in
the nature of warmth whjch can be gotten into them will
show an effect. It would seem, then, to be more econom-
ical, as well as more humane, to spend the money that a
heater would cost in putting building paper and clapboards
on the barn.
The farmer, having now his cattle in the barn and his feed
on hand for them, is confronted by the question, " How
shall I mix the fodders so as to get the greatest return from
them?" If we were to examine the rations of a large
number of dairymen who are successful in their calling, we
would find a wide diversity in the character and amount
of the various articles used for fodder. But a closer inves-
tio-ation would show that there was but little difference in
the real feeding value of these rations. Externally they are
different, internally they are alike. To teach a person to
feed properly, it is not necessary to teach him all the possible
combinations of all the various feeding articles. The princi-
ples are the same for all kinds of feeding, and when the
farmer has learned these principles, it will be easy for him to
make his own combinations and suit his own circumstances
out of whatever materials he has on hand. It is then to the
principles of profitable feeding of form stock that we will
now give our attention.
Success in feeding depends on several things, no one of
which can be said to be the most important, because each
one is necessary, and if any one is lacking no success can
be obtained.
Among these necessary considerations may be noticed ; —
1 . TJie Feeding must he Healthful. — This stands to
reason. The cow is a machine, and to get good results this
machine must be kept in good running order. But more is
included under this head than mi^ht be at first thouo;ht.
Feeds which are usually healthy may be improperly fed and
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 107
become injurious. "We may give an excess of any feed and
bad results follow, or we may make an improper combina-
tion of healthy foods and produce a bad effect. For in-
stance, corn meal is an excellent feed, and cotton-seed is,
also ; and, chemically, the two would balance each other
and make a perfect ration. But no farmer would think of
feeding his cows exclusively on corn meal and cotton-seed
meal, for he knows that each has a tendency toward pro-
ducing a feverish state of the system, and each would aggra-
vate the effects of the other, and so produce sickness. It
has been found by experience that at least one-half of the grain
fed should be of a character not to produce fever ; among
grains of this nature are shorts, bran, middlings, etc. If,
then, one is going to feed three pounds of a mixture of
corn meal and cotton-seed, he should feed with it at least
three pounds of bran, middlings, ground oats, or something
of that character. So, too, stock do better, or are better
in health, when the ration consists part of green fodder and
part of dry. There is little doubt but that the digestion
is better and a larger return is given for the food con-
sumed, when part of the ration is given in the green state.
This is especially true if the production is being forced by
giving large quantities of concentrated grain.
2. The A.nhnal must he Comfortable in all its Sur-
roundings.— Our present dairy cow is an artificial animal.
The large quantity of milk, the long-continued flow, and
especially the richness of the milk, have been developed in
the animal through a long series of breeding and selection
with that object in view. Now, if anything occurs that is
disagreeable to the cow, she will show the effect, first of all,
in that part of her organization which is most artificial ; that
is, in the production of milk. If she is chased by dogs,
worried by flies, thirsty, or uncomfortable physically from
any cause, the effect is seen at once at the milk pail. This
effect is two-fold : there is not only a shrinkage in quantity,
but, contrary to the generally received idea, there is a
decrease in the quality of the milk given under these con-
ditions. The general rule is, that when a cow shrinks in
quantity there is an increase in quality. This is always
true of that shrinkage that comes naturally as the cow gets
108 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
farther from the time of calving, especially if she be again
in calf.
Under this same principle comes the fact that if the food
of the animal is not relished the results cannot be good.
The reverse of this is also true, that if a cow is very fond
of what is given her she wnll give an unusually good return
for it, considerably better than would be expected from its
chemical composition. To the effects of these tw'o elements
in the problem of stock-feeding, the healthfulness of the
food and its relish by the animal, may be laid quite a part
of the good results obtained from feedino- roots and ensilage.
The best cattle feeders bear testimony that roots and ensilage
are worth more to them in comparison with hay, grain and
other dry fodder, than the comparative values given to them
by the chemical analysis. It is at least a striking coinci-
dence, though it may be purely accidental, that those feeds
that are best liked by the cow are also best digested. The
first green grass of the spring, roots of all kinds, corn fod-
der and all the products of the corn plant, foods which are
liked by all animals, are about three-quarters digestible ;
whereas hay and clover are but little more than half digested,
and straw still less.
3. The Fodder must not he too Bulky. — Clover hay,
for instance, is in itself a perfect ration, and yet no one
would expect a cow to produce two or three pounds of butter a
day on nothing but clover hay. Large as is the digestive
apparatus of the cow% it would not hold enough of clover
hay to produce so large an amount of butter, and the mere
w^ork of eating and digesting so large a quantity would
overtax the system of the animal. It has been found best,
whenever a cow is producing heavily, to give part of the
food in a concentrated and easily digestible form, and many
of our best feeders think they are well paid for doing this
the whole year round.
4. TJie Fodder should he giveti in the Proper Proportion
or Ratio. — This is the part of the subject that most persons
find difficult to understand. And yet there is nothing really
difficult about it. We first consider the food as made up of
two parts, the digestible and the indigestible. The indiges-
tible \fQ have nothino; further to do with, we leave that
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 109
entirely out of account, and give our attention to the diges-
tible part. This we consider to be made up of two portions,
quite distinct in character and having different uses in the
system : one part keeps up the natural heat of the body,
and we call it the heat-producing part ; the other builds up
the system, makes the muscle or flesh, and is the chief
instrument in making these muscles or this flesh yield us
valuable productions, such as labor, speed, milk, butter,
wool, etc. We call this part the flesh-producing or the
force-producing part. It will be evident from these defini-
tions that the amounts of these two kinds of food required
by the animal will be determined by what the animal is
doing. A full-grown ox, that is neither gaining nor losing in
weight and is doing no work, has but little need of the
flesh or force producing parts of the food. It is only
existing, and needs to do but little more than keep up the
natural heat of the body. We find an animal under these
conditions to use principally the heat-producing parts of
the food. Yet even then the animal will need some of the
flesh or force producing part ; for in the mere act of living
the muscles are being continually worn out and need re-
placing, and all the actions of the heart, lungs, etc., require
some force, and this force can come only from the force-
producing part of the food. If, now, this ox is set to work,
at once there is a demand by its system for more muscle,
more flesh, more force. If we do not increase the amount
of the flesh-producing material in the food, the animal can-
not replace the w^orn-out flesh, and grows thin. All produc-
tion, whether of growth, labor, wool or milk, uses up flesh
in the animal ; and so we can use the v,'ordJIesh as including
all these productions of the animal. This single example
will serve to show the foundation of the principles of
rational stock-feeding.
The animal has a certain work to do, this work will re-
quire the using up of a certain amount of heat and a certain
amount of flesh ; and w^e must supply in the food enough of
the heat-producing material to make up the heat, and enough
of the flesh-producing material to keep up the supply of flesh.
If the food just does this, Avith no surplus, it is exactly
suited to the case, and is said to be a well-balanced ration.
110 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
But you will see at once that a food that is just right at one
time and for one animal would not be at another under
different circumstances. A dry cow needs a certain small
amount of the flesh-producing material to keep alive ; as
soon as she begins to give milk this amount must be largely
increased ; for the milk is as truly flesh as is the lean meat,
and requires the same parts of the food to produce it. A
young growing animal requires a larger proportion of the
flesh-producing part than a full-grown one, and an animal
working more than one standing idle. There is certainly
nothing difficult about understanding this ; it is just plain
common sense.
Now, what are these two parts of the food? The heat-
producing part is the part which most nearly resembles
starch, sugar, gum, etc. The flesh-producing part is the
gluten of wheat or corn, and that part of other foods which
resembles gluten in composition. Chemically all these flesh-
producing materials are the same as the albumen or white of
an egg, and for that reason are called albuminoids. They
are also chemically the same as flesh and the caseine of milk
or the part that produces the cheese.
When we speak, then, of the proportion of a ration, we
mean the relative amounts of these two parts, — the heat-
producing and the flesh-producing. All fodders are made
up of these two parts, but in widely different proportions.
If the amount of heat-producing is large as compared with
the flesh-producing, the fodder is said to have a wide ratio ;
if there is but little heat-producing, the ratio is said to be
narrow.
From what has already been said, you will readily see
that it makes a difference in what proportions the food is
given. Farmers recognize the fact, though they may not
know the reason. A milch cow requires a great deal of the
flesh-producing food. No farmer would think of feeding a
cow on nothing but strawy and expect to get a large yield of
milk. He knows from experience that it will not produce
flesh. The chemist analyzes the straw, and says that the
digestible part consists principally of heat-producing material
with not much flesh-producing, the proportion being about
thirty times as much heat as flesh producing ; or we say it
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. Ill
has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 30, which would be called a
very wide ratio.
On the other hand, under the same conditions the farmer
would not think of putting a cow on nothing but linseed
meal. The chemist says that linseed meal has a narrow
ratio, the heat-producing and flesh-producing parts being in
the ratio of 1 to 2.
We see, then, that by making a combination of fodders
which have a wide ratio with those which are narrow, the
farmer can make any proportion he desires.
For every animal and every condition there will be some
proportion that will be best ; and it will be that proportion
which just supplies all the needs of the case, with no waste.
This is of course self-evident, and so long as the conditions
remain the same, the proportion that is proper will remain
unchanged. No one will dispute this ; but he may not feel
so certain of the statement, which is nevertheless true, that
when you have found the correct proportion for a given
animal for a given kind of work (whether growing flesh, do-
ing work or producing milk), that proportion will be cor-
rect for all like animals and for all like work, without re-
gard to age, breed or time of year. To be more explicit, this
means that if a certain ratio between the heat and the flesh
producing parts of the food has been found to be best for a
certain milch cow, we can argue from this that it is also best
for all milch cows of all breeds, all ages, all times of the
year, and whether the product desired be milk or butter.
Let us make this last statement a little plainer. There are
many intelligent farmers who claim that the cow should be
fed differently to produce a large flow of milk than if the de-
sire is to get a large amount of butter. They say you
should feed bran, brewers' grains, buckwheat middlings or
something of that nature in connection with succulent foods
like roots, ensilage and soiling crops, to produce milk ; while
if butter is desired, corn meal, ground oats, linseed and other
so-called heavy feeds must form a large part of the cow's
food. Nevertheless, a close examination will show that the
most successful feeders for milk are using the same propor-
tions of heat and flesh producing materials as their brethren
who are striving to break the record of a seven-day test for
112 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
butter. A glance at a table of the chemical composition of
feedino; stufts will show how this can be. It will then be
seen that ensilage and corn meal have about the same ratio,
brewers' grains and linseed meal but little different, roots
and cotton-seed meal not nearly so different chemically as
one would suppose from their opposite physical properties.
And, judging from the chemist's stand-point, there is no rea-
son for thinking that the cow desires any different food
from which to make a large flow of milk than to produce
largely of butter ; both the milk and the butter are first pro-
duced as flesh in the cow's body, and are then liquefied. In
each case they want a food that will produce flesh. Paren-
thetically, I might add that I do not take much stock in the
feeding of cows differently for milk than for Imtter, since I
believe that the individuality of the cow is the leading factor
in the case, and the feed is subordinate.
Provided the food is healthful, that it is relished by the
animal, that it is of the proper bulk, and that the propor-
tions of its digestible parts are right, it makes no difference
from what source this digestible part is obtained. That is,
a pound of digestible flesh-producing material from corn is
just as valuable as a pound of the same material from hay,
and no more so. A pound of starch from cotton-seed meal
has the same feeding value as the same quantity from ensi-
lage. Digestible woody fibre is the same, and has the same
feeding value in all fodders. There is one exception to this,
however, in the case of the so-called fat, or that part of the
fodder which is soluble in ether. That extracted by ether
from grain is a true fat, and has a high feeding value, while
what a chemist calls fat from a coarse fodder is quite largely
coloring matter, and its feeding value is probably small.
But, in general, we can say that a pound of digestible heat-
producing material under like conditions has the same feed-
ing value, no matter what its source, and the same is true of
the flesh-producing.
So far we have named the considerations which would
hold true in regard to the proportion that is best for these
two parts of fodder, the heat-producing and the flesh-pro-
ducing. We now come to the question as to what that
proportion is that is the best. A great deal of study has
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 113
been put upon this point, and it has been determined what
proportions are the best for many different kinds of animals,
and for these animals under difierent conditions. We will
take for an example the milch cow. It has been found that
if you feed a large number of cows of the same natural
capacity, or feed the same animals at difterent times on
rations that difler in the proportion of their parts, ranging
from a very wide ratio to a very narrow one, as the
ratio becomes more and more narrow, until it gets to one in
which there are about five andone-half parts of heat-producing
to one part of flesh-producing, it takes less and less food to
yield one pound of valuable produce, milk, butter, etc. If
you go on still ftirther, and give a ratio narrower than that,
you soon come to a ration which proves unhealthful to the
animal. This would seem to indicate that the best propor-
tion was one part of digestible flesh-producing, to five and
one-half parts of digestible heat-producing, material. This
is what is variously called the German ration, or the German
feedino; standard, or the theoretical ratio for milch cows.
Why it should be called theoretical does not appear, for it is
just the opposite of this. It is eminently practical. It is a
result arrived at, not by theory, nor by reasoning, but as a
result of many hundreds of carefully planned and executed
feeding tests at many different times, and by a large number
of different individuals. This proportion corresponds closely
with that in many foods which we all know to be first class.
The question naturally rises. What is the effect of feeding
rations not properly proportioned? If the ratio is too
wide, which means too large a proportion of the heat-
producing for the amount present of the ffesh-producing,
wherein does a loss occur ? In this case there is simply a
loss of the extra heat-producing material, which is principally
starch and sugar. There is no injury to the animal, unless
the ratio becomes so wide, and the amount of ffesh-pro-
ducing material so small, as not to give the animal all it
needs for its own sustenance ; and long before this point is
reached the animal will have shown by its behavior that
something is the trouble. If, on the contrary, the ratio is
too narrow, there is not only a loss of the extra ffesh-pro-
ducing material, but there is danger to the health of the
114 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
animal, since this extra albuminous material is a rank poison
if not eliminated from the body.
So far for the theoretical principles of feeding. Now,
turning to the practical, we find that in market the flesh-
producing part of the food costs more per pound than the
heat-producing. We want, then, to feed as little as possible
of the flesh-producing, and as much as possible of the heat-
producing ; we want to strike the balance where we can get
the most production for the least money. We should
endeavor to get as much as possible from what we feed,
and at the same time to feed what is cheapest. These two
desires work in opposite directions, and, as just said, the
aim should be to strike the most profitable balance between
them.
Most of the crops raised on our farms are deficient in the
flesh-producing material. Clover, peas and oats cut green
and early, barley in the head, Hungarian in blossom, rye
just before heading, and pasture grass, are about the only
things raised on the farm which have this ratio of one to five
and one-half. The cheap foods, such as hay, corn fodder,
straw, ensilage, etc., are all too wide. It is the funda-
mental principle of cheap feeding to raise as much as possible
of the fodder upon the farm. Hence the farmers should en-
deavor to largely increase the amount produced of the
articles just mentioned, as being in themselves correctly
proportional. This is especially true of clover, which
ought to be one of the foundations of New England dairy
farming. Enough attention has not been paid to peas and
oats as profitable farm crops, whether cut and made into
hay, or put into the silo.
In any system of farming the huYk of the material raised
will have too wide a proportion of its parts, hence Avhatever
feeding stuff's the farmer buys should be of the opposite
kind, that is, of a narrow ratio. When our farmers find
themselves in need of grain to help out and balance up the
supply of hay and other coarse fodder that has been raised
upon the farm, the chances are that when they go to the mill
or the feed store, the first grain they call for will be corn.
But corn has just as wide a ratio as hay, and instead of
helping the difficulty they have only added to it. It is true
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 115
that the animals like the corn, and if given a sufficient
quantity of it will yield a fair amount of product ; but this
product is obtained at the expense of a waste of considerable
of the starch and sugar contained in the hay and corn.
What the farmer should buy in the place of corn meal, or at
least in the place of most of it, should be something with a
narrow ratio, such as bran, cotton-seed, middlings, oil meal,
gluten meal, etc.
The price of these different grains, and the nearness of
the farmer to the source of the supply, has a powerful effect
on the proportion which will be the most economical for
him to employ. Corn in its various forms, that is, as grain,
dry stover, dry fodder corn, green fodder corn and ensilage,
is undoubtedly the cheapest source of animal food which
we can grow in this climate, next after hay, which we all
know is the cheapest feed. A ration to be profitable, then,
must be composed very largely of these fodders, and it will
therefore be wider than the German standard. Whatever
we buy and bring in from off the farm should l^e of such a
nature that a small amount of it will balance up, to make
a perfect ration, a much larger amount of the cheapest
fodders which we can raise on the farm ; that is, they must
be rich in the nitrogenous or flesh-producing material.
Such materials are found in linseed meal, cotton-seed meal,
gluten meal, bran, middlings, brewers' grains, buckwheat
middlings, and several others of the by-products or refuse
material from various manufactures. We have said that a
ration of wider proportions than the German standard would
probably be a cheaper ration than one as narrow as the
German desire. Let us calculate the cost of some rations,
and see how it would be. Taking prices as they are at the
present time, we may consider hay worth $8.00 a ton ; good
corn fodder, $5.00; corn meal, $20.00 ; cotton-seed meal,
$26.00; and bran, $20.00. To make a full day's ration
for a cow weighing a thousand pounds, according to the
German standard, would require nine pounds of hay, nine
pounds of corn stalks, four of bran, four of corn meal, three
of cotton-seed meal. This would cost at these prices 17.75
cents. To make the same ration on a basis of 1 : 7 instead of
1:5.4, would require twelve pounds of hay, twelve pounds
116 BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE. [Jan.
of corn stalks, two of corn meal, one of cotton-seed meal,
two of bran; and this would cost 13.10 cents, making a
difference in favor of the wider ratio of 4.65 cents per day, or
$9.30 per winter-feeding period of two hundred days. It is
not to be expected that the cheaper ration will produce so
large an amount of milk as the more concentrated and costly
ration ; yet it is doubtful wdiether the increased amount of
milk would pay for the increased amount of cost.
But it will not do to make this rule of feeding too gene-
ral, — to think it will fit all cases. A man can raise corn for
some less than $20.00 a ton ; neither his corn stover nor his
hay ought to cost him those prices for production. The
nearness to the railroad is another important factor. As we
get back into the country, the value of the produce raised
on the farm decreases and the cost of bringing in grain
from outside increases ; so that what would be a paying
investment to the man near the railroad would be a losinor
one to his neighbor back in the mountains. Another class
of farmers would also prove an exception to this rule, and
that is the milkmen. They get such a large price per
pound for their milk that they can afford to pay a larger
price for the feed which they put into their cows, and with
them it pays to feed high and keep the cows producing
ahnost to the utmost limit of their capacity. A milkman
should feed, and, as a fact, most milkmen do feed, very close
to the German ratio. And still another class would prove
an exception to the rule, and that is those farmers who are
trying to keep more stock than their farms will carry, and
who must necessarily, therefore, buy a large quantity of
food. It will pay better for them to buy principally of the
concentrated feeds, and give their animals a ration very close
to the German standard. It will be seen, then, that no set
rule of feeding can be laid down for the various conditions
of farmers. The probability is that milkmen should feed a
ratio of 1 : 5.4. Those livin<r near a railroad and havino^
plenty of land to produce about all that their stock need,
should feed a ratio of about 1 : 6.5 or 1 : 7 ; and in general the
farther back we get from the railroad the wider the ratio to
be most profitable, until back in some of the hill towns it is
undoubtedly true that the cheapest ration is the one we find
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 117
them so generally using, viz., hay and corn meal, both of
their own raisino- ; thou2:h this would seem on first thousjht
to be a very one-sided and unphilosophical ration.
What has been said may be summed up as follows : The
farmer should raise as much as possible of what he feeds ;
he should determine by careful figuring what crops are most
economical for him to raise, and not leave this important
point to guess-work. He should use soiling crops so far as
they may be necessary to keep up the flow of milk, since the
cows should under no conditions be allowed to shrink any
more than is natural before going to the barn for the winter.
They should stand in the stanchions every night in the year.
They should be fed twice a day, and watered once. Instead
of paying out money for warming water, spend the same
amount, or more if necessary, in making the stable warm.
The feed given should be healthy, the animal should be com-
fortable, the feed relished ; it should not be too bulky, and
should be given properly proportioned, attention being
given in this last regard to the condition of the farm,
nearness to market, etc. He who will conscientiously
carry out these details, and bring to his work the same
business methods and care as are used in other callings,
will never need complain that " farming does not pay."
The Chairmax. I notice quite a number in the audience
who are milkmen and dairymen in this and the surrounding
towns. It must be that many questions have sprung up in your
minds that you would like to have the lecturer answer.
You are now invited to put any questions. We have only
about an hour, and I hope you will start the wheel rolling,
so that Professor Cooke will be able to improve the time as
far as he can.
QuESTiox. He feeds twice a day ; why does he not water
twice a day?
Professor Cooke. I suppose there are some herds which
will take water twice a day. I have been at some places
where they watered twice a day, and I was told that the
animals drank well both times, — night and morning. In
those cases I found that they were fed entirely dry feed. Now,
you will notice that I have recommended that the feed be
118 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
partly dry and partly green. I think, if you are feeding
your cows thirty pounds of ensilage a day and the same
amount or more of soiling crops, or if you are feeding both
ensilage and apple pomace, as we are at the present time,
say ten pounds a day of apple pomace and from twenty to
thirty-five pounds of ensilage, — you will find that the cows
will drink in a single time all that they need for twenty-four
hours, and if led up to the water a second time only a few of
them will drink, and they will merely stick their noses in.
I don't think you get enough gain from the extra watering to
pay for the extra time and trouble expended.
Question. May I inquire the ratio that apple pomace
bears to good fodder?
Professor Cooke. You mean as to its heating and flesh-
producing qualities ?
Question. Yes, sir.
Professor Cooke. I should have to give that from mem-
ory. I should say it stands about as one to ten ; that is,
about the same as ensilage. Its chemical composition is not
very much different from that of ensilage. Its feeding value,
I think, is fully equal to that of good ensilage.
Question. Don't you think that if you feed a large herd
of dairy cows without giving them water three times a day
a great many of them will shrink in the amount of milk
produced ?
Professor Cooke. I should say no.
Mr. Waters. I have found that when I fed ensilage and
roots in the morning, cut fodder and oats at night, and hay
at noon, and did not water them three times a day, they
shrank in milk.
Professor Cooke. They probably would shrink, at first.
A cow will shrink in milk whatever change you make. Any
change that upsets the natural run of the system will make
her shrink at first. If a cow is watered once a day for a
year, I think the product at the end of the year will be fully
as great as if she were watered twice a day. The animal
will adapt herself very easily to any regular system under
which she is fed.
Mr. Waters. Yes ; but my experience has taught me
that a cow that is watered twice a day will give more milk
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 119
through the season than she will if she is watered but once.
It does not make any difference whether you are feeding
all dry feed or feeding ensilage and roots. A cow fresh in
milk will drink more water if fed with dry feed than a cow
that has been giving milk for eight or nine months ; and
invariably fresh-milch cows will drink twice a day, and
generally three times a day.
Professor Cooke. We have repeatedly tried our cows, to
see whether they would drink even a second time. It is
very seldom that we can get them to touch water a second
time.
Question. Can you tell us the aggregate of the milk in
the experiment you referred to ?
Professor Cooke. I cannot. We only finished that ex-
periment about a month ago, and have not written up the
figures yet ; but I have looked at them sufficiently to be able
to say that there were cows on both sides. I can give you a
little account of another experiment, which has been written
up enough so that we do know the result. That was an
experiment in changing from hay to pasture. I think every
one who has written on this subject ^ — at least, so far as I
have been able to find — has claimed that when a cow goes
out from the dry feed of winter to pasture there is an increase
in the amount of milk and a decrease in the quality of the
milk. To see whether that will hold in all cases, we tried it
on eleven cows last spring, and we found that in the aggre-
gate it would hold ; that there was quite a decided increase
in tne aggregate amount of milk given, and there was also
a decrease in the quality, — not very large, not so large as
we had expected, but there was in the aggregate a decrease
in the quality. But the increase in quantity more than over-
balanced the decrease in quality, so that there was in the
aggregate an increase in the amount of butter produced.
But when we came to analyze, we found that some cows
were on one side and some on the other ; but the cows that
were on the negative side were a good deal more than over-
balanced by those on the affirmative side, so that the aggre-
gate resulted as I have said.
Mr. HiCKOX. Can those who sell the better grades of
butter tell when bran or Indian meal has been fed ? It is
120 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
said that they can. I should like to have the speaker ex-
plain that.
Professor Cooke. One of the best explanations of that
occurred about two years ago. A large dealer in Boston
was handling a great deal of butter, and he had made up his
mind very strongly that whenever ensilage was fed to cows
the quality of the butter was injured, and he was also very
sure that he could tell when the ensilage was being fed.
One of the best butter makers who sold his product to him
was a person who is now a member of the Vermont Board of
Agriculture. He was in Boston one day, and they got to
talking on this subject, and the butter buyer said : " Now, I
want you to remember not to feed any ensilage. Don't j^ou
be carried away by this ensilage craze. Your butter is now
about as near perfect as it can be, and I don't want you to
spoil it by feeding ensilage." Now, that man had had a silo
for several years, and the butter that the butter buyer was
talking about was made on a very heavy feed of ensilage. I
think when you point the moral of that you will get the
answer to your question.
Mr. HiCKOX. This story was told me as a fact. A gentle-
man near the city of New York was making fancy butter ;
his son was on a farm, and sent his butter to the same
market. Word came to the young man that his butter was
not up to standard in quality, and he must stop feeding
ensilage. The fact was, that the young man had not begun
to feed ensilage. He opened his silo immediately, and went
to feedino; ensilao;e, and when he orot w^ord from the market
again the butter was all right. So much for ensila<re, so
much for Indian meal, in the cow's rations. Now, tell me,
if the cow's ration is balanced in the different proportions
which you speak of here, is not that the secret of the whole
thing in regard to the quality and quantity of the milk ?
Professor Cooke. If jonr cow is a good cow, and you
give her a fair chance, she will do well by you ; but if you
do not give her enough food, or give her a badly balanced
ration, she cannot give you a good product.
Mr. GoDDAED. In the town where I live we have a man
who has made fancy butter and sent it to Boston for some
years, and received a fancy price for it. The party to whom
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 121
he sent his butter used to be prejudiced against feeding
cotton-seed meal. At one time tlie butter maker got word
from the party in Boston who was buying his butter that he
must not feed any more cotton-seed meal, — that his butter
was not so good as it had been. That man had never fed
any, while I had been feeding it right along and send-
ing my butter to the same firm, and never had trouble.
I know a gentleman who is very much prejudiced against
ensilage, who buys his butter of one of his neighbors and
pays a high price for it. One day the son of the neighbor
was up to the gentleman's place, and he said to him : " Tell
me as soon as you commence feeding ensilage, and I won't
have any more of your butter." The young man said, "All
right." He went home and told his father what the gentle-
man had said, and his father told him not to tell him when
they commenced feeding ensilage. He opened his silo and
fed the ensilage to his cows, and the gentleman kept
on buying his butter. Some time afterwards this gentle-
man asked him when he was going to open his silo.
" Why," said he, "I have been feeding ensilage for three
or four weeks." The gentleman's wife spoke up and said,
<' Didn't I tell you the butter had been better than it was
before ? "
Mr. Woodson. I have been in the habit of feeding differ-
ently for milk and butter. I have always supposed that I
must. It looked reasonable that Indian meal, cotton-seed
meal, etc., would make more butter in proportion to milk
than shorts and that kind of feed. I tried no experiments
to find out whether it was so or not until last spring. One
reason was, that in making butter we set the milk in large
and small pans, and churned two or three times a w^eek, and
churning so seldom we did not have a chance to experiment
so readily as we would otherwise. Now we are using
Cooley cans, and churning every morning and night ; and
when we got those I began to experiment to find out the
difference between feeding different kinds of meal, shorts,
cotton-seed meal, and so on. I found I got the same num-
ber of spaces of cream every time, — it did not make any
difference what meal I fed. The only time I have seen any
difference throughout the season was when I turned my cows
122 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
into fall feed for an hour in the morning. I found there
was quite a change in the quantity of cream in proportion
to the milk.
Question. Increase, or decrease?
Mr. Woodson. Increase of the cream. That was the
only instance where I could see that the feed made any dif-
ference ; and there I got some three spaces more of cream
on about eighteen quarts of milk than I did the day before I
turned them in. After I took them off of the fall feed they
gradually came back to the ordinary amount of cream. The
speaker said that probably nine-tenths or five-sixths of the
farmers would have said that it would be different, and six
months ago I should have voted on that side ; but I take
ground with the speaker to-day. I may change my mind
later, but I think he is a great deal nearer right than I
should have thought he was six months ago, before making
these experiments. As I say, by using these cans and
counting the spaces every morning, having the same cows
and having the cans full of milk, I can tell the proportion of
cream to milk ; and the result has been the same with me
as with him. Therefore, the more milk I can get the more
cream I get. There is one point, and only one, upon which
I should differ with the speaker; that is, in regard to water-
ing cows. I have been in the habit of watering twice a day.
Of course they do not drink as much when feeding u})on en-
silage, but my cows drink every morning and night. They
hardly ever miss drinking twice a day.
Mr. ScRiBNER. I noticed that the speaker spoke of using
cider pomace. I would like to know if it is used by any
one enough to enable him to tell us whether it is practicable
to use it or not. In 1886 I had three Jersey cows that had
been fed upon ensilage and good meadow hay, and watered
twice a day. I took away one-half of the ensilage, and fed
cider pomace. They gained steadily, and gave more milk
right along;.
Professor Cooke. That would come under the same head
with what has been said before, on the question whether the
feed of cattle changes the character of the milk. I am
considered rather a heretic in the views I entertain on that
subject ; but having put in, as we did for experimental pur-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 123
poses, various breeds of cows, and cows coming from differ-
ent parts of the country, so as to get all sorts and kinds, w^e
find that the individual or the animal so overshadows every-
thing else that we cannot tell whether a particular kind of
food given to anything but a pure-bred Jersey cow will pro-
duce a change or not. So for as anything we can come at
to-day is concerned, it will depend upon the cow rather than
the feed.
Mr. Bradley. I am surprised that the professor advo-
cates feeding cows only twice a day. ' That may do for
stock animals, but for milch cows I hardly think experience
would bear out his statement. We are all striving here to
get at facts. Now, I know that in forcing cows, as we call
it, to get the greatest result, they feed four or five times a
day, in small quantities ; and now they have carried that to
such an extent that they feed a cow fifty or sixty pounds a
day to get the largest results. AYould the professor recom-
mend feeding that, all at two feeds, giving a cow thirty
pounds at one feed ; or would he recommend dividing it up,
I will say, into four feeds?
Professor Cooke. Of course in that case you would have
to divide up the feed ; but if you consider that the amount
you put into an animal must bear a certain relation to the
amount of product gotten out, you will find that the stuffing
process is not economical farming ; and of course what I was
talking about this morning was "the economical feeding of
dairy stock."
Mr. Bradley. The question which arises in my mind is
this : If the principle is applicable in one case, why is it not
in the other ?
Professor Cooke. Well, w^hy not apply the same thing
to us ? It is not so very long ago that that system of feed-
ing was, as I said, extended over the whole day. They
began at five o'clock in the morning, and kept the cow
eating all day long. Now, in what condition would our
systems be if we should adopt the same practice, — if you,
for instance, before you Avent out to milk, should stop and
take a bite, and then come in to breakfast ; stop your work
in the middle of the forenoon and take a lunch ; take your
dinner at noon, and so on through the day ; and after you
124 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
got to sleep at night your wife should wake you up and give
you some doughnuts and cheese to end off on? It is just
the same principle. We find that our cows are not heavy
feeders. If we compare the rations that our cows eat with
those that are eaten by other animals, I think we may safely
say that our cows are light eaters. They take their two
rations a day, and we do not feed them any more than they
will eat up clean, so that there are but a few ounces left of the
twenty-four hours' feed. The cow takes that ration, and has
all that time to digest it and get the most out of it. If any-
body wants to go to the extra expense of labor and time in
feeding often, I have no objection at all to their doing it.
They have a perfect right to their own way of feeding. I
was merely giving the profitable and economical way of
feeding animals.
Mr. HiLDRETii. I would like to inquire for information
about feeding cider pomace. I have tried that to my satis-
faction. I have found out that there is a diflerence in cider
pomace as to how new or how old it is. If you want your
cows to keep up their flow of milk, beware and not use any
old, sour cider pomace.
Professor Cooke. I do not think there is any need of
having any sour cider pomace, because it keeps perfectly
wherever it is packed. We first put it into our silo, which
was made rather better than the ordinary silos ; it kept
perfectly there. Then we made just a rough silo ; that is,
we took one corner of the barn and tacked building paper
against the sides, and built out the two sides with ordinary
boards and put building paper on the inside. We put the
pomace into that, keeping a man in there to tread it down
just as hard and close as he could. Then when we got
through we put building paper, boards and weights on top,
and let it stand for a])Out three weeks, until it had com-
pacted and the air was all pressed out. Cider pomace packs
together very much more closely than any green ensilage,
and after it is once packed it keeps almost indefinitely. This
was just as good last spring as when it was put in. We
could see practically no change during the winter.
Mr. Bradley. We are told here that feeding young
corn before it is matured is not economical. Professor
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 125
Goessmaun, at a meeting of the State Board last winter, made
the same statement. Now, when our pastures get very
short in July, having raised sowed corn for feed, we feed it
a little sooner than the professor would advise, and we find
that there is at once a very large increase of milk. If we
Avait until it is in a state of perfection, the frost comes so
soon that we can use very little of the product for soiling,
so we are obliged to feed it earlier. After frost comes we
have practiced feeding cider pomace direct from the mill,
and cab])age also. We raise from one to three acres of cab-
bages with that in view. Then, if the market calls for the
heads at a paying price, we sell them and buy some con-
centrated food ; if the price is very low, we feed them
to our cows and young stock. I have found cabbage the
best green feed that we raise on the farm. After the silo is
filled, instead of using weights for it, I pile on all the apple
pomace I can get, and it answers in place of weights ; and by
adding to it from day to day, directly from the mill, it is
pressed down very solid, and will keep perfectly, with the
exception of a little on the surfiice. There is no souring, as
has been represented here.
Mr. GoDDARD of Barre. I think this difference in the
ideas of gentlemen about feeding twice or more times a day
is more apparent than real. I remember very well when
my father used to begin at five o'clock in the morning, and
feed the cattle from time to time until nine o'clock at night.
But some twenty years ago we began to hear of ' ' the Barre
system of feeding," because it was said to have originated in
Barre. It was feeding twice a day, instead of a dozen
times. It was not, however, giving the cows all their feed
at two feedings. Mr. Ellsworth, the gentleman who is
credited with originating the Barre system, gave his cows
five fodderings a day. He gave them grain and two fodder-
ings in the morning, and that was called one feeding ; in
the afternoon he gave them grain and three fodderings, and
that was called another feeding, which made two a day.
The cows were kept eating from the time the first foddering
was given them in the afternoon until they had consumed
the third, making two feeds a day. That is what I practice
at home. I call it feeding twice a day. Thee, with regard
126 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Jan.
to watering, I think that is a matter which is governed a
good deal l)y circumstances. There is something in the in-
dividuality of the animal, but a good deal in the habit. I
have found, in my limited experience in feeding cattle, that
they will acquire habits just as people do ; and I think a
great deal more depends upon the regularity of the feeding
and watering than upon the number of times they have food
or water. I think, also, that the same thing will apply to
the process of milking. I want my cows milked about the
same time in the morning every day and the same time at
niffht. Some of the best farmers in our town milk their
cows three times a day, — at four o'clock in the morning, at
eight in the evening, and once between. I would feed and
water and milk at regular times ; and very soon the cows will
become accustomed to it, and expect that at a certain time they
will be attended to. Meantime, they are quiet, and spend the
time in ruminating or chewing the cud. In regard to water-
ing, I will say that I have tried various ways. The last two
winters I have watered my cows only once a day. The water
comes from wells, and is not very cold. I do not take the
trouble to warm it, and think it would not pay to do it. I
have tried watering my cows twice a day, and I found that
some of them would drink in the morning and some in the
afternoon ; but I did not lind that any of the cows would drink
any amount twice a day. So I have adopted the practice of
watering once a day, and every cow drinks regularly and
just about so much every time ; and then they go and lie
down, and I do not disturl^ them until it is time to feed them.
Question. How often do they have salt?
Mr. GoDDARD. Once a week.
Question. What temperature of water is best for milch
cows?
Professor Cooke, Will you tell? I cannot.
Mr. Petekson. You would not like to have your cows
drink ice-cold water even in a tight barn, would you?
Professor Cooke. You just make this experiment. If
your cows have been wintered in a warm barn, — not a hot
barn, but a reasonably comfortable barn, — along in January
just go through your whole herd and set two pails of water
in front of each cow, one at the point of freezing and one at
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUI^IENT — No. 4. 127
say sixty-five or seventy degrees. You probably will find
that the cows are divided ; some will prefer the cold water,
and some will prefer the warm. We do not warm the water
for our cows. It gets down pretty well towards freezing,
but we never have anchor-ice in it, because it is in the barn.
I see that at stations where the experiment has been tried
with the utmost care, giving cows water at the freezing point
for weeks, and then changing to water at from sixty-five to
seventy degrees, they find very little diflerence in the prod-
uct of the cows.
Mr. Peterson. Do you think that in the production of
milk anything is gained by scalding or wetting the grain ?
Professor Cooke. I suppose it is rather late to discuss
the question of scalding feed. I think it has been pretty
thoroughly settled that the cooking of feed in any way, shape
or manner decreases the digestibility of it, and is done at a
financial loss. As to the question which produces the best
results, giving the feed dry or giving it wet, I am inclined
to say that I do not think there is much difference between
them ; but I would not want to decide one way or the other.
Our method is to scatter the grain over the ensilage, and,
the ensilage being moist, the grain sticks to it, and becomes
moist. I think it has been pretty definitely settled that any
added warmth to the feed is not a help, and in almost every
case there has been an actual detriment.
Mr. Waters. Mr. Goddard says he has tried watering
once a day and twice a day, and found that his cows did
as well when watered once as they did when watered
twice. I would like to ask him at what time he watered
his cows. I have found that cows, like human beings,
want something to drink after they get through eating.
My experience has taught me that if a cow in milk is
watered twice a day, she will do better than when she is
watered but once.
Mr. James S. Grinnell of Greenfield. I have been
exceedingly sorry to hear some of the remarks which dropped
from our instructor. They shattered my idol. If any
experiment station will put forth the dogma that warm water
is no better for making milk, is no more conducive to the
health of the cow, than cold, I hav» lost faith in that experi-
128 BOAKD OF AGKICULTUEE. [Jan.
ment station. When an experiment station tells me what
constitutes a proper ration, what is nitrogenous and what is
non-nitrogenous, and how to mix them, I am willing to take
their word ; but I will not take any experiment station's
word that tells as a fact what I know to be untrue. And I
do know that the warming of water improves the quality
of the milk and is better for the cow. I have not had
great experience in this matter ; but some seventeen years
ago I put in a heater (the water was not cold before), and
the quantity and quality of the milk was vastly improved.
A friend of mine, one of the best farmers in Franklin
County, carried the water from his house to his barn, and
he told me that the amount of milk from his cows after they
had warm water to drink was actually increased ten per cent.
He said the cows would struggle to get to the place where
the hot water came up. Have we not always been told that
the drinkimj of cold water lowered the tone of digestion in
our own stomachs? True, we are not cows, we have not as
many stomachs as a cow has ; but when we take cold water
into our stomachs I think almost everybody's experience is
that it checks digestion, while warm water makes our food
more digestible, and improves the general tone of the
system.
Mr. AVooDSON. I have had a little experience in warming
water for the dairy. Last year I put a heater into my house,
so that I could warm the water for my cows any time I
pleased. I began heating it to aliout seventy degrees, and
the cows would not drink it. Then I heated it to a lower
temperature, and some of them would drink it and some
preferred cold water ; but I got no increase of milk or
butter. I think the lecturer has got the right idea. If you
have a cold barn, and want to warm your cows up, you had
better give them warm water ; but if your cows are in a
comfortable barn, I do not think you will get any great gain
bv jrivins them warm water. When water gets down to
thirty degrees, I have no doubt that it would be a good
idea to warm it a little ; but still, as I said, I saw no differ-
ence in the product of the cows whether the water was warm
or cold. I don't think ice water would be as good for cows
as some a little warmer.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 129
Mr. Fitch. I want to ask why it would not be as well
to feed the oats as hay, and thus save the expense of cutting
them for the silo.
Professor Cooke. We have put peas and oats into the
silo both cut and whole. I do not see that there is any
particular difference in the keeping or eating qualities in the
two methods ; but we have found that our cows will eat
peas and oats greedily in the form of ensilage, and they do
not seem to have nuich of a hungering after them in the
form of hay.
Mr. Fitch. Two stations on a certain railroad on the
26th of April last furnished 1,200 cans of milk to a con-
tractor in Boston. The cows were put out to pasture from
the last day of April to the 25th of May. On the 23d of
May they sent in 3,520 cans from practically the same
dairies. If you should go to that place and ask the farmers
the question, probably every one would say that it made an
immense difference when his cows were taken from dry feed
to pasture. One more point. The lecturer said the cows
to which he referred shrank in quantity and increased in
quality. Then, when he spoke of the experiment of twelve
milkings, he said that the diflerence was on account of the
individuality of the cow, and he made the statement in the
course of his remarks that some cows gave more milk and
some less on what was considered poor feed than on the
highest quality of feed. That went to prove, it seemed to
me, what he had just said, that it was the individuality of
the cow rather than the feed which produced the result,
carrying out his principle. But it strikes me that if it is
the individuality of the cow, twelve milkings are by no
means enouo-h to give us a fair test.
Professor Cooke. If you will excuse me for interrupting
you, I did not mean that we fed it only for twelve milkings,
but that at the end of the period of feeding we analyzed the
milk from twelve milkings all combined, so as to get the
average composition. It was fed for a much longer time
than that.
Mr. F. D. Douglas of Whiting, Vt. The time has been
when it was supposed that any one could be a successful
dairyman ; that it did not require any head work ; but any
130 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Jan.
one who has noticed the progress of this discussion must
have seen that here is a wide field for thought and investio:a-
tion. I know of no business where there is such opportunity
to do brain work as in this. There are so many conditions
that may come in to influence the result, that we need to
guard every point. Take this matter of warming the water
for our cows. What are the facts? Professor Cooke and
I have met before in the discussion of this question. He
knows that when he says, without qualification, that it does
not pay to warm water, he is holding out a red rag to me.
I contend that under some conditions we want to warm the
water that our cows drink. In my own case I have a spring,
but my herd is so large that it does not furnish water enough
for them, and I have a reservoir from Avhich to water my
cows during the day. In the coldest weather of winter the
water will be much below thirty degrees, and at such times
I warm the water. Now, reason teaches me, experience
teaches me, that I get more milk and more butter with
warm water. So I say, under certain conditions we must
warm the water. Under the conditions in which I am
situated I must warm the water. I enjoy going to the
house where the furnace is, and looking at my cows. The
cows will stand so thickly about the trough as to crowd
each other. Let that water get cold, and some of the cows
will go away without drinking, will not drink once in forty-
eight hours. Now, shall we take stock in the statement
that under no conditions should we warm the water that our
cows drink?
Professor Cooke. I did not state that in my paper. I
said that if cows were watered outside, if they were kept in
a cold l)arn, anything in the nature of warmth which we
could put inside of them was an advantage.
Mr. Douglas. Another point I want to touch upon.
When I commenced dairying, some twenty or thirty years
ago, I was foolish enough to change ray cows from dry feed
in winter to green feed in spring. I found an increased
flow of milk, but I found it took more milk to make a pound
of l)utter. I doubt whether a dairyman can aflbrd to feed
his cows with a view to gettino; an extra flow of milk. He
may do it for a short time, but in the end I do not think it
will help him.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 131
Then in regard to ensilage. It all depends on the quality
of the ensilage. It is beyond question that sour, ill-smelling
ensilage, fed to excess, injures the milk product ; but there
is no doubt that sweet ensilage improves rather than injures
the butter.
Then in regard to cotton-seed meal. Perhaps somebody
will ask, " Do you feed cotton-seed meal?" Most certainly
I do. " Does it not injure your product? " Certainly not.
It is a very highly concentrated food, and if I should feed my
cows heavily with it, it would injure their digestive organs.
So it is with a great many other things. There are so many
conditions that it will not do to lay down any arbitrary rule
for dairymen. We must look over all our conditions, and
make rules carefully and considerately, and then be guided
by them.
Mr. Lord of Otter River. I am not going to controvert
the essayist at all, for I think he has given us an excellent
essay ; but I want to say some things which he did not say.
I will speak first about watering stock. I am not sure, for
I never tried it, that a cow will drink three pails of water in
a day ; but if she will, would it not be better that she should
drink it at three different times during the day instead of
drinking too much at a time ? I am not going to say whether
that is so or not ; I simply make the suggestion because it
has not been brought up.
There is one thing I want to say about ensilage. I have
heard it said that by analysis five tons of ensilage were equal
to one ton of good English hay ; but by experiments in feed-
ing it has been shown that three tons are equal to one ton of
good hay. Now, we need to look into that a little and get
some facts. Ensilage is sour, it is an acid, and natural
science teaches us that acid in the stomach w^ill change starch
into sugar so that it will be digestible, and if there is not too
much acid in a substance we do not taste it, and of course it
is of no account. Then, where people feed ensflage they
feed a great deal of meal, and all our grains, if I am right,
contain about fifty per cent of their weight of starch ; and if
there is not acid enough in the stomach, then this acid in the
ensilage which the cow eats helps her to digest the meal.
So it will be with apple pomace.
132 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Then I wanted to speak of the physiological structure of
the cow. The cow is very peculiar in regard to her diges-
tive orofans. All animals which chew the cud have four
stomachs. Their food passes through three. It passes into
the first stomach, which is called the rumen, and hence a cow
is called a ruminating animal ; and after that the grass or
fodder goes into the 7'eticulum. It lies there until it has
fermented and got into a sort of pliable state, and then the
cow raises it. She chews her cud ; she cannot help it ; it is
her nature to do it. The operation of nature forces so much
up into her mouth, and she chews it. When she swallows it,
it does not go into the rumen as it did before ; the grass or
fodder pushes aside a valve which closes the aperture of the
first stomach, and when she swallows it the second time it
passes into the second stomach, and from there into the third
and fourth. Now, when a cow is fed grain, it should be wet,
because it will then be put into a condition where the cow
will digest more of it ; and she "will give more milk if fed in
that way than if fed dry grain. That is why steaming fodder
has been thought to be an advantage sometimes, because the
o^rain was fed with the coarse fodder and it went into the
rumen and remained there until it was in a better state to be
digested. Now, since people have found out these things
about the cow, they have begun to think that all the good
they got from steaming coarse fodder was that their cows
would eat it. Perhaps I did not explain quite fully that
there is no way by which the cow can get this coarse fodder
out of the rumen and into the second stomach except by
chewing it over in the cud. For that reason she should be
fed but twice a day. She needs the middle of the day as
well as the night to chew that over. There is no outlet for
it except to come l)ack into the mouth and be chewed over
and swallowed in another direction. So that I claim that
twice a day is enough to feed a cow.
Adjourned to one o'clock.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 133
Afternoon Session.
The meeting re-assembled at 1.30, Mr. Cruickshanks in
the chair.
Tlie Chairman. I have to say that Mr. Douglas, on
account of indisposition, desires a delay of a few moments,
and perhaps it will be well for us to start off with one or
two questions from the question box.
Secretary Sessions. I have one question here in reference
to the forenoon's discussion : "I wish to know if the central
truth or lesson of this morning was not the individual cow,
and that we must cater to her as expert dairymen ? " Will
Mr. Kilbourn of Lancaster answer?
Mr. Kilbourn. It seems to me that that proposition was
pretty distinctly offered, and perhaps it should be accepted,
with some qualihcations. I think we have all had the belief
that the feed should be varied for different purposes ; that, for
the purpose of securing a large product of butter, we should
feed certain kinds of food, and for the purpose of obtaining
a large product of milk we should feed certain other kinds.
That was distinctly and fairly denied, and, so far as experi-
ments show, it is proved to be untrue ; and we probably
have made the mistake of not properly considering the re-
lations of the kinds of feed or the rations to be given to
cattle. The' experiments which have been tried with a con-
siderable degree of care and with pretty uniform results,
show that the feed which will produce a large flow of milk
will also produce a large yield of butter.
Then another matter which was stated, and which was
pretty well proven, and which I think more of us will be
inclined to accept as we give more consideration to it, was,
that it is not worth while to cook the feed, or to scald it, or
to heat the water. Those three points seem to be pretty
well estal)lished, and they are contrary to the former experi-
ence of a great many individuals ; but an experience under
different circumstances, — an experience which had to do
with barns of a low temperature, and with cattle kept, per-
haps, in a poor condition. My own belief is, notwithstand-
ing the strong statements made by one gentleman here, that
cows that are kept in a moderately warm barn, that are fed
134 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
with substances which keep their blood warm, do not need
to have the water warmed, and that it is not worth while to
do it. Of course there are extreme cases. We do not want
to water them with Avater thtit .comes with ice all around it
and over it,;l)ut to give them water to drink which is of the
temperature of moderate spring water or good well water.
So I think that a good many of the old-fashioned ideas of
our farmers are being proved to be wrong, not only with
reference to feeding dairy animals, but with reference to
feeding pigs. It is pretty well established that the old theory
that everything for pigs must be cooked, not only involves a
loss of the fuel and time expended in the cooking, but is an
absolute loss in the digestibility of the matter that is assimi-
lated by the pigs. Under such circumstances we may well
be prepared to accept some further modifications of our old
ideas. That we should cater to the individual cow I think
there is no question, — that we should cater to her condition
and to her appetite. We find that, out of a herd of thirty,
one or two will eat considerably more than the others. They
have strong appetites, and some of them will readily take
and consume a considerable amount of feed which perhaps
has been picked over by the others ; showing that those indi-
viduals have a capacity for consuming, and we will presume
assimilating, a larger amount of feed than a good many
others of the same herd, and under pretty nearly the same
conditions. Then an individual cow differs very much as to
her own condition, as to the flow of milk which she may be
producing and the requirements of her system in other direc-
tions There may be a considerable economy in saving
something from the rations of those animals who either will
not consume it, or, if they consume it, will fail to assimilate
it, and in giving it to those animals with stronger appetites
and a better relish, who will not only consume more but
make a better return. I think it is the experience of most
of us that there is a very considera))le difl'erence between
animals of the same herd, standing in the same line and under
almost the same conditions in the barn. Then, again, take
the conditions in a single barn ; they may vary considerably
by the relative positions in which the difierent animals stand.
Some animals may stand upon the north side of the barn, and
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 135
some upon the south side. Unless the barn is exceptionally
warm, I think we will find better results from those animals
that stand on the south side, and get the benefit of the sun's
warmth and light in the winter. While I could not go so
far as to say that we should cater entirely to the individual
cow, I do think that a large allowance is to be made for that
individuality ; and, while it may not be more important than
the breed or the feed, it certainly is to be considered. I
think that none of our essayists would go so far as to say
that the different breeds should all be kept for the same
purpose ; but, with the breed best adapted to the purpose
that you have in view, and with careful feeding, then the
next consideration, and perhaps as important as any other,
is the taste, the relish and the appetite of the individual
cow.
The Chairman. The lecture announced for this afternoon
is on " Grading-up Dairy Stock," by F. D. Douglas of
Whiting, Vt., President of the Vermont Dairymen's Asso-
ciation.
GRADING-UP DAIRY STOCK.
BT F. D. DOUGLAS OF WHITING, VT.
The future of American agriculture is not a pleasant
subject for contemplation, especially for him who fully
realizes the nature of the causes which have developed the
changed conditions under which it must be pursued. An
unwise governmental policy has with reckless haste opened
up new lands for settlement, vastly greater in area than the
necessities of the nation have required, and stimulated an
agricultural vandalism, never before witnessed. Our new
territory is being simply overrun, not farmed, in any en-
lightened sense, but robbed of its agricultural wealth, re-
gardless of the just claims of future generations.
Westward ho ! has been the cry, until the East has been
drained of both men and money, required for its proper de-
velopment. The market value of our farm lands has been
reduced full fifty per cent, entailing a loss of untold mil-
lions, and jeopardizing those other millions of Eastern cap-
ital which have been loaned to aid in this ruinous work.
136 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Residts of Mistaken Policy.
It will be found, when the day of reckoning fully comes,
that no class has been benefited by this policy excepting
speculators and land-jobbers, while the farming classes, both
East and West, will suffer most.
The border farmer, who is compelled to sell his corn at
fifteen cents per bushel, or wheat, beef and pork at corre-
spondingly low figures, all produced by a ruinous exhaustion
of his soil and of his own vital energies, is surely deserving
of our sympathies. Scarcely less so is the Eastern farmer,
who is struggling to pay for his home, toiling under a
heavy mortgage indebtedness, while the markets in 'which he
must sell his wares are broken and ruined, the result of
such an unstatesmanlike policy.
Protest against this Policy.
Yet, notwithstanding these deplorable results, the govern-
ment seems to be committed to a o:ioi:antic scheme for irriga-
tion, which, if consummated, will open many more millions of
acres of the public domain, and put into the pockets of polit-
ical vandals other millions of public treasure. I ask that
you, the intelligent farmers of Massachusetts, in a mass lead
in presenting an earnest protest to the powers that be,
against the continuance of this mistaken policy.
The Evil a Permanent One.
The present generation cannot reasonably hope to see the
vast areas already overrun, fully and properly occupied, and
our markets so developed as to permanently relieve them
from this ruinous pressure. A thorough development of our
agriculture would more than double our present production
on lands now occupied.
We may safely conclude, that these adverse conditions
have come to stay. They are not, as in the past, the result
of temporary causes. Henceforth, the question of success in
agriculture is to be a question of " the survival of the fit-
test," dependent upon intellectual as well as muscular force.
Old methods must "go to the wall," and there is no help
for it. The best of skill, stock and appliances must be sub-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 137
stituted for plodding stupidity, scrub stock, and the imple-
ments of a departed age.
Its Infect upon Dairy Husbandry.
Dairying has not thus far been seriously affected by
Western overproduction of its legitimate products. Decep-
tion and fraud, and not the Federal government, have been
chiefly responsible for the ills to which we dairymen have
thus far been exposed. But there is abundant evidence that
the time is near at hand when we must depend upon foreign
markets, for the disposal of our surplus dairy products. We
cannot then reasonably expect to receive the prevailing
prices of the last twenty-five years. The key-note of all
agriculturists, not excepting the dairyman, must be " cheap
production and superior products." The great mass of our
dairy manufactures must be improved in quality, to save
the business from utter ruin.
Improvement demanded, and why.
We must improve. First, that we may increase home
consumption, and build up a foreign demand. We must
improve the reputation of our wares in all markets, and put
our feet upon every fraud calculated to injure that reputation.
Second, we must produce cheaply here in New England,
that we may compete successfully with the West, and hold
our own Eastern markets, and that the balance sheet may
still show a profit.
How reduce the Cost of Production.
The question of cheap production obviously embraces all
of the means by which dairy wares are produced. The cow,
her food and care, the system of crop production employed,
cost of farm, stock and appliances, all have an important
bearing upon the net cost of the wares produced.
The cost of plant is an important consideration in all
business enterprises, requiring a proportionately large amount
of real estate, or expensive appliances, in their prosecution,
and in none more so than in the dairy business at the present
time. Low prices for agricultural products imply cheap
lands upon which to produce them, low rates of interest on
138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
capital employed, and a correspondingly cheap outfit in
every particular. Cheap, as used in this connection, has no
reference to quality. The dairyman cannot afford, because
of poor markets, to lower the quality of his stock ; but he
must secure the liest, at the lowest possible cost. He cannot
aftbrd to pay fa1)ulous prices for blooded cows, to be used
for practical dairy work; yet he cannot afford, as I shall
endeavor to show, to dispense with the services of the best
blooded sires in breeding grade stock, even though they may
cost many times the market value of bulls of common stock.
Gradiiig-up.
With abundant capital, and proper qualifications for the
business, one may profitably pay high prices for a few
choice animals, with which to lay the foundation of a
pure-bred herd. But it is only advisable in connection with
such conditions. Dairymen with limited capital, who have
good average herds of grade or native cows, can provide
themselves with the best of dairy stock for practical work
much more cheaply. To do this they must, like the suc-
cessful breeder of blooded stock, heed those natural laws
and conditions which govern reproduction. They must first
determine what branch of the business they wish to pursue,
and then organize success by persistent efforts on the line
which they have intelligently marked out.
While ordinary improvements in dairy practice pay from
the outset, the breeder must be content to wait for the
growth of his stock. But the reward will be nevertheless
sure, and his profits will annually increase in volume, like
the increase in an arithmetical progression.
I shall treat this subject from the stand-point of a butter
maker, as I propose to base my remarks upon practical facts,
drawn from actual experience.
Fundamental Laws and Conditions.
No intelligent breeder, whether of blooded or grade
stock, will lose sight of that fundamental, natural law,
which is the basis of success in every department of stock-
breedino;. It is that law which soverns transmission, and
which is conveyed in the expression, "Like begets like."
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 139
We fail to realize the full force of this law, because of its
necessarily imperfect application. It is a law of such po-
tency that, if perfectly applied, and all the conditions of its
application could remain uniformly the same through a long
succession of generations, it would undoubtedly result in a
perfect transmission to offspring of the characteristics of the
parents.
While in many departments of stock-breeding this power
of transmission has been carried to a high degree of perfec-
tion, yet in no department has it become as marked as it
would have done under more perfect conditions. Perfection
in this must be the work of time ; and the business life of any
one man is too short, however perfect his practice, to attain
it, while any change, as from father to son, is morally sure to
result in a change in essential conditions. This power of
transmission will become a fixed characteristic of a family or
race, just in proportion to the skill of its breeders, time
employed, and the quality of the stock used in the outset.
Pedigrees.
A pedigree, of whatever length, is of value only as it con-
veys a correct knowledge of the character of the breeding of
the stock described, and gives assurance that its progenitors,
for many generations, were of the same t3'pe. A mere
genealogical pedigree is of no value whatever, — one which
recounts the names only of ancestry. All animals, however
ill-bred, have unrecorded pedigrees, extending back to their
original progenitors, though no one can give a diagram of
them, and it would be of no value if we could. It is that
mistaken idea, that long pedigrees ensure perfection, which
has led to so many disappointments in the purchase of blooded
stock. This early false impression has cost me hundreds of
dollars. I have owned stock with long pedigrees, which,
from inbred defects, was utterly worthless for dairy purposes.
It is of the utmost importance that the breeder of grade
stock should use none but well-bred sires ; those of " strong
blood," as it is often expressed, those which have not only
the external marks of perfection, l)ut the habit also of trans-
mitting them. He must never be tempted to use a grade
sire, however perfect he may be in external appearance.
140 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Practical Effect of Chance- Breeding .
While the proper observance of fundamental laws and
conditions inevital)ly leads to lixed characteristics in the
animals bred, the violation of them leads to opposite results.
While " like" here " begets like," we must often look back
through several generations for the prototype of offspring.
In chance-breeding we may find every type of character-
istics peculiar to the race represented in the progenitors, at
no very remote distance from the offspring. As given char-
acteristics, either good or bad, may remain dormant through
several successive generations, and then re-appear, it is
obvious that no reliance can 1)e placed upon chance-bred
stock, where sire and dam are l)oth thus bred. There is
obviously no fixed character established by such breeding.
Anomalous as it may seem, this want of fixed character
is a great advantage in the grading-u}) of dairy stock. A
well-l)red sire, ^vith strong })owers of transmission, when
coupled with dams thus irregularly l)red, will transmit his
own qualities to a much larger proportion of his progeny
than when coupled with pure-bred females of opposite char-
acteristics.
By such a cross with well-bred Jersey sires, I can build
up a butter-producing herd of the Jersey type much more
readily than by a cross with full-blooded Holsteins or beef-
producing Herefords. And, also, when the Holstein type is
desired, Holstein sires would beget that tj^pe much more
readily by a cross with native stock, than with Jerseys or
Devons. With the latter, the fixed habit of transmission
must be I)roken down ; while with common stock there is
no such fixed habit to be overcome, and hence the sire gives
his own impress to a nuich larger proportion of his progeny.
Selection.
But not to all ; and here comes in the next essential con-
dition of success, and it will apply to all herds, whether
blooded or grade. Judicious selection is next in importance
to skillful breeding. A rigid test must be applied to every
individual. There are certain external characteristics which
may guide us in the selection of dairy stock, but these can-
1890.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 141
not, for various causes, always be relied upon. Where the
more important of these are wanting, we may safely conclude
that the animal is worthless for dairy purposes, and dispose
of her while young.
External Indications of Good Dairy Stock.
Some of the external indications of a good butter-produc-
ing cow, are : —
1. A large, evenly balanced udder, extending well for-
ward and backward.
2. Medium-sized teats, not set too closely together, yield-
ing their milk easily, and in large, smooth streams.
3. A broad posterior, with body tapering towards the
head, giving ample room for a l)road escutcheon, and devel-
opment of udder, with loose folds of skin in rear of udder,
in heifers and cows not in full liow of milk.
4. A good development of the digestive organs.
5. A large, crooked, well-developed milk vein.
6. A thin, pliable, yellow skin, with its accompaniment
of a fine, soft coat.
7. A nervous but docile temperament, gentle when well
treated, but intelligent enough to resist abuse.
8. Small, delicately formed head and horns, with none of
that coarse, ox-like appearance, peculiar to ill-bred stock.
Correct Ideals of Perfection.
These are all indications of good butter-producing cows,
yet, when judged by the beef producers' standard, such
animals may be regarded as homely in the extreme. The
butter maker must form his ideals of perfection by those
traits which he learns, from experience, point to the best
pecuniary returns from his dairy, and not from a beef stand-
ard. He will often find it necessary to dispose of his favorite
cows, when judged by this standard. Of those which give
the largest fiow of milk, and will command the highest prices
when wanted for family use or for the production of milk for
the milk trade, hence they pay him well for the raising.
Absolute, arbitrary tests, without favoritism, must determine
his action, if he would quickly bring his herd up to a produc-
tive capacity of three hundred pounds or more per annum.
142 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Planner of Selection.
In small dairies the churn should determine individual
merit. Not by one or two trials, but by a series of trials ex-
tending through a good portion of the year. Please remem-
ber that it is the " 1 asters " in the herd, and not the spas-
modic milkers, that must be relied upon for large annual
yields. Many cows will do well for the first three or four
months, when their flow will diminish, and at the end of
eight or nine months they will dry up, even with the best of
food and care. Such cows must be dismissed from the herd,
however pleasing to the eye in external appearance.
In large dairies some less laborious means may be adopted,
which will give nearly as satisfactory results as the churn
test. With a thorough knowledge of the structure and
characteristics of milk, and with proper appliances, we may
learn to judge of its quality by the phenomena which it pre-
sents when submitted to certain conditions.
My own Method.
I hold in my hand a very simple device, which I had con-
structed in 1867, with three others, of difle rent depths, for
the purpose of determining the practicability of the deep
setting of milk for cream-raising purposes.
In one, the milk was set three inches in depth ; in an-
other, six inches ; in this, twelve inches ; and in still an-
other, eighteen inches. I had, as you sec, a glass placed in
the side, Avitli a per cent scale attached, that I might note
the changes which took place within. I soon found that
I had in this device an excellent means for determining the
comparative value of the milk of diflerent cows for butter-
making purposes ; and I had two dozen of them constructed
for that purpose. This was the origin of testing tubes. I
make this assertion, not only from my own personal knowl-
edge of the matter, Init also upon the testimony of the late
X. A. Willard, who was a standard authority in such matters.
By the use of this simple device, and the microscope,
I learned more of milk and its peculiarities, in a few months,
than I could in a life-time of experience and observation,
without it. I fixed upon thirteen inches for the depth of my
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 143
testing tubes, because I desired to have them correspond
with the depth of the pails in which I set the mass of
my milk.
How used.
The manner of using these cans, and determining results,
is very simple. Each can is filled with the milk of an indi-
vidual cow, immediately after being drawn, and placed in
tanks of water at a temperature of sixty-three degrees. All
are submitted to precisely the same conditions, and a record
taken at six, twelve, twenty-four and thirty-six hours from
the time of milking. In this manner I learned many inter-
esting practical facts. Among these were : —
1. That the milk of each individual cow has its own pecul-
iar time for sending up its cream.
2. That this time is dependent upon the characteristics of
the milk, and its butter globule.
3. That, knowing these characteristics of the different
samples, we may readily determine their comparative value
for butter-making purposes.
Tell me the time required for a given sample of milk
to send up its cream through a depth of twelve inches, at a
temperature of sixty-three to sixty-five degrees, and I will
tell you its quality for butter-making purposes. Tell me
also with regard to the annual milk })roduction of the cow
furnishing such sample, and I will tell you her standing as a
butter producer.
The first tests of my herd gave some surprising results.
While the milk of one cow parted with its entire cream
(thirty per cent) in three hours, that of another, standing by
its side, continued to rise for thirty-six hours, while I had
reason to believe that much of it never came to the surface.
These novel and unexpected results of course excited my
curiosity, and led me to study the phenomena presented in
the manipulation of milk. Further investigation revealed
the causes of this wide difierence in results. They were
easily traced to the difierence in the peculiar qualities of the
two samples.
The first was found to have a large uniform butter glob-
ule, to contain comparatively little caseine and other milk
solids. The milk when skimmed had a thin, blue, watery
144 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
appearance. These structural facts pointed conclusively to
the causes for such a rapid separation of the cream.
It was found, also, that this milk, as might well be sup-
posed, possessed poor keeping qualities, and would not bear
transportation. It matured quickly, and decayed quickly.
Its cream was solid, of a rich golden color, churned quickly,
and it took but a small amount of it for a pound of butter.
Milk presenting such phenomena is my ideal of perfection
for butter-making purposes, and experience has taught me to
rely upon these phenomena in the selection of my cows.
The characteristics of sample number two were precisely
opposite. The butter globule was very small ; cream, white
and poor, and required a long time in churning. The butter
manufiictured from it was white and lard-like in appearance,
contained more caseine, and had poor keeping qualities ;
while the milk had good keeping qualities, and would bear
transportation well. The skimmed milk appeared to be a
nearly solid mass of caseine and other milk solids. This
latter fact, taken in connection with its diminutive butter
globule, was to me a sufficient reason for the slow and
imperfect separation of its cream. The cow which produced
the latter sample gave much the largest flow, and I had
regarded her as one of the best cows in my herd.
I have purposely given extreme cases, yet not greater
than I have repeatedly found in my twenty-two years' experi-
ence since that time. Nothing approaching these extremes
can now be found among the young stock of my herd.
Development of Dairy StocJc.
There is one consideration which is too often overlooked
by dairymen, and that is, the matter of development of
young dairy stock. Breeders of trotting horses well under-
stand that success with them depends very much upon
the early development of their colts. But how man}^ dairy-
men are aware of the fact that a proper development of
young stock is quite as essential to success in the dairy as in
the stud ?
Heifers with good natural butter-producing qualities, judi-
ciously reared from the outset, and when in milk fed lib-
erally on well-balanced rations, properly milked and cared
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 145
for in all respects, will often give milk through the entire
year when in calf annually, and at maturity reach a produc-
tive capacity of three hundred pounds or more of butter per
annum. In dairies thus bred and developed, one of the
most important duties of the herdsman is to attend to
the matter of drying oft' such heifers at least a month
before they are due to come in ; otherwise their vital
energies are overtaxed, and they may thus be permanently
injured.
The same animals, submitted to the treatment bestowed
upon young dairy stock upon many of the dairy farms of
New England, would go dry three months of the year and
would not reach a productive capacity of over two hundred
pounds per annum.
The wide difference in the productive capacity of herds
often results, in my opinion, as much from difference in
early development and care, as from any inherent difference
in the stock itself. Dairjanen who have neglected this
proper early development in their herds, cannot reasonably
hope, b}^ spasmodic effort, to raise their standard of produc-
tion to a high point. Development, whether in man or
brute, is the work of time and favoring conditions, and can
only be accomplished in accordance with nature's laws.
Difference in Cost of Keeping.
It is often argued that it costs much more to keep a herd
of cows producing three hundred pounds of butter per
annum than one producing one-third that amount. While
practically it usually does costs more, yet this is not neces-
sarily the case. The difference in amount of butter product
may result from a difference in adaptation alone.
The cows in my own herd, of which I have spoken, giving
but six per cent of cream, I have reason to believe would
not yield one hundred pounds per annum by any ordi-
nary process of cream raising, while those giving thirty per
cent would yield more than three hundred pounds ; yet they
stood side by side in the stable, and were fed and cared for
the same.
146 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Cost of Butter Production.
I have said that henceforth the key-note of New England
agriculture must be "cheap production, and superior qual-
ity." Have you ever computed the difference in the cost of
butter production, under favorable and unfavorable con-
ditions, and fully realized the magnitude of the rewards
of dairy improvement? Let us appl^^ the figures to this
problem.
I will assume that the net cost of labor and keeping of
a dairy cow, after making due allowance for the value of the
skimmed milk, buttermilk, and fertilizing material, retained
upon the farm, is forty dollars per annum. With these con-
ditions, the cost of production per pound of butter will be
as follows : With a herd so well bred and developed that it
will produce an average of three hundred pounds per cow,
per annum, the cost will be thirteen and one-third cents per
pound.* With a yield of two hundred pounds, it will cost
twenty cents pe:^ pound ; and of but one hundred pounds,
it will cost forty cents per pound. When the market value
of butter is but twenty cents per pound, as with most sum-
mer dairies, the former would receive a profit of six and two-
thirds cents per pound, which would afford a profit of twenty
dollars per cow, and of four hundred dollars on a herd of
twenty cows. The second would realize no profit, though,
in common with the rest, he would have the benefit of a
cash home market for the food consumed. The third would
lose twenty cents on every pound manufactured ; an average
of twenty dollars per annum on each cow kept, and four
hundred dollars on a herd of twenty cows. This .represents
a difference of eight hundred dollars in the annual financial
results of these two extremes in dairy practice, and of sixteen
thousand dollars in twenty years of such practice.
Let us approach this subject from another stand-point, and
apply it to winter dairying. We will assume, as before,
that the net cost of lal)or and keeping is forty dollars per
cow ; the average annual butter product, three hundred
pounds ; the market value, twenty-five cents per pound, —
not a high average price for winter dairies. On this basis,
the gross receipts would be seventy-five dollars per cow.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 147
If we deduct from this the cost of labor and keeping, we
have a balance of thirty-five dollars, which will represent
the net profit per cow ; a sum equivalent to seven hundred
dollars per annum on a herd of twenty cows, and of fourteen
thousand dollars for twenty years.
With an average annual product of one hundred and fifty
pounds, which is much above the average of the dairies of
the country, the gross receipts will be but thirty-seven dollars
and fifty cents per cow. Deduct this from the cost of food and
labor, and we find a loss of two dollars and fifty cents per cow,
and of fifty dollars on a herd of twenty cows ; making a differ-
ence of seven hundred and fifty dollars in the annual financial
results of the two kinds of dairy practice, and of fifteen
thousand dollars when continued for a term of twenty years.
Mr. Chairman and gentlemen, I will only ask, in closing,
Will it "pay to improve our' dairy stock?
The Chairman. Have gentlemen any questions to ask on
this most important subject of raising dairy stock? There
are a large number present who are cngage-d in this industry,
some from neighboring towns. I know there must be ques-
tions revolving in your minds which you would like to ask
the lecturer, and now you have an opportunity to do so.
Mr. Allen. I have noticed the same thing that the
speaker has mentioned ; that the cream from the milk of
some cows will rise in an hour or two, while in other cases
it will take thirty-six hours. I did not quite understand
whether he said the butter which came from the cream that
rose quickly had or had not the keeping qualities of that
made from the cream which came up slowly.
Mr. Douglas. The butter kept well, but the milk had
poor keeping qualities.
Mr. Allen. But still you would say that the former is
the much better class of cows to keep ?
Mr. Douglas. Yes, sir; for the largest production of
butter. In the case stated, they were really unfit for any-
thing else.
Mr. Allen. As a general proposition, you would say
that the cow whose cream came up quickest was the best for
butter purposes ?
148 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Jan.
Mr. Douglas. Yes, sir.
Mr. Dyer. I would like to ask what breed the gentle-
man would recommend to grade-up our stock w4th.
Mr. Douglas. For a l)uttcr maker, I w^ould recommend
the Jersey and Guernsey. If my object was milk produc-
tion, of course I should recommend the Holstein or some
breed of a larsfer Sfrowth.
Mr. Bradley. The speaker has only spoken upon one
side of the question ; that is, the butter side. There are two
sides to this question, — the milk side and the butter side.
Secretary Sessions. I think the essayist remarked that
the same principles would prove correct in grading-up a herd
of Holsteins or any herd of a milk-producing type.
Mr. Douglas. Yes, that is what I meant to be under-
stood, although I have no personal experience of that kind.
In fact, reason and observation teach me that that is so.
You can get the same improvements in that direction by the
use of Holsteins or of some type which gives a large flow.
I would make that distinction. For butter-making purposes
I would select sires from races which are liest adapted to
butter making ; for milk production I would use a sire
adapted to that branch. Bear in mind that there is room
for all. There are two distinct classes of milk, each adapted
to a particular purpose. The milk which I describe for
butter-making purposes is not adapted to the milk trade.
The housewife who receives such milk in the morning for
family use will have at tea time a mass of cream and blue
skim-milk. She does not want that type. But there is
milk which is much better adapted to cheese and to the milk
trade than this, Avhich is especially adapted to butter making.
I gave extremes, and I fjave one extreme wdiich I would not
recommend, although some milkmen might ; to wit, the kind
that gave only six per cent of cream. I should not want to
sell that milk to customers ; it is too poor. I gave extremes
purposely, and between the two extremes you will find all
grades and qualities.
Mr. GoDDAKD of Greenfield. I think it will be conceded
that the largest records that have been made of l^utter-
making and milk-producing cows have been made "by pure-
breds ; and, with the present prices for which Jerseys or
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 149
almost any pure-bred stock can be bought, why should
the farmer use grade stock? I certainly can see no
reason for it. I think if a man has pure-bred stock he
is more apt to take better care of it than of grade stock :
and as long as upon the character of the stock de-
pends to a large extent the profits, I believe it better for
the farmer to have pure-bred stock ; and besides, if he has
any to sell, it will usually sell for better prices. My belief
is that no farmer should be without pure-bred stock. Of
course I would not advise a man to go into it in a large way
at first, but you can start in a small way, and by and by you
will find that you have increased the quality of your herd at
small expense.
Mr. Douglas. I have bred-up native stock that will out-
strip anything that I have bought as full-blooded from the
best herds. It is an actual fact that by so doing I have bred
my herd up to three hundred pounds very much quicker
than I could by any purchases that I could make of pure-
bred stock. We all understand that a breeder is not croing
to sell his best stock ; we have got to take second- class
stock. I started ofi' with the idea of buying blooded stock
for the basis of my herd, but I found that my graded-up
stock outstripped the blooded stock in actual working value.
Mr. Lyman. I am very thankful for the statement that
the essayist has just made. I have made that statement
from practical tests, but I have never found stockmen or
any others who seemed to credit it. I have bred-up graded
stock that, as the gentleman has said, outstripped any pure-
breds I have ever had or my neighbors have had.
Mr. Dyer. I would like to ask why. The facts are
given us ; is there any reason why ?
Mr. Douglas. "Well, I indirectly pointed to the fact that
blooded stock for butter-making purposes or any purpose
is not all bred perfectly. If for the past thousand years
it had all been bred perfectly, we might buy blooded stock
and be sure of getting the very best ; but, as a practical fact,
there is but a small percentage of blooded stock that will
come up to three hundred pounds or three hundred and fifty
pounds of butter. That is the actual fact, as I found out.
I have been obliged to sell fine-looking cows, that had all the
150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
appearance of being good animals. Only last year I sold a
cow that had every mark of being a superior animal, but
she was worthless ; she dried off early ; she did not hold her
milk. I said to myself, "You can cheat somebody on that
cow tremendously," but I did not want to do it ; I would not
ask any high price for her ; and many times I have been
compelled to sell nice-looking, full-blooded stock because of
their defects. In one instance I remember I bought some
calves from one of the best herds in Vermont, a herd that
had a high reputation and had taken a great many premiums.
I bought them when they were less than a year old, hoping
to get ahead of the breeders in that way, for I knew they
would keep them if they fou-nd they were superior animals.
I took them home, and soon ascertained that they were very
nervous creatures. If a stranger came into the herd, up
their tails would go and away they would run. Every
cow I have is as gentle as a lamb, but these calves were ner-
vous, had small bags and long legs. A man who has had a
great deal of stock from Connecticut for several years came
to me and said, " Can't you sell me some blooded stock?"
" Yes," said I, " I will sell you blooded stock; I will sell
you the pedigrees and give you the assurance that two of
them are the meanest animals I ever bred. Still, the pedi-
grees are all right." I had found that the breeder had made
a mistake in his breeding, and he had unloaded on me. So
I say, if you can be sure of getting first-class blooded stock,
go and buy it. You see I_ lay great stress on this point
of getting the best class of pure-bred stock. I suppose that
you here are mostly men of wealth, and can do that, but a
common farmer cannot do it. It was so in my own case ; I
had my own capital to make, I had to begin and feel my
way up. And my own experience has taught me tliat very
much can be done by the common farmer in the way of
breeding-up a herd, by pursuing the course I have indicated,
for much less money than by purchasing blooded stock. If
he finds blooded stock that are satisfactory, let him keep
them by all means, but never keep them because of their
pedigree.
Mr. Dyer. Which helped you most in breeding-up to
three hundred pounds, your native stock or the full-blooded
sire?
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 151
Mr. Douglas. Well, both. They must go together. It
is wonderful what strides we can make with good, strong,
rugged, common stock, with a pure-bred male ; but they
must go together, if you would succeed. No one can breed
perfectly. Some animals will crop out that he cannot
afford to keep. It is those animals that we fellows buy,
generally.
Mr. HiCKOX. It seems to me w^e are comino; onto
very delicate ground here, but I hope w^e shall learn what
will be of value to us. I began with breeding grade
Jerseys, because I was breeding for a purpose ; and of
course I had heard this and that farmer say, as every man
has, — as I have heard them say here to-day, — that he
would rather have a grade cow than a pure-bred. I thought
perhaps there w^as something in all that. But I found
pretty soon that the grade cow that my friends talked about
was not as reliable as a pure-bred animal was. You cannot
take a full-blooded sire and a female from common stock
and make a perfect animal. You want, in order to make a
cow that will give a great record, both the male and female
bred excellently, and through long generations. This gentle-
man says that he has had cows in his herd that were well-
bred, that looked like fine animals, and yet they were poor
stock. Now, how has this come about? The Jersey cow
has done a great deal for us in the State and country.
There have been these pedigrees attached to them, and
the result has been that it has been pedigree, and nothing but
pedigree. Now, the pedigree does not amount to anything,
of itself ; but if you have a good animal first and then a good
pedigree, and if you breed those carefully and judiciously,
you will have results that will beat a grade cow every time.
But if you have got a Jersey sire and I have got a dam, and
we throw them together regardless of their characteristics,
you will have inferior animals ; you will perhaps have a
fine pedigree, but not a fine animal ; it will very likely be in-
ferior to some grade animals. I do not believe that a grade
cow is better than a pure-bred ; it is not according to my ex-
perience. If we cannot have pure-bred herds, let us have
the best we can get. I say, go to work and breed the very
best animals you can. It is a noble work. It requires care,
152 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
thought and study, but there is a great deal of satisfac-
tion in it.
Mr. Douglas. I heartily endorse all that the gentleman
has said. You will observe that my theory and practice are
based on that very idea of having pure-bred animals as sires.
We must have those in order to obtain perfectly bred herds.
But it has been admitted that but a small proportion of
those are what we want. A large proportion must be
eliminated from the herd ; and, with these thousands of
farmers in New England who must set up this work imme-
diately, where are the blooded cows coming from ? But I say,
to every man who has means, lay the foundation for a
blooded herd.
Now, what are the facts? To my personal knowledge
there are many herds in Vermont that have been bred in the
way I recommend up to 300 pounds and over. I have the
facts with regard to individual grade cows and their produc-
tion. I have one here that gives 503 pounds of butter;
another, 480 ; another, 461; another, 410; another, 504;
another, 633 pounds. Now, these are facts that we cannot
get by ; and, while I would heartily indorse what the gentle-
man has said, if it were possible to have this pure-bred
excellence which I have dwelt upon, these fiicts show what
can be done with grade animals. I am talking to a great
many farmers who must set about this work, and time is a
matter that we must consider. I would advise every such
farmer to procure a pure-bred animal to lay the foundation
for his herd ; and if the farmers of New England would
realize the importance of this, it would give the blooded
herds of New England a boom such as has never been known
heretofore.' Every blooded animal of the right sort would
be needed for this purpose. I am not saying one word
against full-blooded herds, l)ut I am emphasizing the fiict
that we must have them. It is one of the fundamental con-
ditions of success in breeding-up a grade herd.
Mr. GoDDAKD. The gentleman said that common farmers
cannot afford to buy pure-l)red stock at the high prices that
are asked for such animals. I do not agree with him in that.
I started a few years ago without any money, and I can say
to-day that I have got a herd of pure-bred stock. The
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 153
reason why we have so many poor farmers is because they
will not buy good stock. If they would procure good
animals in the first place, and breed from those, there would
not be so many poor farmers to-day in the country. These
good animals are just the ones that we poor farmers should
buy.
Mr. Fitch. This talk has all turned upon butter for the
last fifteen minutes. I would like to ask the gentleman this
question. Suppose you had two kinds of milk, one of them
having eight per cent of cream and the other having sixteen
per cent of cream, which of those two kinds of milk would
you take if you were going to raise calves, or for use on
your table ?
Mr. Douglas. As a practical fact, the butter element of
milk will kill calves. You have got to take out a part of
that butter element to have calves thrive upon it. I would
have a medium amount of caseine and solids as compared
with butter. I have cows whose milk I would not give to
young calves ; I would not even let their own calves drink
it ; it would soon kill them. •
Mr. J. T. Everett of Princeton. I have raised two or
three times within twenty, years calves that came from cows
which were excellent animals both for butter and milk, but
the calves made worthless cows. What is the solution of
that problem? From the nature of all animals, the human
animal as well as others, we suppose that traits are developed
in the children which the parents had. Now, I solved it in the
last case to which I referred, by supposing that, although
the cow was good, the bull was worthless. I think that
was the case in the other instances where I tried to breed a
superior butter or milch cow from a very excellent mother,
and the animal proved to be worthless. How much does the
essayist depend upon that factor for grading-up animals ?
Mr. Douglas. I thought I brought that out with sufficient
definiteness, when I said that good and bad qualities will
remain dormant, and then crop out after several generations.
There is a point which it is easy to test when it is necessary.
Have no favoritism about it. Most farmers who have calves
from superior cows keep them because the mothers are so
good. Never do that. The animal that I spoke of that
154 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
came to the Boston market was a fine-looking, full-blooded
animal. She came from a cow that was a fine animal, that
gave an excellent record of milk and butter ; but that cow
proved worthless. The bad qualities remained dormant
through some generations, and then cropped out. That is a
point we must look at. We should never keep an animal
because its mother was a good one, but let it stand on its
own merits.
Mr. Everett. They are just as likely to be carried down
from one generation to another on the part of the bull as on
the part of the mother.
Mr. Douglas. Certainly.
Mr. Fitch. If a man wishes to raise a good calf from a
good cow, does he not often milk the mother a great deal too
long to do it ?
Mr. Douglas. I have heard good breeders say that the
progeny of a cow might be better than the mother herself,
because the mother has been overtaxed throuo-h lonof-con-
tinned milking. That is the theory ; I do not know whether
it is so, or not. As was said this morning, there are a good
many conditions which we have to consider in all these
things.
Question. I would like to ask al)out the matter of breed-
ing young animals. At what age should they come in?
Mr. Douglas. I like to have them come in at two or two
and one-half years old. I want to get a good physical
development. I do not want to feed them on too rich food,
and let them get fat. Then, after they come in, I do not
give them corn meal or concentrated food, but rations that
are calculated to develop the milk organs'. Then, with
careful milking and care, you develop the animal properly.
Care every time! Never allow it to stand out in the cold.
All those things must be taken into account. Take the best
care possible without overdoing it, without feeding too rich
food, but endeavor to develop the milk-producing quali-
ties, etc. Some people are careless about drying off heifers.
They do not give much milk, and they think it is not of
much importance. I hold that it is very important to keep
up the flow of milk at the outset, — eleven months, if you
can, the first season. The next year j'ou will find it easier
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 155
to keep that flow up. Be careful about giving a calf rich
food, like corn meal or cotton-seed meal ; give it something
that will develop muscle, not fat. I do not believe in giving
much linseed meal. When a cow comes in milk, then give
concentrated food in connection with the other food ; not
cotton-seed meal alone, but always in connection with other
food. ,
Question. How about oatmeal ?
Mr. Douglas. That is excellent. I usually raise a large
quantity of oats. I once sold my oats because they brought
so much higher price in proportion to their feeding value,
and bought cotton-seed meal to take the place of the oats.
I mix peas with the oats. I find that oats are excellent to
make up a good milk-producing ration. So of late I use
my oats for feed, instead of exchanging them for cotton-seed
meal.
Mr. Bradley. I hardly agree with the speaker in regard
to breedino- orade stock. I think that pure-bred stock is
better, but farmers will not buy pure-bred stock. But they
can all get a pure-bred male, and that is a stepping-stone to
something higher. Farmers demand cheap stock, and
breeders are raising stock to supply that demand. If they
bred high-priced stock they could hardly sell it, but cheap
animals will sell readily. Farmers are to blame in this
matter. They should not only buy the best, but, when
they pay high prices, they should know they are getting the
best. Pure-bred stock is bred for speculative purposes,
and breeders find that they can make more money out of
cheap stock than they can out of high-priced stock. An
animal that has a long pedigree is not necessarily the best.
That pedigree may be made up of animals with a great
variety of qualities as respects the production of butter and
milk, and of animals of all shapes and sizes. The animal
needed is one that has been bred in one continued line for
generations, each ancestor having those peculiar qualities
which we wish to breed and perpetuate in our herds.
Mr. Fitch. Does not the character of the animal depend
more on the character of the feeding the first two years,
other things being equal, than on the pedigree?
Mr. Douglas. I thought I brought that out with sufiicient
156 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
clearness. I said in my opinion feeding had quite as much
to do with success as the inherent characteristics of the
animal. With regard to this other point, I want to empha-
size and re-emphasize it. I do not want any man to go out
of this hall carrying the impression with him that I am in
favor of using grade males on any condition. I say that no
farmer can alibrd to use a graded sire, no matter how good
his external appearance may be. In my younger days,
being short of capital, if I had a grade male from an excel-
lent cow I was foolish enough sometimes to use it. That is
why I have been twenty years in getting my herd of forty
cows up to three hundred pounds of butter a year. If I
had known at the beginning what I know now, it would
have been worth more than a thousand dollars to me.
Professor Cooke. There is one point in the essay this
afternoon that I wish to speak of, and that is, the choice ot
the speaker in regard to the large or small globules. He
says that if he has two milks, one containing large globulus
and the other containing small globules, he would take the
milk containing the large globules, because that would pro-
duce the best butter. That is undoubtedly the doctrine
held by a good many first-class breeders, but that doctrine
has received some very severe blows in the last two years.
You all know that the Holstein breed has a butter globule
that is very small, — it would be difficult to find any Jerseys
that have butter globules so small as the average Holstein ;
and yet within the past three years the Holstein has taken
the first prize away from the Jersey at quite a large number
of the competitive butter exhibits where the butter products
of the two breeds have come together, showing that the
mere size of the globules is only one of the factors, and that
it is possible to make first-class butter out of cream in which
the globules are very small.
There is one other point in regard to which I might repeat
the words of the speaker. He says that when I spoke of
not warming water for stock, it was like holding out a red
rag to him. I might re[)]y that when he speaks of using
the de})th of cream as the measure of the butter value of
milk, it is the same sort of challenge to me. We have done
an immense amount of testing on that one point — whether
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 157
the depth of cream in the gauge is a correct criterion of the
butter value of the milk. As I told you this morning, we
have a herd made up for experimental purposes, and we
have animals in tliat herd which, with the same amount of
butter fat in the milk, will show forty per cent diiference in
the amount of cream. That is, the body of cream which
from one animal would make one hundred pounds of butter,
from another animal Avould make one hundred and forty
pounds, there being a difference of almost one-half in the
butter derived from the cream. Now, that was not cream
under different conditions, but it was cream from the same
milking, set side by side in the same room, and under abso-
lutely the same conditions. They were both put into cold
water, and, although not submerged, yet the water covered
them so that the temperature of the air around them was
exactly the same. They were raised under exactly the same
conditions, yet we have found that wide variation when we
have tested them over and over again. And moreover, so
different is the character of the cream from different cows
and from different dairies, that taking the milk and putting
it into a centrifugal machine and whirling it for sixty thou-
sand revolutions will not compact the cream so that it will
be of equal value. There is no way of manipulating cream
by which you can make equal bulks of it produce the same
amount of l)utter. That point is perfectly clear. But when
3^ou come to the other point, whether churning cream will
afford a proper test of the butter value of a cow, there is
more chance for deception. I believe that the churn test,
setting the milk by itself, skimming the cream, and churning
it and weighing the butter, is not a correct way of estimating
the butter value of the milk of a cow. That may seem a
pretty bold statement, and if you are going to set the milk
of that cow by itself every time, I shall have to take it
back. If each time the milk of the cow is to be set by
itself and the cream churned by itself, then the butter is the
only accurate test of that cow ; but as soon as you take the
milk from that cow and put it with the milk from other
cows, you so change the way that it handles, you so change
the raising of the cream, and you so change the character
of the churning of that cream, that you cannot judge from
158 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
what that milk has done l)y itself what it is going to do
when mixed with other milk ; and so, after all our tests of
all the different systems that we can get, we are compelled
to fall back upon the measure of the actual butter fat that
there is in the milk.
Mr. Douglas. Somebody spoke about the experiment
stations. I tell you the experiment stations cannot get
along without us practical formers any better than we can
without them. Now, unfortunately, when you come to
the tests at the experiment stations between warm set-
ting and cold, the fact is, that in a number of tests the
conditions with warm setting were in no one instance such
as made such test possible. This was the case in a test
made at one experiment station and seconded by another,
which tests were published in the report of our Vermont
Dairy Association.
There are a number of facts that come right in there.
You look at the cream raised on one can of milk, and
you can see that it is very rich, very solid, and usually yel-
low. I grade my cream into three different grades of color,
— first, second and third. The first grade is not always,
but usually, high colored ; it is almost butter ; you can
almost see the butter globules ; it separates easily ; while the
other cream is white. But I cannot follow up that point.
The other point is this. I would like to ask the professor if
he knows that in those cases where the Holsteins have made
those wonderful butter records the globules were so small ?
I wish the professor would answer that question, for I think
I have got him right there.
Professor Cooke. That is the fact, that the butter glob-
ules were small.
Mr. Douglas. Well, so extremely small as I spoke of?
Professor Cooke. Yes, what you call small globules ; a
good deal smaller than any your Jerseys would give.
Mr. Bass. I think Mr. Douglas did not make clear what
he meant, when he said that the conditions with warm
setting were not such as made it possible to have a test. It
seems that there is a certain temperature which is so un-
favorable for cream raising that it needs further explanation.
Professor Robinson, at the meeting of the New York Dairy-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 159
men's Association last year, stated that there was an un-
favorable temperature for raising cream ; that from fifty-five
or fifty-eight to sixty degrees seems to be especially un-
favorable ; while a lower range, among the forties, and again
as high as sixty-three or sixty-five, is favorable.
Mr. Douglas. I thank Mr. Bass for calling my attention
to that. There is a point between cold setting and warm
setting where you cannot make cream raising a success ; that
is, from fifty-eight to sixty degrees, and less. Farmers
have been led to experiment for themselves, and have been
awfully taken in by attempting to raise their cream at that
temperature. If you heat ordinary Ayrshire, Durham or
Holstein milk to sixty degrees, you must not expect suc-
cess : but if you go up two or four degrees then you have
success. I am not theorizing about this, it is something I
have practiced for the last twenty years ; and I know that if
you will set your milk at from sixty-three to sixty-five
degrees, you will get a more perfect separation than at any
other temperature. You will get much less bulk of cream.
It takes about thirty-three or thirty-four pounds of warm set
cream to make a pound of butter, while by cold setting
it takes one-sixth more. That is a point which I thank
Mr. Bass for calling my attention to.
Mr. Hurley. I would like to ask the speaker if he would
inbreed, and if so, to what extent?
Mr. Douglas. Occasionally, but in ordinary practice I
do not. The danger is, that you are liable to reduce the
vigor by inbreeding. I know some of the best breeders do
it. They do it in breeding sheep, but I would not follow it
to any great extent.
Question. How Jong would it be necessary to keep the
temperature at sixty-five degrees?
Mr. Douglas. About thirty-six hours.
Question. Do you have to use artificial heat during that
whole time ?
Mr. Douglas. In the winter the milk room should be
kept at about the same temperature that you want the milk ;
but in the summer it will require a very little ice. The room
should be constructed with non-conducting walls, and you
can raise the windows in the evening, which will carry the
160 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
room down to the night temperature ; and in that way you
obtain the necessary conditions with very little ice. The
true point is sixty-three or sixty-four degrees, to get the
most perfect production.
The Chairman. I see that Mr. Williams of Walpole is
present. I will ask him if he has had experience which will
bear upon this question.
Mr, Williams. I am very glad to be recognized here as
a farmer. I have the honor and the pleasure of running a
pure-bred Jersey herd, and so far I like it. I believe, as my
friend Mr. Douglas has said, that, if he had started a pure-
bred herd as intelligently as he has his grade herd, he would
have reached an average of three hundred pounds of butter
from each cow in less than twenty years. It has been my
fortune, wnth one-third of them two-year old heifers, to go
considerably beyond that. Now, there is a single point in
all that has been offered here that I think needs large con-
sideration, and that is, the uniformity of the quality of your
milk and your cream. Every speaker who has touched upon
the subject has stated that cream of different characters
takes different lengths of time to rise, and it has also been
intimated that it takes more time to churn one kind of cream
than another. We see, therefore, that that is an important
point ; and that it is very desirable, and almost necessary, if
you are to get the full value of your product, — if you are
to get all the cream from your milk and all the butter from
your cream, — that that milk and cream should be as uniform
as possible ; and that with cream from pure-bred stock, whether
it be Guernse}^ or Jersey or Holstein or Ayrshire or Dur-
ham, you are more likely to get all of the cream and all the
butter from the cream if you have uniformity in your cream,
which you cannot possibly get with a graded herd.
The Chairman. I would like to ask if Mr. W. A. Kil-
bourn can give us any information upon this important
subject.
Mr. KiLBOURN. I do not think that I can give much in-
formation upon this subject. We keep some grade cows
for a special purpose, but our herd is largely pure-bred
Jerseys ; and, while we set the milk for different purposes,
partly for cream and partly for butter-making, I cannot give
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 161
such an accurate statement of results as I should like to be
able to do.
The Chairman. If there is nothing further in the way of
questions or discussion on this important subject, the question
box will be opened. Our Secretary will read the questions.
Secretary Sessions. Here is a very practical question to
all stock growers : " How shall we cleanse a stable of cattle
lice?" Will Dr. Lynde tell us something about that?
Dr. Lynde. About the best thing you can do is to
fumigate with sulphur. Remove the cattle, close the stable
as tightly as you can, put a liberal quantity of sulphur into a
kettle, pour alcohol upon the sulphur, light it, and let the
fumes go through the stable, and they will kill every living
thing.
Question. Would not coals of fire under the sulphur be
as good as the alcohol ?
Dro Lynde. No, sir; alcohol is better.
Question. How would you deodorize your stable so
that the fumes of the sulphur would not affect the milk?
Dr. Lynde. Open it freely to the air, and in a short
time the fumes of the sulphur are gone. Is not that so.
Dr. Goessmann?
Dr. Goessmann. That is so.
Mr. Dyer. In my own experience I have found that a
mixture of equal parts of lard and kerosene, which is per-
fectl}^ harmless, is very effectual, if the dose is repeated
once or twice. One application kills the lice, but not the
nits, so that it is necessary to repeat the dose.
Secretary Sessions. The next season your creatures will
be covered again, if the stable is not freed from the lice.
Dr. Lynde. The effect of that is limited to the lice on
the stock. The lice and the nits are all about in the stable,
and you must get rid of them as well as those on the stock.
The remedy which the gentleman suggests will not do it
effectually. There is another remedy, and that is a solution
of corrosive sublimate. It is a deadly poison, which will
kill the lice and kill the nits, and, if you put it on too freely,
it will kill the cattle.
Dv. Goessmann. Carbolic acid and lime is also an excel-
lent remedy for lice in a stable.
162 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Secretary Sessions. How would you use the carbolic
acid and lime ?
Dr. GoESSMANN. About an ounce of carbolic acid to a
pound of slacked lime.
Question. I would like to inquire, if the stock are rid
of lice in the spring, if the lice will stay in the stable and
live through the summer when the cattle are turned out to
pasture ?
Secretary Sessions. I can answer that they will. I know
it by experience.
Mr. Bradley. To kill lice on cattle I would recommend
common insect powder. You can put that on where you
could not use lard and kerosene. Take a pepper-box, and
you can go over an animal in a quarter of a minute, and in a
very short time go over a whole herd. I will guarantee that
the lice will all be killed with three or four applications. If
you sprinkle it around the horns, around the neck and over
the back several times, you will kill them all.
Mr. FiSKE. My cattle used to be badly troubled with lice
every year, but for the last eight or ten years I have adopted
a very simple means of ridding the cattle of lice. I keep a
pail of flour of sulphur in the barn, and when a creature
shows symptoms of having lice by lapping and rubbing, I
take a little hand sieve and sift a small portion of that sul-
phur over their backs and heads, and the remedy has been
effectual. My stable used to be full of them, and when the
cattle came into winter quarters they would soon be covered
with lice. I used to put on soap-suds, tobacco, and other
things ; but I never found anything so simple or so sure as
this practice of sifting a little flour of sulphur over their
backs. I have applied it two or three times, once a week,
and it is very seldom now that I have occasion to use it at
all.
Mr. Marshall. I cart into the stable a portion of dry
lime, and every time I clean out my stable I put it down
where my cattle lie. It fills their hair with dust, and keeps
the lice ofi" of my cattle the best of anything I have tried.
I have tried all the remedies I have heard spoken of, and
there is nothing so effectual and so safe to use as that.-
Secretary Sessions. I suppose you are all aware that
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 163
there are two kinds of cattle lice. The little red fellows are
very troublesome to get rid of; the larger black louse is not
so troublesome.
Mr. Marshall. It makes no difference whether they
are little or big, they will all go.
Mr. Lord. I have never had trouble in getting rid of
blue lice, but the red lice have troubled me considerably.
I have sifted dry dirt along on the shoulders and back. You
can open the hair and see them there all alive. They don't
keep still, like the blue lice ; they are in motion all the time.
I have put on sulphur, and tried one thing and another, and
none of them seemed to do any good. I think the best pre-
ventive is good keeping. If I keep my stock in good con-
dition, in good flesh and good order, they do not have any
lice. I have filled my barn with hay and rowen, and I do not
expect to see any lice on my cattle this winter.
Secretary Sessions. Another question: "Can any one
tell whether cream has been tampered with before it is drawn
from the can?"
Mr. . • This is a matter of more importance, per-
haps, than would seem at first thought. On Monday morn-
ing I was informed that the milk from a herd that had been
giving from nine to ten spaces of cream very suddenly rose
to sixteen. This cream was taken to the creamery, and the
butter-maker churned it separately. It took between nine
and ten spaces to make a pound of butter, whereas the aver-
age of the creamery was six and a half. There has been
some little improvement in the cream since, but it has not
got back where it was before. Another creamery in West-
ern Massachusetts I understand has had the same diflSculty.
They finally suspended the party for fifteen days, and that
cured him. Now, before taking any action in the case to
which I have referred, it seemed to me it was possible that
some gentleman could give us a certain way of determining
whether or not cream has been tampered with. In this case
the cream had evidently been stirred.
Mr. Dyer. A bit of information came to my knowledge
casually about a year ago, that may help the gentleman out
of his difficulty. I had a hired man who had been in the
employ of a party in Connecticut who furnished cream to
164 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
one of the co-operative creameries there, and during the
year that he worked for me he tohl me casually one day some-
thing about his employer, and that a, part of his work was to
turn so much fresh milk into the cream on each can every
morning, to increase the number of spaces before it was
taken away by the cream-gatherer. That may help the gen-
tleman to understand how it is done. In this case the
cream was not stirred, but fresh milk was turned right into
the cream, so as to increase the number of spaces.
Secretary Sessions. Mr. Gold, Secretary of the Con-
necticut Board, has had some experience in the distribution
of milk and cream, and we should be very happy to hear
from him on this subject.
Mr. T. S. Gold of West Cornwall, Conn. I have but
very little to say on this subject ; but I understand that the
practice to which the gentleman refers, of pouring new milk
into the cream, will measurably increase the depth of the
cream. That has been done, and parties have been detected
in that practice in repeated cases. But just how you are
sroinff to tell in all cases whether or not cream has been tam-
es o
pered with, I cannot tell. In the cases to which I have
referred, the deception was detected by noticing the unusual
amount of cream that the milk registered, and then by
churning it by itself, and finding the extra number of spaces
required to make a pound of butter. The parties were then
confronted with the facts, and were obliged to own up to
the practice.
Dr. GoESSMANN. I sent out my assistants to some dairies,
and they visited about two hundred farms and collected
cream. We found that that cream varied in percentage from
fifteen to twenty. I think the best test would be to isolate
the cream from each farm. That would soon show whether
the cream had an infusion of milk, or not.
Mr. Jefts. In the creamery with which I have had some
acquaintance we have found this trouble once in a while ;
and when we have run across it, or thought we had, we have
collected the cream from that place separately, churned it,
and if it took from eight to ten spaces to make a pound of
butter, we sent word to the patron asking him to look the
matter up. If, upon testing it perhaps a week after that,
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 165
we got the normal amount of butter from the cream, we felt
that Ave had met the difficulty.
Secretary Sessions. I have another question here :
" Considering the magnitude of the poultry interest of our
country and the importance of artificial incubation to the
poultry keeper, why can we not have something done at our
experiment station for the benefit of this great industry ? "
I think Dr. Goessmann can answer that.
Dr. Goessmann. That is something entirely out of my
line of investigation.
Secretary Sessions. I have one other question here :
" Man being an animal, why should our food be cooked, at
a loss of its digestibility?" I believe Dr. Lynde under-
stands that question.
Dr. Lynde. It ought not to be cooked at a loss of its
digestibility. The purpose of cooking food is to render it
more digestible. The human stomach is altogether a differ-
ent stomach from that of the ostrich, of the ox or of the
sheep. Its mode of operation is different. The juices that
it secretes that digest the food may be analogous to those of
the ostrich or those of the animal ; but when you ask the
human stomach to take uncooked root fibre, digest it, and
convert it into a pabulum which will nourish the tissues,
you are asking too much of it. The human stomach will
not do it. That food must be prepared for human use by
cooking, and by proper cooking it loses none of its impor-
tant elements ; its digestibility is wonderfully improved,
and the digestive juices that are secreted in the digestive
apparatus of the man are enabled to act upon that food, to
dissolve it, to pabulize it, and to put it into a soluble
condition, so that it can be absorbed into the system, be
assimilated by the tissues, and be used for the purposes of
nutrition, of repair, and for the purpose of maintaining that
most wonderful function of human bodies, animal heat. So
that it is important that the food which we eat should be not
only carefully selected, but that it should be well cooked,
properly cooked, not spoiled by cooking. It is from this
that we derive our power to work. Whether we work with
the muscles or with the brain, we derive our power from
the energy that has been stored in the food that we con-
166 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
sume ; and that food must be supplied to us in such a way
that we can digest it and appropriate it, and we cannot
do that successfully unless it is properly cooked.
Mr. Peterson. If there are any exceptions, doctor, I
suppose they would be in favor of fruit, especially for the
young?
Dr. Lynde. As a general rule, it is better that fruit
should be cooked. I am not certain but that, as a general
rule, that wonderful substance which you have been talking
of this afternoon, that is so perfectly elaborated in the lacteal
glands of the cow and of human beino-s, — I am not certain
that that wonderful fluid may not be rendered more digest-
ible, more acceptable to the human stomach, if it goes
through a slight process of cooking. That is to say, it is
altogether probable, indeed, I think it is altogether true,
that milk, when supplied to the human young or to the
older person, is made more digestiljle by heating it up to a
certain point, say to the point where the milk begins to
simmer around the edges of the dish in which you are heat-
ing it. But if you boil that milk you change its properties ;
it is a diiferent substance from what it was before.
Allow me to digress for a moment to something which is
practical, and, to my mind, exceedingly important. You
are all aware that a great deal has been said in the last few
years, both in this country and abroad, in relation to the
subject of tuberculosis in cattle and in hogs. A great deal
has been said, a great deal has been written upon it ; and it
is a sul^ject which comes right home to every man, woman
and child in the community. It touches the welfare of the
coQimunity at its start, at its root ; and if it is true that we
are liable to take the germs of consumption into our systems,
if it is true that children who are fed the milk of our cows
are liable to get tuberculosis from infected milk, — and the
truth of it cannot be controverted, — that being so, how im-
portant it is that the milk of the infant who receives its
nourishment from the milk of an animal other than its mother
should be administered in its purity ; and if the child is in
danger of taking tuberculosis from the use of tainted or im-
pure milk, how important it is, if that can be prevented, that
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 167
the facts should be known. Now, it is true that if milk is
heated to the degree which I have indicated, that is, until it
just begins to simmer, if it contains the germs of tuberculosis
or of any other disease, it effectually sterilizes that milk, kills
those germs, and renders that milk safe for the infant and
safe for any one.
Now, just one step further. If it is true — and that it is
true will not be questioned by scientific men — that the tis-
sues of an animal which is affected with tuberculosis contain
the germs of that disease, if it is true that those germs are
in the blood and in the tissues of that animal, if it is also
true that a thorough cooking of those tissues will destroy the
germs of that disease, how important it is to the welfare of
the people that the meats which they consume should be
thoroughly cooked before they are set upon the table or eaten
at our meals.
Adjourned to 7.30 p.m.
EvENixG Session.
The meeting was called to order at 7.30, Mr. Cruickshanks
in the chair.
The Chairman. I have a very pleasant announcement to
make to the members of the Board. It is that the secre-
taries of the boards of agriculture of the six New Eno-land
States are now present in this room, a thing that has prob-
ably never happened before in the history of this Board. I
have now the pleasure of introducing to you the Masonic
Male Quartette, who sang so acceptably to us last evening,
who will favor us with a song.
The quartette gave a song, which proved so acceptable
that the audience demanded another, to which the quartette
very kindly responded, and were heartily applauded.
The Chairman. The lecture this evening will be by Prof.
Win. H. Brewer of Yale University, upon " The Farm and
Farmer the Basis of National Strength." I have the pleas-
ure of introducing to you Professor Brewer.
168 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
THE FARM AND FARMER THE BASIS OF NATIONAL
STRENGTH.
BY PROP. WM. H. BREWER, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE IN TALE UNIVERSITY,
NEW HAVEN, CONN.
The farm and the farmer are the basis of national streno;th.
This is true of all countries, and is especially and emphati-
cally true of this. National strength implies several things, —
streno;th in material resources, streno;th in men and strens^th
in intelligent patriotism. There are many factors in the
problem of what constitutes national strength, — some are
material, some intellectual, some moral and religious ; and
all these factors are related to agriculture as they are to no
other one vocation or industry.
