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Public Document No. 4
FIFTY-EIGHTH
ANNUAL KEPORT OF THE SECRETARY
OP THE
MASSACHUSETTS
State Board of Agriculture.
TOGETHER WITH THE
TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
1910
BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTEE FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTEES,
18 Post Office Square.
1911.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
State Board of Agriculture, 1911, ....
Report of the Secretary, .....
Summary of Crop Conditions, 1910,
Public Winter Meeting of the Board at Northampton,
Address of Welcome by His Honor Mayor Calvin Coolidge
Response for the Board by Secretary Ellsworth,
Lecture: New England Pastures. By Mr. J. S. Cotton,
Lecture: The Production of Market Milk. By Mr. A. J. Pier-
pont, ........
Lecture: The Food Value of Clean Milk; the demand for Clean
Milk; the Reasonableness of it. By Prof. R. M. Washburn,
Lecture: Farm Management. By Hon. N. P. Hull,
Lecture: Harvesting and Curing Cigar Wrapper Tobacco. By
Dr. W. W. Garner,
Summer Field Meeting of the Board at Amherst,
Lecture: Corn Growing in New England. By Prof. L. A
Clinton, . .
Essay: Corn Selection for Seed and for Show. By Prof. W'illiam
D. Hurd,
Essay: Growing and Marketing Asparagus. By Mr. Frank
Wheeler, .........
Essay: Alfalfa as a Crop in Massachusetts. By Prof. William P
Brooks, .........
Essay: Celery Growing, Storing, and Marketing. By Mr
Henry M. Howard,
Essay: Quince Culture. By Prof. F. C. Sears,
Essay: Grape Culture. By Mr. Edward R. Farrar,
Ninth Annual Report of the State Nursery Inspector,
Third Annual Report of the State Ornithologist,
First Annual Report of the State Inspector of Apiaries,
Twentieth Annual Report of the State Dairy Bureau,
Seventh Annual Report of the State Forester, .
Eighteenth Semiannual Report of the Chief of the Cattle Bureau
Returns of the Agricultural Societies, ....
Agricultural Directory, .......
Index, ..........
PAGE
V
vii
XXX
1
3
5
7
24
47
64
75
95
98
113
121
127
136
143
151
157
165
199
219
243
297
323
333
357
State Boakd of Agricultuke, 1911.
Members ex Officio.
His Excellency EUGENE N. FOSS.
His Honou LOUIS A. FROTHINGHAM.
Hon. WM. M. OLIN, Secretary of the Commonweallh.
KENYON L. BUTTERFIELD, LL.D., President Massachusetts Agricultural College.
FREDERICK F. WALKER, Chief of the Cattle Bureau.
F. WM. RANE, B. Aon., M.S., State Forester.
J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH, Secretary of the Board.
Members appointed by the Governor and Council.
Term expires
CHARLES E. WARD ' of Bucklarid 1911
HENRY M. HOWARD of West Newton 1912
CHARLES M. GARDNER of Weetfield 1913
Members chosen
Amesbury and Salishiiry (Agricul-
tural and Horticultural),
Barnstable County,
Blackslone Valley,
Deerfield Valley,
Eastern Hampden,
Essex,
Franklin County,
Hampshire,
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden,
Highland, .....
Hillside, ......
Hingham {Agricultural and' Horti-
cultural), . . . . .
Hoosac Valley, .....
Housatonic, . . . . .
Lenox Horticultural, ....
Marshfield {Agricultural and Hort'l),
Martha's Vineyard, ....
Massachusetts Horticultural,
Massachu.setts Society for Promoting
Agriculture, . . . . .
Middlesex North, . . . .
Middlesex South, ....
Nantucket, . . . . .
Oxford
Plymouth County, ....
Spencer {Farmers' and Mech's .\ss'n).
Union {Agricultural and Hort'l),
Weymouth {Agricultural and Ind'l), .
by the Incorporated Societies.
J. J. MASON of Amesbury, .
JOHN BURSLEY of West Barnstable,
JACOB A. WILLIAMS of Northbridge
ERNEST W. PAYNE of Heath, .
O. E. BRADWAY of Monson,
FREDERICK A. RUSSELL of Methuen,
CHARLES P. ALDRICH of Greenfield,
HOWARD A. PARSONS of Amhenst (P. O
North Amherst),
FRANK P. NEWKIRK of Eastliampton,
JOHN T. BRYAN of Middlefield (P. O
Chester, R. F. D.), ....
HARRY A. FORD of Windsor,
HENRY A. TURNER of Norwcll,
L. J. NORTHUP of Cheshire,
N. B. TURNER of Great Barrington (P. O
Housatonic), ......
ALFRED H. WINGETT of Lenox,
WALTER H. FAUNCE of Kingston, .
J.VMES F. ADAMS of West Tisbury,
WILFRID WHEELER of Concord.
N. I. BOWDITCH of Framingliam,
GEO. W. TRULL of Tewksbury (P. O. Lowell
R. F. D.)
Worcester, ......
Worcester East, .....
Worcester Northwest {.Agricultural and
Mechanical), .....
Worcester South, ....
yVorcester County West,
JOHN J. ERWIN of Wayland,
JOHN S. APPLETON of Nantucket, .
WALTER A. LOVETT of Oxford, .
AUGUSTUS PRATT of Middleborough (P. O
North Middleborough), ....
WALTER C. BEMIS of Spencer, .
SYLVESTER H. PEEBLES of Blandford,
THE RON L. TIRRELL of Weymouth (P. O
South Weymouth)
B. W. POTTER of Worcester, .
GEO. F. MORSE of Lancaster,
ALBERT ELLSWORTH of Athol,
WILLIAM E. PATRICK of Warren,
JOHN L. SMITH of Barre, .
1912
1913
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1914
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1914
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1913
1913
1914
1 Successor not yet appointed.
®l)c ^Dtnmonrucaltl) of iilassacliuscto.
THE FIFTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL EEPORT
SECRETARY
State Board op Ageicultuee.
To the Senate and Rouse of Representatives of the Commonwealth
of Massachusetts.
During the past year there has been a remarkable devel-
opment in relation to agricultnre in the New England States,
atfecting that of Massachusetts probably more immediately
and to a greater degree than that of the other States because
of her superior markets and railroad facilities. I refer to
the boom in agriculture and agricultural property in ISTew
England which has been fostered by the popular magazines
and periodicals, and which has also engaged the attention of
business men and capitalists. With the taking up of the
free lands in the west, and the consequent cutting oif of the
supply of cheap lands in that part of the country, the atten-
tion of the public has been turned toward the east, and the
lesson has been impressed upon it that here in ISTew England,
with, the finest and most accessible markets in the country,
there are greater opportunities for investment in agricultural
property and for profitable de^'elopment of farming opera-
tions than in the more newly settled regions. This has led
to a great many inquiries as to farm property, to a close study
of scientific farm methods, with a view to possible profitable
operations, all of which has caused a general hardening in
values of farm property. What the ultimate result will be
viii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
cannot as yet be foretold, but it is my belief tbat we may
reasonably look to a permanent increase in values, to an
increased efficiency in our agriculture, and, because of tbese
factors, to a more bopeful feeling and greater expectation
of profit on the part of our farming population. That such
an outlook is valuable cannot be gainsaid; in the world we
are very apt to achieve, in a general way, what we expect
to achieve, and one of the greatest handicaps under which
agriculture in jSTew England has suffered in the past twenty
years has been the general pessimistic attitude of the ma-
jority of those engaged in it. This the present more hope-
ful feeling should, and undoubtedly will, do much to expel.
Another indication of this general upward movement in
agricultural conditions in ITew England is the holding of
expositions and fostering interest in certain crops and
classes of crops, such as the E'ew England Fruit Show of
1909 and the New England Corn Exposition of the past year.
The former showed the public and the fruit growers of New
England that we could produce as fine looking fruit as that
of the west, the quality having long been admitted to be
superior, and the latter that it was possible to establish
world's records for yield of corn per acre in Massachusetts,
in spite of the supposed superiority of western lands and
methods for this crop. These expositions should be repeated
in future years and others held covering other crops and
products, so that we may know our own possibilities in as
many lines as possible, and also demonstrate them to others.
From the standpoint of the business farmer the year has
generally been very satisfactory. The effect of the third
successive year of drought was more apparent upon wells,
springs, streams and ponds than upon growing crops, as
timely showers brought most crops through the season with
surprisingly little damage. The rains of the early season,
while not giving many inches of precipitation, nevertheless
resulted in an excellent hay crop. The corn crop was re-
markably good, both for grain and stover, and was secured
without damage from frost, while other grain crops were at
least average. For these reasons, together with generally
satisfactory prices, the dairymen had a prosperous year, and
No. 4.] RErORT OF SECRETARY. ix
came to the winter with well-filled barns and full stocks of
cattle. Pastures suffered from drought, and many farmers
fed both grain and hay at the barn during the summer
months, thus reducing the profits of the business somewhat,
as well as the stocks of hay for winter use. Grain and hay
continue high iu price, though grain has receded a trifle from
its highest level, and dairymen should endeavor to raise as
much as possible for their own use. The increasing diffi-
culty in securing good cows leads to the suggestion that profit
in dairying will soon come to depend on judicious breeding
of dairy stock. Many dairymen could doubtless profitably
cut down their total j)roduction and give more attention to
the raising of their own stock and the production of their
own feeds. A good profit on a small volume of product is
to be preferred to a small or vanishing profit on a large
volume.
The ajDple crop, though not heavy in yield, was one of the
best of recent years in quality. More farmers sprayed their
fruit trees than ever before and the result was an increased
]iercentage of JSTo. 1 fruit. Unsprayed fruit was also better
than usual, but not to be compared with that secured where
intelligent spraying was followed. The demand for New
England fruit of good quality was greater than ever before,
and it seems likely that the public is convinced of its superi-
ority to a greater extent than we have commonly supposed.
It remains for the farmers and fruit growers to hold and in-
crease this demand by producing the grade of goods that is
called for. The officials of the Boston & Maine Railroad
report that many carloads of New England apples were sent
to the middle west, where they competed successfully with
those from the far west and commanded much higher prices
than the native apples. This shows what may be done in
the way of invading the markets of other sections, but for
the present we would better bend our energies to recapturing
and holding our home market, our most valuable possession
and one too long neglected.
Market gardeners generally had a good year, though some
crops, such as celery, were very short in many sections.
Prices have been good as a rule and the demand well sus-
X BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
tained. Onions were a light crop, but brought good prices.
Tobacco was a very good crop, with prices, as far as known,
about normal. Cranberries were a light to medium crop,
with the berries small. Poultry and eggs brought good prices
throughout the year, and the stock of poultry kept on farms
and by small poultry keepers was generally increased.
Legislation of 1910.
The recommendations of this Board for legislation fared
well at the last session, taken as a whole. As a result of the
work of the year a law was enacted relieving the milk pro-
ducer from prosecution when he innocently has below-stand-
ard milk in his possession, and giving him twenty days in
which to bring his milk to the legal standard, thus protect-
ing the consumer as well. With the standard law in force,
so far as milk in the hands of dealers is concerned, the pub-
lic is protected against possible fraud on their part and the
farmer against the unfair competition resulting from such
fraud. The law as at present relieves the innocent milk
producer of the element of criminality that formed so strong
an objection to the milk standard law as previously inter-
preted and enforced. It has accomplished all that was
hoped for it, and seems to offer a reasonable solution of the
problem which has proved so vexatious in recent years. Since
its enactment no milk producer has been convicted of selling
below-standard milk, and the interests of the public have not
suffered, as the farmers have sho^vll themselves ready to bring
their milk to the standard in every case where they have been
notiffed that it is below standard.
Other legislation relative to agricultural interests, recom-
mended by this Board and enacted into law, includes the fol-
lowing: an act relative to wild deer, an act relative to State
inspection of apiaries, an act providing for a special report
on game birds, and an act making an appropriation for the
encouragement of orcharding. These will be taken up under
their proper headings and need no further comment at this
time.
No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xi
Milk Legislation.
Although the milk standard law would seem to be satis-
factorily solved, for the present, at least, and fm'ther agita-
tion in relation to it is to be ill timed, there remains one
phase of the business on which legislation would seem to be
in order at this session of the Legislature. As is well known,
there is a determined effort in the making, backed by power-
ful interests, to have State-wide inspection of milk produc-
tion, under the control and at the expense of the Common-
wealth. Such inspection has some advantages from the
standpoint of both the consumer and the producer, but in
any form hitherto proposed is open to certain objections
which more than nullify its good features. On the one hand,
it must stop at the State line, and thus discriminates against
the Massachusetts producer, placing burdens upon him to
which his competitors in other States are not subjected, and
at the same time inadequately protects the consumer, as it
leaves by far the greater part of the milk supply of Boston,
at least, uninspected as to conditions of production. On the
other hand, it imposes an undue burden on the producer by
obliging him to help defray the bills incurred in inspecting
him. It is manifestly unfair to tax the town of Petersham,
for instance, to help pay for inspection of milk for the pro-
tection of the people of Boston. Such a proposition catches
the farmer coming and going, making it more expensive for
him to produce milk and compelling him to pay for the
work of making it more expensive. I do not wish to be
understood as opposing proper inspection of milk produc-
tion ; I simply seek some method of inspection that shall be
fair to all. To my mind the best solution for the producer
and consumer alike lies along the line of legislation to allow
the boards of health of cities and towns to inspect the dairies
that produce the milk consumed in the said cities and towns,
and to forbid its sale without such inspection. It may be
objected that this is impossible of accomplishment in the
metropolitan district, but it has been practically accomplished
in some instances, certain dairies being already set aside to
furnish the supply for certain towns. This step accom-
xii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
plished their inspection becomes a simple matter. Such a
plan will afford the degree of protection desired by the sev-
eral cities and towns, and also relieve the farming communi-
ties of any additional burden of taxation for the purpose,
I would recommend, therefore, that the Board submit to the
Leo^islature a bill authorizing boards of health of cities and
towns to issue permits for all milk or cream received, held,
kept, offered for sale or sold in said cities and towns, subject
to such conditions as they may make, and to forbid the sale
of any milk or cream produced, transported or kept under
conditions not approved by the said boards of health.
Work of the Office.
During the year the work of the office has increased re-
markably. We had many plans for work, such as rearrang-
ing and classifying the library, which we have been obliged
to put over to some later time. This increase is due to a
variety of causes, chief among them the wakening to the
possibilities of New England agriculture, previously noticed,
and the consequent demand for information, by publications
or otherwise. In addition, our list of publications available
for distribution has been increased, and we have taken con-
siderable pains to acquaint the public with its contents. The
policy of the office for the past year and more has been to
answer every request, except those for a specified bulletin
or publication, with a personal letter, and to go to all possible
pains to obtain information for correspondents. That this
policy is appreciated by the public we are well assured.
Within a few days we have had on one mail no less than six
letters thanking us for publications sent or information given.
Careful work of this kind makes more work, as it encourages
additional queries, but the citizens of Massachusetts are en-
titled to it at our hands, and we are glad to extend the same
courtesy to those of other States.
The office library is in bad condition, containing many
sets and parts of sets of bulletins and other publications
which should be completed and bound, or othenvise disposed
of. Many of the books and pamphlets are of no use to us,
either because in foreign languages or for other reasons, and
No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xiii
it is our purpose to send these to the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural College, or to some other institution where they may-
be of service. The library should be rearranged and card,
catalogued, so that additions may be easily entered up. Also,
the correspondence and other office work seems likely to grow
beyoud possible management by the present clerical force.
An interesting comparison is offered by the amounts ex-
pended for postage and for printing during the years 1905
and 1910. The former gauges the amount of correspondence
and the amount of bulletins, leaflets, etc., sent out by mail.
In 1005 the Board expended for this purpose the sum of
$329, and in 1910 that of $G17.43. The amount expended
for printed matter gauges the demand for our publications
and our effort to meet it. In 1905 the Board expended for
this purpose the sum of $1,023.42, and in 1910 that of
$1,005.94. In addition, we were obliged to carry over bills
for this purpose amounting to between $400 and $500, which
could not be paid out of the appropriations for 1910. We
have been obliged, during the past year, to employ consid-
erable help from time to time for addressing, mailing, sten-
ographic work, typewriting and multigraph work. This
has been paid for from the appropriations for other clerical
assistance and lectures before the Board, for the expenses of
the State Ornithologist and that of the Dairy Bureau.
These matters could all be handled in this office if we had a
stenographer permanently in employment, and the office work
so lightened that the matters above referred to could be taken
up and disposed of.
For these reasons I would recommend that the Board pre-
sent to the Legislature a bill calling for an increase of the
appropriation for extra clerical assistance and lectures be-
fore the Board from $800 to $1000 per annum, so that a
stenographer can be regularly employed.
Wild Deer.
The nuisance caused by the presence of wild deer in the
State, and the great menace they form to young orchards,
market gardens, nurseries and farm crops, has been pointed
out too often to need repetition at this time. The agitation
xiv BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
for their regulation, begun by your secretary several years
ago, resulted last year in a very satisfactory law, allowing
the farmer to kill them in his orchards or crops, with any
weapon at hand, and also allowing a short open season in
the five western counties, when they could be hunted with
shot guns. Something like 2,000 deer were killed during
the year by farmers and hunters, without a single fatality
to human being's. The Commissioners on Fisheries and
Game last year estimated, at my request, the number of deer
in the State at about 8,000, and their annual rate of increase
at about 40 per cent, so it will be seen that those killed were
less than the natural increase. Thus the relief secured is
not as great as it would appear on first consideration. There
will undoubtedly be a protest against another open season.
Sentimentalists will urge that the deer form a pleasing fea-
ture of the landscape and should be protected at all times, but
it is better for the community at large that they be kept
within reasonable numbers, rather than that they be allowed
to increase without check, and ravage our orchards and fields
to the great detriment of agriculture. A business with an an-
nual output of upwards of seventy millions of dollars deserves
consideration before a mere sentiment. It will also be urged
that it is cruel to allow them to be wounded with shot guns,
in many instances to die in the woods, and this is to be re-
gretted, but it is better that a few deer die in this manner
rather than that one human being should be killed by the
rifle in the hands of a deer hunter.
Changes in the Board.
The changes in the membership of the Board during the
year came about entirely through the expirations of the terms
of various members. Members retiring because of expira-
tion of terms of service are: Dr. Austin Peters, formerly
Chief of the Cattle Bureau, after eight years of service ; Wm.
B. Avery of the Deerfield Valley Agricultural Society, after
three years of service ; Henry S. Pease of the Highland Agri-
cultural Society, after six years of service ; W. A. Harlow
of the Hillside Agricultural Society, after three years of
service, and Isaac Damon of the Middlesex South Agricul-
tural Society, after eighteen years of service.
No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xv
Meetings of the Boaed.
The Board held its annual summer field meeting at the
Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, on June 23,
1910. The means and methods of spraying, grass culture
and alfalfa growing, swine growing and management, and
the making of certified milk, were demonstrated. Prof. L.
A. Clinton of Connecticut gave an interesting lecture on corn
growing. The attendance was large.
The second demonstration meeting was held at Ponkapoag
Pond, in Canton, on August 18, 1910, with demonstrations
of handling and hiving bees and combating foul brood in
bees, also of budding, grafting and pruning fruit trees. The
meeting was held for the people of the immediate section and
was well attended.
The public winter meeting of the Board was held at North-
ampton, with the Hampshire, Franklin and Ilampdcn Agri-
cultural Society. The programme was a strong one, the
attendance large, and the interest in the lectures unusually
keen. The Northampton Board of Trade gave a reception
to the Board at the Draper Hotel on the evening of Wednes-
day, December 7. The lectures delivered, and selections
from the discussions, will be printed in the annual volume.
The annual business meeting of the Board was held at
Boston, on Jan. 10 and 11, 1910, and special business meet-
ings were held at Amherst and Northampton, in connection
with the summer and winter meetings.
Agricultural Societies.
The agricultural societies generally held fine exhibitions
and enjoyed a prosperous year. The attendance was good
and only a few suffered from bad weather, most of these
being able to make receipts equal expenses. The competi-
tion and interest in the agricultural exhibits at these fairs
are certainly increasing. Attend any fair with which you
were familiar in the past and you will find many more people
looking over the stock and the hall exhibits, and a smaller
proportion of the crowd gathered around the stage and other
attractions. This increases the educational value of the fairs
xvi BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
to a considerable degi^ee, and makes tbem well wortbj of
support from the Commonwealth. The inspectors report
that the societies are generally prosperous, with good grounds
and buildings, and their criticisms are of details of manage-
ment rather than of the general tendencies of the fairs. ISTo
objectionable features were noticed by the inspectors.
The societies generally responded to the request of the
Board for assistance for the ISTew England Corn Exposition,
the greater part contributing sums ranging from $15 to $250.
The Worcester Agricultural Society also gave the use of its
grounds and buildings without charge. Altogether cash con-
tributions to the amount of upwards of a thousand dollars
were made by the societies. Without these contributions it
would have been impossible for the exposition to have come
out with all bills paid, and the societies are entitled to a great
deal of credit for its success. I would recommend that the
Board make the same request for assistance for the benefit
of the New England Fruit Show, if it shall hold an exhibition
during the current year.
Farmers' Institutes.
The institute work has been carried on along the usual
lines and with the usual success. One hundred and forty
meetings have been held during the year, with 198 sessions.
All the societies held 3 or more meetings, except the Hoosac
Valley and Oxford societies, which asked and received per-
mission to hold but 2. Nine societies held 4 or more insti-
tutes, and 24 meetings were given to organizations other than
incorporated agricultural societies. The attendance for the
year shows a falling off, the average being but 110, as against
137 last year. 111 in 1908, 118 in 1907, 127 in 1906, 125
in 1905, and figures ranging from 94 in 1899 to 109 in 1904,
for previous years. The falling off is accounted for in the
main by bad weather at a time when a large number of insti-
tutes were held, rain and warm weather following the heavy
snows of early winter and making the roads impassable for
any distance. These accidents cannot be guarded against,
but probably such a general condition will not occur again
for several years to come.
No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xvii
A circuit has been arranged for Prof. R. M. Washburn
of Vermont, for the week of February 27 to March 4. Dr.
Geo. M. Twitchell will again make Boston his place of resi-
dence during February and the first two weeks of March,
and will be available at any time during that period.
The list of speakers was carefully revised by the committee
on institutes and public meetings and is now stronger than
ever. We shall be glad to advise with institute managers
in regard to speakers and subjects suited for their special
needs. We consider the advertising of these meetings of
special importance, and shall be glad to assist in any way.
Your secretary attended the annual meeting of the Amer-
ican Association of F^armers' Institute Workers, at Wash-
ington, D. C, early in K'ovember, and derived much profit
from the meeting.
A new feature of the work was an institute for women,
held at Lowell in December of this year, with women speak-
ers. The meeting was a very interesting one, but I feel
bound to say that I was disappointed in one respect, in that
there were more men than women in the audience. It is m.y
intention to continue this line of work to a certain extent,
until it is demonstrated whether there is a demand for it in
Massachusetts.
Owing to the demands on our appropriation for " the dis-
semination of useful information in agriculture," in the way
of bulletins, we were obliged to carry over bills to be paid
from the appropriation for 1911. This will necessitate a
cutting dowm of the work, either in publication or in insti-
tutes, or both, daring the coming year, unless an increase is
granted by the Legislature. This being an appropriation
where the sum is not fixed by statute I have included an in-
crease of $1,000 in my estimates for the year. It will not
be necessary to present a bill to the Legislature, but I would
recommend that the Board instruct its committee on legisla-
tion to appear before the Legislature and urge the necessity
of this increase.
xviii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Apiaky Inspection.
The Legislature at the last session passed a special bill
for the appointment of an apiary inspector by this Board, to
serve until March 31, 1911, with an appropriation of $500.
The declared purpose of the Legislature was to allow a trial
of the work, to ascertain whether it was necessary and whether
what was claimed for it could be accomplished. At the
special business meeting, at Amherst, the Board elected Bur-
ton IsT. Gates, Ph.D., of Washington, D. C., and formerly of
Worcester, as State Inspector of Apiaries. With the small
sum at his command and the late date of beginning the work
he could accomplish only a small part of what needed to be
done. His investigations have established the presence of
foul brood in all sections of the State, and have determined
the fact that bees have been practically wiped out over large
areas. The im.portance of this matter can be better under-
stood when it is known that cucumber growers are absolutely
dependent upon bees for the setting of the blossoms, and
that in many cases the introduction of diseased colonies, un-
able to do the work, has led to heavy losses in the greenhouses.
Further, fruit growers are in a large measure dependent upon
bees for cross-fertilization of fruit blossoms, and experiments
have shown that many partial failures of the crop have been
due to their absence. The beekeepers appreciate the fact
that this work is necessary for the preservation of their in-
dustry, and strongly favor its being made permanent. The
details will be shown in the annual report of the Inspector
of Apiaries, to be presented at this meeting, also plans for
future work. I would recommend that this Board present
a bill to the Legislature making this work permanent, and
calling for an appropriation of $2,000 per annum. Careful
estimates show that this sum is necessary for the next few
years at least.
ISTuESERY Inspection.
The State Xursery Inspector met with many difficulties
in the carrying out of the work of the year, and was only
able to do so through the aid of the United States govern-
No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xix
ment and the nursery owners. The threatened quarantine
against our nursery stock by other States, from fear of the
introduction of the gypsy and brown-tail moths, has put an
entirely diiferent face upon the future of the work. A
greatly increased appropriation will be necessary if this in-
dustry, with an annual output of over a million dollars, is to
be saved to the Commonwealth. The Massachusetts' Nurs-
erymen's Association, composed of the owners of nurseries
within the Commonwealth, proposes to ask for legislation to
that end. Owing to their vital interest in the matter they
are the proper ones to make the proposition, but I would
recommend that you instruct your secretary and your com-
mittee on legislation to appear before the proper committees
of the Legislature and urge the necessity for this legislation.
Also, that 3'ou instruct your secretary to extend to Dr. L. O.
Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology of the United
States Department of Agriculture, an expression of our cor-
dial appreciation of the great assistance he rendered this in-
dustry and your ISTursery Inspector during the past year.
The details of the work will be set forth in the annual re-
port of the State ISTursery Inspector, to be presented at this
meeting. It is sufficient to say that the work was well done
by Dr. Fernald and his assistants. The privilege of the law,
by which private owners can call for an inspection of adja-
cent property for the San Jose scale, was availed of for the
first time this year, several applications being received, and
the nuisance abated under direction of the ISTursery Inspector
in each case. This feature of the work seems likely to have
a wider application in the future.
Dairy Bureau.
The work of the Dairy Bureau has been characterized by
thoroughness, judgment and moderation. The number of
cases brought in court, the percentage of convictions secured,
the disposition of technical violations of the law by warn-
ing without prosecution, and the educational work of the
Bureau, all reflect credit upon its management. The mem-
bers of the Bureau, with two others, appointed by the Gov-
ernor, have been engaged in an investigation of the milk sit-
XX BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
uation, with a view to preparing a plan for inspection of
production. I am not, at this time, informed as to their find-
ings, but can vouch for the thoroughness of their investiga-
tion. The details of the work proper of the Bureau are
given in the annual report of its general agent, which will be
presented at this meeting.
Cattle Bureau.
A new incumbent of the office of Chief of the Cattle Bureau
will present his first report at this meeting. While enter-
taining the highest regard for the ability and the work of
both the late and the present chiefs I would fail in my duty
to the Board if I did not again point out the inconsistency
of the law, which makes this Bureau a part of the Board and
at the same time withholds from the Board any authority
over it. The work of inspection of animals and prevention
of animal diseases should be under the control of this Board ;
that of the inspection of meat and of slaughterhouses more
properly falls under the State Board of Health. I would
recommend that the Board present to the Legislature a bill
providing for such a division of the work.
State Forester.
The State Forester will report to you verbally, giving a
short statement of the more important features of his work.
His formal report, too long to be read at this meeting, will
be printed in the annual volume. That he has done a large
amount of valuable w^ork for the State I am thoroughly con-
vinced, and I am equally certain that he deserves commen-
dation and assistance. I would therefore recommend that
this Board endorse the work of the State Forester, and in-
struct its secretary and its committee on legislation to ren-
der all the support to his recommendations for legislation
that they shall deem proper and necessary.
State Ornithologist.
The State Ornithologist has been engaged during the year
in the preparation of the report on game birds authorized
by the last Legislature, along similar lines to the recent re-
No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxi
port on " Useful Birds and their Protection." Although
this has taken the greater part of his time he has attended
to his other duties as State Ornithologist, including a gi-eat
deal of correspondence. The report on game birds will be
issued some time during the year, and will be sold at not less
than cost, the free list for the report being very small. Much
of the stenographic work of the State Ornithologist can be
taken over by the office stenographer if the proposed appro-
priation for that purpose is granted. Few people appreci-
ate the wide field which his work covers, and the great de-
mand for information along these lines. The sale of " Use-
ful Birds and their Protection " has apparently reached a
stable basis, about thirty copies a month being disposed of,
and there is a sufficient number of the third edition on hand
so that a reprint will not be needed in the immediate future.
The details of the work of the State Ornithologist will be
given in his report, which will be presented at this meeting.
Massachusetts Agricultural College.
The Legislature of 1010 dealt generously with the college
and the work of the institution has been greatly increased
and broadened. The numbers in attendance are growing,
and it would seem as though the college was about to enter
upon the most prosperous period of its history. N'o par-
ticular feature of the work presents itself for special com-
ment, and the work of the institution as a whole is too varied
and complex to be treated in this report. Continued gen-
erous support for this institution is asked at the hands of
the Legislature.
The ISTew England Corn Exposition.
This exposition was a great success. Launched a year
ago, and held back one year to give right of way to the New
England Fruit Show, the exposition showed the effects of the
careful preparation in its exhibits and in the interest shown
in them. The feature of the exposition which attracted the
widest attention was the world's record for shelled corn per
acre, made by a Massachusetts farmer, with New England
flint corn. It showed that New England need ask no odds
xxii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
of the west, even in the latter's own specialty, and that it is
still possible to grow this crop to perfection on our fields.
The other exhibits in the halls of the Worcester Society
amply showed that quality as well as quantity was to be found
here. With a remarkable corn year and a splendid crop to
draw from an artistic success was assured, but the financial
success of the exposition was made possible by the generous
donations of the agricultural societies. I make no question
that this show will be repeated in fnture years, and there is
nothing that gives a greater impetus to our agriculture than
the holding of such expositions. By showing others what
we can do we show ourselves, and set a mark to be aimed
at in the future.
The IRew Englaa^d Fruit Show of 1911.
The splendid fruit show held at Boston in 1909 will be
repeated during the coming year, according to plans as now
outlined. With the attention that is now being paid to
apple growing, as well as other lines of fruit culture, and the
general interest in the subject, it would be strange, indeed,
if the record of a year ago were not surpassed. That this
Board will co-operate is certain, that the societies will deal
generously with the show I am convinced, and that the gen-
eral public will respond as never before to an exposition of
this sort I thoroughly believe.
The Farm Cataeogije.
The Legislature of 1909 authorized the Board to collect
all necessary information in regard to the oj^portunities for
developing the agricultural resources of the Commonwealth
by the reoccupancy of idle or partly improved farms and
farm lands, and cause the facts so obtained and a statement
of the advantages offered to be circulated where and in such
manner as the said Board considered for the best interests
of the Coinmonwealth, and appropriated $1,000 for the pur-
pose. Your secretary investigated the subject carefully,
and became convinced that the interests of the Common-
wealth were best to be served by a publication on optimistic
No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxiii
lines ; that it was better to put the best foot foremost rather
than to present a pessimistic picture of our agriculture, and
presented an outline of his plan to the executive committee
of the Board. The committee approved the plan and in-
structed the secretary to carry it out. The wording of the
act allowed a certain amount of room foi* judgment in ex-
ecuting the project. Many delays w'ere encountered in the
work, owing to changes in office force, increasing work on
other lines, delay of the boards of assessors and owners of
farms in replying to our circulars, but the report was finally
issued in November, 1910. You know how the plan was
worked out and the instantaneous success of the publication.
The edition was small, only 3,500 copies, owing to lack of
funds, and in eleven office days these were entirely distrib-
uted.
The demand has continued unabated, and we have prob-
al)ly a thousand calls for a possible second edition on file at
this time. These are by no means local, there being many
from western States. It seems probable that an edition of
10,000 copies would not more than supply the demand for
the present year. Such an edition, the printers estimate,
w^ould cost from $950 to $1,000, Money is also needed for
postage for mailing the edition and other expenses connected
with its distribution. If the work is to be continued other
owners should be given an opportunity to list their farms,
and a revised edition issued. There are many ways in
which money could be expended which would, in my judg-
ment, be of gi-eater value to agriculture, but I doubt if
there is any publication which we could offer that would be
so much in demand by the people of the State, and of other
States, as would this publication. As the general public
pays the bills, both for this publication and others of more
direct benefit to agriculture, its wishes should certainly be
regarded when plainly expressed. I would therefore recom-
mend that the Board ask the Legislature for an appropria-
tion of $3,000, to publish a second edition of this catalogue,
and to revise the material therein contained and publish a
third edition.
xxiv BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The Excoueagement of Oechakding.
A new line of work for the year was that under the appro-
priation for the encouragement of orcharding, made by the
Legislature of 1910. A special committee, consisting of
Messrs. Bursley and Wheeler and Professor Sears, pomolo-
gist to the Board, prepared a plan for the carrying out of the
provisions of the act, which was accepted by the executive
committee, acting for the Board. Under this plan prizes
were offered for the greatest yield from any single apple tree ;
for the greatest yield from any acre of apple trees, trees to
be in one solid block ; for the best results from spraying, and
for the best young orchard, of not less than two acres, trees
not necessarily in one solid block, set in 1908 or 1909. The
first three classes were awarded on sworn statements by the
contestants, and the last class as the result of an inspection by
Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler, acting as judge. The prizes were
awarded as follows : Class 1, — first prize, $25, to Frederick
A. Russell of Methuen, for a yield of 56 bushels from a
Gravenstein tree ; second prize, $15, to C. W. Mann of
Methuen, for 44 bushels from a Baldwin tree ; third prize,
$10, to Rev. IT. B. Fiske of Danvers, for 32 1-2 bushels from
a Wealthy tree. Class 2, — first prize, $50, to the Drew-
Munson Fruit Company of Littleton, for 227 barrels of
Baldwin ai:>ple3; second prize, $30, to Rev. IST. B. Fiske of
Danvers, for 115 barrels of Baldwin apples. Class 3, —
first prize, $30, to Rev. jST. B. Fiske of Danvers ; second
prize, $20, to the Drew-Munson Fruit Company of Little-
ton. Class 4, — first prize, $50, to Turner Hill Farm of
Ipswich, with a score of 95; second prize, $30, to H. A.
Hale of Colrain, with a score of 92 ; third prize, to E. Cyrus
Miller of Haydenville, with a score of 91.
One demonstration meeting was held under this appro-
priation, at Medway, with very good results. It is planned
to hold at least two meetings each year in future. Another
feature to be developed during the current year is an exhibit
of Massachusetts apples, in conspicuous places in Boston and
other large cities. The fruit has been secured and plans are
under Avay for its being shown.
No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxv
A very interesting feature under this work was an exhibit
of apples at the offices of the Board, the third week in No-
vember. No cash prizes were offered, but first and second
prize ribbons for the best three specimens of the following
varieties : Baldwin, Gravenstein, Hubbardston, Mcintosh Red,
Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet,
Wealthy, King of Tompkins County, Sutton, Tolman Sweet,
Yellow Bellflower, Red Canada, Westfield and Winter
Banana. Ribbons were awarded as follows : Baldwin, — first,
to II. M. Longley of Shirley ; second, to B. L. Call of Colrain ;
honorable mention, to L. A. & C. J. Lahm of Carlisle. Rox-
bury Russet, — first, to Edw. A. Lunt of Newbury ; second,
to L. H. Bailey of West Newbury. Northern Spy, — first, to
W. H. Campbell of Wayland ; second, to L. A. & C. J. Lahm
of Carlisle. Hubbardston, — first, to F. A. Russell of
Methuen ; second, to C. A. Campbell of Ipswich. King, —
first, to Boston Consumptives Hospital; second, to C. A.
Campbell of Ipswich. Rhode Island Greening, — first, to
Samuel Leeds of Woburn. Sutton Beauty, — first, to Ed-
ward Farrar of Lincoln. Mcintosh Red, — first, to Edward
Farrar of Lincoln. Stark, — first, to F. A. Russell of
Methuen. Palmer Greening, — first, to H. M. Longley
of Shirley. Winter Banana, ■ — - first to E. D. Robinson of
Vineyard Haven. Wagner, — first, to E. D. Robinson of
Vineyard Haven. Yellow Bellflower, — first, to Boston Con-
sumptives Hospital. Schiawassa Beauty, — second, to Bos-
ton Consumptives Hospital. Blue Pearmain, • — • second, to
Wm. N. Davis of Hudson.
The exhibit attracted a great deal of attention, and the
office was thronged with visitors during the four days that the
apples were on exhibition, upwards of 1,000 persons, by con-
servative estimate, visiting the exhibition. The high quality
of the fruit shown did much to convince the visitors, who were
mainly residents of Boston and from the consuming class, that
our home-grown fruit is the equal in appearance of any
gTOAvn in the west, and all admit its superior quality. This
exhibition is a feature which should be repeated every year
in which there is not a fruit show of greater magnitude in
Boston.
xxvi BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Bulletins of Massachusetts Ageicultuke.
Tlie demand for these publications increased during the
year, and the first edition of Nos. 1 and 2, on poultry and
orcharding, were entirely exhausted. Calls for them accu-
mulated to such an extent that a reprint was imperative, and
they were issued during November in editions of 2,500 each.
These editions were revised and new matter was added, which
had appeared since the publication of the first edition. As
they stand to-day they are fairly complete text-books on the
subjects in question. New bulletins issued during the year
were, No. 3, " Grasses and forage crops," and No. 4, " Small
fruits and berries," the former in an edition of 2,000 copies
and the latter in one of 2,500. Bulletin No. 4 covers fruits
for the home garden, — peaches, pears, plums, quinces,
grapes, strawberries and cranberries, — and there is a con-
stant and increasing demand for it. Bulletins should be
issued as soon as possible on vegetables and vegetable grow
ing, dairying, animal husbandry and beekeeping. There is
a demand for information on all these lines which we cannot,
at present, satisfy. This demand and the need for these pub-
lications form an additional strong reason for the increase
of the appropi'iation for the " dissemination of useful infor-
mation in agriculture," previously referred to.
Ceop Reports.
The monthly crop reports were issued from May to Octo-
ber, as usual. A new feature was the list of publications avail-
able for distribution, included in the report for August. A
supplementary list, giving those issued subsequent to the
printing of the previous crop report, has appeared in each
of the succeeding issues, and will be made a regular feature.
The issue for September contained a list of the annual reports
available for free distribution, with the principal articles
available in each. The special articles included in the various
issues, in order of appearance, from May to October, were:
" Corn selection for seed and for show," by Prof. Wm. D.
Hurd ; " Growing and marketing asparagus," by Frank
Wheeler ; " Alfalfa as a crop in Massachusetts," by Prof. Wm.
No. 4.]
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
XXVll
p. Brooks ; " Celery growing, storing and marketing," by
Henry M. Howard; " Quince culture," by Prof. F. C. Sears;
and '^ Grape culture," by Edward R. Farrar. The editions
were 6,090 for May, 6,300 for June, 6,500 for August, and
6,400 for the other months. The largest previous edition
was 5,900 for September and October, 1909. A few copies
are on hand for July and October, but the other months are
entirely exhausted.
Publications.
The following publications were issued by this office in
1910, and, except those indicated, may be obtained on appli-
cation : —
Pages.
Number.
Apriculture of Massachusetts, 1909,
Crop Report No. 1,' - .
Crop Report No. 2,2
Crop Report No. 3
Crop Report No. 4,2
Crop Report No. 5,2
Crop Report No. 6,
Massachusetts Agriculture, Bulletin No. 1 (second edition, revised),
Massachusetts Agriculture, Bulletin No. 2 (second edition, revised),
Massachusetts Agriculture, Bulletin No. 3
Massachusetts Agriculture, Bulletin No. 4, .... .
Massachusetts: Her Agricultural Resources, Advantages and Oppor-
tunities, with a List of Farms for Sale.
Apiary Inspection, Bulletin No. 1, ....... .
Farmers' Institute Pamphlet
Nature Leaflet No. 14 (reprint),
Nature Leaflet No. 28 (reprint)
Nature Leaflet No. 35 (reprint)
Nature Leaflet No. 36 (reprint)
Nature Leaflet No. 37 (reprint),
Nature Leaflet No. 38 (reprint)
Nature Leaflet No. 41 (reprint),
Nature Leaflet No. 43
Nature Leaflet No. 44,
6481
37
37
41
36
40
38
1.53
105
96
113
160
12
15
6
5
9
5
3
9
6
3
7
15,000
6,090
0,300
6,400
6,500
6,400
6,400
2,500
2,500
2,000
2,500
3,-500
3,500
900
1,500
1,500
1,500
1,500
1,500
1,500
1,.500
1,900
1,500
• Including twenty-second annual report of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment
Station, 2.57 pages.
2 Edition e.xhausted.
XXVIU
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Number.
Nature Leaflet No. 45,
Nature Leaflet No. 46
Annual Report of State Nursery Inspector,','
Annual Report of ^tate Ornithologist, ',2
Annual Report of Chief of Cattle Bureau, ', ^ .
The Farmer's Interest in Game Protection, - .
The Culture of the Pear, 2
Varieties of Apples for Massachusetts Orchards, ^ .
5
1,800
5
1,800
8
400
25
3,000
63
500
7
300
10
300
28
600
' Edition exhausted. ■
2 Excerpts from "Agriculture of Massachusetts," 1909, issued in pamphlet form.
Legislative Appropriatio7is, Board of Agriculture.
1910.
1911.
Objects for which appropbiated.
Appropri-
ated.
Used.
Appropri-
ated.
Bounties to societies
S18,000 00
117,754 80
$18,000 00
Salaries of secretary and clerks
6,200 00
6,200
00
6,200 00
Travelling and necessary expenses of Board,
1,300 00
1,165
10
1,300 00
Lectures before the Board, etc
800 00
762
43
1,600 00
Dissemination of useful information in agriculture, .
4,000 00
3,998
98
5,000 00
Travelling and necessary expenses of the secretary, .
500 00
366
80
500 00
Incidental and contingent expenses, including print-
ing and lurnishing extracts from the trespass laws.
Printing 15,000 copies of "Agriculture of Massachu-
setts."
Work of Dairy Bureau, including salaries, .
1,100 00
6,000 00
9,800 00
1,099
5,740
9,690
99
15
00
1,100 00
6,000 00
9,800 00
State apiary inspection,
500 00
400
04
2,000 00
State nursery inspection,
2,000 00
1,999
95
10,000 00
State Ornithologist, salary and expenses, .
1,000 00
999
92
1,000 00
Special report on game birds
4,000 00
85
00
-
Collecting and circulating information relating to idle
or partly improved farms or farm lauds.
Poultry premium bounty
867 39'
1,000 00
867
600
39
00
1,500 00'
1,000 00
For the encouragement of orcharding.
500 00
486
88
500 00
Totals,
$54,067 39
$52,217 43
$63,500 00
1 Unexi)ended balance.
» Reprint.
Extracts from Trespass Laws.
The distribution of printed extracts from the trespass laws
has been continued during the year in accordance with the
law on the subject. Each post-office in the State was furnished
No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxix
a copj on paper, for posting. The demand continues about as
in former years, and there are no features in connection with
the distribution worthy of special notice.
Better Farming Specials.
The Board and the Dairy Bureau co-operated with the
Boston & Albany Railroad in the " better farming special "
which it ran over its lines last spring. Your secretary accom-
panied the train throughout the trip, as did also the general
agent of the Dairy Bureau, and speakers on fruit topics were
furnished by the Board. The train made 18 stops, and up-
wards of G,000 people availed themselves of its opportunities.
Your secretary also made one day's trip with the trolley
" better farming special," run by the Springiield trolley lines.
The attendance and interest in this special were good, though
naturally not equal to those shown in the large and better
advertised railroad special.
Seed Corn Distribution.
A new feature which I intend to introduce during the
present year, if it meets the approval of the Board, is the
distribution of seed corn to farmers. The plan, roughly
speaking, is to secure seed of superior strains, mainly of Flint
varieties, and to give small quantities to such farmers as will
agi*ee to plant and care for it properly, and to return double
the amount received, for further distribution. Possibly they
may also be required to exhibit a few ears in the office, in an
exhibition similar in scope to our apple show of this year.
Respectfully submitted,
J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH,
Secretary.
Jan. 10, 1911.
XXX BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Summary of Crop Conditions, 1910.
At the close of May vegetation and farm work were con-
siderably in advaDce of the normal, while early crops were
not beyond normal, owing to cold and unpleasant weather.
Grass started early, and although it did not make as rapid
growth as was expected, promised well. Fall seeding gen-
erally wintered well. The fruit bloom was generally heavy,
except for peaches, and was not injured by frosts, except the
early bloom of strawberries. Insects were about average in
their development and nundiers. Planting was well in hand
at the close of the month. There was a fair supply of farm
help to be had, with wages rather higher than for the past
few years, day help commanding especially high prices.
There was a marked increase in the acreage of corn, espe-
cially for grain, also in that of onions in the Connecticut
valley. A considerable increase in interest in fruit growing
was shown by the setting out of new orchards, greater atten-
tion to spraying and considerable areas of new cranberry
bog.
Insects were not unusually numerous or injurious in June.
The increase in the acreage of field corn was not as great
as indicated in May, owing to failure of germination and
delay in planting. The crop was very nneven, and in some
cases poor in color. Haying was just beginning, with a good
normal crop in prospect. The acreage of potatoes was de-
creased to a considerable degree, and the crop generally
backward, but promising well. Yields of early market-
garden crops were not above average and good prices were
received. The snpply of dairy products was fully up to the
normal and prices were higher than ever before. Dairy cows
were very scarce and high. Feed in pastures was in excellent
condition. The strawberry crop suffered severely from rains
No. 4.] MASSACHUSETTS CROPS. xxxi
and good prices \yerc received. The set of fruit was not what
was expected from the bloom. More farmers have sprayed
than in any previous year.
Little damage was reported from insects in July. Corn
came forward very rapidly, and at the close of the month
was near the normal. The hay crop was one of the best for
years and secured in good condition. Rowen did not start
well, owing to lack of rain. The usual acreage of forage
crops was put in, corn and millet being the favorites.
Market-garden crops were uneven, some having suffered from
drought, with prices lower than of late years. Apples
dropped badly, and promised poorly; pears and plums light;
peaches rather better than usual ; quinces promised well ;
grapes average ; cranberries not above average. Pastures
were beginning to suffer from drought. Rye and oats were
good crops in most sections. Barley looked well as a late
forage crop. IS^ew orchards were not extensively planted in
1909 and 1910, but reports indicated that old orchards re-
ceived much better care in pruning, spraying and fertilizing
than ever before.
Corn was greatly benefited by the light rains of August
and made good progress. There was little rowen in prospect
on any but newly seeded fields. Early potatoes were much
below the normal, but late potatoes looked well, with a few
cases of rot reported. The acreage of tobacco in the Con-
necticut valley was about the same as formerly. The crop
responded finely to the rains and promised to be very nearly
normal. The returns indicated a light crop of apples, espe-
cially winter varieties ; pears fair ; peaches rather above the
average ; grapes average ; quinces fairly good ; cranberries
somewhat below average. Pasturage improved with the rains
of the month. Oats were an average crop for grain, but not
quite as good as usual for hay and green feed. Celery suf-
fered severely from drought ; other late market-garden crops
backward, but growing well.
September showed Indian corn matured well in almost
all sections, and generally close to a normal crop, both for
ffrain and stover. There was little rowen in most sections,
except in southeastern Massachusetts, where it was in excess
xxxii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
for the region. Feed iu pastures was green, but light at the
close of the month. Very much less than the usual amount
of fall seeding was done, because of drought. Onions are
generally a light crop in all sections. Late potatoes would
have been an average crop, except for rot, which was most
prevalent in the western counties. Root crops were generally
in good condition ; celery light ; late market-garden crops in
general much in need of rain. Apples were a light crop
and small in size ; pears good crop of good quality ; peaches
light in most sections ; grapes not above the average ; cran-
berries a light to medium crop, with the berries small. More
spraying was practiced on apples than for many years. Sev-
eral light frosts occurred, but with no appreciable damage
to crops.
The final report of the season, at the close of the month of
October, gave the value of the corn crop as considerably above
the normal, a good crop of well-matured corn having been
secured in almost all sections, and the acreage harvested being
much in excess of the usual average. Ensilage went into the
silo in good condition as regards maturity. Root crops were
generally rather below the average, except on Cape Cod. Po-
tatoes suffered from drought more than most crops, and rot
was prevalent almost throughout the State, so that the crop
was a disappointment. Light showers kept feed green and
growing in pastures, but feed was nevertheless very short
from midsummer on, and milk stock and many young cattle
were fed at the barns, both hay and grain. Milking stock was
generally in good condition, but young stock, where not fed
supplementarily, came in thin in flesh. The large hay crop
enabled farmers to feed at the barn without depleting their
winter stock of hay as much as would ordinarily have been
the case. Much less than the usual amount of fall seeding
was done, owing to the drought keeping the land in poor
condition for seeding. It was perhaps rather backward where
put in, but generally looking well otherwise, owing to fre-
quent light rains.
Prices for farm crops averaged higher than usual, despite
the generally good crops, potatoes and cranberries being the
only important crops where lower prices were reported. Forty
No. 4.] MASSACHUSETTS CROPS. xxxiii
correspondents considered prices to have been higher than
usual, 67 average and 11 lower than usual. Milk, butter, eggs
and meat brought high prices throughout the year. Apples
generally brought better prices than usual, owing to short
crop and better quality. Prices for tobacco were fully up
to the normal.
Sixty correspondents, slightly under a majority, considered
hay to have been among the most profitable crops ; 41, corn ;
24, apples; 11, potatoes; 7, tobacco; 5, cabbages; 4, sweet
corn; and 4, oats; while 71 correspondents, more than a ma-
jority, and an unusually large leading number, considered
potatoes to have been among the least profitable crops ; 9,
apples; 6, onions; 6, cabbages; 6, cranberries (an unusually
large number for this crop) ; and 4, strawberries.
The season was generally considered to have been a profit-
able one by the correspondents, 80 stating that it had been
profitable; 16, that it had been fairly profitable; 12, that
it had been an average year for profit ; while 3 held that it
had not been very profitable, and 14 that it had been unprofit-
able for the farmers of their sections. The crops were gen-
erally good, despite the drought, and prices ruled high, which,
with the good hay crop and well-filled barns, made it difficult
to figure the year as anything but profitable, unless the view
is adopted that no year is profitable for those engaged in
farming.
Crops were shortened in some instances by drought, but
there was surprisingly little damage from this source when
the shortage of rainfall for the year was considered. The
most serious efl"ect of the drought was on the water supply,
and in many sections farmers faced the prospect of drawing
water from a distance throughout the winter, unless heavy rains
came before the ground froze. Streams, springs and wells
were reported as lower than for many years, and many of
them as dry. One well which had not failed since it was dug,
one hundred and fifty years ago, was reported to have dried
up, and there were many instances of wells and springs which
had never failed before, but which were entirely dry at the
close of October.
PUBLIC WINTER MEETING
Board of Agriculture
NORTHAMPTON.
December 6, 7 axd 8, 1910.
PUBLIC WlNTEli MEETING OF THE BOARD,
AT NORTHAMPTON.
The annual public winter meeting of the Board, for lec-
tures and discnssions, was held at Carnegie Hall, Northamp-
ton, on Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, December C, 7
and 8. The attendance was good, being above the average
for all sessions and especially good on the second day, the
lectures interesting and instructive, and the discussions well
sustained and valuable.
The meeting was called to order at 10 a.m.^ on Tuesday,
by Secretary Ellsworth. Second Vice-President Avery pre-
sided, and introduced His Honor Calvin Coolidge, mayor of
^Northampton, who delivered the address of welcome.
ADDEESS OF \YELCOME, BY HIS HOINOR MAYOR
CALVIN COOLIDGE.
We are having an election here today and I assure you
that it is a relief to leave for a few minutes and extend to
your Board a most hearty welcome to our city. Northamp-
ton is known throughout the L^nited States as an educational
center, and for that reason it is the more fitting that you
should meet here, as agriculture is becoming each year more
and more the pursuit of the educated man. Also, we have
recently started a school here which is devoted to the teach-
ing of agriculture to our young men and women. Smith's
Agricultural School and the Northampton School of Indus-
tries. This school is, I believe, destined to prove of great
benefit to this section in agricultural and domestic lines. We
are, moreover, in the heart of a farming district, and depend-
ent upon the products of the soil for our prosperity. To the
north and east lie the meadows of the Connecticut valley,
the most fertile section in the Commonwealth; great land
for raising tobacco, onions and corn, — land that has been
4 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
noted for generations as especially fitted for agricnltural pur-
suits. To the west of us tlie fruit-growing industry is
developing rapidly. One man paid this year $20,000 for
apples in the towns of Williamsburg, Conway, Goshen and
Cunnnington, and ho did not touch the best orchards in the
section, those at Ilaydenville, at all. It is estimated that in
that region this year $45,000 has been paid for apples alone,
and it was not a ]iarticularly good apple year.
The organization known as the People's Institute, which
occupies this buildiug and two others near by, is open to every
one, especially to those who work in the mills, and is doing a
great deal of educational work. It can provide a teacher
for almost any line one may wish to study, including the
domestic sciences, such as cooking, dressmaking and milli-
nery. It is made use of to a large extent by our Polish
people, who are coming in here and taking up land, and who
are thrifty and industrious and generally good citizens.
They are taking up land and doing much in an agricultural
way, particularly in raising tobacco and onions, and I see
in them a good deal of promise for the future agricultural
development of this region.
Agriculture is becoming, like all other pursuits, the pur-
suit of the specialist. We have in this region the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College. — an institution which has
done a great deal in developing the agricultural resources,
not alone of Massachusetts, but of the other States of the
I^iiion, and foreign countries as well. I hope that before
you leave us you will visit Smith's Agricultural School, an
institution of which we are especially proud. We want you
to make yourselves at home in our city; visit our institu-
tions; and we hope that you will go away feeling that you
have had a pleasant and instructive gathering here, and feel-
ing that as soon as you can you will visit ns again.
The chairman then introduced Secretary Ellsworth, who
made the following response, on behalf of the Board, to the
address of welcome : —
No. 4.] RESPONSE FOR THE BOARD. 5
RESPONSE FOR THE BOARD, BY SECRETARY
ELLSWORTH.
Much to my regret, Vice-President Biirsley is unable to
be here and take this part in the programme, but I want to
thank the mayor, on behalf of the Board, for his cordial wel-
come. Among the many duties and undertakings of the
Board, which include its publications, its institute work and
its large correspondence, are these annual meetings, which
are held in various parts of the State. This is the third such
meeting to be held in Northampton. The first was held in
1882, when Hon. John E. Russell was secretary of the
Board, and at that meeting, among other subjects discussed,
were those of milk and tobacco. The tobacco question was
discussed then for the first time, and since then we have
always recognized that industry when we have met anywhere
in the Connecticut valley. I believe that the milk question
has been discussed, in some form, at every meeting we have
held, as the dairy industry is our great industry, and the
product the one indispensable article of food. The second
meeting held here at Northampton was in 1891, w^hen Mr.
Stockwell, my immediate predecessor, was secretary of the
Board. At that time Booker Washing-ton was one of the
speakers, and the attendance at the session which he ad-
dressed set a record for these meetings.
This beautiful valley, to Avhich Mayor Coolidgc re-
f(M"rod, is, without doubt, the most fertile section of Massa-
chusetts. While we have several other valleys in ]\fassa-
chusctts, there are none quite equal to the Connecticut valley
in extent, in fertility or in the beautiful farms which it con-
tains. Your farms here are wonderful for tobacco, onions,
corn, appl'es, and, in fact, anything that will grow outdoors
in this climate. I do not want to get started on the apple
questidu, but few people have realized what we can d*i in
apple raising here in New Englaud. in ]\rassachusetts espe-
cially. One of our mend)ers, "Afr. Fn'derick A. Russell of
Mcthneu, in the orchard contest under the auspices ef tliis
Board, reported a Gravenstein tree on which he grew $5G
6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
worth of apples. If you bad 40 such trees to the acre you
could very easily figure out something big in apple raising.
These meetings are of immense value to those who at-
tend them, and, furthermore, the lectures and discussions
appear in our annual report, together with much other mat-
ter of interest. Sometimes I believe that if they were not so
printed we should have larger attendances at these meetings,
but we certainly look forward to this meeting as likely to be
one of the best which we have ever held.
The CiiAiKMAN. The next item on the programme is a
lecture on " 'New England pastures," by Mr. J. S. Cotton,
M.S., of the United States Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C. Mr. Cotton has traveled all over the United
States, looking into this question, and it gives me pleasure to
present him to you.
No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES.
NEW ENGLAND PASTUKES.
BY J. S. COTTON, ASSISTANT AGKICULTURIST, UNITED STATES DEPART-
MENT OF AGRICULTURE.
One of the most important problems confronting the NTew
England farmer to-day is the improvement of his pasture
lands. These pastures have deteriorated greatly, and many
of them have now reached a point where they are not pro-
ducing sufficient feed to pay the taxes and the cost of main-
taining the fences. As a result of their extremely low yield
it is necessary to devote a considerable area of the cultivated
lands in the growing of forage to supplement the pastures.
In view of the present high price of grain it is important
that these pastures be made to produce more feed than they
are doing at the present time, and thus relieve the tillable
land from growing so much forage, in order that the farmer
can raise some of the high-priced grain on. his own land.
These pastures were cleared of timber some forty to one
hundred years ago, and were allowed for the most part to
sod over by a natural process. Since that time they have
been grazed from early spring until late fall at practically
their highest carrying capacity. During this time very lit-
tle improvement in the way of reseeding or fertilization has
been practiced. At first the deterioration of these pastures
was very gradual, but during the past twent}^ years they have
declined much more rapidly. One of the reasons for the
more rapid decline during the past few years is that, because
of the enormous increase in the growth of the cities of this
country, and because of better transportation facilities, the
majority of farmers in this region have been specializing in
the production of dairy products, and have been increasing
the amount of stock that is being run on these pastures with-
8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
out reference to their carrying capacity, and without endeav-
oring to build them up in any way to sustain the increased
number of cattle.
It is noticeable that in the country at large nearly all of
the dairy pastures have become much poorer than formerly,
while pastures on which beef cattle are run are fully as good
as they ever were, if they have not actually improved. There
are pastures in Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia, fully as
old as any in ]Srew England, that are carrying as much stock
as they ever did, and are worth a hundred or more dollars
per acre. In the northwestern part of ]\Iiddlesex County,
Ontario, there are some three hundred thousand acres that
farmers, owing to the scarcity of labor, have abandoned for
farming purposes, and have seeded down to pastures, renting
the land to cattle graziers. After twenty years' use these pas-
tures are producing more feed than ever, and the land is in
better shape to grow croj)s than it was at the time cultiva-
tion ceased. This land is also valued at a hundred or more
dollars per acre.
In the corn l)clt men buy land that has been worn out as
a result of a one-crop system, and, by putting it into grass
and feeding on it, are able in about ten years' time to build
that land up to • a point where it can produce large crops.
Much of the land that has been built up in this manner is
now selling at $:200 per acre. This comparison is made in
order to show that it is not only unnecessary for pastures to
decline, but, on the other hand, that land, through proper
methods of management, can be built np to a high degree of
productivity by the pasture method.
At first glance it would seem that the difference between
the worn-out eastern dairy j^asturcs and the beef pastures of
the other States mentioned was one of soil conditions. How-
ever, we find just as poor pastures adjoining these beef pas-
tures as are found in New Eugland, while a couple of
]iastures have been found in the heart of the dairy section
that, through careful management, have been maintained at
as high a point as any beef pasture that has been seen, and
that are remarkably productive. TIk; investigations that
have been carried on by the Department of Agriculture show
.r^-^'^^^s:i'9^mm I
No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 9
that while soil types and climatic conditions greatly modify
the carrying capacity of a given pasture, nevertheless the
great difference between the dairy pastures and the beef pas-
tures is one of management. The dairy farmer usually tries
to get all the feed that he can from the pasture, without ref-
erence to the condition in which it is left. If the pasture is
grazed a little too closely he supplements it with feed grown
on the tillable land, in order to help the cows, but still con-
tinues the overgrazing. The beef cattleman cannot do this.
The beef steer must have an abundance of feed close at hand,
so that if he is to make good gains he can get all he wants
to eat without much effort. As the profits are directly
dependent on the number of pounds of gain that the steer
puts on, the beef cattlemen have learned by experience that
there must be a luxuriant growth of grass for their steers
or else they will lose money. Consequently they ai-e very
careful never to overgraze their pastures, and if they see
that a pasture is being overstocked they immediately cut
down the number of stock.
There are a number of causes why these dairy pastures
have deteriorated. One of the principal causes is the prac-
tice of turning stock on the ]')asture too early in the year.
Unless the grass plants are allowed to get a sufficient start
to have a good green leaf surface they are greatly handi-
capped in making much growth. A study of the structure
and life history of plants shows us that there are numerous
small green bodies, which l)y the way give the color to the
leaves, that are known to botanists as chlorophvl bodies. It is
necessary that certain kinds of the plant food absorbed by the
plant go to these small green bodies and thereby manufacture
substances which the plant can use in growing. If these
leaves are kept grazed so close that there is not an abundance
of these small green bodies the plant has very little chance to
make much growth, or, in other words, produce much forage.
If such a plant is kept grazed too close it will eventually be-
come enfeebled and will disappear.
Again, on many soils, where there is a considerable amount
of clay, if stock is turned out while the ground is still wet
and " punchy," the ground becomes so compacted by constant
10 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
tramping that it is impossible for the roots of the plants to
penetrate among the soil particles and get the necessary plant
food. I have had occasion during the past year to see one
pasture that has been absolutely ruined because the stock
was turned in it while the ground was still too wet. The
soil has been badly compacted, until it has now reached a
point where there is absolutely no remedy, and the land is
not worth j^aying taxes on.
Another reason, and undoubtedly the most important one,
is that of overgrazing. Not only must a plant have suffi-
cient green leaf surface Avith which to manufacture food for
its further growth, but in case it is a perennial plant it must
be allowed to store np food to be nsed the following spring in
starting a sufficient growth to enable it to begin manufactur-
ing its own food again. If a perennial plant is not allowed
to store np this surplus food it becomes weakened and even-
tually dies. In the case of annual plants, which form only a
small portion of the vegetation in eastern pastures, it is ab-
solutely necessary that they be given a chance to mature a
crop of seed or else they soon become extinct. In both
cases, as these plants disappear through misuse, their places
are taken by weeds or plants that stock will not graze.
Many dairymen consider that cows do not do as well where
the grass is allowed to get too tall. This is true if the grass
is allowed to head out and go to seed. The best stockmen have
learned by exjDerience that their cattle do better when the
grass is allowed to grow two or three inches high, and, as they
express it, " get strong." They have also learned that when
a pasture gets ahead of their cattle it is an easy matter to
mow the tall grass, letting it lie on the ground as a mulch.
Many farmers believe that nnless they keep their pastures
closely grazed the weeds will take possession. In some in-
stances this seems to be true. Pastures have been seen where,
if the stock was kept off for two weeks, the weeds, especially
daisies and yarrow, would take such complete possession and
make so rank a growth that there would be nothing for the
cattle to eat. The men using such pastures are actually losing
money. If such areas cannot be reclaimed through cultivation
or other practical methods the quicker they are abandoned as
No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES 11
pastures and t-uiiverted into limber lots the better. In that
way they can eventually be made to pay dividends.
All of the feed obtained by the cow is turned into milk,
flesh or into the energy necessary for carrying on her natural
functions. If that cow is required to use the gi'eater part of
her energy in traveling many miles over the pasture in
securing her daily feed, that very act is going to result in a
greatly decreased supply of milk. If such a cow were kept
in the stable or barnyard all of the time, and given oidy the
feeds that are used to supplement that pasture, she would
produce more milk than she does after running over that field
all day, and would thus become more profitable. A very con-
crete instance of this came to notice near Xorth Adams, Mass.
In carrying on investigations in this region two pastures were
studied that adjoined each other on a hillside where the con-
ditions were absolutely identical. One of these was badly
overgrazed. At midday, when the cows should naturally be
lying down and ruminating, all of the animals on this field
were actively engaged in trying to get enough to eat. Jn
the adjoining pasture, just on the other side of the stone
fence, there was an abundance of feed, some of it actually
going to waste. In this area the cows were lying down taking
life easy. There is no doubt but that the cows in the latter
pasture were giving more milk than the others, simply because
they were enabled to convert the greater part of their feed
into milk.
While it sometimes seems as tluingh close grazing is neces-
sary in order to keep down the weeds, nevertheless the funda-
mental cause of those weeds taking possession was that of
overgrazing. A striking illusti-ation of the fact that over-
grazing is a cause of the weeds taking possession has been
shown in California. Originally on the greater part of the
ranges of that State there was a good covering of natural
grasses that were relished by live stock. As these grasses
were destroyed by overgrazing their ]ilaces were taken by
]>lants that were not relished by stock, the fact that they
were not readily eaten giving them the opportunity to thrive.
As the better plants disappear the live stock learn to eat the
poorer quality of vegetation. As a result, this in tui-ii was
12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
destroyed, and its place was taken by plants even more infe-
rior in character. This has resulted in the carrying capacity
of the California ranges being very greatly lowered.
The constant close cropping of the vegetation on such a
pasture means the robbing of the soil of its fertility, the loss of
vegetable matter or humus being especially great. This loss of
fertility will of course not be nearly as rapid as where hay is
cut from a meadow and nothing replaced. IsTevertheless, it is
going on all the time, and is one of the important factors in
pasture deterioration.
Again, where a pasture is badly overgrazed the evaporation
of moisture from the soil is much more rapid. The best
graziers of the country have learned by experience that if
their pastures are to do well there must be a good grass cover-
ing or vegetable mulch in order to tide them through the
periods of dry weather. There seem to be two reasons for
this: first, where the grass is kept very closely cropped the
sun's rays get a more direct action on the bare ground and
thus dry it out much more quickly; second, the humus, which
is so necessary in the soil in order to allow plant growth, helps
greatly to retain the moisture. Where this humus has been
used up, the ground will naturally dry out much more
quickly.
There are numerous pastures throughout the l^ew England
States that are situated on areas of thin, poor soil and that
are on steep hillsides, where the danger of erosion is very
great, which should never have been cleared of timber. Such
areas, if not already allowed to revert to forests, should be
replanted to timber at the earliest opportunity. Again, there
are numerous pastures that are very rough and full of large
boulders, in which weeds and brush have gotten nearly com-
plete possession. In many instances it would cost altogether
too much to attempt to clear such land. The best method of
making it pay dividends is to put it into forests. It has been
definitely proved that, with the present prices of lumber, the
setting out of such areas to good marketable timber will be
the best sort of an investment. Information as to the best
methods of planting forests can be obtained from State For-
ester of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, or
No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 13
from the Forest Service of the United States Department of
Agricultnre.
The great majority of New England pastnres can, how-
ever, be l)ui]t np to a point where they will ]>r()(luce mnch
more feed than at the present time. There are six general
methods by which snch pastnres can be bnilt np, at least
one of which can be nsed on nearly every New England
pastnre.
First. — Prevent overgrazing. The reasons for this have
already been given.
Second. — Do not graze too early in the spring. In many
instances if the cattle were ke])t off the pasture for two weeks
longer than is the prevailing practice the pasture would pro-
<luce far more feed and would carry a great deal more
stock.
Third. — The investigations that have been carried on
during the last few years show that one of the most essential
])(»ints in pasture improvement is that of fertilization. Nearly
all of the New England pastures show a striking lack of veg-
etable matter. The best method for replacing this is to top-
dress with barnyard manure. Experiments that have been
carried on in top-dressing land show that a light coating ap-
plied for two or three years in succession will give mnch
better results than if a large quantity is used in any one
year. With many of the farmers the question of where the
barnyard manure is to come from is a very serious problem.
It is probable that in many instances the farmer could
profitably use commercial fertilizer on some of his meadow
land for a time, and use the barnyard manure that ordinarily
goes on that area on his pastures. If the barnyard manure is
not available, or if the land is too rough to permit of getting
it on the ground readily, it is possible that commercial fer-
tilizers may be of value in this restoration process. While
there seems to be considerable difference of opinion as to the
value of commercial fertilizers in the improvement of pas-
tures, there is evidence at hand which indicates that this
metlioti can be used to advantage. At the present time a
series of experiments in pasture im])rovement an^ being car-
14 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
ried on in the State of Maine and in Broome County, IsT. Y.,
these exj)eriments being co-operative between the agricultural
colleges and departments of those States. In these experi-
ments the use of commercial fertilizers is being quite exten-
sively tried. It is hoped that in the course of two or three
years more definite information can be given on this subject.
Any farmer in this State desiring to try commercial fertil-
izers in the improvement of his pasture can readily obtain
information from the State Agricultural Experiment Station
at Amherst as to the best mixture to use and how to use it.
Many of these pastures also show a great improvement
where lime is used. This is especially true of pastures in
New York State. It is noticeable that our forefathers used
lime in considerable quantities and for a time obtained excel-
lent results. After a while they ceased to get any benefit from
the lime and stopped using it. To-day we find many men who
are not using lime because their forefathers found that they
got no results. They do not realize that after a period of
years this lime has been used up, and that it can again be
used to advantage.
Cultivation. —Whereyer a badly depleted pasture is
smooth enough and free enough from stones to allow plowing,
it should be broken up and put under cultivation for a period
of two or more years, and then seeded down again. A number
of instances have been found where men have done this but
have failed in getting a good stand, oftentimes the pasture
being taken over quickly by weeds. In each instance that has
been brought to notice the trouble has been in the work not
being properly carried out. In a number of cases the farmers
plowed the land and put it in crops for a couple of years
without fertilizing, then seeded it down. !N"aturally, such a
pasture is in worse condition at the time of seeding down than
when broken. If such an area had been properly fertilized
this trouble would have been prevented. Again, the average
farmer in seeding down such an area uses a mixture of grass
seeds that are suitable for meadows, instead of using a pas-
ture mixture. This means that after the grasses that are
naturally adapted for meadow uses have disappeared there
No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 15
are no permanent pasture grasses to take their places, and
weeds of necessity come in. During the past season not less
than twenty pastures have been observed that have failed
from this one cause alone. Had the owners, with the work
that they put in, used a proper mixture, they would have
obtained excellent results.
Where the land is too rough to permit of plowing some form
of a harrow can be used to excellent advantage. The harrow
will tend to break up the clods of manure and scatter them
over the ground better, thus making them more available. It
will also cover whatever seed may have matured. Again, it
will have a tendency to tear up the sod where the grass has
become root-bound, and will help to form a dust mulch with
which to prevent too gi-eat an evaporation.
In many instances reseeding will greatly hasten the process
of restoration. During the past two or three years many of
the New England pastures, owing to periods of drought, have
been badly burned out. A great many of these could be im-
proved by broadcasting seed, and wherever possible, working
it in with some form of a harrow. In reseeding such an
area, timothy should be used in order to get quick results. In
addition, a little redtop, some bluegrass, and red, white and
alsike clovers should also be tried. A small amount of orchard
grass and meadow fescue would be of great advantage in this
mixture. At the present time seed of orchard grass and
meadow fescue is rather expensive, and consequently a very
large amount of tliem cannot be recommended. These two
grasses have the advantage, in such a pasture mixture, of
starting earlier in the year, thus furnishing grazing before
the blue grass and white clover, which are the predomi-
nating pasture grasses, get started.
Another point in the improvement of pastures is that of
the eradication of weeds. No general method can be given for
this. Where the pasture is badly infested about the only
practicable method is that of jjlowing. If this cannot be
done, it is possible to get rid of the weeds by mowing just
before they go to seed. The managers of the most successful
pastures in this country all nuike a practice of mowing their
16 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
pastures at least once a 3'ear, in order to keep clown the weeds,
and find that it pays' them well to do so.
Mr. II. M. Porter. I see a great many pastures full of
little hummocks of moss ; how should such a pasture be
treated 'i
Mr. Cotton. I believe that this condition shows the need
of lime, and slioidd use it myself. I should also put on a
disk harrow to tear up the moss and put in seed.
Mr. A. M. Lyman. I have been trying to get land into
pasture as fast as I can, by taking small lots and fertilizing
and seeding them, and then fencing them in, and have found
rye very useful, both to seed in and for spring feeding. Some-
times we feed it in the fall, if it comes along better than we
expected. It serves a double purpose, giving early spring
feed and serving as a protection to the grass. I have also
found clover an excellent thing to use in a pasture mixture.
It is always wise not to depend entirely on the pastures, but to
have something that can be fed at the barn, to help out if the
pasture feed gets short.
Mr. C. P. Aldricii. Does moss mean reduced fertility ?
Mr. Cotton. Ordinarily it does, but sometimes it comes
in abundantly after land is cleared of timber, and there it
cannot be due to depleted fertility. I am not sure that the
moss comes to stay, in such cases, but think that certain
species of ferns and brakes would come up through it in
time.
Prof. F. W. Rank. I have been greatly interested in the
way Mr. Cotton has l)rought this question before us. I was
especially pleased with the way in which he brought out
the question as to where the line should be drawn between
lands that should be kept for pasture and those which should
be allowed to grow up to wood. Just where it is to be drawn
is always a question, as some pastures that seem to be worth
very little will be found, on investigation, to be producing
a good deal of feed. While T am a forester, I cannot agree
that everything but lands lliat onght to be kept in general
agriculture should bo ]>ut into forests; but there are many
lands which are much more valuable for forest growth than
No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 17
for any other purpose. White pine is a tree croj) that will
grow all over the State, and will average 800 feet per acre
per year from the beginning. We will not get it at first, but
the increase in growth after the twentieth year will make
up for it, and it will surely average 40,000 feet in fifty
years. White pine is to-day worth on the stump from $7
to $12, according to its distance from market. We can all
afford to study this subject carefully, and make up our minds
whether our particular lands are most valuable for pasture,
fruit, cultivated ground or forests. It is a simple matter to
get them back into forests, if desired.
Mr. Ethan Bkooks. Do you think the effect of lime on
the jiasture is the same as when used on cultivated land ?
Mr. Cotton. I am not much of an expert on the use of
lime. Most of my time has been spent in the west, where
it is not so much needed ; but in a rough way I should say
the effect is the same. I would refer you to your agricul-
tural department.
Mr. Brooks. I have tried lime on a plowed field and
on a pasture, apjJied the same day and in the same w^ay. In
the first case there was a marked effect, and in the second
none that I could see. This was explained to me by a chem-
ist, on the ground that the plowed field was a clay soil, where
the lime cut the soft stones and set potash free ; and in the
pasture the stones Avere granite pebbles, on which the lime
had no effect. At one time I sent my young stock to the
hills to pasture; but later I tried putting the same money
into cleaning up the pastures and fertilizing them, also seed-
ing with a mixture containing a good deal of orchard grass
and clover, and I found that it paid very well. The seeding
was done in a wet time, in August, and the orchard grass
is there _yet, although that was twenty years ago. We only
treated the run-out portions of the pasture; a good deal of
it needed no treatment.
Mr. H. A. Turner. In the section of the State from
which I come, the South Shore, the pastures are not as val-
uable as in most sections. Part of mine I have cut over every
year, and part I have let come up to wood, and it is a question
whether that portion has not paid the best. What I want to
18 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
ask is, what is the best way to get rid of bushes, where the
pastures are stony and rocky ?
Mr. Cotton. I know of no good method, except hard
work. If that costs too much, the only thing is timber. That
is something each one must figure out for his own particular
pasture.
Professor Rake. How about sheep ?
Mr. Cotton. I am recommending them very highly. I
find that sheep have played a very important part in the
building up of pastures. On these hillside areas it seems
to me there should be more sheep. I have seen pastures in
Vermont where the dairy herd had no place, — they are too
steep, and make too much work for the cow and the man.
The sheep kill out a great many weeds, and will keep back
a good many kinds of bushes, but upon the coarser bushes
they have no effect. Perhaps they might be used to keep
the sprouts down after the bushes are mowed, thus saving
the trouble of further mowing.
Mr. J. F. Adams. I have kept sheep for some years, and
my experience is that they will kill out some kinds of weeds,
such as golden rod, very well, but that they will starve to death
before they will feed on bushes.
Mr. Turner. The bayberry bush and the blueberry bush
trouble us the most. Would the shceji eat these ?
Mr. Cotton. I don't think so. I am inclined to think
that the blueberry biish is an indication that the land needs
lime, and that liming would help the condition.
Mr. P. M. IIarwood. The lecturer has covered the
ground in a very comprehensive way as to the building
up of our ]^ew England jiastures. There are certain por-
tions of our pastures that should go back into timber. I
remember a certain hilltop in my native town, where the
timber was cut off years ago, the ground burned over and
rye raised for several years, that has been absolutely good for
nothing for pasture. It now has seeded to white ]iine, and
the pines are growing well. On the other side of the wall on
that same hill, where the humus was not burned off, there has
been good pasture all the time. ]\fany of us have been over-
cropping our pastures. The farmer in Massachusetts is
No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 19
helped immensely if he has some woodland coming into
market, so that he can sell some timber about once in five
years. He should have his waste lands set out to timber,
and the timber growing while he sleeps. I have in mind
one little parcel of land of about 12 acres, that was taxed for
$120 in 1876, and which was sold the other day for $2,500.
In another case a man who had other resources bought a
farm in the town of Petersham, some forty or fifty years
ago, for $3,800. He did little real farming, but lot it grow
u]i to wood and timber, and within a year it was sold for
$35,000. I do not wish to be understood as advocating the
policy of doing nothing and letting your farm grow up to
wood, — there is reason in everything, — these are simply
rather extreme illustrations of what can be got out of lands
that are of little or no value, even for jjasture, when they are
seeded to the proper wood growths; and that it is not wise
to have all your eggs in one basket, — even the dairy basket.
The lecturer has pointed out the fallacy of trying to get
something for nothing out of our pastures, and we old dairy-
men must, most of us, plead guilty. Take a tract of a few
acres in the pasture, that is level, where the cows have been
resting, and let the farmer plow it and plant corn or pota-
toes, later turning it back into the pasture. That soil is
rich, and he gets a good crop, and thinks it is still as good as
ever for pasture. Perhaps it is, but he has been robbing the
land.
Mrs. J. F. Adai^is. I would like to ask Mr. Cotton how
much lime it would pay us to use on our pastures on Martha's
Vineyard, when we have to pay $25 freight on $30 worth of
lime ? x\lso, I would like to ask Professor Eane how we can
make white pine grow ?
Mr. Cotton. The person owning the land will have to
figure out whether he or she can afi^ord to go to the necessary
expense to carry out any recommendations I may make. In
your case I would try it in an experimental way at first; but
you seem to be solving your problems pretty well as they arise.
Professor Rane. It is certainly a problem whether white
pine will grow on Martha's Vineyard. On the Vineyard and
Nantucket the winds are so severe that when the trees get to a
20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
certain height they seem to be warped to a certain extent.
Nevertheless, I have seen a plantation of Scotch pine that
made trees of very fair size. The conditions are different on
Cape Cod than in other parts of the State ; but we find there
large white pine stumps, showing that white pine once grew
there. I think one reason that so little white pine is seen in
that section is because it is so valuable that the owners are cut-
ting it off as fast as it gets of salable size. Then, too, the fires,
which are so prevalent down there, kill out the white pines by
running over the ground, whereas they do not hurt the pitch
pine so nnich. The poplar springs up very readily after fire,
and might be valuable on the Cape. We have instances where
it has grown twenty-three inches in eighteen years ; and one
cabinet maker tells me that it is as valuable as white pine.
Prof. W. D. lIuKD. This pasture question is a funda-
mental problem, of special imiwrtance in the dairy busi-
ness. These are two kinds of pastures : those of the west,
to which what Mr. Cotton has said fully applies ; and those
of New England, which are usually rather rough, rocky and
bushy, and I have been unable to work out his suggestions on
these lands. The mixture he advocated for seeding seems to
me excellent for hay land; but timothy and red and alsike
clovers are not, in my experience, adapted to our rough New
England pastures. Kentucky blue grass, redtop and meadow
grass are primarily pasture grasses. I want to ask whether
he has had any experience with Russian brome grass, and
whether that is not a grass that should do very well on these
rough hillsides ?
Mr. CoTTOx. I do not know about the Russian brome
grass, but have doubts whether it would grow well here. We
have experiments going on now in Maine and Vermont, from
which we hope to work out the best pasture mixture for New
England. The mixture I have given to-day is based on gen-
eral knowledge, and may very well need modification for cer-
tain regions.
Mr. Geo. W. Trut>t.. I would like to ask Professor
Rane whether he would advise the setting out of old pastures
to forests, with the gypsy and brown-tail moths so prevalent,
to say nothing of other pests and forest fires ?
No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 21
Professor Rane. Tlio gypsy and brown-tail moth arc cer-
tainly a great menace in the eastern part of the State. So
far as white pine is concerned, we need not worry so much.
The brown-tails will not touch them at all, and in a clear
stand of white pine the little gypsy moth caterpillars will die
before they get strong enough to feed on the needles. It is in
mixed stands that these insects do the greatest damage, and
they are certainly serious enough there. With such a stand
I should advise cutting it as soon as infested, and using the
money to set out a clear stand of white pine and to keep that
free from deciduous trees, thus protecting it from infestation.
Mr. H. O. Daniels. We have few pastures in Connecticut,
and these we like to get into tillable land as rapidly as we can.
I am now plowing some of my pasture with dynamite, and
hope to grow alfalfa on it after we get it fitted. I do not
want the young men to get the idea that they can get more by
sitting still than they can by hustling, — that is not good doc-
trine. Let them look into these old pastures, rip out the
rocks, and cut the bushes and burn them. We are just begin-
ning to realize the possibilities of agriculture, and in a few
years they will be better known ; to-day the opportunities in
that line are the best in our history.
Question. What are the possibilities of the continuous use
of commercial fertilizers on pastures, without stable manure ;
and what do you think of putting the land in clover for a
time ?
Mr. Cotton. I think where the pasture is badly run down,
much can be accomplished by using a green manure crop ; and
I would rather depend on that plan than on the continuous use
of commercial fertilizers. They are more of a stimulant than
a plant food, in my judgment.
Mr. Wm. E. Patrick. T have been troubled about my
pastures, for, while people say that I have good pastures, I
can see, when going over them, that they are not as good as
they used to be. These dry seasons have played havoc with
them. T would like to ask whether it would pay to sow a
grass mixture over these pastures that cannot be plowed
or harrowed as they stand ? Also, T have not been stocked
very heavy this year, and some grasses have gone to seed;
22 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
and I want to ask if I am going to receive some benefit
from that ? Some people say that the bushes grow so much
faster when the pastures are not stocked fully that you lose
more than yuu gain; but I have never found that the cattle
kept the bushes down very much.
Mr. CoTTOisr. There is no question but that you receive
benefit from the grass that has gone to seed. Our experience
shows that resting is one of the best methods of restoration.
As to reseeding, I think that if you could use a brush harrow,
as you can on nearly any piece of land, you could work the
seed in and give it a better start. Give the soil a good combing
when the frost goes out. If you have a dense sod, a worthless
foundation, your grass seed will not catch. If the ground is
comparatively bare, I believe you can reseed very successfully.
In the ranges of the mountain regions — in Washington, Cal-
ifornia and Montana — we have had excellent success by re-
seeding right on top of the ground. We shall have more data
on this question later on, through our experiment work in
Maine and Xew York.
Secretary Ellsworth. Seeding in rye is one of the best
ways of seeding a pasture, furnishing spring feed for the cows
and protecting the young grass plants. Sometimes the milk-
man will complain of the quality of the milk, if the cows are
allowed to eat too heavily of the rye at first ; but that can be
avoided by bringing them onto it gradually, allowing them to
feed on it but an hour or two at first, and gradually increasing
the time. I know of no way in which spring feed can be ob-
taine^l more cheaply than on rye, or of making milk more
cheaply at that season of the year.
Afteenoot^ Session.
Secretary Ellsworth. I will introduce to you Mr. Fred-
erick A. Russell of Methuen, who represents the Essex Agri-
cultural Society on the State Board of Agriculture, and who
will preside at this session.
The CirAiE:srAX. It is a gTcat pleasure to preside at this
meeting. I am very much interested in the production of
milk, and have need to be interested. We have in the rear
No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 23
of \ho ball a show of corn, and it seems to me that no farmer
in Massachusetts can afford to raise corn unless he can turn it
into milk, or some dairy product. The subject of the after-
noon is one that has many phases, and we expect to get a good
deal of light on some of them. I take pleasure in introducing
Mr. A. J. Piorpont of Waterbiiry, Conn.