Our modern civilization is very complicated. It implies
that there is and must be in any prosperous community a
variety of vocations in which men busy themselves, a variety
of industries in which capital is invested, and a variety of
things produced. Inasmuch as this variety of vocation and
investment is essential to a high state of civilization, there
is one point of view from which we may say of several in-
dustries that each are necessary to a nation's strength. But
there is another point of view, from which we see that these
different industries have very unequal values, and that some
of them are much more important than others as Victors of
national strength. But in every aspect and lying at the
foundation of all the others, and upon which the prosperity
and stability of all the others must depend, is the agriculture
of the country. This is partly because of the nature of the
capital employed in this industry, but more because of the
nature of the product.
The subject has many sides and may be viewed from a
groat many stand-points, but from each and all of them the
same conclusions must be reached. In the short hour
assigned me now, we can only consider in a very general
way some of the many elements which enter into this subject.
The Food Question.
The most obvious and pressing necessity of mankind is
food, and the food of civilization is produced by the farmer.
This fact of itself places agriculture in diflerent relations to
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 169
the community from that of any other industry. By the
production of crops and the production of domestic animals
all civilized countries are fed, and in the march of improve-
ment and discovery we can scarcely hope that any other
chief source of food supply will ever be discovered or de-
vised. We must believe that in the future, as in all the
past ages, the form must supply the daily bread. This fact,
of itself, were there no others, would be sufficient reason
why a nation without agriculture could not be as strong
as a neighbor which produced sufficient food for its own
citizens.
In regard to the other productive industries, and espe-
cially in manufactures, this or that object may drop out
of use or new articles come in ; changes take place in the
method of production as well as in the object produced ;
changes may take place in the objects and methods of trade
in any community ; but the farm and the farmer must ever
remain of the same supreme importance to the community,
because they feed the people.
In times of peace and with modern means of transporta-
tion, communities may now be fed from a distance, as was
not possible in all the previous ages. Nevertheless, the fact
remains that an independent food supply is a prime source of
strength. No nation can be permanently strong that has
not an assured food supply. It must either produce its nec-
essary food upon its own farms, or else it must be not only
rich enough to buy it from elsewhere, but also strong enough
to defend it from possible enemies while in transit.
An over-crowded land depending for any considerable
portion of its food upon other nations has within it an ele-
ment of weakness standing ever as a menace to the stability
of the government itself. But one country in the world to-
day is prosperous under such conditions, and that is pros-
pei'ous only because of its supreme naval strength. This
has made it possible for its commerce to continually in-
crease, at the very time its agriculture has suffered. But
that country has doubtless passed its zenith of relatjve
strength, and what will be the future of England is a prob-
lem for the future to solve.
170 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Capital in Agricultural Land.
Capital in agricultural land has always been considered in
a different light from capital employed in other industries.
It certainly bears a very different relation to national pros-
perity. It is the most stable of all kinds of property, and
least liable to be totally lost. It belongs to its own country,
and to no other. Capital invested in trade, even in manu-
factures, may, in times of danger, be transferred to other
and more peaceful or more prosperous countries. Land in
cities has its value entirely in the prosperity of the city
itself; but agricultural land has a peculiar value of its own,
and is related to the community as no other property is. It
cannot be carried away in times of trouble, nor hidden out of
sight from the tax gatherer. It is capital that must remain in
its own country ; it can neither be carried away nor entirely
destroyed, nor can it be brought into the country from else-
where. Like all other forms of capital, its money value
fluctuates according to the vicissitudes of the business ; but it
is never entirely lost, so long as the nation endures or peo-
ple are left to be fed. Hence the agricultural land of a
country, as representing invested capital and national wealth,
has always borne a somewhat different relation to the gov-
ernment than capital invested in any other way.
Curious and fallacious doctrines are now being preached
regarding the source of the value of land. Men preach that
it is the community and not the occupant that gives value to
land, and even that land has an inherent money value of it-
self. This is practically untrue. As a rule, land has no
value of itself. Agricultural land derives its value in part
from the labor done on it, in part from the density of popu-
lation, in part from the stability of government, in part from
the character of the neighbors, in part from the nature of the
market for its product, and in part from several other
causes.
Private ownership of land appears to lie at the foundation
of. all civilization. The native American Indian had no idea
of })rivate property in land, in the sense of having the land
divided up into parcels, each with an owner. He might
indeed have his small corn patch, but the land as a wdiole
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 171
belonged to the tribe as a whole. So, too, the parent had
no exclusive right to his own child ; it belonged to the tribe
or to the " gens" or band. To civilize the Indian, we have
to instill in him the Christian idea of a family, the Christian
idea of private property belonging to the family, and, as
a last resource, of individual ownership in land.
I am aware that a certain school of politicians, which
denies the right of private property in land, is making much
talk and is growing in this country. Starting with premises
that have but a thread of fact, they reach conclusions as
wild and fallacious as they are radical. This school of
politicians is almost exclusively of foreign birth. It is an
importation, and belongs to the city and not to the country.
It is simply impossible that such a school could grow up on
farms. It totally and entirely ignores the fact that agricult-
ural land is as truly a manufactured product as is the house
upon it or the plough with which it is tilled. Land in a state
of nature is not fit for agriculture ; it must be brought into
a state fit for cultivation by labor. Take the land of this
State of Massachusetts as an illustration. The labor ex-
pended on subduing the land and bringing it into its present
conditions would amount to more than the land will brin^
to-day, even if that labor is not counted at more than
twenty-five cents per day.
Land from which any man can earn a living if he sees fit to
subdue it, clear it for ploughing, dig it and put in his crops,
may still be bought in New England or even in the Middle
States for less than a dollar per acre. We hear of firms
"abandoned" in New England, which once supported a
thrifty population. That is not a feature peculiar to New
England. Land was sold last year in New York, the " Em-
pire State," — not in a remote corner, but lying but a lew
miles from great cities, — for one cent per acre, and con-
siderable quantities at less than one dollar per acre. I cite
this merely as an illustration that land has little value of
itself. A part of the agricultural vakie of land depends
upon its proximity to market ; a little depends upon its
native fertility ; but very much more depends in actual fact
upon the ability and labor of the farmer. Some lands are
so situated that they can and will have but a slight agricult-
172 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
ural value ; there are others that may have or may not have
a high money value, according to the farmer who tills it.
Let me illustrate my meaning by citing a case described
in the " Maryland Farmer," last year. It is the story of a
farm near the city of Baltimore ; it was well fenced, but
was poor and run down. Its proximity to Baltimore gave
it some value, and an enterprising farmer bought it for
twenty dollars per acre, lie took hold with a will. He
raised such crops as he could market in Baltimore, and
always took back a load of manure which he could get
cheap. In a few years his farm was as fertile as a garden,
and his crops of vegetables brought him in a nice income.
He was a prosperous man, and was repeatedly offered two
hundred dollars })er acre for his farm, and once as high as
three hundred and fifty dollars ; but it was his home as well
as his capital in business, and he kept it until he died. His
heirs sold it for two hundred and twenty-five dollars per
acre, and moved away. It fell into the hands of a careless
man, who thought the farm should support him; he did
little himself, but let his hired men do the work. The farm
of course deteriorated. He was ofiored a hundred dollars
per acre, and refused ; he thought it worth more, and it
certainly had been worth much more until recently ; so,
rather than sell at that price, he rented it. The tenant
cropped it hard. In the end it was sold at auction for
twelve dollars per acre.
This is a fair and typical illustration of the actual source
of value in most agricultural land. Tilled soil is not a
natural but an artificial product. It is something that is
made, and its value depends on the skill, brains and industry
of the man who manufactures it.
I have said that capital in agricultural land is never entirely
lost. This is true simply because, if it ever had agricultural
value, it may have it again so long as the market endures.
In the case cited this great decline in the value of the land
was not because of competition or loss of market. We hear
much of the decline in the value of farm land in New Eng-
land ; many farms have declined in value, l)ut others have
increased. Some have declined because of new compe-
tition, some because of decrease in the density of rural
1890.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 4. 173
population ; but more have decreased because the thrifty
men who once lived on them have died, and their sons saw
more inviting fields of business enterprise in towns and cities
or in the West, where land could be got for nothing, and
which would gain in value by their industry more rapidly
than the old New England farm would.
There are three essentially dilFerent ways in which agri-
cultural land may be owned and held ; namely, by the State,
by landlords constituting a landed gentry, or by the farmers
themselves. There is now much clamor that the land be
owned by the State, and rented to those who till it, by the
politicians who may control the public offices. But I know
of no civilized nation to-day in which the land is so owned,
nor does any case occur to me wdiere a nation or people has
risen to a high state of civilization without private owner-
ship in land. If the State is to own the land, the State must
have the right to rent it to whom it pleases ; to say to this
man. Live here, and to that man. Live there ; it must have
the right also, when it thinks the population becomes too
dense, to export men when it pleases and where it pleases,
otherwise there Avill be over-population in some places.
The State ownership of land belongs to barbarism and not
to civilization. It is the common kind of land tenure among
savages the world over, and it is extraordinary that it should
be revived so late in the nineteenth century ; and there is
need of a class of intelligent farmers owning the land they
till, to meet and fight this growing political heresy. There
must be private property in land, or there can be no progress
in agriculture, and no liberty for those who till tlie soil.
Private ownership may be divided into two systems : first,
where the land is held in large bodies by a privileged class,
and rented for tillage by a class having restricted political
privileges and holding an inferior social position ; second,
where it is owned by those who till it, and where it con-
fers no special political privileges not conferred by other
kinds of property.
Most of the land in the old world was held according to
the first of these tenures until very lately, and much of it is
still so held. On the continent the cultivators were and are
still largely what is called a peasant class, — a class of in-
174 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Jan.
ferior social position, and restricted in political privileges.
Until lately they have owned but little of the land they
tilled. Peasant ownership on a large scale is a comparatively
new thing.
Unquestionably tlie best system of land ownership is
essentially that which we have here in the United States ;
where it confers no especial political privileges, and where
land may be bought and sold as other property can, with
only such restrictions as the nature of the property and the
security of title render proper.
"Wherever such a condition exists, there we always have a
sub-division of land, suited to the wants and the means of
those who wish to win their living from it. The man of
moderate means can buy land on the same terms that the
rich man may. This tendency has been to create a large
number of property owners, and this is unquestionably a
source of national strength. We cannot conceive of a
strong nation or any strong sense of patriotism, where all
the people are poor and without hope of acquiring a home.
Love of country grows out of love of home, and a nation of
homeless men cannot be patriotic. National strength is, in
a sense, based upon property as well as upon men ; and no
other form of property is so endearing as a bit of land,
which is at once the home of the family and its wealth.
Less than a generation ago, seven-eighths of the capital
of the civilized world was invested in agriculture, or in the
commerce of agricultural products. The younger generation
to-day cannot appreciate how rapidly the means of invest-
ment have changed. One of the reasons, and a powerful one,
too, for the decline in money value of agricultural land all
over Christendom, is due to the fact that many other ways
have rapidly come forward in which capital may be invested
with reasonable safety and profitable returns.
Perhaps the most marked feature of the employment of
capital to-day is the tendency for its concentration in a few
hands. Vast sums, representing the capital of great cor-
porations, are controlled by a few people, and great riches
have accumulated in the hands of a few very rich men. Less
than a generation ago all the very rich men were rich in
lands ; it was almost the only stable property to invest in on
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 175
a large scale that they knew of. But now, and especially in
this country, the most wealthy men are not large land owners,
and have not made their money from land.
In all the productive industries other than agriculture
there is a marked tendency for the concentration of capital.
Establishments on a large scale can be managed more profit-
ably than on a small scale. In manufactories the product is
cheapened and made more uniform. All this tends to con-
centration of wealth in fewer and fewer hands ; and this very
concentration, which separates more and more the interests
of the rich and the poor, is an element of weakness.
The antidote for this, as a factor of national strength, is in
maintaining the present character of our farming population.
The hope of a wide distribution of wealth and the political
power it brings, now, more than ever, rests on the farmers.
The outcome of the system of land tenure in this country
has been to create a larger proportion of property holders, —
a larger proportion of men who own their own homes than
in any other country of the world. This has been a fact
from its early settlement, and was a fact of prime impor-
tance in the time of the Revolutionary War. This was a war
of farmers for their homes. Putnam left his plough in the
furrow when he started for Bunker Hill ; Washington went
from his farm to lead the armies of the struijorling colonies,
he was recalled from his farm to l)e our first president.
When this service ended, he set the example of retiring, not
to a pensioned palace, but back to his form. There he lived,
honored as well as beloved by his country, there died, and
there his bones rest. The Declaration of Independence and
the Constitution of the United States were written by a
farmer, who, when he finished his official work for the nation,
returned to his farm, where he spent his declining years,
where he died, and where he is buried. This is not the
story of a landlord class.
During our whole colonial period and during the first cen-
tury of the republic the great majority of our statesmen came
from farms. I once took much pains to look up the history
of the childhood of all the presidents of this republic. Of a
few I could get no information ; but at least sixteen out of
the twenty-three presidents of the United States have been
176 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
either farmers or planters themselves, or the sons of such.
Ten of this sixteen were the sons of farmers, born and spend-
ing their childhood on small farms ; and four of them, indeed
I might say five, were on new or " pioneer" farms in their
boyhood, actually helping in the arduous and toilsome work
of subduing the wilderness to the plough. This is not the
story of a peasant class.
Not only were the architects and builders of the American
idea during the colonial period essentially farmers, but so
were the statesmen the first seventy j^ears of the republic ;
and I think there will be no dispute but that the increased
corruption in national and State politics has grown almost in
the same proportion as the domination of towns and cities
has grown. As a larger and larger part of city-bred men
came into politics, there has come with it an increased pro-
portion of professional politicians, patriots in speech, but
alas ! too often patriots " for revenue only."
The strength of a nation must consist essentially in what
many have been pleased to call its middle class, — those who
were neither rich nor poor ; those Avho must both work and
make use of their own capital in their vocation. The farms
not only have been, but must and will continue to be, the
great home of the middle class in this country, — that class
from which arises most of the men who take a leading part in
all that advances civilization ; the class from which springs
the more progressive and the stronger men intellectually in
all countries. I shall have occasion to refer to this again in
several other connections.
The Farm as the 1*1 ace to grow Men.
Country life has in all times been healthier than city life.
In all previous ages of the world the human race has degen-
erated when aggregated in cities. This has been emphat-
ically true of the larger cities, all of which hav^e only been
maintained by a continual draft of country l)lood. It has
been said that no family survived in Paris more than three
generations, without fresh infusion from the country. In
England and on the continent all the " old families" had
their country residence, where the children were reared, and
where adults went to recruit the health and energies wasted
in city life.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 177
The relative difference is now much changed. Modern
sanitary science, modern means of transportation of food,
and modern means of obtaining comforts and materials
(such as milk and fresh vegetables from the country), have
changed the relations somewhat, and indeed these have
made great cities possible. But for these contributions of
science to the arts of life, the great migration of men from
country to town, which marks the present time, would not
and could not have taken place. Nevertheless, the superior
value of the country over the city as a place for the raising
of healthy and stalwart men, a place in which at least the
childhood should be spent, has not been changed. Armies
may enlist men from the cities, but practically their strength
comes from the country. Then, too, in this country at
least, the farms have supplied the most of the statesmen, the
leaders in thought and the business men of the larger cities.
So common is this, that wherever we see a man who has
made great wealth in any of the cities, we take it almost as
a matter of course that he spent his boyhood on a farm.
And this brings us to the next point, —
The Educational Iiifiuences of the Farm.
I have, on another occasion and before another audience,
discussed this matter at more length than I can here. It
is a subject in which I have been intensely interested for
many years. The hope of a nation is in the children, and
therefore the most important business of a nation is the edu-
cation of its youth. This is especially so in a republic like
ours, where not only the prosperity of the country but the
stability and very existence of the government itself is in
the hands of the masses of the people, rather than in the
care of a special and privileged ruling class.
Many factors are involved in the evolution of our govern-
ment and of our greatness as a nation, the most important
of which has been the social, the political and the intellectual
status of the farmers. My own belief is, that without this
the progress of this countiy would have been but little
better than has been that of Mexico, of Central America or
of the counti'ies of South America. In all of these coun-
tries the farmers have been rated as a peasant class, or at
178 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
least a class socially and intellectually inferior. The eastern
United States was settled not by peasants but by a middle
class, neither the very poor nor the very rich, — an excel-
lent stock of men. All northern and Avestern Europe was
sifted to get this seed of the nation, and from the necessities
of the times a great majority of our early population were
farmers, or at least lived a part of the time on farms. Farm-
ing had, in this country, a respectability which it had
nowhere else in the world. The large number of eminent
men Avho originated or were educated on farms was the
legitimate result of the condition of things, which has here-
tofore prevailed.
The subject of the educational influences of the farm has
long been one of peculiar interest to me. I was born
and reared on a farm ; all the associations of my childhood
and all the traditions of m,y ancestry related to the farm ; so
I speak from experience in that direction. I am a teacher,
and have spent many years in teaching in academies and col-
leges which have had among their pupils both city and
country youth ; so 1 can speak from a teacher's experience.
As an American citizen, interested in the history of our be-
loved country, I have studied the influences which have
shaped its progress, and which have molded the lives of
many of the eminent men who have shaped its destinies and
made it great, and could but notice what a large proportion
of them had received their education on farms. As profes-
sor of agriculture, the influence of farm life on the intel-
lectual status of the people has naturally and necessarily
come within the province of my professional studies.
Lastly, and l)y no means of least importance, as fother of a
family of children growing up in a large city, the relative
value of city and country education comes very closely
home to me.
When any person comes prominently forward among his
fellow men, — whether great in the world of finance, great
as an author, great as a general, great as a poet, great in the
realms of literature or science, great as a leader among
men, — the first question that comes up is. What was his
origin, how was he prepared for this great work, and wliat
has been his education ? This is a never-finished subject of
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 179
discussion ; and when any man becomes illustrious for any
quality that makes men great, questions are immediately
asked as to the influences which molded his early life. The
newspapers tell us about his origin, and teachers and writers
tell us what schools he attended. When prominent men die,
their biographies are written, so there is abundant literature
relating to the more eminent men of this country. More-
over, numerous special investigations have been made as to
the origin of leading men in particular cities or in special
vocations. I need not repeat statistics here, but all point to
the fact already asserted, that thus far the greater part of
our successful men have come from farms, or have had at
least a part of their education there.
This morning I visited your beautiful library, the gift of
an illustrious citizen ; after leaving that beautiful building,
I inquired about his history, " Where did he come from?"
The answer was, " Originally from a farm." It seems to me
I could have answered that before ; for this is the story all
over the land. Is there a free library established, a univer-
sity founded, or any other work of wealth to bless men in
the direction of aiding them to help themselves, nine times
out of ten you will lind the founders and benefactors origi-
nated on farms, or got their iirst impressions of life's duties
and life's privileges there. Our land is dotted with schools
and colleges and universities and libraries, founded by men
from the farms.
From the fact that a relatively smaller and smaller pro-
portion of the population is now being produced upon farms,
this matter comes forward now with an especial interest and
importance. This State made its famous history when the
majority of its population were either on farms or had a
country education. The last census tells us that less than
four per cent of its population are now engaged in agricult-
ure. A great responsibility rests on this four per cent,
for upon the farming population must depend much of its
future supply of men for its business enterprises, and, more
than that, men especially interested in the stability of our
institutions.
For the conservation of political institutions, as well as
for the creation and preservation of material wealth, it is
180 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
best that as large a proportion of the whole population as is
possible own real estate, particularly their own homes, and
that they be business men, even if on a small scale, working
and planning for themselves. This our system of land
tenure and land ownership encourages. For peace and the
suppression of warlike impulses, as well as for thrift, it is
best that as large a proportion of the population as is pos-
sible be at work for themselves rather than for hire ; and for
this our system of farming furnishes an opportunity. It is
unquestionably best for the race that a large proportion of the
population have facilities in their vocations for the education
and the rearing of families in industry and thrift. For such
education no other industrial occupation is so especially
adapted as farming; in no other vocation is there exercise
for so great a variety of faculties and for the cultivation of
the judgment, as on a farm. Growing various crops, pro-
ducing domestic animals, using the latest machinery and
labor-saving devices, — here the child has a greater variety
of object teaching than can possibly occur in any other
common form of home life. The round of the year's labors
has in it ■ something to continually interest him. Crops
grow and animals are reared, the natural laws and phenomena
relating to the daily work are more obvious than in ordinary
homes. The seasons mean more than merely heat and cold,
and the weather more than pleasant skies or gloomy days.
In this farm education, the child sees the business of the
father go on from day to day, and from a very early age he
begins to take part in it and soon becomes a member of the
firm. From the time he' begins to feed the chickens or drive
the cows, he becomes a working member of the establish-
ment, and has a sense of responsibility in the management of
affairs. His own importance is correspondingly increased,
and along with it his sense of personal worth. The city
child is made to feel by the adults of the household that he
is a nuisance ; he is at the bottom of the little social king-
dom of home, more useless by far than even the menials.
He is always in the way. Not so with the country child ; he
feels that he is a member of the business firm, sharing in its
work and its responsibilities. In no other vocation can the
child be so trained to habits of industry without detriment
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 181
to his health or intelligence. No other place is so well
adapted to a sound education for intelligent citizenship.
It has long been noticed that a large proportion of the
more prominent business men in all cities come from the
farm, or gained a part of their early education there. This
well-recognized fact is but the natural and logical result of
farm education. The child on a farm sees the business of
the father go on from day to day, as the boy in the city
does not. He sees what the work is, and what it is for.
Although very varied in character, nearly all the work is an
education in prudence and forethought. Most of the work
of the farm he sees going on or takes part in is for future
or unseen results rather than for immediate and obvious
uses. Each and every step is an education in forethought,
a making provision for the future. The ground is ploughed
and grain sowed for a future crop ; the winter's fuel is provided
for in summer ; fruits and vegetables are stored for use long
months ahead ; animals are anxiously cared for and reared,
requiring months of care before they have much value ;
orchards are set out which will not bear fruit for years to
come ; and so on through all the varied work of the farm, —
scarcely anything is for to-day, all of the operations are for
the future.
The contrast between all this and the experience of a child
in a city is great. City children see or know little of the
business of their fathers, except in the most general way, and
they see the daily M^ants of the table supplied without obvi-
ous forethought. Then, too, there is so much to tempt
them to spend what little money they have, so few ways in
which they themselves can see an investment grow, that it is
no wonder that cities produce so many men without thrift.
The whole education of the farm is an education in habits of
industry and thrift ; education in providing for the future,
education in patience, in awaiting results. Success in life
depends upon overcoming difficulties rather than in the
avoidance of them, on industry rather than genius ; and the
education of the farm is eminently adapted to strengthen
children in these directions. Even a small child can do
something useful ; what he does is not merely work de-
vised to keep him out of mischief, but something that needs
182 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
to be done ; and the most of farm work is unlike the routine
work in shops and factories, in that it is varied, interesting
and healthful. In no other vocation can the child be so
trained to habits of industry and thrift without detriment to
his health, intelligence and self-respect.
Then, too, all this education is in connection with a home,
and this lies at the very foundation of patriotism. A
farmer's love of home is a love for a spot of ground around
which cling tender associations, a locality as well as a family.
We can easily see why a ftirraer should love his home, and
why in a time of danger he should be ready and willing to
fight for it. The inhabitant of a city has an entirely differ-
ent conception of home. With him, home is a family, and
not a place also, for the family lives now in this street,
now in that ; and it is hard to have much sentimental
love in time of peace, or patriotism in time of war, fight-
ing for a rented house in a brick block, no matter how
elegant may be its appointments or how great its conven-
iences.
More than one writer, both ancient and modern, has
alluded to the fact that the inhabitants of cities lack patriot-
ism ; and this is but natural, when we consider the instabil-
ity of a city home as a place of abode. Most of the business
of a city can be transferred to some other place and carried
on there ; the farmer's work is associated with a place, and
that place is at once the place of business and the home.
Hence, that patriotism belongs more especially to the
country and the farm than to the city, is but the natural re-
sult that comes from the different vocations of men, and
the different educational influences brought to bear on the
work.
We have a class of writers now who speak as if it was a
matter for wonder that so many of our former statesmen and
poets were born on farms. But could it have been other-
wise? What would Whittier be without his farm birth and
farm education ? Thoreau was born on a farm ; his parents
soon moved into a village, but, it is said of him, as of Emer-
son, that he drove his mother's cows to pasture, and bare-
foot, too. Longfellow, Holmes, Bryant, Irving, Cooper, in
fact, all of our best-known writers, have either spent a part
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 183
of their childhood on farms or else in some country village,
where they had abundant opportunity for observation in
fiirm life. We might indeed ask the question, Would it be
possible for a writer or a poet of any great eminence to arise
whose only experience was a city experience ?
Daniel Webster, a farmer's son, spending his days on a
little farm and his evenings studying by the firelight in the
little farm-house, is often held up to us as a wonderful pict-
ure ; it would be vastly more wonderful to picture him
as the son of a man liviag in the city, on the small salary of
a clerk or the moderate wages of a working-man, the boy by
day in some crowded school of the great city, his evenings
in the street attracted by the sights and the distractions the
city affords. No, great men do not come up in that way,
and these men are not mere accidents ; such growth as theirs
has its foundation deep down in the laws which govern the
development of human intellect.
Many good people think that the reason why the country
is a better place morally to bring up children in (and par-
ticularly wayward children) than the city, is because there
are fewer temptations. This idea has only a small basis of
truth ; all places have their temptations, — the city one
kind, the country another; but temptations are in both.
This theory is a relic of that old monkish idea, that the way to
make a saint of a sinner is to remove him from temptation, —
shut him up in a monastery, where the allurements and sins of
the world cannot reach him ; but great men are not developed
in that way ; the growth of character is a positive and not a
negative process. It is what the country lad does, what he
learns, and the strength he accumulates and develops, that
makes him. It is not what he avoids and shuns, but what he
meets and overcomes, that gives him strength for the battles
of life ; the rugged strength and rugged morals developed
alono; with the work of the farm are his arms and his defence
in the battle of life.
An Independent Middle Class.
The stability of American institutions must rest on the
existence of an independent middle class, numerous enough
to be powerful by their votes, and with convictions strong
184 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
enough to maintain the laws which they may pass ; a class
not rich enough to constitute a purse-proud but weak minor-
ity, whose strength is only in their wealth, nor poor enough
to constitute a class dependent on the more wealthy for
means of a livelihood. It must rest on those with property
to protect and homes of their own to cherish and defend.
It is not too much to say, that in the future, whatever may
have been the history of the past, civilization itself must
depend upon the strength of this middle class. All the
great men who advance civilization and shape the destinies
of the nation are now produced in this class. The men of
science, the writers, the discoverers, the inventors, very
nearly all the authors and poets, statesmen in peace and
generals in war, are born in this class.
This country achieved its independence because of the
intelligence of this middle class, who had made farming
respectable as it was then in no other countrj^ of the world.
It has maintained its independence because of the advantages
and inducements it has oflered to this class ; it has made its
great material prosperity because it gave so many men a
chance to rise. The farms have produced a stalwart race of
educated men, whose early education in industry and thrift
has given us material prosperity, and whose independent
convictions have been the bulwark of our liberties.
Much has lately been said implying that the ra[)id growth
of our national prosperity has been mainly due to the rela-
tive sparseness of our population. We all admit that this
has been a factor, but I do not for one moment think that it
has been the chief one. I believe that it is mainly due to
the character of our farming population. Our near neighbor,
Mexico, is surely rich in resources ; she had the start of us
in time of settlement, — with that start, why has she not
grown and overshadowed us ? With one of the most delight-
ful climates of the earth, why has she not drawn to her
the choice of intelligent and ambitious emigration? With
scenery ranking with the grandest on the globe, why are
there not more writers and poets developing amid her
scenery, and drawing inspiration from the glorious surround-
ings? For the very best of reasons ; her farmers are peas-
ants, — not an independent middle class, l)ut a dependent
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 185
lower class. She has therefore lacked, not only the breeding-
ground for great men, but those grand educational influences
that have blessed the farms of the United States. That the
country should have been feeble, that frequent revolutions
should have taken place,,, property Ije insecure and adminis-
trations unstable, has been the natural and legitimate result
of an attempt to found a republic on an ignorant peasantry.
Just now there is a clamor to change New England farmino;,
and introduce peasant farmers. A peasant class tilling our
farms would be one of the greatest calamities that could
befall our State or nation ; our future hope lies in maintain-
ing on the land an intelligent class of farmers.
Agricultural Dej^ression.
There is great agricultural depression at present in New
England ; the vocation of farming is here under a dark
cloud. The fiirmer must toil harder and for lower profits ;
moreov^er, despite his labors he often sees his land decrease in
value ; hundreds of farms in New England are to-day worth
scarcely half what they were some years ago. The w^ise
politicians and the still wiser newspapers are discussing this
matter as if it was an isolated fact, belonging only to New
England, and are oflering wise reasons as to the cause, and
suggesting nostrums for the remedy. One tells us the cause
is the tarifi" ; another, that it is the Western competition ;
another, unjust discrimination in railroad freights ; another,
the manufacturing of oleomargarine and similar productions.
Another class traces it to moral and social causes ; that the
Puritans were a narrow set of men, too narrow to succeed,
and were a failure, and now must make way for the more
liberal Irishman or French Canadian. Some city writers
trace the New England farmer's decline to his miserable
domestic habits ; he eats pies and that destroys his digestion,
and the decline of his farming follows as a matter of course ;
and so on through a vast cloud of causes, some of which are
undoubtedly factors in the pro1)lem, others mere whims or
fanc}^
The agricultural depression of New England is not a mere
local fact ; it is part of a great depression of the industry,
which extends all over Christendom, except in new regions,
186 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
and the causes are general, not local. It is in the West as
well as in the East, and cattle growers of the plains and
wheat growers in Dakota are complaining as loudly as the
New England farmers. It extends to the old world, and
those countries once the most prosperous in agriculture feel
it the worst to-day. It is worse in Old England than in
New England ; Germany is groaning under it, and France
is bemoaning it. It is sending thousands of depressed peas-
ants from sunny Italy to our shores, hoping to escape the
pressure that has fallen on them there. The causes for such
a wide-spread condition of things must be also wide-spread.
They are not local, and the disease cannot be cured by any
local remedy.
The politicians in all the countries are seizing upon the
facts to gain advantage for their own views, promising to
cure the trouble by local legislation. In the United States
and New England we are told that our agricultural depres-
sion is caused by our protective tariff ; in Great Britain and
Old England the politicians say it is caused l)y their lack of
a protective tariff, — they attribute it to free trade ; in Ger-
many the politicians tell the peasants it is caused by a stand-
ing army ; in France they are told that it is caused by the
overbearing attitude of Germany ; in Italy, because of a
change in the political status : and so on, here one thing,
there another ; but in each case the remedy they tell us is to
be brought about in some political way, l)y a change of
administration or by local legislation.
The real causes are economic, and belong neither especially
to tariff nor to no tariff, to republics, limited monarchies or
absolute monarchies. The cause lies in the changed rela-
tions between the city and country populations, which have
been brought about by three great factors that are the
results of modern science and modern invention. First, and
most important, are the new methods of transportation both
of men and of products. Food can now be transported great
distances very cheaply, and in good condition. Great cities
may now be fed to an extent that has been impossible in all
previous ages. Second, sanitary science has made it possi-
ble to guard cities against desolating pestilences, and to
make them almost as healthy as the country for a working
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 187
population. While the country still maintains its suprem-
acy as a breeding-place for a healthy population, neverthe-
less, the adult individual can now live apparently as healthy
a life in the city as in the country. These two causes have
made cities not only more safe places of abode, but also
more comfortable places. Once the country was the pleas-
antest place for the poor man and the man of moderate
means to live in ; now it is the city. Food is cheap and
varied ; even such fragile and perishable materials as fresh
milk and eggs are abundant and cheap. The streets are
paved, sewered and well lighted, and water brought into
every house. These comforts have had very much to do in
directing the population to cities. Third, the quick trans-
mission of intelligence by telegraph and telephone has
given especial advantages to cities for trade.
The comliination of these three chief causes with various
minor ones has resulted in the rapid growth of cities and
large towns, at the expense of the rural population all over
the Christian world. This has so chano^ed farmino; that
there is a re-adjustment of the methods of farming, of the
markets and of land values going on in all countries reached
by steam and telegraph, and wherever there is freedom of
occupation.
Agriculture is the most plastic and adaptive of all voca-
tions, and at the same time the most conservative. Unlike
other industries, it cannot be killed by the most hostile leg-
islation or the most oppressive conditions. It is so plastic
that it molds itself to every pressure and conforms itself to
any settled condition, no matter how hard. This must be
so, for men must be fed ; consequently agriculture goes on
in some shape wherever civilization is found. The methods
of agriculture adapt themselves to local conditions, and the
business goes on in some shape so long as there is land to
till and mouths to feed. Manufactures and commerce may
be destroyed by hostile legislation or unfavorable conditions ;
agriculture cannot be destroyed without the destruction of
the people ;. it can be changed, but it cannot be killed. But
bear in mind that it is a conservative industry, and changes
but slowly.
The history of agriculture in any one country is a most in-
188 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
teresting study, and because of its vitality and its adaptabil-
ity is always intimately related to the history of the nation
itself. It is always changing as the conditions change, and
the present agricultural depression is because the conditions
of business in the civilized world have changed more rapidly
than this conservative industry could follow. The introduc-
tion of steam for the transportation, the buihling of railroads
and the changes in land transportation which have followed,
have been the greatest factors in the change demanded of
agriculture. Until within the memory of many of my
hearers nearly all the food of the world had to be grown
within twenty miles of the place where it was consumed.
Only grain and such kinds of food as could l)e transported
dried or salted could be shipped any considerable distance,
and these at a considerable loss as to their value as food.
Consequently, great cities could not be fed ; moreover, un-
der the conditions of life in great cities, pestilences were
frequent and life much more uncertain than in the country.
Consequently, there was not a city of a million of inhabitants
anywhere in Christendom at the beginning of this century.
The ffreat arowtli of modern cities and the great drain of the
rural population to large' manufacturing towns has come about
since the use of steam as a power for manufacturing instead
of water power, and with modern means of transporting
food and products of manufacture, and with the greater
healthfulness of cities made possible by the application of
sanitary science.
These great economical chansfes have aifected a<jriculture
everywhere, as they have no other industry or vocation ; not
only affected its methods and its products, but also its
capital. Less than fifty years ago, three-fourths, if not more,
of the capital of the civilized world was invested in agricult-
ure or in the commerce of its products. Moreover, in most
countries and emi)haticallv*in this, the vast majority of the
inhabitants devoted to it at least a part of their daily toil.
Now there are so many other ways of investing capital, some
of them absorbing such vast amounts, that the value of agri-
cultural land has declined. Once land was considered the
only safe investment ; this gave it a fictitious value above
that which it would have merely for agricultural uses. This
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 189
is shown on a stupendous scale in England, where land had
also a political and a social value. The various causes
which enhanced the money value of land above its mere
agricultural value have greatly changed within the last few
years.
Bear in mind that the money value of land depends upon
a variety of considerations ; partly on the density of the
population, partly on the desirability of location for business
purposes, partly on the markets, partly upon fertility,
partly upon the character of one's neighbors ; and so on
through a variety of conditions, its agricultural capacity
being but one factor.
In the new order of things, land is becoming relatively
much more valuable in cities and less valuable in the country.
Many kinds of business formerly carried on in the country
have left the country, and the land of the country is rapidly
becoming mere agricultural capital, and subject to the laws
of capital invested in other kinds of business. Keep in mind
that farming is the most adaptive as well as the most con-
servative of all industries. It can and will change to meet
any required condition or pressure, l)ut it cannot change
rapidly.
As in all other kinds of business, change means a re-ad-
justment of the money values of the fixed capital used in the
business. In some places land must and does rise in value ;
in another, sink, in accordance with the new conditions
under which each farm is placed.
We hear much of the decadence of New England farming,
and all the great city newspapers are just now speaking of it.
They treat it as if it w^ere an independent economical fact,
and this decline of farmino; in New England has been the
subject of many a pathetic article. But is it a fact that New
England farming is declining, in any other sense than that
which applies to agriculture all' over Christendom ? If so,
in what sense is it declining ? It is changing unquestionably ;
so is the farming of every civilized region that is reached by
railroads and telegraph. New England farming is certainly
changing, but I question very much if it is declining ; I mean
declining in the amount of its pixiductions, declining in the
value of its productions, or declining in its relative profits as
190 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Jan.
compared with farming in other places, or even with many
other kinds of business. No safe investment pavys so well
to-day as it did twenty-five years ago. It is more difficult
now to make safe investments jaeld five per cent than it was
then to yield seven or eight })er cent. I believe from all the
data I have been able to collect that New England as a whole
is not declining in its agricultural productions, either as to
amount or value. It is certain that this State of Massachu-
setts is not.
Massachusetts'' Agriculture.
We have a census of agricultural products of Massachu-
setts, beginning fifty years ago ; that is, going back to before
the days of railroad transportation, and before the days of
reaping machines or telegraph. I have spent much time and
study on agricultural census tables in general, and of Massa-
chusetts in particular, l)ecause this State is the only one in
New England which has a census of its own, alternating with
the national census, and more complete than that in its
agricultural details. This is a rich theme for study, but I
can only glance at some of the facts which have an especial
bearing on the subject I am discussing.
The figures show that during the last ten ^'-ears, the years
of greatest agricultural depression, not only in New England
but elsewhere, the total production did not decline, l)ut actu-
ally increased twenty-eight per cent ; during this period the
total area of land in farms increased, the acreage of cultivated
land increased, and the number of persons employed in
agriculture increased. The decline, if there was any, was
not in the amount of land tilled, nor in the number of per-
sons employed, nor in the value of the products produced.
If we look at the whole period of fifty years, the results
are very instructive. There has l)een an enormous increase, '
instead of decline ; some things have greatly declined,
especially mutton, cheese, wool and some other products ;
but even grain-raising has declined less than is popularly
believed. I have constructed tables showing the amount of
each of the cereal grains produced in each of the census
years, and also the total amount of cereals. The tal)les
would be too extensive for this place ; sufficient to say that
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 191
the decline, even in grain, has not been great. Using only
round numbers, the hundreds of thousands of bushels, the
decline has been from 41 (hundred thousand bushels) in
1840 and 29 in 1845, to 28 in 1880 and 31 in 1885. On
the other hand, there has been an enormous increase in many
productions. For example, eggs, from less than $26,000 in
1845 to over one and one-half millions in 1885, — an increase
of sixty-two fold. Hay has doubled in value ; milk has
increased from less than $305,000 in 1845 to ten and one-
third millions in 1885.
I cite these fi<>:ures more to show the chanofes in our aorri-
culture than to show that there is not a relative decline ;
because I wish to impress the fact of the actual change going
on in our New England firming, and also the fact that, even
rapid and great as it has been, it has not been fast enough
to keep up with the changing conditions.
Farming is certainly changing here, but the change in New
England is not so great as it is in Old England, nor is it,
after all, attended with so much distress.
In the re-adjustment of values that is going on, many indi-
vidual formers have suffered because of the decreased value
of their capital ; but such decrease may take place in any
business. With some kinds of business the industry would
be destroyed; farming cannot be destroyed, it only suffers.
It can change, but just now it cannot change as fast as the
external conditions are changing. That is why so many
suffer. It is changing in obedience to laws as imperious as
the law of gravitation, but just now the pressure is greater
than ever before. Greater changes have been demanded of
it in the last forty years than in the whole preceding four
thousand years, and more in the last twenty years than any
two centuries ever asked of it before. This most conserva-
tive of industries has not been able to change as rapidly as
the business of the world has asked it. Hence the distress ;
and here is the real explanation of what seems a most anom-
alous fact.
Civilization is going on, the population of Christendom is
actually increasing ; people must eat, there is no loss of
market as a whole ; and yet this industry which supplies the
food for the increasing population and developing civiliza-
192 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
tion of the world finds itself everywhere in distress. Even
its capital is declining in value, and the farmer has for the
past years been doing business on a falling market. There
is agricultural depression all over Christendom, not merely
in New England, but everywhere ; and the real explanation
I believe to* be in the great economic law affecting agricult-
ure, which I have mentioned ; that, while it cannot be
killed, and while it can and will change to suit new condi-
tions and is now changing to suit them, simply because of
the nature of the vocation, it could not change fast enough
to prevent suflfering.
As a matter of fact, it changes faster here in New England
than in Old England, and there is actually much less agricult-
ural distress. The English farmer is so tied l)y the renting
system that he is not free to turn himself under these new
burdens. The abandonment of tilled land, so called, which
means the change from tilled crops to pasture or woodland,
has been much more extensive in Great Britain than here,
and land incomes have decreased more rapidly ; but they,
too, are adjusting themselves to the new conditions as fast
as the nature of the case allows.
For nearly twenty years there has been a great and rapid
decline in the renting and sale value of English agricultural
land. A statement in a prominent and reliable English
journal, scarcely a month ago, says that the loss to landlords
has amounted to nine hundred millions sterling, and to ten-
ants one hundred millions more ; in the language of the
paper, " the total loss, adding the two together, being about
one billion pounds incurred in the last twenty years." That
makes the enormous sum of five billions of dollars ; and that
loss has taken place while other business interests have been
prosperous, and the population and total capital of the
country steadily increasing.
The American farmer, who owns the land he tills and is
free to change his methods and his crops, easier adjusts him-
self to the new condition of things ; and yet the decline in
agricultural land has gone on in all the older States. One
writer says that it amounts to a hundred million of dollars
in Michigan ; another, twice that in New York ; another
states high figures as to the decline in Illinois : and so the
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 193
stoiy goes. Another class of writers is discussing the amount
and number of mortgages on farms, and is trying to make
political capital out of it ; but foreign papers tell us the same
story of France and Germany and Italy. We all know how
Italian peasants are now seeking relief by flocking to America.
The fact cannot be denied that farming is under a cloud,
and has been so for the last few years ; but I believe that the
bottom of the decline has been reached, at least in this
country. The United States has given away land, and the
old States have bad to compete with land that cost nothing.
But the land is practically all given away now, the ' ' frontiers "
are gone. So, too, the pasturage is taken up, and hereafter
land must be bought for farming, and New England farms
will a2:ain rise in value.
Fanning cannot be killed ; it must and will go on ; and
this very conservatism which makes it so difficult if not im-
possible to change rapidly, while the source of distress now,
is, after all, an element of great value to a nation.
A Conservator of Conservatism.
In these days of radicalism and revolution, with free preach-
ing of communism, socialism and anarchy, we need a large
conservative class for the conservation of the institutions of
civilization. This class, to be of sterling value, should own
the land they may have to defend. It must be a class intel-
ligently conservative ; a class politically independent ; a class
having property to lose and homes at stake. Paris suflered
at the hands of a commune composed of those who had
nothing to lose by any change of government or any destruc-
tion of public or private property.
There is a similar dangerous class in every large city. It
is essentially a cifi/ class. Anarchy preaches only in cities,
Avhere there are great and oljvious contrasts of wealth, and
where there are abundant opportunities for dissatisfaction.
There, bodies of dissatisfied men get together, talk over and
magnify their grievances, and come to think that their more
prosperous neighbors are their natural enemies. Cities are
the natural breeding-ground of political disturbances. The
old saying, that cities were great sores on the body politic,
is just as true to-day in a republic as it was when spoken of
194 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. ' [Jan.
cities under monarchies. Hence it is in cities only that
anarchy and socialism are extensively preached. Those who
preach the doctrine that there should be no private owner-
ship of land, that a man should not own even the home he
lives in ; who think that the chief value of agricultural land is
given by the neighbors, and not by the owner's industry, and
that all farms should l)e rented to the farmer by the State,
— are all of them men who never worked on a farm. They
never with hardened hands cut down and subdued the forests
to the plough ; they never with aching backs picked the
stones from the reluctant soil ; they never planted orchards
that their children and children's children might eat the fruit
thereof; and they have most extraordinary city notions as
to wherein the real value of agricultural land lies.
This doctrine is a foreign importation ; but, in a free
country like this, there will always be such a class preaching
heresy and working mischief. To meet them and success-
fully resist them, we need an intelligent, conservative class
of land owners.
American farmers were framing and adopting a constitu-
tion and peacefully electing a president, just as the French
revolution was raging and the government being destroyed.
American farmers kept American politics cool and the land
peaceful, while that country was suffering under revolution
and blood. There, ignorant peasants were striking wildly
for what they believed to be their rights ; here, intelligent
farmers, having achieved independence, were trying to pre-
serve it by a new kind of conservatism, — a written consti-
tution, something before unknown in the history of nations.
I had intended to speak of the present attitude of the city
newspaper press on this matter, but time forbids ; I can only
hint that so many of them are in the hands or under the man-
agement of foreiofuers, whose education and associations are
of a farming peasantry, that they begin to look at American
farmers in the same light.
Under new and modern conditions, new forms of danger
will continue to arise to the nation, when the country will
need the same kind of strength that has been its preservation
heretofore ; that is, a powerful class of independent land
owners, for the full and free development of men capable of
being leaders in thought and politics, and for the conserva-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 195
tion of law and order and property. This class has been,
and must continue largely to be, the farmers. It is aided
undoubtedly by the small freeholders of cities, men who own
their own homes ; but in larger cities this class is relatively
becoming less and less. In the country villages and suburban
towns it will remain and be an important factor; yet, for
several reasons, it can never be so important as that relating
to the occupants of farms.
I have only glanced at this many-sided question from a
few points of view ; I have adduced some of the many rea-
sons why our nation's strength must be in its farmers in the
future, as it has been in the past. INIore profound statesmen
may see other deeper and more powerful reasons than I have
given ; but it seems to me that I have given enough to prove
that, if this nation is to remain the free country it has l)een
and seems destined to be, its hope is in an intelligent agri-
cultural class.
Onlj^ this very week I have heard of the emigrant com-
missioner of a neighboring State trying to bring into New
England, German, French, Scandinavian or Irish peasants,
to occupy the so-called " abandoned farms " of his State.
I listened with intense interest this afternoon to the
animated discussion over blooded stock. A speaker advo-
cated the grading-up of the dairy cows of the State, and told
how much it would add to our wealth and prosperity ; but he
was too slow for some of the impatient younger men, who
wanted nothing short of pure-breds, and selected pure-breds
at that, on their farms.
Yet within a week we see a great city newspaper telling
us that the want of New England is peasant farmers. Out
upon the doctrine that the country wants blooded stock, l)ut
a scrub race of men, on its farms ! Sad, indeed, w^ould be
the day when New England will be tilled by a peasant class.
Better let the lands be " abandoned," and stay abandoned;
better let the forests grow anew and untouched, where the
fox may dig his hole unscared, and the traveler lose his
way in a wilderness, than that New England thought, New
England culture and New England statesmanship, be turned
over to a peasant class.
Adjourned to Thursday morning, at 9.30.
196 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
THIED DAY.
The morning session of the third day of the winter meet-
ing was opened on Thursday, December 5, at 9.45, Mr.
Cruickshanks occupying the chair.
The Chairman. We had yesterday addresses from able
gentlemen on the subject of the "Economical Feeding of
Dairy Stock," and the " Grading-up of Dairy Stock."
These lectures gave valuable information on the production
of milk. There are a great many dairies where it is some-
thing of a problem to know what to do with the product.
We are to have before us this morning the " Economic Dis-
position of Milk," — following right in the same line. I
have the pleasure of introducing to you Mr. Gilbert of North
Greene, Me., Secretary of the INIaine State Board of Agri-
culture, who will now address you.
ECONOMIC DISPOSITION OF MILK.
BY Z. A. GILBERT OF NORTH GREENE, ME.
The consumption of milk in its natural form in all cities
and large towns commands the chief use of lands in the
immediate vicinity of the consumption. This conforms to a
law found everywhere associated with the business world.
Every line of industry seeks a location where are to be
found special facilities for carrying on its work ; that the cost
may be reduced to the minimum, a margin of protit be pro-
vided for the operator, and at the same time the product be
placed on the market or before consumers at the lowest cost
consistent with controlling conditions. In the milk business,
next to production, the cost of transportation and delivery
comes in as the principal factor. In obedience to this bus-
iness law, milk })roduction has taken possession of the
nearest land available to its use. Hence the situation is as
we find it. Farms near the cities are milk farms, and these
1890. J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 197
extend out on the lines of cheap and quick communication
till the limit of consumption is met, or the extreme cost of
transportation allowed to the business is reached.
The first circle of farms contiguous to a town is usually
given to a retail business, the farmers themselves transport-
ing the milk by team, and delivering direct to customers.
This gives the producer all the money there is in it, and
makes the business an exceptionally profitable one. It is
easily admitted that there is no other line of special farming
pursued among us that proves so profitable, measured by
money returns alone, as the milk business, where the profits
of production are augmented by the profits of delivery, and
the same man takes both. There are exacting requirements
connected with it : the unseasonable hours ; the never-endiuij
confinement of the seven days of the week, and the three
hundred and sixty-five of the year ; the wear and tear of
team ; the petty trade with individuals ; the vigilance re-
quired in collections ; and the ever-occurring annoyances to
which one is continually subjected. All these conditions,
and many more that might be enumerated, demand a com-
pensation. He who subjects himself to them is entitled to
all there is in it, and receives none too much. With this
kind of work I have no comparisons to make. As a rule,
no one has grit, perseverance and iron endurance enough to
keep him welded to the exactions of this business, with all
its profits, longer than to carry him through an emergency,
or lift him to comfortable circumstances financially. Having
accomplished this much, these farmers, or milkmen, as they
are usually denominated, fall back on some less exacting line
of work, and make room for less exhausted energy.
Back of the delivery wagon lies the wholesale milk trade.
In addition to the business law referred to, which calls the
use of these contiguous lands to milk production, and which
would under its mandates require that they be devoted to
this product, there seems to be further causes for the wide
attention given to the business over so extensive districts.
Business is gregarious. Without stopping to study the
causes or discuss the propriety of this, we simply call atten-
tion to its results. In sight of the retail milk trade the
wholesale business necessarily starts up. The fact of the
198 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
continued presence of this milk production in the locality
where called for, naturally suggests its adoption by other
farmers of the vicinity. Lines of transportation afford
sure and quick communication, and so the business is in-
vited out. Another farmer catches on because others are in
it. Thus the circle tends to widen. This holds true around
all milk markets, whether in the smaller towns or around
the great cities. The extensioa goes on, till at last produc-
tion exceeds demand. It is doubtful if a milk market can
be found in a town or city anywhere, where the trade is not
overcrowded with the product. This overproduction is the
bottom cause of the continuous strife between producers and
contractors, of which so much is heard. " Milk wars," the
records of whose bloodless battles lill so much space in the
columns of the agricultural press of your State, would never
have been heard of had not the supply of milk exceeded the
demand. Both arbitration and concession fail to establish
permanent and lasting peace, for the same reason, and must
ever so fail so long as there is milk that must be sold, and
that knows no other outlet. Milk producers' unions may
succeed in unloading a measure of the burdens upon the
other side ; but they can never establish a lasting peace, or
bring about a reign of unbroken harmony, till they strike at
the bottom cause of the unpleasantness.
Too Much Milk.
There is too much milk offered for sale. There are too
many farmers engaged in the business of making sale-milk.
It is my purpose at this time to call attention to other uses
for milk than that of its sale as a whole product, and con-
sider the money inducements there found for diverting it
into such channels. Farmers make milk for sale because
they have been doing so, and because their neighl)ors are in
that line of business. They continue in the business for the
reason that they suppose there is no other disposition of it
so profitable. If it prove there are other uses for milk quite
as remunerative, farmers have only to be informed what they
are, when they will turn their attention in that direction,
in ■ place of wastino; their enerijies in strus'S'les with the
contractors.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 199
In starting out in the dairy business, if you will pardon a
word personal, in a locality inaccessible to the milk trade, I
had somehow, in common with the rest of mankind, imbibed
the idea that a man so situated must work at a disadvantage,
as compared with those who were so favorably situated as to
be able to make milk for sale. Not liking to be outstripped
by my fellow farmers, I was led to investigate the business
of cheese-making and of butter-making, with a view to learn-
ing whether I would get left by pushing this work as a spe-
cial feature of my own farming. Through my own work,
and wherever opportunity afforded, I pursued these investi-
gations, and with results that were a complete surprise, and
which left me fairly well satisfied over my own situation.
No one needs to enlist in milk wars to battle for prosperity.
There are other fields of triumph quite as inviting.
Cheese.
Cheese-making affords an outlet for an unlimited amount
of milk. Althouo;h Americans are not a cheese-eating:
people, yet here in New England there is room for much
more of consumption than we are at present affording of
production. Comparatively little of the cheese consumed
here is made from our own milk. This is especially true in
your thickly populated State, while in Maine the people
mostly go without cheese. I once made a tour of observa-
tion across Washington County, eighty miles, without being
able to learn of a single cheese made that year in the county.
Since that time, however, I am glad to be able to say that
the farmers have had their attention called to the business,
and are now doins; somethino; at it.
I am aware this is an old-fashioned product of the farm
here in New England, and that, for reasons not apparent
to me, it is looked upon by most of our people as out of
date. The impression seems to prevail that the making of
cheese is only resorted to when and where people know no
better, or where nothing else can be done with the milk.
But there was never a greater error. Cheese-making, under
proper surroundings and with the exercise of the business
energy called into requisition in the milk business, will
reward the operator with fair returns for the outlay, and
200 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
better than is realized in some other branches of stock
husbandry, where the cow is not introduced as a principal
factor.
Factory.
There are two systems of Avork in cheese-making open to
choice, a decision between which should be governed by
circumstances and surroundings. With our small New
England dairies, the associated or factory system is best
designed to economize labor and keep the cost of making,
curing and selling the product down to a low figure. The
plan of building best suited for cheese-making has been
essentially modified and reduced in cost of late, from those
constructed under the teachings of Willard and Arnold, and
other of the recognized dairy authorities wdiose efiicient ser-
vices were instrumental in first starting the business on the
associated plan in this country. The building should be but
one story in height, thus bringing work room and curing room
both on the ground floor. The old-fashioned curing room,
elevated to a place under, and immediately in contact with, a
scorching roof, was a good place for roasting cheese, but not
fitted for ripening it. An even temperature is necessary for
this, and is best provided on a ground floor. A factory so
constructed also costs less. An establishment equipped for
working up five thousand to eight thousand pounds of milk
a day will cost, constructed on this plan, twelve hundred to
fifteen hundred dollars, according to locality.
The cost of making cheese in a well-conducted factory do-
ing a full business, and all expenses included, is from one to
one and one-quarter cents a pound, green weight. With cost
of plant kept down to the lowest practicable limit, and busi-
ness carefully handled throughout, the lowest figure named
will not be exceeded. These are safe estimates, though it
will take but little of loose and careless management to in-
crease this cost essentially.
The North Turner (Maine) cheese factory, with the work
of which I happen to be familiar, has made, since first
started, a million and a half pounds of cheese. The quantity
of milk required for a pound of cheese varies with the season,
and with the condition of the cows from which the milk is
drawn. In the flush of the watery and immature June
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 201
grasses, with cows fresh in spring-time, ten pounds of milk
will be required for one of cheese weighed from the press ;
while in autumn, with the richer milk peculiar to that sea-
son, and accounted for in part by the character of the food
furnished, and further by the remoteness of the cows from
time of coming fresh in milk, eight pounds of milk only is
required for a pound of cheese, and in some cases the record
has been made of a pound of cheese from only seven of milk.
Nine pounds of milk from the common cows of the country,
on the average, running six months of the year, will make a
pound of green cheese. This shrinks from three to six per
cent in curing, according to age when sold.
It may not be worth w^hile to refer to the price of this
product on the market, when all know that in the past, in
common with all other commodities, its value has fluctuated
somewhat. Any attempt, therefore, to name it for the
future, would carry no certain reliance. It is, however, a
law that has held good in the past, that no important com-
modity has long remained below cost of production ; so we
may reason that cheese will sell for a reasonable price. In
view of the present indifference to this particular business
throughout New England, the time when it can be feared
that it will be overdone must be a long way in the future.
The price for some years past has been called low ; yet good
cheese, — and intelligent Yankees are not excusable for mak-
ing any other, — well sold, has averaged in Maine full twelve
cents a pound. If a lower average must apply to Massachu-
setts, it must be because it was sold on the wholesale market,
or was an inferior article. Here in Massachusetts, close as
you are to a large population of consumers dependent almost
entirely on other States for the product, and where there is
no reason for going into the wdiolesale market, the price
named is entirely safe to base calculations for the future
upon. The price will go above that figure oftener than it
will fall below. In Maine we have factories that never any
year have sold below twelve cents, their product all going
to the local trade or to consumers in the vicinity. With
respect to market, we and you have an advantage in selling,
with this commodity the same as with butter, only that it has
not been worked to such an extent.
202 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
The North Turner factory, before referred to, in 1887,
netted its patrons $1.15 per hundred for all the milk worked
up for the season ; and this when the greater bulk of the
milk, remember, was made in early summer, when its value
is always at the lowest. In 1888 the net was a trifle less ;
while the present year, not yet figured, it will fully equal
that of 1887. There is no reason why a community of
Massachusetts farmers cannot do as well as this (and prob-
ably better) , provided they furnish as good milk and make
as good a product. Nearly all home productions bear a
higher value here than in Maine. I do not now recall any
exception to this.
For milk made into cheese at a factory, averages would
stand as follows : One hundred pounds common country
milk will make eleven pounds cheese, green weight ; which,
ripened, shrinks six per cent, or, sold green at twenty-five
days old, as much of it is, shrinks three per cent.
100 pounds milk makes 10.34 pomids em-ed cheese, at 12 cents, . f 1.24
100 pounds milk makes 10.67 pounds green cheese, at 12 cents, . 1.28
100 pounds milk paid in 1887, North Turner factory, . . . 1.15
There is a value to the whey product coming from cheese-
making that should not be overlooked, though there is little
reliable data to draw upon for facts concerning it. But
dairying of whatever kind is dependent on attention to small
fractions, and even so small a one as the whey should not be
omitted. A certain milk farmer, sharp, as they all must be
to make anything out of the business, boasted that he paid
his taxes entire for the year on the half-cent per can addi-
tional he succeeded in getting from the contractor on his
milk. The resulting whey from the cheese business must be
worth that small figure, and therefore worthy of attention.
The proteine compounds and the principal part of the fats are
taken out of the milk by the curds ; so, as a food material,
the whey is not only extremely diluted, but is also one-
sided in its contents, and for both reasons needs to be intel-
ligently fed. The food nutrients left in the whey are not
diflerent from what they were in the milk, and are worth
just as much for food. Whey should be fed combined with
other nutrients of the proper kind, and nev^er alone, as is too
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 203
frequently done. It then is valuable to the extent of the food
material in it. It is not proposed to make any figures on
this value, but simply to call attention to it in passing, as a
by-product of cheese-making, and worth something in the
computation.
The weak point of associated cheese-making is the cost of
taking the milk to the factory. This of course does not
apply where the maker of the milk is located near the fac-
tory, but is quite a tax on those located a considerable dis-
tance away. True, it is no more when the milk is made up
into cheese than if taken over the same distance to the train
for sale, or to the centrifugal for creaming. But the tax is
there, all the same. This kind of work, therefore, is best
adapted to those localities where the supply is found within
a limited circuit. Many New England cheese factories have
broken down under the attempt to draw together small indi-
vidual lots of milk from long distances. It has been proved,
over and over again, that it cannot be done. Sj^stematic
co-operation among neighbors, however, will reduce this, in
localities where it can be applied, to a cost that will not be
burdensome.
Domestic Cheese.
It is not popular at the present day to advocate private
dairy work of any kind. Cheese-making particularly is
looked upon as out of date, and probably it is going with
the spinning-wheel and the lapstone into the memories of the
past. But it has not yet all got there, and the time may not
yet be quite at hand when it should go. There are those
left yet who are willing to engage in any honorable labor
that will bring remunerating returns ; and, if some of the
old home work still pays the best, there seems to be no good
reason why it should be proscribed. It is not my purpose
to advocate a business that will overburden the household.
I am dealing to-day with matters in which the common
people of the country, the rank and file of the farmers, are
concerned ; and there are still those among them, though the
number may be few, who have plenty of help in the family,
and a part of which is at liberty to be directed where it will
bring best results. I have in mind many such, and, to their
credit, they are ready at all times to do their part in making
204 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Jan.
the business of the farm successful. It is to such as can
attend to its demands that this business of private dairying
applies. Happily, in this work of making cheese it is found
that the boys and the men can lend a useful hand in the
labor, where girls are not plenty, and can relieve the
women from the heavy work involved. In the country
towns it has become one of the problems of the times,
What shall be done with so many school teachers? The
girls are all given a good education, and go out from the
schools candidates for teaching. I submit whether it would
not be quite as well for more of them to turn their attention
towards these useful and profitable employments of the farm.
If we are not careful, we shall soon educate the children to
the idea that farm work is degrading. Cheese-making may
still have a place on the farm.
Everyone knows, who has been seeking for top prices on
the market, that there is a demand for articles out of season,
and that people are willing to pay premium prices for the
sake of gratifying this desire. Strawberries in February,
"spring laml)" in January and "broilers" in April, are
examples in illustration of this point. People anticipate the
advent of summer in their desire for new cheese as well as
in their demand for lamb and chicken ; and the onl}^ reason
the demand is not wider and louder is, that the girls are all
teaching school instead of making cheese, and the call can-
not be answered. There are many consumers who prefer
new cheese to the ripened article, and they would use it the
year around if it were on the market. As it is, some dairy-
men have caught on to the idea of early cheese, and are
offering it to admirino: consumers in advance of the general
make, and at richly paying prices. It matters not how green
the product, if the texture is such that it can be handled.
The private dairy work is particularly well adapted to this
kind of dairying. In my own county there are a consider-
able numl)er of farmers engaged in it, and there is no line of
milk work outside the retailer's cart and quart that can match
it. Cheese is put on the market as early as the month of
March. In some cases provision dealers in your State have
sought out our product, and secured a supply. In one case
a contract was filled for January cheese. There can be no
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 205
doubt but there could be built up an unlimited demand for
this earl}' new cheese in the many cities and large towns in
your State, Some of the factories in Maine have taken up
the business, and are prosecuting it with equally good results
on near-by milk. The requirements, different from summer
operations, called for, are simply a warm operating room,
and a curing room artificially heated to the required tem-
perature.
The private make is marketed at twenty to twenty-five
days old, while the factory requires a few more days for
ripening. Fourteen cents a pound is the lowest starting
price now recalled, and frequently it has been some cents
higher than that. The green weight and the high price
combine to make the business a paying one.
It is possible to do better work in the private dairy than
by the associated system. Milk never again is as perfect as
when first drawn from the cow, and never again so well
adapted to cheese-making. The less it is handled and the
sooner it is curded, the more and the better product it will
make. Taken as soon as drawn, there is no difiiculty in grasp-
ino' the fat of the milk and transferring it to the richness of the
cheese. Eight pounds of milk, average for the season, will
make a pound of domestic green cheese. In my own dairy,
seven pounds of September milk from spring-fresh cows has
given its pound of cheese ; while, with hay milk from fresh
cows in March, eight and one-half to nine pounds is required.
Computing the value of milk per hundred weight in this
work as in the associated system, we have the following
result : —
100 pounds milk gives early cheese ready for market, . . 11 pounds.
100 pounds milk gives average for season, for market, . 12 "
100 pounds milk gives September milk, for market, . . 13^ "
11 pomids early cheese, at 14 cents, . . . . . . f 1 54
12 pounds average for season, at 12 cents, . . . . . 1 44
13| pounds September and October, at 12 cents, . . . . 1 62
The cost of making cheese in the private dairy is difficult
to compute, and I make no attempt. As usually carried on,
the work is chiefly done by those whose time would not
otherwise be employed in a way that would bring cash
returns to the farm ; and thus the dairy work becomes an
206 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
opportunity to turn lalior into a cash form, and for that rea-
son is especially desirable. Whatever of money advantage
comes from doing this work is saved by the farm and be-
comes a part of its income. Aside from the better product
and the higher price, there is the advantage from prit'^ate
work, that the farm gets the benefit of the whole operation,
— the cost of making and the net value of the milk. It is
said there is an out to every good thing ; there seems to be
no out here, for this kind of dairying work can only be
recommended where there is available labor.
Summer Milk.
One great advantage going with the cheese-making busi-
ness, whether associated or private, is, that cheese is made
on summer milk. All country dairymen in possession of
low-priced pasture lands realize fully that summer milk does
not cost as much as winter milk, and that a business that can
turn summer milk to profitable account, without necessitat-
ing attention to winter milk, is an advantage. In this work
there is no call for all-the-year-round milk. The object is
to get summer milk, and all the work is shaped to that end.
All the cows are arranged to come fresh in milk in spring-
time, when all nature aids them in doing their best ; and
to take their rest in winter, when the obstacles to cheap
production are the most formidable. The cost of keep for
cows run in this way is much less than when kept for winter
milk, as they must be in case of milk selling. In my own
herd, the cost of keep for a good cow run for winter
milk, with feed reckoned at market values, is fifty to fifty-
five dollars a year. The same cow, run for summer milk
and giving a like quantity of milk per year, but doing it in
less time, is kept at a cost of ten to fifteen dollars less.
This leaves quite a margin for difference in the income for
the year, without interfering with the profits, and is an im-
portant matter in connection with cheese-making.
Butter.
The making of butter is a business that may well engage
the attention of any individual farmer or any community of
farmers, wherever located. It is a pleasant line of work.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4.
207
and reasonably profitable to the operator from a money con-
sideration. It is also of a nature particularly well calculated
to preserve or build up the fertility of the farm. There is no
product sold from the farm in our New England husbandry
that removes with it so little of fertilizing matter as this one
product of butter.
A comparison of the plant food removed from the farm by
the sale of a ton of each of the following products illustrates
the point : —
Nitrogen.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potash.
1 ton English hay, ....
1 ton beef, live weight,
1 ton milk,
1 ton cheese,
'31. lbs.
50.
10.2 "
90.
.55 "
8.2 lbs.
31.2 "
3.4 "
23. "
26.4 lbs.
2.8 "
3. "
5. "
1 ton bntter, .....
Ash,. . . 23.6 lbs.
It is thus seen that butter removes practically none of that
most costly of all ingredients, nitrogen, and but a small
amount of phosphoric acid and potash combined. When the
value of a ton of each of these several products given is con-
sidered, the distinction in favor of butter is still more
apparent. As a conservator of fertility, then, there is no
business that will match butter-makins:.
Factory Butter,
There are two systems of work in butter dairying. The
associated, where the work of making the butter and pre-
paring it fur market is carried on at a factory or creamery, is
the one now, properly, receiving most attention. By the
way of parenthesis, I wish to say I never could see the pro-
priety of giving a flictory where butter is made, the name
creamery. It is clearly a factory, as much as any establish-
ment where products are worked up into other and more
valuable forms. The word creamery, if it has an application,
should designate an establishment devoted to the creaming
of milk.
208 BOARD OF AGRICULTUKE. [Jan.
There are two rival methods of carrying on butter-making
by the associated phin, — the one known as the separator
system, and the other the cream-gathering plan. It is not
for me here to discuss the question of which is the better.
My work to-day is with the business, and not its details.
Each has its merits, and each its place. The separator sys-
tem involves the transportation of the milk to the factory,
and the return of the skim-milk to the farm, — in this respect
being precisely on a par with the cheese factory. In the
cream-gathering plan the farm is relieved of all responsibility
or cost of transportation, the cream being gathered by the
factory, and the skim-milk left on the farm, where wanted.
There is no form of dairy work that leaves so little of labor
or responsibility resting with the producer of the milk as the
cream-gathering plan of butter-making. In the transporta-
tion of milk, whether for sale or otherwise, there is an item
of cost that cannot properly be omitted from this examina-
tion.
The price of butter must always remain an uncertain
quantity, hence any calculations of value and comparison of
profits must be made with a reservation. True, we now
have in our factory records reliable figures on what has been
done ; but they may not strictly represent what we iuay be
able to accomplish in the future. Besides, always and every-
where the outcome of the business depends, in a measure at
least, on local conditions never common to all localities", and
which give certain factories an advantage in price received
for the product made which others equally well managed are
not able to reach. Barring extremely high prices secured on
account of local advantages on the one hand, and extremely
low, from whatever cause, on the other, it is fair to the
business to claim that the net average price per year paid per
pound to patrons of New England factories has ranged from
twenty cents to twenty-five cents. Comparatively few have
touched either extreme. Probably twenty -two cents repre-
sents more factories than any other figures Ave could use.
The amount of milk required is also an uncertain quantity,
for most of the factory work is gauged by measure rather
than weight. Estimates in this direction should be made on
common country milk, since this is the quality usually sold
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 209
on the market. I understand the Boston contractors claim
that a can of the milk received by them makes three-fourths
of a pound of butter. If the milk taken by them comes up
to the legal standard of thirteen per cent solids, it ought to
do some better than that ; but, taking their figures as a basis,
twenty-four pounds of milk are required for one of butter.
In our butter dairies twenty pounds of milk will make one
of butter. AYe have, then, this calculation, figured on both
twenty-four and twenty pounds of milk for one of butter : —
100 pounds milk, 24 to a jDound, 4^ pounds butter, at 22 cents, . $0 91
100 jjounds milk, 20 to a pound, .5 pounds butter, at 22 cents, . 1 10
100 jjounds milk, 20 to a jDOund, 5 pounds butter, at 25 cents, . 1 25
In the business of butter-making the by-product of skim-
milk is an important item. This is all retained at the fiirm,
or may be if one desires it ; and, whatever its value, it
should be added to the butter receipts, to give a fair presen-
tation of the business. From a close study of its value
through a long experience, I have come to value it one year
with another at one cent per quart. As a food for calves
and colts, a starter for pigs, or even a food for heifers in
milk, it stands unrivaled. In some branches of this work
it can* be fed to great profit, and its value can hardly be
expressed in dollars and cents. It also finds many uses
with the family, and altogether is a convenient material to
have constantly on hand for use. As a cool and refreshing
drink in summer, one has only to become accustomed to it
to value it highly.
Professor Jordan of the Maine Experiment Station gives
the following composition of skim-milk as obtained by him,
based on analyses made for five consecutive days, in each of
six months, of the mixed milk of several cows : —
Carbohydrates.
Water.
Solids.
Ash.
Proteine.
Sugar.
Fat.
90.07
9.93
.80
3.51
6.24
.37
Milk of a quality requiring twenty-four pounds for one of
butter will throw up seventeen per cent of cream. Of one
hundred pounds milk skimmed for butter, there will be left
on the farm eighty-three pounds of skim-milk, or thirty-nine
210 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
quarts, worth thirt3-nine cents to the farmer. The problem
will then stand, as the value of one hundred pounds milk in
butter and skim-milk : —
Sold at 22 cents per pound, . . . . . . . . f 1 30
Sold with 5 jiounds butter to the hundred, 1 49
Butter sold at 25 cents per pound, 1 64
Dai)'ij Butter.
There is still room for private butter-making, provided
it is done on a large scale. While the market is reluctant
to take small quantities of different makes of dairy butter,
and will do it only at relatively low prices, yet, if the prod-
uct be large and of fine quality, there is still room for it.
With the exercise of energy in looking out a market, it is
possible to secure a better average price than with the fac-
tory make. Where there is help at the farm to take care of
all the work exacted, private butter-making, like the mak-
ing of cheese, gives the producer all there is in the business.
He shares no part of it with any one. There is, however,
quite an expenditure involved in the marketing of the prod-
uct ; and, if one is not at work on a large scale, and favor-
ably located as to distance from market, this tax upon his
time will more than balance all advantages it brings.
Fertilizing Elements.
In considering the merits of any special business on the
farm, the question of manure can never be ignored. Farm-
ing would be a royal business if we could go on indefinitely
producing crops for sale direct, with no thought of the con-
dition of the soil. But it can never be so. Manure for the
soil is the first great question to receive attention, and the
last to be neglected. In the milk business this enters as an
important factor. Whole milk, 1,000 pounds, contains, in
pounds: nitrogen, 5.1; phosphoric acid, 1.7; potash, 1.5.
Skim-milk, found by Professor Jordan to contain : nitrogen,
5.5 ; phosphoric acid, 2.22 ; potash, 2.1.
In the sale of milk, all the ingredients of which it is made
up go from the soil from which they came ; while, in the case
of cheese-making, a considerable portion are retained in the
whey ; and, in butter-making, practically all of the fertiliz-
I
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 211
ing ingredients are represented in the skim-milk, which is re-
tained and fed out on the farm. A cow giving 8,000 pounds
of milk in a year would send from the farm in sale-milk, in
pounds': nitrogen, 40.8 ; phosphoric acid, 13 (3 ; potash, 12.
This would have a value at current rates of insrredients of
commercial fertilizers of $9.55. A just comparison of butter
and cheese making with the sale of milk must give credit
for this excess material, so valuable to the farm.
8ale^Mill\
These facts and figures afford a basis for comparison be-
tween these different lines of work and milk selling ; though,
in vieAv of the prevailing idea that these methods of coining
money out of milk are entirely beneath the notice of the
milkman, this kind of ciphering doubtless appears ridiculous
on the start. I am informed, by the Secretary of the New
England Milk Producers' Union, that the price of summer
milk in Boston has been thirty-six cents per eight and one-half
quart can, from which transportation is deducted, according
to distance. To the inner belt of milk-producing country,
or that located near the city, the business of furnishing the
city with milk naturally belongs ; and it must have an
advantage there that never can olitain in the country. This
affords the farmers so situated a profit in the business not
open to the wide country. For this reason I have no com-
parisons to make with them. It is to the outer circle, where
the farmers are trying, vainly, to overcome the disadvantage
of distance, that we will give attention.
The cost of transportation for milk made in this outer
circle, as given by this same authority, is twelve cents a can,
which, deducted from city price, leaves twenty-four cents a
can at the car door. This figure is subject to a further
reduction, on account of surplus milk. I am aware this is a
factor of uncertain dimensions, but quite sure, nevertheless,
to have a place, and cannot for that reason be entirely over-
looked. At least, if omitted in the calculation, it is sure to
be met in the settlement. I am informed that during the
past summer this surplus has amounted to nearly one-fourth
of the shipments. This surplus creamed for butter is worth,
say, fifteen cents a can, and this is a liberal value to give it.
212 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
On this basis the extreme prices would stand thus : best
price, twenty-four cents per can ; after deduction, twenty-
two cents per can.
The actual price received would vibrate somewhere be-
tween the two prices, or net twenty-three cents. In a circle
still nearer the city, transportation costs a cent less, but
must stand a like deduction, which, on the same calculation,
would net twenty-four cents. For this country supply of
milk we make the followino; fio-ures : —
100 pounds milk, at 23 cents per can, f 1 27
100 pounds milk, at 24 cents per can, 1 32
The cost of delivering milk to the train is estimated to
average through a neighborhood two cents per can. Deduct-
ing this from above prices, would leave net at the farm : —
100 pounds milk, at 21 cents per can, . . ... $1 16
100 pounds milk, at 22 cents jDer can, 1 21
Hecapitulation.
Placing the results of this examination of these several
methods of disposing of the milk product of the farm side
by side, we have the following : —
One hundred pounds sale-milk at the farm in each of the outer circles of
the Boston supply, —
At 21 cents, $1 16
At 22 cents 121
At station, —
At 23 cents, $1 27
At 24 cents, 1 32
Made into cheese at factory, —
Cured, at 12 cents, $1 24
Green, at 12 cents, 1 28
North Turner factory paid, . . . . 1 15
Made into cheese at farm, —
Early cheese, at 14 cents, $1 54
Average for season, at 12 cents, . . . 1 44
September and October make, at 12 cents, . 1 62
Made into butter at factory, with skim-milk added, —
Sale-milk butter, sold at 22 cents a pound, . f 1 30
Rich-milk butter, sold at 22 cents a pound, . 1 49
Rich-milk butter, sold at 25 cents a pound, . 1 64
181)(\] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 4. 213
Butter-makino; and cheese-makiiii]:: are thus shown to be
outlets for milk, independent of the sale-milk trade, that are
well worthy the attention of farmers ; and these opportu-
nities are open to any who may see fit to go in and secure
the advantages they ofter. True, there is labor involved,
but it brings its compensation. The milkman on his cart at
four o'clock in the morning is willing to do it for the pay he
ffets out of it. The butter-maker or the cheese-maker has no
right to ask for the benefits possible to the business, unless
they render equally faithful service. This review shows, what
is undoubtedly true, that there is not a wide choice between
the different kinds of dairy work, only as that advantage is
secured by obedience to exacting and laborious demands ;
so that, whether one or the other shows the larger margin
of profit, depends more on the man than on the line of
work followed. If the milk business is crowded, it is seen
there is profitable work outside and room enough to carry
it on.
I have chosen to take these commonplace and familiar
products of butter and cheese with which to illustrate this
fact. But the illustration need not stop here. We are but
just entering the finer work that may be done with milk.
The luxurious living, accompanying the higher civilization
gradually but surely creeping upon us as wealth accumu-
lates, demands the finest and the best that skill can produce,
and in all the variety that the genius of man can supply.
Even pure butter and fine cheese are new products with
our people, and, up to the present day, are not plenty.
The fine creams with their delicious flavors, and capable of
indefinite variety, and the rich milks few have ever tasted,
have only to be placed before the admiring palates of
the refined New England people, to be appreciated in all
their delicacy. Farmers may find abundant opportunity to
seek out and develop work outside the familiar milk-can.
Secretary Sessions. You will recollect that our pro-
gramme announces for this morning a paper on " Economi-
cal Feeding of the Wastes of the Dairy, " by Joseph Harris
of Rochester, N. Y. Knowing that we were to be disap-
pointed in our expectation of having this paper, I asked
214 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Professor Brooks of the Agricultural College to be here and
help to fill the gap. 1 would like to have the professor take
the time allotted for that subject.
Professor Brooks. Mr. Gilbert has spoken of the entire
change in the production of cheese in farmers' houses by
reason of the number of school-teachers ; and he seemed to
consider the subject simply from the stand-point that they
should produce essentially the same kind of article that
cheese factories produce, or that they should aim, as
he said, to produce green cheese at the right season in
order to get higher prices. Earlier in his remarks he
called attention to the fact, well known to all of you,
that Americans are not cheese-eaters. There is, I think, an
important reason which is connected with our system of
cheese-makino;. Our cheese-makers are not attentive enousrh
to the requirements of the fiimily. Our cheese factories
produce cheese of enormous size. If the head of a family
wants to buy cheese, he cannot buy a small cheese, he has
to take a slice out of one of large size ; and you all know
how much of that is wasted before it can be eaten up. Our
English cousins, the French and other nations, pay much
more attention to the requirements of families, and produce
small-size cheese, weighing from two and one-half to five
pounds, of very delicious quality, which they offer to their
customers ; and, as you proliably know, the English and
French eat much more cheese than we do. Is not this
largely due to the fact that they find in their markets an
article which is much better suited to domestic use? It
seems to me that this cannot be doubted, and I would sug-
gest that the production in our families of higher grades of
cheese, if they are of small size, is worth thinking of, at
least.
THE ECONOMICAL DISPOSITION OF THE WASTES OF THE
DAIRY.
BY WILLIAM P. BROOKS, PROFESSOR OP AGRICULTURE, AMHERST, MASS.
It is with extreme diffidence that I attempt to speak upon
this subject in place of Joseph Harris, who, as you all
know, has devoted a long life to its study, and who has had
a varied and rich experience, upon which he would have
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 215
been able to draw for illustrations and proofs of his positions.
I cannot hope to fill his place, and shall endeavor simply to
express a few thoughts, which shall serve in a manner to
introduce a subject which is certainly one of the most
important that Massachusetts farmers can consider.
That it is one of the most important, I think you will all
agree. In co-operative dairying lies the best hope of the
farmino- towns remote from laro;e manufacturinof or comnier-
cial cities and villages. That this fact is realized, is sufliciently
evident from the steady and rapid increase of creameries in
such towns.
The profits in the business, it is true, are not large. It
is to l)e hoped they may become larger when oleomargarine
is forced to " sail under its true colors; " but honest com-
petition, even now always increasing, will increase yet more
with enhanced profits. We have not in this comparatively
new branch of dairying, then, an agricultural bonanza. We
cannot allow wastes or leaks in this any more than in any
business, — agricultural or other, — and hope to keep our
heads above the current. We must make the best possible
use of all the products of the business. How closely the
animals slaughtered for food are worked up in the abattoir !
Not an ounce is lost ; not only the flesh, skin and bones, but
even the blood, entrails, hair, hoofs and horns are all worked
into valuable products. Even the chips of leather and the
shavings of horns and hoofs come finally to the fertilizer-
maker's vats.
At whatever business we look, the lesson is the same ;
it is by attention to what were once wastes that a profit is
now possible. The farmer's occupation is not exempt from
this necessity. It may some time come to be true, even
if this be not now the case, that upon the skillful and
economical use of the wrongly so-called "wastes" of the
dairy (there should be no waste, but rather by-products),
the profits of the dairy farmer will chiefly depend.
The business of dairying in all its branches is a close
one ; it is simply a good method of marketing our crops.
We may not be able to figure a profit if we reckon food
at market prices ; but it should be remembered, that,
without this or some similar business, these back-town
216
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Jan.
farmers would he unable to market their crops. They
could not find a profitable sale for the bulky hay, roots
or corn which they can raise, save in the concentrated forms
of butter and cheese or similar products. The business of
dairying, then, must be here to stay. Let us see how its
by-products can be most profitably disposed of.
The possible by-products of dairying are whey, butter-
milk and skim-milk. It will be impossible, in the time
allowed me, to treat the subject exhaustively ; and I shall
therefore confine myself mostly to a consideration of the
possible uses of skim-milk, which is by far the most im-
portant of the three. This superior importance is due,
first, to its much greater richness; and second, to its
present and increasing abundance, as compared with whey.
While butter factories increase in this State, cheese factories
as rapidly decrease.
The superior richness of skim-milk will be evident from
the following table, which shows its composition, as well
as that of buttermilk and whey : —
Table of Composition.
Percentage of
Water.
Albumi-
noids.
Fat.
Sugar and
Lactic Acid.
Ash.
Whey, ....
Buttermilk,
Skim-milk,
93.0
91.8
90.0
1.00
2.79
3.70
0.30
0.21
0.80
5.00
4.36
4.80
0.7
0.8
0.7
The superiority of the skim-milk is due to the much
higher proportion of albuminoids and fat it contains.
We have, then, to consider how the dairyman can })rofit-
ably dispose of his skim-milk. There are three leading
methods between which he may sometimes take his choice,
though in the great majority of instances circumstances
will point clearly to some one as the best suited to the
prevailing conditions. These methods are sale, manufacture
into cheese, and feeding to animals of some kind. Of the
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4 217
first I shall say little. Whenever skim-milk can be sold for
a cent or more per quart, this undoubtedly affords a greater
chance for profit than any other method of disposition. It
should of course be sold for what it is, and as such its sale
and use should be encouraged. Not of course equal in
nutrient value to whole milk, nor fit to take its place for
infants, skim-milk is yet a wholesome food ; and, if placed
in the consumers' hands at a fair profit over the figures for
which the farmer will gladly sell, it must prove a boon to a
large class among our manufacturing population. For
children above two years of age, sweet skim-milk must in
many instances make a welcome and highly useful addition
to their dail}^ food ; and, judiciously used in cooking, it
must add vastly to the variety, palatability and nutritive
qualities of the food coming to the tables of the workers in
our cities and villages. When once skim-milk is appreciated
by such classes at its true value, there must be a considerable
outlet for this increasing by-product of the dairy in this
direction ; but at present the demand, though growing, is
comparatively small, and but few farmers, even among those
near manufacturing centres, are able to dispose of their
whole product by sale. Evidently, then, the great majority
of dairymen must look elsewhere to find means for the
profitable disposition of skim-milk.
Let us then consider the manufacture of cheese as a means
of utilizing the surplus. The changes in methods of cream-
ing milk, which leave the skim-milk sweet, have, as is well
known, made possible the production of both butter and
cheese from the same milk. The skim-milk cheese is a well-
known article. You all know that it is comparatively hard
and dr}^, and that the absence of fat is prejudicial to the
curing process ; that, in short, it is much inferior to whole-
milk cheese. You probably are aware, however, that it is
a wholesome article of food, when properly made either with
or without the addition of foreign fat. It should be placed
upon the market at a price far below that of whole-milk
cheese ; and, as it is capable of furnishing the nitrogenous
nutrients at a price far below that for which they can be
obtained in meats, there should and doubtless soon would
be an extensive demand for it. The introduction of foreign
218 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
fat, to take the place of the butter fat which has been ex-
tracted, is, I ])elieve, desirable. I am aware that this may
seem to be dishonesty, and of course it is apparent that, like
any other business, this may be dishonestly managed. It is,
however, equally apparent that an article may be honestly
made with the addition of clean fats, and sold for what
it is, which may find a profitable sale at a reasonable price
which would make it sought after by a large class of con-
sumers.
Such cheese can be cheaply manufactured only in factories.
Domestic production of skim-milk cheese can hardly be
made successful and profitable. Only when large quantities
of milk are handled can the maker avail himself of all the
mechanical inventions which serve to lessen the labor, to
improve the product, and at the same time diminish the cost
of production. Already I have signified my belief in the
co-operative system in dairying. Let us see if co-operative
butter-making, as it is becoming established among us, is so
carried on as to make factory skim-milk cheese production
likely to be profitable. As most of you know, the system
of co-operative butter production which to the practical ex-
clusion of all others is becoming established among the
farmers of this State, is the Cooley cream-gathering system.
This system leaves the skim-milk on the farm ; and it is
highly improbable that, at present prices, it would pay to
carry their milk to factories for manufacture into cheese.
Were cheese as well as butter production in view, doubtless
it would be preferable to take the new milk at once to the
factory. This would involve radical changes in many re-
spects. Such changes would involve expenses which the
farmers would be loth to incur. I conclude, therefore, that
with the Cooley system the conversion of skim-milk into
cheese is impracticable. AVitli the separator system, all
milk being taken sweet to the factory and the cream there
separated and made into butter, the case is difierent ; and in
other sections of our country are numerous factories worked
upon this system, which are successfully producing both
butter and cheese. The cream-gathering system is, however,
firmly established here, the many so-called creameries are
fairly successful, and this system is, doubtless, here to stay.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 219
Extensive manufacture of our skim-milk into cheese, then,
seems at present out of the question.
And indeed, although the actual money return from the
milk may be greater when skim-milk is made into cheese
than when it is fed, yet the problem which is best is not so
simple as it might seem. When cheese is made and sold,
most of the valuable elements of fertility in the milk are
sent away from the farm ; but if the milk is fed out, there
remains considerable fertilizer value derived from it in the
excrements of the animals fed. The proportion so remain-
ing cannot be estimated at less than seventy to eighty per
cent of the total plant-food elements in the skim-milk, which
would make the manurial value of the residue, after feeding
to animals such as pigs, equal to about seven-tenths of a
cent per gallon. In other words, every gallon of skim-milk
fed adds more than half a cent to the value of the manure
pile ; this, in the course of a year, with say a dozen good
cows, would amount to the very respectable sum of fifty-six
dollars. True, it might be considered preferable to get this
or a larger sum in excess of the feeding value by sale or
cheese-making, and to spend it for fertilizers ; but yet it
is important to recognize this saving in the case of feeding,
in order that we may be prepared to do the system justice.
And, after all, are we not driven to conclude, that to feed-
ing it out the majority of Massachusetts -dairymen must at
present look for a profitable disposition of their skim-milk ?
We have pointed out that Init few of them can sell it ; we
have further noticed the difiiculties in the way of cheese-
making, so long as the cream-gathering system is the one
pursued. Our farmers, then, must for the most part feed
their skim-milk at home ; and this is equally true, whether
butter is made at home or cream is sent to the factory. The
next question, then, is. To what animals shall it be fed?
Every farmer knows the great value of sweet skim-milk in
rearing young animals of any kind ; and very many use con-
siderable in rearing or fattening calves. Others use it for
colts, and still others give it to their cows to drink. Any
or all of these uses are of course legitimate ; but in the ma-
jority of cases giving skim-milk to cows is not looked upon
with much favor, and the number of calves and colts to be
220 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [J
an.
fed is limited. There remains a large surplus of skim-milk,
which the farmer usually feeds to pigs. This I look upon
as the most important farm use of this product ; and my sub-
ject then resolves itself into a consideration of the most
profitable methods of feeding skim-milk to pigs. Many of
you have been doing this all your lives, and very likely you
could teach me much upon the subject ; but, in the hope
that something I shall say may set you to thinking, may
perchance l)c a hint in the right direction, I crave your
attention for yet a little longer.
At the outset, in considering methods of feeding skim-
milk to pigs, I desire to say a few words as to the kind of
pigs to be selected ; for upon the proper selection of the
animals the financial result will largely depend. Nothing
is better known among farmers at the present day, perhaps,
than that the results of feeding varj^ with the animal ; and
yet not a few among your number exercise less care in the
selection of your swine than would, I believe, pay. Without
attempting to decide among all the different breeds, I pro-
pose to point out the present tendency of the popular taste,
which makes itself felt in our markets, as well as the
leadinoj characteristics of each of the more common breeds
of swine.
While a few years ago the demand was for a large and
excessively fat hog, and while it is even yet true that our
markets take many such, it is equally true that the highest
prices are ol)tained for a younger animal, neither over-large
nor over-fat. With increasing familiarity Avith the quality
of the ham, bacon and pork from such animals, the taste
and demand for them can but increase ; and when it is
recognized, as I hope to make clear later, that pound for
pound the production of such pork costs less than the pro-
duction of the large, over-fat article, the advisability of a
change in practice must be evident. As a rule, you feed
your pigs too long ; you have animals of too slow a habit of
growth, not coming to maturity early enough.
In the second place, our Massachusetts markets demand
white pigs. It is indeed true that in the great pork-produc-
ing sections of the country the leading breeds are the Berk-
shire and the Poland-China, both breeds which are nearly all
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 221
black ; but, although such pigs dress fairly white, yet the
carcass is not so attractive in appearance as that of a white
pig, and does not sell so readily here. Excellent in almost
all respects as are both these breeds, it seems nevertheless
true that neither is generally popular here ; and, in feeding
for a Massachusetts market, neither should as a rule be
selected.
Among white breeds we have a considerable number from
which to select. Without any attempt to mention all, I
wish to say a few words on the Yorkshires — small, middle
and large — and the Chester Whites.
The small Yorkshire is probably more generally kept in
the Eastern States than any other pure breed. In this breed
the body is rounded, plump and symmetrical, the bones
small, the legs fine and short, the head small, ears erect,
nose short, and face with advancing age dished, though it
may be straight when the animal is young. The disposition
is quiet, and the propensity to fatten early is very strong.
One of the chief objections to this as a pure breed is the
small number usually produced in a litter. They also
require unusual care and attention. For these reasons,
although in close confinement making a good return in car-
cass weight for food consumed, I would not keep pure
animals of this breed for profitable pork production.
The large Yorkshire is best spoken of next, and may be
most easily described by comparison with the small. This is
a breed less removed from the wild type than the latter,
though of course vastly improved from that standard. The
head is comparatively large, the ears large and drooping, the
nose long, the bones and legs strong, the hind quarters often
drooping, the sides flattish, and the body proportionally
thinner than is that of the small breed. The growth is com-
paratively slow ; they are seldom ready to fatten under the
age of a year. They have, however, hardy constitutions,
are good breeders, and the proportion of lean meat is
large. Of late, by selection and improved care, the breed
has acquired a more refined character and a tendency to
earlier maturity. It is, however, of too slow a growth,
and too coarse, as a rule (though particular strains may
constitute exceptions), to serve our purpose. We want an
222 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
animal which will be ready to slaughter when about six
months old.
The middle Yorkshire, intermediate as it is in character-
istics between the small and the larije, mio:ht seem to be the
animal we are seeking, and indeed this breed would serve
our purpose ; but the latest English authorities agree that
this so-called breed has not the well-defined characteristics of
either of the others. Within recent times it has doubtless
been produced by a cross between large and small white
breeds (probably Yorkshires) ; and it certainly will not pay
the farmer looking for profit in feeding to give fancy prices
for pure-bred animals, when, as I hope to show, he can
cheaply breed precisely similar animals himself.
This now brings me to speak of the Chester Whites, prob-
ably the first breed of purely American origin. Fortunately,
perhaps, for your patience, it will be unnecessary to say
much ; for in this breed we find the leading characteristics
almost identical with those of the large Yorkshires. Espe-
cially is this true of the less highly refined families of the
breed, which in point of size, form, growth, proportion of
lean, breeding character, constitution, etc., seem to me to be
just what the English describe their large Yorkshires to be.
You are prepared to hear me say, then, that neither would I
select the pure Chester Whites for profitable feeding. I
desired, however, to call your attention to this breed because
I believe it more than any has influenced the common stock
of this State. Our common pigs are to all intents and
purposes coarse Chester Whites, or, as the English would
say, "large whites."
Now, excellent as is our common stock in many respects, —
constitution, size, color, breeding capacity, large production
of lean, etc., — it yet leaves something to be desired. The
growth is too slow ; the animals are not ready to slaughter
early enough ; the head, bones and legs are too coarse ; the
bodies too narrow. It is fortunate, then, that we have in
our midst the very animal needed to correct these defects,
and ofive us what we are seeking. This animal is the small
Yorkshire boar, which, crossed upon our long, rangy, com-
mon white sows, will give us just what we want, — large
litters of pigs, which these sows will feed well, and which in
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 223
characteristics will closely resemble the middle Yorkshire of
which I have spoken. Nor need this system of breeding be
expensive. Already small Yorkshire boars may be bought
at prices but little higher than those of our ordinary pigs ;
and, with increasing demand, you may be sure the supply
will be forthcoming. With pigs so bred we shall have suit-
able stock for feeding at a profit ; and with abundant skim-
milk and grains at the present prices, if the profit is not
realized it will, I think, be the fault of the farmer himself.
Now, as I have selected the pig and decided that the best
use of skim-milk is to feed it out, you are, perhaps, ex-
pecting me to give you empirical rules for feeding him.
Such is, however, very far from my intention. It is impossi-
ble for one man to give hard and fast rules for feeding
another's animals. Circumstances, markets, surroundings,
all influence the results to such an extent that a ration suited
to A's pig may be for from the best or most profitable for
B's. Such being the case, I am rather going to endeavor to
make clear, first, a few of the elementary principles upon
which scientific feeding depends, knowing well that, with a
knowledge of principles, native business sense and shrewd-
ness will lead most men to the most profitable application
thereof. An understanding of these scientific principles, in
so far as is necessary to our present purpose, will not, I
believe, be found difficult ; for the scientific principles which
underlie the feeding of plants afibrd us a perfect analogy,
and with these principles I doubt not most of you are
familiar.
You know that, various as are the products of the soil, and
numerous as are the vegetable substances — such as starch,
sugar, acids, fats, albuminoids, etc. — which these products
contain, yet the number of elements which are necessary to
feed plants is comparatively small. Many of you know,
further, that a beneficent nature supplies nearly all these
elements. You know that, as the result of numberless exper-
iments, it has been demonstrated that in the majority of
cases, if we apply but three elements — nitrogen, potassium
and phosphorus — in suitable forms, jy^oportions and quanti-
ties, the soil is made productive, the plant is fed. Especially
do I want you to keep in mind what you all very well
224 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
know, — viz., that the propoyiion of these elements is im-
portant ; for this has an especial bearing upon what I shall
say of feeding animals. You know that you must supply to
a soil, at the outset infertile, nitrogen, potash and phosphoric
acid, and each in proper amount and proportion, to get a
profitable crop. An excess of solul)le nitrogen applied is
wasted ; for the crop does not need it, and the soil probably
cannot hold it for the crop of another year.
The principles underlying the feeding of animals are
similar. Various as are the organs and substances of the
animal body, nearly all are made up of compounds which
may be referred to one of four classes ; viz., water, proteine
(nitrogen-containing substances), fat (carbon-containing
substances) and ash (phosphate of lime, etc.). These sub-
stances are either derived directly from the food or drink, or
are produced from their constituents as a result of changes
which take place in the body. At the expense of the food,
also, the animal heat is maintained and th^ force for all
work is generated. Some of the constituents of the food,
such as starch or fat, must be burned in the body to main-
tain its temperature. For every stroke of work, whether of
the heart, the stomach, lungs or legs, some compound of the
food or body must be broken up. These substances burned
or destroyed to produce warmth and work, however, fortu-
nately for the simplicity of our subject, are still of one of
two classes already mentioned, viz., proteine (albuminoids)
or fat; or they may belong to a third class, represented by
starch and sugar, and known as car])ohydrates.
Now, two of the classes of substances mentioned as found
in the body we may disregard in considering methods of
feeding. These are water and ash : water because it costs
nothing, and the animal's appetite is a guide as to quantity ;
and ash because any ordinary animal food which supplies
enough proteine, fat and carl^ohyd rates will contain mineral
elements (ash) enough. We have not to think of them any
more than in feeding plants we have to think of supplying
iron or hydrogen. With respect to water, I must add that
the proportion in the food is far from being unimportant.
A food otherwise suitable may give poor results l)ecause too
watery. Whey fed exclusively to pigs would be an example.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 225
So far as the proportion of proteine, fat and carbohydrates
is concerned, it would seem quite well suited to such animals ;
but feeding it would not give good results, because to get
enough of these ingredients the animal must consume too
much water.
The substances (other than ash), then, in foods which are
of value for animal nutrition, may be reduced to classes
similar to those found in the body; viz., proteine and fat,
and one other already mentioned, — carbohydrates. To these
three the name nutrients has been sjiven. In tables giving
the composition of foods you will usually find at least four
columns, headed, respectively, ])roteine, fat, nitrogen-free
extract and crude fibre. The first two yon can understand ;
the last two both belong to the same class, — viz., carbo-
hijdrates.
Now, each of these three nutrients has distinct functions
in the body, just as nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid
each has its distinct functions in the plant ; and, just as the
latter must be supplied to the plant in certain suitable pro-
portions and quantities for the best results, so these nutrients
must be given to the animal in certain proportions and
amounts ; and, further, just as the requirements of two
plants dififer, so the requirements of animals difler ; and,
more, the requirements of the same animal are difierent at
difierent ages.
Just what the functions of the difierent nutrients in the
body may be is not in all cases known, and it is not im-
portant for our present purpose ; but much is known,
and the leading points believed to be made out — mostly
as the result of German work — I will briefiy state. The
proteine of the food may produce fiesh (lean meat), fat,
heat or force. The fat may be stored up in the body as
such ; it may produce heat, or possibly force. The carbo-
hydrates may produce heat or fat, and, it is believed by
some, force also.
Without dwelling longer upon this matter, I want to
repeat that, for the most profitable feeding, it is essential to
give each animal daily a certain amount of each of these
nutrients. Between the difierent ones there must exist a
certain proportion. If we give an excess of one, that excess
226 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
is wasted ; the ration is improperly proportioned or balanced.
The most important point in the balancing of a ration is to
secure the proper relation between the nitrogen-containing
nutrient (proteine) and the carbon-containing nutrients (fat
and carbohydrates) . It is convenient to express this relation
concisely, and for this purpose the term nutritive ratio has
been adopted. The nutritive ratio may be defined as the
ratio existing between the total digestible nitrogen-containing
nutrients and the total digestible carbon-containing nutrients.
For convenience, the first term of this ratio is usually reduced
to unity ; e. g. , 1 : 4 or 1 : 3, etc.
The determination of the nutritive ratio would be a very
simple matter, if all the carbon-containing nutrients were of
equal value ; but they are not. The digestible nitrogen-free
extract and the crude fibre are regarded as of equal value ;
but the digestible fat is more valuable, pound for pound,
than they. It is generally estimated that one part of fat is
equivalent to two and one-half parts of carbohydrates. The
reason is because their heat-producing capacities when
burned are in that proportion. One pound of fat generates
as much heat when burned as two and one-half pounds of
carbohydrates. The first step, then, in the computation of
the nutritive ratio, is to combine the fat and carbohydrates.
My meaning will be clear from an example. Let me take
skim-milk. This contains, in its dry matter: crude ash,
6.67 per cent; crude fat, 2.78 per cent; crude proteine, 34
per cent ; and nitrogen-free extract, 56.55 per cent. Then
fat 2.78 X 2.5 = 6.95 -}- carbohydrates 56.55 = 63.5 total
carbohydrates. Then we have the ratio : proteine 34 : 63.5 r=
(reducing to unity by dividing by 34) 1 : 1 .87, which is the
nutritive ratio of skim-milk of the stated composition. Two
more expressions often heard or met with must be defined,
and we shall be ready to apply the principles which I have
been exjilaining. These are "narrow nutritive ratio " and
" wide nutritive ratio." A narrow nutritive ratio is one in
which the carbohydrates (expressed by the second number
of the ratio) do not much exceed the proteine (expressed l)y
the first number of the ratio) ; e. g., 1 : 2 or the ratio of
skim-milk just computed; viz., 1:1.87. A wide nutritive
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4.
227
ratio, on the other hand, is one in which the carbohydrates
largely exceed the proteine ; e. g., 1:8, or 1 : 12. The term
narrow, as applied to nutritive ratios, amounts to the same
as saying that the food is rich in nitrogen ; the term wide is
equivalent to saying that the food is comparatively poor in
nitrogen.
For the convenience of those wishing to feed in the most
economical manner, the Germans have prepared tables show-
ing the proper amounts of the different nutrients for animals
of different kinds and ages. These tables include what are
called feeding standards.
The standards adopted for growing fat pigs are as fol-
lows : —
Feeding Standards, — per Day and per Head.*
Growing
Fat Pigs.
Average
Live Weight,
in Pounds.
Total
Organic
Substances,
Kdtritive (Digestible)
sobstances, in podnds.
Total
Nutritive
Substances,
Nutritive
Age-
Carbohy-
Ratio.
Months.
in Pounds.
Proteine.
drates
and Fat.
in Pounds.
2-3,
50
2.1
0.38
1.50
1.88
1:4
3-5,
100
3.4
0.50
2.50
3.00
1:5
5-6,
125
3.9
0.54
2.96
3.50
1:5.5
6-8,
170
4.6
0.58
3.47
4.05
1:6
8-12, .
250
5.2
0.62
4.05
4.67
1:6.5
* Armsby's " Manual of Cattle-Feeding."
To use such a table intelligently, it is necessary to know
the amounts of digestible proteine (or albuminoids, — these
two words are both used for the same thing) , carbohydrates
and fat in the foods we propose to use. Such information
has been published in the reports, but particularly in the sixth
annual report, of the State Experiment Station. * Having
such tables of composition, we can easily find by a little cal-
culation how much of certain foods will suffice to furnish the
required nutrients for a given number of animals. Let me
illustrate. Suppose you wish to find out what amounts of
228
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
[Jan.
skim-milk, corn meal and gluten meal will be sufficient for
ten pigs, two to three months old : —
Digestible Nutrients in One Hundred Pounds.
Skim-milk. Corn Meal.
Gluten Meal.
Proteine,
Fat, . . . .
Crude fibre,
Nitrog'en-free extract,
3.7 lbs.
0.8 "
0.0 "
4.8 "
8.8 lbs.
2.4 "
0.5 "
78.2 "
30.1 lbs.
5.0 "
1.6 "
49.3 "
From the table of Feeding Standards we find one pig two
to three months old requires daily : proteine, 0.38 pounds ;
and carbohydrates and fat, 1.5 pounds. Then ten pigs
would require of proteine, 3.8 pounds, and of carbohy-
drates, 15 pounds.
By a few trials I lind that these amounts will be supplied
with sufficient exactness for practical purposes by the fol-
lowing quantities of the foods I propose to use, viz. : —
Fifty pounds skim-milk, furnishing proteine 1.8 pounds,
and carbohydrates and fat 2.0 pounds; 11 pounds corn
meal, furnishing proteine 0.0 pounds, and carbohydrates
and fat 0.13 pounds ; 4 pounds gluten meal, furnishing pro-
teine 1.2 pounds, and carbohydrates and fat iJy'o pounds.
Totals, proteine 3.0 pounds, and carbohydrates 14.6 pounds.
In this calculation the fat has been reduced to carbohydrates
by multiplying by 2.5, as already explained. In the above
ration the nutritive ratio is 3.0 : 14.6, which equals 1 : 3.8,
which is very nearly what our table calls for.
It is not of course expected that an}" farmer will blindly
folloAV such a standard. It 1)ut serves as a guide in obtaining
foods containing nutrients in the proper proportions, and, to
a certain extent, as to quantity. The farmer may wisely
vary the amounts, but not the proportions, according to the
appetites of his animals.
When with the increasing age of the pigs it becomes desir-
able, according to our table of feeding standards, t ) feed a
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 229
ration with a wider nutritive ratio, it \^dll be found easy, by
diminishing slightly the proportion of gluten meal, which is
very rich in protcine, and increasing the corn meal, to secure
the desired result. If foods be combined in this manner,
with proper attention to proportions and amounts of the
nutrients, it is tolerably certain that with healthy animals
there will be no waste. The ration is balanced, and the
most perfect economy will be secured ; just as it is when we
feed our plants with nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid,
in proper proportions and amounts.
Now, the same proportions and amounts of the nutrients
may be secured by the use of other feeds than those I have
mentioned in my example. We might introduce bran, rye,
barley or oat meal, cotton-seed meal, etc. We may secure
the proper amounts of nutrients by many different combina-
tions, just as we can supply the proper amounts of nitrogen,
etc., to plants in many different fertilizers or manures ; and
just here lies the superioi'ity of a feeding standard over an
empirical rule. In these winter evenings you can work out
amounts and proportions of feeds, as your circumstances or
markets make advisal^lc.
These German standards are the result of very many
experiments, and he who shall follow them intelligently
cannot go far wrong ; hence I have used them for illustration.
But I must now call your attention to the fact that the
results of Dr. Goessmann's experiments in feeding pigs at the
State Station indicate that, with American feeding-stuffs and
prices, it pays better to feed pigs a ration somewhat richer
in nitrogen; i.e., with a narrower nutritive ratio than the
Gennans advise.
For the purpose of still further illustrating my subject,
I shall now call your attention to the results of one of Dr.
Goessmann's experiments in feeding pigs. This experiment
is described in the sixth annual report of the State Experi-
ment Station. It is Experiment IX. of that report. In this
experiment six pigs, weighing from 17 to 22 pounds, were
taken. The experiment continued from April 12 to August
8, and the animals weighed alive 185 to 203.5 pounds each
at its close. The feeds used were skim-milk, corn meal,
gluten meal and wheat bran. The experiment was divided
230
BOAKD OF AGRICULTUEE.
[Jan.
into four (Dr. Goessmann says practically three) feeding
periods, the nutritive ratios being as follows : First period,
8 days, 1:2.80; second period, 34 days, 1:2.53; third
period, 29 days, 1 : 3.G3 ; and fourth period, 3(3 days, 1 :4.35.
(The first and second periods differ merely incidentally,
and Dr. Goessmann in one part of his report combines
them.)
The average daily ration per animal is shown in the fol-
io wino^ table : —
Average of Daily
Rations {Experiment IX
•)•
Corn Meal.
(ounces).
=: c
a ^
s
Wheat Bran
(ounces).
■o •
O S
a
•O 3
a o
eu ■—
a 1
5^
3i 3
■a
o
'C
to
c
-3
o
1 1
3 O
April 12 to April 23, .
April 2i to May 1,
May 2 to May 14,
May 15 to May 28, .
May 29 to June 4,
June 5 to June 22,
June 23 to July 3,
July 4 to July 9,
July 10 to July 25, .
July 26 to Au^ist 8, .
56.10
63 00
3
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
3.47
9.89
10.67
8.65
9.86
7.70
9.35
10.50
6.
12.
12.
12.
12.
34.60
39.44
46.20
6.94
19.78
21.34
8.65
9.86
7.70
9.35
10.50
]■■
.11.
i-
>IV.
)
1 : 2.80
1 : 2.53
1 : 3.63
1 : 4.35
Observe that in this experiment, although the nutritive
ratio is in all periods narrower than in the German standards,
the ratio "rows wider with advancing age. The assimilative
capacity of the animal changes ; it will not pay to give a
food so rich in nitrogen (proteine) to an old as to a younger
animal. Indeed, the older an animal grows, the more, as a
rule, it costs to produce a pound of increase. This point is
strikingly brought out by Dr. Goessmann's experiment, in
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 231
which the cost of production in the different periods was as
follows : —
First period, . . . . 1| to 2 cents per pound.