24 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
THE PRODUCTION OF MARKET MILK.
BY MR. A. J. PIERPONT^ WATERBURY^ CONN.
The New England cow was formerly kept by the New
England farmer to transform the grass of summer, and the
hay and stalks of winter, into milk, cream, butter and cheese
for the family. The butter and cheese were made in June,
when the succulent feed caused the milk to flow freely ; and
the cow was dried off in the fall, to save the labor of milking
and caring for the product through the winter. O generation
of ease and simplicity, why could I not have lived and labored
with you !
The rapid growth of our manufacturing cities has created
a great demand for dairy products. Butter and cheese are
supplied by the fertile west, but the God of the Pilgrims so
constituted milk that it could not stand shipment from the
west, and left the business of supplying fresh milk, for New
England's increasing population, to the New England farmer.
It used not to matter how much milk the cow gave ; so long
as she milked easy, did not kick and was not unruly, she was
a good cow. When the opportunity came to sell a few quarts
of milk, the returns were clear profit. Feed cost nothing, for
they raised that. Labor cost nothing, for the farmer would
not be earning anything elsewhere during the time he spent in
milking and caring for his cows. As the population increased,
he sold more and more ; it was demanded throughout the
winter. Therefore, the silo was built to supply succulent feed
Ihroughout the winter. The crop-growing capacity of the
farms was taxed, and western grain had to be purchased ;
and gradually this grain has become a necessity, and grad-
ually soared in price. Outside labor had to be employed, first
at farmers' wages; but gradually the laborer found that work
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 25
ou the dairy farm means long hours, hard, constant work, no
Sundays or holidays, — and he steered clear of these farms.
Boards of health have passed rules, necessary to insure clean,
healthful milk, that have added to the cost of production.
At last the milk producer has awakened to his conditions.
What seemed a profit and a road to success proved a snare.
The increased cost of feed, labor and cows, the rapid depre-
ciation of cows and implements, the cost of delivery, and the
proper cleansing of utensils, etc., — made the milk really cost
more than it brought. This fact is evidenced by the frequent
auction sale of herds by those who cannot make both ends
meet ; by the shabby-looking homes and farm buildings that we
see in many sections; by depicted soils (a farm often grows
poorer year by year, even when everything grown is fed out
on the farm) ; and by the number of farmers' wives in insane
asylums,- or worked to such a state that life has no pleasure.
Young men are leaving the farms of their birth for easier and
more remunerative employment. The President appointed a
conmiission to find out what is the matter with the farmer.
The trouble with the dairy industry is, that it has changed
so gradually from the selling of the surplus products from the
family herd into a gigantic commercial business, requiring
good business methods and close study of the details. The
time is here when the master dairyman cannot do his day's
work of physical labor, and then rest with untroubled brow.
He must study feeds and feeding, breeds and breeding ; weigh
the feed given and the milk taken from each cow; determine
the profit from each individual, breeding from those showing
a good profit, and eradicating the boarders ; on the same prin-
ciple as factories, by improved methods of bookkeeping, deter-
mine the profit on every machine and on every man's work,
and know to a fraction of a mill what every article he puts on
the market costs him. You know how the railroad officials
figure the profit or loss on each road and on each train ; and
wherever there is a loss, a ti-aiii is taken off or the fare raised.
Arrange the barns, and plan operations so that the best results
may be obtained by a minimum amount of labor.
Do you know that Massachusetts has 192,000 milch cows,
averaging about 4,000 pounds per cow ? Do you know that
26 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
the prodnct of more than one-half of these cows does not pay
market price for the food they consume, and the labor of car-
ing for them day after day is performed for nothing ? And
do you know that there are herds in this State where the net
profits from the sale of milk and the sale of stock are $10,000
a year, — more than $100 per cow ? What an opportunity for
improvement, and what a need of a great awakening of dairy
farmers and the dissemination of dairy education ! We must
learn what it costs to feed and care for our cows, and then see
that every day we get at least a little profit from every cow
we keep.
In studying this problem, there are four factors which we
must consider : man, cow, feed, market.
Man. — Without the man who loves his animals, sees to
their constant comfort, and feeds them all they need without
overfeeding, success is impossible. The trained feeder cannot
tell his man how to feed ; it must be done by the master's
eye and the master's hand.
Hired Labor. — The dairy hand must be a high-class
laborer. A small proportion of laborers are fit to work about
live stock and market milk. He must be a strong, active
worker, for the work is heavy and constant. He must have
good health, for human diseases are transmitted to cattle, and
the milk is a ready conveyer of diseases to city customers. He
must be naturally clean in all his habits, for no number of
rules from the boss will force a filthy man to produce clean
milk. Even smoking, which is a universal habit among all
classes, is almost prohibited in the dairy. I have employed a
good many men, and have had but a very few smokers. I am
not a tobacco crank, but experience has taught me that the
employee who wears a pipe is usually too careless to care for
cows and dairy utensils. He must also be a man of quiet,
gentle disposition, to get along well with dairy stock or dairy
customers. He must have both science and natural skill,
whether he is to feed, milk and care for cattle, or care for
dairy utensils and dairy products. What other business, trade
or profession demands so many requisites in one man as dairy-
ing? He must also be punctual and steady, and report for
work early every morning, including Sundays and holidays;
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 27
for feeding, milking, paldliiig and the details of washing and
bottling cannot bo intrusted to a substitute for a single day,
no, nor an hour, without costly " breaking in " or chancing
serious loss. I have recently been repairing some buildings,
and had occasion to employ at the same time a mason, a car-
penter, a plumber and a painter. My regular men worked
three hours in the morning, before these skilled artisans ap-
peared ; worked with them through the day, doing the harder
parts of the work, such as digging, lugging stones and cement,
and the plain work that was beneath the dignity of the me-
chanics ; and worked at chores two hours after the skilled men
had departed. After paying the workmen Avhat they con-
sidennl their due, I was almost ashamed to pay my month
men, — their wages looked like such a small pittance for their
long hours of steady, faithful, hard work.
Costly plants, expensive operations. Golden La<l cows and
a side of the barn covered with rules cannot make good one
wrong act of an ignorant, careless, filthy or vicious milker ;
for, after all our preparation, we are entirely dependent on
the milker's skill and good will.
I have in mind a certain dairy in Connecticut, fitted up for
the production of certified milk, at a cost of nearly $50,000.
The owner hired cheap men, and tried, by enforcing rules of
many wipings, washings and disinfectings, and by unobserved
watching, to produce 12-cent milk. The milk was frequently
bad, and the farm never paid expenses. A year ago the farm
changed management. Young, healthy American men, some
of whom were Agricultural College graduates, did all of the
work, for which they were well paid. Rules and watching
were discarded, the only cheek being an arrangement made
with one of the customers, whereby an occasional bottle of
milk was sent to the State laboratory for analysis. Of course
these samples were taken when none of the force knew
about it, but results were reported to the men. Only once this
past summer did the bacteria count reach .5,000 per cc. The
I^ew York standard for certified milk is 30,000. The 5,000
count occurred in July, when, by delay in transit, the milk
reached the laboratory late and without \fo. The latest rcjuirt
was 1,000 per cc. The trade increased rai)idly, the price had
28 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
to be raised to 15 cents a quart, and the farm has paid all
expenses, besides increasing its stock and equipment from its
earnings.
The man who can manipulate his fingers so as to rapidly
extract the milk from a cow's udder can certainly learn to
wipe a lead joint or wield a mason's trowel. The man who
can successfully manage a pair of horses, can develop execu-
tive ability enough to build a railroad. The man who has
patience enough to drive an ox team or milk an Ayrshire
heifer, could learn to spend a day in building a staging in
preparation for driving one hundred nails ten feet from the
ground, and so be a carpenter; and has staying qualities
enough to become a life insurance agent, who talks and waits
for business. The man who can fix a broken mower so that it
will cut grass, with the horses hitched to it, in fly time, out in
the blistering sun, or can repair a manure spreader in the
field, while lying under it in the snow in zero weather, could
probably, after four years of apprenticeship, become a ma-
chinist. And he who is willing to double himself up under
the battering end of ten to fifteen cows, by the light of a lan-
tern, twice a day, and endure with patience the possible bat-
tering from hoofs in front and hoofs behind, and the certainty
of having his face lashed with not less than two tails, dry or
wet, and is supposed to have no thought but that of keeping
the visible and the invisible dust from his pail, and giving no
vent to his pain except an occasional " So, boss, so," or " Care-
ful, now," is certainly courageous enough to be a soldier, and
has grit and insensibility of feeling enough to become a gi'eat
lawyer.
And the licensed druggist problems are simple compared
with the complex ]iroblem of feeding and preserving the health
of the dairy animal ; extracting the milk which is created near
the floor of a cow stable and near the dirty end of the animal,
without letting it come in contact with the human hand or
become contaminated with dust, laden with the harmful bac-
teria with which the stable is filled ; putting it into a sterilized
pail, and immediately cooling it where the air is pure ; placing
it in clean bottles or cans ; and delivering it to the precious
baby, Avhose very life sometimes depends on the cow and the
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 29
care and skill of the dairymen more than on its own mother.
Thousands have gone to untimely infant graves, and have
been mourned by relatives and by mothers who would not be
comforted, for their babes were not, leaving parents bereft
forever and their days saddened and shortened, and perhaps
the family name extinguished, — because of milk improperly
cared for, through ignorance or negligence. Is this responsible
work to be intrusted to the cheap laborer ?
Is it a wonder that there is a scarcity of farm labor on dairy
farms, — where eleven or twelve hours of careful work are
required daily, and at least one-half that amount Sundays, for
$20 or $25 a month and board, less than 15 cents an hour,
while the crudest kind of foreign labor gets that or more, and
artisans, with no more intelligence or skill than we need in
our dairy business, command 30 to -10 cents an hour. Very
true, the projirietor pays all that he can aiford, and perhaps
more than he himself receives, after allowing for interest on
his investment, and figm-ing pay by the hour for himself and
family.
Oh, no, I am not a pessimist ; I love farm life, and I love
the dairy cow; and I believe that there is abundant opportu-
nity for thousands of New England farmers to make a success
that will entitle them to as good a living and all the comforts
enjoyed by city residents by furnishing our prosperous and
growing manufacturing cities with a pure, wholesome milk,
produced and handled under sanitary conditions, at a fair
price.
The dairyman is not avaricious ; he is satisfied to work
hard, attend faithfully to his business, and give clean, honest
goods every day in the year, if he can receive enough to pay
his help proper wages, pay for grain, tools, etc., and receive
5 per cent on his investment and 25 cents an hour for his
labor, — and what other business man of equal capacity asks
less? This we should get, and must get, to be fair to our-
selves and to our families. But. mind you. this is not for the
investor, who leaves the management of his dairy to hired
help, — God never intended the dairy business to make the
rich lover of ease richer ; nor for the slothful man, who gives
his herd little care and study ; nor for the keeper of cows giv-
30 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
ing less than G,000 pounds of milk a year ; nor for him who
will not keep records, or study the cost of feed and compute
the profit on individual cows ; nor for him who allows careless
milking by men with dirty hands, sends milk to the market
from tuberculous cows with inflamed udders, or milk contain-
ing excrement or dust, or which has or has had hair in it
(straining the hairs out does not remove the pollution they
have caused, — one hair may carry 10,000 bacteria), or which
has been put in unclean pails or cans, — but for the business
dairyman, who conducts the dairy business as a business,
studies details and investigates sources of profit and sources of
loss as carefully as the manufacturer or city business man,
employs help fitted for the work, and pays them their due.
Physical labor is easier and cheaper than brain labor. The
proprietor or manager of a large dairy cannot afford to do
too much physical labor, though he may enjoy it, and the temp-
tation to lead his men is strong. A mistake in planning oper-
ations, or poor judgment in some of the many decisions he has
to make daily, resulting from a tired brain, will lose for
him much more than he has earned with his hands.
Cow. — The dairyman, to be successful, nnist have the
dairy cow. The dairy cow is a highly developed machine,
capable of converting hay, silage and grain into large quanti-
ties of milk, rich in butter fat. The more food she will trans-
form, the greater her value. There is a wonderful chance to
improve our dairy cows. While the average production of
this State is about 4,000 pounds per cow, and that of your
best dairies about 8,000 pounds, there are individual cows in
this State that have produced over 20,000 pounds, and there
arc cows that have given 27,000 pounds of milk, making
1,200 pounds of butter, in a year. Of the cows with Avhich
we arc Avorking, why is the great mass so far below the few
phenomenal cows ? What folly, and waste of time and feed,
to breed and raise the scrub, which will never sell for what it
cost to raise, and which is a loss to the keeper as long as he
keeps it, regardless of the price paid ! T care not what breed
one chooses, but if you start out to breed a dairy cow, take
advantage of ages of breeding, and breed better. It is not
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 31
necessary or advisable for the milk producer to buy or breed
registered cows; but by all means breed to a registered bull
of some breed, and stick to that breed. In selecting a bull to
breed from, see to it that his dam is the pattern from which
you wish your future herd to be made. You may feel sure
that her defects will be transmitted to many of his daughters.
I recall an instance of a noted bull whose daughters were
great producers, holding world's records. I noticed that many
of these daughters had high forward udders ; and when after-
wards T saw this bull's dam, I noted that she had the same
high udder as her granddaughters. See that his dam's dam,
and sire's dam also, have the characteristics that you want in
your herd, and that he is a good individual. Raise your heifer
calves, and if they are from cows of mixed blood they are
quite sure to take on the characteristics of the sire's family;
and often the first cross of native cows and a pure-bred bull
of established breeding will throw a herd of as great producing
powers and better constitution than a herd of pure breds. If
the females are pure bred of another breed, there is a balance
of forces, a clash, and the chances are less for getting valuable
oft'spring. Families of different characteristics of the same
breed may clash, and beget off'spring inferior to either parent.
Feeding the Calves. — I feed six pounds of new milk twice
a day for three months, and give them grain of a mixture of
bran, oil meal and whole oats as soon as they will eat it, and
rowen hay, all they will eat; and do not neglect fresh water
every day after they are a month old. They need a little
grain for a year ; their stomachs are not sufficiently adapted
to grass and hay to enable them to do their best. The second
year, do not feed much grain, thereby forcing them to eat
quantities of roughage, to develop capacity and make them
hardy. Too much grain at that age will make them delicate
feeders later, and cause them to fall off when put on roughage.
Do not let them freshen until they are thirty months old.
Feed grain liberally the last four months, so as to develoj) the
udder.
32
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
$10 00
21 60
$0 05
05
02
$0 12 =
21 60
.
5 00
.
30 60
.
6 00
.
19 80
.
1
Cost of a Dairy Cow.
August, calf,
Three months, milk, 12 pounds, at 2 cents,
Hay, 6 pounds, ....
Grain, 3 pounds,
Turnij^s, 1 peck, ....
6 months X 30 = 180 days X •
6 months, pasture, ....
6 moiitlis, barn, at 17 cents per day, .
6 months, pasture, ....
3 months, barn, at 22 cents per day,
2y2 years labor,
$114 60
For various reasons, tlirce of which T will mention, cows
are nsnally sold for much less than the actual cost of rais-
ing : —
1. Because there is something wrong with them.
2. Because the one who raised them does not know the cost
of raising them.
3. Because the owner had to sell, on account of poverty.
Those of the first case are as useless to the buyer as to the
seller. In the second place, probably no attention was paid
to the quality of the sire. The country is full of scrub service
bulls, and it is very doubtful if many of this class would show
any profit in the dairy. In the third case they will probably
soon be on the market again, for the same cause.
Breeding dairy cows for the market is losing business.
Breeding them for one's own dairy is indispensable. But the
demand for dairy cows is rapidly increasing, and the market
price this fall approximates the cost of raising.
Value of a Cow.
Pounds,
Quarts.
3.^ Cents per
Quart.
Feed.
Labor.
Profit.
Value.i
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
3,000
7,441
6,511
5,581
4,651
3,721
2,790
1,800
1,395
$260 43
227 88
195 33
162 78
130 23
97 65
65 10
48 82
$110 00
100 00
90 00
80 00
70 00
60 00
50 00
45 00
$50 00
45 00
40 00
35 00
30 00
25 00
20 00
17 00
$100 43
82 88
65 33
47 78
30 23
12 65
-4 90
-13 18
$326 29
273 64
220 99
168 34
115 69
62 95
10 30
—14 54
1 Three times yearly profit, plus $25 for carcass.
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 33
Feed. — ISTo matter how good the dairjinan and how good
the cow, she must have sufficient feed, — pahitaWe, nourishing
feed, — - in order to be profitable. It does not pay to be stingy
with the feed. It requires considerable feed to maintain life ;
a little more makes a little milk, and a little more makes a
little profit, and if the cow will utilize a little more, there will
be a greater profit. We must raise all of our roughage, and
buy concentrates, rich in protein. With plenty of well-ma-
tured ensilage and early cut clover or alfalfa hay nicely cured
we have a balanced ration, and need not use much grain for
the cows of large digestive capacity.
Ensilage is indispensable for the New England milk pro-
ducer. Fifteen to thirty tons can be grown on an acre. It is
easy to grow ; never fails ; takes more than ninety per cent of
its weight from the sun and water ; is conveniently harvested ;
takes up but little storage space ; is easy to feed ; is valuable
not alone for its carbohydrates and fat, which furnish fuel
for the body, but for its palatability and succulence, keeping
the bowels regulated, and making the winter months equal
June for milk production. In fact, I can make milk cheaper
in winter with it than in summer without it. Some progres-
sive dairj'mcn are filling their silos the first of June with rye
and clover for summer feeding. It has the advantage of
allowing one to use the same silo for two croi)s. But I am of
the o^jiiiion that corn ensilage is the chea})est feed, and also
the best feed ; and that the dair^'man does well who puts up
enough in the fall to feed every day in the year. I belie\'e it is
the cheapest feed on earth, keeps the cows in si)]endid condi-
tion, is conducive to good health, and keeps them yielding a
steady flow of milk. Corn does the best on turf ground. I
plant by hand three feet apart each way, four kernels in a hill.
Last week I rode twuce across Indiana, and saw thousands
of acres of corn standing. Stock of all kinds were running
through it, and the appearance of buildings indicated that
much stock would be left exposed to the weather all winter,
and help themselves to corn in the field and wheat straw from
the stack. Such shiftless, wasteful farming Avould not be tol-
erated in New England. The small growth of corn, the
scrubby-looking stock, and the untidy, desolate-looking build-
34 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
iiigs and hoiiies, prove the folly of such a system of agri-
culture.
I also believe in feeding good hay every day in the year that
a cow will eat it. Where the pastures are good, there are a
few weeks that a cow does not care for hay ; but if she is hun-
gry enough to eat it, she should certainly have it. I believe a
cow's health is better and that she will last longer if she con-
sumes ten pounds of hay a day, though she may produce the
same amount of milk cheaper from other feeds.
Clover is a valuable feed, but it seems to be a crop to talk
about and write about more than for every-day use by the
dairyman. The seed is expensive, runs out quickly, gives
small yields to the acre unless heavily fed, and is very difficult
to cure in IN^ew England weather, where we have to make hay
with a fork in one hand and an umbrella in the other. In a
limestone region, where there is a guarantee of no rain during
summer, it may be grown to better advantage. However,
what clover we are able to get cured nicely is valuable feed,
and the sod is valuable for growing a crop of corn.
The heavy applications of manure on a dairy farm, or on
such dairy farms as save all the manure, tend to make the land
acid, and the clover plant will not flourish on an acid soil.
This condition may be corrected by applications of lime, wood
ashes or Thomas slag. I have used all these, and wood ashes
have proved the most successful on my farm, though I cannot
tell why.
Alfalfa is like clover, only more so, — its advocates write
longer and " holler " louder. The agricultural papers have
been booming alfalfa for Connecticut and Massachusetts for
twenty years, and possibly twenty years before that, — I don't
remember. We hear wonderful stories from new ehthusiasts
every year. Some of the earlier ones have quieted down,
possibly, after having sold their farms by the ton, to inoculate
the soil of new converts. But I am not personally acquainted
with very many in Connecticut or in Massachusetts who have
laid by any great amount of wealth accumulated from raising
alfalfa. Undoubtedly it is a valuable crop, and Avill be more
extensively grown for dairy stock ; but it has not yet solved
the old-time problem of getting something for nothing.
1
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 35
If oue has but a few acres of tillable land, and wants to get
a largo amount of roughage to feed with ensilage, he can disc
some corn stubble in early spring, sow oats and marrowfat
peas, make them into hay, disc again, and sow millet. Two
large crops of hay may be secured, and corn be grown on the
millet sod the following year. The practice of alternating
corn with oats, peas and millet may be continued by applying
a heavy coat of manure every year. When corn is to follow
corn, I sow rye on the corn stubble, and harrow in. This
protects the ground from washing by heavy rains ; utilizes the
available portions of winter-applied manure in early spring,
holding them until the corn crop is ready to use them ; fur-
nishes early pasture, a soiling crop or poor hay, before plow-
ing time ; when turned under, adds humus to the soil and
makes the soil looser ; and, slowly decomposing, furnishes food
for the corn during the growing season. Perhaps a better dis-
position of the rye field in the spring is to harrow in clover
seed and roll, then cut a crop of rye hay and a crop of clover
hay that season, two or three crops of clover hay the following
season, and corn again the third. I have been perplexed for
many years to know what kind of a rotation to practice, having
but little land, and not wishing to grow anything except stock
feed. I have about settled on this: (1) corn; (2) rye hay
and clover hay; (3) three crops of clover; (4) corn again on
clover sod. I am not satisfied with this method, for I do not
like rye hay, but am at a loss to know what better to do.
Manure spread daily on the land, except during the muddy
season and on deep snow, does the land much more good than
manure that has been jjiled around the barns ; and the absence
of the old-time manure pile has no bad effect on the quality
of the milk, the spring work, or the appearance of the place.
The spreader should be regulated so as to cover all the land
every year. Top-dress the meadows first up to January or
February, then apply the fresh manure to the corn ground.
I have noted that the portions of the corn field having the
freshest manure had the heaviest corn.
Grain. — I feed a pound of grain for every three pounds of
milk a cow gives, as a standard, feeding more or less, according
to age of cow, condition, pressure of milk market, etc. Four
36 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
or five kinds of grain mixed together give the best results, and,
for convenience and safety, mix so that a quart weighs a
pound. Give a cow three ounces of good dairy salt daily, —
not bitter hay salt ; or, to save time in feeding, mix two pounds
of salt with every hundred pounds of grain. Union grains
and Unicorn are both safe and good feed. Possibly the same
analysis can be made by home-mixing large quantities, — one
to three dollars a ton cheaper ; but it is questionable if the
small dairyman, or he who intrusts the mixing and feeding
to hired help, can do better than to use them. A cow will not
eat enough of either to hurt her.
Market. — The last and perhaps the most important part
of my subject, from a financial point of view, deals with the
milk after it has been produced. The exjiert stockman, with
his highly developed dairy herd and the best of feeds, does not
always make a profit. Sad, but true, it is too often the case.
The first step necessary is to know the cost of the product.
Pigure insurance, interest, depreciation, taxes, your own time,
etc. ; and, if your market conditions are such that you cannot
make a profit, stop before you have lost that which you have,
and sold yourself into slavery. Milk, safeguarded as it must
be in certified j^lants, cannot be put on the market for less than
15 cents a quart, and many have lost money at that figure.
Since writing the above I have received notice from the pro-
prietor of Fairlea farm, announcing that his price after De-
cend^er 1 is 18 cents per quart. Business men of such courage
in the dairy business are having a tremendous influence on the
price of all milk, and we should do all in our power to support
their position. The actual cost of j^roduction may not be more
than 1 cent a quart more than that of ordinary milk, but the
interest on the plant and the cost of selling is enormous. Cer-
tified milk routes are scattered. People of wealth will buy
certified milk when their babies are sick, and change to
cheaper milk of unknown history as soon as the baby is better.
There is a great agitation for clean milk, and the large cities
will take a good many quarts a day at 15 cents to 20 cents a
quart ; but the great volume of milk must continue to be sold
at a price close to the cost of production.
As dairymen, we are not sneaking criminals, trying to evade
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 37
the law, civil or moral. We are the last class of people in the
world to knowingly place a food on the market that could
possibly injure man or babe. The proper care of milk re-
quires knowledge and skill, wliich must be exercised every
day in the year. We are willing to acquire this, if the con-
sumer will pay the cost, and not compel us to compete with
ignorance and filth. We welcome inspection, investigations,
and the rigid enforcement of all the laws necessary to insure
cleanliness and safety. Clean and cold is the whole secret of
good milk.
Some of the Details in pi-oducinfj High-class Milk. — The
cows and attendants must be clean and healthy. It is esti-
mated that from 150,000 to 200,000 people die of tuberculosis
in the United States every year, — as many as were lost dur-
ing the whole civil war; and it is thought that the disease is
carried to a gi-eat many, especially children, in cows' milk.
Probably the germs are not contained in the milk when drawn,
except in cases of tuberculosis of the udder, which is not very
frequent, but suspected if there are any lumps in the udder, or
if the cow is subject to garget or inflammation. But it more
often comes from the fine particles of excrement of a tuber-
culous cow, or the sputum of a tuberculous attendant, dried
into dust, and finding its way into the pail.
You have all probably seen, some time in your life, a ray
of bright sunlight shining through a crack or knothole in a
barn, revealing the thousands of particles of dust in every
cubic inch of space, moving rapidly about ; and, if you think
of every one of these particles of dust carrying a thousand
bacteria, many of which may be the specific germs of a fatal
disease when taken into the stomach of a delicate babe, and
consider that in warm milk each germ may multiply by 100
every minute, you can appreciate the importance of allaying
some of the dust, and removing the milk from the stable and
cooling it as soon as practicable.
The ceilings, walls and floors of the stable should bo tight;
cobwebs and dust thoroughly swept down. The stable should
be whitewashed twice a year. Whitewash is a disinfectant,
— seals up the cracks and makes the stable sweeter and
lighter. Wiping the udders and flanks with a clean, damp
38 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
towel, just before placing the pail under the cow, will do
more good than any other simi^le, inexpensive operation. The
towel should be wrung out after every two or three cows, and
the milker's hands wiped dry.
The cow's tail is a terrible source of infection, generally
dirty, with the most dangerous kind of dirt. Constantly
switching, it keeps the dust of the region in motion, and it is
not infrequently thrust into the face of the milker or into a
pail of milk ; and when milk is scarce, I am afraid it is not
always thrown away after such a pollution. The tail should be
docked, clipped or daily washed, and held securely while
milking.
Bedding of shavings or sawdust creates less dust, and dust
of a loss harmful nature, than hay or straw; and if care is
taken not to have any dry feed nio\'ed in the stable for an hour
before milking, and the floor is sprayed just before milking,
the amount of dust will be kept down precoptibly.
A pail with as small an opening as can be conveniently
milked into will help a great deal. Strainers over the opening
do not do much good, except to keep out hairs and particles of
dirt, which, if the cow has l)een properly groomed, will not
be present.
Milk commissions recommend that the milk room be located
at least fifty feet from the stable. I do not approve of this, as
it makes so much extra walking. I like a clean, well-lighted
little room, adjacent to the stable, with a tight wall between,
where the milk can be poured through a wall-funnel and run
into a cooler, without the milker or stable air entering the
milk room. The milk room should be sprinkled with clean
water or flooded with steam prior to milking. The milk should
be immediately cooled with ice water, and kept in ice water
or packed with chopped ice nntil consumed. Every utensil
coming in contact with milk should be rinsed until all the milk
is off, then scrubbed with hot water containing an approved
washing powder, again rinsed with clean water, and last
steamed in a steam closet or over a steam spout, or scalded
with boiling water.
riies should be kept away from milk at all times, for after
coming from the barnyard they are likely to have dirty feet,
and they have been proved to be ready carriers of disease.
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 39
With these simple and inexpensive precautions, milk may
be kept sweet for two weeks, and certainly at the ordinary age
of delivery should be a safe and wholesome food for any one.
At 10 or 12 cents a cpiart, it is about as economical a food as
can be purchased.
In certified barns there are many more things that must be
done, such as rejecting the first two streams from each teat ;
washing the hands in antise]^tic water before milking each
cow; milking through absorbent cotton; carrj'ing into a room
one hundred feet froui the stable, and straining and straining;
all attenda^nts wearing laun<lered suits ; cows tuberculin tested,
and groomed and scrubbed until they are sore ; watchman to
carry all droppings from the barn as soon as dropped ; tiled
milk room, marl)le wash basins and expensive stables. These
things are idee, may add a little to the safety, but are not so
important as the simple operations previously mentioned.
They are what makes the milk cost, and probably must be done
to make the customers, paying a long price, feel that they are
getting their money's worth.
]^OAV, remember the four essentials of producing market
milk : the man must be a dairyman ; the cow, a dairy cow ;
the feed, sufficient and adapted to dairy feeding; and the mar-
ket price, a little above the cost of production.
Question. Why does it cost more to take care of a cow
giving 10,000 pounds of milk than of one giving 4.000 ?
Mr. PiERPOXT. A cow giving 1G,000 pounds of milk
would consume nearly $110 worth of food, wdiile the poorer
cow might be maintained for $45. Then there is the slightly
increased expense of caring for the good cow, caused by the
extra time taken in milking and feeding. I have tried to be
wholly fair to the poor cow, and think that if anything there
is more diiference between her and the good cow than I have
indicated. These figures are approximations; I have no 10,-
000-pound cows, so cannot speak from actual experience.
Mr. Burton W. Potter. Why is it that you haven't
them? Isn't it because there are not many of them to be
had ?
Mr. PiERPONT. There are not many because there is not
the demand for them; the milk producers are not willing to
pay those prices.
40 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Mr. PoTTEE. What is the average of your herd ?
Mr. PiERroNT. Last year the average was 7,432 pouuds,
the highest giving 11,539 pounds and the lowest 5,340
pounds. In the thirteen years I have kept records the highest
cow average is 9,316 and the poorest 3,500 pounds. In the
one case there is a yearly profit of $G1, on the basis of my
figures, and in the other a yearly profit of G cents.
The CirAiRMAN. The speaker has called attention to four
points, the man, the cow, the feed and the market. We can
buy the feed, and perhaps can get the market, if we eater
to it, though there seems to be very little market for milk at
the higher prices. Most of us are producing milk for a trade
that will not pay over 8 or 10 cents a quart, and many of us
are not getting enough to pay expenses. As much depends
on the market price as anything, although the cow and the
man are difficult to secure. The feed we can buy, if we have
the other necessities.
Mr. Potter. I agree with most of what the lecturer has
said, but I wish to call a few of his statements in question. I
do not believe that we have been given the milk market for
New England producers. In fact, the Boston contractors
are now bringing in milk from northern l^ew York and from
Canada, and I am informed that cream is shipped in from
Prince Edward Island. Certified milk will keep two weeks
with icing, and sterilized milk two weeks without ice, so
that I see no reason why milk cannot be shipped into Boston
from a thousand miles away; and under our present freight
rates it will cost no more to ship it that distance than from
the Connecticut valley. The railroads do not always know
just what they are doing, any more than the farmers. At a
recent meeting the general counsel of the Boston & Maine
Railroad made the statement that they had been carrying
milk at a loss for thirty years. A witness before the Inter-
state Commerce Commission has recently stated that the
railroads of the country coidd save a million dollars a day
by the application of scientific principles. The lecturer asks
an impossibility when he asks ns to know just what it costs
to produce milk. ISTo two men in this audience would agree
as to the exact cost. I compiled some figures at one time
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 41
and made it cost 5 cents a quart, but Dr. J. B. Lindsey said
that it cost more thau 5 cents, and I am satisfied that he is
nearer right than I. I think that a heifer costs just about
what the lecturer has indicated, perhaps a few dollars less,
say $100, but not less than that. I agree fully with the
lecturer that we should all keep good cows, but there are not
many lG,000-pound cows to be had at any price. I have a
heifer with her first calf that has given 12,000 pounds of
milk in nine months, and another heifer, that looks just as
good, and has given but 8,000 pounds. Perhaps next year
these same heifers will reverse their milk yields. All these
things must be taken into account, and all you can do is to
keep and breed good cows and keep them in good condition.
The consumers have to pay a fair price for everything they
buy, except milk, and that they expect to get for just what it
costs the farmer, with the freight charged back.
Mr. P. M. H.VRwooD. I want to emphasize the courage
of the man who goes out and asks a decent price for his milk.
The chairman of this meeting and the secretary of this Board
are taking that stand and doing it successfully. Everything
depends on the last point the speaker made, — the market
and successful marketing. With decent prices and decent
profits you will see enthusiasm in the dairy business. One
reason why our milk producers do not get along better is that
they have to compete with too many sections. To-day much
of the milk sold in the Boston market is pasteurized, or par-
tially cooked, before it is shipped^ so that it may be brought
in from ISTew York and Canada. Milkmen and milk pro-
ducers do not hang together closely enough. Let the milk-
men of any town get together and agree to raise prices, and
it is probable that not more than one of them will stick it
out until the end of the season, and he will be very likely 1o
lose most of his customers.
Mr. John Bursley. T would like to ask the lecturer to
give us some points on raising the standard of the average
dairy herd.
IVfr. PiERRoxT. Pirst, get a pure-bred sire, whose daui
and whose sire's dam was a good milk lu-oducer, of the pat-
tern von want vour future herd made from, and yon can feel
42 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
pretty sure that your herd will begin to improve. Use some
breed that suits joiir fancy and stick to that breed. If you
have skim milk, and give your cows enough other feed, you
can raise just as good heifers on that as on whole milk. The
reason I use whole milk is because I have no skim milk
to use.
Mr. II. O. Daniels. The question has been asked as to
where we were going to get the man and get the cow. I say,
raise them both. I believe the man who is raising an Amer-
ican citizen to-day. and raising him so he will wish to become
an American farmer, occupies the highest position a man
can have. I believe the man who is trying to build up his
stock, and who puts his best effort and ability into the work,
will have a herd that he will be proud of. Start with a
pure-bred sire and I doubt if there is a man in this audience
who will not then go and get a pure-bred heifer to work with
him. That was the way we started, and we have 40 pure-
bred cattle to-day where we had not 1 five years ago. Pure-
bred cows are the best associates a man can have, and I
believe our !N^ew England boys can make out as Avell in life
in dairying as in any other business. The price of milk is
low because we have so many small producers, because we
have to keep so many of them to make a living. Cut off half
the herd, keep the better half, raise cows to reproduce it, and
save the money that goes into other States to keep the herd
going. The problem can be solved, and we can solve it just
as well as the other fellows.
Dr. J. B. LiNr>SEY. I think that the lecturer has shown a
fine grasp of the dairy subject, though we may not agree
with him on every point. The question of cost of milk pro-
duction is a vital one to the average producer, and in the
past milk has sold for altogether too low a price, — less than
it cost to produce it under satisfactory conditions. I believe
that this is because the average farmer has not kno^^^l what
it costs him to produce milk. He has given his labor and
that of his family, and said that it did not cost anything,
with the result that the public at large has come to believe
that milk can be had for 5 or G cents a quart. They are
(iTadually realiziug that they must pay more. As soon as the
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 43
producer and consunier realize what it costs to produce milk,
and that the producer cannot sell it for less than cost, I be-
lieve that the whole problem will work itself out. At the
experiment station we have simply figured the feed cost of
raising a dairy cow, and find it to Ix^, for Jersey's and Jersey
grades, from $50 to $05. We feed no new milk after the
first three weeks, but have dei)ended solely on skim milk and
hay. We have not tried to figure the labor cost, as we are
carrying on experiments, and our labor cost is necessarily
high.
Mv. jST. B. Turnek. In Berkshire County we have a
good deal of good pasture land, though rough and rocky.
My plan is to take coavs that arc milking, and are going to
freshen in the fall, get them to own a calf each, and turn into
an out pasture. In the fall I have a big yearling and a cow
worth more tha]i when she went to pasture. The calf will
work the cow harder than we would if we milked her, but
she will stand it without scouring. For the next two years
I should not reckon my hay and pasture as high as does
the lecturer. I should be glad to take in yearlings at 15
cents a week. I should have them freshen before they are
two and a half years old. I think you get a better cow that
way, by letting the udder grow and expand with the cow,
before her body is done gi'owing.
Dr. LiNDSEY. The opinion among practical dairymen
in the past seems to have been that it pays to buy rather than
to raise dairy cows. Many of our dairymen depend entirely
upon cows that they buy. That is one reason that cows are
so high, because so many of them have been brought in and
kept a year or less, and then turned into heef. I would ask
the lecturer if he finds it to his advantage to raise his owi
animals.
Mr. PiERPoxT. I find it so, for the reason that I cannot
find cows that I can buy for less than $100 that will make
a profit.
^rr. E. II. FoRRTSTATX. TTow much gTain is it advisable
to feed a large yearling heifer ? Is it not better to feed more
heavily on grain after she has had her first calf, and get a
good growth at that time ?
44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Mr. PiEEPONT. I believe in feeding heavily the first
year, beginning with 1 i)Ound a day, and increasing to 3
jwunds the latter part of the winter. I want all the size
I can get the first year, as I think that is the cheapest time
to get the size; and the second year I want them to eat all
the ronghage they can, giving them but little grain, as my
theory is that that will make a cow of large digestive capac-
ity. Then the last three months before freshening, at two
and a half years of age, I begin to increase the grain, so as
to develop the udder.
Mr. W. A. Harlow. What do you think about the milk-
ing machine ?
Mr. PiERPONT. I think that the milking machine may be-
come practical, but that as yet it is not.
The Cir AIRMAN. I will ask Mr. Jewett to tell us some-
thing al)out that.
Mr. W. 0. Jewett. I believe thoroughly in milking
machines, but my plant is a little out of date, and I did not
care to put the necessary money into fixing it up, so I am
temporarily not using them. If I had a herd of heifers
started on the milking machine they would never give a bit
of trouble, but old cows wall sometimes hold up their milk,
just as when milked by hand, and for no apparent reason.
If you weigh the milk, strip the cows that do not give what
they should at any milking, and keep your power regular you
will have no trouble with the milking machine. I used
steam, and had a great deal of trouble in keeping the power
regular.
Mr. TuRisrER. What do you think best, to pasture stock,
or soil them and keep them in the barn ?
Mr. PiERPONT. If I had a pasture I should turn the
cow out to get whatever it had to offer. I do not think we
can afford to bring green crops to the cow, but I do think it is
economical to feed ensilage and hay nearly every day in the
year,
Mr. W. C. Burt. I do not want any young man here to
think it costs $114 to raise calves. My experience is that it
never costs over $50 to raise a good heifer.
No. 4.] MARKET MILK. 45
Mr. Bridgmajst. I figure that the cost of raising a heifer
is about $45, with skim milk at 33 cents a hundred pounds,
and labor. You cannot get more than $5 for a good grade
calf, so why charge yourself more than that for one. I have
two heifers now, two and two and a half years old, that will
give a good 7,000 pounds of milk the first year, and they
would not sell for $100. If it really costs $100 to raise
them, it is better to buy, as you can pay from $00 to $75 and
get 7,000 pounds of milk the first year. I usually keep cows
two years, and get considerably more milk the second year
than the first.
Mr. Bowman. I was looking over the dairy farms in
Rhode Island the other day, and I find they arc feeding beet
pulp, costing $24 a ton. Is beet pulp a good thing to buy at
that price, or is it better to buy ensilage ?
Dr. LiNDSEY. Dried pulp is worth more than ensilage,
but it is not worth $24 a ton, — not over $16 or $17. Beets
are exhausting to the soil, and unless you have plenty of room
to raise all your feed I should raise corn for ensilage, raise
what hay I could and then buy the rest of the hay and grain
needed to make a balanced ration, in the form of cotton-seed
meal, wheat bran, etc.
Evening Session.
An evening session was held at 8 o'clock, at which Charles
W. Bosworth, Esq., of Springfield, IMass., delivered an in-
teresting and eloquent address on " The horse on Massachu-
setts farms." By request the lecture is not included in this
volume.
Second Day.
Secretary Ellsworth. It is my pleasure to introduce
as the presiding officer for this session the First Vice-Presi-
dent of the State Board of Agriculture, Mr. John Bursley
of West Barnstable.
Mr. Bursley. Mr. Secretary, ladies and gentlemen, I feel
that an introduction is hardly needful with many of you, be-
cause I have met you on these occasions for so many years.
46 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The subject that is before lis this morning is one that has in-
terested onr people throughout the State, and one in which
the consumer as well as the producer is vitally interested. I
am glad so many of you have gathered for instruction on the
subject of clean milk, which will be presented in a very able
manner by Prof. R. M. Washburn of the Vermont Agricul-
tural Exj^eriment Station, Burlington, Vt.
No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 47
THE FOOD VALUE OF CLEAN MILK. THE DEMAND
FOR CLEAN MILK: THE KEASONABLENESS OF ir.
BY PROF. R. M. WASHBURJST, DEPARTMENT OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, VER-
MONT AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BURLINGTON, VT.
A situation exists to-day in New England and New York,
and, to a lesser extent, westward to the opposite ocean. It is
more than local, though we are the first to feel it keenly. It
is more than a dairyman's problem; in fact, it is more than
an agricnlturist's question. It is an economic condition based
upon tradition, poor memory, personal greed, and an inabil-
ity and unwillingness of the average individual to read or
reason.
Dean Davenport of Illinois calculates that by the end of
the present century there "will be about twelve hundred mil-
lion people in this country.
President J. J. Hill of the Great Northern Eailroad, wlicii
discussing the food supply of the future, predicts that l)y the
middle of the present century there will be a wheat shortage
of 400,000,000 bushels.
Lord Macaulay is quoted as saying: " The day will come
when the multitudes of people, none of whom has had more
than half a breakfast or expects to have more than half a
dinner, will choose a Legislature. It is possible to doubt
what sort of a Legislature will be chosen, . . . There will be,
I fear, spoliation. The sjxdiation will increase the distress;
the distress will produce fresh sjDoliation. . . . Either civi-
lization or liberty will perish."
There remains very little new laud to be taken u]); our
" out west " is past, so far as extension is concerned. The
nation faces a situation which is none the less real because
distant a few years from us.
48 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Even if we question the accuracy of these estimates in rate
of human increase and shortage of food, the fact still remains
that we are coming soon to a condition where it will be im-
perative that all possible of the organic-energy-carrying ma-
terial about us be converted into human food in the most
unwasteful fashion.
Around about us there are hundreds of thousands of acres
of hill and meadow lands, producing vegctal)le growth which
is absolutely valueless as food for man direct; and in addition
to this we find that 60 per cent of the energy-carrying mate-
rial of our field crops is likewise in such form as to recpiire
first being consumed by some food-producing animal before it
has any food value for man.
In practice, the consumption of this otherwise waste stuff
limits itself down to the beef steer and the dairy cow, and
close study has shown that the cow will produce about seven
times as much human food per unit of feed consumed as will
the steer. In fact, the corn stalks, leaves and cobs produced
on one acre of good corn, if fed to a steer will provide material
for about 50 pounds edible dry matter in the form of flesh,
while if fed to a dairy cow about 330 pounds edible dry
matter will be produced. National economy, then, would de-
mand that our hill pastures and lowland meadows, as well as
the coarse fodders of cultivated fields, be employed in the pro-
duction of nulk.
Our New England farmers are now engaged in milk pro-
duction more largely than in any other branch of agricul-
ture ; or, in other words, they are workiiig along the lines
of greater public good in food production. Yet it is a pain-
ful fact that for some reason, or many, the business can
scarcely be said to be a paying one. There is now a living
in it, but little more.
On top of the present condition another is climbing, which
is tending strongly to make it yet more difficult to so handle
this most honorable of human callings as to make it profit-
able for those engaged in it. I have refei-ence to the great
popular demand for better milk without a corresponding bet-
ter price, and the fact that our milk producers already re-
No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 49
ceive such poor pay for their product that at best the
euterprise holds out small inducement, indeed, to those who
have capital seeking employment.
The demand for clean milk is growing; it is growing rap-
idly. The health authorities, aided by many of the best-
informed consumers of our cities, are active throughout the
land in establishing laws and rules to govern the quality of
milk sold in their respective cities. Whereas formerly the
milk inspectors had to do principally with the retailer of
the milk, the actual producer is now becoming mcjre and
more involved, so that the health regulations of Boston and
New York, and of other cities, are very materially affecting
the routiue work on the dairy farms throughout New Eng-
land and New York. That this demand is increasing is
evident to every one at all conversant with the situation.
Our fii-st question is, " Is this demand a well-founded and
an intelligent one ? "
Amount of Milk used. — According to the latest obtain-
alile figures there are i)roduced in the United States about
7,20(5,400,000 gallons of milk per year, of which practically
30 per cent, or 2,180,000,000 gallons, are used as milk.
Though this figure looks large it even then amounts to only
six-tenths of a jiint per day per person, whichj viewed in
that light, appears small. If accurate figures could be ob-
tained up to the present time, they would undoubtedly be
larger than those named, for milk is being more and more
consumed as its real value becomes better known. At pres-
ent "milk and cream together furnish about 16 per cent of
the total food of the average American family."
Numher of Dependent Infants. — There are in the TTnited
States approximately one and one-half million babies under
one year of age at the jiresent time, about one million of
whom are dependent entirely oi- largely upon cow's milk for
their nourishment, and the per cent of bottle-fed ba1)ies is
increasing. Although adults consume consideral)le quanti-
ties of milk, infants and young children furnish the principal
market for milk. What relation is there between cow's milk
and the well-being of these babies ? Statistics in this country
50
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
are largely wanting on the subject, but we have reason to
believe that the figures obtained from Berlin, Germany, are
accurate for their conditions, and apjiroximately so for ours.
In the following table we note the death rate per thousand of
infants fed on different foods : —
Table 1. — German Statistics, showing the Death Rate per Thousand
fed on Various Foods.
Fed (111 motlier's milk, 7.4
Fed on mother's and cow's milk, ...... 21.4
Fed on cow's milk, 42.1
Fed on milk substitutes, 67.7
Fed on cow's milk and substitutes, ...... 125.7
From the above we note that where 1 child dies which is
being breast fed, there arc nearly G when fed on cow's milk.
In some places, most notably in our large cities, the death
rate among bottle-fed babies is ten times that among breast-
fed. This in itself would indicate either that the cow's milk
is not adapted to the human infant, or that there is a great
fault somewhere in the handling of the cow's milk. In com-
paring the composition of human versus cow's milk, we
notice that they differ principally in the following points:
the fat in the cow's milk is about 30 to 40 per cent higher
than in human ; sugar in human milk is nearly twice as high
as that in cow's; the protein content of cow's milk is more
than three times that of human; the nutritive ratio in the
case of the cow is approximately 1 :4, and approximately
1:8 in the human, with an acid reaction in the cow's milk
and an alkaline reaction in the human, as indicated in the
following table : —
Table 2. — A Comparison of the Tivo Milks, showing their Average
Relative Component Parts on a Chemical Basis {Per Cent).
Water.
Fat.
Sugar.
Protein.
Ash.
Nutritive
Ratio.
Reaction.
Cow's mills, .
Human milk, .
87.0
88.4
4.0
3.3
4.5 3.75
6.9 1.50
.75
.20
1:3.9
1:7.8
Acid.
Alkaline.
No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 51
The differences as indicated above are quite readily over-
come by a method known as moditicatiou, which is simply the
addition of Avatei', milk sugar and lime water in such quanti-
ties as to establish in the modified cow's milk approximately
the conditions present in the human.
Fat V. Cleanliness. — A study of the methods of modifica-
tion shows us that it is customary to start a child with a milk
in which there is about 2 per cent fat, and that gradually the
fat content is increased until the child, at five or six months
of age, is receiving milk containing about 4 per cent fat. Un-
doubtedly this fact is largely due to the popular notion that
fat is the most valuable ingredient of milk, and that milk has
value in proportion to its fat content, without any particular
reference to the other features. That this is a mistaken be-
lief is becoming known slowly, as w^e study more and more
closely the value of the other constituents of the milk and the
value of cleanliness. Experiments have been conducted to
show the value of rich milk versus half-skimmed milk as ani-
nuil food. These experiments bear out thoroughly the ex-
perience of our dairy stock breeders, namely, that rich milk,
that is, milk containing around 5 per cent fat, is not condu-
cive to highest bodily vigor; that milk containing practically
only half that amount will develop stronger, more robust and
thrifty animals, whether they be pigs or calves, than will milk
containing 5 per cent or more of fat ; and w^e have no reason
to doubt but that it is the same with children. In fact, wc
have many reasons for feeling that it is the same with chil-
dren. Xot infrequently in these tests have the pigs and
calves fed on rich milk died outright from acute indigestion,
diarrhoea or constipation, whereas their mates, on a less fat
milk, have grown vigorously and without internal troubles.
The statement just nuide is not a " boost " for the IIol-
steins nor a " slam " on the Jerseys. It is a statement of
fact which every housewife and every physician should re-
member. Moreover, the stand taken by many of our city au-
thorities in regard to the fat content of milk, namely, that,
whether a cow gives a 5 per cent milk or a 3 per cent milk,
it must not be changed in any particular, is unwarranted.
52 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
unjust and unscientific. If a city or a State adopts a fat
standard for milk, it should certainly allow all who wish to
standardize their milk to that standard. If that is not to be
permitted, then every retailer of milk should be allowed and
compelled to set his own standard, and be held accountable
only to the living up to that self-imposed standard.
Jersey milk standardized to 3 per cent fat is more valuable
as a food than the milk of a Hoi stein which tests only 3 per
cent naturally, because there will be an equal amount of fat
and a greater amount of sugar and protein in such milk ; and
to forbid such standardization, and prosecute those who prac-
tice it, smacks more of a desire to make a large and showy an-
nual report than a wish to safeguard the health or the purse
of the consumer.
The absence of dirt in milk is of greater value than the
presence of fat over 3 ])er cent.
The cause of had milk is something which every producer,
handler and consumer of milk should understand. That
there is a very vital connection between the cleanliness of milk
and the health of our children, no one who is informed can
deny. For convenience in study, the causes of poor milk
may be grouped under three heads : the cow ; the air ; bacteria.
Under the first we must recognize that when the cow is
out of condition her milk is also out of condition; that to a
very considerable degree milk is not dead matter, but por-
tions of the living mother. It is well known to producers of
high-class infant-feeding milk that when cows have, for in-
stance, been injudiciously fed on something like green corn,
their bowels become excessively loose, which effect is trans-
mitted through the milk to infants consuming such milk.
Any condition in the food which would cause the opposite
condition in the foster mother would cause a similar opposite
condition in the child. Again^ though a cow herself be
thoroughly healthy, if the food consumed is ill flavored, like
rye or wheat pasture, or silage not properly made, the j^un-
gent and disagreeable characters will be transmitted to the
milk, and cause the sensitive child, who soon becomes an
expert judge, to refuse the food it so much needs. It is
No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 53
highly unjust and improper^^ however, to prohibit the feeding
of silage to dairy cows altogether, for there is practically no
other food which can be fed in winter which will so closely
resemble snmmer footl, and which will keep the cow in such
thoronghly good physical condition, to say nothing of the
producers' right of say in the matter, — that of economical
production.
Silago made from mature corn, preserved in properly con-
structed silos, and fetl in quantities not greater than 25 to
30 pounds per day, will, by keeping the cows' general system
in better condition, cause a better milk to be produced than
those same cows could produce under like sanitary conditions
were they fed solely on some dry food.
The air of the stable is too frequently close and filled with
dust and disagreeable odors. That the milk, or rather the
fat of it, will absorb odors, is known to all of us. The rate
at which such odors are absorbed, howe\'er, has frequently
been overestimated. The milk should, however^ bo removed
from the stable atmosphere as soon as it can conveniently be
done; and in storage, too, it should be under clean environ-
ment. Independent, then, of the possibility of bacterial
contamination, there is a reason for an early removal of
milk from ill-flavored places.
Bacte7-ia, though tiny things, are now receiving an im-
mense amount of attention, and justly so, for great is their
ability to do good or ill. The dairyman, too, must remember
that every particle of dust is a tiny raft or airship, each
carrying upon it a dozen to a hundred living things which
have the power of growing and filling large space. The
dandruif and hair from the cow carry with them particles of
manure which introduce the organisms which are frequently
the cause of the " summer complaint," colic, etc., in infants.
The dust in the air also introduces molds and l)acteria from
dusty hay, fodder and bedding, which injure or destroy the
feeding value of such milk.
I say, brother dairyman, did you ever see a farmer get
up in the morning, and, without washing, take two pails of
swill from the house to the hog house, handle the tools con-
54 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
taincd in the hog house; then go to the horse stable, spank
the horses over, feed them their grain, curry them and pos-
sibly harness them; then go to the cow stable, and, after
catching and tying up a calf, sit do^\^l to milk ivitliout wash-
ing his hands ? I say, did yon ever see him do all this
without washing his hands ? I have, we all have ; and we all
know that to milk absolutely dry handed is extremely diffi-
cult on many cows, and that not infrequently the lower
portion of the hands becomes well washed during the milking
process. Where does that dirt go ? Into solution in the milk,
and, being in solution, it cannot be strained out through any
amount of cheese cloth or even absorbent cotton.
Imagine with me for a moment that the good housewife
beats eggs, mixes cake, kneads bread or does any other sim-
ilar piece of food work regularly in so dusty and ill-flavored
a place as the ordinary cow stable. How many of us, young
men, would be willing to marry into that family ? Would
3^ou, Mr. Reader ? As a matter of fact, however, the det-
rimental effects which could possibly result from such work,
which we would immediately pronounce fearfully dirty, would
be nothing of consequence, for the reason that all those foods
are thoroughly baked, and thereby sterilized before being con-
sumed, whereas milk is consumed raw, and that by our tender-
est specimens of humanity. These are not pleasant thoughts,
but they are fact thoughts, and this is not a one-sided story.
Milh as a Disease Carrier. — That epidemics of conta-
gious diseases have been brought about through the medium
of milk as a carrier of the specific organisms causing the
disease has been thoroughly well shown many times. In
fact, there are on record authentic instances of 500 epidemics
which have occurred within the past thirty-five years, — 317
of typhoid, which is now almost exclusively a country dis-
ease, brought about by poor sanitation and flies; 125 of scar-
let fever and 58 of diphtheria, all of which were traceable
definitely to milk, not as a cause but as a carrier of the or-
ganisms introduced carelessly or accidentally, either from
close contact with a person having the disease, or from the
fact that the dairy utensils have been rinsed in water carry-
No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 55
ing the disease germ. Aguin 1 repeat, that witli milk tlie
absence of dirt is of greater value than the presence of fat
over 3 per cent.
Why has Cleanliness such Value? — Because milk is a
good food for many forms of troiihle-making hacteria ; he-
cause it is consumed in a raw state, which permits of intro-
duction into the child of any organism which may be in
the milk; because it is the principal if not the sole diet of
snch infant or child ; because of the tender age of the con-
sumer, — all of which emphasize the necessity for great care
in the production and handling of this article.
Clean and cold are the two qualities which enabled our
distinguished dairy friend, Mr. Gurler, to ship milk from
DeKalb, 111., to Paris, France, where, after twenty-one days,
it was still sweet and wholesome, though carrying no pre-
servative whatsoever other than mere cold ; the same qualities
" which enabled a few dairymen who exhibited milk at the 190G
National Dairy Show at Chicago to exhibit a milk of such
high quality that " some of the samples remained perfectly
sweet after being shipped 1,000 miles across the country,
put in storage at a temperature of about 32° F. for two
weeks, and then reship|-»ed a distance of 900 miles to
Washington, D. C, where they were stored in an ordinary
ice box several weeks longer, some of the certified samples
being still sweet after five weeks. A part of a box of cream
entered in this contest was placed in cold storage in Chicago
at a temperature of 33° F. and remained sweet and palatable
for a period of seven weeks ! " ^ When such records can be
made by a few men, it opens the eyes of all of us to the pos-
sibilities of the industry, and should at least make us all
thoroughly ashamed of ourselves for producing a milk so
dirty and keeping it so carelessly that it becomes sour in one
or two days.
In conclusion, then, we must admit that the demand that
milk shall, at least, be as clean as other foods is a reasonable
nnd just demand.
1 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 87, p 20.
56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The Reasonableness of Clean Milk.
To lay aside all sentiment, for love can neither be measured
nor weighed, the naked truth remains that our children are
the highest priced domestic stock we have, and that their
quality and often their lives are continually threatened by the
poor quality of milk fed them ; and that it is cheaper in dol-
lars and cents to keep them well on clean food than to try to
make them well on drug-store dope.
The cost of producing such clean milk is considerable, as
will immediately be argued. Just how much more cost is
added because of the extra labor involved in producing a clean
rather than a common article will always be very variable,
and is hard to state with any high degree of accuracy, but
that such ad(le<l cost is more than the present profits in the
industry is painfully certain. It requires a greater expen-
diture for equipment, and a constant and much greater ex-
penditure for labor, besides a considerably more thorough
education in the business, which may cost more dollars to ac-
quire. I maintain, however, that the extra cost of producing
clean milk, when added to the present cost of producing plain
milk, does not cause the resulting product to be as expensive
a food, even for the adult, as other foods of similar value ;
and too, when our people come to a full understanding of this
matter, and will cease demanding a milk rich in fat regard-
less of how rich it may also be in dirt, and will demand clean-
liness instead, the extra cost of such cleanly production may
be partly compensated by a lessened fat content, and thereby
work a double benefit, for the milk as food for children will
be more valuable because of the absence of both some fat and
much dirt.
Adults. — Too often milk is thought of as a drink, as a
mere beverage, although we know, when we stop to think of
it, that such vegetables as the carrot, parsnip, cabbage and
pumpkin all carry a higher percentage of water than does
ordinary milk; or, in other words, 100 pounds of milk has
more dry matter and mnch more actual food in it than 100
pounds of carrots and parsnips.
No. 4.]
CLEAN MILK.
57
To make direct comjiarison between foods, however, is diffi-
cult, for several factors must be taken into account. To com-
pare foods directly upon the basis of the amount of dry matter
contained in them is improper, for the reason that the char-
acter of such material varies greatly in value ; to make direct
comparisons upon the basis of the amount of protein (muscle-
making foods) that they carry is equivalent to stating that
the heat and energy carrying portions are of no value, which
is, of course, not true, they l)eing required in seven to ten
times as great quantities as the former; to make comparisons
directly upon the number of units of energy liberated is like-
wise improper, being equivalent to saying that the protein is
of no value, which again is untrue. So then, in order to com-
pare one food against another, it is necessary to compare those
foods which have similar proportions of digestible protein
and energy-bearing nutrients ; or, in other words, to compare
foods which have similar nutritive ratios, and are either both
of auiuial or both of vegetable origin, for the digestibility of
milk and meat products is very materially greater than that
of cereals and garden vegetables. In the following tables the
foods are grouped so that those of approximately like nutri-
tive ratios are compared against each other.
Table 3. — Comparison of Foo<ls, showing Waste Matter and Digest-
ible Nutrient}
Kind of Food.
Nutritive
Ratio.
Refuse
(Per Cent).
Water
(Per Cent).
Digestible
Dry Matter
(Per Cent).
Fat portor house steak,
l:'J.l
T2.7
52.4
38.5
Round steak, ....
1:1.5
7.2
f!0.7
31.4
Hamburg steak.a
1:1.5
-
co.o
34.0
Eggs
1: 1.7
11.2
65.5
22.2
Skim milk
1:1.8
-
9().5
;t.2
Whole milk
1:4..'5
-
87.0
12.5
Smoked ham, ....
1:-1.2
10.7
4H.0
38.3
Cream,
1 : IS. 2
-
74.0
25.0
Bacon,
1:15.1
7.7
17.4
71.0
» Adapted from Farmer's RuUetin 142, United States Department of Agriculture.
' Aver.ageof 12 fair samples collected in HiirliiiKton, Vt.
58
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
From the ahove table we are impressed by several facts.
First, by the high percentage of waste matter in many forms
of onr common foods, there being nearly 13 per cent bone
and gristle, actual waste, in porter house steak. Then that
the bone-free portion is composed of more than one-half
water, and that, of the dry matter, another portion is not di-
gestible, giving only 38.5 per cent digestible nutrients in
porter house steak, with a nutritive ratio of 1:2.1. Let us
study these foodstuffs at their ordinary market prices, and
see what the actual digestible food nutrients cost per pound,
comparing them against others of similar character.
Table 4. — Showing Cost of Digestible Nutrients per pound in
Various Food Stuffs.
Kind op Food.
Nutritive
Ratio.
Ordinary
Price.
Cost per Pound
Digestible
Dry Matter.
Porter house steak,
Round steak, .
Hamburg steak.
Eggs (1 dozen = 1^
Skim milk,
ixiunds),
Plain milk,
flam,
Certified milk,
Clean milk,
Cream,
Bacon, .
1:2.1
1:1.5
1:1.5
1:1.7
1:1. S
1:4.3
1:4.2
1:4.3
1:4.3
1:18.0
1:15.0
30 cents pound.
20 cents pound.
20 cents pound.
36 cents dozen.
2i cents quart.
7 cents quart.
25 cents pound.
15 cents quart.
12 cents (juart.
40 cents quart.
25 cents pound.
$0 80
04
00
1 03
14
28
05
CO
48
80
.35
The above table is striking in that it shows us that skim
milk, with a nutritive ratio comparable with that of porter
house steak, when sold at 2l/> cents a quart, or II4 cents
per pound, does not cost one-fifth as much per pound of
actual food as does porter house steak, and that eggs at 30
cents a dozen (1 dozen eggs equaling ll/> pounds), because
of the waste of shell, and the very high water content of the
contents of the shell, costs us a little more than $1 per pound
of digestible dry matter, as against 14 cents in the case of
skim milk. Even Hamburg steak, that most humble of all
No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 59
meats bearing the name steak, when sold at the nsnal price,
20 cents per pound, costs GO cents per pound of actual food,
or more than four times that of skim milk, even at 2^/^ cents
per quart.
Comparing the second group of whole milk against smoked
ham, we find that whole milk at 7 cents a quart costs us only
28 cents per pound digestible dry matter, whereas ham, be-
cause of the bone, skin and water, costs us 65 cents per
pound ; and that certified milk, even at the " awful " price
of 15 cents a quart, costs ns only CO cents a pound; or, in
other words, certified milk at 15 cents a quart is cheaper food,
even for the adult, than smohed ham at 25 cents a pound,
and as cheap as Hamburg steak. In fact, if the ]u-ices of
7uilk to the consumer were exactly doubled, and nine-tenths
(instead of one-fourth) of the increase given to the producer
of the milk, the farmer Avould then not be greatly overpaid,
and the consumer would still be getting food more cheaply
per pound of actual digestible material in milk than in any
other animal food of similar food value. As a matter of
fact, the selling price of milk should be increased about 4
cents a quart, and S^/o cents of this raise given to the pro-
ducer, in order that a cleaner milk may be made possible,
and still have a market value in proportion to the increased
cost of cow feeds, labor, building material and land values,
which have advanced from 50 per cent to 100 per cent since
1895. Truly, good milk at 12 cents per quart is cheap food,
while dirty milk is dear at half the price.
Coming to the next group, and comparing cream against
bacon, we find that 18 per cent cream at 40 cents a quart
costs us about 80 cents per pound digestible dry matter,
whereas bacon, with approximately the same food-giving
power at 25 cents a pound costs us only 35 cents per pound.
Cream has the price attached largely because of the flavor
and the name, not because of its real food value.
" The idea that only whole milk is fit to use, which is
rather erroneously held by housewives, is perhaps ascribable
to the esteem in which cream is held as an ingredient of
' rich food,' and may lead to quite needless waste or expend i-
60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
ture. For growing children, who need large quantities of
protein and carbohydrates, 2 quarts of skim milk would sup-
ply more of these constituents and more ash than 1 quart of
whole milk. . . . Many families who are in the habit of
drinking whole milk and buying cream would doubtless be
quite as well oif if the top of the milk, say two or three
inches in a quart bottle, were poured into the cream instead
of the milk pitcher; the milk ought still to be far from thin
and blue, and there would be a marked saving in the cost of
cream."
" The commonly accepted standard for a man at moder-
ately active muscular work calls for .28 pounds of protein
and a fuel value of 3,500 calories per day, so that a lunch
of 1 pint skim milk and ^ pound of bread furnishes very
nearly one-third of a day's nutriment, and at a cost of but
5 cents. If whole milk were used instead of skim milk, the
cost woidd be about 7 cents, and the fuel value 1,080 calories,
while the protein would remain the same in amount; " and
added to this is the further fact that the presence of milk in
human diet increases the digestibility and food value of all
other food consumed by about 5 per cent.
Reviewing the situation, then, we see that milk as a food
for infants and young children is almost indispensable, and
in reasonable quantities is an economical food for adults ;
that the consumers are demanding something that they are
not yet willing to pay for ; and that the producers are com-
manded to do something which they cannot do and stay in
the business.
By co-operation last winter you did some good work, and
the whole country, the consumers not excepted, respect you
the more for it. Is the time not now ripe for a broader co-
operation, one which shall reach all producers, contractors,
health officials and milk consumers in New England and
New York ? Is it not time for the dairy associations of these
States to join hands, first with each other, then with those
of contractors and others, for the purpose of placing before
the consumers of milk the facts regarding the true value of
milk ; to keep placing it before them until the opposition to
No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 61
an increase in price shall Lave been broken, and milk put
upon the basis that it has so long deserved; nntil, in fact,
the occupation of producing this most vital of American food
necessities shall become an attractive one both to capital and
to men ?
There is right and justice in the demand of the consumer
for a cleaner, purer milk, and there is equal right and justice
in the demand of the producer that he be repaid the extra
cost of producing this extra quality, and no amount of in-
spection or legislation will really avail much until the pro-
ducers are adequately repaid.
Mr. "\Vm. E. Pateick. How do you account for dairy
men being such fools as to sell their ]u-oduct at the price they
do, and ]>ay double for what they buy ?
Professor Washburn. I shall not call the farmer a fool,
for when we go into the cities we find men from the farms in
every walk of life, and managing great businesses with skill
and intelligence. Of all the business enterprises in the
world farming is the most complex. To be a scientific farmer
requires more training, and more careful training, than
to be an equally good scientist in any other line. A scien-
tific agriculturist must know chemistry, physics, botany and
physiology, and all the other allied branches, and then cement
the whole proposition together by experience, and have com-
mon sense, business sagacity and diplomacy enough to handle
hired men. Answering more particularly, I would say that
farmers have sold for less than the true cost because they
did not know what that cost was. The true cost of a quart
of milk is a thing which it is extremely difficult to get down
to exact figures.
There is a viewpoint I would like to impress upon every
man in the world who is interested in agriculture. I re-
cently spoke before a gathering of farmers, and a lady asked
to know the subject. I told her. " Well," she said, " the
State is doing a lot for the farmer these days." Is it for
the farmer? If so, is the State pauperizing the farmer by
helping him? In this country there are, roughly speaking,
02 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
twice as many people altogether as there are on the farms.
There are about as many homes in the cities as on the farms.
In other words, there are two homes for every farm, one fam-
ily on the farm and one family in town. The family on the
farm has the first rights in the stnif they produce, and the
man in town is dependent for his board upon the surplus.
In the case of shortage, who goes hungry ? The man depend-
ing on the surplus. Who, then, is most affected by improved
agriculture ? The farmer gets the first good, but the city
man gets greatest good, in the study of agriculture. All
this is beside the question, but it is a thought I always like to
bring out.
Mr. S. II. Reed. Can you give the death rate per thou-
sand in the country, where children are raised on the cow's
milk, and in the city, after the handlers have handled that
milk?
Professor Washburn. I cannot. I doubt if the figures
are obtainal)le ; certainly I have never been able to get them.
A comparison conducted between cow-fed and breast-fed
babies is not an entirely fair one. The dairyman might keep
his milk entirely clean until it w^as delivered to the mother,
and then the mother might do something to the milk that
would injure it. It is ignorance and neglect and selfishness
in the home, nearly as much as outside the home, that cause
death. There would not be nearly as many deaths as there
are if the milk were carefully kept after it reaches the home.
Mr. Reed. Is the producer to blame, or the consumer
either, any more than those who take the milk from the farm
and carry it to the city ?
Professor Washburn. By all means, no. The uses to
which milk bottles are subjected in the city homes are some-
thing awful, in many cases. It is a problem not for the
dairyman alone, nor the agriculturist alone ; it is an economic
condition based upon many things, including tradition and
greed.
Afternoon Session.
Secretary ELESWOUTrr. I will introduce as the presiding
officer for this session, Mr. John L. Smith of Barre, repre-
senting the Worcester West Agricultural Society. Some of
No. 4.] CLEAN MILK. 63
the best farm management in the State is found right there
in Barre, as perhaps you will pardon me for saying when
you learn that I was born there.
Mr. Smith. This subject has not been discussed as much
as some others at our public meetings, but it is, I sometimes
think, the most important of all, for no matter how good a
product we produce we are not successful if we fail to man-
age our business proi^erly. I now have the pleasure of intro-
ducing the speaker of the afternoon, Hon. N. P. Hull,
Deputy State Dairy and Food Commissioner, Dimondale,
Mich.
64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
FARM MANAGEMENT.
UY HON. N. P. HULL, STATE DAHiY AND I'OOD COMMISSIONER, DIMON-
DALE, MICH,
First, I want to take joii into my confidence by telling you
that I did not come to Massachusetts to tell you all about the
details of running your farm, for I know, as well as you, that
the only way I could successfully handle the details of a farm
in Massachusetts would be to leave my farm in Michigan,
move here, settle upon this land, and study conditions of soil,
market and climate for a few years ; then I might be able to
understand fairly well the details of farm management in
Massachusetts ; but I maintain that there are certain basic
princii)les of farm management that are just as true here in
Massachusetts as they are in Michigan.
Let me here give an illustration of farm management.
Upon one side of the road there is a man who does a fairly
good day's work, day in and day out for a year. At the end
of the year he has made a profit; he has something to show
for his labor; he has been able to surround himself and his
family with the comforts of life, educate his children and lay
aside something for the day of sickness, calamity and death.
Beside him, or perhaps across the road, there is another man,
who works harder than the first-mentioned man ; his wife
works harder than any one ought to have to work, and his
children work hard, but at the end of the year he is no better
off than at the beginning. After a decade has gone by this
man has nothing to show for his labor except the bare fact of
having existed. The one man has managed his farm, his busi-
ness, correctly ; the other man has not. The result is one man
succeeded ; the other did not.
Let me here ask yon a question. LTow many of you who
have been farming for ten years can tell which crop grown
No. 4.] FARM MANAGEMENT. 65
upon your farm, or wbieli line of live stock baudlccl, has paid
you tlic uiost net profit ? Some of you can. I dare say most
of you cannot. If you know nothing about where you have
gotten your profits, wherein has your experience of ten years
upon a farm profited you in being able to ]nore intelligently
direct your efiorts for the next ten years ? I am a farmer, the
same as you, and I did not come here 1x3 run down the farmer,
nor to separate my lot from yours ; but I want to maintain
here that our good Creator knew what he was doing when he
made the farmer. lie gave him good, strong hands and arms
because there was work to do in the world, and the farmer has
his fair share of this world's work to do, but he also knew
what he was doing when he put a part of the farmer's anat-
omy above his ears, and put brains therein. I presume he
thought the farmer would use those brains to more intelli-
gently and more cunningly direct the efforts of his hands, so
that the work of those hands would avail him more. Let me
illustrate this. A young man from the fruit section of Mich-
igan was sent by his father to our agricultural college to take
a course in horticulture. After completing the course the
young man returned to bis father's farm. The father had 10
acres of apple orchard on his 80-acre farm. The boy said,
" Father, let me take this orchard, prune it, fertilize it and
spray it, as I have been taught to do." The father was a
hard-headed old farmer, and, looking the boy over, he said,
'' Humph, you have been down to that college and got the
big head, ha\'e you ? I want you to understand that I grew
apples before you were born." The boy was a chip off the old
block. Looking his father in the face he said, " Dad, it looks
to me as though you have made a mistake." " Why ? " asked
the father. The son replied, " Either you made a mistake
when you furnished the monoy to send me to college to learn
what I now know, or else you are making a mistake when you
will not let me use that knowledge." This was a hard nut for
the old gentleman to crack. Finally he said to the l)oy, " Take
the orchard and try it one year; I guess you cannot spoil it in
that time." The boy took the orchard, pruned it, sprayed it
and cared for it as he had been taught to do, and he made more
profit oil' that 10 acres of apple orchard that year than his
66 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. IPub. Doc.
father bad made oli the whole farm iu the past ten years. The
boy's hands or arms were no stronger, neither did he work
harder than his father had worked, but he won because he
more intelligently guided the labor of those hands. In farm
management, whether the farmer lives east or west, north or
south, there are two things that he should ever keep before
him: first, that he should sell as many dollars' worth of
product off his farm each year as he can, which shall carry
with it the largest per cent of profit possible ; second, that he
shall maintain or increase the fertility of his farm so that he
may go on selling more dollars' worth of }U"oduct, which shall
carry with it a larger per cent of profit.
xVs to my first statement, the frutli is almost self-evident.
If we are to progress in the world and ha\e better things, and
to make better connnunities, we must do it largely from the
l)rolits in our business. In fact, the profit that wc make in a
year measures, in a commercial way, the value of that year
of our life, and surely we ought to feel that our life is of
sufficient value to urge us on to get as much for it as we can.
As to the second proposition. A man having a warranty
deed for an 80-acre farm has a legal right to mine it; or, in
other words, to blight it so that those who come after him
shall not be able to make a living from it. I do not believe
that he has a moral right to do this. He owes it to his chil-
dren, to his community, to his State and to his nation to so
handle his farm that a fair share of the great unborn armies of
the future shall be able to make a living from it.
Again, as to my first proposition. One source of income
or profit to the farmer is crop production. We owe it to our-
selves to know which crop is best fitted to our land, our climate
and our conditions, and then strive to so handle this crop that
we shall make the largest possible profit from it. I have
learned that in ])rodueing a crop, after one gets a sufficiently
large crop to pay for the cost of production, it requires but a
little larger crop to furnish us G per cent j^rofit ; and it requires
but just a little larger crop than this to double the profit, and
just a little more will triple the profit. Let me illustrate that
by the corn cro]5. I do not care to have you remember the
figures I give you ; they Avould be of no value to you, as they
No. 4.] FARM MANAGEMENT. 67
would not approximate your conditions, but 1 must give some
figures to illustrate the principle. Upon my farm for the last
ten years, taken as an average, 55 baskets of ears of corn per
acre, together with the resulting corn stover, will just about
pay the cost of production. If I grow 4 baskets more, or 5J)
baskets per acre, I make 6 per cent upon my investment. If
I can grow 4 baskets more, or 63 baskets per acre, I will make
l:i per cent upon my investment. That is, under my condi-
tions, a 63-basket crop of corn is as good again as a 59-basket
crop. Let me illustrate this. My friend Mr. Smith here is
husking corn on one side of the fence, I on the other. You
come along and ask Mr. Smith how his corn is turning out.
He says, " 03 baskets per acre." You ask me. I say " 59."
Most of you would say there is not much difference in those
two crops of corn, but if my figures are true there is quite a
difference, for T must plow my land again, plant it again, care
for the crop and harvest it, and get another 59 baskets, then
I will have 8 baskets of corn profit in those two years ; but
ray friend Smith gained 8 baskets of profit in one year. I
jtut in two years to acconi|)]ish what my neighbor accom-
})lished in one year, which means that by simply growing 4
baskets more corn per acre than T grew he has doubled the
value of his time compared to mine. What is true in prin-
ciple regarding the corn, croj) is true of every crop we grow.
When we put in part of our lives growing crops, we should
strive to produce such crops in such a way as will return to us
the largest value ff)r the time we expend.
I am reminded of a farmer in northern Michigan, who,
when asked to attend a farmers' institute, said, " If I have
good land, and the good Lord sends us the rain and sunshine,
I will get a crop ; if He does not send the rain and sunshine,
I cannot; and there is no use attending an institute." I sup-
pose the good Lord will send the same amount of rain upon
our fields whether we know the business of farming or not,
but whether the surface of our fields are so crusty that the
rain will run off to the hollows, or whether the surface will
permit the ])ercolating downward of the rain into the great
storehouse whore it can be (lr;i\\ii upon in time of need, de-
l)cnds upon the intelligent handling of the field. So many sun-
68 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
beams Avill strike our iiekls each year, whether we study to
know or not, but whether they shall be refracted backward
or shall be absorbed to quicken our land depends upon the
intelligence we use in feeding that land. I am constrained to
believe that if we, as farmers, do our part as well as the Lord
does His, we might, most of us, be better oil'.
As to maintaining fertility, there are two methods we may
successfully follow. First, that of green manuring and com-
mercial fertilizers ; second, that of adopting some line or lines
of live stock husbandry, feeding out as much upon the farm
of that which the farm produces as is possible, and returning
the resulting fertility to the farm. While in a limited way
a man may undoubtedly succeed by the first method, my judg-
ment and practice would lead me to believe that for the great
majority of farmers, both east and west, the second method is
the better and more practical. It is not enough, however, that
we feed out the stuff we raise upon the farm and convert it
into a finished product and fertilizer, but we must see to it
that this fertilizer is cared for and goes back upon the land.
The Secretary of Agriculture estimates that about one-half of
our farm-made fertilizers are wasted, and he also estimates
that this waste equals or exceeds a billion dollars a year. How
long can Ave go on wasting our natural ability to grow crops,
depleting our fertility and wasting our resources, and still be
able to feed the great number of people that there Avill be for
us to feed in the future ?
In adopting some line of live stock husbandry, we should
keep in mind the first principle of success which I mentioned.
We want to feed out our product to the animal that will return
to us the most for it, with the largest per cent of profit. To do
this, my judgment and experience permit me to recommend
the dairy cow. In proof of this let me compare the cow as an
economical producer to the steer. Suppose we have here a
unit of feed. This unit represents enoiigh feed that if fed to
the steer will make liim dress one pound more. That is, the
steer will take this feed and convert it into a pound of dressed
beef. Now, if instead of feeding this unit to the steer we fed
it to a good dairy cow. she would convert it into a pound of
butter or two pounds of cheese. A pound of dressed beef by
No. 4.] FARM MANAGEMENT. 69
the side would be worth from 5 to 10 cents. A pound of butter
would be worth from 20 to 40 cents. But, some one says, the
cost of producing the pound of butter, aside from the feed, is
more than that of producing the pound of beef. This is true,
but the difference in cost of production is no way commensu-
rate with the difference in the value of the product. Now. if T
recommended the cow to you, and ^topped there, it would not
be quite fair, for it is true that many men are keeping cows
that do not return to their owners the first cost of the feed
they consume. This, however, is not the fault of dairying,
but the fault of the man keeping the cow^s. He is not using
enough intelligence and painstaking care to know the essentials
for success of the business that he is in, and then adopting
these essentials. There are just three essentials in profitable
dairying. These are, first a good cow; second, good feeding;
third, good care. There are some cows that have the natural
ability to take feed and profitably convert it into milk. There
are other cows that have not this natural ability to take feed
and profitably convert it into milk. I have said that in Mich-
igan there are three kinds of cows. This, I think, is also true
in j\[assachusetts. One kind of eow" takes her feed, digests
and assimilates it, and because of her iidiorn tendency, predis-
position, temperament, or call it the law of nature, if you will,
she converts this digested feed into beef. This is a beef cow.
Another cow, because of her temperament, converts her di-
gested feed into milk. This is a dairy cow, and I care not
what her breeding or color may be. I just want to know that
her temperament prompts her to convert that feed into milk,
I would advise the farmers to tie to this sort of cow, for, in
my judgment, she will do the farmers of Massachusetts more
good than any other animal that walks on four legs on the
farms of Massachusetts. Then there is another kind of cow,
that takes her feed, digests and assimilates it, and God only
knows what she does with it. She neither makes milk nor
beef of it, and she is of no value to any one anywhere and
should be gotten rid of.
Time and space will not permit me giving a talk here upon
feeding and the care of cows, but successful fiinii ami daiiy
management necessitates a man knowing how to do these
70 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
things and then doing them. Let me give an illustration of
farm management. One man whom I knew bought a farm,
and ran in debt for one-half the purchase price and for teams
and tools to stock it. His neighbor said, " It was too bad, for
he would lose all his hard-earned money invested in the farm."
When he moved to the farm his neighbors watched him. He
first made a small barnyard. His cows were kept there nights,
and the first thing in the jnorning, with a shovel, he gathered
the droppings and put them on the compost heap. His neigh-
bors said, " Well, that is all we want to see. If he is to pay
for that farm he must grow crops and sell them, and not
bother around in that way." It was a bother to this man to
collect those droppings ; then he must bother to take them to
the field and scatter them ; and his bother did not cease there,
for. other things being equal, from the first year that man
moved upon the farm he has been bothered with harvesting a
larger corn crop, a larger wheat crop and a larger bean crop;
and to-<lay he is bothered with a first-class farm, has educated
his children and has money in the bank. He succeeded.
Another man, not far away, has his farm given to him. He
did not believe in bothering, l^o manure was ever collected
unless it had to be to get it out of the way. At one time it
looked to him to be cheaper to move the barn than to move the
manure, so he moved the barn. He did not believe in being
bothered, j^ature helped him. Other things being equal,
he was bothered a little less each year, and his crops were light^
and he did not have to bother so much to harvest them. To-
day he is not liothered at nil with a farm. The mortgage took
it and he mo\'ed away. There were two systems of farm man-
agement. The one system led to success ; the other to failure.
Some of you will argue that I have told you nothing new,
and I think this is true. I did not come to Massachusetts with
the idea of telling you a lot of new things, but I did hope that
from our reasoning together we might all return to our homes
and farms with a little renewed incentive and inspiration t(^
do our farm work better. It is not so necessary for farmers
to know a lot of new things, but to do as well as they al-
ready know. I asked a minister once if he called his con-
gregation together every Sunday morning to tell them a new
No. 4.] FARM MANAGEMENT. 71
storv about the Christ child, born in a manger, who lived to be
an example to men, and who died npon the place of skulls.
He re])lied, " Oh, no, they have heard that story nntil it is
an old story; but did I not call them together, and from that
personal contact and interchange of thought did they not get
something of an incentive and inspiration to follow the exam-
ple of that Man who died that we all might live. His influence
woidd drop backward and backward in their lives, and He
would have died in vain." What all men need is more encour-
agement to do, and do well.
Let me advise you here to diligently stndy to know best how
to do, and then to determine to do your best. Do this, and
then stick to yonr farm and to your farm work, for, as the
poet said, —
'Tis a coward who quits a misfortune,
'Tis the knave who changes each day.
'Tis the fool who wins half the battle
Then throws all his chances away.
The time to succeed is when others,
Discouraged, show traces of tire.
The battle is won in the home stretch,
And won 'twixt the flag and the wire.
Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler. T would like to ask if the speaker
puts his manure onto the land as soon as it is made ?
Mr. Hull. We have a covered barnyard, with a cement
floor, and two or three times a week the manure is hauled out
to the fields. Sometimes in the winter, when the weather is
bad, the manure may remain in the barnyard for two weeks
or more, but practically it is carried to the fields as soon as it
is made. It will never be any more valuable than it is then,
and that is the time to apply it.
Mr. E. W. Payne. Suppose the ground is frozen, and you
have a side hill, with a brook flowing below it.
^Fr. Hull. In that case T should not put the manure there.
You will not lose as much as you would think, but still you
will lose something. Put it on your more level land, where
there is something growing. A covered barnyard is a fine
thing. You can use it for exercising your young stock, which
72 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
will be perfectly comfortable there, and nothing will be lost,
on account of the ceinont lioor.
Mr. H. M. BuET. What about the barn cellar ? Many of
us have barns built on side hills, with good cellars underneath,
and with cement bottoms, and the manure stays there all
Avinter.
Mr. Hull. In keeping cows and producing milk I should
not want the manure under the barn until spring, as some
gases must certainly rise, and it cannot make a healthful place
for cows to dwell. It is just as cheap to have a covered manure
])it outside, and everything sweet and clean underneath. If
you have a good basement to your barn I should advise you
to use it for something else, and put your manure somewhere
else.
Secretary Ellswoetii. I would say for the benefit of the
speaker that these barns were built a number of years ago, on
what was then thought to be the best principle. The manure
cellars are almost invariably open on one side, and are used for
storage for farm machinery, and for many purposes besides
the storage of manure. They are almost all ventilated. It
costs a great deal to build here in l^ew England. Lumber and
labor are both high. The people who have these barns are
keeping healthful herds and making good milk, and should not
be compelled to discard their buildings and build anew, even
though they are not according to the latest ideas of the doctors
and scientists. We cannot be sure just what their ideas will
be after we have made the change.