Second period, . . . . 3| to 4 cents per pound.
Third period, . . . . 4 to 4i cents per pound.
Fourth period, . . . . 4J to 5 cents per pound.
Evidently, at the same rate of increase, the cost of pro-
duction would soon have exceeded the market value per
pound, which in this experiment was 7| cents. Precisely
the same tendency has been observed in feeding all animals.
It pays to slaughter young. Beeves, formerly usually kept
to four or five years, are now often slaughtered while yet
under two. It costs much more to make a hundred pounds
of increase in a steer over two years old than in one under
that age. Not only is the cost of production less when
animals are slaughtered young, the quality is better. How
unwise, then, to feed swine until they are a year or more
old, and will weigh 400 to 500 pounds. Far better from
every point of view is it to promote a rapid growth from the
start by suitable feeding, and to slaughter when six to seven
months old. Dr. Goessmann, as the result of his experi-
ments, advises not feeding pigs above 175 to 180 pounds,
live weight. Up to this point they give a considerable
profit : if fed much beyond it, loss is the result.
In the experiment of Dr. Goessmann, which we have
under consideration, he figures the average net cost per
pound of dressed pork at 2.98 cents ; and, as the pigs were
sold at 7f cents per pound, there was a net gain of about 4|
cents per pound. With all due allowance for interest on
investment and cost of care, there must remain a large
margin of profit. An examination of Dr. Goessmann's
method of calculating his result, which is certainly astonish-
ingly good, may be of interest. He has, I believe, been
criticised for allowing so much for the manurial value of the
excrements of the animals used in the experiment. Let us
endeavor to sec whether he allows too much.
In the first place, he accurately measures or weighs every
particle of food, and calculates the cost at market prices. In
this experiment he allowed 1.8 cents per gallon for skim-milk.
By adding the cost of all the foods, he obtains the gross cost
232 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
of the total gain in dressed weight. Then from this gross
cost he subtracts the value, at market prices of fertilizers,
of 70 per cent of the nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid
given in the food ; estimating that certainly not more than
30 per cent of these elements will become a part of the
animal fed. He thus obtains the net cost of the number of
pounds of dressed pork made. I have endeavored to find
out whether this allowance for manurial value is fair and
reasonable, in the following manner : —
The gain in live weight made by the six pigs in Dr.
Goessmann's experiment is known ; it amounted to about
one thousand pounds. The average composition of live pig
is known ; the composition of the foods given is known.
From these known compositions I have computed that the
one thousand pounds live weight gained during the experi-
ment must have taken of the nitrogen, potash and phosphoric
acid the following proportions of the amounts given in the
foods : —
Of nitrogen, less than i, or about 20 per cent of that in the food.
Of potash, less than ^i^, or about S^\ per cent of that in the food.
Of phosphoric acid, less than J, or about 16| per cent of that in the food.
But Dr. Goessmanu allows an average of 30 per cent of
each of these manurial substances to have entered into the
animal. Clearly, then, he cannot be accused of making
an excessively large allowance for manurial value. If the
farmer does not get 70 per cent of the total nitrogen,
potash and phosphoric acid of the foods in the manure, the
fault must be his own, in allowing it to waste. The animal
surely does not carry it away, and what of these elements
he does not carry away is practically all voided in the dung
and urine. The values per pound set upon the nitrogen,
potash and phosphoric acid by Dr. Goessmann, are the
ordinary market values of similar sul^stances in commercial
fertilizers: viz., nitrogen, I G| cents; potash, 4^ cents; and
phosphoric acid, 6 cents. These, if purchased, would cost
these figures ; so it cannot be legitimately urged, from any
point of view, that Dr. Goessmann allows too much for
manurial value.
In some quarters it may be further objected that Dr.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 233
Goessmann sets too low a value on the skim-milk used, and
thus figures a low cost of production. To test that point, as
well as to enable j^ou to judge whether any feed-stuff is
worth what is asked for it, I desire to call your attention to
a method of valuing feeds which has for some time been in
use in Germany, and which has lately been worked up for
this country at the Connecticut Experiment Station. This
method is precisely similar in principle and utility to the
method of valuing fertilizers, with which you are familiar.
As a fertilizer is valuable simply for the nitrogen, potash and
phosphoric acid it contains, so is a food valuable simply for
the nutrients it contains. And, just as certain prices per
pound are allowed for nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid
in a fertilizer, so is a certain price allowed for each pound of
each of the nutrients. These prices, as worked out at the
Connecticut Station, are as follows : —
Albuminoids (proteiue), . . .1.6 cents per poiuid.
Fat, ....... 4.2 cents per pound.
Carbohydrates, 0.96 cents per pound.
Applying these figures to some of the common concen-
trated feeding-stuffs, we get the following valuation, which I
have contrasted with market prices : —
Cotton-seed meal,
Wheat bran,
Corn meal,
Gluten meal,
The valuation, you will observe, is in every instance
greater than the selling price ; but the amount of difference
is not by any means uniform for the different feeds. Thus,
corn meal sells for very nearly what the valuation shows it
to be worth, while cotton-seed meal is valued at a figure
considerably above its selling price. It will evidently pay
to buy the latter in preference to the former, whenever it
will answer to use it. It is the cheaper feed of the two.
In order to apply the figures for albuminoids, fat and
carbohydrates to skim-milk, for the purpose of testing Dr.
Goessmann's valuation of that article, we must in the first
place make some allowance for its superior digestibility.
The nutrients in skim-milk are entirely digestible, while in
Valuation.
Selling price per ton.
$30 37
About $26 00
20 22
17 00
19 59
19 00
25 38
24 00
234 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Jan.
cotton-seed, corn meal and similar feeds they are not all
digestible. On the average, in such feeds about one-seventh
of the albuminoids, one-fourth of the fat, and one-eleventh
of the carbohydrates, are indigestible. A pound of albu-
minoids in skim-milk, then, should be worth 1.87 cents; a
pound of fat, 5.6 cents. ; and a pound of carbohydrates^
1.05 cents. The value per 100 pounds of skim-milk would
then stand as follows : —
3.7 pounds of albuminoids, . . . .6.9 cents.
0.8 pounds of fat, 4.48 cents.
4.8 pounds of carbohydrates, .... .5.04 cents.
Total valuation of 100 pounds of .skim-milk, 16.42 cents.
If we estimate a gallon to weigh nine pounds, we shall
then have a valuation of 1.6 cents per gallon, which is a
little below Dr. Goessmann's valuation of 1.8 cents per
gallon. We see, then, that, as compared with other feeds
on the basis of valuation of the nutrients, Dr. Goessmann's
figure for skim-milk is high rather than otherwise. I do not
see, then, that his results, which are wonderfully good, can
be assailed on any side. He estimates purchased feeds at
market prices ; he allows too little rather than otherwise for
the manurial value of the excrements ; he estimates the
skim-milk at a fair figure ; and yet he makes a net profit of
four and three-quarters cents per pound on the cost of pro-
duction, to pay for care and interest on investment. Farm-
ers, can you do as well? I believe you can, if you heed the
lessons which I have sought to impress upon you ; if you
follow the advice of the learned doctor.
Select suitable animals, feed at first a rich food with a
narrow nutritive ratio, make the food less rich (widen the
ratio) from time to time as the animals grow, and finally
slaughter before the animals reach the live weight of 200
pounds. As to foods for combining with the skim-milk,
you have a considerable range of choice. Select those the
valuation of which exceeds largely the selling price, in so far
as may be possible. With the observance of these rules, you
can hardly fail, with the exercise of good judgment, intelli-
gence and proper care, in obtaining satisfactory results.
One more point brought out by Dr. Goessmann's ex-
I
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 235
periments I wish to speak of, and I am done. This is the
effect of season upon the cost of production. The doctor
has carried out two experiments, alike in all other essentials,
but differing in the season. One experiment was carried
on from November 8 to March 12, and in this the net cost
of production of one pound of pork was 3.83 cents. The
other experiment extended from April 12 to August 8, and
in this the net cost of a pound of pork was 2.98 cents.
Here is a difference of .85 cents per pound in favor of sum-
mer feeding. In each of these experiments the total gain
of the six pigs amounted to about one thousand pounds.
The total advantage in favor of summer feeding amounted,
then, to $8.50 on the six pigs. This sum at present prices
would buy about a ton and a half of coal, and this amount
of coal would be sufficient to keep a well-constructed room,
fifteen feet square, at a comfortable living temperature all
winter. It would not require to be quite so warm for pigs ;
and it cannot be doubted that a pen sufficiently large for six
animals could be kept warm enough to keep them gaining
even ftister than in summer, — for there would be no flies nor
excessively hot days, — with a consumption of considerably
less than a ton and a half of coal. I suggest, therefore, that
the question whether to keep animals warm by burning coal
is not more profitable than to do it by giving an excess
of food, is at least worthy of experiment. But, whether
you warm your piggeries or not, you should at least draw
one or two lessons from this result. It will pay to fatten
animals in warm weather, rather than in winter; and it will
pay to feed them in well-constructed and warm buildings.
Warmth must not, however, be obtained at the expense of
ventilation and pure air. Disease will certainly follow over-
crowding in ill-ventilated pens. Warmth and pure air are
the essentials for health, rapid gains and profitable results.
Mr. J. W. Stockwell of Sutton. Before taking up the
discussion of the subjects which have been so admirably pre-
sented to us in the addresses of the morning, I desire to intro-
duce, and move the adoption of, the following resolution : —
Resolved, That the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, re-
affirming its resolutions of last year, does pledge itself anew to use
236 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
its best endeavor to obtain legislation that shall suppress and
punish fraud in all dairy products, and also to advance the inter-
ests of this important branch of agriculture to the farmers of this
State.
Mr. HiCKOX seconded the resolution, and it was adopted
unanimously.
Mr. Geixnell of Greenfield. Perhaps there will be no
better time for a resolution which I desire to offer than the
present ; so I move the adoption of the following : —
Resolved, That the State Board of Agriculture, in signifying
their great satisfaction with the arrangements and proceedings of
this winter meeting, desire to express their thanks for courtesies
and attentions extended to them by the city government and the
citizens of Fitchburg.
The resolution was seconded, and unanimously adopted.
Mr. Stockwell. As I listened to the address of Secretary
Gilbert, I noticed that the credit of introducing co-operative
cheese-making was given to a different person from the one
to whom I had always credited it. In looking up this matter
some few ^^ears ago, I thought I found that Jesse Williams
of Rome, Oneida County, New York, was the originator of
the cheese factory. It was T)rought al)out by the sickness of
his wife, he being obliged to take her place in making
cheese : and he produced so fine a product that a demand
was at once created, the price advanced, and the desire for
more became so great that he joined with his fiirm that of
his son, and together they supplied the product for a time,
and then others of their neioi:hbors were brought in. I took
this from an English authority, by an American correspond-
ent, found in the office of the Secretary of our Board of
Agriculture. Growing out of this, Cornelius Schemmerhorn
of New York State was called to England, and there took
charge of the first English factory that was ever introduced,
I think in Derby. The introduction of co-operative cheese-
making and co-operative creameries led to the introduction
of American cheese into England ; and that was the begin-
ning of the exportation of American dairy products. It
began in 1850, and at the present time it is millions of
pounds. I simply wanted to call the attention of Secretary
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 237
Gilbert to this fact, that 1 may be corrected if I am
wrong.
Mr. Gilbert. I think I did not allude to Mr. Willard as
being the originator of the associated system of making
cheese, but as having been one of the first to call it to the
attention of the public in our country. However, since the
gentleman has called me up, I wish to call his history a little
in question. I think the honor of first introducing, or first
inventing, if you will allow the word, the associated system
of cheese-making, does not belong to Jesse Williams, but
to another. The name has now gone from me.
Mr. A. W. Cheever. In the report of the Connecticut
Board of Agriculture for 1888 you will find that the first
pineapple cheese in this country was made in 1808, by
Lewis M. Norton of Goshen, Conn. He continued making
this cheese, from his own dairy of less than fifty cows, from
1808 until 1844, when he commenced buying curd from
other dairies, and built, as we suppose, the first cheese fac-
tory in our country. The manufacture of pineapple cheese
has been continued on this place in Goshen since 1808.
Mr. Gilbert. I was going to say it belonged, not to New
York, but to the nutmeg State, as so many other good
things do.
Mr. A. H. Fitch, Secretary of Milk Producers' Union.
The resolution Avhicli has been adopted here brings to mind
the fact that the legislation of the last five or six years in
regard to milk has made a difl'erence of $600,000 to the
inhabitants of Boston and the towns within five miles of it.
If you turn to the report of the Inspector of Milk, you will
find that sixty-three samples out of a hundred were found to
be adulterated in 1883, and in 1889 only five samples. That
change has been brought about hy the enforcement of the
adulteration laws. This has increased the confidence of
people in the quality of the milk to such an extent that the
amount per person sold in Boston and its environs has in-
creased more than fifty per cent in the last seven years.
This is to the advantage of the producer.
Again, Boston has got its milk for a less price, according to
the inspector's report. In the last five years the improve-
ment in the quality of milk has been very nearly one-seventh.
238 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Jan.
and the consumer gets as much of solids in the milk for seven
cents as he o^ot for eig-ht cents before. It has been said that
he who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew be-
fore is a benefactor of mankind. We are now able to make
a little more milk and a little more butter from each cow.
The attempts of the formers in the past three years to have
something to say regarding the sale of their milk, and not
have the dealers alone set the price, have increased the price
to the producer over six per cent in the past three years.
Does it pay ?
Adjourned to one o'clock.
Afternoon Session.
The meeting was called to order at one o'clock, by Mr.
Cruickshanks.
The Chairman. The lecture due at this time is upon the
subject, "How to Make Poultry-keeping Profitable," by
Dr. G. M. Twitchcll of Fairfield, Me., associate editor of
" The Maine Farmer," whom I have now the pleasure of
introducing to you.
HOW TO MAKE POULTRY-KEEPING PROFITABLE.
BY DR. G. M. TWITCHELL OP FAIRFIELD, ME.
The day has arrived when, in measuring any industry, the
standard of dollars and cents must determine value. If this
be thought too much of a utilitarian view, the answer must
be that every surrounding influence, every possible condition
entering in, forces to this one standard by which results may
be accurately measured.
The trees in our orchards, beautiful, symmetrical and
attractive, are valuable as orchards in proportion as they
throw out on bough and twig the l)lossoras of ^lay and the rich
fruit of September. The dairy cow on which we are coming
to depend so completely, is of service to just the extent that
she produces the golden, waxy product in excess of cost of
keeping. The sheep must be measured, not by fancy tastes
or desires, but by the wool and mutton product. The horses,
multiplying so rapidly all over New England, are to be in-
creased or diminished just in the ratio of their conformity to
this one standard of merit. By their fruits all these must be
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 239
measured. The hogs, working upon the manure piles, are
being perfected with the one thought of making pork at a
profit, even tliough the price received be low. The farmer's
income must come from the productions of the farm, and
there is to-day no escape from a study of the worth and cost
of production.
How can poultry-keeping be made profitable? By the
application of the same laws as govern elsewhere, — by
Jiuoivim/ that the cost of production is below the price
received.
Symmetrical trees, fine-limbed and beautiful Jerseys,
large and well-proportioned sheep, pedigree in hogs, beauty
and blood in horses, and perfection of markings in poultry,
all these must give way to biusiness, in agriculture. No
man places a higher estimate on these points than I ; but
there is a higher test, a great, controlling question of profit
or loss ; and to the individual farmer, struggling in the cur-
rent, battling against the sharp competition of to-day, this is
the question calling for solution. It is this one supreme
test which will bring out the true metal and gladden our
ears with its merry ring.
I want to-day to weigh and measure what I have to say
in the scales and measures of the farmer, dependent on his
lands, flocks and herds for his su[)port. The fancier can
pursue any path he chooses, but with the great majority the
question of bread and butter is uppermost. Therefore,
while as a breeder recognizing all that can be claimed for
blood, color or markings, I would bring another standard,
and measure the poultry industry in the light of possible
profits for the breeder looking entirely to the open market
for the sale of his poultry and eggs.
For present excellence we are indebted to the specialists
who have probed to the very centre the problem of life
and its wonderful powers of transmission. No stronger
proof of the good work they have accomplished can any-
where be found, than may be seen in the poultry yards. I
present this thought first, because it is absolutely necessary
that we realize the steps leading to present standards, else
we shall surely fail of maintaining our position.
The magnificent specimen seen to-day, weighing eight to
240 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
ten pounds, or producing twelve to thirteen dozen eggs
yearly, is not an accident. She has been evolved out of the
brain and hand of man, through centuries of breeding.
Place before the mind's eye a selected representative of any
breed, and then try and imagine what was the type when
only the wild bird existed, and through what stages of
development the flocks have been rising since man was given
dominion over the beasts of the fields and fowls of the air.
Left to their native state, the product would be only what
was necessary to perpetuate the species, as seen in the quail
and partridge; but man — restless, unsatisfied, aspiring
man — began the work of subjugation. There came to
him, in the caves and fields, dim visions of what might be ;
and he began building upon this foundation, and through
the ages has labored patienth^ and persistently, until we have
entered into all the fruits of the past. Why, the horse, cow,
sheep or hen of to-day is a monstrosity, when viewed in the
light of even fifty years ago.
No man breeding for possible profit can realize the most
unless he seeks continually to come into a knowledge of the
growth of the centuries. Present standards are not fixed.
The law of reversion is underneath ; and, unless we put our-
selves into the work, and by steady application seek to ad-
vance, there is sure to come a falling away from the full
measure of what otherwise might be ours. Hence the claim
is made that here is the corner-stone upon which we must
build, and evenj breeder must come into a knowledge of the
principles involved. The great law of compensation per-
meates everything, and in the poultry yard w^e receive in
proportion as we give. The large per cent of profit possible
to the breeder is contingent upon a knowledge and observ-
ance of certain conditions, the first being this one of heredity.
Success is not an accident ; and to you engaged in poultry
breeding, I want to present this one underlying thought as
of supreme importance. Know the steps leading to present
standards, and patiently labor to improve. Observing these
in all their details, it is possible for any breeder to realize,
from every hen kept, a net profit yearly of two dollars per
head, at prices realized in the market during the current year.
To substantiate this, let us consider first the egg question.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 241
I venture this, that not one in one hundred can give any
adequate idea of the cost of keeping. The necessity for the
itemized account is not appreciated. It must be resorted to
in order for success to follow. Pencil and paper are tlie
first requisites for the practical poultry keeper.
Towering far above the question of breeds is that of care
and feedino;. Our breeds are what we make them. Tliev
adapt themselves to their environments, and partake in
a marked decree of the traits and characteristics of their
owners. You have in Massachusetts a host of l)reeders who
have stamped their own individuality upon their breeds.
Any man acquainted with Light Brahmas could select a
Felch, Williams or Comey bird, if seen in California, before
it had adapted itself to its new surroundings. So long as
the controlling influence of these breeders was upon them
they told the "Story. To-day may be seen specimens of
Drake Plymouth Rocks, though he who fixed the type has
long been at rest. So I might run through the list and name
scores of breeders ; but this will suffice as an illustration of
my thought.
Judged by the standards of the market for poultry and
eggs, discarding the so-called fancy issue, these men have
realized great things from their poultry yards. I do not
doubt Mr. Felch has secured two hundred eggs yearly from
individual Light Brahmas ; for no man can dream of the
possibilities of this industry until he buries himself in the
work, and with cautious steps looks carefully after all details.
The average of production is with the breeder, though the
hens produce the eggs. That is, the development of eggs is
dependent entirely upon the food question. What is an
eirg? It is an ounce and a half of concentrated food, made
up of lime, soda, sulphur, iron, phosphorus, magnesia, oil
and albumen. The hen is the mill to grind, the crop the
hopper, and the egg the grist. Feed the hopper, and the
grist will be forthcoming. I am aware that this is a very
business-like view ; but I am measuring the hen as a machine,
aiming to make clear the claim for profit in poultry breeding.
The great want everywhere is an appreciation of the laws of
feeding, and the digestibility and assimilation of food. Every
particle of the egg — yolk, albumen and shell — must come
242 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
from the assimilated food through the blood cells. It is a
wonderful machine of Avhich we are speaking, capable of
taking the grains, grasses, vegetables and fruits ; grinding in
the marvelously constructed machine, the gizzard ; then
dissolving, separating and distributing to the several parts
the energies necessary to sustain the body, and storing
material for making the product desired, — eggs. We can-
not feed concentrated egg-food, for no man can produce it ;
but we can feed the elements in the very best manner possi-
ble, prepared in the alchemy of God's providence, by a
Divine Chemist; and, when fed in accordance with an intel-
ligent plan, force the production of what is wanted.
Under the breeding of the past twenty years the organs of
reproduction have been stimulated to a fury ; and now it is
necessary that we pause and measure the steps, in order that
there be no loss in the future. If we feed corn, or other
fat and heat-fonning food, there cannot follow the largest
production of eggs, because the material for eggs is not in
the corn. The tendency will be to turn the current in the
direction of fat accumulation. Corn contains eighty- six
per cent of heat and fat elements. The value of any article
of food is not the cost per hundred pounds, but its power
to produce what is wanted. Tlie cheapest article of food
for oijff-makins: is that which will produce an esf'g at the least
expense. There must be a turning from the habits of
former years, and a study of this question with sole reference
to cost of production.
The expense of keeping a hen varies from one and one-half
mills daily to five mills. At present prices of grain, it is
l)oth possible and practical to keep our flocks in perfect
health, and so in the highest state of productiveness, at a
daily cost of two mills per head. We shall be the better
prepared to do this as Ave study the food question, and in
variety and quantity meet the needs of the system, supplying
the food elements from most inexpensive sources, and
balancing these for egg production. It cannot be the
quantity taken, but that which is completely digested and
assimilated. If there be any excess, the energies which
would go to the making of eggs are consumed in the vain
uttempt to take care of and expel all surplus. Tims food
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 243
consumes food. To a certain limit, we may force the
storage of albuminous food ; but if that limit be passed,
there results a weakened condition of liver and kidneys,
which rapidly develops into disease. There must be a per-
fect egg ration, one that will keep the animal in health, and
produce the desired product. How, then, shall we feed?
Good second-crop clover contains lime for shell material,
and albuminoids for flesh and muscle formino; in excess of
corn, and is equal to wheat as a nitrogenous food. Here,
then, is a valuable food, not expensive. Oats, wheat, bran,
chopped hay and vegetables, with meat scraps, must form
the bulk of food for eggs, with corn as our sheet-anchor for
fuel to supply animal heat or produce fat. In my own
experience, I found a mixed ration most profitable. I mixed
together twenty-five per cent of oats, wheat and bran, ten
each of corn and linseed, grinding all together, and then
adding five per cent of meat scraps. Cooking vegetables,
or steaming chopped hay daily, and adding just enough of
this mixed grain to give consistency to the mass, — say three
quarts to the bucketful, — and allowing the whole to cook all
night in a covered tank, I have secured a ration satisfactory,
yet not expensive. To-day I would rely more largely upon
clover. For whole grain I have always been governed by
circumstances, finding the best results when I reduced the
corn ration, save in extremely cold weather, when it must
be our chief dependence, because of its heat-giving elements.
There is no way of determining the exact quantity to be
fed a hen, because of the infinite variety of temperaments
and habits, created and intensified by years of breeding,
warmth of buildings, and want of regularity in attention.
It cost as much to keep an active Leghorn as a sluggish
Plymouth Rock. Size cannot be a fixed guide to quantity.
Rations, as published, can only approximate. If the whole
thing were settled, we could perfect a machine to do the
entire work, and save ourselves much worry and labor.
The fact is, these enormous profits come only in return for
somethino^ <>:iven.
The normal crop of a hen Avill hold but a small quantity.
Distend it by inviting the bird to eat appetizing food, and
four times the amount necessary for health will be taken.
244 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE [Jan.
We have all seen this, when feeding corn at night ; how each
bird will crane its neck, trying to force down the kernels,
and satisfy the palate. The idea that an animal will eat only
what it needs, is one of the beliefs we should disabuse our-
selves of as quickly as possible. Every breeder must be a
law to himself, seeking always to measure the needs of
individuals, and to supply the smallest quantity consistent
with best health and productiveness. Here is the economy
of feeding, the value of balanced rations. It is not niggard-
liness, but true liberality ; for it seeks, first of all, perfect
health, by balancing the condition of the animal. Nature's
method is a grain at a time, and a constant searching and
scratching for these. Our system too often is to crowd the
food into the crop in the shortest possible time. If the
nerve energies resulting from the tissue foods be consumed
in removing, grinding, digesting and assimilating food, they
cannot produce eggs. Each body is capable of expending
so much force daily. If the ration be balanced all is har-
mony, and the natural functions are carried on smoothly.
By the observance of these principles the flocks have
slowly yet surely been graded up to present high standards.
To-day no man can dream of the possibilities of the future,
provided the highest skill is exercised in the selection and
balancing of rations.
Aiming at a solution of the problem of profitable poultry
culture, the selection of breeds must receive attention. No
man can succeed in an undertaking unless he has a natural
inclination for it. Especially is this true in poultry breed-
ing. Not only must he be an enthusiast, but the variety
must be what his fancy dictates. One man, with a love for
the majestic Brahmas, will realize many times as much as
his neighbor, who attempts their culture because somebody
else succeeds. Or another, full of admiration for the active
Leghorn, will score a grand success, after utterly failing with
other varieties. Success hinges largely on natural adapta-
tion to the work. For want of this, there is no upward
striving, no reaching forward to a higher standard. While
the term Brahma or Leghorn has a certain meaning, it by no
means follows that the individual of either breed excels in
all characteristics. Remembering what has already been
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 245
said in relation to the origin of breeds, we must get back of
the bird, and learn the controlling spirit of the breeder,
before we can measure accurately. A Brahma may be such
in all purity, and still be almost a cipher in all points of
excellence ; and a Leghorn may have all the outward marks
of the variety, and be wanting entirely in the power to pro-
duce the luscious fruit of the hen-house. If these premises
are correct, it follows that the fancy, the ideal of excellence
in the individual breeder, has more to do with success, than
the breed, and that any variety may be transformed to meet
the requirements of the breeder. Here is the explanation
why one family of Brahmas excels as egg-producers, while
another towers far above as poultry.
It was this spirit of unrest, this desire to realize more than
had been secured, this belief in the possibility of reaching
somethino; better, combining in a still more marked degree
the essentials of all breeds, that first led to the crosses
resulting in the Plymouth Rocks, — a breed that to-day,'
throughout the country, ranks second to none. The same
spirit has since developed the Wyandottes, like the Plym-
outh Rocks in general characteristics, save color. These
two varieties are proof positive of the fact that our poultry
is in our hands to be molded, changed, corrected, enlarged,
and built upon according to our desires.
By the application of the same principle, weeding out
the inferior ones, breeding only from the best, and feeding
for a specific purpose, I believe it possible in the near future
to reach an average of thirteen dozen eggs yearly, with small
flocks. The fact that individuals do this, or more, justifies
the claim that others will, when bred, fed and cared for in
the same manner. This can never come through indiscrim-
inate breeding from any flock, no matter how high the aver-
age. There is always a choice, and eggs for hatching should
come from the hen, or those hens, who excel in form and size,
or as layers. To-day there is wanted a broad body, deep
and compact, not long in the legs or neck, with legs well
apart, in color bright yellow. Such a bird would give the
greatest weight with least waste. For such, a higher price
will be paid by the purchaser.
In some sections there is a demand for colored e2:irs ; but
246 BOARD OF AGKICULTURE. [Jan.
I fancy the breeder of Spanish classes will realize as much
for the white ones if they are as carefully selected, and free
from stains. The difference in quality of eggs is not in
color of shell, but in the food supply from which they are
constructed. Flavors come from the food in eggs, as well
as milk.
In selecting breeding stock, be assured the hens are not
an accident, but have been bred for generations from stock
possessing positive virtues. Let the breeding be to fix the
predisposition of heredity. Increased size, early maturity,
desired form and greatest production Avill in this way be se-
cured, an upward tendency being all the while maintained.
I have not urged pure-bred stock, because I am here to
enforce, if I may, the one lesson of possible profits for the
farmer, and not to speak for the specialists ; but it must not
be construed that mixed grades of any and all breeds are to
be brought together, for this can never satisfy. Each breed
•represents a peculiar idea ; each has its own individual char-
acteristics, and excels in some particular.
For the average farmer or mechanic, wantino- egsrs and
poultry, and without time to study the problem of breeding,
and cultivate and improve on the work of the specialist,
high grades will give better results than pure-bloods. It is
easier to improve with grade hens of one variety, and a pure-
bred male, than to hold an even keel with pure-blood stock.
Never use a grade male. There can be no uniformity, no
satisfaction. Secure, yearly, a male pure in breeding, rich
in inheritance, strong and healthy ; and, making use of the
best hens, there will surely come a steady advance in the
type and productiveness of the flocks. Avoid all violent
outcrosses. Use a male of one variety, and so reach after
and secure the highest possible profit. It is business in the
poultry yard we are discussing to-day, — business for the
farmer with his many cares, for the tradesman or mechanic
having only limited time ; and for these reasons I urge high
grades. There is money in the business of breeding })ure-
bloods, but more time and attention are necessar}--, a more
critical study of the tastes and recjuirements of other breed-
ers is demanded; and, because of. this, the great majority
of farmers who keep hens solely for profit, cannot do more
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 247
than give a fair amount of attention to the all-important
questions upon which the industry rests, and must leave the
field of fancy stock to the fanciers.
It is idle for any one to think of adding poultry breeding
to the round of daily duties, without subtracting the equiva-
lent from other cares. Farm work is exacting. Nothing
can be neglected, neither can the farmer divide his attention
aliiong too many departments without loss. Better by far
confine to one or two lines, and in these seek to excel. No
man can succeed in poultry culture, who feeds and waters
once a day, cleans out the pens when it rains, collects the
eggs after dark, and breeds with no special reference to
quality. These are the men who fail in everything. They
are the ones who in public, and through the press, declare
that the business is a humbug ; that every egg costs a dime,
and a pound of poultry is worth a dollar to the grower.
This to them is the truth, simply and only because they
reach out after and attempt to grasp every branch known to
agriculture, and neglect the conditions underlying success.
A daily round of little duties makes up the sum total of the
labors of the poultry man ; and not one of these can be neg-
lected without loss.
The average price received by the breeders in central
Maine this year for eggs will be a fraction less than twenty
cents a dozen. Those of you who have put yourselves into
the business, and made a market for choice stock, have real-
ized thirty cents or more. Why is it that all the farmers do
not secure this higher price ? The demand is active, the sup-
ply limited. It must be because they fail to observe the
conditions. With the fact staring us in the face, that the
market is ready to pay thirty cents a dozen for selected eggs,
absolutely fresh, from stock fed on sound, healthy grain,
the great majority, through neglect, fail to secure or ship
their product in quantity or quality sufficient to secure more
than the average market price. If we but meet market re-
quirements, we might from the sale of eggs realize the full
measure of profit claimed at the commencement of this paper.
An average production of ten dozen — not large — would
insure a gross income of three dollars per head. With cost
of production reduced by a study of rations, the expense of
248 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
keeping would not exceed seventy-three cents per head,
leaving a net income of two dollars and twenty-seven cents.
But there is another field claiming our attention, — that of
growing poultry. To-day an exacting market meets the
producer. The great West is pouring in a torrent of meat
product, grown at less cost than we can possibly hope to
secure. The only hope for New England is in the produc-
tion of a better article, and the placing of the same on the
market in choice condition. One advantage is ours, —
distance cannot be annihilated. We have from thirty to
forty hours advantage, and to improve all this conveys, is
our opportunity. Quality, th*en, must determine price. To
secure this, we must begin at the same foundation as when
looking for eggs, — the parent stock. While we may pos-
sess an all-purpose hen, or variety capable of producing a
goodly number of eggs, and yet valuable as poultry, it is a
fact that this combination detracts from the highest excel-
lence in either direction. A variety bred solely for eggs,
will, if the work be carried forward systematically for a
series of years, not only excel in this respect, but take on a
form peculiarly adapted to egg production. The wonderful
elasticity of Nature's laws is surprising; and, whenever men
attempt an improvement, unseen forces seem to co-operate
to secure a type best fitted for the object desired. If the
egg-forming habit be cultivated and stimulated, the tendency
will soon become fixed in the breed ; and for this reason, if
for no other, that variety cannot excel as meat-producers.
Again, the breeder who seeks for the very best poultry
will breed from those birds possessing the greatest merit in
this one direction ; form, color of leg and flesh, and rapidity of
o;rowth, beino; the essentials sou2:ht after. Doing; this, esfg;
production becomes secondary, and the tendency is towards
fixedness in flesh forming. In combining the two, there
must be a dropping from the highest standard in either.
While some breeds possess ability to produce both in a
marked degree, as seen in the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes
and some families of Brahmas, it is useless to expect to
equal the standard of him who bends all his energies in one
direction.
Success, then, in growing poultry for the market, depends
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 249
upon the selection of birds bred for market purposes, and
mated to produce their superiors. The great cry is for
early maturity. Broilers at ten to twelve weeks, roasters at
fourteen to sixteen, — here is the line of profit, and to crowd
the most growth into the shortest possible time is the secret
of successful poultry growing. The highest price goes to
him who in twelve weeks brings forward the plumpest body,
best proportioned, and with the largest per cent of flesh,
most attractive in color. Breeding only from those excelling
in these qualities, and feeding for this one end, the story is
soon told to the satisfaction of the breeder. The food for
making bone, muscle and flesh in the chick, is very much the
same as that for producing eggs in the adult fowl. Begin at
the first to feed strengthening food, tissue food, leaving the
fats to be supplied later. Milk here enters in as one of the
most valuable products ; and by milk I mean that which has
had the fats removed for churning, for this is far better than
the whole product. Testing the eggs after being under the
hens, or in the incubators, seven to ten days, and removing
those not fertilized, we have the very best food for little
chicks. Not only is valuable time saved by removing the
infertile eggs, but by cooking these thoroughly, and mixing
with bread or cracker crumbs soaked in milk, an excellent
food is provided at slight expense. The crop of a chicken
is a little thing, and should not receive more than half a
tea-spoonful at a time. A slight excess will destroy life or
retard growth, and for the most rapid work there can be no
faltering for an instant. After the third day, green food
should be given. If the flocks have access to fresh grass, this
will be unnecessary ; but it does not do to wait for the buds
of spring before starting the broods. They should begin to
appear next month, — January, — and be on the market
before spring fairly opens. Sow rape or oats in boxes, and
cut when two or three inches high, chopping fine, and feeding
dail3^ For animal food, I have found meal worms extremely
valuable, yet inexpensive. These I have grown in flannel or
lint, kept in a warm place, sprinkled with meal, and w^et with
sweetened water. Later it has been my custom to use the
wastes from the butcher shops, exposing until tainted, then
sprinkling with meal and covering with moist, warm earth.
250 BOARD OF AGRICULTUPvE. [Jan.
Continue the skimmed milk as long as possible. In no
place can this valualjlc product be made to pay better re-
turns than in the poultry yard. In cooked food, never feed
anything sloppy. A dry, crumbly mass is best. In using
milk for mature stock, we must remember that it is food,
and its value must be taken from the other supply, else
troubles will appear. For growing chicks, the best ration I
have found has been composed of thirty per cent each of oats
and wheat, twenty of corn, ten of linseed and ten of meat
scraps. This, mixed into a dough with skimmed milk, I
would bake until thoroughly cooked, set away at least
twenty-four hours, and then pound or grind, adding more
milk if I desired to feed as dough, or givhig dry. In this
combination I consider linseed one of the most valuable parts,
but would never feed more than ten per cent. It is rich,
albuminous food, and hence valual)le in forchig growth. If
these chicks were to furnish my future layers, then surely
the ration must be changed to meet the dilferent conditions.
Having the ration fixed as regards variety and quantity, —
this last being a very important item, — there enters at once
another factor that must be considered, — regularity in feed-
ing. No matter how choice the stock, how careful the
breeding, how well-balanced the ration, unless regularity be
observed in feeding, it is utterly useless to expect to succeed.
Hunger must be appeased at once, or the system draws upon
its own stores for nutriment. If regular hours are observed,
Nature adapts the animal to the condition ; but the practice
must be maintained. A little at a time, and that often, will
insure the most rapid growth. Feeding in this way, forcing
growth by selected rations, large size will be secured at an
early period. Early maturity in everything must be our
motto. The chicken put on the market at twelve weeks, to
weigh two pounds, will have cost for food not more than
eight cents a pound. As broilers sell readily for thirty cents
a pound, or more, until the first of June, it pays to grow
them. Rather it pays to give a return of extra care and
labor, for this growth comes as compensation for what we
give.
In growing to maturity, and marketing when four to four
and one-half months old, the dressed weight should ])o at
181)0.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 251
least five pounds, at a cost for food materials of thirty to
thirty-five cents, or seven cents a pound. These figures are
on the assumption that a certain amount of liberty is given
the chicks daily. In growing these maturer birds, the
fattening process should be reserved for the last twelve or
fourteen days. It is bone, muscle, flesh, that is needed, —
bones strong in substance, large in size ; muscles capable of
carrying the frame to full maturity, and flesh of healthy
structure. There is no room for puny constitutions. When
the time approaches for marketing, confine in dry pens, with
only light enough to enable the bird to find its food. Here,
as all the while, regularity is to be observed ; but the ration
now wanted is to be rich in the fats, starches and sugars ; and
we turn to the corn, buckwheat, barley, ah increase of lin-
seed, sunflower seeds, and enough cooked vegetables to aid
digestion. No\'/ we enter upon the cramming process, when
fats are to form rapidly, and the bird pushed on to the
market just before the breaking down of the tissues. As
much as possible of the entire ration should be cooked, in
order that the work of digestion be aided as far as we may.
Feed whole corn at night, removing all that is not eaten.
In the time specified, from twenty to thirty per cent will be
added to the net weight, at comparatively little cost. Such
poultry satisfies the epicure. It is rich, juicy and tender,
more so than would be possible if allowed its liberty and its
muscles and flesh strengthened by exercise. When ready
to ship, give no food for twelve hours, that the crop and
intestines may be empty, or at least that all food may have,
in the process of digestion, passed the period of fermenta-
tion .
When ready to dress, suspend the bird by a cord about
the legs, and, holding the lower mandible firmly with the
left hand, pass the sharp blade into the roof of the mouth,
where by a quick cross movement you sever the arteries, and
the vertebra3 at the base of the brain. A convulsive spasm
tells the story, and, before this ceases, the quill feathers
should be pulled. If the work be done promptly and rap-
idly, the whole surface will be cleared in a very brief time ;
whereas, by a little neglect, the labor will be many times
increased. Open and draw, making as small an incision as
252 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
possible ; remove the head, roll back the skin on the neck,
and draw out the cro[) ; then dra^v^ the skin over the neck,
and tie neatly. When thoroughly cooled, pack in clean
boxes, and never put in a bird that is marred in the least, or
oft' color in skin. The appearance of the package Avhen
opened will have much to do with the price, and the pres-
ence of a single inferior specimen will fix the price for the
whole. Dressing and shipping a superior article, the market
will always be open to receive it, at prices satisfactory to the
grower.
Either line of operations calls for the exercise of the
highest skill, patience and ingenuity. Again I say, which
you adopt will depend upon j^our individual fancy. In
combining, two distinct ideals of perfection must be kept
in view, and the object aimed at never for a moment for-
gotten.
When growing chicks, intending the pullets for layers,
separate at an early age, and give the pullets a freer range
and coarser food. Grow strong, hardy constitutions. Be
sure to avoid producing fat. Bring them to laying, in
simply good growing condition. A pullet that is fat will
not commence laying at so early an age, neither will the
process of egg-forming be continued as regularly, as though
the ovarian system were not crowded upon by the fats of
the body. We are aiming at two hundred eggs yearly as the
average of our flocks. If it ever comes, it will be by grow-
ing ouv pullets for layers, giving them hardy constitutions,
keeping them in condition for egg producing, and providing
rations adapted to the work desired. Whether it be true or
not that the germ of every egg is formed before the first
goes to the egg basket, this much is true, — that, if we dress
a pullet just as she comes to laying, we shall find an egg
developed, and others in varying size, until we have counted
perhaps three hundred and fifty yolks. Back of these is
what seems a mass of membrane ; but bring hither the micro-
scope, and it tells a new story. This is simply an aggrega-
tion of minute vesicles, infinitesimal yolks. Count these,
and we have about three hundred more. For our present
purpose, it makes no diflerence whether these are all there
are to be formed, or not. The point is here : these germs are
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4, 253
to be developed by and out of the food supply taken into the
system, digested and assimilated, treated in that wonderful
machine, — the stomach, freed by acids and dissolved by
alkalies, and finally carried in solution to the ovary, where
e"ro;s are to be matured. The secret of the industry, if
DO «' '
there be one, lies in the ability to force the development
of these germs, by feeding rations balanced for egg produc-
tion.
Only by the appreciation of this principle can we maintain
the production of to-day. Instead of being five years or
more, these germs must be matured and on the market in
two and a half or three. Why, gentlemen, we shall not
rest until we have a machine capable of yielding an egg
every twenty-four hours, and then some live Yankee will go
to work and attempt to double the product.
One more claim must be made for this systematic feeding.
In no other way can we secure eggs for hatching that will
develop and send out healthy chicks. There must be hardy
constitutions in sire and dam, in order for hardy ofi'spring.
There must be virile energy in both, in order for living
chicks to be secured. As the albumen of the egg contains
practically all the elements out of which the chicken's body
is made, and the yolk only serves to strengthen the last few
hours before, and first few after, leaving the shell, it follows
that this albumen must be rich in bone, muscle and flesh
elements.
Again are we driven back to consider what was the con-
dition of the parent stock when that egg was being formed.
Was the hen closely confined, and fed largely on corn, or
was she given abundant exercise and nitrogenous food ? The
whole question hinges right here, and here is where the
great majority fail. They bring their pullets to winter
quarters after a season's run with the cockerels, the food
having been such as would put the latter in marketable con-
dition. It is no wonder eggs are not forthcoming, though
the comb reddens, and the musical sound is heard. Confine
these birds in warm, sunny pens, feed liberally on food
easily digested, and then expect eggs that will hatch. Why,
the whole line of operations has been to defeat this very end.
A moment's reflection will convince that it is utterly impos-
254 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
sible to expect returns under such treatment. Here may be
found an explanation why one failing with Plymouth Rocks
succeeds with Leghorns, because of the natural habits of
activity in the latter. Not that he succeeds in securing the
most financially, but in keeping his flock alive through the
winter, — something impossible with larger breeds, when
liberally fed and kept from exercise.
Thus far the attempt has been made to present the ques-
tion of breeding for profit, and to show, if possible, on
what basis the industry rests, and how the claims made
may be substantiated. There remains another question to
be answered. Will the poultry industry pay the average
farmer, and what is the cost of commencing operations?
After an experience of more than twent}'^ years I can answer
the first part of the query decidedly in the affirmative,
measuring the business by market standards. It has paid
me just in proportion as I have observed the conditions
urged in this paper. Year after year I have realized a net
profit of two dollars per head ; yet to-day I can look back
and see how I failed to appreciate the significance of the
lessons I have presented for your consideration and discus-
sion. There is more in store than we have yet attained to.
In all operations, one must learn to walk before he runs the
race, and small beginnings lead to great results. This is a
business having to do entirely with cents and fractions of
cents.
A building to accommodate fifty hens can be built for from
twenty to thirty dollars. Expensive structures are not nec-
essary. Such a building would be 20 by 12, with seven-foot
posts ; sills, 4 by 4 ; studding, 2 by 3 ; boarded and shingled,
the walls covered with tarred paper or battened, and paper
used inside ; two windows on the south, twelve lights, each
8 by 10 ; door at the end ; with roosts two feet from floor,
across opposite end ; and flooring six inches below, to catch
droppings. Add nests and drinking dishes, and the house is
ready for the hens. In building such a hen-house, select a
dry, gravelly knoll, haul on small stone to the depth of ten
inches, and set the sills on these ; then fill to the top with
dry earth. You have thus secured perfect drainage and the
best dust bath possible. I know this is not a beautiful
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — A^. 4. 255
structure, ])ut it is comfortable, and by our measure to-day
will suffice. On this basis I would advise the farmer to
commence to fathom the mysteries of successful poultry
breeding.
When these fifty produce ten dozen eggs yearly, double
the flock, never forgetting that cares increase in like ratio.
Learn the A, B, C of poultry raising before you embark
upon the troubled waters, and there will be no cause to
regret the step. A man must grow into it slowly, if the full
measure of success is to be his. While I am ready to affirm
that there is no branch of farm industry yielding such a per
cent as the poultry yard may yield, I should bo false to
every honest consideration if I failed to present the obstacles
to be overcome.
One of the greatest, and one that creeps in unawares, is
the pest of vermin. The best treatment is prevention, and
that calls for constant watchfulness. In proportion as clean-
liness is observed, lice will be kept away. Whitewash often ;
use kerosene on, around and underneath the roosts ; wash out
the laying boxes frequently ; provide an abundant dust
bath, and vermin can hardly get *a foothold. It doesn't
pay to support an army of these. It costs too much to feed
them.
I do not stand here to mislead, but, if possible, to en-
courage and assist the farmers and smaller breeders in mak-
ing the farms of New England more productive and wealthy.
One item in poultry breeding is too often entirely over-
looked ; and that is, the dressing. If floorings are provided
under the roosts, and cleaned at least twice a week, the
sweepings placed in some dry receptacle, and covered with
absorbents, the spring will find you well prepared to economize
in the purchase of dressing. Properly protected and prepared,
it is one of the most valuable fertilizers we can have, provided
it is made from a variety of sound grain. At one dollar a
barrel, — the price paid by farmers in my State, — it amounts
to nearly forty cents a head yearly, or fully half the cost of
keeping. If left under the roosts, its value soon departs,
while its bulk is materially reduced.
I have made no attempt to touch the specialties of this
feature of farm work, because these have been most ably
256 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
and exhaustively treated in former papers, l)y men of long
experience and recognized ability. At the request of your
Secretary I have attempted a plain, unvarnished tale, from
the stand-point of the average farmer. The notable exam-
ples to be seen all over this State, showing what men can do
when they put themselves heartily into this industry, are
proof positive of its value. The line of operations I have
attempted to outline will not give the returns secured l)y
these specialists ; but it will surely lead to results perfectly
satisfactory to him who patiently works out the problem.
There is money in the poultry yard, and it is not so much
a difference in breeds as it is in men. Breeds, as I have
attempted to show, are what men make them. Men make
themselves. Success here, as everywhere, hinges on earnest
effort, intelligent appreciation, and patient, i^ersistent appli-
cation.
Men who reach out after the grandest possibilities, and
who labor earnestly and faithfully in any honorable occu[)a-
tion, will realize success. It is not in Arizona or Dakota,
but upon the farms of New England, that sure returns come
to him who applies himself to this chosen field, confomiing
his work to the demands of the day, keeping his ear open to
the calls of the market, throwing all liis energies into the
balance for better culture and improved breeds, and himself
being builded up in all the essentials of a noble life.
QuESTiox. I would like to ask the speaker to give us a
little more in detail the history of the Plymouth Rocks.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. They originated from several crosses.
It is claimed that three or four parties brought them out
about the same time. The cross was with the Hamburgs,
the Dominiques and the Brahmas. They appeared about
1865. The first exhibition of Plymouth Rocks was, I
think, in that year.
Mr. Fuller of Lancaster. Is it a fact that more esrgs
can be produced by having male l)irds with the hens?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I don't think that makes so much differ-
ence as the food. Some of the most successful breeders that
I know of are not in the hal)it of keeping males with their
hens until perhaps ten days before the breeding season opens.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 257
Question. How long after introducing the males would
you expect results ?
Dr. TwiTCiiELL. The fourth or fifth eofg. If the hens
have been running alone, I should expect that the eggs
would be fertilized after the second or third ; but for a cer-
tainty I would wait until the fourth or fifth.
Question. After removing the first male and mating up
with a new one, then how long?
Dr. Tw^iTCHELL. From the sixth or seventh egg. The
energy of the first male will have much to do in determining
that matter.
Question. Does the first mating aflect the progeny of
the second mating in the least?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. That is a difiicult question to answer,
there are so many things entering into its determination.
The virile energy of the birds, the prepotency of the blood,
would have much to do in determining the -question. It is
a question that cannot be determined absolutely, because
there are so many things entering into the prol)lem.
Question. Supposing a hen of one breed got by accident
with a male of another breed, wdiat course would you
pursue ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I should be careful for two or three
weeks. I would not send out any of the eggs until after I
had made a test of them. I think for two or three weeks,
surely, you might expect trouble. If the male whom you
introduce is one strong in his own energies, you would be
safe after the second or third week from the danger of con-
tamination.
Question. Would you recommend allowing the males
and females of difierent breeds to run toajether until about
the time you wish to mate them ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. No, sir ; for the very reason that when
we come to breeding we want strono; and vio;orous chickens :
we don't want eggs that are poorly fertilized. We want eggs
that are fertilized so that the chickens will come out of the
shells strong and healthy. Therefore, I would keep the males
from the hens until perhaps ten days or a fortnight before I
wanted them to breed . I would keep the males by themselves ,
storing up energy. I think in that way we get better results.
258 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Jan.
Question. I would like a little further explanation about
your method of procuring worm food. I think you spoke
about buying meal worms for your hens.
Dr. TwiTCiiELL. I have in times past procured at the
bird stores meal worms, as we call them. You can get them
sometimes at the grist mills. They are the same worms
which, perhaps, some of these ladies have found when they
have cleaned out a box which had had rye meal in it for
some time. The grocery men sometimes find them. I
usually have a box of meal which I keep in a warm place,
and occasionally wet the meal with sweetened water, and
very soon large quantities of these worms are developed.
Mr. Cheever. I understand that this worm in its natural
growth develops into the snapping beetle, and that the
increase of the species can only be from the eggs of the
snapping beetle.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I thought when I wrote that passage
that very likely some question would come up as to the
development of the worm, and what it developed into, which
I should be unable to answer ; but I have bred those worms
in meal in boxes.
Question. Is it not the yellow wire worm ?
Dr. TwiTCiiELL. No, it is not a yellow worm, it is
almost white. In appearance it is something like the worms
that you sometimes find in tainted meat. It is about half an
inch lonsr.
Mr. CiiEEVER. I do not know of any worm that is
developed except into a winged insect.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I do not know but this would, but I have
grown the worms in that way.
Question. About what is the maximum number of hens
that it is proper to keep with a male bird, if you want to
use the eggrs for hatchino- ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. Something would depend upon the
variety. The large birds, Plymouth Rocks, Brahmas and
Asiatics, I should say eight to twelve ; the Leghorns, twelve
to eighteen. There, as before, would come in this same
question of the condition of the male.
Question. How many times a day do you feed them ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I have fed twice a day the last few
1890.] PUBLIC DOCmiENT — No. 4. 259
years ; or rather, twice a day a regular ration ; and at noon
I give them a little cabbage or onion or apple or turnip, or
something of that kind, — a small quantity.
Question. Is green food necessary in winter?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I thought I had made that clear. I
would feed green food of some kind every day.
Question. I understood that you fed clover, and I did
not know whether or not in the winter time you would feed
that dry.
Dr. Tw^itchell. I would feed cooked vegetables with
the clover. I would give all the variety of green food pos-
sible. Steam the clover after chopping.
Question. How often would you feed little chicks two
or three days old ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. Five times a day.
Question. Would you advise keeping food before them
all the time ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. No, sir; I never keep food before any
of them. There must be time for rest and dio;estion.
Question. You said that in their natural state they pick
up kernel after kernel all the time.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I say " kernel after kernel ;" but there
is considerable time intervening, and the birds are working
about all the time. We take them from a natural state, in
which they are searching for a kernel at a time, and of course
the work of digestion is goino^ on all the while. We take
them from that condition and bring them into an unnatural
condition when we feed them a crop-full at a time ; and,
when fed in that way, there should be time for that food to
be taken care of before the crop is filled again. I never
would feed an animal all it could eat, because animals, like
men, acquire bad habits, and they eat more than they ought
to.
Question. I would like to ask the essayist if he has ever
tried to ascertain the difference in feeding value of different
vegetables, say turnips, potatoes, etc.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I have not. If I were growing ducks,
I would use turnips very largely. I have always fed turnips
to my poultry more or less, but I have aimed to feed them
as many varieties of vegetables as possible.
260 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Question. Would you cook turnips for ducks ?
Dr. TwiTCiiELL. Yes, sir ; cook and mash. If you want
information about ducks, there has been a paper published
from Mr. Rankin, in which he has taken up the question of
feeding ducks very scientifically. He has scored a success
that has not been obtained by any other man that I know of
in America.
Mr. Saneord. I have known several to make a complete
failure in the poultry business, on account of vermin that
infested their fowls. I have known people who kept their
poultry out of doors until cold weather. I would like to
know whether, in the opinion of the lecturer, it is possible
to keep say a hundred hens together in a house through the
year, and keep off these mites.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. These mites are the hardest creatures
to get rid of that we have. They do not cost us anything
when they come, and they stay by us after they have eaten up
all the profits. It is a good plan to colonize poultry. I use
a little building, four by eight feet long, with three and one-
half feet posts. I nail two cross-pieces to the posts, and then
clapboard over the side and roof, leaving the front open,
letting the two cross-pieces run out so that two men can
take the little house up and carry it wherever they please.
I keep from ten to twenty hens in a house, and move it
once or twice a week, thus giving them a chance to range
the fields. That gives me an opportunity to clear out my
hen-house and thoroughly fumigate it by burning sulphur.
Then, with the free use of kerosene, I have not been troubled
with these little mites. I know no better way of getting
rid of them than by thoroughly fumigating with sulphur,
and the use of kerosene freely about the roosts, and white-
washing. I would have everything in the poultry house
movable, so that I can take out everything inside, leaving
the bare walls, thus getting a good opportunity to get rid of
the pests.
Question. I would like to ask the gentleman's opinion
as to the use of incubators.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. An old gentleman in Maine was once
elected as a representative to the Legislature. He was
not a man of great intelligence, and they took him because
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 261
lie was the only man in town they hadn't anything against.
They do that sometimes. He went to the Legislature,
and did not say a word until about the close of the session,
when he felt he must say something to satisfy his constitu-
ents. A question came up one day in which he was not
particularly interested, but he rose and said, "Mr. Speaker,
upon the question now before the House I desire to remain
a nuisance." Now, coming back to your question, I will
say that I have used incubators and I have used hens ; and
if I should enlarge my business again, I should use the hens,
and very likely I should use the incubators. There is where
I stand on that question. I assure you, gentlemen, it is
very much easier to get a chicken into the world than it is to
care for it afterwards. There is the great secret. I do not
think it turns on the question of the use of the incubator at
all. The great question is, how to take care of the chickens
after they come, to keep them growing, keep down vermin,
and give them proper rations.
Question. How can we prevent gapes in chickens ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. The gapes in chickens is caused by a
little worm in the throat, resulting from moisture and filth.
I have tried in breeding to prevent all forms of vermin
from getting about my nests. I do not know that I have
been very successful, but I have aimed especially to keep
them ofi" of the little chicks. I thought at one time that I
discovered gapes in one of my chickens, and I went for the
little fellow with a horse hair ; but I did not find the worm,
and the chicken died. I have never been troubled with them
beyond that. All the advice I can give is from those who
have had experience, and it is this : take a horse hair,
make a loop in it, open the mouth, pass the horse hair
down into the windpipe and remove the worm, which lodges
there.
Dr. Fisher. I want to say a word or two about poultry
vermin. I used to have vermin enough. I kept my poul-
try out of doors, and they were overrun with them ; but for
fifteen years I have not had any, and I have put lousy fowl
in among mine two or three times. I think you will not
find a louse in my house at the present time. I do not
do anything for them. I have never used sulphur, never
262 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
have used whitewash, never have used kerosene ; but I
will tell you what I have done : the floor of my poultry
house is made of cement, and I put in about an inch of saw-
dust. Since that I have never added anything. Occasion-
ally I have taken out the poultry droppings. They are being
stirred up all the time, and the floor is always dry, never
moist. There is not a day in the year but what my hens
will dust. They have artificial heat near by, so that it is so
warm there that water never freezes in winter ; and every
sunny day through the winter they will dust there as freely
and nicely as they will in the summer or in autumn. That
dusting is amply sufficient to keep them free from lice.
The house is cleared out once in two, three or four years, and
nothing else done to it. Whenever the fertilizer accumu-
lates, or whenever I want to use it, I take off about an inch
of it. The remaining inch keeps my poultry entirely free
from vermin all the time. If anybody can do it any cheaper
than that, I should like to know it.
Secretary Sessions. There is one question which it seems
to me ouijht to be considered here. You know that occa-
sionally eggs become very plenty in the country, and it is
difficult to sell them ; and you know that occasionally the
price of poultry gets very low, especially about Thanks-
giving time, and we get a very small price per pound.
Then, again, as I go around the country, I hear some men
say that the West is going to kill out our spring chicken
business, and that the time is near at hand when the price of
poultry and eggs is going to be so low that there will be no
profit in the business. I should like to have the views of the
essayist as to the probability of that prediction being ful-
filled.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. That is a question of a great deal of
importance ; but before I touch upon that, there is one thing
I would like to say that was suggested by what Dr. Fisher
has said. In speaking of building a house and filling in
between the sills four inches of dry earth, I had in mind the
very thing which he secures by the use of sawdust ; that is,
providing a good dust l)ath and also a receptacle to hold the
droppings, where they can be dried and taken care of.
These droppings M'ill give }^ou a large amount of valuable
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 263
manure, and when it is removed this dry earth will afford the
hens a good opportunity to dust, and the building will be
kept clear of vermin.
■ Now, as to this question of overproduction, farmers raise
the question almost everyAvhere, — " Well, supposing every
farmer goes into the business, wdiat is going to be the re-
sult ? " I know farmers who have been debating the question
of the expediency of going into the poultry business for five
years, and have not dared to do so because they feared there
Avas going to be overproduction ; and yet we import sixteen
million dozens of eggs annually, for which we pay about
fifteen cents a dozen, amounting to some $2,400,000. Now,
until we can meet the demand at home, let us not cry
*' overproduction." What we want to do w'ith our hens is
just what some farmers have succeeded in doing with their
cows. We want to shift them from summer production to
winter production, as cows are shifted from summer to
winter dairying. We want to shift our hens so as to get the
largest number of eggs in winter. I believe it to be possi-
ble to do this by a system of breeding that w^ill bring our
hens to laying in November, and then feeding them for the
production of eggs during the w^inter months. There can Ije
no such thing as an overproduction of a choice article ; it is
practically impossible. The choicest Avill always be wanted,
w'hether it be eggs, butter, or brains.
Secretary Sessions. Can you recommend any particular
date for the hatching of chicks for early eggs ?
Dr. Tavitchell. A pullet comes to laying usually Avhen
it is fiA^e months old ; some earlier and some later, but that
would be about the average. The Leo:horns would come a
little earlier, the Asiatics a little later. You want, then, to
hatch your chickens in May for fall layers. Chickens
hatched in May should come to laying in October or the first
of November ; at least, if they are kept in good condition
and if the buildings are kept fairly comfortable, — not over-
heated. I should dread that more than I should the cold.
If they are kept in good, comfortable condition, and atten-
tion is paid to feeding, they should lay right along for two
or three months. By that time the hens that you haA^e sum-
mered over (and almost everybody keeps a fcAv) Avill take up
264 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
the work, with the August and Septeml)cr chickens. I think
that is the most profital)le way to grow tliem.
The Chairman. There is one gentleman present who is
largely engaged in raising broilers for the market, — Mr.
Hines of Townsend. Will he give us some light on the
question ?
Mr. HiXES. Our worthy chairman says I am largely en-
gaged in raising broilers. He is rather mistaken in that, for
I am only a child in the lousiness, as yet. I have raised a
few the past two or three years, and am preparing to engage
in it on a little larger scale. I think it is the most profitable
part, of the poultry business ; it has been to me, so far as I
have gone into it. There are two or three points in this
early-chicken business which I want more light upon. One
is this : If a hen has laid several litters of eggs for hatch-
ing, does that have such an effect on her next eggs that they
will not produce as vigorous chickens as the first litter?
Another question which I would like to have answered is
this : Does the feeding of hens to produce a large number of
eggs tend to made them incapable of producing strong,
vigorous chickens? If I could get light upon those two
questions, and also upon the question of using artificial in-
cubation, I should feel that the poultry business was a pretty
good business for me to engage in. ]My trouble has been,
in attempting to get early chickens, in getting a good per
cent of my eggs to hatch. I can get them earl}", my
chickens grow from one to two weeks, some of them up to
eighteen or twenty days, and then they die in the shell. If
any man will tell me what the cause of that is, he will help
me considerably. I have been led to think that that depends
largely upon the feed we give our hens, and upon the quan-
tity of eggs they have laid previously, as well as upon the
temperature and moisture of the incubator. I think all
these points come in largely in this early-chicken business.
I will give you the benefit of a little experience I had last
spring, which perhaps will illustrate this point as well as
anything I can say. ]My hens commenced laying in October
and November last fall. In February I commenced filling
my incubator. My first hatching did not give me a very
good percentage of chickens. I had a neighbor who had a
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 2G5
very sunny exposure, where the snow went off early and left
the ofround bare. His hens were scratching: about amono; the'
leaves, and did not lay until warm weather came on. I
noticed his hens out there under the trees, and I thought I
would stop and buy some of his eggs. I did so, and put
five dozen of his eggs into my incubator, and filled it up with
my own. From that five dozen I got forty-three vigorous
chickens, while from my own eggs I only got about thirty-
three per cent instead of sixty per cent. This experience
led me to conclude that there was much depending upon
hens being in their natural condition to give me what I
wanted. Of course neither of those percentages is what I
want to get. If I could find any system that would give me
eighty per cent of hatchable eggs, I would not ask for any
better branch of farming.
I want to urge this question upon the experiment stations.
I presented it to Dr. Goessmann, and he gave me a favorable
reply, sa3'ing that he would try to have something done.
My question is, why do not our experiment stations, while
experimenting upon the feeding of dairy stock and the
analysis of feeds suitable for the dairy, pay some attention
to the poultry interest ? I do not know but there may be
some experiment stations that are doing something for us
upon this question, but I fail to discover it, if they are.
There is a good chance for experimenting on the food that
will produce eggs that will produce the most vigorous
chickens. It seems to me that when chickens grow fifteen
or twenty days in the shell, and then die, there is some-
thing lacking in the egg. It is not a perfect egg. The
ration was not perfectly balanced, as the speaker has said
to-day, and was adapted to the production of a large quantity
of eggs instead of the production of eggs that would produce
strong, vigorous chickens ; and hence the chickens grew until
there was a lack of material to build up the system. I would
like to ask the speaker whether there is anything in that
idea, or not.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. A chicken g^rows as lono^ as there is
anything in the egg for it to feed upon, or as long as there
is any virile energy remaining. In the case the gentleman
mentions, I think there must have been something lacking
266 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
in the feed, or there was something wanting in the stock ;
•unless the illustration furnished by the gentleman of his
neighbor who allowed his hens to run out and work in the
leaves, and he secured from the eggs of those hens a much
larger per cent of chickens than from his own, where the
hens were confined, is the solution of the problem. If so,
then it would seem that just as soon as our hens get to work
upon the land in April, the eggs begin to hatch and the
chickens are strong and healthy. Now, if we can imitate
Nature more, and keep our hens at work, it is the best thing
we can do for them. Work is good for us, — it is a good
deal easier to preach than to practice, I grant, but it is good
for us, and it is good for hens. If we can keep them at
work constantly, we shall have less trouble about the eggs
hatching. Keep both the males and the females at work,
and feed them to prevent the accumulation of fat ; feed them
on albuminous food, with a percentage of fat sufficient to
maintain animal heat. The trouble with us all is, that we
like to see our birds in fine condition, with glossy feathers.
That comes, we know, from oil, and so we feed substances
that will produce fat. Experience is a pretty expensive
teacher, but it gives us some very good lessons before we
ijet through.
To turn back to the other question. If your hens com-
mence laying about the first of November, and you do not
use the eggs for hatching until January or February, I
should not expect the eggs would be as vigorous, because
you have been taxing the reproductive organs in produc-
tion. I would try to keep them down below the egg-pro-
ducing point until about the time when you want to use the
eggs for hatching. If, when you go home from this meeting,
you find that your hens are fat and are not laying eggs,
change your system of feeding to one that will reduce fiesh,
and the e<i:crs will be^in to come.
Mr. HiNES. I have had a little experience in dressing
Plymouth Rocks that were from one to two years old. I
have heard it remarked that hens were fat because they did
not lay eggs ; but I have often dressed Plymouth Rocks
which were very fat, and I would find them full of eggs.
They had been laying every day, and yet the fat would be
1890. J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 267
an inch thick all around the eggs. This experience would
seem to contradict your statement.
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I think it is, nevertheless, true that a
hen that is extremely fat cannot produce eggs with the same
regularity that she would if she were in proper laying
condition. If albuminous food is given to a hen that is well
bred, she will produce eggs ; but fat is prejudicial to a large,
constant and steady production of eggs.
Question. Is it advisable to keep a hen until she is more
than a year or a year and a half old ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. It has been my custom to carry my
hens along until they were two years old, if they were
valuable layers, and kill them then before moulting, watch-
ing closely and studying individuals. We should never be
content with the average of our flock. That does not tell
the story at all. We must get down to individuals, because
there is always some hen in a flock that the rest of the flock
are carrying. So I would seek to know my flock, and just
as soon as a hen has stopped laying during the month of
June or July, I would market her if she was two years old ;
and at that time she would bring the highest price, close to
that of chickens, because it is just the time when chickens
of the largest size, broilers, are called for, and there is not
sufficient supply to meet the demand. I would never keep
them longer than that, unless they were extremely valuable
for breeding purposes ; and some of the breeders in my own
State who are making the most money change their stock
every year.
Question. What would you buy for green food, if you
had to buy anything ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I would feed cabbage, turnips, apples
and onions.
Question. How about the mangel-wurzel?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I have never had success in feeding
mangel-wurzel. I have fed some, but I have not been satis-
fied with the result.
Question. How often would you feed onions ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I would feed a small ration of onions
once or twice a week. If you feed in any quantity, you
will taste the onion in the ego;. And there comes in another
268 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
point. A radical change in rations will throw a hen at once
off from her work. If any change is to be made in rations,
make it so gradually that her system wull have time to adapt
itself to the change. That often accounts for the fact that
hens that have been laying well will stop laying all at once.
We cannot control these things yet, feed we ever so care-
fully.
Question. Don't you think that the oldest hens will
produce the strongest and best chickens ?
Dr. TwiTCiiELL. I said that I would save the oldest
hens for breeding. I would not keep them after two years,
unless I knew they were valuable.
Question. You spoke of giving hens green food. Do
you cook that food, — turnips, onions, cabbages, etc., — or
do you give it to them raw ?
Dr. TwiTCHELL. I think I stated in my paper that I
cooked daily a kettle full or more. I said I would add
about three quarts of this cooked food to the ration. I
have always been in the habit of feeding at noon green food,
chopping my apples, onions, turnips arid cabbages.
The audience desirino- to take advantase of the trains
leaving Fitchburg at four o'clock, the meeting was adjourned
somewhat abruptly at 3.45 p.m.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 2G9
A]S^^UAL MEETING.
The Board met at the office of the Secretary, in Boston,
on Tuesday, Feb. 4, 1890, at 12 o'clock, it being the Tues-
day preceding the first Wednesday in February. In
absence of the Governor, Mr. Wood was chosen President
2W0 tern.
Present : Messrs. Bird, Bowditch, Chirk, Clemence,
Cruickshanks, Currier, Cushman, Edson, Gardner, Goddard,
Goodell, Hartshorn, Hay den, Hersey, Hickox, Holbrook,
Howe, Howes, Newhall, Peterson, Eawson, Eowley, Shel-
don, Snow, Stockwell, Taft, Taylor, Varnum, Ware and
Wood.
Voted, To adopt the usual order of business.
Voted, To dispense with the reading of the records of the
last meeting.
A committee of three, to examine and report upon the
credentials of newly elected members, was appointed by the
Chair : Messrs. Goddard, Sheldon and Bird.
Reports of delegates being in order, the members made
report of the societies to which they were assigned, which
reports were discussed and laid on the table.
On motion of Mr. Hersey, a committee of three was
appointed, to prepare resolutions on the death of Avery P.
Slade of Somerset : Messrs. Hersey, Bowditch and Peterson.
On motion of Mr. Varnum, a committee of three was also
270 BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE. [Jan.
appointed, to prepare resolutions on the death of Dr. James
P. Lynde of Athol : Messrs. Varnum, Cruickshanks and
Taft.
Adjourned to 2.30 p.m.
Board called to order by Mr. Wood, at 2.30 p.m.
The committee on credentials of newly elected members
reported the following : —
At large, appointed by the Governor, James S. Grinnell
of Greenfield.
From the Worcester North-west Society, to fill out the
unexpired term of Dr. Lynde, Wm. H. Bowiver of Boston.
Bay 'State Society, F. H. AprLETON of Peabody.
Bristol County, N. "VY. Shaw of North Raynham.
Deerfield Valley, J. D. Avery of Buckland.
Essex County, B. P. Ware of Clifton.
Highland, Hiram Taylor of Middlefield.
Hillside, Wm. Bancroft of Chesterfield.
Middlesex South, S. B. Bird of Framingham.
Plymouth County, Augustus Pratt of North Middleborough.
Worcester, C. L. Hartshorn of Worcester.
Worcester North, Geo. Cruickshanks of Fitchburg.
Worcester County West, P. M. Harwood of Barre.
The report of the committee on credentials was accepted.
Mr. Varnum, for the committee to report resolutions on
the death of Dr. Lynde, reported the following : —
Whereas, In the wisdom of Divine Providence, Dr. James P.
Lynde of Athol, a member of this Board, has been suddenly
removed by death ; and
Whereas, We desire to place upon record some acknowledgment
of the valuable services which he has rendered during a long
period of time, and some token of respect for his memory ; there-
fore, be it
Resolved, That wc received the notice of the death of our late
associate with feelings of profound sorrow.
Resolved, That, in this sad event, this Board mourns the loss of
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 271
a faithful friend and public servant, whose scrupulous fidelity to
duty and whose intelligent and unselfish labors have embalmed his
memory in our hearts.
Jiesolved, That we tender to his bereaved family our kindest
sympathies, and such consolation as long and friendly associations
with the deceased can offer.
Resolved, That these resolutions be spread upon the records of
this Board, and a copy sent to the family of the deceased.
After appropriate remarks by Messrs. Taft, Bowker,
Goodell, Varnum, Hersey, Peterson and the Secretary, the
resolutions were adopted unanimously, by a rising vote.
The report of the examining committee of the Agricult-
ural College was read by the chairman, Geo. Cruickshanks,
and was by vote of the Board accepted, and adopted as the
report of the Board of Agriculture to the Legislature.
At 5 o'clock the Board adjourned to 9.30 o'clock,
Wednesday.
SECOND DAY.
The Board met at 9.30 a.m., Mr. Wood in the chair.
Present : Messrs. Appleton, Avery, Bancroft, Bird, Bow-
ditch, Bowker, Bradley, Clark, Clemence, Cruickshanks,
Currier, Cushman, Edson, Fernald, Gardner, Goddard,
Goessmann, Goodell, Hartshorn, Harwood, Hayden, Hersey,
Hickox, Holbrook, Horton, Hov/e, Howes, Newhall, Peter-
son, Pratt, Rawson, Rowley, Shaler, Shaw, Sheldon, Snow,
Taft, G. S. Taylor, H. Taylor, Varnum, Ware and Wood.
Minutes of yesterday read and approved.
A committee of three, on assignment of delegates, was
appointed : Messrs. Ware, Howe and Taylor of Mid^lefield.
A committee of three, on place for holding the public
meeting, was appointed : Messrs. Taylor of Chicopee Falls,
Cruickshanks and Currier.
A committee of three, on changes of time of holding
272 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
fairs, was appointed : Messrs. Rowley, Sheldon and Pratt.
A committee of three, on essays, was appointed : Messrs.
Hersey, Goodell and Holbrook.
A committee of three, to nominate members of the exec-
utive committee, was appointed ; Messrs. Taft, Hickox and
Clemence.
A committee of three, to nominate members of examining
committee of the Agricultural College, was appointed :
Messrs. Rawson, Gardner and Bowker.
Voted, That the time for the election of Secretary be fixed
at 2.30 o'clock p.m.
Mr. Hersey, for the committee to prepare resolutions on
the death of Avery P. Slade, presented the following resolu-
tions : —
Whereas, The death of Avery P. Slade has removed from this
Board one who for many years Las been an able and faithful work-
ing member, —
Resolved, That in his death we lose a kind and genial associate,
a wise counsellor, and a member who was always found working
for the best interest of the Board.
Resolved, That his thorough knowledge of the best methods of
increasing the products and profits of the farm and garden, and
his willingness to impart it to the public, make his death a great
loss to the farmers in all parts of the State.
Resolved, That we extend to his bereaved family our most heart-
felt sympathies.
Resolved, That these resolutions be spread on our records, and
a copy be sent to the family of the deceased.
After appropriate remarks by Messrs. Hersey, Cushman
and Pratt, the resolutions were unanimously adopted, by a
rising vote.
J. H. Goddard read an essay on " Choosing an Occupa-
tion," which was accepted, and will be found printed in this
volume.
Voted, On motion of Mr. Ware, that all societies receiv-
ing the bounty of the State be required, immediately after
the awards of the several committees are made, to cause to
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 273
1)6 attached to each animal or article to which first premium
has been awarded, a blue ril)bon or card, with " First Pre-
mium" printed thereon; and to each animal or article to
which second premium has been awarded, a red ribbon or
card, with " Second Premium" printed thereon ; and to each
animal or article to which a third premium has been awarded,
a white ribbon or card, with " Third Premium" printed
thereon, — to the end that a uniform practice may be fol-
lowed by all the societies ; and that the Secretary inform the
officers of each society of this action.
The committee on changes of time for holding fairs
reported that the time for holding the Bristol County be
changed to the sixth Tuesday after the first JNIonday in Sep-
tember ; the Worcester North-west to the fifth Tuesday after
the first Monday in September ; the Middlesex South to the
second Tuesday after the first Monday in September ; the
Barnstable to the second Tuesday after the first Monday in
September ; and that the last Uyo days of the Massachusetts
Horticultural be dropped from the schedule. The report
was accepted and adopted.
The committee on place for holding the public meeting
reported, by their chairman, that the meeting should be held
at Worcester. The report was accepted, and the Board
voted to hold the next public winter meeting at Worcester.
The Board at 12.30 adjourned to 2 p.m.
The Board was called to order at 2 p.m., Mr. Wood in
the chair.
The committee to report names for the examining com-
mittee of the Agricultural College reported the nomination
of George Cruickshanks and P. M. Harwood for three years,
— who were elected.
The committee to report names for executive committee
reported as follows : Messrs. Bowditch, Hersey, Hartshorn,
Rawson and Hickox, — who were elected.
274 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
A committee of arrangements for the public meeting, to
act with the Secretary, was appointed : Messrs. Hartshorn,
Clemence, Stockwell, J. G. Avery and Ilarwood.
Voted, On motion of Mr. Bradley, that the State Board
recommend the several societies to emplo}^ experts to award
the premimns on all live stock, including poultry.
It being 2.30 o'clock, the special assignment — the elec-
tion of Secretary — was called up, and William R. Sessions
was re-elected.
On motion of Mr. Hersey, the Board proceeded to a
ballot for member of the Board of Control of the State
Experiment Station, to till the vacancy caused by the death
of Dr. Lynde. P. M. Harwood was elected.
Report of the Board of Control of the State Experiment
Station, presented by the director. Dr. Goessmann, was
accepted.
Dr. Wm. Holbrook read an essay on " Tuberculosis,"
which was accepted, and will be found printed in this
volume.
By permission of the Board, the Secretary read a com-
munication from Dr. Geo. B. Loring, upon the same subject,
which will also be found printed in this volume. After
discussion of the above essays, the Board adjourned, at
4.30 P.M., to 9.30 A.M., Thursday.
THIRD DAY.
The Board met at 9.30 a.m., Mr. Wood in the chair.
Present : Messrs. Appleton, J. G. Avery, Bancroft, Bird,
Bradley, Bowker, Clemence, Cruickshanks, Currier, Edson,
Goessmann, Goodell, Hartshorn, Ilarwood, Hay den, Hersey,
Holbrook, Horton, Howe, Newhall, Peterson, Pratt, Rawson,
Rowley, Shaler, Shaw, Sheldon, Stockwell, Taft, H. Taylor,
Varnum, Ware and Wood.
Minutes of yesterday read and approved.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 275
The committee on essays for next annual meeting reported
as follows : —
Essays.
The Fanner, his Relations to the Manufacturer
and Mechanic, . . . . . J. G. Avery.
Essentials to Success in Farming, . . .P. M. Hakwood.
The Promotion of Agriculture, . . . F. H. Appletox.
Care and Management of Milch Cows, . . G. L. Clemence.
Can this Board broaden and improve Its
Work? ....... Wm. H. Bowker.
The report was accepted.
J. H. Rowley read an essay on "Agricultural Societies
and Their Management," which was accepted, and will be
found printed in this volume.
By permission of the Board, the Secretary read an essay
upon " Farming in England," prepared by Dr. Geo. B.
Loring, which will be found printed in this volume.
The reports of the delegates to the several societies were
read a second time by their titles, and accepted.
President Goodell moved the following resolution : —
Resolved, That the Massachusetts State Board of Agri-
culture, recognizing the danger threatening the agricultural
interests of the State by the sudden appearance in the town
of Medford of a dangerous insect pest, petition the Legis-
lature, in support of the petition of the citizens of Medford
and adjacent towns, for State aid in stamping it out. The
resolution was unanimously adopted.
Prof. N. S. Shaler read an essay on " Soils of Massachu-
setts," which was accepted, and will be found printed in this
volume.
At 12.30 the meeting adjourned to 2 p.m.
Meeting called to order at 2 p.m. by Mr. Wood.
On motion of Mr. Varnum, it was voted that the execu-
tive committee be also a committee on printing.
276
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
[Jan.
Mr. Ware, for the committee on assignment of delegates,
reported tlie following : —
Amesbury and Salisbury,
J. H. Rowley.
Barnstable County, .
S. A. HiCKOx.
Berkshire,
D. A. HOKTON.
Blackstone Valley, .
G. J. Peterson.
Bristol County,
W. H. BOWKER.
Deerfield Valley,
N. Edson.
Eastern Hampden, .
F. K. Sheldon.
Essex County, .
P. M. Harwood.
Franklin County,
S. B. Bird.
Hampden,
C. W. Gardner.
Hampshire,
J. G. Avery.
Hampshire, Franklin and ^
Hampden,
A. Pratt.
Highland,
E. Hersey.
Hillside, .
J. D. Avery.
Hingham,
J. S. Grinnell.
Hoosac Valley,
J. C. Newhall.
Housatonic,
C. L. Hartshorn
Massachusetts Horticulture
d, .
G. Cruickshanks
Marshfield,
N. S. Shaler.
Martha's Vineyard, .
D. M. Howe.
Middlesex,
G. L. Clemence.
Middlesex North,
A. Bradley.
Middlesex South,
A. C. Varnum.
Nantucket,
C. B. Hayden.
Oxford, .
W. W. Rawson.
Plymouth County,
W. H. B. Currier
Spencer, .
H. Taylor.
Union,
Wm. Holbrook.
Worcester,
G. S. Taylor.
Worcester East,
J. W. Stockwell
Worcester North,
E. W. Wood.
Worcester North-west,
W. Bancroft.
Worcester South,
N. W. Shaw.
Worcester County West, .
V. Taft.
Report accepted and adopted.
On motion of Mr. Hartshorn, it was voted that any
unfinished business or any new business that may arise, be
referred to the executive committee, with power to act for
the Board.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 277
On motion of Mr. Hersey, a vote of thanks was unani-
mously tendered the chairman, Mr. Wood, for the able,
courteous and impartial manner in which he had discharged
his duty as presiding officer.
The minutes of the last day were then read and approved.
Adjourned.
WILLIAM R. SESSIONS,
Secretary,
278 BOARD OF AGRICULTUKE. [Jan.
EEPORT TO THE LEGISLATURE OF THE STATE BOARD OE AGRICULTURE ACTING
AS OVERSEERS Of THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
[P. S., chap. 20, sect. 5, adopted by the Board Feb 4, 1890.]
The Examining Committee of the Agricultural College,
appointed by this Board, have the honor of submitting the
following report.
In accordance with the requirements of this Board, and
the rules by which it is governed, your committee have
made such investigations into the condition and methods of
the college as seemed to be necessary, in order to determine
its value and efficiency as an educational institution for carry-
ing out the wise purposes for which it was established.
In making this report, we do not need to give a history
of the college, or the work that has been accomplished dur-
ing its existence, or even during the past year, in detail
(the annual report of the president and trustees will do
that) ; but a few general statements as to the purposes of
the college, and how we came by it, may be interesting to
those who have not paid special attention to the subject.
Act of Congress.
It is generallv known that the ao-ricultural colle2:es of the
various States are the result of an Act of Congress, passed
and approved by the President July 2, 1862, entitled, " An
Act donating public lands to the several States and Terri-
tories, which may provide colleges for the benefit of agricult-
ure and the mechanic arts." The grant was in proportion
to the population of the several States, and must be accepted
by their several legislatures, in order to become available.
The act specially provided that the interest of the fund
realized from the sale of the land scrip should' be faithfully
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 279
applied "to the endowment, support and maintenance
of at least one college, where the leading object shall
be, without excluding scientific and classical studies, and
including military tactics, to teach such branches of learn-
ing as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts,
in such manner as the legislatures of the States may
respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and
practical education of the industrial classes in the several
pursuits and professions of life."
Act of the Legislature.
In accordance with this grant, an act was passed by the
Massachusetts Legislature, and approved April 29, 1863,
accepting this grant, and constituting certain carefully
selected gentlemen (whose names appear in the act*), with
their associates and successors, a body corporate, under the
name of the " Massachusetts As^ricultural College."
The Legislature also provided that all moneys received
by virtue of this act (accepting the grant) , for the sale of
land scrip, should be deposited with the treasurer of the
Commonwealth, who should invest the same as a perpetual
fund for the promotion of education, according to the act of
Congress.
The College Located.
The town of Amherst having raised the sum of $75,000
in aid of the enterprise, the college was located there ; the
necessary buildings for beginning the work wxre erected, and
the college began with its first class Oct. 2, 1867.
After more than twenty years of earnest effort, and with
a varied experience, having had its ups and downs, like
many other worthy enterprises, the college at the present
time is equal if not superior to any of the kind in this
countr3^ The college buildings occupy a commanding site,
about a mile north of the central village, and the surround-
ing scenery is enchantingly romantic. The college is
supplied Avith a competent corps of teachers, who are,
without exception, we believe, faithful and enthusiastic in
their work of preparing young men for practical life.
* 1863, chapter 220.
280 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
College Farm.
Upon the establishment of the college at Amherst, a farm
of 383| acres was purchased, from six separate estates. It
is described in former reports under three heads : —
1. That part leased to the Massachusetts Experiment
Station, consisting of about 48 acres. This is under the
direction of Dr. Goessmann, director of the station.
2. That part used by the botanic and horticultural depart-
ment of the college, under the direction of Prof. S. T.
Maynard.
3. The land lying on the westerly side of the county
road, which is designated as the ftirm proper, of which about
]25 acres are under cultivation in mowins^ and tillao;e.
This year there are 20 acres in corn, 2 acres in potatoes,
2 acres in root crops, and about 100 in grass.
No practical farmer of Massachusetts can visit the farm and
experiment station connected with the Agricultural College,
without being impressed with the fact that the farmers'
interests in Massachusetts are well looked after. Your
committee are happy to be able to say that we visited all
the <>;rounds and buildino's of the institution, and have
examined, so far as we were able, the experiments that were
being made. We visited the gardens, and found that the
culture of strawberries, of tomatoes, and some other plants
which interest the gardener and small fruit grower, were
being experimented with ; and, while the professor in charge
was not at home, his assistant was ready and able to show
and explain the work. We visited the several greenhouses,
and found all in good condition for the season of the year.
Visiting the orchards, we were invited to taste the fruit ;
and it needed but one invitation for us to accept of the
tempting, red-cheeked peaches. They are experimenting
with the peach crop, which of late years has become an
almost unknown crop in New England. They have suc-
ceeded in raising line fruit of the different varieties. The
great variety of pears shows the care that is taken there.
They find a good market in the town close by, at good
prices ; and we have no doubt they can show to the farmer
that he can raise fruit of all kinds as a money-making crop.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 281
The cool cellars for the keeping of fruit cannot fail to
interest the grower and seller of fruits. No one can visit
the stables, where the experiments are going on with cattle
and horses, and see the great care and neatness shown
there, the fine pens for pigs, the exactness with which they
are fed, without being convinced that the money expended
was not wasted. "We visited the fields, where all kinds of
forage crops were being raised, also the grain and root
crops ; and it was a great pleasure to us to see the enthusiasm
exhibited by professors, teachers and students. They do
not act as if they were at their duties, but more at their
recreations. Ask a question, and you will get an answer so
full and complete that you feel the want of time to ask all
the questions that crowd your mind ; for, from the professor
to the youngest student, the moment a question is asked,
the answer comes with the enthusiasm that at once sets you
at ease.
Your committee Vv^ere more and more impressed with the
idea that our farmers did not realize what the State was
doing for them at the Agricultural College and Experiment
Station in Amherst. There are hundreds of farmers living
within twenty miles of Amherst, who have never visited the
institution. If they were not welcome, there might be an
excuse for this ; but they are not only welcome, but are
urged to come. They are making experiments there which
but few farmers could afibrd, and they are for all of the
farmers of the State. From all we could learn, the experi-
ments were constantly growing in value and interest. The
close and accurate experiments in stock-feeding were not the
least interesting to your committee. They were able to tell
you how much a pound of beef or pork cost to mak-e from
certain kinds of food. They can also tell you how that
pound can be made the cheapest, also the kind of frame it is
best to make the meat on ; and so in regard to the cost of
making milk and butter.
While the experiment station and farm are doing so much,
they are, as it were, in their infancy ; and we are pleased to
know that the farmers are awakino- to the fact that this is in
no small decree their institution.
282 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Stock.
The policy of keeping only pure-bred stock, which is now
pursued, has considerably diminished the herd by the sale
of grades and such young' animals as could be spared.
There are now fifty-six head, distributed as follows : —
Ayrshires, 13
Guernseys, 6
Holstein-Friesians, . 1-i
Jerseys, . . 13
Shorthorns, 10
The sheep are Southdowns, and numl)er 35, — 25 ewes,
G wethers, 4 rams. The swine are tlie small Yorkshire
breed, and numl^er 40, of various ages.
Horticultural Department.
The grounds of this department are located on the eastern
boundary of the college grounds, with a gentle slope to the
west. They are laid out in good taste, and contain many
specimens of rare ornamental trees and hardy flowering
shrubs, and are all correctly labelled with both the Latin and
common names. On these grounds are two plant houses,
one of which is used for the experimental work of the Hatch
Experiment Station ; the other the Durfee plant house, which
contains a good collection of stove, greenhouse and aquatic
plants, especially adapted to illustrate the work of this
department. Attached to this house is a range of propagat-
ing pits, where may be practically illustrated the propaga-
tion of all the plants grown in the greenhouse. A small
nursery is attached to this department, in which are propa-
gated all the hardy fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs,
the work of propagation being largely done by the students.
An orchard of seven acres, on the most elevated portion of
the college grounds, contains all the standard varieties of
apple, pear, plum, peach, cherry and quince ; a vineyard
of one and one-half acres, and several acres of small fruits.
New sorts are added from time to time, for comparison and
experiment. The diseases and insect enemies that attack
the tree, foliage or fruit are subjects of investigation. Ex-
periments are now in progress, the result of which will
be looked for with great interest by the fruit grower.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 283
The Botanical Museuivi.
Besides the recitation room of the professor of horticulture,
it contains the Knowlton herbarium, numbering over ten
thousand specimens of phmts from nearly all parts of the
world ; a large collection of models of fruits and specimens
of wood ; and many natural curiosities in tree and plant
growth. The students receive instruction in landscape gar-
dening, horticulture, and market gardening.
Anniversary Exercises.
The anniversary exercises took place in June, as usual, on
which occasion most of your committee were present. AVe
attended first the exercises called the Kendall prize speak-
ing, on the evening of June 17.
GrinneU Prizes,
The senior class in the examination for the GrinneU prizes
came under the special supervision of your committee. It
may here be stated that Hon. Wm. Claflin of Boston has
given the sum of one thousand dollars for the endowment of
a fund for a first prize of forty dollars, and a second prize of
twenty-five dollars, to be called the GrinneU agricultural
prizes, in honor of his friend George B. GrinneU of New
York. These prizes are to be paid in cash to the two mem-
bers of the graduating class who may pass the best oral and
written examination in theoretical and practical agriculture.
Topics were assigned to each student, by lot, and included
such subjects of interest as the resources and wastes of
nitrogen ; fruits, and the soils best adapted to their culture ;
forestry ; drainage ; the horse ; the dairy cow, etc. The
examination was conducted by Professor Brooks and your
committee, who by frequent questions, suggested by the
recitations, aimed to draw out the students, and to get
their idea of the subjects given them. An essay on dairying
and the characteristics of the different breeds was read by
each member of the class. The subject was assigned by the
professor, and the essays were written at short notice, and
w^ithout reference to liooks. The students acquitted them-
selves with great credit, showing a good degree of familiarity .
with the various subjects upon which they were examined.
284 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
The class numbered fourteen. The competition was sharp.
The first prize was awarded to Burt Laws Hartwell of Little-
ton, the second to Charles Albion Whitney of Upton.
Military Drill.
At the close of the afternoon session of the examination in
agriculture, there was a military drill under George E. Sage,
First Lieutenant Fifth U. S. Artillery. The terms of the
grant, as we have seen, require that military tactics should
be taught at the college ; and all students, unless physically
disqualified, are required to attend prescribed military exer-
cises. We are informed that the routine of the West Point
Academy is followed, as nearly as circumstances will permit.
The benefit and importance of this part of the college require-
ments is manifest. Its tendency is to develop a manly bear-
ing, promote health, confer confidence and promptness of
action ; and it serves to insure a proper sanitary condition
of the college buildings, as the commandant makes a careful
inspection of all rooms and college buildings at stated times
each week. These military exercises are very interesting,
and attract crowds of spectators to witness the commence-
ment exercises.
College Fuxd.
As we have already stated, the law requires that the
money realized for the sale of the land scrip should be
deposited with the State treasurer, to be safely and profit-
ably invested as a fund for the college. According to the
college treasurer's report for 1889, there are in the hands of
the State treasurer funds as follows : —
Funds from the United States grant, . . . $219,000 00
Funds from the State grant, .... 141,575 35
Total, $360,575 35
By law, two-thirds of the income is paid to the treasurer
of the college, and one-third to the Institute of Technology.
The amount of income of course is liable to vary, but the
amount received for the year 1888 is given as $11,442. By
the gift to the Institute of Technology, the requirement of
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 285
the United States grant is complied with, and the Agricult-
ural College is freed from the labor and expense of building
up and maintaining a mechanical department. There are
other funds for specific purposes, some of which have been
briefly alluded to, and all of which may be seen in the
trustees' report of 1889.
Instruction at the College.
The work of instruction which is undertaken by the college
is in a satisfactory condition. The teachers are able and
zealous, the classes are well arranged, and the students seem
well-developed, alert, and attentive to their tasks. The
appliances for laboratory instruction in the courses which
are given are tolerably well adapted to the needs of teachers
and pupils.
The principal defects in the equipment of the college are
found in the lack of instruction in veterinary surgery and
medicine, and in geology ; and also in the insufficient col-
lections designed to illustrate the now important facts of
these departments. The former of these defects is serious ;
for a competent knowledge of the simplest parts of veterinary
science is of very great importance to the farmer. It is
obviously impossible to give an extended course in this
science in an agricultural college, for the reason that it
would require at least a year of the student's time ; but it
seems desirable that instruction of a partial kind in the
more important parts of the veterinary art should be given,
— if not as a regular course, at least as an optional study.
Your committee are informed that the college needs
apparatus and equipment for instruction in this department ;
such, for example, as a plastic model of the horse, which
can be taken to pieces before the class, and used in the
recitation room in the same manner as a manikin. These
models are somewhat expensive, but, if needed, should be
provided.
The defects in geological instruction and appliances in the
way of collections, though serious, are perhaps of less
immediate importance ; yet this science much concerns the
farmer, who should understand the condition of the soils
with which he has to deal, and the natural manures on which
286 BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. [Jan.
he has largely to depend for fertilizing purposes. It appears
that the present corps of teachers is completely occupied by
other duties ; moreover, it is eminently desirable that this
teaching should be done by an expert in this department,
and not by a person ^\dio can take up this matter only as a
secondary task.
GEORGE CRUICKSHANKS.
SAMUEL B. BIRD.
VELOROUS TAFT.
GEO. S. TAYLOR.
A. C. VARNUM.
N. S. SHALER.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 287
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AND THEIR
MANAGEMENT.
BY J. H. ROWLEY OF SOUTH EGREMONT.
Agriculture, the first regular occupation of man, and the
parent of all other arts, has been encouraged in all ages of
civilization, by the adoption of various methods to promote
its interests and develop its resources. Leading minds in
all civilized countries have recomized it as the foundation of
property, order,* and the corner-stone of civil institutions.
" A spring that sets in motion the grand machine of business,
manufacturing and commercial ; nor can a sail be spread
without the assistance of the plough. Every other source
of independence or of plenty is perishing or casual ; this
the great art which every inquirer into nature ought to
improve." Poets have sung, —
" Hail, Agriculture ! Heaven ordained,
Of every art the source.
Which man has polished, life sustained,
Since time commenced its course.
Where waves thy wonder-working wand.
What splendid scenes disclose ;
The blasted heath, the ai'id strand,
Outbloom the gorgeous rose."
European governments have made its promotion and
development a governmental policy, and encouraged it by
loans, premiums, and the establishment of agricultural
schools and societies. Fully appreciating the advantages of
agriculture to the nation, Washington, in his annual message
to Congress, in December, 1796, said : —
It will not be doubted, that, with reference either to individual
or national welfare, agriculture is of primary importance. In
proportion as nations advance in population and other circum-
stances of maturity, this truth becomes more and more au object
288 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
of public patronage. Institutions for promoting it grow up,
supported by the public purse ; and to what object can it be
dedicated with greater success than the establishment of boards
composed of proper characters, charged with collecting and
diffusing iaformation, and enabled by premiums and small
pecuniary aids to encourage and assist a spirit of discovery and
improvement? This species of establishments contributes doubly
to the increase of improvement, by stimulating to enterprise and
experiments, and by drawing to a common centre the results every-
where of individual skill and observation, and spreading them
thence over the whole nation. Experience accordingly has shown
that they are cheap instruments of immense national benefits. I
have therefore proposed to the consideration of Congress the expe-
diency of establishing a national university, and also a military
academy. The desirableness of both of these institutions has so
constantly increased with every new view I have taken on the
subject, that I cannot omit the opportunity of once for all recalling
your attention to them, ,
Highly as the Father of his Country valued an institution
for the educating and training of those who were to defend
the country, equally as important he considered one for
educating those on whom all depended for support. At this
date there were but two agricultural societies in the country.
The first one was established in 1785, in Philadelphia; the
second, the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agri-
culture, was incorporated March 7, 1792. The Berkshire
Agricultural Society, being the third, was incorporated in
1811, and in 1814 held the first county cattle show and fair
in the United States. In 1819 the Massachusetts Legislature
passed an act giving to every society which should raise the
sum of one thousand dollars for the promotion of agriculture,
two hundred dollars annually, and in like proportion for
any greater sum, not exceeding three thou-and dollars. But
so little was the usefulness of these societies understood and
appreciated, that strenuous opposition was made to all fur-
ther incorporation of new ones, which were to receive aid
from the State. Thirty-four years later, in 1853, with
fourteen societies in the Commonwealth, five or six petitions,
asking to be incorporated, were sent to the Legislature, and
all denied. But a general act was passed, entitled, " Agri-
cultural, Horticultural and Ornamental Tree Associations."
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 289
Any ten or more persons, iu any county, town, or city within the
state, who shall, by agreement in writing, associate for the pur-
pose of encouraging agriculture, horticulture, or improving and
ornamenting the streets and public squares of any city or town, by
planting and cultivating ornamental trees therein, may become a
corporation by such nam3 as they shall assume therefor, by calling
their first meeting, and being organized in the manner provided in
the forty-first chapter of the Revised Statutes, for the incorporatioa
of the proprietors of social libraiies and lyceums, and every sucli
association, upon becoming a corporation as aforesaid, shall have,
during the pleasure of the legislature, all the like rights, powers,
and privileges as the proprietors of such libraries, and may hold
real and personal estate, not exceeding ten thousand dollars.
This act, drafted by the Speaker, who participated in the
general opposition to chartering more societies to receive aid
from the State, was reported by the committee on agriculture
to the House, and became a law. It was supposed this
would meet all the demands for aijricultural societies. This
Legislature voiced the sentiments of the people towards
institutions of this character. The antipathy against what
was termed " book farming" was very strong. Those who
advocated the benefits of applying agricultural science to
practical agriculture, were ridiculed, called visionary the-
orists, with Utopian ideas of farming. Many farmers were
so deeply imbedded in the old ruts of* prejudice, as to refuse
to avail themselves for a long time of the benefits of im-
proved farming implements, illustrating the truth of what
Henry Clay said many years ago, in one of his speeches on
the tariff : —
In one respect there is a great difference in favor of manufact-
ures, when compared with agriculture : it is the avidity with which
the whole manufacturing community avail themselves of an
improvement. It is instantly communicated and put in operation.
There is an avidity for improvement iu the one system, an aversion
from it in the other. Tlie habits of generation after generation
pass down the long track of time in perpetual succession, without
the slightest change in agriculture. The ploughman who fastens
his plough to the tails of his cattle, will not own that there is any
other mode equal to his. An agricultural people will be iu the
neighborhood of other communities who have made the greatest
progress in husbandry, without advancing in the slightest degree.
290 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
While the agricultural societies were doing much good by
the offering of premiums, thus stimulating competition and
exciting a greater interest in agricultural productions, prac-
tical agriculture advanced slowly. The several societies
Avere operating without any concert of action or uniform
system. Hence good results, obtained in one locality, were
of little or no benefit beyond that section of country. With
no central authority or power to collect, preserve and dis-
seminate facts, they were often lost. The different modes
adopted in the societies to detain the same object^ failed to
commend the societies favorably to the public. Their mem-
bers were said to belong to " rings," who gave premiums
according to favoritism, instead of merits of animals.
A few leading men who were in advance of the time,
sought to make these societies more useful towards promot-
ing the agricultural interests, by putting them on a basis
where their acts would be more systematic and uniform ; by
the establishment of a central Board of Agriculture, which
should sustain similar relations to the agricultural societies,
that the Board of Education did towards the common
schools. Hence a call emanating from the trustees of the
Norfolk Agricultural Society, Jan. 28, 1851, for a conven-
tion, composed of one delegate from each society, to meet
at the State House in Boston, March 20, 1851, to concert
measures for their mutual advantage and the promotion of
agricultural education. This convention assembled at the
time and place named, and, after thoroughly discussing the
matters pertaining to the object of the meeting, an agricult-
ural board was organized, composed of three delegates from
each society. The discussions in this convention indexed
the sentiments of the people towards agricultural education.
While considering the following resolution, to wit, " That,
inasmuch as agriculture is the chief occupation of her
citizens, the Commonwealth, in the organization of its
government, should be provided with a department of
aofriculture, with offices and honors ccrmmensurate with the
importance of the duties to be discharged, of the abilities
to be required and the labors to be performed," one of the
delegates said : " This resolution squints towards a college.
If it has that tendency, I shall be opposed to it ; for I do riot
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 291
believe that the farmers are prepared to spend money in insti-
tuting a college. I think it would do them no good whatever."
This voluntary organization was superseded by the estab-
lishing of the Board of Agriculture in 1852. Under its
management new vigor has been infused into the societies,
their power for usefulness strengthened, and their influence
extended. The collecting and disseminating much useful '
information through these channels each year has reached
the average farmer, and awakened in him a spirit of inquiry
and improvement, and given a new impetus to agriculture.
There is considerable prejudice existing against the Board
of Agriculture, at the present time, due in part to ignorance.
Many believe, or affect to do so, that it is antagonistic to
the agricultural societies of the State, failing to comprehend,
or ignoring the fact, that it is a representative body, in
which every society has a delegate. Every well-managed
society has an executive committee, chosen from its members,
to make regulations for its annual show and fair, and adopt all
measures that they may deem necessary for the well-being of
the society. Constituted as the Board of Agriculture is, it
forms a very efficient executive committee for all of the socie-
ties. Its members, knowing the wants of the several societies,
consult and advise as to rules and regulations for the benefit
of all of them.
The rapid advancement in practical agriculture within
the last decade is not all due to muscular strength and
force, but largely to mind work, induced by the progressive
elements surrounding the farmers. It has been said that
" Out of the desire of a few individuals for an agricultural
colleae, grew the Board of Agriculture." The " desire " for
the college was certainly a very laudable one, and took fif-
teen or more years to educate the people to take an interest
in it. It will be better appreciated as the people become
more acquainted with its workings, and see the beneficial
influence of a better agricultural education. •
Andrew B. Dickinson, a farmer of the State of New York,
who worked out his education by the light of a log fire, in
his youthful days, in an address to a farmers' club in
Chemung County, said that " it required more brain work to
manage a well-equipped farm than to govern the United
292 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
States. The President can call to his assistance his chosen
advisers, but the farmer, isolated and alone, must depend on
himself." These sentiments, uttered a half-century ago,
have much force at the present time. With exhausted soils,
Western competition, scarcity of farm labor, narrow margin
of farm profits, heavy real estate taxes, to grow and harvest
the crops, feed and dispose of them the most profitably, care
for the stock during the winter months, and economize labor
pertaining to every branch of the farming, requires a large
amount of study and calculation. It is true the Massachu-
setts farmer may call to his assistance the Agricultural Col-
lege and Experiment Station, to develop science, which is
power, whether applied to machinery or agriculture, to teach
and explain its adaptations, which will aid him theoretically ;
yet, to apply this power successfully to practical agriculture,
he will have to do a good deal of brain work.
With thirty-four societies, receiving bounty from the
State, and that bounty being the main dependence of several
of them for their support, and with the tendency to further
increase the number, it is a subject worthy of consideration
whether more additions can be made without impairing the
usefulness of some already established. The division and
increasinof of school districts in the Commonwealth a few
years ago, to make the schools more easy of access, in a
few years worked the destruction of the district system.
But, as a better school system was adopted, so perhaps in
the near future some of the weaker agricultural societies
may merge and consolidate their organizations, and good
will result from so doing. Experience has pretty well
demonstrated, that a territory of not less than twenty
miles, extending either way from the central place where
the show and fair is held, is necessary to sustain a society
in a good, healthy, working condition. Societies start
vigorously, jflourish for a time, reach maturity as it were,
remain stationary for a time, then begin to languish and
decline. The society, instead of examining its manage-
ment, to ascertain the cause of the diminished interest of
the public, manifested by the non-attendance at the shows,
resort to attractions foreign to the purposes for which the
shows and fairs were instituted, which may meet perhaps
1800.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 293
with temporary success, but work disastrously to tlie society
in the end.
Tlie common idea and conception of our county agricult-
ural fairs, originating more than a half-century ago, belong
to another generation, another age and another condition of
society. The surroundings of the show of that day have
passed away, long ago. The successful society keeps pace
with the progress of the day. Its management must be in
accordance with the surrounding conditions of the time.
On the show grounds, oxen in any considerable numbers in
some localities are superseded by horses. The interest that
the old time-honored ploughing match excited, now centres
around the horse exhibition and poultry coops. In the
exhibition hall, bedquilts, embroidery, fancy and crochet
work, paintings and works of art, fill the places once
occupied by the olden-time hand-spun and hand-woven
fabrics. Fruits, vegetables and flowers, tastefully arranged,
furnish attractions for multitudes. The horse, so valuable
and useful an animal to man, always enlists a particular
interest when on exhibition, whether for speed or in other
classes. While societies should extend all proper, neces-
sary encouragement towards this great and growing
branch of industry, they ought not to allow the show
and fair to degenerate into a mere horse trot and race,
where the number of entries of fliers is the measure of
attendance.
In some of the societies great improvement can and ought
to be made in the system of judging and awarding premiums
on stock. Committees are appointed nearly a year in
advance of the show, who fail to attend or decline to serve,
and their places are filled by selections from the crowd,
without much regard to their qualifications, the main idea
being to get some one to serve. Examinations are made
and premiums awarded which are often unsatisfactory, not
only to exhibitors, but to the public, which results in keeping
from the exhibition a large number of first-class animals. If
expert judges were selected outside of the society, their
awards, being based on the merits of the animals, would
give better satisfaction, and secure an increased interest on
the part of the public.
294 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
The following criticisms, which are to the point, were pub-
lished in one of the dailies recently : —
There is room for considerable improvement in the matter of
judging of stock at agricultural fairs, as everybody knows who has
been either manager, exhibitor or spectator. Too often the judges
are picked up on the spur of the moment, more because of their
availability than their qualifications ; too often the judges are
biased for some animal, article or owner, and purposely nominated
for tliese reasons ; too often tlie inspections are carelessly made
and hurried through as a mere matter of form ; too often no rea-
sons are given for the decision rendered, and thus the public, for
whose benefit these fairs were instituted, are as much in the dark
as aforetime. These things ought not so to be. The Common-
wealth, on whose generous bounty many of the fairs feed, and the
public, who freely pay their individual admission fees, have a right
to all of the educational benefits.
Another practice, which prevails in several societies, of
awarding premiums on grain products, without requiring
statements in writing relating to the growing of the crop,
ought to be discarded. The public take but little or no
interest in the mere stating that A received seven dollars on
the best five acres of corn, or that B received six dollars on
the best four acres of oats. The statement that A and B
received the same amount for the sale of the grain, would be
of equal interest. If statements in writing were required, as
to nature of soil, ploughing, cultivating, kind and quantity
of fertilizer used, treatment of the land the preceding year,
etc., to be published along with the transactions of the
society, the information might benefit others. There is room
also for improvement in the matter of farmers' institutes,
which the societies are required to hold. These meetings in
some sections of the State are thinly attended, and their
utility not appreciated. If more practical farmers would
attend and participate in tlie discussions, making them more
practical, a much larger interest would soon be manifested,
and a large amount of information be disseminated.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 4. 295
SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS.
BY PROF. N. S. SHALEK OF CAMBRIDGE.
Although the soils of Massachusetts belong altogether
to the group which we may term exotic, — that is, wliere
the materials composing them are not derived from the
underlying rock, but are transported from a distance, —
they exhibit a considerable range of phenomena, and are
interesting both from a scientific and economic point of
view. In the following account of the soils of this Common-
wealth, I propose to consider first the origin and range of
their character, and the relation of their characteristics to the
geological history of the region ; second, the relations of
these deposits to the actions occurring during and after the
glacial period ; third, the present physical condition of
these soils, and the economic aspects of the deposits.
The soils of Massachusetts, and indeed of all parts
of New Enghmd, are of glacial origin. Practically the
whole of the detrital material which composes them was
rent from the bed rocks l)y the action of the ice sheet.
Here and there the post-glacial decay has stripped small
portions of the detritus from the Underlying rocks, and com-
mingled it with the soil. But these areas are in all cases
insignificant in extent, and do not serve in any important
way to qualify the character of the detrital materials which
have been formed by glacial action.