Mr. Httll. Yes, I have seen that ; I have seen farmers
keeping their hogs in such a basement ; and though perhaps
they had a right to keep their barns in that way they certainly
could not afford to k(^ep hogs in that way. They were losing
the interest on their investments. A man who has such a base-
ment can do very well by closing it up, putting in windows, a
cement floor and the King system of ventilation, and using it
for a cow stable. He can then take out the old stable and use
all aliove tlie basement for storage. One reason why we do
not have more ]"»rogress in these matters is that city boards of
health have spasms of inspection, and send men out to inspect
who are totnlly unqualified to pass upon what they see. These
No. 4.] FAR:\[ management. 73
men make all kinds of foolish suggestions and requirements,
and ask too much at a time, — more than the farmer can rea-
sonably be expected to do. If thev would ask him to take
one step at a time, and send out men who knew what tliej
were talking about, I believe that our farmers would be ready
to take hold and work with them to better conditions. The
city man has his side of it, too, and is certainly entitled to
have good clean milk for his children.
The CnAiRiiAN. I am a milk producer, and many of us
think that there is another side to this question, that the con-
sumers do not take the care of the milk they should after re-
ceiving it, but are always willing to throw the blame on the
producer.
Mr. George W. Trult.. I woidd like to ask the morning
speaker how large a quantity of milk is a cubic centimeter, au<l
how the bacteriologists manage to count as high a nundier of
bacteria in that quantity as they tell us about.
Professor Washburn. A cubic centimeter is about 15
drops, say half a teaspoonful. The bacteriologist mixes the
milk very carefully, so that every portion is like every other
portion, draws out one cubic centimeter, and puts it into a
thousand times that quantity of pure water, which has previ-
ously been boiled, to make it sterile. Then he mixes that thor-
oughly, takes one measure of it, and puts it into a thousand
times more pure water. This he mixes thoroughly again,
takes out one measure of it, and places that in a beaker dish, in
which there is a jelly-like substance, in which the germs can
grow. In forty-eight hours there will be some spots on the
jelly, each one being a cluster of bacteria, which gTCW from a
single bacteria in the mixture. Count these spots with the
naked eye and multiply that by the times diluted, and you can
approximate it. We cannot get it exactly right, but we can tell
the difference between 1,000 and 20,000 and between 20,000
and 50,000.
Mr. Trull. Is any milk produced absolutely without
bacteria ?
Professor Washburts^. It is practically impossible to draw
milk that will not have germs in it, because there are germs
livinc: in the udder and staying there from day to day.
74 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
In the evening a reception was tendered to the State Board
of Agriculture and others attending the meeting by the North-
ampton Board of Trade, at The Draper. There was informal
speaking by members of the Northampton Board of Trade,
the State Board of Agriculture and others, singing by the
quartette of the ]\[assachusetts Agricultural Glee Club, and
]\Ir. W. A. Ilai'low rendered an interesting selection in praise
of the JMorgan horse. The occasion was thoroughly enjoyed
by all participating.
Third Day.
Secretary Eli.swortii. It is my pleasure to introduce to
you Mr. W. A. Harlow of the Hillside Agricultural Society,
who will preside this morning.
Mr. Haelow. While the audience is materially reduced
this morning, the attendances which we have had have been a
source of great pleasure to the Board, and have spoken much
for the loyalty of the ]ieople of this vicinity to the Board and
to Secretary Ellsworth, as well as for the work of Mr. ISTew-
kirk in preparation for the meetings. The subject this morn-
ing does not interest many of us who come from other sections
of the State, but T can w(^ll understand that it is vital to most
of those who are here, e\'en more so than the subject of cows is
to the dairyman. I take pleasure in introducing Dr. W. W.
Garner, physiologist in charge of tobacco investigations, Bu-
reau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, I). C.
No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CURING TOBACC^O.
HAKVESTING AND CURING CIGAR WRAPPER TOBACCO.
BY DR. W. W. GARNER, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tobacco affords one of the rare instances among our im-
portant farm crops where yield is usually secondary to qual-
it_)^, and there are few, if any, other crops the values of which
are so dependent on the ])ainstaking care, skill and good judg-
ment of the producer. Of the various factors entering into
the successful production of a superior quality of tobacco, none
is more important than the proper management of the curing
])rocess ; but, unfortunately, this process is also the feature
which is least understood, either from the scientific or the
practical standpoint.
Because of the increasing interest in the method of harvest-
ing tobacco by picking the leaves, which introduces new prob-
lems in curing, it would seem that this subject is worthy of
special study, both by the scientific investigator and by the
practical grower, and I shall endeavor briefly to outline some
of the important factors in successful curing, and to draw
some comparisons between th(^ methods of curing on the stalk
and curing the picked leaves.
What is Curing ?
We liave to consider at the outset the question of what cur-
ing really means. The leaf at the time of harvesting contains
a large amount of water, but it is evident tl^at the curing is
something more than mere drying, for a leaf dried out rapidly
by heat has few of the desirable properties of a well-cured leaf.
Again, a leaf dried under the right conditions for curing
weighs much less than would the same leaf if dried out
quickly. Curing, therefore, means the de\cl()]unont of certain
76 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
properties or qualities which the green leaf does not possess,
and also a loss in weight in the dry leaf in addition to the
loss of water.
In order to understand something of the changes which
take place in curing, it is necessarj' to consider for a moment
the plant as it matures and ripens in the field. The leaf
may be considered the factory in which is manufactured
from the raw materials absorbed from the air and soil the
food supply whicli enables the plant to grow, to " ripen/' as
we say, and to produce seed. The energy to operate this
factory, so to speak, comes from the sunlight, and during the
day, especially on sunshiny days, the food supply accumulates
in the leaf. During the night, however, the building up of
food stops, and the accumnlated food supply, excepting of
course such as is required for the leaf itself, is carried away to
other parts of the plant, such as the very young parts and the
seed head. This explains why topping and suckering cause
the leaf to spread and to take on more body, for, the seed head
and suckers being removed, the food materials collect in the
leaf in greater quantity. One important feature of ripening,
therefore, is the accumulation in the leaf of certain food mate-
rials which it has built up. These materials are chiefly of a
starchy nature, and tend to make the leaf brittle and more or
less woody or strawy. We must remember, moreover, that
plants must breathe or respire the same as do animals, and
this breathing or respiration process also uses up a large por-
tion of the food supply. The two uses of the food supply
built up by the leaf are, accordingly, to promote growth and
to maintain the breathing or vital processes of the plant.
We have seen that the leaves of the plant when ready for
harvesting have accumulated an excess or reserve food supply,
chiefly of a starchy nature, which gives to the ripe leaf its
characteristic properties. We are now in a position to con-
sider what happens in the curing barn. It has already been
stated that a leaf quickly dried out does not show the proper-
ties of cured tobacco, and it is impossible to cure such a leaf.
Again, if a green leaf be exposed to chloroform vapors for a
short while, which quickly kills it, the leaf can never be cured
successfullv. The same is true of a bruised leaf, and we are
No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CURING TOBAC(X). 77
brought at once to the very important fact that ciiriiuj is a
lirtiifj or dial process, and that leaves 'prematurely killed
cannot he successfully cured. The changes taking place iu
the leaf in the barn are strictly analogous to those occurring in
the growing plant in the tield. The leaves, of course, cease
to grow, hut the breathing or respiration process continues
until they die from starvation or lack of water. Cut off from
their supply of raw material, they cannot continue to manu-
facture additional food to maintain the vital processes. They
use u]) the reserve supply stored up during the ripening period
in precisely the same manner as an animal may live for many
da_\ s without food, though losing in weight, because the reserve
food supply in the tissues it utilized in maintaining life. In
brief, therefore, curing is a vital or living process, whereby
certain constituents of the leaf, such as starch, which tend to
nuike it brittle and chaifv, are broken up, and certain other
desirable constituents, such as the so-called " gnm," are corre-
spondingly increased in amount. Along with these changes in
composition the color changes from green to yellow, and this
shows that the leaf has reached the dying stage. As soon as
the leaf is dead, the brown color quickly ajipears, and though
there are some further changes after the leaf dies, these can
take place at almost any stage while the tobacco is in bulk
or during the sweating and aging.
The Most Favokabi.e Coxditioxs for Curing.
The important fact to keep in iniiul here is that the leaf
must be kept alive till the first stage of the curing is com-
pleted, i.e., until the yellowing begins, and this brings us to
the question of the most favorable conditions for curing. The
first change to be noticed in the leaf is wilting, caused by the
loss of water. This wilting hastens the curing, and is desir-
able, provided it does not go too far. Rapid drying kills the
leaf before there is time for the changes already discussed to
take place, and the result is that the tobacco " hays do\m."
Gradual and not rapid drying is, therefore, one of the favor-
able conditions for curing. The leaf is also killed by ex-
tremes of temperature, so that artificial heat, if used at all,
nuist be applied with caution, and the temperature should not
78 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.
1)0 iillowed to exceed 1 lO'^ F. at most. The green leaf is killed
at freezing tejnperatnres and the curing process is practically
stopped at temperatures below 50° F. The proper conditions
of tem])eralure and moisture are the principal requirements
for good curing. All growers in this section know how in-
jurious the cold northwest winds are to tobacco in the curing
barn, and this is because the temperature drops too low for
good curing, and, also, the water is evaporated from the
tobacco too rapidly. The leaf dries out but does not cure.
Pole Sweat.
The importance of not allowing tobacco to dry out too
rapidly during the yellowing period has been emphasized,
but, on the other hand, growers well know what happens in
prolonged periods of warm wet weather if the tobacco has
already yellowed. The disease known as pole sweat is merely
a decay of the dead leaf, and is caused by lower organisms, so-
called " germs," which tind in the leaf their food supply.
Like the tobacco plant itself, these organisms, which are really
minute plants, must have an abnndance of moistnre to grow
rapidly, and they flourish only within certain limits of tem-
perature. Our experiments have shown that pole sweat be-
comes serious when the relative humidity of the air between
the curing leaves reaches 1)0 per cent or more, causing them
to become soggy, and when the temperature lies between 00°
and 100° F. After the disease has gained a foothold, a nuich
lower humidity or greater extremes of temperature are re-
quired to check it promptly. It is important to remend)er,
however, that pole sweat does not set in till the first and prin-
cipal stage of the curing has been completed, which is ordi-
narily indicated by the yellowing of the leaf, for only the
dead portions of the leaf are attacked. One of the common
forerunners of pole sweat is the so-called "' strut " of the leaf,
which is a stiffening of the veins and midrib, caused by the
excessive moisture in the air having checked the evaporation
from the leaf. The strut or stiffening indicates danger from
sweat, but really does not i)lay any ])art in the development of
the disease, although it does injure the tobacco. It is simply a
sign of too much moisture.
No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CURING TOBACCO. 79
Successful eurinu' rt'(|iiircs certain comlitioiis ut" tempera-
ture and moisture to enable the leaf to actually cure instead of
simply drying out, on the one hand, and to i)revent loss by
polg sweat, on the other hand. The practical question is as to
how these conditions can be maintained in the baru inde-
pendently of the outside weather.
Use of Aktib^icial Heat.
The natural temperatures prevailing during the curing
season are ne\cr too high for good curing, and of course they
are never so high as to pre^■ent pole sweat. On the other hand,
it often happens that it is too cold for satisfactory curing,
especially at nights and when the crop is harvested late, so
that even if the pole sweat is temporarily checked the tobacco
may be spoiled by haying down. Artificial heat is, therefore,
the only means of securing at all times the right temiH'rature.
The moisture required for good curing is contained in the
tobacco itself, and if the outside weather is favorable, the
rate of drying can usually be controlled by ventilation. If
the temperature is favorable but the air too dry, the remedy is
to close the barn tightly, so as to hold the right amount of
moisture in the air within. In case of long periods of rain,
fog or muggy weather, ventilation alone cannot be of auy
benefit. The tobacco will rot if it has reached the critical
stage, whether the barn be kept open or closed. The only
means of reducing the moisture in the barn is by using arti-
ficial heat combined with ventilation. In the first stage of the
curing, before the leaf begins to yellow, there is no danger
from pole sweat, but if the outside temperature is below 50^,
sufficient heat is needed to prevent the tobacco from becoming
chille<l ; otherwise it will hay down. Unless the outside
weather is very damp, little or no ventilation is needed. The
tobacco in this stage will not give off its moisture any faster
than it is removed from the surrounding air. After the Ifaf
has yellowed, however, the moisture comes to the surface,
whether or not it is taken up by the air, so that the tobacco
soon becomes soggy. The only practical means of drying the
air in the barn is by heating it, and the only way of keeping
it dry is to replace it by freshly heated air from the outside
80 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
as soon as it becomes too moist. In other words, the air must
be heated before it comes in contact with the tobacco, and it
must be removed as soon as it becomes moist.
If we raise the temperature 20°, we double the cajiacitvjfor
holding moisture, and if the temperature in the barn can be
kept 15° to 20° higher than that of the outside air, with a
reasonable amount of ventilation, there is no danger of pole
sweat, no matter how wet the outside weather may be. Warm
air is, of course, lighter than cold air, and, surprising as it
may seem, moist air is lighter than dry air at the same tem-
perature. For these reasons the natural course is to admit the
outside air at the bottom of the barn, heat it to the proper tem-
perature and allow it to move upward through the tobacco.
Sufficient heat must be applied to drive the air through the
tobacco fast enough to prevent its becoming chilled, otherwise
it will stagnate before reaching the top of the barn. Too little
heat is worse than none, for it simply drives the moisture
from the lower into the upper portions of the tobacco. It is
also necessary to provide some means of escape for the warm
moist air when it reaches the top of the barn. If the roof is
not tight there may be sufficient natural ventilation, but with a
very tight roof, a ventilator is needed along the peak of the
building.
The next question is as to the best means of applying the
heat. Open charcoal fires have been used to some extent and
with sticcess, but the method is laborious and expensive. For
best residts the heat must be well distributed, so that a large
number of small fires is better than a few larger ones. The
charcoal burns out rapidly, so that the fires require close
attention. We have been endeavoring for the past three or
four years to work out a simple and cheap method of heating
based on the use of flues and heaters or furnaces, using wood
as fuel, and I feel confident that we will soon be able to an-
nounce a satisfactory process. A system of this kind will
insure a more even distribtition of the heat, and the amount
of heat can be more easily controlled. I believe that artificial
heat will be used more and more as its advantages are more
fidly recognized, especially in curing picked tobacco.
No. 4.] HARVESTING AND C LUING TOBACCO. 81
IIakvestixg bt Cutting the Plant versus Picking the
Leaves.
This brings its to the last topic for discussion, a comparison
of the methods of harvesting and curing by cutting the plant
and by picking the leaves. We will not attempt to discuss at
this time the economic phases of the question, such as the
relative cost of the two methods and the labor supply, but will
consider briefly the merits of the two processes as regards
yield and the quality of the cured leaf. There is no doubt
that it costs more to harvest by picking the leaves, and the
important question is whether the increased value of the crup
is sufficient to justify the use of the method.
We have found by careful tests that a leaf cured by 2)icking
will weigh 10 to 15 per cent more than when cured on the
stalk. There is no doubt of this fact, and the reason is easily
explained. It has already been pointed out that while the
plant is growing in the field a portion of the food supply man-
ufactured in the leaf is carried into the stalk to feed other
portions of the plant, and exactly the same thing happens in
the curing barn. E\'ery grower knows that while the leaves of
the cut plant soon die and cure down, the stalk remains green
for weeks and even months. It is also a familiar fact that the
young suckers on the plant may grow considerably in the barn.
The stalk and suckers continue to live because they draw food
from the dying lea^■es. I have often heard expressed the opin-
ion that the leaf draws from the stalk, but this would be a
case of the dead feeding on the living, which is not nature's
way of proceeding. It has also been found that if suckers are
allowed to remain on the stalk when harvested, the cured leaf
will be lighter than when they are removed, and this is
because the suckers draw food from the mature leaves through
the stalk. We see, then, that there is a clear gain of 10 or 15
per cent in curcil weight when tobacco is picked, and this
means, of course, that the leaf has more body. This may or
may not be desirable, depending on the condition of the to-
bacco when harvested ; and, in my opinion, picking will give
better results with what may be called a wet-Aveather crop than
82 BOAllD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
one grown during a dry season. If tobacco grown in a dry
year is picked, it may be too heavy when cured. This is one
reason why picking gives good results with shade-grown to-
bacco, for the leaf is naturally thin, and curing on the stalk
might give a product without sufficient body.
As regards quality, there is no doubt but that picked tobacco
cures down with dilterent properties from that cured on the
stalk, and it is for the trade to say whether the leaf is better
suited to their needs. In general appearance the picked to-
bacco as it comes from the barn is less attractive than when
stalk cured. It undoubtedly has more of the so-called " gum,"
giving it greater elasticity, while the grain is generally not so
prominent. The most important remaining difference is in
the colors obtained. These are usually of a duller cast, con-
taining a greater proportion of green thus somewhat resem-
bling Cuban tobacco. The value of a tobacco crop depends not
only on the total weight obtained and the quality of the differ-
ent grades, but also on the percentage of first-class wrappers,
and there is no doubt but that picking yields a larger percent-
age of wrappers than stalk curing. Again, the actual number
of cured leaves obtained by picking is increased in addition to
the increase in body, and, in fact, our experiments with broad-
leaf during the past season indicate that the total increase in
cured weight under practical working conditions amounts to
about 20 per cent.
As to the curing of picked tobacco, the process is of course
much more rapid than is stalk curing, and, consequently, less
complete. The leaf proper cures quickly, though the stem
remains green for a considerably longer time. If picked
tobacco is to be valued more highly by the trade, it will prob-
ably be due to the increased amount of gum and elasticity
and to the colors obtained. The question of the effect of arti-
ficial heat on the colors of picked tobacco is one of great im-
portance, and I am of the opinion that heat properly applied
will give more desirable colors. As regards pole sweat, while
the period of danger is shorter, we have found that picked
tobacco will sweat more readily than that cured on the stalk,
so that it must be closely watched, even if the weather does
not indicate danger from this cause. Judging from our ex-
No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CURING TOBACCO. 83
jKM'iciu'c this past season, it is doubtful whether picked broad-
leaf can he cured successfully without artificial heat. How-
ever, the whole subject of curing picked tobacco (except shade
grown) is still largeh' in the experimental stage, and much yet
remains to be done before final conclusions can be drawn.
Summary.
Now, to summarize very briefly, I Avould divide the curing
process into two stages ; the first, which is by far the more
ini}>ortant, including those changes occurring before the leaf
dies; the second, the further changes taking place after the
leaf is dead.
In the first stage, under favorable conditions, the leaf under-
goes a slow process of stars'ation, which is absolutely necessary
for good curing. Care should be taken that the leaf is not
killed by too rapid drying before the process is complete. The
tobacco should be allowed to dry out gradually, and the rate
of drying can be controlled by regulating the ventilation, ex-
cept in very wet weather, when artificial heat is also required.
Again, the temperature in the barn should not go much below
50° F., for under these conditions the tobacco sim})ly dries
out without curing. The use of artificial heat is the only
means of keeping the right temperature in the barn in cold
weather. If the leaf is prematurely killed in the first stage
by haying down, no amount of sweating or fermenting can
fully correct the damage.
The change from the first to the second stage of curing,
wliich is the point at which the leaf dies, is indicated by the
yellowing of the leaf. There is less danger from too rapid
drying of the tobacco in the second stage. On the other hand,
the principal danger after the yellowing of the tobacco is from
pole sweat, caused by too much moisture. The on]y means of
controlling ])(ile sweat is by the use of artificial heat combined
with ventilation.
Comparing the methods of harvesting by picking the leaves
and by cutting the stalk, the picked leaves after curing are 10
to 15 per cent heavier than when cured on the stalk. They
have more body and more of the so-called " gum " and elas-
ticity. The colors of the picked leaves are usually not so clear
84 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
as when cured on the stalk, and they show more of a greenish
cast.
Mr. George P. Smith. Would you apply heat during the
first stage of the curing ?
Dr. Gaenek. The matter of applying artificial heat is not
entirely settled, and should be tried out very carefully, but
in the first stage there is no danger from pole sweat, as there
is no danger of the leaves not drying out fast enough, and
there is, therefore, not much use for heat, unless the weather
is cold. In the first stage it is the temperature that is im-
portant, and in the second stage the humidity ; and as excessive
humidity is the cause of pole sweat, artificial heat is, therefore,
the remedy for that trouble. If there should be a cold night
during tlie first stage of curing it would be well to have just
enough heat in the barn to keep the chill from the tobacco, to
prevent the temperature falling much below 50° F. Do not
allow the curing to be checked by too rapid drying or by too
low a temperature. If the weather is Avet we need both heat
and ventilation in the first stage. In the second stage the im-
portant point is to dry the leaf, and it cannot well be dried too
rapidly. This is contrary to the views held by many, but if
the first stage is j^assed through successfully, you can make
good any shortage in the second stage by regulating the fer-
mentation. Take a leaf of green tobacco, put it in a hot oven
and. leave it for five minutes and it will never cure, but will
be in exactly the same condition after it has been hanging six
months.
Mr. Smith. About how long does the first stage take ?
Dr. Garner. That depends a good deal on conditions, be-
cause curing is regulated a good deal by the rate at which the
drying proceeds, and more especially by the temperature. To-
bacco will cure very rapidly if the temperature is 80° F. or
above, but if it remains between 50° and G0° F. the curing is
very slow. Under favorable conditions the essential changes
in the first stage can take place in from three to five days.
After that period no injury is done by too rapid drying.
Mr. TuADDEUS Graves. The ordinary practice has been to
cut olf all ventilation and ap})ly artificial heat for the purpose
No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CURING TOBACCO. 85
of drying the air, the feeling being that it was an endless task
to dry all the air that cuukl come in from outside. Do I un-
derstand that you advise ventilation as well as heat in moist
weather ?
Dr. Garner. Yes, for the reason that the object is not to
dry the air but to increase its capacity to take up moisture
from the tobacco. Suppose the temperature is 60° F., and it
is raining outside. The atmosphere will take up no more
moisture, as it is saturated. But if we heat the air in the barn
to 80° F. it will take up twice the moisture that it will at 00°,
because each increase of 20° in temperature doubles the capac-
ity of the air for holding moisture. Then, if you let in damp
air from outside it becomes heated and takes up more moist-
ure. On the other hand, there is danger in applying heat and
keeping the barn closed if the weather is wet outside, as you
simply stinmlate the tobacco to give oif more moisture in the
barn and do not remove the moisture. You must make a dis-
tinction between drying and curing tobacco. It must not dry
too rapidly, but let it cure as rapidly as it will.
^Iv. H. J. Searle. I would like to inquire what apparatus
there is that gives any promise of being of advantage to the
ordinary tobacco grower. We understand that open charcoal
fires in the ground are undesirable, also steam heat.
Dr. Garner. We are experimenting with a system of flues
and furnaces which we hope to be able to announce definitely,
in a short time, as a successful method. The furnace is very
simple, a home-made furnace, simply a hole in the ground,
with an ordinary cover and a flue leading out from it. We use
wood as fuel. We are using a double vent once across the barn
and return. Each pipe runs out doors, and we have a furnace
for each vent. It may be that after further experiment we will
find that we can get along with a single vent, or can run sev-
eral of them into a central exit flue. There are a good many
things about this system of which we are not certain as yet
Mr. Graves. If the roof has no ventilator and you put heat
in the bottom of the barn that will drive the damp air to the
top, is it possible to heat that damp air?
Dr. Garxkr. With a loosely shingled roof there will 1)0 a
good many crevices ihrough which the air can escape, thus
86 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
making natural ventilation, but if jou have a very tight roof,
such as a tarred paper roof, you must have a ventilator at the
top. Heat alone is of no benefit in moist weather, because the
moist air must be allowed to escape. While the increase in
temperature enables the air to take up more moisture it cannot
continue to do that forever, but soon becomes saturated at the
higher temperature.
Mr. Searlj:. Does not any kind of heat, open or closed,
help when tobacco is puffing and preparing to sweat ? I have
used large stoves open at the top, with drafts on each side at
the bottom, and a large sheet-iron cover to prevent the direct
heat coming in contact with the tobacco over the stove. If the
heat is too strong I dig a hole and let the stove down as low as
I want it.
Dr. Garnek. I shouhl recommend the use of heat when
pole sweat is threatened. The man Avho sits down and allows
his tobacco to rot under such conditions is doing exactly the
same thing as if he allowed his crop to spoil in the field. Until
we develop a better system use charcoal.
Mr. Searle. How would coke do ?
Dr. Garner. 1 cannot recommend coke because it has a
great deal of sulphur in it. While burning, the sulphuric acid
will be given off and will be likely to bleach the tobacco and
ruin it, when an open fireplace on the floor is used. If used in
a furnace, so that the gas w^ill be carried ort*, this objection will
not apply.
Mr. Lyman Crafts. I would like to ask if there are not
conditions possible in the second stage of curing when the
application of heat would do more harm than good ? Suppose
the air outside is thoroughly saturated w^itli water for a con-
siderable period, and the temperature is down to 40° or 50°
F., would not the application of heat without ventilation cause
the tobacco to throw off much more moisture than it would
without heat, and would not that do, more harm than good ?
Dr. Garner. Yon have brought out an excellent point.
We must guard against low temperature, as T have said, in the
first stage of curing, l)ut we know that low temperature will
stop pole sweat, and if the temperature in the second stage is
anvwhere from 40° F. down to freezing', I think it would be
No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CURING TOBACCO. 87
Aviser not to apply heat. By applying heat then yon will
simply favor the pole sweating.
Mr. Graves. Do I nnderstand that a leaf taken from the
stalk cnres with more weight than where cured on the stalk;
and if so, how do you account for it ?
Dr. Garner. It unquestionably does have more weight, as
has been proved by repcate<l experiments. In the field tobacco
takes up its raw food material from the soil and the air, and
this raw material is worked over for the use of the plant in the
leaf. This goes on only when the sun shines, and at night the
food material is carried out of the leaf and into the stalk and
the roots, to feed the other parts of the plant. When a green
tobacco plant is hung in the shed there are always young
suckers on the jjlant. Exactly the same process goes on in
curing in the barn as in the field ; the food material is carried
away from the leaf into the stalk to feetl these suckers. You
have noticed that they grow in the barn and that is where they
have gotten their food. Consequently, the leaf weighs less
when cured than if not subjected to this drain. Many have the
idea that the course is just the opposite, — that the leaf draws
from the stalk, — but that would be contrary to nature, as it
would be a case of a dead thing feeding on a living thing,
which cannot happen. The leaf dies very quickly, but the
stalk will remain green for two months, and during that time
is drawing its food supply from the leaf, or it would also die.
In Virginia they sometimes pick the leaf from the stalk and
sometimes harvest by cutting the stalk. When they follow the
latter method they split the entire stalk open, leaving only
two or three inches at the lower end to set astride a stick, and
the stalk lives only a very little longer than the leaf.
Mr. Graves. I know by observation and experience that
your position is correct. If it increases the weight 10 or 15
per cent, and the picked tobacco is worth something like 50
or 60 cents a pound, would not the difference in weight pay
for the extra cost of harvesting ?
Dr. Garner. It is entirely possible that you would get the
same price for the picked tobacco that you did for that cured
on the stalk. Whether the increased weight would pay for
the increased cost of harvesting would depend largely on the
88 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
price received. The increased weight might not mean better
tobacco. If we have a thick, heavy tobacco, a dry-weather
crop, I do not think curing by picking would be a good thing,
as we would be likely to get a leaf that would be too heavy.
IMr. Graves. As the tobacco plant commences to rijien
from the bottom up, and as the bottom leaves, M'hich are very
good if picked at the proper time, have deteriorated a great
deal by the time the rest of the plant is ripe, is that not an
additional reason for picking?
Dr. Garner. Yes, we get more leaves in picking, as well
as an increase of from 10 to 1.5 per cent in weight in the par-
ticular leaves. In our cx})criments last year Ave probably got
a total increase of 20 per cent in the weight of the crop
picked, for these reasons.
Mr. Parmenter. Is not the process of spearing tobacco
and hanging it on laths to be preferred to hanging it with
twine ?
Dr. Garner. It is a step in the right direction, but whether
it is important from a practical standpoint I cannot say. The
best plan is to split the stalk, according to the Virginia
method, but that you cannot do here, because you have too
many loaves on the stalk. There they have only eight or ten
leaves, and the experienced workers split the stalk very rap-
idly and rarely injure a leaf. That would not be possible
■with your plants.
Mr. Searle. How are we to know when the leaves are
ready to pick ?
Dr. Garner. That is something for which no hard and
fast ride can be laid down, but it must be determined by each
grower for each particular crop. It is something that will
come with experience. In picking we pick the particular
leaves at just the time when they are most valuable, and it is
necessary to make several pickings. We are carrying on
experiments as to the proper time of picking, l)ut cannot as
yet make any definite statement.
Mr. Smith. To what extent would it be practical to intro-
duce irrigation to get over the trouble of the dry-weather crop
curing darker and being of less value than that of a normal
season ?
No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CITRING TOBACCO. S9
Dr. Gakxet?, It is true that tlio dry-weather crop is less
\aliialile than that grown in a ('()nij)arativc1y wet season. All
plants grow thicker lea\'es when the season is dry than when
it is normal or wetter than nsnal. It is easy, therefore, to
get a tohaeco leaf that is too thick and too heavy. Something
can he done in cnring to correct this, bnt the tronhle cannot
be entirely o\-ercome in that Avay. 1 think that the cost of
irrigation Avould be too great a bnrden on the valne of the
crop. If a plant were needed every year you conld afford it,
bnt you might have wet seasons for three years after installing
the plant, and it would be lying idle and undergoing deteriora-
tion, without being of use.
jMr. ParmeiVter. Taking into consideration the increase
in weight, the saving of the bottom leaves and the decreased
liability to pole sweat, is it not settled that the correct way to
harvest tobacco is to pick it ?
Dr. Garner. Theoretically, I should not hesitate to say
that tobacco should be picked ; practically, it would depend
on labor supply and those things that come into the question
of the increased cost.
Mr. Graves. The common theory is that the lower leaves
should be picked the day after topping, but I have seen the
lower leaves double in size after the tops have been broken off.
Dr. Garner. It does not necessarily follow that they
should be doubled in size. If we are going to gain in weight
at expense of quality, it is a doubtful proposition. I am not
so sure but that sometimes the first picking should be made
before the plants are topped ; at other times it might properly
wait for some days. In shade-grown tobacco not topping at
all has been extensively practiced, and with success.
j\rr. Crae^ts. I have seen tobacco where the lower leaves
were well matured at the time of topping, and at other
times they have been hardly large enough to be of any use.
With favorable weather after topping they increased in size
and also made leaves of a very desirable quality. In the
first case they had not the size that would ajipeal to the
buyer, and I dcmbt very much whether they had the quality
before they had the growth.
90 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Dr. Garnee. As in curing, there is always room for a
great deal of judgment. In curing, you cannot say that
just so much heat must be applied every year and just so
much ventilation. The best we can do is to deal with the
implements used, and each one must make such use of them
as to get the best results possible from his particular crop.
^Ir. Aetuur Hubbard. Would you advise top suckering?
Dr. Garner. Theoretically it is desirable to leave the
top suckers. These suckers are not large enough to in any
way injure the bottom leaves, which are picked before the
suckers reach any considerable size. As a rule the top leaves
are too thick. The suckers tend to give a thinner leaf;
smaller, lighter and nearer being ripe. I have seen some
striking illustrations where the suckers were removed from
each alternate row. Where they were removed the top
leaves were probably half as large again as where the suckers
were not removed. I do not think there is any gain in that.
There is no use growing a large filler leaf when you can
grow a smaller wrapper leaf.
The Chairman. We would like to hear from Mr. Whit-
more.
Mr. F. L. WniTMORE. I have been thinking how very
confusing this must all be to a man who has never raised
tobacco. In thirty years I have never had trouble with pole
sweat except once. In the last two years we have had a
deficiency of 24 inches in the rainfall, and I suffer more
from that cause than from too much water. I have been
conducting some experiments under the direction of the
United vStates Department of Agriculture. Some of the
tobacco in these experiments is picked and some harvested
in the plant ; some is cured by the old process and some by
artificial heat. It is a very fussy business, but it has also
l)een extremely interesting and instructive. I hope that the
government will eventually have some important results from
these experiments. However, there are so many climatic
and other conditions to contend with which we cannot con-
trol, that what is good management one year may not be the
next. Finally, when we get the crop grown it may not suit
No. 4.] HARVESTING AND CrRIXG TOBACCO. 91
the 1)nyors. 'Jliis yaw tliey all want 20 inches of dark,
leather-like snbstance, and I cannot supply that for them.
The Chairman. We wonld like to hear from Mr. Rus-
sell.
Mr. IT. C. Russell. We have had more or less tronljlc
lately with white mold on the stems when the tobacco was
going through fermentation. I would like to ask the speaker
if he can account for this trouble.
Dr. Garner. There are two points worth considering.
One is that these molds flourish only in the presence of con-
siderable moisture. If the stem is apparently moist there is
danger from mold. Molds cannot go above a certain tem-
perature. Our experience is that if the tobacco heats up
properly there is not much danger from mold, but that if
it refuses to heat up the molds will develop, because there
is not sufficient heat generated to kill them. If the tobacco
is high cased, with special reference to the stems, there is
danger from molds. On the other hand, even with a rea-
sonable amount of moisture there remains some danger of
molds if the temperature is not high enough.
Mr. Russell. Is it possible to ferment a crop of tobacco
successfully that grew in a dry season, and has a thick leaf
that lacks life or quality ?
Dr. Garner. I do not think so. We can do something
in the curing, but of course we cannot make a wet-weather
crop out of a dry-weather crop by any means of curing or
fermenting. The curing is the more important in correct-
ing these difficulties. The trouble in the sweating is that
the tobacco has not the proper material in it to ferment.
The conditions under which it has been produced are not
right, and therefore the material that induces fermentation
and produces heat, bringing about the changes we desire,
is deficient in the leaf.
Mr. ITussell. The Avliole question of these fads and
fancies about the leaf of tobacco is brought about more by
the whimsical notions of cigar smokers than anything else.
Fifty years ago the buyers would pay about 0 cents a pound
for the tobacco, and did not care nuu-h whether it was dark
92 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
or light. We sold our crops easily enough, though wo did
not get a very hig price for thcui. ^\'c had no tiMuhle then
al^out mold, or any of these questions that have come up
recently. Now, we tobacco growers want a better price for
our crops, and the smokers want just what they fancy in the
wra]:»])er, and Avill take the cigar that suits them in color
and appearance, regardless of what is inside it. So we must
keep on studying and trying to find something that the trade
wants.
Mr. WiiiTMORE. I am having trouble with root rot for
the first time. I have been advised to sterilize the seed
beds. Is it a safe proposition to depend on the old seed
beds when sterilized, or should I seek a new location?
Dr. Garner. The troulde can be controlled for the time
being by sterilization, without changing the seed beds.
AMiether they should be sterilized every year we do not know.
It would certainly be safer to sterilize every year. The
work must be done thoroughly. Use plenty of time and
plenty of steam. The little organisms that cause root rot
are simply little plants which can be killed by heat the same
as a tobacco plant would be. If we take a fresh potato and
bury it from three to six inches deep in the seed bed, and
after sterilization find that the potato is cooked, we are
pretty safe in saying that the minute organisms have been
killed also. Perhaps more heat is required to kill the minute
organisms tban to cook the potato, because we must kill
the spores which reproduce these organisms as well as the
organisms themselves. You mnst nse steam nnder high
pressure, and give plenty of time for the soil to be heated
deep enough to reach them. The apparatus used is very
simple; an inverted metal pan, made the width of the seed
bed and the other dimensions regulated by the size of the
boiler you have to work with. The sharp edges of the pan
are driven into the soil to a reasonable depth to hold the
steam in, the steam turned on under high pressure, at least
90 pounds, and the heating continued for not less than thirty
minutes, preferably an hour. It is also a good plan to have
bnrbi]) or some other covering to lay over the portion that
Xo. 4.] IIAR\'EST1XG AND CURLXG TOBACCO. 93
has been heated when the pan is removed to the next [)or-
tion, to hokl the heat in the ground as long as possible.
Mr. Seakle. I have sterilized my seed bed for two years
and have done considerable work for my neighbors. It is
very simple if yon have the steam. I nse a wooden box,
6 by 10 feet, and find that it is just as satisfactory as a
metal one, though of course it is more diificult to handle.
x\n additional advantage in sterilization is that it kills the
weed seeds. One of my neighbors had a fine seed bed which
he had neglected, so that it had become so weedy that it was
practically ruined. We sterilized it for him, and where he
had had no plants for the two previous years, this year he
had oceans of 2)lants and no weeds, and sold enough plants to
pay for the sterilization twice over.
Mr. Wm. B. Avery. Before the meeting closes I wish to
move a formal vote of thanks to the Hampshire, Franklin
and Hampden Agricultural Society, to the People's Institute
of Northampton and to our associate on the Board, Mr. F. P.
Xewkirk, for what has been done to make our stay here so
pleasant and profitable.
Secretary Ellswoetji. I am glad to second the motion,
and wnsh to express particularly our appreciation for what
Mr. Newkirk has done for the success of the meeting. He
has been untiring in his activities to make this meeting a suc-
cess, and has watched over us every moment. I would also
add to the motion our thanks to the Board of Trade of North-
ampton, and to the quartette from the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural College Glee Club, who have entertained us so pleasantly
with their songs on the two evenings of our stay.
Mr. Whitmore. On behalf of those not members of the
Board I would like to express our thanks to all who have been
instrumental in giving us such an interesting and vahiable
series of lectures and discussions.
Carried unanimously. Meeting adjourned.
SUMMER FIELD MEETING
Board of Agriculture
AMHERST.
June 23, 1910.
SUMMER FIELD MEETING OF THE BOARD, AT
AMHERST.
The isuinincr field meeting of the Board was held at the
Massachusetts Agricultural College, at Amherst, on June 23,
1910. There was a good attendance at the meeting and a
very interesting programme was carried out. In the morn-
ing the following demonstrations were given : demonstration
of means and methods of spraying, by Prof. F. C. Sears, pro-
fessor of pomology, Massachusetts Agricultural College ; ex-
})lanati(m of experiments in grass culture and alfalfa growing
upon the experiment plots of the Massachusetts Agricultural
Experiment Station, by Prof. Wm. P. Brooks, director of the
station ; demonstration of swine growing and management, by
Prof. 11. L. Gribben of the Division of Agricidture, Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College.
Lunch was served in the college dining hall.
In the afternoon Prof. L. A. Clinton of the Connecticut
Agricultural ( 'ollege delivered an address on corn growing
and nuinagement, which appears on the pages immediately
following.
At 4 o'clock I'.M. a demonstration of the making of certified
milk, as practiced on the college farui, under the direction of
Farm Su[)erintendent E. H. Forristall, concluded a i)ro-
gramme which was at once one of the most interesting and
one of the most instructive ever given at a summer field meet-
ing of the Board.
98 BOARD OF AGIUCULTUKE. [Pub. Doc.
COM GROWING IN NEW ENGLAND.
BY PROF. L. A. CLINTON, DIRECTOR STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERI-
MENT STATION, EAGLEVrLLE, CONN.
At the present time the corn crop in America leads all
others, not only in its total value, but in the general interest
and popular enthusiasm with reference to its growth. Nearly
every experiment station has some line of work under way in
connection with corn breeding or corn feeding, and boys' and
girls' corn-growing clubs have become numerous. In the
teaching of agriculture in the public schools, corn is one of
the most valuable crops which can be studied. The reason
for this general interest in the corn crop is not difficult to
discern. There is no other crop which comes so near to being
a general-purpose crop as corn. No other crop, over such a
wide section of the country, can furnish the amount of food
product per acre, few crops are so free from disease or insect
pests, and but few crops are grown which are so generally
successful as the corn crop.
While the total yield of corn for the United States is enor-
nions, far exceeding in value that of any other one crop, yet
the average yield of corn per acre for the United States and
for every section of the United States is ridiculously small.
To be snre, Connecticut leads in corn growing, as she does in
most other things, — her yield of corn per acre in 1909 being
greater than the yield in any other State, the enormous
amount being 41 bushels per acre! Massachusetts was not
far behind, but with the average yield per acre of 38 bushels,
she has nothing to boast of. We desire, however, that those
well-meaning public citizens who have become interested in
agriculture, and are telling about the decadence of agriculture
No. 4.] CORN GROWING. 99
in New Englaiul, and her worn-uiit soils, shall take notice that
New England raises more corn per acre than is raised by any
other section of the United States. To be snre, the acreage
is not so great in the New England States as in the great
corn-growing States of the west, yet last year Connecticut
raised G0,000 acres of corn ; Massachusetts 47,000 ; and Con-
necticut, with her so-called worn-out soils, raised more corn
per acre by 10 bushels than did Iowa ; by 5 bushels than did
Illinois ; and by 1 bushel than did Indiana. I wish to call
especial attention to this fact, for while we may have used
more commercial fertilizer, and the cost of raising our corn
crop was without doubt somewhat greater than the cost of
raising corn in the middle west, yet New England agriculture
is not a thing of the past, and we have never yet realized the
full possibilities of the fertile New England hills. Averages
are always low. When one man in Connecticut can raise
lo3/-{ bushels of shelled corn to the acre, and our average pro-
duction for the State is only 41 bushels per acre, it means that
the farmers of Connecticut are not fully awake to the possi-
bilities of corn growing. Without any considerable increase
in expenses, but with more attention to details, to adaptation
of the crop to the soil, to the use of proper fertilizers and
proper seed corn, the average yield per acre of corn in New
England could be increased from 10 to 30 bushels ; and this
increase will come, not because the railroads of the country
are going into farming, but because of the painstaking work
of the individual farmer, and because in every community
there will develop some farmer who will lead the way and
show to the others how this increase can be brouglit about.
We all are interested in the practical means by which the
average yield of corn may be increased. The subject of corn
breeding has come to be almost a science during the past ten
years, and yet in spite of all the agitation we have only held
our own in the average yield per acre. For the past five
years there has been a slight increase in the production per
acre. We may possibly feel satisfied that we have been able
to maintain the production of previous years, in spite of the
fact that the agricultural lands have been depleted somewhat
100 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
of their fertility, and yet it is ratlicr disappoiutiiig to know
that we have not made ninch progress in the matter of corn
growing. Xot every farmer can become an expert breeder of
seed corn. This is the work for the specialist, the same as
improving varieties of stock; bnt there is a place in every
community for some man who will make a study of the needs
of that community, of the type of corn which is best adapted
to the locality, and who will produce the seed corn required
by all the farmers in that locality.
We have learned that we can do with corn almost anything
that we choose to do with it. By careful selection and breed-
ing we may increase its percentage of oil, we may increase its
percentage of j^rotein or we may increase the starch content.
If we desire a type of corn which will produce the ears high
upon the stalk, it is jiossible, by selection, to secure this type.
If we wish a type of corn free from snckers, we can, by selec-
tion, secure this type. One reason why corn breeding has not
appealed more to the average farmer is the fact that in the
market no distinction in price is made between corn of high
or low protein content, but corn is sold simply as cofii, at a
certain jn-ico i)er bushel. So long as this is true, we cannot
expect the general farmer to pay much attention to the de-
velopment of corn in any certain direction. What he desires
is a high yield of corn per acre, and npon this point should
center the work of corn breeding. So long as the dairyman
must sell his milk simply as milk, Avithout any distinction
being made as to the fat content or to the sanitary conditions
nnder which the milk is produced, we must not expect great
advancement in the dairy business. The case is somewhat
different, however, with corn. The greatest market for the
corn prodnct is right at home on the farm where the corn is
produced. Only abont 20 per cent of the total yield of corn
in the country is shipped out of the county in which it is
grown. With the Avheat crop nearly 60 per cent is shipped
out of the county where grown. This means that the corn
crop is the general crop for home consumption ; that it is fed
to the live stock on the fanu, and that any increase in the
percentage of protein or any valuable constituent which is
No. 4.] CORx\ GROWING. 101
found in corn will serve to reward the produocr for Lis skill
and care exercised in its production.
To what extent should the general farmer become a breeder
of corn ? We doubt very much whether it is wise for him to
d(» lunch in the way of corn breeding'. What he should do
is to make such a careful study of corn and its conditions of
growth that he shall be able to select that type of corn which
most fully meets his needs. Having found out what this
type is, he should then bo able to recognize good seed corn,
and to purchase that tyj^e of seed which will most fully meet
his requirements. To become an ex})ert corn breeder re-
quires a greater amount of care, of skill and of attention to
small details than the usual farmer is willing lo give to the
subject. If the farmer has a type of corn which seems well
adapted to his needs, and he wishes to perpetuate and improve
that type of corn, the most practical method of procedure for
him lies in the selection of high-producing ears, which shall
serve for the production of seed for his general crop. It is
impossible to tell with certainty by the looks of an ear, by the
perfection of the rows of kernels on the cob, by the space be-
tween rows and by the other fancy points which are used in
corn judging, which ears possess the highest producing power.
If, however, a man is a good judge of corn, he might select
a ten-ear sample out of 100 bushels of ears which would win
first prize at a corn show, and yet in producing jiowcr these
ten ears might be far inferior to other exhibits which might
be present. The breeder of dairy cattle has shown ns a way
of improving corn, and that is by what is known as the " ad-
vanced registry tests." A high price is not paid for the dairy
cow because of her color, the length of her tail, the curve of
her horns or the size of her milk well, but because of what she
can do and what her ancestors have done. In other words,
production or performance is the only and true test of actual
merit, whether with dairy cows or with corn.
Prof. C. G. Williams of Ohio Agricultural Experiment
Stalidu has worked out th(> most reasonable and practical test
of production, and his i)hin briefly is as follows: certain ears
of corn will be selected and numbered, one-half of each ear
102 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
will be shelled and carefully preserved, while the other half
of each ear will be planted in test rows of one-half ear to the
row. From these test rows records will be secured as to the
individual merits of the ears tested. The shelled corn which
was saved from the four or five best producing ears is then
planted on an isolated area, and in this way seed is produced
for the crop or the multiplying area of the succeeding year.
Thus the seed corn will be produced from the highest yield-
ing four ears of the test area. This system of corn breeding,
known as the " remnant system," requires three distinct corn-
breeding areas each year. The first is what is known as the
ear-to-the-row test, where one-half of each ear is planted and
one-half is saved for future use of the four or five best ears.
The second is a small breeding plat from the remnant of the
four or five best ears of the year before. In this second plat
all the corn may be detasseled except that from the one ear
which gave the highest production. This will insure that the
male parent in this breeding plat shall be from the highest
producing ear of the test of the year before. Seed is saved
only from the detasseled rows, thus insuring cross fertiliza-
tion. The third area is known as the multiplying plat, and
this should be planted on a part of the farm isolated from all
other corn. The seed produced on this plat should be kept
for planting the whole crop of the succeeding year, and for
supplying all the neighbors who may wish to pay the price
for the same with improved seed corn. It will require three
years from the time the first selection is made until the gen-
eral crop of corn is planted from this selected seed. While
this work of selecting and breeding is not difficult, and not
beyond the ability of an average farmer or farmer's boy, yet
where one has already overburdened themselves with fann
work, it will usually be found impracticable as well as im-
possible to go into corn breeding even to the extent I have
here outlined. To add this to the work of the already over-
burdened farmer would not be unlike the adding of teaching
agriculture to the already overburdened teacher of a country
school. There is a place and an o]i])ortunity for some bright
bov in everv communitv to o-o into this matter of corn breed-
No. 4.] CORN GROWING. 103
iiig and to furnish the entire seed corn for the community.
Corn thus pro<;lueed will he worth considerable more than
that which is purchased in llic general market, raised in some
distant section of the country, no one knows where, and which
may not be adapted to the special local needs of the com-
munity where it is to be used as seed.
At the present time a larger part of the corn which is
grown in New England is grown from seed which is pur-
chased at the local seed store, possibly a local hardware or
grocery store, without any special reference to corn breeding
or selection. Even with this rather haphazard way of buy-
ing seed corn there is an opportunity for the exercise of dis-
cretion and skill in the purchasing of seed. One should first
determine what type of corn will most fully meet the require-
ments. The mistake which is most usually made is in the
selection of the type of corn, simply because it is a large
growing variety. This is especially true in this section,
where corn is grown almost entirely for the purpose of en-
silage. In selecting corn which is to be grown for the silo,
it is well to select one of the largest growing varieties which
will come to full maturity, or which will at least approach
maturity, in the usual season of the locality where it is grown.
This would mean for southern New England the selection of
such varieties of dent corn as Leaming, Pride of the North
and Early Mastodon, and for northern New England the
growth of such varieties as Pride of the North and possilily
Leaming or Longfellow. It is only in rare and individual
cases that it is wise to grow in New England such varieties
as Eureka, Cuban Giant and other large growing varieties
which will come nowhere near maturity in our usual season,
and yet there are cases where it may be wise to select the
largest growing type of corn which can be secured. If one
has but 5 or 6 acres on which to grow corn, and a 200-ton
silo which must be filled, then the largest growing variety of
corn should be planted, without regard to whether it comes
to maturity or not. The ]iurpose here, of course, is to secure
the largest amount of roughage and succulent food which can
be grown to the acre. But on most farms it is wiser to grow
104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
a larger acreage of corn of some variety which will mature
the grain, and in this way secure quality in food as well as
quantity. Most of the seed corn offered for sale in the local
markets is shelled corn, and the farmer never has an oppor-
tunity to see what type of ear produced this corn. If shelled
corn is to be purchased, a careful examination should be made
to determine the quality of the corn; the kernels should be
clear and bright in color, full and plump in outline, not shriv-
elled and shrunken, indicating immaturity. The germ should
be large, and not discolored or l)lack, and a germination test
should be made in every case to determine if the corn will
grow. For, after all the discussion with reference to corn
breeding and selecting, the most important quality which
must be possessed by the seed corn is the power of growth.
Good looking corn which may possess nearly all of the ad-
miral)le qualities which are desired in seed corn can be found
lacking in that most essential of all qualities, the ability to
grow. Unless seed corn possesses this quality in a high de-
gree, and with vigor and strength, corn had better be fed to
the chickens, and replaced by other corn which will grow,
whether or not it comes from quite as aristocratic a family.
While the selection of good seed is fundamental and vital
in the growth of corn, yet it is only one of the elements which
make for success. The best seed corn ever produced, if
planted and cared for as is some of the corn grown in New
England, would fail to give satisfactory results. It is just
as important that we give serious attention to the matters of
rotation of crops, adaptation of the crop to the soil, proper
soil fitting and fertilizatiou, tillage, harvesting and cur-
ing. All of these matters are of equal importance with corn
breeding.
The proper place for corn in rotation is the first year after
sod. No other farm crop seems so well able to thrive upon
the undecomposed turf as corn. If the turf which is plowed
for corn is in part made up of clover, this is all the better for
the corn, as the clover will have brought to the soil a large
portion of nitrogen which will be needed by the corn. Some
growers have found it necessary to raise corn year after year
No. 4.] CORN GROWING. 105
on the same land, depending npon the liberal nse of stable
manure and coniniercial fertilizer and cover crops for main-
taining the soil. While this can be done and a high average
yield of corn maintained, yet it is not a practice which should
be universally adopted, and can only be used to advantage
where for special reasons it is found necessary. That treat-
ment of the land which shall cause a cultivated crop like corn
or potatoes to alternate with a sowed crop like oats or grass
and clover tends to keep the soil free from weeds, to prevent
the waste of plant food, to increase the soil humus and to
bring about generally those conditions which are found favor-
able for crop production. Whether farm manure shall be
plowed under for corn, or Avhether it shall be applied as a
surface dressing after plowing, must be determined by the
local conditions. If that method of plowing is practiced
which leaves a furrow on edge rather than completely invert-
ing it, the manure niay be apjilied before plowing, and then
harrowed in with the disc harrow. By thorough incor]iora-
tion with the soil it will not only furnish plant food for the
crop, but Avill serve to improve the physical condition of the
soil. To leave the manure in the yard until after the corn
ground is plowed, and then to haul it over the plowed land in
distributing it, greatly adds to the labor without producing
marked increase of the crop over that method of applying the
manure before plowing. Where farm manure and commer-
cial fertilizer are both used upon the same land for corn, if
the manure is plowed under and the commercial fertilizer
applied as a surface dressing they will supplement each other,
the commercial fertilizer starting the corn off vigorously and
the farm manure serving later in growth. It is impossible to
lay down any definite rules which will apply in all cases, but
the practice must vary according to th^ ty])e of soil, according
to the condition of the manure and according to the ])revious
treatment of the land.
In planting corn a system of cheek-row planting has many
advantages over drilling or rowing but one way. Where the
soil is infested with weeds and grass it is a great advantage
to be able to cultivate the corn in two directions. This can
106 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
only be brought about by the pbmting in the check-row sys-
tem. Two row horse planters can now be purchased which
will plant corn in check rows, providing the land is fairly
level. On much of our hill lands it will be found that these
check-row planters are not a complete success. We have one
field at the Connecticut Agricultural College planted this
year by one of these machines. C^orn is rowed in one direc-
tion, but it would require the skill of an acrobat to cultivate
it in the other direction. On another field, which is fairly
level, the planter has done most excellent work, the corn being
well rowed in two directions. Many farmers still hold to the
practice of planting with a hand planter. In this case it is
possible to check row the corn with absolute uniformity. With
the land marked off in advance, two men with hand planters
will have no difficulty in planting from 8 to 10 acres per day.
In growing the dent corn for the silo these rows may be -Sl/o
feet apart in one direction and 3 feet apart in the other direc-
tion. In growing the smaller types of flint corn the rows
may be 3 feet apart both ways, and abundance of room will
be furnished for each hill of corn.
Directly after the corn is planted cultivation should begin.
This cultivation should not be delayed until the corn is up,
but may oftentimes be given to advantage on the same day
on which the corn is planted. Especially is this true where
the corn is likely to be dug up by crows. The use of a smooth-
ing harrow or weeder directly after planting has in many
cases served to protect the seed from damage by the crows.
It is even more effective than treating the corn with tar or
other substances. After the corn is up, the first cultivation
should be given with an implement with narrow teeth, which
may be run close to the rows of corn, which are set fairly
deep ; this will not roll the earth and bury the hills of corn.
The first cultivation should be as deep as any cultivation you
expect to give during the season, for if any of the surface
roots are to be pruned, that pruning should be done at the
first cultivation, for at that time the plant has relatively a
much larger growth of root system compared with top than it
will have again during the season. During the growing sea-
No. 4.] CORN GROWING. 107
son the corn should be given cultivation at frequent intervals,
the number of cultivations being determined somewhat by the
season and soil conditions. During a dry season the surface
should at all times be kept loose, open and porous ; and dur-
ing a wet season, as soon as possible after the rain the surface
should be stirred to a depth of from two to three inches, and
this surface layer made as dry as it is possible, for the drier
we can keep the surface of the soil on any cultivated field the
more completely do we hold the moisture beneath the surface,
whore it is needed by the growing plants.
The practice of hilling corn is one which is advisable only
on lands which are naturally too wet for the growth of corn,
i»r in a wet season, when it is desired to establish surface
drains in which the surplus of rainfall may be carried quickly
from the field. During recent- years we have not been seri-
ously troubled with a surplus of rainfall, and consequently
those fields which have been given level tillage through the
entire season have given best results. Corn is a valuable
crop for New England because it gives a splendid opportunity
for the growth of cover crops, which may be used to advan-
tage for green manuring purposes. This cover crop can be
sown to advantage at the last cultivation of the corn, but it is
often better to wait until the corn is harvested, especially
where this corn is to be put into the silo ; then harrow the field
over thoroughly before sowing the seed for the cover crop.
Of all cover crops which have been tested in New England,
none have proved of greater value than rye, or a mixture of
rye and winter vetch, or rye and clover. If the seed can
be put into the soil during the month of September a good
growth will be n^ade in the fall, and it will serve to prevent
erosion, to hold the soluble plant food and prevent waste in
the drainage waters.
The most economical way of storing the corn crop after it
is raised is to put it into a silo, and of all the types of silos
so far recommended the round, wooden stave silo is, for the
general farm, the best type. Concrete, l)rick and stone silos
have all been tried and all have their advocates. It is claimed
for them that, once constructed, they are a ]iermanent im-
108 BOARD OF AGRICrLTURE. [Pub. Doc.
provement, and yet no one seems to know of a stave silo
which has ever been worn ont. For twenty or more years
stave silos have been in use, and so far as can be learned they
are, where properly constructed, just as good to-day as when
they were built. Jf a stave silo is good for twenty-five
or thirty years, even though it must then be replaced, it is
more economical than a concrete or brick silo. The money
representing the difference in cost between the two types of
silos, if placed in a bank at 4 per cent interest, would at the
end of twenty years have won enough dividends to more than
pay for the construction of a hew stave silo. I make this
statement with reference to silos in spite of the fact that the
Massachusetts Agricultural (Ndlege has two concrete silos,
and is apparently well satisfied with the results. Recently,
in discussing the matter of silo construction, and advising that
the base of the silo be on the level with the feeding floor, and
that it is not usually advisable to dig a hole in which to set
the silo, I was informed that this pit in the ground was
necessary in order to hold the juices of the silage and prevent
their waste. If the corn is allowed to come to that degree of
maturity to which it should come, there will be no visible
juice to be preserved, for it will all be mixed with the silage.
As a better quality of hay is secured where the grass is not
allowed to come to full maturity before being cut, it was sup-
posed that corn would also make a better quality of silage if
it were harvested before it came to maturity, and it is diffi-
cult to overcome the practice established during the early
years of ensilaging corn. It is rather unfortunate that our
local fairs and State fairs all over New England are held
during the month of corn harvest. Of course the farmer and
his sons and all the hired men must go to the fair, and this
fi-equontly means that the corn is harvested and silos filled
in order that this work shall not come along to interfere with
the attendance at the fairs. Better take the risk of a slight
frost and let the corn come to maturity than put it away when
it is green and lacking in its fullest development. While
corn and corn products alone do not make a perfect ration for
farm animals, nor the stalk nor the grain contain that degree
No. 4.] CORX G MOWING. 109
of protein which is necessary for the chury cow, yet as a
source of carbohydrates, of roughage, of material to mix with
purchased concentrates, there is no crop which can take its
place.
Much has been done to improve the crop as a result of
breeding and selection, and this work will go on until every
man who plants corn will plant pedigreed seed corn, which
he knows possesses high producing qualities. But I wish to
emphasize the fact that the selection of good seed is only one
of the elements which makes for success with this crop. It
is probable that without the slightest change in our practice
and use of seed corn we could, by better cultivation, better
fertilizing and better rotation, increase the yield of corn in
Massachusetts at least 10 bushels per acre, and this would
mean an increase in the crop for the entire State of 470,000
bushels. Ten bushels more per acre w'ould mean an increase
in the corn crop in Connecticut of 000,000 bushels. For
those who have no faith, or but little faith, in the modern
principles of corn breeding this matter of better tillage and
better care may appeal. While the work of corn breeding
is peculiarly work for the specialist, and will probably be
taken np by not more than one or two men in every connnu-
nity, yet every man who grows corn should endeavor to make
the land grow not a meager 38 to 40 bushels of coi'n per acre,
but should make it realize the full possibilities of what was
intended for corn, 50 to 75 or even 100 bushels per acre.
The salvation of the dairy business in New England will
not be secured when satisfactory arrangements have been
made with the milk contractors, but the final success in the
dairy business will depend in part upon lowering the cost of
production, and this will mean the production of more and
better corn, the use of ensilage for summer and winter feed-
ing of the dairy herd, and the contemplation and mastery of
every detail w^hich makes for the growing of a successful crop
of corn.
lUI L I. K T I N S
Massachusetts Board of Ageicultuee,
PUBLISHED IN
Massachusetts Crop Keports, 1910.
CORN SELECTION FOR SEED AND FOR SHOW.
BY PROF. WILLIAM D. HURD, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
The renewed interest in corn growing is a significant thing in New
England agriculture. When corn could be laid down "on track" in
the east for 30 cents a bushel there may have been some excuse for
the New England farmer depending on the "corn belt" for this im-
portant product. For the past ten years, however, the price in the
eastern States has ranged from 70 to 90 cents a bushel. Careful
calculations show that corn can be raised on New England farms at
a cost of from 30 to 45 cents per bushel (shelled), hence it is a profitable
crop to raise. That corn is adapted to almost any rotation, that silage
is indispensable in feeding a dairy herd, that this crop is extensively
used in the arts and manufactures, always finding a ready market, and
its being a native of New England are further reasons why this most
important crop in this country should be more extensively grown here.
The average yield of corn throughout the United States, according
to 1908 statistics, was 20. 2 bushels per acre. The average yield over
the six New England States for the same year was 40.5 bushels to the
acre. This same year several growers in New England obtained
yields of from 100 to 133 bushels of shelled corn to the acre (calculated
when taken from the field). What accounts for this wide difference
between the average yield and that secured by careful growers? No
doubt favorable soil, proper manuring, cultivation, etc., played im-
jjortant parts, but probably the most important factor was strong,
virile, productive, properly selected seed. The need of more attention
on the part of farmers to seed selection, and the fact that this year
there is to be held in New England a great corn exposition, where
selection and i^reparation of samples for show will count, are suf-
ficient reasons for the emphasizing of these jjoints in this paper. An
attempt only has been made to take up such points as would aid New
England farmers to improve their corn, and get read}^ for the ex-
position.
The main object from the standpoint of the farmer in all breeding of
plants and animals is to improve the plant or the breed of animals
with which he is working. Practical men have realized for genera-
tions that it was a profitable thing to use the best individuals in a herd
to breed from. The fact that there is as much individuality in plants,
that ears of corn, for example, differ as much in their productive
114 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
power and breccliiig characteristics as do animals, has not seemed to
be generally recognized, or, if recognized, the knovvletlge has not been
made good use of. Seed corn has been generally planted without
respect to the region in which it grew, its productive ability or even
its germinating power.
A simple problem in mathematics will show how important it is
that in any attempt to improve corn a good individual kernel should
be used to start with. One kernel of corn produces an ear. An ear
of corn, according to type and variety, will contain from 400 to 1,200
kernels. Taking 800 kernels as an average for an ear, these 800 kernels
may reasonably be expected to produce 800 stalks, which, counting
1 ear to a stalk, gives 800 ears in the second generation. Each of these
800 ears, if properly handled, may be exjDected to produce 800 ears in
the third generation. Then in three years there would be produced
from the one kernel 640,000 ears, or approximately 8,000 bushels.
A farmer, then, can modify to a great extent the quality, yield and
all-round general characteristics of his crop by beginning right, with
good seed.
It is not expected, or even wise to ad\'ocate, that every farmer shall
be a corn breeder, but there is need of developing in New England
strains of corn which will be adapted to the soil, length of season and
the demands of our New England agriculture. No doubt a con-
siderable number of farmers will attempt to improve strains of corn
in the future, and these simple directions are given for their benefit.
Improving corn does not involve a knowledge of plant breeding. Great
advancement can be made by simple selection. Any man with a keen
eye, a desire to impro\'e the corn and an ideal to work toward may
expect to be well repaid for his time and lal:)or.
The writer would not overlook the fact that proper soil, climatic
conditions, manuring, fertilizing and proper methods of culture are
all extremely important, but the limits of this paper prevent a dis-
cussion of these at this time.
As has already been stated, good seed is the first and fundamental
step in corn improvement. Uniform ears, straight rows, large size of
ear, high percentage of corn to the cob and other points, considered on
a score card at a show, may all be valueless when productive power is
considered, and the whole purj^ose of corn improvement is more ears
or more fodder to the acre.
Before any attempt is made to improve a plant some knowledge of
the character and habits of the i^lant should be acquired. With corn
one should understand a few of the botanical characteristics of the
plant, the wa}^ the ears are formed, the root system, etc. The corn
plant varies in height, according to type and the geographical region
in which it grows, from 1^ feet to perhaps 25 feet. On the stalk are
to be found joints or nodes, and if the stalk is cut crosswise above one
of these joints there will probably be found an embryonic car, which
No. 4.] CORN SELECTION. 115
woukl sccni to show that the original habit of the plant was to produce
a small ear at every joint. The silk is the female organ of reproduc-
tion, the tassel, the male organ of reproduction, containing the pollen,
which is shaken and blown about, falling on the silks (pistils) and
fertilizing them. The fact that there is so much pollen produced by
the tassels and this is blown about by the wind, or carried over con-
siderable distances by other agencies, accounts for corn "mixing"
so badly. It is not safe to plant two distinct types nearer than 20
rods of each other, and even at this distance considerable cross-fer-
tilization may take place. To avoid "inbreeding" and to cause cross-
fertilization somtimes every other row in a breeding plot is detasseled.
Corn plants have two root systems, one consisting of coarse strong
roots, coming oflf at a little distance above the ground, which act as
braces for the plant. The other is the fibrous root system, which grows
underneath the soil, taking nourishment for the plant. A knowledge
of how this last root system places itself in the soil will aid in deciding
the kind of cultivation to employ. Deep cultivation after the plants
are started destroys this feeding root system, lessening the growth of
the plant, as well as allowing great loss of soil moisture.
Another point which must not be overlooked, but which will not be
discussed at length, is uniform stand. It is an easy thing, by careless
planting or by using poor seed, to lose 10 per cent or even 20 per cent
of the hills or bearing stalks in the hills. This loss may mean the net
profit which might have been obtained with the same amount of land,
labor, fertilizer and cost of growing the crop. Care should be iaken
to have no vacancies in the field or barren stalks in the hills. Without
a uniform stand a good jdeld cannot be expected.
Corn may be selected to increase strength of plant, yield, early
maturity, size of ear, content of starch or protein, position of ear on
the stalk, amount of leaf, if for silage, and for other desirable character-
istics. It is not possible to select for many of these characteristics at
the same time.
For New England it is probably best not to go too far from home
for a type with which to begin. The mistake is too often made of
sending for seed to regions where entirely different climatic conditions
prevail than those under which the crop is to be afterwards grown.
Care should be taken to select a type that will be worthy of improve-
ment. Get as pure a strain as possible; one adapted to your region,
and one that will mature in an average season. Oftentimes seed can
be secured from some one who has already spent several years in doing
the preliminary work necessary to establish a strain and fix a type.
Secure seed from such whenever possible. It will save years of your
own time.
This may seem like a paradoxical statement, but the time to begin
to grow corn is in the late summer or early fall. Seed corn should
also be selected in the field. Bv so doing the character and strength
116 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
of the plant, the position of the ear on the stalk, the way it hangs,
early maturity, and all the other desirable characteristics which make
the ear a desirable one, under growing conditions, may be taken into
consideration. When corn is selected from the crib none of the fac-
tors which enter into the growth vmder field conditions are known.
One must be guided by external characteristics, and these are not
sufficient. Never buy seed corn shelled which you expect to improve.
In this condition even the kind of ear that produced the corn is not
known. Let the corn become perfectly mature in the field before har-
vesting.
Much of what might otherwise have been good seed corn is ruined
in storing and cui-ing. When taken from the field ear corn contains
25 per cent to 35 per cent moisture. If allowed to freeze while con-
taining this amount of moisture the vitaUty will be greatly lessened,
if not entirely ruined. Therefore the corn must be thoroughly dried
before freezing.
After it is properly dried it should be stored in a dry place, and no
natural temperature will harm it. It should be either placed in racks
or hung up in small traces. Do not shell or place in boxes or barrels.
Considerable more corn should be saved early in the fall than will be
needed, in order that more careful selection may be made later.
While the external characteristics of an ear may be used for the
preliminary work of selection, these are not sufficient to determine
whether corn is fit for planting or not. In other words, the first prize
ear in a corn show may be no better and often not so good as some
other good ear. An ear of corn to be used for seed should be required
to answer for itself the following questions: Will it grow? Will it
mature? Has it constitution? Has it breeding characteristics?
None of these important questions can be answered without at least
testing the ear in two ways.
First, the simple germination test maj^ be applied. Where quite
a number of ears are to be tested a box 20 inches by 20 inches and 3
inches deep can conveniently be used. Mark off the box, with strings,
into squares 2 inches on a side. Fill the box level full of sawdust or
sand. Number each ear and each square of the germinating box.
Place five or six kernels from ear No. 1 in space No. 1, and a similiar
number of kernels from the other ears in corresponding spaces. Place
the germinating box in a temperature of about 70° to 75° F. Keep
the sand or sawdust moist. As germination takes place you will no
doubt find many ears showing weakness or poor germinating power,
and they should be discarded at once.
Sometimes corn that will germinate will not grow well under field
conditions. So in any effort to improve corn the desirable ears
retained from the germination test should be tested in the field. The
most convenient method is by what is called the "ear row test."
This consists in planting row No. 1 with corn taken from ear No. 1,
row No, 2 with corn from ear No. 2, etc. Plots of any desired size
No. 4.]
CORN SELECTION.
117
may be arranged, and while much more elaborate systems of plot
tests have been recommended, for the average farmer the above will
be sufficient. The plot used for this purpose should be given the best
of preparation, fertilization and care throughout the season, giving
the corn every possible chance. Before the pollen begins to scatter,
all weak and barren stalks should be removed. Half of each row
may also be detasseled before the fertilization of the silk takes place,
to pre^'ent inbreeding. Seed ears for another years' crop may be
selected from this plot and cared for as before described, and marked
improvement should be the result.
The operations described are simple, the work is extremely interest-
ing, there is need of such work, and those who carry it on will find
ready sale for their product at prices far in advance of those usually
secured.
Selection and Preparation of Corn for Show.
For purposes of exhibition corn is now usually shown in single-ear,
ten-ear or eight)^-ear (approximately a bushel) lots. The ten-ear
sample, the one most commonly used, is of convenient size to be easily
judged, and is of sufficient size to show a fair sample of what the crop
really is.
Numerous score cards have been devised for corn judging. Neces-
sarily each varies with the ideas of the different persons who compile
them. A score card, however, aids the judge in keeping all the im-
portant points in mind. It establishes a uniform basis for study and
comparison, and prevents laying undue stress on certain points to the
exclusion of others. The use of a corn score card requires judgment,
the same as for fruit, live stock, milk or other products. Score cards
differ for different sections. Obviously, the same score card should
not be used on corn of the type grown in New England as for that
grown in Iowa or Missouri. In order to formulate a score card for
New England corn the officers of the New England Corn Exposition
appointed a committee to consider this matter. After consulting
about twenty authorities on types of corn the following score cards
for dent and flint corns have been decided upon. These will be used
in judging the corn at the exposition this fall.
Points.
Score Card, Flint Corn.
1. Maturity and sood condition,
2. Uniformity,
3. Kernels, ....
4. Weight of ear,
5. Length and proportion,
6. Butts
7. Tips, ....
8. Space between rows, .
9. Color, ....
Total,
Perfect Score.
20
15
15
10
10
10
5
10
100
118
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Score Card, Dent Corn.
Points.
1. Maturity and seed condition,
2. Uniformity,
3. Kernels, ....
4. Weight of ear, .
5. Length and proportion,
G. Butts, ....
7. Tips
8. Space between rows, .
9. Color, ....
Total,
Perfect Score.
. 25
. 15
. 15
. 15
10
5
5
5
5
100
Explanation of Score Cardfi.
Of cour.se some difference must be made in judging dent and flint
corn. The following explanation of the jwint.s are made to guide the
growers in selecting their corn for exhibition purposes this fall : —
1. Maturity and Seed Condition.- — This is perhaps the most im-
portant point on the score card. Corn is worthle.ss, economically
speaking, if it will not grow. The ears should be firm (try twisting in
the hands) and free from mold. They should have a bright luster.
There should be no chaff or silks adhering. The germs should not be
shrunken or blistered, and the sample should show an all-round healthy,
vigorous appearance.
2. Uniformity. — Uniformity and trueness to type are usually con-
sidered together. Few types are recognized in the west. It is hard
to determine what a " type " of New England corn is. The ears should
be similar in length, shape, size and color, indentation of kernels, etc.
Uniformity in an exhibit would go to show that the corn was suf-
ficiently developed so that the type had become somewhat fixed and
stable.
3. Kernels. — Of course here again an entirely different basis must
be used for dent and flint corns. The kernels should be uniform and
slightly wedge .shaped. (.Judges remove a few kernels from different
parts of the ear to determine this.) The shape of the kernel determines
to a great extent the amount of corn on the cob, lost space between
rows, also chemical composition. Kernels with much starch are rich
in carbohydrates; those having a larger germ are rich in oil. The
kernels should possess germs of good size. Kernels of uneven size do
not work through corn planters with uniformity. The edges of the
kernels should be straight and fit closely together; they should be of
uniform thickness. The rows should also be straight.
//. Weight of Ear. — In this score card this item takes the place of
"proportion of corn to cob" in other score cards. Dry cobs do not
vary much in weight, and it is much easier for a judge to weigh the
ears than to have two or three out of ten shelled and the proportion
of corn to cob determined in this way. The weight of shelled corn
No. 4.] CORN SELF.CTION. 119
per acre is the important point. Here again there is a wide difference
between dent and flint corns. Dent ears may weigh IG ounces or
more, and are usually produced one on a stalk. Flint ears weigh 8
ounces to 10 ounces, and more than one ear is commonly produced
on a stalk.
5. Length of Ear and Us Proportion. — The size of ears of corn vary
considerably with the locality, soil, etc., so it is hard to fix a standard
of length. Dent varieties should be 9^ inches to 10 inches long. Flint
varieties ma}^ be 11 inches to 12 inches long. Some varieties of both
types may be smaller. In dent corn the circumference of the ears
taken 2 inches above the butt should be about two-thirds the length.
Ears with too large a circumference for their length are slow to mature.
Ears should not be too tapering. Nearly cylindrical ears are de-
sirable. Ears should be full and strong in the central portion.
G. Butts. — Large yield to the acre depends on having the butts
and tips well filled out. The kernels should be uniform in size and well
arranged around the butt, surrounding a cup-shaped cavity. The
butt of the ear should not be too large, neither should it be so small
as not to support the ear well when it is hanging on the stalk. Butts
should be somewhat expanded but not too large.
7. Tips. — Should be well covered with kernels of uniform size and
in rows which are a continuation of those on the ears. Poor tips may
be caused by an unfavorable season. Tips well filled out show good
breeding and a larger amount of shelled corn to the acre.
8. Space between tlie Rows. — i\Iuch space between the rows reduces
the proportion of shelled corn. The shape of the kernels, the straight-
ness of the rows, both at the base end of the kernel and on the ex-
terior, should be very slight.
9. Color. — The color of the kernels should be uniform and of a
bright luster, showing good condition. White or black kernels in
yellow corn should be severely cut and vice versa. Too many mixed
kernels may disqualify the exhibit. Missing kernels may be taken
to mean that those originally occupying the vacant spaces were off
color. The cobs should all be of the same color. Usually white
corn has white cobs. Red cobs in yellow corn are preferred. Variar
tion in color of cobs shows mixture and poor breeding.
Preparation of the Corn for Exhibition Purposes.
After the corn has been carefully selected, according to the points
given in the foregoing score cards, it should be carefully stored, so
that the ears will not become broken or otherwise injured. Keep it
in a place where the luster will be maintained. It is just as allowable
to "groom" an exhibit of corn and otherwise make it look well lor
exhibition purposes as it is to place animals in "show condition."
All silks, chaff, etc., should be carefully removed. The butts may be
trimmed to give them as neat an ai^pearauce as possible. Any attempt
120 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
to improve a sample by removing kernels and inserting others should
meet with a disqualification of the exhibit. In shipping, each ear
should be wrapped separately, and should also be plainly marked with
a small tag fastened into the butt with a tack or small nail.
The whole exhibit should be properly labeled in accordance with the
regulations which are laid down by the officers in charge of the corn
exposition to which the corn is sent.
No. 4.] GROWING ASPARAGUS. 121
GROWING AND MARKETING ASPARAGUS.
BY MR. FRANK WHEELER, CONCORD, MASS.
Since the asparagus rust has estabhshed itself in this country it is
well known by the most experienced asparagus growers that the vari-
ety introduced from France, known as Aryenteuil, or Palmetto, as it
has been renamed since its introduction here, is much more resistant
to rust than are other varieties, and is the more desirable kind to
grow. One-year roots are much to be preferred to older ones, as they
will not be so much mutilated in transplanting to the field from the
seed plot, and will suffer less check; neither are they so likely to be
stunted in the seed bed if dug as one-year roots as if allowed to grow
three years ; also, the one-year roots will get to the producing stage as
soon as the older ones.
Procure seed that you know is true to name, preferably from some
selected strain, known to be resistant to the rust, and of good market
qualities. Sow the seed as early in the spring as the land can be made
ready, on an early, moderately heavy, sandy loam, thoroughly enriched
for two or more years with stable manure and chemicals, in drills 1
inch deep, 16 or 18 inches apart, thinly, or 1 to 2 inches in the row.
This prevents crowding, and it is not necessary to thin the plants,
which is desirable, as they are difficult plants to pull up so as to get
all the root and prevent that plant coming up again. Keep this seed
bed free from weeds by frequent wheel or scuffle hoeing and hand
weeding. If troubled by the asparagus beetles or slugs protect the
plants by dusting with Paris green, put on with a powder gun when
the plants are wet with dew, or dusting slaked lime on the plants and
slugs. The 'lime will stick to the slugs and kill them by contact. It
is well to cover the plants in the seed bed through the winter with
coarse, strawy manure or old hay, to protect the roots, as strawberries
are covered or mulched for the winter.
The soil most favoral)le to the production of asparagus is a sandy
loam, of a smooth texture, free from coarse grit, gravel or stones, 8 to
12 inches deep, underlaid with a smooth, yellow, loamy subsoil, chang-
ing to a close sand at a depth of 3 feet or more. It is better to pre-
pare the field for the permanent bed one or two years before setting
the roots, by growing some crop that requires high fertilization and
thorough cultivation. The soil should, during this one or two years
122 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
before setting, be well. filled with manure to a depth of 9 inches or
more, to stock the soil with humus, as all applications after the roots
are set will have to be on or near the surface. A soil well stocked
with humus will stand drought much better than one that is deficient
in humus. The year previous to setting the roots the land should
receive a heavy dressing of lime, nearl}' 1 ton to the acre, or an e\'en
heavier dressing of wood ashes, imless the land has received frequent
applications of either or both of these materials in recent years, in
which case a smaller quantity will be sufficient. Asparagus is ver}-
sensitive to an acid soil and wiU not do well on it.
The autumn pre\ious to setting, plow the ground to a depth of 9
inches or more, if such a depth does not bring up too much of the poor
subsoil. During the winter or spring spread 10 to 20 tons of manure
broadcast, and in the spring, when preparing the ground, apply
broadcast what chemicals are to be used. Thoroughly wheel harrow
two or three times and smooth. Mark out the rows 4 feet apart and
get them straight, — the field is to be planted for twelve years or
more, — as much better work can be done in the care of the field
with straight rows than with crooked ones. Open the furrows first
with a swivel plow with two horses abreast, turning the furrows all
one way. Then follow with a large two-horse landside plow, with the
horses tandem in the furrow, throwing the earth the first time the
same way as the swivel plow threw it, and then coming back in the
same furrow, throwing the earth to the opposite side of the trench,
where no earth has been thrown. In this way the trench can be made
quite clean to a depth of 7 inches below the settled level surface with-
out any shove Ung by hand.
The roots are dug from the seed bed by plowing out with a large
two-horse plow, shaken out with forks, and taken to some building
where they can be separated and sorted, discarding all small and
poor plants. The plants are set in the bottom of the trench 2 feet
apart in the row, and covered with 2 inches of soil. The field is taken
care of during the first season by hand hoeing in the line of the trench,
working in soil a httle at a time, so as not to have the trench filled
full before the middle of August or first of September, and cultivating
on the ridges between the rows with some cultivator that will not work
the earth into the trenches too fast. If it is thought worth while to
take care of the field b}' hand for a part crop, a row of beets, carrots,
parsnips, bush beans or some similar crop can be planted on the top
of the ridge any time after the asparagus is set.
The beetles and slugs must be taken care of by the same or similar
means as those used on the seed bed, or if hens and chickens can be
kept on the field they will be a help.
At some convenient time during the winter or spring following the
setting in the field, and each succeeding year, spread from 10 to 20
spreader loads of manure per acre, and at the spring preparation of
No. 4.] GROWING ASPARAGrs. 123
the land apply chemicals supplementary to the manure, in such quan-
tities that the land will receive each year from 125 to 150 pounds of
nitrogen, from 250 to 300 pounds of potash and from 100 to 125 pounds
of phosphoric acid per acre. The chemicals used should be nitrate of
soda and high-grade tankage for the nitrogen, and ashes and muriate
of potash for the potash. Probably the tankage will carry enough
phosphoric acid to make the required quantity, with that from the
manure, but if not, use Thomas slag, bone meal or acid phosphate. If
ashes are hard to procure use more nuu'iat(! of potash to make up the
deficiency of potash, and use one-third ton of lime per acre each year
to keep the soil alkaline.
The second and each succeeding year the land is prepared by the
use of wheel and smoothing harrows, no plow being used. The tops
or brush of the plants are not removed, but are broken down and cut
up by first using a cutaway harrow, driven with the driver riding.
Next, a whole disk harrow is used crossways of the former course of
the cutaway harrow, riding or not, as the texture of the soil lets the
harrow into it. The harrows should not at any time be weighted so
as to crowd them on to the crowns of the plants. Either before or
after the. second harrowing apply the chemicals, and harrow them in
with the wheel harrow, not riding it the third time. Then smooth off
with a smoothing harrow, but do not drag with a plank smoother or
roll with a roller. If, however, it is desired, for any reason, to plank
or roll the field, this should be followed, at as late a time as possible
to do it without injuring the new shoots, by another application of
the smoothing harrow, to kill all weeds that have started, and to
leave the surface of the field rough, to prevent the soil from drifting
in high winds and making the shoots crooked. The small pieces of
brush and other material should be left on the field.
The field during the second year is taken care of with cultivators
and horse hoes, with but little hand work.
Part of the preceding and what follows may seem like heresy to
recommend, but my faith in it is attested by my practice and results
for twenty-five years or more.
Stop cultivation the latter part of August or first part of September,
and allow all weeds to grow for a cover crop and winter protection,
which, when harrowed in with the asparagus brush and the light
annual dressing of manure, will keep the soil well supplied with humus,
which will not be the case if chemicals are used without stable manure
and all top growth is gathered and burned.
If in the second year the shoots come of good size and veiy strong,
they might as well be cut during the first week, as they are likely to
be injured by frost, and it will hurt the roots no more to cut them
than to let the frost kill them. The third year the shoots may be cut
and marketed, to about June 1, and then should be allowed to grow,
and kept free from weeds mitil the latter part of August. Although I
124 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
am recommending letting the weeds grow late in the season, when the
asparagus is ripening, I most decidedly recommend that the weeds be
kept down during the growing season, so that the asparagus may
have all the benefits to be derived from clean culture and high manur-
ing during that period. The fourth and succeeding years the crop
may be gathered and sold to about June 20 or 25, according to
whether the season has been such as to make a large crop, and the
market demands it.
During the cutting season the weeds are kept down by frequent
cultivation between the rows, while those in the row are covered up,
about June 1, by a tool, drawn by two horses, that straddles the row
and draws the dirt into the row, making a ridge that covers the weeds
so that they will not trouble for the rest of the cutting season. At
the end of the cutting season all weeds are killed by leveling down
the ridges by harrowing or cultivating and smooth harrowing, and for
the rest of the season, until August 15 or September 1, by cultivators
and horse hoes between the rows and hand hoeing in the rows.
Marketing.
For the Boston or New England market, the "grass," as it is gen-
erally called, should be cut so as to have green grass, or so that the
principal part of the growth is above ground, instead of the white
kind, or that which is cut mostly below the surface. The customary
length of bunch is 8J or 9 inches, so that two bunches laid end to end
will reach across a bushel box, bunches of the size that one dozen will
fill a layer in the box and three layers will fill the box, which is IJ
pounds per bunch, or 55 jDOunds per bushel. The stalks are cut in the
field so that they will show about G inches of green growth and 2^
inches of white after they are packed, tied and butted. The best tool
for cutting is a knife with handle 7 inches long and blade 8 inches
long by 1| inches wide, with dull sides, sharpened across the end,
which should be square. There are knives on the market of this
description, except that there is a deep swallow tail on the end, in-
stead of being square. The objection to this form is the greater liabil-
ity of injury to buds in using, the stalk not being entirely severed
until the deepest part of the notch has gone through the stalk, and
when that part is through the long points of the knife have gone their
length beyond, which may be among the crowns of the roots, to the
injury of some of them.
Each man cuts two rows at a time, and two men lay together be-
tween them the handfuls of grass they cut. After cutting, it is gathered
in bushel boxes, tips overlapping in the middle of the box, taking care
to lay the grass straight and even. It is then taken to the packing
room, where it is sorted as it is packed for market. If the grass is
such as it should be, with the care laid down in the foregoing pages, it
will pay to make two grades. The better grade should be composed
No. 4.] GROWING ASPARAGUS. 125
of only large, straight, full lengths of stalks, while in the poorer grade
may lie i)ut (he small, short and crooked ones, if not so crooked as to
disfigure the bunches after being packed. At the packing room the
grass is put on a table or bench, around which the packers sit and the
tier and butter-oflf stand. A table 7 feet long by 5 feet wide will ac-
commodate five or six packers, one tier and one butter-off and washer.