Where soils are formed by glacial action, they differ
essentially from those which are produced by ordinary agents
of decay. Non-glacial soils, such as cover the larger por-
tion of the earth's surface, are mainly formed by corrosive
action, by the processes of chemical decay through which
296 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
the foundation rocks of the country are taken to pieces and
subjected to oxidation. The expanding action of frost
and of roots which penetrate the bed rock may produce a
certain amount of fragmental matter, which is commingled
with the earthy material ; but in all cases the larger part of
the detritus which constitutes the soil owes its formation to
the action of dissolving agents, among which we reckon
ordinary carbonic acid and the various acids of the nitro-
humic group. As these soils are essentially the product of
plant action, the grains of Avhich they are composed are to
a very great extent commingled with decayed vegetable
matter. This vesretable matter is most abundant in the
upper soil ; but, in the usual condition of the country, the
roots commonly penetrate to the depth of some feet beneath
the surface, and in their successive decay convey the humus
into the deeper portions of the deposit. As the disruption
of the bed rocks is mainly accomplished by the action of
roots, it necessarily follows that the decayed plant materials
penetrate the whole section of the soil. Though the quan-
tity of such substances in the subsoil may not be great, it is
still sufficient to affect the fitness of that layer for the uses
of plant life.
In the soils which owe their origin to glacial wearing, the
conditions are sharply contrasted with those which are
formed by the action of vegetation. The material moved
from the bed rocks l)y the ice is in most cases much more
largely composed of coarse fragmental matter than in the
case of the plant-made soils. In the former class of soils
the process of disruption, accomplished by the ordinary
agents of decay, divides the detritus into fine bits, and
generally brings it into a state in which each grain is a chem-
ical unit. In such soils, even if composed of the waste
derived from crystalline rocks, each bit is made up altogether
of one chemical substance. Thus, in such soils we find
grains of quartz generally little dissolved, flakes of mica in
an advanced state of decay, bits of hornblende or feldspar
more or less afiected by corrosion. Rarely indeed in soils
of this nature do we find pebbles composed of these several
minerals united in a solid mass. The result of corrosive
decay is to separate in the grains of the soil the mineral con-
1800.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 4. 207
stituents one from the other. In Ihe case of glacial soils,
however, for the reason that the division of the material is
accomplished mainly if not altogether by mechanical energ}^,
the resulting detritus is almost always composed of com-
pound bits ; that is, fragments having several minerals united
together.
In ordinary glacial waste which has not been assorted
by the action of Avater, the proportion of the coarse com-
pound crystalline elements to the finely divided material
is commonly very great; generally, indeed, the pebbles of a
size to be visible to the naked eye constitute more than four-
fifths of the mass, and they frequently much exceed this pro-
portion. Not only was there an entire absence of vegetable
matter during the accumulation of the glacial waste on the
surface which it occupies, but the glacial waters were with-
out carbonic acid gas, and therefore the chemical work
accomplished during the ice term was small in quantity.
We may fairly term the detritus which the glacial period left
upon the surface an unnatural or pseudo-soil, — an earth
coating, which has in no way been reconciled with the needs
of vegetation ; while the ordinary soil coating produced
mainly by plant action constitutes the only real soil coating
of the earth. It is only when the detrital material left by
glacial action has become mixed with the vegetable waste,
and to the extent to which the commingling takes place, that
the material takes on a real soil character.
Although the glacial soils are not immediately derived
from the subjacent rocks, but have always been more or less
aflected by transportative actions, there is in most cases a
certain relation ])etween nei2:hborino; rocks and the sheet of
glacial detritus from which the soil is evolved. Thus the
till or bowlder clay coating which is the commonest form of
glacial deposit is generally composed of materials which have
been derived from within five miles of the point now occu-
pied by the detritus. At any given place the commingled
clay, sand and pebbles usually represent something like an
average of the mineral character exhibited by the bed rocks
within that distance in the up-stream direction of glacial
flow. Even a cursory examination of the New England soils
will show the efiect of this principle of transportation. Thus
298 BOARD OF AGRIOULTUEE. [J.-m.
in the Connecticut valley the soils are mainly composed of
detritus worn from the Triassic red sandstones of that region,
and have the characteristic color proper to the beds from
which the detritus has been taken. In the basin of the Nar-
ragansett coal field the bowlder clay has also the aspect deter-
mined by the general nature of the underlying carboniferous
strata, and partakes of the dark color common to those beds.
In regions where the bed rocks are silicious, the till is gen-
erally quartzose and infertile ; where the bed rocks are of a
limy nature, the materials of the soil are more fertile than
elsewhere.
A yet further division in the character of the soils depends
upon the peculiarities attending the action of the glacial
envelope. When an ice sheet such as the last glacial period
brought upon the surface of New England is in the full-
ness of its activity, it is constantly removing material from
the surface over which it passes. This material is in part
commingled with the ice, probably to the depth of some
hundreds of feet above the bed rock, and is there borne on to
the southward with the flow of the glacial stream. A small
part held between the bed rocks and the ice is subject to
constant and rapid mechanical abrasion, and is thus ground
to powder. While this work of rending and pulverizhig the
rock is going on, the line material as well as a portion of the
pebbles is swept forward l)y the streams of water which from
time to time flow between the ice sheet and the subjacent
earth. In general these streams appear to have had no
great de})th, but to have been very extended in their action,
occasionally sweeping away the quantity of the rock waste,
and then ceasing for a long time to flow, permitting the
debris to accumulate to a considerable depth. At other
points beneath the ice the molten water was organized into
distinct streams, which appear to have flowed in caverns
excavated in the ice, moving forward towards the margins of
the glacier in a furious and tumultuous manner, as we can
imagine would be the case with water weighed upon by a
thick coating of ice, and thus pushed forward to its point of
escape. These streams pour out a vast amount of finely
divided rock to the open sea, or to the open air on the mar-
gin of the continental glacier. Escaping from beneath the
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 299
ice, the coarser particles quickly fell upon the surface of the
land or upon the sea floor; while the finer mud, supported
for a long time in the water of the rivers or tidal currents,
was carried far from the margin of the ice field. Generally
speaking, the clay escaped from the field of the ice action,
and was borne away to the ocean floor or to the level plains,
such as have accumulated about the mouth of the Mississippi.
We find the only considerable remnant of the material borne
out by the subglacial rivers in the sand plains, which are
extensive developed deposits along the coast line of New
England south of Maine, or across the face of the continent
in front of the open ice margin, from the Atlantic Ocean to
the far West.
These glacial sands, composed of the materials poured
forth by the old rivers from beneath the ice, constitute a
marked feature in the soils of Massachusetts. Besinnino: in
the western margin of the State, we find traces of these
deposits, as is shown in the general map, along the bottoms
of the greater valleys, usually forming a narrow strip, extend-
ing from near the head waters of these streams to their con-
fluence with the larger rivers. In these larger rivers the
deposits are to a great extent continued ; but they are in a
considerable measure hidden by recent alluvial accumulations
which have occurred in such places. In the Berkshire dis-
trict, as we may term the hilly country west of the Connect-
icut, the proportion of the area occupied by these washed
sands and gravels is small. It does not amount to more than
one-tenth of the Avhole field, the remainder of the surface
being covered by till materials, as Ave may term the unwashed
waste of the ice time. East of the Connecticut the proportion
of these sands and gravels greatly increases, until, in the
section east of the meridian of Worcester, about three-fourths
of the area is covered by these washed materials.
As will be readily noted by the observer, the greater
part of the detrital matter composing these stratified gravels
and sands is of a silicious nature. Generally, however,
there is a certain admixture of pebbles of compound rocks,
fragments containing a certain amount of lime, potash, soda
and phosphatic material, which supply them in a small meas-
ure the materials necessary for the sustenance of plants. It
300 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
is a well-known fact that pure quartz yields but little of the
material necessary for plant growth. In our soils quartz has
something of the same place in the general functions of the
material which nitrogen has in the air. It is practically an
inert substance, entering into but few combinations, but
serving to dilute the other materials which compose the soil
material. Plants will not develop in pure sand, any more
than animals will breathe in pure nitrogen. On the other
hand, a soil entirely destitute of silicious matter Avould be
unfruitful, because of the excessive compactness which would
thus characterize it.
There is a third condition of the soil in a glaciated field,
which is due also to a peculiarity in the physical conditions
of the last ice time. During the glacial period, the front or
margin of the ice occupied a number of different positions.
At one time this ice front was maintained for a consideral)le
period, probably for some thousands of years, along the line
beyond the margin of the main-land. It stretched from
southern New Jersey across where now lies Long Island,
N. y., thence by the islands of Martha's Vineyard and the
main-land of Cape Cod, extending farther to the northward
across the gulf of Maine. At later stao-es in the decline of
the great glacier, this front occupied for a less considerable
period various positions farther in the interior of the country.
Alono; the successive mars-ins of the ice there were accumu-
lated heaps of detritus known as frontal moraines. These
frontal moraines are an extremely conspicuous feature across
the greater part of the continent. They are characteristically
shown on Long Island, N. Y., on Martha's Vineyard, Nan-
tucket, and at other points in south-eastern Massachusetts.
Similar deposits, indicating shorter periods of action, are
traceable throughout Massachusetts from the Connecticut
River to the sea.
These shoved moraines represent a very complicate/,
series of actions. In part they are due to the fact that
the ice, moving constantly forward, was melted, and passed
into the state of water along the line of the glacial margin,
and so dropped the detritus which had become mixed with
its mass in the long journey over the bed rock. It is
evident also that the front of the ice was not permanent, and
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. • 301
it occasionally retreated a mile or two back from the wall of
the moraine, and then, refreshed by a larger supply of snow,
pushed forward, driving before it in the manner of a huo-e
scraper a quantity of debris which was thrust up into the
frontal moraine. At the same time, at various points from
the ice front subglacial rivers were pouring forth, which
scoured ways through the frontal moraine, and distributed
vast amounts of sand and gravel in a stratified form, partly
in the mass of the moraine, though in a larger measure over
the fields lying immediately in front of the ice line. The
result of this action is that the morainal masses of Massachu-
setts and other regions contain extremely varied soils. Here
and there we find them so bowldery that there is no soil
whatever. At other points we observe patches of soil mate-
rial composed entirely of waste from the bed rocks in the
immediate vicinity. Again, the material is ordinary till in
its character, — sand and gravel and clay commingled with
large bowlders in a perfectly confused manner. At other
points there may be pockets of clay formed in quiet pools
inclosed in the extremely compact mass of the moraine.
Samples of characteristic morainal soils are aflTorded by the
moraine of the north-western side of Martha's Vineyard, or
that which extends through the Elizabeth Islands, and north-
ward to near the village of Plymouth.
Yet another peculiarity of New England soils, due to
the action of glaciation, is found in the exceeding thinness
of the detrital coating over considerable areas, which, under
the ordinary conditions of the earth, would be soil-covered.
Owing to a variety of circumstances, the bed rocks beneath
a glacier are at the end of an ice period sometimes left
almost bare, while in the neighboring areas the bowlder clay
may be extremely thick. At several points in Massachusetts
I have observed within the limits of a square mile consider-
able areas nearly bare of detritus, bordering immediately on
patches of the drift which were one hundred feet or more in
thickness. Contrasts as sharp as these are rare ; but over a
large part of the State — indeed, of New England in gen-
eral — we have a disposition of the drift so irregular as to
give these frequent contrasts between detrital material thick
enough to afi"ord the foundation of good soils, and areas
302 • BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
"which are practically soilless. In some cases the absence of
glacial waste which may afford the foundations of soil is due
to the steepness of the slopes on which the detritus origi-
nally rested, but from which it has been removed by gravity,
aided by the rains, the frost, and the shoving action of plant
roots. In other cases the lack of detrital material is due to
the scouring action of the subglacial streams, or to the fact
that the detritus from soft rocks has been altoo-ether jjround
to fine detritus by its contact with harder material, and
washed away.
It DQt infrequently happens that the bed rock, when worn
by a glacier, readily breaks, on account of its natural joints,
into large fragments, while these fragments, in themselves
of a tough nature, do not readily pass into the state of fine
detritus. Under these conditions the surface may be covered
by very large angular fragments, there being insufiicient
finely divided material to fill the spaces between them ; and
thus the soil covering may be practically wanting, or reduced
to small patches crowded in the interspaces between the
large erratics. An instance of this nature may be found
in the " Dogtown Commons " of Cape Ann.
We shall now consider the process by which detritus,
accumulated on a country by glacial action, forming pseudo-
soil, may be converted into a real soil coating. In an
ordinary soil, whether it be originally formed on the surface
which it occupies, or whether it has been transported by the
action of rivers and accumulated in the shape of alluvial
plains, the process of disintegration of the rock goes on
alono; with the growth of vegetable life ; and the debris of a
mineral sort is thoroughly commingled with the vegetable
waste, and all parts of this waste are subject to the solvent
action which is brought about by the decaying vegetable
matter. In the case of river alluvium, the vegetable matter
is commingled by the process of sedimentation with every
part of the mass. In the case of soils which originate where
they lie by the decay of the bed rocks, the breaking up of
the under strata is to a great extent accomplished by the
action of the plant roots, which penetrate into the rifts of
the strata, enlarge and rupture the fragments, and gi'adually
lift them to a higher level in the soil. In any forest-clad
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 303
country the trees are frequently subjected to violent over-
turning, by which the soil is rudely inverted, somewhat in
the manner in which that process is deliberately accom-
plished by the plough. The result is, that in general, in
natural soils, in the course of long ages the vegetable matter
penetrates through all the detrital material to which the
roots of the plants may have access.
Taking any soil in the region south of the glacial belt,
as, for instance, in the southern portion of the Ohio
valley, we may generally assume that the process of com-
minirling veo-etable waste with the detritus has been going
coo o o
on for many geological periods. Such soils, indeed, com-
monly represent the work of many million years. In the
glaciated districts, however, owing to the fact that the ice
has passed away from their surfaces within a period of a
few tens of thousands of years, this commingling of
vegetable matter with the rocky material has been most
imperfectly accomplished. In general, we may say that
the relative duration of the time in which this work has
been croini; on in uno;laciated soils differs somewhat, in the
O O O '
proportion of one hundred to one. The result is, that the
pseudo-soils of the glaciated district have not been sub-
jected to the effective preparation for the uses of plant roots
which has taken place in the soils of regions which have not
recently escaped from the glacial envelope. It is doubtful
if the glaciated soils of New England have been repossessed
by vegetation, since the close of the glacial period, for more
than a few thousand years. The time has been altogether
insufficient for the adequate preparation of the glacial detri-
tus for the best uses of plant life. The detrital matter is
there, and generally in a state of division which fjivors the
formation of the soil. This preparation of the soil coating
is now going on in a geologically rapid manner ; but it will
be profitable to the tiller to recognize the fact that he can
advance his interests by hastening the rate of the process of
preparation.
In considering the needs of our soils in glaciated districts,
we have to bear in mind two facts which have an important
bearing on the economic problem which the farmer has
before him. In the first place, scarcely any soils within the
304 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
glaciated belt, except those of a swampy nature, have
sufficient vegetable matter in their mass, say for the depth
of a foot below the surface, to serve the needs of plant life.
It is very desirable to increase this amount of vegetable
waste as rapidly as possible, and to extend it to the depth
of at least a foot below the surface. It is a well-known fact
that the process by which the mineral matter is converted
into the state in which it may serve for plant food is mainly
effected by reactions, which depend upon the decay of
carbonaceous or other organic material beneath the surface
of the soil. A certain amount of work of this nature is
done by the water, which obtains carbonic acid gas and
nitro-humic acids from the surface, and passes them down-
ward in its descent into the soil ; but it seems pretty certain
that the whole of the work cannot be accomplished in this
manner, but is best attained by the actual commingling of
decaying vegetable material with the mineral grains of the
detritus. Therefore, in glacial districts generally even more
than in soils of other character, it is desirable to plough in
such crops as may fitly serve this end.
It should be observed, as before noted, that glacial soils
are commonly composed in large proportion, generally to the
extent of more than half of their bulk, of pebbles, containing
a variety of mineral constituents. It is very desirable to
promote the decay of these fragments, for from them there
is a constant contribution of various valuable mineral ele-
ments,— lime, potash, soda, phosphatic matter, etc., —
which are immediately necessary to plant growth. A peb-
ble of granite rock, lying in the ordinary conditions in which
it is deposited by glacial action, decays very slowly. If,
however, it be enveloped in decomposing vegetable matter,
the process of solution is rapidly advanced. A familiar
instance of this may be perceived in the case of organic rocks
which have been long buried in swamps. The reader may
have ol^served, that, when these fragments are removed to the
open air, they have a singularly white color ; this hue is due
to the decay or kaolinization of the feldspar, a process which
aids in its solution in water. He will also observe that the
outside of such stones is commonly very rotten, the surface
readily falling to pieces by the friction from his hand. He
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 305
may also have seen that around the margin of our erratics
which project above the surface of the fields, there is com-
monly a fertile strip of land in which the crops or the natural
vegetation grows more luxuriantly than elsewhere. In good
part this fertility of the soil near the bowlder is due to the
fact that the decayed matter removed from the surface of the
stone is carried by the rain to its margin, and so contributes
to the nutrition of plants.
The extent to which this increase in the fertility of the
soil may l)e brought al)out by adding humus to its mass, will
depend upon the measure in which the soil seizes upon the
mineral substances, and uses them for plant food. In gen-
eral, however, it may be said that the glacial soils of New
England, even if apparently pure sand of a silicioas nature,
contain a sufficient amount of mica, feldspar and other
minerals which afford nutritious matter by the action of
humus in the mass ; even the thoroughly washed sands of
the sea-shore, which appear at first sight purely silicious,
really contain a good deal of mineral matter which has a
high nutritive value. Generally, however, the proportion
of vegetable waste in these sandy soils is very small, and
this for the reason that, being readily permeable by water,
the vegetable matter is rapidly removed by decay, or leached
away by the rains. Experience seems to show that plough-
ing in green crops greatly adds to the fertility of these soils,
in the first place, by promoting the solution of the mineral
matter; and, in the second place, by helping to contain
water in seasons of drought. Every bit of decayed vege-
table matter acts as a sponge, and yields a certain amount
of moisture until it is completely disintegrated by decay.
It may be here noted that experience shows that the sea-
weeds are particularly valuable in aiding the moisture-retain-
ing capacity of the sandy soils ; and this probably for the
reason that they have more or less deliquescent salts in their
composition, which readily retain moisture until they are
dissolved and taken away by the ground water.
The most considerable difficulty in glacial soils arises from
the general absence of a distinct subsoil. Usually these
glaciated soils continue with the same character they have
near the surface indefinitely downward to a depth far below
30G BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
the range of plant roots. In an ordinary or true soil there
is almost invariably a definite under soil, which is tolerably
impervious to moisture, and which retains the soil water
near enough to the surface to protect the vegetation from
droughts. Generally this subsoil lies at a level below the
surface, determined by the penetration of the plant roots.
The relative impermeability of this under soil tends to keep
the valuable materials of the cultivated layer from penetrating
downward beyond the reach of the plant roots. Where the
glacial soil is composed largely of clay, as is often the case,
the plough tends to form, by its well-known action, a packed
laj^er which serves in a measure the functions of a natural
under soil ; but in the sandier districts no such compact
layer can be formed, and the result is that the fertile material
produced by the natural reaction of the plants on the mineral
matter contributed to the soil by artificial fertilizing proc-
esses, quickly escapes from beyond the plant roots. The
only way to meet this evil is by increasing the amount of
vegetable matter in the tilled part of the earth. Peat from
swamps, sea-weed, green crops ploughed in, all serve in a
measure this same end of contributins: to the soil absorbent
agents, which may hold the fertile elements as in a sponge
until they are availed of by the growing plants. Therefore
we may, in a word, sum up the conditions of the treatment
which should be applied to the pseudo-soils of our glacial
districts as follows : the aim should be to advance the natural
process of commingling vegetable matter with the detrital
coating as rapidly as possible.
Considering in a general way the comparative merits of
the soils in the glacial districts and those formed under the
more general processes which produce the tilled stratum in
non-glaciated districts, we observe that glacial soils differ
from those of unglaciated districts in the fact that they do not
wear out by tillage. In an ordinary soil, derived from the
decay of the rocks immediately beneath the surface, the
deposits contain within the depth of a foot or so a large store
of plant food, which has been slowly accumulated during a
great period in the past. This material is rapidly yielded
to tillage, producing large crops at the outset, and generally
less considerable returns with each succeeding year of culti-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 4. 307
ration. Save in rare cases, as in the blue-grass district of
Kentucky, where the soil is immediately underlaid by soft
fossiliferous limestone, which rapidly decays when stirred by
the plough, such soils, save for artificial processes of fertili-
zation, rapidly lose their crop-giving powers. On the other
hand, the soils of the glaciated districts having no such
harvest of plant food gathered during the geological ages,
though they give less considerable returns than the natural
soils, commonly maintain their productiveness, and grow
steadfastly better under a rational system of tillage, even
independent of ordinary manuring. The fact is, that these
glaciated soils have in the pebbles which abound in them a
constant source of refreshment and renewal, which has only
properly to be made avail of to add to their fertility. Well
commingled with vegetable matter, frequently stirred with
the plough to promote the disintegration of the fertilizing
bits, such soils, under reasonable treatment, may, though
never very fertile, grow better for ages of tillage.
Even the neglect and maladministration of such soils does
not usually bring the same amount of damage that it does to
the earth in non-glaciated districts. It is almost impossible
by injudicious cropping to exhaust what fertility may be in
soils of glacial origin. A few years of fallow permits a
sufficient accumulation of material decayed from the surface
of the pebbles to afford a fresh supply of plant food.
Another advantage arising from the peculiar structure of
glacial soils is, that they rarely wash away in the manner
frequently observed in other more normal soils. Thus, while
in Virginia, Kentucky, and the other States south of the
glacial belt, large areas of what were tilled fields have been
swept away with the streams, leaving either the bare rock or
the subsoil, such devastation is never seen in glaciated dis-
tricts. In a more extensive way, because of the more
continued tillage, a large part of the once fertile lands of
southern Europe have been reduced to the state of desert.
The freedom from washing away, characteristic of glaciated
soils, is primarily due to the fact that they have no subsoil.
The ground water sinks freely into their depths, and gradually
escapes by ill-defined springs to the drainage system of the
country. The result is, that, whereas in Virginia and Ken-
308 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
tacky somewhere near one-fifth of the total area has been
seriously damaged Ijy the superficial and temporary streams
which have been formed during heavy rains, probably not one
one-hundredth part of the tilled land in New England has
suffered in a serious way from such accidents. Another
advantage possessed by the glacial soils consists in the fact
that, by proper tillage, the soil can be extended downward
to any desirable depth. This is rarely the case in regions
Avhere the soils are produced l)y the decomposition of the
rocks immediately beneath which they lie. The subsoil in
such countries is frequently so compact that it cannot readily
be incorporated with the true soil w^ithout great cost in the
process of manipuhition. Last of all, we may note the fact
that in glaciated districts the soil on a given area, such as is
occupied by an ordinary farm, commonly contains a far
greater variety in the character of the fields than occurs
where the soil originates by the decay of the subjacent rocks.
In most of New England farms of say one hundred acres in
area, there are usually fields of tough clay, those of a sandy
character, patches of bog land which yield peat for fertil-
izing purposes, and varied sites for the cultivation of those
crops which demand a large amount of moisture. Thus the
farm of the New England district is commonly more self-
supporting than that of a region characterized by normal
soils. This variety in the employment of the farmer who
tills glacially formed soils is not to be reckoned of small
account in estimating the advantages of his position. The
more varied the occupations of the agriculturist, the larger
the share of educational eifect which arises from his occupa-
tion, as compared with the life of the cotton planter or the
grain dealer of more fertile districts. In place of winning
subsistence from a single crop, the New England farmer
commonly markets at least half-a-dozen soil products. He
has the experience of the dairyman, of the cattle breeder,
fruit raiser, and perhaps of the market gardener ; and in this
varied employment he finds opportunities for intellectual
development which are denied to those who depend on a
narrower range of soil industries.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 309
CHOOSING AX OCCUPATION.
BY J. HEXKY GODDAED OF BAKRE.
When, one year ago, my excellent but now lamented
friend, Dr. Lynde, secured from me a })romise to prepare
a paper for this meeting of the Board, it was required
that a topic should be selected, so that the announcement
might be duly made in the Secretary's report ; and so,
without much reflection, I said, let it be, " Choosing an
Occupation." But, when it came to writing the essay, the
topic seemed to be not well chosen. However, let it stand.
Another thing : it occurred to me that the members of
this Board, having presumably already chosen their occu-
pations, are not likely to be directly interested in the
subject of my paper. Yet I hope they all have, or may
have, sons or grandsons who are to be fitted for useful and
honorable citizenship. And the customs of the past lead
me to hope that the suggestions herein contained may yet
reach a much laro-er and more varied hearinoj.
What is an occupation ?
Webster defines it as "that which occupies or engages
the time and attention ; the principal business of one's
life." Accepting this definition in all the force of its
meaning, with what importance does it invest our topic,
and with what care and solicitude should the choice of an
occupation be attended.
That the highest good and greatest happiness of the
human race imperatively demand that regular employment
be furnished its members, will, I think, be conceded by
all. There are various reasons, in different cases, why this
is true. The rich need it for its moral benefits, and for
310 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
the security it furnishes against all those evils Avhich result
from luxurious indolence. The poor must have it as a
means of supporting existence ; but beyond and far above
this, they need it, like their rich neighbors, for its influence
on their moral and social natures. But, whether rich or
poor, all need to be seasonably educated in some useful
and respectable calling ; because fire, flood or fraud may
suddenly and radically change the conditions of life, and
render a remunerative occupation a matter of practical
necessity to the individual existence, as well as a blessing
to the moral nature. Under such circumstances, how many
men have been saved from poverty and its attendant evils,
and even from a suicide's fate, by possessing the knowledge
and skill of an artisan, which enabled them to battle success-
fully against the financial misfortunes which had overtaken
them.
Recoofnizins;, then, the controlling influence which "the
principal business of one's life " must exert upon the charac-
ter and destiny, as well as the necessity of its possession,
how important it seems that the selection of an occupation
should receive the most careful attention. And yet how
few young men fully realize what a factor the decision of
this question is to be in all that will go to make up the sum
of success or failure in life ; in fact, in many cases it may
be said with truth to constitute all the diflerence between
those conditions.
Probably not more than one man in ten, on an average,
can trulv be said to have chosen his occupation. It may
have come to him as if by chance ; or, to speak more
correctly, circumstances have changed the course of his
life, and led him to adopt a vocation for which he either
had no natural inclination, or for which he had never
believed he possessed the requisite talents. It has been
foisted upon him, and after a time he has, perhaps, dis-
covered that he was " building better than he knew," and
the result proves satisfactor3\
Sometimes a young man is brought up and educated in
the i)rofession or vocation of his father, and a noted business
house is perpetuated through several generations in the
same family. But I think such instances are to be regarded
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 311
as exceptional, rather than the rule. We generally think
our own occupation less desirable than some other ; we have
found the objections that lie against it, and have too lightly
esteemed or entirely overlooked the advantages peculiar to
it ; while we have seen all the apparent good points in our
neighbor's calling, and wholly failed to note the objections
to which it may be and doubtless is Hable. And so, often, we
do not foster, if we do not actually discourage, any inclina-
tion or desire of our sons to follow the occupation which has
proved so iiksome, although perhaps reasonably successful,
to their fathers.
In choosing an occupation, perhaps the first question that
will arise in most minds is. Which will be most likely to
yield the best financial results? This is manifestly a point
of prime importance ; but there are risks of competition and
speculation to be encountered in some occupations, to which
others are not liable to the same extent. You are traveling
towards a certain place ; you arrive at a point where the
road divides ; one route is shorter and less rugged than the
other, but crosses a river by a bridge which is defective and
believed to be unsafe, while the other road is fiee from that
danger. It is manifestly the part of prudence to take the
safe thou oh lons-er road. In Wall Street fortunes are some-
times made in a single day, it is said. But is it not equally
true that they are often lost in as short a time ? The wise
man said, " He th;it hasteth to be rich hath an evil eye, and
considereth not that he shall come to poverty."
Other questions of importance will come up, as. Is the
occupation proposed one that will conduce to health and good
morals ? Will it open the way to honorable distinction and
preferment? These must be answered carefully, in the light
of the good judgment and experience of others, of whom the
young man seeking a vocation should take counsel. But just
here is the point whei'e many young persons make a serious
mistake. Youth is full of hope and anticipation ; every-
thing in prospect is of rosy hue, and invested wit'"> all
the enchantments of joyous expectation. In her " bright
lexicon there is no such word as fail." The healthful
youth is full of life and energy, seeing only the bright
side of the future, and reaching forward with eager ha.^te
312 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
to grasp the prize which appears so easy to secure, and
refusing to believe that there is any possibility that it can
elude his grasp. Here, I say, is often the fatal mistake of a
lifetime. Young man, take counsel of your elders. They
have traveled over the way upon which you are about to
enter. They know where some of the enemy's batteries are
masked, where some of the pitfalls and other dangers are
concealed, because the}^ have traversed some of these paths
before you, and hence are able to give advice founded upon
experience. Listen attentively to this advice. Ponder it
thoughtfully, w^eigh it carefully; and, having marked out
your course, enter upon it with firmness, and a determined
purpose to achieve success.
Here, also, I am obliged to admit that parents sometimes
make a mistake equally fiital, by insisting on a certain
course in life which they have mapped out for their sons.
Advice and counsel they ought certainly to give, re-enforced
by lessons drawn from experience and intensified by parental
love and solicitude. But all this should stop short of the
very appearance of threats or commands. The young man
is to be the builder of his fortune ; let him then also be its
architect, with such suggestions as your experience and
knowledge of the elements and materials which must enter
into the structure will enalile you to furnish. The period of
life when the young man is completing the theoretical and
entering upon the practical preparation for his life work is
most important and critical. In seeking to give him counsel
and advice as to his course, therefore, the utmost care should
be used to lead him aright. I say lead, because you must
do that if you would influence him for his own good. In
order to do this, several things will be necessary : you must
possess his confidence and respect ; you must thoroughly
understand his capacities and temperament ; he mast be made
to feel that your words of counsel are the outcome of a sin-
cere desire for his highest benefit. He will doubtless invest
the future with very bright colors, and your experience
of practical life may cause you to feel that the picture is
misleading. But beware how you cast darkening shadows
upon it. Seek, rather, to show him how he may improve it
by shading down and softening the view, so that the transi-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 313
tion from the ideal to the actual shall be rendered easy and
natural. If the occupation which seems to you to l)e the
best for your son, and to which he appears to incline, is one
which requires long and laborious preparation, or is envi-
roned by unusual difficulties, do not try to hide or depre-
ciate those objections : rather encourage him to put forth
efibrt and energy, in order that he may overcome all obsta-
cles, and compel success. So will your son, in the very
eft'ort of settling the question of his occupation, receive a
lesson in mental discipline which will materially help to pre-
pare him for the actual battles of life which are just before
him.
In approaching the choice of an occupation, the young
man is at once confronted by an " embarrassment of riches."
The doors opening before hira are so many, and the hands
beckoning him on so numerous, that he is confused. While
these occupations may be divided into few grand divisions,
as, the professions, agriculture, mechanics, arts, commerce,
etc., their subdivisions are numerous ; but most of them are
honorable when well filled, and the young man who aspires
to enter any one of them should be conscious of a determined
purpose to so full}^ qualify himself for his work, and to so
well and successfully perform it, that he will prove an
honor to the occupation of his choice.
But very important changes have taken place Avithin the
past forty years, as to the facilities afforded youth for
acquiring the theoretical as well as the practical knowledge
needed as a preparation for the active duties of mature life.
Then one graduated from the district school, where he was now
at the head and again at the foot of his class ; but that
depended generally on whether the record was taken Satur-
day night or ]Monday morning. Now the farmer's boy has
the benefit of the high school and the agricultural college,
with all the advantages suggested by this contrast. Then
the lad served an apprenticeship of three or more years at
some trade, and learned the rudiments, at least, of all
branches of that trade ; and it was not very easy, for one
w*ho had not served out his time, to obtain employment in
any other respectable establishment of the same trade.
Now the young man, after a few months of service, leaves
314 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
his employer and sets up business for himself, as an amateur.
Or, if he remains, and is diligent and faithful in his duties
to the end of his term, he will perhaps have been able to
learn only one branch of the business ; because most of ^he
trades are now so subdivided into departments, that while,
for example, he may have learned how to cut or put together
the upper part of a shoe, he may not be able to put on the
sole, or to be sure, when some other one has done it, whether
or not it is properly done. And the same is substantially
true of many other trades. When I was a little boy, my
father dressed his own beef and veal and mutton ; he took
the hides to the tanner and had them made into leather ;
then the shoe-maker came with his ' ' kit " and made and
repaired the shoes for the family. And a little Ijefore my
recollection a similar process represented the production
and preparation of the woollen and linen fabrics required for
the comfort of the household. Now, how all this is changed.
The shoe-maker with his lapstone, and the tailoress with her
measuring-tape, have been crowded to the wall ; and our
clothing and foot-wear are manufactured at wholesale, and
dealt out to us by sizes and numbers, and are even sent to
us through the mails. What is to l)e the ultimate result of
these chano'es remains for the future to disclose. What
seems important for us to do, is to recognize the fact that
progress is the inevitable order of things, and so shape our
course and trim our sails that we shall be prepared to avoid
the dangers and secure the advantages of the forces which
are active about us.
Without controversy, success in the learned professions
requires a high order of intellectual endowment. But the
idea that the stupid boy would do well enough for a farmer
(if indeed such folly was ever believed) , has long since given
place to better common sense ; and, while it is freely admitted
that each class of occupations requires certain natural
endowments of a high grade, in order to render possible the
highest success, it is still true that the successful farmer of
to-day and of the future must have brain as well as brawn.
But there are so many kinds as well as grades of intellect-
ual endowment, that there need be no apprehension l)ut
that each of the occupations can receive its due share, if only
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 4. 315
the raw material can be properly distributed. And here the
responsibility of the distril)ution is thrown back upon the
young men who are seeking for occupation. It has been
said to be impossible to construct ' ' a silk purse from a sow's
ear." But, if you are not adapted by nature to become a
successful lawyer, you may make an excellent blacksmith.
You might prove a failure as a preacher, and yet make a suc-
cessful farmer. But that would not prove that the mental
requirements of the ftirraer's avocation are greater than those
of the latter. It might, perhaps, be more properly styled
the adaptation of means to an end.
It is not my purpose — in fact, it would be presumptu-
ous — to undertake to point to any particular occupation as
preferable to others. There are golden as well as honorable
possibilities in most of them, waiting to be improved by the
3'oung men and boys now coming and to come upon the stage
of active life ; and it remains for them to study their own
capabilities and measure their own ambition, with that care
and shrewdness which will enable them to make a wise
choice. And it is to this end that I Avould aid them, so far
as may be possible.
The desire to secure a large fortune I consider a laudable
one ; but the means to be employed must be free from
avarice and all miserly love of gain for its own sake ; for,
while " the love of money is the root of all evil," money itself
is a blessing, for almost every material good may be pur-
chased therewith. "If riches increase, set not thy heart
upon them." This wise admonition does not carry with it
the inference that the increase of riches is not a commend-
able object of desire. Some one has condensed a great
deal of truth into a few lines, as follows : " There is a burden
of care in getting riches, fear in keeping them, temptation
in using them, guilt in abusing them, sorrow in losing them,
and a burden of account at last to be given up concerning
them."
That class of occupations represented by the largest num-
ber of millionaires, will, I think be found to involve the
greatest risks and the most anxiety, while the slow and
steady gains secured by the mechanic and farmer are liable
to those objections only in a comparatively small degree.
316 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
The learned professions are no doubt crowded, but there is
still "plenty of room at the top," and the young man with
good health and a well-balanced head, still has the possibility
of forcing his way up the ladder, step by step, to that broad
and fruitful field, where such harvests of honor and distinc-
tion have been and are waiting to be reaped. In commercial
life, where the greatest fortunes are secured, as already
intimated, will be encountered, not only the greatest risks, but
the most wearing labor and insidious temptations. Consider
well whether you are able and willing to grapple with these
for the hope of the golden prize which surely lies beyond,
but which may, after all your care and energy, elude your
grasp.
Already I have intimated my belief that agricultural occu-
pations, while they do not hold out the offer of great or
rapid pecuniary gains, are liable to less objections than
most others. And I am willing to go on record as say-
ino- that I believe that farmino- as a business will continue
to grow in importance, notably in New England, during the
coming century ; and that, when -the little boy of to-day
becomes " old and gray-headed," there will be no need to
organize companies to provide for reclaiming the ' ' abandoned
farms," for there will then be no such thing heard of here.
Rather will the Western farmer be returning from his worn-
out farm to seek a better one in the East. My regret is that
ive shall not live to witness the full fruition of this pre-
diction.
A great many essays and editorials have been written
with a view to answering the question, "How to keep the
boys on the farm," as though that was a consummation to be
desired. I would not keep them all there, certainly not if
there were as many sons in the family as there used to be
lifty years ago. But, where a farmer has but one son, he
may be pardoned for making an extra effort to retain him
upon the farm. My fiither had five : one entered a pro-
fession, one remained on the farm, two were mechanics, and
one was a printer and journalist, but is now a farmer. Per-
haps that was a fair division. No, I do not think all
farmers' sons should become farmers, because, in that case,
what would the learned professions do for bright boys to
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 317
keep their ranks filled ? Or what could these professional
gentlemen do with their best stock, if the farmer's vocation
was not open to them ?
While, as already admitted, the gains from agricultural
pursuits are slow, they are, I think, more certain than in
those callings Avhero the " profit and loss account " is greater.
It was stated by the senior member of this Board, in his able
paper a year ago, that, of all cases of insolvent delators
returned to the oflice of the Secretary of this Commonwealth
during ten years, only about one-fifth of one per cent were
farmers. Everybody knows how the receipt of large but
irregular profits tends to extravagance in expenditure, while
the slow but steady gains of the farmer rather encourage
economy, which, if practiced in connection with wisely
directed industry, will generally bring success in any calling.
It is the money saved, rather than that earned, w^hich makes
a man rich. And yet I would not have this maxim pressed
too far. Provide generously for the comfort and education
of your household, and be liberal and public-spirited as a
citizen ; but do not waste your income upon needless and
hurtful indulgences.
Having chosen your occupation, commence at once, w^ith
a determined purpose, your thorough preparation for it.
Make yourself familiar with the principles which underlie it.
Learn all you can from books bearing upon the subject, and
especially from the experience of those who have become
eminent and successful in it. Cultivate perseverance, and
do not be discouraged by difiiculties, for these you must
expect to meet, not only in the outset, but all through life.
Be self-reliant. You are to enter into a hand-to-hand
conflict with the obstacles and hindrances of btlsiness life ;
with over-reaching dishonesty and honorable competition,
the allurements of vice and the temptations to indolent ease.
But remember that " success is a duty," and determine to win
it, although the circumstances which surround you may
seem adverse. Take heart from the words of the poet : —
"How small, of all that human hearts endure,
That part which laws or kings can cause or cure ;
Still, to ourselves, in every place confined,
Our own felicity wc make or find."
318 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
One or two points more I would urge upon the young
man who is about entering upon his life work. He should
become thoroughly acquainted with his business in all its
branches and ramifications, otherwise he will surely be
outrun by competition, and imposed upon by his employees.
Let him ofive careful and unremitting attention to the details
of his business. He must watch for and prevent the small
leaks, as well as the larger wastes, if he Avould be successful.
Take care of the cents, and the dollars will be secure.
Xo man has a right to expect his business will be successful
unless he gives it his personal attention ; and in no occupa-
tion is this rule more imperative than in farming. " The
best fertilizer for the farm is the owner's foot-prints in the
soil." But, while the young man entering business must be
thus primarily devoted to his individual interest, let him
remember that he is an integral part of the body politic,
and that the public good is identical wnth his own. "Pie
serves himself best who serves his country well." And so
let him be public-spirited, ready to do his full share in
securino^ the highest welfare of his tow^n, and not foro-etful
of those social and neighborly courtesies which form such
potent factors in the promotion of good order and happiness
in a community.
But it sometimes happens that, after a man has well
entered upon his occupation, it may be after several years
of fair success, he finds some things unpleasant, and
imasfines he could do better in some other business ; and so
he sells out, and embarks in a new enterprise. Of course,
I am ready to admit that there are cases, involving such
paramount considerations as health, or social and educational
advantages for one's family, which might justify such a
course. But, as a general rule, I think it will be found
better to stick to one's business, and put forth increased
eff'orts to overcome the difficulties and improve the circum-
stances which exist. He should remember that the older
he grows the less able is he to commence anew the battle of
life ; and while, had he chosen in the outset the avocation
which he now proposes to take up, he might perhaps have
achieved a more decided success, it will, I think, generally
be better for his combined interests not to make the chaniie.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 319
Neither should he be in haste to retire from business. If
he has secured a competence, let him indeed relieve himself
of a portion of his care and hard labor, as years advance,
affording himself and his family increased ease and comfort,
and seek opportunities for improving the condition of the
community in which he dwells. If he has become rich, it
will now be comparatively easy to add to his millions, and
there are plenty of opportunities to do good with his
surplus. It need not be to him so dangerous an element as
politicians would have us believe it is in our country's
affairs. But generally the man who has passed the meridian
line of life in active business, will be happier and live
longer if he continues to have some regular occupation,
than were he to spend his time in luxurious idleness.
These considerations in regard to " the principal business
of one's life," crude and incoherent though they may be, are
submitted wifh the hope that at least one little seed from
among a mass of chaff may find its way into a congenial
soil, and ultimately yield its appropriate fruit ; and, if so, I
shall be content.
And now, gentlemen, as the term of my connection with
this Board is closing, I hope I may be pardoned for
indulging in a few personal reflections suggested by the
situation. I well remember, when I first sat in this hall,
six years ago, the profound respect with which I regarded
the venerable senior members of this Board then present.
Among these were "Wilder, Grinnell, Lane, Moore, Nichols,
Slade. And I also remember one other gentleman, less
venerable in years, but greatly beloved by us all, and a dear
personal friend of my own, who, only a few days ago, was
actively engaged in alleviating the pains and healing the
ailments of humanity, — Dr. Lynde. I have thus directly
alluded to seven distinguished members of this Board at the
time referred to. We can rejoice, to-day, that one of these,
having obtained mercy, continues to this time, and has the
privilege of exchanging the fickleness of our Northern
climate for the genial warmth of the sunny South, under
the influence of which we hope he will be so recuperated in
health and vitality as to continue yet many years the
honored father of this Board. But where arc the six?
320 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jean.
They dropped out one by one. We let fall the tear of
sorrow for the loss of their wise counsels and genial
companionships ; their places are filled by others who also
win our love and respect ; and with hearts softened by
tender memories, but with purposes strengthened by noble
examples, we turn again to take up the ever-present duties
of life, and the ontlowing current of our daily existence
closes with a ripple over the breach, and Ave are borne
swiftly along.
Very few opportunities of my life have given me more
enjoyment than those which have brought me into an
acquaintance with the members now past and present of
this honorable Board. From them and from their secretary,
past as well as present, I have experienced many acts of
courtesy which will be cherished among the choicest
memories of my life.
But, while we remember those venerable associates who
have passed on before us, we must not forget that many of
us who remain have already passed the meridian line, and
soon our places in life will all have been filled by others.
But let us —
" So live that when our summons comes to join
The innumerable caravan which moves
To that mysterious realm, wliere each shall take
His chamber in the silent halls of death,
We go not, like the quarry slave at night.
Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed
By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams."
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 321
TUBERCULOSIS.
BY 1)R. WILLIAM HOLBROOK OI' PALMER.
The history of tubercle runs back through the ages.
Isocrates, Avho lived in the fifth century before Christ, and
shortly preceded or was contemporary with Hippocrates,
who was called the " father of medicine," taught that con-
sumption was a contagious disease, but he had few folloAvers
in his belief; while Hippocrates, in his book, discoursed on
phthisis as an epidemic, believing the disease to be due to a
certain condition of the air, and evidently did not consider
it communicable from man to man, man to animals, or
animals to man, by contact or association. It was rather a
quality of the atmosphere or the breezes that affected the
people, than germs of the disease ; and his opinion pre-
vailed, or his theory was accepted, for many years. AVe
find thus early that doctors fiiiled to agree in regard to
disease, and have ofttimes since; or that there are two sides
to questions, each expressing honest opinions.
What is a tubercle ? It is a tumor in the substance of an
organ, from the production of new matter. In pathologi-
cal anatomy, the term is generally given to a species of
degeneration which consists of an opaque matter of a pale
yellow color. This in its crude condition has a consistence
analogous to that of concrete albumen, and subsequently
becomes soft and friable, and gradually acquires a consistence
analogous to that of pus. Tubercles may develop in different
parts of the body, but most frequently in the lungs and one
of the coverings of the bowels. Laennec classes tubercles
among the accidental tissues, which never exist except in
consequence of morbid action ; while others consider them
as a scrofulous degeneration.
322 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jr.n.
From the earliest days of the medical profession the sad
fact has been recognized that, when consmnption resulting
from this tubercular deposit has become fully established in
the substance of the lungs, or lung tissue has been destroyed,
recovery seldom takes place. Many and in fact most of
them died, said Hippocrates ; and all of us who have prac-
ticed medicine are compelled in truth to say the same thing.
For twenty-four hundred years, and probably through all the
ages, the best medical minds the world has ever produced
have coped with this disease ; and yet, with all their studies
and the accumulated wisdom of them all, about one-seventh
of all the deaths that occur in the human family yearly are
to be attributed to it. There is not a clime nor a period of
life in which it may not be found ; the rich and the poor,
the civilized and the uncivilized, become its prey ; and, since
it cannot be cured, can we reduce the number of its victims,
and how can it be done?
Tuberculosis is the specific infectious disease produced by
tubercles, which are in turn special products of a distinct
micro-organism known as the Bacillus tuberculosis ; evidence
incontrovertible shows that they are products of this distinct
bacteria. Though the word tubercle is as old as anatomy,
the term tuberculosis, in designation of a definite disease, is
modern, comparatively.
The history of tuberculosis falls naturally into five periods :
The first, that of ancient history. The second, beginning with
the birth of anatomy in the sixteenth century, furnishing
the first definite knowledge regarding changes or lesions of
structure. The third was in the first quarter of the nine-
teenth century, following the discoveries of Laennec and
Bailey, made memorable by the discovery of auscultation as
a means of diagnosis. It was the ""enius of Laennec in this
discovery which first rendered possible a diagnosis of this
disease in life. The fourth was introduced late in the last
half of the nineteenth century, with the inoculating experi-
ments of Villemin in 18G5. The fifth period was announced
with the brilliant revelations of Koch in 1882, reijardins; the
cause of tubercle and the etiology of disease. It is to the
two latter periods that your attention is more particularly
called.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No, 4. 323
The alarming prevalence, the obscure origin and the almost
invariable fatal termination of tuberculosis, render a better
knowledge of the disease most desirable. The records of
the investigations relating to this subject, at the present time
are scattered everywhere through medical literature, espe-
cially in periodical journals ; and we can see the importance
of the subject, when we find it stated on good authority that
tuberculosis causes one-seventh of the mortality, and, if
children and old people are excluded, from one-third to one-
fourth of the death rate of the whole population. (" British
Medical Times and Gazette.")
Does this disease exist in animals, and is it as prevalent
as in the human family ? I here insert a few statements from
the "Springfield Republican," of Oct. 13, 1889. It says:
The French congress, held last year for the study of tuber-
culosis, decided that it was as prevalent among cattle as
among human beings; and, in Paris alone, 11,592 out of
50,825 of the people died of tubercular disease in 1888
(about one-fourth). It may be new to some, that the
bacilli are found in cattle, both in the meat (although
apparently undiscovered) and in milk, which, being fed to
other animals, has been followed by consumption ; and it
states also that a metropolitan meat inspector in London
testified that eighty per cent of the meat sent to market
had tubercular disease, and the fact that the use of this
diseased meat for food could transmit consumption to man
vvas so clear as to make it dangerous to permit the sale of
such meat. As to the milk of tuberculous cows, this same
congress came to the unanimous conclusion that there was
positive danger in the use of the milk of these infected
cows. It used to be thought that the mammary glands
should be subject to or have the disease, no matter what the
conditions of the other organs were, to make the milk
positively harmful. Experiments and observations at the
present day prove that this opinion is erroneous.
No event in the history of the investigation of this disease
has attracted the attention so universally and with so much
interest as did the announcement of Dr. Koch in 1882. In
his "Etiology of Tuberculosis" are these expressions:
" Since by far the greatest number of cases of tuberculosis
324 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
begin in the lungs, it is to be supposed thtit the infection in
all these cases has taken place in the manner suggested, —
by the inhalation of phthisic sputum dried and made into
dust. The second principal source for the tubercle-bacilli
— viz., tuberculosis of the domestic animals — appears not
to have anything like the importance of the phthisic sputum.
The animals, as is well known, produce no sputum, so that
during their life no tubercle-bacilli get from them into the
outer world by means of the respiratory passages. Also in
the excrement of tuberculous animals the bacilli appear to
be only exceptionally present. On the contrary, it is a fact
that the milk of tuberculous animals can cause infection.
With the exception of this one way, therefore (^. e.,
through milk) , the tuberculous virus can only have effect
after the death of the animal, and can only cause infection
by the eating of the meat. The same conditions hold for
the milk of cows suffering from ' perlsucht.' Before all
things, if infection is to take place, it is necessary that the
milk contain tubercle-bacilli ; but this appears to be the case
only when the milk-glands themselves are affected with the
disease." These were the opinions of Dr. Koch in 1882
(opinions, experiments and observations of other scientists
will appear further on in this paper). If infection from
tuberculous animals does not appear to be frequent, it must
by no means be underrated.
In the statistics presented by Dr. Brush before the New
York Academy of Medicine, April, 1889, he says * that, after
close study for several years of the affection, including a
consideration of all accessible statistics, and the habits of the
people among whom it prevails, he has arrived at the con-
clusion that the only constantly associated factor is found in
the in-bred bovine species. In the discussions that followed
the paper, and the objections raised. Dr. Brush said that he
believed that the disease was originally derived from the
bovine spesies, and that not less than fifty per cent of all
dairy cattle were affected with it; and, as to the connection
with the human species, statistics showed that, wherever
there was a race of people without cattle, phthisis or tuber-
culosis was not known.
* Boston " Medical and Surgical Journal," cxx., p. 467 et seq.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 325
Statements like the above (if true) are alarming to us all ;
a revelation to practitioners of medicine, a danger that has not
been realized. It has been known by some scientific men,
who have made the subject a study before Koch's revelations
in 1882, that the consumption of milk from tuberculous cows
was full of danger to those using it. I quote a case directly
to the point.* In a paper read in Washington by Dr. Ernst
of Boston a short time since, on "Tuberculosis and Cows'
Milk," and how long it could be used without danger, is a
quotation from a letter of a veterinary surgeon in practice in
Providence, R. I. He says : —
Mr W., June 15, 1878, called me to see a white and red cow.
Coughs, and is short of breath and wheezes. Pulse, 60 ; respi-
ration, 14, and heavy at the flanks ; temperature. 104°. Diminished
resonance of right lung, but increased in part of the same. Em-
ph3^sematous crackling over left lung, and dulness on percussion.
Diagnosed a case of tuberculosis, and advised the destruction of
the animal.
December 12. — Cow in a cold rain a few days ago for about
two hours. Milk still more diminished tlian at a visit made on
September 25. Again advised the destruction of the cow.
Family still using^,the milk. Respiratioli, 20 ; pulse, 85 ; temper-
ature, 104.6".
Feb. 55, i575. — Temperature, 104.8°; respiration, 26; pulse,
68. Losing flesh fast. Milk still in small quantities. Advised,
as before, to destroy the animal, and not to use the milk.
May 30. — Called in a hurry to see cow. Is now as poor as
could be. No milk for a week. Pulse, 80 ; respiration, 40 ;
temperature, 106°. The cow died in about three hours. Autopsy
made fourteen hours after death : Lungs infiltrated with tuber-
culous deposit. "Weight of thoracic viscera, 43.5 pounds. Tuber-
culous deposits found in mediastinum, in the muscular tissues, and
in the mesentery, spleen, kidneys, udder, intestines, pleura, and
one deposit on the tongue. The inside of the trachea was covered
with small tubercles.
Now we come to the result of using the milk, it being used
to within one week of the death of the cow.
In August, 1879, the baby was taken sick, and died in about
seven weeks. On post-mortem of the child, there was found
meningeal tuberculosis, — deposits all over the coverings of the
* "The American Journal of the Medical Sciences," November, 1889.
326 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
brain, and some in the lung. In 1881 a child about three years
old, died with, as it was called, tuberculous bronchitis ; and
in 1886, a boy, nine years old, who for three or four years had
been delicate, died with consumption, — " quick," as it was called.
So far as known, the family on both sides have never before had
any trouble of the kind, and the parents were both rugged and
healthy people, and so were the grandparents.
The veterinary surgeon was laughed at when first called,
and gave the advice to kill the cow and stop using the milk.
Perhaps no one can say positively that using this milk was
the cause of the deaths — the primary cause ; but, by the
light of the investigations of the last ten years, it surely
points that way. You will observe that this occurred four
years before Koch's discovery.
In the paper read before the American physicians by Dr.
Ernst, he discusses the question, and believes that it is not
necessary that the udder should show tubercular disease or
deposit to show the bacilli in the milk ; and he proves this
beyond a doubt in the many experiments along this line.
Koch asserts that the milk from cows affected with tuber-
culosis is dangerous only when the udder is involved, and
his great name has caused many to belteve his theory.
Galtier, in giving the result of certain experiments with milk
coming from tuberculous cows, says "the milk should be
considered dangerous which comes from any animal affected,
or suspected of being affected, with tuberculosis." Hirsch-
berger reports the results of an experimental research upon
the infectiousness of the milk of tuberculous cows, in which,
following out Bollinger's work, he attempts to settle, first,
whether the cases are rare in which tuberculous cows give an
infectious milk ; and, second, whether the milk is infectious
only in cows with general tuberculosis, or whether it is also
infectious when the disease is localized. He made the trials
of the infected milk by injection into the abdominal cavity
of guinea-pigs, with the usual precautions. His results were
as follows : —
1. Milk was used five times from cows affected with a very high
degree of general tuberculosis in all tlie organs.
2. Milk was used six times from cows with only a moderate
desrree of disease.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 327
3. Milk was used nine times from cows in wliich the disease
was localized in the lung.
From these twenty cases the milk was proven to be infectious in
eleven. The percentage of positive results, when arranged in
accordance with the three groups above given, was eighty per cent
in the first group (milk from cows in a very advanced stage of the
disease), sixty-six per cent in the second group, and thirty-three
per cent in the third.
Experiments more interesting still, and more conclusive,
have been made by Dr. Ernst, and directly under his own
eye, in the bacteriological laboratory of the Harvard Medical
School ; while the feeding experiments have been made, and
the experimental animals have been kept, upon a farm in the
country, expressly prepared for this special purpose, and
have extended over quite a long period of time and been
attended with the utmost care. Full notes of these experi-
ments will be found in the "Transactions of the Association
of American Physicians," vol. lY., 1889. Dr. Ernst says the
results enumerated "are, to a certain extent, preliminary;
that is to say, they are but part of tlie work upon this
subject which is being done under the auspices of the
Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture.
The work will not be completed, at any rate, until next
year. They show, however, first, and emphatically, that the
milk from cows affected with tuberculosis in any part of
the body may contain the virus of the disease ; second, that
the virus is present, whether there is disease of the udder or
not ; third, that there is no ground for the assertion that
there must be a lesion of the udder before the miik can
contain the infection of tuberculosis ; fourth, that, on the
contrary, the bacilli of tuberculosis are present and active in
a very large proportion of cases in the milk of cows affected
with tuberculosis, but with no discoverable lesion of the
udder."
Is tuberculosis contagious, or is it not? It must be either
one or the other. Such diseases as small-pox, measles, scarlet-
fever and diphtheria are universally accepted as such ; and the
same reasoning which has led the general public as well as the
profession to that conclusion, if the fiicts are the same, ought
to bring them to the same conclusion in regard to tuberculosis.
328 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Dr. Morgagni, a celebrated Italian physician, more than a
century ago claimed that the virulent matter contained in
the expired air of a consumptive patient was very infectious,
and liable to transmit the malady by inhalation ; and he
.claimed this from his own observations, yet he was generally
disbelieved. Recent demonstrations and experiments by
Dr. Tappenia, who caused animals to inhale fine tuber-
culous matter which had l)ecn evaporated and thrown
into a room .by a steam atomizer, showed that ninety per
cent of all the puppies confined therein from twenty-five to
forty days showed well-marked miliary tubercles in both
lungs ; thus demonstrating, in a very conclusive manner,
that the bacillus germs maybe borne by the breath, and may
become exceedingly dangerous. In the " Brooklyn Medical
Journal," of December, 1889, Cornet writes of certain
experiments made upon animals with the dust from the walls
of the rooms occupied by tul)erculous patients. AV'ith this
dust in sterilized broth, he injected the i)eritoneal cavities of
healthy animals. All of these animals died in course of
time with typical bacillus tuberculosis. The dust used was
obtained from walls in hospital wards, and from walls of
rooms in private houses. The bacilli in the dust came from
the dried and powdered sputum ; and he emphasizes the
statement that direct or indirect contact with the mouth of a
tuberculous })hthisical person should be avoided.
A case directly to this point : a German midwife, who had
tuberculosis far advanced, blew into the mouth of ten new-
born infants, as was her custom, at birth. Every one of
those infants died in a short time with tuberculous disease ;
while another midwife, who was well, did the same thing to
eight other children, doing no harm. Another trustworthy
experiment was by Dr. Villemin in Paris, in 1865, who
inoculated a number of rabbits and guinea-})igs with tubercles
from a human lung, in different parts of the b^dy ; yet the
effect was general, as the various examinations revealed after
death ; and the same experiments from the matter of a cow
revealed the same result.
Professor Cliauveau of the Lyons Veterinary School, in
1868, found that rich virulent matter would infect an animal
through the digestive organs quite as readily as in any other
1890. J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 329
way. He fed three calves both with the hard and soft
varieties of a tubercle from a bovine lung ; and in a few
weeks marked symptoms of this aifection appeared, with loss
of appetite, rough, staring coats, occasional tits of coughing,
emaciation and diarrhoea. An examination of the dilierent
organs revealed characteristic lesions of the transmitted
malady ; and the fact that animals can contract this disease
through the agency of feed should give us new apprehensions
in the use of milk from infected cows, which may contain
the morbixl germs in question. The spread of this disease
by contaminated stalls has offered several opportunities
for its history and pathology. Dr. Grads' observations
at Leinhem paved the way for a series of microscopic
investigations, which culminated in this bacillus germ. He
chose a thriving young cow, well bred and healthy, and
placed her in an infected stall in which five animals had
previously died of tuberculosis. No change occurred to her
until after calving, Avhen a cough appeared, and gradually
increased in frequency, with emaciation and all the attendant
symptoms of this malady. The matter had become dried
on the boards of the manger, and was the only source by
which the germs of the disease could be conveyed to the
animal in question.
In the hundreds of ex[)eriments by Koch, by inoculation
of the cultured bacilli into the abdomen or the eyes of the
guinea-pigs, rats, mice, rabbits, cats and dogs wdiich were
used, tubercle bacilli were found developing rapidly in a few
days or weeks, and in nearly all the organs of the body.
The results of these experiments ought to satisfy every can-
did mind that the old law, " like produces like," is true in
l)acterial pathology ; for all these animals, whether inoculated
in the subcutaneous tissues, peritoneal cavity, the aqueous
humor of the eye, or directly into the circulation, with
cultured bacilli, became tuberculous without a single excep-
tion, — not alone in a single place, but scattered throughout
all the organs of the body. All these facts led Koch to
proclaim, with that air of confidence which diligent labor and
research always inspires, that the bacillean germs occurring
in tuberculous substance were not merely the attendants of
the diseased process, but the cause of them ; and that bacilli
330 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
actually represented the true tuberculous virus. A disease,
therefore, that can be transmitted from one animal to another
by inoculation, and an identical virus be reproduced, is,
strictly speaking, contagious.
Professor Chauveau of the Lyons Veterinary School also
proved, by his experiments, that cattle can be as readily
affected through the stomach or digestive organs as by any
other channel. He purchased four calves, the 18tli of Sep-
tember, from a locality where the disease was unknown ;
they were all in a fine, healthy condition. The next day he
administered tuberculous matter, from an old cow's lung,
prepared in the form of a drench, to three of them in divided
doses. The first one, a year old, began to lose condition in
about two weeks ; the respirations were quickened, appetite
remaining unimpaired. On the 5th of October gave another
dose, but of different and more recent matter ; and within
one week the symptoms of tuberculosis were apparent, —
emaciation proceeded rapidly, coat became rough and star-
ing, fits of coughing, etc. The second calf went on com-
paratively healthy for three weeks, then failed rapidly.
The third resisted the disease longer, and another drench
was given, the third week after which the tubercular symp-
toms developed rapidly. At the close of the experiments,
beginning September 19 and ending on the 10th of Novem-
ber, the miserable aspect of the three infet;ted calves, when
contrasted with the condition of the fourth, left no doubt of
the changes that had taken place. The post-mortem exami-
nations revealed a perfect generalized form of tul)erculosis,
— the morbid depo.'dts in the chest, the lungs studded with
tubercles varying in size from a pea to a filbert, the bronchial
glands, lesions of the bowels, etc. Thus, in the space of
about fifty days, we have these ty[)ical examples, nearly
uniform in appearance, of the artificial production of this
malady through the digestive organs.
Dr. Orth insists, after many experiments, that the meat of
tuberculous animals is dangerous as an article of food, and
should never be used. Professor Otto Bollinger of the
University of Munich, by his investigations of milk of such
animals, claims that it has a permanently contagious infiu-
ence, and reproduces the disease in other animals or in man. ^
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 331
He believes also that such milk, even when boiled, still con-
tains its injurious properties. Fleming says, in his sanitary
police, that there is every reason to prohibit the use of milk
from cows affected with tuberculosis, and especially with
infants, who mainly rely upon this fluid for their sustenance,
and whose powers of absorption are active. It has been
known for a long time that it was liable to produce diarrhoea
and debility in infants ; and, though many children have
died from tuberculosis of a localized type in the bowels,
known as " tabes mesenterica," the part probably played by
this liquid in its production has rarely been suspected.
Professor Murray says tuberculosis is a constitutional con-
tagious disease, occurring most frequently among pedigreed
cattle, — a disease for which there is no cure. Such
diseased cattle should never be kept for breeding, and it is
dano-erous to use the milk for calves or human beino;s.
Tuberculosis affects cattle also that are not pure-bred.
In the herd of cows at the State Primary School at Monson
three have died within the last six months, or were killed.
Post-mortems of two revealed tuberculosis in the severest or
last stages, with pus infiltrated throughout the lungs ; of the
third no examination was made, but it had all the symptoms,
— staring coat, poor in flesh, coughing, etc. She had been
turned to pasture with young stock, but grew so poor that
she had to be killed. Now the question comes as to the
balance of the herd of fifty or more cows, giving milk for
the hundreds of children at the school. How came these
cows to be affected with this disease ? One of them I learn
came from a herd near by, and from that herd milk is sold
from the cart in the village of Palmer daily, and has been
for years. Did it come from a cow that had been slaugh-
tered for beef some two or more years ago ? On opening
her, the pleura and other organs were studded all over with
nodules or warty excrescences, as they were called, in
countless numbers. The superintendent wisely ordered it
buried.
Ought there not to he a thorough examination, by a
competent expert, of this herd ; and, if any of the cattle
belonging to the State (in this school) have thia disease,
should they not be killed at once ? These tuberculous cows
332 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
having been kept with others until one not familiar at all
with the disease could discover that something was wrong,
and until unmistakable symptoms of disease of some kind
existed, would lead us to suppose that others had become
affected or had contracted the disease from them.
There is no douljt that milk is sold daily in this State from
diseased cows. I know, or am informed from good authority,
of two herds of cows with hoof ail or foot-rot (or whatever
the proper name may be) that have been affected for a year
or more ; one sending milk to Boston daily, the other making
butter and sending to Springtield weekly. The milk from
tuberculous cows may be used or sold unwittingly at first,
as the disease is so insidious, and may be quite a long time
in developing ; but it is fatal. These bacilli are hard to kill,
and you will find them in the cream, in butter and cheese.
In milk, when boiled and reboiled, they are alive still.
A national conference was held at Springfield, 111., in
December last, of State boards of live stock commissioners,
for the purpose of discussing what new and uniform legisla-
tion, if any, should be recommended for enactment by the
various State Legislatures for the extirpation of tuberculosis
and "big jaw" («6'<^?^om?/co.s^Vs') among cattle. Represent-
atives of the Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin
and Montana State boards were present. At this meeting,
a paper was read from the pen of Prof. James Law of
Cornell University, who has given this subject a great deal
of time and study, and, from his distinguished position, is
worthy of consideration. I quote some extracts from this
paper, to enforce the importance of this subject. He says : —
The subject to be considered at Springfield is transcendently
important in view of the enormous mortality in our large city pop-
ulations, especially from tuberculosis. If, as according to different
statements, one in four, or one in seven, deaths in certain cities
are those of consumption, it follows that in this disease we confront
an evil to which the ravages of the much-dreaded cholera, yellow-
fever or small-pox are comparatively slight. Tuberculosis is un-
heeded because it is a "pestilence that stalketh in darkness,"
because its onset is slow and hidden, and because its too-frequently
fatal ending is more or less delayed. ... If it affected the human
race only there might be more ground for hope ; but when Ave trace
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 4. 333
its ravages in the animals that live in association with man, —
cattle, goats, swine, hens, rabbits, gninea-pigs, rats, mice, cats,
and, to a less extent, in sheep, dogs and horses, — and also in
many wild beasts and birds, of which man makes articles of diet,
one may well stand in awe of the prospect. When we consider
that the expectorations and other infecting products of all these
different races can be dried up without losing their virulence, and,
as fine dust, can be carried on the winds to man and beast, we
realize how ubiquitous the germ must be in certain localities, and
we wonder how the victim of transient sore throat or bronchitis can
run such a gauntlet and escape unscathed. When we consider that
man has to run all such risks, and, in addition, in his tender years
the danger of tuberculous milk, and in his mature age the peril of
tuberculous meat as well, we are compelled to conclude that,
terrible as is the harvest now garnered by consumption, it would
be incomparably greater but for the strong force of vital resistance
opposed to the germ by a vigorous, healthy human system. But,
as the transient inflammation throws even the robust system open
to the attack of the tubercle bacillus, no one can count himself free
from a danger so wide-spread and insidious. As we learn more of
the tuberculosis germ and its habits, one by one of the supposed
grounds of safety slide from beneath our feet. ... It has been
claimed that the blood and flesh are destructive to the germ ; but
we find the bacillus carried in the blood from the distant tubercle
and secreted in the milk by the apparently healthy udder ; and, as
to the flesh, we find tubercles developing in the substance of the
red muscle itself. The flesh or milk of the beast suffering from
localized tuberculosis cannot therefore any longer be considered
safe, though that of the victim of generalized tuberculosis is nec-
essarily much more dangerous. Again, the disease has been held
to be intransmissible from the mother to the unborn offspring ; but,
although many experiments have failed to transmit it in this v»^ay,
the tuberculous cow, aborting at the eighth month of gestation, has
produced a foetus already tuberculous. Again, it has been held that
salting the meat kills the germ ; but culture experiments show the
bacillus alive months after the meat has been put in a strong pickle.
Can the disease be exterminated, or how can it be cur-
tailed? is a serious question, in which the whole human
family are inte:ested. Some of the helps, as indicated by-
Professor Law : —
1. Consumptive people must be secluded in such a way as to
prevent them from infecting their fellows or the lower animals.
334 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
Above all, they must be prevented from going to houses or fields
where animals are kept, and the scraps from their tables must on
no account be fed to animals. Their expectorations and other
secretions must be destroyed by fire, or by some potent chemical
disinfectant. . . .
2. All consumptive domestic animals should be promptly killed,
and cremated or otherwise thoroughly disinfected.
3. There must be a thorough disinfection of all places where
the infected man or animal has been ; also of the clothing and ex-
cretions of such individual.
4. There must be an expert inspection of all meat animals
before killing and after (during skinning and dressing) , and there
must be a disinfection of every condemned carcass, etc.
There are many more restrictions that could be enumer-
ated, but the length of this paper will preclude me from going
further. The following resolutions were unanimously adopted
at the meeting of the State Boards at Springfield, 111. : —
Whereas, It is the expressed opinion of leading scientists that
actinomycosis is a contagious disease, capable of communication
from one animal to another and from animals to mankind, —
Resolved, That it is the sense of this conference that animals
affected with this disease should be destroyed, and that the
carcasses thereof should not be used for human food.
Resolved, That it is the sense of this convention that tubercu-
losis in cattle is a dangerously contagious and infectious disease,
destructive to human life when the milk or meat of animals so
affected are used for human food.
Resolved, That towns, villages and cities should pass an ordi-
nance requiring all persons who exercise the calling of dairymen,
and who keep cows for the purpose of selling their milk, or who
shall ship milk into such town, village or city, before they are
allowed to sell or in any way dispose of such milk, to procure a
certificate from a competent veterinarian, to be designated by such
corporation, stating that the cows in such dairy, and from which
such milk is drawn, are free from said disease ; and that such
certificate should be renewed semi-annually under such penalties as
may be fixed by such corporations.
Resolved, That the legislatures of the different States should
pass laws requiring all persons who keep cows and milk the same,
and sell such milk to cheese and butter factories, should procure
certificates from some competent veterinarian, designated by the
live-stock sanitary commission of that State, or other proper
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 335
official of such State, that their cows are free from tuberculosis ;
and that such certificate should be required to be renewed semi-
annually, under penalties for failure.
Resolved^ That, where there is no suitable legislation on the
subject in any State, the Legislature of such State should at once
pass ample and sufficient laws for the suppression of the same,
and place the execution of such laws in the hands of officers
empowered with authority to suppress said disease ; and that
suitable a[)propriations should be made to carry out the provisions
of such laws.
Resolved^ That, in States where suitable laws for the suppression
of said disease have been heretofore enacted, it is the sense of
this body that the properly constituted authorities of such States
should proceed at once to inaugurate the work of suppressing and
extirpating said disease in such States.
The following communication upon the subject of tuber-
culosis was received by the Secretary, to be read at the
annual meeting of the Board : —
Legation of the United States,
Lisbon-, Jan. 7, 1890.
Dear Sir : — In the " Boston Journal " of the ■20th of December
last I find the following telegram : —
Springfield, III., December 19. — Ten States were represented
yesterday at the National Conference of Live Stock Commissioners,
called for the purpose of conferring upon the subject of unilorm recom-
mendation for the suppression of contagious diseases among domestic
animals. A veiy long communication was presented by Prof. James
Law of Coi-nell University, upon the eommunicability of tuberculosis to
man by domestic animals. It was somewhat startling in its tone, but
entirely theoretical. It assumed the matter to be jDositively settled. Dr.
John H. Rauch of the State Board of Health said that the theory is by
no means sufficiently settled to warrant legislation, although it is attract-
ing very general attention in England, France and Germany.
This discussion, which took place in one of the great cattle-
growing sections of the United States, the theoretical views pre-
sented by Mr. Law, and tlie conservative suggestion of Dr. Rauch,
have attracted my attention, as they have undoubtedly that of
every one interested in the cattle industry of our country, and its
connection with the health of the community. The statements
made with regard to tlie existence of tubei'culosis, and the danger
of its being imparted to the human family by the products of the
stall and the dairy, have in a few isolated instances produced such
au impression on the minds of some public-spirited farmers that
33G BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
they have destroyed their dairy herds, have on post-mortem exam-
ination found them to be diseased, and have offered their informa-
tion and their example to the agricultural community in which they
reside, and to the market in their neighborhood.
I understand that before this destruction took place a careful
investigation was made into the history and extent of the disease
in the herds, into the causes which produced the disease in those
localities, and into the length of time during which the disease had
existed. I suppose, moreover, neighboring herds were examined,
to ascertain how much disease still remained, and whether or not
the danger had been removed. It would be important and most
interesting to know the extent of tuberculosis in the great dairy
regions of the United States, and its comparative prevalence in
different climates and localities, and under the various methods
of housing and feeding.
In diagnosing the contagious diseases of animals, we depend
largely upon the history of the case before us and the exposure of
the animal, so difficult is it to arrive at a conclusion except by
history or by an autopsy. In examining non-contagious diseases,
we have no historical facts to guide us, and must of necessity
grope in the dark, with a dumb and unintelligent case before us,
in which we depend on symptoms alone, with no knowledge what-
ever of the sensations. It would be no easy task for the most
skillful veterinary surgeon to decide how much tuberculosis, if any,
exists in a herd of apparently healthy animals, or in a badly con-
ditioned herd which has been wintered on hard fare, even when ho
has discovered the disease by autopsy in the region where the
herd is kept. And, when an examination reveals the existence of
the disease in localities supposed to be healthy, the question might
arise, How many generations of men have been exposed to its
influence, unconscious of any ill effects?
In an economical point of view, the possibility of investigating,
ascertaining to a certainty, and eradicating, tuberculosis, in a wido
agricultural community, counting the cost and the suspension of
business, presents a startling problem, as does also the inquiry as
to the sources from which a supply of healthy cattle can be surely
obtained, to take the places of those that have been destroyed.
The questions connected with the human economy also are most
important, and should not be overlooked or settled by mere asser-
tion. The predisposing causes of consumption, which is the most
common form in which tuberculosis presents itself in the human
subject, should not be forgotten. The careful observer knows
well how much food, clothing, habits of life, inheritance, location
of dwelling, have to do with the development of a scrofulous dia-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 337
thesis ; and the inquiry naturally arises, whether this form of disease
prevails where no malign influences are found, and where its exis-
tence depends on transmission by meat to the human system, and
by milk to the systems of all animals that use it. Man has learned
to have great confidence in the effect of heat in preparing his food,
and in the power of his stomach to digest it ; and with these two
powerful weapons he is well armed against the incursion of invisible
bacilli and germs. He can afford, therefoi'e, to devote himself to
long and careful investigations, when the startling assertions are
based on theory.
The position taken by Dr. Ranch is reasonable and prudent, and
should commend itself to all who realize the vast importance of the
question involved, and the interests at stake, affecting, as they do,
human life and health, as well as industrial prosperity.
While the investigation is going on in our own country, I desire
to present to the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture a debate
which has recently taken place in Paris at a meeting of the Acad-
emy of Medicine, in which some of the most scientific members
participated.
A commission had at a previous meeting presented a report on
tuberculosis, in discussing which M. Lancereaux said : —
I agree with the commission of the Congress of Tuberculosis in a
large part of the opinions it has given. Meanwhile, I believe it is too
much controlled by experiment, and not enough by clinics. I believe,
for my part, that contagion plays a secondary part in the pathology of
tuberculosis ; that this disease is due to many causes, among which ai'e
the density of population and dwellings, and living in confined air, both
of which play the princijDal part. Among predisposing causes which
are of equally great imjDortance in the spi'eading of consumption,
alcoholism should be placed in the front rank. These considerations
lead me to believe that various elements contribute to the develoi^ment
and extension of tuberculosis, and that contagion is not one of these
elements. I should advise, thei'efore, a modification of the conclusion
of the commission.
Tuberculosis is a disease most frequent in gi*eat centres ; and, in con-
sequence, it is necessary that the public should know the means by
which it can protect itself from this contagion.
Two factors causing the disease and controlling the creation of tuber-
culosis are : predisposition in the organic structure, and the introduction
into that structure of a special parasitic agent. The predisposition,
which is due to many causes, arises above all from the excessive use
of alcohol and too confined air, as has been said.
The sputa, above all, when they are dry are a great cause of con-
tagion. The same may be true with regard to the milk of an animal
whose udder is diseased, and also in some cases the meat of an animal
having tuberculosis. I believe in all these cases it is important to
338 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
observe ijrecautions ; but tliey should be governed by the following con-
siderations : —
Prevent alcoholic excess by all means in our power. Make laws
which Avill secure to the workman in his shop and tlie pupil in his
school-room a supply of air necessary to the requirements of health.
Apply proper rules to the constiniction of dwellings, and modify those
already in existence so as to avoid crowding.
M. Villemin remarked : " There is one point on which nearly all of
us are agreed, and that is, the danger from the expectoration of con-
sumptives. We. agree also on the proper prophylactic measures. For
a long time experiment has shown the virulent activity of the sputa of
persons affected witli pulmonary tuberculosis. Twenty years ago I read
in this same society a series of experiments, tending to show the natural
causes of the transmission of the malady. The discovery of the bacilli
of tuberculosis has only confirmed the opinion I then advanced."
If M. See has read my work, he will see that I agree with him in the
innocuous character of sputa in a liquid state. He will see that I reject,
as he does, the idea that the air breathed is susceptible of contamination.
He will find there what I have said upon the immunity of physicians
and servants in the rooms and hospitals of tuberculous patients is true.
It follows that, if we speak of atmospheric infection, it is from the dust
of expectorated matter, and not fi-om the presence of tubei'culous virus
in the air. It is therefore important to take great pi'ecaution to remove
frequently the sputa of consumptives.
In removing consumptive ijatients from place to place in I'ailroad
cars, care should be taken that none of the expectoration of these
patients should be allowed to dry on the carpet, so that the particles may
be thrown into the air by the motion of the cars.
I come now to the transmission of tuberculosis by alimentary causes.
This sort of contagion is less frequent than that caused by expectorated
matter. Milk may be poisonous, it is true, when it is furnished by a
cow affected with mammanj tuberculosis. It may also happen when a
diseased cow, in licking herself, shall have impregnated her teats with
her contagious discharge.
Concerning the meat of animals, it appears that the juice of certain
tuberculous animals produces tuberculosis ; and, as the recommenda-
tions of the commission apply only to the meat of tuberculous animals,
there is no fear that we shall be deprived of the precious resource of
i*aw and bloody meat, so useful to the sick.
It now remains to discuss with M. See the conditions which favor or
create predisposition to tuberculosis. On this question opinion is greatly
divided. Personally, I am inclined to accept the opinion of ISI. Se6 with
regard to pneumonia and bronchitis. But, if the commission has con-
sidered inflammations of the bronchial tubes and lungs as favorable to
the implanting of tuberculous bacilli in those organs, they have based
their opinions on the assertions of Koch alone, and not on facts.
The academy, at the close of the debate, appointed a commission
composed of advocates of both sides of the question. I have
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 339
given this discussion in full, as reported, because it covers the
most important points of the theory of tuberculous consumption,
— its causes, and, so far as possible, its prevention. The causes
definitely agreed upon are : predisposition, unhealthy modes of
life, and excesses. The alimentary causes are left still on debat-
able ground. The theory of contagion by the dried particles of
sputa evidently leads the investigator to the conclusion that the
disease is conveyed to the milk of the cow by the contact of her
mouth with her udder when she is diseased. The transmission of
bacilli through the lacteal glands is left in doubt by these scientists ;
and the transmission of the disease by bacilli in the flesh of the
animal is apparently not exactly determined in their minds. It is
predisposition — a tendency to scrofula — which evidently accounts
to them for a large part of the existing disease, and which is
created by bad breeding and low feeding, especially when added
to the ill effects of exposure to cold, and low, damp localities.
These two causes may operate on the animal system as they do on
the human system ; and as, in the latter, families are found who
have a tendency to tuberculosis, so, in the former, breeds of cattle
are well known to be especially subject to the disease, on account
of their delicate and unhealthy constitutions.
The question of the contagion of tuberculosis is entitled to,
and is receiving, the most careful and wide-spread scientific
investigation, pathologically and economically. That it is still
open, the refusal to accept the milk and meat theories by the
Swiss investigators, the doubts expressed by Dr. Ranch, the
fortunate reduction of tuberculous disease in those communities
where care in regimen and modes of living are exercised, while the
use of beef and milk continues, are sufficient evidence. It is
gratifying to know that Massachusetts has entered upon this
investigation with a determination to reach a well-founded con-
clusion on a subject which involves the health of its citizens and
the prosperity of one of its most important industries.
George B. Loring.
340 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
FARMING IN ENGLAND.
BY DR. GEORGE B. LORING.
The farming of England is so often presented to the student
and observer of agriculture, that I have examined its condition
during the year 1889, with the view of laying it before the
Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, not only for instruction,
but for the purpose of comparison with that in which the
members of the Board have a personal interest. In doing
this, I have availed myself of the best authority to be found
in the kingdom.
One of the most important steps in the direction of
encouraging and improving the agriculture of England dur-
ing the last year, has been the enactment of a law providing
for a board of agriculture and a secretary, who has been
elevated to the rank of a cabinet minister. It is gratifying
to know that the example set more than forty years ago by
Massachusetts, under the influence of Colonel Wilder and the
teaching of Mr. Colman, has been adopted by the nation to
which we have long turned for instruction ; and that the
foundation of a department of agriculture by the federal gov-
ernment has attracted the attention of that people who pride
themselves on the perfection of their civil system. The
establishment of this department, with its most accomplished
and efficient head, seems to have given a great stimulus to
the legislative encouragement of agriculture in England.
The Board itself is composed of some of the most influential
agriculturists and statesmen in the United Kingdom ; and
the act organizing it has been followed by most useful laws
and propositions in parliament, with regard to land-holding
and transfers, and by liberal grants for the encouraging of
various branches of the industry.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 341
One of the most notable events connected with agricult-
ure during the last year was the fiftieth annual exhibition of
the Koyal Agricultural Society at Windsor, which was held
early in July. It was considered the jubilee year of this
renowned association, and the anniversary was opened on the
12th of March by a state banquet at St. James's Palace, given
by the Queen, who was the president of the great gathering,
and presided over by the Prince of Wales in her behalf.
The exhibition at Windsor followed in midsummer, the
premium list of which amounted to nearly sixty thousand
dollars, — .£12,000. This secured a total entry of over
4,000 head of live stock, 861 entries of poultry, and covered
a space of more than 15,000 feet for the exhibition of imple-
ments of husbandry, Many gold medals were presented by
the Queen to the pri^e animals, in her repeated visits to the
exhibition. It is said that 155,000 persons visited the show,
and that the receipts were £17,208. It is interesting also to
know that, even with this large income, the deficiency on
-account of expenses amounted to £5,000, — a calamity with
which some of us in this country can sj'mpathize. Many
years ago I was present at a banquet given by the Royal
Agricultural Society at York, at the close of an exhibition,
over which Prince Albert presided, and where the American
minister spoke, — a great, and, as I thought, an appropriate,
gathering, similar to those which I have witnessed in Massa-
chusetts on a few occasions since. Last year, however, this
ceremony was somewhat circumscribed, and consisted in a
royal command to Mr. Jacob Wilson, the honorary director
of the society's shows, to dine with the Queen at Windsor
Castle, and to receive at her royal hands the honor of
knighthood. And, while I am describing the connection of
Her Majesty with this great industrial exhibition, I may add
with propriety, that, " as the year came to a close, the Queen
maintained her character as a successful agriculturist " [I
quote the words of one of her faithful subjects] " by taking
the championships of both the Birmingham and Smithfield
fat stock shows, besides several of the breed championships,
and a large number of other prizes."
This exhibition at Windsor took place when I was in
London last summer, on my way to Lisbon ; and I witnessed
342 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
with great pleasure the universal interest felt in its success
by all classes of people, and the high value set upon it as an
encouragement to agriculture. They are not obliged to
defend cattle shows in England.
The season of 1889 in England was better than that in
the United States. The spring was indeed late, but May
and June were all that the farmers could ask, — mild and
bright, with occasional showers. The hay crop was in
consequence unusually large, with the securing of which the
rains of the last half of July and the first half of August
interfered, as they did in New England. The grain and
potato and root crops were abundant ; and, 100 being taken
to represent an average crop, the yield of wheat was 101 ;
barley, 96.2; oats, 99.8; potatoes, 100.5; beans, 92.0;
pease, 92.1 ; and roots, 99.9. The wheat crop was further
estimated to be one of 30 bushels to the acre ; a yield some-
what surprising to many wheat growers in the United States.
The ojfficial reports of the Board of Agriculture give the
acreage and yield of cereal crops in 1889 as follows :
"Wheat, 2,449,354 acres ; yield per acre, 29.91 bushels ; total
yield, 73,200,178 bushels. Barley, 2,121,530 acres ; yield
per acre, 31.81 bushels ; totalyield, 67,485,809 bushels. Oats,
2,888,704 acres ; yield per acre, 39.31 bushels ; total yield,
113,554,954 bushels. The prices of wheat in England have
not varied much from month to month during the year,
being in January 31s. 3d., and in December 30s. lid. per
quarter; while in New York the price in January was 34s.
6d. per quarter, and in December 28s. 6d.
The animal industry of England is always interesting.
From her flocks and herds the United States breeders have
drawn their most valuable blood for every purpose to which
animals are devoted ; and the English farmer has received
from his sales of horses, cattle, sheep and swine, a larger
remuneration than from any other branch of his business.
I learn that the sales of pure-bred stock during the past
year, both of cattle and horses, have been most satisfactory.
Early in the year the sales of shire horses were large, the
most important of which was the sale of Mr. Gilbey, at
which the Duke of "Westminster paid five hundred guineas
for Stanton Hero, and the Prince of Wales three hundred
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 343
guineas for the Pride of Fleet. At the shire horse show
nearly £10,000 was received at public auction, and during
the show the private sales amounted to another c£*4:,000.
For hackneys, Sulfolks, Cleveland Bays and Clydesdales,
the trade has been good. Cattle also sold well. At 43 sales
of Shorthorns, 2,323 head were sold for a total of <:£7G,570
14s. 6d., or an average of =£"32 19s. 3d. each ; being a large
advance over the prices of 1885, '86, '87 and '88. In Scot-
land the sales of pure-bred cattle resulted in an average of
=£"22 15s. per head being obtained for Shorthorns, and of
c£*21 18s. for those of the polled Aberdeen breed. Besides
these, a good business has been done in the other leading
breeds, the Herefords more especially. The great feature
of the year, however, has been the growing popularity of
the Irish cattle, the Kerry s and the Dexter-Kerry s, many
of which have been brous^ht into England. Herds of these
small cattle have been established at Windsor and Sandrino;-
ham ; and so great has been the demand for them that the
Royal Dublin Society have determined to establish a herd
book of the breed. Sales of sheep have also been very satis-
tory, and prices for all the breeds have been better than for
many previous years. In the Windsor show no less than
o£^450 were given for three Lincoln sheep, the first, second
and third prize winners in the shearling ram class having
been purchased to go to Victoria at that price. The demand
both from home and foreign buyers was largely increased
over former years ; the breeders of some varieties, such as
the Hampshire Downs, being encouraged to make a great
increase in their flocks, and to establish a flock register.
As far as live stock is concerned, the changes are not great.
The number of horses used in agriculture, for breeding, and
unbroken animals, in 1889 was 1,421,389, as against
1,420,350 in 1888. Of cattle there were 6,139,155 head,
against 6,129,375 in 1888 ; of sheep and lambs, 25,632,000,
against 25,267,149 ; and of pigs, 2,510,803, against 2,404,-
344. The number of live stock in the kingdom is largely
on the increase.
The devotion of the English farmers to their dairy is quite
remarkable. They watch the skies and the pastures on
account of this industry, and from it they count their surest
344 BOARD OF AGRICULTUKE. [Jan.
and most constant income in favorable districts. In 1889
they seem to have had a good season for the manufacture of
cheese. The weather has generally been good for manufact-
uring and ripening. The trade has improved both for fine
and common sorts. In the Cheshire district the make has
been in excess of previous years, and the quality has been
very good. So in Shropshire and in the other cheese-making
districts. Professor Sheldon, with true English accuracy
and intelligence, says : —
The season of 1889, for cheese-making purposes, considering
the uncommouly early and genial spring, the grassy summer and
the bright and dry autumn, will have to be set down as an
unusually favorable one. Cattle have had abundance of food all
through, and have milked well. The yield of cheese will be a
good one, so far as bulk is concerned ; but the yield in profit to
the farmer will not be what it ought to be, though probably more
nearly so than for several years past. Prices range from 40s. to
65s. per hundred weight of 120 pounds.
In Scotland the make of cheese has declined, being ten
per cent less than in 1888 ; while the average price is 2s.
per hundred weight greater. In addition to the cheese manu-
factory, the supply of milk has become a great industry, more
especially in the midland districts, as it has in the United
States. The price fixed upon by the dealers is lOd. per
imperial gallon for six months in winter, and 7d. to 8d. for
the other six months. Even these small prices have interfered
with the supply of milk for cheese-making ; and the increased
raising of stock has also reduced the supply for both the
market and cheese. Itinerant dairy schools have been
established in some of the counties.
The crop area has changed somewhat during the last year.
Taking all the corn crops, it will be found that they are
grown on 8,075,100 acres, or some 112,600 acres less than
in 1888. Green crops also show a decline, 3,209,000 acres
having been so cropped, or 172,200 less than the previous
3'ear. There is a large increase of permanent pasture.
Insects injurious to vegetation are the farmers' pest in
England, as well as in this count r}'. The year 1889 was not
unusually disastrous in this respect, except in the case of
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 345
orchard pests in the early summer. The Hessian fly did
his usual damage to the wheat crop, and the barley crop
was injured by a disease known as gout. No special insect
injury occurred to root and corn crops. But, to counter-
balance this, some new pests were observed, among which
the most important insect is probably the Xijlehorus disjicir,
a small beetle, which has the instinct of tunneling into
stems of young plum trees. These tunnels have one
horizontal and several vertical galleries, and are so made
that they kill the tree completely, and with extraordinary
rapidity. The chief attack of the year was on orchard
crops, the winter moth and its allies having been very
destructive. But steady advance has been made in knowl-
edge of measures which are practically available for field
use in some of the worst insect attacks. Instruction in
agricultural entomology is gaining ground in England, as
well as in America ; and the English farmer is ready to
acknowledge, when the produce of acres of different coun-
tries is so quickly conveyed (as well as the insect pests it
contains) to all parts of the world, that great benefit must
result from the establishment of the "Association of Official
Entomologists," recently started in the United States. And
it is the opinion, among scientific agriculturists in England,
that this will enable those who are the centres of information
in their own countries to both receive and give the best
knowledge on the subject ; and also that we are gradually
altering the state of the geographical distribution of injurious
insects is certain ; and, as new pests are observed in any
country, it will be a great power for the prevention of
damage to have unity of action among entomologists of
different countries.
Long-continued and constant warfare on the deliberate
adulteration of seeds has resulted in England in the practical
abandonment of that pernicious fraud ; and the controversy
with ri gard to the value of rye grass as a valuable addition
to hay fields and pastures has resulted strongly in its favor.
The sketch I have given of the agricultural efforts of Eng-
land during one year gives an idea of the care and method
observed in the pursuit of this industry, and the important
position it holds in State and society. The interests of the
34(5 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
landed proprietors and tenant-farmers of England occupy a
large portion of the industrial thought and legislative work
of the kingdom. The solution of questions in which the
yeomanry are concerned is considered a most important
problem by the economist and the statesman. In its days of
prosperity agriculture is considered the pride of the people,
and in its adversity it is a foremost object of national solici-
tude. This is apparent in the hasty sketch I have been able
to give of a year's work in the stall and the field, in council
and in the encouragement of the producer. To us in America
certain questions occur, which are important here and which
perhaps might be important there. Why is it that the pas-
ture lands increase in acreage in the neio:hborhood of large
cities and in thickly peopled districts? I have seen small
sections so devoted to market o'ardenino' as to indicate the
adaptation of the soil and climate to that industry, and to
demonstrate the profits of such crops. Why is not this form
of agriculture included among the great crops which are
counted in the ao-ricultural statistics of the kino-dom ? The
American who believes in small farms is curious to know
why the Englishman, who has learned by sad experience how
unprofitable large farms are, does not endeavor to adopt
this rule. The Englishman is prompt and earnest in all
measures required for the safety of his cattle and his crops ;
extirpates pi euro-pneumonia as he would repel an invasion ;
shuts out foot and mouth disease as he would arm himself
against a burglar ; but he does not fully lift from his agricult-
ural population the load which weighs them down ; does not
adopt a system which would undoubtedly increase vastly his
wealth and prosperity.
Let me now briefiy call the attention of the Board to the
agriculture in which we are immediately interested, — not by
way of comparison, but as a gratifying record. Massachu-
setts is not a large State, nor is it remarkable for the fertility
of its soil ; but the returns of its agricultural industry indicate
great energy and skill on the part of its agricultural popula-
tion. The cereal crop of 1888 was valued at $1,855,145.
The dairy products were so skillfully handled that they were
valued at $13,080, 53(). The hay crop was worth $9,676,893 ;
to which are to be added $2,680,804 on account of fruits and
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 347
berries, and $5,227,194 on account of garden vegetables.
The aggregate amount is $55,61)4,031. Of the educational
efforts made here by tlie Agricultural College, by institutes
and associations, granges, exhibitions, addresses and reports,
it is hardly necessary to speak, so well and universally are
they known. The farming economy of this State, in which
$216,230,550 are invested in lands, buildings, implements,
animals, orchards and forests, is interesting to every student
of affairs. And all the methods here are so entirely different
from the methods of Great Britain, that a statement of the
one leads naturally to a statement of the other, with the
expectation that something may be learned for the benefit of
both.
A word in conclusion, with regard to the industrial capacity
of our country, of which I gave a general view to the Board
last year. The vast area of our land is sufficient to fill our
minds with astonishment. Of timber lands we have in the"
entire country 85,000,000 acres; of coal lands, 5,529,970
acres ; of mineral lands, 800,000 acres ; of arable lands in the
Western States alone 17,800,000 acres, and in the Southern
States 25,585,641 acres ; of irrigable lands, 30,000,000 acres ;
of grazing desert, 502,462,827 acres. It is estimated that the
entire grazing area is nearly a thousand million acres. AVith
the management of this great area, and with the home con-
sumption of its products, we are all familiar. But we con-
template with great satisfaction the relation they hold to the
commerce and finance of the country. The exportation of
articles of food is only about five per cent of the amount
produced. In 1883 the exports of food products were
$362,000,000 sea-port values, about $242,000,000 farm or
local values; and this amount out of about $3,000,000,000
produced. When we add to this, that, out of a total of nearly
$6,000,000,000 (according to J. R. Dodge, statistician of
the United States department of agriculture) of manufactures
produced, we export but one dollar for every fifty taken by
our home market, the conclusion is manifest. The United
States, as producer and consumer, has not yet been
equalled.
FINANCIAL RETURNS
AND
ANALYSIS OP PREMIUMS AND GEATUITIES
OF THE
INCORPORATED SOCIETIES,
AGRICULTURAL EXHIBITIONS FOR 1890, AND AGRICULTURAL
AND SIMILAR ORGANIZATIONS IN THE STATE,
WITH OFFICERS, Etc
349
S50
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Jan.
Financial Returns of the Incorporated
SOCIETIES.
now held so
d as a Capital
(P. S., Chap.
:ts. 2 and 10.)
arket Value of
al Property be-
; to the Snci-
hcr than Notes,
or Bonds.
of Bounty
d from the
m wealth the
ear.
•S 0
If
■a
§1
2i
S
1
1
0
■" ^ s»«
ct0
= S.gx
^ |-=o.S
S'ii
= >3
S'5 a m
ill
5 &
sS
^£"i
Tota
Per
Ion;
ety,
Sto
HI
0 S
p
Amesbury and Salis-
bury, . . . .
$1,027 62
$2,573 65
$400 00
$2,573 65
$396 30
$79 42
$27 00
$29 00
Barnstable County,
-
-
-
700 00
600 00
34 00
154 00
253 95
Bay State, .
-
-
-
0
400 00
0
165 00
60 00
Berkshire,
8,000 00
8,000 00
86 43
-
600 00
_
292 00
100 00
Blucks'one Valley,
540 66
2,500 00
100 00
0
600 00
0
46 00
15 00
Bristol County,
25,500 00
25,500 00
500 00
-
600 00
-
35 00
200 61
Deertield Valley, .
6,000 00
8,583 55
200 00
1,383 55
600 00
-
141 50
8 75
Eastern Hampden,
16S0 00
27,000 00
. 0
0
600 00
0
33 00
117 87
Essex, . . . .
0
0
1,000 00
13,303 05
600 00
1,008 38
237 00
58 50
Franklin County, .
5,956 18
7,000 00
5 00
1,402 40
600 00
62 79
87 50
6 00
Hampden,
-
-
-
1,078 85
0
41 86
55 00
173 95
Hampshire, .
4,000 00
4,000 00
150 00
0
600 00
0
70 00
370 20
Hampshire, Franklin
and Hampden, .
6,204 61
8,800 00
175 00
0
600 00
0
59 00
0
Hisjhiand,
1,925 00
3,000 00
100 00
0
600 00
0
35 00
0
Hillside,
2,100 00
4,772 04
168 94
-
600 00
-
130 00
46 85
Hinghara,
31,600 00
22,000 00
2,000 00
0
600 00
0
20 00
156 75
Hnosac Valley,
3
13,3.50 00
450 00
-
600 00
-
410 00
-
Housatonic, .
-
11,395 27
679 12
1,395 27
600 00
45 61
217 00
-
Marshtield, .
6,806 92
11,806 92
500 00
-
600 00
40 00
161 65
Martha's Vineyard,
23,000 00
3,462 00
100 00
1,437 00
600 00
71 89
96 00
-
Massachusetts,
-
-
-
-
0
-
-
-
Massachusetts Horti
culuiral,
-
293,000 00
=30,000 00
8,000 00
600 00
420 00
740 00
1,000 00
Middlesex,
-
-
-
-
600 00
-
96 00
723 00
Middlesex North, .
_
_
200 00
-
600 00
-
37 00
-
Middlesex South, .
3,000 00
18,000 00
50 00
0
600 00
-
38 00
152 70
Nantucket, .
1,756 17
-
0
0
600 00
0
32 00
2 00
Oxford
2,165 27
6,400 00
200 00
-
600 00
-
160 00
62 25
Plymouth County,
-
45,000 00
2,000 00
-
600 00
-
43 00
126 77
Spencer,
4,034 08
7,800 00
800 00
0
600 00
0
181 50
332 00
Union
2,000 00
9,469 04
1,-532 89
600 00
600 00
8 00
89 00
-
Worcester, .
_
130,000 00
1,356 88
0
600 00
0
645 00
0
Worcester North, .
_
-
350 00
-
600 00
-
38 00
-
Worcester North-west,
1,093 70
10,400 00
400 00
0
61K) 00
0
70 00
0
Worcester South, .
1,467 00
14.600 00
-
-
600 O'J
-
111 00
-
WorcesterCountyWest
12,600 00
12,600 00
1,000 00
0.
600 00
0
40 00
41 95
1 As nearly as can be estimated from obscure records. 2 About. ^ Records of society burned in 1875.
CAPITAL STOCK.—
As Beturned for the
Amesbury and Salisbury. — Mortgages and savings banl:.
Baunstahle County. — ^
Bay State. —
BEiiKSHiRE. — Real estate.
Blackstone Valley. — Real estate.
Bristol County. — Real estate and personal property.
Deerfield Valley. — Real rstate, personal properly and bank funds.
Eastern Hampden. — Real estate, buildings, e;c.
ES9E.K —
Franklin County. — Real estate and bank stock.
Hampden.—
Hampshire.— Real estate.
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden. — Real estate and personal property.
Highland. — Buildings, land, fences and track.
Hillside. — Laiid, buildings and tixtures.
HI^■GIIAM. — I-and, buildings, furniture, etc.
HoosAC Valley. — Real estate and personal property.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4.
351
Societies for the Year ending Dec. 1, 1889.
s
p
C to
l^
J-" "r!
gl
■S2|_:
iS
o
"S
.S
^^
Ch
tl
£5
- .=;
5"
2
~
%^
o .
O -A
o s
mi
a
M
B
^3
-s5
5 '£. .
O
2 ^
5s
i '-
<s.
o = .
o £
w-;^ tcw
0 = 5;
o
c —
*« .5
'^h
J- oa-S
%-=
E<i
=^^
o a
= s§.
*j 3 ^s
Ss
o ■£
1°
<
&^
^
H
H
u*'~ °*
JH '
<^
^
$817 S5
$1,259 83
$900 GO
$428 45
$428 45
$680 55
$1,109 00
$36 80 $3,069 22
0
3,072 78
3,480 73
1,655 25
-
1,292 05
2,140 20
3,432 25
48 48
-
$300 00
30,019 81
31,274 81
12,526 50
8,333 00
8,045 00
23,108 99
31,153 99
120 82
0
0
P,899 72
10,891 72
3,812 70
3,235 45
3,008 20
1,797 09
10,805 29
86 43
15,086 43
9,297 49
1,169 12
1,830 12
700 00
735 10
735 10
1,170 82
1,905 92
365 09
3,465 09
400 00
9,670 05
10,505 05
5,000 00
3,261 61
3,060 39
7,924 67
10,985 06
17 86
25,500 00
18,000 00
924 39
1,664 39
1,000 00
894 85
894 85
785 44
1,664 39
-
8,583 55
50 00
1,1 U 99
1,865 86
1,865 25
863 65
863 65
936 99
1,800 54
65 32
8,625 00
1,375 00
183 86
2,087 74
3,906 00
1,609 75
1,540 50
883 38
2,493 13
0
19,303 05
372 91
1,'^01 38
2,557 67
1,284 75
1,090 00
997 25
1,430 01
2,774 26
402 40
7,407 40
172 75
810 59
1.081 40
2,185 20
1,100 95
916 10
666 01
1,582 11
189 66
1,268 51
538 44
1,578 64
884 00
602 45
602 45
918 26
1,520 71
57 93
2,707 93
875 00
2,234 24
2,893 24
1,328 00
990 00
867 25
1,789 10
2,731 57
169 18
9,000 00
5,100 00
966 57
1,601 57
715 30
603 45
603 45
997 77
1,601 22
35
3,100 00
195 00
814 46
1,591 31
664 75
664 75
661 75
811 45
1,476 20
115 11
4,772 04
0
5,672 19
5,848 94
2,129 30
616 87
616 87
1,830 03
5,474 86
187 04
22,187 04
2,400 00
2,751 85
3,761 85
2,987 50
2,352 50
2,278 00
3,197 16
4,352 16
602 00
13,992 00
1,800 00
5,178 37
5,995 37
3,652 00
3.218 00
3,218 00
2,731 71
5,949 71
233 85
11.679 12
1,147 13
2,136 34
2.920 24
1,452 65
1,182 14
1,155 69
2,079 04
3,261 18
-
12,306 92
4,5U0 00
1,030 19
1,126 19
800 00
630 07
627 07
297 77
1,135 13
221 44
3,462 00
0
38,929 80
41,689 80
6,000 00
5,785 24
5,656 24
36,213 96
41,870 20
4,909 44
297,909 44
37.000 00
55 00
1,474 00
1,822 00
4
658 00
746 94
1,404 94
91 66
15,000 00
22.480 00
-
1,886 87
1,485 00
930 11
874 25
2,375 30
_
775 00
30,200 00
4.000 00
1,644 38
2,435 08
1,038 05
763 10
741 10
1,630 05
2,290 20
165 27
13,215 27
7,300 00
595 26
1,229 26
1,385 50
595 17
595 17
458 78
1,053 95
175 31
3,175 31
0
4,963 23
5,775 48
1,350 00
983 75
964 34
4,705 77
5,670 11
105 37
6,400 00
2,000 00
7,710 27
7,880 04
3,576 50
2,685 98
2,685 98
5,194 06
7,845 35
34 69
45,000 00
6,994 31
3,768 43
4,281 93
1,869 25
1,452 00
1,373 76
1,629 90
4,503 66
59 49
7.800 00
3,000 00
1,669 00
2,366 00
1,728 50
1.167 05
1,126 54
574 09
1,700 63
65 37
9,469 04
170 00
25,540 86
26,785 86
10,435 25
8,589 81
8,589 81
14,200 67
28,790 48
1,356 88
131,356 88
40,000 00
4,231 11
4,869 11
5
757 90
664 15
3,088 73
3,752 88
1,926 22
5,776 22
0
2,452 75
3,122 75
2,078 00
1,426 25
1,351 80
1,692 65
3.044 45
78 30
10,478 30
1,800 00
3,392 23
4,113 23
2,600 00
1,976 90
62,026 84
1,920 93
4.089 92
302 84
14,600 00
2,253 00
1,310 09
1.992 04
1.603 60
1,240 15
1,198 20
630 01
1,828 21
227 88
12,827 88
0
* No fair held.
B No fixed sum.
6 Part of this was for fair of
HOW NOW INVESTED.
Year ending Dec. 1, 18S9.
HousATONic. — Rpal f state, railroad stock and bank deposits.
MiRSHFiELD — Buildings and land.
Martha's Vineyard. — Real estate, notes, deposits, cash on hand, etc.
Massachusetts Horticdltural. — Real estate, library, furniture and bonds.
Middlesex.—
Middlesex North. — Land and buildings.
Middlesex youTH. — Real estate.
Nantucket. — Ground and buildings.
Oxford. — Park, buildings, track and woodland.
Plymouth County. — Real estate, furniture and fixtures.
• Spencer. — Real and personal property.
Union. — Real estate, cash on hand and at interest.
Worcester. — Real estate.
Worcester North. — Interests in real estate.
Worcester North-west. — Real estate, buildfngs and personal property.
Worcester South. — Lan 1, track, hall, barns, grand stand, cattle sheds.
Worcester County West. — Real i state and personal property.
$52
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Jan.
Analysis of Preotums and Gratuities
t.
"3 oT
U
I. .
■3 a
t.
o"^ •
■ ---
S3 ^
1!
c 0
35;
§2
ri
•or s
03 V- .3
efc.
t/j
*■«
«»
Ho
ll'
^0
la
|a
i£°
§a
•a ai_
>. 0 C
> 0
SOCIETIES.
15
CS.3
sS
S.S
2£2
°oa
*■* 0
-*-> 0
-*-• 0
-*-• 0
0 s
s u
0 3
P
ill
<
Amou
under
and
Crops,
Amesbury and Salisbury,
$85 00
$20 00
$20 00
$320 00
$117 00
$117 00
$90 00
$5 00
Barnstable County, .
160 00
24 00
-
468 25
377 00
377 00
147 00
149 75
Bay State, .
10 00
-
-
9,437 00
6,334 00
-
-
-
Berkshire,
102 00
65 00
61 00
1,371 50
1,050 00
972 00
243 00
188 00
Blackst one Valley, .
no 00
104 00
104 00
539 00
431 00
431 00
55 00
39 75
Bristol County,
260 00
91 00
91 00
1,700 00
811 50
811 50
275 00
49 00
Deerfield Valley, .
-
-
-
700 00
617 75
-
-
-
Eastern Hampden, .
-
-
-
742 00
417 00
417 00
64 00
20 00
Essex
614 00
115 00
15 00
1,873 00
729 00
685 00
295 00
75 00
Franklin County, .
10 00
-
-
864 75
727 50
688 25
-
-
Hampden, . . . .
326 00
24 00
22 00
765 00
359 25
266 38
139 00
IG 00
Hampshire,
16 00
-
-
507 00
411 00
411 00
38 00
22 00
Hampshire, Franklin and
Hampden,
-
-
-
784 00
653 50
615 50
46 00
18 25
Highland
-
-
-
459 00
365 25
365 25
45 00
37 00
Hillside
40 00
40 00
40 00
438 00
394 00
394 00
40 00
37 50
Hingh im, . . . .
220 75
15 00
15 00
906 95
428 60
428 60
93 00
-
Hoosac Valley, .
80 00
72 00
72 00
872 00
630 50
630 50
196 00
190 00
Ilousatonic,
114 00
114 00
114 00
1,585 00
1,338 00
1,338 00
415 00
414 00
Marshfield,
111 00
-
-
304 50
251 95
251 95
102 00
3 25
Martha's Vineyard, .
24 00
6 00
6 00
347 75
286 25
274 51
162 50
43 00
Massachusetts,!
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Massachusetts Horticult-
ural
300 00
210 00
2150 00
-
-
-
-
-
Middlesex.^
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Middlesex North, ,
-
-
760 00
470 50
-
-
-
Middlesex South, .
76 00
17 00
17 00
493 00
243 50
243 50
105 00
15 00
Nantucket,
123 00
23 00
23 00
744 62
230 75
230 75
120 00
10 25
Oxford
46 00
36 00
36 00
820 75
476 00
460 70
42 75
37 75
Plymouth County, .
267 00
55 00
55 00
1,023 00
801 50
801 50
72 00
45 00
Spencer, . . . .
74 00
49 00
49 00
857 00
669 50
661 50
30 00
27 00
Union, . . . .
16 00
7 00
7 00
919 75
576 50
567 00
66 50
45 50
Worcester,
-
129 00
-
5,242 00
3,920 00
3,920 00
156 00
133 65
Worcester North, .
-
32 00
32 00
368 25
368 25
316 25
-
-
Worcester North-west, .
61 00
23 00
23 00
1.063 50
583 50
562 65
-
_
Worcester South, .
130 00
52 00
52 00
1,286 00
933 75
933 75
50 00
43 00
Worcester County West,
100 00
35 00
35 00
743 00
542 75
524 00
51 00
6 00
1 Holds no annual fair.
2 For 1888.
3 Held no fair.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4.
353
FOR THE Year ending Jan. 1, 1890.
■250.
3 S
3 a>— •
'«■_ s
o.~a
ill
<
53-3
= * .
0 „
111
833
Sv. g
OS'S 2
^^■~
3 1-5
111
?S .
3 m
0 OS'S
■ai. 0
^ 0 _
3'2?
U 1
*j 0
■0 >,
C3
it
33h
3 >.
ea-'
= a
Is
0 00
- e
■c'5
3 a>
= a
Ui
g- 3
0 ? s
$5 00
$175 00
$121 95
$121 95
_
$3 25
_
$95 00
$74 50
$74 50
149 75
217 00
91 50
-
$18 00
18 00
$18 00
103 00
96 30
-
-
2,013 00
1,393 00
1,285 00
440 00
400 00
400 00
256 50
208 00
208 00
157 00
297 00
263 50
263 00
65 00
45 00
45 00
363 50
346 75
345 25
39 75
83 00
75 25-
75 25
7 50
6 00
6 00
44 50
33 25
33 25
49 00
300 00
207 00
207 00
50 00
43 00
43 00
350 00
287 50
287 50
-
85 50
• 71 45
71 45
13 00
13 00
13 00
94 00
86 25
86 25
20 00
85 50
81 50
81 50
20 00
11 00
11 00
63 75
60 90
60 90
100 00
676 50
409 50
494 75
36 00
18 00
18 00
198 50
168 75
166 00
-
215 00
171 00
168 50
20 00
13 00
13 00
68 00
61 50
60 00
16 00
245 50
151 75
128 26
18 00
6 00
3 00
83 00
73 50
51 00
22 00
149 00
87 50
87 50
11 00
11 "OO
11 00
71 00
58 45
58 45
18 25
221 50
158 75
128 50
44 00
20 00
20 00
15 00
104 75
74 50
37 00
34 00
40 45
40 45
10 50
7 00
7 00
84 05
72 80
72 80
37 50
80 00
77 50
77 50
21 00
19 00
19 00
68 00
44 75
44 75
-
328 30
152 65
152 65
20 00
7 25
7 25
96 25
75 09
75 09
190 00
184 50
148 75
148 75
53 00
34 50
34 50
219 00
192 00
192 00
414 00
262 00
232 50
232 50
51 00
50 00
50 00
446 00
418 50
418 50
3 25
171 50
140 25
111 50
23 00
21 00
21 00
202 00
168 14
168 14
40 75
48 00
80 80
80 80
12 50
13 50
13 50
98 00
110 15
110 15
-
6,06t 50
5,497 OS
25,565 26
-
-
-
-
-
-
_
_
336 50
2S6 00
10 00
3 00
_
172 50
130 61
_
15 00
169 10
90 80
88 80
6 00
3 00
3 00
64 28
56 SO
46 80
10 25
140 25
107 25
107 25
20 00
9 00
9 00
103 15
27 00
27 00
36 39
9 50
8 00
8 00
15 00
11 00
11 00
31 00
30 00
30 00
45 00
261 50
179 80
179 80
51 00
26 00
26 00
178 00
144 68
144 68
23 50
156 75
136 50
91 25
15 00
12 00
12 00
54 25
51 25
42 00
43 00
49 50
42 50
41 19
22 00
12 75
12 50
121 00
103 55
90 10
133 65
747 00
660 12
660 12
130 00
130 00
130 00
162 75
103 35
103 35
-
158 00
158 00
151 30
10 00
10 00
10 00
75 65
75 65
72 15
-
112 50
88 25
83 75
22 00
12 00
12 00
62 00
48 50
45 65
43 00
143 00
96 00
96 00
32 00
32 00
32 00
115 00
91 95
78 80
6 00
69 60
54 20
52 70
25 00
22 00
18 00
72 00
60 70
50 00
354
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Jan.
Analysis of Premiums akd Gratuities — Membership,
SOCIETIES.
U 1
1-
°^3
U
&
3
O
H
p,
awarded for
tlier Objects
Agricultural,
ady classified.
a
3
O
"2
'3
a
■3
a
&
s
o
■a
1
■S'3 CO
Amount
All 0
strictly
not aire
bo
1-
ga
a«
Amesbury and Salisbury, .
$5 00
$5 00
_
_
-
-
Barnstable County,
10 00
-
-
-
$444 00
$444 00
Bay State
3
3
0
0
0
0
Berkshire, . . , .
57 00
55 00
-
-
775 00
775 00
Blackstone Valley,
-
-
-
-
-
-
Bristol County,
104 00
4 00
-
-
1,375 00
1,375 00
Deerfield Valley, .
B
6
$25 00
$25 00
50»00
50 00
Eastern Hampden,
4 00
-
-
-
245 00
245 00
Essex
50 00
39 00
2S 00
28 00
-
-
Franklin County, .
-
-
-
-
530 00
530 00
Hampden, . . . .
15 00
7 50
2 00
1 00
255 00
255 00
Hampshire, . . . .
7 00
• 7 00
-
-
175 00
175 00
Hampshire, Franklin and
Hampden, . . . .
25 00
18 00
_
_
560 00
553 00
Highland, . . . .
2 75
2 75
-
-
32 00
32 00
Hillside
10 00
-
-
-
-
-
Hingham, . . . .
s
-
-
-
-
-
Hoosac Valley,
15 00
15 00
-
-
1,020 00
1,020 00
Housatonic, . . . .
-
-
-
-
595 00
595 00
Marshfleld, . . . .
Martha's Vineyard,
-
-
-
-
565 00
565 00
~
~
~
~
~
~
Massachusetts,
-
-
-
-
-
-
Massachusetts Horticultural,
-
-
-
-
-
-
Middlesex, . . . .
-
-
-
-
-
-
Middlesex North, .
3 00
-
-
-
-
112 50
Middlesex South, .
-
-
-
-
325 00
325 00
Nantucket, . . . .
-
-
-
-
-
-
Oxford,
5 00
5 00
-
-
350 00
350 00
Plymouth County,
6 00
6 00
-
-
1,355 00
1,355 00
Spencer
13 00
8 00
-
-
485 00
485 00
Union,
-
-
74 00
74 00
260 00
260 00
Worcester, . . . .
6
5
65 00
-
2,765 00
2,765 00
"Worcester North, .
29 00
20 00
-
-
525 00
525 00
Worcester North-west,
17 25
-
-
-
600 00
600 00
Worcester South, •
9 50
9 50
5 00
5 00
720 00
720 00
Worcester County West, .
19 50
12 50
-
"
500 00
500 00
I And gratuities.
* About.
' Certificates of merit.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4.
355
Institutes, Year ending Jan. 1, 1890 — Concluded.
Amount awarded for
Objects Other than
Agricultural, not
already classifled.
3
O
s
'5
p.
u
1^
Number of Persons
who received Premi-
ums.
Number of Persons
who received Urati^
ities.
Number of Towns to
\\ hicli the Premiums
and Gratuities were
disbursed.
a
OS'S
S 3
o»
a"
^1
0 0
||
ai
0
.2"
.a
a
2I
3
S
"0
U
k
$60 50
$60 50
1186
_
8
118
5
123
3
81 50
-
171
139
11
2450
2175
2625
3
3
3
«346
-
-
-
-
432
5
410 20
407 45
568
25
-
-
-
■ 1,385
3
60 50
60 50
108
69
15
230
182
412
3
75 00
75 00
181
297
14
2700
2300
1,000
3
32 50
32 50
310
5
26
1,196
220
1,416
3
22 75
22 75
1140
-
21
2320
2229
2549
3
60 00
-
1362
-
29
1,480
12
1,492
4
88 00
7S 73
333
-
24
22,400
2400
22,800
4
50 75
28 00
194
4
19
856
186
1,042
4
92 00
5 50
118
1
14
-
-
2200
3
21 00
12 00
224
-
19
2800
2200
21,000
3
46 20
46 20
192
6
25
337
1)4
471
3
26 75
26 75
348
-
23
475
15
490
5
30 00
30 00
90
233
19
388
201
589
3
103 50
103 50
271
-
15
819
15
834
3
20 00
20 00
480
-
17
1,667
38
1,705
3
-
-
127
2S5
27
561
302
863
3
63 40
63 40
62
169
4
142
107
249
3
-
-
0146
0104
-
74S
46
794
12
_
_
1419
_
16
2700
2300
21,000
3
12 00
12 00
132
-
8
392
196
588
3
36 25
36 25
183
182
1
195
231
429
3
30 00
27 25
141
4
14
309
275
584
3
73 00
73 00
320
10
22
1,062
684
1,746
3
13 00
10 00
211
20
14
394
367
761
3
35 25
31 75
220
139
25
490
569
1,059
4
816 51
816 51
393
-
107
1,713
46
1,759
3
92 50
62 50
-
-
-
-
-
-
6
53 75
24 75
162
-
23
560
278
838
3
14 20
14 20
126
48
27
876
830
1,706
4
18 00
-
171
34
27
552
43
595
3
* And gratuities and certificates of merit.
5 Diplomas.
0 For 1888.
AGRICULTURAL EXHIBITIONS, 1890.
Amesbury and Salisbury at Amesbury, September 30 and October 1.
Bay State (no fair this year).
Barnstable County at Barnstable, September 9 and 10.
Berkshire at Pittsfield, September 9 and 10.
Blackstone Valley at Uxbrklye, September 23 and 24.
Bristol County at Taunton, October 7, 8 and 9.
Deerfield Valley at Charlemont, September 11 and 12.
Eastern Hampden at Palmer, September 16 and 17.
Essex at Beverly, September 23 and 24.
Franklin County at Greenfield, September 25 and 26.
Hampden at Westfield, September 17 and 18.
Hampshire at Amherst, September 18 and 19.
Hampshire, Franklin and H.oipden at Northampton, October 1 and 2.
Highland at Middlefleld, September 3 and 4.
Hillside at Cummington, September 23 and 24.
Hingham at Hingham, September 23 and 24.
HoosAC Valley at North Adams, September 16, 17 and 18.
HousATONic at Great Barrington, September 24, 25 and 26.
Massachusetts (holds no annual fair).
Massachusetts Horticultural, at Boston, September 16 and 17.
Marshfield at Marshfield, September 10, 11 and 12.
Martha's Vineyard at West Tisbury, September 2 and 3.
Middlesex at Concord, September 24 and 25.
Middlesex North at Lowell, September 23 and 24.
Middlesex South at Framingham, September 9 and 10.
Nantucket at Nantucket, September 3 and 4.
Oxford at Oxford, September 16 and 17.
Plymouth County at Bridgewater, September 17 and 18.
Spencer at Spencer, October 2 and 3.
Union at Blandford, September 10 and 11.
"Worcester at Worcester, September 18 and 19.
Worcester East at Lancaster, September 10 and 11.
Worcester North at Fitchburg, September 23 and 24.
Worcester North-west at Athol, September 30 and October 1.
Worcester South at Sturbridge, September 11 and 12.
Worcester County West at Barre, September 25 and 26.
356
STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTURE.
Merabers ex oflBcio.
His Excellency J. Q. A. BRACKETT.
His Honor Wil. H. HAILE.
Hon. HEXRr B. PEIRCE, Secretary of the Commonwealth.
H. H. GOODELL, M. a., President Massachusetts Agricultural College.
Members Appointed by the Governor and Council. Term
Expires.
GEORGE B. LORING. M.D., of Salem 1S91
JAMES W. STOCKWELL of Sutton 1892
JAMES S. GRINNELL of Greenfield 1893
Members Chosen by the Incorporated Societies.
Amesbury and Salisbury, . . . WM. H. B. CURRIER of Amesbury,
Barnstable County NATHAN EDSON of Barnstable, .
Bay State F.H. APPLETON of Peabody(P.O. Lynnfield)
Berkshire, ALONZO BRADLEY of Lee, .
Blackstone Valley,
Bristol County, .
Beerjield Valley,
Eastern Ilampden,
Essex, .
. VELOROUS TAFT of West Upton, .
. N. W. SHAW of North Raynhara, .
. J. D. AVERY of Buckland,
. WM. HOLBROOK, M. D., of Palmer,
I BENJAMIN P. WARE of Marblehead (P. O
•\ Clifton)
Franklin County, . . . . J. C. NEWHALL of Conway, .
Hampden GEO. S. TAYLOR of Chicopee Falls,
Hampshire, D. A. HORTON of Northampton, .
Hampshire, Fratiklin and Hampden, F. K. SHELDON of Southampton, .
Highland HIRAM TAYLOR of Middlefield, .
Hillside WM. BANCROFT of Chesterfield, .
Hingham, EDMUND HERSEY of Hinghara, .
Hoosac Valley 8. A. HICKOX of South Williarastown,
o>,„o^M„.v W- H. ROWLEY of South Egremont (P. O
Housatonic | Great Barrington), . . . . .
\ GEO. J. PETERSON of Marshfield (P. O
' } Green Harbor),
. N. S. SHALER of Cambridge, .
. E F. BOWDITCH of Framiugham,
. E. W. WOOD of West Newton,
. W. W. RAWSON of Arlington,
. A. C. VARNUM of Lowell,
. S. B. BIRD of Framingham,
Marshfield
Martha's Vineyard, .
Massachusetts, .
Massachusetts Horticultural,
Middlesex, ....
Middlesex North,
Middlesex South,
Nantucket CHAS. W. GARDNER of Nantucket,
Oxford D. M. HOWE of Charlton (P. O.Oxford),
Plymouth County AUGUSTUS PRATT of North Middleborough
Spencer J. G. AVERY of Spencer, ....
Union, C. B. HAYDEN of Blandford, .
Worcester, C. L. HARTSHORN of Worcester, .
Worcester North GEORGE CRUICKSHANK3 of Fitchburg,
Worcester North-west, . . . WM. H. BOWKER of Boston, .
Worcester South G. L. CLEMENCE of Southbridge, .
Worcester County West, . . . P. M. HARWOOD of Barre, .
Secretary of the-Board, WM. R. SESSIONS of Hampden.
Chemist to the Board, C. A. GOESSMANN, Ph. D., LL. D., of Amherst.
Entomologist to the Board, C. H. FERN.\LD, Ph.D., of Amherst.
Office oJ the Secretary, Commonwealth Building, Boston.
357
1891
1892
1893
1891
1891
1893
1893
1891
1893
1892
1891
1892
1891
1893
1893
1891
1891
1891
1891
1892
1891
1891
1891
1892
1893
1891
1892
1893
1892
1892
1893
1893
1892
1892
1893
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
Location, Amherst, Hampshire County.
Board of Trustees.
James S. Grinnell of Greenfield, .
Joseph A. Harwood of Littleton, .
William H. Bowkek of Boston,
J. D. W. French of North Andover,
Thomas P. Root of Barre,
J. Howe Demond of Northampton,
Francis H. Appleton of Peabody, .
William Wheeler of Concord,
Elijah W. Wood of West Newton,
CiiAS. A. Gleason of New Braintree,
Daniel Needham of Groton, .
James Draper of Worcester, .
Henry S. Hyde of Springfield,
Meuritt I. Wheeler of Great Barrington,
Term
Expires.
1891.
1891.
1892.
1892.
1893.
1893.
1894.
1894.
1895.
1895.
1896.
1896.
1897.
1897.
Members Ex Officio.
His Excellency Governor J. Q. A. Brackett,
President of the Corporation.
Henry H. Goodell, M. A., . . . . President of the College.
John W. Dickinson, . . . Secretary of the Board of Education.
William R. Sessions, . . . Secretary of the Board of Agriculture.
Officers Elected by the Board of Trustees.
James S. Grinnell of Greenfield, Vice-President of the Corporation.
William R. Sessions of Hampden, ..... Secretary.
Franic E. Paige of Amherst, Treasurer.
Charles A. Gleason of New Braintree, .... Auditor.
Board of Overseers.
The State Board of Agriculture.
Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College.
Director.
. Agriculturist.
Henry H. Goodell, M. A., .
William P. Brooks, B. Sc, .
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc,
Charles H. Fernald, Ph. D.,
Clarence D. Warner, B. Sc,
Horticulturist.
Entomologist.
Meteorologist.
358
MASSACHUSETTS STATE AGEICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT
STATION.
Location, Amherst, Hampshire County.
Board of Control.
His Excellency J. Q. A. Brackett, Governor of the Commonwealth,
President ex officio.
Term
Expires.
1891.
1892.
Warren W. Rawson of Arlington,
Peter M. Harwood of Barre,
Elected by the State Board of Agriculture.
Thomas P. Koot of Barre, 1891.
J. Howe Demond of Northampton, 1893.
Elected by the Board of Trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.
Francis H. Appleton of Peabody, ....... 1891.
Elected by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture.
Elbridge Cushman of Lakeville, 1892.
Elected by the Massachusetts State Grange.
William C. Strong of Newton Highlands, 1891.
Elected by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
Henry H. Goodell, M. A., of Amherst, President of the Massachusetts
Agricultural College.
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph. D., LL. D., of Amherst, Director of the
Station.
William R. Sessions of Hampden, Secretary of the State Board of Agri-
culture.
Officers Elected by the Board of Control.
William R. Sessions of Hampden, . . . Secretary and Auditor.
Frank E. Paige of Amherst, Treasurer.
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph. D., LL. D., of Amherst, Director and Chemist.
James E. Humphrey, S. B., of Amherst, . . Vegetable Physiologist.
BOARD OF CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.
Levi Stockbridge of Amherst, Chairman,
Alonzo W. Cheever of Dedliara, Secretary, .
Obadiah B. Hadwen of Worcester
Term
Expires.
1891.
1890.
1892.
359
360
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E. A. Hubbard, Ashby.
F. H. Grossman, Berlin.
Charles WooUey, Groton.
E. M. Nichols, Wilmington.
G. H. B. Green, Belchertown.
S. D. Ward, Shrewsbury.
Isaac Reed, West Acton.
W. H. C. Lawrence, Ashby.
P. B. Southwick, Berlin.
Daniel Needham, Groton.
H. A. Sheldon, Wilmington.
D. F. Shuraway, Belchertown.
G. H. Harlow, Shrewsbury.
West Acton, .
Ashby, ....
Berlin, ....
Groton, ....
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366 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
MASSACHUSETTS PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY.
Officers of the State Grange, 1890.
Master, N. B. Douglas of Sherborn.
Ovei'seer, P. M. Ilarwood of Barre.
Lecturer, . . . . . . George C. Howard of Cochesett.
Steward, E. A. Emerson of Haverhill.
Assistant Steward, G. N. Brown of Dalton.
Chaplain, Rev. C. S. Walker of Amherst.
Treasurer, F. A. Harrington of Worcester.
Secretary, George R. Chase of Medfield.
Gate Keeper, Lyman M. Rice of Grafton.
Ceres, . . . . . Mrs. Carrie B. Sage of West Snringfield.
Pomona, Mrs. Harriet M. Judd of South Hadley.
Flora, Mrs. Minnie M. Chase of Medlield.
Lady Assistant Steward, . . Mrs. F, L. Chamberlain of Holden.
Executive Committee.
H. A. Barton, Jr., of Dalton, One year.
C. A. Dennen of Pepperell, Two years.
S. E. Stowe of Grafton, Three years.
Deputies.
S. B. Cook, Petersham.
A. A. Metcalf, Holden.
P. M. Harwood, Barre.
George R. Chase, Medfield.
A. C. Stoddard, North Brookfleld.
D. A. Horton, . . . Northampton.
S. V. Crane, Blackstone.
C. A. Wood Hudson.
John H. Smith, . . . Dalton.
Mrs. F. A. Harrington, . . ... . . . Worcester.
George C. Howard, Cochesett.
I. C. Day, South Groveland.
George A. Hastings, West Berlin.
Warren C. Jewett, Worcester.
Mrs. Alice M. Davis, Shrewsbury.
N. T. Smith, West Springfield.
1890.]
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APPENDIX
CATTLE COMMrSSIO:N'ERS' EEPORT.
To the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives of the Common-
wealth of Massachusetts.
In accordance with legal provisions, the Cattle Commis-
sioners submit, their annual report.
During the past year the domestic animals of the State
have been exempt from any prevailing contagious or
epidemic disease, and our duties have been confined to the
extermination of sporadic cases, and prevention of their public
contact. Success has crowned the labors of our people who
are eno-aged in the business of rearino; and carino- for all
classes of animals and their products, though the beef market
and that of beeves for fiittening has not been very remu-
nerative. Boards of health and private individuals have
with great frequency notified us of suspected cases of con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia. These notices are from all parts
of the State ; but the greater number are from Worcester
and the counties east, indicating that pulmonary trouble of
some kind is more prevalent there, or that stock owners are
more alert in its detection.
Most of the cases have been where but a single animal in
a herd was afiected ; a very few were where suspicion had
fallen upon a number in the same herd, and supposed cases
of death from this cause had been reported. It should
perhaps be said that a certain form of pulmonary trouble is
not uncommon among our neat stock ; but in its virulence,
rapidity of propagation and development, and in its results
on a single animal or a herd, it is unlike and less to be feared
than contagious pleuro-pneumonia. So far as the commis-
sioners know, there has been but one case of this disease
in the State since 1864 ; and, if we ever have it again, it will
not be — it cannot be — by spontaneous generation, but by
actual contact of our stock with animals infected with it,
376 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
which have come to us from abroad, or from some section of
our own country where it exists, though more or less con-
cealed from public knowledge. The great trend of cattle
movement is along the different trunk railway lines from the
West to the Atlantic sea-board ; and there will be danger of
its appearance here so long as it exists anywhere in the
Middle States or at the West. It has been our endeavor to
avoid this danger by quarantine regulations, and arrange-
ments made with the U. S. Department of Animal Industry,
that all animals coming to us from areas of infection shall be
inspected by the veterinary officers of the department, and
a permit for transportation given only to such as can receive
a clean bill o£ health. We would not utter a word to
encourage our stock owners or l)oards of health to relax
their vigilance in relation to the health of their herds ; but, if
they would bear in mind the facts here stated, they would
see there is no occasion for serious alarm in the many cases
to which our attention is called. If the trouble complained
of is among their home stock, and they have not been in
contact with fresh arrivals from Europe or the West, it can-
not be contagious pleuro-pneumonia. Such cases are doubt-
less pulmonary tuberculosis, a destroying disease, and one to
be avoided if possible, but which is of minor importance
when compared with the first named.
The attention of our farmers, and of those who consume
our stock products, has been called to this disease in several
of our former reports. In our last. Dr. Winchester, who
was then the veterinarian of the Board, treated of it in an
exhaustive manner, giving a minute description of all its
lesions, to what extent it was contagious, and its mode of
propagation ; the danger to humans of consuming the milk or
flesh, however slightly the animal might be infected by it ;
the methods to be pursued to avoid or mitigate this danger ;
and indicating the methods by Avhich it might be eradicated,
or its prevalence materially diminished. All seekers after
detailed information respecting it are referred to that report.
Should this disease materially increase in those sections of
the State where milk is produced for town and city markets,
as a measure to guard the public health, it may become the
duty of the commissioners or of local boards of health to
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 377
cause the inspection of herds producing market milk, and
the removal therefrom of all animals exhibitino; the sliohtest
symptoms of this disease. During the year, cattle com-
missions and veterinarians at the West have called the atten-
tion of the Board to the existence there of a contagious
disease technically known as Actinomycosis or " lumpy jaw."
The disease is comparatively new in this country, and, as it
spreads rapidly, is much to be feared, though not so fatal
and destructive as diseases of pulmonary organs. On
the 7th of March a communication was received conveying
the information that a car-load of cattle infected by it, and in
which were several advanced cases, had been shipped to the
East, and, as was believed, to our State. The information was
from such a source that it appeared to be our duty to guard
against the danger by seizure and quarantine, when the
animals reached our territory. But we failed to find them,
and it is more than probable that their owners learned that
their reputation had preceded them, and their final destina-
tion was changed to some other market. There is no doubt
about the character of the disease and its prevalence among
cattle in some sections of the West, and the need of watch-
fulness by our stock owners and officials to prevent its
appearance in our State.
Early in July Western officials notified us that Texan cat-
tle, direct from the plains, were being transported in large
numbers by the usual channels of transit to the Eastern sea-
board, and were leaving a trail of Spanish fever along their
routes of travel, to avoid which we must be on our guard.
Therefore orders were immediately issued to all our railroad
officials whose lines had Western connections and which were
used in transporting Western products, to stop all such cattle
Avhen they reached our soil within the State lines. This
resulted in preventing their appearance here, and we escaped
losses from which some of the States suflered.
Horses.
As in former years, the only contagious disease which has
appeared among this class of our animals has been glanders ;
and the number infected by it which have been destroyed by
our order has been fifty-seven, which is fourteen less than
378 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Jan.
the previous year. There have been cases of suspects and
others of actual disease which have come to our knowledge.
Some of our citizens (as all should) have a great dread of
this disease as a source of danger to themselves ; and, when
informed by a competent veterinarian that they have an
animal infected by it, they cause it to be killed at once and
their premises to be disinfected, without notifying their
Board of Health, as the law requires, and for not doing
which it provides a penalty. As the purpose of the law is
attained by such a course of action, and more quickly than
it could be by notification and the action of the Board of
Health and the commissioners, no legal complaints have
been made. Yet such a course cannot be recommended or
approved, though pursued by those who from principle are
law abiding, and desire to see the object secured for which
the law is enacted. But all are not thus loj^al and kindly
disposed. Some of our citizens, possessing animals which
for good reasons have follen under suspicion, neither cause
them to be killed or notify their local officials, but " shove
them ; " and we have reason to believe there have been cases
where such acts have been aided or encouraged by members
of the veterinary profession. In combating this disease, the
course which is the best for the whole community, which in
the long run will he most successful, is that which will be in
harmony with the letter as ^vell as the spirit of the law. We
usually find this disease in sporadic form, but nearly every
year meet with what might be called centres of infection,
because of their greater frequency. The present year such
centre has been in Fall River and its vicinity, but at the
present writing the disease there appears to he subdued.
Early in the year letters from Illinois informed us that
one hundred mares, which were supposed to be infected with
a contagious disease technically known as Maladie du Coit,
had been shipped to Massachusetts for sale, and warning us
against them. If the animals came here, we have been unable
to find them as shipped, or Avith certainty a single animal of
the lot. In all essential particulars lesions of this disease
are like venereal diseases in humans, and perpetuated in the
same way. The history of the disease indicates that first
and last it has caused much sufi'erinij and inflicted jrreat
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 4. 379
pecuniary loss, in which some of the Western States have
been involved. But efforts for the eradication are now being
made there, with good prospect of success. Several sus-
pected cases of this disease were found in Essex County by
the veterinary member of our Board, which were examined
and placed under surveillance ; but the lesions, though
somewhat similar, did not develop in typical form, and the
watch was withdrawn. To this date it is believed that not a
case of the kind has occurred in this State ; but our com-
merce in horses with all parts of the country is so unre-
stricted that horse breeders need be cautious in selecting
both sires and dams which in this respect are in perfect
health.
Swine.
There has been less disease among our swine the present
year than in previous years of recent date, or else our local
officials have been less faithful in reporting their cases.
There have doubtless been cases of hog cholera, derived
from the usual source of swill containing the germ of the
disease from Western cholera pork ; but the tendency on the
part of swine owners has been to give that name to every
disease to which this class of our animals are subject. The
regulations made by the Board to prevent the spread of this
disease were given in full in our last animal report. They
have been kept in force until the present time ; and we are
satisfied that the prevalence of the disease has not been
increased by their enforcement, that substantial justice has
been received by our swine owners, and the State saved
from much expense which could not be made effective to
decrease or exterminate the malady.
LEVI STOCKBRIDGE,
A. W. CHEEVER,
O. B. HADWEN,
Cattle Commissioners.
Boston, Jan. 6, 1890.
INDEX TO SECEETAEY'S EEPOET.
Address of Hon. Eli Culley before the State Board of Agriculture at
Fitchburg, 3.
Address, opening, by Rev. C. S. Brooks, at Fitcliburg, 6.
Agricultural College, corporation, 358.
Agricultural College, report of Board of Overseers of, 278.
Agricultural depression, 185.
Agricultural exhibitions, 1890, 356.
Agricultural land, capital in, 170.
Agricultural societies and their management, paper on, by J. H. Rowley, 287.
Agricultural societies, financial returns of the, 350.
Agricultural societies, officers of, 360.
Analysis of premiums and gratuities, 352.
Annual meeting of the State Board of Agriculture, 269.
Assignment of delegates, 276.
Black-knot, remarks on, by Prof. J. E. Humphrey, 33.
Board of Agriculture, 357.
Board of Agriculture, annual meeting of the, 269.
Board of Agriculture, public meeting of the, at Fitchburg, 3.
Board of Agriculture, report of, as overseers of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College, 278.
Board of Cattle Commissioners, 359.
Board of Control, State Experiment Station, 359.
Brewer, Prof. Wm. H., lecture by, on the farm and farmer the basis of
national strength, 168.
Brooks, Prof. Wm. P., lecture by, on the economical disposition of the
wastes of the dairy, 214.
Brooks, Rev. C. S., opening address of, at Fitchburg, 6.
Butter, 206.
Butter production, cost of, 146.
Cattle Commissioners, Board of, 359.
Chance-breeding, practical eflect of, 140.
Cheese, 199.
Cooke, Prof. W. W., lecture by, on economical feeding of dairy stock, 102.
Culley, Hon. Eli, address of, at Fitchburg, 3.
Dairy, economical disposition of the wastes of the, lecture on, by Prof.
W. P. Brooks, 214.
Dairy stock, economical feeding of, lecture on, by Prof. W. W. Cooke, 102.
Dairy stock, external indications of good, 141.
382 INDEX TO SECRETAEY'S REPORT. [Juu.
Dairy stock, gratling-up, lecture on, by F. D. Douglas, 135.
Delegates, assignmeut of, 27G.
Disposition of milk, economic, lecture on, by Z. A. Gilbert, 196.
Disposition of the wastes of the dairy, economical, lecture on, by Prof.
W. P. Brooks, 214.
Douglas, F. D., lecture by, on gradiug-up dairy stock, 135.
England, farming in, paper on, by Dr. G. B. Loring, 340.
Experiment Station, Agricultural, Board of Control of, 359.
Farm and farmer the basis of national strength, the, lecture on, by Prof.
Wm. H. Brewer, 168.
Farm as the place to grow men, the, 176.
Farm, the educational influences of the, 177.
Farmers' clubs, officers of, 363.
Farmers' and mechanics' associations, officers of, 362.
Fai-mers' and mechanics' clubs, officers of, 303.
Farming in England, paper on, by Dr. G. B. Loring, 340.
Feeding of dairy stock, economical, lecture on, by Prof. W. W. Cooke, 102.
Fertilization for the orchard, 12.
Financial returns of the agricultural societies, 350.
Fisher, Dr. Jabez, lecture by, on orchard management, 11.
Fitchburg, public meeting of the Board of Agriculture at, 3.
Fruit, handling and marketing, 18.
Fruits, thinning, IG.
Gilbert, Z. A., lecture by, on the economic disposition of milk, 196.
Goddard, J. II., paper by, on choosing an occupation, 309.
Grading-up dairy stock, lecture on, by F. D. Douglas, 135.
Granges, officers of, 367.
Hatch Experiment Station, officers of, 358.
Henderson, Peter, lecture by, on market gardening as a business, 37.
Holbrook, Dr. Wm., paper by, on tuberculosis, 321.
Horticultm-al societies, officers of, 302.
Humphrey, Prof. J. E., remarks by, on the black-knot, 33.
Impressions received from rambles in the West, lecture on, by Prof. Levi
Stockbridge, 75.
Insects and their destruction, 14.
Loring, Dr. G. B., letter by, on tuberculosis, 335.
Loring, Dr. G. B., paper by, on farming in England, 340.
Lynde, Dr. J. P., resolutions on the death of, 270.
Market gardening as a business, lecture on, by Peter -Henderson, 37.
Massachusetts agriculture, 190.
Massachusetts, soils of, paper on, by Prof. N. S. Shaler, 295.
Milk, economic disposition of, lecture on, by Z. A. Gilbert, 196.
Occupation, choosing an, paper on, by J. H. Goddard, 309.
Orchard management, lecture on, by Dr. Jabez Fisher, 11.
1890.] INDEX TO SECRETARY'S REPORT. 383
Pedigrees, 139.
Poultry associations, officers of, 365.
PouItr_v-keeping profitable, how to make, lecture on, by Dr. G. M.
Twitchell, 238.
Premiums and gratuities, analysis of, 352.
Rowley, J. H., paper by, on agricultural societies and their manage-
ment, 287.
Shaler, Prof. N. S.f paper by, on soils of Massachusetts, 295.
Slade, Avery P., resolutions on the death of, 272.
Societies, agricultural, and their management, paper on, by J. H.
Rowley, 287.
Societies, agricultural, officers of, 360.
Societies, horticultural, officers of, 362.
Soils of Massachusetts, paper on, by Prof. N. S. Shaler, 295.
State Grange, officers of, 360.
Stockbridge, Prof. Levi, lecture by, on impressions received from rambles
in the West, 75.
Tliinning fruits, 16.
Tuberculosis, paper on, by Dr. Wm. Holbrook, 321.
Tuberculosis, letter on, by Dr. G. B. Loring, 335.
Twitchell, Dr. G. M., lecture by, on how to make poultry-keeping profit-
able, 238.
West, impressions received from rambles in the, lecture on, by Prof. Levi
Stockbridge, 75.
APPENDIX.
Cattle Commissioners' report, 375.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT. No. 33.
SEVENTH ANNUAL EEPOET
BOARD OF CONTROL
STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT
STATION
AMHERST, MASS
1889.
BOSTON :
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
18 Post Office Square.
1890.
I. CHEMICAL LABORATORY.
2. FARM HOUSE.
3. BARN AND FEEDING STABLES,
•MAPOFLAND-LEASED-ToTHE-
•MASSACHUSETTS • EXPERIMENT -STATION'
-FROM-THE-
♦AGRICULTURAL-COLLEGE -FARM*
-\«/E&T-OFTHE -HIGHV/AV ■
•AREA-TAt^EN-M7.72 ACRES-
1. AGRICULTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.
- MAP OF -LAND-LEASE DTo THE -
•MASSACHUSETTS -EXPERIMENT -STATION
•FROMTHE •
AGRICULTURAL-COLLEGE- FARM*
-EAST OFTHE • HIGH V/AV •
AREA TAKEN • 30.52 ACRES*
MASSACHUSETTS STATE
AGEICULTU^AL EXPERIMENT STATION,
AMHERST, MASS.
BOARD OF CONTROL, 1889.
His Excellency Oliver Ames,
Governor of the Commonwealth, President ex officio.
Dr. J. P. Lynde of Athol, Term expires, 1892.
W. W. Rawson of Arlington, .... Term expires, 1891.
Appointed by the State Board of Agriculture.
J. H. Demond of Northampton, . . . Term expires, 1890.
T. P. Root of Barre, Term expires, 1891.
Appointed by the Board of Trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.
F. H. Appletox of Peabody, .... Term expires, 1891.
Appointed by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture.
Elbridge.Cushman of Lakeville, . . . Term expires, 1892.
Appointed by the Massachusetts State Grange.
Wm. C. Strong of Newton Highlands, . . Term expii'es, 1891.
Appointed by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
H. H. Goodell, A.M , Amherst,
President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.
C. A. Goessmann, Ph D , LL.D , Amherst,
Director of the Station.
Wm. R. Sessions, Hamj^den,
Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture.
OFFICERS APPOINTED BY THE BOARD OF CONTROL.
Hon. W. R. Sessions, Secretary and Auditor of the Board, . Hampden.
Dr. J. P. Lynde, Treasurer of the Board, .... Athol.
C. A. GOESSMANN, Ph.D., LL.D., Director and Chemist, . Amherst.
J. E. Hdmphrey, S.B., Vegetable Physiologist, . . . Amherst.
W. H. Beal, AB., M.E,
E. R. Flint, B.S , .
R. B. Moore, B.S., .
E. E. Knapp, B S., .
C. S. Crocker, B.S.,
B. L. Hartwell, B.S.,
W. A. Parsons, B.S.,
David Wentzell, .
Assistants.
Oeneral and Analytical Chemistry.
Field Experiments and Stock Feeding.
Farmer.
BosTO.v, Jan. 14, 1890.
To the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives.
In accordance with chapter 212 of the Acts of 1882, I
have the honor to present the Seventh Annual Report of
the Board of Control of the State Agricultural Experiment
Station.
WM. R. SESSIONS,
Secretary.
SEVENTH A]^]^UAL EEPOET
OF THE
DIEECTOR OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERI-
MENT STATION AT AMHERST, MASS.
To the Honorable Board of Control.
Gentlemex : — The past year has been a prosperous one.
The State Legislature has granted your application for the
appropriation of means to erect suitable buildings required
for much-needed investigations into some special features of
plant growth and of diseases of agricultural plants. The
plans adopted for the construction of an agricultural and
physiological laboratory have been successfully carried out,
and the building will be shortly ready for occupation. The
expenses incurred in carrying on this work are fairly within
the sum assigned for that purpose.
No serious loss of any description has happened to the
property of the State. The various structures of the station
are in a well-preserved condition, and the live stock for
experimental purposes is at present more complete as far as
the different kinds of farm live stock are concerned than at
any previous period.
The experimental work of the year has been, as fir as
practicable, in conformity with the plans from time to time
presented for your endorsement. No material changes have
been made in regard to the principal lines of investigations
decided upon during the preceding years. The work in the
field, in the barn and in the laboratory, has received, as far
as practicable, an equal share of attention.
Professor Humphrey has devoted much attention to
various subjects in his special line of investigation, A
detailed description of his work on fungoidal diseases,
etc., prepared by him, forms a part of the accompanying
annual report.
The experiments to determine the cost of feed for the
10 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
production of milk and of pork have been continued, with
some modifications ; to these have been added of late experi-
ments to ascertain the cost of feed for the production of beef
and mutton. A variety of field crops, in particular reputed
fodder crops, have been raised for testing their relative
feeding value, and to determine their general merits in a
mixed farm management. Some of these crops suffered,
in common with our grain crops, from exceptionally cool
and wet weather during the latter part of June and the
months of July and August.
The la})oratory work has been exceptionally large and in
various directions, in consequence of the additional chemical
work called for by the Hatch Experiment Station, and by
the State inspection ctf commercial fertilizers ; aside from
the numerous applications of farmers, associations, and
parties interested in farming, for the examination of fer-
tilizers, fodder articles, well-waters, etc.
The details of the work carried on in the previously stated
directions are recorded in the subsequent pages under the
following headings : —
Feeding Experiments.
I. Feeding experiments with milch cows, to ascertain the feed-
ing value of fodder corn, corn stover and corn ensilage, as com-
pared with English hay, and also of sugar beets and of carrots.
II. Feeding experiments with milch cows, to ascertain the
value of a mixed crop of vetch and oats, of Southern cow-pea
and of serradella, when fed as green fodder in part or in the
whole for English hay.
III. Financial record of twelve cows, kept at the Massaohu-
setts Experiment Station.
IV. Creamery record of the station during the years 1887,
1888 and 1889 ; with some observations made during several
visits to the farms of one hundred and ninety-three patrons of two
creameries in our vicinity.
V. Feeding experiments with pigs ; skim milk, barley meal,
corn meal, wheat bran and gluten meal serving as fodder ingre-
dients of the daily diet.
Field Experiments.
VI. Experiments to compare the effect of different forms of
nitrogen on the growth, etc., of corn.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 11
YII. Influence of fertilizers on the quantity and quality of
fodder crops.
VIII. Experiments with field and garden crops.
IX. Experiments with green crops for summer feed.
X. Professor Humphrey's report : —
1. General account of fungi.
2. Potato scab.
3. Diseases on station farm.
4. Observations of material sent on for examination.
Special Work ik the Chemical Laboratory.
XI. Analyses of licensed commercial fertilizers.
XII. Miscellaneous analyses of material sent on.
XIII. Water analyses.
XIV. Compilation of fodder analyses, with reference to fodder
constituents and fertilizing constituents ; analyses of industrial
products, garden crops, fruits, etc., made at Amherst, Mass.
XV. Meteorological observations.
The periodical publications of the station have been more
numerous than in preceding years, on account of the monthly
publications of the analyses of licensed fertilizers required
by the new laws for the regulation of the trade of com-
mercial fertilizers. Four bulletins, containing reports of
progress on investigations, and six monthly circulars of
fertilizer analyses, have been issued. The interest in the
publications of the station is steadily growing. From ten
to eleven thousand copies have been published of late.
It gives me particular pleasure to acknowledge the valu-
able assistance rendered by all parties engaged in the work
of the station. To their marked industry and faithful execu-
tion of the various tasks assigned to them is largely due the
successful termination of the work recorded in this report.
Thanking you sincerely for your kind indulgence in the
performance of my duties, permit me to sign,
Yours very respectfully,
C. A. GOESSMANN,
Director of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
Amherst, Mass., Jan. 14, 1890.
12 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jau.
o:n^ feeding experiments.
I. Feeding experiments with milcli cows, to determine the
value of fodder corn, corn stover and corn ensilage, as compared
with English hay ; and also of corn ensilage, as compared with
that of sugar beets and carrots. The statement closes with a
summary of observations in that connection during four successive
years,. 1885 to 1889.
II. Feeding experiments with milch cows, to ascertain the
value of vetch and oats, of cow-pea and of serradella when fed as
green fodder in part or in the whole for English hay. The results
reported are those of the third year of our trial.
III. Record of twelve cows kept at the Massachusetts Experi-
ment Station.
IV. Creamery record of the station during the years 1887,
1888 and 1889 ; and some observations made during visits to the
patrons of two creameries in our vicinity.
V. Feeding experiments with pigs ; skim-milk, barley meal,
corn meal, wheat bran and gluten meal serving as fodder
ingredients of the daily diet.
VI. Fodder analyses.
I. Record of Feeding Experiments with Milch Cows,
TO DETERMINE THE RELATIVE VaLUE OF FODDER
Corn, Corn Stover and Corn Ensilage, as com-
pared AVITII THAT OF ENGLISH HaY ; AND OF CORN
Ensilage as compared with that of Sugar Beets
AND of Carrots, under Otherwise Corresponding
Circumstances. Fourth Year of Observation,
FROM November, 1888, to May, 1889.
The experiment was conducted upon the same general
plan as during the preceding years, the principal object of
the investigation remainins: the same as stated above. A
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 13
larger number of cows (nine) than in any of the preceding
years took part in the trial ; not more, however, than six
cows at any one time. Whenever the daily yield of milk
of any particular animal fell below from six to seven quarts,
on account of advanced milking period, a new-milch cow
was substituted, to secure, as far as practicable, correspond-
ing conditions throughout tlie entire experiment. Grades
of various descriptions, yet of a similar quality Avitli regard
to the production of quantity and quality of milk, constituted
our herd. They varied in age from five to eleven years ; the
mean in case of nine cows was seven years. Each served
from two to seven months for our observation.
The course adopted in preparing the daily diet was essen-
tially the same as in the preceding year. English hay, fod-
der corn, corn stover, corn ensilage, sugar beets and carrots
served as coarse fodder articles ; and corn meal, wheat bran
and gluten meal as the supplementary feed stuffs to secure
the desired relative proportion of digestible nitrogenous to
non-nitrogenous substances in the daily fodder rations
(commonly called nutritive ratio). The fodder corn, corn
stover and corn ensilage w^ere cut to an even length (one and
one-half to two inches) before fed. The daily amount of
fodder corn left behind unconsumed was, on an average,
two and one-half pounds, and that of corn stover and ensilage
about three pounds.
The same variety of corn, Pride of the North, a dent corn,
served for each trial. The corn ensilage used on these
occasions has been produced in every instance from a corn
crop of the same variety and the same state of maturity as
the one which furnished the dry fodder corn ; /. e. , at the
beo;inning of the srlazing over of the kernels.
The experiment was subdivided into nine feeding periods,
extending over a period of seven months. The same quan-
tity of corn meal, wheat bran and gluten meal (three and
one-quarter pounds each) was fed daily, from the beginning
to the close of the trial. Corn ensilaije and roots were fed
in different proportions, with one-half or one-fourth of a full
English hay ration. Fodder corn and corn stover were fed
most of the time by themselves.
The quantity of different fodder rations stated ])elow
14 AGRICULTURAL EXPERI:MEXT STATIOX. [Jan.
represents in each case the daily average of the amount
actually consumed per head during the entire feeding period.
The variations in the daily consumption of the various
ingredients of the daily diet in case of different animals were
confined entirely to the fodder corn, the corn stover and the
corn ensilage, when serving as substitutes in part or in the
whole for hay ; and to hay, when fed alone as the coarse
or bulky part of the daily diet. The amount consumed in
that case was controlled by the appetite of the animal, as
somewhat larger quantities than the figures represent were
offered for their consumption. The daily consumption of
the grain feed was limited to the amount stated in each
case ; the same statement applies to the hay when fed in
connection with some other coarse fodder articles, as corn
ensilage, sugar beets, etc.
The nutritive ratio of the different diets used varied from
1 : 5.13 to 1 : 6.79. The adopted rates of digestibility of the
fodder ingredients are those which have been published of
late by E. Wolft'. They are in most instances the average
values of a series of actual tests, and are for this reason
applicable for mere economical questions. As soon as our
home observations shall have furnished sufiicient material
to enable us to establish reliable average A^alues, they will
be substituted.
The temporary changes in diet, whenever decided upon,
were carried out graduall}^ as is customary in all carefully
conducted feeding experiments. At least five days are
allowed in every instance to pass by, in case of a change in
the character of the feed, before the daily observations of
the results appear in our published records. The dates,
which accompany all detailed reports in our feeding experi-
ments, past and present, furnish exact figures in that direc-
tion. This is in particular the case whenever such statements
are of a special interest, for an intelligent appreciation of the
final conclusions presented.
The weights of the animals were taken on the same day of
each week, before milking and feeding.
The valuation of fodder ingredients is based, in this con-
nection, on the local market price per ton of each article for
the period of observation.
1890.] PUJ
BLIC DOCU
MENT — No.
33.
15
Com meal,
. $21 90
Fodder corn,
. $5 00
Wheat bran, .
20 70
Corn stover,
5 00
Gluten meal,
23 40
Corn ensilage.
2 75
Hay,
15 00
Carrots,
7 00
Rowen, .
15 00
Sugar beets,
5 00
The commercial valuation of the fertilizing constituents
contained in each fodder article is based on the followino-
market prices : {. e., nitrogen (per pound), 17 cents ; phos-
phoric acid, G cents ; and potassium oxide, 4^ cents. Eighty
per cent, of the entire amount of fertilizing constituents
contained in the fodder consumed is considered obtainable
by proper management : while twenty per cent, is assumed
to be sold with the milk, and thus lost to the farm.
The obtainable manurial value of the feed consumed dur-
ing the entire feeding experiment, deducting twenty per
cent, for the amount of fertilizino- constituents lost in the
production of milk, is, at the current market rates, in every
instance, more than equal to one-third of the original cost of
the feed. In some instances it amounts to more than one-
half of the original cost of the feed consumed.
Net cost of feed represents the sum obtained by subtract-
ing eighty per cent, of the commercial value of the fertiliz-
ing constituents contained in the fodder consumed, from the
total cost of the feed. Nothino; but the net cost of feed is
considered in the discussion of the cost of production of
milk and of cream.
An examination of the subsequent detailed description of
the experiment under consideration leads to the same con-
clusions as our observations in this direction during preced-
ing years : —
1. The high nutritive value of fodder corn, corn stover
and good corn ensilage, as compared with that of English
hay, counting in all instances pound for pound of dry vege-
table matter, is fully confirmed. The general condition of
the animal on trial, as well as the qitality and the quantity of
the milk obtained, point in that direction.
2. To produce one quart of milk, using the same quan-
tity and quality of grain feed, required in every instance a
larger quantity of perfectly dried hay than of either fodder
16 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIIVIENT STATION". [Jan.
corn, corn stover or corn ensilage in a corresponding state
of dryness, — corn stover leading,
3. The net cost of feed in the case of the same ration of
grain feed is from one-third to one-half less per quart of
milk, when fodder corn, corn stover or corn ensilage serve
as substitutes for English hay in the daily diet of milch
cows ; corn fodder, as a rule, leading, while corn stover leads
the corn ensilage in four out of six cases.
4. Sugar beets, as well as carrots, when fed pound for
pound of dry matter in place of part of the hay ration, with
the same kind and quantity of grain feed, have raised almost
without an exception the temporary yield of milk ; exceed-
inof as a rule, the corn ensilao-e in that direction.
5. Corn ensilage, as well as roots, proved best when fed
in place of one-fourth to one-half of the full hay ration.
From twenty-five to twenty-seven pounds of roots, or from
thirty-five to forty pounds of corn ensilage, per day, with all
the hay called for to satisfy the animal in either case, seems
for various reasons a good proportion, allowing the stated
kind and quantity of grain feed.
6. The influence of the various diets used on the quality
of the milk seems to depend in a controlling degree on the
constitutional characteristics of the animal on trial. The
efiect is not unfrequently in our case the reverse in different
animals depending on the same diet. The increase in the
quantity of milk is frequently accompanied by a decrease in
solids.
Quarts of Milk required to make One Space of Cream. (Average
of Six Cows fed upon the Folloiving Rations.)
Hay
Period.
Fodder Corn
Period.
Corn Stover
Period.
Carrot
Period.
Corn Ensilage
Period.
Sugar Beet
Period.
1.98
1.68
1.59
2.16
1.92
1.88
For further details, consult the subsequent record of our
experiment (November, 1888, to May, 1889), and also the
summary of our investigations during 1885, 1886, 1887,
1888 and 1889, in connection with the subject under dis-
cussion.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No.
17
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No.
19
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
21
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22 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
23
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m
o o CO 00
auojouojjjiipoj.x juj
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i-i
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fA
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24 AGRICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
s
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
25
o
H
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w
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a
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H
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2G AGRICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Valuation of Essential Fertilizing Constitutents contained in the
Various Articles of Fodder used.
Nitrogen, 17 cents per pound; phosphoric acid, 6 cents ; potassium
oxide, 4^ cents. (1889.)
[Per cent.]
c
"3
a
,;
Cfl
«
CO
rt
o
O
%
rt
n
e
OS
c
■a
o
s W
OS
s=
u
5
-I
Ex
JJ
U
u
X
"
Moisture, .
12.890
lO.OSO
10.220
8.060
36.850
50.130
90.050
74.760
87.210
10.9.50
Nitrogen, .
1.550
2.556
4.330
1.480
.992
.638
.127
.331
.208
2.030
Phosphoric acid,
.713
2.900
.392
.112
.307
.133
.100
.138
.086
.351
Potassium oxide.
.430
1.637
.049
.457
.801
.976
.070
.301
.462
2.794
Valuation per
2,000 pounds,
$6 51
$13 64
$15 23
$5 58
$4 53
$3 21
$0 62
$1 56
$1 23
$9 83
Net Cost of Milk and Ma.xurial Value of Feed.
Annie.
■3
.5 = 0)
•a o^
^o
■2=^
o3
'^ ^
i-s>3
•33
■^ 5rt
O .
i" "
« S "tu ti ■^'
fc( "
^^ o
FEEDING PERIODS.
-■3
^n
^It-'S
!li
"So
O 3
o-i -•
*J o
B ^
3 0-5
anu
the
due
tyl
byt
^2S
tco
23
H
P,
"A
y^
1888 and 1889.
Cents.
Lbs.
Nov. 1 to Nov.* 15, .
$3 71
$1 64
|1 31
$2 40
1.50
825
Nov. 20 to Dec. 11, .
3 11
1 95
1 56
1 55
0.83
790
Dec. 17 to Dec. 27, .
1 58
89
71
87
1.12
772
Jan. 3 to Jan. 21, .
5 93
1 84
1 47
4 46
2 28
812
Jan. 29 to Feb. 19, .
4 09
2 09
1 67
2 42
1.09
8L2
Mar. 1 to Mar. 14, .
3 08
1 39
1 11
1 97
155
845
]\Iar. 19 lo Apr. 2, .
4 37
1 G8
1 34
3 03
1.96
859
Apr. 9 to Apr. 22, .
3 23
1 45
1 16
2 07
1.45
895
Apr. 30 to May 21, .
5 10
3 07
2 46
2 64
1.15
890
Total,
$34 20
$16 00
fl2 79
$21 41
-
-
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
27
Net Cost of Milk and Manurial Value ov Feed
May.
Continued.
^ ,
v.. 1 1 —
_^
o o
^
— x'^
II
^|i
«'2
FEEDING PEKIODS.
°-6
■£1=5
rial Va
Keed at
ting the
er Cent
he Milk
22 =
2^
.— • ;2
sg-S
a „ uij*'
0=,~
O v^
S o
155
§55^^
tjSS
oSo
^J'iJ
H
>
S
^,
>!!!
^
1$8S and 1889.
Cents.
Lbs.
Noy, 1 to Nov. 15, .
$3 86
$1 70
$1 36
$2 50
1.64
950
Nov. 20 to Dec. 11, .
3 33
2 14
1 71
1 62
.92
900
Dec. 17 to Dec. 27, .
1 78
1 02
81
97
1.05
907
Jan. 3 to Jan. 21, .
6 08
1 86
1 49
4 59
2.54
911
Jan. 29 to Feb. 19, .
4 36
2 24
1 79
2 57
1.28
940
Mar. 19 to Apr. 2, .
4 36
1 68
1 34
3 02
2.09
935
Apr. 9 to Apr. 22, .
3 28
1 47
1 18
2 10
1.61
990
Apr. 30 to May 21, .
5 84
3 22
2 58
2 76
1.25
935
Total,
$32 39
$15 33
$12 26
$20 13
-
-
:Eva.
Nov. 1 to Nov. 15, .
$3 86
$1 70
$1 36
$2 50
1.11
1,020
Nov. 20 to Dec. 11, .
3 36
2 17
1 74
1 62
.63
958
Dec. 17 to Dec. 27, .
1 70
97
78
92
.77
940
Jan. 3 to Jan. 21, .
6 08
1 86
1 49
4 59
1.99
970
Jan. 29 to Feb. 19, .
4 49
2 31
1 85
2 64
1.04
978
Mar. 1 to Mar. 11, .
3 65
1 60
1 28
2 37
1.58
1,030
Mar. 19 to Apr. 2, .
4 47
1 70
1 36
3 11
1.89
1,000
Total,
$27 61
$12 31
$9 8C
$17 75
-
-
Melia.
Nov.
1 to Nov.
15, .
$3 72
$1 65
$1
32
$2 40
1.67
1,075
Nov
20 to Dec.
11,.
3 10
1 93
1
54
1 56
.99
1,036
Dec.
17 to Dec.
27,.
1 65
94
75
90-
1.26
1,025
Jan.
3 to Jan.
21,.
6 08
1 86
1
49
4 59
3.15
1,075
Jan.
29 to Feb.
Total,
19,.
4 22
2 16
1
73
2 49
1.57
1,096
?18 77
$8 54
$6
83
$11 94
-
-
Daisy.
Nov.
1 to Nov.
15, .
$4 08
$1 78
$1 42
$2
66
1.80
1,170
Nov.
20 to Dec.
11, .
3 44
2 24
1 79
1
65
1.18
1,165
Dec.
17 to Dec.
27,.
1 90
1 10
88
1
02
1.71
1,176
Jan.
3 to Jan.
Total,
18,.
5 34
1 58
1 26
4
18
4.29
1,220
$14 76
|6 70
$5 35
$9
41
-
-
2S AGRICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATIOX. [Jan.
Net Cost of Milk and Manurial Valuk of Feed
Minnie.
Concluded.
1
- i 3
3 J! = 3
£ ^
■£ ^=^
a
h
:§ "in
= t ^=5
o s
■a 5*5
1 =
Vt
- " 2
^" ? o ■" -ii
S. o
feS2
— u
*.'S
— ^ *-*
-^ '" ,c t* ^
V. 3 tt
<^
FEEDING PERIODS.
5 ^
III
•- -." .= !r i
^£3
-5
H
>
r^
»
'A
c:
1888 and 1889.
Cents.
Lbs.
Nov. 1 to Xov. 15, .
$3 58
$1 GO
|1 28
f2 30
1.96
1,050
Nov. 20 to Dec. 11, .
3 00
1 85
1 48
1 52
1 12
1,017
Total,
$6 58
^3 45
P 76
$3 82
-
-
Flora.
Jan. 3 to Jan. 21, .
$6 06
$1 85
n 48
$4 58
1..58
882
Jan. 29 to Feb. ID, .
4 12
2 10
1 68
2 44
.83
859
Mar. 1 to ]\Iar. 14, .
3 06
1 39
1 11
1 95
1.16
870
Mar. 19 to Apr. 2, .
4 37
1 68
1 34
3 03
1.54
875
Apr. 9 to Apr 22, .
3 41
1 52
1 22
2 19
1.20
927
Apr. 30 to May 21, .
5 o:i
3 31
2 67
2 86
.97
918
Total,
$26 55
$11 88
$9 50
$17 05
-
Jessie.
Jan.
29 to Feb.
10, .
$4 46
^■2
29
$1 83
f2 63
0.85
736
Mar
1 to j\Iar.
14, .
3 10
1
40
1 12
1 98
1.23
730
Mar.
19 to Apr.
2,.
4 51
1
72
1 88
3 13
1.78
751
Apr.
9 to Apr.
22
3 49
1
54
1 23
2 26
1.26
806
Ajjr.
30 to May
Total,
21,.
5 70
o
47
2 78
2 92
1.00
809
$21 26
$10
42
fS 34
$12 92
-
-
Elsie.
Mar. 19 to Apr. 2, .
Apr. 9 to Apr. 22, .
Apr. 30 to May 21, .
f4 59
3 74
6 23
$1 74
1 64
3 80
$1 39
1 31
3 04
$3 20
2 43
3 19
1.56
142
1.17
1,105
1,120
1,120
Total,
$14 56
$7 18
f5 74
$8 82
-
-
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
29
Analyses of Milk.
[Per cent.]
Annie.
^
■•d^
?;
^
;^
d
(>j
S
t^
1888 and 1889.
Nov
^
Pi
■-=
S
a.
o.
Solids, .
13.68
15.22
14.83
14.10
14.30
14.25
14.52
14.06
14.18
Fat, .
3.G5
5.10
4.90
4.10
4.55
4.61
4 72
4.60
4.67
Solids not fat, .
10.03
10.12
9.93
10.00
9.75
9.64
9.80
9.46
9.51
May.
Solids, .
14.90
14.42
15.37
15.42
15.05
15.02
15.24
14.61
Fat, .
4.13
5.30
4.74
4.60
4.65
_
4.60
6.20
4.87
Solids not fat, .
10.77
9.12
10.63
10.82
10.40
—
10.42
10.04
9.74
Eva.
Solids,
Fat, .
Solids not fat, .
14.40
14.45
15.11
14.90
14.95
15.52
15.63
4.85
5.25
5.17
4.82
4 95
5.51
5.33
_
9.55
9.20
9.94
10.08
10.00
10.01
10.30
—
Melia.
Solids, .
Fat, .
Solids not fat, .
13.82
13.87
14.40
13.86
13.30
3.70
4.38
4.34
3.50
3,80
-
-
-
10.12
9.49
10.06
10.36
9.50
-
-
Daisy.
Solids,
Fat, .
Solids not fat.
15.48
14.18
16.70
15.73
4.44
4.48
4.93
3.24
_
-
-
-
11.04
9.70
11.77
12.49
—
—
—
—
Minnie.
Solids, .
Fat, .
Solids not fat, .
14.22
14.07
_
4.49
4.85
-
-
-
-
-
9.73
9.22
—
"
—
—
—
30 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIOX. [Jan.
Analyses of Milk — Concluded.
Flora.
-^
•^
^i*
«>
s 1 ;i 1 M
o
l>
1888 and 1889.
o
Q
Feb.
Mar.
a.
1
Solids, .
12.90
12.77
13.15
13.17
12.57
12.77
Fat, .
_
_
-
3.15
3.55
3.68
3.73
3.40
3.46
Solids not fat, .
—
—
—
9.75
9.22
9.47
9.44
9.17
9.31
Jessie.
Solids, .
Fat, .
Solids not fat,
13.22
13.75
15.12
14.91
—
_
_
_
4.25
4.57
5.34
5 45
—
—
-
-
8.97
9.18
9.78
9.46
15.00
4.67
10.33
Elsie.
Solids, .
Fat. .
Solids not fat.
12.20
12.75
_
_
_
_ ■
_
_
3.14
3.09
-
-
-
-
-
'
9.06
9.66
12.65
3.38
9.27
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
31
Analyses of Fodder Articles fed during the Previously
Described Feeding Experiments. (November, 1888, to
May, 1889.)
Corn Meal (^Average).
a
c
O
S) d
= I
P o
3 o.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
HI
6
K
>
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
12.89
87.11
257.80
1,742.20
-
_
^
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (niti'ogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
1.36
1.90
4.16
11.12
81.46
2,000.00
27.20
38.00
83.20
222.40
1,629.20
12.92
63.23
189.04
1,531.45
34
76
85
u
1—1
O
100.00
2,000.00
1,796.64
-
J
Wheat Bran {Average).
s
o
o o
" o
Constituents (in
Ponnds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
h\e in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Per Cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
6
«
3
•A
IVIoisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter.
10.08
89.92
201.60
1,798.40
-
_
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
6.38
10.74
4.34
17.77
60.77
2,000 00
127.60
214.80
86.80
355.40
1,215.40
4296
69.44
312.75
972.32
20
80
88
80
o
100.00
2,000.00
1,397.47
-
J
32 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Analyses of Fodder Articles fed, etc. — Continued.
Gluten 3feal (Average).
a
a
■2 .2
53 5.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds DiKesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
o >> S
.2
3
>5
Moisture at 100" C, .
Dry matter,
10.22
89.78
204.40
1,795.60
-
-
1
Analysis of Dry Mailer.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
.52
5.50
30.15
63.27
100.00
2,000.00
10.40
11.20
110.00
603.00
1,265.40
3.81
83.60
512.55
1,189.48
34
76
85
94
2,000.00
1,789.44
-
J
Hay.
[Experiment Station, 1888.]
a .
5 .2
S 'S
JJ o
3 p>
e-i
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 I'ounds.
5°^
o >, S
. ™ s
6
a
>
3
5«;
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dr'j matter,
8.06
91.94
161.20
1,838 80
-
-
>
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
6 67
33.75
2.09
10.06
47.43
100.00
2,000.00
133.40
675.00
4180
201.20
948.60
391.50
19 23
114.68
597.62
58
46
57
63
■1
i-H
2,000.00
1,123.03
-
J
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
33
Analyses of Fodder Articles fed, etc. — Continued.
Corn Fodder.
[Experiment Station, 1888.]
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
o
>
3
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
36.85
63.1,5
737.00
1,263.00
_
-
^
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
'• protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
4.84
21.96
2.02
9.82
61.36
2,000.00
96.80
439.20
40.40
196.40
1,227.20
316.22
30.30
143.37
822.22
72
75
73
67
CD
I— 1
100.00
2,000 00
1,312.11
-
}
Corn Stover.
[Experiment Station, 1888.]
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Per Cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
6
'u
a
'A
Moistui-e at 100° C, .
50.13
1,002.60
>,
Dry matter,
49.87
■ 997.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
3.73
74.60
oo
" cellulose, .
34.49
689.80
496.66
72
!>S
" fat, ....
1.76
35.00
26.25
75
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
8.00
160.00
116.80
73
matter, ....
52.03
1,040.60
697.20
67
100.00
2,000.00
1,336.91
-
34 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Analyses of Fodder Articles fed, etc.
Carrots (Danvers).
[Experiment Station, 1888.]
Continued.
i
8
to c
« o
o o
3 c
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
5°i
111
6
M
>
3
•A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter.
90.05
9.95
1,801.00
199.00
-
-
1
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
8.28
10.26
1.67
7.98
71.81
2,000.00
165.60
205.20
33.40
159.60
1,436.20
205.20
33.40
159.60
1,436.20
100
100
100
100 1
1—1
100.00
2,000.00
1,834.40
-
)
Corn Ensilage.
[Experiment Station, 18S8.]
h
o
S) 3
1 1
Constituents (in
Pouiid.s) in a.
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,00J Pounds.
Per Cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
2
«
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
74.56
25.44
1,491.20
508.80
-
\
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
1.07
20.11
6.49
8.14
64.19
2,000.00
21.40
402.20
129.80
162.80
1,283.80
289.58
97.35
118.84
860.15
72
75
73
67
t^
100.00
2,000.00
1,365.92
-
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
35
Analyses of Fodder Articles fed, etc. — Continued.
'Sugar Beets (Average).
[Experiment Station, 1888.]
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
Pounds) In a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
II s
.9
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
87.21
12.79
1,744.20
255.80
-
_
1
•
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
6.47
6.16
.98
10.15
76.24
2,000.00
129.40
123.20
19.60
203.00
1,524.80
123.20
19.60
203.00
1,524.80
100
100
100
100
CO
CO
'GO
100.00 2,000.00
1,870.60
-
Howen.
[Experiment Station, 1888.]
a
o
O
§0 c
-2 .2
p o
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
2 o
6
>
•A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter.
10.95
89.05
219.00
1,781.00
-
-
^
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
6.49
31.50
5.03
14.25
42.73
2,000.00
129.80
630.00
100.60
285.00
854.60
365.40
46.28
162.45
538.40
58
46
57
63
00
.CO
l-H
100.00
2,000.00
1,110.53
-
36 AGRICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jau.
Analyses of Fodder Articles fed, etc. — Concluded,
Corn Fodder.
[Mostly stalks ; left uneaten by the cows during experiment.]
s
o
|.i
a o
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
~ o .
£ o
6
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
53.70
46.30
1,074.00
926 00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
3.44
39.31
2.83
6.47
47.95
2,000.00
68.80
786.20
56.60
129.40
959.00
566.06
42.45
94.46
642.53
72
75
73
67
^2
100.00
2,000.00
1,345.50
-
Corn Stover.
[Mostly stalks ; left uneaten by the cows during experiment.]
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
^ i
s
s
Moisture at 100- C, .
Dry matter.
62.85
37.15
1,257.00
743.00
-
-
'
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
2.36
37.52
3.50
5.94
50.68
2,000.00
47.20
750.40
70.00
118.80
1,013.60
540.29
52.50
86.72
679.11
72
75
73
67
o
CO
I— (
100.00
2,000.00
1,358.62
-
^
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 37
Summary of Feeding Experiments with Milch Cows.
(November, 1885, to May, 1889.)
Fodder Corn^ Corn Stover and Corn Ensilage vs. English Hay.
In preceding communications it will be found that some
years ago, November, 1885, a series of observations with milch
cows was inaugurated at our institution, for the purpose of
securing, under well-defined circumstances, information
needed to assist in answering the following questions : —
1. What is the comparative feeding effect of dry fodder
corn, of dry corn stover, and of a good corn ensilage, when
used in part or in the whole as a substitute for English hay
(upland meadow hay) in the daily diet of milch cows, and
also that of a good root crop in place of corn ensilage ; the
amount and kind of grain feed remaining, for obvious reasons,
the same under otherwise corresponding circumstances ?
2. What is the total cost, as well as the net cost of the
daily feed per head in case of different fodder combinations
used ; making in all cases alike an allowance of a loss of
twenty per cent, of the fertilizing constituents contained in
the feed consumed, in consequence of the sale of the milk?
3. What is the commercial value, at current market
rates, of the manurial refuse obtainable in the case of
diflerent fodder combinations used as daily diet for the
support of cows, assuming that eighty per cent, of the value
of the fertilizing constituents contained in the fodder con-
sumed can be secured to the farm by a careful management ?
The results of experiments carried on in this connection
during a number of months of the years 1885, 1886, 1887
and 1888, have already been described in detail in our
respective annual reports and periodical bulletins. More
recent observations in the same direction are reported upon
some preceding pages.
As a careful consideration of all our results to date leads
practically to the same conclusions, the subsequent final
summary of our work has been prepared with a view of
enabling, as far as practicable, all parties interested in our
special line of inquiry into the economy of milk production
to draw their own conclusions, and to ascertain for them-
selves whether the stand-point taken in our several reports,
of progress, is justifiable by the facts presented.
38 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Eh
W *
I— I Co
p^ Co
W "^
)^ ^
Q ^"^
O
Q
M
O
H
•(spnnod)
«5 0
GO oq
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!>; -* CM
5ini<L JO }JBnti
jad patnnsuoo
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oi c^ c^
III
paajl au;u! janBiv
-# 0
CO <N X)
Xj(X jo lunoray
't 0
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aqj ui suoijBUBA
T-H i-H
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aad paaj jo }soa
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paajjojsooiBjox
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—J i-H
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En .
o 2
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
39
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40 AGRICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
A short discussion of the most important facts presented
in the preceding tabular statement may assist in a desirable
appreciation of the questions involved.
During our first year of observation, November, 1885, to
July, 1886, either corn meal and wheat bran or wheat bran
alone served as grain feed ; wdiile, during the succeeding
years, as a rule, the same w^eight parts of corn meal, wheat
bran and gluten meal were fed.
The above-stated variations of daily yield of milk refer
to the highest and lowest yield in each case, and do not bear
a direct relation to any particular diet. •
The valuation of the fodder ingredients is based in this
connection on the average of the local market price per ton
of each article for the entire period of observation.
Corn meal,
$22 75
Fodder com, .
. $5 OQ
Wheat bran,
21 00
Corn stover.
5 00
Gluten meal, .
24 50
Corn ensilage, .
2 75
Hay,. . . .
15 00
Carrots, .
7 00
Rowen,
15 00
1 J •
Sugar beets,
5 CO
J_' J A —
The commercial valuation of the fertilizing constituents
contained in each fodder article is based om the following
market prices : i. e,, nitrogen (per pound), 17 cents ; phos-
phoric acid, 6 cents ; and potassium oxide, 4| cents. Eighty
per cent, of the entire amount of fertilizing constituents
contained in the fodder consumed is considered obtainable
by proper management, while twenty per cent, is assumed
to be sold with the milk.
Principal Daily Fodder Rations used.
November.^ 1885, to July, 1886.
2.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs.
Wheat bran,
3.25 "
Wheat bran,
3.25 "
Hay
21.75 "
Hay, .
10.00 "
Total cost, .
23.43 cts.
Corn stover.
8.00 «
Net cost.
15.43 "
Total cost, .
16.62 cts
Manurial value obtain-
Net cost.
10.04 "
able.
8.00 "
Manurial value obtain-
Nutritive ratio, .
1 : 8.02
able.
6.58 "
Nutritive ratio, .
. 1 : 7.83
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 33.
41
Principal Daily Fodder Rations used — Continued.
3. 4.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs
Wheat bran.
3.25 "
Wheat bran.
3.25 "
Hay
5 00 "
Hay
15.00 "
Corn stover.
12.75 "
Sugar beets.
27.00 "
Total cost, .
14.06 cts.
Total cost, .
25.12 cts
Net cost.
7.83 "
Net cost.
17.10 "
Manurial value obtain-
Manurial value obtain-
able,
6 23 "
able.
8.02 "
Nutritive ratio, .
1 : 7.81
Nutritive ratio, .
1 : 7.20
Wheat bran.
3.25 lbs.
Wheat bran.
3.25 lbs
Hay, . . . .
Sugar beets.
Total cost, .
15.00 "
27.00 "
21.41 cts.
Hay
Sugar beets.
Total cost, .
15.00 "
40.00 "
24.66 cts
Net cost.
14.31 "
Net cost.
16.66 »
Manurial value obtain-
Manurial value obtain-
able,
7.10 "
able,
8.00 "
Nutritive ratio, .
1 : 6.93
Nutritive ratio, .
1 : 6.81
October, 1886, to April, 1SS7.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs
Wheat bran.
3.25 "
Wheat bran.
3.25 "
Gluten meal.
3.25 "
Gluten meal.
. '.' 3.25 "
Hay
18.75 "
Hay, . .
. 5.00 "
Total cost, .
25.14 cts.
Corn ensilage
, . . 34.00 "
Net cost,
15.77 "
Total cost, .
. 19 60 cts
Manurial value obtain-
Net cost.
. 11.62 "
able.
9.37 "
Manurial value obtain-
Nuti-itiye ratio, . . 1
:6.11
able,
7.98 "
Nutritive ratio, . . 1 : 6.12
Corn meal, .
9
3.25 lbs.
Wheat bran.
3.25 "
Gluten meal.
3.25 "
Hay, . .
10.00 "
Carrots,
38.00 "
Total cost, .
31.89 cts.
Net cost.
23.05 "
Manurial value obtainable,
8.84 "
Nutritive ratio,
1:5.99
42 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Principal Daily Fodder Rations used — Concluded.
January to May, 1S88.
10.
11.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs
Wheat bran,
3.25 "
Wheat bran.
3.25 "
Gluten meal,
3.25 "
Gluten meal.
3.25 "
Fodder corn.
17.75 "
Corn stover,
17.25 "
Total cost, .
15.53 cts.
Total cost, .
15.40 cts
Net cost.
7.54 "
Net cost.
7.44 "
Manm-ial value obtain-
Manurial value obtain-
able.
7.99 «
able.
7.96 »
Nutritive ratio, .
1:582
Nutritive ratio, .
1 : 5.98
12.
Corn meal, .
Wheat bran.
Gluten meal.
Hay, . .
Corn ensilage.
Total cost, .
Net cost,
Manurial value obtainable.
Nutritive ratio, .
3.25 lbs.
3:25 "
3.25 "
10.00 "
21.75 "
21.64 cts.
13.15 "
8.49 "
1:6.12
November, 1888, to May, 1889.
13.
14.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs.
Corn meal, .
3.25 lbs
Wheat bran,
3.25 "
Wheat bran,
3.25 "
Gluten meal,
3.25 "
Gluten meal,
3.25 "
Hay, . . . .
10.00 "
Rowen,
19.50 "
Sugar beets.
47.25 "
Total cost, .
25.72 cts
Total cost, .
30 40 cts.
Net co.st.
13.51 "
Net cost.
20.22 "
Manurial value obtain-
Manurial value obtain-
able.
12.21 "
able.
10.18 "
Nutritive ratio, .
1 : 5.06
Nutritive ratio, .
1 : 5.56
Fodder rations Nos. 8, 8, 10, U and 14 deserve particular
attention for trials. The remainder, although in some in-
stances not without special interest, are published to illustrate
our essential variations in the daily diet used.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
43
Tabular Statement of the Cost per Day op the Above-
mentioned P"'oDDER Combinations.
Total Cost.
Net Cost.
Manurial Value
Obtainable.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
No. 1
23.43
15.43
8.00
" 2,
16.62
10 04
6.58
" 3,
14.06
7.83
6.23
" 4,
25.12
17.10
8.02
" 5,
21.41
14.31
7.10
" 6,
24.66
16.66
8.00
" 7,
25.14
15.77
9.37
" 8,
19.60
11.62
7.98
" 9,
31.89
23.05
8.84
" 10,
15.75
7.54
7.99
" 11,
15.40
7.44
7.96
" 12,
21.64
13 15
8.49
" 13,
,
30.40
20.22
10.18
" 14,
25.72
13.51
12.21
Considering the previously described fodder combinations
from a mere financial stand-point, they rank, with reference
to their net cost, beginning with the lowest, as follows :
11, 10, 3, 2, 8, 12, 14, 5, 1, 7, 6, 4, 13, 9. A close in-
quiry into the character of the coarser or bulky part of the
various fodder compositions cannot fail to show that, wherever
fodder corn, corn stover or corn ensilage have been fed in
part or in the whole as a substitute for English hay, in con-
nection with the same kind and amount of grain feed, the
commercial value of the manurial refuse obtainable has been
])ut slightly if any affected ; while the net cost of the daily
feed of the animals on trial has been materially reduced
(from one-third to one-half) ^ It seems scarcely necessary
to mention, here, that only equally well-prepared fodder
articles are considered in the discussion.
Sugar beets compare well, as far as net cost is concerned,
with good corn ensilage, when fed in quantities of from
twenty to twenty-five pounds of the former in place of from
thirty to thirty-five pounds of the latter.
In view of these facts, it becomes a question of first
importance to ascertain to what extent it will be judicious,
as far as their commercial feed value is concerned, to advo-
44 AGRrCULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
cate the substitution of dry fodder corn, corn stover and a
good corn ensilage for English hay in the daily diet of dairy
stock.
It is generally admitted that the present condition of the
market for dairy products calls for the closest investigation
of every point which bears on the cost of the production of
milk ; and it will be not less conceded, that next in impor-
tance to the selection of cows of good milking qualities comes
the consideration of the cost of their daily diet.
Net Cost- of Feed.
The actual cost of a daily diet for any kind of farm live
stock does not alone depend on the temporary market cost
of a given quantity of the various ingredients which consti-
tute the daily fodder rations, but also in a controlling degree
upon the quantity of some essential articles of plant food (in
particular of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potassium oxide)
which they contain, and the amount of these which may be
secured in some definite proportion in form of manurial
refuse, after the fodder has served its purpose for the sup-
port of the life and the functions of the animal which con-
sumes it. As has been already stated on previous occasions,
the net cost of a daily diet is ascertained by deducting from
the sum of the market price of its ingredients, the sum
expressing the commercial value of their manurial con-
stituents obtainable in each particular case. This circum-
stance deserves, for obvious reasons, the most serious
consideration on the part of farmers, when choosing from
among the various suitable fodder articles oifered for their
patronage, those for a daily diet of their fiirm live stock
which will ultimately prove the cheapest in their position,
in consequence of the higher commercial value of the manu-
rial refuse they furnish.
It becomes the more important to select with that view
in mind ; as the fluctuations in the local market price of oil
cakes, gluten meal, corn meal, wheat bran and of similar
refuse materials (by-products) of flour mills, glucose works,
starch works, breweries, etc., are, as a rule, liable to be
more frequent and more serious than in case of home-raised
coarse or bulky fodder articles, as English hay, corn stover,
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
45
corn ensilage, etc. The commercial value of the manurial
refuse obtainable from the first-named class, in case of corre-
sponding weights and under similar circumstances, exceeds
quite frequently from two to three times that obtainable in
case of the latter.
Applying this standard of valuation to our feeding experi-
ments, we notice the folio wino^ relations : —
Fodder Articles used during our Feeding Experiments.
Value of Manu-
Market Price
Relative Net Cost
Name of Article.
rial Constituents
per Ton.
per Ton.
per Ton.
English hay, ....
$15 00
$5 58
$10 54
Rowen (dry), ....
15 00
9 83
7 14
Fodder corn (dry), .
5 00
4 53
1 38
Corn stover (dry), .
5 00
3 21
2 43
Corn ensilage, ....
2 75
1 56
1 50
Corn meal, ....
21 90
6 51
16 69
Wheat bran, . , . .
20 70
13 64
9 79
Gluten meal, ....
23 40
15 23
11 22
Considering our entire feeding experiments, 1885 to 1889,
we find that corn meal has cost per ton $22.75, wheat bran
$21, and gluten meal $24.50. The latter sells to-day at $23
per ton, corn meal at $19, and wheat bran at $16.50. The
market price of hay, corn stover, etc., has practically
remained the same, as far as the same season of the year is
concerned. Serious variations in the market price of our
fodder articles not infrequently advise changes from one
article to another of a similar character and composition.
At present local market prices of feed stufis, hay and corn
meal are very costly fodder articles ; the same applies to
carrots.
Feeding Value or Nutritive Value of Fodder Articles.
From preceding remarks it will be apparent that we have
secured a satisfactory basis for our guidance to decide the
relative money value of current fodder articles, as well as
that of an entire diet. Quite different, however, is our
situation, when the determination of their relative feeding
46 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
value is involved ; for it is an undeniable fact that the rela-
tive commercial value of fodder articles does not necessarily
coincide with their relative feeding value ; it rarely does.
This circumstance arises from the fact that both are deter-
mined by different standards. The commercial or money
value of fodder articles, as far as they enter the general
market, is regulated like that of other articles of merchan-
dise, by supply and demand ; the greater the former and the
less the latter, the lower is the market price, etc. ; the
relative money value of a given quantity can be expressed
for the same locality by one definite sum.
The feeding value or nutritive value of a fodder article
refers especially to its feeding eftect ; it depends usually
on the co-operation of a series of varying conditions, some-
times more or less beyond our control. Foremost among
these are : —
1. A higher degree of adaptation with reference to par-
ticular kind and organization of the animal under consider-
ation ; its age and functions, etc.
2. The chemical composition and the general physical
conditions, depending on stage of growth, mechanical prepa-
ration, etc., of the fodder ingredients to be used.
3. Whether the article constitutes the sole diet, or
serves as a more or less prominent part of the daily diet.
The feeding eftect of most fodder articles is more or less
modified by, and thus in a controlling degree dependent on,
the character of the associated ingredients in the daily diet.
These few remarks sufiice to show that the comparative
feeding value of one and the same fodder article, even when
of a stable composition, cannot be fully expressed by one
numerical value. The practice of stating the comparative
feedins: value of current fodder articles with reference to that
of good English hay equal to 100, has been for years aban-
doned, as devoid of any substantial support. There is no
single fodder article on record which furnishes the best diet —
^. e., the cheapest and at the same time most nutritive
food — for even the same class of animals, under differ-
ent circumstances. Both net cost of feed and its relative
nutritive or feeding effect under existing circumstances, have
to be consulted when aimin«: at an economical diet for farm
1890] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 47
live stock. Actual feeding experiments, under well-defined
circumstances, alone can give us the desired informa-
tion.
Although much needs still to be done in this direction to
recognize in many instances more clearly the principles which
underlie a successful practice, it must be admitted that some
valuable facts have been already established in regard to a
rational and thus economical system of stock feeding, by
European investigators and others, which can serve advan-
tageously as guides in compounding economical fodder com-
binations for all kinds of farm live stock. The economy of
milk production, in particular, has received much attention.
European investigators recommend in this connection quite
generally a daily diet, rich in digestible nitrogenous constit-
uents, as l)eneficial to the general condition of cows, and at
the same time reducing the net cost of the feed consumed, by
furnishing larger quantities of valuable home-made manure
at the lowest market cost. The European standard for a
daily diet of milch cows calls for one part of digestible nitrog-
enous fodder constituents to five and four-tenths parts of
digestible non-nitrogenous food constituents. Our results,
on the whole, point in the same direction. The nitrogenous
food constituents of the fodder rations received special
attention.
The main interest of our inquiry, however, consists in the
partial or entire successful substitution, under otherwise
corresponding circumstances, of dry fodder corn or corn
stover or corn ensilage for English hay, as far as net cost of
feed and quality and quantity of milk are concerned. The
results of former years of observation are already on record
in our respective annual reports ; they lead to the same con-
clusions as those stated in the introduction to our latest
experiment, described in preceding pages. The net cost of
the daily feed during our late experiment has been reported in
that connection. The quality of the milk and cream obtained
on that occasion may be learned from the subsequent tabular
creamery records of the station. (See "Feeding Experi-
ment," chapter IV., creamery record of the Massachusetts
State Agricultural Experiment Station during the years
1885 to 1889, contained in this report.)
48 AGRICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
II. Feeding Experiments with Milch Cows ; Green
Crops vs. English Hay. June 19 to Oct. 22, 1889.
The first experiment in this direction was instituted in
1887, for the purpose of comparing the feeding effects of
good English hay with that of some reputed green fodders.
The green crops selected for our observation consisted of a
mixed crop of oats and vetch, of Southern cow-pea and of
serradella.
1887. — Five cows were engaged in the trial. Two cows
were fed with a daily fodder ration consisting of corn meal,
3^ pounds (2 quarts) ; wheat bran, 31 pounds (4 quarts) ;
English hay, 20 to 24 pounds. The excess of hay left over
was weighed back and subsequently deducted from the orig-
inal quantity (about i to ^ pound per day).
Three cows received periodically the above-stated daily
rations, and alternately the following : corn meal, 3| pounds ;
wheat bran, 3i pounds; English hay, 5 pounds; and as
much of either green vetch and oats, green Southern cow-
pea or green serradella, as the individual animal would con-
sume. They consumed per day, on an average, from 64 to
65 pounds of green vetch and oats ; of green Southern cow-
pea, 96 to 97 pounds ; and in case of green serradella, from
97 to 98 pounds. The feeding of the green crop commenced
in every instance with the l^eginning of the 1)looming period.
The rate of consumption of green crops decreased gradually
with the progress of their growth.
The feeding of the different green fodders, in place of
three-fourths of the customary daily rations of English hay,
gave, on the whole, very satisfactory results. For details,
we have to refer to the fifth annual report of the station.
1888. — The experiment Avas repeated with some modifi-
cations. A mixed crop of vetch and oats, of Southern cow-
pea and of serradella, was raised for that purpose. The
latter crop suffered seriously from blight, and was not fit for
feeding.
The quantity of green fodder fed at stated times was
somewhat less in pounds than in the trial during the
preceding year, on account of the addition of gluten meal
to the fodder ration of that year. The daily diet (1888)
1890. 1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 49
consisted of corn meal, 3^ pounds ; wheat l)ran, 3^ pounds ;
gluten meal, 3| pounds ; English hay, 5 pounds ; and as
much vetch and oats or cow-pea as the animal would
consume, which amounted, in the case of green vetch and
oats, to from 54 to 68 pounds ; and in that of green
Southern cow-pea, from 70 to 80 pounds. One-fourth (five
pounds) of the ordinary daily hay ration was retained in our
green fodder diet, for the purpose of preventing disorders in
the digestion of a liberal quantity of green fodder.
The nutritive ratio of the green fodder diet was a closer
one than on former occasions, varying from 1 : 4.5 to 1 : 5.5.
The nutritive eflect was very satisfactory, for the animals,
without exception, maintnined their original weight ; the
yield of milk was in every instance somewhat raised, and
the quality of the milk was equal to the best, as far as one
and the same animal was concerned. The net cost of the
feed for the production of one quart of milk was in most
instances lower than in case of a whole English hay ration.
The cost of green fodder is based on that of hay, $15
per ton ; allowing two tons of hay, with fifteen per cent, of
moisture, as the average produce of English hay per acre.
This mode of valuation has been adopted, as on previous
occasions, on account of the entire absence of market prices,
as far as green vetch, cow-pea and serradella are concerned.
These crops, as a rule, rank higher in the scale of an agri-
cultural valuation than the meadow grass.
Valuation i)er Ton of the Fodder Articles. (1888.)
Corn meal,
. $21 00
Vetch and oats (green) , .
12 75
Corn and cob meal, .
. 20 70
Cow-pea (green), .
3 14
Wheat bran.
. 22 50
Serradella (green), .
3 16
Gluten meal, .
. 22 50
Rowen, . . . .
15 00
English hay.
. 15 00
1889. — Six cows at a time served in the trial ; the obser-
vation began in June and closed in October, 1889. The
course adopted during the preceding year was adhered to
in every essential point. The daily diet consisted of S^
pounds each of corn meal, wheat bran and gluten meal, with
5 pounds of hay, and all the green vetch and oats, green
cow-pea or green serradella called for by each individual
50 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
cow. The amount actually consumed per day varied in
case of vetch and oats from 30 to 55 pounds ; of cow-pea.,
from 66 to 84 pounds ; and, in case of serradella, from 63 to
85 pounds ; showing luit little preference for one as compared
with the others. The difference in the daily consumption
of the green fodders was due largely to their variations in
dry vegetable matter during the progress of the experiment.
The experiment was sub-divided into live feeding periods,
beginning and ending with a hay fodder ration. The daily
waste of coarse feed amounted per head to four pounds in
case of oats and vetch, to two pounds in case of serradella,
to one and one-half pounds in case of cow-pea ; and, in case
of hay, to one-half pound.
The results obtained fully sustain the conclusions pre-
sented in our previous reports, namely : —
1. The weight of dry vegetable matter contained in the
feed consumed for the production of one quart of milk is
less in case of the green fodder rations than in the hay
ration ; indicating a superior nutritive value of the former,
as compared with the latter.
2. The yield of milk is in every instance increased,
when changing from a hay ration to a green fodder ration.
3. The quality of milk is but slightly altered in case of
different cows ; the solids in some instances are slightly
increased, in others they are slightly decreased. The
creamery record, as will l)e seen from subsequent ab-
stracts, is very satisfactory in case of the green fodder
rations.
4. The net cost of feed for the production of milk is in
every instance less in case of green fodder rations than in
the hay ration.
5. The weight of the animal has in most instances in-
creased towards the close of the experiment.
Valuation of Fodder Articles for (he Months of June to October of the
Year 1889.
Per Ton.
Per Ton.
Corn meal.
. $19 00
Cow-pea, .
. 13 14
Wheat bran,
. 18 50
Serradella,
3 16
Gluten meal, .
. 22 00
Hay, .
. 15 00
Vetch and oats,
2 75
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
51
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52 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
to O
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
53
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54 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
55
alio JO uoijonpojj JOj
pso^ JO ;so3 aSiu3AV
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l>. O t^ 'C ^
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56 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
'«
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o
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auo JO noijonpojj^ joj
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Lbs.
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June 19 to Jiuie 27, .
July 2 to July 15, ... .
Sei)t. 1 to Sept. 10, .
Sept. 15 to Sept. 27
Oct. 4 to Oct. 22, .
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCOIEXT— Xo. 33.
Di
Valuation of Essential Fertilizing Constituents contained in the
Various Articles of Fodder xtsed.
Nitrogen, 17 cents per pound; phosphoric acid, 6 cents; potassium oxide.
4i cents. (1889.)
[Per cent.]
<
d
'^
n
—
s
:.
X
S
=
r
—
•r.
—
C
~
=.
-3
=
z.
■s
>.
i:
S
kl
-
-
-
z
>
'-
X
Moisture,
13.290
10.92
10.19
9.48
78 26
83.07
83.65
Nitrogen,
1.-564
2.447
4.230
1.463
.268
.304
.470
Phosphoric acid, .
.720
2.900
.392
.303
.112
.098
.112
Potassium oxide, .
.434
1.637
.049
1.350
.324
.172
.178
Valuation per 2,000 lbs..
$6 57
S13 27
814 90
§6 55
%\ 34
f 1 31
.$1 89
Xet Cost of IEilk axd Manukial Value of Feed.
Jcsf^ic.
'^ ~-z
'-5 r i
'- "5
•^:=
^r=.
Z ~ —
> ~-H = =
— =
C =■£
< —
FF.F.DTXG PF.RTODS.
» X
— ___
— " Ti-w ^
z ~
- = 3
«— —
^11
^ "x i
T.Z^ Z^
1:-Z ■
5£:o'
■5 =
iCS
^%C
Oj S
~ — — •^- c-
-r£S
■^■=0
® w
>
s
Z
z
18S9.
Cents.
Lbs.
June 19 to Jvme 27, .
12 13
§0 98
$0 78
11 35
1.38
838.
Julv 2 to Julv 15. .
2 81
1 48
1 18
1 63
1.10
840
Sept. 1 to Sept. 10, .
2 67
1 2S
1 02
1 65
1.41
810
Sept. 15 to Sept. 27, .
3 51
2 00
1 60
1 91
1.34
820
Oct. 4 to Oct. 22, .
4 64
2 30
1 84
2 80
1.55
888
Total,
?15 76
f 8 04
?6 42
19 34
-
-
Flora.
June 19 to June 24, .
July 2 to July 15, .
Sept. 1 to Sept. 10, .
Sept 15 to Sept. 27, .
Oct. 4 to Oct. 22, .
ai 43
2 46
2 61
3 38
4 37
§0 71
1 30
1 26
1 92
2 18
|0 57
1 04
1 01 :
1 54 1
1 74
$0 86
1 42
1 60
1 84 !
2 63
1.22
1.01
1.18
1.21
1.29
952
905
938
933
1,000
Total,
114 25
§( b<
s5 ^"'0
§8 35
-
-
58 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Net Cost of Milk and Manurial Value of Feed — Concluded.
Eva.
■3 W)
bp^^
of
ct-
'er
the
o o
S °:S
a
o "^
|3g
sg
.FEEDING PERIODS.
^•3
kJoC
>%l%
-oi
olg
•<;2h
3 S-5
nPn 5ij3
o—' J
^26
boo
go
H
3
"A
S5
^
1889.
Cents.
Lbs.
June 19 to June 24, .
$2 03
$0 94
$0 75
fl 28
1.42
1,046
July 2 to July 15, .
2 82
1 48
1 18
1 64
1.19
1,030
Sept. 1 to Sept. 10, .
2 65
1 27
1 02
1 63
1.43
1,030
Sept. 15 to Sept. 27, .
3 44
1 96
1 57
1 87
158
1,038
Oct. 4 to Oct. 22, .
4 58
2 27
1 82
2 76
1.77
1,109
Total,
$15 52
|7 92
$6 34
$9 18
-
-
Annie.
June 19 to June 27, .
Sept. 1 to Sept. 10, .
Sept. 15 to Sept. 27, .
Oct. 4 to Oct. 22, .
$1 95
2 38
3 04
4 30
$0 91
1 16
1 72
2 15
$0 73
93
1 38
1 72
fl 22
1 45
1 66
2 58
1.35
1.36
1.41
1.62
915
888
896
976
Total,
$11 67
$5 94
$4 76
$6 91
-
-
Elsie.
June 19 to June 27, .
July 2 to July 15, .
Sept. 1 to Sept. 10, .
Sept. 15 to Sept. 27, .
Oct. 4 to Oct. 22, .
f2 22
2 94
2 43
3 33
4 68
fl 01
1 54
1 18
1 89
2 31
fO 81
1 23
94
1 51
1 85
fl 41
1 71
1 49
1 82
2 83
1.48
1.19
1.50
1.52
1.75
1,150
1,142
1,134
1,148
1,210
Total,
$15 60
f7 93
f6 34
$9 26
-
-
Juno.
July 2 to July 15, .
Sept. 1 to Sept. 10, .
Sept. 15 to Sept. 27, .
Oct. 4 to Oct. 22, .
f2 83
2 49
3 42
4 93
$1 48
1 20
1 95
2 42
fl 18
96
1 56
1 94
fl 65
1 53
1 86
2 99
.80
1.04
1.11
1.29
990
1,010
978
1,046
Total,
$13 67
$7 05
f5 64
$8 03
-
-
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
59
Analyses of Milk.
[Per cent.]
Jessie.
1889.
June 25.
July 16.
Sept. 12.
Sept. 24.
Oct. 15.
Solids, ....
14.76
15.03
13.90
15.43
14.74
Fat,
5.36
6.32
4.74
5.56
5.33
Solids not fat, .
9.41
9.71
9.16
9.87
9.41
Flora.
Solids,
Fat, .
Solids not fat,
15.56
13.33
12.46
14.11
4.78
3.76
3.33
4.36
10.78
9.57
9.13
9.75
13.35
4.10
925
Eva.
Solids, .
Fat, .
Solids not fat,
14.79
15.06
14.07
16.25
4.89
5.13
4.65
6.00
9.90
9.93
9.42
10.25
16.25
6.10
10.15
Annie.
Solids, .
Fat, .
Solids not fat.
14.18
14.20
14.12
15.71
4.39
4.65
4.55
5.12
9.79
9.55
9.57
10.59
15.68
5.18
10.50
Elsie.
Solids,
Fat, .
Solids not fat.
12.70
13.05
12.29
13.33
3.45
3.52
3.42
5.17
9.25
9.53
8.87
8.16
12.82
3.55
9.27
Juno.
Solids, .
Fat, .
Solids not fat,
12.53
11.35
12.87
2.93
2.78
4.11
9.60
8.57
8.76
13.22
4.03
9.19
60 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Composition of Fodder Articles fed during this Experiment.
Corn Meal {Average).
i
o
Constituenta (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
1 V<
^ '-5 =
£ °
>
'u
!2i
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
13.29
86.71
265.80
1,734.20
_
_
1
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
1.67
1.69
4.04
11.00
81.60
2,000.00
33.40
33.80
80.80
220.00
1,632.00
11.49
61.41
187.00
1,534.08
34
76
85
94
1—1
100.00
2,000.00 1,793.98
-
J
Wheat Bran {Average).
« 3
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
3
S5
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter.
10.92
89.08
218.40
1,781.60
_
1
>!
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
7.00
11.52
5.43
17.17
58.88
2,000.00
140.00
230.40
108.60
343.40
1,177-60
46.08
86.88
302.19
942.08
20
80
88
80
05
i-H
100.00
2,000.00
1,377.23
-
J
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
61
OoMPOSiTiON OF Fodder Articles, etc. — Continued.
Gluten Meal {Average).
o
O
Ml c
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2.000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
1 Vh
o g s
o
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
10.19
89.81
203.80
1,796.20
-
—
\
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" jji-otein (nitrogenous
matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
.57
.56
6.40
29.45
63.02
2,000.00
11.40
11.20
128.00
589.00
1,260.40
3.81
97.28
500.65
1,184.78
34
. 76
85
94
CO
CO
> oi
T-H
100.00
2,000.00
1,786.52
J
Hay {Average).
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
~ o
53 soCJ
6
a
M
•A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
9.48
90.50
189.60
1,810.40
-
-
\
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
7.12
33.22
2.30
10.09
47.27
2,000.00
142.40
664.40
46.00
201.80
945.40
385.35
21.16
115.03
595.60
58
46
57
63
Ci
>00
i-H
100.00
2,000.00
1,117.14
-
^
62 AGRICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Composition of Fodder Articles, etc. — Coyitinued.
Vetch and Oats.
[Experiment Station, 1889.]
1
i
Q
■2 .2
i °
Ph
Constituents (in
Pound") in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Cm
6
«
>
1
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
78.26
1,565.20
\
Dry matter,
21.74
434.80
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
4.53
90.60
to
" cellulose, .
36.22
724.40
-
-
H
" fat, ....
2.53
50.60
25.30
50
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
7.72
154.40
92.64
60
1-H
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, . . . '.
49.00
980.00
980.00
100
100.00
2,000.00
1,097.94
-
)
Cow-21
ea.
[Exp
eriment Stf
ition, 1889.]
a
o
O
5 o
1 ^ ■
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Per Cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
6
«
>
3
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
83.07
1,661.40
]
Dry matter,
16.93
338.60
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
7.35
147.00
CO
" cellulose, .
21.87
437.40
205.58
47
I't^
" fat, ....
2.99
59.80
35.28
59
1-1
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
11.24
224.80
134.88
60
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
56. .55
1,131.00
712.53
69
100.00
2,000.00
1,088.27
-
J
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
G3
Composition of Fodder Articles, etc. — Concluded.
Serradella.
[Experiment Station, 1889.]
G
o
o
« o
O o
Eh
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Per Cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
6
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
83.65
16.35
1,673 00
327.00
_
'
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
8.94
25.92
2.38
17.97
44.79
2,000.00
178.80
518.40
47.60
359.40
895.80
28.56
226.42
895.80
60
63
100
100.00
2,000.00
1,150.78
-
^
Vetch and Oats. (1889.)
[Left uneaten by the cows during experiment.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Drv matter, .
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, .......
" cellulose, ......
" fat,
" i)rotein (nitrogenous matter), .
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
Per Cent.
4.94
95.06
100.00
4.61
36.72
1.79
10.52
46.36
100.00
64 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
III. Record of Twelve Cows which served at the
Station for Experiments to ascertain the Cost
OF Feed for the Production of Milk.
When entering at this station upon the task of ascertaining
the cost of feed for the production of milk (1884), it was
decided to begin the inquiry with cows of moderate milking
qualities. Grades of all kinds of breeds were to serve for
that purpose. A selection from that class of cows, at the
outset of our observation, promised to prove of a special
interest, not only on account of their large representation in
our dairy stock, but also for the particular chance which our
final results would offer to draw more directly the line where
milk production ceases to be a profitable business. The
material for the subsequent report has been carefully col-
lected during a period of several years. The results, it is
true, are obtained under somewhat exceptional circum-
stances ; yet their detailed description cannot fail to show
more clearly the financial relation of milk production to a
system of a mixed farm management.
The cows which served in our trials were in every
instance secured a few days after calving. They were sold
to the butcher usually when their daily yield of milk fell
below from five to six quarts, to make room for a new-milch
cow. The cost of the different animals varied from fifty-five
to seventy-two dollars each ; they sold at the close of their
trial for from twenty-five to thirty-seven dollars each.
The management of the entire experiment was conducted
with a view to promote the general health of the animals on
trial. Two cows had lost in weight during the experiment,
and ten had gained more or less. The change from one diet
to another was as a rule a gradual one.
The temporary change in the composition of the daily diet
was mainly confined to the coarser and bulky fodder ingre-
dients. English hay, dry fodder corn, corn stover, corn
ensilage and roots, besides some small quantity of various
dried fodder crops, incidental to some field experiments with
forage crops, were fed during the latter part of autumn, the
winter and the spring ; while several green crops, as oats or
barley and vetch, scrradella and cow-peas, were substituted
during the summer and part of the fall season. The several
previously named fodder cro})8 served in the majority of
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 65
cases either in part or in the whole as substitutes for English
hay.
The daily rations of grain fed consisted throughout the
entire period, in all cases alike, substantially of the same
materials; namely, corn meal or corn and cob meal, and
wheat bran, which were supplemented, in the majority of
instances, more or less by gluten meal, to secure as far as
practicable the desired comparative nutritive character of
the diet. The daily diet per head consisted of from eighteen
to twenty or more pounds of hay, or its equivalent in part
or in the whole of dry vegetable matter of the above-
mentioned bulky fodder articles, and from six and one-half
to nine and three-quarters pounds of grain feed, usually com-
posed of corn meal or corn and cob meal, and wheat bran,
with or without gluten meal (three and one-fourth pounds).
The ruling local average market price of each fodder
article has been used for the determination of the cost of
feed consumed. The estimates of fertilizing constituents
contained in the various fodder articles used are based on
our own analysis, and on their local market price during the
past year. Twenty per cent, loss of the fertilizing constit-
uents contained in the feed has been allowed for thfe amount
sold with the milk.
The period of observation varied, in case of different cows,
from 261 to 747 days ; the average daily yield of milk per
head for the whole period of observation varied from 7.7 to
12.4 quarts.
Three cents per quart of milk produced has been adopted
as the average price realized for the entire year, in case of
milk contracts in our vicinity.
The essential details of our observations are subsequently
recorded in tabular form, under the following headings : —
1. History of cows.
2. Statement of the amount of each kind of fodder ingredients
consumed by each animal, with total cost of feed for period of
observation.
3. Local market value per ton of each fodder article used.
4. Value of essential fertilizing constituents contained in the
various articles of fodder consumed.
5. Summary of financial record of cows.
6. Some conclusions suggested by the financial record=
66 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
a
t^
•(spanoj)
noiiBAjasqo Jo osoio
!« [Buiiuv;o5q3!OjV\^.>A!'-i
833
970
838
880
1,025
1,152
1,102
1,000
1,011
1,185
990
1,115
i-i"
•(spnnoj) nop
p: iBmta y Jo iqSia^iiaAtT
809
931
911
891
849
1,018
995
978
885
1,132
817
964
■(Bia«n^) noipiAJosqojo
s-'f «a 008 !tsj!^ .10; Xv.a
jadjfnj^Jopiaixa^Bia.vv
t-COO5C-lC-lf--ClC0C0l^Ti*Ol
0;
OrH.-.O'MOICOOOMM'-'M
•(s}.ren^) noiiuA
-J3sqo JO b.Cbq 008 IBJi^i
-to; JlllH JO piaiA IKJOX
3,213.3
3,486.3
3,571.5
3,063.5
3,653 3*
3,623.8*
4,176.8
2,496.0
3,996.3
4,106.5
3,419.0
3,866 5
3,556.1
•(SJJBn^) UO!)T!A.l38qO
ajpng; 3aunp Xy(i jod
^HH JO PP!A oSu.ioAy
Oa>05C-l-*'COl-ID^>0IM
"^
00'-Ci'MC-lC^lr~ — <MO— '
•(ajjcnf)) uoiiBA
-jasqo JO aso|o 51; Av.q
aad Jii!J5jopia!^^.)Si!.iaAV
OiOliO^OOmcOWr-CO'-OrH
-
(0t--O00ClOC0»-'O:D0>t-.
•(9}.iT!n?)) qiuopj;
qjnifj gui.mp Xvq .lad
^I!n JO PiajA aSiMSAV
(MC10CJ>i-COOO'MmooC-)OCO
CO
C^ -
00)t~OOG100)MC^OOIi-.
•(swun^) uonuAJosqo
JO Sainu^ag 5^ ^bq ••^d
5inH JO PPIA 8B«.ISAV
■n i~ ff-j r- lo !M 1- 0 0 en 10 ;o
CI
CS
CD CO 0 r) 0 1- 0 0 i~ 00 -f -(•
•(81.IT!nf))
noiiB.uasqo ^ u ! ' " P
51 im JO PiaiA' l«tox
3,724.3
4,063.5
3,613.5
3,124.6
3,446.5
3,233.8
6,023.3
2,527.8
6,779 0
4,.557.8
7,843.5
6,366 6
1
•pajlina sjCbq jo jaqtnn^
t-t-OCJt~COOCOCCCDTtcO
CO CO CO M C-l C4 0 « >« :o I- o
^
•ainijudao; Jo a^cQ
1
Oct. 31, 1885
Oct. 31, 1885
St'pt. 16, 1886
Sept. 19, 1886
May 3, 1887
May 3, 1887
June 22, 1888
Jan. 3, 1367
Dec. 22, 1888
Jan. 19, 1889
June 28, 1889
Mar. 1, 1889
•ItJAUjy JO a^BQ
Oct. 23, 1884
Oct. 23, 1884
Nov. 17, 1885
Nov. 17, 1885
July 30, 1886
Aug. 16,1886
Feb. 5, 1887
Feb. 7, 1887
May 17, 1887
Jan. 16, 1888
June 13, 1887
Aug. 11, 1887
•J[t!0 ?8BT
1
1
Oct. 17, 1884
Oct. 15, 1884
Nov. 10, 1885
Nov. 6, ]88.'S
July 14, 1886
Aug. 2,1886
Feb. 1, 1887
Feb. 3, 1887
May 3, 1887
Jan. 5,1888
June 6, 1887
Aug. 5, 1887
•
j -sdAiBO JO jaqtunjyT
•* Tji eo CO <N CO (M -* ■* CO CO t- 1
•(sapciO) poa.ia
Jersey, .
Ayrshire,
Ayrshire,
Ayrshire,
Ayrshire,
Devon, .
Native, .
Durham,
Ayrshire,
Durham,
Jersey, .
Dutch, .
NAME AND AGE OF
COW.
oc « t- i- 0 t; US I- 1- m X 0
a
2
p
<
rtO^MT|nO»l-CC3>0<-"N
;890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
G7
a
I
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's^
o
ft
2 i
s
o >c o oocooo o o oo
0(MC^«0>r3COpO o p CO
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in
o
CO
oico icoooco o oo oo o
p C^ CM C^ IC o p c p p op p p o
tDt--^coi"ttOT*<ci'*iC| 1 1 1 iOi-*oi itdsji^
CO_'C -* P.O ^ C CC r)<_ 0)_ '^'"1. '^ ■-'
r-T CM rt'cc'c^Tr^' cf cm" CM'^3' €©■
2 i
3
Q
o >c: o c o o o o ic o o o o co
CMCMO) iCiCOpOCM p p pp CO
CMt-^ci|-*-)^«o'=ccii 1 I'l I--I i-^i 1 ci r-i oj
O^"— 't— 'CO'C^COiO O GO 00 ^
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S
O'OiCOOOOO'CO O oo O 'O
lO CM t-. p p p p la ri CM irr tc p p o
cot^QO'ricotdo-fOt^i 1 1 1 |0 locc^ i i i— ■ iio
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i^popcMpio OlC
lOiiCCD-^iOQOtOj 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t lOit-^
t^'t^ioocMco'cs' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 'ro'co
p^Ci.— ICOOCM_ .-^'O
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oo
7.