The packers use a rack, made with a 2 by 4 by 12 inch base, with a
^ inch headboard, G inches high and 4 inches wide. Two inches from
the headboard is a U-shaped iron, ^g inch in diameter, 2| inches
high, the lower four-fifths of which describes a semicircle of 2} inches
diameter. Six inches from the headboard is another similar iron, 2J
inches high, the lower part of which describes a semicircle of 2| inches
diameter. Between these two irons, and closer to the larger one than
to the smaller, a channel is cut across the base, to put the tying mate-
rial through when tying. Standing about 6 inches above the large
table, in or near the center, is a small revolving table, about 2 feet
square, from which the packers take the empty racks and to which
they return them when filled, where they are convenient for the tier to
reach to place in the tying machine. One man can tic what three to
six can pack, according to the size of the grass, and how well it is
packed. He needs to be a nimble man, of cjuick good judgment, in
order to see that all the bunches are of the same size before putting
the pressure on for tying. Under the old order of packing, where
each packer tied his own packing by hand, there was too much vari-
ation in the size of bunch if there were many packers in the gang.
The tying machine is better understood by seeing it than from
description. It consists of a double hook carried by a hinged and
weighted arm fastened to the under side of the table, to which a
treadle is hung, on which the tier stands to give pressure to the bunch
when tying it. With this machine a man can tie much faster and
tighter than by hand. The tying machine is placed midway on one
side of the table, while at its left, fastened to one corner of the table,
is the cutting machine, gauged to cut off all the butts the same length.
The man cutting off butts also does the washing. He has a tub of
water close by, into which the bunches are dropped as cut. They
are then washed and placed upright in long troughs or sinks, and
water put to the grass a few hours before packing in bushel boxes to
send to market. Never let the grass get wet above the butts after
it is once dry after washing, but keep it as cool and dry as possible, to
prevent its commencing to spoil.
During bright and hot weather, when cutting, the grass will wilt
somewhat in the field, but that is no objection, as it will pack better
and tie tighter, and it freshens and swells to its normal size after
being in the sinks of water a few hours. Care will have to be taken
not to make the bunches quite as large as when the grass does not
wilt, to allow for the swelling.
126 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
If for any reason the grass is to be held for a few days, and it cannot
be put into cold storage, it is better not to bunch it as it comes from
the field, but to carry it to a cold cellar and lay it on the floor. It
can be kept in this way for a few days without much trouble.
The customary box in which it is sent to market is the common
Boston bushel box, holding three layers of one dozen bunches each,
and covered by four pieces of lath nailed across the top. In very hot
or muggy weather it is well not to place any paper, or other close
covering, over the grass, but to let it have all the air it can get. Within
twenty miles of Boston it is boxed the afternoon of the day it is packed,
and carried that afternoon or night, by wagon, to market, so that it
is ready for sale early the next morning. If much farther than twenty
miles from market it is not boxed until the next morning after pack-
ing, and is then sent by as early an express as possible.
While the market calls for the large grades of grass as strongly as it
now docs, — and it probably will continue to do so, — it will be to
the grower's advantage to try to supply it. To have fields producing
this quality of grass new beds need to be set out frequently, to take
the place of the old ones as they fail. Twelve or sixteen years of cut-
ting is as long as they will be in the most profitable stage. To destroy
an old bed it is as well not to plow out the old roots, but to plow shallow,
or wheel harrow above the rows, keeping down all growth from the
roots for two or three years, and letting them rot in the ground. After
four or five years the field can be plowed to any depth wished, and it
is not robbed of a lot of fertility by carrying off all the roots. While
killing out the roots any hoed crop can be grown, and almost any
crop will do well on an old asparagus field.
There does not seem to be any efficient and economical way of
preventing asparagus rust. The best thing to do is to get the most
resistant variety, and after you have established a bed, to select from
the most resistant and best market types of stalks, seed for setting
new fields, or obtain seed from some one you know to be doing this.
During the last fifteen years the demand for asparagus has grown
faster than the sup{)ly, and the prospect of good profit from the grow-
ing of it in the future is good, especially for the large grade. All the
extra profit in growing the large grade does not come from the extra
price received, but partly from the more economical handling of the
crop. It takes the same time to cut and pack the same number of
little stalks as it does of large ones, but, after they are packed and
tied, there is not more than one-third or one-half as many bunches.
Therefore get good stock, give it plenty of room, feed it high, give it
the best of care, put up the product honestly, get a reputation for
good grass, and the I'eward will be satisfactory.
1
No. 4.] ALFALFA L\ INLVSSACHUSETTS. 127
ALFALFA AS A CROP IN MASSACHUSETTS.
BY PROF. WM. P. BROOKS, DIRECTOR MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Alfalfa has been under trial, both at the experiment station and on
a considerable number of private farms, for several years. It has
been found that a good start and a thick stand arc not very difficult
to obtain, but in many cases, both on the experiment station grounds
and on private farms, the alfalfa has frequently died out within two
or three years, giving place, with greater or less rapidity, to grasses
and clovers. During the past few years, however, we have been
ol^taining better success than formerly. There are now several small
areas of alfalfa on station and college grounds which are from four to
six years old and which are still in very good condition. The writer
has heard also of a number of cases in which private farmers are
meeting with mu(;h better success than was common a few years ago.
Even should alfalfa hold the ground only three or four years, it
would, in the opinion of some of those who have given it longest
trial, still be well worth growing on account of its high value for
forage, whether green or dry.
The principal advantages of alfalfa as compared with clover are
four : —
1. Larger total yield, if tlioroughly successful. The experiments
carried out at Amherst up to the present time have been upon too
small a scale to determine the yield to be expected from alfalfa, bnt,
so far as can be judged, it seems [U'obablc that in seasons with well-
distributed and moderate rainfall a total yield in three crops of from
five to six tons of hay may be anticipated on good land.
2. The fir»it crop is ready to cut and feed at least two weeks earlier
than clover.
3. It starts after cutting more (juickl}^ than clover, usuall}' fur-
nishing three crops annually.
4. It is considerably finer than clover, and is therefore more pal-
atable and cures more easily.
So far as can be judged from figures showing composition, alfalfa
apparently does not exceed the clovers in nutritive value to as great
a degree as is often supposed. The following table illustrates this
point : —
128
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Compos
ition of Clover and Alfalfa Hays
Water
(Per
Cent.).
Ash (Per
Cent.).
Protein
(Per
Cent.).
Fiber
(Per
Cent.).
Nitro-
gen-free
Extract
(Per
Cent.).
Fat (Per
Cent.).
Alfalfa hay. »
Alfalfa hay, 2
Alsikeiclover hay,'
Medium red clover haj', 2
15.00
13.24
15.00
15.00
7.90
7,29
9.70
7.60
13.50
16.14
14.00
13.20
27.20
34,49
23 10
24.20
33.20
40.52
36.10
37.40
3.20
1.56
2.10
2.60
' Calculated on the basis of two analyses published by the New Jersey Agricultural
Experiment Station.
2 Average of analyses of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
On account of its superior fineness alfalfa will usually prove some-
what more palatable than clover, but the figures of the above table
indicate that there may be no very wide difference in the nutritive
values of alfalfa and clover hays. Comparative determinations of
the digestibility of these two kinds of hay, produced under American
conditions, are, however, desirable.
Soil Requirements.
Alfalfa may be made to succeed on a variety of soils provided these
meet certain requirements, but whatever the type of soil it should
be naturally thoroughly underdrained. If standing water is found
during any part of the growing season within less than six to eight
feet of the surface alfalfa is sure to do poorly. It is essential, further,
that there should be j^crfect surface drainage. Standing water or
ice, particularly the latter, w^ill destroy alfalfa in a relatively short
time. The highest degree of success with alfalfa appears to have
been attained on moderately heavy soils. The soils of the typical
drumlins of the State, strong, retentive, gravelly loams, appear in
most cases to be well adapted to this crop. A subsoil of medium
texture, and one which will not retain too large a proportion of water,
is desirable. It is highly important that the soil be free from the seeds
or living roots of weeds. The presence of witch grass is highly unde-
sirable. Localities where sweet clover, Melilotus alba, grows naturally
are likely to be peculiarly adapted to alfalfa, as also are those dis-
tricts where the soils are rich in lime.
Preparation of the Soil.
In preparing for alfalfa the most thorough possible tillage and such
treatment as will leave the surface soil entirely free from weeds or
the living roots of weeds, such as witch grass, are of prime importance.
No. 4.] ALFALFA IN I\L\SSACIIUSETTS. 129
If the soil is fertile, and if a very early crop which can be so cultivated
as to leave the soil in good tilth and free from weeds will be profitable,
then such a crop may wisely precede alfalfa; but it is desirable that
such a crop be harvested not later than about the middle of July in
order to allow a sufficient interval for the thorough tillage which is
desirable before the seed of the alfalfa be sown.
If the cultivation of such an early crop as has been above referred
to does not promise to be profitable, or if the soil has not been pre-
viously limed and enriched, then a summer fallow will be found to
be highly beneficial. In this case the rule should be to plow in the
fall if possible; if not, then in early spring, and to harrow with suffi-
cient frequency during the spring and early summer to destroy all
weeds as they start and to bring the soil into a fine mellow condition
before sowing the seed. Under this system of management the sur-
face soil is made mellow and fine, capillary connection between the
surface and the subsoil is thoroughly established, so that water rises
freel}'^ from below toward the surface, and the surface soil, as a result
of the frequent stirring which it has received and the subsequent
germination and later the destruction of successive crops of weeds,
is brought into the best possible condition for the rapid, early growth
of the alfalfa, unchecked by the competition of weeds. The following
are the details for the system of preparation for alfalfa which is es-
pecially recommended: —
1. Plow the land the previous fall or in the early spring.
2. Apply lime at the rate of about 1^ tons per acre to the rough
furrow, either in the fall or early spring, and immediately incorporate
it thoroughly with the soil by the use of the disk harrow.
3. Harrow throughout the spring and early summer at intervals
as frequent as may be necessary to destroy the successive crops of
weeds as they start, and to bring the soil into the finest tilth.
4. About mid-spring, just previous to one of the harrowings which
the land is to receive, apply the following mixture of materials per
acre: basic slag meal, 1,500 to 2,000 pounds; high-grade sulfate of
potash, 300 to 400 povmds ; or, if it can be obtained, low-grade sulfate
of potash, 600 to 800 pounds. This mixture should be spread evenly
and at once thoroughly harrowed into the soil.
5. When ready to sow the seed apply the following mixture of
materials per acre: basic slag meal, 300 pounds; nitrate of soda, 75
to 100 pounds. Spread this evenly and work in lightly with the
smoothing harrow.
The Amount and Quantity of Lime needed.
For all soils which incline to be heavy and which show some tendency
to work up into clods and hard lumps, some form of burnt lime will
be found best. Three kinds of burnt lime arc now offered for sale in
our markets: (1) the ordinary lump lime, which should be slaked
130 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
with just enough water to cause it to crumble into a fine, dry powder
before appHcatioii; (2) granulated lime, which can be spread at
once, when it will slake in the soil; (3) the coarse lime, separated
from the finer in the manufacture of h3'drated lime by the modern
method. This lime is suitable for immediate application and when
mixed with the soil will take up moisture and slake. Either the
granulated lime or the grade last referred to should prove especially
effective for iinproving the texture and tilth of the heavy soils.
For use on the lighter soils, one of the so-called "agricultural"
limes, which are in considerable measure made up of carbonate or
air-slaked lime, will prove satisfactory.
There appear to be but few sections of the State where a com-
paratively heavy dressing of lime is not a necessity for satisfactory
results with alfalfa. The cut clearly illustrates the benefit which
usually follows.
Alfai>fa.
-.-J ■ —J.-.-.:.^— ^--.■- »itt-'«--J
No Lime. Lime.
The alfalfa shown in the cut is growing in cylinders 4 feet deep,
which were first set into the ground. They were each then filled with
equal quantities of thoroughly mixed soil. With the surface soil of
one cylinder, lime at the rate of IJ tons per acre was thoroughly
mixed. The other was left without lime, and both then received a
liberal application of fertilizers. Under the conditions of this ex-
periment we know that the soil in the two cylinders was of precisely
the same character at the start, and the difference in growth must
surely have been due to the influence of the lime.
No. 4.] ALFALFA IN MASSACHUSETTS. 131
Fertilizers for Alfalfa.
There can be no one combination of fertilizers or no one mixed
fertilizer which under all conditions will prove best. It will be gen-
erally admitted, however, by all qualified to judge, that on soils which
are in a fairly productive condition at the start the fertilizers ai)plied
should furnish relatively large amounts of the mineral elements of
plant food, among which phosphoric acid, potash and lime are the
most important. Alfalfa, like other legumes, is capable of drawing
upon the air for most of the nitrogen which it needs, and applied
nitrogen in the form of a fertilizer in any large amounts is unneces-
sary. We may state the case even more strongly, — it is not only
unnecessary, it may positively prove harmful. If it exercises a harm-
ful effect, however, this will not usually be because the presence of
nitrogen in the soil is necessarily injurious to the alfalfa, but because
its presence increases the competition of the grasses for the possession
of the field. In a soil well stocked with lime, phosphoric acid and pot-
ash, but without available nitrogen in considerable amounts, the
grasses make only a feeble growth. If, in addition to the phosphoric
acid, potash and lime, we apply to such soil too large amounts of nitro-
gen, the grasses in our humid climate will gradually come in, with
the probability of crowding out the alfalfa with greater or less rapidity.
It is the belief of the writer that combinations of basic slag meal
and sulfates of potash are peculiarly adapted to alfalfa. The slag
meal furnishes not only phosphoric acid but lime, which will help
to bring the soil into condition for alfalfa and to maintain it in that
condition. The sulfate of potash, on all the heavier soils especiall}'',
is superior to muriate. I\Iany other suitable combinations of ma-
terials might be made up. Wood ashes should give good results.
Combinations of such grades of bone meal as contain relatively low
percentages of nitrogen and of either the low or high grade sulfate
of potash should do well. Mixed fertilizers, containing not more
than 1^- per cent of nitrogen but with 12 or more per cent of phos-
i;)horic acid and 8 to 10 per cent of potash, should generally give
good results.
The Use of Manure.
Whether manure should be applied either in preparation for alfalfa
or as a top dressing depends upon conditions. If a supply of fine
manure, free from weed seeds, is available, and if the soil is in a very
low state of fertility, a dressing of manure may be highly beneficial;
but on soils already in good condition the application of manure
is not called for, and from some jooints of view is undesirable. It
ahnost invariably carries weed seeds, and its use produces the condi-
tions already referred to under which, since it supplies an abimdance
of quickly available nitrogen, the grasses thrive. If manure is used,
132 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
then it will usually mean that the grasses will tend to crowd out the
alfalfa in greater degree than would be the case had manure been
withheld. It seems wise, therefore, except upon soils which are
exceptionally low in fertility at the start, to depend mainly upon
fertilizers alone.
Seed.
Great care should be taken to secure the very best seed, and that
grown as far to the north as possible should be preferred to southern
grown seed. Buyers should be on their guard against seed mixed
with dodder. One or two cases have been brought to the attention
of the writer in which the experiments have been absolutely ruined
because of the presence of the seed of this parasite mixed with the
alfalfa seed sown. The seed of dodder is very minute, and the pur-
chaser, if in doubt as to the freedom of any lot of seed offered from
this parasite, should send it to the experiment station for examina-
tion. There are a number of varieties of alfalfa on tz'ial in this coun-
try, but the experiment work carried on at Amherst has not thus far
indicated a wide difference in the value of the different kinds offered
by seedsmen.
The quantity of seed which usually seems to give most satisfactory
results is about 30 pounds per acre.
Time and Method of Seeding.
It is believed that the best results with alfalfa will usually be ob-
tained by sowing it alone about July 20 to August 5. Care should be
taken to put the seed into the ground when the moisture conditions
are such that it will germinate promptly. It is highly important that
it should come up quickly in order to get started ahead of weeds.
During the past two seasons, alfalfa sown about August 5 in Amherst
has attained a height in excess of a foot previous to the coming of
cold weather, and the alfalfa which has been sown at this season has
made a thicker and more even stand, freer from weeds and grasses,
than any which we have obtained by sowing at any other season.
Good results are sometimes obtained by sowing the seed early in
spring, with oats or barley thinly sown as a nurse crop. Alfalfa, like
the grasses and clover sown at that season, often starts well, but is
often injured by the hot, dry weather likely to prevail when the nurse
crop is cut.
In some of our early experiments in Amherst, alfalfa was sown in
close drills, but this method has now been given up in favor of broad-
cast sowing, after the most thorough possible preparation of the soil
to insure freedom from weeds. In the case of alfalfa sown late in
July or early in August, it has been the practice in Amherst to allow
all growth made during the autumn to remain uncut for winter pro-
tection.
No. 4.] ALFALFA IN MASSACHUSETTS. 133
Soil Inoculation.
In localities in wliich sweet clover does not naturally grow, inocula-
tion of the seed or soil with the bacteria which develop nodules upon
the roots, and which give the plant the capacity to assimilate at-
mospheric nitrogen, is advised. If sweet clover is indigenous in the
locality such inoculation is unnecessary, as the bacteria which develop
nodules on the roots of sweet clover appear to be identical with those
found on alfalfa roots. If inoculation is necessary it can be carried
out in two ways : —
1. An artificial culture may be obtained and used in accordance
with the directions accompan3'ing it. »Such cultures are sent out both
by the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C,
and by a number of private companies. The cultures now offered
appear to be much superior to those earlier produced, and the most
recent experiments at the experiment station with a culture fur-
nished by one of the private companies have given very satisfactory
results. The use of a culture will, on the whole, be found rather less
troublesome than the second method. In ordering a culture, it is
necessary to name the crop for which it is wanted and the area which
is to be sown.
2. Soil from an old and successful alfalfa field may be mixed with
the soil of the area to be sown ; 300 or 400 pounds per acre, if thoroughly
stocked with the needed bacteria, will prove sufficient, and it is possible
that less would answer. If soil is used, it should be remembered that
exposure of the gei'ms to the light, even if only for a short time, de-
stroys their vitality. It is advisable, therefore, to harrow in the
germ-carrying soil as promptly as possible after spreading.
Leaf Spot or Rust.
Alfalfa appears to be peculiarly subject in our climate to this
parasitic disease. The presence of the disease is indicated by the
appearance of small, dark-colored spots upon the lower leaves. If
the weather conditions are favorable to the rapid increase of the
parasite it spreads quickly to the upper leaves, and later first the
lower leaves and then the upper may turn yellow and fall. In some
cases the disease shows itself only on the lower leaves; the foliage on
the upper part of the plant continues healthy and the injury may not
be great. In damp or rainy weather the disease, however, often
spreads with great rapidity, the growth of the crop is checked and the
vitality of the plants is greatly weakened.
When this disease shows a tendency to spread rapidly, it is best to
cut the alfalfa immediately. Under this treatment a healthy growth
will soon start, while if the diseased plants are allowed to stand they
will be greatly weakened, and the subsequent crops much reduced.
During the past season leaf spot has been unusually prevalent and in
134 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
some fields has done great injury. Just how serious the disease will
ultimately prove cannot at present be stated.
If leaf spot shows itself in a newly seeded field, while the plants are
young, it is best to go over it with the mowing machine, allowing the
cuttings to lie where they fall. They will serve to furnish mulch and
winter protection, which are so greatly needed in our climate, and
their presence does not necessarily appear to increase the probaliility
of the spread of the disease.
Harvesting Alfalfa.
Alfalfa should usually be cut as soon as it is in bloom. If allowed
to stand much beyond the period of early bloom the plants start
much less promptly after being cut and the total yield of the season
will be relatively small. The last cutting in any season should not be
too late. It is desirable that there should be a considerable growth
remaining on the field for winter protection.
After cutting, alfalfa should be allowed to lie, with possibly one
turning, until it is wilted. It should then be put into windrows and
later into cocks, where it should be allowed to remain until cured.
If hay caps can be used the results will be more satisfactory. Should
the time required in curing exceed about five days, the cocks should
be moved to avoid injury to the roots, and it is desirable, as in the
case of clover, which is often similarly handled, to remove the caps
and open or turn over the cocks on the morning of a good day, when
it is judged to be sufficiently cured to be put in.
Annual Top-dressing.
If the crop has been successfully inoculated, or if the nodules which
have been referred to are abundant on the feeding rootlets of the
alfalfa plants, it will not be necessary to top-dress with materials
furnishing nitrogen, or, at least, if such materials are at all required,
as may be the case upon soils which are naturally very poor and light,
they should be used only in moderate quantities. It is necessary,
however, in order to secure large crops to supply the mineral elements
of plant food in abundance. The following mixture of materials is
recommended, annually, per acre: basic slag meal, 1,200 to 1,500
pounds; high-grade sulfate of i)otash, 250 to 350 pounds; or low-
grade sulfate of potash, 500 to 700 pounds. This mixture may be
applied either in the autumn or in very early spring.
Conclusion.
While the writer does not yet feel perfectly confident that alfalfa
will establish itself in all localities as one of our valuable farm crops,
he would express himself as now beginning to hope that it can be
made to succeed. He would, however, counsel some caution at the
Xo. 4.] ALFALFA IN MASSACHUSETTS. 13',
start, and would urge that small trial areas be put in in all localities
where soils of the right character are found. He would call particular
attention to the fact that the successful cultivation of alfalfa would
not otdy mean a valuable addition to our forage crops, but would
also mean soil improvement, for where alfalfa has been successfully
grown the soils are sure to be rendered more productive. This im-
provement in the case of alfalfa would be a consequence, first, of the
extensive subsoiling due to tlie deep penetration of the great tap
roots of the plant; and, second, to an accumulation of nitrogen in
roots and stubble, drawn in the first instance from the air. It will be
understood that when an alfalfa sod is plowed this nitrogen will be-
come available! to succeeding crops.
i;36 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
CELERY GROWING, STORING AND MARKETING.
BY HENRY M. HOWARD, DIX FARM, WEST NEWTON, MASS.
The raising, bleaching and keeping of celery is easy enough, if cer-
tain methods are carefully pursued. Success is sure if the right thing
is done at the right time in the right way. Any one who follows the
directions and methods mentioned in this article will be sure to suc-
ceed in growing and keeping celery. You may succeed if you do not
exactly follow these methods, because there are other ways of doing
these things beside those mentioned here.
Soils.
Almost any soil will grow good celery when that soil is properly pre-
pared and kept in good condition. A soil that will grow good crops of
beets, onions or lettuce will grow good celery. The soil must be rich,
moist and loose. A low, moist, cool soil will grow good celery in mid-
summer to sell in July and August, but is not a good soil for that to
be harvested in November. A hea\'y loam will carry a good crop to
maturity in September or later. To have a crop mature in September
it must be set in June. A light, sand}^ soil or a gravelly loam may be
set to celery from July 20 to August 10, and made to yield an excel-
lent crop. This last soil should not be set to celery before July 20, as
the cost for care and water would be too great.
Varieties to Plant.
Be sure to buy your seed of the same firm every 5''ear, and insist on
having the same strains and varieties that market gardeners use, —
Paris Golden for early use and Giant Pascal for late use. These two
varieties are largely cultivated, and are as good as any that are grown.
The French strains are best.
The Paris Golden makes a good celery to use up to November, and
is easily bleached with boards. The Giant Pascal may be had ready
for the table from September 10 on, and will keep as well as any vari-
ety. It must be bleached with soil or grown in the pit, to be of good
cjuality.
No. 4.] CELERY GROWING. 137
Methods of growing the Plants.
Plants may be started in flats in the house, or under glass in a hot-
bed or greenhouse. Prepare a flat thus : Take a box not over 2 inches
deep, and with other dimensions of any convenient size, sift in 1 inch
of sharp sand or coal ashes, and then fill in the box level full with
good sifted garden soil. Press the whole down and level the surface.
Sow the seed broadcast and sift on a little more loam, covering the
seed a little less than | inch. Keep moist and wann until the plants
appear, which should be in from one to three weeks, according to
temperature and age of seed, but chiefly temperature. Keep the
plants growing, and prick out in a hotbed or cold frame, setting about
300 plants to the sash. The plants should be kept under glass, and
made to grow by proper care in watering, ventilating and keeping
warm at night, using mats on the glass for that purpose. Seed sown
in flats or under glass March 1 should give plants large enough to prick
out April 10. These plants, if carefully grown, should be ready to go
into the field by May 10.
Another way to get good plants is to sow in rows G inches apart in
a hotbed or cold frame from March 1 to March 15. The ground should
be kept moist and warm until the plants appear, and should then be
stirred between the rows, and the plants ventilated and cared for the
same as when started in flats.
Good jDlants for the main crop can be grown by sowing the seed
broadcast or in rows in the open field as early in the month of Maix-h
as you can sow peas. Cover the seed not more than J inch. These
plants should appear in about three or four weeks; less attention than
is required in the methods previously mentioned will give plants of
good size to set after early crops of lettuce, beets or beans. Celery seed
may be sown up to May 1 with good prospect of getting plants large
enough to set in July and August.
Market gardeners raise many plants in greenhouses and hotbeds to
set on low land for celery to market in July and August. The plants
for all celery marketed later than that come from seed sown with a
machine in the field, in rows 8 to 12 inches apart.
If your plants are not growing as rapidly as you wish, give a little
nitrate of soda and plenty of water. You must be careful, or the plants
will suffer from too much nitrate of soda. If the plants are getting
too large, cut back the tops and loosen the roots, to check their growth
and start new roots and tops. The effect produced by loosening the
roots with a fork is very much the same as that of transplanting, and
far more economical. Plants should not be thicker than four or five
to the inch in the row, and must be thinned if they stand thicker than
this. If sown too thick broadcast, it will be best to transplant all
plants, setting them in rows about G inches apart, and the plants as
138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
close as possible in the row. If a broadcast bed gets too weedy, it will
be found cheapest and best to transplant to a new bed, using plenty
of water until the j^lants become established.
The Preparation of the Soil.
It is well understood that in order to have a good garden, manure is
needed. Fresh horse manure is good manure to plow in for a garden,
and 5 cords every year are needed for a garden of ^ acre. If you
will use that much manure you will find that whatever you plant
grows better than it did before and matures more quickly, and that
your croi>s do not feel the effects of dry weather as badly.
For celery prepare the land by plowing in all weeds and refuse and
what manure you need after the first crops of jieas, beans or beets are
removed. Harrow and drag the surface, and then you may wait for
right weather conditions. If they do not come, and you are ready to
set the plants, harrow and drag again and then wet down the whole
surface of the soil with water, using 1 inch of water, which would
amount to 27,180 gallons to the acre. There is nothing else that will
do as much good just at this time. Lay off the rows 2 to 5 feet apart,
and set the plants as soon as the land is in fit condition. If both early
and late celery are grown, you may set the rows of late celery between
the rows of early, the rows of each variety being 4 feet or more apart.
This method of planting enables you to get a good row of celery every
2 feet. By setting the plants 6 inches apart in the row you can get one
good root of celery for each square foot of your land.
Each person setting plants should set 400 or more an hour, and the
plants should be so firmly set that in trying to pull one out by a leaf
the leaf will break before the plant will start to come out of the ground.
If the weather continues dry after the plants are set, more water should
be given them.
As soon as a clay or two after the plants are set they may and should
be shove-hoecl, and this style of hoeing should be continued every
four or five days until the plants shade the ground.
Celery likes a soil well prepared by plowing, harrowing and dragging,
and will do best where fresh manure is plowed in. If the land is not
wet, water must be applied before the plants are set. If the plants
must be pulled any length of time before setting, they should be stood
in water for a few minutes and then placed in the shade until wanted
for setting. New white roots will start to grow at once, and in a day
or two after setting you will be able to see that the plants are growing.
Boys may pull and drop the plants for the men to set.
Water should be used freely before and sparingly after setting the
plants. A f-inch hose with 65 to 75 pounds pressure will run GOG to
700 gallons of water an hour, and will take something like four days to
wet down an acre of land sufficiently for setting celery, costing about $14
or $15 for water and labor. Some sort of a labor-saving sprinkler system
No. 4.] CELERY GROWING. 139
should be used. The writer has tried several such, and is satisfietl
that there is no system better or more economical than the Skinner
system. The pipes may be laid on the surface of the ground when
preparing the land, and may be left there until the celery is nearly
grown. Should it need watering when nearly mature, set the pipes up
on stakes about 3 feet above the su. face of the ground. This system is
made of iron pipe and brass fixtures, and will last a long time. It will
be found very satisfactory in any garden of i acre or over. Most other
systems require more labor and also the use of considerable hose, which
soon wears out and is sure to injure more or less plants while being
used.
If only Paris Golden celery is grown, the rows may be from 2 to 2^
fe(!t apart, and do well. Many market gardeners have also tried grow-
ing the Giant Pascal celery in rows that distance apart, and continue
to do so, bleaching the crop in the pit. Another way of setting tliat
has been tried by many, and seldom tried a second season, is that of
setting the plants 1 foot apart each way. You can get in as many
plants if they are set 6 inches apart in rows 2 feet apart, and the cul-
tivation is much simpler, and can be largely done with a horse and a
five-tooth cultivator.
Cultivating.
The whole idea of cultivating celery is to keep the ground loose and
cultivation shallow, and it is just as important to cultivate in a wet
time as when there is continued dry weather. The ground is apt to
get hard in wet weather, and the roots get too numerous near the sur-
face; then a period of dry weather follows, and the cultivation cuts off
so many roots that the crop suffers and is more liable to disease. With
proper preparation of the soil and proper cultivation of celery we have
no fear of disease, and no use for nitrate of soda or spraying with
Bordeaux mixture to prevent blight. Nitrate of soda is good to make
celery move along a little faster, and it is safe to use 200 to 300 pounds
to the acre between the rows, or 2 pounds to a row 100 feet long in a
garden.
Bleaching.
The early or Paris Golden celery may be bleached with boards and
gotten out of the way, so that the late celery or Giant Pascal can l)e
banked with earth. This is the plan used where you wish to sell all
the celery from the field. The boards used are rough boards, not less
than 10 inches wide, 12 feet long and 1 inch thick. These same boards
are used in making storage pits for the winter celery. The boards arc
set up on edge as straight as possible, and kept in place by slats nailed
across the upper edges of the boards, about 2 feet from the ends. The
space between the boards through which the celery grows should be
left at least 4 inches wide. Many market gardeners use a hea^y gal-
vanized-wire hook to drop over the edges of the two boards. These
140 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
hooks are very easy to handle, and very convenient when taking out
celery. They are safe, doing away with sharp nails for horses or men
to step on. The time needed for celery to bleach in the boards is from
one to three weeks, according to the weather and the growth of the
celery. It is not safe to set up boards to celery after the 1 st of October.
The celery is apt to bleach slowly after that, and a frost is liable to
occur after October 22 that will injure the celery in the boards.
Giant Pascal celery may be bleached very early in September by
earthing up. Great care is needed that the plants be dry, well pressed
together, and not buried when putting the dirt up to them by means
of the plow, the hoe and the shovel. The soft earth is plowed up to
the row, the hoe is used to press the dirt in firmly, and the shovel is
used to carry and pack the dirt still higher up on the stalks. A 10-
inch bank will do excellently for September banking. After the bank
is up for a week the celery should be examined every day, as it is very
liable to rust in the bank at this time of year. Not much should be
banked at a time thus early in the season, and every few days a little
more may be banked, thus having a continuous and increasing supply
coming on for market. It is best to drive a stake at the first row of
each new lot banked, and write on the stake the date of banking.
You will find the celery ready to use in about ten days if banked early
in September.
Where Giant Pascal celery is planted by itself to be sold from the
field, the rows should be 3^ feet apart. Every other row can be earthed
up early and sold, and then a broader, thicker bank put up to the
row which is left, to be taken out as late as November 25. Almost all
the celery around Boston is housed by November 20. These later-
banked rows may be the very best celery to try to keep late in storage,
if the celery gets bleached only a very little. Usually, the later the
celery is put in storage the later it will keep.
Storing.
Celery is prepared for storing away in pits or cellars by banking
it in the field about a week before it is to be put in. Near Boston
we begin to put the celery into the i^its by October 18, and continue
to store it away every day when the weather is favorable until the
crop is all in. Choose days that are not too windy or wet, and get
the celery to the pit and set up before the roots dry out. In plowing
out the celery, a good plowman with one good horse will soon be able
to turn out the rows so flat as to look like machine work, and not a
plant will be bruised or hurt. Then we give the root a little kick with
the foot and a little shake with the hand, trim off the loose or crooked
outside leaves, and lay the roots in piles of convenient size to load.
Some farmers trim the celery at the [lit; but it saves much time in
handling and teaming to trim it in the field, and this is the method
usually followed.
No. 4.] CELERY GROWING. 141
Tiie celery is set iti the jiit in rows 3 to 4 inches apart, and the plants
touching in the row. The plants are set about 3 inches deep in these
rows, and the dirt made firm enough on the roots to keep the celery
standing upright.
If you wish to keep celery very late, into April or May, you must
give the plants more room in the pit, setting them at least 3 inches
apart each way, and be attentive to covering and ventilating. The
roof of the pit must be water tight, and supplied with ventilators
every 10 feet. The covering on the roof should be 8 inches of leaves
or strawy manure, or about 1 foot of salt hay. If there is a good
covering on the pit, it will be safe to give ventilation even on very cold
days. There should be thermometers in the pits to guide as to tem-
perature. The pits should be kept from sweating, and enough air
should be supplied to keep the celery tops dry. The temperature
should be kept as nearly at 32° F. as possible, if it is desired to keep
the celer}^ late. With a pit well covered, an outside temperature of
20° and an inside temperature of 35°, some ventilation should be
given and the pit cooled down to 32° and kept dry. If a pit gets too
cold, a space large enough to set a cast-iron coal stove should be
cleared, a good coal fire built, and it will soon be warmed up.
A pit which is to stand over winter needs to have a double-pitch roof,
7 feet high at the ridge, about 3 feet at the eaves, and should be well
banked on the ends and sides with loam. The width of the pit will be
about 23 feet when 12-foot boards are used on the roof. The ridge
should be a 2 by 6 inch plank, supported every 5 feet by a post; the
purliiies to support the roof boards may be of 2 by 6 to 3 by 4 inch
stuff", witli a post every 5 feet. The sides of the pit may be of earth,
or of earth and plank. A walk 1 foot wide, from one end of the pit
to the other along the middle, nearly under the ridge, is convenient
and aids in getting a closer view of conditions inside the pit. The
ventilators are made by using two boards right over the posts support-
ing the ridge and purlines, and these ventilators are on each side of
the pit, and alternate. They may be thrown wide open or opened
just a few inches at the top, according to the weather. The celery is
removed by opening wide one of these ventilators near where the celery
is ready to come out. Celery pits need a great deal of attention to
ventilation, if you wish to keep the celery late.
Marketing.
The earliest celery in the market is Paris Golden. Often by July
10 we find this celery coming on the market in fine shape. When
several roots are needed to make a bunch, they are fastened together
by nails through the root. Many times a single root is large enough for
a bunch. Eighteen bunches are packed in a bushel box. The Paris
Golden is a very handsome celery when well grown and well put up
for market. It has a strong flavor, is tough and will stand up well. It
142 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
grows large, is a good keeper and a good money maker. It is often
bleached with earth, the same as Giant Pascal celery, and when so
bleached is much better for eating.
All celery should be kept covered with wet paper or bagging after
it is put up for market, and kept as cool as possible. Use plenty of
ice, chopped fine, and plenty of paper on early celery, if you would
have it look well and command the top price.
The Giant Pascal celery is put up for market the same as the early
celery. The bunches are made as regular in size as possible; three to
five roots are put in a bunch, and eighteen bunches are made to fill a
bushel box. The Pascal is a large, strong-growing celery. It is of
mild flavor, and brittle. It has a waxy look, a nutty flavor and a
crispness which make a great demand for it as soon as it appears in
the market. The very best, cleanest and slickest-looking Pascal
celeiy can be had by bleaching it in a pit. Set the plants as before
described in a pit, having taken pains to have the soil in the pit well
wet down, keep the pit a little close until the plants get rooted, and
give air according to growth desired. Great care must be exercised,
or the whole pit of celery will come forward too fast and be difficult
to sell in the short time in which it ought to go, especially if your
market is small.
Aim to I3ut up your celery so well that there will be a strong demand
for your mark.
For small gardens, where a fresh supply is wanted daily, a whole
tubful of jDlants may be prepared from the pit at one time, leaving the
roots on and having about one pailful of water in the tub.
In summing up, the essentials of success in the celery business arc
as follows: good seed, sown early in rich soil; the plant must be kept
growing; transplanting should be done only after the land is properly
prepared; cultivation should be frequent and shallow; water beside
rainfall should be used if necessary; bleaching must be carefully at-
tended to ; storage pits must be well built and ventilated ; and when the
crop is grown, it should be put in fancy shape and sold for the highest
price.
No. 4.] QUINCE CULTURE. 143
QUINCE CULTURE.
BY PROF. F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OP POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
The following notes on quince culture are given in response to a
request from the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture for some-
thing on the subject which might be sent out to residents of the State
from whom inquiries are frequently received for information as to this
fruit. It is not supposed that the industry will ever grow to large
proportions in Massachusetts. In fact, from the very nature of the
fruit and its uses there can never be more than a very moderate de-
mand for it. But as a part of the home fruit plantation, or as a modest
part of the commercial orchard, it is certainly deserving of more at-
tention than it has received in the past. In fact, even when they are
planted, quince trees seem to be more systematically neglected than
other fruits, which is certainly stating the case strongly.
As every one knows, the quince never makes more than a large bush
or a very small tree, 15 feet being the extreme for height, so that they
may readily be included in even a small plantation of fruits. And
while, as ordinarily seen, the tree is straggling and unkempt, owing to
lack of care, yet when given a little intelligent attention, particularly
as to pruning, it makes an attractive little tree; and when it is in full
bloom very few fruit trees are more beautiful. The blossoms are large
and snowy white, shaded with a delicate pink, and would make an
attractive sight at any time, but, coming as they do, when other fruits
are out of bloom, they seem doubly beautiful.
As an article of diet the quince takes a high position, and deserves
far more general use than it receives. Quince marmalade and quince
preserves recall to every one's mind his grandmother's fruit closet;
and while preserves are not indispensable, like flour and sugar and
tobacco, yet in case of unexpected guests a well-stocked fruit closet
brings a feeling of security. AVe shall have more to say on the uses of
the quince in a later paragraph. Just noV we merely wish to establish
the principle that the quince is worthy of ^ader use than it at present
receives.
Soils and Fertilizers.
In the choice of a spot in which to grow quinces, one is usually very
much restricted, since they generally form a small and relatively un-
important part of the home fruit plantation, which is located only
144 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
with regard to its convenience from the house. Yet if one is allowed
a choice, as is usually the case when one is setting a really commercial
plantation, soils, windbreaks, exposures, etc., may all be considered.
I do not think the quince is an exacting fruit as to soils. Certainly
we have all seen it growing on a great variety of soils with excellent
success (when one considers the utter neglect to which it is generally
subjected). I recall, in particular, a row of old quince trees growing
along a roadside in decidedly sandy soil which have year after year
given a crop of fruit. I Avill not say it was a good crop or that it was
good fruit, but considering their handicap these old trees did wonders,
so no one need give up having quince marmalade because the soil is
sandy. Yet most authorities agree, and the writer's observations tally
therewith, that the ideal quince soil is a reasonably heavy clay loam,
which is sufficiently well drained so that the water does not stand
either in or upon the soil, and yet which is of such a nature and has
been handled in such a way as to make it retentive of moisture. This
may seem a somewhat difficult combination of characters to secure,
but it is not unreasonably so. A good clay loam which has not too
retentive a subsoil will give the first requisites. If the subsoil is heavy,
then the land should be tile-drained; and of course the lay of the land
should be such as to allow surface water to drain off. It only remains
to keep up a good supply of humus in the soil and to cultivate the land
instead of allowing the trees to stand in sod, as is usually done. Both
these are of prime importance in getting the water into the soil and in
holding it there. Of course, quinces will do something in sod; that
has been too abundantly proved in Massachusetts to be disputed, for
about all the quinces we grow are produced in that way; but with
the soil requirements suggested, every one (except possibly the ex-
treme sod crank) will agree that cultivation is by all means the best
method of soil management, since it allows incorporating plenty of
humus in the soil and keeping up the earth mulch to prevent evapora-
tion.
With a soil such as we have selected, and with the treatment, we
have suggested (cultivation and cover crops), I do not beheve any ap-
plication of nitrogen will be necessary affer the first two years. For
these two years I have found that an ounce of nitrate of soda to each
tree will give all the growth necessary, even in decidedly poor soil.
This should be scattered about the trees as soon as growth gets fairly
under way in the spring. The first year it ought to cover a circle with
a diameter of say three feet (the tree of course being the center of the
circle), and the second year a circle perhaps five feet in diameter.
Potash and phosphoric acid may be used much more liberally with
young trees just set. A 3^ pound of a mixture made up of 3 pounds
of high-grade sulphate of potash and 5 pounds of acid phosphate will
give excellent results, and this may be gradually increased (always
having due regard to the way the trees respond) till at full bearing
No. 4.] QUINCE CULTURE. 145
the orchard may get from 100 to 250 pounds of potash and from 200
to 500 pounds of the phosphate, though for bearing trees I should
use, at least part of the time, basic slag meal as a source of phosphoric
acid instead of the acid phosphate.
Varieties.
Compared with other fruits there are very few varieties of quinces,
and, indeed, of these few a very small percentage is really of any
particular value. Thomas lists 14 varieties in his "Fruit Culturist,"
and Budd and Hansen give 17 in their "Horticultural Manual." Out
of this number only 4 or 5 have reached commercial importance over
any extent of the United States.
The varieties which seem to me to be of sufficient value, or to have
been sufficiently tested, to warrant one in including them in a list for
planting in Massachusetts, are as follows: —
Orange or A-pyle. — This variety, of European origin, is one of the
oldest and best known, and is often recommended as the only commer-
cial sort for Massachusetts. I do not quite endorse this view, but it
is certainly the leading variety. The chief objection to it is that it
has been so long propagated, often by seeds, that several strains have
been developed, some of which are not very valuable. The tree is
fairly vigorous and spreading in its growth. The fruit is variable, as
suggested above, but is typically rounded, not pear shaped and with
distinct flattening at the ends. The color is fine golden and the sur-
face not unduly ixxzzy. It ripens about October, but will often keep
in good condition up to midwinter. The flesh is firm, but cooks up
tender and soft.
Champion. — This is an American variety, having originated in
Connecticut. The tree is a vigorous grower, being more upright and
taller than the Orange, and the fruit matures somewhat later than that
variety; in fact, in some localities it does not ripen well. The fruit
is large and very distinctly pear shaped, with tender flesh and delicate
flavor. This would certainly s1and next to the Orange in popularity.
Rca, or Rea's Manwwth. — This variety makes a small tree, but the
fruit is large, sometimes very large, distinctly and abruptly pear
shaped, a rich orange in color and with a very smooth skin. The
flesh is of excellent quality, and the fruit is ready for use earlier than
most other sorts.
Meech or Meech's Prolific. — This variety also originated in Connecti-
cut, and resembles the Orange considerably. The fruit is usually
obscurely pyriform in shape, of a fine orange color, very fragrant, and
of fine quality.
A fifth variety which might be added, though the writer has little
personal knowledge of it, is the Bourgeat. This was recently imported
from France and has given excellent results in some places. Mr. E.
C. Howard of Belchertown, in particular, has been much pleased with it.
U6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Selecting Trees and planting out.
In the choice of nursery stock most growers select quince trees two
or three years old. The writer would never go over two years, and
would even prefer strong one-year trees. The arguments are the same
as with any other fruit trees. The younger tree is apt to be less dis-
turbed by transplanting and to take hold better for this reason. One
is apt to get better stock in one-year trees, since only the best and most
vigorous trees reach saleable size at that age. And, above all, it
allows one to head the tree low, which is certainly the only way to
head quinces. Among the larger tree fruits there may be some ques-
tion on this point, at least there is room for argument, but the quince
is at best not much more than a shrub, so that the familiar argument
of wanting to get the team up under the branches will not apply. In
the writer's opinion 12 inches is plenty high enough to head a quince.
If one-year stock is used the tree may be simply cut off at this
point and allowed to form a head from new branches sent out below
this.
As to distance apart, authorities differ, but from 10 to 15 feet is
usually recommended. With repressive pruning (heading in each
year's long, straggling growth) it will certainly be many years before
quinces will crowd each other even at 10 feet, and that is the distance
which the writer has generally adopted.
In the setting of the trees no special treatment is necessary. I be-
lieve that fall setting might perhaps be justified here more often than
with other fruits, for the reason that the ideal quince soil being on the
moist side is apt not to be ready for planting as early in the spring as
some others. My own belief is that very early spring setting is the
best for almost any fruit trees, and that next to this is very late fall
setting. The trees ought to be set at least a couple of inches deeper
than they stood in the nursery, since the quince is naturally a shallow-
rooted tree and the roots will tend to work up nearer the surface. After
setting, clean cultivation should be practiced. As in most other
phases of the care of the quince, there are no special reasons for this
farther than the one already suggested, that the quince thrives best
under comparatively moist soil conditions. And, for the same reason,
in selecting a cover-crop choose one which makes a good growth, like
buckwheat or barley, or, for a nitrogenous cover-crop, vetch or soy
beans. This should be sown the middle or last of July.
Fruit-bearing and Pruning.
The method of bearing fruit, in the quince, is one of the most in-
teresting and unusual among all the tree fruits. There are no winter
fruit buds as in most other fruits, but each spring the lateral buds on
the shoots of the previous year's growth send out new shoots, and after
these shoots have grown for a few inches (usually from 3 to 6) a single
Fig. 1.— Young quince tree, just coming into bearing, s'.iowing few long slioots.
riG. 2. — Young quince tree, not yet in liearing, sliowiii- long teriuiual shoots,
which need heading in.
No. 4.] QUINCE CULTURE. 147
blossom is produced on the end of the shoot. This, of course, tem-
porarily stops the growth in that direction, and if the blossom sets
a fruit there is no further growth at this point for the season. If it
does not set fruit, however, one of the lateral buds on the shoot will
frequently start into growth and continue the lengthening of the
branch, sometimes for a foot or more. All this means that on those
branches where a quince tree sets fruit its j'^early growth is very slight
indeed, and if it bears abundantly, the tree will present a rounded top,
looking almost as though it had been sheared, as in the case of the
tree in Fig. 1. Whereas, if the tree sets little fruit, a young tree in
particular may make a long, spreading growth, which will give it the
appearance shown in Fig. 2.
We are now in position to consider the matter of pruning, which is
chieflj^ concerned wath keeping the tree from growing ragged and out
of shape, as it will most certainly do if neglected, and in keeping up a
supply of thrifty one-year-old wood from which the bearing shoots
may start each spring. As in other fruits, the main pruning may be
done at almost any part of the dormant season, but preferably about
March, and a good pair of hand shears such as are used in grape prun-
ing is all that is necessary for practically all of the work. The first
operation is to shorten in the long terminal shoots, shown in Fig. 2,
and unless there is special reason for wanting the tree to enlarge, these
may be cut back from two-thirds to three-fourths of their growth,
or even cut out altogether in some cases. The next operation is to go
through the tree and thin out the entire top. The severity of this
thinning will depend altogether on the previous treatment of the tree.
If it has been neglected, it may be necessary to remove a large amount
of wood, so as to induce an abundant new growth; while if it has been
\vell cared for, there may be only here and there a crowding branch to
remove. In any case, experience (either one's own or that of another)
is the only sure guide. But the aim ought to be to keep the head
sufficiently open so that the center of the tree may not become "blind,"
or devoid of one-year wood. As compared with other fruits, however,
the quince may be allowed to form rather a thick top, since it never
attains large size and consequently the sun and air will penetrate to
the center of the tree through a thicker top.
Insects and Fungous Pests.
The quince is really troubled with very few insect or fungous
enemies in well-kept orchards. Of course the neglected and run-
down trees, which are the too common rule, are likely to be attacked
in various waj^s, but where trees are given anything like modern
treatment the number of enemies is relatively very small. Even deer,
the newest and w^orst enemy of apple orchards in Massachusetts
(worst because protected by the State), are said not to browse on
quince trees.
148 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Among fungous troubles, by all means the most important and most
common here in Massachusetts are the quince rusb and the leaf blight
or fruit spot. Of these two, according to the writer's observation,
the rust is much more common, but when the leaf blight does occur
it is apt to do much more damage. The rust attacks both the fruit
and the twigs, and at a certain stage, particularly on the fruit, it pro-
duces long, thread-like growths over the surface of the affected parts,
which are orange in color and very conspicuous. On the twigs it
produces knots not unlike the black knot of the plum, though with-
out the pimply appearance of surface which the plum knots have.
Frequently the fungus works entirely around the branch, causing it
to break off. The fungus causing this disease is one of those curious
forms which have two stages of growth. One is the disease of the quince
we are discussing, and the other is found upon cedar trees. The treat-
ment would therefore be to destroy affected cedar trees, at least those
near the quince orchard, and to cut off and burn the affected parts of
the quince, whether fruit or twigs. Then, in addition, thorough spray-
ing with Bordeaux mixture will usually hold it in check. The writer
has found that an appUcation early in the spring, shortly after the
leaves appear, a second one just before blossoming, and a third just
after the blossoms fall will usually almost completely protect the
orchard.
The second disease, the leaf blight or fruit spot, is, as I have said,
likely to be more serious than the rust when it does occur. It pro-
duces on the leaves small dots, red-brown in color and circular in out-
line, which may coalesce so as to form larger irregular spots. In severe
cases the leaves turn yellow and drop off, sometimes leaving the tree
entirely bare by the last of August. On the fruit it shows as dark-
brown sunken areas scattered over the surface. Fortunately, this
disease, though serious when allowed to go untreated, is fairly easily
controlled by sprayings, and practically the same sprayings given for
the rust will give satisfactory results with this disease.
Among insects there are three which deserve to be mentioned: the
codling moth, the borer and the curculio. The codling moth is the
same fellow who produces the "wormy" apple, and is to be fought
in the same way, viz., by adding arsenate of lead or Paris green to the
Bordeaux used just after the blossoms fall. Paris green should be
used at the rate of 6 ounces to 50 gallons of Bordeaux, and arsenate of
lead at 3 to 4 pounds to the same amount of Bordeaux.
Borers are usually not troublesome in cultivated orchards, but the
trees should be watched, and when they are attacked the borers must
be dug out, or a wire run into the burrow till the insect is reached. In
sections where borers are likely to be troublesome the trees ought to
be examined in late spring and early fall, particularly just at the sur-
face of the ground. This will usually be entirely effective in keeping
them down.
No. 4.] QIIXCE CLXTURE. 149
The last insect is the curculio, which attacks the fruit in much tlic
same way that the apple is attacked, though it is by no means as
common an enemy. These insects may usually be controlled some-
what by spraying, just before the blossoms open, with Paris green or
arsenate of lead, as outlined for the codling moth. But the surest way
to get rid of them is to jar them on to a sheet spread under the tree.
This is a slow and tedious method, but one whicli is practiced by
many commercial growers.
Picking and Marketing.
Quince trees ought to begin to bear by the fourth or fifth year and
should reach full bearing by ten years. The life of the orchard of
course depends on the care it receives, but some of the commercial
orchards of New York have remained healthy and productive for
forty 3'Cars.
While the quince is a firm, hard fruit, it is easily bruised, and such
damages show up very plainly. It ought therefore to be handled
with care, from the time it is picked till placed upon the market. If
picked directly into half-bushel baskets, and carried in these to the
storage house, the bruising is perhaps as little as possible. For market
they may be packed in almost anything, from a grape basket to a
barrel. Where one can reach the retailer direct, large-sized grape
baskets are excellent, but barrels and half barrels are frequently used.
Practically the same arguments apply to the different packages as
appl}' to apples.
Uses.
Like a great many other good things quinces are not used as generally
as thej'' ought to be. It is not the design of these notes to say all that
might be said on any phase of the subject, but it does seem that a few
suggestions as to some of the more common ways of serving quinces
would be in order. The writer can personally recommend the follow-
ing receipts. He cannot say that he has tried them all, but he has
tried the "results" and knows that they are good. They are taken
from various reliable cook books.
As quinces are of such a strong flavor, a few of them will make a
large quantity of delicious marmalade, jelly and preserves by using
apples in combination with them. The quinces should be cooked in
water until soft before adding sugar, for if sugar is added when cooking
begins, the quinces will become hard.
Canned Quinces. — Pare and core quinces and an equal quantity of
sweet apples. Use one third the weight of sugar dissolved in enough
water to make a syrup. Cook slowly until tender.
Quince Marmalade. — Pare and core quinces and cook until soft in
enough water to cover them. Then rub through a sieve and add three
quarters the weight of sugar. Cook twenty minutes and put into jelly
glasses.
150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Quince Honey. — Pare and grate five large quinces. Add five
pounds of sugar to one pint of boiling water. When sugar is dissolved,
add the grated quince and cook twenty minutes. Turn into jelly
glasses.
Quince Jelly. — Put parings and imperfect quinces into a preserving
kettle, with one quart of water to two of the fruit. Cook slowly for
about two hours. Then strain, measure juice and bring to the boiling
point. Add an equal quantity of hot sugar and boil until a drop of it
placed upon a cold dish hardens. A nice jelly is made by using one-
half apple juice in the above receipt.
Preserved Quinces. — Pare and core quinces. Place in a kettle with
enough water to cover them and cook until soft. Then add sugar equal
in weight to amount of fruit, and cook until it reaches the desired color.
No. 4.] GUA?K ( rLTrilE. 151
GRAPE CULTURE.
BY MR. EDWARD R. FARR.\R OF LINCOLN, ^L^.SS.
For the commercial growing of grapes two things are essential,—
aptitude for the work and a favorable location, where the late spring
or early fall frosts are not likely to destroy the crop. If either of these
is lacking one will do well to give his attention to some other crop.
Cold air settles on the lower levels something as water does, this
being referred to as frost di-ainage, so that an elevated hill slope is
needed for grapes, preferably with a south or southeast exposure. If
there is a body of water at the foot of the hill so much the better, as
the air moving down over the water is warmed, and rises, giving a
current of air which will occasionally save a crop, as it did this year
on a corner of my vineyard that slopes toward a pond, the rest of
the fruit being nearly all killed by the frost in June this season.
The slope and the character of the land should be such as will ripen
the fruit early, as the price drops very materially when the New York
or western grapes come into the market, making it difficult to dispose
of our crop at a profit. Windbreaks, protecting the vineyard from the
strong prevailing winds, are a help. The injury to the leaves l^y high
winds gives favorable conditions for the entrance and growth of fun-
gous diseases.
Soils.
Grapes prefer a light, friable soil, and cultivation and cover crops
help to keep it in this condition. Occasionally, with special care, a
rocky or steep hillside may be used.
Fertilizers.
Fertilizers should be used that will be ample for growing the fruit,
but without making undue growth of wood. Stable manure is more
apt to promote fungous growth than are commercial fertilizers.
Varieties.
For commercial uses Moore's Early, Worden and Concord are the
best varieties. An additional list would be Winchell, Campbell's Early,
Diamond and Niagara.
152 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
For the home garden a selection might be made from the following
varieties: Brighton, Campbell's Early, Concord, Delaware, Diamond,
Herbert, Moore's Early, Niagara, Winchell and Worden.
The following brief descriptions of these varieties are compiled from
Bulletin 315 of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station: —
Brighton. — Originated in New York in 1870; tendrils, continuous;
self sterile; stamens, reflexed; cluster, very large to medium in size and
medium to loose in compactness; berry, medium to large in size and
round to oval in form; color, red; flavor, very sweet; quality, very
good; season, midseason; use, for dessert and market; well recom-
mended; of high quality, productive; earlier than Concord; a good
market grape.
CatapheWs Early. — Originated in Ohio in 1892; tendrils, intermit-
tent; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, very large to medium in size
and close to medium in compactness; berry, large in size and round
in form; color, purplish black; flavor, sweet and vinous; quality, good;
season, early; use, dessert and market; well recommended; one of the
standard commercial grapes.
Concord. — Originated in Massachusetts in 1843; tendrils, continuous
and irregular; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, large to medium in
size and close; berry, about medium in size and round to oval in form;
color, black; flavor, sweet and slightly foxy; quality, good; season,
midseason; use, for dessert and market; well recommended; hardy
and productive; the standard market grape.
Delaware. — Originated in New Jersey (?) in 1849; tendrils, inter-
mittent; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, medium to small in size
and close; berry, small to medium in size and round in form; color,
light red; flavor, vinous, spicy and sweet; quality, best; season, mid-
season; use, dessert, market and wine; well recommended ; the stand-
ard American grape for qualitJ^
Diamond. — Originated in New York in 1870; tendrils, intermittent;
fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, medium to large in size and close;
berry, about medium in size and round to oval in form; color, green
to yellowish green; flavor, spicy; quality, very good; season, mid-
season; use, dessert, market and wine; well recommended; one of
the best white grapes; worthy of more general cultivation.
Herbert. — Originated in Massachusetts in 1852; tendrils, inter-
mittent; sterile; stamens, reflexed; cluster, medium to large in size
and loose; berry, about medium in size and round in form; color,
black; flavor, tart; quality, good to very good;, season, midseason;
use, dessert; recommended; on account of quality, one of the best
table grapes.
Moore's Early. — Originated in Massachusetts in 1871 ; tendrils, con-
tinuous; fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, medium in size and com-
pactness; berry, large to medium in size and round in form; color,
purplish black to black; flavor, foxy and sweet; quality, fair to good;
No. 4.] GRAPE CIXTURE. 153
season, early; use, dessert and market; well recommended; the stand-
ard early commercial grape.
Niagara. — Originated in New York in 1868; tendrils, continuous;
fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, large to medium in size and medium
in compactness; berry, about medium to large in size and oval in
form; color, green to yellowish green; flavor, foxy, sweet and tart;
quality, good to very good ; season, midseason ; use, dessert and mar-
ket; well reconmiended; the standard white grape for the commercial
grower.
Winchell. — Originated in Vermont in 1850; tendrils, irregular; fer-
tile; stamens, upright; cluster, large to medium in size and loose to
medium in compactness; berry, about medium to small in size and
round in form; color, light green; flavor, juicy and sweet; quality,
very good to best; season, early; use, dessert and market; well recom-
mended; the standard early green grape.
Worden. — Originated in New York in 1863; tendrils, continuous;
fertile; stamens, upright; cluster, large and close; berry, large in size
and round in form; color, dark purple to black; flavor, sweet, juicy,
foxy and mild; quality, good to very good; season, early midseason;
use, dessert and market; well recommended; the standard early black
grape for home use and market.
Planting.
The holes should be dug about 10 inches deep and the plants care-
fully set out, using either strong one-year-old plants or two-year-old
plants. The vines should be purchased of one of the large, reliable
firms in the grape regions of New York. The rows should be set 8 feet
apart, with the vines 6 to 8 feet apart in the rows. I prefer early spring
planting.
The land should be in good condition, with plenty of humus. Ground
bone or some other slow-acting fertilizer may be dug in where the vines
are set. For the first two years light posts, with one or two wires,
may be used. After that substantial posts, with two to four wires,
will be needed.
Pruning.
The first year the vines should be cut back to two buds. These
should ])e allowed to grow as long as they will. The next year the
vines may be cut the height of the lower wire, and two shoots again
be allowed to grow, breaking the others off soon after they start. The
object of this severe pruning is to get a strong root system established,
not allowing too much of the vine to go into unnecessary top. The
third year the best cane may be left .3 to 6 feet long, according to the
strength of the vine.
To get a good crop of large clusters strong canes of well-ripened wood
are needed, the fruit being grown only on the wood of the previous
154 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
year's growth. To obtain such, various methods are used. Probably
the best way is to have one cane on the trelhs run from that vine to
the next, so that when the vines are in place on the trellis there will be
on one of the wires a continuous line of bearing wood, and on a wire
underneath this two canes for the next year's bearing may be grown,
the best one of them to be used for the next year's fruiting.
Another good method is to have two or four arms on the vines, so
placed that on the second and fourth wires there will be a continuous
line of bearing wood. Where this method is used a number of the
poorer shoots may be broken off when young.
Another way, practiced considerably in New York, is to have the
vine along the lower wire, the other shoots being grown vertically and
tied to the other wires. Another way is to let the vine grow pretty
much as it will, cutting away all but two or three buds on the stronger
last year's shoots.
Summer Pruning.
If the vines have wintered favorably a number of the smaller buds
may be rubbed off soon after they start, and all those on wood more
than one j^car old, unless wanted for next year's bearing. About the
time the blossoms open, by pinching back the ends of the new growth
the life of the vine is forced back into the bunches, helping them to set
large clusters. The pinching back should be done so as to leave about
five leaves on the cane beyond the bunch of fruit. Side shoots will
start, which may be cut back two or three times during the season.
The new leaves, being of a light color, are easily seen, and only the
stronger growth needs cutting back.
Girdling.
Ringing or girdling the vine may sometimes be used to advantage.
This is done by taking off the bark about an inch wide around the
vine, the theory being that the sap goes up in the wood and down in
the bark. By cutting the bark the sap is forced into the growth above
the part girdled, and by keeping the vine cut back the fruit is usually
increased in size, and r-ipens from a week to ten days earlier. The
girdling should be done about the middle of July. The part of the
vine girdled dies in the winter. Only one-half of the vine should be
girdled, as about that proportion is needed to keep up the vigor of the
vine. If too much of the vine is girdled the fruit does not ripen well,
and the vine is weakened. I have practiced girdling more or less for
fifteen years, and see no injury to my vineyard from it.
Thinning the Fruit.
Soon after the fruit is set the vines should be gone over, and where
there are more bunches than are needed the smaller ones should be
taken off, so that the fruit the vine is able to carry will be in as few
bunches as possible.
Xo. 4.] GRAPE CULTURE. 155
Spraying.
For fungous diseases spraying is a preventive rather than a cure,
as after the fungous diseases are well started spraying has little effect
in checking them. A good spraying with a strong solution of copper
sulphate, before the buds start, covering thoroughly the vines and also
the posts, often helps out very much the rest of the season. By adding
arsenate of lead to this spraying mixture it will help take care of the
earlier insects. Just before the blossoms open a spraying of Bordeaux
and arsenate of lead should be used, covering the bunches thoroughly.
This repels and usually checks the work of the rose bugs. They like
to eat the grape blossoms, and are one of the few insects not affected
by contact or stomach poisons. Another spraying ten days later is
needed, and occasionally a fourth spraying.
The chief diseases of the grape are anthracnose, black rot, downy
and powdery mildew. The chief insects affecting the grape are the
flea beetle, grape-fruit worm, leaf hopper and rose bug. These are
usually controlled by the sprayings above referred to.
Marketing.
Grapes are usually disposed of to the best advantage by marketing
as soon as they are well ripened. Moore's Early and Winchell should
be disposed of as soon as suitable, as the first is liable to have the fruit
shell off and the other loses tone.
The package should be such as suits the market where they are sold.
I use an eight-quart diamond basket, which holds from ten to twelve
pounds.
In years like the present the smaller bunches can be picked before
they are quite ripe, and sold for preserving. In local markets there
is often considerable call for grapes for that use.
Prices are not such as were received thirty or forty years ago, but
for several j'^ears past have ranged from 2^ to 7 cents per pound, avei'-
aging about 4 cents.
I usually begin selling in August, and my .crop is generally all mar-
keted by the 20th of September. I have had no loss from fall frosts
since 1893.
There is many a sheltered nook about buildings or j^ard where a
few vines might be grown. It is always well to keep one's family well
supplied with choice fruit.
NINTH ANNUAL REPORT
State Nursery Inspector.
Presented to the Boaiid and Accepted,
January 10, 11)11.
NINTH ANNUAL KEPORT OF THE STATE NURSERY
INSPECTOR.
To (he State Board of Agriculture.
1 have the honor to submit herewith the ninth annual
report of the State NTursery Inspector.
The ordinary work of inspection during 1910 was, in part,
of its customary nature, 146 different places having been
visited, controlled by 136 owners. Of these, 117 received
certificates; in 10 cases the nurseries were in such condition
that certificates were not issued ; 7 persons have no stock this
year, though they do not intend to discontinue the business,
and 2 have decided to become agents hereafter.
The usual inspection this year found a considerable in-
crease in the amount of nursery stock grown in Massachu-
setts. There ^vas also a noticeable increase in the cost of living
while at work ; and enough days were lost by rain to make this
an appreciable factor in the cost. It became evident, before
the work was completed, that the appropriation would be in-
sufficient to accomplish what is required by law, and accord-
ingly the situation was placed before His Excellency the
Governor and the Council. As a result, an additional appro-
priation of $100 was received, but even with this addition
the work has exceeded the appropriation by about $250, which
has thus far been carried by the inspectors themselves.
It was stated in the last annual report of this office that, in
spite of all possible precaution, a gypsy moth egg mass would
probably some day escape discovery, and be shipped with the
stock. This prediction became a fact last spring, though of
several cases reported only one proved to have been on stock
examined by the inspectors. The States where the infested
stock was received, however, were very much disturbed by
finding gypsy and brown-tail moths coming into their terri-
160 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
tory from Massachusetts, and orders were prepared which
would prevent Massachusetts nurserymen from selling any
stock there. This was a very serious matter, and, if carried
into effect, the result would have been the entire loss of a
business amounting each year to more than a million dollars,
for as soon as one State would issue such an order all the
others would immediately follow the same policy.
iVs there was no organization of nurserymen in the State,
information of the probable debarring of Massachusetts stock
was sent to the State Nursery Inspector as the only person in
touch with the nurserymen, and he at once urged a further
consideration of the matter, and that at least an extension of
time be allowed before these orders should take effect. He
also assumed the authority to call a meeting of those nursery-
men of the State who were most vitally concerned, to take
the subject under consideration. This meeting was held at
the office of the secretary of the Board of Agriculture, in
May, and at that meeting the Massachusetts Nurserymen's
Association was organized, and a committee appointed to
meet the inspectors of the other States concerned, in the hope
of finding some way by which the proposed discrimination
against Massachusetts stock could be avoided. Such a meet-
ing was arranged for and was held, June 11, at New York
City. At that time the entire problem of providing such an
examination and supervision of Massachusetts stock as would
satisfy the other States was thoroughly discussed. Those in
charge of the work in the other States finally consented to
withhold the discriminating orders on condition that each
shipment of stock from a Massachusetts nursery into the other
States concerned should be immediately reported to the
nursery inspector of the State to which the stock should go,
giving date of shipment and name and address of the con-
signee. A second condition was that nurseries within the
territory occupied by the gypsy moth ' or brown-tail moth
should be inspected after September 15 by the State Nursery
Inspector or his deputies, and stock shipped after that date
from such nurseries not so inspected would not be admitted
to the States concerned.
While this action was far more favorable than that which
No. 4.] STATE NURSERY INSPECTOR. 161
had been contemplated, it at once caused serious difficulties.
The ordinary inspection work had required the expenditure
of about the entire appropriation, and, with the normal in-
crease in acreage, it was evident that the cost of this supple-
mentary inspection could not be met. There would be over
fifty nurseries to examine, and this must be done after Sep-
tejnber 15, and yet quickly enough thereafter to avoid holding
up the business of these nurseries. The problem was how to
obtain enough trained men to examine these nurseries in a
thorough manner, within a reasonable time after Septem-
ber 15, and where to find the money this would cost. This
was, in a measure, solved by the kindness of Mr. D. M.
Rogers, in charge of the government work in suppressing the
gypsy and brown-tail moths. Mr. Rogers kindly offered the
assistance of several of the men in his employ as soon as they
could be spared from their regular work, and in this way the
services of five additional inspectors were available for a por-
tion of the time. The expense of the work was finally
assumed by the nurserymen whose places received this in-
spection, and thus the immediate difficulties were removed.
In this connection the assistance given by Mr. Rogers deserves
full and grateful recognition.
The sections of the law relating to the inspection of
orchards and other regions liable to be in such condition as to
cause financial loss to neighboring residents (sections 8 to 12)
have been made use of in several cases during the year, and
expenses connected with this work have been a factor in
producing a shortage in the appropriation. The cases con-
cerned have all been satisfactorily settled, and the trees or
other plants which were found to be a real menace have been
cared for in accordance Avith the orders of the inspector, so far
as can be learned.
For many years nursery stock has been introduced to some
extent into Massachusetts from abroad, and for some time
has been rapidly increasing in amount. As the brown-tail
moth and San Jose scale were probably brought into this
country on such stock, and as there are still many other
dangerous pests which may be brought in at any time in this
way, it is important to examine all imports to discover and
162 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Rub. Doc.
destroy such pests before they shall have an opportunity to
establish themselves here.
Until about two years ago it was practically impossible to
learn of these imports, the custom house officials being under
no obligations to furnish such information. For the last two
years, however, this information has been supplied to the
different States by the Bureau of Entomology of the United
States Department of Agriculture, and it is now possible to
examine the imports as they arrive at their various points of
destination. Lack of funds has prevented any large amount
of this work, but in a few instances an examination was pos-
sible, the contents of perhaps one hundred cases being exam-
ined to discover any insects or diseases which might be present
on the stock. The results showed the importance, and, indeed,
the absolute necessity, of watching our imports carefully if
we are not to receive other pests as serious as the gypsy and
brown-tail moths. Among the shipments the worst case of
crown gall ever seen by the inspector was discovered, includ-
ing forty-five out of fifty plants tied together in one bundle.
Another shipment was abundantly supplied with the West
Indian peach scale, which has already received some attention
because of its abundance on a shipment of cherries from
Japan for planting on the White House grounds at Washing-
ton, resulting in the destruction of the entire shipment. If
the authorities of other States consider it of prime importance
to watch all consignments of import stock carefully, Massa-
chusetts cannot afford to admit this stock without a careful
examination. As a result of the slight amount of examina-
tion possible last spring, five different pests or diseases were
found, any one of which, if it had escaped unnoticed, might
have added another to the number of foes this State is now
obliged to fight.
It has just been stated that examination of about one hun-
dred cases or other parcels of stock resulted in finding five
insects or diseases liable to become dangerous to our trees or
other plants, but it cannot be determined how many other
kinds of pests, and how many specimens of the five already
discovered were brought in on the uninspected consignments.
As the inspector has received notice of the shipment into the
No. 4.] STATE NURSERY INSPECTOR. 163
State during 1910 of 3,383 cases, bales or consignments in
some form, it would seem important to provide that this stock
be given careful attention hereafter.
At the present time, therefore, the nursery inspectors must
examine the nurseries of the State, now much larger than
when the present appropriation was made; must respond to
all requests for the examination of orchards and other places
where financial loss is probably involved, although no increase
of appropriation was allowed for this purpose; must give a
supplementary inspection of all nurseries in the gypsy and
brown-tail moth territory, for which no financial allowance
has been made ; and, unless the State is to acquire an addi-
tional list of dangerous foreign pests, must inspect all imports
from foreign countries, for which purpose no particular ap-
propriation has been made, all this work being supposedly
paid for from the $2,000 originally appropriated.
To do this any longer is impossible. A larger appropria-
tion must be provided or the work must be stopped, and when
this work stops, a business involving about $2,000,000 will
practically stop; protection of our trees and shrubs from the
neglect of others will cease ; new pests will appear from abroad
and spread over the State, and a large factor in the protection
of our trees and other plants will be removed.
To properly inspect our nurseries for the various pests and
diseases liable to be present, to provide for necessary orchard
and field examinations, and to properly examine imported
stock, a large increase over the present appropriation is neces-
sary, and I would respectfully urge upon the members of the
Board of Agriculture the importance of this increase, and ask
their endorsement of this proposition and their active support
of some bill for this purpose before the Legislature. The
inspector understands that the nurserymen of the State are
also of the opinion that changes are necessary, and it may
be desirable to confer with the Massachusetts Nurserymen's
Association and settle upon some one bill as representing the
wishes both of the Board and of the nurserymen.
101 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [P. D. No. 4.
Financial St.
iTEMENT.
Approi^riation, ....
..^2,000 00
By Governor and Council,
. 100 00
$2,100 00
Compensation of inspectors, .
. $1,192 50
Traveling and necessary expenses, .
. 891 73
Supplies (postage, printing, etc.), .
15 72
2,099 95
Unexpended balance, $0 05
The coiitinued co-operation of the secretary of the Board of
Agriculture and of his assistants in the office with the in-
spector and his deputies has been of much assistance during
the year, and it is a pleasure to record here our appreciation
of this.
Respectfully submitted,
H. T. FERNALD,
State Nursery Inspector.
Amherst, Jan. 1, 1911.
THIRD ANNUAL REPORT
State Ornithologist.
Synopsis presented to the Board and Accepted,
January 10, 1911.
-"•"■i^*'^^^- "" ^. -,!U
Twelve robins, three jays, three flickers, two hermit thrushes and one purple finch. Found
on an Italian. Had no gun ; was carrying game for three who had guns. He had copy
of law in Italian language in pocket. (Photograph by Wilbur F. Smith.)
THIRD ANNUAL EEPORT OF THE STATE
ORNITHOLOGIST.
The Work of the Year.
Educational Work.
The demand for lectures by the State Ornithologist con-
tinues unabated. Thirty-seven free lectures have been given
during 1910. Engagements for five hundred might have been
taken had time permitted, but the work of preparing the spe-
cial report on wild fowl, game birds and shore birds, author-
ized by the Legislature in 1910, made it impossible to accept
many engagements to lecture. This report is still in process
of preparation, and will be ready for distribution during
the latter part of the year 1911.
8ong Birds destroyed hy Aliens.
Some complaints have been received regarding the killing
of birds by foreigners. The census of 1905 gives the foreign-
born population of Massachusetts at 918,044. Many of these
aliens come from southern Europe, or from other countries
where the killing of song birds is a common practice. When
these people arrive in this country the tendency to continue
such depredations is very marked. A hunter's license law
which went into effect in the year 1909, and which requires
all aliens who hunt to pay a license fee of $15, has reduced
the number of foreign hunters. It has probably kept at
least 20,000 of them from hunting in Massachusetts, but
some are now evading the law by using short guns, that may
bo concealed in their clothing, or by utilizing traps, nets or
bird lime. Great numbers of small birds, such as flickers,
jays, robins, bluebirds, sparrows, thrushes and warblers, are
killed by these people and used for food. The frontispiece
168 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
of this report shows 12 robins, 3 blue jays, 3 flickers, 2 hermit
thrushes and 1 purj^le finch which were concealed on the per-
son of an Italian who was arrested by a game warden in
Connecticut. This hunter had no gun, but was carrying the
'' game " for three people who did the shooting. He had a
copy of the game laws printed in Italian in his pocket. The
heads of about 100 robins were found where some Polish
hunters had dressed them in a New Hampshire city, and in
Massachusetts an Italian was taken with 40 birds, mostly
flickers, on his person. These are only a few of the instances
that have come to light.
Complaints are made that the laws are not enforced, and
that some of the wardens are inactive, but conditions have
been very much improved since the hunters' license law was
passed. Before that time there were many Italian camps
where the ground was strewn with feathers, and it was re-
ported that in some instances hardly a bird was left alive
in the woods. It is difficult, even under present conditions,
to stop this practice among foreigners, and the laws will never
be fully enforced until every one interested in the protection
of birds uses his influence in the right direction.
The Massachusetts Audubon Society has printed an appeal
to the Italians, advising them of the laws protecting song
birds and requesting better observance. The Commission on
Fisheries and Game have notices printed in Italian for dis-
tribution by any one who is interested. An appeal must be
made to the religious instructors of foreigners to use their
influence toward securing obedience of the law, and the chil-
dren in the schools should be taught the value of birds, and
urged to protect rather than destroy them.
Birds feeding on the Eggs of the Gypsy Moth.
Enforcement of the laws protecting the smaller birds is
now imperative, for many of them feed more or less on the
gypsy moth and the brown-tail moth.
In 1896, when my report was published on birds feeding
on the gypsy moth, birds were not known to eat the eggs of
these moths; but in the last decade evidence has been accu-
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 169
Ululated to the eli'ect that birds are now learning to feed
upon these eggs. At first egg clusters were found slightly
damaged, as if pecked at ; later the birds were seen pecking at
them.
Messrs. H. B. Bigelow and Wilfred Wheeler of Concord
have noticed that the birds are eating these eggs. The ques-
tion at once arises whether the birds do not scatter more eggs
than they eat, and leave them to hatch on the ground. But
Mr. Wheeler and Mr. Wilson H. Fay state that they have
watched the birds feeding on these eggs and have searched
carefully on the newly fallen snow below, but have been
unable to find any eggs there. Formerly the birds merely
pecked into the cluster, scattering the eggs about ; now they
are learning to eat them clean. I examined many trees in
Concord where the birds had been at work, and found many
egg clusters from which all the eggs had been removed. Mr.
Fay spent several winter days observing the birds. He re-
]X)rts that he saw a downy woodpecker peek into an egg mass
one hundred and twenty times within a minute. He states
that chickadees, brown creepers and golden-crowned kinglets
also apparently eat the eggs. Dr. G. W. Field, chairman of
the Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and Game, in-
forms me that nuthatches eat them. Dr. A. W. Tuttle of
Cambridge states that at his camp the birds have destroyed
a great part of the eggs of the gypsy moth. He regards the
downy woodpecker as the most efficient worker in this respect.
Fear has been expressed that the eggs of the moth may
pass through the alimentary canals of the birds unbroken
and undigested, and may afterwards hatch, and that in this
way the birds will become distributors of the insects. Exper-
iments that were made before 1896 with the crow and the
English sparrow showed that the eggs which passed through
the digestive tract of those birds were killed in the process of
digestion, although the shells of some of them were unbroken.
This indicates that there is no distribution of living eggs
to any distance by egg-eating birds, and if the birds are be-
ginning to eat the eggs of this moth, they will ])r()l)nbly be-
come as useful eventuallv as Euro]iean birds, which have
170 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
been known to check the inroads of the moth in parks and
on large estates, merely by eating the eggs in the fall, winter
and spring. This is the most vulnerable stage of the moth, as
the eggs remain upon the tree for the greater part of the
year. The blue jay and a few other species are now believed
to be quite destructive to the caterpillars of the brown-tail
moth during the winter. In some localities the caterpillars
have been removed from nearly all the webs on the trees. It
is believed that the blue jay is the most eifective of these
winter caterpillar hunters. This subject will be further
investigated during the coming year.
Most of the month of June and much of the remainder of
the year were devoted to an investigation of the introduced
starling.
European Methods of attracting Birds.
The success of the efforts of Europeans in protecting birds
has attracted a great deal of attention in this country. Many
articles and essays dealing with the various attempts to pro-
mote these methods have been published in Europe. Socie-
ties and conmiunities, as well as individuals, have taken the
matter up in many parts of Europe. Government authori-
ties have taken up the question of bird protection, particu-
larly in the European forest work. International conven-
tions for the purpose of consulting regarding bird protection
ha^e been held. Perhaps the most eminent success in bird
protection by one individual has been attained by Baron von
Berlepsch at Seebach. Recently a volume by Martin Heise-
mann, giving the results of the baron's efforts, entitled " How
to attract and protect Wild Birds," has been translated
into English, and is now distributed by the National Asso-
ciation of Audubon Societies in this country. Baron von
Berlepsch has carried out the principles of game protec-
tion in the conservation of small birds. He plants trees and
shrubbery to attract birds, trims and prunes his trees and
shrubbery in such a way as to afford nesting places for the
birds, and has invented nesting boxes and feeding appliances
that have proved so successful that the 3,000 nesting boxes
No 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 171
put up on his estate at Seebach are nearly all occupied by
birds, and the number of birds on his estate far exceeds the
number in equal areas in other parts of the country. As a
result of the protection of the birds on his estate a caterpillar
plague which swept the country in that region had no effect
upon his trees, and his entire plantation stood out like a
green oasis amid the bare and barren countryside.
Many of the bird boxes and appliances used by Baron von
Berlepsch have been imported into this country, and I have
watched the results with a good deal of interest. Undoubt-
edly the methods he used are considerably in advance of our
own. Attempts have been made to manufacture such nesting
boxes and other appliances in this country, and recently Mr.
Philip E. Perry, of 39 Clarke Street, Lexington, has per-
fected a machine for the manufacture of these nesting boxes,
and it is hoped that they will be given an extensive trial in
our woods, fields and orchards during the coming years.
It is not difficult to increase the number of chickadees and
some other species which feed on the gypsy and the brown-tail
moth by putting up nesting boxes in summer and a little
suet upon the trees in winter, and it is my intention during
the coming year to make a trial of these and other methods
in Massachusetts. Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes of Meriden,
N. H., has produced some bird food houses similar to those
used by Baron von Berlepsch, and they are very successful
in attracting the birds.
The Stakling.
The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) was introduced
into ]S[ew York City in 1890, and has now reached Massachu-
setts. It is a native of western central Euroj^e, winters south
to Africa and is accidental in Greenland. It may be de-
scribed briefly as follows: length, 814 inches; adult male:
black with purple and green reflections, the feathers of the
upper parts more or less tipped with pale buff; under tail-
coverts edged with white; beak yellow; feet flesh-colored,
tinged with brown ; female : spotted below as well as above ;
young: uniform ash brown, faintlv streaked witli darker.
172 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The starling may be readily recognized by its general ap-
pearance and manner of flight. It is about the size of the
red-winged blackbird, but has a very short tail. It is usually
dark in color, and during the breeding season its bill is bright
yellow. Those who see it for the first time usually describe it
as a blackbird with a yellow bill. In flight it flutters much
like a meadow lark, but seldom sails as the lark does.
The Starling in Europe.
In order to get some idea of what we may expect of the
starling in this country w^e must first glance at its history
in Europe. There it is one of the most abundant birds. In
some sections it has been more numerous in the past than
it is now, but on the other hand it is now increasing in num-
bers in other regions. Most of the starlings in northern
European countries pass the winter in southern Europe, but
reappear in the north very early in the spring, sometimes
before the snow is gone ; and in nmch of the northern jiart
of its range a few individuals are resident throughout the
winter. Although it resembles our blackbirds somewhat in
appearance, it differs widely from them in its breeding hab-
its. In Europe it nests in hollow trees, in holes or crevices
in rocks, walls, cliffs and buildings. Like the house spar-
row it is a close companion of man during the breeding sea-
son. In building its nest it occupies suitable places about the
eaves, and utilizes bird houses and nesting boxes as the
house sparrow does. It lays from four to seven greenish-
blue eggs and usually raises two broods each season. It
is a very gregarious species, and even during the breeding
season may be seen in small flocks, a few individuals or a
family often consorting together. By midsummer these small
flocks begin to congregate into larger ones, containing hun-
dreds of individuals, and increasing sometimes in the fall to
thousands and tens of thousands. The largest flights are
seen at the roosts. Usually the starlings from a large area
concentrate on some marsh at night, where they roost in the
reeds, and from these centers they scatter over the country
to feed each day, returning every evening to the same roost,
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNTmOLOGIST. 173
until the approaching winter, with its scarcity of food, com-
pels them to wander about in search of it, or to resort to
more southern regions.
The accounts of the vast numbers congregated at the roosts
as related by European ornithologists are almost incredible.
Their numbers are set down as hundreds of thousands and
sometimes as " millions," but such statements are probably
somewhat exaggerated. It is certain, however, that these
birds gather at the roosts in " clouds," such as are sometimes
seen in the south, where our swallows concentrate in countless
thousands at night over a marsh, and discharge their num-
bers into the reeds like a waterspout descending from a
cloud. A similar manner of going to roost is attributed to
the starling. Like our cowbird, it seems fond of frequenting
])astures or places where cattle are kept. It is said to even
alight on the backs of cattle and sheep in search of ticks and
other insects that infest them. It is pre-eminently a ground
feeder, and feeds on lawns and in grass fields, and also to
some extent in gardens and plowed lands. It destroys grubs,
earthworms, snails and many of the insects which ordinarily
infest grass lands and the droppings of cattle. It is gener-
ally conceded in Europe that the benefits it confers on the
farmer far exceed the harm it does by attacks on fruit or
crops. Is^evertheless, there are many instances on record
where the starling has become a pest to the farmer. The
hal)it of collecting in enormous flocks is the great element of
danger. When a great number of any species having grain-
eating or fruit-eating propensities is collected in one locality
it is capable of doing great harm in a very short time. Such
flights, however, are often productive of good.
The forest authorities in Bavaria, during an invasion of the
spruce moth or " nun " in 1889—91. noted great flights of
starlings, which were credibly estimated to contain as many
as 10,000 in a flock, all busy feeding on the caterpillars and
]uipa? of this moth. The attraction of starlings to such cen-
ters was so great that market-gardeners seriously felt their
absence in distant parts of the region.