Lizzie.
0>0»^OOi^iC»COO O
>CCMt>;OiCt^CMCMpp ifl
CO M O tt -H 3C CO CO CM 30 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ci
C-^OCO«Ot^^CO>— — 1^' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' •— 1
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t^'co' 'co'co'c^co' 'oco'-^COl^' ' 'Oi
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i:ii|j-i = iisirj-g|irillf
00^^-=" = 000--'»5cSc5i>l'o--Oc;0
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H
68 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jaa.
3. Local Market Value per Ton of tJie Various Articles of
Fodder used.
Corn and cob meal,
;
20 70
Wheat bran, .
.
.
21 50
Rye middlings,
,
.
2150
Gluten meal, .
•
23 00
Hay
%\b 00
Vetch and oats (green), .
f2 75
Rowen,
15 00
Vetch (green).
3 50
Corn fodder, •.
5 00
Serradella (green), .
3 16
Corn stover,
6 00
Cow-pea (green), .
3 li
Corn ensilage, .
2 25
Barley and horse bean
Millet (dry), .
12 00
(green),
3 00
Lucerne and vetch (dry)
12 00
Potatoes, ....
6 67
Lucei-ne and clover (diy)
12 00
Carrots, ....
7 00
Oats (dry), .
12 00
Sugar beets,
5 00
Oats (green), .
3 60
4. Valuation of the Essential Fertilizing Constituents contained
in the Various Articles of Fodder used.
Nitrogen, 16^ cents per pound ; pbosphoric acid, 6 cents ; potassium oxide, 4| cents.
[Per cent.]
rhosphoric
Potassium
Valuation
Nitrogen.
Acid.
Oxide.
per Ton.
Corn meal,
1.86
0.77
0.45
$7 44
Corn and cob meal,
1.46
0.603
0.441
5 91
Wheat bran, .
2 82
3.05
1.49
14 24
Rye middlings.
1.81
1.26
0.81
8 27
Gluten meal, .
5.22
0.40
0.05
17 75
Hay, . . .
1.25
0.464
2.085
6 46
Rowen, .
1.93
0.364
2.86
9 24
Corn fodder (dry).
1.37
0.368
0.355
5 26
Corn stover (dry).
0.78
0.09
0.599
3 19
Corn ensilage,
0.36
0.14
0.33
1 64
Millet (dry), .
1.106
0.38
2.49
6 23
Lucerne and vetch (diT^
,
202
0.70
2.273
9 44
Lucerne and clover (dr}
),
2.06
0.623
1.805
9 08
Oats (dry), .
1.47
0.51
2.41
7 51
Oats (gi-een),.
0.33
0.1.55
0.68
1 85
Vetch and oats (green).
0.23
0 09
0.79
1 54
Vetch (green).
0.49
020
0.66
2 42
Serradella (green).
0.411
0.14
0.423
1 89
Cow-pea (green), .
0.561
0.098
0.306
2 23
Barley and beans (gi-eei
^).
0.50
0.20
0.40
2 23
Potatoes,
0.476
0.18
0.56
2 18
Carrots, .
0.14
O.IO
0.54
1 04
Sugar beets, .
0.29
0.03
0.18
1 15
1800.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
69
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1. Bessie, .
2. Lady Horace,
3. Daisy (1),
4. Mollie, .
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7. Lizzie, .
8. Ida,
9. Minnie, .
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11. May, .
12. Melia, .
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23 38
21.5i
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11.06
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12.91
cents.
12.33
cents.
8.81
cents.
3.52
cents.
70 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Average cost of cow (twelve) , $G2 29
Average selling price of cow,
Average of total cost of feed per clay, ....
Average product jser day for entire observation, per
head, . .
Average of net cost of feed per day, ....
Average of value received above net cost of feed and of
cow, per day,
Average of value received in form of manure, pev day,
Average of value received in form of cash, per day,
The average yield of milk at the end of the ninth month,
since day of calving, was sixty-one per cent, of original yield.
The shrinkage in the temporary market value of cow varies
from five to eleven and four-tenths cents per day, and aver-
ages eight cents per head in our case.
The net cost of the feed consumed is obtained by deduct-
ing eighty per cent, of the current commercial value of the
essential fertilizing constituents contained in the feed from
the market cost of the feed. See —
Bessie.
Mai'ket value of feed consumed, f ,59 00
Value of manure obtainable, 22 27
Net cost of feed, ........ f 3G 73
The total value olitaincd for the feed consumed is ascer-
tained by adding the value secured from the sale of milk
produced to the commercial value represented in the manure
obtainable. See —
Bessie.
Value of milk sold, ......... $111 73
Value of eighty i)er cent, of the manurial substances in the
feed, 22 27
Total value obtained from feed consumed, . . . flS-l 00
The total value secured from any individual cow, after net
cost of feed and of cow has been accounted for, is represented
by subtracting the sum resulting from the addition of the
difierence between the original cost of the cow and its selling
price, and of the total cost of feed consumed, from the total
value obtained in form of milk and manurial refuse. See —
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 71
Bessie.
Original cost of cow, $G5 00
Selling price of cow, 2o 00
Difference, $40 00
Loss on cow, . . $40 00
Total cost of feed, . 59 00
f99 00
Total value obtained from feed, $134 00
Total cost of feed and loss on cow, ...... 99 00
Net return for feed, $35 00
It seems to be scarcely necessary to add that the above
estimates refer only to the cost of feed and of the cow, and
do not include cost of labor, housing, interest and risk of
life of animal, etc.
6. Some Conclusions suggested hy the Preceding Finan-
cial Record.
1. The total value received above net cost of feed and of
cow does in no instance exceed 15.97 cents per day; its
average in eleven cases is 13,02 cents. There is an actual
loss of 1.2 cents per day in one case (No. 8), where the
average daily yield of milk for the entire period of observa-
tion (331 days) is as low as 7.7 quarts.
2. The total value received above net cost of feed and of
cow consists in every instance in a controlling degree on the
manure obtainable. In No. 8 it prevents a serious loss,
while in No. 4 it represents practically the entire gain; in
some instances it amounts to from three-fourths to two-
thirds (Nos. 12 and 3), and in none as low as one-half of the
total value secured.
3. As the value of the manure depends in a controlling
deijree on the amount of fertilizino- constituents contained in
the feed, it becomes apparent that this point ought to be
seriously considered when selecting suitable fodder articles
for a remunerative daily diet of dairy cows. The table con-
taining the valuation of the essential fertilizing constituents
of the fodder articles used in our experiments is very sug-
72 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
gestivc in this connection, when compared with the preceding
statements of respective market prices of tlie latter.
4. Recognizing the correctness of the preceding conclu-
sion, it is evident that the most serious attention ought to be
bestowed on collecting and preserving the manurial refuse
obtained in connection with the production of milk ; for it
depends largely on a judicious management of that matter,
how much of the stated manurial value will be actually
secured. The lial)ility of a loss in the manurial value of the
refuse matter renders it advisable, for financial reasons, not
to depend on too close a margin of cash returns.
5. Although it will be conceded that the dairy cow,
aside from the special service, is a most important factor in
mixed farm management, as far as an economical disposition
of home-raised fodder crops and a liberal production of
home-made manure are concerned, yet, when reduced to a
mere manure-producing medium, this value may l)e well
questioned from a financial stand-point.
6. A cow whose total milk record averages not more
than from seven to eight quarts per day, judging from our
own conditions, promises to prove a better investment when
prepared fov the meat market than when constituting a
liberal proportion of the stock kept for supplying the general
milk market at stated prices.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 73
IV. Creamery Record of the Station during the
Years 1887, 1888 and 1889; and Some Obser-
vations MADE DURING ViSITS TO THE PaTRONS OF
Two Creameries in Our Vicinity.
In preceding pages has been stated the financial record of
twelve cows, grades which had served during past years for
feeding experiments at the station. It was stated in that
connection that the primary object at that time was to test
the comparative merits of corn fodder, corn stover, corn
ensilage and root crops, in the whole or in part, as circum-
stances advised, as substitutes for a good meadow hay, as
far as quantity, quality and cost of production of milk are
concerned. The cows selected for that investigation, were,
for stated reasons, of moderate milking qualities. Our
financial records, although obtained under somewhat excep-
tional circumstances, are published with full recognition of
that point, considering them not without some interest to
others studying the financial side of the dairy industry in its
varying aspects.
The subsequent communication contains a discussion of
our creamery record, which covers, to a considerable extent,
tlie time when the above-mentioned milk record was obtained.
The milk was weighed at the station, and the cream secured
and measured by means of a Cooley creamery apparatus.
A copy of the daily record was kept in our dairy room
by the agent of the creamery. Two quarts of milk used
daily for family purposes are accounted for in our' calcula-
tions of total- results. Analyses of milk were made where
a change of daily diet rendered it advisable.
The cost of feed consumed is based on the same market
price of the various ingredients as was adopted in the pre-
ceding milk record. The same is true in regard to the
valuation of the whole milk, — three cents per quart. The
estimates of the value of fertilizino; ing-redients contained in
the feed are also l)ased upon those given in connection with
the preceding milk record.
The value of cream is that granted us from month to
month by our local creamery association. The station has
74 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
no other connection with the financial management of the
creamery.
Our presentation of financial results is based on the local
cost of feed alone, and does not consider interest on invest-
ment and labor involved ; for the reason that approximate
estimates on these points are in an exceptional degree
dependent on quality of stock, and varying local circum-
stances. The details are embodied in a few subsequent
tallies under the folio wino;'headino;s : —
1. Statement of articles of fodder used.
2. Record of average quality of milk and of fodder rations.
3. Value of cream produced at creamery basis of valuation.
4. Cost of skim-milk at the selling price of three cents per
quart of whole milk.
5. Fertilizing constituents of cream.
6. Some conclusions suggested by the records.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 33.
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
79
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80 AGRICULTUEAL EXPEEIMENT STATION. [Jan.
3. Value of Cream produced at Creajiery Basis op Valuation.
■d
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1887.
January, ....
$16 21
$9 69
$0 27
$6 79
$17 24.
February,
40 39
17 76
69
23 32
38 85
Marcli, .
46 93
27 10
71
20 54
40 20
April, .'
46 34
22 68
57
24 23
31 14
May,
33 02
15 31
61
21 32
32 47
June,
37 57
16 87
66
21 36
30 03
July, .
36 42
16 93
59
20 08
27 69
August,
41 09
14 94
68
26 83
35 91
September,
45 48
22 54
69
23 63
36 30
October,
46 21
20 66
64
26 19
36 30
November,
47 97
27 02
52
21 47
29 48
December,
47 01
25 08
69
22 53
35 23
Averages,
$10 60
$19 72
$0 61
$21 52
$32 57
1SS8.
Janiinry,
$43 53
$21 42
$0 76
$22 87
$15 76
February,
32 51
20 05
73
13 19
44 00
March, .
3.") 44
20 05
69
16 08
40 91
April, .
31 71
19 19
65
13 17
35 99
May, .
47 06
22 63
65
2.5 08
34 23
June, .
42 G9
20 11
58
23 16
28 67
July, .
39 66
20 63
63
19 66
30 94
August,
40 66
23 64
61
17 63
32 48
September,
39 57
21 42
57
18 72
32 02
October,
45 15
22 44
62
23 33
35 92
November,
36 95
21 03
64
16 56
37 67
December,
29 82
17 97
59
12 44
34 67
Averages,
$!8 73
$20 b8
$0 61
$18 49
$36 11
1889.
January,
$52 21
$21 23
$0 06
$31 64
$40 60
February,
33 86
19 15
63
15 34
36 19
Marcli, .
48 14
21 77
75
27 11
42 48
April, .
46 17
23 40
78
23 55
42 84
May, .
47 28
27 23
83
20 88
39 28
June, .
44 21
23 98
72
20 95
33 06
July, .
43 63
25 28
76
19 11
31 92
August,
•45 44
27 54
76
18 66
36 33
September, .
48 01
28 08
73
20 66
38 25
October,
37 21
23 47
71
14 45
39 06
Averages
$4i 62
$24 11
$0 73
$21 24
$38 31
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
Cost of Skim-milk at the Selling Price of Three Cents
Per Quart for Whole Milk.
1
c
a
o
o
a
Quaits of Cream (One
Quart equals 3.4
Spaces).
I
a
O
u
p. •
a £
B §,
Value of Cream per
Quart of Milk
(Cents).
i
o
o
3
>
Cost of Skim- milk
per Quart (Wliole
Milk at Three Cents
per Quart).
a
'S
O
O
1887.
Cents.
January,
976.2
445
130.9
845.3
3.88
1.76
$17 24
1.43
$12 05
February, .
2,093.1
1,036
304.7
1,788.4
3.75
1.86
38 85
1.34
23 94
March, .
2,352.7
1,072
315.3
2,037.4
3.75
1.71
40 20
1.43
30 38
April, .
2,083.4
8.59
252.6
1,830.8
3.63
1..50
31 14
1.71
31 36
May, . .
1,729.0
962
282.9
1,440.1
3.38
1.88
32 47
1.34
19 40
June, .
1,818.7
1,001
294.4
1,524.3
3.00
1.65
30 03
1.61
24 53
July, . .
1,749.7
886
260.6
1,489.1
3.13
1.58
27 69
1.67
24 80
August,
1,772.6
1,026
301.8
1,470.8
3.50
2.03
35 91
1.17
17 27
September, .
1,.808.4
1,037
305.0
1,503.4
3.50
2.01
36 30
1.19
17 95
October,
1,574.4
968
284.7
1,289.7
3.75
2.31
36 30
0.85
10 93
November, .
1,.545.6
786
231.2
1,314.4
3.75
1.91
29 48
1.28
16 89
December, .
1,522.3
909
267.3
1,255.0
3.88
2.31
35 23
0.83
10 44
Averages, .
1,752.2
916
269.3
1,482.9
3.58
1.89
$32 57
1.32
$19 99
1888.
January,
1,807.5
1,144
336.5
1,471.0
4.00
2.53
$45 76
0.58
$8 47
February, .
1,925 8
1,100
323.5
1,602.3
4.00
2.28
44 00
0.86
13 7"
March, .
1,794.5
1,049
308.5
1,486.0
3.90
2.28
40 91
0.87
12 93
April, .
1,702.5
986
290.0
1,412.5
3.65
2.11
35 99
1.07
15 09
May, .
1,6.38.1
978
287.6
1,3.50.5
3.50
2 10
34 23
1.10
14 91
June, .
1,553.9
882
259.4
1,294.5
3.25
1.85
28 67
1.39
17 95
July, .
1,841.5
952
280.0
1,561.5
3.25
1.68
30 94
1.56
24 31
August,
1,696.9
928
272.9
1,424.0
3.50
1.91
32 48
1.29
18 43
September, .
1,. 580.1
854
251.2
1,328.9
3.75
2.03
32 02
1.16
15 3S
October,
1,606.8
933
274.4
1,. 332.4
3.85
2.24
35 92
1.00
12 28
November, .
1.576.0
966
284.1
1,291.9
4.00
2.39
37 67
0.74
9 61
December, .
1,270.3
889
261.5
1,008.8
4.00
2.73
34 67
0.34
3 44
Averages, .
1,666.2
972
285.8
1,380.4
3.72
2.18
$36 11
1.00
$13 8S
1889.
January,
1,791.1
1,015
298.5
1,492.6
4.00
2.27
$40 60
0.88
$13 13
February,
1,680.0
965
283.8
1,396.2
3.75
2.15
36 19
1.02
14 21
March, .
1,895.0
1,148
337.6
1,557.4
3.70
2.24
42 48
0.92
14 3T
April, .
1,931.6
1,190
350.0
1,581.6
3.60
2.22
42 84
0.96
15 11
May,
2,025.2
1,267
372.6
1,652.6
3.10
1.94
39 28
1.30
21 4S
June, .
1,785.6
1,102
32^.1
1,461.5
3.00
1.85
33 06
1.40
20 51,
July,
2,001.2
1,164
342.4
1,6.58.8
3.00
1.74
34 96
1.51
25 12
August,
1,991.9
1,172
344.7
1,647.2
3.10
1.82
36 33
1.42
23 43
September, .
1,856 0
1,125
330.9
1,525.1
3.40
2.06
38 25
1.14
17 43
October,
1.665.0
1,085
319.1
1,345 9
3.60
2.35
39 06
0.81
10 89
Averages, .
1,862.3
1,123
330.4
1,.531.9
3.43
2.06
$38 31
1.14
$17 5T
82 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
5, Fertilizing Constituents of Cream.
[Average analysis.]
Per Cent
Moisture at 100° C 75.22
Niti'ogeii (IC J cents per pound), .54
Potassium oxide (41 cents i^er pound), ..... .123
Phosphoric acid (G cents i^er pound), .168
6, Some Conclusions drawn from the Preceding Records.
1. The relative proportion of digestible nitrogenous and
non-nitrogenous constituents consumed diflfers on the whole
in a larger degree during the year 1887 than in 1888. Dur-
ing one-half of the year 1887 it ranged above 1 : 8.5 ; during
the year 1888 it reached 1 : 7.3 in only one case, and for six
of the remaining months it was below 1 : 6 (nutritive ratio).
In 1889 it was in one case only 1 : 6.59, while in all others
it resembled quite closely those of the preceding year. The
different nutritive ratios averaged, for the year 1887, 1 : 7.08 ;
for the year 1888, 1 : 6.00 ; for the year 1889, 1 : 5.80.
2. The amount of fat in the milk varied, during the year
1887, from 3.45 to 4.50 per cent., with an average of 4.00
per cent. ; during the year 1888 it varied from 3.14 to 4.86
per cent., with an average of 3.97 per cent. ; while during
the year 1889 it varied from 3.90 to 4.72 per cent., with an
average of 4.37 per cent.
3. The quantity of milk, in quarts, required to produce
one space of cream, during the year 1887, varied from 2.42
to 1.63, and amounted, on the average, to 1.93 quarts for the
entire year; during the year 1888 it varied from 1.93 to
1.43, averaging for the year 1.72 quarts; and during the
year 1889 it varied from 1.76 to 1.53 quarts, with an average
of 1.66 quarts.
4. The value received for one space of cream during the
year 1887 varied from 3.00 to 3.88 cents, with an average
of 3.58 cents ; during the year 1888 from 3.25 to 4.00 cents
were received for each space, with an average of 3.72 cents ;
which would equal 12.17 cents per quart of cream for 1887
and 12.65 cents for 1888. During the year 1889 the money
value allowed by the creamery for one space of cream varied
from 3.00 to 4.00 cents, Avith an average of 3.43 cents, or
11.66 cents per quart.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 83
5. The total cost of feed consumed for the production of
one quart of cream amounted for the year 1887 to 15.09
cents, for the year 1888 to 13.55 cents, and for the year
1889 the same as in 1888.
6. The value of fertilizing constituents which are lost to
the farm by the sale of cream produced, amounted, accord-
ing to the analyses of our cream, during the year 1887 to
3.09 per cent., during 1888 to 3.65 per cent., and in 1889
to 3.03 per cent., of the total fertilizing value of the feed.
From these figures it will be seen that in selling the cream
from the farm much less fertilizing constituents are lost to
the farm than in selling the whole milk. A loss of twenty
per cent, of the fertilizing constituents contained in the feed
has been allowed in our previous publications, when selling
the whole milk. The statement of net cost of feed, as com-
pared Avith that of its total cost, refers to the original cost of
the feed less the value of fertilizing constituents obtainable
in manure.
7. The net cost of feed consumed per quart of cream
(1 quart =: 3.4 spaces) averaged, for the year 1887, 8 cents ;
for the year 1888, 6.47 cents, and for the year 1889, 6.4
cents. As we obtained 12.17 cents per quart of cream dur-
ing 1887, 12.65 cents during 1888, and 11.5 cents in 1889,
we secured a profit above net cost of feed of 4.17 cents per
quart in 1887; in the year 1888, 6.18 cents; and in 1889,
5.1 cents, for the same quantity.
8. We produced, during the year 1887, 1,752.2 quarts
of whole milk per month; during the year 1888, 1,662.2
quarts; and in 1889, 1,862.3 quarts. It required, on an
average, 6.51 quarts of whole milk to produce one quart of
cream during 1887, 5.83 quarts during 1888, and 5.64 quarts
during 1889. We secured, on an average per month during
1887, 1 ,482.9 quarts of skim-milk and 269.3 quarts of cream ;
in 1888, 1,380.4 quarts of skim-milk and 285.8 quarts of
cream ; and in 1889, 1,531.9 quarts of skim-milk and 330.4
quarts of cream.
9. Counting the Avhole milk at three cents per quart,
then skim-milk has cost us, on an average, during the year
1887, 1.32 cents per quart; during the year 1888, 1.00 cent
per quart ; and in 188;", 1.14 cents per quart. The cost of
84 AGRICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
skim-milk varied considerably during difierent months of the
year, mainly on account of the changes in the valuation of
the cream. During 1887, the cost of skim-milk varied from
.83 to 1.71 cents per quart; in 1888, from .34 to 1.56 cents
per quart; and in 1889, from .81 to 1.51 cents per quart.
The feeding value of skim-milk containing 9.5 per cent,
of solids, is stated by good authority to stand in the relation
of 3.1 to 4, when compared in that respect with whole milk.
In case an average whole milk is charged at three cents per
quart, skim-milk would be worth, on the previously stated
basis, 2.33 cents. The feeding value of skim-milk, estimated
on the customary basis of 4.33 cents per pound of digestible
nitrogenous substances and of fat, and .9 cents for non-
nitrogenous substances, would amount, per gallon, to 1.91
cents.
We have bought, during the past years, creamery butter-
milk containing from 7 to 8 per cent, of solids, at 1.37 cents
per gallon. (See third annual report, page 42.) Our own
skim-milk, with 9.5 per cent, of solids, would represent, on
this basis, a value of 1.75 cents per gallon, or .44 cents per
quart.
Some Facts concerning Two Creameries.
It seemed of interest to us to learn from personal obser-
vation some facts concerning the supply of cream to some
creameries in our vicinity. By the courtesy of the officers
in charge of these establishments, Mr. Edward R. Flint,
assistant in the chemical department of the station, has been
permitted to accompany the collectors of cream at their
round trips, and to take notes as directed. He has visited
at different times all the patrons of these creameries, in all,
193 farms. Cream and butter have been repeatedly tested.
The results of our work in this connection are embodied in
a few subsequent pages.
Creamery A.
This creamery receives 350 gallons of cream per day,
from 129 farms. This is set for sixteen hours at a tempera-
ture of 64 degrees F., together with a small amount of sour
cream to hasten the ripening process. The cream is then
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
85
churned for one hour at a temperature of 64 degrees F.,
and washed twice with clear water. It is worked once, at
which time it is salted at the rate of one ounce of salt per
pound. The product of this creamery is about 4,200 pounds
per week; 6.13 spaces of cream are considered to make a
pound of butter.
Creamery B.
This creamery receives 200 gallons of cream per day,
from 64 farms. This is set in one vat for twenty-four hours,
at a temperature of 60 degrees F. It is then churned for
one hour at 65 degrees F., and w'ashed twice in the churn
with clear water. It is worked twice, 1^ ounces of salt per
pound being added when first w'orked. This creamery pro-
duces 1,850 pounds of butter per w^eek. A little less than
six spaces are considered to make a pound of butter.
Butter samples from creameries A and B show the fol-
lowing results of analysis : —
Creamery A.
Collected.
Jloistiire.
Butter Fat.
Casein.
Salt.
1889.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
Percent.
Per Cent.
September 6, .
12 35
81.54
.80
5.13
10, .
11 73
81.43
.70
6.45
16, .
12.68
81.65
.71
4.93
18, .
11.02
83.32
.51
3.97
21,.
11.04
81.79
.60
4.55
23, .
10 54
84.85
.54
4.04
25, .
12.31
82.40
.52
5.04
26, .
12.95
82.21
.60
4.63
October 28, .
12.52
82.62
.58
4.28
29, .
12.78
87.37
.55
Trace.
30, .
11.48
83.69
.64
4.30
31, . . .
11.76
82.17
.88
4.45
Average, .
11.93
82.88
.64
4.31
86 AGRICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Creamery B.
Collected.
Moisture.
Butter Fat.
Casein.
Salt.
1889.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
September 27, .
1077
84.09
.64
5.92
311, .
11.00
84.25
.56
5.60
October 1, .
9.88
83.15
.66
4.76
3,.
7.43
86.64
.58
4.53
17,.
9.22
85.00
.75
5.11
18,.
9 51
84.10
.62
5.32
21,.
11.90
84.00
.89
4 15
22,.
10.37
84.01
.63
3.61
November 1, .
9.21
86.33
.70
4.12
4, .
10.12
86,74
.72
5.90
5, .
10.14
83.51
.70
563
7, .
7.11
89.05
.62
3 96
Average, .
9.64
85.07
.66
4.72
Cream samples from creameries A and B show the follow-
ing results of analysis : —
Creamery A.
Collected.
Solids.
Fat.
Solids not Fat.
1889.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
September 6, .
24.34
16.86
7.48
10,.
23.75
16.69
7.06
16, .
24 25
17.15
7.10.
18,.
23.68
16.39
7.29
21, .
23.66
15.86
7.80
23,.
24.58
18.53
6 05
• • 25, .
24.91
13.74
11.17
26,.
23 54
15.72
7.82
October 26, .
23.38
16.51
6.87
29,.
25.17
18 70 ^
6.47
30,.
24.96
17.38
7.58
November 6, .
24.44
18.23
6.21
H, .
. 24.60
16.94
7.66
December 10, .
33.73
15.95
7.78
13, .
24.91
16.75
8.16
14,.
24.04
15.73
8.31
26, .
21.87
16 24
8.63
27,.
23 81
15.58
8.23
Average, .
24.26
16.61
7.65
1890. J
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
87
Creamery B.
Collected.
Solids.
Fat.
Solids not Fat.
1889.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
f
Per Cent.
September 27, .
22.65
15.80
6 85
oO, .
24.37
16.77
7.60
October 1, .
22.89
15.67
7.22
3, .
23 24
16.05
7.19
17, .
23.58
16.54
7.04
18, .
23.50
16.24
7.26
21, .
23.91
16.98
6.93
22, .
22.82
16.06
6.76
November 1, .
22 81
15.26
7.43
4, .
23.24
15.81
7.52
5, .
23.80
16.28
7.53
7, .
24.72
17.40
7.32
December 12, .
23.38
15.08
8.30
Average, .
23.45
16.13
7.30
Analyses of Cream from the station dairy, from samples collected during
the time of collection from the creameries, the grain feed consisting of
three and one-quarter pounds corn meal, three and one-quarter pounds
bran, and three and one-quarter pounds gluten meal ; the coarse feed
of five "pounds hay, seventy-five pounds serradella (green).
Solid.s not Fat.
1889.
Per Cent.
Percent.
Percent.
September 6, .
28 09
20.33
7.76
11,
24.65
1791
6.74
17,
?5.25
18.95
6.30
18,
27.65
20.42
7.23
21,
27 20
20.51
6.69
24,
27.27
20.16
7.11
25,
26 21
18.32
7.89
26,
26.18
17.13
9.05
Average,
26.56
19.22
7.34
88 AGEICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Summary of Britter and Cream Analyses.
Butter.
',
.^Idistiuv.
Butter Fat.
Casein. Salt.
Average of Creamery A, .
Average of Creamery B, .
Per Cent.
11.93
9.64
Per Cent.
82.88
85.07
Per Cent.
.64
.66
Per Cent.
4.31
4.72
Cream.
Solids.
Fat.
Solids not Fat
Average of Creamery A,
Average of Creamery B,
Average of Station Dairy,
Per Cent.
24.26
23.45
26.56
Per Cent.
16.61
16.13
19.22
Per Cent.
7.85
7.30
7.34
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
89
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
91
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
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102 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Summary.
Creamer}- A.
Creamery 15.
Number of farms contributing,
131, ....
62
Total spaces of cream Nov. (1 day ) ,
3,671, ....
1,668
Total spaces of cream Dec. (1 day),
3,470
1,593
Total number of cows Nov. (1 day) ,
1,013, .
483
Total number of cows Dec. (1 day).
1,033, ....
456
Lowest space per cow,* .
1 (Farm Nos. 61 and 74),
1.40 (Farm No. 9).
Highest space per cow, .
7.75 (Farm No. 82), .
7.50 (Farm No. 34).
Average spaces per cow.
3.49
3.42
Average age of cows,
0% years.
5^ years.
Average space per cow in station
dairy, 5.25.
* Excluding cases where milk is sold.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 103
V. Feeding Experimexts with Pigs.
The preceding annual report contains a summary of a
series of feeding experiments with pigs, carried on at this
station since 1884, for the purpose of ascertaining the cost
of the feed required to produce a given quantity of dressed
pork. Our first attention in this connection was directed
towards a profitable disposition of two l)y-products of the
dairy industry, — skim-milk and buttermilk from creameries.
As the daily supply of these materials varies, for ol)vious
reasons, widely on farms, it seemed advisable to devise
economical fodder rations adapted to different conditions in
that direction.
The dail}^ diet in our earlier experiments contained a more
liberal amount of milk than in our later ones. For several
years past we have raised, the M'hole year around, for every
cow on our farm, a pig for the meat market, to dispose of
our skim-milk. This course necessitated, at times, addi-
tional resources of supply of nutritious food. To meet this
requirement in an economical and profitable way, and by
means which are in the reach of every farmer, has been our
aim. How we have thus far succeeded in our endeavor, may
be ascertained from a subsequent short review of our pre-
vious course of observation. A correct interpretation of
our latest feeding experiment (X.) , which forms the principal
part of the subsequent communication, renders a brief restate-
ment of the results of our earlier experiments advisable.
During our first and second experiments (1884), skim-
milk or buttermilk or both and corn meal furnished the daily
feed. In the first experiment, the relative proportions of
skim-milk or of buttermilk and of corn meal remained the
same from the beginning to the end of the trial ; namely,
three ounces of corn meal for every quart of skim-milk
required to meet the increasing wants of the animals. The
daily average consumption per head amounted at the close
of the experiment to fourteen quarts of skim-milk and forty-
two ounces of corn meal. The nutritive character of the
daily diet remained practically the same during most of the
time of observation. It was, in the case of the buttermilk
diet, one part of digestible nitrogenous food constituents to
104 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
from 2.84 to 3.38 parts of non-nitrogenous food constituents ;
and in case of that of the skim-milk, one of the former to
from 2.50 to 2.90 of the hitter; the variations being mainly
due to the difference in the amount of solid matter in the
two kinds of milk.
In the second feeding experiment (1885), the relative pro-
portion between skim-milk or buttermilk and corn meal was
different from that in the first one. During the first period
of the second experiment, only two ounces of corn meal were
added to each quart of milk required to satisfy the animal.
As soon, however, as from six to seven quarts per head
were consumed daily, four ounces of corn meal were fed for
every quart of milk. Another increase in corn meal was
made when ten quarts of milk were called for; and again,
when twelve quarts were consumed per head. The experi-
ment closed with a daily average ration per head of from ten
to twelve quarts of milk, and from eighty to ninetj^-six
ounces of corn meal. In consequence of this course of feed-
ing, the nutritive character of the daily diet was changed
from time to time. The periodical increase of corn meal in
the daily fodder rations caused the introduction of a larger
proportion of non-nitrogenous food constituents, as starch,
sugar, fat, etc., in the diet, than of nitrogenous constituents.
The experiment began with a diet which contained one part
of digestil)le nitro2:enous constituents to 2.7 of non-nitroo-
cnous food constituents, and closed with 1:5 in case of
skim-milk and 1 : 4.5 in case of buttermilk.
The expiration of a contract with a creamery in our
vicinity deprived us, at that stage of our investigation, of a
lil)eral supply of buttermilk. A limited supply of home-
made skim-milk necessitated a modification of our feeding
system, in case that at least six pigs should be engaged in
the experiments at one time. It was therefore decided to
feed the skim-milk from our herd of six cows, in equal quan-
tities, to six growing pigs, and to supply the additional feed
from other suitable sources, including corn meal in part.
It seemed also of interest to learn whether the particular
course i)ursued in the previously descril)ed experiments of
feeding skim-milk from the home dairy with corn meal alone
could be improved on ; and, if so, in what direction. Gluten
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 105
meal and wheat bran were chosen, for various reasons, to
serve in connection with corn meal to furnisli the additional
ingredients of the diet, as soon as our milk supply became
exhausted. This course promised to serve two distinct
purposes : —
1. The rich nitroo:enous character of o;luten meal and
of wheat bran offered a chance to secure any desired change
in the nutritive character of the feed, as far as the relative
proportion of the digestiljle nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous
food constituents are concerned ; and
2. To reduce the net cost of the feed, in case they
proved to be an efficient substitute for larger quantities of
corn meal, on account of the larger quantities of certain
essential fertilizing constituents they contain.
The statement that an addition of gluten meal or of wheat
bran or both, to a diet which previously consisted only of
skim-milk and corn meal, tends to increase the commercial
value of the manurial refuse resulting, is based on the fol-
lowing considerations : —
1. The principal fertilizing elements contained in a
mixture of equal parts of gluten meal and wheat bran have
a higher market value than those contained in an equal
weight of corn meal.
2. It is admissible, for mere practical purposes, to
assume that, in raising one and the same kind of animals
to a corresponding weight, a corresponding amount of
nitrogen, of phosphoric acid, of potassium oxide, etc.,
will he retained and stored up in the growing animal.
An excess, therefore, of any or of all of the three essen-
tial fertilizing constituents previously specified, in one diet,
as compared with that of another one, counts in favor of
that particular diet as far as net cost of feed is concerned.
Although it must be acknowledged that, even in one and
the same feeding experiment, most likely no two animals
would show strictly corresponding relations in that direc-
tion, it remains not less true that it is a most commendable
practice, in a general farm management, to consider care-
fully the relative value of the fertilizmg constituents
contained in the various fodder articles which present
themselves for our choice in the compounding of suitable
106 AGRICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
fodder rations. Our allowance of a loss of thirty per cent,
of the essential fertilizinii: constituents contained in the food
consumed, in consequence of the development and growth
of the animal, is purposely a liberal one. The adoption of
this basis for our estimate tends to strengthen our conclusion
that the raising of pigs for the home market can be made a
profitable branch of farm industry, even with comparatively
limited resources of skim-milk.
The daily supply of skim-milk has not exceeded, at any
period, eight quarts of milk during our later experiments,
from the third to the ninth inclusive ; most of the time it
has been from four to five quarts per head. The relative
proportion of corn meal, wheat bran and gluten meal has
been frequently altered in case of difierent experiments, as
well as at different stages of the same experiment, with
varying results. The ninth experiment, which has been
described in detail in our sixth annual report, has been,
from an economical stand-point, thus far the most successful
one. A brief abstract of that experiment may here suffice
to show our late mode of compounding fodder rations for
pigs at different stages of growth, in connection with the
financial results we secured.
The summary includes our entire series of pig feeding
described in previous reports, and also the last one, the
tenth, which is for the first time published in detail in some
succeeding pages.
Ave7'age of Daily Bations {Experiment IX.).
^
■
s
•w
a
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n
^ C
g
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a
a
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O
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3
-
6
-
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-
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-
6
-
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-
6
-
6
56.10
6
03.00
6
April
April
INIay
May
i\Iay
June
June
July
July
July
1888.
12 to April 23,
24 to May 1,
2 to May
15 to May
29 to June
5 to June
23 to July
4 to July
10 to July
26 to Aug.
14,
28,
4,
3,
9,
25,
S,
1
6.
—
—
12.
3.47
6.94
12.
9.89
19 78
12.
10.67
21.34
12.
8.65
8.65
34.60
9.86
9.86
39.44
7.70
7.70
46.20
9.35
9.35
-
10.50
10.50
—
I.
II.
III.
IV.
1 : 2.80
1 : 2.53
1 : 3.63
1 : 4 35
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
107
Experiment IX.
Live VVeiglit of Animal.
Nutritive Ratio.
Teriod I,,
20 to 90 pounds, .
One digestible nitrogenous, 2.66 digestible
non-nitrogenous, constituents
Period 11., .
90 to 130 pounds, ,
One digestible nitrogenous, 3.62 digestible
non-nitrogenous, constituents.
Period III., .
130 to 209 pounds, .
One digestible nitrogenous, 4.35 digestible
non-nitrogenous, constituents.
The calculations included in the following summary were
based upon the following valuations per ton ; —
t
Cost.
Manurial
Value.
Corn meal,
$24 00
f7 97
Barley meal,
30 00
6 21
Skim-milk (10 per cent, solids),
1.8 cts.
gal.
2 25
Buttermilk (7 to 8 per cent, solids) , .
1.37 "
"
1 74
Corn and cob meal,
$20 70
6 06
Wheat bran,
22 50
13 51
Gluten meal, ......
22 50
17 49
108 AGRICULTaRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 109
Our observations in this connection with the management
of the above summarized ten feeding experiments, lead to
the following suggestions regarding a proper course of
raising pigs for the meat market : —
1. Begin as early as practicable, with a well-regulated
system of feeding. During the moderate season, begin
W'hen the animals have reached from eighteen to twenty
pounds in live weight ; in the colder seasons, when they
weigh from twenty-five to thirty pounds.
2. The feed for young pigs during their earlier stages of
growth ought to be somewhat bulky, to promote the exten-
sion of their dis-'estive or^'ans, and to make them thereafter
good eaters. A liberal supply of skim-milk or buttermilk,
with a periodical increase of corn meal, beginning with two
ounces of corn meal per quart of milk, has given us highly
satisfactory results.
3. Change the character of the diet, at certain stages of
growth, from a rich nitrogenous diet to that of a wider ratio
between the digestible nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous food
constituents of the feed. Begin, for instance, with two
ounces of corn meal to one quart of skim-milk ; when the
animal has reached from sixty to seventy pounds, use four
ounces per quart ; and feed six ounces of meal per quart
after its live weight amounts to from one hundred and
twenty to one hundred and thirty pounds. The superior
feeding effect noticed in case of one and the same diet dur-
ing the earlier stages of growth, will not infrequently be
found to decrease seriously during later stages.
.4. It is not good economy to raise pigs for the meat
market to an exceptionally high weight. To go beyond from
one hundred and seventy-five to one hundred and eighty
pounds is only advisable when exceptionally high market
prices for dressed pork can be secured. The quality of the
meat is also apt to be impaired by an increased deposition of
fat. The power of assimilating food and of converting it in
an economical way into an increase of live weight, decreases
with the progress of age.
5. It pays well, as far as the cost of feed is concerned,
to protect the animals against the extremes of the season.
Feeding experiments carried on during moderate seasons
are more profitable than those carried on, under otherwise
corresponding circumstances, during the winter season.
110 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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Heart,
Lungs and
Liver.
CNO'OC<JpG^l^t><pp>C'OG<ltOt^p'Op'OpGO-*
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Percent, of
Live Wciglit
lost by
Dressing.
cq«Oi-Hioco«ocooo-*pt>;'0«Dcqcq-*o
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No.
Ill
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112 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Summary.
Live weight,
Dressed weiglit, .....
Per cent, of live weight lost by dressing,
Heart,
Lungs, .
Liver,
Heart, lungs and liver, ....
IStoniacli (empty), .....
Intestinal fat,
Average
Weight
(Pounds).
201.23
165.11
17.95
.50
1.26
3.15
4.99
1.30
3.26
Xumbcr of
Pigs,
averaged.
48
48
48
32
32
82
48
26
48
The intestinal fot, as may be seen from the preceding
statement, varies from 1.75 to 6.00 pounds; its deposition,
as a rule, has rapidly increased after the animals pass above
180 to 200 pounds of live weight.
Tenth Feeding Experiment (1889).
[Skim-milk, barley meal, wheat hran and gluten meal.]
The general course pursued in the management of this
experiment is essentially the same as that adopted in the
preceding ones (VII., VIII. and IX.). The main alteration
consists in the circumstance that barley meal has been sub-
stituted for corn meal in the daily diet of the animals on trial.
Seven pigs, grades of AVhite Chester and Berkshire,
weighing from 14 to 23 pounds each at the beginning,
served for our observation. The experiment began April
23, and closed August 28, lasting thus 127 days. The live
weight gained during that period varied in case of different
animals from 1G2 to 178| pounds. The aveuage live weight
gained of the whole lot Avas 169| pounds per head, or 1.33
pounds per day. The amount of skim-milk consumed daily
per head remained practically the same, after the first week, —
five quarts. To every quart of milk required were added
two ounces of barley meal. The additional feed subsequently
needed consisted of a mixture of two M'eiglit parts of gluten
meal and one of wheat bran. At the close of the second
month of our trial, when the live weights of the various
animals amounted to from 120 to 130 pounds each, the diet
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUIVfENT — No. 33.
113
■was changed ; a mixture of four weight parts of barley meal
and one weight part each of gluten meal and wheat bran was
fed with the original quantity of skim-milk, — five quarts
daily per head. The subsequent tal)ular statement shows
more in detail the changes in the quantities of the daily fodder
rations, and also their nutritive character at difi'erent stages of
growth. The entire experiment might be divided practically
into three feeding periods : —
Live "Weight.
Kutrltive
Ratio.
Period I.,
Period II.,
Period III.,
20 to 90 pounds.
90 to 130 joounds.
130 to 200 pounds.
1 : 2.95
1:420
1:4.61
Average of Daily Bations {Experiment X.).
^
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^
^
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c
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c
2 °
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0
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<-•
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P.
P
0
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^
1889.
April 23 to May 1, .
G.
3.
-
I I
1 . 9 90
May 2 to INI ay 13,
10.
5.
-
-
May 14 to May 28,
11.
5.5
4.00
8.00
)
May 29 to June 4,
10.
5.
7.00
14.00
i II.
1:2.99
June 5 to June 17,
10.
5.
11.90
23.80
)
June 18 to July 8,
37.80
5.
9.47
9.47
I III
1-412
July 9 to July 22,
47.60
5.
11.90
11.90
July 23 to Aug. 12,
08.8O
5.
9.80
980
I IV.
1:4.61
Aug. 13 to Aug. 27,
64.20
5.
10.70
10.70
The amount of dry vegetable matter of the feed consumed
per pound of dressed pork produced varies in case of dif-
ferent animals from 3.40 to 3.81 pounds, the mean being 3.6
pounds. This result is less flivorable than those obtained in
our ninth experiment, where the amount of dry vegetable
matter consumed per pound of dressed pork obtained was
noticed to vary from 2.61 to 3.17 pounds, with an average
amount of 2.98 pounds. As both experiments were con-
114 AGEICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
ducted during the ssime period of the year, — summer
season, — the results apparently point towards a higher
nutritive eftect of the corn meal, as compared with that
of barley meal, under conditions like ours. The final
decision in this direction will be left to further trials.
The higher market price of the barley meal, as compared
with that of corn meal, at present market rates, is an addi-
tional cause of a less favorable financial result than in most
of our late experiments, from VI. to IX. inclusive. The
average net cost per pound of dressed pork, in our tenth
experiment, amounted to 4.2!) cents,
per pound. For more details, see farther on.
We received 5| cents
Market Cost of Fodder Articles used.
Barley meal, . $30.00 per ton. ] Wheat bran, . $18.50 per ton.
Skim-milk, . 1.8 cts. per gal. ] Gluten meal, . $22.00 per ton.
Vcduation of Essential Fertilizing Constituents in the Various
Articles of Fodder used.
Nitrogen, 17 cents per pound ; phosphoric acid, 6 cents ; potassium oxide, 4.^ cents.
[Per cent.]
Barley
Skim-milk.
Wheat
Meal.
Bran.
12.90
89.78
10.92
1.507
.52
2.447
.664
.19
2 900
.342
.20
1.637
$6 23
$2 17
$13 27
Gluten
Jleal.
Moisture,
Nitrogen,
Pliosphoric acid, .
Potassium oxide, .
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
10.19
4 230
.392
.049
$14 90
(1)
, ._
— _
.- —
t.
PERIODS.
o c
^ o
Sal?
0 2
1 °
2 s
:" 3
o
o
1 'Z
=•■3
O
<^ 5
— j^ o
Id
a -s
3
° ='5
I'll
1=1
- 3
— ■a
3 55
o
1889.
lb. oz.
April 23 to May 13,
11.63
93.00
-
-
1 : 2.90
23.00
41.50
14
May 14 to June 17,
2.3.62
189.00
18.69
37.38
1 : 2.99
41. .50
88.50
1 5
June IS to July 2-2,
95.64
175.00
23.91
23.91
1:4.17
88.50
135.00
1 5
July 23 to Aug. 28,
133.08
184.00
22.18
22.18
1 : 4.56
135.00
185.00
1 6
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 33.
115
Total Amount of Feed consumed from April 23 to August 28.
263.97 pounds barley meal, equal to dry matter,
641.00 quarts skim-milk, equal to diy matter,
64.78 pounds wheat bran, equal to dry matter,
83.47 pounds ghaten meal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter,
229.92 pounds.
142. IG pounds.
57.71 pounds.
74.96 pounds.
504.75 pounds.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . 23.00 pounds.
Live weight of animal at time of killing, . . . 185.00 pounds.
Live weight gained during exjjeriment, .... 162.00 pounds.
Dressed weight at time of killing, ..... 153.50 pounds.
Loss in Aveight by dressing, . . 31.50 povmds, or 17.03 i^er cent.
Dressed weight gained during exjjeriment, . . . 134.41 pounds.
Cost of Feed consumed daring Experiment.
263.97 pounds barley meal, at $30.00 per ton, ....
160.25 gallons skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
64.78 povinds wheat bran, at f 18.50 per ton, . . . .
83.47 pounds gluten meal, at $22.00 per ton, ....
3.12 pounds of dry matter fed yielded 1 pound of live weight, and
3.76 pounds of dry matter yielded 1 pound of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for jsroduction of 1 pound of dressed pork, 6.22
cents.
60
92
iS 36
(2)
1 ri
w„
, .-
•"•3
u
mI
So
J= c
53
fa
'^ O
o
"SS
t =
■sS
"S
Hf^
Bo
■^ u
PERIODS.
^ o
s "
C c
" u
o
th
H
S S'^
a -2
ill
Si; •a
0)
O — .-;
o °.a
- 3
lis
^^5
3g£
-■3 s
■~-0
>>
c o
•S3
H
H
6-
'?i
O
1880.
lb. oz.
April 23 to May 13,
11.63
93.00
-
-
1 : 2.90
25.25
45.00
15
May 14 to June 17,
23.62
189.00
18.75
37..50
1 : 2.99
45.00
94.00
1 6
June 18 to July 22,
87.36
175.00
21.84
21.84
1 : 4.09
94.00
142. .50
1 6
July 23 to Aug. 28,
137.88
184.00
22.98
22.98
1 : 4.60
142.50
199.50
1 8
Total Amount of Feed cons^imed from April 23 to August 28.
260.49 pounds barley meal, equal to dry matter, . . 226.89 jiounds.
641.00 quarts skim-milk, equal to dry matter,
63.57 pounds wheat bran, equal to dry matter,
82.32 pounds gluten meal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter,
142.16 j)ounds.
56.63 i^ounds.
73.93 pounds.
499.61 pounds.
116 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . 25.25 pounds.
Live weight of animal at time of killing, . , . 199.00 jjounds.
Live weight gained during experiment, .... 173.75 pounds-
Dressed weight at time of killing, 163.00 joounds.
Loss in weight by dressing, . . 3G.00 pounds, or 18.09 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, . . . 142.32 i^ounds.
Cost of Feed consumed during Exjyeriment.
260.49 pounds barley, meal, at f 30.00 per ton,
160.25 gallons skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
63.57 poimds wheat bran, at $18.50 per ton,
82.32 pounds gluten meal, at f 22.00 per ton.
2.88 pounds of dry matter fed yielded 1 pound of live weight, and
3.51 pounds of dry matter yielded 1 pound of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 pound of dressed pork, 5.82
cents.
$3 91
2 88
59
91
f8 29
(3)
Si
o 2
^ o
sa
o »
it
■a
o
o
«1
1^
3 Ah
■*-* '71
PEKIODS.
5 •
Is..
= «'j'
«
^v. .
J? 60
P. 3
a -g
a 1
-« = 3
>
*^ = 3
j:t. 3
S'3 3
■5«
s^-^
ra^
5^5 0-
■SgS
3
im
>
H
H
H
H
'A
O
1889.
lb. oz.
April 23 to M.ay 13,
11.(53
93.00
-
-
1:2.90
19.75
38.60
14
May 14 to June 17,
23.40
187.00
15.87
31.76
1 ; 2.99
38.50
84.00
1 5"
June 18 to July 22,
84.88
175.00
21.22
21.22
1 : 4.06
84.00
127.50
1 4
July 23 to Aug. 28,
139.60 ■
184.00
1
23.27
23.27
1:4.61
127.50
188.50
1 10
Total Amount of Feed consumed from April 23 to August 28.
259.51 pounds barley meal, equal to dry matter, . . 226.03 pounds.
639.00 quarts skim-milk, equal to dry matter,
60.36 pounds wheat bran, equal to dry matter,
76.25 pounds gluten meal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter, .
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . 19.75 pounds.
Live weight of animal at time of killing, . . . 188.50 pounds.
Live weight gained during experiment, .... 168.75 pounds.
Dressed weight at time of killing, 151.00 pounds.
Loss in weight by dressing, . . 37.50 pounds, or 19.89 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during exj^eriment, . . . 135.19 pounds.
141.71 pounds.
53.77 pounds.
68.48 pounds.
489.99 pounds.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENTING. 33.
117
Cost of Feed consumed daring Experiment
259.51 pounds barley meal, at f 30.00 per ton,
159.75 gallons skim-milk, at 1.8 cents i)or gallon,
60 36 pounds wheat bran, at $18.50 per ton,
76.25 pounds gluten meal, at f 22.00 jier ton,
2.90 pounds of dry matter fed yielded 1 pbund of live weight,
and 3.62 pounds of dry matter yielded 1 pound of dressed
weight.
Cost of feed for jJroduction of 1 j^ound of dressed pork, 6.04
cents.
(4)
$3 89
2 88
56
84
$8 17
i.1
n
•6
«| '
u
"SS
V 1
o
B^
B?
"^ *-
° o
^ o
= n
PERIODS.
3 — ^
3 °
c o
>
■^•0 S
^.5
B >°
112
S.?i-
1
■m
C IS
H
&
H
^
iz;
^
O
1889.
lb. oz.
April 23 to May 13,
11.63
93.00
-
-
1 : 2.90
23.00
42.00
14
May 14 to June 17,
23.62
189.00
18.06
36.12
1 : 2.99
42.00
92.00
1 7
June 18 to July 22,
89.64
175.00
22.41
22.41
1 : 4.11
92.00
139 50
1 6
July 23 to Aug. 28,
141.42
184.00
23.57
23.57
1 : 4.62
139.50
200.00
1 10
Total Amount of Feed consumed from April 23 to Atigust 28.
266.31 pounds barley meal, equal to dry matter, .
641.00 quarts skim-milk, equal to dry matter,
64.04 pounds wheat bran, equal to dry matter,
82.10 pounds gluten meal, equal to dry matter, .
Total amount of dry matter, ....
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment.
Live weight of animal at time of killing,
Live weight gained during experiment, .
Dressed weight at time of killing, ....
Loss in weight by dressing, . . 38.00 pounds.
Dressed, weight gained during exjjeriment, .
231 96 pounds.
142.16 pounds.
57.05 jjounds.
73.73 pounds.
504.90 pounds.
23.00 pounds.
200.00 pounds.
177.00 pounds.
162.00 pounds,
or 19.00 per cent.
. 143.37 pounds.
Cost of Feed consumed during Experiment.
266.31 pounds barley meal, at f 30.00 per ton f 3 99
160.25 gallons skim-milk, at 1 8 cents per gallon, . . . 2 88
64.04 jjounds wheat bran, at $18 50 per ton, .... 59
82.10 pounds gluten meal, at $22.00 per ton, .... 91
$8 37
118 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
2.85 pounds of dry matter fed yielded 1 pound of live weight,
and 3.o2 pounds of dry matter yielded 1 jjound of dressed
weight.
Cost of feed for i^roduction of 1 pound of dressed pork, 5.84
cents.
(5)
PERIODS.
O S
^, O
S_ •
2 a"^
S 0
s a
S 0
3 O-N
= 1
3 g
0 a
^ 0
0
p. 5
33^
a J
5=£
1
3
III
0 •S
_ 3
0
1889.
lb. oz.
April 30 to May 13,
5.75
46.00
-
-
1:2 90
18 50
30.50
14
May 14 to June 17,
21.88
175.00
17.38
34.75
1 : 2.99
30 50
83.00
1 8
June 18 to July 22,
96.36
175 00
24.09
24.09
1:4.17
83.00
135.75
1 8
July 23 to Aug. 28,
146.52
184.00
24.42
24.42
1 : 4.65
135.75
182.00
1 4
Total Amount of Feed consumed from April 30 to August 28.
270.51 pounds barley meal, equal to dry matter,
580.00 quarts skim-milk, equal to dry matter,
65.89 pounds wheat bran, equal to dry matter,
83.26 pounds gluten meal, equal to dry matter.
Total amount of dry matter.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiiueut, . 18.50 pounds.
Live weight of animal at time of killing, . . . 182.00 pounds.
Live weiglit gained during expei'imcnt, .... 163.50 jjounds.
Dressed weight at time of killing, ..... 145.50 pounds.
Loss in weight by dressing, . . 36.50 pounds, or 20 05 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, . . . 130.72 pounds.
235 61 pounds.
128 63 pounds.
58.69 pounds.
74.78 pounds.
497.71 jjounds.
Cost of Feed consumed during Experiment.
270.51 iJounds barley meal, at $30.00 per ton,
145.00 gallons skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
65.89 pounds wheat bran, at $18.50 per ton,
83 26 pounds gluten meal, at f 22.00 per ton,
3.04 pounds of dry matter fed yielded 1 ])Ound of live weight,
and 3.81 pounds of dry matter yielded 1 pound of dressed
weight.
Cost of feed for jiroduction of 1 i)Ound of dressed pork, 6.27
cents.
$4 06
2 61
♦61
92
$8 20
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
119
(6)
«i
b1>
5|
■a
03 o
3
per
riod.
V. en
2 =
o c
s-^
g„
■^ a
PERIODS.
■^ a
c o
^ o
.2
'a so
Si's
1 «
a •s
>
O .Q
.5^
2&£
112
5g<i
a
^"£
H
H
H
H
i^i
^
o
1889.
lb. oz.
April 30 to May 13,
5.75
46.00
-
-
1:2.90
14.00
25.75
13
May 14 to June 17,
21.88
175.00
13.13
26.25
1:2.98
25.75
71.50
1 5
June 18 to July 22,
89.00
175.00
22.37
22.37
1:4.11
71.50
121.00
1 7
July 23 to Aug. 28,
140.46
184.00
23.41
23.41
] :4.61
12100
177.00
1 8
Total Amount of Feed coyisumed from April 30 to August 28.
257.59 pounds barley meal, equal to dry matter, . . 224.36 pounds.
580.00 quarts skim-milk, equal to dry matter, . . 128.63 pounds.
58.91 pounds wheat bran, equal to dry matter, . . 52.48 pounds.
72 03 pounds gluten meal, equal to dry mattei-, . . 64.69 jDounds.
Total amount of dry matter, 470.16 pounds.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . 14.00 pounds.
Live weight of animal at time of killing, . . . 177.00 pounds.
Live weight gained during experiment, .... 163.00 pounds.
Dressed weight at time of killing, 141.00 pounds.
Loss in weight by dressing, . . 36.00 pounds, or 20.34 i)er cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, . . .129.85 pounds.
Cost of Feed consumed during Experiment.
"ibl.b^ pounds barley meal, at $30.00 per ton,
145.00 gallons skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, .
58.91 pounds wheat bran, at $18.50 per ton, .
72.03 pounds gluten meal, at $22.00 per ton,
$3 86
2 61
54
79
|7 80
2.88 pounds of dry matter fed yielded 1 jjound of live weight,
and 3.62 pounds of dry matter yielded 1 pound of dressed
weight.
Cost of feed for i^roduction of 1 jjound of dressed pork, 6.01
cents.
120 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
(7)
Si3
J. "3
5 3
3
= .1
«|
PERIODS.
•si
c o .
^ 3
5 '.-A
^ s
o
o
a
a"
"Z. V-
H 5-a
s i
< = =
"^ ~ 3
>
o =.5
St3 3
.s5
5 &=-
9- a
(- 5- ^
^
£5
o«'-
"o '^^^
3
Jl^ -^ s-^
.-" ^'— '
3Q
E-
H
H
^
'^
^
c
1889.
lb. oz.
April 30 t ) May 13,
5.75
46.00
-
-
1:2.90
18.75
30.25
13
May 14 to June 1",
21.88
175.00
16.41
.32.88
1:2.99
30.25
79.75
1 7
June IS to July 22,
96.12
175.00
24.03
24.03
1:4.17
79.75
134.50
1 9
July 23 to Aug. 28,
141.84
184.00
23.64
23.64
1:4.62
134.50
197..'50
1 11
Total Amount of Feed consumed from April 30 to August 28.
265.59 ijounds barley meal, equal to dry matter, . . 231.33 pounds.
580.00 quarts skim-milk, equal to dry matter,
64.11 jiounds wheat bran, equal to dry matter,
80.55 pomids gluten meal, equal to dry matter.
Total amount of dry matter, .
128.63 pounds.
57.11 jjounds.
72.34 pounds.
489.41 pounds.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . 18.75 pounds.
Live weight of animal at time of killing, . . . 197.50 pounds.
Live weight gained during experiment, . . . . 178.75 poimds.
Dressed weight at time of killing, 159.00 pounds.
Loss in weight by dressing, . . 38.50 poimds, or 19.49 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, . . . 143.91 pounds.
Cost of Feed consumed during Experiment
265.59 pounds barley meal, at $30.00 per ton,
145.00 gallons skim-milk, at 1.8 cents jjer gallon,
64.11 pounds wheat bran, at $18 50 per ton,
80.55 pounds gluten meal, at $22.00 i^er ton,
2.74 pounds of dry matter fed yielded 1 ])ound of live weight,
and 3.40 pounds of dry matter yielded 1 pound of dressed
weight.
Cost of feed, for j^roduction of 1 jJound of dressed pork, 5.61
cents.
2 61
59
89
$8 07
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
121
Summary of Experiment (X.),
■a
c
^ 3
S £
S ^
c:
B
o
= 1
3
„ 3
■a
c
« 3
1 S
O
Li voVVeigiit gained
during Experi-
ment (Pounds).
Dressed Weight
gained during
E .\ p e r i m e n t
(Pounds).
Cost per I'ound
of Dressed Pork
(Cents).
1, . . .
263.97
160.25
64.78
83.47
162.00
134.41
6.22
2, . . .
260.49
160.25
63.57
82.32
173.75
142.32
5.82
3, . . .
259.51
159.75
60.36
76.25
168.75
135.19
6 04
4, , . .
266.31
160.25
64.04
82.10
177.00
143.37
5.84
5, . . .
270.51
145.00
65.89
83.26
163.50
130.72
6.27
6, . . .
257.59
145.00
58.91
72.03
163.00
129.85
6.01
7, •.
265.59
145.00
64.11
80.55
178.75
143.91
5.61
1,843.97
1,075.50
441.66
559.98
1,186.75
959.77
-
Total Cost of Feed consumed during the Above-stated Experiment.
1,843.97 pounds barley meal, at $30.00 jjei* ton,
1,075.50 gallons skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
441.66 pomitls wheat bran, at $18.50 per ton, .
559.98 pounds gluten meal, at $22.00 per ton, .
$27
66
19
36
4 08
6
16
Average cost of feed for jiroduction of 1 pound of dressed
Ijork, 5.97 cents.
\bl 26
Manurial Value of Feed consumed during the Above-stated Experi-
ment.
Barley MeaL
Skim-milk.
Wheat Bran.
Gluten Meal.
Total.
$5 74
$10 13
$2 93
$4 17
|22 97
Manurial value of feed for production of 1 pound of dressed pork, i
2.39 cents.
Net cost of feed for the production of 1 pound of dressed pork, 4.29
cents.
122 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Barley Meal {Average).
a
c
U
5 o
Qi "iri
1 ^
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Per Cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
6
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
12.90
87.00
258.00
1,742.00
-
_ i
^
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
« fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
2.30
7.11
1.94
10.80
77.85
2,000.00
46.00
142.20
38.80
216.00
1,557.00
17.06
26.38
168.48
1,401.30
12
68
i
78
90 !
T-l
1—1
100.00
2,000.00
1,613.22
t
J
Skim-milk {Average) .
[One quart equals 2.17 pounds.]
a
to jj
5 .9
<J o
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
"1 i
6
>
'u
a
'A
Moisture at 100° C, ' .
89,78
1,795.60
_
\
Dry matter.
10.22
204.40
-
-
100.00
2,000 00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
6.85
137.00
CO
1—1
" cellulose, .
-
-
-
-
\^
" fat, ....
3.82
76.40
76.40
100
i-H
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
31.60
632.00
632.00
100
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
57.73
1,155.60
1,155.60
100
100.00
2,000.00
1,864.00
-
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
123
WJieat Bran (Average).
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
•A o .
c >-. Z
. " 3
= 3 ^
"1 §
2
«
>
3
!25
Moisture at 100" C, .
Dry matter,
10.92
89 OS
218.40
1,781.60
-
-
1
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crvide ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Xon-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
7.00
1152
5.43
17.17
58.88
2,000.00
140.00
230.40
108.60
343.40
1,177.00
46.08
86.88
302.19
942.08
20
80
88
SO
C3
CI
>eo
100.00
2,000.00
1,377.23
Gluten 3feal (Average) .
a
a
1 i
1 1
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton Of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
>
0<
Moisture af 100° C, .
Dry matter,
10.19
89.81
203.80
1,796.20
-
_
•\
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
.57
.56
6.40
29.45
63.02
2,000.00
11.40
11.20
128.00
589.00
1,260.40
3.81
97.28
500.65
1,184.78
34
76
85
94
CO
T-H
100.00
2,000.00
1,786.52
-
J
124 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
VI. Fodder Analyses. (1889.)
The majority of the analyses stated under the above
heading are made of fodder articles which have been used
either during the past year in connection with some of our
feeding experiments, or have been raised upon the grounds
•of the station. Some articles sent on by outside parties
are added, on account of the special interest they may
present to others.
In presenting these analyses, it seems but proper to call
the attention of farmers once more forcibly to a careful
consideration of the following facts.
The composition of the various articles of food used in
farm practice exerts a decided influence on the manurial
value of the animal excretions, resulting from their use in
the diet of different kinds of farm live stock. The more
potash, phosphoric acid, and, in particular, nitrogen, a
fodder contains, the more valua])le will be, under otherwise
corresponding circumstances, the manurial residue left be-
hind after it has served its purpose as a constituent of the
food consumed.
As the financial success in a mixed farm manai>:ement
depends, in a considerable degree, on the amount, the
character and the cost of the manurial refuse material
secured in connection with the special farm industry carried
on, it needs no further argument to prove that the relations
which exist between the composition of the fodder and the
value of the manure resulting deserve the careful considera-
tion df the farmer, when devising an efficient and at the same
time an economical diet for his live stock.
The higher or lower connnercial value of the manurial
refuse left behind after the feed has accomplished its pur-
pose in a satisfactory degree, decides its actual or net cost
in farm industr3^ A disregard of this circumstance renders,
in many instances, a remunerative dairying not less doubt-
ful than a profitable feeding of live stock for the meat
market.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
125
Coryi Meal.
[Amherst Mill.]
S
o
O
be =
S o
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
07 =
■p id
d
a
>
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
16.44
83.56
328.80
1,671.20
-
1
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
• " cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
2.02
2.09
3.47
12.27
80.15
2,000.00
40.40
41.80
69.40
245.40
1,603.00
14.21
52.74
208.69
1,506.82
34
76
85
94
OI
100.00
2,000.00
1,782.46
-
)
Corn Meal.
[Amherst Mill.]
a
0
Si ~
S 0
0 0
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
•l\m of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
l)le in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Per Cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
d
■a.
«
>
3
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
12.13
87.87
242.60
1,757.40
-
_
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
1.46
1.79
4.36
10.44
81,95
2,000.00
29.20
35.80
87.20
208.80
1,639.00
12.17
66.27
177.48
1,540.66
34
76
85
94 1
CO
CO
rH
100.00
2,000.00 1,796.58 - !
j
126 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Corn Meal.
[Amherst Mill.]
^^ o
•S 3 C 3
S 5 o
o >>
c 3 '
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter,
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, . . . .
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, . . . .
10.71
89.29
100.00
1.00
1.74
4.22
10.19
82.85
100.00
214.20
1,785.80
2,000.00
20.00
34.80
84.40
203 80
1,657.00
2,000 00
11.83
64.14
173.23
1,557 60
1,806.80
34
76
85
94
r-
Corn Meal.
[Amherst Mill.]
a
oo c
5 o
c is
S3 p.
Pi
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pound.s.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Per Cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
2
3
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter.
11.98
88.02
239.60
1,760.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, . , . .
1.56
1.85
4.69
31.20
37.00
93.80
12.58
71.29
34
76
t~-
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
11.79
235.80
200.43
85
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
80.11
1,602.20
1,. 506. 07
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,790.37
~ 1
1
^
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
127
Corn Meal.
[Amherst Mill.]
92.34 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
i
<y
60 g
a o
% 1
6.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
1 '^
& o
6
>
•A
Moisture at 100° C, .
13.36
_
Dry matter,
86.64
-
-
-
-
100.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
1.28
25.60
C^
" cellulose, .
2.28
45.60
15.50
34
!>o.
" fat, ....
3.18
63.60
48.34
76
1— 1
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
10.82
216.40
183.94
85
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
82.44
1,648.80
1,549.87
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,797.65
-
^
Corn Meal.
[Amherst Mill.]
a
60 S
« .2
c S
o o
a °'
Pi
Constituents (in
Pounds) In a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
g !q ^
P,
.2
a
Pi
>
IVIoisture at 100° C, .
15.61
310.20
,
_
N
Dry matter,
84.49
1,689.80
-
-:
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, . . •. .
1.60
32.00
" cellulose, .
1.74
34.80
11.83
34
■ CO
" fat, ....
4.54
90.80
69.01
76
rH
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
11.69
233.80
198.73
85
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
80.43
1,608.60
1,512.08
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,791.65
-
J
128 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Corn Meal.
[Amherst Mill.]
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
1 %-
• ^ 3
^1 i
e-(
6
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
11.32
88.68
226.40
1,773.60
-
-
\
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" i^rotein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
1.53
1.20
4.30
10.26
82.71
2,000.00
30.60
24.00
86.00
205 20
1,654.20
8.16
65.36
174.42
1,554.95
34
76
85
94
CO
> ci
100.00 2,000.00
1,802.89
-
J
Corn Meal.
[Amherst Mill.]
1.50 per cent, passed screea Hi meshes to square inch.
1
— -^ o
t •.-
V.
^^ o
^ -- cfl
o
'/I .5 '^"
"s - ==
■'
"^
M
tc s
'-' CS O
.uJ — .^
3 -a " •-;
s .ti
■■5 5 c 5
■? ~ g
O " =
o o
2 o o c
OJ ^
3 " ^ f^
S .a ;m
r; &c O
3
«
o
^
-
:zi
Moisture at 100° C, .
10.05
201.00
_
Dry matter.
89.95
1,799.00
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
1.63
32.60
—
—
I— (
" cellulose, .
1.34
26.80
9.11
34
}.d
" fat, ....
4.18
83.60
63.54
76
T-H
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
10.98
219.80
186.66
85
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
81.87
1,637.40
1,539.15
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,798.46
-
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
129
Wheat Bran.
[Amherst Mill.]
3
8
■2 .9
it
Pounds Digesti-
ble ill a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
5 ^ .•
6
3
"A
Moisture at 100^ C, .
9.57
19140
Dry matter, . . .
90.43
1,808.60
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
5.90
118.00
«r>
" cellulose, .
10.08
201.60
40.32
20
f" "*
" fat, ....
4.78
95.60
76.48
80
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
17.06
341.20
302.26
88
]Sroi>-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
62.18
1,243.60
994.88
80
100.00
2,000.00
1,413.94
)
Wheat Bran.
[Amherst Mill.]
a
o o
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble ill a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Too
d
>
3
''A
Moisture at 100° C, .
11.34
226 80
\
Dry matter,
88.66
1,773 20
-
~ i
100.00
2,000.00
-
1
1
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
6,56
131.20
_
_
O
" cellulose, .
11.27
225 40
45.08
20
!>-
" fat, ....
4.64
92.80
74.24
80
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
18.13
362.60
319.09
88
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
59.40
1,188.80
950.40
80
100.00
2,000.00
1,388.81
-
J
130 AGEICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Wheat Bran.
[Amherst Mill.]
40.11 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
i
1 «
« o
c S
£ p.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
3^i
3 -2 X
o'
»
>
'u
3
'A
Moisture at 100" C, .
Dry matter,
9..34
90.66
186.80
1,813.20
-
_
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
667
10.88
3.59
133.40
217.60
71.80
43 52
57.44
20
80
CO
CO
T-i
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
18.13
362.60
319.09
88
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
60.73
1,214.60
971.68
80
-
100.00
2,000.00
1,391.73
-
J
Wheat Bran.
[Amherst Mill.]
19.56 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
Q
1 I
Constitut'uts (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
PoiiniLs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in u Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
5%-
, .- 3
i "S =■
>
s
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter.
10.41
89.59
208.20
1,791.80
-
1
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
6.99
12.02
5.46
17.02
58.51
2,000.00
139.80
240.40
119.20
340.40
1,170.20
48.08
95.36
299.55
936.16
20
80
88
80
00
.« »!
100.00
2,000.00 1,379.15
-
J
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 33.
131
Wheat Bran.
[Amherst Mill.]
17.97 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
a
o
1 «
2 .2
04
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
=^1 5
6
a
>
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
11.42
228.40
_
>!
Dry matter,
88.58
1,771.60
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ...
7.00
140.00
t^
" cellulose, .
11.03
220.60
44.12
20
1>^
" fat, ....
5.40
108.00
86.40
80
" protein (niti'ogenous
matter) ,
17.31
346.20
304.66
88
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
59.26
1,185.20
948.16
80
100.00
2,000.00
1,383.34
-
J
Wheat Bran.
[Amherst Mill.]
a
o
O
1 ==
■*2 .2
V °-
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
o
1
>
3
•
Moisture at 10£)° C, .
8.85
177.00
-
-
^
Dry matter,
91.15
1,823.00
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
7.54
150.80
CO
CM
" cellulose, .
9.64
192.80
38.56
20
H
" fat, ....
5.16
103.20
82.52
80
1— 1
" ijrotein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
16.45
329.00
289.52
88
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
61.21
1,224.20
979.36
80
100.00
2,000.00
1,389.96
-
J
132 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Wheat Bran.
[I. sent on by T. P. Root, Barre, Mass.; II. and III. sent on by E. D. Gibson,
Asbbiirnham, Mass.]
Pkr Cent.
I.
II.
III.
Moisture at 100° C, ....
8.10
11.36
11.64
Dry matter,
91.90
88.64
88.36
100.00
100.00
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
6.89
6.98
7.42
" cellulose,
10.73
5.95
5.60
" fat,
5.40
7.49
9.43
" protein (nitroo^enous matter).
16.73
17.97
16.13
Non-nitrogenous extract matter.
60 25
61.61
61.42
100.00
100.00
100.00
Passed screen 144 meshes to square
.
inch, . .- .
29.57
24.89
16.03
Gluten Meal.
[Springfield, Mass.]
s
6
1 =
S .2
1 1
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
^ 1 =
t, s =
o'
>
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
9.49
90.51
189.80
1,810.20
•
— «
_
■\
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
.04
.27
6.69
29.87
63.13
2,000.00
.80
5.40
133.80
597.40
1,262.60
1.84
101.69
507.79
1,186.84
34
76
85
94 1
00
1-1
100.00
2,000.00
1,798.16
-
J
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
133
Gluten Meal.
[Springfield, Mass.]
50.24 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
o
O
M c
•2 .2
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
5°i
g B ^
6
V.
a
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
10.50
89 50
210.00
1,790.00
-
_
^
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, . .
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
.34
.41
7.08
29.19
62.98
2,000.00
6.80
8.20
141.60
583.80
1,259.60
2.79
107.62
496.23
1,184.02
34
76
85
94
CO
T-{
100.00
2,000.00
1,790.66
-
^
Gluten Meal.
[Springfield, Mass.]
.56.14 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
1 '^
>
1
Moisture at 100° C, .
11.29
225.80
1
Dry matter.
88.71
1,774 20
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
.73
14.60
05
■o
" cellulose, .
.69
13.80
4.69
34
}<^
" fat
4.08
81.60
62.02
76
1—1
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
30.86
617.20
524.62
85
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
63.64
1,272.80
1,196.43
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,787.76
-
;
IM AGRICULTURAL LXPEPJAIEXT STATION. [Jan.
[^KiBgfidd, Mass.]
"— SSpa^cem. passed aoBeii 144 ^tilr 5 : - -irel^'i
Mcismre at 10(P C_ . - 197^
Dryma:*^. . . .- .11 l^ii¥j
lOOjiiO 2jOC»'.>:
I
Crude ash, .' .. . . .79 lo -
maoer.
rxfract
594.40
505 24
1'>J.«X»
2JX/0M
lj»2-5i
^trfen J/eoZ.
: m Bostoa, Has.]
SI =
HoiaUire ai .i>J- C-. .
7.%S
l.S7.'>0
_
_
Dry matter.
:^i'.15
L*^3/X
-
-
IWJOO
±fJV}JVj
-
-
i
Anal^^ m Irry MaUer.
Cxude ash, .
1*2
?/)¥'
-
-
— -
'^ cjellnlose, .
_ ;.
u
J.-:
" far. .
' ~
., ; . _
_ . -7
76
^
" jootein (nitrogfeiiOiii
matta-).
41.10
822/XJ
69870
85
'Soa-vsXTOgeomis extract
'
matter, ....
-38.11
762.20
716.47
ioa/x>
2/.«00/X>
I/jS'J/J'^
-
J
1890.] PUBLIC DOCOIEVT — Xo. 33.
135
GbHem Meal.
5 H ^ .^
3 ^ =
III"
M isnrr 31 VXP C- .
9.62
Jgl2_il'
)
Dry nLuier.
9«:»j!*
lJ?*I»7.ic*J'
-
- !
1(0C» (Cmj-
%imiM
~
■
AMaijf9i$ of Dnf MaHer.
Crude ash- . .' . .
J6
19.C©
•^ cellulose, .
4-2115
S5>2«]|
3&97
-54
- —
" falL .
7^
156.4«]i
lia^
76
1 '^
" j^otein (mtrogeDaas;
24-S4
4M-S0
41S.7S
S3
1
NoD-nitrog«iaiK extract
[1
matter.
62-63
1^2-6»>
1-177 4^
.--4
I'IK'/jOi
2,iOC«0.il«0
1,733«A'Q>
-
■
1
II
= ie * -5
■c — J
Moisture at lOiF C- .
9JS0
196.00
i - 1^
9092
1^^04-00
~
- "
li(>XO«)
2,ooajoo
-
Cnide ash
1.25
^.00
II
X
•* celMoee, .
1.75
S5.o*:>
11.90
^ II
vri
-fat
7-00
140 1X>
106.40
76
n-k
** ptviein (mtrogtHKNis
matter)- . . ||
Sl-25
6^00
351^
S5
Xoatt-nitrc^nous extract "
matter," . .
---^
" ■■ 7' '.
IJiH.?*}
II
ICVA'U
2,«X">.w
1.774.CIO
-
136 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Old Process Linseed Meal.
[Springfield, Mass.]
75.52 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
a
6
be =
5 .2
o o
oiistituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
ounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
5°^
o
a
M
3
C-,
^
-
^
'A
Moisture at 100° C , .
10.46
209.20
_
_
>
Dry mattei*,
89.54
1,790.80
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Annh/sis of Dry Matter.
Cvude ash, ....
7.08
141.60
CO
" cellulose, .
8.51
170 20
44.25
26
M
" fat, ....
7.98
159.60
145.24
91
r-t
" pi-otein (nitrogenous
matter),
38.67
773.40
671.86
87
Xon-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
37.76
755.20
687.23
91
100.00
2,000.00
1,548.58
-
J
Old Process Linseed Meal (Fine) .
g
8
1 i
c S
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
1 ^
1
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
7.48
149.60
_
Dry matter,
92.52
1,850.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash
5.67
113.40
o
" cellulose, .
8.04
16.08
41.80
26
J>^
- fat, ....
7.40
148.00
134.68
91
t-H
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
37.15
743.00
646.41
87
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
41.74
834.80
759.67
91
100.00
2,000.00
1,582,56
-
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
137
Fertilizing Constituents of Old Process Linseed Meal.
Moisture at 100^ C, =
Calcium oxide, ....
Magnesium oxide,
Ferric oxide, ....
Potassium oxide (4| cents per pound)
Pliosphoric acid (6 cents per pound)
Nitrogen (17 cents per jwund), .
Insoluble matter, . . . .
Valuation per ton,
Per Cent.
7.480
.671
.827
.060
1.379
1.548
5.508
.214
$21 76
New Process Linseed Meal ( Coarse) .
i
S .2
1*
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
Per Cent, of Di-
gpstibility of
Constituents.
>
5
3
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
6.01
93.99
* 120.20
1,879.80
-
-
\
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
6.04
9.23
3.14
40.76
40.83
2,000.00
120.80
184.60
62.80
815.20
816.60
48.00
57.15
709.22
743.11
26
91
87
91 .
CO
100.00
2,000.00
1,557.48
-
^
Fertilizing Constituents of New Process Linseed Meal.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Per Cent.
6.010
Calcium oxide,
.552
Magnesium oxide, ....
.534
Ferric oxide, . . . . .
.047
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound).
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound),
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter,
1.517
1.651
6.112
.192
Valuation per ton, ....
. $24 05
138 AGRICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Linseed Meal.
[I., new process, sent on by T. P. Root, Barre, Mass.; II., old process, sent on by
S. P. Puffer, North Amherst, Mass.]
Pkr
:;ent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter,
8.58
91.42
10.43
89.57
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, .
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter), .
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, ....
100.00
7.52
10.31
3.18
32.50
46.49
100.00
8.37
9.69
6 24
30.98
44,72
100.00
100.00
Fine Feed.
[Sent on by T. P. Root, Barre, Mass.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 7.76
Dry matter, . . . . \ 92.24
Analysis of Dry Matter
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter),
Non-niti'ogenous exti-act matter.
100.00
4.60
5.81
5.59
21.58
62.42
100.00
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
139
Barley Meal.
[Springfield, Mass.]
77.86 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
a
o
Si c
2 o
p.1
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
5 °»
g s -
^1 §
Ph
6
a>
>;
3
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter.
12.19
87.81
243.80
1,756.20
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" 2)rotein (nitrogenous
matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
1.82
7.37
2.19
11.17
77.45
2,000.00
86.40
147.40
43.80
223.40
1,549.00
17.69
29.78
174.25
1,394.10
12
68
78
90
CO
'O
100.00
2,000.00
1,615.82
-
y Barley 3Ieal.
[Springfield, Mass.]
57.71 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
•
S
o
O
« .
to c
S iS
Ph
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
1 ^
"S >.§
• S ^
g B ■■§
"1 §
Ph
6
«
Pi
>
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
13.61
272.20
_
_
Dry matter.
86.39
1,727.80
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude asli, ....
2.79
,55.80
i-H
" cellulose, .
6.85
137.00
16.44
12
^oi
» fat, ....
1.69
33.80
22.95
68
tH
" protein (nitrogenous
matter) ,
10.42
208.40
162.55
78
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
78.25
1,565.00
1,408.50
90
100.00
2,000.00
1,610.44
-
/
140 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
WJiite Soja Beans.
[Bought in New York.]
a
o
o
2" «
2 °
c S
1 1
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
1 ^
o'
>
s
Moisture at 100° C, .
5.85
117.00
•
Dry matter,
94.15
1,883.00
-
_
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
5.57
111.40
t^
" cellulose, .
5.15
103.00
14.94
14.5
}^
" fat, ....
' 18 42
368.40
330.82
89.8
T-(
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
35.98
719.60
647.64
90.0
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
34.88
697.60
432.51
62.0
100.00
2,000.00
1,425.91
-
White Soja Beans.
[Experiment Station, 1888.]
o
O
« o
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
1 "W
6
«
>
'u
3
■A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter.
17.38
82.62
347.60
1,652.40
-
_
^
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ....
" cellulose, .
" fat, ....
" protein (nitrogenous
matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
5.22
5.35
21.89
33.36
34.18
2,000.00
104.40
107.00
437.80
667.20
683.60
15.52
393.74
600.48
423.83
14.5
89.8
90.0
62.0
CO
T— 1
100.00
2,000.00
1,432.97
-
J
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
141
Fertilizing Constituents of White Soja Beans.
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 17.380
Calcium oxide, .342
Magnesium oxide, .869
Ferric oxide, . . . .231
Sodium oxide, .166
Potassium oxide (4 J cents j^er pound), ..... 2.085
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound), 1.851
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), 4.409
Insoluble matter, .090
Valuation per ton, $18 98
Black Soja Beans.
[Experiment Station, 1888.]
a
o
to A
5 o
= H
Ph
Constituents (in
Pounds) in a
Ton of 2,000
Pounds.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a Ton of
2,000 Pounds.
5 ° ^
6
3
•a
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
19.27
80.73
385.40
1,614.60
-
_
\
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash
" cellulose, .
" fat
" protein (nitrogenous
matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract
matter, ....
100.00
6.73
7.57
20.25
32.58
32.87
2,000.00
134.60
151.40
405.00
651.60
657.40
21.95
363.69
586.44
407.59
14 5
89.8
90.0
62.0
00
I-H
100.00
2,000.00
1,379.67
-
J
Fertilizing Constiticents of Black Soja Beans
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide.
Ferric oxide,
Sodium oxide.
Potassium oxide (4^ cents jJer pound)
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound),
Nitrogen (17 cents j^er pound), .
Insoluble matter,
Valuation per ton, ....
Per Cent.
19.270
.495
.949
.201
.384
1.896
1.886
4.208
.095
118 18
142 AGRICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Corn " Husks" or " CJiaff."
[Sent on by C. Brigham & Co., Northborough, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter, .
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, .....
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
1.55 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
Per Cent.
13.26
86.74
100.00
2.76
18.91
1.61
5.61
71.11
100.00
Corn " Germs."
[Sent on by C. Brigham & Co., Northborough, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter,
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter),
Non-nitroo'enous extract matter, .
46.77 per cent, passed screen 144 meshes to square inch.
Per Cent.
13.02
86.98
100.00
3.09
2.25
6.01
11.20
77.45
100.00
Low Meadow Hay.
[Sent on by S. N. Thompson, Southborough, Mass.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 8.01
Dry matter, 91.99
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, 6.75
" cellulose, 35.59
" fat, 1.88
" protein (nitrogenous matter), ...... 9.51
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, 46.27
100.00
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
143
Corn Stover.
[Sent on by J. C. Dillon, Amlierst, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter, .
15.60
84.40
17.22
82.78
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, .......
" fat, ........
" protein (nitrogenovis matter), .
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, ....
100.00
8.00
38.24
1.17
7.94
44.65
100.00
4.53
28.41
1.41
6.07
60.08
100.00
100.00
' Ensilage.
[I. and II. sent on by J. N. Raymond, Beverly, Mass. ; III. sent on by B. C. Has-
kell, Boston, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
Moisture at 100° C, . . ' .
Dry matter,
80.77
19.23
78.98
21.02
79.73
20.27
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ......
" cellulose,
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract matter,
100.00
5 08
83.99
, 2.71
10.26
47.96
100.00
4.71
.33.79
1.94
7.74
51.82
100.00
3,19
28.43
3.60
7.49
57.29
100.00
100.00
100.00
Barley and Oat Chaff.
rSent on from Amherst, Mass.]
^ Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 13.49
Dry matter, .
86.51
100.00
144 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Per Cent.
Crude ash, •10.41
" cellulose, 24.30
" fat, 2.40
" protein (nitrogenous matter), . . . . . . 11.78
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, ....... 51.11
Fertilizing Constituents of Barley and Oat Chaff.
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide,
Ferric oxide, .
Sodium oxide.
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound)
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound),
Nitrogen (17 cents jDer pound), .
Insoluble matter, ....
Valuation per ton.
100.00
13.490
.853
.346
.072
.035
1.146
.409
1.650
.272
$7 07
Soja Bean {Entire Plant) ,
[Collected Aug. 26, 1889.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100°
C
6.48
Dry matter, .
93.52
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
8.55
" cellulose,
.
21.75
" fat, .
.....
6.35
" protein (nitrogenous mattei'), ....
15.10
Non-nitrogenovis extract matter, .....
. 48.25
100.00
In green material, moisture, 73.43 per cent. ; dry matter, 20.57 per cent.
Fertilizing Constituents of
Soja
Bean.
Moisture at 100° C, . .
. 6.480
Calcium oxide,
2.750
Magnesium oxide, ....
1.165
Ferric oxide,
.099
Sodium oxide,
.098
Potassium oxide (4| cents per pound).
1.546
Phosphoric acid (6 cents joer pound), .
.581
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
2.259
Insoluble matter, ... . • .
.987
Valuation per ton, ....
$9 69
1.890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
145
Spanish or Long Moss ( Tillandsia usneoides) .
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 60.80
Dry matter, 39.20
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, .....
" fat,
" 2^^0^6111 (nitrogenous matter), .
!Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
Fertilizing Constituents of Spanish Moss.
Moisture at 100" C, .
Calcium oxide, .....
Magnesium oxide, ....
Ferric and aluminic oxides, .
Sodium oxide,
Potassium oxide {\\ cents per pound),
Phosphoi'ic acid (6 cents per jjound), .
Nitrogen (17 cents per jjound), .
Insoluble matter,
Valuation per ton, ....
100.00
2.67
32.61
4.45
57.73
100.00
60.80
.089
.122
.029
.268
.255
.030
.279
.191
$1 21
Palmetto Root.
[Sent on by C. D. Duncan, Mandarin, Fla.]
Moisture at 100° C
Dn' matter, .........
Per Cent.
11.51
88.49
100.00
4.44
21.26
.53
3.82
69.95
100.00
Starch (in dry matter) , 49.84
Sugar, Trace.
Tannin, ............ Trace.
Afialysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, ......
" cellulose, .....
"fat,
" i^rotein (nitrogenous matter), .
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
Fertilizing Cojistituents of Palmetto Root.
Moisture at 100° C, 11.510
Ash, 3.930
Calcium oxide, ,045
146 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Magnesium oxide, ....
Ferric oxide,
Sodium oxide, .....
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound).
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound), .
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter, .....
Valuation per ton, ....
Per Cent.
.004
.017
.345
1.380
.157
.540
.410
$o 20
Result of Examination of Fifty-pound Samples of the Corn
entered by Competitor's in This State for the American
Agriculturist Prize.
1. Proportion of Moisture^ Kernels and Cobs.
NAME AND ADDRESS OF
COMPETITORS.
Per Cent, of Com-
position.
Per Cent, op
Moisture.
Ratio of Cobs to
Kernels.
Water.
Kernels
Cobs.
Kernels
Cobs.
^ ^* ^ At 100° C.
Received.
1. W. S. Westcott, Amherst,
2. J. 0. Dillon, Amherst, .
3. F. Goodwin, Framingham,
4. J. S. Wells, Hatfield, .
5. Henry Tillson, Sunderland,
6. G. P. Smith, Sunderland,
7. John Brooks, Princeton,
31.30
40.74
32.59
37.28
32.02
30.31
28.27
58.88
52.30
59.17
54.66
58.46
59.29
61.46
9.82
6.96
8.24
8.06
9.52
10.40
10.27
23.26
33.50
29.87
33.49
28.75
22.36
24.98
57.38
67.40
46.12
54.77
46.96
56.00
45.75
1:3.60
1 : 3.96
1:4.23
1:3.60
1:5.61
1:3.53
1:3.62
1:5.99
1:7.51
1:7.06
1:6.78 .
1:6.17
1:5.70
1:6.93
Averages, .
33.22
57.74
9.03
28.15
53.48
1:4.02
1:6.60
2. Description of Ears.
35
1
Average Weight
OF Ears (Grams).
Average Weight
OF Kernels
(Grams).
Ml a>
KIND OF CORN.
S) 2
B
1
As
Received.
At 100° C.
As
Received
At
100° C.
1.
Yellow Flint, .
125
177.4
•
121.9
.368
1
.281
8>a
2.
Yellow Dent, .
96
222.9
132.1
.297
.197
7%
3.
Yellow Flint, .
102
209.8
141.8
.452
.317
9;»'
4.
Yellow Dent, .
67
319.4
200.3
.452
.300
8)i
5.
Yellow Dent, .
129
173.6
118.0
.384
.273
6%
6.
Yellow and White Flint
115
194.7
135.7
.457
.355
97a'
7.
White Flint, .
Averages, .
135
110
167.9
120.5
.415
.312
8
209.4
139.9
.404
.291
8)i
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
147
5. Fodder Constituents in Kernels {Per Cent.).
'>J
Analysis of Dry Matter.
o
'^ 00
<a 3
•M o
3 si
2 S
6
3
O
■a
s
u
3
tS
3
Si
•§
3
u
Crude Pro
(Nitrogen
Matter).
Non-nitrog«
Extract M
>
3
'A
1, . . .
23.26
76.74
1.77
1.07
4.69
8.49
83.98
1 : 12.22
2, . . .
33.50
66.50
1.65
1.40
4.42
9.37
83.16
1:10.93
3, . . .
29.87
70.13
1.99
1.03
5.32
11.58
80.08
1: 8.72
4, . . .
33.49
66.51
1.95
1.51
5.45
11.14
79.95 j
1: 9.08
5, . . .
28.75
71.25
1.19
1.71
5.09
9.27
82.74
1:11.17
6, . . .
22.36
77.64
1.44
1.36
4.96
13.36
78.88
1: 7.40
7, . . .
24.98
28.03
75.02
71.97
2.09
1.27
5.28
12.27
79.09
1: 8.45
Averages,
1.73
1.33
5.03
10.78
81.13
1: 9.71
Per Cent, of Digestibility of Constituents.
Crude cellulose,
" fat, .
" ijrotein, .......
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, ....
34
76
85
94
4. Fertilizing Constituents in Dry Matter {Per Cent.).
_, ,
■a
xs
U
<m'3
S
o
o
a
2
V, •
O
O
U
rt
s
53 £?
3 M
a
3
'£
o
a
1
3
= •3
^ a
OS 3 .
^
tc
o
O
= ^S
^
<i
u.
<K
Bi
i^
"
>
1
.028
.200
.017
.033
.274
.624
1.35
.040
$5 57
2,
.114
.193
.054
.025
.318
.845
1.49
.032
6 35
3
.036
.222
.022
.038
.349
.772
1.85
.038
7 52
4
.027
.169
.015
.023
.389
.492
1.78
.018
6 67
5,
.026
.164
.009
.028
.342
.457
1.49
.009
5 91
6,
.034
.231
.041
.028
.462
.638
1.97
.013
7 86
7,
.022
.264
.020
.031
.407
.363
.859
1.96
.020
8 03
Averages,
.041
.206
.025
.029
.670
1.70
.024
$6 85
Potassium oxide, 4J cents per pound; phosphoric acid, 6 cents; nitrogen, 17 cents.
148 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Juu.
0:N^ FIELD EXPERIMENTS.
I. Field experiments to compare the influence of an addition
of nitrogen in different combinations to the soil under cultivation,
on the general character of the crop and on the annual yield.
II. Influence of fertilizers on the quantity and quality of
pi'ominent fodder crops.
III. Experiments with field and garden crops.
IV. Experiments with green crops forsummerfeedof milch cows.
V. Notes on miscellaneous field work.
VI. Prof. James E. Humphrey's report on fungi, etc.
I. Field Experiments to compare the Influence of
AN Addition of Nitrogen in Different Combina-
tions TO THE Soil under Cultivation, on the
General Character of the Crop and on the
Annual Yield. (Field A.)
The area assigned to this investigation is the same which
has been used in preceding years to study our lands with
reference to the conditions of the inherent natural resources
of potash. The previous system of subdivision into plats,
one-tenth of one acre in size, is retained in all its details.
The record of each plat, as far as modes of cultivation and
of manuring are concerned, extends over more than five
successive years. This circumstance served as one of the
inducements to undertake the above-stated task.
Some plats had received during that period a supply of
nitrogen for manurial purposes in but one and the same
specified form, while others had received none in any form.
This condition of the various plats was turned to proper
account in our new plans. Several plats which for five
preceding years did not receive any nitrogen compound for
manurial purposes, were retained in that state to study the
effect of an entire exclusion of nitrogen-containing manurial
substances on the crop under cultivation ; while the remain-
ing ones received, as before, a definite amount of nitrogen
in the same form in which they had received it in preceding
years, namely, either as sodium nitrate or as ammonium
sulphate, or as organic nitrogenous matter in form of dried
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
149
blood. A corresponding amount of available nitrogen was
applied in all these cases.
Aside from the diiFerence regarding the nitrogen supply,
all plats were treated alike. They each received, without
an exception, a corresponding amount of available phos-
phoric acid and of potassium oxide. The phosphoric acid
was supplied in form of dissolved bone-black, and the
potassium oxide either in form of muriate of potash or of
potash-magnesia sulphate. From 120 to 130 pounds of
potassium oxide, from 80 to 85 pounds of available phos-
phoric acid, and from 40 to 50 pounds of available nitrogen,
were supplied per acre.
One plat, marked 0, received its main supply of phos-
phoric acid, potassium oxide and nitrogen in form of barn-
yard manure ; the latter was carefully analysed before being
applied, to determine the amount required to secure, as
ftir as practicable, the desired corresponding proportion of
essential fertilizing constituents. The deficiency in potassium
oxide and phosphoric acid was supplied by potash-magnesia
sulphate and dissolved bone-black. The fertilizer for this
plat consisted of 800 pounds of barn-yard manure, 32 pounds
of potash-magnesia sulphate, and 18 pounds of dissolved
bone-black.
Plats 4, 7 and 9 received no nitrogen-containing manurial
substance ; plats 1 and 2 received nitrogen in form of sodium
nitrate ; plats 5 , 6 and 8 received nitrogen in form of ammo-
nium sulphate ; plats 3 and 10 received nitrogen in form of
dried blood ; plat 0 received nitrogen in form of barn-yard
manure.
For details, compare the following tables, containing the
history of Field A : —
Compositio7i of Manurial Substances applied
Nitrate of soda = nitrogen, ....
Sulphate of ammonia ::= nitrogen,
Dried blood =; nitrogen,
Muriate of potash =r potassium oxide,
Sulphate of potash =: potassium oxide,
Dissolved bone-l)lack=: available phosphoric acid.
Barn-yard manure ^=. moisture, ....
lihosphoric acid,
jjotassium oxide,
nitrogen, ....
Per Cent.
16.00
20.91
8.24
48.58
37.54
21.80
73.04
.688
.527
.568
150 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
151
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152 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The entire field, eleven plats, was ploughed April 9. The
fertilizer was applied broadcast to each plat, and subse-
quently slightly harrowed under, April 27. The final prepa-
ration of the soil for seeding, by ploughing and harrowing,
took place May 9. The same variety of corn (Clark), a
flint corn, was planted in drills in a similar manner as during
preceding years. May 10. The crop on all plats was kept
clean by means of the cultivator and hoe ; it w^as cut Sep-
tember 3, when the kernels were fairly glazed over. The
degree of progress in the growth of the corn apon different
plats during the entire season may be noticed from the fol-
lowing tabular statement of periodical measurements of their
average heights : —
Height of Corn on Plats, in Indies (1S89).
3
1^
CO
o
1-5
<
3
.T4
3
Plat 0,
6
9
11
18
25
35
45
64
70
73
73
73
Plat 1,
6
9
12
16
26
36
44
64
73
73
73
73
Plat 2,
6
"i
10
15
25
33
42
62
63
70
70
72
Plat 3,
6.^
9
1-2
14
24
31
41
60
68
73
73
75
Plat 4,
51
7
10
13
20
27
33
49
62
65
65
67
Plat 5,
51
"ih
10
13
23
34
41
55
67
70
70
70
Plat 6,
6
8
9|
13
20
30
40
61
66
74
74
74
Plat 7,
6
10
1.3
16
26
40
48
60
64
68
70
70
Plat 8,
5
6.1
8
10
17
21
30
45
54
60
62
68
Plat 9,
6
9
10
16
22
33
41
60
63
68
69
69
Plat 10,
7
11
14
19
27
46
54
69
75
76
76
76
The marked difference in the general appearance of the
corn crop on different plats during the various stages of its
growth was, however, not confined to their varying heights ;
they differed also at times much in regard to a more or less
healthy color. The growth upon plats 7 and 9, in particular,
was, during the entire » season, of a light-green color ; the
same feature was noticeable to some degree, during the first
half of the season, on plats 4, 5, 6 and 8. L^pon the remain-
ing plats the color was deep green, indicating a vigorous
condition. Plats 4, 7 and 9 received no nitrogen-containing
manurial substance; plats 5, 6 and 8 received an addition
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
15^
of nitrogen in form of ammonium sulphate, and the remain-
ing plats in form either of dried blood or of sodium nitrate.
Not less noticeable is the diiference in the character of the
final crop. Those plats (4, 7 and 9) which received no
nitrogen in tlie fertilizer applied, produced not only by far
the smallest quantity of ears, but also the smallest number
of well-developed ears. The yield in corn stover, on the
other hand, is, in two of these cases (7 and 9) at least,
equal to the highest on any of the other plats, as may be
seen from the following; record : —
Yield of Corn Stover and Ears on Plats {1889), at Forty-eight
Per Cent. Moisture.
Weight of Whole
Crop.
Weight of Stover.
Weight of Ears.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Plat 0, . . .
500.62
342.35
158.27
Plat 1,
648.48
475.95
172.53
Plat 2,
576.91
37575
201.16
Plat 3,
618.31
425.85
192.46
Plat 4,
381.18
283.90
97.28
Plat 6,
488.01
359.05
128.96
Plat 6,
541.95
367.05
174.90
Plat 7,
525.82
484.30
4152
Plat 8,
359.12
237.98
121.14
Plat 9,
475.63
417.50
58.13
Plat 10,
639.55
467.60
171.95
Percentage of Well-developed and Undeveloped Ears on Plats
{1889).
Well-developed Ears.
Undeveloped Ears.
Per Cent.
Percent.
Plat 0,
60.3
39.7
Plat 1,
48.5
51.5
Plat 2,
46.7
53.3
Plat 3,
28.3
71.7
Plat 4,
14.7
85.3
Plat 5,
18.7
81.3 •
Plat 6,
29.0
71.0
Plat 7,
41.6
58.4
Plat 8,
21.3
78.7
Plat 9,
24.4
75.6
Plat 10,
50.2
49.8
154 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The results of our first season of observation reo:ardin2r
the influence of nitrogen-containing manurial substances on
the character and on the quantity of the fodder corn raised
under otherwise corresponding circumstances, although not
without some interest, are not decisive enough to advise a
detailed explanation of causes. The larger part of the late
summer season with us was cold and wet, and for this reason
of an exceptionally unfavorable character for the raising of
fodder corn. How much this circumstance has affected our
results, is difficult to decide. Not less difficult is it to
decide, at this stage of observation, how much the special
conditions of various plats may yet control the results.
The experiment will be continued until a reliable basis for a
final conclusion has been secured.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUxMENT — No. 33.
155
Ov
00
4-3 lbs. Dried Blood.
SO lbs. Dis.Bon<z.&la.ck.
2S lbs. Muriate of PotasK.
SO lbs. Di&iBo»-,cBUck.
22/i I bs.Sull^he^te Ammonia^.
25 Ib&.MunckU of Potash.
50 Ib&.Di&.Bone. RlA.ck.
25 lbs. Muriate oF Pota.sh.
50 Ibs.Dis. Bone BUck.
31
O
vO
O
ui
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in
NO
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rf>
N
22>i lbs. 5ui[9hdk.te AmtnohiA,
g.5 IbS.MurtAtfc of Pub&,6h.
'50 Ib&.Di&.Bone BIdicK.
22l4Llbs.5ulfibiitc. AmmoniA
4854lbs.Pdt<i.sK M4.g^»«siaSul,
50
lbs. Dis. BottC.Bld.ck.
2.5 lbs. Muriate PotA.5b.
50 ibs.Dis.Bonc Bl&ck.
•4-3 lbs.Dri«d Blood.
25 IbS.MuriAbq. ep Pu^&Sh.
50 Jbs.Dis. Bone Ble^ck.
29 Ibs.Niti-Ate of Sode..
■48J4lbS.Pot-asb MagtifeSie*. Sot;
50 lbs. Dis Bond. Black.
tu
H
VD
>-
lO
UJ
<
<
o
n
"29 Ibs.NitrAte of Soda.
-25 — Ibs.Muriat* of F^j^a^tv:
50 IbS.DiS. Bono. Bl&ck.
8oO lbs. Barnyard MaMure
^2 — I bs. Pqte^Sh Majgi i* a ia 6ul,
18 lbs. Di£.Bon« Blaok.
a.
z:
cc
O
U
156 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
II. Influence of Fertilizers on the Quantity and
Quality of Prominent Fodder Crops. (Field B.)
The field is located west of Field A, and has been used,
like the latter, for several years previous to the establish-
ment of the experiment station, for the production of hay.
The land is nearly on a level, and runs from north to south :
it occupies at the present time an area of 1.7 acres. The
soil consists of a somewhat sandy loam. In 1884 the entire
field was subdivided into eleven plats of equal size, with
five feet of space between them. Every alternate plat has
received from that date annually the same kind and the same
amount of fertilizer, — six hundred pounds of ground bones,
and two hundred pounds of muriate of potash per acre.
Since 1885 all crops on that field have been raised in rows ;
this system of cultivation became a necessity in the case of
grasses, clovers, etc., to secure a clean crop for observation.
The rows, in the case of corn and leguminous plants, were
three feet and three inches apart ; and, in the case of grasses,
two feet. The space between the difierent plats has received,
thus far, no manurial substance of any description, and is
kept clean from vegetation by a proper use of the cultivator.
Plats 11, 13, 15, 17, 19 and 21 were fertilized annually;
plats 12, 11, 1(), 18 and 20 have received no fertilizer until
the present season, — 1889.
The details of the work carried on upon Field B are from
year to year recorded in the annual report of the station. As
the chemical analyses of the crops raised require considerable
time, on account of other contemporary pressing engage-
ments in the laboratory, they are usually published in
bulletins, and the reports of the succeeding year.
The subsequent tabular statement of crops raised upon the
diff'erent plats of Field B since 1886 may assist in a desirable
understanding of its late history, and its condition at the
beginning of the season of 1889. The single plats are, since
1886, each 175 feet long and 33 feet wide..
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
157
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158 AGEICITLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
1889. — The general appearance of the plats seeded down
in preceding years with perennial varieties of grasses and of
leguminous plants presented some interesting features at
the opening of the late season. Some crops had suffered
seriously from winter-killing, while others had passed
unharmed through the winter. Wherever the growth had
suffered, the fact showed itself invariably in the most serious
degree upon unfertilized plats.
Kentucky blue-grass. Plat 11 (fertilized), was well pre-
served ; the same circumstance was noticed on Plat 12
(unfertilized).
Perennial rye-grass, plats 13 and 14 (fertilized and
unfertilized), was dead in the rows.
Italian rye-grass was fairly preserved in the rows on l)oth
plats.
Meadow fescue. Plat 17 (fertilized), was in a healthy and
well-preserved condition.
Alsike clover, plats 18 and 19 (unfertilized and fertilized) ,
had suffered somewhat on the unfertilized plat, but was well
preserved upon the fertilized plat (19).
Medium red clover, raised on the same plats as the alsike,
was in better condition upon the unfertilized plat (18) than
the latter, yet fell behind on the fertilized plat (19).
Alfalfa, plats 20 and 21 (unfertilized and fertilized), was
almost entirely winter-killed. The same feature was notice-
able in regard to mammoth red clover, upon the unfertilized
Plat 20, while upon Plat 21 (fertilized) a fair growth was
noticed. The plats 15 and 16, which had been used in the
preceding season for the production of Soja beans, were
ploughed and prepared for seeding ; tlie same course was
pursued in regard to the grass and clover plats, where the
growth had been seriously winter-killed, — plats 18, 20
and 21.
Plats 12, 14, IG, 18 and 20, w^hich for five preceding
years had not been fertilized, were treated, like all fertilized
plats in this field, with eighty pounds of fine-ground bones
and twenty-seven pounds of muriate of potash per acre.
Plats 15 and 16 were turned to account for the cultivation
of Bokhara clover {Melilotus alba) and of sainfoin {Onohry-
chis sativa). Each plat was subdivided into two equal
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 88. 159
parts, and seeded down, one-half with Bokhara clover and
the other half with sainfoin, May 8.
Plats 13, 14, 18 and 20 weve planted. May 27, with red-
cob ensilage corn, a dent variety sent on for trial by Messrs.
D. J. Biishnell & Co. of St. Louis. Nine quarts of corn
were used for that purpose. Phit 21 was planted on the
same day with two and one-half quarts of Clark corn, a flint
variety of me*dium size.
The grasses and clover varieties were kept clean from
weeds by the use of the cultivator and the hoe ; a similar
attention was bestowed upon the corn-bearing plats.
The Kentucky blue-grass, seeded down in 1888, proved
to be largely a mixture of other grasses, herd's grass in
particular. The grass on both plats was cut for hay June
24. Plat 11 (fertilized) yielded 520 pounds of hay, or
3,921 pounds per acre ; Plat 12 (unfertilized) yielded 280
pounds of hay, or 2,111 pounds per acre. The sod was
subsequently turned under, and both plats re-seeded with
Kentucky blue-grass, September, 1889.
Meadow fescue. Plat 17, began to head out May 30; it
bloomed June 4 ; it was thirty-six inches high when in full
blossom. The cutting had to be deferred, on account of
rainy weather, to June 20, when it measured forty-four
inches in height. The first cut of hay weighed 560 pounds,
or 4,422 pounds per acre ; the second cut (rowen) of hay,
September 4, weighed 290 pounds, or 2,187 pounds per
acre. This grass compares well in quality and quantity
with herd's grass ; seeded down close, it forms a compact,
healthy-looking sod.
Bokhara clover, Plat 15, was seeded May 8 ; it appeared
above ground May 16 ; was eight inches high July 3, and
thirty-two inches August 7 ; it was cut for hay September
9, and yielded at the rate of 3,090 pounds per acre. The
second year's growth is usually much heavier ; the plant
dies out with the end of the second year. The large yield
of vegetable matter, in particular during the second year,
renders further observation with this plant for feeding
purposes advisable.
Sainfoin, Plat 15, was seeded May 8 ; the young plants
appeared above ground May 18 ; it measured four inches
160 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
July 3. The growth of the plant was very slow during the
entire season. The land was cleaned from weeds September
24, and the crop left for another year's observation. Whether
a cold and wet season caused this slow progress in the growth
of this reputed fodder crop, has to be left for the future to
decide.
Alsike clover, Plat 19, started up well in M^y ; it was in
full bloom June 3, and was cut for hay July 2. The clover
hay weighed 155 pounds, or 2,400 pounds per acre.
Medium red clover, Plat 19, began blooming June 17 ;
the crop was cut for hay Jul}^ 12. The latter weighed 180
pounds, or 2,900 pounds per acre.
In the interest of a due appreciation of the annual yield
stated in connection with the above-described grasses and
clovers, attention is here once more called to the fact that
all were raised in rows, and not broadcast. The rows
were, in case of the grasses, for stated reasons, two feet
apart, and in case of clovers three feet. The numerical
statements regarding their annual yield are therefore mainly
of interest as far as relative quantities are concerned. Tak-
ing this circumstance into due consideration, it will be con-
ceded that the yield in some instances has been remarkably
large ; as, for instance, in the case of meadow fescue, —
4,422 pounds of hay in the first cut and 2,187 pounds in
the second cut, or 6,609 pounds of hay per acre. On a
previous occasion it has been already stated that the culti-
vation of grasses in drills has been adopted in our experi-
ments, on account of the chances this system of cultivation
oifers to keep individual varieties of grasses free from
foreio;n jjrowth. The introduction of drill cultivation in
connection with the raising of grain crops is deservedly
urged upon the attention of farmers, in the interest of clean
cultivation.