The injury that starlings arc capable of doing in Europe
174 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
may be judged from the folloAviiig accounts. Mr. A. Butler
Duncan of New York writes that he has known the starling
to become a '' perfect pest " in England. What the starling
does to fruit in Great Britain is told in an extract from the
" Agricultural Students' Gazette," quoted by S. H. Goodwin
in " Bird-Lore," May-June, 1908, p. 130.
The starling is a splendid bird on grass land, foraging for leather
jackets (larvse of craneflies), wire worms, etc.; rids the sheep of
a few of their ticks; bnt in a frnit district it comes in droves into
the strawberries and attacks the cherries wholesale (Hereford) ;
peas, apples, plums, as well as cherries (Kent), also raspberries.
Very valnable insect destroyers, but getting too numerous (Nott).
In my fruit field (between Harden and Colchester) I do not suffer
very much from blackbirds and thrushes, nor do I grudge them their
toll in return for their song. Only one bird is dangerous to my
crops, — that is the starling. He threatened the utter destruction
of our strawberry, raspberry, cherry, gooseberry and currant, and
some other crops. These birds are said to come to us from the
marshes as soon as the young are hatched. And they come in
millions; in flocks that darken the sky. Their flight is like the roar
of the sea, or like the trains going over the arches. Their number
increased rapidly each year. I can look back to the time when
there were few, and have watched their increase for forty years,
till now it is intolerable (Essex). The starling is a terror, and life
around here is hardly worth living; you must have a gun always
in your hand, or Avoe betide the cherries; they come in thousands
( Sittingboume, Kent ) .
Miss Gertrude Whiting of New York City writes me that
in Switzerland enormous flocks of starlings come down like
black clouds on the vineyards. In ten or fifteen minutes they
pluck the fruit absolutely clean, and the cultivator is robbed
of his year's crop. In the south of France starlings are said
to be similarly destructive to the olive crop. This indicates
what would happen in America were the starlings to become
abnormally numerous.
It is of particular interest to learn what we can of the na-
ture of the starling in its own country in its relations to
other birds. In Europe the starling is known to eat the eggs
and the newly hatched young of sparrows, but this habit does
No. 4.] REPORT OP^ STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 175
not seem to have been generally noted. Mr. Clinton G.
Abbott, who is very familiar with the bird in Europe, writes
me that he considers its pugnacious nature to be by far the
most serious objection to the starling, and that no birds
which nest in holes can have any peace at all until all the
starlings are satisfied. " ]\lany a time," he writes, "■ have
I noticed the British woodpeckers laboriously boring holes
in the hard wood, only to find that after a couple of weeks'
work a pair of starlings had laid claim to the apartment."
The woodpecker never gives up without a fight, but the
starling is always victorious, and " the next day trailing
straws from the entrance of the cavity show the presence of
these new and slovenly tenants." The pugnacity of the star-
ling does not seem to be generally noted in the works of
European ornithologists, but apparently at times they have
battles among themselves. The following copy of an ancient
tract, for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Samuel
N. Rhoads of Haddonfield, IST. J., is both quaint and in-
teresting.
The Wonderful Battel of Starlings:
Fought at the City of Cork, in Ireland, the 12th and llih of
October 1621. As it hath been credibly informed by divers
noblemen and others of the said Kingdom-, etc. London,
Printed for N. B. 1622.
Cork is a City in the West of Ireland, in the Province of Mun-
sier; for Situation, and all Commodities, which Sea or Land may
afford, not inferior to any City in that Country. About the 7th of
October last, Anno 1621, there gathered together, by Degrees, an
unusual Multitude of Birds called Stares, in some Countries known
by the Name of Starling's. Quality bold and venturous, among
Ihemselves very loving, as may appear by their Flights, keeping
together all Times of the Year, excepting the Breeding-Time. It
is, and hath been an old Proverb, that Birds of a Feather hold and
keep together; which hath even been a common Custom in these
as much as in any other Kind whatsoever : But now the old Proverb
is changed, and their Custom is altered clean contrary. For at this
Time, as these Birds are in Taste bitter, so they met to fight to-
gether the bitterest and sharpest Battel among themselves, the like,
for the Manner of their Flight, and for the Time the Battel did
conliinie, never heard or seen at any Time, in any Country of the
World. (I believe)
176 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
We read in the Histories of onr own Counti-y, that, in tiie
twelfth Year of King Richard II. the Gnats mustered together at
Shine now called Richmond, in great Abundance, with so great a
Multitude, that the Air was obscured and darkned by them. They
fought so violent a Battel among themselves, that, by Estimation,
two Parts of them were slain, and fell to the Ground. The Num-
ber of those which were killed was so great that they were taken
up with Shovels, and swept together with Besoms, that Bushels
were filled with them, the third Part having gotten the Victory, flew
away and vanished, no Man knew whither.
Now to come to the Fight of our Birds, the Stares or Starlings :
They mustered together, at this above-named City of Cork, some
four or five Days before they fought their Battels, every Day more
and more increasing their Armies with greater Supplies; some came
as from the East, others from the West, and so accordingly they
placed themselves, and as it were ineamped Themselves Eastward
and Westward about the City: During which Time their Noise and
Tunes were strange on both Sides, to the great Admiration of the
Citizens and the Inhabitants near adjt)ining, who had never seen,
for Multitude, or ever heard, for loud Tunes which they uttered,
the like before, Whereupon they more curiously observing the
Courses and Passages they used, noted, that from those on the
East, and from those on the West, sundry Flights, some twenty
and thirty in a Company, would pass from the one Side to the
other, as it should seem employed in Embassies; for they would
fly and hover in the Air over the Adverse Party, with strange
Tunes and Noise, and so return back again to that Side from which
as it seemed, \hej were sent.
And farther it was observed, that, during the Time they as-
sembled, the Stares of the East sought their Meat Eastward, as
the Stares of the West did the like Westward; no one flying in
the circuits of the other.
These Courses and Customs continued with them until the 12th
of October, which Day being Saturday, about Nine of the Clock
in the Moniing, being a very fair and a Sun-shine Day, upon a
strange Sound and Noise, made as well on the one Side as the
other, they forthwith, at one Instant, took Wing, and so mounting
up into the Skies, encountered one another with such a ten-ible
Shock, as the Sound amazed the whole City and the Beholders.
Upon this sudden and fierce Encounter,' there fell down in the
City, and into the Rivers, Multitudes of Starlings or Stares, some
with Wings broken, some with Legs and Necks broken, some with
Eyes picked out, some their Bills thrust into the Breast and Sides
of their Adversaries, on so si rage a Manner, tht it were incredible,
except it wei-e confirmed by Letters of Credit, and by Eye-Witnesses
with that Assurance Avhich is without all Exception.
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 177
Upon the first Encounter they withdrew themselves backward,
East and West, and with like Eagerness and Fury encountered
several Times; upon which all these Stares fell down, in like strange
and admirable Manner, as upon the first Encounter. They con-
tinued this admirable and most violent Battel till a little before
Night, at which time they seemed to vanish, so that all Sunday,
the 13th of Octobei', none appeared about the City.
Upon this Sunday divers passengers came out of Suffolk, who
sailing betwixt Gravesend and Woolwich, they heai^d a loud and
strange noise and Sound in the Air, whereupon casting their Eyes
upward, they saw infinite Multitudes of Stares fighting in all
violent Manner together, with a Crow or Raven flying betwixt them,
for the Flight being so high, they could not perfectly discern
whether it was Crow or Raven. These Birds had also several
Encounters, making strange Sound and Noise; and ever as they
divded and retired themselves, the Crow or Raven was seen in the
Midst: But what Slaughter was made they could not observe, be-
cause the Evening was somewhat dark, and the Battel was fought
over Woods more remote off; but for more assured Proof of this
Fight the Sunday before-named, there are, at this Time, in London,
diverse Persons of Worth and very honest Reputation, whom the
Printer of this Pamphlet can produce, to justify what they saw,
at Cause shall require, upon their Oaths.
Now to return to the last Battel fought, at Cork, by these Stares
Upon Monday, the 14th of October, they made their Return again,
and, at the same time, the Day bring as fair a Sun-shine Day as
it was the Saturday before, they mounted into the Air, and en-
countered each other with like violent Assaults, as formei'ly they
had done, and fell into the City upon the Houses, and into the
River, wounded and slaughtei-ed in like Manner as before is re-
ported : But at this last Battel there was a Kite, a Raven and
a Crow, all three found dead in the Streets rent, torn and
mangled.
In this precedent Narration, one Report will cause most admira-
tion, and that is, the Stares or Starlings, forbearing and absenting
themselves from Cork, upon Sunday, being the 13th of October,
should that same Day be seen to fight near, or not far off from
Woolwich; whether the same Stares it may be held in respect of
the Distance of the Place by Sea and Land, improbable. But this
Improbability is soon answered ; for as the Fight at Cork may seem
strange and improbable, yet being most assured that such a Battel
was fought, it may be as probable, in the Wonderful Works of Al-
mighty God, that, notwithstanding the Distance of the Place, these
may be the same Stares.^
' Morgan, J.: "Phoenix Britannieus", a miscellaneous collection of scarce and curious
tracts. No. 1, pp. 250-253, London, 1731.
178 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The above extracts indicate that the starling has some un-
desirable qualities, and as such qualities are often accentu-
ated when a bird is introduced into a new country, we cannot
view the introduction of the starling without some apprehen-
sion. The fact that it is generally considered a desirable
species in northern Europe ought not to have convinced any
one that it would be so in America, and its introduction here
ought never to have been undertaken. When imported into
New Zealand it became a very destructive pest, and no one
can tell what may be the result of its acclimatization here.
Since the successful introduction of the starling in America
the Bureau of Biological Survey of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture has been given authority to regulate the
importation of foreign mammals and birds into this country,
and in the future there is very little likelihood that the zeal of
misguided persons who wish to import foreign species will
have such results as followed the introduction of the house
sparrow. The Biological Survey now has agents in every
port where foreign species are likely to come in, all shipments
are examined and if the bird or mammal is considered at all
dangerous it is destroyed ; thus we have been able to keep out
the mongoose and several undesirable species of birds. But
the starling, introduced before these regulations went into
effect, has increased so fast and spread so far that the ques-
tion now to be considered is whether it is to prove an unde-
sirable addition to the fauna of the country, and, if not,
whether its increase can be controlled and regulated.
The Starling in America.
lis Introduction. — Probably we shall never know how
many attempts have been made to introduce the starling into
this country. I have learned of several. Mr. William Co-
nant of Tenafly, IST. J., states that he had a tame starling
there in a cage in 1884. At lea^t six other starlings came
about the cage of his pet bird, which he finally liberated and
it disappeared. These starlings are believed to have reached
Tenafly from Tuxedo, where several European species, in-
cluding the English pheasants and partridges, were liberated
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 179
at that time. Some of the pheasants and European par-
tridges also reached Tenafly.
Mr. Van Brunt Bergen of Brooklyn, N. Y., writes that
Mrs. Doubleday liberated several pairs of starlings at Bay
Ridge eight or ten years ago. They came from England.
But the introductions undertaken by Mr. Eugene Scheifflin
at Central Park, ISTew York City, are credited as the first to
be successful. The first of his importations numbered 80
birds, which were liberated on March 6, 1890, and 40 more
were released on April 25, 1891. Some of these birds re-
mained in the park or its vicinity, and bred there, but in
1891, 20 appeared on Staten Island, and in 1896 they had
increased their numbers and had extended to Brooklyn. In
1898, according to Dr. T. S. Palmer of the Biological Sur-
vey, the specie's had obtained a strong foothold in the neigh-
borhood of jSTew York City. It had reached Stamford, Conn.,
and Plainfield, !N^. J. One hundred birds were liberated near
Springfield, Mass., in 1897, but Mr. Robert O. Morris of
Springfield states his belief that they did not survive the fol-
lowing winter. It may be possible that they went south,
but not one was reported from Springfield again until the
year 1908. In the meantime they had spread over the first
40 miles of Long Island, up the Hudson River to Ossining
and beyond, through much of eastern New Jersey and into
Pennsylvania and Delaware.
In June, 1910, I was able, through the co-operation of the
Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Department of
Agriculture, to make an investigation of the distribution,
food and habits of the starling in America. Several trips
were made to Springfield, Mass. ; Connecticut ; Long Island,
N. Y, ; IN^ew Jersey and one to Pennsylvania. A large cor-
respondence was begun with people in all the States in which
the starling has been found. One hundred and two starlings
were collected^ and the contents of their stomachs were exam-
ined by Prof. F. E. L. Beal of the Biological Survey. On
this investigation the present report is based.
It is important to compare what is known of the status
and habits of the starling in this country with its history
180 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
and habits in Europe, for by such a comparison we may be
able to forecast its probable relation to other birds and to
agriculture in Massachusetts.
Its Increase andDisserniimtion. — When the brief period
that has elapsed since the introduction of the starling (twenty
years) and the small number introduced are considered, it
must be conceded that the increase and the dissemination of
the species have' been rapid. It has not increased or spread
so rapidly as did the house sparrow (commonly called English
sparrow), but the sparrow's numbers sprang not from one
importation but from many, that took place at widely scat-
tered localities during a series of years, — something that
has been prevented in the case of the starling. Its increase
has been rapid in most of the region now occupied by it,
where it is in many places second in numbers only to the
sparrow and the robin. The testimony of 110 correspond-
ents whose residences are scattered over five States shows that
the starling is increasing fast. All state as a result of their
observation that it is increasing, and most of them say that
its accession is rapid. Only 18 have seen no increase in their
localities or find the increase slow. They, however, are resi-
dent mainly near where the starling was first introduced, and
where it has nearly reached the limit of food supply or nest-
ing places. Even in Brooklyn, however, Mr. Edward W.
Victor, who keeps a carefnl daily account of the birds ob-
served at Prospect Park, records an average of 29 starlings
daily in 1908, 31 in 1909 and 41 in 1910. Mr. Jno. 11.
Sage of Portland, Conn., states that two pairs were seen there
in 1908, and that by June, 1910, the mmiber had increased
to about 100. During the breeding season the starling is
rather quiet and secretive, and its numbers are not fully
realized, but in the fall its large flocks become very conspicu-
ous, and people are prone to exaggerate its numbers for the
reason that these flocks roam over the country for miles, fre-
quently appearing and disappearing and giving the impres-
sion of great abundance. The most convincing proof of in-
crease comes in the statements of people who saw the starlings
in flocks of from 1,000 to 3,000 in the fall of 1909, and who
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 181
now find them in the same localities in flocks estimated to
contain from 8,000 to 10,000. In the region about jSTew
York City, including Long Island, Staten Island and parts
of the Hudson River valley, also portions of New Jersey,
where the sparrow is more abundant than I had ever seen it
anywhere else in this country, there appeared to be at least
50 sparrows to every starling in June, 1910, but it is quite
probable that the ratio has now been very materially changed
in many places by the increase of the starling.
The spread of the starling since 1900 may be seen by the
following statement.
In the year 1900 it appeared at Flushing, L. L; East
Orange, N. J.; Chilmark, N. Y. (Scarborough-on-Hudson) ;
Norwalk, Stamford and New Haven, Conn. In 1901 the
first birds are recorded from Delaware, taken near Odessa.
In 1904 the starling had reached Rye, N. Y. ; and Trevose,
Bucks County, Pa. In 1905 it is recorded from Newburg,
N. Y. ; Elizabeth, N. J.; and West Philadelphia, Pa. In
1900, Danbury, Wethersfield and Hartford, Conn.; New
Brunswick, Princeton, Red Bank and Vincentown, N. J.,
were included in its range. In 1907 it was seen in Stoning-
ton, Windsor, Bethel, Southington and New London, Conn. ;
Ui)per Montclair, Morristown and Tuckerton, N. J. ; and
Setauket, Syosset and Orient, L. I. In 1908 it was seen in
Millersville, Pa.; Bedford Hills, N. Y. ; Portland and New
Milford, Conn.; and Springfield, Mass. In 1909 it had
reached Rhinebeck and Pleasantville, N. Y., and one was
said to have been seen at Rochester, but none have been noted
there since. It was also met with at ]\Iilburn, N. J. ; Bristol,
Pa. ; and Chester, Conn.
Since the above was written I have learned from ]\Ir.
Israel R. Sheldon of Providence, R. I., that starlings have
been breeding for " two or three years " at Silver Springs,
R. I., on the east shore of Narragansett Bay, about 8 miles
below Providence. They must have reached this point in
1908 or 1909, if not earlier. He states that they nest in the
peaks of the roofs of some cottages, behind some lattice work,
and that he has seen as manv as 8 at one time. As the noise
182 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
that thej make disturbs the cottagers their nesting has been
repeatedly interfered with, which may account for the fact
that they have not increased much. This is the only authentic
occurrence of the starling in Rhode Island that has come to
my notice, but as Providence is many miles from Stonington,
Conn., the easternmost record hitherto recorded, starlings are
probably domiciled in other Rhode Island towns.
The increase and spread of the starling is due to its fecun-
dity and its general fitness for the battle of life. It often
has two broods in America, as it has in Europe. I am satis-
fied of this by my own observation and by the statements of
other observers, and believe this to be the rule, although in
some localities I could find no evidence of a second brood.
On the other hand, it seems not improbable that a third brood
is sometimes reared ; but this needs confirmation. The star-
ling's physical fitness for the struggle for supremacy is seen
at once on an examination of its anatomy. It is a very
hardy, muscular and powerful bird. It has the physical
characteristics of a little crow. It is exceedingly tough and
wiry, and the bill, its principal weapon of oifense and de-
fense, is superior in shape to that of a crow. It is nearly
straight, long, heavy, tapering, and nearly as keen as a meat
axe, while the skull that backs it is almost as strong as that
of a woodpecker. Mentally the starling is superior to the
sparrow, and while brave and active in the face of any foe
that it can master, it shows the acme of caution and intelli-
gence in its relations with man or any other creature too pow-
erful for it to cope with. While it is comparatively fearless
where it is unmolested, it is always on its guard, and if hunted
becomes more wary than a crow. It is a handsome bird, and
though it has little merit as a songster, it has many pleasant
whistling and chattering notes and some talent as a mimic.
Its alarm note is a harsh, rasping, low-pitched call.
Its insect-eating habits, its beauty and its cheery notes
have already made it many strong friends in this country who
will stoutly protect it, and this protection, together with the
bird's ability to take care of itself and keep out of danger,
precludes all possibility of its extermination here if it proves
undesirable.
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 183
Were rewards or bounties offered with a view to its ex-
tinction, blackbirds, meadowlarks and other native species,
which consort with the starling, would be among the chief
sufferers. The starling is here to stay, and we must make the
best of it. Whether its presence will result in more good than
harm will depend largely on the ratio of its increase. We
now know enough of its habits in this country to forecast some
of the results that may be expected from an excess of the
species.
The Starling drives Certain Native Birch from their
Nests. — When any animal is successfully introduced into
a new country, and increases rapidly, its advent naturally
tends to upset the biologic balance. Its native natural ene-
mies have been left behind in its own country, where it had
a settled and established place in a series of natural forces,
that had been in existence for centuries, and it becomes an
interloper in the new land, among conditions and forms of
life entirely new. If the species is weak or unfit for its
new environment^ or if it is introduced into a land differing
much in climatic conditions from its own, it dies out and
no disturbance results ; but if it is strong and fit, and the
climate is suitable, it is likely to increase abnormally in num-
bers, and it cannot so increase without displacing some of the
species native to the soil.
The starling is a hardy, capable and prolific bird, which,
like the sparrow, has had many centuries of experience in
getting its living in populated countries and cultivated re-
gions in close relationship with man, and in such an environ-
ment it has survived and thriven. It thus has an advantage
over our native species similar to that enjoyed by the spar-
row, which, subsequent to its introduction here, displaced so
many native birds during the latter quarter of the nineteenth
century. How can the bluebird or the house wren, which
have been accustomed to life about human habitations for a
comparatively short time, compete with such a bird as the
starling?
The friends of the sparrow argued that it would fill a void
in our city life that no native bird could possibly occupy,
inasmuch as it would always have in the streets a plentiful
184 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
supply of food that would otherwise be maiulj wasted, and
that it would be able to maintain itself where native birds
would starve. No such argument can be advanced in favor
of the starling'. If there was an opening for the sparrow
it was filled long ago, and the starling cannot occupy the
place in our urban life now filled by the sparrow, even if
it drives out the latter. Xo doubt in the city the starling is
preferable to the sparrow, but it cannot displace the sparrow
without indirectly making trouble for native species also.
The sparrow and the starling will live together, as in Eng-
land, but the starling will drive the sparrow away from all
nesting places that are suitable for its own use^ and the spar-
row will in turn eject tree swallows, martins, bluebirds,
wrens and other native birds from their present nesting
places, that it may secure homes in place of those taken by
the starling. Already this adjustment is going on. First in
the city, then in the suburbs, and finally in the country our
native birds which normally nest in hollow trees will be
driven to the wall if the starling continues to increase in
numbers, and there is now no adequate check to its increase
in sight. In America as in Euroj^e the starling seeks nesting
places about buildings. It breeds in dovecotes, such church
steeples as furnish safe nesting places, in holes and crevices
about houses, in niches under the eaves, in electric light
hoods, bird houses, nesting boxes, woodpecker holes and hol-
low trees. Therefore, in seeking nesting places it comes
directly in competition with domestic pigeons, screech owls,
sparrow hawks, flickers and other woodpeckers, crested fly-
catchers, martins, bluebirds, tree swallows and wrens, and as
it extends its range to the west and south it must compete
with other species. In the region already occupied it has
proved itself capable of driving out all the above-mentioned
species, except the screech owl, which doubtless will prove its
master.
In America the starling is not regarded as particularly
pugnacious except where it has to fight for nesting places
or for food. In such cases it is combativeness personified,
and its attacks are well directed and long continued. Usually
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 185
in its competition with the sparrow there is no fighting, for
the sparrow soon learns that it is no match for the starling,
and the contest degenerates into a straw-pulling match, each
bird alternately clearing out the nesting material that the
other brings. If the owner of the nest joins battle with the
starling and fights stubbornly it is driven off, or it is some-
times killed in its nest. This daring interloper attacks birds
much larger than itself, and the evidence shows that almost
invariably it prevails in the end. The sparrow, the bluebird
and the flicker have been credited with repelling it for a
time, but eventually the starling wins, because of its increas-
ing numbers, courage and fitness. As the starling comes,
native birds, whose nesting places it covets, must go, and
many of these birds are more desirable than the starling.
The skillful manner in which it evicts the flicker inspires
the observer with a certain admiration for its superior strat-
egy and prowess. The starlings quietly watch and never
interfere while the flicker digs and shapes its nesting place
in some decaying tree ; but when the nest is finished to the
satisfaction of the starlings it is occupied by them the mo-
ment the flicker's back is turned. On the return of the
flicker a fight ensues, which usually results in the eviction of
the starling in the hole, which, however, keeps up the fight
outside while another enters the hole to defend it against the
flicker, which, having temporarily vanquished the first, re-
turns only to find a second enjoying the advantages of pos-
session. As Mr. Job says, the flicker is confronted with " an
endless chain of starling," and finally gives up.^
In this way or some other the starlings, working together,
always succeed in driving the flicker from its home, in which
they immediately begin to build. The moment the flicker
gives up vanquished, the starlings leave him entirely alone,
allowing him to hew out another hole, either in the same tree
or in one near by, when a similar fight ensues with more
starlings; and so the flicker is driven literally from pillar to
post, until it has prepared sufficient homes for the starlings
in its neighborhood, and all are satisfied, or until it gives up
1 Job, Herbert K.: " Danger from the Starling," " The Outing," November, 1910, p. 149.
186 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
in disgust, and leaves the vicinity of its aggressive neighbors.
The principal spring work of the flicker in the future will be
the preparation of nesting places for the starling. It is
probable that the hairj woodpecker and the redheaded wood-
pecker also will serve as carpinteros for the interloper, but
the downy woodpecker will probably be exempt from such
service, as the entrance to his domicile is too small to admit
the starling. There is no evidence that the starling has at-
tempted to dispossess the screech owl ; but Mr. Clifford M.
Case of Hartford, Conn., states that he has seen a starling
whip and drive away a male sj^arrow hawk. Many corre-
spondents report that flickers, bluebirds, English sparrows
and wrens have been driven from their nesting places in old
orchards by the starlings.
Mr. Clifford II. Pangburn of New Haven says that his rec-
ords show a considerable decrease in the number of bluebirds
since the starlings came. There is no way to prevent this
except in the case of the smaller species, which may be pro-
tected by providing them with nesting boxes having an en-
trance hole not over IV2 inches in diameter.
At my request Mr. William H. Browning, who has many
starlings occupying nesting boxes on his estate, put up in
front of the entrance to one of them a small board in which a
hole 11/2 inches in diameter had been bored. Starlings which
then had young in the box were unable to enter.
The starling will compete with native birds for their
food supply. Mrs. P. R. Bonner of Stamford has observed
the intruder frequently attacking robins and other birds, and
driving them away from a lawn where they formerly fed.
The starling is a sphinx-like bird and ordinarily treats other
birds with a sort of contemptuous tolerance. In winter it
even permits robins, blackbirds and meadowlarks to join its
great flocks, but as these flocks increase they must eventually
clean up most of the winter food supply of wild berries, and
leave our native winter birds without sufficient sustenance.
Other Injurious Habits of Starlings. — The food of the
starling in America seems to be similar in general character
to that which it consumes in Europe. It is particularly use-
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 187
fill there, however, because of its fondness for the destructive
land snails, vs^hich are verj numerous in many regions.
It cannot be expected that it will be thus beneficial here,
for we are not similarly afflicted in this country. The starling
can give no service here that cannot be equally well per-
formed by our own blackbirds, meadowlarks, bobolinks, spar-
rows and other birds, but it will be useful where these birds
are not numerous enough to keep the insect enemies of grass
lands in check. Already, however, the starling has begun
to show a capacity for harmfulness which may be expected
to become more prominent as its numbers increase. In the
breeding season small flocks go to the cherry trees, and as
they alight for a few minutes a shower of cherry stones will
be heard. Sometimes they strip a tree completely and then
go to another. In other cases they feed in a desultory way,
taking toll from all the trees in a neighborhood.
Mr. William T. Davis of New Brighton, N. Y., describes
the destruction of pears by starlings which he observed on
Oct. 17, 1907, illustrating his statement by a reproduction
from a photograph of two of the ruined pears (" Bird-Lore,"
November, December, 1907, p. 2G7). Fully one-third of
each pear was eaten.
Many observers state that the starling eats apples' but this
habit appears thus far to be confined mainly to apples left
on the trees late in the fall, after the crop has been gathered.
Mr. W. S. Bogert of Leonia, N. Y., asserts that it pecks
open withered apples for the seeds. Nevertheless, it some-
times eats ripe fruit in the fall. Mr. Albert W. Honywill of
New Haven, Conn., has seen starlings eating apples, and
Mr. James D. Foot of Rye, N. Y., states that they will alight
in an apple orchard and take a peck or two at the finest fruit.
Such flocks also sometimes descend on a strawberry bed
and considerably reduce the crop.
In the fall, when they gather into large flocks of a thou-
sand or more, they are often very destructive to corn in the
ear. In Europe they feed to some extent on small grains,
but I have not seen any evidence of that here. In New Jer-
sey in the month of Juno thoy seemed to prefer the cherry
188 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
trees to the wheat fields, and did not appear to molest the
wheat at all. A few gardeners claim that they pull sprout-
ing corn and eat peas. Mrs. Frank L. Allen of West Haven
states that she watched the starlings at work destroying her
lettuce and radishes. Sometimes they have the habit of pull-
ing up young plants.
Mr. Alfred C. Kinsey writes that he noticed the parent
birds supplying nestlings with what proved to be the stami-
nate flowers of the hickory. Later on in diiferent localities
the same peculiarity was noticed. If such feeding becomes
extensive it will bring about a failure of nut crops. He has
also noticed these birds on grape vines and in trees wantonly
tearing off large pieces of leaves, as well as doing damage to
various fruit crops. Some observers assert that the starling
also destroys the buds of trees, but I have been unable to get
definite evidence on this ])oint.
Food of the Starling. — Examination of the stomachs of
102 starlings collected in 1910, 41 of which were nestlings,
seems to show that the food of the starling in this country is
similar to that taken by it in Europe. The proportion of
animal food is very large and consists chiefly of insects.
Only 3 birds had taken earthworms, which composed 17.33
per cent of their stomach contents; 18 birds had eaten both
millipeds (or thousand legs) and spiders; 22 had taken milli-
peds but no spiders, and 18 had eaten spiders but no
millipeds. The average percentage of millipeds in 22 stom-
achs was 39.80 per cent.
Caterpillars re])resent the largest items of insect food.
Fifty-two birds, or more than half the number taken, had
eaten caterpillars, which formed over 45 per cent of their
stomach contents. These appeared to be mainly, if not en-
tirely, hairless larvse, among which Geometrids or inch
worms, were recognized. Probably a large percentage of
these caterpillars were Noctuids, or cutworms, as I fre-
quently recognized cutworms in the bills of the parent birds
when they were feeding their young. Very few moths were
noted in the stomachs, but some tincid cocoons were found in
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 189
oue. Datana ministra, an apple tree pest, was recognized in
1 stomach.
More of the birds had taken beetles than had eaten cater-
pillars; but the beetles formed a smaller average percentage
of the food. Fourteen had taken Elaterids (commonly
known as snap beetles) or their larva? (wire worms), which
formed 10,92 per cent of their stomach contents. The larvce
of this beetle, the wire worm, is well know^n to agricul-
turists as a destructive enemy to grain and garden crops,
but many native birds eat it. The Carabidte, or ground bee-
.tles, were represented in 42 stomachs. While these beetles
are generally regarded as useful insects, they have been
known to become injurious where they have increased abnor-
mally, therefore their destruction cannot be set down to
the discredit of the starling. The genus Calosoma is repre-
sented in 1 stomach. This genus is believed to contain
only beneficial insects. One bird had taken some Lampy-
rids. Three had taken the Leptinotarsa decenilineata, or
Colorado potato beetle, which formed 16.67 per cent of the
stomach contents. If the starling acquires the habit of eat-
ing Colorado potato beetles it may prove useful in this re-
spect. Only few native birds eat them. Eleven starlings
had taken a few scaraba?id beetles, which formed on the aver-
age 8.54 per cent of the stomach contents. Weevils were
represented in 28 stomachs, and constituted 7.07 per cent
of their stomach contents. Beetles of the genus Laclinos-
terna, commonly called May beetles, or their larvae, com-
monly known as white grubs, were represented in lo
stomachs, and comprised 14.53 per cent of their contents.
These beetles are very destructive, as the white grub feeds on
the tubers and roots of plants. This genus is one of the well-
known enemies of grass and garden crops, but many of our
native birds feed upon all forms of the insect. Two birds
had taken chrysomelid beetles, which feed on the foliage of
trees. The notorious elm-leaf beetle is a member of this
group, but they formed only 2 per cent of the stomach con-
tents of these two birds.
190 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The orthoptera are represented hy grasshoppers in 17
stomachs, forming 19.88 per cent of their contents. There
Avere also a few crickets. This is rather a small showing, as
practically all birds eat grasshoppers, but probably a larger
proportion of grasshoppers would have been found later in
the season.
The Hemiptera, or bugs, were found in only 3 stomachs,
and Diptera in only 1, the proportion of each being very
small. Hymenoptera were found in 17 stomachs. This order
was represented mainly by ants. It seems probable that the
starling does not destroy many of the useful parasitic flics-
of this order.
The nestlings were fed with food similar to that taken by
the adults, but they were given a larger proportion of young,
or larvae, such as caterpillars and other soft-bodied insects,
while the adults fed more on mature beetles and similar hard-
bodied insects.
The vegetable food consisted very largely of fruit. The
birds were taken during the cherry season, and 18 stomachs
contained an average of 5G.17 per cent of the skin, pulp and
stones of domestic cherries. In 7 cases the skin or pulp of
fruit, which could not be fully identified, composed 31.71 per
cent of the stomach contents; mulberry seed and pulp in 9
cases composed 35 per cent of the stomach contents, and
grape pulp composed the greater part of the stomach contents
in 1 case. This grape pulp must have been secured from
greenhouse fruit. Possibly an investigation of the stomachs
of starlings during the grape season would reveal a much
larger percentage of this fruit. Only a few nestlings had
eaten fruit. A few stomachs contained fragments of grasses,
which may have been taken accidentally in procuring insect
food. Portions of vegetable stems also were found. A few
seeds of Polygonum, Rhus radicans and other plants were
found, which suggest that later in the season seeds and wild
fruits may form a larger proportion of the food of the star-
ling.
Among the miscellaneous substances found was a portion
of some small crustacean and a bit of shell. Fifteen stom-
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 191
ac'lis were empty and 3 nearly empty. A large proportion of
these was taken on the roost at night, on or before 8 o'clock,
and as the birds were feeding until about 7 o'clock, and as
they usually go to roost with a full stomach, it is fair to as-
sume that the digestion of the starling is rapid enough to
empty its stomach within an hour.
The starling is not numerous enough in Massachusetts to
do any appreciable injury to fruit crops, vegetation or native
birds. Thus far it is undoubtedly beneficial here, as it does
some good by destroying noxious insects. Under our laws it
is protected at all times, but if its numbers increase unduly
it may be necessary to deny it the legal protection now af-
forded to insectivorous birds.
In closing this report I gratefully acknowledge the cour-
tesies tendered by Dr. T. S. Palmer and Prof. F. E. L. Beal of
the Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Department
of Agriculture, Washing-ton, D. C, who have rendered pos-
sible this investigation and report ; and also to record my
indebtedness to the list of correspondents appended, who have
furnished information regarding the starlings in Europe and
America. The stomachs of the starlings collected by me were
examined by Professor Beal, who kindly furnished me a list
of the contents. Much assistance was also rendered by Messrs.
B. S. Bowdish of Demarest, N. J. ; W. W. Grant of Engle-
wood, N. J. ; W. S. Bogert of Leonia, N. J. ; Courtenay Bran-
dreth of Ossining, N. Y. ; Samuel N. Rhoads of Haddonfield,
N. J. ; Rev. A. B. Dolan of Agawam, Mass. ; and Robert O.
Morris and William Deardon of Springfield, Mass.
Respectfully submitted ,
EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH,
State Ornithologist.
192
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
ArPENDIX.
List of Observers Who have contributed Itstformatiok about
THE Starling.
Abbott, Clinton G.,
Allen, Mrs. Frank L.,
Anderson, Mrs. J. C,
Andrews, Russell G.,
Archbold, J. A., .
Armitage, P. F., .
Bailey, Wm. L., .
Banks, Miss M. B.,
Barron, George D.,
Batten, George,
Beal, Prof. F. E. L.,
Beers, H. W.,
Behr, Edward A., .
Benedict, Theodore H.,
Bergen, Van Brunt,
Bevin, V. D., .
Bignell, Mrs. Effie,
Bishop, Dr. Louis B.,
Black, R. Clifford, Jr.,
Bogert, M. T., Dr.,
Bogert, W. S.,
Bonner, Mrs. P. R.,
Borland, William G.,
Brandreth, C,
Brennecke, George,
Brewer, A. R.,
Brockway, Arthur W.,
Bi-onson, W. W.,
Brooks, F. M.,
Brown, James F.,
Brown, Ronald K.,
Browning, J. Hull
New York City.
West Haven, Conn.
Englewood, N. J.
Southington, Conn.
Buffalo, N. Y.
Coudersport, Pa.
Ardmore, Pa.
Westport, Conn.
Rye, N. Y.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Washington, D. C.
Bridgeport, Conn.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
New York City.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
New York City.
New Brunswick, N. J.
New Haven, Conn.
New York City.
New York City.
Leonia, N. J.
Stamford, Conn.
New York City.
Ossining, N. Y.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Glenridge, N. J.
Hadlyme, Conn.
Washington, Conn.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
North Stonington, Conn.
New York City.
Tenafly, N. J.
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 193
Browning, William H.,
Brundage, Benjamin,
Buck, Henry Robinson
Burr, Freeman F.,
Callaway, W. T., .
Case, Clifford M., .
Chamberlin, S. T., .
Chapman, F. M., .
Cherrie, George K.,
Childs, John Lewis,
Clark, Charles H., .
Cleaves, Howard H.,
Clemson, George N.,
Colgate, R. R., .
Comey, Arthur C, .
Comstock, George W.,
Conant, William, .
Cook, L. G., .
Cox, Wilmot T., .
Craft, Miss Laura F.,
Cromwell, James W.,
Crosby, Maunsell S.,
Dana, Miss E. A., .
Davis, Miss Elizabeth D
Davis, Elizabeth King,
Davis, Mary A., .
Davis, William T.,
Dewey, C. A.,
Digmey, J., .
Dimoek, George E., Ji
Dixon, Frederick J.,
Dodge, Charles W.,
Dows, Tracy,
Duncan, A. B.,
Duryee, A., .
Dyer, E. Tiffany, .
Eaton, Clinton J., .
Eaton, Elon Howard,
Ellison, W. W., .
Ells, George P., .
Enders, John 0., .
England, I. W., .
New York City.
Danbury, Conn.
Hartford, Conn.
New Haven, Conn.
Millburn, N. J.
Hartford, Conn.
Derby, Conn.
New York City.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Floral Park, N. Y.
East Orange, N. J.
Prince's Bay, L. I., N. Y.
Middletown, N. Y.
New York City.
Utiea, N. Y.
Essex, Conn.
Tenafly, N. J.
New York City.
New York City.
Glen Cove, N. Y.
Summit, N. J.
Grasmere, Rhinebeck, N. Y.
Englewood, N. J.
Pittsfield, Mass.
Tuxedo, N. Y.
New York City,
New Brighton, N. Y, .
Rochester, N, Y.
Bernardsville, N. J.
Elizabeth, N, J,
Hackensack, N, J.
Rochester, N. Y.
New York City,
Hempstead, L. I., N, Y.
Summit, N. J.
Southampton, L. L, N. Y.
Georgetown, Mass.
Geneva, N. Y.
East Orange, N. J.
Norwalk, Conn.
Hartford, Conn.
Passaic, N, J,
194
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Rub. Doc.
Field, E. B., .
Foot, James D.,
Fowler, Henry W.,
Gibson, Win. H., .
Oilman, Mrs. George L.
Grant, W. W.,
Graves, Mrs. Charles B
Greene, Mary A., .
Grinnell, Dr. George Bi
Hadden, Dr. Alexandei
Hale, Thomas, Jr.,
Hardon, Mrs. Henry W
Harper, Francis, ,
Harral, Mrs. E. W.,
Havemeyer, H. 0., Jr.,
Herdman, D.,
Herrick, Harold, .
Hicks, Mrs. Benjamin
Hix, George E.,
Hollyer, James,
Honywill, A. W., Jr.,
Horsfall, Bruce,
Hoyt, William H., .
Hussey, William H.,
Huyler, W. €., .
Jacot, A. D., ,
Job, Herbert K., .
Johnson, Walter A.,
Kent, Edward G., .
Kerr, Mrs. John ('.,
King, Miss Anna, .
Kinsey, Alfred C,
Kittredge, S. D., .
Kunhardt, W. B., .
Langdon, W. G., .
Latham, C. R.,
Lawrence, Townsend,
Lee, Charlotte E., .
Leigh, B. W., .
Lemmon, Isabel McC,
fl,
Hartford, Conn.
Rye, N. Y.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Tarry town, N. Y.
Granville, N. Y.
New York City.
New London, Conn.
Groton-on-Hudson, N. Y.
New York City.
New York City.
Yonkers, N. Y.
New York City.
College Point, N. Y.
Bridgeport, Conn.
New York City.
Middletown, Conn.
New York City.
Old Westbury, N. Y.
New York City.
Athenia, N. J.
New Haven, Conn.
Princeton, N. J.
Stamford, Conn.
East Orange, N. J.
Tenafly, N. J.
Sandy Hook, Conn.
West Haven, Conn.
New York City.
East Orange, N. J.
New York City.
Arrochar, N. Y.
Summit, N. J.
Hasting's-on-Hudson, N. Y.
Reading, Pa.
New York City.
Windsor Locks, Conn.
Flushing, L. I., N. Y.
Huntington, L. I., N. Y.
West End, N. J.
Englcwood, N. J.
No. 4.] REPOUT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 195
Loonsberry, Miss Leonora,
Lounsbery, R. P., .
Lowell, Sidney V.,
Macy, Mrs. V. Everit,
Mager, F. Robert, .
Maohee, J. H.,
Maloy, J. H.,
Marsh, Miss Ruth,
Mastick, Mrs. Seabury C,
Matheson, William J.,
McCook, Philip J.,
MeCormick, Dr. H. D.,
Meeker, Jesse C. A.,
Merritt, Mrs. D. F.,
Merritt, Mrs. George P.
Metcalf, Manton B.,
Metoalf, Willard L.,
Miller, H. H.,
Miller, Hiram S., .
Miller, W. DeW., .
Mills, H. 0., .
Moore, C. DeR., .
Morris, Lardner V.,
Morris, Robert 0.,
Morris, Dr. Robert T.,
Mulford, Miss Sarah M
Neweomb, William,
Nichols, J. T.,
Nichols, John W. T.,
Pangburn, Clifford H.,
Palmer, Dr. T. S., .
Parsons, R. L.,
Pease, E. Lynn,
Pennock, C. J.,
Pierrepont, John J.,
Pitkin, P. E., .
Porter, Louis H., .
Post, William S., .
Potts, Thomas,
Prime, Miss Cornelia,
Bedford, N. Y.
New York City.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Scarborough-on-Hudson, Chil-
mark, N. Y.
Yonkers, N. Y.
Morristown, N. J.
New York City.
East Orange, N. J.
Pleasantville, N. Y.
New York City.
New York City.
Cedar Grove, N. J.
Danbury, Conn.
Montelair, N. J.
Hartford, Conn.
Orange, N. J.
Falls Village, Conn.
Peapack, N. J.
Springs, N. Y. (Gardiner's Is-
land).
New York City.
L'nionville, Conn.
New York City.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Springfield, Mass.
New York City.
West Roselle, N, Y.
Tenafly, N. J.
New York City.
New York City.
New Haven, Coim.
Washington, D. C.
South Orange, N. J.
Thompsonville, Conn.
Kennett Square, Pa.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Stamford, Conn.
New York City.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Huntington, L. L, N. Y.
196
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Rathborne, R. C, .
Reinhold, Dr. A. J.,
Rhoads, Samuel N.,
Riis, Jacob A.,
Robinson, F, B., .
Robotham, Cheslar,
Roddy, Prof. H. Justin,
Rogers, Charles H.,
Russ, E.,
Sage, Jno. H,,
Sauter, Fred,
Scheifflin, Eugene, .
Schroeder, Arthur,
Seccomb, Mrs. E. A.,
See, Alonzo B.,
Seton, Ernest Thompson,
Shannon, William Purdy
Shaw, Mrs. C. W.,
Sheldon, Israel R.,
Shoemaker, Henry 'W., .
Simmons, George 0.,
Smith, Theo. H., .
Smith, Wilbur F., .
Stiles, Edgar C, .
Stone, Herbert F.,
Stone, Witmer,
Thomas, Emily Hinds, .
Tinkham, Julian R.,
Titus, E., Jr.,
Townsend, Wilmot,
Treat, Willard E., .
Tweedy, Edgar,
Underbill, Alice L.,
Vietor, Edward W.,
Van Name, Willard G., .
Wadsworth, Mrs. Richard C. W.,
Walker, David R., .
Watson, Miss Jane S., .
AVeston, Miss Helen,
Wetmore, Mrs. Edmund.
Newark, N. J.
New York City.
Haddonfield. N. J.
New York City.
Newburg, N. Y.
Newark, N. J.
Millersville, Pa.
New York City.
Hoboken, N. J.
Portland, Conn.
New York City.
New York City.
Montclair, N. J.
Plainfield, N. J.
New York City.
Cos Cob, Conn.
New York City.
Mountainville, N. Y.
Providence, R. I.
New York City.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
East Orange, N. J.
South Norwalk, Conn.
West Haven, Conn.
Stapleton, L. I., N. Y.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Bryn Mawr, Pa.
Upper Montclair, N. J.
New York City.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Silver Lane, Conn.
Clinton, Conn.
Yonkers, N. Y.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
New Haven, Conn.
Irvington-on-Hudson. N. Y.
Waterbury, Conn.
East Avon, N. Y.
West New Brighton, L. L, N. Y.
Fort Salonga, L. I., N. Y,
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE ORNITHOLOGIST. 197
White, Harold H., .
White, W. A.,
Whiting, Miss Geitriule
Whiton, S. G.,
W^ileox, T. F.,
Wilde, Mark L. C,
Wildman, A. D., .
Willever, J. C, .
Williams, B. S., .
Wills, Charles T., .
Winters, H. D., .
Wrigiit, Mrs. Mabel,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
New York City.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
New York City.
Camden, N. J.
Yonkers, N. Y.
New York City.
New York City.
New York City.
Watkins, N. Y.
Fairfield, Conn.
FIRST ANNUAL REPORT
State Inspector of Apiaeies.
Presented to the Board and Accepted,
January 10, 1911.
N.H
ra.Y.
£XPL/7A//7r/Or/
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FOUL BROOD
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a/ffOF£/^/ir w
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PLATE I. Map showing the present status of the distribution of American foul brood and European foul brood in Massachusetts.
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FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE STATE INSPECTOR
OF APIARIES.
To the State Board of Agriculture.
I respectfully ])roseiit the first annual report of the State
Inspector of Apiaries, whose services were available begin-
ning July 1, 1910.
Brood Diseases of Bees.
The season has been favorable for making a pronounced
beginning in the check of brood diseases of bees, — - Amer-
ican foul brood and European foul brood. The results demon-
strate ])riniarily that these diseases are infinitely more
pi-e\al('nt and generally distributed than has been hereto-
fVire supposed. In some localities of a hundred square
miles or more nearly every colony has been found in a
sei-ious condition. The possibility of successfully control-
ling these diseases has been shown to the satisfaction of
beekeepers.
Public Nuisance. — Colonies of bees infected with brood
diseases are public nuisances as they occur throughout the
State. They endanger ]n-o]ierty, handicap the eflorts and
mar the investments of the most earnest and painstaking
beekeepers. They not only reduce the returns of the in-
dustry, l)ut also make sales of bees and bee products difficult
and uncertain. The annual loss caused is inestimable, affect-
ing not only the beekeepei', but also the orchardist, market
gai'dener, cucumber grower, cranberry grower and other agri-
culturists.
Infectiousness. — That a single case of disease may en-
danger a whole beekeeping community has been re])eatedly
ol»served. IToney is largely the medium through which the
disease is spread. Tomparison might be made to the ti-ans-
mission of typhoid fever and other human diseases in milk
202 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
and water. Bees are eager to rob and pillage honey from
any source. Thus, if a colony becomes so reduced by the
progress of disease that it no longer defends itself against
the attacks of " robbers," or if the infected colony dies,
then each colony in a radius of miles becomes subject to
infection. From all points of the compass robber bees set
upon the germ-laden honey and carry it back to their respec-
tive hives. It having been demonstrated that a relatively
small amount of infected material may transmit the disease,
infection throughout a whole countryside may obviously
result from a single colony igniorantly or carelessly handled.
The recognized infectiousness of brood diseases is also em-
phatically illustrated by the policy of the United States
Department of Agriculture. If disease is discovered in
a town, not only the town but the county is considered
infected area. Although a much greater array of evidence
of infectiousness might be given, yet it is apparent that
where these diseases exist nnsuppressed, they are compar-
ably as dangerous to beekeeping interests as smallpox is to
the human community.
The Suppression of Diseases is fimdamentally impor-
tant. — All beekeeping, — raising bees for market, queen
rearing, honey production, — and with it the best interests
of the horticulturist, is dependent npon the reduction of
these diseases. There is ground for belief that before many
years interstate trade in bees, queens and possibly products
will be restricted by law from a State where diseases are
nnsuppressed to a State where they are under control or
do not occur. This would seriously affect ]\rassachusetts
bee men, particularly those who raise queens or bees for
the trade, unless the general occurrence of infection is re-
duced. The seemingly sjiontaneous and general demand,
by those who use bees, for what might be termed " certified
stock," explained elsewhere, has its relation here. If bees
pronounced by expert authority '' free fi-om disease " are
unobtainable in Massachusetts, it must be expected that
trade which would otherwise come to the State, from with-
out and from within, will go elsewhere.
The interests of the United States Department of Agri-
No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 203
culture are largely focused on the study of the nature, dis-
semination, remedial measures and distribution of Amer-
ican foul brood and Euroi)ean foul brood. Between 70
per cent and 80 per cent of their appropriation for api-
cultural investigations is sjient in this study, regarding it
fundamental to progress, or even success, in the industry.
Significant, also, of the scope and importance of this phase
of beekee})ing is the literature, which numbers hundreds
and doubtless thousands of titles in all languages, meaning
a world-wide movement.
Influence on the Conditions of the Industry. — Bees
thrive and may be profitable in any part of Massachusetts,
though some localities are the superior of any in the north-
eastern United States. Bee diseases have had an incalcu-
lable effect on the Avay that bees are kept, on the number
which are kept, on commercial enterprise and the expansion
of beekeeping and indii-ectly on agriculture itself. The
conditions and returns fi'om the industry may be truly
measured in terms of the relative distribution of American
foul brood and European foul brood. Tn some localities it
is regarded as impossible to raise bees at all ; not, it has
been found, owing to the lack of forage or other unfavorable
conditions, but rather to the subtle and repeated inroads of
brood diseases.
Usefulness of Bees to the Agriculturist.
By far the greatest service of bees is to agriculture in
its broad sense, in particular to practical and commercial
horticulture.
The Orchardist. — If the aims and ideals of the orchardist
are to be realized, bees are a primary essential ; but colonies
of bees which can be depended upon must be available.
The writer has had numerous inquiries for bees to be used
in the orchard, in order to obtain, as one man put it, a
little better set or an off-year set, thus getting advantage
of the grower who depends upon the fluctuations of his
neighbors' boes. It is in the unfavorable year that prices
run high, and experience shows that healthy bees should be
at hand to work the blossoms under such conditions.
204 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The Sinall Fruit Grower. — The small fruit grower can
j)rofit similarly. There is perhaps no flower which the bees
work more freely and vigorously than the raspberry. Prac-
tically all small fruits resi)ond to the visits of bees.
The Marl'et Gardener. — The market gardener in many
instances already keeps bees ; and inquiries point to this
becoming more general. For instance, the growers of melons,
cucumbers and squashes find a failure in their crops when
bees are scarce or lacking, and an increase of yield when
bees are present in abundance, as was specifically observed
last summer. A Massachusetts grower of melons, in a
region badly infected with bee diseases, — a large percentage
of the bees having been killed ofi^, — had an extraordinary
yield as the result of hiring, as an experiment, a single
healthy colony of bees. It is said that $4,000 worth of
melons were sold at his door.
TJie Cucumher Grower under Glass. — l^o horticulturist
is more dependent upon the services of healthy, dependable
colonies than the grower of cucumbers under glass. It has
been accurately estimated that at least 2,000 colonies are
annually put into the greenhouses. Only the strongest,
most healthy colonies can endure, or even be of service, in
this unfavorable environment of extreme heat, humidity
and confinement. If the bees fail, and the grower is obliged
to send for more or delay until he can find them, set after
sot of the crop passes in unfruitfulness. Thus in a few
days hundreds of dollars may be lost. For the past few
years greenhouse cucumber growers have complained that
bees are less serviceable than formerly, that they " go to
pieces in the house," which is comparable to the " bad
luck " complaint of beekeepers. Without systematic visits
to the greenhouses, the growers' misfortunes have already
been traced directly to brood diseases.
The Cranherry Groiver. — There are a few cranberry
growers who are beekeepers, and have reported that they
consider this insect of decided value in setting the fruit.
The observations of Dr. Franklin also indicate a bright
future for the utiliz;ation of bees in the cranberry bog.
Already inquiries have come desiring to know, for instance,
the number of colonies necessary for a bog of a given size.
No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 205
In the cranberry industry $1,500,000 represents the product
of upwards of 2,000 growers. This industry increased 182
])er cent between 1895 and 1905, and is still gaining, Dr.
Franklin figuring that at least 2,000 acres have been added
within the last few years. Here again is a branch of horti-
culture, placing dependence on bees, which should have
absolutely healthy stock.
This statement of the uses to which bees are put, aside
from the apicultural i)liase. indicates the diversity, scope
and far-reaching complexity of the bee-disease situation. In-
stead of being a minor industry, beekeeping is fundamental
to agricultural interests and occupations involving millions
of dollars. Instead of being a condition that will right
itself, it is evidently retarding the progress not only of
the beekeeper, but also of the fruit grower, the market
gardener, the hot-house cucumber grower and other agri-
cultural industries.
Concern of the Beekeeper.
The beekeepers who have had inspection are anxious that
it should continue, fearing reinfection of restored areas.
Others foresee the annihilation of the industry, disaster to
market gardening, seed production, orcharding and the like.
At least what ground has been gained should be held. From
other parts of the State there have been requests for help,
and these still continue. It has been physically impossi-
ble to respond to some of the most urgent calls from areas
where the diseases are in the worst stages, in Berkshire and
about Springfield, for instance. In these localities the
disease is so prevalent that at least six weeks in each will
be required to make any headway.
The beginner in beekeeping and the one who wishes to
increase his apiary are at a loss to know where they can
buy, with certainty, bees which they can depend upon.
The horticulturist is in a similar situation. This is the
graver situation, because the growers of cucumbers under
glass use upward of 2.000 oolonies of bees annually in
their houses. IMoreovor, tlioy ni-e seldom practical apiarists
and have to trust the bookee])ei'. who. if not informed in tho
matter of disease. ni;iy sell cdldiiies whir-li will go to pieces
206 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
immediately in the greenhouse, causing the cucumber pro-
ducer hundreds of dollars loss witliin a few days. The
reverse of the situation is also true. If the beekeeper is
not given the protection of inspection, and the assurance that
his bees are in a healthy condition, he is fearful that the
grower of cucumbers will fail to buy his bees, going out
of the State to get them if necessary. Thus the market is
endangered.
It has come to light this season that as soon as the disease
situation is under control there will be additional investment
in bees from the commercial standpoint. One man from
without the State is already buying up colonies, and plans
to put several hundred in Massachusetts. Another beekeeper
has spoken of running a series of out-apiaries in a certain
promising portion of the State. Unfortunately, however, the
locality is in one of the worst infected regions, and, unless
it is cleaned up, will prevent the venture. Yet in disease-free
environment it is entirely feasible, and would mean the main-
taining, under advanced methods, of a thousand or more
colonies. Such an enterprise, properly managed, would bring
distinction and recognition to Massachusetts from all over
the country.
Voluntari/ Inspection. — By far the most pronounced
effort of the beekeepers to throw off the burden of disease
and restore the profitable industry in that superior Berkshire
country was by the service of voluntary or self-appointed
inspectors. Before the act of the Legislature one experi-
enced beekeeper took three towns in his vicinity, some one
else took another group of towns, and so the territory was
divided. These self-appointed inspectors doubtless did much
good ; they at least learned the deplorable condition and
the losses of many hundreds of colonies of bees about them,
but, as one of them said, they lacked authority. Then there
was the personal expense, the demands of other duties,
which would mean only intermittent service or work of
short duration. It had its significance in that it showed
that the effort to solve the problem has merit, underlies a
profitable vocation, has the confidence of the beekeepers, and
is desired and supported by them.
No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 207
Certification. — Hardly had the work of inspection l)ecn
bciiiin than the writer had requests for the names of persons
who could snpply bees positively free from infection. Of
late the requests have been even more numerous, not only
from beekeepers or prospective beekeepers, but from or-
chardists, market gardeners, growers of cucund)ers under
glass, and even from cranberry growers. Beekeepers and
growers of cucumbers under glass in particular have repeat-
edly made disappointing purchases of bees. Colonies have
failed to do M^ell and often have died. This is known to
have been due to the presence of disease in the colonies
when sold. It is also known that disease has been intro-
duced into apiaries which otherwise were healthy. Although
the writer is glad to believe that the sale of diseased bees
has been unintentional, nevertheless the disastrous effects
are unchanged. It introduces doubt and distrust into the
bee market, and is particularly discouraging to the beginner,
who falls a victim to what amounts to fraud. From the
unfortunate experiences throughout the State has arisen
the demand, spontaneously and simultaneously, for bees
which can be pronounced by expert authority free from
disease. It has been suggested that there should be some
system of certification, similar, perhaps, to the certification
of nursery stock. Those who have had their bees examined
may tell the purchaser of the fact, but the larger beekeepers
and those who raise bees for sale urge more than that. They
would have a certificate of health to send with each ship-
ment. The inspector sees how it will be possible to arrange
for this, but greater detail and labor will be consequent.
Certainly it deserves serious consideration.
The system should be of advantage in two ways, giving
assurance to the bee raiser and protection to the purchaser.
Thus it should tend to give the sale of bees in Massachusetts
precedence, should increase such sale materially, and, con-
sequently, the production. Aside from the healthy stimulus
to beekeeping, the horticulturist who is dependent upon
disease-free stock for success in his crops will benefit in
proportion.
208 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Status.
Poist Conditions. — In 1908 a survey of the occurrence of
bee diseases was published.^ At that time definite cultural
information determined the occurrence in 8 towns. Similar
data for adjoining States indicated an even greater dis-
tribution, especially along the boundary line. Besides this
definite knowledge from 8 towns, beekeepers' reports showed
})robable infection in even greater areas. It is significant
of the accuracy of interpretation of the beekeepers' reports
that several of the localities then supposed to be infected have
since been demonstrated to be in a serious condition. When
the previous report was jiublishcd, European foul brood was
known to occur in and west of Worcester County only ;
its apparent spread is referred to below. In the past,
efforts to eradicate disease have been individual and periodic.
Such efforts can never accomplish the desired end, and it
is also discouraging to the individual and to all who watch
his eftorts. Success requires the co-operation and system-
atic effort of every beekee]ier in the community. Inspection
will furnish the medium of co-operation and add the oppor-
tunity for instruction and assistance.
Process of Inspecfion. — An effort has been made to be-
come personally familiar with the disease situation in the
State. General occurrence made it necessary to select some
of the worst infected areas for treatment. With a focus of
infection as a beginning, examining each colony, the circle
of examination was gradually expanded until a limit of
disease was fouud. Each infected colony was distinctly
marked. Personal instructions for treatment and often
demonstrations were given. When necessary, apiaries were
revisited. The investigation in the latter part of the season
disclosed a considerable number of diseased colonies which
it was necessary to hold over for treatment next spring.
Instructions and caution for the safe maintenance until spring
were given. A record of all transactions with each beekeeper
has been kept on individual record cards.
* "Bee Diseases in Massachusetts," by Burton N. Gates, Bureau of Entomology, United
States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 75, Part III.; also, Massachusetts Agricultural
Experiment Station, Bulletin 124 (out of print).
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Xo. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 209
Benefit v. Disaster. — In the localities where treatment
has been ajjplied beekeepers have learned not only that it
is possible to save their colonies, even those badly infected,
but also that the brood, the wax, the honey, the hives and
the like may be ntilized. It is not now the task and docs
not entail the loss which treatment formerly incurred, when
it was thought necessary to burn everything infected, bees
and all. For illustration : one beekeeper had some 30
colonies, all of which were infected and some of which
were so reduced that they were regarded as useless and
hopeless ; they would have died within a few weeks. All
were treated late in July. When these bees were ]nit into
winter quarters the disease had not reappeared. The bee-
keeper sold some 175 pounds of wax (which wholesales at
about 30 cents a pound), GOO pounds of honey, $(39 worth
of bees and queens, and has on hand 29 colonies of bees
in prime condition, worth at least $200. In its former
condition his apiary would have been appraised at nothing,
since a diseased colony of bees is without value. Further-
more, colonies regarded as hopeless were stimulated with
the brood removed from other colonies. In one instance,
at least, a colony which had less than a pint of bees was
increased so that it could not be crowded into two hive
bodies ; it gave a surplus of honey.
On the other hand, to show the disaster sustained by one
beekeeper, out of 55 colonies put into winter quarters last
fall, 50 were dead last spring. Those remaining had ad-
vanced eases of American foul brood and were successfully
treated. Yet this beekeeper sustained a loss greater than
half the present appropriation. To make a bad matter worse,
the evidence is that the apiarist unwittingly purchased the
disease.
Present Conditions. — It is difficult to draw just and ade-
quate conclusions from a tabulation of the number of ajuaries
visited, the number of beekee|:)ers in the State, the number of
colonies examined and those found infected. Only the most
general interpretation of the situation is possible. The
list of beekeepers has been increased over the foruior list
by about 25 per cent. The indications are that the 2.500
210 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. l)(x'.
now recorded does not fully represent the total number.
About one-seventeenth (140) of the apiaries were visited.
Many of these required revisiting, so that the total number
of calls is miich greater than 140. About 900 colonies
were examined, a considerable number of which were re-
examined, bringing the total number of manipulations to
between 1,500 and 2,000. As a whole, over 25 per cent of
the colonies examined were diseased, yet this does not indi-
cate the probable ratio of infection. In some localities it
was not possible to make a thorough and systematic search
for disease this season, the eifort being rather to determine
its presence, preparatory to further work. kSome towns show
more than 90 per cent of infection.
Cleaning up the Apiaries. — A person continually losing
colonies is likely to leave empty hives and refuse about the
yard. In several instances the writer encountered bee-
keepers who could not tell in how many of the 15 or 20
hives standing around the bees were alive. After turning
o^'er a dozen or more box hives it was surprising to find
more than one or two with life. Almost invariably the
apiary has succumbed to foul brood. Incidentally this
illustrates the need of spreading information, but more es-
pecially in regard to the way in which infection is fre-
quently gained. As the colonies die bees from elsewhere
rob many remaining stores of honey. Boards of health
forbid the exposure of materials from the sick room ; a
comparable measure is equally important in combatting in-
fectious diseases of bees. Fortunately, several hundred
empty hives were removed from the apiaries this season.
The Map. — The accompanying map and tables (see page
213) show in detail the results of the investigation of 1910.
Areas in cross hatch indicate where disease probably occurs ;
solid color marks infection proved by cultural examination
or inspection. Although the probable infection areas are
somewhat similar to those in the previous report, they are
the result of information for the present year.
The Apparent SIpread of the Disease. — While diseases
were formerly known to occur in 8 towns, there is an in-
crease to 32, or 400 per cent. While this might be inter-
Xo. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 211
13reted as a spread of the disease, it shows rather, that
inspection coutirnis what has been maiutaiued for several
years, — that this malady is widespread.
The Probable Spread of European Foul Brood. — Euro-
pean fonl brood, formerly known only in Worcester County
and west, has apparenth' spread east to the coast, having
been found late in the season in Boston and adjoining
towns. Thus it now occurs from boundary to boundary of
the State. This is, perhaps, the most alarming feature of
the present situation. Its gi-adual march from west to east
has been watched for several years. Inasmuch as it spreads
more rapidly and is perhaps the more disastrous of the two
diseases the greatest precaution is warranted.
Berhsliire County and Vicinity. — Berkshire County and
vicinity is one of the most promising apicultural localities
in the northeastern United States, one beekeeper having re-
marked that there is a continual flow of nectar from frost
until frost. Wild thyme (TJiymus serpyllum L.), here-
tofore not supposed to occur in America, but highly valued
in England for its honey, was found hy hundreds of acres ;
it is said to yield a surplus in the Berkshire district. Clover,
basswood, raspberry, sumac, l)uckwheat and other plants
give crops. Were it not for these su]ierior conditions there
is doubt if a colony of bees could have survived the inroads
of disease. The situation is so grave that it was found
impracticable to undertake treatment until at least six
or eight weeks could be devoted to it. Yet it is in this
locality that the most evident demand for inspection has
been manifested by the self-appointed inspectors already
referred to.
The Conneci'icui Valley. — That the situation is espe-
cially bad in part of the Connecticut valley has been known
for several years. The focus is around Springfield, but
tbe extent was found too great to warrant systematic control
this year. However, in a few isolated localities it is pos-
sible to do something preparatory to another season. Great
numbers of bees have been lost in this section.
Vi'orcester County and Vicinity. — Two of the worst foci
of infection were placed under control. Southborough was
212 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
the center of one area inspected and treated, and there,
another year, beekeepers shoukl be in a position to get a
harvest. Leominster and vicinity showed nearly every colony
diseased, but it is being held in check. Although it was
impossible to treat all of the stock so late in the season, many
colonies were shaken. The remainder are being held for
treatment next spring, instructions having been given for
safely wintering them. In the spring it is hoped that the
work may be followed up, in order to expand the circle of
examination. In Worcester and vicinity, where there are
a large number of bees, and where the disease is admitted
to be prevalent, a beginning has been made. Worcester
should be the center of another circle of inspection, being
expanded to meet those about Leominster and Southborough.
In Worcester County, while the figures are only suggestive,
more than 50 per cent of the colonies examined were dis-
eased, and a much greater per cent of the apiaries visited
had diseased colonies in them. An area of probable infection
is so pronounced in the vicinity of Barre and Dana that
several weeks' work will be necessary in this excellent api-
cultural district.
Eastern Massachusetts. — The work in the eastern part
of the State has had merely a beginning, the most pro-
nounced feature being the discovery of European foul brood
in and around Boston. This one fact, together with indi-
cations of widespread infection of American foul brood,
and in consideration of the vast local agricultural investment
in lines Avhich require the service of healthy, dependable
colonics of bees, evinces the nrgency for immediate remedial
measures. It is also important to consider that a large part
of the bees raised in the east are sold and shipped, so that
if diseases, especially European foul brood, are not checked,
there is the gravest danger that they will have become scat-
tered throughout eastern New England.
No. 4.]
INSPECTOR OF APIARIES.
213
European Foul Brood, Massachusetts, 1910.
Berkshire County.
Egrernont.
Great Barrington.
Montere}^
Mount Washington.
Neiv Marlborough.
Pittsfield.
Sheffield.
Hampden County.
Brimiield.
Chicopee.
Longmeadow.
Ludlow.
Monson.
Springfield.
H.\mpshire County.
Granby.
Greenwich.
Soidh Hadley.
Middlesex County.
Arlington.
Belmont.
Medford.
Suffolk County.
Boston.
Worcester County.
Bar re.
Dana.
Worcester County
— Con.
Fitchburg.
Hardwick.
H olden.
Lancaster.
Leominster.
Lunenburg.
New Braintree.
Oakham.
Petersham.
Sterling.
Worcester.
American Foul Brood, Massachusetts, 1910. '
Bristol County.
Freetoivn.
Essex County.
Amesbury.
Ipswich.
Hampden County.
Chicopee.
Longmeadow.
Liullow.
Springfield.
Middlesex County.
Arlington,
Ashland.
Belmont.
Middlesex County
— Con.
Framingham.
Hopkinton.
Marlborough.
Medford.
Newton.
Waltham.
Norfolk County.
Sharon.
Walpole.
Weymouth.
Plymouth County.
Abington.
Rockland.
Worcester County.
Aubtirn.
Berlin.
Charlton.
Fitchburg.
Grafton.
Leominster.
Millbury,
Northborough.
Oxford.
Southborough.
Southbridge.
Sterling.
Sturbridge.
Upton.
Westborough.
Worcester.
' Italics indicate positive infection; reman indicates area which is doubtless infected.
214 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
FiNANciAi- Statement, Dec. 31, 1910.
Appropriation, ........ $500 00
Services of inspector, 66 days at $5, . . . $330 00
Traveling and necessary expenses, . . . 133 99
Unexpended balance (appropriation expires March
31, 1911), 36 01
.*g500 00
Miscellaneous Work.
Correspondence. — It should be noted that an especially
large nnmber of coninumications have been received. In-
coming and outgoing letters number upwards of 1,100,
which, when it is considered that little was known of this
office for the first few months, means, on the basis of a
year, a large amount of detail in excess of other office and
field work.
Meetings attended. — On twelve occasions the inspector
addressed organizations of beekeepers and horticulturists
upon the problem of diseases and kindred beekeeping topics,
in Amherst, Blackstone, Boston (two), Lee, Canton, South-
borough, Stoughtoik and Worcester (four).
Proposed Demonstraiional Meetings. — A large number
of men may be met, given instruction in combating diseases
and prepared for personal assistance by means of the demon-
strational meetings. Thus far these meetings have proved
important and tirnesaving. If these are held under the
auspices of beekeepers' societies they will serve a double
end, instruction and the added function of the society,
which is such a valuable factor in promoting the industry.
In order that the State may be covered another year, no
less than ten of these distinctively disease demonstrations
should be held, exclusive of lectures where the subject of
disease may form part of the discussion.
Publications. — That beekeepers might have a concise
statement of the nature, treatment and methods of control
of brood diseases, the writer prepared in July, for publi-
cation. Bulletin Xo. 1, Apiary lusjiectiou Series, entitled
"Brood diseases of bees, their treatment, and the law for
No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 215
their sui^pression in Massachusetts." This was published
at the expense of the State Board of Agriculture. Over
3,000 copies have been distributed. It will be desirable
to circulate, before the opening of spring, a brief warning
against the further spread of the diseases. Colonies which
have died during the winter from the disease, if not prop-
erly handled before bees fly, can readily infect hundreds
of other colonies by robbing the infected honey. A circular
giving precautionary measures should do much to prevent
the spread by this means.
The Problem.
Concisely, the problem is one of education. That bees
may be diseased, and that these diseases are depressing,
destructive and even annihilating to the beekeeping in-
dustry, is relatively a new point of view. Yet bee diseases
are at the root and foundation of beekeepers' troubles and
" bad luck." The way to relieve the situation is to inform
the beekeeper, educate him to know the diseases in all their
phases, show him how to treat them and guard against
them. Intimately associated is the opportunity to educate
along other lines of apiculture. As a matter of fact, in
the past season the Avriter has spent quite as much time
among beekeepers giving them insight into modern methods,
showing " short cuts," new implements, how to increase
their harvest to more nearly what it should be, and kindred
subjects, as in actual inspection of bees. In many instances
it has been found absolutely necessary to instruct in what
might seem the most trivial, simple, beginner's subjects,
as, for instance, the proper use of the smoker, yet this
merely illustrates what beekeeping needs. It thus becomes
evident that, while the inspection of disease should be re-
garded centrally and primarily important, this is but one
slight phase of the general betterment of the industry. It
illustrates one of the ideals of educational methods, namely,
taking the results of scientific investigation into the field
to the man who is to use them, — the farmer, the beekeeper.
It is the writer's earnest desire that ample provision be
made for the general educational benefits which slionld ac-
216 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
cora23aiij inspection of bees for disease; this will assure a
normal, well-rounded and balanced advance in beekeeping
rather than a one-sided development.
The general condition of apiculture has been found to
be relatively low. It is estimated that in western Massa-
chusetts a minimum of $30,000 worth of honey might be
harvested annually. Where once there were hundreds of
colonies, there are now but C)ne or two. Were it not that
bees thrive there extraordinarily, the writer believes that
none would have siirvived disease. European foul brood
has repeatedly devastated the apiaries, until it is a com-
mon expression, " There is no use trying to keep bees
any more, they won't do anything."' Yet there is a small
fortune dried up in the flowers every year because no bees
harvest it. In numy parts of the State the beekeepers have
become disheartened, they scarcely realize why, except that,
as they say, they have had *' bad luck." For illustration:
where a few years ago there were from 75 to 100 colonies
of bees in one town of from 30 to 40 square miles, the
writer could not find the slightest trace of a bee, wild or
under domestic control. In talking with the farmers it
was learned that fruits and vegetables were failing. Is
there not a reason ? Yet this killing out of the bees was
directly traced and determined as the result of disease,
the last colony having succumlied within a year.
Beekeepers need stimulation, encouragement, instruction,
to enable them to cope with the disastrous situation which
threatens to overthrow the industry. The subtle influences
of disease have been working for several years. The possi-
bilities of the industry warrant its promotion ; the general
interests of agriculture demand that healthy bees be main-
tained.
To SUMMAEIZE.
The work thus far has revealed the fact that the disease
situation may be controlled in Massachusetts as successfully
as has been demonstrated in New York and elsewhere, but
that an additional sum will be essential for the best ulti-
mate economy. The sooner general enlightment is afforded
not only the (piickcr will be the recovery of the industry and
No. 4.] INSPECTOR OF APIARIES. 217
the greater the returns, but the less the aggregate expendi-
ture. That the early spring and summer is the most suitable
time for work and results has not been emjjhasized, yet this
is the key to success. It is urgent that the services of the
three additional men provided for by existing legislation
be available in April, in order to accomplish simultaneous
work in four parts of the State and obtain control of the
situation. To permit this work being done to best advan-
tage, along the lines indicated, $2,000 should be available
annually.
Acknowledgments.
The writer would express his hearty appreciation of the
co-operation of the beekeepers, and thank them for hospi-
tality so frequently extended. Dr. Phillips and staif of
the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department
of Agriculture have furthered the work l)y diagnosis of
material. It is particularly gratifying to hear, as the writer
frequently has, the deserved recognition and appreciation
by the beekeejiers of the interest and concern in their affairs
shown by the State Board of Agriculture and its secretary.
It is a pleasure to speak of the beekeepers' appreciation and
to thank them all for their courtesy and material assistance
in fighting the infectious diseases of bees.
Respectfully submitted,
BURTON N. GATES,
State Inspector of Apiaries.
Jan. 10, 1911.
TWENTIETH ANNUAL REPORT
Dairy Bureau
Massachusetts
State Board of Agriculture
REQUIRED UNDER
Chapter 89, Section 12, Revised Laws.
Presented to the Board and Accepted,
January 10, 1911.
Dairy Bureau— 1910.
CHARLES M. GARDNER, Westfield, Chairman.
HOWARD A. PARSONS, North Amherst.
GEORGE W. TRULL, Tewksbury, P. 0. Lowell, R. F. D.
Secretary.
J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH, Executive Officer and Secretary of the
Stale Board of Agriculture.
General Agent.
P. M. HARWOOD.
Address, Room 136, State House, Boston.
REPORT OF THE MIRY BUREAU.
During the year just closed 7,922 inspections lia\e been
made, 220 cases entered in court, of which 218 were won,
and 35 meetings have been addressed by the general agent.
Of the court cases, 139 were for violation of the oleomarga-
rine laws, 77 for violation of the renovated butter law, and
4 for violation of the milk adulteration law. The Bureau
has inspected most of the creameries and large milk-distrib-
uting depots in the State, and has found them, as a rule, in
a satisfactory condition. There are now 12 co-operative and
11 proprietary creameries in the State. Two creameries
that in Shelburne Falls and the Greylock in Cheshire, have
gone out of business within the year.
While the Bureau has done much in the way of protecting
the public from fraud and the makers and dealers in butter
from unfair competition, and while more than the usual
amount of educational work has been done, but little milk
work has been attempted, and this for two reasons. First,
our appropriation is insufficient, and second, the field is well
covered by another State department and by local milk in-
spectors, now generally active all over the Commonwealth.
The few cases we have undertaken have been upon request.
The Dairy Situation.
In view of the present transportation situation and the
fact that approximately three-fourths of all the milk
brought into Boston by rail and nearly all of that brought
in from without the State is now pasteurized before being
offered for sale, the hope of the Massachusetts farmer seems
to lie in whatever demand there is for a good clean article of
224 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
iicar-bj raw milk, produced under conditions which inspire
confidence and therefore demand a better price than that
received for milk which cannot be safely sold without resort-
ing to pasteurization.
As an illustration of what can be done where there is a
good understanding between reasonable local authorities and
willing-to-co-operate milk producers, the city of Brockton
stands out prominently, milk being generally sold in that
city this winter at 9 cents per quart. In the report of the
milk inspector of Brockton for 1909 he cites 25 dairies with
bacteria count averaging below 50,000 per cubic centimeter,
of which 18 averaged below 25,000 and 7 below 10,000 each.
In commenting on the 3 dairies having the lowest bacteria
count, the inspector says : " Neither of these has found it
necessary to generally remodel the barn or install costly new
apparatus, but careful personal supervision of the work by
the owner has placed these dairies in the lead." Other good
illustrations might be given in other cities, but this one suf-
fices to show that where there is a will to produce a clean
article of milk there is a way ; and also illustrates a willing-
ness on the part of the public, confidence established, to pay
the price.
The number of cows assessed in Massachusetts April 1,
1910, was 166,048, which is 2,173 less than were assessed
in 1909 and 15,763 less than were assessed in 1906, the
average annual decline for the last four years being 3,942.
The amount of milk brought into Boston by rail has also
continued to fall off, according to the Railroad Commis-
sioners' figures. For twelve months, Dec. 1, 1908, to ITov.
30, 1909, the figures were 108,082,936 quarts; for corre-
sponding months in 1909-10, 100,606,3621/2, — a decrease
of 7,376,5731/2 quarts. The corresponding months in 1905-
06 showed 114.233,976 quarts. On this basis of 114,000,-
000 quarts in 1906, a normal increase with the growth of
population ought to have shown 123,000,000 quarts of fluid
milk brought into Boston by rail in 1910.
No. 4.] KEPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 225
Condensed Milk.
TLerc is little doubt but that condensed milk, in what-
soever form it appears, has recently made serious inroads
upon the milk trade in this Commonwealth. Not only is
this true of Boston and other cities, but there is hardly a ham-
let so small or so remotely situated that the little cans of this
article have not found their way to the shelves of the grocery
store or the meat market. Yet with a possible exception not
a can of this milk is produced or condensed in Massachusetts.
The local storekeeper thus sends his money out of the State
for condensed milk, while at the same time he complains if
the local farmer buys dry goods or groceries outside his own
town. When the consumer buys condensed milk instead of
clean, fresh milk produced by local dairymen, because he is
loath to pay the latter a living price, does he know whether
or not he is paying a greater relative price for condensed milk
and at the same time getting a relatively inferior article ?
If not, he should post himself as to the facts. Condensed
milk has its use, a niche to fill, namely, wherever fresh
fluid milk cannot for any reason be obtained or kept in
proper condition ; but until this milk can be offered for
sale at less price than it now is, or can be proven to be
more nutritious as a food than an equal value of clean,
raw, whole milk, there is little excuse for either its pur-
chase or use wherever the latter is obtainable at present
prices. We have found, from the purchase and analysis
of a number of samples of condensed milks, facts similar to
those discovered by Professor Jordan, and reported by him
last year, that the average cost was around 11 cents per fluid
quart equivalent for condensed milk on the basis of the
Massachusetts standard of 3.35 per cent milk fat. In this
connection it should be remembered that ordinary fluid milk
averages a higher percentage of fat than that required by
law, thus rendering the comparison more than fair to con-
densed milk. Professor Jordan also reported that condensed
milk varied greatly in its bacteria count, all the way from
" very low " to 10,000,000 per cubic centimeter. Our own
226 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
invostigation of sixteen brands purchased at random showed,
through Professor Prescott's examination, variation of from
less than 100 to 1,350,000 per cubic centimeter. It there-
fore appears that condensed milk is not always sterile.^ Ex-
aminations made by our chemist, B. F. Davenport, M.D., by
Herman C. Lythgoe, analyst of the State Board of Health,
and by Prof. James O, Jordan of the Boston Bureau of Milk
Inspection, indicate that condensed milk is seldom prepared
from milk rich in fat, but oftentimes from apparently below-
standard milk. Therefore it would seem that the least we
can ask is the passage by the Legislature of a bill requiring
that a label, bearing a formula for extending with water,
for home use, be securely attached to each container of evap-
orated, concentrated or condensed milk sold or offered for
sale in this Commonwealth, and that the formula thus at-
tached be such that the milk product resulting be not below
the Massachusetts standard for whole milk. Such a law
should carry with it a suitable penalty in case the milk thus
extended fails in any instance to conform to the present legal
requirements for whole milk.
So long as a milk standard is maintained in this State it is
manifestly unfair that these prepared milks from other States
should come into our markets without either standard or
guarantee as regards their solid food content. We suggest
the following, which is the same bill that the Bureau used
its best efforts to have passed last year : —
An Act eelative to the Labeling of Evaporated, Concentrated
OR Condensed Milk.
Section 1. Every container of evaporated, concentrated or con-
densed milk sold or offered for sale, or had in possession or custodj^
with intent to sell, by any person, firm or corporation within this
commonwealth, shall have plainly printed thereupon in the English
language, or attached thereto on some firmly affixed tag or label,
a formula for extending the said evaporated, concentrated or con-
densed milk with water, and the said formula must be such that
the milk product resulting shall not be below the Massachusetts
standard for milk solids and fat for whole milk.
• It should be said, in justice to evaporated unsweetened milk, that it is usually found to
be practically sterile, and is also sold at a relatively less price than the sweetened con-
densed milk.
No. 4.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 227
Section 2. Whoever, himself or by his servant or agent or as
the servant or agent of any person, firm or corporation, sells, exchanges
or delivers, or has in his custody or possession with intent to sell,
exchange or deUver, any container of evaporated, concentrated or
condensed milk, within this commonwealth, not marked or labeled
in compliance with the jDrovisions of section one of this act, shall
for the first offence be punished by a fine of not more than one hun-
dred dollars, for a second offence by a fine of not less than one hundred
nor more than two hundred dollars, and for a subsequent offence by
a fine of five hundred dollars or by imprisonment for not less than
three months nor more than six months.
Section 3. This act shall take effect on the first day of Septem-
ber in the year nineteen hundred and eleven.
Oleo:margarike from National Standpoint.
The total amount of iiiicolored oleomargarine withdrawn
United States tax paid in year ending June 30, 1910, that
is, what was sold in this country, was 135,149,429 pounds,
or 97 per cent of the whole, and the tax at ^A cent per pound
amounted to $337,898.57. If, as is now proposed, 2 cents
per pound had been paid as tax on this same amount the
revenue would have increased sevenfold, and would have
amounted to $2,703,188.58. In view of this fact we are
constrained to ask three questions. First, does the consumer
want to pay this increased tax? Second, does the consumer
want his oleomargarine colored to more closely imitate
creamery butter, thus increasing the chance of his being more
readily imposed upon by being required to pay an approxi-
mate creamery price for it? Third, why does the oleomar-
garine manufacturer wish to re-establish a system which was
really responsible for the necessity for laws to protect the
consumer from fraud from the outset? This question of tax-
ing oleomargarine and thus restricting the use of coloring
matter in its manufacture is of vital importance to pro-
ducers, dealers and consumers; therefore all should be alive
to the situation, and see to it that no ill-advised legislation
takes place in our national Congress.
Co-OPERATIO?r.
This Bureau has on several occasions in the past advocated
a State dairymen's association, and we believe that such
228 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
an organization, proj)ei'lj officered and managed, would work
out for the benefit of the Massachusetts milk-producing
farmers, and, indirectly, for the consuming public as well.
Peksonnel of the Bureau.
In January, 1910, Messrs. Richardson, Paige and Jewett,
by reason of expiration of their terms, ceased to be members
of the Board of Agriculture, and therefore were ineligible for
reappointment on the Bureau. His Excellency Governor
Draper was, therefore, called upon, for the first time since
its original organization, to select an entirely new Bureau,
which he did, appointing Charles M. Gardner of Westfield,
Howard A. Parsons of Amherst and George W. Trull of
Tewksbury. The executive force, agents, chemists, etc., are
as follows: executive officer and secretary, J. Lewis Ells-
worth ; general agent, P. M. Harwood ; B. F. Davenport,
M.D., of Boston, and F. W. Farrell of the Emerson Labora-
tory, Springfield, have done the chemical work. A small
amount of bacteriological work has been done by Prof. Sam-
uel C. Prescott of Boston. A. W. Lombard has continued to
act as agent, and five others have been temporarily employed
from time to time.
Summary of Police Work.
Total number of inspections, ^ 7,922
Number of inspections where no sample was taken, . . . 6,121
Number of samples of butter and oleomargarine, all purchased, 1,724
Number of samples of milk and cream, , 136
Cases entered in court, 220
Meetings addressed by the general agent, 35
Cases prosecuted during the twelve months ending 'Nov.
30, 1910, by months and courts, with law violated, and re-
sults, are as follows : —
» There were 53 extra samples taken during the year, therefore this number is 53 less than
the sum of the next three items.
No. 4.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU.
229
CODRT.
Month.
Num-
ber.
Law violated.
Con-
victed.
Dis-
charged.
Holyoke, Police, .
Somerville, Police,
Brockton, Police,
Worcester, Central District,
Springfield, Police,
Cambridge, Third Eastern
Middlesex District.
Lowell, Police,' .
Lynn, Police,
Cambridge, Third Eastern
Middlesex District.
Haverhill, Northern Essex
District.
Holyoke, Police, .
New Bedford, Third Bristol
District.
East Boston, District, 2
Ayer, Northern Middlesex
District.
Northampton, Hampshire
District.
North Adams, Northern
Berkshire District.
Worcester, Central Worces-
ter District.
Fitchburg, Police,
Fall River, Second Bristol
District.
Quincy, East Norfolk Dis-
trict.
Orange, Eastern Franklin
District.
A t h o 1 , First Northern
Worcester District.
Gardner, First Northern
Worcester District.
Holyoke, Police, .
Lawrence, Police,
Salem, First Essex District,
Gloucester, Eastern Essex
District.
Worcester Central District,
Lynn Police,
Chicopee, Police,
Southbridge, First Southern
Worcester District.
Chelsea, Police, .
Taunton, First Bristol Dis-
trict.
Springfield, Police,
Marlborough, Police, .
Fall River, Second Bristol
District.
Boston, Municipal, 2 .
December,
December,
December,
December,
December,
December,
December,
December,
January,
January,
January,
January,
January,
January,
February,
February,
February,
Marcli,
March,
March,
March,
March,
March,
April,
April,
April,
April,
April,
May,
May,
May,
May,
May,
June,
June,
June,
June,
16
2
5
1
1
8
3
4
2
2
4
12
4
2
1
2
35
4
26
1
4
2
2
10
6
1
4
2
18
1
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
4 oleomargarine, 1
milk.
Milk, .
Milk, .
6 reno\ated butter
2 oleomargarine.
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Renovated butter
Renovated butter
Oleomargarine,
Renovated butter
Renovated butter
Oleomargarine,
Renovated butter
9 renovated butter,
26 oleomargarine
Oleomargarine,
16 renovated butter
10 oleomargarine
Renovated butter
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Renovated butter
2 renovated butter
8 oleomargarine.
Renovated butter
Renovated butter
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Renovated butter
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Renovated butter
' Filed on payment of costs.
- In connection with the Boston Bureau of Milk Inspection.
230
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Court.
Month.
Num-
ber.
Law violated.
Con-
victed.
Dis-
charged.
Concord, Central Middlesex
District.
Northampton, Hampshire
District.
VVoburn, Fourth Eastern
Middlesex District.
Fall River, Second Bristol
District.
VVareham , Fourth Plymouth
District.
Nahant, Police, .
Oak Bluffs, Dukes County
District.
Salem, First Essex District,
Salem, First Essex District,
Concord, Central Middlesex
District.
Woburn, Fourth Eastern
Middlesex District.
Totals,
June,
June,
July,
July,
July,
August,
September,
September,
November,
November,
November,
Renovated butter
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Milk, .
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
Oleomargarine,
220
Note. — The Bureau is especially indebted to the milk inspectors of Boston, Chicopee,
Ijowell, Northampton, Revere, Salem, Springfield, Taunton and Worcester for assistance
which has resulted in cases in court. We also record our indebtedness to all others who have
aided us in any way.
The charges in the several eases entered in court for the
year ending Nov. 30, 1910, have been as follows: —
Selling renovated butter in unmarked packages,
Selling oleomargarine when butter was asked for,
Selling oleomargarine without being registered,
Selling oleomargarine without sign in store,
Selling oleomargarine in unmarked packages, .
Selling oleomargarine from unmarked wagons,
Furnishing oleomargarine in restaurants, etc., without
guests, .
Selling milk containing added water,
notice to
77
35
4
2
3
87
4
220
The following is a list of inspections withont samples and
the number of samples taken in the years 1903-10, inclu-
sive : —
No. 4.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU.
231
Yeau.
1903.
1904,
1905,
1906,
1907, .
1908, .
1909,
1910, .
Totals, ,
Averages,
Inspections
without
Samples.
4,135
4,456
4,887
4,985
4,538
5,516
5,003
6,121
39,641
4,955+
Samples
taken.
1,395
1.157
971
576
1,374
1,575
1,869
1,960
10,877
1,359+
Oleomargarine.
No licenses for the sale of colored oleomargarine were
issued in this State, and no sales of such goods have been
discovered bv the agents of the Bureau during the year.
The high price of butter has boomed the oleomargarine
trade. Some idea of the extent may be obtained from a
perusal of the following list of United States licenses for the
sale of uncolored oleomargarine, in force in Massachusetts in
November, 1909, and November, 1910, showing the increase
of the latter over the former : —
1909. 1910.
Wholesale licenses in Boston, 13 21
Wholesale licenses in other cities, 8 9
Total, . 21 30
Retail licenses in Boston, 46 91
Retail licenses in other cities and towns, .... 465 607
Total, 511 698
The following figures, taken from the annual report of the
United States Commissioner of Internal Revenue for 1910,
show the production, withdrawn tax paid, and withdrawn
232
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
for export of the two classes of oleomargarine, as defined by
act of May 9, 1902, covering a period of eight years, since
it went into effect on July 1, 1902 : —
Oleomargarine (Pounds).
Product taxed at Rate op
10 Cents per Pound.
Product taxed at Rate of
J Cent per Pound.
Year.
Produced.
With-
drawn Tax
paid.
With-
drawn for
Export.
Produced .
With-
drawn Tax
paid.
With-
drawn for
Export.
1903, .
5,710,407
2,312,493
3,334,969
67,573,689
66,785,796
151.693
1904. .
3,785,670
1,297,068
2,504,940
46,413,972
46,397,984
123,425
1905,.
5,560,304
3,121,640
2,405,763
46,427,032
46,223,691
137,670
1906, .
4,888,986
2,503,095
2,422,320
50,545,914
50,536,466
78,750
1907,.
7,758,529
5,009,094
2,695,276
63,608,246
63,303,016
129.3.50
1908, .
7,452,800
4,982,029
2,.522,188
74,072,800
73,916,869
109,480
1909,.
5,710,301
3,275,968
2,403,742
86,572,514
86,221,310
112.958
1910, .
6,176,991
3,416,286
2.767,195
135,685,289
135,159,429
97.575
Total,
47,043,988
25,917,673
21,056,393
570,899,456
568,544,561
940,901
Renovated Butter.
The violations of the renovated butter law in this State
during the year have been more than double what they were
in 1909. The high price of butter has caused more of the
goods to be used than was the case then, but, considering the
amount sold, the number is not excessive, except from an ideal
standpoint. There is one licensed concern in this State man-
ufacturing renovated butter. Most of the goods are offered
for sale in print form.
The following figures, from the same source as the pre-
ceding table, show the production and withdrawn tax paid of
renovated butter, 1902-10 : —
No. 4.] REPORT OK THE DAIRY BUREAU.
233
Renovated Butter (Pounds).
Year.
1903.
1904,
1905,
1900.
1907,
190S,
1900.
1910,
Total,
Production.
Withdrawn Tax
paid.
54.658.790
54.223,234
54.171.183
54,204,478
60,029,421
60,171,504
53,.549,900
53,361,088
02,965,613
63,078,-504
50,479.489
50,411,440
47.345.361
47,402,382
47.433,575
47,378,446
430,633,332
430,231.082
Butter.
The annual statement of the Chamber of Commerce, as
will be seen by appended tables, shows further decrease in
the consumption of butter during 1910. This is undoubt-
edly due, in a large measure, to the high price, wholesale
average, of 30.2 cents per pound, the highest figure reached
in many years.
The following table shows the average quotation for the
best fresh creamery butter, in a strictly wholesale way, in
the Boston market for the last nine years, as compiled by the
Boston Chamber of Commerce : —
1910.
1909.
1908.
1907.
1906.
1905.
1904.
1903.
1902.
1901.
Month.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
January, .
33.5
30.9
29.7
30.4
25.2
28.0
22.7
28.0
25.0
25.0
February,
30.5
30.0
32.1
31.7
25.2
31.6
24.6
27.0
28.5
25.0
March,
32.0
29.1
30.2
30.2
25.5
28.0
24.1
27.0
29.0
23.0
April,
31.5
27.9
28.4
32.2
22.2
29.1
21.6
27.5
32.0
22.0
May. .
29.0
26.6
24.1
31.4
19.9
23.9
19.9
22.5
25.0
19.5
June. .
28.2
26.4
24.5
21.3
20.2
20.7
18.4
22.75
23.5
20.0
July, .
28.6
27.2
23.6
25.9
21.0
20.6
18.3
20.5
22.5
20.0
August,
29.6
28.2
24.5
26.0
23.8
21.0
19.1
20.0
21.5
21.0
September,
29.6
31.3
25.3
29.2
25.6
21.2
20.8
22.0
23.5
22.0
October, .
29.4
31.7
27.5
29.9
26.9
22.1
21.5
22.5
24.5
21.5
November,
30.2
31.4
29.5
27.1
27.6
23.0
24.1
23.5
27.0
24.0
December,
30.0
32.9
31.0
27.5
30.7
23.9
25.7
24.5
28.5
24.5
Averag<
30.2
29.5
27.5
28.48
24.48
24.47
21.73
26.23
25.0
22.3
234
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The Chamber of Commerce figures regarding the butter
business in Boston for 1909 and 1910 are as follows: — •
1910.
Pounds.
1909.
Pounds.
Carried over, ....
Receipts for January, .
Receipts for February ,
Receipts for March,
Receipts for April,
Receipts for May,
Receipts for June,
Receipts for July,
Receipts for August, .
Receipts for September,
Receipts for October, .
Receipts for November,
Receipts for December,
Total supply.
Exports for year, deduct.
Net supply
Storage stock December 31, deduct,
Consumption for year, .
8,030,740
2,763,388
2,735,471
3,202,183
2,617,479
7,953,512
13,294,088
10,529,244
8,371,256
7,455,963
5,499,123
2,904,893
2,094,240
77,451,580
13,650
77,437,930
12,272,624
65,165,306
8,9C0,328
3,198,459
2,258,740
2,762,898
3,089,744
4,810,649
11,309,791
11,357,950
8,648,239
7,406,408
5,140,375
2,813,504
2,257,397
74,014,482
44,050
73,970,4.32
8,030,740
65,939,692
Condensed and Evaporated Milks.
Table showing Results of Bacteriological Examination of Different
Brands of Condensed and Evaporated Milk.
Sweetened Condensed Milk.
Brand.
Bacteria per
Cubic
Centimeter,
20° C.
(96 Hours).
Bacteria per
Cubic
Centimeter,
37° C.
(24 Hours).
Vermont,
Eclipse,
Ruby, .
Red Cross,
Tip Top,
Rose,
Challenge,
Eagle, .
Cupid, .
Standard ,
Average,
240,000
30,000
1,150,000
260,000
15,000
355,000
100
570,000
650
700,000
210,000
34,000
1,350,000
320,000
35,000
330,000
1.50
410,000
750
550,000
332,075
323,990
No. 4.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU.
235
Table showing Results of Bacteriological Examination, etc.
Unsweetened Evaporated Milk.
Concluded.
Brand.
Bacteria per
Cubic
Centimeter,
20° C.
(96 Hours).
Bacteria per
Cubic
Centimeter,
37° C.
(24 Hours).
Peerless, ..........
Wilson's
Highland,
Gold
Van Camp's,
Gold Croaa
Less than 100
Less than 100
Less than 100
Less than 100
500
Less than 100
Less than 100
150
Less than 100
Less than 100
2,100
Less than 100
Table showing Cost of Equivalent of Milk Fat contained in a Quart of
Milk, up to the Massachusetts Standard of 3.35 Per Cent, in the
Following Brands of Sweetened Condensed Milk and Unsweetened
Evaporated Milk. Calcidations made upon Basis of Weight, Fat
Content and Price of Each Brand.
Sweetened Condensed Milk.
Brand.
Cost
per Quart
(Cents).
Brand.
Cost
per Quart
(Cents).
Tip Top
9.24
Red Cross, . . . .
9.64
Eclipse
i.^.eo
Eagle,
13.52
Vermont, ....
9.03
Cupid,
12.41
Summit,
11.61
Challenge,
10.30
Standard
11.73
Ruby, .
12.73
Rose
10.73
Heather, .
Average, .
11.81
11.36
Unsweetened Evaporated Milk.
Highland,
11.09 I
Gold Cross
7.86
Wilson's, .
. i 9.11
Gold
Average
9.58
Van Camp's, .
10.15
9.39
Peerless, .
8.55
236
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Table showing Price per Can, Weight of Contenls, Per Cent of Fat and
Times Massachusetts Fat Standard for Milk, in Twelve Samples
Sweetened Condensed and Six Samples Unsweetened Evaporated
Milk.
Sweetened Condensed Milk.
Brand.
Price
per Can.
(Cents).
Net
Weight of
Contents.
(Ounces).
Fat (Per
Cent).
Times the
Standard
for Fat.
Challenge,
10
12%
8.90
2.66
Rose,
12
14i3Ae
8.70
2.59
Tip Top, .
11
14i%c
9.28
2.77
Eagle.
15
14Hi«
9.00
2.68
Vermont, .
11
UVs
9.50
2.83
Eclipse,
12
ume
7.50
2.24
Ruby,
11
12%
9.90
2.95
Standard,
12
14>/8
8.40
2.50
Red Cross,
12
141 %«
8.20
2.44
Cupid,
9
14»/i«
6.50
1.94
Summit, .
10
13%
7.20
2.15
Heather, .
10
11V4
8.70
2.60
Unsweetened Evaporated Milk.
Peerless, .
Gold,
Highland,
Wilson's, .
Van Camp's,
Gold Cross,
11
16
9.30
10
levs
7.50
10
12
8.70
10
1615^8
7.80
10
151%8
7.20
10
16%
9.00
2.77
2.23
2.59
2.33
2.15
2.68
Milk.
The following analyses of milk, taken in November, 1910,
from the patrons of a milk shipping station in western
Massachusetts, show milk of excellent quality, with no at-
tempt at adulteration. The herds were composed of natives,
and Holstein and Jersey grades.
No. 1.] REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU.
2;37
Sample Number.
Pounda
Milk.
Number
Cows.
1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6. .
7. .
8. .
9,
10,
11.
12,
13,
H.
15,
16,
17,
18,
19, .
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25,
26,
27, .
28, .
29,
30,
31, .
32, .
Average
157
17.3
97
76
123
128
173
104
64
74
62
94
60
144
193
56
52
98
84
248
170
148
236
145
182
31
84
114
114
262
96
67
122.4
12
13
6
9
21
7
10
12
9
5
12
11
5
11
24
15
10
11
13
26
15
16
9
17
23
12
11
8
21
33
11
13
Fat (Per
Cent).
Total
Solids (Per
Cent).
4.9
4.2
3.4
4.6
5.2
4.0
4.7
3.8
4.6
3.6
5.0
4 9
4.9
4.1
5.1
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.2
3.8
4.6
3.9
3.9
4.2
4.6
4.4
4.4
4.6
4.5
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.49
14.24
13.23
12.06
13.91
14.40
12.60
13.79
12.75
13.62
12.24
13.96
13.44
14.15
13.01
13.77
14.18
14.18
14.52
13.17
12.37
13.75
12.64
12.59
12.98
13.85
13.75
13.85
13.74
13.20
13.62
13.02
13.11
13.42
Refrac-
tion.
43.8
43.3
42.7
43.8
43.5
42.8
43.5
43.0
43.4
42.6
43.1
42.0
44.1
43.5
42.9
43.0
42.6
43.7
43.2
42.2
43.3
43.2
42.6
42.5
43.2
44.3
43.5
43.2
41.8
43.4
42.0
43.1
43.02
238
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Milk brought into Boston bij Different Railroads, Dec. 1, 1009, to Nov.
30, 1910, as reported by the Railroad Commissioners {Quarts).
Date.
Boston &
Albany.
Boston &
Maine.
New York,
New Haven
& Hartford.
Total.
1909.
December
1,239,835
5,448,159
2,376,820
9,064,814
January,
191(
).
1,261,493
5,271,660
2,511,295
9,044,448
February,
1,129,956
4,839,106
2,238,771
8,207,833
March, .
1,308,125
5,475,064^
2.528,599
9,311,788i
April, .
1,319,982
6,343,029
2,410,224
10,073,235
May,
278,791
5,218,864
2,388.932
7,886,587
June, .
965,608
5,638,992
2,266,220
8,870,820
July, .
1,165,639
5,599,752
2,411,087
9,176,478
August,
891,673
4,679,669
2.037,164
7,608,508
September,
904,062
4,444,055
1.881,451
7,229,568
October,
943,466
4,482,585
2,004,881
7,430,932
November,
799,828
3,938,947
1,962,578
6.701,353
Total,
12,208,458
61,379,882^
27,018,022
100,606,362J
Milk brought into Boston by Railroad for Twelve Months ending Novem-
ber 30 of Each Year (Quarts).
1906,
1907,
1908,
1909,
1910,
Total decrease in four years
Average annual decrease
114,233,976
109,882,190^
103,381,2781
108,082,936
100,606,362^
13,627,613^
3,406,903 1
Number of Cows assessed in Massachusetts.
May 1, 1906, 181,816
April 1, 1910, 166,048
Total decrease in four years, . ... . . . 15,768
Average annual decrease, 3,942
No. 1.] KErOUT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU. 23U
Local Milk Inspectors.
Milk Inspectors for Massachusetts Cities, 1910.
Beverlj^ Henry E. Dodge, 2cl.
Boston, Prof. James 0. Jordan.
Brockton, George E. Boiling.
Cambridge, Dr. Ernest H. Sparrow.
Chelsea, Arthur H. Upton.
Chicopee, C. J. O'Brien.
Everett, E. Clarence Colby.
Fall River Henry Boisseau.
Fitchburg, John F. Bresnahan.
Gloucester, George E. Watson.
Haverhill, Homer L. Conner, M.D.
Holyoke, James K. Morrill.
Lawrence, Eugene A. McCarthy.
Lowell, Melvin F. Master.
Lynn, Alexander S. Wright.
Maiden, J. A. Sanford.
Marlborough, John J. Cassidy.
Medford, Winslow Joyce.
Melrose, Caleb W. Clark, M.D.
New Bedford, Herbert B. Hamilton, D.V.S.
Newburyport, T. D. Donahoe.
Newton, Arthur Hudson.
North Adams, . . Henry A. Tower.
Northampton, George R. Turner.
Pittsfield, Eugene L. Hannon.
Quincy, Edward J. Murphy.
Salem, John J. McGrath.
Somerville, Herbert E. Bowman.
Springfield, Stephen C. Downs.
Taunton, Lewis I. Tucker.
Waltham, Arthur E. Stone, M.D.
Woburn, P. T. McDonough.
Worcester, Gustaf L. Berg.
Milk Inspectors Massachusetts Towns, 1910.
Adams, Dr. A. G. Potter.
Amesbury, E. S. Worthen.
Andover, Franklin H. Stacy.
Arlington, Dr. L. L. Pierce.
Attleborough, Caleb Parmenter.
Barnstable, George T. Mecarta.
Belmont, Prof. Samuel C. Prescott.
240
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Rub. Doc.
Brookline, Frederick H. Osgood.
Clinton, Gilman L. Chase.
Greenfield, M. L. Miner, D.V.S.
South Hadiey Falls, .... George F. Boudreau.
Hyde Park, James G. BoUes.
Leominster, William H. Dodge, D.V.S.
Ludlow, A. L. Bennett, D.V.S.
Monson, Dr. Charles W. Jackson.
North Attleborough, .... Hugh Gaw, V.S.
Palmer, Edward F. Brown.
Revere, Joseph E. Lamb.
South Framingham, .... Charles N. Hargraves.
Stoneham, George H. Allen.
Wakefield, Harry A. Simonds.
Ware, Fred E. Marsh.
Watertown, Luther W. Simonds.
Westfield, William H. Porter.
Williamstown, C. L. Whitney.
Winchendon, Frederick W. Russell, M.D.
Winchester, Morris Dineen.
Creameries, Milk Depots, etc.
Co-operative Creameries.
Number and Location.
Name.
Superintendent or Manager.
L Ashfield,
2. Belchertown,
3. Cummington,
4. Easthampton,
5. Egrcinont (P. (). Great
Barrington).
6. Monterey,
7. New Boston,
8. New Salem (P. O. Mill
ington).
9. Northfield, .
10. Shelburne, .
n. Westfield (P. O. Wyben),
12. West Newbury, .
Ashfield Creamery, .
Belchertown Creamer>',
Cummington Creamery, .
Hampton Creamery,
Egremont Creamery,
Berkshire Hills Creamery,
Berkshire Creamery,
New Salem Creamer j-,
Northfield Co-operative Cream
ery Association.
Shelburne Creamer}-,
Wyben Springs Creamery,
West Newbury Creamery,
William Hunter, manager.
M. G. Ward, president.
D. C. Morey, superintend-
ent.
W. H. Wright, treasurer.
E. A. Tyrrell, manager.
F. A. Campbell, manager.
F. M. Rugg, president.
W. A. Moore, treasurer.
Chas. C. Stearns, superin-
tendent.
Ira Barnard, manager.
C. H. Kelso, manager.
R. S. Brown, treasurer.
No. 4.] KKPOUT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU.
241
Proprielarij Crea meries.
Number and Location.
Name.
Owner or Manager.
1. Amherst,
2. Amherst,
3. Brimfield, .
4. Everett,
5. Fitchburg, 26 Gushing
Street.
6. Gardner,
7. Groton,
8. Heath
9. Hinsdale,
10. Marlborough,
11. North Brookfield,
Amherst Creamery, .
Fort River Creamery,
Crystal Brook Creamery,
Hampden Creamery Company,
Fitchburg Creamery,
Boston Dairy Company, .
Lawrence Creamery,
Cold Spring Creamery,
Hinsdale Creamerjs .
Este's Creamery,
North Brookfield Creamery,
Tait Bros., managers.
E. A. King.
F. N. Lawrence.
Hampden Creamery Com-
pany.
G. S. Learned.
Boston Dairy Company.
Myron P. Swallow.
I. W. Stetson & Son.
Ashley B. Clark, treasurer.
F. F. Este.
H. A. Richardson.
Educational.
Amherst,
Dairy Industry Course, Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College.
W. P. B. Lockwood, pro-
fessor in charge.
Milk-distrihuling Depots.
Name.
Location.
Manager.
Alden Bros.,
Boston Dairy Compan5^
C. Brigham Company,
C. Brigham Company,
Deerfoot Farms,
Elm Farm Milk Company,
H. P. Hood & Sons, .
Springfield Co-operative
Milk Association.
Tait Bros., ....
Wachu.sett Creamery,
D. Whiting & Sons, .
Boston office, 1171 Tremont Street,
Depot, 24-28 Duncan Street.
Boston, 484 Rutherford Avenue,
Cambridge, 158 Massachusetts Ave-
nue.
Worcester, 9 Howard Street,
Southborough, . . . . .
Boston , Wales Place,
Boston, 494 Rutherford Avenue,
branch, 24 Anson Street, Forest
Hills.
Lynn, 193 Alley Street.
Maiden, 425 Main Street.
Salem , 252 Bridge Street.
Watertown, 289 Pleasant Street.
Lawrence, 629 Common Street.
Springfield,
Springfield,
Worcester, ......
Boston, 570 Rutherford Avenue,
Charles L. Alden.
W. A. Graustein.
John K. Whiting.
C. Brigham Company.
S. H. Howes.
James H. Knapp,
treasurer.
Charles H. Hood.
F. B.Allen.
Tait Bros.
E. H. Thayer & Co.
George Whiting.
242
BOARD OF AGUICULTURE. [P. D. No. 4.
Milk Laboratory.
Name. Location. Manager.
Walker-Gordon Laboratory,
Boston, 793 Boylston Street, .
George W. Franklin.
Receiving Depots for Milk for Shipments to New York City.
F. D. Shove Milk Factory,
Willow Brook Dairy Com-
pany.
West Stockbridge
Sheffield
C. M. Riggs.
Frank Percy.
Expenses.
The following is a classified statement of the expenses for
the year ending Nov. 30, 1910: —
Bureau: compensation and traveling expenses, . . $453 27
Agents: compensation, 2,425 84
Agents: traveling expenses and samples purchased, . 2,922 71
General agent: traveling and necessary expenses, . . 435 83
Chemists: analyses, tests, court attendance, . . . 1,449 40
Printing and supplies, 312 95
Total $8,000 00
P. M. HARWOOD,
General Agent.
Accepted and adopted as the report of the Dairy Bureau.
CHARLES M. GARDNER.
H. A. PARSONS.
GEORGE W. TRULL.
SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT
State Forbstee
Synopsis Presented to the Board and Accepted,
January 10, 1911.
SEVENTH ANNUAL EEPOPJ OF THE STATE FORESTER.
Introductiox.
Forestry work during the past year has received its due
share of interest on the part of our Massachusetts people. It is
a pleasure to be able to report that in general the forestry and
moth work have so amalgamated that not only more efficiency
but greater economy is the result.
The depredations of insect pests, fungous diseases and forest
fires must be successfully dealt with and controlled if we are
to succeed in establishing and maintaining a modern forestry
system throughout this Commonwealth.
From the first the forestry work has been popular, while the
moth work, on the other hand, has savored of unpopularity, for
many reasons, but chiefly because of the law requiring property
owners, through taxation, to defray a portion of its expense.
It has taken time to organize and perfect the work of combat-
ing the gypsy and brown-tail moths. It is believed to be a con-
servative estimate when we say that we have increased our
efficiency toward moth control fully one-third during the past
season, and without additional appropriations.
It has been the earnest endeavor of the State Forester, since
the moth work has been placed under his care, to overcome, if
possible, anything that has a tendency to create a misunder-
standing, and also to secure legislation that would meet definite
requirements and hence general public approval.
The legislation enacted by the last General Court has already
ju'oved of great assistance, and it is hoped that our requests as
outlined at the conclusion of this report will meet with the
favorable consideration of your honorable body.
246 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
It is believed that there are few departments in the State that
have a more enthusiastic, self-sacrificing and loyal corps of
employees than has this one. " A live-wire organization " is
our slogan.
The demands upon the office of the State Forester for exam-
inations and advice on forestry matters have been greater than
ever; also, forestry literature, lectures and demonstrations have
been constantly requested throughout the year. Fire-warning
notices and forest-law posters have been generally distributed
and are in greater use than ever.
The growing interest in equipping our towns with some
modern fire-fighting apparatus is certainly encouraging. The
legislation of last year, whereby the poorer towns receive State
aid, has been of great assistance. The comparative efficiency
of towns with and without equipment for fighting forest fires
during the past season is proverbial. ToAvns with equipment
were practically free from fires, while those without such equip-
ment were largely burned over.
The reforestation work is extremely popular, and it is be-
lieved that the State can well afford to enlarge the appropriation
for this work, as under our present method the State cannot
possibly lose.
The State Forester feels frank to say that the outlook in this
department was never brighter.
Organ izATioisr.
The same general plan of organization as that outlined last
year has been continued throughout the season. Our constant
aim has been toward greater efficiency and raising the standard
of the work. Our purpose is to encourage cities and towns to
first secure competent forest wardens and moth superintendents,
and then to desist from constant changes. It takes time to get
a man well broken into the work, and thereafter he is of the
greatest value.
The present organization of the State Forester's staff is as
follows : —
No. 4.1
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
247
Mr. F. W. Ranb, B.Agr., M.S
Mr. L. H. WORTHLEY, .
Mr. H. O. Cook, M.F.,
Mr. R. S. Langdell, .
Mr. H. F. Gould, M.F.,
Mr. J. H. Potts,'
Alden T. Speare,
Mr. Chas. O. Bailey, .
Miss Elizabeth Hubbard,
Miss Charlotte Jacob.s,
Mr. Wm. a. Hatch,
Mr. John W. Enwright,
Mr. George A. Smith,
Mr. Frank A. Bates,
Mr. Francis C. Worthen,
Mr. John J. Fitzgerald,
Mr. Wm. W. Colton,
Mr. Clarence W. Parkhurst,
Mr. Chas. W. Minott,
Staff.
State Forester.
Assistant Forester, in charge of moth work.
Assistant Forester, in charge of forestry man-
agement.
Assistant Forester, in charge of nursery work.
Assistant Forester.
Assistant, forest fire work.
Assistant, moth disease work.
Secretary.
Clerk, in charge of accounts.
Clerk, in charge of mail and office.
Division Superintendent, Division 1, as fol-
lows: Danvers, Hamilton, Ipswich, Lynn,
Lynnfield.Nahant, Peabody, Revere, Salem,
Swampscott and Wenham.
Agent, Division 2, as follows: Arlington, Bed-
ford, Burlington, Carlisle, Everett, Lex-
ington, Maiden, Melrose, No. Reading,
Reading, Saugus, Stoneham, Wakefield,
Wilmington, Winchester and Woburn.
Agent, Division 3, as follows: Belmont,
Boston, Brookline, Cambridge, Chelsea,
Concord, Hyde Park, Lincoln, Medford,
Natick, Needham, Newton, Somerville,
Waltham, Watertown, Wayland, Welles-
ley, Weston and Winthrop.
Agent, Division 4, as follows: Abington, Avon,
Braintree, Cohasset, Hingham, Holbrook,
Hull, Milton, Quincy, Randolph, Rock-
land, Scituate, Weymouth and Whitman.
Division Superintendent, Division 5, as fol-
lows: Amesbury, Boxford, Georgetown,
Groveland, Merrimac, Middleton, New-
bury, Newburyport, Rowley, Salisbury,
Topsfield and West Newbury.
Division Superintendent, Division 6, as fol-
lows: Andover, Billerica, Chelmsford,
Dracut, Haverhill, Lawrence, Lowell,
Methuen, North Andover and Tewksbury.
Division Superintendent, Division 7, as fol-
lows: Ashby, Ashburnham, Ayer, Dun-
stable, Fitchburg, Groton, Lunenburg,
Pepperell, Shirley, Townsend, Westford
and W^estminster.
Division Superintendent, Division 8, as fol-
lows: Bellingham, Canton, Dedham, Dover,
Foxborough, Framingham, Franklin, Med-
field, Medway, Millis, Norfolk, Norwood,
Plainville, Sharon, Sherborn, Stoughton,
Walpole, W^estwood and W'rentham.
Agent, Division 9, as follows: Acton, Berlin,
Bolton, Boxborough, Clinton, Harvard,
Hudson, Lancaster, Leominster, Littleton,
Marlborough, Maynard, Sterling, Stowe
and Sudbury.
1 Resigned.
248
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Mr. George A. Sands,
Mr. Harry B. Ramsey,
Mr. John A. Farley, .
Mr. Lewis W. Hodgkins,
Mr. John F. Carleton,
Mr. Saul Phillips,
Division Superintendent, Division 10, as fol-
lows: Ashland, Blackstone, Grafton, Hol-
liston, Hopedale, Hopkinton, Mendon, Mil-
ford, Northborough, Northbridge, South-
borough, Upton, Uxbridge and Westbor-
ough.
. Agent, Division 11, as follows: Athol, Au-
burn, Barre, Boylston, Brookfield, Charl-
ton, Douglas, Dudley, Gardner, Holden,
Hubbardston, Leicester, Millbury, Orange,
Oxford, Paxton, Petersham, Phillipston,
Princeton, Rutland, Royalston, Spencer,
Sturbridge, Sutton, Templeton, Webster,
West Boylston, Winchendon and Worces-
ter.
. Agent, Division 12, as follows: Carver, Dux-
bury, Halifax, Hanover, Hanson, Kingston,
Marshfield, Norwell, Pembroke, Plymouth
and Plympton.
. Agent, Division 13, as follows: Attleborough,
Bridgewater, Brockton, East Bridgewater,
Easton, Lakeville, Mansfield, Middlebor-
ough. North Attleborough, Raynham,
Taunton and West Bridgewater.
Division Superintendent, Division 14, as fol-
lows: Barnstable, Bourne, Brewster, Den-
nis, Falmouth, Marion, Mashpee, Orleans,
Rochester, Sandwich, Truro, Wareham,
Wellfleet and Yarmouth.
. Division Superintendent, Division 15, as fol-
lows: Beverly, Essex, Gloucester, Man-
chester, North Shore Woodlands and Rock-
port.
L. O. Howard, Ph.D.,
Theobald Smith, Ph.B., M.D.
Roland Thaxter, Ph.D., ,
E. L. Mark, Ph.D., LL.D., .
W. M. Wheeler, Ph.D.,
C. H. Fernald, Ph.D.,
Frank H. Mo.sher,
Co-oper.\tive Scientific Staff.
. Chief United States Bureau of Entomology,
Washington, D. C, Parasites and Predaceous
Insects.
Professor of Comparative Pathology, Harvard
University, Diseases of Insects.
Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, Harvard
University, Fungous Diseases affecting In-
sects.
Director of the Zoological Laboratory, Har-
vard Univ'ersity, Protozoa and Insect Life.
Professor of Entomology, Harvard University,
Experimental Entomologist.
Professor of Entomology, Massachusetts Ag-
ricultural College, Consulting Entomologist.
Entomologist in charge of laboratory.
No. 4.]
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
249
List op Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents.
[Alphabetically by towns.]
Town' ou City.
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Abington,
287
Acton, .
181
Acushnet,
275
Agawam,
93
Alford, .
24
Amesbury, .
228
Amherst,
67
Andover,
212
Arlington,
193
Ashburnhani,
104
Ashby, .
158
Ashfield,
50
Ashland,
200
Athol, .
105
Attleborough,
265
Auburn,
123
Avon, .
259
Ayer,
169
Barnstable, .
315
Barre, .
142
Becket, .
23
Bedford,
179
Belchertown,
73
Bellingham, .
326
Belmont,
194
Berkley,
271
Berlin, .
139
Bernardston,
39
Beverly,
220
Billerica,
173
Blackstone, .
114
Blandford,
81
Bolton, .
146
Boston,!
-
Bourne,
311
B. E. Wilkes, chief fire department,
Wm. H. Kingsley, . . . . .
Henry F. Taber
John Clancy, ......
D L. White, P. O. Feeding Hills, .
John H. Wilcox,
James E. Feltham, chief fire department,
G. E. Stone, tree warden,
J. H. Playdon, tree warden, .
Walter H. Pierce, chief fire department, .
Arthur H. Skillings, chief fire depart-
ment.
Wm. S. Green,
Chas. A. Hall,
H. H. Piper,
Frank P. Hall, chief fire department,
Hiram Packard, chief fire department,
3 Hope Street.
J. Fred Searle,
James W. McCarthy, Pratt Street,
Chas. E. Perrin
Henry C. Bacon, P. O. Hyannis, .
D. H. Rice
Elmer D. Ballou
Chas. E. Williams,
James A. Peeso, constable,
L. F. Thayer
John F. Leonard, chief fire department, .
Gideon H. Babbitt, . . . .
Walter Cole, constable, . . . .
E. E. Benjamin
Robt. H. Grant, chief fire department, .
Geo. C. Crosby, chief engineer fire de-
partment.
Thomas Reilly,
C. O. Shultz
Chas. E. Mace
Walton E. Keene
C. Frederick Shaw.
James O'Neil.
A. P. R. Gilmore.
A. L. Stover.
J. H. Playdon.
Wm. H. Bradley.
Chas. A. Billings.
H. A. Lawrence.
Michael Geoghan.
Geo. E. Whitney.
Wm. E. S. Smith.
J. Fred Searle.
Willard W. Beals.
Daniel W. Mason.
Harry W. Bodfish.
George R. Simonds.
W. A. Cutler.
Nelson Randall.
Henry A. Whitney.
Chas. H. Houlahan.
J. M. Alexander.
Ernest C. Ross.
Josiah B. Brown.
Henry E. Marion.
A. J. Oibbon.s.
Chas. E. Mace.
D. Henry Sullivan.
Stillman B. Wright.
> No forest area.
250
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con.
Town or City.
Badge
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Boxborough,
Boxford,
Boylston,
Braintree,
Brewster,
Bridgewater,
Brimfield,
Brockton,
Brookfield,
Brookline,
Buckland,
Burlington,
Cambridge,*
Canton,
Carlisle,
Carver, .
Charlemont,
Charlton,
Chatham,
Chelmsford,
Chelsea,'
Cheshire,
Chester,
Chesterfield,
Chicopee,
Chilmark,
Clarksburg,
Clinton,
Cohasset,
Colrain,
Concord,
Conway,
Cummington
Dalton,
Dana, .
Danvers,
Dartmouth
182
218
138
244
318
293
99
286
120
237
49
178
249
171
304
42
115
320
172
63
87
308
3
145
246
37
180
51
60
14
147
345
278
M. L. Wetherbee, .....
Harry L. Cole,
Chas. S. Knight, metropolitan watchman,
Jas. M. Cutting, special police, P. O.
South Braintree.
T. B. Tubman, highway surveyor, North
Brewster.
Edwin S. Rhoades,
Geo. E. Hitchcock
Harry L. Marston, chief fire department,
David N. Hunter,
Geo. H. Johnson, chief fire department, .
Wm. Sauer, P. O. Shelburne Falls, .
Walter W. Skelton, tree warden.
Lawrence Horton, fire engineer, P. O.
Ponkapoag.
A. Lapham, ......
Herbert F. Atwood,
Fred. D. Legate,
Carlos Bond, ....
Geo. W. Ryder, West Chatham,
Arthur E. Barton, .
Chas. D. Cummings, ....
Wm. H. Babb
Chas. A. Bisbee, P. O. Bisbee,
John H. Pomphret, chief fire department,
Ernest C. Mayhew,
Robert Lanfair, R. F. D. No. 1, North
Adams.
Wm. Clark,
Wm. J. Brennock, captain fire depart-
ment.
Wm. H. Davenport, ....
G. M. Morrell, chief fire department,
Chas. Parsons, tree warden, .
W. S. Gabb, P. O. Swift River, .
Alvah K. Cleveland, North Street,
Thos. L. Thayer, P. O. North Dana,
Thomas E. Tinsley, ....
Sylvanus P. Hawes, ....
John J. Sherry.
Chas. Perley.
George A. Vickery.
Oscar A. Hubbard.
James E. Eldridge.
Walter E. Rhodes.
N. S. Souther
J. H. Conant.
Ernest B. Dane.
Walter W. Skelton.
J. F. Donnelly.
Augustus Heminway.
G. G. Wilkins.
Herbert F. Atwood.
John G. Hammond.
Geo. B. Bassett.
M. A. Bean.
J. A. O'Brien.
Almon S. Tilton.
Wm. McGown.
Joseph E. Grassie.
H. P. Richardson.
Thomas E. Tinsley.
• No forest area.
No. 4.]
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
251
List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con.
Town or City.
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Dedham ,
Deerfield,
Dennis,
Dighton,
Douglas,
Dover,
Dracut,
Dudley,
Dunstable
Duxbury,
E. Bridgewater,
East Longmeadow
Eastham,
Elasthampton
Easton,
Edgartown,
Egremont,
Enfield,
Erving,
Essex, .
Everett,'
Fairhaven,
Fall River,
Falmouth,
Fitchburg,
Florida,
Foxborough,
Framingham,
Franklin,
Freetown,
Gardner,
Gay Head, .
Georgetown,
Gill,
Gloucester, .
Goshen,
Gosnold,
241
52
317
272
112
240
163
no
161
303
298
95
322
77
264
309
29
74
46
223
276
280
312
157
5
261
197
255
274
153
343
224
45
234
61
344
Henry Harrigan,
VVm. L. Harris,
Alpheus P. Baker, constable, P. O. South
Dennis.
Ralph Earle, ......
W. L. Church
John Breagy, ......
Frank H. Gunther, chief fire department,
F. A. Putnam,
Archie W. Swallow, . . . .
Fred. B. Knapp
Loren A. Flagg, chief fire department,
P. O. Elmwood.
E. J. Speight,
W. Horton Nickerson, road surveyor,
Frank P. Newkirk, tree warden,
John Baldwin, chief fire department,
North Easton.
Manuel Roberts, .....
Frank W. Bradford, Great Barrington,
R. F. D. No. 3.
Chas. W. Felton,
Chas. H. Holmes, P. O. Farley,
Otis O. Story, tree warden,
Albert C. Aiken, .....
William Mulligan, tree warden,
Herbert N. Lawrence
Geo. H. Hastings,
E. L. Jeffries, North Adams, R. F. D.
No. 3.
Ernest A. White, chief fire department, .
Josiah S. Williams, P. O. Nobscot, .
Ed. S. Cook, dealer in wood and lumber,
Andrew M. Hathaway, P. O. Assonet, .
Geo. S. Hodgman
Leander B. Smalley, Menemsha, .
Clinton J. Eaton, .....
Lewis C. Munn
Sydney F. Haskell, Essex Avenue,
Sydney F. Packard, Williamsburg, R. F.
D. No. 2.
Harold S. Veeder. P. O. Cuttyhunk,
George A. Phillips.
H. H. Sears.
D. F. Lane.
Walter E. Carpenter.
Harold McKenzie.
Thomas F. Carrick.
Joseph N. O'Kane.
James A. Davis.
Henry A. Fish.
Benjamin Taylor.
N. P. Clark.
R. W. Melendy.
Theodore S. Wim-
penny.
Otis O. Story.
James Davidson.
Geo. W. King.
Wm. Mulligan.
W. B. Bosworth.
Geo. H. Hastings.
Samuel J. Johnston.
N. I. Bowditch.
John N. Stobbert.
Gilbert M. Nichols.
T. W. Danforth
L. B. Smalley.
Clinton J. Eaton.
Herbert J. Worth.
• No forest area.
252
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con.
Town on City.
Badge
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Grafton,
Granby,
Granville,
Great Barrin
Greenfield,
Greenwich,
Groton,
Groveland,
Hadley,
Halifax,
Hamilton,
Hampden,
Hancock,
Hanover,
Hanson,
Hardwick,
Harvard,
Harwich,
Hatfield,
Haverhill,
Hawley,
Heath,
Hingham,
Hinsdale,
Holbrook,
Holden,
Holland,
Holliston,
Holyoke,
Hopedale,
Hopkinton,
Hubbard.ston
Hudson,
Hull, .
Huntington,
Hyde Park,
Ipswich,
125
79
91
25
44
327
167
225
66
299
222
97
9
295
296
141
152
319
05
216
48
36
289
15
247
136
101
202
85
328
201
149
199
329
70
330
223
Sumner F. Leonard,
C. N. Rust
Lawrence F. Henry,
Dan W. Flynn, 54 Russell Street,
Wm. A. Ames, tree warden,
Wm. H. Walker, P. O. Greenwich Village,
Jas. B. Harrington, chief fire department,
Sydney E. Johnson, 311 Center Street, .
Edward P. West, tree warden,
Edwin H. Vaughn, .....
Fred Berry, P. O. Essex, R. F. D.,
John S. Swenson, .....
Chas. F. Tucker
Chas. E. Damon, P. O. Box 113, North
Hanover.
Albert L. Dame, tree warden, P. O. South
Hanson.
Myron N. Ayers
Benjamin J. Priest, ....
John Condon, ......
John M. Strong, P. O. West Hatfield, .
John B. Gordon, chief fire department,
Ernest R. Sears, tree warden, P. O. Charle-
mont.
S. G. Benson
Geo. Gushing, chief fire department,
Lewis B. Breague, tree warden,
E. W. Austin,
Henry E. Holt,
O. F. Howlett, P. O. Southbridge, R. F.
D. No. 2.
Waldo E. Coolidge
Chas. C. Hastings, .....
Walter F. Durgin, superintendent of
parks.
R. I. Frail
Ernest A. Young, tree warden,
Fred W. Trowbridge, chief fire depart-
ment.
Smith F. Sturgis, tree warden, P. O.
AUerton.
Daniel B. Mack
Harry G. Higbee, .
Augustus J. Barton,
Chas. K. Despeau.
Wm. A. Ames.
Joseph F. Bateman.
Raymond B. Larive.
Frank D. Lyon.
Erie G. Brewer.
Lyman Russell.
A. L. Dame.
Geo. C. Maynard.
John H. Drum.
Geo. F. Moore.
Arthur W. Young.
Wm. Hay don.
H. E. Holt.
Geo. H. Moody.
Walter F. Durgin.
F. F. Baldwin.
Ernest A. Young.
Frederick P. Hosmer.
John Knowles.
Harry G. Higbee.
James A. Morey.
No. 4.]
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
253
List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con.
Town or City.
Badge
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Kingston,
Lakcvillo,
Lancaster,
Lanesborougl
Lawrence,
Lee,
Leicester,
Lenox,
Leominster,
Levcrett,
Lexington,
Leyden,
Lincoln,
Littleton,
Longmeadow
Lowell, .
Ludlow,
Lunenburg,
Lynn, .
Lynnfield,
Maiden,
Manchester,
Mansfield,
Marblehead,
Marion,
Marlborough,
Marshfield,
Mashpee,
Mattapoisctt
Maynard,
Medfield,
Medford,
Med way,
Melrose,
Mendon,
Merrimac,
Methuen,
301
2S3
151
10
214
22
122
18
155
57
188
38
187
170
94
165
88
156
331
209
191
236
263
332
306
198
292
313
281
184
252
192
254
119
227
213
Arthur B. Holmes,
Nathan F. Washburn, P. O. Middlebor-
ough.
Everett M. Hawkins, chief fire depart-
ment.
King D. Keeler, . . .
Chas. G. Rutter, chief fire department, .
Jas. W. Bossidy,
Chas. White, P. O. Cherry Valley, .
Geo. W. Fitch
Fred A. Russell
Orman C. Marvel
Azor P. Howe, .....
Herma W. Severance, P. O. Bernardston,
Edwin R. Farrer, tree warden,
A. E. Hopkins,
Oscar C. Pomeroy,
Edward S. Hosmer, chief fire department,
Edward E. Chapman, . . . .
Clayton E. Stone
Nathan M. Hawkes, park commissioner,
Thos. E. Cox, P. O. Wakefield, R. F. D.,
Frank Turner, chief fire department,
Frederick Burnham, . . . .
flerbert E. King
Wm. H. Stevens, . . . . .
Geo. B. Nye,
Chas. H. Andrews, chief fire department,
Edward E. Ames,
Joseph A. Peters,
Everett C. Stetson, . . . .
Arthur J. Coughlan, Maynard's block, .
Waldo E. Kingsbury, chief fire depart-
ment.
Chas. Bacon, chief fire department,
Clyde C. Hunt, captain fire department.
Geo. B. Cromb,
Edgar P. Sargent, .
Herbert B. Nichols,
Carl C. Faunce.
S. T. Nelson.
Geo. F. Morse, Jr.
Isaac Kcllcy.
J. H. Woodhcad.
S. R. Walker.
E. P. Merriam.
Edw. R. Farrer.
Alfred Hopkins.
Chas. A. Whittet.
Myron E. Harvey.
Albert C. Doak.
Alfred W. Copeland.
George W. Stiles.
John D. Morrison.
W. O. Sweet.
Wm. H. Stevens, 2d.
James H. Morss.
Timothy J. Brennan.
P. R. Livermore.
Watson F. Hammond.
Geo. E. Barrows.
Albert Coughlan.
Geo. L. L. Allen.
Wm. J. Gannon.
Frank Hager.
John J. McCuUough.
Frank M. Aldrich.
Chas. R. Ford.
Alfred H. Wagland.
254
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con.
Town or City.
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Middloborough,
Middlefield, .
Middleton,
Milford,
Millbury,
Millis, .
Milton, .
Monroe,
Monson,
Montague,
Monterey,
Montgomery,
Mt. Washington,
Nantucket, .
Nahant,
Natick,
Needham,
New Ashford,
New Bedford.
New Braintree,
New Marlborough,
New Salem, .
Newbury,
Newburyport,
Newton,
Norfolk,
North Adams,
North Andover,
N. Attleborough,
North Brookfield
North Reading,
Northampton,
Northborough,
Northbridge,
Northfield, .
Norton,
Norwell ,
284
342
211
127
124
253
242
34
98
53
28
82
30
333
204
238
6
277
131
32
55
231
230
205
256
4
215
262
129
175
72
140
117
40
266
290
C. W. Weston
Thos. H. Fleming, P. O. Bancroft,
Oscar H. Sheldon, .
Elbert M. Crockett, chief fire depart-
ment.
Wm. E. Horn,
Chas. La Croix, .....
Nathaniel T. Kidder, park commissioner,
S. R. Tower
Omer E. Bradway,
Fred W. Lyman, lumber dealer,
J. H. Bills,
Frank C. Preston, P. O. Huntington, .
Ira L. Patterson, .....
Albert R. Coffin
Thos. Roland
Wm. E. Daniels
Howard H. Upham, chief fire depart-
ment.
Wm. E. Baker
Edward F. Dahill, chief fire department,
E. L. Havens, ......
Jas. McLaughlin, P. O. Mill River, .
Rawson King, P. O. Cooleyville, .
Wm. P. Bailey
Chas. P. Kelley
Walter B. Randlett, chief fire department,
P. O. West Newton.
Andrew R. Jones, .....
H. J. Montgomery, chief fire department,
Geo. A. Rea, ......
Harvey W. Tufts, chief fire department,
Harold A. Foster
Irving F. Batchelder, ....
Frederick E. Chase, ....
T. P. Haskell
W. E. Burnap, P. O. Whitinsville, .
Fred. W. Doane,
Alden G. Walker,
John Whalen, . . . .
B. T. McGlauflin.
Patrick F. Fitzgerald.
Edw. F. Roach.
Fred Holland.
Nathaniel T. Kidder.
Geo. M. Winslow.
Thomas Roland.
H. H. Hunnewell.
Ernest E. Riley.
Chas. F. Lawton.
O. B. Tarbox.
Chas. P. Kelley.
Chas. I. Bucknam.
C. Albert Murphy.
Peter Holt.
F. P. Toner.
Samuel D. Colburn.
Geo. E. Eaton.
T. P. Haskell.
Arthur F. Whitiu.
Owen G. Walker.
John H. Sparrell.
No. 4.]
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
Zoo
List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con,
Town or City.
Badge
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Norwood,
250
J. Fred Boyden, chief fire department, .
H. Frank Winslow.
Oak Bluffs,
334
Frank W. Chase
Patrick P. Hurley.
Oakham,
135
Chas. H. Trowbridge
Chas. H. Trowbridge.
Orange,
47
Frank M. Jennison, ....
F. M. Jennison.
Orleans,
321
Chas. F. Poor
Albert A. Smith.
Otis,
27
Chester R. Cromwell, ....
-
Oxford, .
335
T. M. Harrington,
Chas. G. Larned.
Palmer,
Pax ton.
89
130
James Summers, chief fire department,
P. O. Box 333.
Fred A. Durgin,
C. H. Keith.
Louis M. Robinson.
Peabody,
219
Michael V. McCarthy, Forest Street,
James F. Callahan.
Pelham,
68
E. A. Harris, P. O. Amherst,
-
Pembroke,
294
Jos. J. Shepherd,
Calvin S. West.
Pepperell,
160
Geo. G. Tarbell, P. 0. East Pepperell, .
John Tune.
Peru, .
16
John Frizell
-
Petersham,
148
Geo. P. Marsh
Frank A. Hathaway.
Phillipston,
Pittsfield,
106
13
Wm. Cowlbeck, P. 0. Athol, R. F. D.
No. 3.
Lucien D. Hazard,
Wm. H. L. Coulbeck.
Plainville, .
59
Edward C. Barney, ....
Chas. N. Snell.
Plainfield,
309
Lestan E. Parker
-.
Plymouth,
302
Herbert Morissey,
Abbott A. Raymond.
Plympton,
300
Thomas W. Blanchard
David Bricknell.
Prescott,
69
Waldo H. Pierce, P. O. Greenwich Village,
-
Princeton,
150
W. A. Williams
Frank A. Skinner.
Provincetown
,
325
James H. Barnett
John M. Burch.
Quincy,
243
Peter J. Williams, chief fire department.
Andrew J. Stewart.
Randolph,
248
Chas. A. Wales, chief fire department, .
James E. Blanche.
Raynham,
270
John V. Festing, chief fire department, .
Geo. M. Leach.
Reading,
176
Herbert E. Mclntire
Henry M. Donegan.
Rehoboth,
268
Silas A. Pierce,
Stephen W. Robinson.
Revere,'
-
-
Geo. P. Babson.
Richmond,
17
T. B. Salmon
-
Rochester,
282
Wm. N. Smellie
Chester B. Morse.
Rockland,
288
John H. Burke, clerk fire board.
Frank H. Shaw.
Rockport,
235
A. J. McFarland, P. O. Box 91,
Frank A. Babcock.
Rowe, .
35
Merritt A. Peck,
-
Rowley,
232
Daniel O'Brien
Daniel O'Brien.
Royalston,
102
Willard W. White, P. O. South Royalston,
W. W. White.
' No forest area.
256
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Vuh. Doc.
List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con.
Town or Citt.
Badge
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Russell,
Rutland,
Salem,' .
Salisbury,
Sandisfiold,
Sandwich,
Saugus,
Savoy, .
Scituate,
Seekonk,
Sharon,
Sheffield,
Shelburne,
Sherborn,
Shirley,
Shrewsbury,
Shutesbury,
Somerset,
Somerville,'
South Hadlcy
Southampton
Southborough
Southbridge,
Southwick,
Spencer,
Springfield,
Sterling,
Stockbridgc,
Stoneham,
Stoughton,
Stow,
Sturbridge,
Sudbury,
Sunderland,
Sutton,
Swampscott,
Swansea,
83
143
229
33
314
207
8
291
267
251
31
43
203
168
132
58
336
78
76
337
109
92
121
86
144
21
190
258
183
108
185
338
116
339
273
Sidney F. .Shurtleff, highway surveyor, .
Henry Converse, chief fire department, .
Wm. H. Evans
Lyman H. Clark, P. O. New Boston,
John F. Carleton, P. O. Spring Hill,
Ole C. Christiansen, . . . .
Herbert H. Fitzroy, P. O. Savoy Center,
Ernest R. Seaverns, chief fire depart-
ment.
John L. Barker, P. O. Attleborough, R.
F. D. No. 4.
A. A. Carpenter, . . . . .
Arthur H. Tuttle
H. O. Fiske, P. O. Shelburne Falls,
Milo F. Campbell, South Sherborn,
Melvin W. Longley, P. O. Shirley Csntre,
Wm. E. Rice
Minor A. Haskell,
Wm. F. Griffiths, Swansea, R. F. D., .
Joseph Beach, P. O. South Hadley Falls,
Geo. W. Tyler
Harry Burnett, tree warden, .
Aimee Langevin, Olney Avenue,
Lowell A. Mason, ....
A. F. Howlett, chief fire department.
Burton Steere, assistant fire chief, .
G. F. Herbert
Geo. Schneyer, P. O. Glendale,
Geo. E. Sturtevant, chief fire department
Jesse E. Smith, ....
Wm. H. Parker, P. O. Gleasondale,
Chas. M. Clark, P. O. Fiskdale, .
F.E.Bent, .....
A. C. Warner, .....
R. W. Richardson, ....
Geo. P. Cahoon, chief fire department
Thos. L. Mason, R. F. D. No. 2, .
H. Edw. Wheeler.
Amos Stillman.
Henry C. Rich.
B. F. Deni-son.
Thos. E. Berrctt.
Percival S. Brown.
Harold F. Thompson.
T. J. Leary.
J. P. Dowse.
A. A. Adams.
Frank L. Ott.
Chas. Riley.
Asa B. Pritchard.
Harry Burnett.
Joseph Proulx.
Geo. H. Ramer.
Wm. F. Gale.
Jos. H. Kilbourn.
Geo. M. Jefts.
Wm. P. Kennedy.
Geo. A. Patterson.
Wm. E. Baldwin.
John E. Gifford.
Everett P. Mudge.
E. C. Gardner.
' No forest area.
No. 4.]
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
257
List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth, Superintendents — Con.
Town on City.
Badge
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Taunton,
Templet on,
Tewksbury,
Tisbury,
Tolland,
Topsfield,
Townsend,
Truro, .
Tyngsborough,
Tyringham,
Upton, .
Uxbridge,
Wakefield,
Wales, .
Walpole,
Walt ham.
Ware,
Wareham,
Warren,
Warwick,
Washington,
Watertown,
Wayland,
Webster,
Wellesley,
Wellfleet.
Wendell,
Wenham,
West Boylston,
West Bridgewater
West Brookfield,
West Newbury,
West Springfield,
West Stockbridge
West Tisbury,
Westborough,
Westfield, .
269
107
364
310
90
218
159
324
162
26
126
113
208
100
340
195
75
305
119
41
19
206
196
111
239
323
54
221
137
285
128
226
341
20
307
133
84
Fred. A. Leonard, chief fire department,
Henry H. Seaver, P. O. Baldwinville,
Herbert W. Pillsbury, .
Elmer C. Chadwick,
Eugene M. Moore, .
Geo. F. .\verill,
F. J. Piper, chief fire department,
Naylor Hatch,
Otis L. Wright,
Geo. F. Knapp,
E. M. Baker, chief fire department
Louis F. Rawson, .
Samuel T. Parker, .
W. W. Eager
Horace A. Spear, Jr.,
Geo. L. Johnson, chief fire department,
L. S. Charbonneau, P. O. Box 25,
A. C. Keyes, ....
Joseph St. George, .
Chas. A. Williams, .
Geo. Messenger, R. F. D., Becket,
John C. Ford, tree warden,
Clarence S. Williams, Cochituate,
Arthur G. Pattison,
Fletcher M. Abbott, tree warden,
Edwin P. Cook,
Geo. A. Lewis,
Jacob D. Barnes, tree warden,
Frank H. Baldwin, agent Metropolitan
Water Board.
Warren P. Laughton,
J.H.Webb
Silas M. Titcomb, P. O. Byfield,
A. A. Sibley
Bernard Manning, . ,
Wm. J. Botch,
James H. McDonald, chief fire depart-
ment.
Geo. H. Byers, chief fire department,
Arnold Street.
Alvaro Harnden.
John B. Wheeler.
Harris M. Briggs.
Presbury S. Luce.
C. W. Floyd.
Geo. E. King.
Joseph H. Atwood.
Howard E. Noble.
Geo. H. Evans.
H. T. Newell.
W. W. Whittredge.
Philip R. Allen.
Warren M. Ryan.
Fred E. Zeissig.
J. J. Walsh.
Alfred A. Warriner.
John C. Ford.
Daniel Graham.
Carl Klebart.
Fletcher M. Abbott.
Everett S. Jacobs.
Jacob D. Barnes.
Chas. H. Baldwin.
Octave Bel more.
Robert J. Forsj'the.
John Pease.
Walter Sullivan.
258
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
List of Forest Wardens and Local Moth Superintendents — Con,
Town or City.
Badge
No.
Forest Warden.
Local Moth
Superintendent.
Westford,
Westhampton,
Westminster,
Weston,
West port.
West wood,
Weymouth,
Whately,
Whitman,
Wilbraham,
Williamsburg,
Williamstown,
Wilmington, .
Winchendon,
Winchester, .
Windsor,
Winthrop,' .
Woburn,
Worcester,
Worthington,
Wrentham, .
Yarmouth, .
166
71
154
186
279
251
245
56
297
96
64
2
174
103
189
12
177
131
62
260
316
John A. Healey, P. O. Graniteville,
Levi Burt, ....
John C. Goodridge, chief fire depart-
ment.
Edward P. Ripley,
Herbert A. Sanford, . . . .
Percy R. Dean, . . . . .
J. R. Walsh, East Weymouth,
James A. Wood,
Clarence A. Randall, tree warden, .
Henry I. Edson, P. O. North Wilbraham,
Howard C. Pomeroy
Daniel Hogan, . . . . .
Joseph M. Hill, chief fire department.
North Wilmington.
Arthur L. Brown, chief fire department, .
Irving L. Symmes, chief fire department,
H. W. Ford
Frank E. Tracy, chief fire department,
Arthur V. Parker, ....
Howard C. Brewster,
E. S. Stone, captain fire department,
Seth Taylor
Harry L. Nesmith.
Stillman Whitney.
Edw. P. Ripley.
Jonathan B. Hicks.
C. H. Southerland.
Chas. L. Merritt.
Clarence A. Randall.
Oliver McGrane.
John G. Folsora.
Samuel S. Symmes.
Frank W. Tucker.
James H. Kelley.
Harold J. Neale.
Wm. M. Gilmore.
Chas. R. Bassett.
> No forest area.
New Legislation.
The following new legislation, relative to forestry matters,
was enacted by the last General Court.
As the liberation of fire balloons during seasons of drought
has been the cause of several c-xtrciiicly damaging forest fires
during the past few years, and as their continued use would be a
constant menace to property in the future, it seemed imperative
that legislation should be enacted which would eliminate this
danger. The following law was therefore passed : —
A view of the State Forester's exhil)it ou tlie better larmiuj,'- electric train.
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 259
Acts of 1910, Chapter 141.
An Act to prohibit the Use of Fire Balloons.
Be it enacted, etc., as follows:
It shall be unlawful within any city or town in this commonwealth
for any person to liberate or fly fire balloons of any description. Who-
ever violates this act shall be punished by a fine of not more than one
hundred dollars, or by imprisonment for not more than one month, or
by both such fine and imprisonment. [Ajjproved March 2, 1910.
The enactment of the following law will undoubtedly result
in lessening the number and size of forest fires, by stimulating
a desire on the part of many towns to adopt reasonable preven-
tive measures, and to provide proper apparatus to extinguish
fires when they do occur. This law is dealt with more in detail
in the chapter devoted to forest fires.
Acts of 1910, Chapter 398.
An Act relative to Protection against Forest Fires.
Be it enacted, etc., as follows:
Section 1. Every town in the commonwealth with a valuation of one
million five hundred thousand dollars or less which appropriates and
expends money, with the approval of the state forester, for apparatus
to be used in preventing or extinguishing forest fires or for making
protective belts or zones as a defence against forest fires, shall be enti-
tled, upon the recommendation of the state forester, approved by the
governor, to receive from the treasury of the commonwealth a sum
equal to one half of the said expenditure, but no town shall receive more
than two himdred and fifty dollars.
Section 2. A sum not exceeding five thousand dollars in any one
year may be expended in carrying out the provisions of this act.
Section 3, This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved
April 13, 1910.
So numerous have been forest fires in Barnstable and Plym-
outh counties within the past few years, the cause of which in
many cases has been attributed to the carelessness and indiffer-
ence of berry pickers and camping parties, that many prominent
citizens of those counties petitioned for legislation which, if
properly enforced, would serve to lessen the danger of fire from
the above-named source. The following law was therefore
enacted : —
260 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Acts of 1910, Chapter 478.
An Act relative to the Picking of Berries and Flowers and to
Camping and Picnicking during Certain Months in the Coun-
ties OP Barnstable and Plymouth.
Be it enacted, etc., as follows:
Section 1. It shall be unlawful for any unnaturalized, foreign-born
person to pick wild berries or flowers, or to camp or picnic, upon any
land of which he is not the owner, within the counties of Barnstable and
Plymouth, between the first day of April and the first day of December,
without first obtaining written permission so to do from the owner or
owners of the land. The Said written permit shall not be transferable,
and shall be exhibited upon demand to the forest warden, or his depu-
ties, of the town wherein the land is located, or upon demand of any
sheriff, constable, police officer or other officer authorized to arrest for
crime. Failure or refusal to produce said permit upon such demand
shall be prima facie evidence of a violation of this act, and any forest
"warden or any duly authorized deputy forest warden, police officer,
sheriff or other officer authorized to arrest for crime, may arrest with-
out warrant any person who fails or refuses to display for inspection
the said permit upon the demand of any of the oflficials named in this
act.
Section 2. Whoever violates any provision of this act shall be pun-
ished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars, or by imprisonment for
not more than thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment.
[Approved May 3, 1910.
In response to the suggestion made by Governor Draper in
his inaugural address, as well as the recommendation contained
in the annual report of the State Forester, the law relative to
the suppression of the gypsy and brown-tail moths was so
amended as to make the ofSce of local moth superintendent
appointive rather than elective, and the appointees subject to
the approval of the State Forester. The object of this legis-
lation was to insure the appointment of thoroughly competent
men to have charge of this important woi-k in the cities and
towns of the Commonwealth. The amendment was as fol-
lows : —
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 261
Acts of 1910, Chapter 150.
An Act relative to the Appointment of Local Superintendents
FOR the Suppression of the Gypsy and Brown Tail Moths.
Be it enacted, etc., as follows:
Section 1. Section four of chapter three hundred and eighty-one
of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and five, as amended by section
two of chapter two hundred and sixty-eight of the acts of the year nine-
teen hundred and six, and by section one of chapter five hundred and
twenty-one of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and seven, is hereby
further amended by striking out at the beginning thereof, the words
" Cities and towns by such public officer or board as they shall designate
or appoint, shall under the advice and general direction of said super-
intendent ", and inserting in place thereof the words : — The mayor
and aldermen in cities and the selectmen in towns shall annually in the
month of March or April appoint a local superintendent for the sup-
pression of gypsy and brown tail moths. Said superintendent shall,
under the advice and general direction of the state forester, — also by
inserting after the word " herein ", in the eighth line, the words : —
The appointment of a local superintendent shall not take effect unless
approved by the state forester, and when so approved, notice of the
appointment shall be given by the mayor and aldermen or the selectmeu
to the person so appointed, — so that the first paragraph of said section
as amended will read as follows : — Section 4. The mayor and aldermen
in cities and the selectmen in towns shall annually in the month of
March or April appoint a local superintendent for the suppression of
gj"psy and brown tail moths. Said superintendents shall, under the
advice and general direction of the state forester, destroy the eggs, cater-
pillars, pupae and nests of the gypsy and brown tail moths within their
limits, except in parks and other property under the control of the com-
monwealth, and except in private property, save as otherwise provided
herein. The appointment of a local superintendent shall not take effect
unless approved by the state forester, and when so approved, notice of
the appointment shall be given by the mayor and aldermen or the select-
men to the person so appointed. When any city or town shall have
expended within its limits city or town funds to an amount in excess
of five thousand dollars in any one fiscal year, in suppressing gypsy
or brown tail moths, the commonwealth shall reimburse such city or
town to the extent of fifty per cent of such excess above said five thou-
sand dollars.
Section 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved
March 2, 1910.
262 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
In order to legalize the acceptance by the State Forester, on
behalf of the Commonwealth, of bequests or gifts made for the
purpose of promoting forestry in Massachusetts, the following
law was enacted : —
Acts of 1910, Chapter 153.
An Act to authorize the State Forester to accept Bequests or
Gifts on Behalf of the Commonwealth.
Be it enacted, etc., as follows:
Section 1. The state forester, with the approval of the governor and
council, is hereby authorized to accept, on behalf of the commonwealtli,
bequests or gifts to be used for the jiurpose of advancing the forestry
interests of the commonwealth, under the direction of the governor and
council, in such manner as to carry out the terms of the bequest or gift.
Section 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved
March 3, 1910.
An act was passed to provide funds for carrying on the gypsy
and brown-tail moth work, and for experimenting with parasites
for destroying said moths, as follows : —
Acts of 1910, Chapter 234.
An Act making Appropriations for the Suppression of the Gypsy
and Brown Tail Moths.
Be it enacted, etc., as follows:
Section 1. The sums hereinafter mentioned are appropriated, to be
paid out of the treasury of the commonwealth from (he ordinary reve-
nue, for the purposes specified, to wit : —
For the suppression of the gypsy and brown tail moths in the year
nmeteen hundred and ten, and for expenses incidental thereto, a sum
not exceeding one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, the same to be in
addition to any amount heretofore appropriated for this purpose.
For experimenting with parasites or natural enemies for destroying
said moths, and for expenses incident thereto, a sum not exceeding fif-
teen thousand dollars, in addition to any unexpended balance of a for-
mer appropriation for this purpose.
Section 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved
March 18, 1910.
Acknowledgments.
It gives the State Forester great pleasure to acknowledge the
continued valuable services and loyal support which he has re-
ceived through his assistants and workers in this department,
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 2G3
whether it be in the office or field work, throughout the year.
The work on the part of all has been enthusiastically and will-
ingly undertaken. All of the members of the staff are entitled
to the greatest possible credit for their efficient services.
He also desires to express his great appreciation of the gener-
ous treatment and kindly assistance rendered him by all citizens,
boards and officials with whom he has come in contact, and again
to emphasize the kindly co-operation on the part of the United
States government through Dr. L. O. Howard of the Bureau of
Entomology and Mr. D. M. Rogers, field agent ; also of Harvard
University, through Dean W. C. Sabine and the departments
represented on the co-operative scientific staff.
Steam Railroad " Farming Special " Train.
The needs of better farming methods and a much greater pro-
duction from farming lands are receiving much attention all
over this country. Here in our own State this feeling has been
materially augmented during the past year through the earnest
endeavors of the State Forester, the State Board of Agriculture
and the Massachusetts Agricultural College, aided by the Boston
& Albany Railroad, to exploit the opportunities that exist for
land owners of the Old Bay State. In line with this movement,
the Boston & Albany Railroad ran a " Better Farming Special "
over its road March 30 and 31 and April 1 and 2, consisting of
five observation cars, fully equipped with exhibits representing
every branch of agriculture and forestry.
The " Better Farming Special " visited the following cities
and towns : —
Wednesday, March 30. — Westfielcl; Pittsfield; Cheshire; North
Adams,
Thursday, March 31. — Chester; Springfield; Enfield; New Salem;
Athol,
Friday, April 1. — Templeton; Barre Plains; Ware; Palmer; East
Brookfield,
Saturday, April 2. — Worcester; Westborough ; South Framingham;
Milford.
At each place the special was met by hundreds of farmers, who
in many instances had driven miles to enjoy the privilege of
264 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
listening to the lectures ou the niauj' themes relating to farming,
as given by the representatives of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College and the State Board of Agriculture; also, the develop-
ment of forestry and the work of suppressing the gypsy and
brown-tail moths, as presented by the State Forester and his
assistants. At some of the stations were gathered whole schools,
in charge of their teachers, and great interest was shown by them
in both the lectures and the exhibits.
One entire car was devoted to forestry, under the direction
of the State Forester, and included in the exhibits were the fol-
lowing : —
Pine seedlings, varying in age from one to three years.
Photographs showing modern and approved methods of foresti*y
management and reforestation work.
Photographs showing fires, and damage done by same.
Complete equipment for forest-fire fighting.
Living gypsy moth caterpillars.
Living brown-tail moth caterijillars.
Mounted specimens showing the life history of the gypsy and brown-
tail moths.
A large collection of parasites, such as have been imported from
abroad.
Living Calosoma beetles.
Several species of native predaceous beetles of the gypsy moth.
Photographs showing different methods used in moth-suppression
work.
Photographs of apparatus used in moth-suppression work.
Trees showing the proper method of treating cavities by tin patching.
Oak tree, showing brown-tail moth webs in their winter stage.
Living egg parasites.
Specimens of many other insects of economic importance.
The forest-fire wagon, desig-ned and equipped under the
direction of the State Forester, attracted much attention and
received favorable comment from scoi'es of town officials, who
manifested a great deal of interest in the forest-fire problem.
Another feature of the State Forester's exhibit which created
widespread interest was the living specimens of the gypsy and
brown-tail moth caterpillars, which gave to hundreds of people
their first opportunity to see these dangerous insect pests.
Evenine; meetings were held at North Adams, Athol and
No. 4.J REPOrxT OF STATE FORESTER. 265
Worcester, and large and enthusiastic audiences were addressed
by leading men on agricultural and allied topics.
The enterprise from start to finish was declared a pronounced
success, and without doubt proved to be a valuable factor in
stimulating and advancing the farming and forestry interests
of Massachusetts.
Electric Railroad " Farming Special '" Train.
So marked was the value of the exhibition to the farming in-
terests of the territory traversed by the Boston & Albany special
that the officials of the New England Investment and Security
Company, which controls between nine hundred and one thou-
sand miles of trolley lines in western Massachusetts, immediately
tendered the Agricultural College and State department, with-
out expense, every facility and convenience which they had to
offer in running a trolley special over their lines in sections of
the State not covered by the former trip.
In accordance with this plan, on April 14 four cars, equipped
in practically the same manner as those of the Boston & Albany
special, left Amherst on a three-days tour of education. The
itinerary was as follows: —
Thursday, April 14. — South Iladley ; Russell ; Huntington ; Spring-
field.
Frklaij, April 15. — North Wilbraham; Brimfleld; Sturbridge; Charl-
ton Center.
Saturday, April 16. — Oxford; Holden ; Sterling; Worcester.
Much enthusiasm and interest greeted the special at every
stop. At South Iladley nearly three hundred students of Mt.
Holyoke College attended the demonstrations and enjoyed the
lectures.
A splendid agricultural rally was held at Springfield on the
evening of the 14th, under the auspices of the Springfield Board
of Trade, where over five hundred business men listened to an
address by President Butterfield of the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural College, in which he in) pressed upon them the importance
of co-operation in advancing the interests of commercial farming
in our State.
266 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
This was undoubtedly the first trolley " farming special "
ever attempted in this country, and its success proves that a
grand service can by this means be rendered agricultural educa-
tion in the future.
Publications of the State Foeestek.
It has been the aim of the office to publish as rapidly as pos-
sible such information as our people desire regarding forestry in
its various phases. As requests came in, the department has
anticipated the requirements, and has written bulletins which
give in a practical and workable way detailed information,
so that our people will not lack for guidance in actually accom-
plishing something, if they are so inclined.
At present we have a list of bulletins which cover fairly well
the general information most likely to be required. By being
able to furnish a bulletin which goes more into detail than is pos-
sible in a letter, the State Forester can do himself great justice.
We do not attempt sending out the whole list of bulletins
unless specially requested to do so. or unless we feel sure that
they are likely to be appreciated and used. The department has
a mailing list of about 3,000 names of those who have shown
some special interest in forestry. The mailing list is revised
occasionally by writing and asking if the bulletins are still
desired.
Two publications issued by the State Forester were so eagerly
sought after that the Legislature believed it advisable that they
be sold at cost; hence they are the only exceptions in the list.
These are especially valuable in the identification of trees and
in school work. The list of publications of the department
follows : —
*1. Forest Trees of Massachusetts: how you may know them. A
Pocket ManuaL
*2. The Study of Trees in our Primary Schools.
3. Massachusetts Wood-using Industries.
4. The Evergreens. 'Methods of Study in Public Schools.
5. Re-foi-estation in Massachusetts.
6. How and when to collect White Pine Seed.
7. Forest mensuration of the White Pine. ITow to estimafe Standing
Timber.
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 2G7
8. How to make Improvement Tliiiming-s.
9. We must stop Forest Fires in Massachusetts.
10. Forest fire-fighting Equipment in our Towns.
11. The Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths.
12. The Annual Report of the State Forester.
13. Laws relating to Forestry, and the Suppression of the Gypsy and
Brown-tail Moths.
14. Colored Plates of the Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths and Calosoma
Beetle.
15. Suggestions in Regard to Municipal Forests: a Practical Example.
[Note. — Under the resolves authorizing their publication, the two
bulletins marked * must be sold by the State Forester at a price not less
than their cost. Thus, the price of " Forest Trees of Massachusetts :
how you may know them," is 5 cents a copy at the office, 6 Beacon
Street. Boston, or 2 cents extra by mail; and of '' The Study of Trees
in our Primary Schools," 12 cents a copy, or 8 cents extra by mail.
Any other bulletins in the list may be obtained at the office, or will be
mailed upon request without cost.]
268 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
GENERAL FORESTRY.
Examinations of Woodland.
The examination of private woodland for owners requesting
such examination, one of the oldest branches of our work, has
been carried on as in former years, and the even distribution
over the whole year of the applications for such examinations,
without extra solicitation on the part of this office, seems to
indicate a steady and healthy interest on the part of the owners
(jf this class of land. The work, as was explained last year,
consists usually of a visit to the land in company with the owner
or some other interested person, advice as to treatment given
verbally on the ground, and often a subsequent written report.
This year an attempt has been made to keep in closer touch
with examinees and the manner in which the recommendations
of the office are carried out, by making a personal inspection,
usually at a time when in the locality on other business. In
this way owners were made to feel that an interest was being
taken in their work, and in every case the office has felt well
repaid by the results.
It has not been possible to make such inspections in large
numbers, partly because the work was not begun till well along
in the year, and partly because only those owners are visited
where it is felt that enough time has elapsed to make the visit
profitable. Enough has been done, however, to prove the advan-
tages of the plan, and it is intended to push the work steadily
during the coming season.
The following table gives a list of the examinations made,
their location and area. A table of costs will be found at the
end of this section of the report.
No. 4.]
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
269
Owner.
Town.
Area (Acres).
Allen, P. R
Bent, F. E.,
Borden, N. E
Boston & Northern Street Railway,
Brayton, A. P
Brochu.J. E.,
Burnett, H., trustee, ......
Chandler, J. F
Creamer, F
Cummings, W. O.,
Gushing, J. S.,
Dewar, D. W
Eddy, Mary B
Emerson, Dr. A. W., ......
Fitchburg Water Board
Forrest, W. P.,
Fowle, D. H
Fuller, W. A
Fuller, W. A
FuUer, W. A
Gerrish, Isabel F.,
Green, F. C
Harriman, C. S
Holmes, E.B
Home, W. N
Hunnewell, H. H
Jones, J. L.,
Lawrence, LP
Mahoney, T. J.,
Main, F. H
Manning, W.,
Massachusetts Agricultural College, branch farm,
Minns, Susan,
Minot, W
Morey, E
Nelaon, H. W
Pickman, D. L
Robinson, C. E.,
Sawyer, A. H.,
Sears, Julia M.,
Walpole,
Sudbury,
South Framingliam,
Groveland, .
Somerset,
Attleborough,
Hopkinton,
Tyngsborough, .
Peru, .
Tyngsborough, .
Norwood,
Carlisle,
Newton,
Norwood, .
Westminster and Fitchbun
Foxborough,
Newbury, .
Clinton,
Harvard,
Bolton,
Ashland,
Bourne and Plymouth,
North Wilmington,
Abington, .
Foxborough,
Natick,
Halifax,
Ashburnham,
Warehara, .
Lanesborough,
Marion,
Sandwich, .
Princeton, .
Ware ham, .
Ashland,
Marshfield, .
Bedford,
Hinsdale,
Salisbury, .
Tyngsborough,
5
30
60
38
13
100
116
10
40
10
40
10
100
400
22
30
49
107
128
47
400
4
30
32
250
1,400
200
200
400
20
127
50
20
43
400
800
30
30
270
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Rub. Doc.
Owner.
Town.
Area (Acres).
Seavey, H., .
Simmons, H. F.,
Stevens, E. A.,
Stevens, H. H.,
Tenney, C. H.,
Tracy, Harriet E.
Webber, F. S.,
White, J. H., .
Willets, H., .
Total,
Canton,
Hanover,
Duxbury, .
Marlborough,
Methuen,
Peru, .
South Hadley, .
Bridgewater,
New Marlborough,
125
10
40
30
75
175
10
25
200
6,495
In all, 17 inspections have been made, with an aggregate area
of 1,080 acres: —
Owner.
Bird.C. S.. . . . ,
Bridgman, H. A.,
Burbank Hospital,
Burgess, J. K.,
Codman, Catherine,
Emery, Miss M. E.,
Fisher, Lewis N., .
Fiske, Warren,
Holmes, E. B.,
Hutchins, C. L., .
Joslin, E. P
Needham Water Board,
Plympton, Mrs. A. L., .
Prescott, C. W., .
Stevens, Chas.,
Thorndike, R. K.,
Walpole High School, .
Town.
Area (Acres).
Walpole,
Shirley,
Fitchburg, .
Dedham,
Dedham,
West Newbury,
Walpole,
Harvard,
Abington, .
Concord,
Oxford,
Needham, .
Dover,
Concord,
Sudbury,
Millis, .
Walpole,
60
15
400
50
18
55
7
200
30
25
100
5
10
60
5
20
20
Woodland Management.
The forestry department wishes to lay especial emphasis on
another recent development of its work ; namely, management of
private woodlands by the owner, under the continuons super-
No. 4.] KEPOUT OF STATE FORESTER. 271
vision of this office. Under this plan, several private owners
are this winter carrying on regular thinning improvement cut-
ting, fire-line making and other forestry operations, under the
more or less regular instruction and general supervision of a
forestry assistant.
In one instance, that of the Burbank Hospital, treated more
fully elsewhere, a regular lumbering operation was completed.
In any case the plan is doubly advantageous, both to the
owner and the office, in that it is made possible for such owners
to employ the same men used by the reforestation department in
its spring planting, thus getting the profit of experienced labor
at the same price that would have to be paid for inferior work-
men ; while at the same time the office is pleased to offer its men
continuous employment, instead of losing all trace of them im-
mediately at the close of the planting season. The owner, of
course, pays all cost of the work, including travelling expenses
of the expert from this office, the assistance only being given
free.
In addition to the advantages already indicated, there is the
far-reaching one of having within the State an ever-increasing
number of men, and more particularly of competent bosses, who
understand not only woods work but woods work along practical
forestry lines ; this body of men to act as a nucleus around which
to build up an effective force for carrying out the many and
increasingly difficult forestry problems which are pressing for
immediate solution.
Owners and towns where the work described above either is or
soon will be under way are as follows : —
R. B. Symmington, Plymouth, has thinned about 50 acres.
Francis C. Green, Buzzard's Bay, will make fire lines, thin and pos-
sibly plant.
Frederick W. Burnham, Buckland, is clear-cutting and thinning about
50 acres ; will later turn over to State to plant.
I. P. Lawrence, Ashburnham, is planting 25 acres and may do some
thinning.
It is hoped that in future we may be able to report a still
further increase in this work, and one in keeping with its
importance.
272 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Forest Woeking Plan for the Burbank Hospital.
A year ago last spring the trustees of the Burbank Hospital
asked this office to examine 250 acres of woodland belonging
to the hospital. Mr. Cook, the assistant forester who made the
examination, was greatly impressed with the evidence of present
and future value in the land, and convinced the trustees that
they should have a working plan made for the place. This was
done in the fall of the same year. In this plan each type of
land was carefully mapped out, and the treatment to be accorded
each type was explained. In general, the report recommended
the cutting of mature growth, the thinning and improving of
growing stands, and the planting of such vacant land as was not
needed for pasturing cattle.
Three lots were selected for immediate cutting. The first
was covered with a growth of mixed hard woods, — chestnut,
birch, pine, beech, oak, maple and hemlock. From the standpoint
of merchantable volume, chestnut and white pine were the most
prominent trees, and ranged in size from 7 to 25 inches, the
average being from 12 to 16 inches. The plan for cutting
called for the removal of all trees over 7 inches in diameter,
breast high, except a few pines which were to be left to seed
the cut-over land. The merchantable trees were to be left un-
injured as far as possible, limbs and tops were to be worked up
into cord wood, and the rest of the slash piled and burned.
Practically all the chestnut, oak, pine, birch and hemlock trees
were of merchantable size, whereas the maple and beech were
very generally below it. The reason for selecting this lot for
immediate cutting was that it had been more or less severely
injured by fire in past years, and it was feared that the trees
were slowly dying.
The second lot was 4 acres of heavy white pine, nearly pure.
The trees averaged 15 inches in diameter, breast high, and 70
feet in height. It was estimated to run 35,000 feet to the acre,
but turned out to contain much more. This lot was cut clean,
with the exception of a few of the large, liniby trees, which were
left to seed the cut-over land. About 8 trees to the acre, and
placed as evenly as possible over the cut area, were selected for
this purpose. The spreading, bushy specimens were selected as
;?»«s-
.■!^^^4v
Pine trees left standing for reseeding purposes, on tlie Burljank
Hospital property, at Fitchl)urg.
No. 4.]
KEPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
273
seed trees, because they produce the most seed and at the same
time are the least valuable as lumber. Here, as on the other lot,
the slash was piled and burned.
The third bunch of timber covered only II/2 acres, and was
made up almost entirely of sprout chestnut. This lot was
selected because the trees were over-mature, had decayed butts
and were going back.
The method of handling this work, as agreed upon by Dr.
Tower, superintendent of the hospital, and Mr. Cook, was
briefly as follows : —
The chopping was to be done under the direct supervision of
this office, and Mr. Winifred Eaton, one of our most trusted
employees, was made foreman of the chopping gang. This
arrangement was made because it was felt that the ordinary
choppers could not be depended on to carry out the provisions
of the working plan. This office looked on the job as an ex-
periment in conservative logging, and was therefore anxious
that everything be done in good faith. The sawing and sticking
was done under contract by a Mr. Spencer, a portable-mill man.
The hauling of the logs was done by the men and horses belong-
ing to the hospital farm. Partly because these men were not
experienced in this work, and partly because they had to pile
the logs on skids, to remain until the mill was set up, the cost
of logging was higher than is usual in this kind of work.
The following table shows the cost of the above operation : —
Operation.
Total.
Per 1,000 Feet.
$59 50
SO 19
15 70
05
12 00
04
85 50
901
121 00
1 10'
463 50
1 53
695 75
2 30
47 60
16
888 70
2 93
Camp, material and tools,
Labor on camp,
Repairing old roads,
Chopping 95 cords pine, at 90 cents per cord, .
Chopping 110 cords hard woods, at $1.10 per cord, .
Lumber, 303,000 feet,
Sawing lumber,
Burning brush,
Logging and sticking,
Total, excluding cord wood, ....
' Per cord.
$2,182 75
$7 20
274 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The total product was made up of both timber logs (303,000
feet) and cord wood (205 cords). In order to get at the cost
of chopping the lumber, we deducted the value of the cord wood
chopping, allowing 90 cents for each of the 95 cords of pine
and $1.10 for each of the 110 cords of hard wood, these being
the prices current for that work in that vicinity. The cost of
chopping is somewhat higher than the average for that kind of
work, — approximately 30 cents per 1,000 feet more ; but the
most of this diiference can be laid to the labor of piling
the brush for burning, and some to necessity for caring for the
smaller trees.