Red-cob ensilage corn, plats 13, 14, 18 and 20, was
planted in -drills with nine quarts of seed corn. May 25.
The rows were three feet and three inches apart, and the
kernels were dropped in the rows from twelve to fourteen
inches apart, with from four to six seeds in a place. The
entire field was subsequently kept clean from weeds by a
frequent use of the cultivator or the hoe, as circumstances
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 161
advised. The young plants appeared above ground June 3.
The crop looked vigorous and handsome throughout the
entire season, yet was somewhat behind in its various stasfes
of growth. The entire crop was cut for the silo September
6 and 7, although the ears were not yet as far advanced as
desirable to secure the full benefit of the season. Early
frosts oblige us to cut our corn crops at the beginning of
the month of September. This feature of our local climate
advises the selection of early-maturing varieties of corn.
The green crop secured from the different plats varied
widely in weight, — a result apparently largely due to the
particular condition of the soil with reference to temporary
available resources of plant food. The majority of plats
(14, 18 and 20) had not been fertilized for several preced-
ing years ; Plat 13 was the only one, planted with the stated
variety of corn, which for years had been fertilized with bone
and potash. One year's treatment, spring of 1889, w^ith a
corresponding amount of these two manurial substances,
did not raise their productiveness to its full capacity.
Plat 13 yielded 5,820 lbs. green fodder corn, or 43,88-1 lbs. per acre.
" 14 " 4,755 " " " " 35,853 "
" 18 " 3,230 " " " " 24,354 "
" 20 " 2,560 " " " " 19,302 "
Clark corn, Plat 21, was planted on the same date as the
former, and treated alike in all particulars ; it did well
throughout the season ; it showed tassels July 19, and was
cut for the silo September 7. The crop was more matured
than the red-cob ensilage corn, yet was the lowest in
weight, — 2,365 pounds per plat, or 17,832 pounds per
acre. The main difference in the weight of the crops
secured from both varieties of corn does not express their
relative food value ; yet the difference in that direction is so
great that it must be admitted that the Clark corn is not a
success as an ensilage corn.
162 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Analyses of Crops raised upon Field B during the Summer
Season of 1888.
Italian Rye Grass (1888).
Collected
Jcne29,188S
Collected
J CLT 16,1888,
IN Uloom.
IN
5EED.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture at lOO"" C , .
9.30
896
8.22
7.38
Dry matter, ....
90.74
91.04
9178
92.62
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
7.44
7.50
8.58
6.55
" cellulose, ....
31.27
32.79
36 90
3238
" fat,
2.04
1.39
1.90
2.07
" protein (nitrogenous mat-
ter)
9.75
7.13
9.53
6.20
Non-nitrogenous extract matter,
4950
100.00
51.19
100.00
43.09
52.80
100.00
100.00
Fertilizing Conslituejits of Italian Rye Grass.
COLLECTKD
JrXE 29, 1SS8.
Collected
July 16, 1S8S,
In Bloom.
IN
Seed.
FertilizcJ.
Unfertilized.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture at 100° C, .
9.300
8.960
9.204
7.380
Calcium oxide, ....
.644
.639
.983
1.160
Magnesium oxide.
.357
.316
.328
.284
Ferric oxide, ....
.045
.042
.065
.130
Sodium oxide, ....
.151
.463
.795
.395
Potassium oxide (4| cts. per Ih ),
1.922
1.184
2.086
.940
Phosphoric acid (6 cts. per lb.).
.546
.572
.539
.564
Nitrogen (17 cts. per lb.), .
1.415
1.039
1.381
.919
Insoluble matter.
1.922
2.602
2.290
3.507
Valuation per ton.
f7 10
$5 22
f6 24
$4 59
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
163
Analyses of Crop.s raised upon Field B — Continued.
Alsike Clover {1888).
Collected .Tune 21, 1888,
IN Bloom.
Collected
July 18, 1888,
IN Seed.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Fertilized.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
13.52
86.48
13 10
86.90
1
6.08
93.92
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract matter.
100.00
1591
26 79
2.19
16.48
,38.63
100.00
9.90
24.03
188
17 55
46.64
100.00
8.26
32.34
3 07
14.77
41.56
100.00 100.00
100 00
Fertilizing Constituents of Alsike Clover.
Collected June 21, 1888,
IN Bloom.
Collected
July 18, 1888,
IN Seed.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Fertilized.
Moisture at 100° C, .
13 520
13 100
6 080
Calcium oxide, .
2.119
2 608 ■
2 838
Magnesium oxide.
.330
.705
.304
Ferric oxide.
.141
.202
.064
Sodium oxide, .
.299
.273
.209
Potassium oxide.
4.308
1.087
2.602
Phosphoric acid.
.716
.704
.496
Nitrogen, .
2.280
2.440
2.214
Insoluble matter,
.744
1.102
.420
Valuation per ton.
$12 27
$10 06
flO 34
Medium Red Clover {1888).
[Collected July 6, 1888, in bloom, fertilized.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter, ...,..,=,.
6.02
93.98
100.00
1-64 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Analyses of Crops raised upon Field B — Continued.
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, .........
8.90
" cellulose,
29.97
"fat,
2.62
" protein (nitrogenous matter), ....
14 63
Non-uitrogenous extract matter,
43 88
100.00
Fertilizmg Constituents of the Above Medium Red Clover.
Moisture at 100^ C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide,
Ferric o.xide, .
Sodium oxide,
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter.
Valuation per ton,
6.020
1.932
.423
.064
.201
2.315
.459
2.198
.267
$9 99
Mammoth Red Clover (1S88).
Collected Junk 21. 188S,
IN Bloom. '
Collected
July 13, 1888,
IN Seed.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture at 100° C,
17.63
9.3()
7.34
Dry matter,
82 47
9064
92 66
100.00
100.00
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
10.50
10.50
8.53
cellulose,
33.72
20.16
28.65
" fat
2.25
1.86
2.25
" protein (nitrogenous matter).
14.69
18.50
14.06
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
38.84
48.98
46 51
100.00
100 00
100 00
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
165
Analyses of Crops raised upon Field B — Continued.
Fertilizing Constituents of Mammoth Red Clover.
CuLLliCTED
IN B
June 21,1888,
LOOM.
Cot.LVCTKD
July 23, 1888,
IN Seed.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture at 100° C, ....
17.530
9.360
7.340
Calcium oxide,
2.732
3.978
2.712
Magnesium oxide,
.312
.792
.735
Ferric oxide, .■
.057
.144
.133
Sodium oxide, .
.512
.558
.098
Potassium oxide.
2 430
.726
1 .513
Pliosphoric acid.
Nitrogen, .
.504
1.938
.704
2.680
.421
2.075
Insoluble matter.
.261
.908
1.168
Valuation jjer ton,
$9 26
$10 57
$8 00
Alfalfa (1888).
Collected June 29, 1888,
IN Bloom.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter,
4.68'
95.32
4.60
95.40
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose,
" fat
" protein (niti'ogenous matter),
Xon-nitrogenous extract matter, ....
100.00
7.97
34.39
1.12
16.27
40.25
100.00
7.10
32 41
1.04
14.41
45.04
100.00
100.00
IGG AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Analyses of Crops raised upon Field B — Concluded.
Fertilizing Cotislitiients of Alfalfa.
Collected
June 29, 1888,
IN Bloom.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture at 100° C, .
4.680
4.600
Calcimu oxide, .
1.944
2.855
Magnesium oxide,
.279
.513
Ferric oxide.
.050
.070
Sodium oxide, .
.079
1.156
Potassium oxide,
2.038
.891
Phosphoric acid.
.556
.645
Nitrogen, .
2.481
2.200
Insoluble matter.
.140
.508
Valuation per ton,
$10 84
f9 00
Soja Bean {Entire Plants Dry).
[Collected Aug. 30, 1888, unfertilized.]
Moisture at 100^ C.,
Dry matter,
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
Fertilizing Constitiie?itf
Moisture at 100° C
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide,
Ferric oxide, .
Sodium oxide, .
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter.
Valuation per ton.
of the Above So/a Bean
6.12
93.88
100.00
6.47
20.76
5.62
15.87
51.28
100.00
6.120
2.770
1.190
.131
.198
.617
.753
2.380
.967
$9 51
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
167
tn
±
10
NO
N
a
o
w
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. FERTILIZED.
O
KEMTUCKY BLUE GRASS. UNFERTILIZED
O
DC
RED COB ENSILAGE CORN.
FERTILIZED.
JL
RED COB EN51LAGE'CORN.
FERTILIZED.
<
a
BOKHARA CLOVER.
(X)
CO
SAIN FOm. FERTILIZED.
BOKHARA CLOVER.
CjQ
SAIM FOm, UNFERTILIZED.
o
UJ
LL
MEADOW FESCUE. FERTILIZED.
RED GOB ENSILAGE CORN.
FERTILIZED. '
MEDIUM RED CLOVER,
AL51KE CLOVER. FERTILIZED
RED COB ENSILAGE CORN.
FERTILIZED.
CLARK CORN. FERTILIZED.
168 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
III. Experiments with Field and Garden Crops.
(Fields C and D, 1889.)
A short description of the work carried on upon these
fields during the preceding year, 1888, may serve as an
introduction to a brief statement of the course adopted in
1889.
Field C, 1888. — This field comprises an area 328 feet
long and 183 feet wide. It was ploughed the previous fall,
and again April 26 ; it was harrowed soon after, and fertilized
broadcast at the rate of six hundred pounds of fine-ground
bones and two hundred pounds of muriate of potash per acre.
The field is divided into two parts, running from east to
west ; they are separated from each other by a passageway
three feet wide. The northern half of the field is 70 feet
wide and 328 feet long ; the southern half is the same length,
but 109 feet wide.
The latter was again subdivided into three equal parts,
each 111 by 109 feet, or 11,990 square feet. The east end
of this field was planted with a mixture of vetch (vicia
sativa) and oats (variety Western). The middle division
was planted the same day with serradella and the Avestern
with Southern cow-pea. Vetch and oats were seeded broad-
cast, and serradella and Southern cow-pea in drills, three
feet three inches apart.
The northern half of Field C Avas occupied by a series of
crops in rows, running north and south, three feet three
inches apart, with the exception of the carrots, which were
planted in rows fourteen inches apart. The crops were
arranged in the following order, beginning at the east end : —
Dan vers carrots, ninety rows.
Welcome oats, three rows.
Hair J' vetch {Vicia villosa) , one row.
Small pea (Lathyrus sativus), one row.
Sulla {Hedysarum coronaria) , one row.
Bird's-foot clover (Lotus corniculatus) , three rows.
Lotus villosus, three rows.
Sweet clover {Melilotus alba), three rows.
Early cow-pea, one row.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 169
Teosinte (Euchlmna luxurians) , two rows.
Flour corn, one row.
Pop-corn, striped rice, one row.
Chinese sugar cane, seven rows.
Early orange cane, fifteen rows.
Early amber cane, fifteen rows.
The seeds of the plants, with the exception of the carrots,
serradella, vetch and Southern cow-pea, were sent on l)ythe
United States Department of Agriculture. (For details,
see sixth annual report, pages 115 to 120.)
Field C, 1889. — The entire area of both divisions of
this tield was carefully prepared in a similar manner as in
the preceding spring. It was ploughed and harrowed April
20, and fertilized broadcast with tine-ground bone and
muriate of potash, at the rate of six hundred pounds of the
former and two hundred pounds of the latter. The entire
southern half of the held was planted with roots, while the
northern half was used for raising a variety of fodder and
garden crops. The majority of the seeds used in this con-
nection were sent on by the United States Department of
Agriculture ; others came from parties more or less directly
interested in the particular variety sent on for trial ; some
were bought of reliable parties. Most of these seeds were
planted merely for the purpose of studying their particular
degree of adaptation to our climate and soil, to secure suitable
material for analysis, and to ascertain their relative propor-
tion of essential nutritive constituents. As this part of our
work requires exceptional accommodation for analytical
work, it has to be largely deferred to a more favorable part
of the year. This circumstance must serve as our excuse
for publishing some analyses of the crops raised in 1888 for
the first time on the present occasion.
Description of the Principal Crops raised on the Southern
Division of Fidd C, beginning at the West End.
American ruta-haga turnips of Delano Moore, Presque
Isle, Me., two rows, 109 feet long and 2 feet apart, were
planted May 3. The young plants appeared above ground
May 11 ; they were thinned out in the rows to eight inches
170 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
of space between them, July 1, and sul)sequently kept clean
from weeds by a periodical use of the cultivator and the hoe.
A blight which appeared during the lirst week of August on
the leaves did considerable injury to the earlier foliage; the
later leaves suffered less seriously. The crop was harvested
October 22 ; the roots weighed 170 pounds. Photographs
representing fair specimens of the roots will l^e found farther
on. An analysis stating the composition of a medium-sized
root is reported at the close of this chapter.
Lant's Sugar Beit. — 1 he seeds used in this case were
sent on by C- H. Lane of Middlebury, Vt. The area
occupied by the plant measured 1,090 square feet. The
seeds w^ere planted in rows two feet apart, May 3 ; the
young plants appeared above ground May 11 ; they were
thinned out in the rows to six inches space between them,
June 18, and kept clean from weeds by cultivator and hoe
in the same manner as the previously d< scribed crop. The
first growth of leaves suffered seriously from a blight, the
later leaves were entirely free from blight, and made a vigor-
ous growth. The crop was harvested October 19 ; it weighed
610 pounds, without the leaves. A photograph of different
sizes of the roots, and an analysis stating the composition of
a medium-sized root, will be found farther on.
Saxony Sugar Beet. — This crop occupied an area of
15,587 square feet. The seed was sown in rows two feet
apart, to admit the use of a one-horse cultivator, May 3.
The seeding was heavy ; five and one-half ounces of seed
were used. The young plants were thinned out and treated
like the previously stated crop. The unfiiivorable, cold, wet
weather during the fore part of the summer season aff'ected
this crop in a similar way as the preceding root crops.
Insects and a blight destroyed almost entirely the first leaf
growth. The later leaves were vigorous, and apparently
free from blight. The roots were harvested October 19;
they weighed 6,450 pounds, or nine tons per acre, which
is about one-half an average crop. Photographs and a
chemical analysis accompany these statements.
Carrot.^, Danvers. — The land occupied by this crop
measured 18,420 square feet; the seed was sown in rows,
leaving fourteen inches of space between. May 13 ; fourteen
1800.] . PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 171
ounces of seed were used for that purpose. The pUints
came up May 21 ; they were thinned out l)y liand in the
rows from two to three inclies apart. The crop was kept
clean by weeding with the hand and tlie lioe. The leaves
suftcred somewhat from l)light during tlie earlier part of the
month of August. The roots were harvested October 17;
they weighed 11,300 pounds, or 13^- tons per acre.
The serious intiuence of an unfavorable season on the
yield of the root crops has been a marked one. The roots
were much smaller than in preceding years ; this circum-
stance applies with particular force to the ditferent varieties
of sugar beets on trial. The crops have fdlen l)ehind in
these cases more than fifty 'per cent, of a fair average yield.
The j\ii\d of carrots is one-third less than that obtained in
preceding years.
/Statement of Crops raised on the JSfoHhern Division of
Field C.
This section of Field C is 70 feet wide and 328 feet long,
and laid out in rows from two to three feet apart, as cir-
cumstances may advise. Most of the crops raised here
are merely on trial, to study their general adaptation to our
soil and climate ; a few rows represent in most instances the
extent of the area occupied by each of them. In many
instances merely a sufficient amount is raised to secure
suitable samples for chemical examination. Wherever the
results in the field and in the laboratory are encouraging,
as far as fodder crops new to our section of the country are
concerned, larger fields will be devoted subsequently, to
test their respective agricultural merits on a becoming scale.
A lil)eral introduction of reputed forage crops into farm
operations has everywhere, in various directions, promoted
the success of agricultural industry. The desirability of
introducing a greater variety of fodder plants into our farm
management is generally conceded. In choosing plants for
that purpose, it seems advisable to select crops which would
adva-ntageously supplement our leading fodder crops (aside
from the products of pastures and meadows), — the fodder
corn and corn stover.
172 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
A more detailed discussion of this important question may
l)e found in our fifth annual report, page 88, and sixth
annual report, page 115.
The crops were arranged in the following order, beginning
at the west end : —
Erfurt earliest cauliflower, two rows.
Early snowball cauliflower, two rows.
Haines No. 64 tomato, two rows.
Honduras sorghum, seven rows.
New orange sorghum, seven rows.
Kansas orange sorghum, seven rows.
Price's new hybrid soi'ghum, seven rows.
Early Tennessee sorghum, seven rows.
Bokhara clover {MeUlotus alba), three rows.
Bokhara clover {Melilotus cceruleus), three rows.
Lotus villosus, two rows.
Pyrethrum roseum, one row.
Sulla (Hedysarum coronaria), one row.
Pease, one row.
Dwarf Lima beans, one-half row.
Early cow-pea, one and one-half rows.
Black soja bean, five rows.
Blue lupine, two rows.
Cow-pea, three rows.
Horse bean, three rows.
Japan clover (Lespideza striata), five rows.
Chapman honey plant, three rows.
New Japanese buckwheat, seventeen rows.
Common barley, fifteen rows.
Hulless black barley, fifteen rows.
EXPERIMENTS WITH FIELD AND GARDEN CROPS.
^ ^.,
American Ruta Baga Turnips.
Wfi!Sir * PorTfn^ Printins Cii., State Phinjers.
EXPERIMENTS WITH FIELD AND GARDEN CROPS.
I
tmrm
S^f ->=?Z&aK- J?
Saxony Sugar Beets. //
Lane's Sugar Beets.
W/ilSHT A » POrUFI Pf^lNTfNG Oil.. STME PuiNTiR
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
173
FIELD "C" 1889.
W.
AMEPUCAH_RUTA BACA TURNIPS. I CABBAGE AND
n
SUGAR BEETS.
CAULIFLOWE^RS.
HONDURAS
SORGHUM.
"new ORANGE
SORGMUr-K_
KANSAS ORANGE
SORGHUM,
PRIC&&
MEW HYBRID
SOf^OMUM.
Iar^ly
tennessee
SORGHUM.
MISCELLANEOUS
FODDER CR0P5.
N
COMMON
BARLEY.
HULLESS
BLACK
BARLEY.
SCALE, 4 RODS TO I INCH
174 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
FIELD D, 1888.*
Excelsior
Sugar Beet.
Improved
Imperial.
Lane's
Sugar Beet.
Kus'n Rhubarb.
Potatoes,
Plat 1.
Field D, 1888. — TUii field is 328 feet long and 70 feet
wide, covering an area of 22,9(50 square feet. It has been
used during previous years for the raising of a variety of
garden and field crops, on a larger or smaller scale. The
soil has been usually ploughed late in
the fall and early in the succeeding
spring. The manure has been applied
in every instance early in the spring,
after ploughing, and subsequently
slightly harrowed under. With the
exception of the potato plats used for
studying the causes of the scab on
potatoes, l)ut one fertilizer, consisting
of tine-irround bones with muriate of
potash, six hundred pounds of the
former and two hundred pounds of the
latter per acre, has l)een used upon
this field. The distribution of the
crops raised during the year 1888 may
be seen from the accompanying sketch.
^ Some analyses of crops raised during
that- year arc for stated reasons pub-
lished farther on for the first time, in
connection with analyses made of crops
raised during the present year.
1889. — The preparation of the soil,
as well as the system of manuring, was
in all its details the same as in the
preceding years. The crops were
planted in rows, and kept clean by the
timely use of the cultivator and the
hoe. They were arranged in the fol-
lowing order, beginning at the west
end of the field : —
Red-coh EnsUac/e Corn. — The seed
was sent on, with a request for a trial,
by D. I. Bushnell & Co., St. Louis,
Mo. An area of 5,4G0 square feet was
assisfned in this field for our observation. The seed was
planted May 7 ; the young plants appeared above ground in
Potatoes,
Plat 2.
Potatoes,
Plat 3.
Garden
Vegetables.
Vilmorin
Sugar Beet.
«}
* Scale, 4 rods to 1 inch.
EXPERIMENTS WITH FIELD AND GARDEN CROPS.
1. Red Cob Ensilage Corn.
2. Pride of the North Corn.
WMvmmiti
■W**V!r:t^
V
""m
3. Minnesota King Corn.
4. Clark Corn.
ty/nnHT i Point. PiiriTiNC. Ci), Stati Pmmins
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
175
FIELD D, 1889.*
^
Red-cob
Ensilage Corn.
Potatoes,
Plat 3.
May ; tassels were first noticed July 30. The growth
measured at this time 70 inches in height ; it was 105 inches
high at the appearance of silk. The field looked extremely
vigorous and handsome at this stage of the growth, — middle
of August. The leaves died, however,
soon, largely beginning at the lower
end of the stalks. Most of the foliage
up to the middle of the stalks was dead
before the kernels began to glaze over.
The plants measured 10| feet in height
when cut, October 2. The ears were
at this late date not yet fully matured ;
they were also to a considerable degree
imperfect in their general development.
We obtained 475 pounds of ears and
2,550 pounds of stover.
The exceptionally cool and wet
weather during the months of July and
August has no doubt largely contributed
to the unsatisfactory termination of our
trial for a matured crop. Late matur-
ing varieties of corn ofier but little^
chance with us for a successful curing.
Our trial for ensilage has been referred
to in some preceding pages (Field B).
The general character of a well-matured
ear of this handsome corn may be
judged from a description and photo-
graph of an ear sent on to the station,
which occur farther on.
Potatoes (Beauty of Hebron). —
Three plats for several years assigned
to this crop to study the causes of scab
were prepared and manured in exactly
the same manner as in previous years.
They were planted with healthy tubers,
May 1 ; the young crop showed itself
pretty uniformly over the entire field.
May 16. A blight appeared at the close of the month of
July ; it spread so rapidly t)iat it killed within a week the
Potatoes,
Plat 2.
Potatoes,
Plat 1.
Rus'n Rhubarb.
Minn. King Corn.
Common Oats.
Improved
American Oats.
Hargett's
"White Oats.
H
* Scale, 4 rods to 1 inch.
176 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
entire vines. The crop was harvested without delay, yet
proved a total failure ; the tubers, almost without an excep-
tion, were full of scab and soon rotted.
The experiments regarding the cause of scab on potatoes,
which for several years past have been carried on upon this
part of our field, have been transferred to Field E; they
have been placed, since the beginning of 1889, under the
special direction of Prof. J. E. Humphrey. His elaborated
report regarding his studies of scab and other plant diseases,
which forms a part of this report, cannot fail to engage
the attention of all parties interested in the subject. dis-
cussed.
Minnesota King Corn. — Two samples were sent on by
Northrup, Braslan & Goodwin of Minneapolis, Minn. Two
rows were planted May 14 ; the plants reached a height of
6') inches and matured during the first week of September.
They compared well with other medium-sized varieties
current in our vicinity ; no special merits were noticed.
The general character of the corn may be judged from a
short description and photograph which may be found
farther on.
Oats. — Three varieties were planted. The seeds of two
varieties — " Hargett's White" (Seizure) and "Improved
American " — were sent by the LTnited States Department
of Agriculture; the third variety, commonly called "Con-
necticut Valley Oats," was secured from a farmer in our
vicinity. The latter, one of the most prominent home
varieties of oats, was included in our observation for the
purpose of comparing the individual merits, if any, of the
different varieties on trial, as far as practicable under cor-
responding circumstances. The seeds were planted, each
fifteen rows, two feet apart. The main difference in the
advancing growth consisted in a deep-green color of the
Improved American. The latter exceeded the other varieties
hy three inches in height at the close of the season. All
matured about the same time, and were cut on the same day,
July 19. When harvested, July 23, the entire crop of the
Hargett's White weighed 800 pounds; of the home variety,
weighed 350 pounds ; of the Improved American, weighed
390 pounds.
EXPERIMENTS WITH FIELD AND GARDEN CROPS.
•K A
WftlSHT * POTTEi^PfiiNTiNG CO., StaTE Pti/t7£AS.
Russian Rhul)arb Roots.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
177
Most of our grain crops suffered more or less from smut.
The season was evidently not favorable for comparative trial
of grain crops.
Hussicni RJiuharb. — Some years ago a small sample of
seeds of this plant was sent on to the station by the
Secretary of the American Retail Druggist Association, with
the request to experiment with them upon our fields. The
seed was represented as genuine by an officer of the Russian
government, who procured it for the association. Several
plants raised from this seed have been for a number of years
cultivated very successfully on our ground. "Well-matured
seed has been collected every year, and some of it was sown
two years ago. Quite a numl)er of roots have been collected
for trial by druggists. Parties interested in the question of
their fitness for medicinal purposes can secure a specimen
for trial, if early applied for. An attempt has been made to
give a correct picture of the roots in different positions by
the photographs accompanying this chapter. Photographs
of the same kind of crop have in every instance been taken
at equal distance from the camera, that their relative sizes
miirht be observed.
Description of the Ears of Corn illustrated by the Following
Photograxihs.
1. Red-cob ensilage corn, a dent variet}^ mentioned iu this
chapter.
2. Pride of the North corn, a dent variety largely grown upon the
station grounds.
3. Minnesota king corn, a dent corn mentioned in this chapter.
4. Clark corn, a flint corn which has served for our observations
on Field A.
»• —
u
t-i
,
o
^ O!
M '*
a
w
o
.
.-^ O
o -^
o '1?
"^ s
■^ ^
5 .
^ ^ 7
u
u ~
'i ^
-" §
= "5
o " C
■^
■^ -^
Tc S
iS" "
"to -^
5 "
S V. a
'A
'A
J
p
p
p
"
<
1, .
16
54
8i
396
339
57
1 : 5.95
.97
2, .
16
46
8
2i)o
178
27
1 : 6.59
.25
3, .
8
44
7|
]';7
110
47
1 : 2.34
.31
4, .
8
48
8i
159
128
31
1:4.13
.336
* One ounce equals about thirty grams.
178 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Teosinte (Euchlcena luxurians) .
[Collected Sept. 7, 1888, in full bloom.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter,
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter) ,
Xon-nitrogenous extract matter, .
Per Cent.
6.06
93.91
100.00
6.95
28.88
1.28
9.71
53.18
100.00
In green material, moisture 89.42 per cent. ; dry matter, 10.58 per cent.
Fertilizing Constituents of Teosinte.
Moisture at 100° C, 6.060
Calcium oxide, 1.597
Magnesium oxide, 458
Ferric oxide, . " 021
Sodium oxide, 109
Potassium oxide (4J cents per pound), 3.696
Phosijhoric acid (6 cents per pound) , 546
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), 1.460
Insoluble matter, 3 IS
Valuation per ton, $8 76
Lotus viUosiis {Second Year's Growth).
[Collected June 21, 1889, in full bloom.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter,
rer Cent.
10.68
89.32
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
100.00
8.23
24.48
3.00
13.49
50.80
100.00
In green material, moisture 83.37 per cent. ; dry matter, 16.63 percent.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
179
Lotus villosus (First Year's Growth).
[Collected Sept. 7, 1888, blooming.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter,
Analf/sis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, .....
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter),
Xon-nitrogenous extract matter, .
Per Cent.
12.36
87.64
100.00
8.30
15.07
2.69
16.12
57.82
100.00
In green material, moisture 88.63 percent. ; dry matter, 11.37 i^er cent.
Fertilizing Coiistitucnts of Lotus villo.-
]\Ioisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide, .
Ferric oxide, .
Sodium oxide, .
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound),
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound).
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound).
Insoluble matter, ....
Valuation per (on, ....
12.360
2.861
.615
.148
.633
1.550
.500
2.259
1.053
fl) 60
SuUa (Hedysarum coronaria).
[Collected Oct. 3, 1888, at the close of the period of blooming.]
Per Cent.
10.46
Moisture at 100^ C,
Drv matter, 89.54
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
» fat, . ....
protein (nitrogenous matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
100.00
8.77
12.38
3.16
17.03
58.66
100.00
In green material, moisture 74.21 per cent. ; dry matter, 25.79 per cent.
180 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jau.
Fertilizing Constituents of Sulla.
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide, .
Ferric oxide, ....
Sodium oxide.
Potassium oxide (4 J- cents per jiound),
Phosplioric acid (6 cents jjer pound).
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound),
Insoluble matter, ....
Valuation j^er ton, ....
Per Cent.
10.460
2.791
.378
.147
.362
1.872
.424
2.441
.987
$10 40
Hairy Vetch ( Vicia vtllosa) .
[Collected Sept. 3,' 1888, blooming ]
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter,
Per Cent.
7.44
92 56
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash.
8.37
" cellulose.
. 31.88
" fat.
1.22
" protein (nitrogenous matter), ....
. 19.58
Non-nitrogenous
extract matter, .....
. 38.95
100 00
In green material, moisture 78.01 percent ; dry matter, 21 99 percent.
Bokhara or Sweet Clover {Melilotus alba).
[Collected Oct. 3, 1888, at the close of the period of blooming.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 6.36
Dry matter, 93.64
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter).
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
100.00
6.90
28.08
1.85
11.81
51.36
100.00
In green material, moisture 70.52 percent. ; dry matter, 23.48 jser cent.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
181
Fertilizing Constituents of Bokhara Clover.
C,
Moistiu-e at 100
. Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide.
Ferric oxide, .
Sodium oxide,
Potassium oxide (4^ cents jDer pomid),
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound).
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound).
Insoluble matter, ....
Valuation per ton, . . . _
Per Cent.
6.360
1.938
.373
.028
.077
1.673
.436
1,770
.013
$7 96
Melilotus ccBruleus.
[Collected Aug. 6, 1889, somewhat past hlooming.]
Moisture at 100^ C,
Dry matter,
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Per Cent.
8.22
91.78
100.00
Crude ash, .......
14.87
" cellulose, ......
. 27.17
" fat,
1.G7
" protein (nitrogenous matter), .
13.07
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
. 43.22
100 00
Fertilizing Constituents of Melilotus ca^ruleus.
Moisture at 100° C,
8.220
Calcium oxide,
1.449
Magnesium oxide, ......
.260
Ferric oxide, .......
.849
Sodium oxide, ......
.270
Potassium oxide (4i cents per pound).
2.796
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound), .
.544
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
1.919
Insoluble matter,
4.008
Valuation per ton,
$9 55
Danvers Carrots.
[Grown on Field C, 1888.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100^ C,
90.05
Dry matter, .
.
.
9.95
100.00
182 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash, .....
" cellulose, ....
» fat,
" protein (nitrogenous mattei"),
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
Nutritive ratio, 1 : 9.17.
Carrot Tops (I)anvers).
[Collected Oct. 31, 1889, two weeks after harvesting.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry matter, ..........
Analysis of Dry Matter
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter),
Non-niti'ogenous extract matter, .
For Cent.
8.28
10.20 .
1.67
7.98
71.81
100.00
Per Cent.
9.76
90.24
100.00
13.87
13.61
2.01
20.12
50.39
100.00
In green material, moisture, 76.79 per cent. ; dry matter, 23.21 per cent.
Sugar Tests of Sorghvm {1889).
[Per Cent.]
.
Moisture
at 100° C.
Glucose.
Sucrose.
Total
Sugar.
Early Tennessee (over-rii^e) ,
77.43
1.79
3.21
5.00
Price's New Hybrid (ripe), .
77.80
2.92
3.78
6.70
Kansas Orange (green),
80.67
2.38
3.63
6.01
New Orange (green), .
78.30
2.96
3.85
6.81
Hondm-as (green).
77.55
3.08
4.01
7.09
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
183
Beets, Field D {1888).
[I. Excelsior Sugar Beet; II. Improved Imperial ; (?) III. Vilmorin Sugar Beet.]
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter,
Analysis of Drij Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose,
" fat,
" protein (nitrogenous matter),
Xon-nitrogenous extract matter.
Sugar,
86.93
90.60
86.73
13.0.5
9.40
13.27
JUU.OU
100.00
100.00
3.21
10.09
5.70
5.83
7.83
4.82
.72
1.80
.73
8.74
12.78
8.45
8I.0O
67.50
80.30
100.00
100.00
100.00
9.84
3.45
7.24
Fertilizing Constituents of the Above Beets.
II.
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide.
Ferric oxide, .
Sodium oxide,
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter.
Valuation per ton.
90.600
.045
.030
.005
.104
.462
.086
.192
.015
$1 14
86.730
.056
.037
.009
.170
.170
.028
.181
.090
§0 79
184 AGRICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Beets, Field D {1SS8).
[IV. Lane's Sugar Beet ; V. New Market Gardener Beet ; VI. Eclipse
VII. Osborn's Selected Beet.]
Beet;
Per (
KNT.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII
iMoisture at 100° C, .
84.56
89.65
90 25
88.80
Dry matter, .....
15.44
10.33
9.75
11.20
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Ajiahjftisi of Dry Matter-.
Crude ash, .....
G.87
7.21
9.77
7.87
" cellulose, ....
0.17
7.56
7.22
6.71
" fat,
.60
.59
.74
.64
" pi'otein (nitrogenous matter),
10.63
14.29
15.40
14.46
Non-nitrogenous extract matti'r,
75.67
70.35
66.87
70 32
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Fertilizing Constituents of the Above Beets.
Moisture at 100° C, .
89.650
90.250
88.800
Calcium oxide, .
.032
.044
.064
Magnesium oxide.
.022
.032
.028
Ferric oxide.
.003
.005
.002
Sodium oxide, .
.060
.110
.156
Potassium oxide,
.481
.467
.313
Phosphoric acid.
.085
.091
.069
Nitrogen, ....
.236
.240
.259
lnsolul)le matter,
.009
.016
.010
Valuation i)er ton.
$1 41
$1 33
$1 23
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 18^
Determination of Albuminoid Nitrogen (1888).
Pek Cext. in Dry Matter.
Albuminoid
Xon-albumi-
Total
Nitrogen.
noid Nitrogen.
Nitrogen.
Root, No
1,
.58
.82
1.40
2, . . . .
.85
1.19
2.04
3,
.50
.85
1.35
4,
.67
1.03
1.70
5,
.70
1.53
2 29
6,
.84
1.G3
2.47
<",
.78
1.53
2.31
Potatoes {1887).
[I. Polaris, healthy tubers; II. Beauty of Hebron, healthy tubers; III. Beauty of
Hebron, healthy tubers; IV. Beauty of Heljron, scabby tubers.]
TEn Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Original moisture, ....
80.20
80.73
81.53
82.15
Original dry matter,
19.80
19.27
18.47
17.85
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
5.17
5.17
0.27
0.35
" cellulose, ....
1.91
3.32
3.22
3.55
" fat,
0.62
0.57
0.52
0.58
" protein (nitrogenous matter).
10.74
9.58
9.73
10.70
Non-nitrogenous extract matter.
81.50
81.36
80.20
78.80
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Albuminoid nitrogen, in dry matter,
.91
.73
.77
.92
Non-albuminoid nitrogen, in dry
matter, . . . .
.80
.80
.79
.79
Total nitrogen, in dry matter, .
1.71
1.53
1.56
1.71
186 AGRICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Tabular Statement, showiyig the Loss in Weight, by Evaporatioyi of
Moisture, of Two Potatoes (^Beauty of Hebron) kept in a Dry
Cellar.
[Weight of potatoes Sept. 13, 1887: No. 1, 108.1210 grams; No. 2, 90.5225 grams.]
DATE OF WEIGniX(J.
Per Cent, of Okiginal
Weight Lost since
Preceding Weighing.
Per Cent, op Original
Weight Lost since
Sept. W, 1887.
Potato Xo. 1.
Potato No. 2.
Potato Xo. \.
Potato Xo. 2.
1887.
September 26, .
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.43
October 10, .
.74
.72
2.17
2.15
October 24, .
.67
.66
2.84
2.81
November 7, .
.55
.53
3.39
3.32
November 21, .
.50
.48
3.89
3.80
December 5, .
.52
.51
4.41
4.31
December 19, .
.55
.52 ;
4.96
4.83
1888.
Jamiaiy 2, .
.55
.53
5.51
5.36
January IG, .
.66
.68
6.17
6.04
January 30, .
.66
.70
6.83
6.74
February 13, .
.89
.93
7.72
7.67
February 27, .
1.47
1.41
9.19
9.08
March 12, .
1.71
1.78
10.90
10.86
March 28, .
2.23
2.20
13 13
13.06
April 9, .
2.01
1.88
15.14
14.94
Both potatoes began to si)rout Jan. 7, 1888.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
187
American Buta-baga Turnips (1S89),
Moisture at 100" C,
Dry matter,
Analysis of Dry Mailer.
Crude ash,
" celkilose, ....
" fat,
" ijrotein (nitrogenous matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
Fertilizing Constituents of American Paita-baga Turnips
Moisture at 100^' C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide.
Ferric oxide, .
Sodium oxide.
Potassium oxide,
Phosplioric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter,
Valuation per ton.
Lane's Sugar Beet {Field C, 1S89).
Moisture at 100° C,
Dr}' matter,
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
" cellulose, ....
" fat, .....
" protein (nitrogenous matter),
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, .
Fertilizing Constittie?its of Lane^s Sugar Beet
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide,
Fei'ric oxide, .
Sodium oxide.
Potassium oxide, .
Phosphoric acid, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per ton.
Per Cent.
91.75
8.25
100.00
11.89
13.12
1.26
11.46
62.27
100.00
91.750
.083
.030
.005
.009
.468
.106
.151
.015
11 04
Per Cent.
90.13
9.87
100.00
14.54
9.69
.83
13.01
61.93
100.00
90.130
.062
.043
.007
.006
.720
.134
.205
.038
fl 47
188 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Saxony Sugar Beet {Field C, 1889).
INIoisture at 100^ C,
Dry matter, .
Fertilizing Co?isiituenfs of Saxony Sugar Beet
Moisture at 100^ C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide.
Ferric oxide, .
Sodivma oxide,
Potassium oxide, .
Phosplioric acid, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per ton,
Per Cent.
88.38
11.62
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude ash,
9.U
" cellulose, .........
6.70
" fat,
T.59
" jirotein (nitrogenous matter), .....
10.06
Non-nitrogenous extract matter, ......
73 51
100.00
88.380
.052
.044
.009
.004
.617
.103
.187
.022
$1 28
1890.] PUBLIC" DOCUMENT — No. 33. 189
IV. Experiments with Green Crors for Summer
Feed of Milch Cows. (Field F.)
The field selected for the raising of green fodder crops
for experiments with milch cows (see second feeding ex-
periment, page 48 of this report), had been used for a
series of years as a meadow for the production of hay.
During the fall of 1887, a piece of land, 300 feet long and
137 feet wide, w\as ploughed, and the succeeding spring,
1888, after a proper mechanical condition was secured,
seeded down with Hungarian grass. After this crop was
removed into a silo, the soil was turned, and left in that
state for the following year.
18S9. — In working out our plans for future experiments
upon this field, it was decided to turn the still existing
resources of available plant food to account for the raising
of Southern cow-peas, serradella, and a mixture of vetch
and oats. This decision was made for the following rea-
sons : these crops had given much satisfaction in preceding
years, when fed as green fodder to milch cows ; they
promised, judging from our own experience in adjoining
fields, a fair ^neld when following grass and corn without
any use of manure ; and they would each reach in a desired
succession a stage of growth best adapted for their profit-
able use as green fodder. The field w^as ploughed and
harrowed early in the season (April, 1889), and subse-
quently subdivided into three equal parts, 300 feet long
and 43 feet wide, with four feet unoccupied space between
the plats (see sketch. Field F).
The plat along the north side of the field, 12,900 square
feet, was seeded broadcast with twenty-five pounds each of
vetch and oats, April 26.
The middle subdivision was sown in drills three feet apart,
with eleven pounds of serradella seed, ^lay 8.
The plat along the south side of the field was sown in
drills three feet apart, with twenty-five pounds of Southern
cow-peas (Clay variety), April 8.
Vetch and Oats. — The oats appeared first above ground ;
the vetch followed. May 6. The crop was eleven inches
190 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
high, June 11 ; it measured twenty-five inches, June 19.
The oats began to head out, June 24, and the vetch to
bloom, June 25 ; the entire growth was, on an average,
thirty inches high, June 28, when the cutting for the daily
feed began. The last of the crop was cut July 17 ; it had
reached a height of forty inches. The average moisture of
the green fodder for the entire period was 78.26 per cent.,
which makes the solid vegetable matter 21.74 per cent.
The entire yield of the green crop was 5,440 pounds,
or 8i tons per acre. This result is not as good, as far as
quantity is concerned, as that secured during the preceding
year, when a mixture of 25 pounds of vetch and 50 pounds
of oats were used as seed ; the rate of yield per acre in that
year was 9^ tons of green fodder. The area occupied by
vetch and oats was not large enough to answer fully our
purpose, to cover the time until the cow-pea is fit to be
used advantageously. We shall hereafter double the area,
and seed one-half down, as we did before, towards the
close of April, and the other half from two to three weeks
later.
Serradella. — The young plants were out May 16. The
crop was kept clean with the cultivator and hoe. It is a
peculiar feature of this crop, that its growth is very slow
until it liegins to bloom, when it rapidly branches out, and
causes finally a compact, bulky green mass, filling out com-
pletely the three feet of space between the rows. The seed
was sown. May 8 ; the plants appeared above ground, May
16; they were but one inch high, June 11; two inches,
June 19; two and one-half inches, June '2Q> ; and four
inches, July 3 ; began l^looming, July 6 ; ten inches high,
July 24 ; began spreading, July ol ; reached thirteen
inches in height, August 21. The first feed was cut
September 11, when it formed a dense mass, several
feet wide; the last feed was cut September 27. The
green crop harvested amounted to 8,350 pounds, or
\Z\ tons per acre. The average moisture was 83.65
per cent., and the solid vegetable matter 16.35 per
cent.
Southern Coio-pea. — The young plants were seen six
days after planting. The crop was cultivated and kept
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 191
clean in common with the preceding one ; its leaves were
slightly injured by frost, May 29. The growth w^as three
inches high, June 11; five and one-half inches, June 2G ;
eight inches, July 3 ; seventeen inches, July 17 ; twenty-four
inches, August 21, when blossoms appeared. The first cut
for fodder w^as made September 1, and the last, September
10. The entire yield of green fodder amounted to 6,125
pounds, or 10 tons per acre. The average moisture of the
crop when fed was 83.07 per cent., leaving, for the solid
vegetable matter, 16.93 per cent. The frequent rains during
the late summer and the autumn have apparently favored an
increase in the yield of green fodder. Whether their com-
position has suftered, will be learned from a comparison of
our analyses of past years.
The general characteristics of the crops above mentioned
have been stated in previous reports, and their good services
in the dairy are confirmed by our own observations. AVe
can only repeat in this connection the views advanced in
previous reports.
The practice of raising a greater variety of valuable crops
for o-reen fodder deserves the serious consideration of farmers
engaged in the dairy business ; for it secures a liberal supply
of healthy, nutritious fodder, at the same time when hay
becomes scarce and costlv, and when it would be still a
wasteful practice to feed an imperfectly matured green
fodder corn. The frequently limited area of land fit for a
remunerative production of grasses, and the not less recog-
nized exhausted condition of a large proportion of natural
pastures, make it but judicious to consider seriously the
means which promise not only to increase, but also to
cheapen, the products of the dairy.
Each farmer ought to make his selection, from among the
various fodder plants, to suit his individual resources and
wants ; yet, adopting this basis as his guide, he ought to
make his selection on the basis that the crop w^hich is capable
of producing, for the same area, the largest quantity of
nitrogen-containing food constituents, at the least cost, is, as
a rule, the most valuable one for him.
Our prominent fodder crops may be classified, in regard
to the relative proportion of their nitrogenous organic food
192 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
constituents to their non-nitrogenous organic food constitu-
ents (nutritive ratio), in the following order : —
1. Loguminous plants, clovers, vetches, etc., . . 1 : 2.2 to 1 : 4 5
2. Grasses, 1 : :> 0 to 1 : 8.0
3. Green corn, roots and tubers, . . . . 1 : G.O to 1 : 15 0
A liberal introduction of reputed forage crops into farm
operations has everywhere, in various directions, promoted
the success of agricultural industry. The desirability of
introducing a greater variety of fodder plants into our farm
management is generally conceded. In choosing plants for
that purpose, it seems advisable to select crops which would
advantageously supplement our leading fodder crop (aside
from the products of pastures and meadows), — the fodder
corn and corn stover.
Taking this view of the question, the great and valuable
family of leguminous plants, as clovers, vetches, lucerne,
serradella, pease, beans, lupines, etc., is, in a particular
degree, well qualified for that purpose. They deserve also
a decided recommendation in the interest of a wider range,
for the economical systems of rotations, under various con-
ditions of soil and ditterent requirements of markets. Most
of these fodder plants have an extensive root system, and
for this reason largely draw their plant food from the lower
portion of the soil. The amount of stubl)le and roots they
leave behind after the crop has been harvested is exception-
ailly large, and decidedly ini proves both the physical and
chemical condition of the soil. The lands are consequently
better fitted for the production of shallow-growing crops,
as grains, etc. Large productions of fodder crops assist in
the economical raising of general farm crops. Although the
area devoted to cultivation is reduced, the total yield of
the land is usually more satisfactory.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
193
field"? 1889.
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194 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
V. Notes on Miscellaneous Field Work.
Although the entire farm land of the station has been
placed under a careful supervision, as far as records of
manuring, modes of cultivation and proper selection of crops
for cultivation are concerned, a considerable part of it is not
yet engaged in a strictly experimental work. The course
adopted in the management of some fields aims at a timely
preparation for some definite experiment contemplated in
the near future ; in others, to fit them for an economical
production of fodder crops for the support of farm live
stock. The fields designed for the cultivation of fruit-
bearing trees and shrubs, to study the causes and the
character of the diseases they are frequently heir to, are
subdivided, and each plat subjected to a systematic treat-
ment with diflferent kinds and forms of manurial substances.
The outlines of the area selected for permanent meadows are
better defined, and the condition of the lands improved,
by underdraining and ditching ; diflTerent portions of the
meadows are stocked with difl:erent varieties of grasses, to
test their adaptation and their economical -value. The
ploughed lands are subjected periodically, whenever practi-
cable, to drill cultivation, in the interest of a clean culture.
As the work accomplished in this direction can be better
appreciated when stated later on in connection with the
different results secured, a mere enumeration of the principal
field crops raised during the past season may sufiice here.
Hay, ....
Row en,
Corn for ensilage,
Carrots,
Sugar-beets,
Barley, grain and straw,
Oats, grain and straw,
Coi'n on the cob,
Fodder corn, ' . "
Corn stover.
Sorghum fodder.
Vetch and oats (green),
Cow-pease (green), .
Serradella (green), .
87 tons.
15 tons.
19 tons.
6J tons.
4 tons.
5,750 pounds.
5,350 pounds.
5,250 i^ounds.
7,000 pounds.
7,000 pounds.
2,000 pounds.
5,450 iDounds.
6,600 pounds.
8,350 pounds.
1890. j PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 195
VI. Department or Vegetable Physiology.
1. — Report by Pkof. James Ellis Humphrey.
The first year of my work in this department has been
largely one of organization and equipment. Beginning
without equipment and in limited quarters, no elaborate
work has been possible. The lil)erality of the last Legisla-
ture has removed this difliculty, however, and the new
building and green-house provided for the department are
just completed and occupied. Views of the new accom-
modations are given with this report.
Our equipment for certain lines of work, especially for the
study of fungous diseases of plants, is now fairly good, and
reference collections are well begun.
My report for 1889 comprises the following divisions : —
1. A general account of the Fungi ^ with special reference to
those which cause diseases of cultivated plants.
2. A report ou studies of the potato scab, carried on during the
year.
3. Notes ou various diseases of plants, which have been more
or less prevalent on the station farm the past season.
4. Notes on specimens from other sources, referred to the
department for examination aud report.
1. General Account of the Fungi.
The past few years have been marked, in the United
States, by a rapidly increasing interest in the relations of
the fungi to the plants which they attack, and by a growing
appreciation of the dreaded 7'usts, smuts, mildews, blights and
other fungous diseases, and of their economic importance.
These troubles, once regarded as mysterious, unavoidable,
"Providential" visitations, are coming to be generally
understood to be simple, direct effects of natural causes,
and, as such, open to study and amenable to treatment.
With this understanding comes, naturally, a comprehension
of the value and practical utility of the scientific investiga-
tion of fungous diseases in all their phases.
The writer on fungi for popular information, meets at the
outset a difficulty not experienced by all scientific writers.
196 AGRICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
in the very nature of the fungi themselves. It is not easy
to comprehend that organisms so small and so inconspicuous
can possess such power for harm ; and it is not easy for the
layman to understand that, in spite of their minuteness,
they pass through life-cycles as constant and as definite as
those of the plants On which they grow. It seems, there-
fore, worth while to attempt a general sketch of the growth
and classification of those organisms of a vegetable nature,
which attack and cause diseases of plants cultivated for
useful products or for ornament. This account may serve
as an introduction to the present as well as to future
publications of this station on the subject of plant dis-
eases, and to familiarize the reader, once for all, wath the
use of certain technical terms which are essential to exact-
ness of statement. For the use of such terms no apology is
needed. Their seeming difficulty lies simply in their
unfomiliarity, which, as with all new words, soon wears
away through use ; while their advantage over words already
familiar is that they convey precise ideas, unmodified by
preconceptions, and so greatly aid in clearness and definite-
ness of thought. The words printed in small capitals on
the following pages may serve, also, as a general reference-
list of technical or semi-technical terms, whose use is
essential in treating of plant diseases, and whose meaning,
here explained, will be assumed for the future to be under-
stood by the readers of the publications of this station.
Any plant consists of one or more of the elementary
plant-units, known as cells. A cell consists essentially of
a mass of the semi-fluid living substance wdiicli is the basis
of all life, usually surrounded by a firm membrane, known
as the cell-wall. The simplest plants consist of a single
cell each ; Init the higher plants, on the other hand, are
made up of immense numbers of cells, intimately united.
Every living plant requires, for the renewal of worn-out
parts and the growth of new parts, a supply of the materials
necessary to such renewal and growth. Since both the
living matter and the wall of the cell consist of compounds
of a highly complex chemical constitution, the plant must
be furnished with substances which contain the necessary
chemical elements, in such form as to be readily convertible
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 197
by it into vegetable tissue. Such substances constitute the
real food of plants, in the same sense that what an animal
eats constitutes its food ; and both plants and animals find
available food-supply only in organic substances. Inorganic
materials can no more serve plants than they can serve
animals as food ; and just here a distinction must be made
between the true food of plants and " plant food," so called
in the discussion of fertilizers. We shall see later what is
the relation to the plant of the latter, which consists
essentially of inorganic substances.
Now, we know that an animal must obtain its food
materials ready formed ; that is, it cannot prepare the
organic nutriment it requires from inorganic substances, but
must obtain it from plants or from other animals. Here lies
the important distinction between animals and green plants ;
for, in spite of the fact that, to most persons, the y^ovd. plant
carries with it the idea of greenness, it is by no means true
that all plants are green. Green plants owe their color to
the presence in their leaves and other green parts of a special
pigment, known as leaf-green or chlorophyll. It may be
added that some plants which are not green to the eye, yet
contain chlorophyll, whose presence is hidden by some other
masking pigment. The term " green plants" is here used,
then, to designate all chlorophyll-containing plants, what-
ever their external appearance.
In chlorophyll we have the remarkable substance which
bridges the gap between the inorganic and the organic. It
is the one substance in nature on whose activity the continu-
ance of all life depends. It alone has the power of forming
organized food materials out of the elements of inorganic
substances, but only under certain definite conditions. The
green tissues of land plants receive water from the soil by
way of their roots and stems, and absorb from the atmos-
phere the carbonic acid gas, or carbon-dioxide, which it
contains in small proportion. These two simple inorganic
compounds, water and carbon-dioxide, furnish the elements,
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, for the formation of certain
organic compounds ; and it is the peculiar property of
chlorophyll, that, in its presence, and in its presence only,
these elements are freed from their original combinations,
198 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
and recombined into such organic compounds ; though these
changes can take place only when the chlorophyll is
exposed to light of sufficient intensity, and when the water
supplied to it holds in solution suitable inorganic compounds
containing nitrogen, potassium, phospliorus, calcium, mag-
nesium, iron and sulphur. Under natural conditions, waters
from any soil in which plants will grow will be found to
contain all these substances ; but, in consequence of repeated
cultivation and removal of the crops, the supply of these
materials ill a soil becomes greatly reduced, or, as we say,
the soil becomes ' ' exhausted." It then-becomes necessary to
supply the lacking constituents to the soil in the form of
manures or fertilizers ; and it is these necessary elements
which are commonly spoken of as "plant food." Being
inorganic, they cannot serv^e as food to the plant ; but, as we
have seen, their presence is indispensable to the elaboration
of the true food of the plant from the materials furnished by
water and carbon-dioxide. The precise relation of most of
these elements to the life of the plant is hardly at all under-
stood ; but it is easy to show that, in the absence of either
of them, there can be no permanently healthy activity.
Their relation to the elaboration of organic food material
from inorganic compounds has been compared, perhaps
aptly, to that of oil to the smooth running of a steam-engine.
The necessary conditions being fulfilled, then, there
occurs a recombination of the constitutents of water and
carbon-dioxide into organic substance, excepting a part of
the oxygen, which is set free into the atmosphere. What-
ever temporary combinations they may pass through, the
first visible and stable form in which these recombined
elements appear is usually that of starch, which is the com-
monest form of organic food material that occurs in plants.
After it is thus provided, by the activity of its chlorophyll,
with an organized food supply, the plant utilizes it, as it
needs, for the formation of tissue, either in repairing waste
or in new growth.
But not all plants contain chlorophyll. Very many
resemble animals in being entirely unable to provide their
own nourishment, and in being, therefore, wholly dependent
on external sources of food supply. Since their food supply
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 19D
consists of organic substances, it is evident that it must come
from one of two sources ; either from living organisms,
animal or vegetable, or from dead organisms in a more or
less advanced state of decomposition. Among flowering
plants there are a few which are thus dependent, the best
known of which are the white " Indian pipe" (Monotropa)
of our woods, and the "Dodder," which twines its yellow
or orano-e- colored leafless stems about our ffolden-rods and
similar plants. But nearly all of the chlorophyll-less plants
are of much simpler structure. They are mostly very
small, and show no distinction of separate organs, like the
stem and leaf of higher plants.
These simple plants may best be grouped under three
heads, the true Fungi, the Bacteria, and the 8lime Moulds.
Many of them live on decaying organic matter, the remains
of dead organisms of various sorts, and are known as sapro-
phytes, or corpse-plants. Others, on the contrary, resemble
the dodder in drawing their nourishment directly from living
plants or animals, on which they are said to be parasites.
The plant or animal at whose expense the parasite lives is
called its host. It is this latter class of plants which has
special interest to all who cultivate the higher plants, since
its members cause the numerous and frequent plant diseases
ordinarily known as fungous diseases. As we have seen,
they attack their host plants for the purpose of obtaining
the organic food supply necessary to their growth, which
they are unable, from lack of chlorophyll, to provide for
themselves.
The efiects of diS*erent parasites on their host plants vary
greatly. It is evident that the host plant must always be
weakened by being robbed of a part of its food ; but the
amount taken seems, in some cases, to be insignificant, so
that no serious damage results. On the other hand, the
destruction of the host is sometimes so rapid and so com-
plete that there can be no doubt that the parasite exercises
a more positively fatal influence than merely that of turning
the food supply of the plant from its proper channels.
Between these extremes one may observe all degrees of
harmfulness on the part of the various parasites ; and the
harm done by any particular one may vary widely in
200 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
different cases, being largely controlled by varying con-
ditions.
The great majority of parasitic fungi develop and vege-
tate within the tissues of their hosts ; but some forms live
and grow superficially, merely sending small branches into
the cells of their hosts, for the purpose of absorbing
nourishment. These external parasites are, as a rule, much
less injurious to the plants they attack than are internal
parasites.
A striking; influence is often exerted on the habit of
growth of a plant by the attacks of a parasite. Thus, it
is often possible to tell which among a number of plants
are infected, by their appearing taller or shorter, or slenderer
or stouter, than the healthy plants ; or they may appear of a
lighter or darker shade of color ; or, as frequently happens,
the development of a fungus in the tissues of a plant may
cause the aftected parts to become abnormally developed and
distorted to such an extent as to attract the attention of even
the casual observer.
Just here should be noted an important fact for the stu-
dent of parasitic fungi. As a rule, a given parasite is able
to live on only a single host species, or on a few closely
related species, seeming to require for its development
the special chemical and other conditions afforded by some
particular plant or particular group of similar plants. But,
on the other hand, closely related parasites may attack
widely different plants. For example, there is a very com-
mon " rust" which attacks the Canada thistle, and another
which is equally common on grasses and grains. The two
rusts are very closely related, while the relationship between
the thistles and the grasses is very remote. Neither of these
rusts can live on the host plant of the other.
The distinction between parasites and saprophytes, while
very useful, must not be made too strict; for there are
numerous fungi which, Avhile naturally saprophytes, can
assume the role of parasites under certain conditions, and
others which may live as saprophj^tes, for a time at least,
though ordinarily obtaining their nourishment parasitically.
Many fungi, also, are probably parasites in some and sapro-
phytes in other parts of the life-cycle.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 201
We may pass now to a more particular account of the
groups of chlorophyll-less plants already mentioned.
The Slime Moulds comprise a comparatively small num-
ber of plants, most of which are strictly saprophytic in their
mode of life. A few of the simpler ones, however, are
parasites, and their life history may be briefly sketched.
They pass the winter or other unfavorable period in a so-
called resting state, in which condition they appear as tiny
globular bodies, each consisting of a mass of living matter,
surrounded by a tough, firm coat. When warmth and moist-
ure return, these outer coats crack open, and the living
masses escape and begin to actively creep about, seeking for
the plants on which they are able to live. Failing in this
search, one of these tiny creeping masses soon dies ; but,
if successful, it penetrates the cells of the host plant, and
proceeds to grow and mature at its expense. Toward the
end of the growing season, the masses of living substance,
which have greatly increased in size and now occupy the
interiors of cells of the host whose contents they have
absorbed, break up into many very small portions, each of
which enters the resting state by becoming surrounded with
a tough coat, and so awaits the next season. These organ-
isms are clearly of the simplest nature, and it would perhaps
be better to call them simply organisms, than to try to
assign them a place on either side of the shadowy and
indefinite line which separates the lowest plants and ani-
mals. By nearly universal consent, however, their study
is assigned to the botanists. The most important member
of this group, economically, is perhaps the parasite which
causes the "club-foot" of cabbages and turnips, incidentally
described in the article on "Potato Scab," in the report of
this station for 1888.
The Bacteria, or "germs," include the smallest known
organisms, with both saprophytic and parasitic forms, and
perhaps many which can live in either way. They consist
of minute spheres, rods and threads, whose vital activity is
the cayse of many most remarkable phenomena. Among
those which live saprophytically, one form produces the
putrefaction of dead organic matter ; another causes the
souring of milk ; another, the change of alcohol into acetie
202 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
acid, which occurs when cider is converted into vinegar;
another produces the rancidity of butter ; and so on, through
a long list. Many of the parasitic bacteria live in the bodies
of men or other animals, and produce the most dreaded and
dreadful contagious or zymotic diseases, like small-pox,
anthrax or splenic fever, diphtheria, Asiatic cholera, hog
cholera. Southern cattle fever, chicken cholera, pleuro-
pneumonia, and many others. A few, also, produce diseases
of plants, especially the rotting of bulbs and tubers. It is
also claimed by careful investigators that the "tire blight"
of pear and apple trees is due to the attacks of one of the
bacteria.
These plants reproduce themselves chiefly by fission, a
process which consists in the elongation of the organism up
to a certain point, and the formation of a cross-wall dividing
it into halves, which then separate and become independent.
In its essentials the process is evidently a simple cutting in
two.
The bacteria are universally disseminated, since their
extreme smallness and consequent lightness render them
easily transportable by the lightest breezes. When it is
remembered that all putrefactive changes are due to their
activity, their omnipresence begins to be realized.
The true Fungi show greater complexity of structure
than either of the groups just described. With a very fev/
exceptions, they have a distinct jAant bodij or vegetative
portion, on which are developed the reproductive organs, or
fruiting portion. The plant body consists of fine colorless
threads, often branched, which spread over or through the
substance from which the fungus draws its nourishment.
These active, absorbing, vegetative threads of the plant body
constitute the mycelium of the fungus. From these are
ultimately produced others, which are the fruiting or repro-
ductive threads of the plant, and bear the reproductive
bodies whose function is similar to that of the seeds of the
higher plants, namely, the perpetuation of the species.
Though produced in widely different ways, and varying
among themselves far more than do the seeds of flowering
plants, they may be, for convenience, all included under
the general name spokes. They are much simpler in
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 203
structure than true seeds, Jind are usually microscopic in
size.
In the simplest cases, the spores of a fungus are produced
directly on the ends of separate and independent fruiting
threads ; in other cases they are the products of sexual proc-
esses, involving the union of distinct male and female threads ;
and, in the more complicated forms, numerous reproductive
threads become intimately interlaced and compacted into a
fruiting structure, often of considerable size, which bears
spores in an interior cavity or cavities, or on some part of its
surface. These spore-bearing structures reach their greatest
development and conspicuousness in the " toadstools "' and
related fungi. In the modes in which spores are developed
from the fruiting threads, we may distinguish two chief types.
In one case, the end of a thread is simply cut olf to form
a spore ; while, in the other, the end of the thread swells,
and spores are formed free in the swollen portion. Those
of the former type may be called naked, those of the latter,
enclosed, spores. There is another classification of the
spores of fungi, which is of special importance in the study
of plant diseases. The majority of fungus spores can ger-
minate at once and produce new fungi, under favorable
conditions for vegetation. Of these there are some which
live but a short time, and, unless they very soon find such
conditions, fail to develop. They are produced in great
numbers, however, ma}^ develop rapidly, and serve especially
to spread the fungus by the infection of new hosts during
the growing season. They may therefore be designated
sujvimer spores, a familiar example is offered l)y the
spores developed in red-brown streaks on the leaves and
stalks of grain, in midsummer, and known as the " red rust."
Other spores can live for a long time, awaiting suitable con-
ditions, and ready to improve the first opportunity for
germination. Stdl others, on the contrary, require a greater
or less period of rest or quiescence before germination can
take place. Such spores are usually able to withstand great
extremes of temperature and dryness, and serve to perpetu-
ate the plant through the winter or other unfavorable period ;
in contrast to the summer spores, which spread it rapidly at
favorable seasons. They may be distinguished as KESTiNa
204 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
SPORES, and well illustrated l:>y the spores which compose
the black streaks which follow the red rust on the stalks of
grain, and are known as " black rust."
A few fungi forni, peculiar bodies, which serve the purpose
of resting spores, although they are of a very different
nature. These are dark-colored masses of closely compacted
mycelium, which can retain their vitality for a long time
under circumstances unfavorable to growth, and finall}^
when favorable conditions recur, produce spore-bearing
structures and spores. These special resting mycelia are
known as sclerotia, and are well illustrated by the argot of
grain, often known as " spurred rye."
A given species of fungus may produce, not merely one
but two or several forms of spores and spore-bearing struct-
ures. These various forms may be produced at the same
time or at nearly the same time, on the same mycelium ; and,
when this is the case, their connection and relations to each
other are comparatively easy to make out. For instance,
the streaks of rust on the culms of grain may often be found,
at the proper season, with both red and black spores arising
from the same mycelium, showing that the red and black
rusts are only different spore-forms of the same fungus. But
so simple a condition as this is the exceptional rather than the
usual one. In very many fungi, the spores produced on one
mycelium develop other mycelia essentially indistinguishable
from the first, on which spores very unlike the first are
formed ; and these may, in their turn, give rise to a mycelium
bearing spores like the first. For example, the mycelium
developed next spring from the spores of many black rusts
of the present season will produce, not new rust spores, but
chains of wholly different spores, arranged in the form of
tiny circular masses, each surrounded by a fringed or ragged
border. From this characteristic structure, and the fact
that they usually grow in close groups, these peculiar forms
of fructification have received their name of cluMer cups.
On the mycelium arising from their spores are developed
again rust spores like those which gave rise to the cluster-
cup mycelium. Or again, the same mycelium may produce
tw^o or more forms of spores at quite different times, so that
their connection is not directly traceable except by keeping
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 33. 205
the mycelium under long-continued observation. The
spores and spore-bearing organs in the different stages of
the same fungus may represent wholly different types of
structure ; so that the different forms have been, and, in the
great majority of cases, still are, described and known under
different names, as distinct fungi. This diversity of form,
characteristic of the life-cycle of so many fungi , is known as
PLEOMORPHiSM. The subject is but just beginning to be
understood, and its study is only begun. Consequently our
knowledge of the whole matter is extremely fragmentary and
unsatisfactory.
The fungi, like other plants, exhibit among themselves
widely different types of structure, and may be separated
into very distinct groups ; while, within the limits of these
groups, they show in greater or less degrees that similarity
of organization and development which indicates descent
from common ancestors, and consequent near relationship.
These likenesses and differences enable us to arrange the
fungi for convenience of study and discussion in a more or
less natural order, though our knowledge is still very far from
being sufficiently complete to afford us an arrangement
which at all fully represents their relationships. It will be
a great convenience, in future discussions, to have a general
outline of the classification of the fungi and related groups ;
and the following is presented with a view to meeting this
need. It is hoped that it may prove useful for reference,
and sufiiciently full, taken in connection with the preceding
general account, to facilitate an intelligent understanding of
discussions of particular fungous diseases. If any reader
should feel, after reading this necessarily very brief and
imperfect sketch, a desire for more detailed information con-
cerning any fungi, the writer will be glad to render all pos-
sible assistance. In the following brief accounts of the
various groups, attention has been given especially to those
which include parasites on cultivated plants. The best
available English name has been given to each group, and
after the English name will be found, in each case, the
name, in parentheses, by which the group is known to
botanists.
200 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
I. Slime Moulds (Myxomycetes) . — See above, p. 201.
II. Bacteria {Schizomycetes) . — See above, p. 201.
III. Fungi. — These may be conveniently divided, for
our purpose, into about seventeen groups, all but the last
composed of quite closely related plants, as follows : —
1. Downy mildews and white rusts (^Peronosporem) are
internal parasites in the herbaceous parts of plants. Most
of them produce summer spores, on threads which break
through the surface of the plant into the air ; and resting
spores, in the interior of the host. The latter are set free
by the decay, during the winter, of the tissues in which
they are imbedded, and then germinate in spring. The
former are scattered by the currents of air, and rapidly
infect new hosts.
Among diseases caused by attacks of members of this
group of fungi are the potato rot, downy mildews of the
grape, lettuce, onion, etc., and " damping off ' of seedlings.
2. Water moulds (^8aprolegniacecie) are chiefly saprophytes
on animal substances (dead insects, etc.) in water; but one
of them can attack living fish, notably the salmon, destroy-
ing the skin, commonly of the head region, by its gradual
spread, and finally killing its victim.
3. Leaf-g all fungi (^Chytridiacem) are very small and
simple parasites, some of which form pustule-like swellings
of herbaceous parts of flowering plants, and so merit the
name here given. A majority of the members of the group,
however, are parasites on the lower water plants, and of no
present interest.
4. True moulds (Mucorini) comprise fungi which are
saprophytes on common vegetable substances, and others
which are parasites on the mycelia of the former. They are
of no special interest in the present connection.
5. Insect fungi {EntomojjJtthoreoi) are nearly all parasites
of insects, and cause the death of their hosts. Their only
economic interest is in the possibility which has been
suggested that they may be artificially propagated for use in
destroying insect pests. The clieme however is one of
very doubtful practicalnlity.
6. Smuts ( Ustilaginece) are internal parasites of flower-
ing plants, and develop both mycelium and spores in the
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 207
tissues of their hosts. The mycelium is largely used up in the
formation of spores, so that, at maturity, little is to be found
but a dark-brown or black powdery mass of spores. In
most cases these lattea* can germinate at once under certain
conditions ; but they may live for a very long time ready to
germinate when favorable conditions occur. The spores of
some smuts seem to be true resting spores ; and those of
many other species approach that condition, in that they
germinate much more readily after a period of rest than
when just mature. The smuts of corn, of wheat and other
grains, and of the onion, are only too well known.
7. liusls ( Uredinece) are especially interesting for their
striking and remarkable pleomorphism, already referred to.
They are very common parasites of flowering plants, and the
typical species produce three chief spore forms. Individual
variations within the group make it difficult to give a general
account, but the following will apply to most of the rusts.
Early in the season the fungus appears in its first or cluster-
cu}) stage, described above, and shown in the yellow patches
so common on barberry leaves in June. The spores of this
form produce fresh mycelia, which give rise to the second,
and later to the third, spore form. These second and third
forms, are, as has been already stated, the red and hlach
rusts, respectively. This is the typically complete condi-
tion, but in very many cases one or even two of the forms
are unknown. The spores of the dusfer-cuj) and red-rust
forms are summer spores, while those of the black-rust are
usually resting spores, though not alwa^^s so.
Frequently the various forms of a rust fungus follow each
other on the same host plant ; but the difficulty of a com-
plete knowledge of many of them is further complicated by
the fact that the cluster-cup form occurs on one host, and the
other two on a widely different one. For example, the
cluster-cup of the barberry is the first stage of the fungus
whose second and third stao-es are the red and black rusts of
wheat and various other grains and grasses, as has been
shown by careful and repeated cultures. This form of pleo-
morphism, in which the different spore forms of a parasitic
fungus occur on different hosts, is known as hetercecism.
208 AGEICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
A few closely related plants belonging to the group of
rusts constitute important exceptions to the typical life
history, outlined above. These are hetermcismal fungi,
whose second form is unknown, and probably does not
exist. Their cluster-cup forms cause the familiar " rusting"
of the leaves, and sometimes of the fruits, of apple trees,
hawthorns and related woody plants, in summer ; and their
third forms are the " cedar apples," whose gelatinous fruiting
masses are equally common on our red cedars or " savins"
and junipers, in spring. It will be seen from the above that
the " pedar apples," which correspond to the black-rust stage
of other rusts, appear earlier in the season than the cluster-
ciip stage ; naturally, then, their spores are not resting
spores, the fungi being carried through the winter by their
mycelia, which live in the branches of the hosts.
Among important isolated forms, whose other stages are
unknown, may be named the orange-colored rust which
covers the lower surfaces of the leaves of blackberries and
raspberries in spring and summer.
8. Jelly fungi (^Tremellini) are very interesting botani-
cally, since they show distinct relationships with both the
rusts and the toadstools ; but they are saprophytes, and
require no further notice here, beyond the statement that
they form gelatinous masses of various colors, from white to
black, on dead wood, and are most abundant in late fall and
early spring.
9. Toadstools {Hymenomycetes) are perhaps the most
abundant of fungi, besides comprising more species than any
other group. They are nearly all saprophytes, and many
grow in places where the presence of organized food
material would hardly be suspected. Their spores are borne
free at the ends of spore-producing threads, which are
usually packed closely together, and form a fruiting surface.
In the siui[)lest members of the group this surface is the
only one exposed to the air ; but in the more elaborate
forms, popularly known as toadstools, there are upper and
under surfaces distinguishable on the fruiting structure, and
of these the latter is the spore-producing surface.
A few forms are of present interest. One of the simplest
members of this group causes the leaves and fruits of the
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 209
blueberry, cranberry, and related plants, to become swollen
and covered by a white " bloom," composed of the spores
of the fungus, and often does considerable damage. The
mycelia of several toadstools grow in the wood or between
the wood and bark of trees, and may do much harm to tim-
ber. In the case of some species, the mycelia may form
long, brown, branching sclerotia, somewhat resembling roots,
which are not uncommon beneath the bark of decaying logs.
This group includes the mushrooms, the chantarelle, and
many other valuable food fungi.
10. Puff-balls {G aster omycetes) are nearly related to the
last group, and, like most of its members, aie saprophytes.
A few of the species are edible, but otherwise the group has
no economic importance, although including many familiarly
known forms.
11. Yeasts (^Saccharomycetes) are very simple fungi, in
which the plant is reduced to a single elliptical cell, and
reproduces itself chiefly by a process of budding. A slight
projection grows out from the cell, and gradually increases
in size until it reaches dimensions not much less than those
of its parent cell, from which it then becomes detached, and
begins to lead an independent life, budding in its turn.
Although saprophytes, these fungi are of great interest
economically, from their producing the alcoholic fermenta-
tion, and their consequent practical application in baking
and brewing. The change known as alcoholic fermentation
consists in the separation of the chemical elements compos-
ing sugar, and their recombination into other compounds,
chiefly alcohol and carbon-dioxide ; and the power to pro-
duce this change is possessed in a remarkable degree by
some of the yeasts.
12. Leaf -curls [Exoascem) are parasitic fungi of very
simple structure. They cause a swelling and curling of the
parts attacked, which are commonly the leaves, though
sometimes the fruits. The distortions are covered by a
"bloom" composed of tiny club-shaped sacs, projecting
from between the surface cells of the host, and containing
minute spores. The " curl " of peach leaves and the swell-
ing of unripe plums into "plum pockets" are caused by
these fungi.
210 AGRICULTURAL EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan.
13. Powdery mildews (^Perisporiaceoe) are external para-
sites of herbaceous parts of plants. The white threads of
the mycelium spread over the surface, sending absorbing
organs into the tissues, and bear abundantly the fruiting
structures, which are recognizable by the naked eye as tiny
black bodies, when ripe. Each of these bodies consists of
a hard shell, surrounding from one to several somewhat egg-
shaped sacs, in which the spores are contained. The best-
known of these fungi are the powdery mildews of the grape
and the gooseberry.
14. Black fungi (^Ptjrenomycetes) may be so called from
the fact that a large majority of them produce a blackened,
carbonized appearance of the leaves or branches which they
attack, making them look as though burned. Sometimes,
however, they are of a light or bright color, so that the
name is not entirely appropriate. In cavities in these black
or colored fruiting structures are contained the spores,
enclosed in oblong or club-shaped sacs, which escape into
the air through tiny pores connecting with the exterior.
Many of these fungi also produce summer spores, on threads
which cover the outer surface with a "bloom," or line
cavities similar to those which contain the spores in sacs.
Most of these plants are saprophytes, but a few attack
hosts still living. Of them there are a few which are too
well known, notably those which cause the " black-knot" of
plum and cherry trees, and the " black-rot" of the grape.
15. Saucer fungi (Discomi/cetes) are so called from the
form of the fruiting portion of many members of the group,
though, on account of their wide variations, no single
descriptive term is applicable to all. They are chiefly
saprophytes, and the larger forms sometimes strikingly
recall the toadstools in habit and place of growth. The
spores are contained, as in the last two groups, in closed
sacs, which, in the saucer fungi, stand erect and closely
packed together on the upper or inner face of the saucer,
which they cover with a distinct spore-bearing layer. A
few of these fungi live, at least under certain conditions, as
parasites, and develop small sclerotia in the tissues of their
hosts, thus producing the so-called " sclerotia diseases " of
clover, onions, hemp, etc.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 211
16. Truffles {TuheracecB) are a small group of subter-
ranean saprophytes, some of which are highly prized as
articles of food.
17, Imperfect fungi is a general term to include an
immense number of forms supposed to be mostly early
stages in the development of members of some of the groups
already described, especially various summer-spore forms of
fungi belonging to groups 13, 14 and 15. Here are com-
prised the very different forms known under the names
Sjjfici'rojjsidece, Melanconiem, Hypfioinycetes^ etc. The spores
are usually borne naked on the ends or sides of spore-
producing threads, and germinate at once, as a rule. These
fungi are, in large proportion, parasites, and produce
diseases of widely differing external appearance, known
variously by the names " anthracnose," " blight," " spot,"
" scab," " rot," etc.
A fuller account of these fungi is impossible, except by
subdividing them into several groups, because of t*he very
heteroo-eneous character of the contents of this general
catcfi-all for forms not placed elsewhere. The fact that such
a miscellaneous and enormous collection of ' ' imperfect "
form-species must form a part of any enumeration of fungi,
is the best evidence of the incompleteness of our knowledge.
In proportion as that knowledge increases, the extent of this
collection must diminish.
The above outline covers the principal fungi, and will, it
is hoped, to some extent subserve the purposes for which it
has been prepared. Being now in possession of some general
facts concerning fungi, we may attempt to deduce from them
some of those principles which must guide us in attempts to
lessen or prevent the ravages of diseases caused by these
plants.
Since parasitic fungi develop, for the most part, within
the tissues of their hosts, it is evident that there is little
possibility of saving a plant once fairly infected ; for what
would kill the parasite would ordinarily be fatal to the host.
The powdery mildews, being external parasites, may perhaps
be killed after they are well developed. Our chief aim,
however, must be to protect the plant by the thorough
application to its exposed surfaces of some preparation which
212 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
shall, without injurhig the plant, kill or at least prevent the
germination of fungus spores which may alight upon it, and
which would, under natural conditions, germinate there and
infect the plant. Many such preparations have been pro-
posed and tested, a few with encouraging results. While
this whole subject is but little developed as yet, two formulae
may be given which promise to be quite generally useful : —
Copper Mixture of Gironde or Bordeaux Mixture.
A. Dissolve six pounds sulphate of copper (blue stone) in
sixteen gallons water.
B. Slake four pounds quicklime with six gallons water.
C. When cool, mix A and B, stirring thorouglily.
Blue Water or Eau Celeste.
Dissolve one pound sulphate of copper in four gallons warm
water ; when cool, add one pint commercial ammonia and eighteen
gallons water.
The latter of -these may be applied by means of any
apparatus which thoroughly distributes it ; but the former
requires the use of a spraying pump, with a special agitating
nozzle to keep it evenly and thoroughly mixed, since the
lime is simply held in suspension, without being dissolved.
It seems hardly necessary to point out that a vigorously
healthy plant will be far less sul)ject to the attacks of fungi,
and will sufler far less from such attacks, than a poorly
nourished one. Both theory and experience point to this
obvious conclusion.
After a plant is too far gone to be saved, measures should
be taken to prevent the ififection of neighboring plants, still
intact, and of plants of the same kind, in the following
season. With the latter object in view, one should destroy
the affected parts, and especially any dead or fallen parts or
refuse, which may harbor the spores of the fungus during
the winter. In dealing with fungi which produce resting
spores, these precautions should be taken with especial
thoroughness. The destruction of infectious material should
be as complete as burning can make it, for nothing less than
this will assure the death of all the spores contained in it. '
In dealing with any fungous disease, one of the secrets of
siiccess may be summed up in the word, thoroughness.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 213
Numerous cases can be cited of common weeds or wild
plants, each of which is so closely related to some species
of cultivated plants that it is liable to attack by the same
fungi that infest its cultivated relative. Where this is true,
the wild plant may serve equally with the cultivated one to
perpetuate the fungus, and may keep it alive during a time
when the latter is not grown, or may become a source of in-
fection for a cultivated field, previously free. For example,
the "black-knot" fungus grows on our wild cherries, as
well as on cultivated cherries and plums ; the lettuce mildew
occurs on several species of " wild lettuce ; " and the grape-
vine mildew, besides occurring on wild grape vines, has been
found on the Virginia creeper. The bearing of these facts
on questions of preventing and checking the various diseases
is obvious.
Finally, it is clear that epidemic diseases cannot be suc-
cessfully combated without general co-operation throughout
an infected region. The attempts of half a dozen intelligent
men to protect their crops may be almost of no avail, if one
lazy or "conservative" neighbor refuses to join in the
attempt, and allows his adjacent field to alford a breeding-
place for the very fungus our progressive friends are fighting.
Successful dealing with diseases caused by parasitic fungi
may be said, then, to be based on the following essentials :
promptness, thoroughness, cleanliness, intelligent treatment,
co-operation.
The writer wishes to come into much more general com-
munication with the farmers, market gai'deners, Jtorticulturists,
Jlorists, and all who cultivate plants, in the /State. He es-
pecially and urgently requests that specimens be sent him of
plants affected hy any disease, not caused by insects, ivhich
may come to the attention of any reader of this report.
Very much aid to a fuller knowledge of many diseases can
be afforded if those ivho are the losers by them loill co-operate
to render all possible assistance, even to the extent of going to
some trouble, to those engaged in their study^ Without
• such co-operation and assistance, our work must necessarily
be far less effective and our studies far less complete in their
results.
214 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
2. The Potato Scab.
In the report of this station for 1888, pages 131 to 138,
was given an account of the disease of potatoes known as
" scab," with a summary of the views held up to that time
as to its nature and cause. It was shown that, while the
characters of the disease are sufficiently marked and far
too familiar, its cause is still to be explained. On this
point three principal theories are held, which may be stated
briefly as follows: (1) the theory of W. G. Smith and
others, that the trouble is caused by the irritating action of
foreign substances in the soil ; (2) the view that it is due
to peculiar soil conditions; and (3) Brunchorst's claim that
it is caused by the attacks of a parasite belonging to the
slime moulds. Various American experiments were quoted,
bearing on the effects of the presence or absence of manure,
excess or deficiency of water, use of smooth or scabby
"seed," use of fungicides, and cultivation of light or dark
skinned potatoes.
In the spring of 1889, arrangements were made for
experiments on the same plot on which the scab had ap-
peared for several years, — Field E, containing about three-
tenths of an acre. This plot, which had been ploughed the
previous fall, was ploughed again in the spring, and
divided into twenty-eight sections of three rows each, the
section being regarded as the unit, and each section being
treated, as nearly as possible, in a uniform manner.
The w^hole plot, excepting section 1, at the south end,
was dressed with an application of ground bone and potash-
magnesia sulphate, at the rate of 600 pounds of the former
and 200 pounds of the latter per acre. In addition to
suggestions for the details of experiments drawn from cur-
rent theories and previous experiments, two were adopted
from other sources ; namely, to test the ofl'cct of tobacco
applied in the drill in the form of ground tobacco refuse,
and to observe the results, as to the development of scab,
of deep planting. Arrangements were made to facilitate
the irrigation of a part of the sections ; but, owing to the '
extreme rainfall of the season, no use was made of the
means provided, and no comparison of the effects of excess
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 215
and deficiency of moisture on the development of the scab
can be instituted, as the whole field received the same
liberal natural watering.
The first five columns of the following table show the
details of the planting of each section. It will'be seen that
the plan aflbrds material for the following comparisons of
results, as to the development of scab : 1. Deep vs. shallow
planting; 2. Susceptibility to attack of light and dark
skinned varieties ; 3. Barn-yard manure vs. commercial
fertilizers; 4. Effect of tobacco dust in drill ; 5. Scabby.
vs. smooth "seed."
216 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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218 AGRICULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The scabby " white " potatoes planted on sections G, 7 and
13 were of a very light-skinned sort, much resembling the
Gregory, though not certainly of that variety. Those called
" black," planted on section 6, were a very few small,
elongated, dark-purple tubers, found in the station barn ;
the " tops" showed the same dark color which marked the
tubers, and produced the only entirely smooth potatoes on the
field. The plot was planted May 4, and the first shoots
broke through the soil on the 17th. A week later they were
well up, and a marked backwardness of sections 1 and 14
was observed, as compared with the rest. The retarding
eflect of planting directly on manure continued to be dis-
tinctly noticeable for three weeks longer. Various explana-
tions may be ofl:ered, however, for this fact, which, by itself,
has no special significance. The field was cultivated and
hoed at sufficiently frequent intervals, and the plants grew
well, being kept fairly free from the potato l)eet]e by two
light applications of Paris green, combined with hand-
picking.
On the 4th of June young tubers were found , of the size
of a pea, and from this time their size and number rapidly
increased. On July 22 the first indications of the rot made
their appearance on the leaves of some plants near the south
end of the plot, and had soon spread over almost the entire
field. As soon as possible, namely, on the 29th of July, the
potatoes were dug, in order to avoid the loss of results from
the scab experiments to which the rotting of the tubers
would lead. The potatoes from each section were kept
distinct, and carefully examined with reference to their
relative scabbiness. The result in each case is briefly stated
in terms of a scale of five grades, running from " generally
smooth "to " very badly scabbed," in the last column of the
foregoing table. A compilation of the results there given,
with regard to their bearing on the points before indicated,
shows that : 1. Deep planting appears to tend to diminish
the development of scab, though further experiments in this
direction are very desirable. 2. While the very dark
potatoes were wholly free from scab, little or no ditference
was to be noticed in the susceptibility of the three light
varieties planted ; it is to be regretted that none of the best
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 219
red varieties were available for the comparison. 3. The
potatoes raised on barn-yard manure were markedly more
scabby and more deeply scabbed than the rest. 4. Tobacco
dust in the drill had no appreciable efiect in increasing or
diminishing the scab. 5. Scabby "seed" produces a crop
neither better nor worse than that grown from smooth
potatoes. None of these results are new, but they may serve
as further material on which to base general conclusions, and
as confirmatory of the results of most previous similar experi-
ments. But all such results are comparatively without
significance, so long as the cause of the troul)le remains
unknown, and we are as much as ever in the dark, so far as
any basis of rational experimentation or treatment is con-
cerned ; therefore the most attention has been given to the
study of the development of the scab.
From the time when tubers began to be formed till the
crop was dug, plants were taken up at intervals, and care-
fully examined. The first suspicious spots were found on
some small tubers June 20, and the first unmistakable scab
was noticed on the 28th. After this time abundant specimens
were obtainable. It is worthy of note that the first examples
of afiected tubers were obtained from sections 1 and 14, on
which barn-yard manure was used, and that they always
furnished the most and scabbiest material.
The scab always begins in very small spots, and spreads
from these. When quite small, the spots usually show dark-
brown centres from which the lighter marginal portions seem
to have spread. These dark central spots mark the posi-
tion of the lenticels of the tuber, in which the disease
originates. The microscopic structure of the diseased spots
is the same at all stages of their development. The first
suspicious spots, detected June 20, on very young tubers,
proved, on microscopic examination, to be young scab-spots,
and could not be distinguished in minute structure from the
large patches on a full-grown tuber. The characteristic
change which produces the appearance and condition known
as scab consists in the browning, drying and shrivelling of
the walls of a few layers of the surface cells of the tuber,
which produces a hard and rough crust. The difierence
between a very small spot and a large patch of scabby surface
220 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
is wholly one of kind, the latter developing from the
former by the simple extension of the pathological condition
described, over a greater surface. In this way is produced
what may be described as the superficial form of the disease,
illustrated by the lower specimen in Fig. 1 , opposite page
136 of our report for 1888, and by Fig. 1, accompanying
the present paper. The drying and browning sometimes
penetrates to a considerable depth, and causes the death
of masses of tissue of some volume, which finally become
destroyed by decay, frequently with the assistance of worms
and other animals. Their presence in this form of the
disease has apparently led to the belief, held by many
persons, that such animals are the cause of the trouble.
This may be called the deep form of the scab, and shows, in
its completest development, extensive cavities in the tubers,
where tissue has died and decayed. It is illustrated by the
upper specimen in Fig. 1 of last year's report, and by the
accompanying Fig. 2. Both forms of the disease coexist
under various conditions to such a deo:ree that the causes
determining the development of the deep form are wholly
indefinable.
Very careful examinations were made, to determine
whether the present disease is caused by any plant or
animal, either as a true parasite or otherwise ; but no
organism of any sort was found constantly or even frequently
present at any stage of its progress, and there can be no
doubt that it is 7iot the result of the activity or development
of any living thing other than the potato plant. Various
experiments, referred to in the paper in last year's report,
above mentioned, have pointed to this conclusion, and their
results would be very puzzling had the present investigations
resulted otherwise. The search for some organism standing
in causal relation to the trouble, has, however, been con-
ducted with much care, in deference to the claims and theory
of Bruuchorst, quoted above, and to be discussed later.
Since the scientific name of an organism indicates always
a definite and determinable thing, one can always be sure,
in the study of a disease plainly caused by a plant or animal,
as to the validity of his comparisons of his results with those
of others who have studied the same disease. But the
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 221
words " scab," " Schorf" and " Skurv" are not terms which
mean only definite things, but are of popuhir and general
application ; and the assumption that they are used in
difierent countries to designate the same disease, remains
merely an assumption until it is proved by direct comparison
to be correct. Indeed, the assumption that the word " scab"
is used, throughout our own country, for the same affection,
is, perhaps, hardly justified ; but, as it is borne out by
specimens from various parts of New England, its correct-
ness for the whole country is taken for granted. In order,
however, to settle the uncertainty whether the three words
above quoted are synonymous, two leading writers on the
subject were requested to furnish material for comparison
with American scabby potatoes. Dr. Sorauer, director of
the experiment station at Proskau, Germany, was asked to
send potatoes alFected with the disease known in Germany
as " Schorf " or "Grind," and Dr. Brunchorst of Bergen,
Norway, to send potatoes attacked by the disease known in
that country as " Skurv," and said by him to be caused by a
species of slime mould. Both very kindly responded, and
the writer wishes here to extend to both botanists his very
sincere thanks for their interest and assistance.
Dr. Sorauer sent several tubers affected with what, to the
naked eye, resembles in all respects our superjlcial form of
scab ; and microscopic examination fully establishes its
identity with our disease. The accompanying Fig. 3 is
made from a photograph of one of the potatoes sent by Dr.
Sorauer. The German ' ' Schorf " and the English ' ' scab "
are, then, synonyms, as applied to diseases of the potato.
From Dr. Brunchorst, a photograph of tubers attacked
by "Skurv" has been received; but, unfortunately, the
specimens of such tubers, promised by him, have failed
to arrive, and it is impossible to accurately compare the
disease with our own. Such comparisons as are rendered
possible by Dr. Brunchorst's descriptions and figures and
by the photograph he has had the goodness to send,
point, however, to the conclusion that he is dealing with
a disease very distinct from the scab, and that his assump-
tion that the American and German diseases are identical
with "the Norwegian, is incorrect.
222 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Fig. 4 is a reproduction of Brunchorst's photograph.
Until more positive evidence can be obtained from the
study of specimens, it seems safest to assume that the
"Skurv" studied by him is quite difterent from the other
diseases, and of different origin. This view removes diffi-
culties not readily explained otherwise.
Bulletin No. 34 of this station, published last June,
contained a series of questions concerning potato scab,
addressed to farmers, especially those of this State, which
they were requested to answer from iheir experience, for
the assistance of this department in the study of the disease.
Some ten thousand copies of this bulletin were sent out,
and some agricultural journals showed their interest by
printing and calling attention to them. The replies to
this widely circulated request were six in number, and,
of these, four came from neighboring States. It is fair
to ask the farmers of Massachusetts to imagine how great
is the encouragement derived from such a result by those
who are working in their interest, and wish their co-opera-
tion and assistance. The facts stated require no com-
ment.
In conclusion, it may be remarked that the results of the
year are more negative than positive. It is certain that our
disease is the same as that discussed l)y German writers,
and that it is not caused by any parasitic organism.
Several years' observations at this station point, also, to
the correctness of the view that the cause of our trouble is
to be sought in peculiar physical or chemical conditions of
the soil, though the opinion that excessive moisture is a
sufficient controlling cause seems hardly tenable.
It seems to be generally conceded that potatoes become
most scabby in heavy, close soil, and least so in light, loose
soil ; that worse crops in this respect are raised on land
which has been cultivated for some time than on freshly
broken ground. Indeed, the belief is quite general that
new soil will give a smooth crop. This was not the case,
however, at this station, the past season, when land broken
for the first time in 3'cars gave a badly scabby crop. It
should be added that this was on a stiff, heavy, poorly
drained soil.
Fig. 1.
"Surface" Scab, from Station Plots.
Fig. 2.
'Deep" Scab, from Station Plots.
WWCHT * forriH^ Printing Co, STf^re Pfi'NJiH
Fig. 3.
German Schorf (=" Surface" Scab.)
%
Fig. 4.
Norwegian Skurv.
I Pr-nt:ng Co ■':r!\rc Piin
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 223
It seems at present prol^able that excess of moisture tends
to produce the scab, rather through its influence in render-
ing the soil heavy and clinging, than in any more direct
way ; and it is recommended that, to secure a smooth crop,
potatoes be planted in light, porous soil, kept well stirred.
Observations will be continued next season, in the light
of past experience.
3. Fungous Diseases on Station Farm.
The following notes include only such diseases as attacked
crops grown on the station farm during the past season with
sufficient violence to produce results of economic importance.
Many fungi, of course, were found, whose presence was of
no practical importance to the various plants on which they
occurred ; but a few produced striking results l)y their
abundance and vigor. The meteorological conditions of the
season were peculiarly favorable to the development of
fungi.
1. The smut of barley and oats ( Ustilago segetum Pers.*)
attacked both of those grains on the east fields and on the
experimental plats to such an extent that the "smutted"
heads formed a very appreciable portion of the whole. Even
were the affected heads but a small fraction of one per cent,
of the whole, the loss on a large field would be sufficient to
justify attempts to save it, as a little calculation will show.
The parasite under consideration appears on the fruiting
heads of the small grains, and, when ripe, presents only the
mass of black spores characteristic of the smuts, which com-
pletely replaces the substance of the seed. The enclosing
seed coats burst open, and the spores are carried in all
directions by the wind, finding lodgement on the surrounding
plants and soil. Although the smut spores ripen consider-
ably earlier than does the grain in the sound heads, grain
from a smutted field is sure to have them adhering to its
surface and entangled in the tuft of hairs at its end, espe-
cially if smutted heads have been mixed w4th the sound ones
in threshing. Unless they are present in very large numbers,
* It may be explained that the scientific name of a plant consists of three parts, the
name of the (/caus or group of closely related plants to which it belongs, the name
of its particular kind or sjjecies, and the name (in full or abbreviated) of the person
or persons to whom it owes the name.
224 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
they cannot be detected by the unaided eye. These spores
remain unchanged during the winter, and are ready for ger-
nunation with the seed, when it is planted in the spring.
Experiments have shown that the germinating tubes of the
smut fungus can penetrate and infect tlie plants of grain only
when they are very young seedlings, with very tender and
easily penetrable tissues. Having once gained entrance to the
mterior of such a plant, however, the fungus grows with the
plant, invading the new tissues as they are formed, and
finally reaching its complete development by producing its
reproductive bodies in the place of the destroyed reproduc-
tive bodies of its host. If the grain, with adhering smut
spores, be fed to horses or cattle, the spores pass through
the body and are voided unharmed. And not merely
unharmed ; their passage through the animal body seems to
cause them to germinate more readily than before, and
they produce, in the manure heap, tiny bodies which
increase rapidly by a process of budding similar to that of
the yeast fungi. Thus a few spores may produce, in a short
time, a multitude of these tiny buds, each of which can infect
a grain seedling with the smut parasite.
Since the infection of neighboring plants cannot be caused
by a "smutty" plant, the problem of dealing with the
present trouble is much simpler than similar problems con-
cerning the numerous fungi which spread rapidly by summer
spores. It is evident that it is useless to attempt to save a
plant once attacked by smut ; but the facts just stated con-
cerning the fungus under discussion point to three lines of
defence against its attacks: (1) The conditions for the
germination of the seed and the growth of the seedling should
be as favorable as possible, in order that the period of
susceptibility to infection may be made as short as possible.
To this end, well-matured seed should be sown on well-
prepared and well-drained soil, in favorable "growing"
weather. (2) Suitable commercial fertilizers should replace
animal manures, on fields to be sown to grain. This will
eliminate from the problem an important comi)lication. (3)
The seed grain should be treated, before being sown, with a
preparation which will kill the adhering spores, with the
least damage to the seed. The best for this purpose seems
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 225
to be a one-half per cent, solution of sulphate of copper,
prepared by dissolving it in water in the proportion of
one pound to twenty-five gallons. The grain should be
thoroughly wet with this solution, and allowed to soak in it
for from twelve to twenty-four hours. It may then be
spread ovit for a few hours, till dry enough to be readily
sown. This treatment is very eflScacious and inexpensive.
2. The sjiot disease of sugar beets appeared on the leaves
of that crop about the end of June, in the form of dead, dry,
circular patches, from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch
in diameter. These patches are the result of the death of
the leaf tissues, caused by their invasion by a fungus
mycelium. While a few patches would do little harm on the
large leaf of a beet, they often become so abundant, as in
the present case, as to destroy a large part of the tissue of
the leaves. Since, as we have seen, the leaves, being the
chlorophyll-containing organs, are those on which the plant
depends for its supply of organic food material, it is evident
how serious for the plant must be the loss, during its time
of active growth, of a laroe fraction of its working leaf
surfoce. In the case under notice, the spots gradu-
ally extended and increased, until, in August, the leaves
died completel}^ from the violence of the attack. By this
time, however, the roots were so well grown that they were
able to put out promptly a fresh growth of leaves, which
continued through the rest of the season, though themselves
affected somewhat by the spot. Clearl}^ the production of
new leaves must have involved the conversion, for that pur-
pose, of a considerable amount of stored material from the
root, which ought to have remained there. This loss, with
that due to the diminution of active surface on both sets of
leaves, must very materially reduce the amount of solid
matter in the roots, and lessen their feeding value in pro-
portion.
Two fungus forms appeared on the spots on the station
beets, both of them belonging to the Imperfect Fungi. Up
to about the 10th of July, the most al)undant form' was that
known to botanists as Septoria Betce West., while after that
time the chief form, and, late in the season, apparently the
only form, was that known as Gercospora heticola Sacc. In
226 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
view of their appearance on the same spots, and in the
relations described, it is pertinent to inquire if they may not
be forms of the same pleomorphic fungus. Direct proof,
either for or against this hypothesis, is, however, still
wanting.
No very definite directions for combating this trouble
can be given, in the absence of more complete knowledge
of the accompanying fungus forms than we yet have. As
both Septoria and Gercoi^jpora spores quickly germinate and
infect new hosts, that is, are summer spores, it is probable
that spraying the crop as soon as the spots begin to appear
may check its spread. It is probable that the " Eau Celeste "
would give good results. Leaves badly attacked should be
burned ; all refuse should be cleared from the field at the
end of the season, and burned ; and the same crop .should
not be planted on the same ground or in its immediate
neighborhood, the following year.
3. The rot of potatoes has been unusually serious on the
station plots, as throughout the State, during the season just
past. This disease, known as bltgJit when it attacks the tops,
and as rot when the tubers are affected, is due to a fungus of
the downy mildew group, Phytophthora infestans deBary.
Its abundance and destructiveness in 1889 have called out so
many descriptions and recommendations concerning the fun-
gus and means for checking it, that an extended account is
superfluous here. The fungus spreads very rapidly by
means of summer spores, but, so far as is known, does
not, like most of the downy mildews, produce resting
spores. Its only known mode of passing the winter is by
the hibernation of its mycelium in the host tubers. Special
care should be taken, then, to avoid planting "seed" pota-
toes which contain this hibernating mycelium, whose pres-
ence is commonly indicated by dark-brown sunken spots on
the surface of the tuber, beneath which the tissues are more
or less " rotted." A fuller account of this very fatal dis-
ease, by the present writer, may be found in Bulletin No. 6
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural Colleije.
The blight which appeared on the leaves of potatoes on
the plot devoted to scab experiments, as previously men-
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 227
tioned, spread rapidly, but not with perfect regularity.
When the leaves and stems were mostly killed by the
fungus, the fourth day after its appearance, those on sec-
tions 1 and 14, the third row of section 6, and the second
and third rows of both 7 and 13, were still fresh and com-
paratively unharmed. Comparison with the ta1)le given
above shows that the sections which suifered least were
those in w^hich the potatoes were planted directly on manure,
and the rows which were planted with the varieties desig-
nated as white and hlack. That some varieties are less
susceptible than others to attacks of the rot, has been
repeatedly shown ; but why planting on manure should give
protection against it, as seems here to have been the case,
is not easy to see ; yet there was no other difference in
conditions between plots 1 and 14, on -one hand, and 2-4,
9-11, and 15-113, on the other hand. Yet all the latter
suffered equally and very severely. The attack was not of
the most violent sort, and, even on the worst-affected
plants, there was not the complete collapse into a slimy,
putrescent mass, wdiicli is the result of the extreme form of
the disease. Nothing now remained to be done but to har-
vest the potatoes as quickly as pos&iI)le. Press of other
farm work prevented immediate attention, but they were all
harvested before the end of the month, in very good con-
dition, so i'AX as the rot was concerned. Later potatoes,
on other fields, which received less prompt attention, were
an almost total loss.
Notes on other fungous diseases are reserved until more
complete data can be accumulated concerning them.
4. JSfotes on yiaterial i^eferred to the Department.
Some of the examinations which have been made by the
department, of specimens referred to it, maj' be of sufficient
general interest to warrant a brief discussion here.
1. Fungus in Cellar. — In December, 1888, a quantity
of a white, flocculent substance, mixed with gravel from the
cellar bottom on which it had grown, was sent in for exam-
ination. The house from whose cellar the material was
taken was a tenement-house, and the white growth in ques-
tion was a source of alarm to the tenants, who threatened to
228 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMEXT STATIOX. [Jan.
leave, fearing that its appearance was an indication of the
unhealthfuhiess of the premises.
It was evident to the unaided eye, and microscopic exam-
ination confirmed the opinion, that the white material was
the sterile mycelium of some fungus. As there was no trace
of spore formation, it was impossible to say to what fungus
the mycelium belonged, though more probably to some
member of the toadstool group.
The only conditions necessary to the development of such
mycelia are the presence of spores, and of certain degrees
of tem[)erature and moisture. The latter conditions are
afforded by even the best of cellars, which receive no arti-
ficial heat, and fungus spores penetrate every crevice with
the air in Avhich they float. Not only are such growths
perfectly harmless "in themselves, but their occasional
appearance is no indication of unhealthful conditions ;
although their very constant or luxuriant appearance is
often an accompaniment of extreme dampness. For the
sake of neatness, it is best to remove them with rake or
broom, and prevent their reappearance on the same surface
by the free application of lime, either dry or in the form of
whitewash.
A report to this effect was made in the present case, but
it was afterwards learned that the tenants had already
left, victims to their superstitious fears and dread of the
" mysterious."
It should be remarked here that the appearance of white
fungus mycelia, followed by the development, on the surface
of the mass, of a rusty-brown spore laj'er, with the exuda-
tion of watery drops at its margin, should receive prompt
attention. The fungus which answers to this description
belongs to the toadstool grouj), and appears on woodwork
or even on cellar l)ottoms. It produces a very rapid and
destructive " dry rot " of timber, and is known in Germany
as the " house fungus." It should be thoroughly destroyed,
and all woodwork in its vicinity painted or well whitewashed.
2. Black Spot of Rose Leaves. — A disease affecting the
leaves of roses growing in the Durfee plant-house of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College was referred by Prof.
S. T. Maynard to this department for examination and
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 229
report, in December, 1888. The leaves showed the dark,
cloudy and dendritic patches, and the small, slightly raised
pustules characteristic of the " black spot" of the rose ; and
the microscope showed the presence of an abundant mycelium
in the spots, producing at certain points masses of the spores
of the "black-spot" fungus, A.ctinonema rosoe Fr. The
spore-bearing spots are indicated by the pustules, which are
formed by the elevation of the surface layer or epidermis of
the leaf by the developing spore masses. As the internal
tissue of the leaf is invaded by the mycelium, it is gradually
killed, and loses its green color; so arise the- discolored
spots, which give the disease its name, and which, at first
small, spread radially in all directions from the point of
infection. The fungus which causes this trouble is one of
the imperfect fungi, and its relation to other forms remains
still undetermined.
The same disease appeared abundantly on leaves of roses
cultivated out of doors in the garden of a very successful
amateur in Amherst, last summer.
Infected leaves should be carefully collected and destroyed,
to prevent the dissemination of spores ; and it is probable
that spraying with some fungicide will prove etficacious in
checking the disease, if done early and frequently enough.
For fuller details and recommendations, reference may be
had to the report of the mycologist of the United States
Department of Agriculture, for 1887, p. 366, and to Bulletin
No. 6 of the Hatch Experiment Station, before referred to.
3. Nematode Disease of Oucwmbers. — A disease seri-
ously affecting cucumbers raised under glass came to my
attention in July last, through Mr. H. T. Fernald of
Amherst. It manifests itself first in the yellowing of the
foliage, which is followed by the death of the plant. But
the real seat of trouble is in the roots, on which are formed
rough, tubercle-like swellings or galls, in which the tissues are
loose and spongy, and easily crumble. Examination showed
the presence in these galls of very numerous microscopic
worms and their eggs. The worms measure perhaps one-
fiftieth of an inch in length, and belong to the group known
as thread-worms or nematodes, which attack the roots of
many plants with fatal results.
230 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
This nematode disease of cucumbers is known in England,
and is said to have been successfully treated by watering
the soil in which the diseased plants were growing, with a
weak solution of permanganate of potash, which appears to
be fatal to the worms, without injuring the plants. It is
suggested that the sulphate of manganese would probably be
as efficient as the permanganate of potash, while it is much
cheaper. The writer will be glad to communicate with any-
one who is troubled by this disease, and wishes to experi-
ment in combating it.
2. COMMLTXICATION BY C. A. GoESSMANN.
The investigations concerning the effect of various modes
of cultivation and of manurino; on the o;eneral character and
composition of fruits and garden crops will be resumed, as
far as practicable, during the coming year. The circum-
stances which some years ago obliged me to discontinue
that work as outlined in our first and second annual reports,
under the heading " Chemistry in Fruit Culture," are not
existing now. The late permanent assignment of suitable
fields, as well as the recent erection of buildings designed
with a view to offer to growing plants the necessary pro-
tection against objectionable features of climate and weather,
promise to favor our plans of operation. The co-operation
of our experiments in the field and in the vegetation house
cannot fail to assist materially in drawing correct conclusions
from our results.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 231
SPECIAL WORK IN THE CHEMICAL
LABORATORY.
I. Coimnunication on commercial fertilizers : —
1. General introduction. t
2. Laws for the regulation of the trade in commercial
fertilizers.
3. List of licensed manufacturers for May 1, 1889, to
May 1, 1890.
4. Analyses of licensed fertilizers.
5. Analyses of commercial fertilizers and manurial sub-
stances sent on for examination.
6. Miscellaneous analyses.
II. Water analyses.
III. Compilation of analyses made at Amherst, Mass., of agri-
cultural chemicals and refuse materials used for fertilizing
purposes.
IV. Compilation of analyses made at Amherst, Mass., of fodder
articles, fruits, sugar-producing plants, dairy products, etc.
232 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
I. Communication on Commercial Fertilizers.
1. General introduction.
2. Laws for tlie regulation of the trade in commercial fertilizers.
3. List of licensed manufacturers for May 1, 1889, to May 1,
1890.
4. Analyses of licensed fertilizers.
5. Analyses of commercial fertilizers and manurial substances
sent on for examination.
6. Miscellaneous analyses.
1. General Introduction.
The new duties assigned to the director of the station
render it necessary to discriminate, in the future, in official
publications of the results of analyses of commercial fertili-
zers and of manurial substances in general, between analyses
of samples collected by a duly qualified delegate of the
experiment station, in conformity with the rules prescribed
by the new laws, and those analyses which are made of
samples sent on for that purpose by outside parties. In
reofard to the former alone can the director assume the
responsibility of a carefully prepared sample, and of the
identity of the article in question.
The official report of analyses of compound fertilizers, and
of all such materials as are to ])e used for manurial purposes,
which are sold in this State under a certificate of compliance
with the present laws for the regulation of the trade in these
articles, has been restricted by our State laws to a statement
of chemical composition, and to such additional information
as relates to the latter. The practice of affixing to each
analysis of this class of fertilizers an approximate commercial
valuation per ton of their principal constituents, has, there-
fore, to be discontinued. This change, it is expected, will
tend to direct the attention of the consumers of fertilizers
more forcibly towards a consideration of the particular com-
position of the difierent l)rands of fertilizers offered for
their patronage, — a circumstance not unfrequently over-
looked.