Owing to the fact that a large number of timber lots were
cut off in the neighborhood of Fitchburg last winter, the lum-
ber market there experienced a slump, so that the hospital
superintendent was unable to dispose of his supply at a price
equal to what we had hoped for. For the 175,000 feet of
round-edge pine he received $15 per 1,000 feet as it lay stacked
on the lot; for the 53,000 feet of square-edge pine, $21; and
for the 75,000 feet of mixed hard woods, only $14. The
gross returns were $4,788, — an average price of $15.80 per
1,000 feet. Deducting from this amount $2,182, the cost of log-
ging, sawing, etc., the net returns were $2,606, or $8.60 per
1,000 feet. This sum is somewhat more than they would have
received had they sold the stumpage outright to a lumberman,
because an offer of $8 per 1,000 feet was made for it. Also,
under such circumstances the cutting would have been carried
out without any regard for the future of the land, and the slash
left in such a condition that a bad fire would have been un-
avoidable. We should estimate that the total extra cost of
disposing of the slash on this job was about 40 cents per 1,000
feet of lumber cut.
Marking for Gypsy Moth Thinning.
In addition to examinations for private owners, and the
marking entailed thereby, the work of the forestry assistants
was extended over numerous areas in the eastern section of the
State for thinning done by the gypsy moth employees. It was
felt that the men, after cutting an area so marked, would soon
be able to combine a working knowledge of forestry methods
A portiible steel shack, — one of those in use by the State Forester's department. Size,
ten Ijy twelve feet; capable of handling twelve men.
The State Forester's nursery at Amherst. M'hite pine transplants in the foreground.
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 275
with their already excellent acquaintance with gypsy moth
requirements.
A total area of about 490 acres was marked for this sort of
thinning, about 425 acres of which lay on the north shore of
Massachusetts Bay, in the towns of Beverly, Manchester,
Gloucester, Wenham and Essex. About one-half of the cut-
ting done on the north shore was marked for by the forestry
assistants, and it is now felt that the men are quite familiar
with their methods of work.
Other localities in which marking was done or advice given
were Tyngsborough, Tewksbury, Wareham, Hingham, Mashpee
and Newton. In the latter place, where a particular effort
was made to sell the cord wood product, the amount realized
not only paid the cost of cutting, but also of cleaning up the
brush, leaving a slight margin of profit.
Surveying.
Considerable surveying has been done by the forestry de-
partment during the year, including nearly all the unsurveyed
lots taken under the reforestation act. These lots, by towns,
are as follows: Buckland, 165 acres; Wellfleet, 52 acres; Har-
wich, 14 acres; Peru, 80 acres; Colrain, 12 acres; Oakham,
100 acres; a total of 449 acres.
Maps have been or are being made for all these lots. Besides
this ordinary surveying and mapping, one topographic and
forest map (in colors) has been made of a tract of land taken
by the State under the reforestation act, and planted and
managed by this office, known as the Lowe farm. This land
lies in Colrain, has an area of 580 acres, and is the largest of
the State plantations.
Reforestation Work.
The reforestation work has been carried on this year under
the policy already established, and gives great promise of awak-
ening the interest of mill owners, lumbermen and land owners
to the necessity of replanting cut-over and waste lands. The
lots planted last year, after being inspected this fall in some
cases show as high as 97 per cent, of healthy growing trees, and
276
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
in no case has more than 40 per cent, died out. Even at this
early date some of these lots have started to fill their mission of
demonstrating, and influencing land owners to undertake forest
planting. One party not owning land suitable for reforestation
bought over 200 acres of cheap waste land, and intends plant-
ing it in the coming spring. Another party, owning 50 acres of
run-out pasture land, became interested through looking over
one of these plantations where young pine had been planted on
land similar to his own. Many other parties, becoming inter-
ested, set out smaller areas.
Deeds for 921 acres have been recorded and the land planted
last spring. In order to carry on the work, five galvanized-iron
shacks were constructed, which will accommodate from eight to
ten men, these shacks enabling the men to live on the lot during
the planting season, and doing away with the necessity of trans-
porting the men to and from work, as had been the case when
the lot was a number of miles from any town. The average cost
of planting was brought to a slightly lower cost through the use
of these shacks and other economical methods.
State Plantations, 1910.
Town.
Acres.
Type of Land.
Variety planted.
Colrain,
80
Run-out pasture,
Norway spruce.
Colrain,
80
Run-out pasture,
Norway spruce.
Belchertown,
10
Run-out pasture,
White pine.
Colrain,
169
Run-out pasture.
White pine.
Colrain,
52
Run-out pasture.
Norway spruce.
Sandwich, .
Peru, .
38
68
Burnt-over land.
Run-out pasture,
Pitch and Scotch piue and Nor-
way spruce.
Norway spruce and white pine.
Peru, .
12
Run-out pasture.
Norway spruce and white pine.
Shirley.
14
Cut-over land, .
White pine.
Hubbardston,
100
Cut-over land, .
White pine.
Spencer,
14
Cut-over land, .
White pine.
Paxton,
54
Cut-over land. .
White pine.
Brook field, .
70
Cut-over land, .
White pine.
Oakham,
100
Cut-overland, .
White pine.
West Brook field,
30
Cut-over land, .
White pine.
Carlisle,
30
Cut-overland, .
White pine.
Total area,
921
No. 4.]
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
277
Planting done under Advice op State Forester.
Name.
Town.
Variety.
No. of Trees.
Amherst Water Company,
Amherst,
White pine,
15,000
N.D.Bill
South Worthington,
White pine,
300,000
Needham Water Company, .
Needham,
White pine,
5,000
I.«ominster Water Company,
Leominster, .
White pine.
7,000
Long Island Almshouse,
Long Island, .
White pine, .
45,000
Dr. E. P. Joslin
Oxford, .
Norwaj' spruce,
5,000
Brown Bros, and John Folsom,
Winchendon, .
White pine.
150,000
Fred Barclay, ....
Spencer, .
White pine, .
20,000
I. P. Lawrence, ....
Ashburnham,
White pine.
20,000
Walter Clark
Paxton, .
White pine.
10.000
State Colony for Insane,
East Gardner,
White pine,
14,000
Faunae demonstration farm,
Sandwich,
White pine, etc..
500
W.R.Rich
Truro, .
Pitch pine.
1,000
F. P. Stratton
Concord,
Norway spruce,
1,000
Henry Pike
Paxton, .
White pine,
1,300
Forest Nursery.
The State forest nursery at Amherst will have ahout 2,000,000
two-year-old white pine seedlings fit for planting next spring.
A large part of them should be transplanted in the nursery,
if arrangement can be made for sufficient ground. Last spring
we were able to use about 900,000 in the reforestation work,
and transplanted at the nursery 250,000, that we might have
trees which when planted in the most exposed places will grow
sucessfully. We have also a good stand of one-year-old white
pine and Norway spruce. The following table gives the esti-
mated stock on hand at the nursery : —
Variety,
White pine seedlings.
White pine seedlings.
Pitch pine seedlings.
Pitch pine seedlings,
Norway pine seedlings, .
Austrian pine seedlings, .
No. of Trees.
2,000,000
2,500,000
25,000
25,000
5,000
20,000
278
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Pub. Doc.
Variety.
Scotch pine seedlings,
Norway spruce seedlings,
Balsam fir seedlings,
Hemlock seedlings.
Red spruce seedlings.
Black locust seedlings, .
Catalpa speciosa seedlings, .
Total
Variety.
White pine transplants, .
White pine transplants, .
Norway spruce transplants, .
Black locust transplants,
Honey locust transplants,
Total
Age (Years).
No. of Trees.
40,000
500,000
5,000
5.000
2,000
20,000
5,000
5,152,000
No. of Trees.
304,000
Since the planting of last spring, the large number of appli-
cations by land owners to reforest their waste land under the
reforestation act make it plain that it will be impossible to
replant all the land which would be turned over to the State,
unless the present limited appropriation is increased. At this
time last year only about 500 acres of land had been offered
under the act, the balance for last spring's work being taken
over during the winter; this year already over 1,200 acres
have been offered. Never before has such interest been taken
in the work, and the outlook for the coming months is that
many more tracts will be offered; and as under the present
appropriation only about 1,000 acres can be planted, steps
should be taken by the coming Legislature to meet the situation.
Instrtjction in Planting.
While the planting on State land occupies most of our atten-
tion during the spring, to the partial exclusion of other work,
an attempt was made last year to give practical assistance on
the ground to owners inexperienced in forest planting, who
were for the first time trying the experiment on a large scale.
Advice of this nature was given to the following owners : —
A natural seeding-in of pitch pine on tlie Cape. Tlie land in the foreground is to be
planted by the State Forester.
The beginning of a nursery at East Sandwich, Cape Cod, 1910. Four-year-old white
pine transplants on left, set last spring; seed boxes of Scotch and Austrian pine
on right.
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 279
Faunee demonstration farm, Sandwich, set out 500 seedlings.
Long Island Hospital, Boston harbor, set out 45,000 seedlings.
Fitchburg Water Board, "Westminster, started a forest nursery.
E. P. Joslin, Oxford, set out 5,000 seedlings.
Needham Water Board, Needham, set out 5,000 seedlings.
I. P. Lawrence, Ashburnham, set out 25,000 seedlings; also set out
15,000 in a nursery.
State Colony for Insane, Gardner, set out 14,000 seedlings.
Reports from some of this work seem to indicate as good
results as can be expected in the short time that has elapsed.
The seedlings at Long Island are in good condition, and it
only remains to be seen how they will endure the coming winter.
The stock on the farm at Sandwich is in good shape, and it
will be put to a rigid test this winter, having been planted as a
windbreak against the heavy gales so prevalent on the Cape.
Portable Steel Shacks.
In the reforestation work of the past few years we have had
difficulty in keeping the expense of planting uniform. There
are many conditions that are accountable for it, such as the
size and condition of the area, — as a larger tract can be han-
dled more cheaply per acre than a smaller one ; price of seed-
lings, etc. ; but the greatest factor to be reckoned with has been
the question of caring for the laborers. In some cases it was
necessary to transport the men night and morning to and from
the field, which was an extra expense. In order to overcome
this, the department has constructed several portable steel
shacks (see accompanying photograph), which are used to
house and board the labor on the ground. These shacks were
constructed in the State Forester's warehouse. The whole con-
struction is of galvanized-iron sheets, which are held together
with bolts and clasps. The only wooden parts are the door and
two window sashes, one on each side. Twelve men can thus be
accommodated. The following outline gives the size of the
shack, equipment for setting it up, cooking utensils and plant-
ing tools used in the work ; the approximate cost is also given.
With this device the whole environment of the work is im-
proved, and the results, from an economic standpoint, are far
more satisfactory. These shacks are used only when the plant-
280
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Pub. Doc.
iiigs are in a locality where it is difficult to get board and room
for the men, or where the work is at a distance from boarding
places.
Cost of Steel Shack and Equipment.
Shack.
Size, 12 feet by 12 feet square ; height, 9 feet front, 7 feet
back,
1 sliding window on each side, .....
1 door in center of front,
6 double bunks, 4 feet wide, 2 feet 4 inches between
each,
$75 00
Equipment.
1 cook stove,
2 lanterns,
1 kerosene can,
1 hammer, axe and saw,
1 pair wire cutters,
2 shovels,
1 chisel,
Cooling Utensils.
1 large coffee pot,
3 large kettles and covers,
. 1 small kettle and cover,
2 large frying pans, .
1 bean pot, .
3 large spoons, .
2 large knives,
2 small knives,
12 cups, plates, knives, forks and spoons,
1 dipper,
1 dish pan, .
$5 00
2 00
25
2 50
45
1 20
7r.
$12 15
$4 00
Planting Tools.
6 grub hoes,
12 pails.
1 chest for carrying equipment.
The bedding is furnished by the men.
$3 00
2 50
$5 50
Forest Fires of 1910.
It is with considerable reluctance that each year we include
in our annual report a chapter on this painful subject, — pain-
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 281
fill, because forest fires are the greatest obstacle to the advance-
ment of practical forestry in this Commonwealth, and because
they form one of the most difficult problems with which we are
obliged to deal; jet for these very reasons this chapter cannot
be omitted from this book.
The subject of forest fires has been most vividly presented
to the people of the United States during the past summer by
the disastrous fires which raged in the northwest. We in our
little State cannot experience such enormous conflagrations as
these; yet the fire demon each year lays its insidious claws on
a valuable portion of our natural heritage.
Last year 215 of the 354 towns and cities of the Common-
wealth reported that they had 1,385 forest fires; 28, or 8.6
per cent., said that they had none; and 92, or 27.7 per cent.,
failed to report. There are IS towns and cities which have little
or no forest land, and therefore do not appoint forest wardens.
On account of the large number of towns not reporting, we
may be sure that the figures which we have are very conserva-
tive. The wardens reported that these fires damaged the wood-
land to the extent of $205,383. As we have emphasized in our
previous reports, the figures for money damage are very inade-
quate, as many wardens will not report the damage, because
they feel incapable of estimating it; and even when they try,
they cannot set a value on the young growth killed and the
gradual deterioration of the soil. In the cost of fighting fires, we
have data which is not a matter of guesswork, although this is in-
complete, because in towns and cities having an organized fire
department, where the members are paid a regular salary, the
cost of fighting woodland fires of course cannot be obtained.
In 1905 the State Forester made a careful canvass of all the
towns, and came to the conclusion that the annual cost of fight-
ing fires was about $30,000. Our figures would seem to indicate
that this conclusion was correct. When we spread this sum
over the 300 towns in the State, it does not make a very large
sum for each individual community; but it must be remem-
bered that this expense is borne in large part by a few towns,
and usually the poorest and least able to bear it. An annual
bill of $1,000 for forest-fire fighting is a serious burden on a
town whose entire yearly ex]ieiiditure may not amount to more
282 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
than $15,000. This forest-lire menace is a two-edged sword,
for, while it cuts its way into the town treasury, it is at the
same time destroying the property which supplies the revenue
to that treasury.
The present system of collecting fire reports in this office was
inaugurated three years ago, and we thought that it would give
opportunity for an interesting study if the data for 1908, 1909
and 1910 were placed side by side. Perhaps the most striking
feature is the similarity in the totals for number of fires, acres
burned and damage done. Looking at the table more closely,
we find some interesting variations. For instance, the figures
for March, 1910, greatly exceed those for March, 1908 and
1909. Spring came early last year, and the season of spring
fires was present sooner than usual. There were comparatively
few fires during the summer, although it was accounted a dry
one. On the Cape, where most of the summer fires occur, they
had considerable rainfall during July and August. The drought
in October is reflected in the fire data for that month. The
October fires were very severe, in that they burned in the peat
and humus, many of them for weeks, and only severe rains
extinguished them.
We find in the table of causes comparisons of more impor-
tance and interest. We find, for instance, that the number of
fires caused by the railroads has steadily decreased, and we
feel that this represents real progress on their part, although
plenty of room is left for improvement. The number, of fires
caused by the burning of brush materially increased, and this
would seem to be a cause for disappointment, in view of the
general adoption of the present law ; but owing to the provisions
of this very law, which make it easier to place responsibility,
it is the number of fires reported with this cause, and not the
actual number of fires caused by burning brush, which have
increased.
Fires caused by the careless use of matches in the hands of
boys, fishermen, hunters, berry pickers, etc., have been the
cause of more concern during the past year than ever before.
Although the number under this head is not large, there is no
doubt that most of the fires labelled " Unknown " would be
No. 4.]
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
283
placed ill this culumn if they cuiild be traced out; so that we
feel sure that they cause as luauy fires as the railroads, and
are more dangerous, because the smoke is everywhere, while
the railroad tire is confined to a certain district, and can be
more or less anticipated. The time has not arrived when we
can get a sweeping injunction prohibiting all smoking in the
woods ; but there is no doubt that by the necessary gradual
posting of all private land against trespassing this condition
will come in time.
As long as we have forest fires, there will be problems con-
nected with them, and their solution will not come all at once;
but there are certain features which can and should have imme-
diate attention. In the first place, the office should have the
services of a man whose entire time can be spent on forest-fire
work. An assistant or chief forest warden, so called, would find
a very considerable portion of his time taken up in carrying out
the provisions of the fire-equipment reimbursement act ; another
portion would be well occupied in the collecting and listing of
reports; and the remainder could be well used in visiting and
assisting whatever forest wardens seemed to require such aid.
If the Legislature should add to the authority of the State
Forester other duties in the line of fighting fires and making
arrests, this assistant would be a very busy man indeed.
Forest Fires
OP 1910.
Months.
Acres.
Damage.
Cost to put out.
No,
February
5
-
-
2
March
12,666
$57,740
$3,839
438
April
13,782
68.867
5,125
413
May
4,236
13,957
1,738
116
June
137
980
490
23
July
1,041
0,509
1,627
76
August
165
1,275
763
44
September
2,900
15,035
1,456
25
October
7,068
40,064
7,885
196
November,
107
400
427
24
No date given, ....
114
556
125
28
Totals
42.221
$205,383
$23,475
1.385
284
BOARD OP^ AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Comparative Causes of Forest Fires for the Past Three Years,
1908.
1909.
1910.
Causes.
No.
Per Cent.
No.
Per Cent.
No.
Per Cent.
Unknown
Railroad , . , .
Burning brush,
Smokers, hunters, berry pickers, etc..
Steam saw-mills, ....
Children
Miscellaneous,
Too late for tabulation.
314
494
119
161
12
71
118
24.4
38.3
9.0
12.0
1.2
6 0
9.1
360
497
149
140
5
92
190
63
25.1
34.7
10.4
9.7
.5
6.4
13.2
413
362
203
124
1
75
78
129
32.9
28.8
16.2
9.9
.1
5.9
6.2
Totals, ......
1,289
100
1,496
100
1,385
100
Comparative Damages
BY Forest Fires for the Past Three Years,
1908.
1909.
1910.
Months.
Acres.
Damage.
Acres.
Damage.
Acres.
Damage.
January,
-
-
13
-
-
-
February,
-
-
12
-
5
-
March,
236
$420
1,577
$4,763
12,666
$57,740
April,
16,262
52,731
12,515
72,195
13,782
68,867
May,
5,856
48,506
4,322
38,080
4,236
13,957
June,
1,195
17,824
405
11,870
137
980
July. .
6,109
28,783
11,992
26,396
1,041
6,509
August,
1,567
22,320
1,940
10,833
165
1,275
September
1,062
3,140
1,092
21,413
2,900
15,035
October,
7,084
29,960
384
1,805
7,068
40,064
November,
301
1,468
585
612
107
400
No date given.
-
-
246
35,083
1,515
114
556
Totals,
39,672
$205,152
$189,482
42,221
$205,383
FOEEST-FIRE EQUIPMENT.
The Legislature last spring passed an act authorizing the
State Treasurer to reimburse towns, having a valuation of one
and a half millions or less, 50 per cent, of whatever sum they
might spend for forest-fire-fighting equipment, provided this
sum does not exceed $500, and provided also that the equip-
No. 4.]
KEPOllT OV STATE FORESTER.
285
inent purchased has the approval of the State Forester. As the
law was not passed until after the time of the annual town meet-
ings, only a few places have been able to avail themselves of its
provisions, and but a small part of the appropriation of $5,000
was therefore expended. This appropriation, however, is a
continuing one, and the same sum will be available next year.
It is expected that many towns will vote this spring to spend
money for this purpose. Wardens and selectmen of 17 towns
have already assured this office that they will urge the matter
at the next annual meeting. The following table contains the
names of the towns that have received reimbursement, the
amount thereof, and the kind of equipment purchased : —
Towns receiving Fire-equipment Reimbursement.
Towns.
Amount of
Reim-
bursement.
Nature of Equipment.
Ashland, .
Boxford, .
Dighton, .
Georgetown,
CJrcenwich,
Hanson,
Mashpee, .
Middleton,
Norwell,
Oakham, .
Pembroke,
Phiilipston,
Prescott, .
Raynham,
Westminster,
West Newbury,
$15 75
45 60
58 67
39 39
25 95
100 77
34 55
49 50
50 00
138 00
203 75
48 65
48 16
50 00
55 91
24 00
Johnson pumps and paila.
Chemical extinguishers.
Extinguishers and cans.
Extinguishers, cans and shovels.
Chemical extinguishers.
Wagon and other equipment.
Extinguishers and shovels.
Extinguishers.
Extinguishers.
Extinguishers.
Wagon, extinguishers, etc.
Extinguishers.
Extinguishers.
Extinguishers.
Extinguishers and cans.
Extinguishers.
In addition to the above list, the towns of Bedford, Charlton,
Hanson, North Reading, Tewksbury, Sterling, Sandwich and
Wrentham have already purchased equipment, the reimburse-
ment on which will amount to $1,600; but, as their accounts
were not received before November 30, we were not able to list
286 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
tliem in our table. All of these towns except Charlton purchased
a full wagon equipment.
In this connection it is pertinent for us to call attention to our
two model forest-fire wagons. These were built by the State
Forester in order that the officials of the towns wishing to pur-
chase forest-fire equipment may see what we consider an ideal
form of apparatus. The plan of this outfit was made up only
after a careful study had been made of existing forest-fire appa-
ratus in several towns.
The larger wagon is intended for two horses, and costs, all
equipped, about $450. The equipment consists of fourteen
chemical extinguishers; fourteen galvanized cans, each holding
two extra charges of water and chemicals ; shovels ; rakes ; mat-
tocks ; and spare chemical charges. This equipment is carried
in racks and cases, not only so that it will ride safely, but also
so that it can be conveniently carried into the woods. Eight men
can find accommodation on this wagon.
The smaller wagon, drawn by one horse, has all the equip-
ment of the larger, but less in amount. It will carry four men,
and costs, all equipped, about $300. These two wagons were
exhibited this fall at the Marshfield, Barnstable, Worcester,
Clinton, Barre and Palmer fairs, where they attracted general
interest. The New Haven, Boston & Maine and New York
Central railroads aided us in this exhibition work by transport-
ing the wagons over their lines without charge. A small pam-
phlet describing these wagons has been published by this office,
and may be had on application.
FOBEST-FIRE DEPUTIES NEEDED.
The State Forester wishes to repeat what was suggested last
year under this head : —
The forest warden law has undoubtedly been tested far enough to be
pronounced a success as another step in perfecting our organized efforts
against forest fires. I now propose the idea of empowering the State
Forester to appoint deputies at large to assist him. Many of our forest
wardens need instruction and co-operation in getting their work well in
hand. The best way to teach these men just how to accomplish results
in fighting forest fires is to confer with them right on the ground, and
The slash remaining following the lumbering of a pine lot at Concord. Here is
where we must guard against fire.
The brush or slasli conditions following lumbering of a mixed growth at Petersham.
This is typical of most sections, and forms the base or tinder-box that causes
our destructive forest fires.
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 287
demonstrate what can be accomplished and how it can be done. There
are experienced men whom the State Forester couki in times of emer-
gency delegate to assist, and, if need be, with authority to take charge.
In the case of the gypsy and brown-tail moth agents, these men are
at present mounted on motor cycles, and hence are familiar with the
country. They are already State employees, and men interested in the
preservation of the forests. They will gladly acquaint themselves with
modern methods of fighting forest fires, and, were they appointed
deputies authorized to assume responsibility, the State would have their
services at no extra compensation. Of course this would apply only
throughout the moth-infested territory, but other plans could be worked
out for the remainder of the State at a minimum cost.
Disposing of the Slashings ob Brush.
As a result of the discussion of this matter in the last annual
report, the State Forester has had many inquiries and has dis-
cussed the matter with practical men. That the slashings left
from limbing are a great menace, and one of the basal dangers
causing forest fires, there can be little question. At the present
time this office is carrying on some experiments to determine
the expense of handling the slash, and the results are looked
forward to with much interest. No one desires to hinder the
wood-lot operator, or to cause him any extra expense ; but when
the expense of piling and burning the brush is once determined,
it can be dealt with as a part of the business transaction. We
must conserve for the future welfare of the town and Common-
wealth, as well as for the present. It is high time, therefore,
that some reasonable State regulations should be made.
Forest-fire Lookouts.
Last year attention was called to the value of forest-fire look-
outs, and the advisability of our experimenting somewhat, to
determine whether their use would be applicable to our condi-
tions. We were unable to spare any of our regular appropria-
tion for doing anything in this line ; and hence, with the excep-
tion of the Plymouth tower, which was erected by the town of
Plymouth a few years ago, there are no others in the State.
Since our last report New Hampshire has established several
lookout stations, and the results derived from their first season's
use are very satisfactory.
288 BOARD OF AGRICULTL'KE. [Pub. Doc.
Maine has a number of these lookouts scattered throughout
the so-called wild or forest lands, and the State makes an annual
appropriation of $60,000 a year for these stations and for fire-
patrol work. The work of the Forest Commissioner of Maine is
primarily that of forest-fire protection.
New York has forest-fire lookout stations established through-
out the Adirondacks, and values them very highly.
The point may be raised that the States named have a much
larger forested area than has Massachusetts. This is true;
l)ut this State is quite thickly poind ated, and the dangers
from fires are therefore proportionately greater, as man him-
self seems to be the destructive force. There is no doubt that
the small outlay required for the services of men to attend a
few lookouts at high points in this State, together with the in-
stallation of telephones, would have been repaid many times
over during the past season in the saving of forest values by
stopping fires in their incipiency. There is nothing like having
a system for getting results. If this outlook plan could be
added to the present forest warden system, it is believed that it
would be an economic step in the right direction.
Fire Lines and Protective Moth Belts.
Each forest warden should plan to interest his town in doing
something in the way of making fire lines. By making a begin-
ning and doing a little each year the importance and value of the
work will demonstrate itself. The widening of all wood roads
or cleaning a strip and running plowed furrows, together with
separating the debris, etc., if done in advance, precludes the
danger from fires, so common at present. This winter this de-
partment has been fortunate in finding enough of this sort of
work, largely on private estates, to employ a number of our men
in making fire lines. By finding the men employment at this
season, we shall be able to keep them the year round. Men
familiar with the work and understanding modern methods
accomplish much more than inexperienced men.
These fire lines may be utilized for operating the lots, as occa-
sion demands ; also, they enable one to combat the dreaded moth
pests.
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 289
Railroad Co-operation in Forest-fire Fighting.
During the past season there have been many evidences of
co-operative assistance on behalf of the raih'oads with the State
Forester and the forest wardens in preventing and fighting
forest fires. Invariably when assistance has been asked from the
main ofiice of the railroads or the local section men, it has been
furnished. In one instance of a fire which had not been set by
the railroad, a forest warden reported that twenty-five men in
the employ of the railroad came to his assistance without making
any charge to the town for their services.
There were many instances where engines were reported as
evidently having inefficient spark-arresters, and hence they were
throwing out cinders and setting fires ; but it is believed that in
each case they were overhauled and improved.
Certainly there is already a great difference in the feeling of
our rural people towards the railroads ; and this is equally true,
we are inclined to believe, of the railroad people as regards the
protection of our woodlands and forests.
When the State Forester came to Massachusetts, in 1906, it
was the consensus of opinion that the railroads were the great
offenders in burning up our forests. If there was a railroad in
the vicinity of the fire, it was always held responsible. Since
our forest warden and permit laws were enacted, and we have
been enabled to get at the real causes of forest fires, it is plainly
shown that there are many causes for forest fires other than the
railroads. The railroad fires, however, are still very numerous,
and there are great opportunities for improvement ; but let our
forest wardens in each town co-operate and work harmoniously
with all forces toward getting better results in checking and elim-
inating forest fires. All we desire is to get the exact facts, and
then we shall be in a position to better the conditions.
The railroad officials are business men, and can be convinced
of their duties as readily as any class of people. Instead of a
forest warden finding fault and getting disgusted over railroad
fires, the thing to do is to get direct proof and evidence, by hav-
ing the number of the engine, the time of day, the date, etc., and
then taking it up with the proper authorities. One warden has
succeeded in getting the railroad people to keep some barrels
290 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
filled with water on the right of way upon a bad uji-grade which
runs through woodland in his town. This same road has also
supplied the section men on this section with two three-gallon
hand extinguishers. Forest wardens little realize what they can
accomplish until they try.
PowEK Sprayers as Forest-fire Equipment.
Attention was called in last year's report to the use of power
sprayers in putting out forest fires. From our experience with
the modern sprayers, which can be turned around in a small
space, and hence may be readily handled, even in wood roads,
they should be used more often. These machines can be ad-
justed to spray directly from the brook, pond or tank, so that
they are adaptable for service when other equipment would be
useless. If for no other purpose than to carry water, they can
be made very serviceable, as they can be filled by their own
power in about five minutes. The capacity of the tank is usually
400 gallons. As these sprayers are capable of throwing a stream
to the top of the tallest trees, it is readily seen what a radius of
fire could be reached and deadened by them. They have suffi-
cient power to maintain a 300-pound pressure at the end of a
1,500-foot length of 1-inch hose. These same machines could
also be used to great advantage for house fires in the country.
As our towns need such a device for the protection of their trees,
why not get all the good possible out of them ?
Forest Fires in Germany.
A recent letter from Mr. F. B. Knapp, a Massachusetts man
who is spending the year abroad with the Biltmore Forestry
Schools, says : —
They have praclieally no forest-fire problem here, and I should say
that it is chiefly due to respect for law and order.
The State Forester appreciates the above statement, for it
comes from a man who has shown much interest at home in
these matters ; in fact, he is the forest warden of Duxbury,
where good work has been done.
A plantation of white pine, thirt.y years old, at South
Orleans, on the Cape. Who says wliite V)ine will
not grow on the lower Cape ?
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 291
State Subsidy to Towns for Forest-fire Protection.
The law enacted last winter, which assists all towns having a
valuation of one and one-half millions or less in purchasing fire
equipment to the extent of 50 per cent., or an amount not exceed-
ing $500, was passed too late to be taken advantage of by most
to\vns, as their annual town meeting had been held.
At the coming spring town meetings it is believed that many
will accept the assistance. The State Forester has a brief pam-
phlet in press that will be sent to all towns in time for their con-
sideration before the S2:)ring meetings.
Public Addresses.
As many engagements have been filled throughout the year
as the State Forester could accept, and at the same time con-
sistently carry on his other duties. The custom of placing the
responsibility upon organizations of securing an audience of
at least one hundred has made our efforts more effective and
better appreciated. It has been practically impossible to meet
all the demands from local clubs and private organizations;
hence we have invariably requested that, in so far as j^ossible,
these meetings be thrown open to the public.
The usual course of lectures was given at the Massachusetts
Agricultural College during January.
Lectures before Scientific 0RGx^.NIZATI0NS.
The State Forester has had several requests to lecture outside
the State, as well as at home, and the following were accepted :
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., in their special lecture
course on forestry ; the New Hampshire LEorticultural Society,
annual meeting at Manchester ; the Society for the Promotion of
Agricultural Science, annual meeting at Washington, D. C. ;
the American Society of Economic Entomologists, annual meet-
ing at Boston; the Economic Club; Williams College, at Wil-
liamstown ; the Massachusetts Reform Club ; High School Prin-
cipals Association ; the Society for the Protection of New Hamp-
shire Forests, at Bretton Woods, IST. H. ; etc.
292 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
State Firemen's Association.
The annual meeting of the State Firemen's Association was
held at Lowell during the week beginning September 19, and
the State Forester addressed the organization on Thursday even-
ing, September 22, on the subject, " Forestry, and Fire Menace
of the Same."
This organization has been ready to co-operate and assist the
department at all times, and their good offices have been highly
appreciated.
During the past summer, at a meeting of the officials of the
above association and the State Forester, it was agreed that the
fire-permit act should aj^ply to cities as well as to towns.
Thinning Bulletin.
The bulletin by the State Forester's assistant, Mr. H. O.
Cook, on " Thinning," referred to as being in press last year,
was received from the press early in the year, and has proved of
gi'cat value in assisting us in getting this information into the
hands of those who contemplate improving their woodlands.
This bulletin is opportune, as it meets a definite place in the
handling of woodlands in the worst moth-infested sections ; and it
helps not only in making better forestry conditions, but, with the
poorer trees and dead wood removed, the work of spraying and
treating woodlands is greatly simplified.
Bulletin on Reforestation and Nursery Work.
Reforestation and the growing of young trees is at present a
subject of gi'eat interest to our people. In order to give detailed
and exact knowledge, the bulletin was carefully planned and
published, and we have every reason to believe that it covers the
subject as clearly and as practically as any publication available.
It was written by Mr. R. S. Langdell, assistant in charge of the
State nursery at Amherst, who also has charge of the reforesta-
tion work throughout the State. We believe it hits the nail on
the head, and is of great assistance in the State work.
The Chestnut Bark Disease.
This disease, as reported last year, does not seem to have
caused any great amount of damage as yet in this State. We
No. 4.] REPORT OF STATE FORESTER. 293
had received but one direct notice of its appearance here, when
a letter came from Dr. Haven Metcalf, stating that he had
reports of four outbreaks in Massachusetts. The State Forester
has taken the matter up with Dr. Metcalf, and has also written
to Prof. George Stone of the Agricultural College at Amherst.
If occasion demands, further notice will be given, calling atten-
tion to the disease and showing how the infested trees should be
treated.
The precaution mentioned last year will apply not only to the
chestnut, but to all trees ; namely, that any tree that becomes un-
healthy, particularly in the woodlands or forest, should be re-
moved, thus minimizing the danger.
Conference of State Foresters and Forest Wardens.
A meeting was held at Bretton Woods, IST. H., during the first
week in August, under the auspices of the Society for the Pro-
tection of New Hampshire Forests, at which various State for-
esters and forest wardens held a conference. The State Forester
and many other Massachusetts people attended, including Mr.
Guild, secretary of the Massachusetts Forestry Association, Con-
gressman Peters, Forest Warden Knapp of Duxbury, etc. The
meeting proved a very interesting and instructive one. The
following paper was presented by the writer: —
The Massachusetts Forest Warden System.
Massachusetts has had the town forest warden system in practice
long enough to feel that it is a pronounced success. The idea of hav-
ing an authorized town, and, in a sense, a State oflficial in each town
who is clothed with sufficient power to get results in a broad forestry
movement, makes a splendid nucleus for better future results.
It is the aim of the State Forester to secure for these positions public-
spirited citizens who have their town interests as regards forestry mat-
ters at heart, and then get them all the assistance possi])le. When a
man is broken in, the aim of the State is to retain him in the work.
The duties of the forest warden in Massachusetts are multitudinous,
and he will never lack for things to do. The following are some of the
forest warden's main duties : —
Interest in all forestry matters. Appointed by selectmen, siibjeet to
the approval of the State Forester, he has the power to appoint and
discharge deputies. State Forester's power to hold meetings for edu-
cating forest wardens. Forest warden chief forest fire fighter in the
294
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
town. Forest warden source of information on reforestation in the
town. Forest warden, ideas on thinning and pruning trees. Forest
warden read or have read fire laws in schools. Forest warden post fire
laws and warnings. Forest warden deal with railroads in his town.
Forest warden have ideas on forest taxation. Forest warden assist
State Forester on forest data, maps, etc. Forest warden tell when seed
and seedlings are plenty. Forest warden start a town nursery. Forest
warden, amount, kind and price of cheap lands. Forest warden, town
lands accepted and planted. Forest warden encourage forestry in town
schools, grange, farmer's clubs, woman's clubs, etc. Forest warden
handle town insect troubles. Forest warden assist in encouraging bene-
ficial birds. Forest warden plan fire campaign, fire belts, have fire
extinguishers well placed, telephone calls, etc. Forest warden, power
to arrest without a warrant within certain restrictions, etc.
The whole purpose, as I see it, is to adopt modern ideas and sys-
tematize our efforts along well-defined channels, whereby results are
made possible. The working out of a forest warden system in a thickly
settled State like Massachusetts might not adapt itself to some sections
of Maine and northern New Hampshire, but with modifications it could
be made to do so. In Massachusetts about 5 per cent, of the forest
products used are grown in the State; hence we have a good market,
and with modern methods of forestry management, made possible
through local and State officials, the value from possible forest products
can be made very great. What is true of Massachusetts is equally true
in other New England States in more or less degree.
Expenditures and Receipts.
In accordance with section G of chapter 409 of Acts of 1904,
as amended by Acts of 1907, chapter 473, section 2, the follow-
ing statement is given of the forestry expenditures for the year
ending mv. 30, 1910: —
office supplies,
Forestry Expenditures.
Salaries of assistants, .
Travelling expenses,
Stationery, postage and other
Printing,
Instruments, .
Forest warden account, .
Nursery,
Sundries,
$5,346
47
1,001
78
369
37
960
37
48 55
499
92
2,222
15
143
13
$10,591
74
No. 4.]
REPORT OF STATE FORESTER.
295
Reforestation Account,
Seedlings, $2,204 70
Land, 1,035 00
Labor, 5,124 68
Equipment, 694 63
Travelling, 670 83
Express, 311 21
Sundries, 57 74
Turned over to the treasurer for publications,
Turned over to the treasurer for seedlings.
Turned over to the treasurer for cord wood,
$10,098 79
$102 60
243 50
118 13
$464 23
Reimbursement to towns for fire-fighting apjiaratus, . . $1,469 56
Unexpended balance, ........ 3,530 44
Total appropriation, $5,000 00
In accordance with section 5 of the above-named chapter, the
following statement is given of the receipts for travelling and
subsistence : —
Lectures.
Mansfield Men's Club,
Andover Grange,
Newburyport Neighborhood Club,
Rockport Men's Club, .
Saugus Laymen's League, .
Littleton Women's Club,
Maiden Board of Trade,
Somerville Board of Trade, .
Bellingham Pomona Grange,
Foxborough Grange, .
Boston Public Library, Field and
Forest Club, .
Quincy Men's Club,
Buzzards Bay,
Athol Improvement Society,
Bolton Pomona Grange,
Boylston Grange,
Pitchburg Pomona Grange, .
Harvard Grange,
Phillipston Grange,
Amesbury Improvement Society,
Hatfield Men's Club, .
Bristol County Academy of
Science, . . . . .
. $1
00
1
20
30
90
1
10
1
42
2
00
20
1
40
3
15
3
00
5
00
2
40
4
04
1
50
2
50
2
28
1
84
3
50
40
5
00
2 00
Hingham Association, .
Massachusetts Board of Agricul
ture, ....
Cornell Club,
American Forestry Association,
Course of Lectures, M. A. C,
Woronoco Club, Westfield, .
Newburyport Club,
Pilgrims' Club, New Bedford,
Williams College,
Middlesex Sportsman's Show,
Newton High School, .
Winchester Unitarian News Club
South Bristol Farmers' Club,
Worcester Horticultural Society
Heptorcan Club, .
Phi Delta Theta Club, .
Farmers' Week, M. A. C, .
Fish and Game Association,
Palmer's Woman's Club,
Winchendon Board of Trade,
Winchester High School,
Barre Library Association, .
Danvers Bird Club and Grange,
5
69
1
50
. 25
00
. 1
5
40
3
00
2
50
. 11
34
1
04
75
1
96
3
00
1
50
2
25
1
4
00
5
00
1
21
4
48
1
25
»Paid.
296
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [P.D.No.4.
Lkoturks — Concluded.
Wellcslcy Grange,
Massachusetts Reform Club,
Pepperell Woman's Club,
Lehigh University,
Pierce School, ...
Institute State Board of Agri
culture, ....
Grange field day, West Newton
and Yarmouth,
Montwait Chautauqua,
Cape Cod Cranberry Association,
Franklin County Pomona Grange,
State Prison teachers, .
$3 00
1 22
2 00
24 31
1 07
7 45
10 59
1 15
2 20
8 11
1 30
State Fireman's Association, . $3 50
Hanover Fireman Muster, . . 1 50
New Hampshire Horticultural So-
ciety, . . . . . 5 50
Springfield Board of Trade, . 5 00
Ro.xbury Woman's Club, . . 2 00
Massachusetts Forestry Associa-
tion, . . . . . — ^
Society for the Protection of New
Hampshire Forests, . . . 25 10
American Association of Economic
Entomologists, . . . . 2 00
Expenses incurred in
Allen, P. R.,
Bent, F. E.,
Borden, N. E.,
Boston & Northern Street
way,
Brayton, A. P., .
Brochu, J. E., .
Burnett, H., trustee.
Chandler, F. F., .
Cummings, W. O.,
Cushing, J. S., .
Dewar, D. W., .
Eddy, Mary B., .
Emerson, Dr. N. W.,
Forrest, W. P., .
Fowle, D. H., .
Fuller, W. A., .
Gerrish, Isabel F.,
Green, P. C,
Harriman, C. S.,
Home, W. N., .
Hunnewell, H. H.,
Jones, J. L.,
Lawrence, I. P., .
Mahoney, T. J., .
$0 70
50
74
3treet
Rail
1 32
2 00
1 40
70
62
62
50
1 25
15
18
1 00
1 80
1 50
1 00
2 40
68
90
50
1 20
6 50
1 82
Examination Work, charged to Owners
Main, F. H.,
Massachusetts Agricultural Col
lege, Faunce demonstration
farm,
Minns, Susan,
Minot, W., .
Morey, E., .
Nelson, H. W., .
Piekman, D. L., .
Robinson, C. E., .
Sawyer, A. H., .
Sears, Julia M., .
Seavey, H.,
Simmons, H. F., .
Stevens, E. A., .
Stevens, H. H., .
Stone, G. (W. Manning),
Tenney, 0. H., .
Tracy, Harriet E.,
Webber, F. S., .
White, J. H.,
Pitchburg Water Board,
Total, .
$5 44
5 00
2 50
2 00
1 00
1 20
1 50
2 85
1 50
1 40
50
1 25
1 50
1 14
2 35
1 16
2 85
3 05
1 20
2 00
$71 37
Expenses incurred in Supervision of Managed Woodlands, charced to
Owners.
F. C. Green $4 80
R. B. Symmington 20 00
$24 80
Expenses incurred in giving Instruction in Planting, charged to Owners.
E. P. Joselin, $2 35
Long Island, transportation furnished, ........ ""
Fitchburg Water Board ^ 85
Needham Water Board, no expense, ........ ~
^ Paid.
EIGHTEENTH SEMIANNUAL REPORT
Chief of the Cattle Bureau.
Presented to the Board and Accepted,
January 10, 1911.
REPORT.
Boston, Jan. 10, 1911.
To the State Board of Agriculture.
In submitting to your honorable Board, as required by
statutory provisions (section 3, chapter 116, Acts of 1902),
this, the eighteenth semiannual report of the Chief of the
Cattle Bureau, it seems fitting to state, by way of preface,
that, as I have been in charge of the office only since Oct. 5,
1910, the report which is for the year ending Nov. 30, 1910,
must necessarily, so far as its tabulations of work performed
are concerned, represent, in a large degree, the administra-
tion of my predecessor. Of course it includes also the work
performed since the date of my commission, a period of barely
two months.
In preparing such details as the report contains I have had
to rely upon the office force, and I wish to place on record
my appreciation of the unvarying courtesy and willing co-
operation rendered by it. These assistants are very efficient,
and display, because of their long service and marked intelli-
gence, a most enviable knowledge of and intimacy with the
detailed clerical work of the Bureau. Under their careful
routine even the minutest detail is correctly checked up, and
there is at all times, and open to public inspection, a complete
statistical record on all matters coming within the jurisdiction
of the Bureau.
I commend to your consideration the tables herewith sub-
mitted.
Rabies.
The following table shows the prevalence of rabies during
the year ending Nov. 30, 1910 : —
300
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Dogs.
Cattle.
Cats.
Killed or died with rabies,
Killed by owners or died in quarantine, not rabid, .
Released from quarantine,
Animals still in quarantine,
51
55
75
47
3
1
1
1
Totals
228
5
1
Grand total,
234 animals.
One dog, released March 21, developed rabies and was
killed on May 25. Another dog, released September IG, be-
cause its owner claimed it was out of town the day the rabid
dog to which it was supposed to have been exposed ran
through the town, developed rabies and died November 2.
The veterinarian of the Boston Board of Health reports
4 cases of rabies in dogs in that city during the year, making
a total for the entire State of 55 mad dogs. The total number
of dogs having rabies during the year ending Nov. 30, 1909,
in Massachusetts, including Boston, was 154; this shows a
decrease of 99 cases for 1910.
During 1910 Dr. Frothingham has examined the brains of
37 animals for rabies, of which 19 have proved positive cases
and 18 have proved to be negative. One dog's head sent to
Dr. Frothingham was so decomposed he could not examine
it, and another head was so badly injured by shooting that it
was not possible for an examination to be made of it.
Glandeks.
There has been a marked diminution in the number of cases
of glanders and farcy reported in Massachusetts during the
year ending Nov. 30, 1910, from the previous twelve months.
During the year ending Nov. 30, 1909, 084 cases of glan-
ders or farcy were recorded, beside which there were 17 ani-
mals under observation at the end of the year. Twelve of
these were later released, and 5 were killed as having glanders.
Adding these 5 to the 684 cases previously decided makes a
total of G89 animals killed, or which have died, that were
quarantined prior to Dec. 1, 1909.
No. 4.] RErORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 301
During tlic year ending Nov. 30, 1910, 1,0G7 horses or
mules have been reported, including those dealt with in stable
tests. Of these, 676 have been killed as having glanders or
farcy, 357 have been released and 24 were still held for fur-
ther examination. Of the 676 killed for glanders or farcy
during the year, 362 were from cities and towns outside of
Boston, and 314 from the city of Boston.
There was a decrease of only 7 cases for the entire State
from the previous year. In Boston there was an increase
of 36 cases, as the veterinarian of the Boston Board of Health
reports 314 cases for the year ending Nov. 30, 1910, as
against 278 cases for the previous year. There seems to be
an increase in the number of cases of glanders found in
Worcester, as there were reported 28 cases of glanders and
farcy during the year ending ISTov. 30, 1910, as against 14
cases reported the previous year. On the other hand, in
Somerville there was a decrease of 10 cases, 32 cases having
been reported for the year ending Nov. 30, 1910, as against
42 cases the previous year. In Fall River there were only
half as many cases, 12 horses having been killed during the
year ending Nov. 30, 1910, and 24 the previous year. In
Cambridge there was a decrease of 11 cases, 50 having been
reported for the fiscal year of 1909 and 39 for the year end-
ing Nov. 30, 1910.
Sixteen stable tests have been undertaken during the year,
21 cases of glanders having been found in these stables pre-
vious to making the tests. Three hundred and seven horses
were tested with mallein ; of these, 164 were released, 60
were killed on account of having glanders and 24 are held
for further tests.
The reports of rendering companies, as required by sec-
tion 111 of chapter 75 of the Revised Laws, as amended by
chapter 243 of the Acts of 1907, continue to be of much
value in furnishing information of cases of glanders or
farcy which would not otherwise be brought to the attention
of the Chief of the Cattle Bureau, as the following table
illustrates : —
302
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Beports of Itendering Companies.
Rendering Companies.
Number
of
Reports.
Number
of
Cases.
Number
in
Boston.
Number
out of
Boston.
Number
outside of
Boston
not pre-
viously
reported.
William S. Higgins, Saugus,
Home Soap Company, Millbury,
Lowell Rendering Company,
James E. McGovern, Andover, .
Muller Brothers, North Cambridge, .
W. H. Nankervis, Marlborough, .
New Bedford Extractor Company,
New England Rendering Company,
Brighton,
Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Com-
pany, Peabody,
N. Roy & Son, South Attleborough, .
A. E. Southwick, Mendon, .
N. Ward Company, South Boston,
Whitman & Pratt Rendering Com-
pany, North Chelmsford,
Worcester Rendering Company, .
6
17
It
27
28
2
4
14
9
22
3
51
S
26
6
6
4
9
83
4
44
13
16
302
6
5
5
11
253
6
6
4
9
78
4
33
13
16
49
6
5
2
3
4
6
12
1
2
5
2
Totals,
231
498
269
229
37
Annual Inspection of Neat Cattle^ Farm Animals,
AND Premises upon which the Former are kept.
About tbe middle of September the following circular letter
was sent to tbe inspectors of animals in tbe cities and towns
of tbe State, together witb tbe necessary books in wbicb to
record tbe results of tbeir work, and blank forms of certifi-
cates of bealtb to be given owners in conformance witb
section 18, chapter 90 of tbe Revised Laws: —
commonwe.^lth of massachusetts,
Cattle Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture,
Room 138, State House, Boston, Sept. 15, 1910.
Directions to Inspectors of Animals.
Inspectors of animals are hereby directed to make a general
inspection of the neat stock and incidentally other fann animals
in their respective towns, as required by chapter 90 of the Kevised
Laws, such inspection to commence October 1 and to be completed
before the fifteenth day of November.
No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 303
Wherever inspectors examine animals and find them free from
contagious disease, they will give owners certificates of health, as
provided for in section 18 of the law, from tlie book of blanks
(Form No. 2) furnished for that purpose. Books will also be pro-
vided (Form No. 1) for carrying- out the provisions of sections 17
and 24 of chapter 90 of the Revised Laws.
Inspectors will not say on any report, " Same as last year," but
will make a full and complete report on every place inspected, in-
cluding all dimensions and measurements provided for on the blank,
and answer in full all questions as to the light, ventilation, sani-
tary surroundings, and water supply, as w^ell as the number of cattle
kept in each stable, and give a complete list of other animals in
spaces provided in the book.
Inspectors of animals are not to quarantine any cattle as tuber-
culous, unless they show sufficient evidence of disease to make it
possible to condemn them on a physical examination, or show evi-
dence of tuberculosis of the udder.
It is also requested that, if cases of tuberculosis in animals
are found, inspectors keep a record of them for a few days, and
then when animals are quarantined, several can be quarantined at
once and duplicates sent here, so that tke agent of the Cattle Bureau
can see a number at one visit, instead of having to go every two
or three days to see one animal at a time, thus avoiding limning
up expenses as much as possible.
It is also the duty of insjiectors of animals to quarantine cattle
brought into this State from without the limits of the Common-
wealth, if the owner has not had a permit from this Bureau, the
same to remain in quarantine until ordered released by the Chief
of the Cattle Bureau or his agent.
Inspectors of animals, in ease they suspect the presence of any
contagious disease among any species of domestic animals, are to
quarantine such animals and send duplicates to tlie Chief of the
Cattle Bureau.
Contagious disea.«!es, under the provisions of section 28, chapter
90 of the Revised Laws, include " glanders, farcy, contagious pleuro-
pneumonia, tuberculosis, Texas fever, foot-and-mouth disease, rinder-
pest, hog cholera, rabies, anthrax or anthracoid diseases, sheep scab,
and actinomycosis."
The necessary books for the inspection will be forwarded at once.
Please report immediately if not received by October 1. When
inspection is completed return book. Form No. 1, at once by ex-
press.
Austin Peters,
Chief of Cattle Bureau.
304
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The following table embodies a condensed report of the
doings of the inspectors of animals in making the annual
inspection, which complies with the requirements of section
24, chapter 90, Revised Laws : —
Net Results of Annual Inspection of Animals and Farm
Number herds inspected, ....
Number neat cattle inspected, .
Number cows inspected, ....
Number herds kept clean and in good condition,
Number sheep insj)ected, ....
Number swine inspected, ....
Number goats insiDected, ....
Number stables inspected, ....
Number stables well located, .
Number stables well lighted.
Number stables well ventilated, .
Number stables kept clean.
Number stables with good water supply, .
Number stables imi^roved since last inspection.
Premises.
31,484
227,104
168,026
27,742
27,092
105,363
894
32,832
28,412
25,483
27,421
28,420
30,309
1,523
TUBEECULOSIS.
The work for the eradication and control of bovine tuber-
culosis can, as usual, be groujied under tln-ce heads : first,
the examination of animals quarantined by the local inspec-
tors on susi^icion of being diseased, and the appraisal and
condemnation of those found by the agents to be tuberculous ;
second, the quarantining and testing of cattle intended for
dairy or breeding purposes brought into Massachusetts from
other States to the stock yards at Brighton, Watertown or
Somerville, and those brought in on permits to other points ;
third, testing cattle with tuberculin for owners who are
desirous of eradicating the disease from their herds.
The following figures show the number of neat cattle
quarantined by local inspectors, the number for which war-
rants were issued, and the disposition made of the animals : —
No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 305
Total number of cattle quarantined or reported for examina-
tion during the year, 2,595
Massachusetts Cattle.
Number released, 508
Number condemned, killed and paid for, 1,119
Number permit to kill, paid for, . . 115
Number permit to kill, no award, . . 151
Number died in quarantine, no award, . 57
Number condemned and killed, in process
of settlement, 300
Number in quarantine, unsettled, . . 5
2,255
Cattle from without the State.
Number released, ..... 8
Number condemned and killed, no award, 314
Number condemned, killed, no lesions
found, paid for, ..... IG
Number condemned, killed, no lesions
found, to be jjaid for, .... 2
340
Total, 2,595
Of the above 340 interstate cattle, 233 were tested and
retested at Brighton, G of which were released for slaughter
and 227 condemned ; no lesions were found in 10, for 8 of
which the State has reimbursed the owners, and payment
will be made for the remaining 2 upon presentation of claims
by owners. Of the remaining 107 cattle (which were tested
at other points than Brighton), 8 were found to show no
lesions, for which the State has reimbursed the owners, and
2 were released on a third test.
In addition to the 2,595 head of cattle disposed of as
above, 644 cattle and 267 swine have been reported by
butchers, renderers and boards of health as having been found
tuberculous at time of slaughter, all of which were ren-
dered. Of this number, 431 cattle and 170 swine were
slaughtered and condemned at the Brighton Abattoir,
Under the second group, the maintenance of a quarantine
against other States to prevent the introduction of tubercu-
lous cattle from outside sources into Massachusetts, the fol-
306
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
lowing figures show the number of animals brought in from
without the State, and the disposition made of them : —
Receipts of Stock at the Watertown Stock Yards, from Dec. 1, 1909,
to Nov. 30, 1910.
New Hampshire cattle,
Vermont cattle, .
Massachusetts cattle,
Western cattle, .
Sheep and lambs.
Swine,
Calves,
4,687
3,508
2,048
1,190
3,438
3,477
23,372
Receipts of Stock at the New England Dressed Meat and Wool Com-
om Dec. 1, 1909, to Nov. 30, 1910.
22
519
2,276
pany's Yards at Somerville, ft
Maine cattle,
New Hampshire cattle,
Vermont cattle, .
Massachusetts cattle,
Western cattle, .
Canada cattle, .
Sheep and lambs.
Swine,
Calves,
Receipts of Stock at Brighton, from Dec. 1, 1909, to Nov
Maine cattle.
New Hampshire cattle,
Vermont cattle, .
Massachusetts cattle.
New York cattle,
Western cattle, .
Canada cattle, .
Sheep and lambs.
Calves,
Swine,
Cattle tested,
Cattle condemned,
Cattle killed on permit,
Cattle released after test,
The cattle upon which a tubercul
mostly milch cows to bo offered for
7
20,294
30,783
307,057
1,008,800
31,077
30, 1910.
7,816
1,844
2,077
12,995
2,322
36,716
786
11,430
73,105
71,854
13,013
171
78
12,764
n test is required are
sale at the Brighton
market Wednesdays, beside a few bulls and working oxen.
No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU.
307
Those animals that come to Watertowii or Somcrvillc are
taken to Brighton, and all of the testing is done at the stock
barn there.
Report of Cattle brought into State during the Year to Points out-
side of the Quarantine Stations.
For dairy and breeding jiuriioses, tested before shiiiment, . 1,020
For dairy and breeding iniri)oses, tested after arrival, . . 5,354
For dairy and breeding puri)oses, awaiting test, ... 4
Total, 6,378
Neat cattle on which no test was required, exclusive of cattle
and calves for immediate slaughter.
909
The cattle and calves on which no test was reqnired, ex-
clusive of animals for immediate slaughter, were as fol-
lows : —
Returned from out-of-State pastures,
Calves under six months old, ....
Injured and killed, or died before tested,
Entered at auction sales, reshipped out of State,
Kept in State for brief periods only,
Total,
655
163
9
49
33
909
The number of cattle and calves brought into the State for
immediate slaughter cannot be given exactly. In round
numbers there were 10,000 cattle and calves brought to the
large abattoirs and other points outside the quarantine
stations, intended for immediate slaughter.
Nearly all of the total number of animals given above
were brought into the State on permits issued by the Chief
of the Cattle Bureau, only 445 head having been brought in
without permits, which were reported to the Bureau by rail-
road agents, local inspectors or others. Of these, 4 were
tested before shipment, 8 were calves under six months old,
32 were slaughtered at once for beef, 1 was being returned
from pasture, 27 were in the State temporarily, 23 of which
remained only one day, and the remainder, 373 head, were
tested by agents of the Cattle Bureau.
308 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
The following figures show the disposition of animals that
were brought into the State to points outside the quarantine
stations at Brighton, Watertown and Somcrville, which failed
to pass a satisfactory tuberculin test : —
Condemned on first test, ........ 16
Condemned on second test, ........ 83
Condemned on thii'd test, ........ 1
Died before a second test could be made, ..... 2
Killed for beef without retest, on request of owner, subject to
inspection, .......... 7
Awaiting slaughter on first test, at request of owner, . . 2
Awaiting a second test, ........ 5
Awaiting a third test after calving, ...... 6
Total, 122
On the animals condemned as above, 4 warrants, with re-
port of killing, have not jet been returned ; 10 animals were
found on post-mortem examination to be free from disease
and have been paid for by the State; and 86 were found on
post-mortem examination to be affected with tuberculosis.
Of the 7 animals killed for beef on first test, 4 showed no
lesions on j)ost-mortem examination, 2 were diseased, and on
1 no report of result has been received.
There Avere 1,012 permits issued during the year, 157 of
which were reported as not used.
Twenty-three permits were issued allowing cattle to be
brought into the State for exhibition at agricultural fairs;
8 were issued for returning cattle from exhibition in other
States ; 9 were issued for pasturing herds in the State during
the season ; 2 allowing cattle to be unloaded in transit through
the State ; 2 allowing cattle to cross the line daily from pas-
ture or farms in other States ; and 3 allowing persons living
near the line to drive cattle across the corner of the State,
keeping the animals in the State for brief periods only.
For several years, at the request of the United States De-
partment of Commerce and Labor, a report of the receipts
of all live stock at the j^ort of Boston has been sent to Wash-
No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU.
309
ington each month. The report is made to show weekly
receipts. The following table shows the totals, by months,
for the past year : —
Receipts of Live Stock at Boston for Twelve Months ending Nov. 30,
1910.
For Month ending —
Cattle.
Calves.
Sheep
and
Lambs.
Swine.
Horses.
December 31,
17,453
7,932
27,141
117,710
1,935
January 31, .
15,940
12,551
18,446
126,960
1,860
February 28,
12,106
10,742
14,151
103,397
1,510
March 31, .
11,918
21,763
12,266
81,474
2,235
April 30,
8,378
18,430
14,518
65,753
2,047
May 31,
9,023
12,264
14,219
87,227
1,975
June 30,
9,459
12,197
22,623
143,752
2,520
July 31,
7,918
7,350
20,389
74,628
1,780
August 31,
7,624
6,334
41,111
67,021
1,679
September 30
9,878
7,209
52,673
80,372
2,015
October 31,
8,064
5,450
39,837
60,951
1,670
November 30
12,301
5,728
44,551
68,890
1,795
Totals,
130,062
127,950
321,925
1,084,135
23,021
The third division of the work consists in testing herds
with tuberculin for owners who desire it, and is known as
volmitary request worh. The following figures show what
has been done under this division : —
20 jiersons, in 12 different cities and towns, made voluntary re-
quests to have their herds tested : —
20 herds were tested, comi^rising ..... 314 cattle.
Released, 219
Killed on permit to kill, paid for, ... 75
Killed on permit to kill, no award, ... 20
314 cattle.
In 2 of the animals killed no lesions were found on post-
mortem examination.
After consultation with the authorities in charge of live-
stock interests in the States of New York and Pennsylvania,
the following order was issued on June 1 : —
310 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Cattle Bureau Order No. 26.
Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
Cattle Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture,
Boston, June 1, 1910.
To Persons bringing Cattle into Massachusetts from the States of
New York and Pennsylvania^ and All Others whom it may con-
cern : —
Section 5 of Cattle Bureau Order No. 15, as amended by Cattle
Bureau Order No. 16, is hereby further amended so as to i^rovide
as follows : —
1. Certificates of tuberculin test on cattle to be shipped into Mas-
sachusetts from New York or Pennsylvania on permits obtained
under the provisions of section 1 of Cattle Bureau Order No. 15,
made by veterinarians in those States, will be accepted by the Chief
of the Cattle Bureau jDrovided : —
(a) That the test on cattle tested in New York State is approved
by the Commissioner of Agricultui'e or the Acting Chief Vetei'inarian
of the New York State Department of Agriculture, and the test is
made with tuberculin furnished for the purj^ose by the New York
State Department of Agriculture.
(b) That the test on cattle tested in Pennsylvania is approved by
the Veterinarian or the Deputy-Veterinarian of the State Live
Stock Sanitary Board, and the test is made with tuberculin fur-
nished for the purpose by the State Live Stock Sanitary Board of
Pennsylvania.
2. The Chief of the Cattle Bureau reserves the right to retest
any cattle brought into this State under the provisions of section 1
of this order, if at any time a test is vuisatisfactory to him.
3. This order does not apply to neat cattle shipped to the stock
yards at Brighton, Watertown or Somerville.
4. This order shall be published by sending a copy to each in-
sj^eetor of animals in the Commonwealth, and by furnishing a copy
to each shijiper of cattle into the Commonwealth upon permits
issued under the jirovisions of section 1 of Cattle Bureau Order
No. 15.
This order shall take effect upon its approval.
Austin Peters,
Chief of Cattle Bureau.
Approved in Council, June 1, 1910.
E. F. Hamlin,
Executive Secretary.
Owing to an apparent misunderstanding on tlie part of
cattle owners as to what cattle might he termed " pasture
cattle " within the meaning of the Cattle "Bureau regulations,
in July the following order was issued : —
No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 311
Cattle Bureau Order No. 27.
Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
Cattle Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture,
Boston, July 19, 1910.
To Persons bringing Cattle into Massachusetts, and All Others whom
it may concern : —
Section 5 of Cattle Bureau Order No. 15, as amended by Cattle
Bureau Orders Nos. IG and 2G, is hereby further amended by adding
the following sentences: —
Cattle being returned to Massachusetts from without the State
will not be looked upon as returning from out-of-State pastures
unless they are returned to the farm of the person who originally
sent them out of the State. Cattle sold to go out of the State and
resold to return to other farms than those from Avhieh they were
originally shipped, or cattle returning from without the State to
premises other than those from Avliieh they were originally shipjied,
will not be looked upon as pasture cattle but will return subject
to passing the tuberculin test.
This order shall be published by sending a copy to each inspector
of animals in the Commonwealth, and by furnishing a copy to each
shipper of cattle into the Commonwealth ujion permits issued under
the provisions of section 1 of Cattle Bureau Order No. 15.
This order shall take effect upon its approval.
Austin Peters,
Chief of Cattle Bureau.
Approved in Council, July 20, 15)10.
E. F. Hamlin,
Executive Secretary.
MiscELi.ANEOUs Diseases.
The Cattle Bureau is called upon during the year to deal
with other diseases of a contagious nature, in addition to
rabies, glanders and bovine tuberculosis, and these diseases
are usuallv classified under the title of " miscellaneous
diseases." Among them are actinomycosis, hog cholera and
allied troubles, symptomatic anthrax or blackleg, anthrax,
Texas fever, and tuberculosis in other animals than cattle.
There have been very few cases of hog cholera, only 10
herds of swine having been quarantined for this disease.
All but 2 of these herds have been released, as the disease has
subsided and the premises have been disinfected. The re-
maining 2 herds are still under observation by this Bureau.
A suspected case of tuberculosis in a bay mare in Brockton
312 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
was reported by the inspector of animals of that city. Some
of the material taken from a tumor on the animal was sent
to the bacteriologist of the Brockton Board of Health, who
reported that the mare had tuberculosis. She was then tested
with tuberculin and failed to give a reaction. It was then
thought best to test her with mallein, to which she gave no
reaction, and she was released from further observation by
order of the Chief of the Cattle Bureau.
A number of cases of actinomycosis have been reported
during the year, 12 in all. In two or three cases the disease
affected the udder, and in such cases the animals were ordered
killed at once, although in cases where cattle have recent
lesions, involving the jaw, the owner is advised to feed liber-
ally until in good flesh, and then kill for beef under the
proper inspection.
In pastures where symptomatic anthrax or blackleg oc-
curred the previous season the protective inoculation has been
given to the young animals when the owners requested it.
The material used for this preventive inoculation, as in the
past season, has been furnished by the United States Bureau
of Animal Industry, and sent to Dr. James B. Paige of the
Amherst Agricultural College, who has prepared it for use
in the treatment when required. One hundred and sixty-
six young animals have been vaccinated in the towns of
Ashburnham, Granville, Princeton, Rowe, Winchendon, 'New
Marlborough, Townsend, Amherst, Florida, Greenwich and
Prescott. Dr. Paige reports that he has heard from all but
one of the owners of cattle inoculated during the year, and
that not a single fatality has followed the vaccinations.
There have been a number of cases of mange in horses and
cattle reported to this office, but as this is not a contagious
disease under the law, the Chief of the Cattle Bureau has
not felt entitled to spend much money in this direction, al-
though the agents sent to examine these cases have given the
owners professional advice in regard to the treatment of such
animals.
The outbreak of anthrax in the western part of the State,
v/hich occurred in the fall of 1909, has been very nearly
stamjDed out, only 11 animals having been reported as dying
No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 313
of this disease during tlie past year. At the request of own-
ers, 21 cattle, 3 horses and 95 sheep were given the preventive
inocuhition. This treatment consists of two inoculations,
the second one being given ten days after the first.
In the month of April the following order was issued in
relation to this disease : —
Cattle Bureau Order No. 24.
Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
Cattle Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture,
Boston, April 26, 1910.
To All Persons whom it may concern: —
By virtue of the jiower and authority vested by law in the Cattle
Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture, under the provisions of
chapter 90 of the Revised Laws and chai^ter 116 of the Acts of
1902, you are hereby notified that anthrax, which is a contagious
disease and is so recognized under the laws of this Commonwealth,
has occurred recently among domestic animals in the towns of Great
Barrington and Sheffield. You are hereby further notified that in
order to prevent the si3read of this disease among domestic animals
and to protect the ijublic health in the localities where the disease
exists, the Chief of the Cattle Bureau hereby issues the following
order : — ■
1. The carcasses of any neat cattle, horses or other animals that
may die of anthrax are not to be skinned or opened, but must be
buried or cremated with the hides on. If they are buried they must
be buried deeply, away from any water course, and the carcasses
covered with quicklime. If any blood or excreta come from any
animal in removing it to a place of burial such material must be
scraped up and burned and the ground from which it was taken
sprinkled with quicklime.
2. If any animals die of this disease in any stable the stable must
be disinfected according to the rules and regulations of the Cattle
Bureau.
3. No one is to make any autoi")sy upon or any incision into the
carcass of any animal that has died of anthrax, unless he be an
agent of the Cattle Bureau acting under the authority of the Chief
of the Cattle Bureau at the time of making such autopsy or incision.
4. Any person owning an animal that he suspects of having
anthrax, or losing an animal which he suspects may have died of
anthrax, or any pei'son hearing of the presence of this disease in
any species of animal, is to immediately notify the local inspector
of animals or the Chief of the Cattle Bureau or his agent.
This order is to be made public by inspectors of animals in the
314 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
towns of Great Barrington, Sheffield, New Marlborongb, EgTemont,
Alford, West Stoekbridge, Stockbridge, Lee, Tyringham and Mon-
terey posting three or more printed copies in public places in their
respective towns, and by publication for two weeks in the " Berk-
shire Courier," a newspaper published weekly in the town of Great
Barrington.
This order shall take effect upon its ajiproval.
Austin Peters,
Chief of Cattle Bureau.
Approved in Council, April 27, 1910.
E, F. Hamlin,
Executive Secretary.
FiNANCiAT. Statement.
At the close of the last fiscal year, Nov. 80, 3 909, there
was on hand, as per the sixteenth semiannual report : —
Balance of aj^propriation for salaries
and expenses for 1909, . . . $316 29
Balance of aiipropriation for general
work of the Bureau for 1909, . . 173 47
$489 76
Appropriation for salaries and expenses
of 1910, chapter 38, Acts of 1910, . $7,000 00
Api^roi^riation for general work of the
Bureau, chapter 165, Acts of 1910, . 100,000 00
107,000 00
Total to be accounted for, $107,489 76
Expended during the year: —
For 754 head of cattle condemned and
killed during the year 1909, paid for
in 3 910, . .' . . . . $16,087 50
For 7 head of cattle condemned and
killed prior to 1909, paid for in 1910, 145 00
For 1,311 head of cattle condemned and
killed during the year, . . . 32,487 79
For killing and burial, quarantine claims
and arbitration expenses, . . . 403 75
$49,124 04
For services of agents (exclusive of
glanders work), $16,577 35
For expenses of agents (exclusive of
glanders work), 5,898 91
No. 4.] IIEPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 315
For exi^enses of quarantine stations, . $8,056 25
For expenses of glanders work, includ-
ing' services and expenses of agents,
laboratory work and killing and
burial, 8,641 87
For laboratory expenses (exclusive of
glanders work), 1,197 14
For implements, ear tags, thermometers,
etc., 625 82
For salary of Chief of Bureau, . . 1,800 00
For salary of clerk, . • . . . 1,200 00
For salaries of assistant clerks and
stenographers, ..... 1,655 00
For office expenses, printing, postage,
stationery, etc., ....
For expenses of Chief of Bureau, .
Total expenditures, ....
Balance from all accounts, Nov. 30, 1910,
Total as above, ....
This balance is made up from the following items: —
Balance of approjiriation for salaries
and expenses, 1909, .... $306 41
Balance of appropriation for salaries
and expenses, 1910, .... 401 61
Balance of ajipropriation for general
work of the Bureau available for un-
settled accounts of 1910, . . . 10,052 09
$10,760 11
1,788 26
165 01
$47,605 61
.
$96,729 65
10,760 11
, , ,
$107,489 76
The average price paid for condemned cattle for the year
was $24.93.
There has been received during the year, from the sale of
hides and carcasses of condemned animals, sale of ear tags,
testing cattle for nonresident owners, etc., $4,020.41.
Claims for 302 head of cattle condemned and killed as
tuberculous during the year remain unsettled, to be paid for
on proof of claims, the appraised value of which amounts to
$5,712.
316 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Seventy-four stamps for branding carcasses of animals
killed and inspected for food have been furnished to 50 cities
and towns during the year ending Nov. 30, 1910.
To carry on the work of the Bureau in all parts of the
State, the service of many agents, veterinarians and others,
is obviously necessary. In assuming this office I determined
to retain so far as possible the existing force of employees,
believing that their experience and their knowledge of the
territory in which they worked made them the best qualified
to carry on the work successfully. Many requests for ap-
pointments were filed with me, and also many criticisms of
existing methods and agents, but as my only purpose was to
raise the standard of the work performed by the Bureau to
the highest plane possible, I decided to judge the competency
of agents myself, after a fair trial, and to make changes
slowly, endeavoring always to retain those who proved most
worthy. I am not wholly satisfied with the manner in which
a considerable portion of the work is done, but we are, I be-
lieve, faced in the right direction, and time will see the prob-
lem worked out satisfactorily. In this small army of agents
there are many whose work is highly creditable and character-
ized by earnest, honest endeavor. The good work done by
this Bureau is largely due to the painstaking labor of these
men.
As you are aware, I came into this position not as a pro-
fessional appointee but as a practical handler of cattle and a
dairyman. To the practical experience gained in many years
of active association with the above-named interests, I shall
add whatever may be gained (and I do not underestimate its
value) by frequent consultation with the best scientific and
veterinary authorities in the State and nation. I am pleased
to report to your honorable Board that I have been assured of
having at all times the professional advice of the best-known
experts in matters pertaining to the professional phase of the
animal industry. With such eminent professional assistance
at the command of the Chief of the Bureau, and an earnest
No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 317
endeavor to conduct the work with all the care a successful
private business demands, we may confidently look for pro-
gressive service in the State's behalf, and I trust ample
justification will be found for the Bureau's establishment and
continuance.
For several years it has been the custom to send official
representatives of the Bureau to one or more annual gather-
ings of live-stock sanitary associations, interstate or national.
The wisdom of this step needs no defence. In no other way
can the local department impart its views on sanitary matters
to its neighbors, or learn of methods adopted and practiced
successfully elsewhere. Interchange of opinions and mutual
acquaintance broaden all participants, widen their horizon
and tend to a community of interest and protection. One
such gathering has been attended by representatives of this
Bureau during the year ending 'Nov. 30, 1910. At the meet-
ing of the Eastern Live Stock Sanitary Association, held at
Atlantic City, IST. J., May 6 to 8, the Massachusetts Bureau
was represented by my predecessor, Dr. Austin Peters, who
was and is president of the organization. He was accom-
panied by Agent C. A. Dennen of Pepperell, and Dr. B. D.
Pierce of Springfield.
In this connection, although it is of date outside the scope
of this report, I wish to say that I had the honor to be com-
missioned by Acting Governor Frothingham to represent the
State Cattle Bureau at the annual convention of the United
States Live Stock Sanitary Association, held at Chicago, 111.,
December 5 to 7, inclusive. The session was a most helpful
one in many ways. I found a rapidly growing interest in the
sanitary phase of the animal industry, and an earnest and
honest desire to arrive at the best methods of handling the
perplexities of the subject, and, what was most gratifying, a
willingness to get together and to look beyond State lines. I
was brought in contact with the heads of cattle departments
of nearly every State west of ISTcw England, and with officials
of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry. The repre-
sentative from Massachusetts was received with great courtesy,
and was elected first vice-president of the association.
318 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Changes effected.
Sundry changes in regulations, which were found early in
my administration to be imperatively necessary, but which
could not be made effective until after the close of the fiscal
and statistical year, jSTov. 30, 1910, I have taken the liberty
to insert in this report, feeling that your honorable Board is
entitled to know the policy under which the department is
now being conducted, and finding nothing in the statutes,
after careful examination, which j)rohibits my so doing.
On December 21 the honorable Executive Council approved
of certain amendments of Cattle Bureau Order 'No. 15, which
I had submitted to it. The first change to which I desire to
call your attention is in section 5, and is embodied in the
following paragraph: —
Certificates of tuberculin test made by qualified veterinarians re-
siding- in other States will be accepted, provided the test is made
with tuberculin furnished or apjn'oved by State or federal govern-
ment, and provided also that the certificates are approved and
endorsed by the official in charge of live-stock interests in the
State from which the cattle are shipped, or by his deputy. The
Chief of the Cattle Bureau may in his discretion retest any or all
tested cattle brought within the limits of the Commonwealth from
other States.
In considtation with officials having charge of live-stock
interests in all the near-by States, I found them willing to
examine and pass upon all certificates of tuberculin test made
by qualified veterinarians in their respective States, thus safe-
guarding the interests of this State and saving the shipper
from possible loss. The old policy of the Bureau was to test
cattle coming into the State after their arrival here. This
practice resulted in loss to the shipper and necessarily ad-
vanced the price to Massachusetts buyers, for shippers, in
establishing sales prices, naturally took into consideration the
liability of losing one or more head from each carload. The
reciprocal relations established by this amendment will, I am
sure, work to the advantage of all concerned, and will not
imperil our interests. The closing restriction it is believed
No. 4.] RErORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. -319
protects all our rights, and is a deterrent in case any irregu-
larities escape the vigilance of the authorities.
Another change in the same section provides as follows : —
Cattle returning' from out-of-State pastures or boarding places,
satisfactory as to sanitary conditions to the Chief of the Cattle
Bureau, will not be subjected to a tuberculin test if they have not
been out of the State over six months, provided they bear ear tags
furnished for this purjoose by the Massachusetts Cattle Bureau the
numbers of which have been forwarded to the office of the Bureau
prior to the cattle being sent out of the State.
Under the old order abuses crept in and the department was
unable to correct them. A herd returning from out-of-State
pastures might or might not be the same cattle that left the
State ; it might be double or treble its original size ; it might
contain any number of cattle which had never been subjected
to inspection by this Bureau. All of these things were pos-
sible because of the lack of means of identification. As
amended, the regulation insists upon the use of the numbered
ear tag, with office record of the same, before the herd leaves
the State, and upon its return subjects all cattle not bearing
the official tag to the tuberculin test.
Acting under the authority granted by chapter 90 of the
Revised Laws, I have ordered the annual inspection of neat
stock, other farm animals and premises, recpiired by law, to
be made between February 1 and March 15, instead of in the
fall months, as has been the custom. This change I believe
to be along a practical line. At the time of the fall inspection
the cattle are in many cases scattered in pastures, and thus
liable to escape that careful examination which the law con-
templates. Then, again, at that season of the year their phys-
ical condition is at its best, rendering the discovery of disease
more difficult. The change of date will allow the inspectors
to more completely cover the ground, will show the cattle in
their normal condition, and, what is very important, will
give the inspector a clear understanding of the conditions
under which they are housed.
320 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Recommendations.
Right here I wish to say that this Bureau should have
more extended authority over sanitary conditions of stables
and other farm buildings. Nothing so directly affects the .
health of animals as the conditions under which they are
housed. We may enter the stables and inspect the cattle ; we
may condemn the infected members of the herd, and order
their removal. On the other hand, the barn may be reeking
with filth, poorly lighted and ventilated, a hotbed of disease
germs ; yet into such dangerous surroundings, after we have
taken out the diseased cattle, the owner may bring healthy
cattle which in turn may become infected from these impure
and unhealthy conditions. We should be clothed with power
to open such barns to the air and sunlight and to cleanse
them in a suitable manner, if our cattle work is to be crowned
with success.
The State Board of Health has among its multifarious
duties the supervision of buildings in which dairy cattle are
kept, but its agents apparently do not see the conditions quite
as we see them, nor do they have our opportunity to advise
the needed reform at a time when such advice is most likely
to be effective. A vesting of such authority in the Cattle
Bureau would be in the interest of intelligent classification of
work.
Another matter to which I desire to call your attention is
one in which authority is divided between the State Board of
Health and the Cattle Bureau. Under the law the Cattle
Bureau furnishes stamps or brands to local boards of health
applying therefor, to be used by meat inspectors in their
respective localities. It also issues rules and regulations con-
forming to those of the United States Bureau of Animal In-
dustry, under which the meat inspectors must work. But
these inspectors are not appointed by this Bureau, nor is their
appointment subject to its approval, and, still further, this
Bureau cannot hold them responsible for any failure to per-
form their duties. They are responsible to the local boards of
health, over which the State Board of Health has advisory
power. Here seems to be an unnecessary tangle of authority
No. 4.] REPORT OF CATTLE BUREAU. 321
that needs unraveling. It would seem that the State Board
of Health might very properly furnish these stamps and
formulate the regulations under which the appointees of the
local boards of health carry on their work.
The office of local inspector of animals is of greater impor-
tance than is commonly recognized. The authorities of cities
and towns, who have the appointing power, should exercise
the greatest care in selecting these officials, and in my opinion
this Bureau should have increased authority over these ap-
pointees, in order that they may work in harmony with the
policy of the department. The present Chief would welcome
an opportunity to consult with the local authorities on this
subject, believing that their purpose, like his own, is to secure
the most efficient men available. The State expects and should
have in these local appointees men of practical efficiency, who,
having been tried and found not wanting, should be retained
in spite of political changes.
Conclusion.
The work of the Bureau has been largely directed toward
the suppression of tuberculosis. I am of the opinion, and my
opinion was formed long before I became associated with the
department, and has been strengthened since, that it cannot
be stamped out by any purely theoretical regulations. It can
be largely suppressed, however, and all agencies leading to
that end must be recognized and tactfully employed. Success
will only be attained when there is, in addition to long-con-
tinued and persistent official effort of a practical nature, co-
operation upon the part of the individual cattle owner.
There is too often distrust of officials when there should be
confidence. The agent of a department is looked upon as an
enemy, a ruthless destroyer of property and a foe to be
dreaded and avoided. A policy must be adopted that will
restore confidence and afford equal protection, without exces-
sive burdens, to the humblest cattle o\vner and the millionaire
farmer alike. It shall be the aim of the present administra-
tion to work for such results. The State should seek to
encourage the weaker class of dairymen, honest minded and
well intentioned, and assist them in every legitimate way to
322 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [P.D.No.4.
establish herds that shall be a credit to the State aiid a source
of profit to their owners. Once established on a healthy,
profitable basis they would become a permanent source of
supply to near-by consumers, who would thus secure a fresh,
healthful product at a reasonable cost. The appalling de-
crease in the number of cattle owned in our State is sufficient
proof of the need of such a policy.
The Massachusetts Cattle Bureau was not established for
the purpose of persecution, nor can it work out the problems
before it by a policy that relies upon prosecution. Its aim
and intent is to restrain and correct abuses if they exist, and
at the same time stimulate and encourage the cattle industry
of the State and protect the health of its citizens. The pres-
ent administration is willing and eager to give to all parties
interested helpful and encouraging counsel. We want every
farmer and stock owner in the State to feel free to consult the
Bureau. In no better way can misunderstandings be cleared
up and difficulties solved. To attain this ideal we must first
have honest and faithful agents of the State, who will deal
fairly with the people, and then we must have the co-operation
and confidence of the cattle-owning public, which will only
come when the true policy and aims of the Bureau are more
fully understood. I am sure that with rational interpretation
of the law, and a better knowledge of the benefits sought, the
Cattle Bureau may become one of the most prized depart-
ments of the State, and that the producer and the consumer
will eventually recognize in it an institution conducted for
the welfare and protection of each.
Respectfully submitted,
FRED FREELAND WALKER,
Chief of Cattle Bureau.
FII^AITCIAL RETURJNS
ANzVlysis of Peemiums and Geatuities
IJ^CORPORATED SOCIETIES,
MEMBERSHIP AND INSTITUTES,
For the Year 1910.
324
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Pub. Doc.
Financial Returns of the Incorporated
SOCIETIES.
3 JM
"3 ft^ p
O C3 . o5
" — -^ tj
Amesbury and Saliabury (Agricul-
tural and Horticultural),
Barnstable County, ....
Blackstone Valley, ....
Deerfield Valley, ....
Eastern Hampden, ....
Essex, .......
Franklin County, ....
Hampshire, .....
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden,
Highland, ......
Hillside,
Hingham (Agricultural and Horticul-
tural), ......
Hoosac Valley, .....
Housatonic, .....
Lenox Horticultural, ....
Marshfield (Agricultural and Horti-
cultural), ......
Martha's Vineyard, ....
Massachusetts Horticultural,
Mass.ichusetts Society for Promoting
Agriculture, '2 . . . . .
Middlesex North, ....
Middlesex South, ....
Nantucket,
Oxford,
Plymouth County, . . . _ .
Spencer (Farmers' and Mechanics'
Association), . . . . .
Union (Agricultural and Horticul-
tural), ......
Weymouth (Agricultural and Indus-
trial), ......
Worcester, ......
Worcester East,
Worcester Northwest (Agricultural
and Mechanical), . . . .
Worcester South, ....
Worcester County West,
1881
1844
1884
1871
1856
1818
18.50
1850
1818
1850
188.3
1867
1860
1848
1910
1867
1859
1829
1792
1855
1854
1856
1888
1819
1867
1891
1818
1890
1867
18,55
1851
81,002 32
1,740 00
3,000 00
4,094 01
3,000 00
4,527 20
3,768 00
3,255 26
8,141 29
3,262 00
3,113 32
17,406 15
2,006 00
6,335 33
1,000 00
3,755 33
4,552 17
525 00
3,000 00
3,000 00
3,500 00
4,400 00
9,550 00
4,034 00
4,447 23
10,270 00
7,730 00
2,296 23
3,400 00
3,127 40
3,175 00
1 S8,121 97
2 9,917 96
3 5,000 00
3 9,200 00
3 7,000 00
< 16,150 16
J 11,295 10
5 5,065 00
1 21,135 00
1 3,120 00
6 6,070 22
6 4,676 31
' 15,595 00
< 27,054 04
s 2,451 63
1 13,000 00
3 5,050 00
1 564,524 70
"7,131 94
3 12,000 00
3 3,200 00
8 11,577 68
"2,037 19
1 10,350 00
1 9,000 00
1 11,270 00
2 89,940 00
6 12,654 11
6 13,.361 61
I 14,130 00
1 10,500 00
$151,413 24
S941,679 62
S8,121 97
9,917 96
5,000 00
9,4.50 00
7,(X(0 00
15,860 00
11,295 10
5,0,50 00
21,166 27
3,120 00
6,070 22
4,676 31
15,000 00
27,0,54 04
2,451 63
13,000 00
5,050 00
830,172 06
7,131 94
12,200 00
3,200 00
11,577 68
2,037 19
10,350 00
9,475 68
11,270 00
91,878 46
11,991 30
13,361 61
14,130 00
10,500 00
S8,121 98
10,319 44
5,.501 04
9,559 41
7,076 14
16,150 16
11,295,10
5,065 00
21,446 27
3,120 12
6,170 76
4,720 88
15,595 00
27,104 04
2,451 63
15,007 64
5,110 22
848,433 72
7,131 94
12,3,50 20
3,230 43
11,577 68
2,037 19
10,543 89
9,475 68
11,304 51
91,878 46
12,654 11
13,,361 61
14,478 88
10,598 73
$1,208,659 42
$1,232,871 86
1 Invested in real estate, crockery, tables, etc.
2 Invested in real estate and bank funds.
3 Invested in real estate.
< Invested in real estate, stocks, bank funds, crockery, tables, etc.