The approximate market value of the different brands of
fertilizers, obtained by the current mode of valuation, does
not express their respective agricultural value, «.e., their
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 233
crop-producing value ; for the higher or lower market price
of difierent brands of fertilizers does not necessarily stand in
a direct relation to their particular fitness, without any
reference to the particular condition of the soil to be treated,
and the special wants of the crops to be raised by their
assistance. To select judiciously from among the various
brands of fertilizers offered for patronage, requires, in the
main, two kinds of information ; namely, we ought to feel
confident that the particular brand of fertilizer in question
actually contains the guaranteed quantities and qualities of
essential articles of plant food at a reasonable cost, and that
it contains them in such form and in such proportions as
will best meet existing circumstances and special wants.
In some cases it may be mainly either phosphoric acid or
nitrogen or potash ; in others, two of them ; and in others
again, all three. A remunerative use of commercial fertili-
zers can only be secured by attending carefully to the
above-stated considerations.
To assist farmers not yet familiar with the current mode
of determining the commercial value of manurial substances
offered for sale in our markets, some of the essential con-
siderations, which serve as a basis for their commercial valu-
ation, are once more stated within a few subsequent pages.
The hitherto customary valuation of manurial substances
is based on the average trade value of essential fertilizing
elements specified by analysis. The money value of the
higher grades of agricultural chemicals, and of the higher-
priced compound fertilizers, depends, in the majority of
cases, on the amount and the particular form of two or three
essential articles of plant food — i.e , phosphoric acid,
nitrogen and potash — which they contain. To ascertain, by
this mode of valuation, the approximate market value of a
fertilizer {i.e., the money worth of its essential fertilizing
ingredients), we multiply the pounds per ton of nitrogen,
etc., by the trade value per pound; the same course is
adopted with reference to the various forms of phosphoric
acid, and of potassium oxide. We thus get the values per
ton of the several ingredients, and, adding them together,
we obtain the total valuation per ton in case of cash payment
at points of general distribution.
234 AGEICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The market value of low-priced materials used for ma-
nurial purposes, as salt, wood ashes, various kinds of lime,
barn-yard manure, factory refuse, and waste materials of
difierent description, quite frequently does not stand in a
close relation to the market value of the amount of essential
articles of plant food they contain. Their cost varies in
different localities. Local facilities for cheap transportation,
and more or less advantageous mechanical condition for a
speedy action, exert, as a rule, a decided influence on their
selling price.
The mechanical condition of any fertilizing material,
simple or compound, deserves the most serious consideration
of farmers, when articles of a similar character are offered
for their choice. The degree of pulverization controls,
almost without exception, under similar conditions, the rate
of solubility and the more or less rapid diff'usion of the
different articles of plant food throughout the soil. The
state of moisture exerts a no less important influence on
the pecuniary value, in case of one and the same kind
of substance. Two samples of fish fertilizers, although
equally pure, may differ from fifty to one hundred per
cent, in commercial value, on account of mere difference
in moisture.
Crude stock for the manufacture of fertilizers, and refuse
materials of various descriptions, have to be valued with
reference to the market price of their principal constituents,
taking into consideration, at the same time, their general
fitness for speedy action.
Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and
Chemicals. {1889.)
Cents per Pound.
Nitrogen in ammoniates, 19
Nitrogen in nitrates, 17
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine-ground fish, meat and blood, . 19
Organic nitrogen in cotton-seed meal and castor iDomace, . . 15
Organic nitrogen in fine-ground bone and tankage, . . . 16|
Organic nitrogen in fine-ground medium bone and tankage, . 13
Organic nitrogen in medimn bone and tankage, .... 10\
Organic nitrogen in coarser bono and tankage, .... 8J
Organic nitrogen in liair, horn shavings and coarse fish scraps, . 8
Phosphoric acid soluble in water, 8
Phosphoric acid soluble in anmionium citrate, .... 7^
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 235
Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients — Concluded.
events per Pound.
Phosphoric acid in dry ground bone, fish bone and tankage, . 7
Phosphoric acid in fine medium bone and tankage, ... 6
Phosjihoric acid in medium bone and tankage, .... 5
Phosphoric acid in coarse bone and tankage, .... 4
Phosphoric acid in fine-ground rocli phosphate, .... 2
Potash as high-grade sulphate, and in form free from muriates
or chlorides; ashes, etc., 6
Potash as kainite, 4i
Potash as muriate, 4J
The organic nitrogen in superphosphates, special manures
and mixed fertilizers of a high grade, is usually valued at
the highest figures laid down in the trade values of fertilizing
ingredients in raw materials, namely, nineteen cents per
pound ; it being assumed that the organic nitrogen is derived
from the best sources, viz., animal matter, as meat, blood,
bones, or other equally good forms, and not from leather,
shoddy, hair, or any low-priced, inferior form of vegetable
matter, unless the contrary is ascertained. For similar
reasons, the insoluble phosphoric acid is valued in this con-
nection at three cents ; it being assumed, unless found other-
wise, that it is from bone or similar source, and not from
rock phosphate. In this latter form the insoluble phos-
phoric acid is worth but two cents per pound.
The above trade values are the figures at which, in the
six months preceding March, 1889, the respective ingredi-
ents could be bought at retail for cash in our large markets,
in the raw materials, which are the regular source of supply.
They also correspond to the average wholesale prices for the
six months ending March 1, plus twenty per cent, in case of
goods for which we have Avholesale quotations. The valua-
tions obtained by use of the above figures will be found to
agree fairly with the retail price at the large markets of
standard raw materials, such as —
Sulphate of ammonia. Dry ground fish.
Nitrate of soda, Azotin,
Muriate of potash. Ammonite,
Sulphate of potash, Castor pomace,
Dried blood. Bone and tankage,
Dried ground meat, Plain superphosphates.
236 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
A large percentage of commercial materials consists of
refuse matter from various industries. The composition of
these substances depends on the mode of manufacture carried
on. The rapid progress in our manufacturing industries is
liable to aft'ect, at any time, more or less seriously, the com-
position of the refuse. To assist the farming community in
a clear and intelligent appreciation of the various substances
sold for manurial purposes, a frequent examination mto the
temporary character of agricultural chemicals and refuse
materials offered in our markets for manurial purposes is
constantly carried on at the laboratory of the station.
Consumers of commercial manurial substances do well to
buy, whenever practicable, on guaranty of composition
with reference to their essential constituents ; and to see to
it that the bill of sale recognizes that point of the bargain.
Any mistake or misunderstanding in the transaction may be
readily adjusted, in that case, between the contending
parties. The responsibility of the dealer ends with furnish-
ing an article corresponding in its composition with the
lowest stated quantity of each specified essential constituent.
Our present laws for the regulation of trade in commercial
fertilizers include not only the various brands of compound
fertilizers, but also all materials, single or compound, with-
out reference to source, used for manurial purposes, when
ofl'ered for sale in our market at ten dollars or more per
ton.
Copies of our present laws for the regulation of the trade
in commercial fertilizers may be had by all interested, on
application at the Massachusetts State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Amherst, Mass.
Arrangements are made, as in previous years, to attend
to the examination of objects of general interest to the
farming community, to the full extent of existing circum-
stances. Requests for analyses of substances, as fodder
articles, fertilizers, etc., coming through officers of agricult-
ural societies and farmers' clubs within the State, will
receive hereafter, as in the past, first attention, and in the
order that the applications arrive at the otfice of the station.
The results will be returned without charge for the services
rendered. Applications of private parties for analyses of
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 237
substances, free of charge, will receive a careful considera-
tion, whenever the results promise to be of a more general
interest. For obvious reasons, no work can be carried on
at the station of which the results are not at the disposal of
the managers for publication, if deemed advisable in the
interest of the citizens of the State.
All parcels and communicati(ms sent on to "The
Massachusetts State Experiment Station " must have ex-
press and postal charges prepaid, to receive attention.
2. Laivs for the Regulation of the Trade in Commercial
Fertilizers.
[Chap. 296.]
An Act to regulate the sale of cojimercial fertilizers.
Be it enacted, etc., as follows :
Section 1. Every lot or parcel of commercial fertilizers or
material used for manurial purposes sold, offered or exposed for
sale within this Commonwealth, the retail price of which is ten
dollars or more per ton, shall be accompanied by a plainly printed
statement clearly and truly certifying the number of net pounds of
fertilizer in the package, the name, brand or trade mark under which
the fertilizer is sold, the name and address of the manufacturer or
importer, the place of manufacture, and a chemical analysis stat-
ing the percentage of nitrogen or its equivalent in ammonia, of
potash soluble in distilled water, and of phosphoric acid in avail-
able form soluble in distilled water and reverted, as well as the
total phosphoric acid. In the case of those fertilizers which con-
sist of other and cheaper materials, said label shall give a correct
general statement of the composition and ingredients of the fer-
tilizer it accompanies.
Sect. 2. Before any commercial fertilizer, the retail price of
which is ten dollars or more per ton, is sold, offered or exposed
for sale, the importer, manufacturer or party who causes it to be
sold or offered for sale within the state of Massachusetts, shall file
with the director of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment
station, a certified copy of the statement named in section one of this
act, and shall also deposit with said director at his request a sealed
glass jar or bottle, containing not less than one pound of the fertil-
izer, accompanied by an affidavit that it is a fair average sample
thereof.
Sect. 3. The manufacturer, importer, agent or seller of any
brand of commercial fertilizer or material used for manurial pur-
236 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMEXT STATION. [Jan.
poses, the retail price of which is tea doHars or more per ton, shall
pay for each brand, on or before the first day of May annually, to
the director of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment station,
an analysis fee of five dollars for each of the three following fer-
tilizing ingredients : nameh', nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium,
contained or claimed to exist in said brand or fertilizer : provided ^
that whenever the manufacturer or importer shall have paid the
fee herein required for any person acting as agent or seller for
such manufacturer or importer, such agent or seller shall not be
required to pa}' the fee named in this section ; and on receipt of
said analysis fees and statement specified in section two, the direc-
tor of said station shall issue certificates of compliance with this act.
Sect. 4. No person shall sell, offer or expose for sale in the
state of Massachusetts, any pulverized leather, raw, steamed,
roasted, or in any form as a fertilizer, or as an ingredient of any
fertilizer or manure, without an explicit printed certificate of the
fact, said certificate to be couspicuousW affixed to every package
of such fertilizer or manure and to accompany or go with every
parcel or lot of the same.
Sect. 5. Any person selling, offering or exposing for sale, any
commercial fertilizer without the statement requu-ed by the first
section of this act, or with a label stating that said fertilizer con-
tains a larger percentage of any one or more of the constituents
mentioned in said section than is contained therein, or respecting
the sale of which all the provisions of the foregoing section have
not been fully complied with, shall forfeit fifty dollars for the first
offence, and one hundred dollars for each subsequent offence.
Sect. G. This act shall not affect parties manufacturing, im-
porting or purchasing fertilizers for their own use. and not to sell
in this state.
Sect. 7. The director of the Massachusetts agricultural experi-
ment station shall pay the analysis fees, as soon as received by
him, into the treasury of the station, and shall cause one analysis
or more of each fertilizer or material used for manurial purposes
to be made annually, and publish the results monthly, with such
additional information as circumstances advise : provided., such
information relates only to the composition of the fertilizer or
fertilizing material inspected. Said director is hereby authorized
in person or b}' deputy to take a sample, not exceeding two pounds
in weight, for analysis, from any lot or package of fertilizer or
any material used for manurial purposes which may be in the
possession of any manufacturer, importer, agent or dealer ; but
said sample shall be drawn in the presence of said party or parties
in interest or their representative, and taken from a parcel or a
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 33 239
number of packages which shall be not less than ten per cent, of
the -whole lot inspected, and shall be thoroughly mixed and then
divided into two equal samples and placed in glass vessels and
carefulh^ sealed and a label placed on each, stating the name or
brand of the fertilizer or material sampled, the name of the party
from whose stock the sample was drawn and the time and place
of drawing, and said label shall also be signed by the dii'ector or
his deput}^ and by the party or parties in interest or their represent-
atives present at the drawing and sealing of said sample ; one of
said duplicate samples shall be retained by the director and the
other by the party whose stock was sampled. All parties violat-
ing this act shall be prosecuted by the director of said station ;
but it shall be the dut}' of said director, upon ascertaining any
violation of this act, to forthwith notify the manufacturer or im-
porter in writing, and give him not less than thirty days thereafter
in which to comply with the requirements of this act, but there
shall be no prosecution in relation to the quality of the fertilizer
or fertilizing material if the same shall be found substantially
equivalent to the statement of analysis made by the manufacturer
or importer.
Sect. 8. Sections eleven to sixteen inclusive of chapter sixty
of the Public Statutes are hereby repealed.
Sect. 9. This act shall take effect on the first day of September
in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-eight, [xl/jprored May
3, 1888.
Instructions issued at the Beginning of the Season, to Dealers in
Commercial Fertilizers.
1. An application for a certificate of compliance with the regu-
lations of the trade in commercial fertilizers and materials used
for manuiial purposes in this State must be accompanied : —
First, with a distinct statement of the name of eacli brand
offered for sale.
Second, with a statement of the amount of phosphoric acid, of
nitrogen and of potassium oxide, guaranteed in each distinct brand.
Third, with the fee charged by the State for a certificate, which
is five dollars for each of the following articles : nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid and potassium oxide, guaranteed in any distinct brand.
2. The obligation to secure a certificate applies not only to
compound fertilizers, but to all substances, single or compound,
used for mauurial purposes, and offered for sale at ten dollars or
more per ton of two thousand pounds.
3. The certificate must be secured annually before the 1st of
May.
240 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [ Jau.
4. Manufacturers, importers aud dealers in commercial fertili-
zers can appoint in this State as many agents as they desii-e, after
having secured at this office the certificate of compliance with our
laws.
5. Agents of manufacturers, importers and dealers in com-
mercial fertilizers, are held personally responsible for their trans-
actions until they can prove that the articles they offer for sale
are duly recorded in this office.
6. Manufacturers and importers are requested to furnish a list
of their agents.
7. All applications for certificates ought to be addressed to the
director of the Massachusetts State Agricultural Experiment
Station.
3. List of Dealers who have secured Certificates for the
Sale of Commercial Fertilizers in This State during
the Past Year, and the Brands Licensed by Each.
Forest City Wood Ash Company, London, Ontario, Canada : —
Canada Unleached Wood Ashes.
Bowker Fertilizer Company, Boston, Mass : —
Stockbridge Manures.
Bowker's Hill and Drill Phosi^hate
Bowker's Ammoniated Bone Fertilizer.
Bowker's Lawn and Garden Fertilizer.
Bowker's Fish and Potash.
Bowker's Dry Ground Fish.
Gloucester Fish and Potash.
Fine-ground Bone.
Plahi Superphosphate.
Kainite.
Nitrate of Soda.
Dried Blood.
Dissolved Bone-black.
Muriate of Potash.
Sulphate of Potash.
National Fertilizer Comj^any, Bridgeport, Conn. : —
Chittenden's Complete Fertilizer
Chittenden''s Fish and Potash.
Chittenden's Phosphate.
Hargrave Manufacturing Company, Fall River, Mass.: — ■
Hargrave's Bone.
William E. Fyfe & Co., Clinton, Mass. : —
Canada Unleached Wood Ashes.
Edmund Ilersey, Hingbam, Mass. : —
Steamed Bone,
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 241
3. List of Dealers who have secured Certificates, etc. — Continued.
Read Fertilizer Company, Syi'ncuse, N . Y. : —
Farmer's Brand.
Lion Brand.
High-grade Farmer's Friend Special.
Sampson or Lion Special.
E. Frank Coe, New York, N. Y. : —
E. Frank Coe's Gold Brand Excelsior Guano.
Fish and Potash.
Potato Fertilizer.
Alkaline Bone.
E. Frank Coe's High-grade Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
Cumberland Bone Comiiany, Portland, Me. : —
Seeding-down Fertilizer.
Cumberland Superphosphate.
Williams & Clark Company, New York, N. Y. : —
Americas Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
Potato Phosphate.
Great Eastern Fertilizer Compan}^ Rutland, Yt. : —
Great Eastern General for Grain and Grass.
Great Eastern Yegetable, Vine and Tobacco Fertilizer.
Great Eastern General Oats, Buckwheat and Seeding-down
Phosphate.
JoseiJh Church «fe Co , Tiverton, R. I. : —
Fish and Potash.
Church's Spqcial.
Church's Standard.
Dried and Grovuid Fi.sh.
Thompson & Edwards Fertilizer Company, Chicago, 111. : —
World of Good Tobacco Guano.
J. A. Tucker & Co., Boston, Mass : —
Original Bay State Bone Superphosphate.
Imijerial Bone Superjihosi^hate.
Edw. F. Jennison, Lancaster, IMass. : —
Jennison's Comijlete Animal Fei'tilizer.
Orient Guano Manufacturing Comjoany, New York, N. Y. : —
Suffolk County.
Orient Complete JNIanures.
Fish and Potash,
Davidge Fertilizer Company, New York, N. Y. : —
Davidge's Potato Manure.
Davidge's Vegetator.
Davidge's Special Favorite.
Lister's Agi'icultural Chemical Works, Newark, N. J. : —
Lister's Standard Superphosphate of Lime.
Lister's Ammoniated Dissolved Bone.
242 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
3. List of Dealers who have secured Certificates, etc. — Continued.
J. M. Batman, Lowell, Mass. : —
Lowell Bone Fertilizer.
Adams & Thomas, Springfield, Mass. : —
Adams Market Bone Fertilizer.
Whittemore Brothers, Wayland, Mass. : —
Whittemore's Complete Manure.
Mayo & Hix, Boston, Mass. : —
Mayo Superphosphate.
John C, Dow & Co., Boston, Mass : —
Dow's Ground Bone Fertilizer.
J. E. Soper & Co , Boston, Mass. : —
Cotton-seed Hull Ashes.
F. C. Sturtevant, Hartford, Conn : —
Tobacco Stems.
E. H. Smith, Northborough, Mass. : —
Smith's Steamed Bone.
A. L. Ames, Peabt)dy, Mass. : —
Ames' Bone Fertilizer.
The Mapes Formula and Peruvian Guano Companj^ New York, N. Y. : —
The Majjes Bone Manures.
Peruvian Guanos.
The Mapes Superphosphate.
The Mapes Special Corn ^lanures.
C. A. Bartlett, Worcester, Mass : —
C. A. Bartlett's Pure Ground Bone. ^
Animal Fertilizer.
Bradley Fertilizer Compan}-, Boston, Mass. : —
Bradley's XL Phosphate.
B. D. Sea-fowl Guano.
Coe's Supei'i^hosphate.
Fish and Potash.
Pure Fine-ground Bone.
Bradley s Complete INIanures : —
For Potatoes and Vegetables.
For Corn and Grain.
For Top-dressing Grass and Grain.
Bradley's Grass Manure for Top-dressing.
Bradley's Potato IManure.
Nitrate of Soda.
Sulphate of Ammonia.
Muriate of Potash.
Dissolved Bone-black.
Cleveland Dryer Company, Cleveland, Ohio : —
Cleveland Potato Phosphate.
Cleveland Superphosphate.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 243
3. List of Dealers who have secured Certificates, etc. — Continued.
Amei'ican Manufactuving Company, Boston, Mass. : —
The Allen Fertilizer.
G. E. Holmes, New Worcester, Mass. : —
Fine-ground Bone.
Wm. J. Brightman & Co., Tiverton, R. 1. : —
Fish and Potash.
Superphosphate.
Dry Ground Fish.
S. Winter, Brockton, Mass. : —
S. Winter's Pure Ground Bone.
Crocker Fertilizer and Chemical Company, Buffalo, X. Y . : —
New Rival Ammoniated Superpnosphate.
Buffalo Superphosphate, No. 2.
Special Potato Manure.
Pure Ground Bone.
Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
Potato, Hop and Tobacco Phosphate.
Queen City Phosphate.
Vegetable Bone Supei'phosphate.
Ammoniated Wheat and Corn Phosphate.
Standard Fertilizer Company, Boston, Mass. : —
Standard Suiaerphosphate.
Breck's Lawn and Garden Dressing.
Munroe, Judson & Stroup, Oswego, N. Y. : —
Unleached Canada Wood Ashes.
Benj. Randall, Boston, Mass. : —
Randall's Market-garden Fertilizer.
Randall's Combined Bone.
The Le Page Company, Boston, Mass. : —
The Red Star Brand 203 Fertilizer.
The Red Star Brand Special Potato Fertilizer.
Pacific Guano Company, Boston, Mass. : —
Soluble Pacific Guano.
Fish and Potash.
Special Potato Manure.
The Quinnipiac Company, New London, Conn. : —
Quinnipiac Phosphate.
Quinnipiac Potato Manure.
Quinnipiac Dry Ground Fish.
Quinnipiac Fish and Potash.
A. Lee & Co , Boston, Mass. : —
Lawrence Fertilizer.
Ground Bone.
244 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
3. List of Dealers ivho have secured Certificates, etc. — Coucluded.
H. J. Baker & Bros., Xew York, X. Y. : —
A. A. Ammoniated Siiijerphosphate.
Pelican Bone Fertilizer.
Potato Manure.
John G. Jeffercls, Worcester, Mass. : —
Jefferds' Animal Fertilizer.
Jefferds' Fine-ground Bone.
N. Ward Company, Boston, Mass. : —
N. Ward Company's High-grade Animal Fertilizer.
L. B. Darling Fertilizer Company, Pawtucket, 11. 1. :' —
Darling's Animal Fertilizer.
Extra Bone Phosphate.
Darling's Potato and Root Crop Manure.
Darling's Pure Bone.
Muriate of Potash.
Sulphate of Potash.
Butler, Breed & Co , Boston, Mass. : —
Economic Xo. 1 Fertilizer for Grass.
Economic No. 2 Fertilizer for Pasture.
Economic No. 3 Fertilizer for Corn.
Economic Xo. 4 Fertilizer for Potatoes.
Economic Xo. 7 Fertilizer for Garden.
Stearns' Fertilizer Company, Xew York, X. Y. : —
Stearns' Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
Stearns' American Guano.
Thos. Hersom & Co., Xew Bedford, !Mass. : —
Pure Fine-ground Bone.
H. L. Phelps, Southampton, Mass. : —
H. L. Phelps' Complete Manure.
Prentiss, Brooks & Co., Holyoke, Mass. : —
Dry Fish.
Dissolved Bone-black.
Muriate of Potash.
Xitrate of Soda.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
245
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Bone Company, Portland
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Boston, Mass.,
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, Worcester, Mass.,
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
253
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S
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Bradley's Fish and Potash, Anchor Brand,
203 fertilizer for General Crops,
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Bowker's Hill and Drill Phosphate, .
Crocker's Ve,getal)le Bone Superi)bosi)hate,
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phate,
Lowell Bone Fertilizer, ....
Soluble Pacilic Guano
Brightnian's Dry Gr'nd Menhaden Fish Guano
Brightnian's Aiumoniated Bone Superphosp'te
Darling's Animal Fertilizer,
Americo Guano, tlie Standard Potato Manure
High-grade AmmoniatedBoneSuperphosphate
•jaqra
nj^iJi
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
255
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1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
257
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Nitrogen in
One Hundred
Pounds.
•p90)nt3Ji!n£)
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oi --1 wi q c^j c<; ' T "^ ■"''■; '^
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!25
Stockbrid.ire's Manure for Onions, .
Lawn Feriilizer, Tobacco and Sulphur, .
Chittenden's Compound Fertilizer for Potatoes,
Peruvian (luano
Animal Feriilizer for La^vn and Garden,
Economic No. 3, for Corn
Economic Fertilizer for all Crops, .
Stockbridge's Mamire for Strawberries, .
Stockbridge's Manure for Grapes, etc., .
Baker's Special Corn Manure, ....
Special Grass Manure,
N. Ward & Co., High-grade Animal Fertilizer,
World of Good Raw Bone Superphosphate, .
Lister's Celebrated Onion Fertilizer,
Fish and Potash,
Lawn Dressing
Wliittemore Bros ' Bono Fertilizer, .
Cotton-hull Ashes,
Nitrate of Soda,
•.laqu
Jiix •^
.lO^B.ioqv'x
CDOO'*iC;OC5CO-t<I^C>C<l-HO-'IMC5CDt^
1 co^coi^t^oocooC300^c<icO'*-*-*ic<ico
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
259
6. Analt/ses of Commercial Fertilizers and Manurial
Substances sent on for Examination.
Wqod Ashes.
[I., 11. ami III. sent on from Amherst, Mass. ; IV. sent on by E. C. Smith,
Rowley, Mass.]
Per C
ENT.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C , .
6.49
9.30
0.44
7.03
Calcium oxide,
38. 3G
38.58
24.62
32.31
Magnesium oxide, ....
2.74
2.72
4.70
4.03
Sodium oxide, ....
2.29
1.89
-
-
Potassium oxide, ..*...
4.53
4.84
5.69
4.36
Phospiioric acid,
2.48
2.99
4.61
2.38
Insoluble matter (before calcination).
17.54
18.08
41.92
19.53
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
14.51
15.36
37.22
13.99
Wood Ashes.
[I. and II. sent on by C. H. Thompson & Co., Boston, Mass. ; III. sent on by J. C.
Comins, N. Amherst, Mass. ; IV. sent on b}' Chas. N. Perley, Danvers, Mass.]
IV.
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide.
Potassium oxide, .
Phosphoric acid, .
Insoluble matter (befor
e calcination).
Insoluble matter (after calcination),
8.03
0.55
6.98
22.G9
33.58
37.28
6.15
3.74
5.13
6.52
1.91
5.56
1.66
132
2.30
27.92
3.64
13.91
23.75
2.03
1150
7.72
42.39
2.65
5 38
1.15
9.26
6.37
260 AGEICULTUIiAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Wood Ashes.
[I. and II. sent on liy Frank Wheeler, Concord, Mass. ; III. and IV. sent on by
E. W. McGarvey, London, Out.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
in.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, .
16.55
15.58
7.53
11.88
Calcium oxide,
3C.59
34.20
39.6-1
34.87
Magnesium oxide, . . .
3.01
2.86
2.42
3.20
Potassium oxide,
4 29
4.82
6.39
5.39
Pliosphoric acid,
2.44
176
1.28
2.00
Insoluble matter (before calcination),
15.15
20.75
11.14
1166
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
12.42
18.35
8.32
7.68
Wood Ashes.
[Sent on by Frank Goodwin, Framinghani, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II. • III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C,
20.33
15.54
.10
14.34
Calcium oxide,
31.21
32.77
40.01
33.82
Magnesium oxide, ....
3.51
3.21
3.73
3.04
Potassium oxide,
3.57
3.75
9.80
4.43
Phosphoric acid,
2.90
1.45
2.16
2.72
Insoluble matter (before calcination);
13.31
12.56
15.54
21.13
Insohible matter (after calcination), .
10.51
1006
11.94.
8.69
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
261
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Wood Ashes.
[I. sent on by Frank Goodwin, Framingham, Mass. ; II. sent on by Chas. "W. Jenks,
Bedford, Mass.; III. sent on by Frank E. Kimball, Danvers, Mass.; IV. sent on
by C. N. Parley, Danvers, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, . * .
.15
20.40
15.64
14.46
Calcium oxide,
44.59
30.98
31.56
32.14
Magnesium oxide, ....
7.24
3.14
3.27
2.59
Potassium oxide,
4.27
4.26
4.12
4.36
Phosphoric acid,
3.73
1.54
1.28
2.71
Insoluble matter (before calcination),
11.70
13.53
24.10
16.48
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
10.42
10.49
13.50
13.26
Wood Ashes.
[I. sent on from Amherst, Mass. ; II. sent on by Urbane Derby, Concord, Mass. ;
III. sent on l)y W. E. Allen, Lancaster, Mass. ; IV. sent on by E. F. Manchester,
Fall River, Mass.]
Per
Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . .
19.30
7.08
.25
4.77
Calcium oxide,
30.54
39.54
27.48
32.52
Magnesium oxide, ....
2.75
4.64
4.41
4.60
Potassium oxide,
5.16
3.60
5.07
4.23
Phosphoric acid,
1.77
1.95
2.28
2.07
Insoluble matter (before calcination),
14.50
14.74
39.10
24.76
Insoluble matter (after calcination) , .
10.20
12.53
37.75
20.04
262 AGRICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Wood Ashes.
[I. and II. sent on by J. A. Merriam, Franiingham, Mass. ; III. sent on by R. L. Day,
South Franiingham, Ma^s.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
in.
Moisture at 100° C,
. 19.04
21.47
14.52
Calcium oxide,
36.35
32.66
40.31
Magnesium oxide, . . .
2.82
2.36
2.91
Potassium oxide,
4.63
3.26
2.70
Phosijlioric acid,
1.65
1.70
1.47
Insoluble matter (before calcination),
8.07
8.25
7.77
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
7.15
7.86
6.78
Wood Ashes.
[I. sent on by W. H. Davis, Littleton, Mass. ; II. and III. sent on by A. H. Turner,
Harvard, Mass.; IV. sent on by Flagg & llussell, VVarnersville, Mass ]
Per
O'ent.
I.
11.
III.
IV.
Moisture at lUO" C, . . . .
2.42
15.72
13.88
11.45.
Calcium oxide, .....
36.94
28.61
34.03
27.17
Magnesium oxide, ....
3.24
3.00
3.07
3.37
Ferric oxide,
2.74
1.03
.49
-
Potassium oxide,
7.82
8.72
5.59
5.77
Pliosplioric acid, .....
.51
.32
.54
1.31
Insoluble matter (before calcination).
16.43
18.49
13.51
7.08
Insoluble matter (after calcination) , .
12.18
12.12
11.33
5.85
1890. J
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
263
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued. •
Wood Ashes.
[I. and II. sent on by Coolidge Bros., South Sudbury, Mass ; III. and IV. seut on
by James Logan, Worcester, Mass.]
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C , .
15.73
11.86
24.96
15.97
Calcium oxide,
37.18
43.13
15.83
39.76
Magnesium oxide, ....
3.56
1.80
2.14
1.82
Potassium oxide, .....
5 22
3.66
3.74
2.40
Phosphoric acid, .....
1.57
3.84
1.89
6.10
Insoluble matter (before calcination),
6.44
7.06
16.20
8.39
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
5 61
6.41
12.50
5 93
Cotton-seed Hull Ashes.
[I. sent on by Lyman A. Crafts, Whately, Mass. ; II. sent on by S. G. Hubbard,
Whately, Mass. ; III. sent on by A. W. Field, North Hadley, Mass. ; IV. sent on
by J. Comins, Sunderland, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C , .
10.24
9.97
.86
11.96
Calcium oxide,
8.89
9.59
9.80
4.41
Magnesium oxide, ....
12.61
13.58
16.05
12.29
FeiTic oxide, ......
1.14
1.54
192
-
Potassium oxide (6 cents per pound), .
28.44
25.17
22.58
29.36
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound), .
10.28
9.16
8.02
1299
Insoluble matter (before calcination),
-
-
10.73
7.38
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
6.11
.96
6.50
3 68
Valuation per ton, ....
$46 46
$41 20
$36 72
$50 82
264 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
, 5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Cotton-seed Hull Ashes.
[I. and II. sent on by S. G. Hubbard, Hatfield, Mass.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, . . .
Calcium oxide, ....
Magnesium oxide, ....
Ferric oxide,
Potassium oxide (6 cents per pound),
Phosijhoric acid (6 cents per pound).
Insoluble matter (before calcination),
Insoluble matter (after calcination).
Valuation per ton, ....
8.13
7.26
10.99
1.25
25.35
10.68
13.59
11.61
43 24
8.13
11.34
11.58
1.96
22.66
8.69
12.70
9.73
■f37 62
Sulphate of Potash.
[I. sent on from Amherst, Mass.; II. and III. sent on from Feeding Hills, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
Moisture at 100° C,
4.87
7.54
8.46
Potassium oxide (6 cents per pound), .
37.54
25.81
17.43
Sulphuric acid, ......
45.96
46.96
50.11
Insoluble matter,
.94
-
-
Valuation per ton,
1145 05
$30 97
$20 92
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
265
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Muriate of Potash.
[Sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
ir.
III.
Moistui-e at 100° C,
4.01
2.22
2.41
Sodium oxide,
2.88
12.44
11.50
Potassium oxide (4i cents per jjound),
45.16
47.30
49.86
Chloriue,
45.67
52.00
52.00
Insoluble matter,
1.01
Trace.
Trace
Valuation per ton,
$40 64
$42 57
$44 87
Gypsum.
[I. sent on from Wellesley Hills, Mass. ; II. sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
II.
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide,
Sulphuric acid, .
Insoluble matter.
38.47
16.21
21.43
11.30
14.05
32.65
41.90
2.22
No. I. is a factory refuse article.
Calcium oxide,
Insoluble matter,
Lime.
[Sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
Per Cent.
74.79
.77
•266 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
South Carolina PJwsphate.
[Sent on from Amherst, Mass. I., finely ground " Floats ; " II., Apatite.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100= C,
.o'J
.09
Calcium oxide, .
46.76
-
Ferric and alumiuic oxides, ......
5.78
-
Total phosphoric acid,
27.57
36.08
Soluble phosphoric acid,
0.00
-
Reverted phosphoric acid (7i cents per j^ound) , .
4.27
-
Insoluble phosphoric acid (2 cents per jjound), .
23.30
-
Insoluble matter, ........
9.04
9.55
Valuation per ton,
$15 73
Mona Island Guano.
[Sent on by J. Campbell & Co., New York, N. Y.]
Moisture at 100° C ,
A.sh,
Total phosphoric acid,
Soluble i^hosphoric acid, ....
Reverted 2)hosphoric acid (J\ cents j^er pound).
Insoluble phosiDhoric acid (3 cents per pound),
Calcium oxide.
Potassium oxide.
Nitrogen (17 cents jjcr jwund),
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per ton, .
Per Cent.
12.52
75.99
21.88
.00
7.55
14.33
37.49
Trace.
.76
2.45
$22 50
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
267
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Dissolved Bone-black.
[Sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
Per
Oent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C,
16.8i
17.41
Ash,
56.83
56 19
Total phosphoric acid,
22.18
21.70
Soluble phosphoric acid,
14.27
15.60
Reverted phosphoric acid,
7.53
6.02
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
.38
.08
Insoluble matter,
3.92
3.99
Valuation per ton,
$34 59
f34 10
Bone Coal.
[Sent on by Chas. S. Young, Wellesley Hills, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Ash,
Total phosphoric acid,
Soluble i)hosi)horic acid (8 cents i^er i^ound),
Reverted phosphoric acid (7^ cents per i)ound).
Insoluble i)liosi)horic acid (5 cents per pound),
Insoluble matter,
Valuation per ton, . '
Per Cent.
18 16
72,24
25.58
.38
5.18
20.02
.69
$28 40
268 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Ground Bones.
[I., II. and III. sent on by Geo. Frost, Boston, Mass. ; IV. sent on by L. B. Smith,
Eastham, Mass.]
Mechanical Analyses.
Pek Cent.
I.
II.
III.'
IV.
Fine, smaller than Jg inch, .
Fine medium, smaller than -^^ inch,
Medium, smaller than J^ inch,
Coarser than -^^ inch, ....
28.96
59.98
11.06
56.50
38.18
5.32
33.25
28.65
21.78
16.32
50.78
49.22
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Chemical Analyses.
Per
C'ENT.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, .
5.59
5.85
4.18
5.34
Ash,
58.07
38.79
49.80
64.17
Total jDhosiDhoric acid, ....
20.08
19.90
19.32 ■
27.22
Soluble phosphoric acid,
.30
.17
.37
.54
Reverted phosj^horic acid, .
5.46
7 86
9.36
9.34
Insoluble phosphoric acid, .
14.32
12.67
9 59
17.34
Nitrogen,
3.88
5.90
4.72
-
Insoluble matter,
1.48
.48
.40
.46
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
260
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Bones.
[I. sent on by Edward H. Smith, Northborough, Mass. ; IT. sent on by Franklyn
Rowland, Xew Bedford, Mass. ; III. sent on by Edmund Hersey, Hingbam,
Mass. ; IV. sent on by S. Winter, Brockton, Mass.]
Mechanical A iialyses.
III.
IV.
Fine, smaller than Jj inch, .
Fine medium, smaller than ^-^ inch,
Medium, smaller than Jg inch,
Coarser than J^ inch, .
37.90
38.30
19.50
4.30
100.00
46.00
36.52
17.48
62.29
30.81
6.28
.62
57.33
24.13
9.74
100.00
100.00
100.00
Chemical Anahjsc.-'.
Pkr
Cent.
I. II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100^ C, .
4 33
4.21
5.07
8.03
AsL,
57.06
74.04
55.04
60.60
Total phosphoric acid, ....
22.40
29.42
25.19
23.66
Soluble phosphoric acid.
.43
.45
.14
.51
Reverted phosphoric acid, .
6.17
13.17
10.80
12.18
Insoluble phosphoric acid, .
15.80
15.80
14.25
10.97
Nitrogen,
4.04
2.08
3.07
4.20
Insoluble matter,
1.65
.31
.55
.72
Dried Blood.
[.Sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
Moisture at 100= C,
Nitrogen (19 cents per pound), .
Valuation per ton, .......
Per Cent
15.02
8.24
$31 31
270 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Sulphate of Ammonia.
• [Sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen (19 cents j^er pound), . . . .
Sulpluiric acid,
Valuation per ton,
Per Cent.
1.43
20.91
57.26
$79 46
Nitrate of Soda.
[Sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
Pkk Cent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C,
3.22
1.98
Sodium oxide,
53.41
59.56
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound),
15.30
16.00
Insoluble matter,
.19
.05
Valuation j)er ton,
$52 02
$54 40
Saltpetre Waste (from Gunpowder WorJcs).
[Sent ou by A. N. Stowe, Hudson, Mass.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 2.12
Calcium oxide, .22
IMagnesium oxide, .16
Sodium oxide, 50.54
Potassium oxide (4| cents per pound), 1.85
Sulphuric acid, .71
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .69
Chlorine, 59.00
Insoluble matter, .18
Valuation per ton, $3 68
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
271
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Wool Waste.
[I. sent on by F. D. Barker, Soutli Acton, Mass.; II. sent on bj C. W. Mann,
Metbuen, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100^ C,
8.53
3.46
Ash,
-
59.41
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound) ,
Trace.
3.08
Phosphoric acid (G cents per pound),
.115
.29
Niti'Ogen (8 cents per ]30und) , .
10.195
1.18
Insoluble matter,
3.480
49.57
A'aluation 2>er ton, .......
$16 45
$4 86
''Mud Crab."
[Sent on l)y L. B. Smith, Eastham, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C
Ash,
Total ijhosphoric acid (6 cents jier pound),
Soluble phosphoric acid, ....
Keverted phosphoric acid, ....
Insoluble phosphoric acid, ....
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter,
Per Cent.
7.67
6.71
1.25
.28
.62
.35
8.84
.91
Tobacco Dust.
[Sent on from Syracuse, N. Y.]
Moisture at 100° C, .
Potassium oxide (4| cents per jjound),
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per jjound), .
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter,
Valuation per ton, ....
Per Cent.
12.98
9.04
2.09
3.00
.40
|20 39
272 AGKICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
5. Anahjses, etc. — Continued.
Cotton-seed Meal.
[Sent on from Hatfield, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
ir.
III.
Moisture at 100° C,
5.77
6.27
8.44
Calcium oxide, . '
.38
.42
.378
Magnesium oxide,
.98
1.07
1.200
Potassium oxide (4| cents 1361- pound), .
.87
.96
2 017
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound),
1.42
1.57
3.165
Nitrogen (15 cents per pound),
5.96
6.56
7.220
Insoluble matter,
.59
.73
.121
Valuation per ton,
120 32
$22 37
$27 17
Gluten Meal.
[Sent on by W. E. Dennis, Boston, Mass.]
Moisture at lOO'' C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide, .
Ferric oxide, .
Sodium oxide, .
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound),
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound) ,
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound).
Insoluble matter,
Valuation per ton, ....
Per Cent.
7.850
.045
.042
.000
.111
.030
.501
6.060
1.680
$21 23
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUiVIENT — No. 33.
273
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Linseed Refuse.
[Sent on b}' John King, South Framingham, Mass.]
Fine.
Coarse.
Moisture at 100" C,
6.440
6.230
Ash,
7.370
5.330
Potassium oxide (41 cents pei' pound) , .
.679
.802
Phospliox-ic acid (6 cents per i^ound), ....
1.525
1.188
Nitrogen (15 cents per pound),
7.080
4.680
Insoluble matter,
.495
.112
Valuation -par ton,
$28 84
$22 29
Cotton-seed Fertilizer
Moisture at 100° C,
•J
Per Cent.
7.950
Calcium oxide, ....
. .429
Magnesium oxide, ....
.672
Ferric oxide,
.066
Potassium oxide (4|" cents jier j)ound) ,
Phosphoric acid (6 cents j^er pound) ,
Nitrogen (15 cents jier pound).
Insoluble matter, ....
1.194
1.241
8.000
1.187
Valuation per ton, ....
$26 50
Oak Leaves.
[Sent on by W. H. Hilhnan, Forestdale, Mass.]
~' Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 9.601
Ash,
6.840
Calcium oxide, ....
.548
Magnesium oxide, ....
.267
Feri-ic oxide,
.027
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound),
Phosjihoric acid (6 cents per pound).
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound).
Soluble silica,
.058
.549
.930
.018
Insoluble silica, ....
4.333
Valuation per ton, ....
$3 87
274 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Chaff from Grain Elevator.
[Sent on by S. H. Pierce, Lincoln, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C, .
/
Per Cent.
9.89
Ash,
10.74
Potassium oxide (4i cents jjer j)ound) ,
.76
Phosplioric acid (6 cents per pound) , .
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter,
5.00
1.62
6.49
Valuation per ton, ....
112 16
Jute Waste.
[Sent on by J. E. Stevens, Ludlow, Mass.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 10.847
Ash,
23.610
Calcium oxide,
1.496
Ferric oxide, .....
.671
Potassium oxide (4| cents per pound).
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound), .
Nitrogen (13 cents per jjound), .
Insoluble matter,
.080
.720
1.794
19.090
Valuation jier ton, ....
$5 59
Hemp Waste.
[Sent on by J. E. Stevens, Ludlow, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C, .
Ash,
Calcium oxide, ....
Ferric oxide, ....
Potassium oxide (4|- cents per pound)
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound),
Nitrogen (13 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter, ....
Validation per ton,
Per Cent.
12.272
6.340
1.654
.307
.232
.242
1.095
2.481
f3 26
Cranberry Vines.
[Sent on bj' L. B. Smitli, Eastbam, Mass.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 13.070
Ash, 2.450
Calcium oxide, .404
Magnesium oxide, .253
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
275
Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Feme oxide,
Sodium oxide, .....
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound),
Pliosphoric acid (G cents jjer j^ound) , .
Nitrogen (17 cents per jDound), .
Insoluble matter,
Valuation per ton, ....
Per Cent.
.087
.080
.329
.268
.770
.834
13 22
Salt Hay.
[Sent on by L. B. Smith, Eastham, Mass.]
IMoisture at 100° C, .
Calcium oxide, ....
Magnesium oxide, ...
Ferric oxide, ....
Sodium oxide, ....
Potassium oxide {\\ cents per i^ound)
Phosphoric acid (G cents per pound),
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
Valuation per ton,
Per Cent.
5.360
.371
.335
.028
.017
.718
.248
1.180
$4 92
Compound Fertilizers.
[I. sent on by H. D. Graves, Sunderland, Mass.; II. sent on l)_v S. G. Hubl)ard,
Whately, Mass.]
Pek Cent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C, . , . ' .
14.17
8.92
Total phosphoric acid,
15.79
G.86
Soluble jihosphoric acid,
6.88
4.77
Reverted phosphoric acid,
4.43
1.58
Insoluble jihosphoric acid, . . .
4.48
.51
Potassium oxide,
2.56
10.31
Nitrogen,
2.60
6.82
Insoluble matter,
5.44
3.67
276 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
5. Analyses, etc. — Continued.
Compound Fertilizers.
[I. sent on by C. A. Bartlett, Worcester, Mass. ; II. sent on by E.G. Smith, Rowley,
Mass.; III. sent on by W. H. Porter, A^i^awani, Mass. ; IV. sent on by
F. W. J. Gerrisb, Norlb Worcester, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . \
17.92
8.71
6.41
18.97
Ash,
56.65
60.15
72.65
48.25
Total i^liosphoric acid, ....
7.87
1671
16.04
11.03
Soluble plios2:)horie acid,
3.55
4.53
5.44
7.16
Reverted phosphoric acid,
1.99
3.67
4.29
3.42
Insoluble jjhosphoric acid,
2.33
8.51
5.31
.45
Potassium oxide,
3.78
4.70
2.16
3.56
Nitrogen,
2.06
3.12
2.42
2.24
Insoluble matter,
9.93
5.55
7.50
5.30
Barn-yard 3Ianiire.
[Sent on from Amherst.]
Per Cent.
X..
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . .
73.470
73.520
76.160
73.470
Organic and volatile matter, .
85.900
93.087
95.915
96.671
Ash,
14.100
6.913
4.085
3.329
Calcium oxide, .....
.264
.185
.302
.322
Magnesium oxide,
.182
.158
.180
.124
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound), .
.615
.487
.804
.484
Phosphoric acid (G cents per ])()uud), .
.133
.189
.218
.247
Nitrogen (17 cents jier pound).
.362
.338
.570
.471
Insoluble matter,
12.657
6.038
2.131
2.285
Valuation per ton,
$1 94
fl 82
$2 92
$2 34
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
277
5. Analyses, etc. — Concluded.
Barn-yard Manure.
[Sent on from Amherst.]
Pek Cent.
I.
II.
III.
Moisture at 100° C, .
70.160
56.710
72.810
Organic volatile matter,
86.553
87.526
95.809
Ash,
13.447
12.474
4.191
Calcium oxide,
.323
.386
-
Magnesium oxide, ....
.271
.223
-
Potassium oxide (4i cents per pound) ,
.614
.486
.562
Pliosplioric acid (6 cents per pound), .
.553
.399
.745
Nitrogen (17 cents per i^ound), .
.486
.419
.672
Insoluble matter,
11.991
9.873
2.250
Valuation per ton, ....
$2 86
$2 34
13 68
No. III. From State Experiment Station.
6. Miscellaneous Analyses.
Ensilage Liquor.
[Sent on by James Cheesman, Boston, Mass. Specific gravity, 1.015 ;
ture, 17° C]
Acidity (calculated to acetic acid)
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry matter, .
A.sh, ....
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide.
Ferric oxide,
Sodium oxide,
Potassium oxide, .
Phosphoric acid, .
Nitrogen as ammoniates.
Nitrogen as nitrates, .
Nitrogen as albuminoids,
Nlti'ogen, total.
tempera-
Per Cent.
2.66
96.21
3.79
.91
.015
.003
.227
.001
.155
.001
.023
.008
.002
.056
278 AGKICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
6. Miscellaneous Analyses — Concluded.
" Nicotinia " (^Insecticide).
[Sent on from Syracuse, N. Y.]
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 10.00
Ash, 27.37
Calcium oxide, 4.45
Magnesium oxide, .90
Potassium oxide (41 cents jier pound), 9.15
Pliosphoric acid (6 cents i^er pound), .67
Nitrogen (17 cents per ijound), 2.49
Insoluble matter, 2.12
Valuation per ton, $17 05
Hellebore {Insecticide') .
[Sent on Ijy Joseph Breck & Son, Boston, Mass.]
Pkr Cent.
•
I.
II.
Ash,
One hundred parts of ash contained : —
Ferric and aluminic oxides,
Insoluble matter,
G.97
33.05
41.36
7.11
92.16
No. II. was evidently adulterated with ground clay.
Peroxide of Silicate (^Insecticide) .
[Sent on from Amberst, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide.
Sulphuric acid,
Arsenious oxide.
Copper oxide.
Insoluble matter,
G3'i)snm, v
ith a tra(
e of Paris jrreen.
Per Cent.
1.65
41.18
49.66
.57
.33
2.31
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
279
II. Analyses of Water sent on for Examination.
[Parts per million.]
a
«
'a
3
<
d
s
u
a
!S
8
•a
^
a
C3
a
"3
o
.S s
a c
6
c
«
1 i
Locality.
3
3 =
2
2
•3 Sf
■o
U)
a a
•3
o
a G
;z;
«!;
<!
5
CO
OJ
S
^
1,
.03
.06
Trace.
41.00
11.00
1.11
None.
Upton.
2,
.02
.07
5.00
45.00
10 00
1.27
None.
Amberst.
3,
.10
.14
13.00
157.00
89.00
3.25
None.
Amherst.
4,
.04
.15
32.00
203.00
118.00
3.25
None.
Amherst.
5,
.02
.04
11.00
96.00
24.00
1.27
Present.
Framingham.
6,
.05
.08
12.00
108.00
30.00
2.60
None.
Framingham.
7,
.02
.01
10.00
72.00
44.00
2.73
-
Hinsdale.
8,
.03
.07
9.00
160.00
85.00
3.25
None.
Amherst.
9,
.02
.04
24.00
146.00
46.00
3.12
None.
Amherst.
10,
.68
.18
Trace.
45.00
5.00
1.27
None.
Amherst.
11,
.12
.04
6.00
25.00
5.00
0.00
-
Ashfield.
12,
.08
.04
Trace.
68.00
28.00
2.86
-
Ashfield.
13,
.03
.06
7.00
58.00
40.00
0.00
None.
Bedford.
14,
.04
.28
22.00
135.00
70.00
3.38
None.
Westford.
15,
.05
.18
20.00
85.00
20.00
3.38
-
Westford.
16,
.99
.15
96.00
558.00
325.00
13.01
None.
South Deerfield.
17,
.03
.07
Trace.
70.00
45.00
1.56
None.
North Amherst.
18,
.03
.07
30.00
85.00
18.00
2.60
Present.
Amherst.
19,
.04
.07
Trace.
93.00
30.00
3.90
None.
Amherst.
20,
.04
.12
Trace.
60.00
30.00
0.00
None.
Ashby.
21,
.03
.09
4.00
130.00
68.00
2.73
None.
East Amherst.
22,
.03
.05
7.00
91.00
43.00
.79
None.
North Leverett.
23,
01
.05
10.00
60.00
15.00
.32
Present.
Shutesbury.
24,
.52
1.80
40.00
765.00
410.00
9.71
-
Amherst.
25,
.40
.12
7.00
92.00
22.00
6.43
Present.
Amherst.
26,
.01
.01
78.00
389.00
139.00
7.83
-
Amherst.
27,
.46
.07
Trace.
57.00
12.00
2.60
None.
Amherst.
23,
.33
.08
Trace.
74.00
27.00
2.34
Present.
Amherst.
29,
.03
.06
12.00
135.00
70.00
3.64
None.
Amherst.
280 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
II. Analyses of Water — Continued.
a
a
a
<
'o
6
d
o
rt
B
V
i
5
Locality.
Zi
<
11
a a
o
o
■a
"3
1 1
a -t
35
■d
30,
.01
.06
Trace.
112.00
42.00
2.47
None.
East Amherst.
31,
.04
.05
Trace.
46.00
10.00
.47
None.
Amherst.
32,
.13
.10
6.00
147.00
92.00
4.57
None.
South Amherst.
33,
.17
.06
6.00
111.00
66.00
4.57
None.
Amlierst.
34,
.84
.10
34.00
370.00
137.00
6.71
None.
Sunderland.
35,
•05
.05
6.00
88.00
42.00
2.21
-
Amherst.
36,
.01
.03
8.00
180.00
80.00
3.90
None.
Leverett.
37,
.01 ■
.01
Trace.
30.00
00.00
1.11
None.
Amherst.
38,
.01
.10
12.00
95.00
5.00
1.95
-
Amlierst.
39,
.01
.16
Trace.
49.00
10.00
2.34
None.
South Boston.
40,
.05
.12
Trace.
47.00
9.00
2.34
None.
South Boston.
41,
.03
.03
7.00
93.00
51.00
2.73
None.
Amherst.
42,
.21
.07
3.00
61.00
25.00
2.21
None.
North Amherst.
43,
.02
.07
22.00
168,00
78 00
4..57
None.
Amherst.
44,
.03
.05
.16
.03
Trace .
Trace.
52.00
74.00
12.00
18.00
.32
-
Amherst.
45,
1.95
None.
South Amherst
46,
.06
.13
8.00
128.00
68.00
2.60
Present.
Amherst.
47,
.01
.12
Trace.
40.00
6.00
.32
-
Amlierst.
48,
.03
.10
Trace.
42.00
20.00
.32
-
Amherst.
49,
.03
.11
10.00
158.00
90.00
2.34
-
Amherst.
50,
.01
.04
Trace.
50.00
38.00
1.27
None.
Amlierst.
51,
.03
.24
Trace.
50.00
8.00
.16
-
Amherst.
52,
.14
.22
Trace.
140.00
86.00
4.57
Amherst.
53,
.01
.06
5.00
110.00
90.00
2.34
None.
Amherst.
54,
.10
.26
6.00
74.00
42.00
4.16
None.
Hudson.
55,
.72
.16
13.00
156.00
98.00
5.29
-
Amherst.
56,
.06
.26
7.00
68.00
22 00
.79
None.
Ashbiirnham.
57,
.12
.08
10.00
90.00
30.00
2.60
-
Bedford.
58,
.08
.08
35.00
210.00
160.00
5.29
Present.
Bedford.
59,
.00
.04
8.00
77.00
47.00
2.21
-
Bedford.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
281
II. Analyses of Water — Concluded.
m
'A
c
o
a
a
<
3
<
a
•n
o
S '5
3 O
a a
c
S
o
o
a
a
■a
S
5
II
Locality.
60,
.01
.03
8.00
70.00
35.00
1.95
None.
Bedford.
f)l,
.01
.06
G.OO
75.00
40.00
.48
None.
East Deerfield.
62,
.00
.03
4.00
20.00
00.00
.00
None.
East Deerfield.
63,
.01
.02
8.00
75.00
40.00
2.21
None.
North Amherst.
64,
.02
.07
7.00
138.00
78.00
1.56
None.
Deerfield.
65,
.01
.03
21.00
178.00
1.50.00
2.60
None.
Amherst.
66,
.09
.05
19.00
68.00
50 00
2.60
None.
Amberst.
67,
01
.05
7.00
78.00
18.00
.48
None.
North Hadley.
68,
.08
.06
11.00
114 00
56.00
2.86
None.
East Buckland.
69,
.03
.10
10.00
96.00
68.00
2.99
-
Buckland.
70,
.05
.07
17.00
280.00 ,
190.00
2.86
-
Sunderland.
71,
.06
.05
20.00
236.00
146.00
4.57
None.
Amherst.
72,
Trace.
.02
10.00
88.00
26.00
1.95
None.
North Amherst.
73,
.01
.05
6.00
40.00
18.00
1.43
None.
North Amherst.
74,
Trace.
.03
4.00
16.00
GOO
.16
None.
North Amherst.
The analyses have been made according to Wancklyn's
process, fiimiliar to chemists, and are directed towards the
indication of the presence of chlorine, free and albuminoid
ammonia, and the poisonous metals, lead in particular.
(For a more detailed description of this method, see
"Water Analyses," by J. A. Wancklyn and E. T.
Chapman.)
Mr. Wancklyn's interpretation of the results of his mode
of investigation is as follows : —
1. Chlorine alone does not necessarily indicate the
presence of filthy water.
2. Free and albuminoid ammonia in water, without
chlorine, indicates a vegetable source of contamination.
3. More than five grains per gallon* of chlorine (=r:71.4
parts per million), accompanied by more than .08 parts per
* One gallon equals 70,000 gi-ains.
282 AGRICULTURAL EX. STATION. [Jan. '90.
million of free ammonia and more than .10 parts per million
of albuminoid ammonia, is a clear indication that the water
is contaminated with sewage, decaying animal matter, urine,
etc., and should be condemned.
4. Eight hundredths parts per million of free ammonia
and one-tenth part per million of albuminoid ammonia
render a water very suspicious, even without much chlorine.
5. Albuminoid ammonia, over .15 parts per million,
ought to absolutely condenm a water which contains it.
6. The total solids found in the water should not exceed
forty grains per gallon (571.4 parts per million).
The American Association of Official Chemists has
appointed a committee to investigate the subject of analyses
of water for family use, and to advise upon some uniform
method of investigation and of reporting the results. As
soon as their recommendation shall be endorsed by the
association, we propose to be guided hy that decision.
An examination of the previously stated results of
analyses, indicate that Nos. 3,, 5, 10, 11, 16, 18, 23, 24,
25, 27, 28, 32, 33, 34, 42, 46, 52, 54, 57 and 58, ought
to be condemned as unfit for family use, while Nos. 12, 56,
66 and 68 must be considered suspicious. From this record
it will be seen that over one-fourth of the entire number of
well waters tried proved unfit for drinking. Heating well
waters to the boiling point removes, not unfrequently,
immediate danger. Seven samples gave unmistakable
evidence of the presence of lead.
Parties sending on water for analysis ought to be very
careful to use clean vessels, clean stoppers, etc. The
samples should be sent on without delay after collecting.
One gallon is desirable for the analysis.
Compilation of Analyses made at Amherst, Mass., of
Agricultural ChemiCxVLS and Refuse Materials
USED FOR Fertilizing Purposes.
Prepared by W. II. Beal.
[As the basis of valuation changes from year to year, no valuation is stated.]
1868-1890.
This compilation does not include the analyses made of licensed fertilizers. Tliey
are to be found in the reports of the State Inspector of Fertilizers from 1873 to 1889,
contained in the reports of the Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agri-
culture for those years. C. A. G.
284 AGRICULTURAL EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan.
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
285
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286 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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289
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COMPILATION OF ANALYSES OF FODDER ARTL
CLES, FRUITS, SUGAR-PRODUCING PLANTS,
DAIRY PRODUCTS, ETC.,
jMADk at
amio:rst, mass.
1868-1890.
Prepaked by W. II. Beal.
A. Analyses uf Foddeu Articles.
B. Analy'ses of Fodder Articles with Eeference
TO Fertilizing Inoredients.
C. Analyses of Fruit.
D. Analyses of Sugar-producing Plants.
E. Dairy Products.
292 AGKICULTURAL EXPEEIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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Fodder corn (ensilaged).
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Cireen oats,
Timothy {Phleum j>raten
Hungarian grass {Setaria
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Horse bean ( Vicia faba I
Cow-pea vines, .
Serradella {Ornithopus sa
White lupine {Lupinua al
Spanish moss ( Tillandsic
1890.]
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CDC-1 rH r-^^r-l r^ i-> -^
•apixo
•qsv
■na3ojji>i
•9jni9ioj^
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".
e>i
CJ
ej
OJ
'Z
,— r— in
-t O 1- 1-
o t- I-
p5P3«a«HOf^<5
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
301
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302 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
C. Analyses of Fruits.
NAME.
Date.
Is
o
4; O SB
a
l
s
"ca'S
E-i
a
3
-
m
0
CQ CD
0
S =
0
1'-
1877.
]*er et.
Per ct.
Per ct.
Perot.
c. c.
Apple (Baldwin),
Sept. 1,
20.14
1.055
12-15
3.09
-
-
-
Apple (Baldwin),
Oct. 9,
19.66
1.065
12—15
6.25
-
-
-
Apple (Baldwin),
Nov. 27,
-
1.075
12—15
10.42
-
-
-
Rhode Island Greening, .
Sept. 1,
20.27
1.055
12-15
3.16
-
-
-
Rhode Ii-land Greening, .
Oct. 9,
19.68
1.066
12—15
7.14
-
-
Rhode Island Greening,! .
Nov. 27,
20.25
1.080
12—15
11.36
-
-
-
Pear (Bartlett)
Aug. 31,
15.00
1.060
12—15
4.77
-
-
-
Pear (Bartlett), ....
Sept. 7,
16.55
1.060
12—15
5.68
-
-
-
Pear (Bartlett)
Sept. 20,
-
1.065
12-15
8.62
-
-
-
Pear (Bartlett), J:
Sept. 22,
-
1.060
12—15
8.93
-
-
-
Cranberries, ....
-
10.71
1.025
15
1.35
-
-
-§
Cranberries
1878.
10.11
1.025
15
1.70
-
-
-II
Early York Peach (ripe), .
-
-
1.045
25
-
1.92
6.09
45
Early York Peach (nearly ripe) ,
-
10.9611
1.039
25
-
1.36
4.12
42.3
Crawford Peach (nearly ripe), .
-
-
1.050
18
-
2.19
7.02
85.6
Crawford Peach (mellow).
-
11.3611
1.0.55
18
-
1.70
8.94
76
Crawford Peach (not mellow), .
-
11.8811
1.045
22
'
1.67
5.92
64
* One part Na2 CO3 in 100 parts of water.
t Picked October 9.
X Picked September 7.
§ Free acid, 2.25 per cent.
II Free acid, 2.43 per cent.
H In pulp, kept ten days before testing
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
303
C. Analyses of Fruits — Continued.
[Wild and cultivated grapes.]
NAME.
Date.
o
s
a)
in,
6
S 60
a) —
a
>>
Q
.s
3
a a
m
ft
o .
tD
m
•3.2 §
° i t:
a o a.
o-as
*
1876.
Perot.
Per ct.
Per ct.
c.c.
Concord,
July 17,
1.0175
31
8.30
.645
7.77
-
Concord
July 20,
1.0150
31
8.10
.625
7.72
216
Concord
Aug. 2,
1.0200
25
9.94
.938
9.44
249
Concord
Aug. 16,
1.0250
28
10.88
2.000
18.38
229
Concord,
Aug. 30,
1.0500
25
15.58
8.620
55.33
120
Concord
Sept. 13,
1.0070
23
17.48
13.890
79.46
55
Concord
Sept. 4,
1.0700
18
19.82
16.130
81.38
49.2
Purple Wild Grape,
July 19,
1.020
31
9.00
.714
7.93
204
Purple Wild Grape,
Aug. 4,
1.020
28
12.25
1.100
8.98
246
Purple Wild Grape,
Aug. 16,
1.025
28
12.48
2.000
16.03
233
Purple Wild Grape,
Aug. 30,
1.050
26
16.58
6.500
39.81
147.6
White Wild Grape, . • .
Aug. 31,
1.050
26
16.48
9.260
56.18
98
Hartford Prolific, ....
Sept. 5,
1.060
22
17.39
13.89
79.87
88.8
Ives' Seeding, ....
Sept. 6,
1.070
26
20.15
15.15
75.14
88.6
lona,
Sept. 7,
1.080
21
24.56
15.15
61.68
144
lona (mildewed), ....
Sept. 7,
1.045
26
15.41
6.25
40.56
204.4
Agawam,
Sept. 11,
1.075
20
20.79
17.24
82.92
94.8
Wilder
Sept. 11,
1.064
20
16.53
13.67
82.69
56
Delaware,
Sept. 12,
1.080
24
23.47
17.86
76.09
74
Charter Oak,
Sept. 12,
1.080
24
15.98
8.77
54.94
168.3
Israella
Sept. 16,
1.075
23
19.67
9.20
46.77
89.8
Bent's Seedling, ....
Sept. 20,
1.080
21
20.65
16.13
78.11
181.8
Adirondack,
Sept. 20,
1.065
21
15.11
13.17
87.16
68
Catawba,
Oct. 16,
1877.
1.080
13
23.45
17.39
74.16
82
Wilder
Sept. 11,
1.065
23
16.41
15.15
92.32
60
Charter Oak
Sept. 12,
1.055
23
16.22
9.80
60.42
96
Concord, ......
Sept. 13,
1.065
24
15.90
13.16
82.76
102
Concord
Sept. 26,
1.075
24
19.34
15.43
79.78
70.8
Eumalan,
Sept. 24,
1.065
16
19.62
13.16
67.07
73
Wild White Grape,
Sept. 5,
1.050
22
15.57
7.20
46.24
140.8
Wild White Grape (shrivelled), .
Sept. 20,
1.060
16
20.02
10.00
49.95
130
"Wild Purple Grape (shrivelled), .
Sept. 20,
1.045
16
16.69
8.22
49.25
104
* One part of pure Nsj CO3 in 100 parts water.
304 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
C. Analyses of Fruits — Continued.
[Effect of girdling on grapes.]
NAME AND CONDITION.
Date.
1
ta
'3
d
m .
3.1
a aj
aj 3)
0,4,
u
a .
^?
t, r-l
ft
a
3
02 .
a 0
0
m
*Soda Solution re-
quired to neu-
tralize 100 parts
of Juice.
,
1877.
Per ct.
I'er ct.
Per ct.
C. C.
Hartford Prolific, not girdled,
Sept. 3,
1.045
19
12.85
8.77
68.25
111.4
Hartford Prolific, girdled,
Sept. 3,
1.06.5
19
17.18
12.50
72.76
100
Wilder, not girdled.
Sept. 3,
1.0.55
19
15.41
10.42
67.62
108.2
Wilder, girdled.
Sept. 3,
1.075
19
17.24
14.70
85.26
88.4
Delaware, not girdled,
Sept. 4,
1.065
19
15.75
11.76
74.66
101.2
Delaware, girdled, .
Sept. J,
1.075
19
19.14
15.15
79.16
94.4
Agawam, not girdled.
Sept. 4,
1.060
19
16.60
11.37
68.48
128.2
Agawam, girdled.
Sept. 4,
1.075
19
18.45
16.31
87.42
114.8
lona, not girdled.
Sept. 6,
1.0625
22
16.60
13.51
68.31
131.4
lona, girdled, .
Sept. 6,
l.OSo
22
21.48
15.63
72.76
125.6
Concord, not girdled,
Sept. 6,
1.045
22
13.46
7.46
55.42
182.4
Concord, girdled,
Sept. 6,
1.070
22
17.53
13.88
79.18
102.8
Concord, not girdled,
Sept. 26,
1.065
22
17.63
13.70
78.27
86
Concord, girdled.
Sept. 26,
1.080
22
24.47
19.61
80.13
76.8
Concord, not girdled.
Oct. 5,
1.075
12
20.92
17.. 50
85.37
42
Concord, girdled,
Oct. 5,
1.085
12
-
17.86
-
54
100
Parts of G
E4APES CON-
t. 2 «
Date.
TAINED
—
a ?
J3
0
0
:3
0 3
0
= °2
"o-c 0
"CSS
0 cr^
18S9.
Concord, not girdled.
Sept. 23,
-
84.69
6.24
75
Concord, girdled
Sept. 23,
.42
83.00
8.13
85.4
Concord, not girdled.
Oct. 8,
.53
84.51
G.09
48
Concord, girdled
Oct. 8,
.37
82.69
8.. 50
50
* One part Na2 CO3 to 100 parts of water.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
305
C. Analyses of FruiU — Continued.
[EflFect of fertilization upon the organic constituents of wild grapes.]
NAME.
Date.
2
ft
S
a)
m
9 "J
O 0)
o
Remarks.
1877.
Wild Purple Grape Berries,
Sept. 20,
16.31
-
-
8.03
-
Unfertilized.
Wild Purple Grape Berries,
"
19..'55
-
-
13.51
-
Fertilized.
Wild Purple Grape Juice, .
"
-
1.045
16
8.22
9.840
Unfertilized.
Wild Purple Grape Juice, .
"
-
1.065
16
13.51
1.149
Fertilized.
Wild White Grape Berries,
"
20.02
-
-
-
-
Unfertilized.
Wild White Grape Berries,
"
21.65
-
-
-
-
Fertilized.
Wild White Grape Juice, .
"
~
1.060
16
10.00
1.846
Unfertilized.
Wild White Grape Juice, .
-
-
14.29
.923
Fertilized.
[Effect of fertilization upon the ash constituents of grapes.]
NAME.
Date.
go
a
o
6
si
.s
O
02
6
.20
a
6
•a
.20
3
0.0
.a
Remarks.
1876.
Wild Purple Grapes,
Sept. 13,
50.93
.15
22.23
5.59
.79
17.40
2.93
Unfertilized.
Wild Purple Grapes,
Sept. 20,
62.65
.85
14.24
3.92
.53
13.18
4.63
Fertilized.
Concord Grapes,
July 7,
41.73
5.04
25.03
7.80
.55
18.48
1.37
Unfertilized.
Concord Grapes,
July 17,
47.34
1.13
24.21
-
.75
21.38
.43
Unfertilized.
Coucord Grapes,
Aug. 18,
51.14
3.19
16.20
6.38
.65
20.77
1.67
Unfertilized.
Concord Grapes,
Sept. 13,
1878.
57.15
4.17
11.30
3.10
.40
12.47
11.82
Unfertilized.
Concord Grapes,
Oct. 3,
64.65
1.42
9.13
3.63
.50
14.87
5.80
Fertilized.
306 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
C. Analyses of Fruits — Concluded,
[Ash analyses of fruits and garden crops.]
Ash.
100 Pabts or
Ash contained —
NAME.
S
o
P-i
-a
o
m
©
a
3
.5
0)
a
1^
-a
.2
Is
s <
.a
O (S
P
a
Concord Grape (fruit),
-
51.14
3.19
16.20
6. 38
.65
20.77
1.67
■Unfermented juice,
-
50.85
.48
3.69
4.25
.10
6.43
.90
Fermented juice,
-
40:69
-
6.85
6.24
-
9.04
-
Skins and pulp
-
7.70
.42
57.36
8.80
.08
24.40
1.32
Seeds,
3.08
6.71
-
-
3.03
-
17.20
.29
Stems of grapes, .
4.69
20.91
-
20.20
8.45
-
17.75
2.09
Young branches, *
-
24.71
.94
40.53
10.66
1.08
17.16
4.92
Wood of vine, t •
2.97
22.57
-
9.72
4.28
-
14.07
23.84
Clinton Grape (fruit),
-
58.45
3.51
13.34
7.37
.90
18.19
-
Baldwin Apple
-
63 54
1.71
7.28
5.52
1.08
20.87
3.68
Strawberry (fruit), J
.52
49.24
3.23
13.47
8.12
1.74
18.50
5.66
Strawberry (fruit), §
-
58.47
-
14.64
6.12
3.37
17.40
-
Strawberry vines,
3.34
.18
10.62
47.96
13.35
6.58
36.63
3.83
6.91
14.48
14.27
14.17
Cranberry (fruit).
18.58
6.78
-
-
Cranberry vines.
2.45
12.98
3.27
16.49
10.33
3.35
10.94
34.04
Currants, red
.47
47.68
4.02
18.96
6.23
1.20
21.91
-
Currants, white.
.59
52.79
3.00
17.08
5.68
2.67
18.78
-
Crawford Peach, sound, .
-
74.46
-
2.64
6.29
.58
16.02
-
Crawford Peach, diseased, || .
-
71.30
-
4.68
5.49
.46
18.07
-
Branch, sound, .
-
26.01
-
54.52*
7.58
.52
11.37
-
Branch, diseased, II
-
15.67
-
64.23
10.28
1.45
8.37
-
Asparagus stems.
-
42.94
3.58
27.18
12.77
1.22
12.31
.08
Asparagus roots,
-
56.43
5.42
15.48
7.57
-
15.09
3.67
Onions
-
38.51
1.90
8.20
3.65
.58
15.80
3.33
* With tendrils and blossoms, f One year old. J Wilder. § Downing. || Yellows.
Ib90.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
307
D. Analyses of Sugar-producing Plants.
[Composition of sugar Ijeets raised upon the college grounds during tlie season of
1870 and 1871.]
NAME
Date.
Brix
Saccharom-
eter
(Degrees).
Ter Cent,
of Sugar.
Non-
saccharine
Substances.
Electoral, .
Sept.
10,
14
12.30
1.75
Imperial,
"
12,
15
12.59
2.41
Vilmorin, .
"
13,
14.5
12.95
1.55
Imperial, .
"
18,
14
10.79
3.21
Imperial,
Oct.
11,
15
12.05
2.95
Electoral, .
».
16,
15
12.22
2.78
Vilmorin, .
u
18,
16
13'.13
2.87
Imperial,
Nov.
14,
15
11.60
3.34
Vilmorin, .
(1
21,
15.5
1.3.12
2.38
Vienna Globe,*
Sept.
19,
11
8.00
3.00
Common Mango!
d,*
<(
19,
9
5.00
3.97
* Fodaer beets.
[Percentage of sugar in different varieties of sugar lieets grown on college farm
during the season of 1882.]
NAME.
Source of
Seed.
Weight in
Pounds.
Per Cent, of
Sugar in Juice.
I. Vilmorin,
Saxony, .
f to I
15.50
II. Vilmorin, .....
Saxony, .
1 tol
15.61
I. White Imperial, ....
Saxony, .
f to If
14.20
II. White Imperial, . . ." .
Saxony, .
If to 2
10.27
New Imperial,
Saxony, .
li to If
13.80
I. White Magdeburg,
Saxony, .
11 to 2
13.10
II. White Magdeburg,
Silesia, .
li to If
10.06
Quedlinburg,
Saxony, .
11 to If
13.44
White Silesian,
Silesia, .
li to 11
9.72
308 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
D. Ayialyses of Sugar-producing Plants — Continued.
[Effect of soil and fertilization on Electoral sugar beets.*]
SOIL.
MANUKE.
>
a, '^
02
o .a
. 2
'^ 1-5
V a
o •-
^ Co
c3 4^
•g =
o tc
"A
a «
3 1^
2 1
= "o
o a:
Sandy loam,
Fresh yai'd-manure,
16.5
12.50
4.00
75.08
Clayisli loam, .
Fresh yard-manure,
15.5
11.05
4.45
71.30
Warm alluvial, .
Y a r d - m a n u r e and
chemicals, .
12.75
9.17
3.58
71.92
Warm alluvial, .
Fresh hog-manure.
13.5
9.53
3.97
70.06
Light, sandy soil,
No manui-e, .
18.5
13.73
4.77
74.21
Alluvial soil,
Brighton fish.
14.5
11.15
3.35
76.90
Heavy soil.
Yard-manure,
12.25
8.15
4.10
66.53
■ -
-
13.5
9.90
3.(30
73.33
Not raised ou college farm (Connecticut valley).
[Effect of fertilization on sugar beets.*]
Percentages of Sugar in Juice.
FERTILIZERS.
Freeport.
Electoral.
Vilmorin.
Fresh horse-manure, ....
Blood guano without potash.
Blood guano with potash, .
Kainite and superphosphate.
Sulphate of potash, ....
Second 3^ear after stable-manure.
11.96
10.99
12.55
13 15
14.52
13.49
9.42
10.10
13.24
12.16
14.32
12.78
7.80
1020
10.50
10.50
12.78
12.19
* All were grown on the same soil, — sandy loam (college).
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No.
309
D. Analyses of Sugar-producing Plants — Continued.
[Effect of different modes of cultivation on Electoral sugar beets.]
LOCALITY OF BEET-FIELD.
Date.
Brix
Saccharom-
eter
Per Cent,
of Cane
Non-
saccharine
(Degrees).
Sugar.
Substances.
1.
Sing Sing, N. Y., . . . • 1872-73
11
7.80
3.20
2.
AVasliington, N. Y., ... "
14
10.97
3.03
3.
South Hartford, N. Y., .
15
11.70
3.30
4.
Greenwich, X. Y., .
"
12
9.50
2.50
0.
Frankfort, N. Y., .
((
13.5
11.00
2 50
6.
Albion, N. Y.,*
((
18
15.10
2.90
Albion, N. Y.,t
"
14
9.70
4.30
* From beets weighing from l}i to 2 Ib.s. f From beefs weighing from 10 to 14 lbs.
1. Soil, loam resting on clayish harcl-j)an, had been for several years
in grass. Tomatoes had been the preceding crojJ. Five hundred
jiounds of a phosphatic blood guano were applied before planting.
2. Soil, a clayish loam, had been ploughed seven inches deep. A
liberal amount of rotten sheep-manure was placed in trenches and
covered by running two furrows together, thus forming a ridge on
which the seed were i^lanted.
3. Soil, a gravelly loam, which had been richly manured with stable
compost and twice i:)loughed before j^lanting.
4. Soil, a sandy loam, underlaid by fine sand. The seed were planted
on ridges, which covered trenches containing a little rotten stable-
manure.
5. Xo details of modes of cultivation received.
6. Soil, a dark, reddish-brown, rich, deej^, sandy loam. Clover had
been raised for two years previous to a crop of carrots, which i)receded
the sugar beets. The beets were the second crop after the aj)23lication
of twenty loads of stable-manure jDer acre.
Composition of Canada-grown Sugar Beets.
[1872 and 1873.]
WHEKE GROWN.
Weight of
Roots.
Specific
Gravity of
Juice
(Brix).
Tempera-
ture of
Juice.
Per Cent.
of Cane
Suirar
in Juice.
Echaullon de Montreal, .
Reviere du Loup, .
Chambly, ....
Maskinonge, ....
2 to 2| lbs.
2 to 31 lbs.
2 to 2| lbs.
2 to 3 lbs.
15.4°
14.5°
13.2°
13.4°
64° F.
63° F.
63° F.
6.3° F.
11.38
10.20
9.02
8.83
310 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
D. Analyses of Sugar-producing Plants — Continued.
[Early Amber Cane.]
CONDITION" OF CANE.
S«
« o
SO
02 Q, N 3
1879.
Aug. 15,
Aug. 16,
Aug. 20,
Aug. 24,
Aug. 27,
Aug. 30,
Sept. 2,
Sept. 9,
Sept. 9,
Sept. 18,
Sept. 18,
Sept. 18,
Sept. IS,
Sept. 21,
Sept. 23,
Sept. 25,
Sept. 28,
Oct. 4,
Oct. 7,
Oct. 8,
Oct. 9,
Oct. 14,
Oct. 18,
Oct. 19,
Oct. 22,
Oct. 23,
Oct. 24,
No flower stalks in sight,*
No flower stalks iu sight,*
Flower stalks developed,*
Flowers opeu,* ....
Plants in full bloom,*
Seed forming,* ....
Seed in milk,* ....
Seeds still soft,* ....
Stripped on Sept. 2,* .
Left on field without stripping,*
Tops removed,* ....
Tops and leaves removed on Sept. 9,*
Tops removed ; left on field 9 days, '
Juice from the above,*
Juice from the above,*
Left on field 3 weeks, f
Left on field 3 weeks, f
Left on field 3 weeks,!
Freshly cut. Ground with leaves, f
Freshly cut. Stripped 2 weeks, f
Freshly cut. Stripped 2 weeks,}
Several weeks old.t
Several weeks old.f
Several weeks old,t
Several weeks old.f
Several weeks old,+
Several weeks old.t
4.2
5.8
7.9
8.7
10.0
9.5
10.7
12.1
12.8
13.2
13.8
11.5
12.8
13.0
15.0
19.8
17.8
16.1
16.7
12.8
18.4
18.2
15.1
15.5
16.2
18.3
16.6
27
24
24
23
25
30
27
22
22
22
22
22
22
21
18
21
12
17
20
17
17
15
23
15
16
17
15
Per ct.
2.48
4.06
3.47
3.70
3.65
4.00
3.85
3.21
3.77
3.57
3.16
3.16
10.00
11.91
16.60
8.62
4.16
5.16
7.57
10.42
7.57
9.22
8!30
11.30
8.63
Per ct.
None
None
2.15
3.00
4.13
3.81
4.41
6. 86
6. 81
7.65
8.49
5.85
.60
6.16
9.94
5.27
C. C.
6.8
9.0
7.0
4.0
10.0
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5
Per ct.
7.93
11.10
13.00
14.07
15.48
16.14
15.85
26.13
26.75
7.0
10.6
10.4
14.0
9.0
100 Parts of Caxe contained —
^
u
C
50
bfi
ao
O 3
, 3
_ D
S-JQ
2m
aai
o
O
H
1.79
3.21
5.00
2.92
3.78
0.70
2.38
3.63
6.01
2.96
3.85
6.81
3.08
4.01
7.09
18P9.
October,
October,
October,
October,
Oci,ocer,
Early Tennessee sorghum, mature,
Price's new hybrid, ripe, .
Kansas orange, green,
New orange, green, .
Honduras, green,
77.43
77.80
80.67
78.30
77.55
* Raised on the college farm. t Kaised by farmers in the vicinity of the colleg.
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
311
D. Analyses of Sugar-producing Plants — Concluded.
[Composition of the juice of corn stalks and melons.]
VARIETY.
o
1
in
Temperature C.
(Degrees).
u
a
to 0)
3 o
<a ►^
g
bo g
3 .-
tC 3
>->
C5
12
1
Northern corn, * . . . .
1.023
27
Per ct.
4.35
Per ct.
.28
Per ct.
15.18
Black Mexican sweet corn, f .
1.048
27
2.06
7.02
17.44
Evergreen sweet corn, f .
1.052
-
4.85
5.70
20.38
Common sweet corn, % . . .
1.035
""
6.60
None.
-
Common yellow musk-melon, §
1.040
26
1.67
2.65
-
White-flesh water-melon, .
1.025
18
2.91
2.16
-
Red-flesh water-melon.
1.025
22
3.57
2.18
-
Red-flesh water-melon,
1.025
19
3.84
1.77
-
Nutmeg musk-melon, || . . .
1.030
19
3.33
2.11
-
Nutmeg musk-melon, 1" .
1.050
20
2.27
5.38
-
Nutmeg musk-melon, * * .
1.030
19
2.50
1.43
-
* Tassels appearing,
f Ears ready for the table.
{ Kernels somewhat hard.
§ Fully ripe.
11 Not ripe.
IT Ripe.
** Over-ripe.
312 AGEICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 33.
313
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314 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
METEOROLOGY.
1889.
Our weather observations have been conducted on the
same general plan as in previous years, being essentially
the same as that recommended to voluntary observers of the
United States Signal Service. Besides this, we have during
the summer months forwarded to a signal officer at Cam-
bridge, Mass., a weekly report of temperature, rainfall and
sunshine, and their efl'ects as observed on the growth of
crops in this vicinity. This report was for use of the New
England Meteorological Society and the United States
Signal Service in preparing a weekly weather and crop
bulletin.
The winter months of 1889 were exceptionally mild. Our
lowest temperature during that time was nine degrees below
zero. Ice did not form thick enough to be cut until the first
part of February. There was no snow on the ground until the
20th of January. Sleighs were in use from that date until
the last week in February ; most of the time, however,
hardly enough snow for good sleighing. A snow-storm,
amounting to 4.5 inches, occurred on March 31 and April 1.
This snow quickly disappeared.
On account of the warm and dry weather during the
spring, the ground was prepared and planted somewhat
earlier than usual. Heavy frosts occurred May 4 and 29 ;
the latter touched our more tender crops, but apparently did
not afiect corn or potatoes.
February, March and April were our driest months ; less
than three inches of water fell during February and March.
The rains of May were abundant and well distributed.
During June, July and the first part of August, an unusual
number of rainy days interfered seriously with farm work ;
considerable damage was done in our vicinity to partially
cured hav and strain.
1890.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 33. 315
The average temperature of July and August was lower
than usual. The cool weather during those two months
retarded the ripening of corn, and was evidently injurious to
most crops, judging from the unusual prevalence of fungous
diseases.
The first frost occurred September 23 ; the first snow-fall
occurred November 27, and the first snow-storm, December
5, amounting, in the latter ease, to an inch and a half of
snow. The severest snow-storm, amounting to 6.5 inches
of snow, occurred December 14. Both of these snows
disappeared soon.
During eight months of the year the prevailing wind was
north-west ; during March, September and October, the
prevailing direction was north-east; and during June,
south-west.
The rainfall during the year amounted to 43.72 inches,
which is slightly below the average. The number of days
on which an appreciable quantity of water fell was 128.
The largest number occurring in one month was 15, in July ;
the smallest, 7, in August. The largest rainfall for one
month was 8.35 inches, in July; the smallest, 1.45 inches,
in February.
During the first seven months of the year there were fifty-
four days during w^hich the sky was more than seven-tenths
overcast by clouds at each observation. During the last five
months, when a more detailed system of taking the observa-
tion was used, sixty-six days were noticed "cloudy;"
twenty cloudy days occurred in September. On twenty-
three days during the first seven months, the sky was found
less than four-tenths overcast at each observation. April
and June had each but one "clear" day; during the last
five months there were but twenty-four clear days.
The mean annual temperature was 47.78 degrees, which
is nearly 1 degree above the average. The highest tempera-
ture for the year was 89 5 degrees, occurring May 9 ; the
lowest, — 9 degrees, occurring February 24. The maximum
for 1888 was 94.5 degrees, on July 23 ; the minimum, — 21.5
degrees, January 23. The absolute range of temperature
for 1889 Avas 98.5 degrees, against 116 for 1888, 115.2 for
1887, and 117 for 1886.
31G AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
317
Miscellaneous Phenomena, — Dates.
Frost.
Snow.
Thunder,
storms.
Solar
Halos-.
Lunar
Halos.
January,
February,
ilarch,
April, .
May, .
June, .
July, .
August,
September,
October,
November,
December,
4, 5, 13, 15, 26
11
1, 13, 15:
7,10,11.15,23;
4, 29
3, 5, 8, 9, n,
12, 16, 17, 19,
22, 24.
4,11,16,17,18,
5,10,22,24,29,
31.
20, 21, 27, 2S,
6, 8,9, 11, 12,
IS, 27.
31,
5,14,
5, 6, 7, 9, 16,
5,16,
4, 5, 6, 16, 17,
1,3,20,25,26,
10, 11, 13, 14,
21, 25. 26, 27,
1,2,4. 6, 8, 10,
12, 15, 17, 22,
2,3,4, 8, 9, 10,
14, 15, 20, 27,
30,
1,3,5, 9,13,14,15,
11,12, 13, 17,
19, 20, 25, 26,
1, 6, 7, 10, 12,
20, 21,22,26,
28, 29,
2, 3,9, 10, 11,
19, 20, 21, 22,
27,
8,9,10, 11, 18,
22, 24,
28,
20,
10, 14, 25,
10, 11, 15,
7, 8, 29, 30,
3,14,
17,
11, 15,
16.
318 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIOX. [Jan.
Record
Of the Average Temperature taken from Weather Records at Amherst,
Mass., for three consecutive months, during the summer and winter,
beginning ivith the year 1836.
December, J.anu.iry, February.
.Tune, July, August.
1836-37,
Degrees F.
25.396
1837, .
Degrees F.
69.130
1837-38,
26.386
1838;
69.550
1838-39,
25.950
1839,
70.180
1839-40,
20.626
1840,
68.770
1840-41,
23.146
1841,
69.230
1841-42,
28.516
1842,
68.210
1842-43,
23.460
1843,
67.950
1843-44,
21.320
1844,
67.260
1844-45,
25.550
1845,
70.120
1845-46,
22.140
1846,
68.406
1846-47,
i 25.176
1847,
68.806
1847-48,
28.966
1848,
69.210
1848-49,
23 026
1849,
69.210
1849-50,
27.570
1850,
68.820
1850-51,
25.040
21.620
1851,
1852, .
. 66.640
1851-52,
66 830
1852-53,
27.940
1853,
67.846
1853-54,
23.670
1854,
69.856
1854-55,
23.126
1855,
67.146
1855-56,
20.820
1856,
69.225
1856-57,
22.720
1857,
67.240
1857-58,
26.956
1858,
67.930
1858-59,
24.746
1859,
65.650
1859-60,
24.790
1860,
66.540
1860-61,
24 510
1861, ■
66.870
1861-62,
24.470
1862,
66.490
1862-63,
27.640
1863,
66 656
1863-64,
26.060
1864,
69.336
1864-65,
21.310
1865,
68.946
1865-66,
25.676
1866,
67.400
1866-67,
25 276
1867,
67.920
1890.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.
319
Uecord of Temperature, etc. — Concluded.
December, January, February.
June, July, August.
1867-68,
Degrees F.
20.350 ■
1868, .
Degrees F.
. 69.700
1868-69,
26.290
1869,
66.890
1869-70,
27.866
1870,
71.700
1870-71,
26.666
1871,
67.810
1871-72,
24.630
1872,
70.790
1872-73,
21.350
1873,
68.596
1873-74,
27.286
1874,
66.306
1874-75,
21.180
1875,
68.026
1875-76,
28.156
1876,
71.780
1876-77,
23.510
1877,
70.080
1877-78,
28.506
1878,
68.896
1878-79,
24.290
1879,
68.150
1879-80,
30 506
1880,
69.286
1880-81,
21.856
1881,
67.966
1881-82,
29.256
1882,
69.866
1882-83,
24.220
1833,
68.840
1883-84,
26.506
1884,
68.960
1884-85,
22.630
1885,
66.740
1885-86,
24.846
1886, .
66.100
1886-87,
22.146
1887, .
68.100
1887-88,
20.827
1888, .
67.893
1888-89,
27.170
1889, .
66.300
C. A. GOESSMANN,
Director.
320
AGRICULTURAL EX. STATION. [Jan. '90.
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INDEX.
IKDEX
TO SEVENTH ANNUAL EEPORT, 1889.
PAGE
Albuminoid nitrogen in roots, 185
Alfalfa, analyses of 165, 166, 294, 297
Alfalfa, field experiments with, 158
Alsilie clover, analyses of, 163, 294, 299
Alsike clover, field experiments with, 158
"American Agriculturist" prize corn 146,147
Ammonite, analysis of, ' . . 286
Analyses of apatite, 266
of apples, 295, 300
of apple pomace, 297, 301
of apple-pomace ensilage, 297
of ashes of cotton-seed hulls, 263, 264, 284
of ashes of hard pine 285
of ashes, lime-kiln, 285
of ashes, logwood, 285
of ashes, mill, 285
of ashes, sea-weed, 285
of ashes of spent tan-bark, 284
of ashes, wood, 259, 263, 284
of asparagus, 306
of barley, 122, 139, 296, 301
of l)arley and oat chaff, 143
of barnyard grass, 293
of barnyard manure, 277, 289
of bat guano, 285
of beets, fodder, 184, 295, 300
of beets, sugar 35, 183, 184, 187, 188, 295, 300
of blood, dried, 269, 286
of bone ash, South. American, 286
of bone black, 267, 286
of bone coal, 267
of bones 268, 269, 287
of brewer's grains, rotten, 287
cf brewer's grains, spent, 297, 301
of Brockville phosphate 285
of broom-corn seed meal 296
of broom-corn seed, 295
of broom-coin waste, 297, 301
of butter, 85, 86
of buttermilk, 312
of carnallite, 284
[323]
324 INDEX.
PAGE
Analyses of carrots 34, 181, 182, 295, 300
of carrot tops, 182, 295, 300
of castor-bean pomace, 287
of chaff from grain elevator, 274
of cheese, 312
of clover, mammoth red 164, 165, 294, 299
of medium red, 164, 294, 299
of Bokhara 180, 181, 294, 299
of cocoa dust, 297, 301
of corn cobs 297, 301
of com and cob meal, 295, 300
of corn, kernels, 147, 295, 300
of corn ensilage, 34, 143, 292, 298
of corn fodder 33, 36, 293, 298
of corn " germs," 142
of corn " husks " or " chaff," 142
of corn meal, 31, 60, 125, 128, 296, 301
of corn refuse from starch works, 206
of corn stover, 33, 36, 143
of cotton waste, 287
of cotton hulls, 297, 301
of cotton-seed meal, . . ' . . . . . " . 272, 296, 301
of cow-pea 62, 292, 294, 298, 299
of cranberries, 302
of cranberry, 274
of cream, 86, 87
of currants, 306
of ensilage, 34, 143, 276, 292
of ensilage liquor 277
of feed, fine, 138
of felt refuse, 286
of fertilizers, commercial, 232, 258, 275, 276
offish,. 287
of fodder corn, 292, 298
of gas-house lime, 285
of German potash salts 284
of glucose refuse, 287
of gluten meal, .... 32, 61, 123, 129, 132, 272, 296, 301
of grapes, 303, 304
of guano, bat, 285
of guano, Caribbean (Orchilla), 285
of guano, Cuba, 285
of guano, Mona Island, 266
of gypsum, 265
of hay (English) 32,61,293,298
of hellebore 278
of hemp waste, 274
of hen manure, 289
of herds-grass 293, 299
of hominy feed, 301
of hominy meal, 296
of horn and hoof waste, 286
of horse bean (beans), 295
of horse bean (whole plant), 295
of hop refuse, 287
of Hungarian grass 292
of jute waste, 274
INDEX. 325
PAGE
Analyses of kainite, 284
of kibi, white / . . 292,298
ofkrugite, 284
oflime, 265
of lime-kiln ashes, 285
of lime waste, .» " 285
of linseed cake, 136, 138, 296, 301
of linseed refuse 273
of lobster shells, 287
. of lotus villosus, . 178,179
of lucerne (alfalfa), 165,166,296,301
of lupine 292,298
of mangolds, 295, 300
of marls, 285
of meadow, fescue, 293, 299
of meat mass, 287
of melilot, white (Bokhara clover), 180, 294, 299
of melilot, blue, 180, 294, 299
of milk 29,30,59,312
of millets, 292, 293, 298
of mix, 292, 298
of muck, 288
of mud, 288
of muriate of potash, . 266, 284
of Navassa phosphate, 285
of nitrate of potash 284
of nitrate of soda 270, 284
of nitre salt-cake, 284
of Nova Scotia plaster, . . . . ' 285
of oak leaves 273
of oats, 292, 293, 298
of oleomargarine refuse, . 286
of onions, 306
of Onondaga plaster, 285
of orchard grass, 293, 299
of Orchilla guano, 285
of palmetto root 145
of pea meal 296, 301
of peaches, 302
of pears, 302
ofpeat, 288
of phosphatic slag, . , 285
of potatoes 185, 293, 300
Ofpoudrette, 289
of raw wool, 286
of red top, 293, 299
of refuse from rendering establishments, 287
of rowen, 35, 293, 298
of ruta-bagas, 187, 295, 300
of rye, grain, 293
of rye-grass, perennial, 293, 299
of rye-grass, Italian, 162, 293, 299
of rye bran, 296
of rye middlings, 296
of salt hay, 275
of saltpetre waste, 270, 284
of sea-weeds, 288
326 INDEX.
PAGE
Analyses of sea-weed ashes 285
of serradella, 63, 292, 294, 298, 299
of skim-milk, 122
of soap-grease refuse, 287
of soja bean (beans), 140,141,295,300
of soja bean (whole plant), . . . ». . 144,166,294,299
of soot 288
of sorghum 182
of South Carolina rock phosphate, 266, 285
of Spanish moss (Tillandsia), 145
of sponge refuse 286
of strawberries 306
of sugar l)eets 35, 183, 184, 187, 188, 295, 300
of sugar-beet pulp, 297
ofsulla 179, 180, 299
of sulphate of ammonia, 270, 284
of sulphate of magnesia, 284
of sulphate of potash 264, 284
of sulphate of potash and magnesia, 284
of sumac waste, 288
of tankage, 287
ofteosinte 178, 299
of timothy hay, 292, 293, 299
of tobacco dust, 271
of tobacco stems, 287
of turf, 288
of turnips, 295, 300
of vetch, hairy 180, 292, 294, 298, 299
of vetch and oats, 62, 63, 292, 294, 298, 299
of water 279-281
of whale flesh, 287
of wheat bran 31, 60, 123, 129-132, 296, 301
of wheat grain, 295
of wheat flour, 301
of wheat middlings, 296, 301
of wheat shorts, 296
of wheat straw, 295
of white daisy 295, 300
of wool waste and washings, 271, 286
Apples, compilation of analyses of, 295,300
Apple pomace, 297, 301
Apple-pomace ensilage, 297
Ashes 259-264, 284
Ash analyses of fruits and garden crops, . . 302-306
Asparagus, analysis of, 306
Bacteria, 201
Barley, analyses of 122, 139, 296, 301
Barley as an ingredient of diet for swine, 113,114
Barnyard grass, analysis of, 293
Barnyard manure, compilation of analyses of, 289
Bat guano, compilation of analyses of 285
Beets, fodder, compilation of anah'scs of, 295, 300
Beets, sugar, compilation of analyses of, 295, 300
Beets, sugar, field experiments with, 170, 171
Black spot on rose leaves 228
Blood, dried, compilation of analyses of, 286
Bones, compilation of analyses of, 287
INDEX. 327
PAGE
Bone-black, compilation of analyses of, . . 286
Bone ash, analysis of, 286
Bordeaux mixture, 212
Brewer's grains, rotten, analyses of, 287
Brewer's grains, spent, analyses of, 297, 301
Brockville phosphate, analyses of, 285
Broom-corn meal, analyses of, 296
Broom-corn seed, analyses of, 295
Broom-corn waste, analyses of, 297, 301
Buttermilk, analyses of 285
Caribbean guano, compilation of analyses of, 285
Carnallite, analyses of, 284
Carrots, compilation of analyses of 295, 300
Carrots, field tests of, 170, 171
Carrots in diet for milch cows, 16
Castor-bean pomace, compilation of analyses of, 287
Cheese, analyses of, 312
Chlorophyll, function of, 197
Chlorophyll, not present in all plants, 198
Cocoa dust, analyses of, 297, 301
Compilation of analyses of agricultui'al chemicals and refuse fertilizing
materials 283-289
Compilation of analyses of fodder articles, 293-301
Conclusions from experiments with cows, 15, 16, 43, 71, 72
Conclusions from experiments with pigs, 109
Conclusions from creamery record, 82
Corn, field experiments with, 148-156
Corn and cobs, compilation of analyses of, 295-300
Corn cobs, compilation of analyses of , 297,301
Corn kernels, compilation of analyses of, 295, 300
Corn ensilage, compilation of analyses of, 292, 298
Corn fodder, compilation of analyses of, 293, 298
Corn meal, compilation of analyses of, 296, 301
Corn stover, compilation of analyses of, 293, 299
Corn stover in diet for milch cows, 15, 16
Cotton waste, 287
Cotton hulls, compilation of analyses of, 297, 301
Cotton-seed meal, compilation of analyses of, 296, 301
Cow-pea, compilation of analyses of, 292, 294, 298, 299
feeding trials with, 48-63
field tests of, 190, 191
Cranberries, analyses of, 302
Cream, analyses of, 82, 86, 87, 312
Creameries, observations made during visits to two local 84-102
Chemical composition of butter produced, 85, 86
Chemical composition of creamerj' cream, 86, 87
Chemical composition of station cream 87
Details of farms contributing to the tv/o, 89-102
Creamery record for the year, 72-84
Average quantity of milk produced, . . . . , . . . 77, 78
Conclusions 82
Cost of skim-milk, 80, 81
Fertilizing constituents of cream, 82
Fodder articles used, o 74, 75
Value of cream produced, . .• 79
Cuba guano, compilation of analyses of, 285
Cucumbers, nematode disease of, 229
328 INDEX.
PAGE
Cultivation, effect of, upon sugar beets, 309
Currants, analyses of, 306
Diseases, plant, report on, 195-230
fungus, on station farm, 223-227
fungus, how combated, 211
Eau celeste, or blue water, 212
English hay, compilation of analyses of, 293, 298
Experiments with milch cows, ...;.... 12-30, 48-63
with pigs, 103-123
field 148-191
with corn 148-155
with permanent fodder crops, 156-167
with field and garden crops 168-188
with green crops, 189-194
with scabby potatoes, 214-223
Feeding experiments, 12-72
Feeding experiments with milch cows, I., 12-30
Average cost of feed for production of one quart of milk, ... 21
Average daily yield of milk during periods 21
Analyses of fodder articles used, 31-36
Analyses of milk, 29, 30
Changes of diet, 14
Conclusions from, 15, 16
Dry matter contained in daily rations, 17, 20
Manurial value of feed, 27, 28
Net cost of milk, 27, 28
Nutritive ratio of rations fed, 14, 17-20
Pounds of dry matter required to produce one quart of milk, . . . 17-20
Quarts of milk produced per day, 17-20
Quarts of milk required for one space of cream, 16
Rations used 40-43
Valuation of fodder articles used, 15
Valuation of fertilizing constituents in feed used, ... . 26-28
Feeding experiments with milch cows, II., green fodders vs. English hay, . 48-63
Analyses of fodder articles used, . « 60-63
Analyses of milk 59
Average cost of feed for production of one quart of milk, .... 54-56
Average daily yield of milk, by periods, 54-56
Daily diet 49, 50
Manurial value of feed 57, 58
Nutritive ratios of rations used 49, 51-53
Net cost of feed per quart of milk, 57, 58
Results obtained, 50
Valuation of fodder articles used, 49
Valuation of fertilizing constituents of fodders used, .... 57
Feeding experiments with pigs, 103-123
Amount of dry matter required to produce one pound of pork, 113, 115, 121
Analyses of fodder articles fed 122, 123
Average daily rations 113
Cost of feed per pound of dressed pork, 115, 121
Dressed weight gained during trial, 115, 121
Loss in weight by dressing, 115, 121
Manurial value of feed consumed, 121
Nutritive ratios of feed, 113, 114
Object of experiment, ....'. 103
Record of experiments, 114-121
Summary of previous experiments, 103-112
INDEX.
329
Feeding experiments with pigs — Concluded
Valuation of fodder articles used,
Weights of auitnals at time of killing,
Weights of different organs,
Felt refuse, anal3'sis of, . . • •
Fertilization, effect of, upon grapes, .
effect of, upon growth of corn,
effect of, upon sugar beets, .
Fertilizer inspection, official.
Fertilizer law
Fertilizers, advice to buyers of, .
basis of valuation of,
circumstances affecting value of,
commercial, analyses of, .
instructions to dealers in,
list of dealers securing certificates for sale
Fertilizing constituents of alfalfa (lucerne)
of alsike clover, .
of apples,
of barley,
of brewer's grain (spent) ,
of broom-corn waste,
of carrots, .
of carrot tops,
of clover, mammoth red,
of clover, medium red,
of clover, Bokhara or sweet
of cream,
of cocoa dust,
of corn kernels,
of corn and cobs
of corn cobs,
of corn ensilage,
of corn meal,
of cotton hulls,
of cotton-seed meal
of cow-pea, .
of fodder corn,
of gluten meal,
of hay, English,
of herds -grass,
of hominy feed,
of horse bean (whole plant)
of kibi, .
of linseed cake,
of lupine (white),
of lotus villosus,
of mangolds,
of meadow fescue
of melilot,
of millets,
of orchard grass,
of palmetto root,
of red top, .
of rowen hay,
of ruta-bagas,
of rye grass.
245,
of,
330 INDEX.
PACK
Fertilizing constituents of rye middlings 301
of salt hay 299
of serradella • . . 298, 299
of soja beans 140,141,300
of soj a beans (entire plant), . . . 144,166,299
of sugar beet 183, 184, 187, 188, 300
of sulla 180, 299
of teosinte 180, 299
of timothy hay, 299
of turnips, 300
of vetch and oats, 298, 299
of Avheat bran, 301
of wheat middlings, 300
of white daisy, 300
of fodders, value of, in compounding rations, 44, 71, 105, 124
loss of the farm in sale of milk and cream, . . 83
required for growth and development of animals, . 106
Field experiments, 148-230
Field experiments, I., with corn 148-156
Appearance of crop during growth 152
Fertilizers used, 1889 150, 151
Previous treatment of land 148-150
Tables showing growth of corn, 152
Tabular statement of results for 1885, 1886, 1887, 150
Tabular statement of results for 1888, 1889, 151
Yield of plots 153
Field experiments, II., permanent fodder crops, 156, 157
Analyses of crops raised 178-188
Crops grown, and yield per acre, 174-177
Cultivation, fertilization, etc., . . . " 156
Tabular statement of crops raised, 157
Field experiments, III., field and garden crops, 168-188
Analyses of crops raised 178-188
Crops grown and yield per acre, . 174-177
Cultivation, fertilization, etc., 169-171, 174
Field expei'iments, IV., green crops for milch cows, . . . , 189-193
Crops selected, and why, 189
Yield per acre, 190, 191
Field experiments, miscellaneous, 194
with potatoes, 175, 176
with root crops, 169, 170
with scabby potatoes, 214-223
Fish, composition of, 288
Fodder analyses, 124-147, 284-289'
Fodders, compilation of analyses of, 291-301
classification of, 192
desirability of increasing variety of 191
how to select, 191
Fodder corn, composition of, 292, 298
Fruits, tables of analyses of, 302-306
Fungi, general account of, 195-214
black, 210
the true 202
imperfect, 211
insect, 206
jelly, 208
leaf-gall 206
INDEX. 331
PAGE
Fungi, saucer 210
Fungicides, 212
Fungous diseases, how combated, 211
Fungus in cellar, 227
Gas-bouse lime, composition of, 285
German potash salts, composition of, 284
Girdling, effect of, upon grapes, 304
Gluten meal, composition of, ' • . 296, 301
Gluten meal, in feed for pigs, 105
Grapes, table of analyses of, 303, 306
Guanos, composition of, ... 285
Gypsum, analysis of, 265
Hay, composition of 293, 298
Hen manure, composition of 289
Herds-grass, composition of, 293, 299
Hetercecism, defined, 207
Horn and hoof waste, composition of, 286
Insecticides, chemical composition of some, 278
Kainite, composition of, 284
Leaf curls, 209
Lime-kiln ashes, composition of, 285
Lime waste, composition of, 285
Linseed cake, composition of, = 292, 301
Lucerne, composition of, 294, 299
Mangolds, composition of, 295, 300
Marls, composition of 285
Meadow fescue, composition of, 293, 299
Meat mass, composition of, 287
Meteorology, 314-319
Average temperature for summer and winter months since 1836, . 318, 319
Record for 1889, 316
Mildew, downy, 206
Mildew, powdery, 210
Milk analyses 29.30,59,312
Milk production, experiments in cost of, 63-72
Animals selected and fodders used, 64, 65
Amount of feed consumed, 66
Conclusions from same, 71, 72
Financial summaiy, 69-71
Market value of fodders used, 68
Millets, composition of, 292, 295, 298
Moulds, the trne 206
slime, 201
water 206
Muck, composition of 288
Mud, composition of, •> 288
Muriate of potash, composition of 284
Mycelium, definition of, 202
Navassa phosphate, composition of, 285
Nitrate of potash, composition of, 284
Nitre salt cake 284
Nitrogen, albuminoid, in roots, 185
Nitrogen, effect of, upon corn 148-155
Oats, composition of, 292, 293, 298
Onions, analysis of, 306
Orchard grass, composition of, 293, 299
Parasites, '"^
332 INDEX.
PAGE
Pea meal, composition of, 296, 301
Peaches, composition of, . ' 306
Pears, composition of, ' . . 306
Peat, composition of, 288
Phospliatic slag, composition of, 285
Plant food, nature of, 196, 197
Plaster, land, composition of 285
Pleomorphism, definid, 205
Potatoes, composition of, 293, 300
Potatoes, field experiments with 175, 176
Potato scab, expermients with, 214, 223
Poudrette, composition of, 289
Puff-balls, 209
Raw wool, composition of, 286
Red-top, composition of, 293, 299
Report of Professor Humphrey, 195-230
Rowen haj', composition of, . 293, 298
Rot of potatoes, 226
Rusts 207
Ruta-bagas, composition of 295, 300
Rye bran, composition of, 296
Rye middlings, composition of, 296, 301
Saltpetre waste, composition of, 284
Sea-weeds, composition of, 288
Sea-weed ashes, composition of, 285
Serradella, composition of, 292, 294, 298, 299
feeding trials with 48-58
field trials with, 190
Skinti-milk, composition of, 312
Smuts, 206
Smut of oats and barley, 223
South Carolina rock phosphate, 285
Spores, resting, 203
Spores, summer, 203
Spot disease, 225
Strawberries, analyses of, 306
Sugar in different varieties of sugar beets, 183, 307, 309
in sorghum, 182
in fruits and sugar-producing plants, 302-311
Sugar beets, composition of, 295, 300
Sulphate of ammonia, composition of, 284
of magnesia, composition of, 284
of potash, composition of, 284
of potash and magnesia, composition of, 284
Tankage, composition of, 287
Timothy hay, composition of 292, 293, 299
Toadstools 208
Tobacco stems, composition of 287
Treasurer's report, 320
Truffles, 211
Turf, composition of, 288
Turnips, composition of, 295, 300
Valuation of fertilizers, 234, 235
Value of fodders, commercial, 44
Value of fodders, physiological, 45-47
Vetch and oats, composition of 292, 294, 298, 299
Vetch and oats, feeding trials with, 48-59
INDEX 333
PAGE
Vetch and oats, field trials with, 190
Water analyses, 279-281
Water analyses, interpretation of results of 281, 282
Wheat bran, composition of, 296, 301
Wheat grain, composition of, 295
Wheat flour, composition of, 301
Wheat straw, composition of, 295
AVork of the year, outline of 9-11
Yeasts, 209
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