5 Invested in real estate, cash, crockery, tables, etc.
1 Invested in real estate, bank funds, crockery, tables, etc.
' Invested in real estate and cash.
RETURNS OF SOCIETIES.
325
Societies for the Year ending Dec. 31, 1910.
a
3
i
-a
3
tn
a
o
T3
&
'6
.2?
1
a
o
3
>»
.2
1
s
o
8
M
a
CS
"t3
2S
3
O
3
►-1
3
o
rt
2
M
pq
M
u
U
H
$7,71G 09
$405 28
$0 01
$1,500 00
1
8,000 00
-
-
Sl,917 96
-
-
401 48
1,704 40
2
5,000 00
-
-
-
-
-
501 04
1,540 00
3
9,200 00
-
-
-
-
250 00
109 41
-
4
7,000 00
-
-
-
-
-
76 14
7,173 51
5
15,300 00
-
$300 00
-
-
200 00
290 16
10,000 00
6
10,000 00
-
1,000 00
45 10
-
250 00
-
2,838 00
7
5,001) 00
-
-
-
-
50 00
15 00
2,275 08
8
20,335 00
-
-
231 27
$80 00
800 00
-
4,156 69
9
3,000 00
-
-
-
-
120 00
12
52 96
10
5,000 00
-
-
820 22
-
350 00
54
-
11
2,500 00
_
_
1,276 31
_
900 00
44 57
_
12
15,000 00
-
-
-
-
-
595 00
9,000 00
13
24,840 37
-
500 00
-
50 00
425 00
1,279 67
2,050 00
14
-
-
-
2,101 63
-
350 00
-
-
15
12,500 00
_
_
_
_
500 00
2,007 64
1,627 94
16
2,750 00
SlOO 00
-
2,000 00
49 00
200 00
11 22
10 27 00
17
518,564 03
-
255,700 GO
-
-
55,907 43
18.261 66
-
18
~
4,412 00
~
2,039 89
-
-
80 05
-
19
20
12,000 00
-
-
-
38 00
200 00
112 20
10,048 00
21
3,200 00
-
-
-
-
_
30 43
-
22
11,000 00
-
-
77 68
-
500 00
2,150 00
23
-
-
-
1,988 51
-
39 00
9 68
-
24
9,400 00
-
-
-
132 00
950 00
61 89
1,943 00
25
8,000 00
-
-
475 68
-
1,000 00
-
1,504 91
26
11,000 00
_
_
_
_
270 00
34 51
4,602 00
27
74,530 22
-
-
15,409 88
-
1,938 36
-
-
28
11,534 00
-
-
662 81
-
457 30
-
-
29
13,000 00
_
_
61 61
_
300 00
_
3,050 00
30
13,530 00
-
-
-
-
600 00
348 88
1,584 20
31
10,000 00
-
-
-
-
500 00
98 73
637 50
32
$848,909 91
$4,512 00
$257,560 00
$29,708 55
$349 00
$67,462 37
$24,370 03
$69,465 19
8 Invested in bank funds, crockery, tables, etc.
' Invested in real estate, notes, crockery, tables, etc.
>» Estimated.
" Invested in real estate, library, furniture, bonds and other securities.
'2 Reprosentod on the Board by special enactment, and makes no returns.
" Invested in notes, banks fund and cash.
** Invested in bank funds, cash, crockery, tables, etc.
326
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Pub. Doc.
Financial Returns of the Incorporated Societies
SOCIETIES.
T3
a
C3
_2
.-3
3
pq
'O
to
a
a. -2
'a O-
-0
a
03
a a
•2
03
3
Ph
0
$179 40
$125 00
:
1,413 51
_
38 00
3 50
21 58
-
556 69
-
62 96
-
50 00
21 85
-
2 27 00
-
398 00
_
143 00
-
204 91
-
502 00
107 45
76 75
37 50
-
S349 70
$3,609 40
Oi-t
£t3
Amcsbury and Salisbury (Agricul-
tural and Horticultural),
Barnstable County, ....
Blaclcstone Valley, ....
Ueerfield Valley, ....
Eastern Hampden
Essex, .......
Franklin County, ....
Hampshire, . . . . .
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden,
Highland, ......
Hillside,
Hingham (Agricultural and Horticul-
tural), ......
Hoosac Valley,
Housatonic, . . . . •
Lenox Horticultural, . . . .
Marshfield (Agricultural and Horti-
cultural), ......
Martha's Vineyard, ....
Massachusetts Horticultural,
Massachusetts Society for Promoting
Agriculture, 3 . . . . .
Middlesex North
Middlesex South, ....
Nantucket,
Oxford, ......
Plymouth County, . . ■
Spencer (Farmers' and Mechanics'
Association), . . . . .
Union (Agricultural and Horticul-
tural), ......
Weymouth (Agricultural and Indus-
trial),
Worcester, ......
Worcester East, .....
Worcester Northwest (Agricultural
and Mechanical), . . . .
Worcester South, ....
Worcester County West,
$1,500 00
1,400 00
1,540 00
5,760 00
10,000 00
2,800 00
2,250 00
3,600 00
9,000 00
2,000 00
1,606 09
9,650 00
2,150 00
1,800 00
1,300 00
4,100 00
3,050 00
1,400 00
600 00
$2,751 16
9,513 18
2,894 17
2,526 46
5,322 21
3,420 82
7,738 60
2,785 14
14,062 46
2,111 27
1,520 06
876 07
6,289 00
14,391 83
393 00
7,900 60
1,222 27
29,160 08
960 27
3,328 40
1,503 86
5,720 55
600 46
2,659 64
2,725 01
3,946 50
32,024 31
11,180 99
7,977 55
10,176 54
3,817 48
$65,50609
$201,559 94
$600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
354 80
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
$231 96
1 11
15 70
16 70
49 52
84 50
360 27
28 00
599 71
$17,754!
$1,387 47
1 Including trotting.
: Estimated.
No. 4.]
RETURNS OF SOCIETIES.
327
FOR THE Year ending Dec. 31, 1910 — Concluded.
1
CO
S a
^
Id
a
o
<
1
Gra-
a
i
a
a
Q
si
is
CI
"1
a
a
3 .
p.
W
i: o
T3 0)
"O
X
S m
03
.t a
83
go
(D tH
so
3
o
5-2
a '3
S a
Sw
0)
O
p
l-H
rt
«
«
H
Pm
o
Q
^,
S9 00
$2,142 16
$2,826 94
S759 95
$1,941 24
$75 00
$50 75
1
-
45 00
S205 00
8,431 22
9,111 70
1,072 05
6,124 05
2 34
1,912 66
2
-
30 15
51 71
2,212 31
3,393 13
744 49
1,253 37
65 00
330 27
3
-
32 00
13 74
1,880 72
2,254 36
794 11
850 15
-
596 30
4
-
58 00
-
4,604 21
5,246 07
897 41
4,088 01
260 05
_
5
$300 00
21 00
353 00
2,085 71
3,529 51
426 75
008 02
483 25
2,011 49
6
40 00
1 00
7,097 00
7,743 04
» 2,049 05
3,956 54
203 51
933 94
7
-
32 50
57 48
2,773 14
2,773 14
750 50
388 29
114 40
1,519 95
8
-
70 00
55 00
13,321 70
13,791 98
3,990 55
3,860 30
138 44
5,802 09
9
-
40 00
-
1,405 27
2,111 15
070 55
1,430 30
4 30
-
10
-
80 00
17 00
806 36
1,590 08
917 50
072 58
-
-
11
_
55 00
10 30
155 25
1,030 79
001 60
309 19
_
_
12
-
10 00
-
5,679 00
5,694 00
2,409 00
1,575 00
450 00
1,260 00
13
59 58
406 00
-
13,320 25
13,112 10
5,742 00
5,408 24
111 66
1,790 26
14
62 00
61 00
270 00
-
1,007 00
528 50
206 45
-
272 71
15
_
95 00
137 50
7,068 10
0,005 58
2,226 75
4,336 61
102 22
_
16
-
-
1 00
536 77
1,226 11
690 23
339 03
-
196 25
17
11,235 00
760 00
7,936 92
8,628 16
18,082 39
< 4,564 00
-
-
14,118 39
18
~
~
~
"
591 40
316 40
125 00
-
2 150 00
19
20
-
17 05
115 26
2.596 09
3,210 20
1,429 33
1,158 34
39 00
589 53
21
-
19 00
70 15
874 71
1,533 43
680 75
852 08
-
-
22
-
41 00
39 00
5,040 55
5,720 55
1,079 04
2,104 07
98 50
2,438 34
23
-
-
45 00
172 66
436 78
306 50
70 28
-
-
24
-
5 00
-
2,054 64
2,597 75
1,094 47
1,116 53
35 00
351 75
25
-
43 00
5 25
2,076 76
2,249 33
1,166 76
906 18
-
175 75
26
_
10 00
28 35
3,308 15
3,928 53
583 84
2,871 67
218 75
254 27
27
-
140 (X)
504 50
30,180 10
33,667 42
7,551 40
-
-
26,116 02
28
-
59 00
2,050 00
8,471 99
10,460 88
2,815 05
7,645 83
-
-
29
_
_
555 00
6,822 55
8,722 83
1,688 75
6,338 26
183 00
512 82
30
-
71 00
-
9,505 54
9,529 94
2,492 40
3,968 63
20 00
3,048 91
31
-
15 00
125 00
3,077 48
3,893 45
1,754 51
1,352 45
48 50
737 99
32
$11,756 58
82,231 70
$12,652 16
$155,777 23
$187,398 28
$53,514 79
$66,045 73
$2,652 92
$65,171 10
' Represented on the Board by special enactment, and makes no returns.
* Awarded in 1909; paid in 1910.
328
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Pub. Doc.
Analysis of Premiums and Gratuities, Membership and
i2
.Si
."HO
-So
ii
11
SOCIETIES.
o
..o 05
0 a
3 3
1 a
5^
^
Hi
P m
13 a
3 m
3 rt
T3 S
£^
sS -^
sa
3 S
0 o >»
3^ a
O - tH
AT)
3 oi
OT3«2
3 oi^i
is
l^o
III
aw
a«
H
H
H
<
<
<
<
I
Amesbury and Salisbury
(Ag-
ricultural and Horticultural)
S769 35
$769 35
S759 95
_
_
_
1 _
2
Barnstable County,
2,484 85
1,253 05
1,072 65
1120 00
-
-
$1,164 00
3
Blackatone Valley,
1,081 15
822 60
744 49
145 00
$58 00
$58 00
703 50
4
Deerfield Valley, .
1,176 25
806 85
794 11
_
900 00
5
Eastern Hampden,
1,339 00
897 76
897 41
98 00
_
_
798 00
6
Essex
1,588 30
480 25
426 75
48 00
14 00
12 00
742 00
7
Franklin County, .
2 4,250 00
2 2,790 71
2 2,649 05
_
2,500 00
8
Hampshire,
1,721 75
750 00
750 50
_
_
1,158 00
9
Hampshire, Franklin
and
Hampden, .
2 4,040 55
2 3,990 55
2 3,990 55
50 00
_
-
1,005 00
10
Highland,
2 731 00
2 670 55
2 670 55
-
-
-
414 50
11
Hillside, ....
958 00
917 50
917 50
10 00
6 00
6 00
675 00
12
Hingham (Agricultural
and
Horticultural), .
1,375 80
661 60
661 60
71 75
_
_
_
13
Hoosac Valley,
2 2,814 75
2 2,409 00
2 2,409 00
-
_
-
925 00
14
Housatonic, .
2 6,809 75
2 5,742 00
5,742 OU
-
-
-
2,038 00
15
Lenox, ....
661 50
528 50
628 50
50 00
_
_
_
16
Marshfield (Agricultural
and
Horticultural), .
2 2,669 00
2 2,234 40
2,226 75
100 00
-
-
505 00
17
Martha's Vineyard,
664 25
701 55
690 23
-
-
-
392 75
18
Massachusetts Horticultural,
9^31 00
5,589 00
3 4,564 00
369 00
231 00
3 231 00
-
19
Massachusetts Society
for
Promoting Agriculture
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20
Middlesex North, .
.
566 50
373 15
316 40
-
-
208 75
21
Middlesex South, .
2 1,800 00
2 1,339 25
2 1,429 33
104 70
36 75
36 75
309 45
22
Nantucket,
2 1,200 00
2 080 75
2 680 75
51 00
15 00
15 00
604 00
23
Oxford
1,498 00
1,123 55
1,079 04
78 00
39 00
36 88
1,066 00
24
Plymouth County.
359 25
366 50
366 50
-
10 00
10 00
1 -
25
Spencer (Farmers and
Me-
chanics' Association), .
2 1,700 00
2 1,161 00
2 1,094 47
-
-
-
815 00
26
Union (Agricultural and Hor-
ticultural), .
2 1,552 00
2 1,180 63
2 1,166 76
-
-
-
804 00
27
Weymouth (Agricultural and
Industrial), .
1,155 65
683 84
583 84
-
-
-
679 00
28
Worcester,
2 9,553 41
2 7,551 40
2 7,551 40
-
-
-
5,711 25
29
Worcester East,
3,200 00
2,815 05
2,815 05
32 00
32 00
32 00
2,001 50
30
Worcester Northwest (.Agri-
cultural and Meclianical), .
1,800 00
1,694 75
1,688 75
-
-
-
1-
31
Worcester South, .
2 3,176 00
2 2,540 30
2 2,492 40
102 00
64 00
64 00
1,148 00
32
Worcester County West,
2 2,181 90
2 1,754 51
2 1,754 51
60 00
29 00
29 00
1,163 50
$74,108 96
$55,283 90
$53,514 79
$1,489 45
$534 75
$530 63
$29,031 20
Not reported.
2 Including trotting.
No. 4.]
RETURNS OF SOCIETIES.
329
Institutes, for the Year ending Dec. 31, 1910.
11
■0 a
0. -"
11
3-a .
T3T3 .
U 1
T3 O
7,~ a
^-a a
0) ■-
a 3
a^Pn
cj (3 o
-^ a a
ejW o
t-i
3 l;^
^°2
OOfl
3S^
a-a-§
o a
a-o-a
2o
C-3 .
a ° a
fl 3 d
3 S*^
O » !D
SWf4
3 oj ij
o a> cs
sffio
S9§
3 S b
O ^ C3
§2S
o-o-aiS
S§g3
3 c; fc.
o ai 03
3 a _2
gW 3
E3Q
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
$365 50
S365 50
1 _
$2&4 40
$258 90
I _
$3 25
1
431 25
334 00
$164 00
-
-
$557 75
363 35
305 85
$10 00
5 00
2
524 50
511 50
_
_
-
115 40
113 90
113 90
10 00
5 00
3
584 00
570 63
-
-
-
78 50
71 75
71 75
12 00
11 00
4
601 50
601 50
_
_
_
254 75
173 25
173 25
63 00
23 00
5
223 25
149 25
197 50
SO 00
$6 00
382 00
136 00
119 25
14 00
4 00
6
1,316 00
1,316 00
-
-
-
500 00
252 10
252 10
21 00
12 00
7
309 25
309 25
-
-
-
250 00
112 25
108 75
6 00
2 00
8
1,179 50
1,105 75
95 00
_
_
241 00
208 25
193 75
40 00
11 00
9
428 25
428 25
17 75
13 75
13 75
70 75
67 45
57 45
4 50
4 50
10
662 45
662 45
45 00
44 50
44 50
77 00
70 50
70 50
4 00
3 00
11
_
_
173 00
84 00
84 00
776 80
371 10
371 10
3 50
2 00
12
264 50
264 50
_
_
_
80 75
55 50
55 50
24 00
6 00
13
1,196 75
1,196 75
276 00
271 00
271 00
391 50
336 00
336 00
38 00
38 00
14
-
-
-
-
611 50
528 50
528 50
-
-
15
319 35
319 35
90 50
7 50
2 50
246 00
199 55
193 35
17 50
11 00
16
3U9 75
309 75
-
-
-
68 25
104 50
104 50
10 00
7 00
17
-
-
-
-
-
8,862 00
5,358 00
3 4,333 00
-
-
18
139 25
103 75
-
:
:
264 75
174 25
159 00
-
-
19
20
287 60
287 60
67 30
17 85
17 85
22 00
6 50
6 50
-
-
21
349 75
349 75
134 00
-
-
163 00
71 50
71 50
16 00
_
22
802 50
785 26
65 50
62 90
62 22
179 50
109 90
105 04
9 00
9 00
23
90 00
90 00
-
-
-
-
116 50
116 50
-
-
24
386 50
356 50
51 25
25 75
19 25
106 00
86 00
72 00
10 00
10 00
25
462 00
457 50
-
-
-
69 60
57 50
50 75
13 25
5 75
26
325 74
323 49
45 00
_
_
210 00
101 25
96 25
5 50
50
27
3,747 50
3,747 50
_
-
-
497 00
443 00
443 00
22 00
16 00
28
1,650 25
1,650 25
-
-
-
1 _
871 25
871 25
21 00
8 00
29
1,045 75
1,044 75
_
_
_
1 _
469 75
469 75
30 00
12 00
30
768 50
732 50
-
-
-
226 00
138 20
131 95
18 00
15 00
31
836 95
836 95
-
-
-
150 50
140 75
140 75
15 00
12 00
32
$19,608 09
$19,210 23
$1,422 80
$533 25
$521 07
$15,452 30
$11,562 70
$10,381 14
S437 25
$236 00
« Awarded in 1909; paid in 1910.
* Represented on the Board by epecial enactment, and makes no returua.
330
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[Pub. Doc.
Analysis of Premiums and Gratuities, Membership and
^ •
t- o
t; **-• '
(-. o
t. 1
■T3 J,
h 1
Oj-n
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n "
Oi- —
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3.1
SOCIETIES.
to— -g
o o S
o o
03 o
-Kg
3 C3 m
3 ? 9
m oun
unde
Domes
tures.
gffi a
C4 Qj
3 a! S
Sao
013 2
<;
<
<
<
<
<
<
1
Amesbury and Salisbury (Agri-
cultural and Horticultural),
S3 25
I _
m 00
?91 00
1 _
$45 20
$43 80
2
Barnstable County,
5 00
S289 50
305 46
286 90
$179 00
147 99
141 90
3
Rlackstone Valley,
5 00
107 25
78 95
78 95
I _
42 25
34 25
4
Deorfield Valley
11 00
104 50
96 30
95 93
1 -
44 80
44 80
5
Eastern Hampden,
23 00
03 25
61 65
61 30
62 00
38 26
38 26
6
Essex,
4 00
76 50
8 00
5 50
128 00
89 00
88 00
7
Franklin County,
12 00
200 00
82 10
82 10
12 00
6 00
6 00
8
Hampshire, .....
2 00
68 75
55 00
65 00
239 00
239 00
239 00
9
Hampshire, Franklin and Hamp-
den,
11 00
84 50
49 75
39 00
66 50
44 00
40 25
10
Highland,
4 50
92 35
89 15
89 15
1 _
12 45
12 45
U
Hillside
3 00
91 00
81 40
81 40
56 00
50 15
50 15
12
Hingham (Agricultural and Horti-
cultural)
2 00
174 75
148 75
148 75
176 00
55 75
55 75
13
Iloosac Valley, ....
6 00
230 00
124 30
124 30
76 00
51 00
51 00
14
Housatonic,
38 00
712 75
538 50
538 50
154 00
154 00
-
15
Lenox,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
16
Marshfield (Agricultural and Hor-
ticultural), ....
11 00
145 00
140 35
139 05
65 00
56 65
56 15
17
Martha's Vineyard,
7 00
68 75
102 00
102 CO
1 _
134 25
134 25
18
Massachusetts Horticultural,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
19
Massachusetts Society for Promot-
ing Agriculture,*
-
—
—
—
—
—
—
20
Middlesex North, ....
-
80 OO
46 50
40 50
14 00
13 15
13 15
21
Middlesex South, ....
-
84 00
49 90
49 90
60 00
40 75
40 75
22
Nantucket,
-
60 00
75 00
75 00
86 00
40 50
40 50
23
Oxford,
9 00
100 00
100 25
100 25
-
-
-
24
Plymouth County, . . .
-
1 _
142 75
142 75
-
-
-
25
Spencer (Farmers' and Mechanics'
Association), ....
10 00
52 00
26 00
19 50
1 _
26 75
19 25
26
Union (Agricultural and Horti-
cultural), . . . • ■
5 75
126 70
105 50
103 00
146 45
157 76
157 76
27
Weymouth (Agricultural and In-
dustrial), .....
50
165 15
118 65
114 35
50 00
37 70
36 70
28
Worcester
16 00
121 20
97 50
97 50
131 96
96 50
96 50
29
Worcester East, ....
8 00
343 05
183 05
183 05
196 50
64 50
64 SO
30
Worcester Northwest (Agricul-
tural and Mechanical),
12 00
1 _
76 00
71 75
1 _
12 00
12 00
31
Worcester South, ....
15 00
83 75
74 40
72 15
148 00
130 25
126 85
32
Worcester County West,
12 00
69 05
60 60
60 60
I _
21 85
21 85
$236 00
83,793 75
.S3, 208 76
$3,149 13
$2,046 41
$1,852 58
$1,665 82
» Not reported.
2 And gratuities.
' Estimated.
No. 4.]
RETURNS OF SOCIETIES.
331
Institutes for the Year ending Dec. 31, 1910 — Concluded.
2
H
a 2
u
^2 .
0 0
♦J -a
-0 0)
a
"a
a
<u
d
0
3
fe 3
o
f^i
(^^
•- ® a
■ --0
_a)
Uk
3
S-d
^1
-0
■"£
o$J
a|
"3
^
J3
a-s
3 CI
a
a
0 bO
□
0 >
U fD ^
S ^ G
^ 0
a m
3.2 <u
0
0 OT
)l
0 ai
S 0
0 0
3 M
o a
-^■3
u
■9 f=3
a aw
as
3J2
•9 a
1
0
as
3W
2^
0) <u
<
"^
z
z
■<
15
^
H
Z
<
2 290
14
$77 35
202
38
240
6
50
1
«1,360 00
163
214
15
-
218
172
390
3
53
2
-
125
26
14
3 00
301
291
592
3
92
3
540 00
225
-
21
-
946
260
1,200
7
141
4
1,050 00
2 130
-
32
195 00
265
175
440
5
113
5
-
60
28
18
-
891
22
913
8
70
6
1,022 50
1 _
i-
23
-
U,400
3 100
3 1,500
6
142
7
650 00
164
4
15
-
I _
I _
609
3
166
8
1,305 00
2 250
_
29
_
640
254
894
4
76
9
65 00
161
-
22
-
240
119
359
3
34
10
65 00
275
-
IS
-
903
48
951
6
93
11
_
71
168
7
1 25
343
138
481
3
39
12
1,360 00
129
-
9
50 75
376
15
391
2
88
13
3,200 00
470
-
28
101 00
1,721
67
1,788
3
82
14
-
28
-
3
-
113
18
131
-
-
15
1,500 00
96
224
21
_
530
299
829
6
60
16
83 00
2 200
-
6
-
90
74
164
3
33
17
-
107
52
72
2,820 50
710
130
840
9
142
18
-
201
14
15
-
510
240
750
11
225
19
20
600 00
1-
-
-
-
381
219
600
3
145
21
130 00
195
64
1
-
210
394
604
3
14
22
-
I -
I _
18
152 00
329
272
601
3
80
23
-
1 -
I _
I -
-
610
512
1,122
5
53
24
600 00
135
7
16
-
413
412
825
4
119
25
392 00
143
68
27
6 13
666
853
1,519
3
260
26
1,035 00
1 _
1 -
15
_
498
14
512
3
67
27
3,070 00
410
40
71
1,391 50
1,506
221
1,727
4
90
28
1,028 25
274
31
40
87 00
129
112
241
5
142
29
1,400 00
1 -
I _
31
16 00
413
221
634
6
92
30
1.175 00
132
57
24
-
641
600
1,241
6
87
31
700 00
1 _
1 _
29
-
431
82
513
8
89
32
$22,330 75
4,434
997
654
S4,962 08
., 10,626
6,372
23,607
143
MOO
* Represented on the Board by special enactment, and makes no returns,
s General average of attendance.
DIRECTORY
Agricultural and Similar Organizations
OF Massachusetts.
July, 1911
State Board of Agriculture, 1911.
Members ex OfiScio.
His Excellency EUGENE N. FOSS.
His Honor LOUIS A. FROTHINGHAM.
Hon. WM. M. OLIN, Secretary of the Commonwealth.
KENYON L. BUTTERFIELD, LL.D., President Massachusetts Agricultural College.
FREDERICK F. WAhKEU, Chief of the Cattle Bureau.
F. WM. RANE, B. Agr., M.S., State Forester.
J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH, Secretary of the Board.
Members appointed by the Governor and Council.
Term expires
CHARLES E. WARD ' of Buckland 1911
HENRY M. HOWARD of West Newton 1912
CHARLES M. GARDNER of Westfield, 1913
Members chosen by the Incorporated Societies.
Amesbury and Salisbury (Agricul-
tural and Horticultural),
Barnstable County,
Blackstone Valley,
Deer field Valley,
Eastern Hampden,
Essex,
Franklin County,
Hampshire,
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden,
Highland, . . . . .
Hillside, ......
Hingham (.\gricultural and Horti-
cultural), . . . . .
Hoosac Valley, . . . . .
Housatonic, . . . . .
Lenox Horticultural, ....
Marshfield {.Agricultural and Hort'l),
Martha's Vineyard, ....
Massachusetts Horticultural,
Massachusetts Society for Promoting
.\griculture, . . . . .
Middlesex North, ....
Middlesex South,
Nantucket,
Oxford.
Plymouth County,
J. J. MASON of Amesbury, .
JOHN BURSLEY of West Barnstable,
JACOB A. WILLIAMS of Northbridge.
ERNEST W. PAYNE of Heath, .
O. E. BRADW^AY of Monson,
FREDERICK A. RUSSELL of Methuen,
CHARLES P. ALDRICH of Greenfield,
HOWARD A. PARSONS of Amherst (P. O
North Amherst), .....
FRANK P. NEWKIRK of Easthampton,
JOHN T. BRYAN of Middlefield (P. O
Che.9ter, R. F. D.)
HARRY A. FORD of Windsor,
HENRY A. TURNER of Norwell,
L. J. NORTHUP of Cheshire,
N. B. TURNER of Great Barrington (P. O
Housatonic), .....
ALFRED H. WINGETT of Lenox,
WALTER H. FAUNCE of Kingston,
JAMES F. ADAMS of West Tisbury,
WILFRID WHEELER of Concord,
N. I. BOWDITCH of Framingham,
GEO. W. TRULL of Tewksbury (P. O. Lowell
R. F. D.),
Spencer {Farmer.<i' and Mech's .t.ss'n).
Union (Agricultural and Hort'l),
Weymouth (Agricultural and Ind'l), .
Worcester, ......
Worcester East
Worcester Northwest (.igricultural and
Mechanical), .....
Worcester South, ....
Worcester County West,
JOHN J. ERWIN of Wayland,
JOHN S. .A.PPLETON of Nantucket, .
WALTER A. LOVETT of Oxford, .
AUGUSTUS PRATT of Middleborough (P. O
North Middleborough)
WALTER C. BEMIS of Spencer, .
SYLVESTER H. PEEBLES of Blandford,
THERON L. TIRRELL of Weymouth (P. O
South Weymouth),
B. W. POTTER of Worcester, .
GEO. F, MORSE of Lancaster,
ALBERT ELLSWORTH of Athol,
WILLIAM E. PATRICK of Warren,
JOHN L. SMITH of Barre, .
1912
1913
1912
1914
1912
1914
1913
1913
1912
19U
1914
1912
1912
1912
1914
1912
1913
1912
1912
1914
1914
1912
1913
1914
1913
1913
1912
1914
1912
1913
1913
1914
' Successor not yet appointed.
336
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOARD.
President, .
1st Vice-President,
Bd Vice-President,
Secretary, .
OFFICERS.
His Excellency EUGENE N. FOSS, ex officio.
JOHN BURSLEY of West Barnstable.
WILFRID WHEELER of Concord.
J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH of Worcester.
Office, Room 136, State House, Boston.
COMMITTEES.
Executive Committee.
Messrs. John Bursley of West Barnstable.
O. E. Bradway of Monson.
John J. Mason of Amesbury.
Charles E. Ward of Buckland.
Walter A. Lovett of Oxford.
Charles M. Gardner of Westfield.
Wilfrid Wheeler of Concord.
John L. Smith of Barre.
Committee on Agricultural
Societies.
Messrs. O. E. Bradway of Monson.
Albert Ellsworth of Athol.
T. L. TiRRELL of South Weymouth.
J. A. Williams of Northbridge.
Ernest W. Payne of Heath.
Committee on Domestic Animals
and Sanitation.
Messrs. Walter A. Lovett of Oxford.
F. A. Russell of Methuen.
L. J. Nohthup of Cheshire.
Harry A. Ford of Windsor.
John T. Bryan of Middlefield.
Committee on Gypsy Moth, Insects
and Birds.
Messrs. Wilfrid Wheeler of Concord.
F. A. Russell of Methuen.
B. W. Potter of Worcester.
Walter C. Bemis of Spencer.
Augustus Pratt of North Middle-
borough.
Committee on Dairy Bureau and
Agricultural Products.
Messrs. Charles M. Gardner of Westfield.
Howard A. Parsons of North Am-
herst.
George W. Teull of Tewksbury.
Walter H. Faunce of Kingston.
S. H. Peebles of Blandford.
Committee on Massachusetts
Agricultural College.
Messrs. John Burslet of West Barnstable.
N. B. Turner of Great Barrington.
F. P. Newkirk of Easthampton.
Wm. E. Patrick of Warren.
John J. Ekwin of Wayland.
Committee on Experiments and
Station Work.
Messrs. John L. Smith of Barre.
N. I. BowDiTCH of Framingham.
T. L. TiRRELL of South Weymouth.
Wilfrid Wheeler of Concord.
Alfred H. Wingett of Lenox.
No. 4.]
AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY.
337
Committee on Forestry, Roads and
Roadside Improvements.
Messrs. J. J. Mason of Anicsbury.
F. Wm. R.^ne of Boston.
John S. Appleton of Nantucket.
H. A. Turner of Norwell.
Chas. p. Aldrich of Greenfield.
Committee on Institutes and Public
Meetings.
Messrs. Chas. E. Ward of Buckland.
George F. Morse of Lancaster.
Kenyon L. Butterfield of Am-
herst.
J. F. Adams of West Tisbury.
H. M. Howard of West Newton.
The secretary is a member, ex officio, of each of the above committees.
DAIRY BUREAU.
Messrs. Charles M. Gardner of Westficld, 1911; Howard A. PARiSONS of North Amherst,
1912; George W. Trull of Tewksbury, 1913.
Executive Officer,
General Agent, .
Office, Room 136, State House.
J. L. Ellsworth.
P. M. Habwood of Barre.
STATE NURSERY INSPECTOR.
Henry T. Fern.ild, Ph.D., of Amherst.
STATE ORNITHOLOGIST.
Edward Howe Forbush of Wareham.
STATE INSPECTOR OF APIARIES.
Burton N. Gates, Ph.D., of Amherst.
Chemist, .
Entomologist,
Botanist, .
Pomologist,
Veterinarian,
Engineer,
SPECIALISTS.
Dr. J. B. Lindsev,
Prof. C. H. Fernald,
Dr. Geo. E. Stone,
Prof. F. C. Sears,
Prof. James B. Paige,
Wm. Wheeler,
Amherst.
Amherst.
Amherst.
Amherst
Amherst.
Concord.
338 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
Location, Amherst, Ham-pshire County.
Term
BoAKD OF Trustees. expires
Davi8 R. Dewey of Cambridge, 1912
M. Fayette Dickinson of Boston 1912
William H. Bowkeu of Boston 1913
George H. Ellis of Newton, 1913
Chas. E. Ward of Buckland, 1914
Elmer D. Howe of Marlborough, 1914
Nathaniel I. Bowditch of Framingham, 1915
William Wheeler of Concord, 1915
Arthur G. Pollard of Lowell, 1916
Charles A. Gleason of Springfield, 1916
Frank Gerrett of Greenfield 1917
Harold L. Frost of Arlington, 1917
Frank A. Hosmer of Amherst 1918
Charles W. Preston of Danvers 1918
Members ex Officio.
His Excellency Governor Eugene N. Foss,
President of the Corporation.
Kenyon L. Butterfield, LL.D President of the College.
David Snedden, ......... Commissioner of Education.
3. Lewis Ellsworth, Secretary State Board of Agriculture.
Officers elected by the Board of Trustees.
Charles A. Gleason of Springfield, .... Vice-President of the Corporation.
J. Lewis Ellsworth of Worcester, Secretary.
Fred C. Kenney of Amherst, Treasurer.
Charles A. Gleason of Springfield Auditor.
Kenyon L. Butterfield, LL.D., of Amherst, . . . President of the College.
Examining Committee of the Board of Agriculture.
Messrs. Bursley, Turner, Newkirk, Patrick and Erwin.
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
Wm. p. Brooks, Ph.D Director and Agriculturist.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D Chemist.
Frank A. Waugh, M.Sc, . . ' Horticulturist.
George E. Stone, Ph.D Botanist and Vegetable Pathologist.
Charles H. Fernald, Ph.D Entomologist.
James B. Paige, B.S., D.V.S Veterinarian.
John E. Ostrander, A.M., C.E Meteorologist.
No. 4.]
AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY.
339
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AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY.
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No. 4.]
AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY.
343
e E
J. E. Burt. Athol.
C. A. Brown, Brockton.
W. H. Griswold, Dalton
Walter R. Bell, Manches
R. E. Small, Falmouth.
S. H. Stone, Greenfield.
Percy M. Alden, Willima
Asa L. Harris, Lawrence
W. H. Pyne. Milford.
Jas. H. Dwyer, North A
C. A. Larabee, North A
F. C. Chandler, Kingsto
E. S. Evans, Springfield
E. L. Richardson, West
W. H. Fitton, Worcester
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No. 4.]
AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY.
345
MASSACHUSETTS PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY.
Officers of the State Granoe, 1911.
Master, Cliarles M. Gardner of Westfield.
Overseer, . . . . . . . . . . . E. E. Chapman of Ludlow.
Lecturer, E. F. Richardson of Millis.
Steward L. R. Smith of Hadley.
Assistant Steward, . . E. H. Gilbert of Stoughton (P. O. address. North Easton).
Chaplain, ......... Rev. A. H. Wheelock of Marlborough.
Treasurer, Hon. F. A. Harrington of Worcester.
Secretary, . . . Wm. N. Howard of South Easton (P. O. address, North Easton).
Gate Keeper, . . . . . . . . F. L. Warfield of Bucliland.
Ceres, .......... Mrs. Mary Olds Lakin of Brookfield.
Pomona, .......... Mrs. Ella D. Rice of Leominster.
Flora Mrs. Philomene Cook of Methuen.
Lady Assistant Steward, . . . S. Mal)cl Thompson, Westborough, R. F. D. No. 2.
Executive Committee.
George S. Ladd, Sturbridge.
C. A. Dennen, ............. Pepperell.
W. C. Jewett Worcester.
General Deputies.
N. B. Douglas, .
Elmer D. Howe, .
Warren C. Jewett,
George S. Ladd, .
C. D. Richardson,
Sherborn.
. Marlborough.
Worcester.
Sturbridge.
West Brookfield.
Pomona Deputies.
W. E. Patrick Warren.
F. N. Boutelle, North Leominster.
W. T. Moore Huntington.
Subordinate Deputies.
George W. Sherman Brim field.
L. H. Cudworth Oxford.
W. H. Sawyer, Winchendon.
W. A. Harlow, Cummington.
H. N. Jenks Adams, R. F. D.
Elbridge Noycs, Newbury.
T. E. Flarity Townsend.
Moses U. Gaskill, Mendon.
E. B. Hale, Bernardston.
Hcrmon W. King, East Ix)ngmeadow.
John Bursley West Barnstable.
C. R. Damon Williamsburg.
W. T. Herrick Westborough.
H. W. Carter, Millbury.
Chester B. Williams, . . . ^ Cochituate.
346 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.
Subordinate Deputies — Con.
Walter E. Morris, Billerica.
Harold M. Shaw, Great Barrington.
Joseph W. Baldwin North Easton.
S. T. Brightman, Westport.
Horace E. Wallia, Waltham.
Charles H. Preston Danvers.
Dr. M. H. Williams, Sunderland.
Fred E. Alden, ............. Worcester.
Norman L. Peavey, Dracut.
Special Deputies.
William N. Howard, t^orth Easton.
J. P. Ranger, North Brookfield.
M. A. Morse Belchertown.
C. H. Shaylor, Lee.
No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY.
347
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INDEX.
INDEX.
Address of welcome, by Mayor Calvin Coolidge,
Response to, by John Bursley,
Agricultural College, Massachusetts, concerning the
Agricultural organizations, directory of.
Miscellaneous, officers of, list of the,
Agricultural societies, concerning,
Financial returns of the,
Institutes of the, .
Membership of the.
Officers of the.
Premiums and gratuities awarded by the.
Agriculture, bulletins of Massachusetts, concerning.
Agriculture, State Board of, bulletins of the, ,
Appropriations for the, ....
Cattle Bureau of. See Cattle Bureau.
Changes in the, .....
List of members of the, ....
Meetings of the, concerning, .
Organization of the, for 1910,
Public winter meeting of the, at Northampton,
Report of the secretary of the.
Summer field meeting of the, at Amherst,
Agriculturist, usefulness of bees to the, .
Alfalfa, amount and quality of lime needed for.
Annual top-dressing for.
As a crop in Massachusetts, essay on, by Prof. Wm. P
Brooks,
Fertilizer for,
Harvesting, .
Leaf spot or rust on,
Preparation of the soil for.
Seed, ....
Soil inoculation for.
Soil requirements for.
Time and method of seeding.
Use of manure for,
Aliens, song birds destroyed by,
America, the starling in,
Animals, farm, neat cattle, etc., inspection of, by Cattle Bureau,
364
INDEX.
PAGE
Apiaries, State Inspector of, acknowledgments by, . . . 217
First annual report of the, ...... 201
Miscellaneous work by, ....... 214
Apiary inspection, concerning, ...... xviii
Appropriations, legislative, for the State Board of Agriculture,
concerning, xxviii
Artificial heat, use of, in curing tobacco, .... 79
Asparagus, growing and marketing, essay on, by Frank Wheeler, 121
Attracting birds, European methods of, .... 170
Bee diseases, status of, ....... 208
Problem of, 215
Beekeeper, concern of the, in inspection, .... 205
Beekeepers, voluntary inspection by, ..... 206
Bees, brood diseases of, ....... 201
Usefulness of, to the agriculturist, ..... 203
To the cranberry grower, ..... 204
To the cucumber grower under glass, . . . 204
To the market gardener, ...... 204
To the orchardist, 203
To the small fruit grower, ..... 204
Better-farming special trains, concerning, .... xxix
Birds, European methods of attracting, . . . . .170
Feeding on the eggs of the gypsy moth, . . . .168
Song, destroyed by aliens, . . . . . .167
Bleaching celery, ........ 139
Brood diseases of bees, . . . . . . .201
Brooks, Prof. Wm. P., essay by, on alfalfa as a crop in Massachu-
setts, 127
Brush, slashings or, disposing of, . . . . . . 287
Bulletin on reforestation and nursery work, by State Forester's
assistant, ........ 292
Thinning, by State Forester's assistant, .... 292
Bulletin of Massachusetts agriculture, concerning, . . . xxvi
Of the State Board of Agriculture, . . . . .111
Burbank Hospital, forest working plan for the, . . . 272
Bureau, Cattle. See Cattle Bureau.
Bureau, Dairy. See Dairy Bureau.
Bursley, John, response to address of welcome by, ... 5
Butter, concerning, . . . . . . . . 233
Renovated, 232
Catalogue, farm, concerning the, ...... xxii
Cattle Bureau, annual inspection by, of neat cattle, farm animals
and premises on which the former are kept, . . 302
Concerning the, ........ xx
INDEX.
365
Cattle Bureau — Con.
Eighteenth semiannual report of the Chief of the,
Financial statement of the,
Recommendations of the Chief of the,
Work of, changes in the.
On glanders, .
On miscellaneous diseases.
On rabies.
On tuberculosis.
Cattle, neat, farm animals and premises on which the former are
kept, annual inspection of, by the Cattle Bureau .
Celery, bleaching,
Cultivating, ....
Growing, storing and marketing, essay on, by Henry M
Howard,
Marketing, ....
Preparation of the soil for.
Soils for, ....
Storing, ....
Varieties to plant.
Chestnut bark disease, the, .
Chief of the Cattle Bureau, recommendations of the.
Clean milk, the food value of, lecture on, by Prof. R. M
Washburn, .......
Clinton, Prof. L. A., lecture by, on corn growing in New Eng-
land, .....
Condensed and evaporated milks, .
Milk,
Coolidge, Calvin, address of welcome by.
Co-operation in the dairy business.
Corn E.xposition, New England, the, concerning.
Corn growing in New England, lecture on, })y Prof. L. A
Clinton, .......
Seed, distribution of, concerning, ....
Selection for seed and show, essay on, by Prof. Wm. D
Kurd,
Cotton, J. S., lecture by, on New England pastures,
Cranberry growers, usefulness of bees to the, .
Creameries, milk depots, etc., list of the,
Crop conditions of 1910, summary of, .
Crop reports, concerning, .....
Cucumber grower under glass, usefulness of bees to the,
Cultivating celery, ......
Curing cigar wrapper tobacco, harvesting and, lecture on, by
Dr. W. W. Garner,
Tobacco, the most favoral^le conditions for,
Cutting the tobacco plant v. picking the leaves.
PAGE
299
314
320
318
300
311
299
304
302
139
139
136
141
138
136
140
136
292
320
47
98
234
225
3
227
xxi
98
xxix
113
7
204
240
XXX
xxvi
204
139
75
77
81
366
INDEX.
PAGE
Dairy Bureau, State, concerning the, . . . . . xix
Expenses of the, ........ 242
Personnel of the, ........ 228
Police work by, summary of, . . . . . . 228
Twentieth annual report of the, ..... 223
Dairy situation, the, . . . ... . . . 223
Deer, wild, concerning, ....... xiii
Deputies, forest-fire, needed, ...... 286
Diseases, miscellaneous, work of Cattle Bureau on, . . 311
Encouragement of orcharding, concerning the, . . . xxiv
Europe, the starling in, . . . . . . .172
Evaporated milks, condensed and, ..... 234
Extracts from the trespass laws, concerning the, . . . xxviii
Farm catalogue, concerning the, ...... xxii
Management, lecture on, by N. P. Hull, .... 64
Farmers' clubs, officers of, list of the, ..... 342
And mechanics' associations, officers of, list of the, . . 341
And mechanics' clubs, officers of, list of the, . . . 342
Institutes, concerning, ....... xvi
Farming, special trains, electric railroad, .... 265
Steam railroad, . . . . . . v . . 263
Specials, better, concerning, ...... xxix
Farrar, Edward R., essay by, on grape culture, . . . 151
Fertilizers for alfalfa, . . . . . . . .131
For grapes, ......... 151
Soils and, for quinces, ....... 143
Firemen's association. State, ...... 292
Fires, forest, in 1910, 280
Food of the starling, ........ 188
Food value of clean milk, lecture on, by Prof. R. M. Washburn, 47
Forest-fire deputies needed, ....... 286
Equipment, ......... 284
Power sprayers as, . . . . . . . 290
Lookouts, 287
Forest fires in Germany, ....... 290
In 1910, 280
Forest nursery, ......... 277
Wardens, State foresters and, conference of, . . . 293
Working plan for the Burbank Hospital, .... 272
Forester, State, acknowledgments by the, .... 262
Concerning the, ........ xx
Examinations of woodlands by the, .... 268
Expenditures and receipts of, ..... 294
Instruction in planting by the, ..... 278
INDEX.
367
Forester, State — Con.
Lectures by, before scientific organizations,
Organization of department of the.
Public addresses by the.
Publications of the, ....
Reforestation work by the,
Seventh annual report of the.
Surveying by the, ....
Foresters, State, and forest wardens, conference of the,
Forestry, general, report on,
New legislation on, ....
Fruit Show, New England, of 1911, concerning the,
Fruit, thinning the, of grapes,
Fruit-bearing and pruning of quince trees.
Fungous pests of quinces, insects and, .
291
246
291
266
275
245
275
293
268
258
xxii
154
146
147
Garner, Dr. W. W., lecture by, on harvesting and curing cigar
wrapper tobacco, .....
Germany, forest fires in, .... .
Girdling grapes, .......
Glanders, work of the Cattle Bureau on,
Grange, Massachusetts State, officers of the, list of the.
Granges, Pomona, officers of the, list of the, .
Subordinate, officers of the, list of the.
Grape culture, essay on, by Edward R. Farrar,
Grapes, fertilizers for.
Girdling,
Marketing, .
Planting,
Pruning,
Soils for,
Spraying,
Summer pruning of.
Thinning the fruit of.
Varieties of, .
Growing and marketing asparagus, essay on, by Frank Wheeler
Growing, storing and marketing celery, essay on, by Henry M
Howard, .......
Gypsy moth, birds feeding on the eggs of the,
Gypsy moth thinning, marking for, ....
Harvesting alfalfa,
Harvesting and curing cigar wrapper tobacco, lecture on, by
Dr. W. W. Garner, 75
Horticultural societies, officers of, list of the, . . . .341
Howard, Henry M., essay by, on celery growing, storing and
marketing, 136
75
290
154
300
345
347
348
151
151
154
155
153
153
151
155
154
154
151
121
136
168
274
134
368
INDEX.
PAGE
Hull, N. P., lecture by, on farm management, ... 64
Hurd, Prof. Wm. D., essay by, on corn selection for seed and
show, . . .
Insects and fungous pests of quinces,
Inspection, apiary, concerning,
Nursery, concerning.
Inspectors, milk, local, list of the, .
Institutes, farmers', concerning,
Legislation in 1910, concerning,
For forestry, new, ....
Milk, concerning, ....
Lime, amount and quantity needed for alfalfa.
Lookouts, forest-fire, .......
Management, farm, lecture on, by N. P. Hull,
Woodland, ........
Manure, use of, for alfalfa, ......
Market gardener, usefulness of bees to the.
Market milk, the production of, lecture on, by A. J. Pierpont
Marketing asparagus, growing and, essay on, by Frank Wheeler
Marketing, celery, .......
Grapes, ........
Quinces, picking and, ......
Storing and growing celery, essay on, by Henry M
Howard, .......
Massachusetts Agricultural College, concerning the,
Massachusetts agriculture, bulletins of, concerning, .
Alfalfa as a crop in, essay on, by Prof. Wm. P. Brooks,
Meetings of the State Board of Agriculture, concerning, .
Members of the State Board of Agriculture, list of the.
Milk, clean, the food value of, lecture on, by Prof. R. M. Wash-
burn, .....
Concerning, .....
Condensed, .....
Depots, creameries, etc., list of the,
Inspectors, local, list of.
Legislation, concerning, .
Market, the production of, lecture on, by A. J. Pierpont,
Milks, condensed and evaporated.
New England, corn growing in, lecture on, by Prof. L.
Clinton, .......
New England Corn Exposition, concerning the,
New England Fruit Show of 1911, concerning the, .
113
147
xviii
xviii
239
xvi
X
258
xi
129
287
64
270
131
204
24
121
141
155
149
136
xxi
xxvi
127
XV
v,335
47
236
225
240
239
xi
24
234
98
xxi
xxii
INDEX.
369
New England pastures, lecture on, by J. S. Cotton,
Nursery, forest, ......
Nursery Inspector, State, ninth annual report of.
Nursery inspection, concerning,
Office, work of the, concerning,
Officers of, agricultural societies, list of the,
Fanners' clubs, list of the,
Fanners' and mechanics' associations, list of the
Farmers' and mechanics' clubs, list of the.
Horticultural societies, list of the, .
Miscellaneous agricultural organizations, list of the,
Pomona granges, list of the, .
Poultry associations, list of the.
State Grange, list of the,
Subordinate granges, list of the.
Oleomargarine, concerning, .
From a national standpoint, .
Orcharding, the encouragement of, concerning
Orchardist, usefulness of bees to the,
Ornithologist, State, concerning the.
Educational work of, .
Third annual report of, .
Pastures, New England, lecture on, by J. S. Cotton
Picking and marketing quinces,
Picking the leaves of the tobacco plant v. cutting the plant,
Pierpont, A. J., lecture by, on the production of market milk.
Planting, forest, instruction in, .... .
Grapes, ........
Pole sweat on tobacco, ......
Police work by the State Dairy Bureau, summary of,
Pomona granges, officers of, list of the, ....
Poultry associations, officers of, list of the.
Premises on which neat cattle are kept, annual inspection of
by Cattle Bureau, .....
Production of market milk, lecture on, by A. J. Pierpont,
Pruning of grapes, .......
Summer, ........
Pruning of quince trees, fruit-bearing and, .
Publications, State Board of Agriculture, concerning,
Of the State Forester, list of the, ....
Quince culture, essay on, by Prof. F. C. Sears,
Quince trees, fruit-bearing and pruning, ....
Selecting and planting out,
!70
INDEX.
Quinces, insects and fungous pests of,
Picking and marketing, .
Soils and fertilizers for, .
Uses of, .... ,
Varieties of, .
Rabies, work of Cattle Bureau on,
Railroad, electric, farming special trains.
Steam, farming special train, .
Reforestation and nursery work, bulletin on, by State For
ester's assistant.
Reforestation work,
Renovated butter.
Reports, crop, concerning.
Response to address of welcome, l)y John Bursley, .
Rust, or leaf spot, on alfalfa, ....
Sears, Prof. F. C, essay by, on quince culture,
Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, report of the
Seed, alfalfa.
Corn selection for, and show, essay on, by Prof. Wm. D
Hurd,
Corn distribution, concerning,
Seeding, time and method of, for alfalfa,
Selection for seed and show, corn, essay on, by Prof. Wm. D
Hurd,
Shacks, steel, portable,
Show, seed and, corn selection for, essay on, by Prof. Wm. D
Hurd,
Slashings or brush, disposing of,
Small fruit grower, usefulness of bees to the.
Societies, agricultural, concerning.
Soil, preparation of, for alfalfa,
Preparation of, for celery.
Requirements for alfalfa,
Soil inoculation for alfalfa, .
Soils^ for celery, .
For grapes, .
Soils and fertilizers for quinces.
Specials, better farming, concerning,
Sprayers, power, as forest-fire equipment
Spraying grapes, .
Starling, the, concerning.
Food of the, .
In America, the, .
In Europe, the,
PAGE
147
149
143
149
145
299
265
263
292
275
232
xxvi
5
133
143
vii
132
113
xxix
132
113
279
113
287
204
XV
128
138
128
133
136
151
143
xxix
290
155
171
188
178
172
INDEX.
371
on, by Henry M
State Board of Agriculture. See Agriculture, State Board of.
State Forester. See Forester, State.
State Grange, Massachusetts, officers of, list of the,
State Inspector of Apiaries. See Apiaries, State Inspector of.
State Nursery Inspector. See Nursery Inspector, State.
State Ornithologist. See Ornithologist, State.
Status of bee diseases, .
Steel shacks, portable, .
Storing, marketing and growing celery, essay
Howard,
Storing celery, ....
Subordinate granges, officers of, list of the.
Summary of crop conditions, 1910,
Summer pruning of grapes, .
Surveying by the State Forester, .
Thinning, grapes, fruit of,
Gypsy moth, marking for.
Thinning bulletin, by State Forester's assistant.
Tobacco, cigar wrapper, harvesting and curing, lecture on, by
Dr. W. W. Garner,
Harvesting by cutting the plant v. picking the leaves,
Most favorable conditions for curing,
Pole sweat on, ...... .
Use of artificial heat in curing, ....
Top-dressing, annual, for alfalfa, .....
Trees, quince, selecting and planting out of, .
Trespass laws, extracts from the, concerning, .
Tuberculosis, work of Cattle Bureau on, ...
Uses of quinces, ........
Varieties, of celery to plant, . .....
Of grapes, ........
Of quinces, ........
Voluntary inspection by beekeepers, ....
345
208
279
136
140
348
XXX
154
275
154
274
292
75
81
77
78
79
134
146
xxix
304
149
136
151
145
206
Washburn, Prof. R. M., lecture by, on the food value of clean
mills:, 47
Welcome, address of, by Calvin Coolidge, . " . . . 3
Wheeler, Frank, essay by, on growing and marketing asparagus, 121
Wild deer, concerning, ....... xiii
Woodland, examinations of, by State Forester, . . . 268
Management, ........ 270
Work of the office, concerning the, ..... xii
Public Document No. 31
TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Part I.,
Being Part III. of the Forty-eighth Annual Report of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College.
January, 1911.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
18 Post Office Square.
1911.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station
Part I.
DETAILED REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION.
INTRODUCTION.
In accordance with the provision of the act of the Legislature
relative to the publication of the reports of the Massachusetts
Agricultural College, the report of the experiment station, which
is a department of the college, is presented in two parts. Part
I. contains the formal reports of the director, treasurer and
heads of departments, and papers of a technical character giving
results of experiments carried on in the station. This will be
sent to agricultural colleges and experiment stations and to
workers in these institutions, as well as to libraries. Part I.
will be published also in connection with the report of the Secre-
tary of the State Board of Agriculture, and will reach the gen-
eral public through that channel. Part 11. will contain papers
of a popular character, and will be sent to persons on our mail-
ing list.
WM. P. BROOKS,
Director.
CONTENTS.
Part I.
PAGE
Station organization, 11
Report of the director, 13
Changes in staff, 13
Lines of worlc, 16
Dissemination of information, 16
Publications, 16
Publications during 1910, ... .... 16
Publications available for free distribution, .... 17
Circulation of publications, . 18
Correspondence, 20
Lectures and demonstrations, 20
Future provision for extension work, 20
General experiments, 21
Co-operative experiments with alfalfa, 22
Research, 23
Asparagus substation. Concord, 24
Breeding experiments, ,. . .24
Fertilizer experiments, 25
Chemical work on asparagus roots, 25
Cranberry substations, 26
Fertilizer experiments, 27
Insect work, 28
Control work, 28
Fertilizer law, 28
Dairy law, 29
Feed law, 29
Inspection of apiaries, 30
Buildings, 30
Report of the treasurer, 32
Report of the agriculturist, 34
Comparison of different materials as a source of nitrogen, . . 34
Muriate compared with sulfate of potash, 36
Nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for garden crops, . . 38
Relative value of different potash salts, 40
Comparison of different phosphates, 42
Manure alone compared with manure and sulfate of potash, . 44
Average corn fertilizer compared with fertilizer richer in potash, 45
South acre soil test, 46
8 CONTENTS.
PAGB
Report of the agriculturist — Con.
North acre soil test, 47
Top dressing for hay, 48
Winter v. spring application of manure, 49
Report of the chemist, 51
Correspondence, 51
Numerical summary of work in chemical department, . . 51
Laboratory work of the research section, 52
Research work in animal nutrition, . . . , . .53
Tabulations, 53
Report of the fertilizer section, 54
Fertilizers licensed, 54
Fertilizers collected, . . . 55
Fertilizers analyzed, 55
Trade values of fertilizer ingredients, 56
Summary of analyses and guarantees of licensed complete
fertilizers, 57
Commercial shortages, 59
Quality of plant food, 60
Grades of fertilizer, 60
Composition according to grade, 61
Unmixed fertilizers, 63
Miscellaneous substances, 63
Nitrogen compounds, 65
Potash compounds, 65
Phosphoric acid compounds, 66
Miscellaneous work, 66
Report of the feed and dairy section, 67
The feed law, 67
Analytical work, 67
Compliance with the law, 68
New law, 68
Definitions, 69
Weight of sacked feeds, 69
The dairy law, 69
Examination of candidates, 69
Examination of glassware, ...... 70
Inspection of Babcock machines, 70
Creameries, 71
Milk depots, . . 72
Milk, cream and feeds sent for free examination, ... 72
Analysis of drinking water, 72
Miscellaneous work, 73
Testing of pure bred cows, 74
CONTENTS. 9
PAGE
Report of the botanist, 75
Diseases more or less common during the j'^ear, .... 75
Report of the entomologist, 77
Goessraann, Charles A., tribute to, 80
Studies in milk secretion, 86
The effect of protein upon the production and composition of
milk, 86
The determination of arsenic in insecticides, 122
Methods, 122
Iodine method, 124
New processes, 125
Practice at Massachusetts station, 127
Iodine methods for arsenates, 129
Purification of insoluble fatty acids, 131
Distillation of the fatty acids in vacuo, 131
Crystallization from alcohol, 132
Distillation of the ethyl esters in vacuo, 133
The soluble carbohydrates in asparagus roots, 135
Seed work, 1910, 141
An outbreak of rusts, 144
Sweet pea troubles, 145
A spinach disease new to ]\Iassachusetts, 146
Abnormalities of stump growths, 149
Description of mosaic disease, 150
Relation to mosaic disease, 154
Experiments in inoculation, 154
Relation of root area to intensity of disease, .... 156
Chemical tests of abnormal leaves, 157
Conclusions, 159
Peach and plum troubles, 161
Brown rot, scab, gummosis, etc., 161
Climatic adaptations of apple varieties, .177
I. Introduction, 177
II. The causes of varietal variation, 179
Cultural variation, 179
Soil variation, 180
Climatic variation, • . . . 180
The mean summer temperature, . ■ . . . .182
III. The development of the apple, 183
IV. The perfectly developed apple, 186
V. The individuality of the tree, 194
VI. The modifying effect of climate on the development of the
apple, 199
On form, 199
On size, 204
10 CONTENTS.
PAGE
Climatic adaptations of apple varieties — Con.
VI. The modifying effect of climate on the development of the
apple — Con.
On general development, 205
Apple belts in North America, 205
Distribution of varieties, 207
The relation of temperature to development, . .221
The mean summer temperature, . . . .221
The winter minimum, 221
The heat of summer, 222
The effect of low and of high mean summer tem-
peratures, 222
The optimum mean summer temperature, . . 227
Chemical determinations, 232
VII. Summary, 243
Compilations, 246
Analyses of fodder articles and dairy products, .... 247
Composition and digestibility of fodder articles, .... 249
Fertilizer ingredients of fodder articles, 266
Analyses of dairy products, 272
Coefficients of digestibility of American fodder articles, . . 273
Analyses of agricultural chemicals, refuse salts, phosphates,
guanos, ashes, lime compounds, marls, by-products, refuse
substances and animal excrements, 304
Chemicals and cefuse salts, 306
Phosphates and guanos, 308
Ashes, lime compounds and marls, 310
By-products and refuse substances, 314
Animal excrements, 322
Insecticides, 323
Analyses of fruits and garden crops, 324
Fruits, 325
Garden crops, 327
Relative proportions of phosphoric acid, potassium oxide
and nitrogen in fruits and garden crops, .... 334
Composition of some Massachusetts soils, 339
Description of types, 339
Miscellaneous soil analyses, 341
European standards for comparison, 346
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
OF THE
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,
AMHERST, MASS.
TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT.
Part I.
ORGANIZATION.
Committee on Experiment Department.
Charles H. Preston, Chairman.
3. Lewis Ellsworth.
Arthur H. Pollard.
Charles E. Ward.
Harold L. Frost.
The President of the College, ex officio.
The Director of the Station, ex officio.
Station Staff.
William P. Brooks, Ph. D., Director, 28 Northampton Road.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Vice-Director, 47 Lincoln Avenue.
Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer, Mount Pleasant.
Charles R. Green, B.Agr., Librarian, Mount Pleasant.
Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry.
Joseph B. Lindset, Ph.D., Chemist, 47 Lincoln Avenue.
Edward B. Holland, M.Sc, Associate Chemist, in charge of Research Division, 28 North
Prospect Street.
Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Research Chemist, 44 Pleasant Street.
Henri D. Haskins, B.Sc, In charge of Fertilizer Section, 87 Pleasant Street.
Philip H. Smith, B.Sc, In charge of Feed and Dairy Section, 102 Main Street.
Lewell S. Walker, B.Sc, Assistant, 19 Phillips Street.
James C. Reed, B.Sc, Assistant, Nutting Avenue.
Joseph F. Merrill, B.Sc, Assistant, North Prospect Street.
Clement L. Perkins, B.Sc, Assistant, 32 North Prospect Street.
Joseph P. Howard, Collector, North Amherst, Mass.
Harry J. Allen, Laboratory Assistant, 89 Main Street.
James R. Alcock, Assistant in Animal Nutrition, North Amherst, Mass.
Department of Agriculture.
William P. Brooks, Ph.D., Agriculturist, 28 Northampton Road.
H. J. Franklin, Ph.D., In charge of Cranberry Investiecation, Wareham, Mass.
Erwin S. Fui.ton, B.Sc, First Assistant, North Amherst, Mass.
Edwin F. Gaskill, B.Sc, Second Assistant, North Amherst, Mass.
12 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1911.
Department of Horticulture.
Frank A. Waugh, M.Sc, Horticulturist, Massachusetts Agricultural College.
Fred C. Sears, M.Sc, Pomologist, Mount Pleasant.
Jacob K. Shaw, M.Sc, Assistant Horticulturist, 1 Allen Street.
David W. Anderson, B.Sc, Graduate Assistant, 32 North Prospect Street.
Department of Botany and Vegetable Pathology.
George E. Stone, Ph.D., Botanist and Vegetable Pathologist, Mount Pleasant.
George H. Chapman, M.Sc, Assistant Botanist, 13 Fearing Street.
Sumner C. Brooks, B.Sc, Assistant Botanist, 28 Northampton Road.
Department of Entomology.
Henry T. Fernald, Ph.D., Entomologist, 44 Amity Street.
Burton N. Gates. Ph.D., Apiarist, 42 Lincoln Avenue.
Arthur I. Bourne, B.A., Assistant in Entomology, 66 North Plea.sant Street.
Department of Veterinary Science.
James B. Paige, B.Sc, D.V.S., Veterinarian, 42 Lincoln Avenue.
Department of Meteorology.
John E. Ostrander, A.M., C.E., Meteorologist, 35 North Prospect Street.
Charles M. Damon, Observer, Massachusetts Agricultural College.
Other Officers of the Experiment Station.
Miss Rose J. Brown. Secretary to the Director, Draper Hall.
Miss Jessie V. Crocker, Stenographer, Department of Botany and Vegetable Pathology,
Sunderland, Mass.
Miss Harriet Cobb, Stenographer, Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry, 35 North
Pleasant Street.
Miss Bridie O'Donneix, Stenographer, Department of Entomology, Hadley, Mass.
Miss Alice M. Howard, Stenographer, Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry, North
Amherst, Mass.
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR.
Changes in Staff.
The experiment station staff during the past year has suffered
the loss of two of its oldest and strongest men: Dr. C. A.
Goessmann, who died in September, and Dr. C. H. Fernald,
who retired on a Carnegie pension at about the same time.
Dr. Goessmann had been connected with the experiment sta-
tion from the very first inception of station work in the State,
in 1882. He was director of the State Experiment Station
until it was combined with the station later organized under the
Hatch act, in 1895. Dr. Goessmann, however, although giving
up his duties as director at that time, retained active supervision
of the inspection of commercial fertilizers and the general work
in the fertilizer and soil laboratory until his retirement in 1907.
Subsequent to retirement he was retained as consulting chemist,
and continued his active interest in the station and its work
until almost the end of his life. Goessmann was one of the
great pioneers in the work of agricultural investigation. It
seems eminently fitting, therefore, to present at this time a brief
account of his life and work. Dr. J. B. Lindsey, vice-director
and chemist of the station, one of Dr. Goessmann's pupils, pe-
culiarly fitted through long and close association with him to
write such an account and estimate, has at my request kindly
prepared a tribute which will be found in following pages.
Dr. Charles H. Fernald, head of the entomological depart-
ment of the coHege and station, became connected with the sta-
tion work at the time of organization under the Hatch act, and
continued at the head of the entomological department until his
retirement, the first of September last. Dr. Fernald's work
was of great value to the station. Of him, as of Goessmann, it
is largely true that to a considerable extent his work was of a
pioneer character. He was one of the earliest station entomolo-
gists, and as such he had much to do with the establishment of a
14 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
general policy for station entomological work. It was in con-
siderable measure due to his influence that the policy that orig-
inal descriptions of insects should not be published in ordinary
station bulletins was adopted. During the early years of his
station activities he devoted a large amount of time to the study
of the gypsy moth, and the recognition of this insect and the
scientific work connected with it were due to his efforts. His
work in connection with the gypsy moth greatly strengthened
the entomological department of the station, and resulted in mak-
ing its work better understood and appreciated. Dr. Eernald's
bulletin on household insects is believed to have been the first
of its kind ; but the value of such work was promptly recog-
nized. His monograph papers, which have been published as
station bulletins, are constantly quoted as standard works on the
subjects of which they treat. He was the first to undertake in-
vestigations on cranberry insects, and the work he did in rela-
tion to them proved of great value to cranberry growers. His
work in systematic and economic entomology has been extensive,
and he instituted numerous linos of investigation which have
since been greatly extended and developed by others better situ-
ated to prosecute them. While Professor Fernald did a very
large amount of strong original work, I think it will be generally
admitted by those who know him and his influence that his great-
est work was in the line of stimulating others by his personality
to accomplish what he himself had no opportunity to do.
The death of Dr. Goessmann did not involve important
changes in the chemical department as his services during the
past few years had been simply advisory, and, owing to failing
health, largely nominal during the last year or two.
On the retirement of Dr. C. H. Fernald, his son, Dr. H. T.
Eernald, was made head of the entomological department. The
retirement of the elder Fernald imposed additional duties on
his son, and some reorganization of the department became neces-
sary. Mr. John IS". Summers, a graduate assistant, who had
been giving one-half his time to the experiment station, retired,
and in his place, Mr. A. I. Bourne, B. A., who has had a valu-
able experience in graduate and investigational work, was made
assistant. Mr. Bourne is allowed a certain amount of time for
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 15
graduate study, but he will give nearly all bis attention to tbe
work in. the experiment station. His employment relieves Dr.
H. T. Fernald of almost all of the routine work of the entomo-
logical department, and of the necessity of giving direct personal
attention to the experimental work in its simpler phases. This
will make it possible for Dr. Fernald to devote a very large pro-
portion of his time to research work in entomology.
In this connection attention should be called to the extremely
valuable work which Mrs. C. H. Fernald, with some clerical
assistance, carried on for a period of more than twenty years, in,
editing the index cards with references to entomological litera-
ture. The work of Mrs. Fernald has been characterized by ex-
treme accuracy and thoroughness, and up to the present time
no less than 50,000 cards, with many times that number of ref-
erences, have been prepared. A large proportion of the entries
on these are in Mrs. Fernald's own hand. Advancing years
have led Mrs. Fernald to desire to be relieved of this work, so
important to all investigators in all lines of entomology, and
arrangements have been completed whereby it will be continued
under Dr. H. T. Fernald's supervision by his stenographer and
clerk, Miss O'Donnell.
The retirement of Dr. E. D. MacLaurin, referred to in my
last annual report, left a vacancy in the research division of the
chemical department. This place was tilled in January by the
temporary appointment of Fred W. Morse, Ph.D., for many
years chemist of the New Hampshire Experiment Station. His
appointment was made permanent in July. Mr. Morse is de-
voting himself entirely to research problems connected with the
nutrition of crops and the productive capacity of soils.
The staff of the station has been strengthened by the addition
of two men; David W. Anderson, B.Sc, has been made gradu-
ate assistant in the department of horticulture ; Sumner C.
Brooks, B.Sc, has been made assistant in the department of
botany and plant pathology. The appointment of these men
relieves their superiors in these departments of routine work,
and will enable them to devote their time in larger measure to
research.
The work of the station has been broadened in scope and fur-
16 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
ther strengthened by the appointment of Dr. B. K". Gates, Ph.D.,
as apiarist. It is the expectation that Dr. Gates will devote
about one-quarter of his time, so far as possible consecutively,
to research work on problems connected with beekeeping.
]\Ir. James Alcock replaces Mr. Roy Gaskill in charge of the
animals used in feeding and digestion experiments, and Clement
L. Perins, B.Sc, has taken the place of Carl D. Kennedy as
assistant in the chemical laboratory.
Lines of \York.
There has been no essential change in the character of station
work during the year. It covers a field of constantly broaden-
ing scope and increases steadily in amount. As heretofore, our
efforts may be classed under the following principal heads : gen-
eral experiments, research, control and dissemination of infor-
mation.
The relation of the lines of work which come under the last
class to the possibility of adequate attention to and of financial
support for the experiment and research, for carrying on which
the funds for the support of the station which come from the
federal government are designed, is so vital that while in logical
sequence these lines of work would seem to come last, they will
be considered first.
Dissemination of Information.
The principal methods whereby the station now endeavors to
serve the public by dissemination of information are by means
of its publications, through private correspondence, through lec-
tures by members of its staff and by demonstrations.
Puhlications. — Our publications are of three kinds, an an-
nual report in two parts, bulletins and circulars. The follow-
ing tables show the publications of the year 1910 and those still
available for distribution : —
Publications during 1910.
Annual report : —
Parts I. and II. 338 pages.
Bulletins: —
No. 132. Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, P. H. Smith and
J. C. Reed. 64 pages.
No.
26.
No.
27.
No.
28.
No.
29,
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 17
No. 133. Green Crops for Summer Soiling, J. B. Lindsey. 20 pages.
No. 134. The Hay Crop, William P. FJrooks. 68 pages.
No. 135. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, H. D. Haskins, L. F.
Walker and J. F. Merrill. 76 pages.
Meteorological bulletins, 12 numbers. 2 pages.
Circulars :
Fertilizers for Potatoes, William P. Brooks. 4 pages.
Seeding Mowings, William P. Brooks. 8 pages.
Rules relative to Testing Dairy Cows. 8 pages.
Chemical Analysis of Soils, William P. Brooks. 4 pages.
Miscellaneous circulars (unnumbered): —
Fertilizer for Corn, William P. Brooks. 2 pages.
Home-mixed Fertilizers, William P. Brooks. 4 pages.
Fertilizers for Turnips, Cabbages and Other Crucifers, William P.
Brooks. 2 pages.
Dairymen losing Money on Low-grade Feeds, J. B. Lindsey. 2 pages.
Orchard Experiment, William P. Brooks. 2 pages.
Summer Soiling Crojjs, P. H. Smith, 1 page.
Balanced Rations for Business Cows, J. B. Lindsey. 2 images.
Corn for the Silo. 2 pages.
Publications Available for Free Distribution.
Bulletins: —
Glossary of Fodder Terms.
Fertilizer Analyses.
The Imported Elm-leaf Beetle.
Fertilizer Analyses.
Fertilizer Analyses.
Fertilizer Analyses.
Fertilizer Analyses.
Fertilizer Analyses.
Fertilizer Analyses.
Cranberry Insects.
Seed Separation and Germination.
Fungicides, Insecticides and Spraying Directions.
•Bee Diseases in Massachusetts.
Shade Trees.
Insects Injurious to Cranberries and how to tight them.
Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1908.
Meteorological Summary — Twenty Years.
Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1909.
Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, 1910.
Green Crops for Summer Soiling.
The Hay Crop.
Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1910.
No.
33.
No.
68.
No.
76.
No.
83.
No.
84.
No.
89.
No.
90.
No.
103.
No.
113.
No.
115.
No.
121.
No.
123.
No.
124.
No.
125.
No.
126.
No.
127.
No.
130.
No.
131.
No.
132.
No.
133.
No.
134.
No.
135.
18 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
No. 13(). Inspeolion of Commercial Feed Stuffy, 1911.
Technical Bulletin No. 2. The Graft Union.
Technical Bulletin No. 3. The Blossom End Rot of Tomatoes.
Index to bulletins and annual reports of the Hatch Experiment Station
2:)revious to June, 1895.
Index to bulletins and annual reports, 1888-1907.
Annual reports: 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 20th,
21st, Part II., 22d, Parts I. and II.
So far as our publications treat primarily of the results of
station observation, experiment antl research, they are to be
looked upon as a necessary and important feature of station
activity, — indeed, to be the crowning result of such activity ;
but the demand for bulletins and circulars of information of a
general character, already widespread, is most active, insistent
and growing, and the force of circumstances has seemed to com-
pel us to make at least some effort to meet it. To fully do so
has been impossible ; indeed, must probably be recogiaized as in
the very nature of things always likely to remain so, since noth-
ing less than a complete library covering every conceivable agri-
cultural topic woidd enable us to meet the denumd.
A considerable share of the contents of the popular part of
our annual report (Part IT), most of our circulars and some of
our bulletins have, however, aimed to furnish information of a
more or less general character on topics of immediate interest
to the public. These papers have, it is true, been based upon
our own observations and experiments in so far as possible, and
to that extent are to be regarded as legitimate station publica-
tions. To a considerable extent, however, they arc of a general
character. United States funds cannot be used in their publica-
tion, and since the demand's for other purposes upon the rela-
tively small appropriation which comes to the station from the
State are heavy, and since, further, furnishing this literature is
rather extension than experiment, provision to carry the costs
should be made in the extension departnient of the institution.
CircAilafwn of PuUicaiionf!. — In accordance with an act of
our Legislature Part I. of our annual report is printed with the
report of the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, and
those on the mailing list of that P>oard will receive this publica-
tion. Five thousand copies of Part T. of our annual report also
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 19
iirc I'linii.-licd to the station. These are sent to ]il)rai"i(>s and
directors of agricidtural experiment stations, to jiresidents and
libraries of agricultural colleges, to the public libraries of Mas-
sachusetts, and all other libraries on our mailing list, to the
mailing list of the United States Department of Agriculture
and to those on our exchange list. This part of our annual
rcjxirt contains technical monographs giving the results of re-
search work, and a large number of copies are reserved to meet
future dcnumds. Part II. of our annual report, which contains
the more })opular papers, and our bulletins are sent to all those
on our general nuiiling list, to the public libraries of the State,
to those on the mailing list of the United States Department of
Agriculture likely to be interested, and to experiment stations
and agricultural colleges. It is our aim to reserve a consider-
able number of each i)ublication to meet subsequent demands,
but the demand has grown so rapidly that the supply of most,
as will be noted from the above list of available publications, has
been exhausted. The meteorological bulletins are sent only to
agricultural college and experiment station libraries, presidents
and directors, to the Department of Agriculture and Office of
PLxpcriment Stations, to newspapers and to libraries and indi-
viduals who have especially requested them.
Our circulars are printed for use in connection with the cor-
respondence of the station. It is only by the use of such cir-
culars that we are able to give information and advice on the
many problems on which we are consulted. These circulars are
sent only as above stated or on request. An abstract of all im-
|'<ii'taiit ])ublications is furnished to the press, and requests for
any issued will be met as long as the supply permits.
During the past year the revision of our general nuiiling list
has been completed. As a result, 1,502 names were dropped
from the list. The additions of the year have numbered IXif).'}
names. The total nundiers on our general list and on the few
s])eclal lists are shown by the following: —
■Residonts of Massachusetts, 13..361
licsidents of oilier States, 2,3Sl
Kesirlents of foreign countries, 223
Newspapers, 524
20 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Libraries, 292
Exclianges, ........... 137
Cranberry gruwers, 1,437
Beekeepers, 2,638
Meteorological, 379
Correspondence. — The correspouclence with private individ-
uals who seek information or advice grows constantly and rap-
idly. During the year 1910 the number of letters of inqviiry
answered by the members of the station staff was 16,650. Re-
jdies to many of these involve investigation, and the demands
upon the college and station men giving attention to this work
arc heavy and growing. There can be no doubt that such work
is most helpful ; numerous letters of appreciation testify to this
fact. The work should be continued, but it is neither experi-
ment nor research. It is rather a branch, and a most important
one, of the extension propaganda, and should be provided for in
that department.
Lectures and Demonstrations. — The demand for lectures
and demonstrations by members of the station stalf has much
increased during the year. Relatively few of the requests for
such services have been accepted. The number of such engage-
ments met during the year has been 48. Work of this kind
properly comes under the head of extension service, and yet as
it helps in some measure to keep the station men, whose duties
are for the most part of a character which keeps them closely
coniined, in touch with the public and its most vital problems,
these opportunities are accepted in so far as is consistent with
proper attention to the prosecution of those investigations and
studies for which especially the station is maintained.
Future Provision for Extension Worh. — The facts stated
concerning the various lines of work which have for their
object the dissemination of information must have made it
apparent that this work now makes very heavy demands upon
the time of station men. It already encroaches upon resources
which would more properly be devoted to experiment and re-
search. The authorities in Washington charged with the gen-
eral oversight of the methods of expenditure of United States
funds are most zealous, and rightly so, in their efforts to pre-
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 21
xent the diversion of these funds from the uses for Avbicli
they are intended. The funds appropriated to the station by
the State are not sufficient to cover this line of work and at
the same time to provide funds to pay the costs of other lines
of work now in progress which should be continiicd.
The desired relief may be obtained either by transfer of
the lines of work under consideration to the extension depart-
ment of the institution, or by the appropriation of funds from
that de]uirtment to cover the cost of employing competent
secretarial assistants. The latter plan would, for a time at
least, seem to have advantages, as with secretarial assistance the
members of the station departments whose experience gives
them the best foundation for it would be able to direct the work
and to exercise a close oversight over it.
General Experiments.
Under this class are included a large number of experiments
relative to the following subjects: soil tests with fertilizers,
with different crops in rotation; comparisons of different
materials which may be used as sources, respectively, of nitro-
gen, phosphoric acid and potash, for different field and garden
cro]is ; the results of the use of lime ; systems of fertilizing-
grass lands, both mowings and pastures ; comparisons of fer-
tilizers for both tree and bush fruits; different methods of ap-
plying manures; variety tests of field and garden crops and of
fruits ; trials of new crops ; determinations of the digestibility
of feedstnffs ; methods of feeding for milk ; systems and methods
of management in feeding poultry for eggs ; and co-operative
work with selected farmers in the trial of crops and systems of
fertilizing them. Few of these lines of experiment call for
special comment here. Brief reports on some of them will be
found under the departments in which they are being prose-
cuted.
Particular attention is directed to the fact that the plots
used in the various experiments, involving the highly varied
use of manures and fertilizers, and the many comparisons in
progress, become increasingly valuable with the passing years.
Many of these plots have been under definite and differing
22 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
inaiun-ial treatment for periods of time ranging from twelve to
twenty-one years. They have tanght many important lessons.
If nndistnrbed, they will teach many more. They are teach-
ing new lessons yearly as to the ultimate effects of differing
treatments.
These facts are j^ointed out because the development of the
institution on its educational side appears to threaten the in-
tegrity of important series of 2:)lots. They cannot, of course,
be moved, nor indeed, in any true sense, can they be replaced.
It is urged, therefore, that their value and the extreme unde-
sirability of disturbing them be recognized in all plans for
future growth and development.
Co-operative Experiments with Alfalfa. — During the past
year thirty-three experiments with alfalfa have been made in
ten different counties. Arrangements were completed for one
experiment also in each of the counties Barnstable, Bristol
and Dukes, but local conditions prevented the carrying out of
the plans formed. ^Northern-grown seed treated with farmo-
germ for inoculation with nitrogen-fixing bacteria was used.
The following extract from the directions sent to co-operating
farmers will indicate what is believed to be a satisfactory method
of j^reparing for the crop : —
(1) Plow in spring just as soon as possible nftei- the ground can be
worked.
(2) Apply lime at the rate of about IV-i tons to the acre and disk
in at once.
(3) About ten days later apply the followino- mixture per acre:
basic slag meal, 1,500 pounds, high-grade sulfate of potash, 400 to
500 pounds, and disk that in.
(4) Thereafter harrow about once in ten to twelve days, until you
are ready to sow the seed, which should not be later than about
July 27.
(5) When ready to sow the seed, apply per acre: nitrate of soda,
too pounds, basic slag meal, 300 pounds, mixing them, and harrow-
ing in lightly.
(G) Sow 30 pounds of seed per acre, in showery weather if possible,
and cover as you would grass seed.
The fall months were exceptionally dry and therefore some-
whnt unfavorable, but in most cases the crops made a good start
1911.] PUBLIC DOrrMENT — No. 31. 23
aiul went into llic wiutci- in good condition, having made sutii-
(.'ient growth to atiord the needed protection.
Research.
I^Iorc research work has been done in the station during the
past year than in any previous year of its history. The addi-
tions to our staff which have made this possible have already
been referred to. Work still continues upon the various re-
search problems which have been mentioned in earlier reports/
but the studies of Pyralida^ and Tortricidse which Dr. C. H.
Fernald has been conducting have been nearly brought to a con-
clusion, and the results in part already privately published.-
The scope of our research work has been broadened during the
year by the addition of two new lines of work, i.e., an investi-
gation of the solubility effect of ammonium sulfate on the soil
of field A ; and color vision in bees. The progress made in most
of these lines of investigation has been satisfactory, but there
has been some interruption on account of moving the entomo-
logical work into the new building, and on account of ill health
of members of our staff, apparently due to overwork. In both
departments in which such interruption has occurred changes
(already referred to) have been made, including the provision
of an additional assistant in each, which, it is believed, will
make it possible to push the work of investigation more rapidly.
In the later pages of this report will be found a numl)er of
valuable technical papers based upon some of the investigations
in progress. The more important of these are as follows : — ■
Studies in Milk Secretion.
The Determination of Ai'senie in Insectieides.
The Purification of Insohible Fatty Acids.
The Soluble Carbohydrates in Asparagus Roots.
Abnormalities of Stump Growth.
Climatic Adaptations of Apple Varieties.
The progress which has been made in our work with aspara-
gus and cranberries, and the greatly increased facilities for
' For full Hat see Part I., twenty-second annual report.
' On the Date3 of Jacob ITubner's Sammhing europiiischer Schmettprlina:o and SomeofUig
Other Works, C. H. Fernald, Ph. D.. author and publisher; The Genera of the Tortrieida; and
theirtypoa, C. H. Fernald, Ph.D., author and publisher.
24 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
investigation in the interest of cranberry growers, are made
the subjects of special comment which follows.
Asparagus Substation, Concord.
The details of the work in progress in the substation, main-
tained in the interest of asparagus growers in Concord, have
been carefully looked after by Mr. Charles W. Prescott, to
whom, as heretofore, we are greatly indebted for his lively in-
terest and efficient supervision. The work has already given
results of much interest, and is likely, I believe, to prove of
great value. It will be remembered that it follows two rather
distinct lines: (1) breeding ex})eriments, with the hope of pro-
ducing a rust-resistant type of asparagus; (2) fertilizer ex-
periments, designed to throw light upon the special plant food
requirements of the crop.
Breeding Experiments. — In the breeding work which is
done at Concord the station is fortunate in enjoying the co-oper-
ation of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States
Department of Agriculture. Mr. J. B. Norton of the Bureau
has been assigned by Dr. B. T. Galloway to look after the as-
paragus breeding experiments. It is a pleasure to testify to the
enthusiasm and faithful attention of Mr. Norton, who has not
only most energetically prosecuted the breeding work, but has
proved of much assistance in making observations and records
on the fertilizer plots.
A very large number of crosses between selected plants have
been made, and among these different crosses a few have re-
sulted in offspring which seem to be almost absolutely immune
to rust. These plants will be propagated and seed raised from
them as rapidly as possible, with the object of producing stock
for h-ial upon a more extended scale. If, however, the plants
produced by some of the crosses continue to show the immunity
exhibited by the seedlings, and if they have, as may be an-
ticipated, the capacity to transmit their characteristics, a very
gratifying forward step has certainly been made, and we may
confidently anticipate complete success in attaining the end in
view. At as early a date as possible, seed and young plants will
be produced in quantities sufficient for trial by growers in dif-
ferent localities.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 25
Fertilizer Experiments. — It remains true, as was stated
to be the case iu earlier reports concerning these experiments,
that the growth and development of the crops, even upon the
no fertilizer plots, owing to the very thorough preparation which
the soil received, is still remarkably vigorous. Naturally,
therefore, the varying fertilizer treatment does not as yet
show the differences which may be confidently looked for. A
few points, however, seem to be sufficiently well established to
deserve mention.
The field contains 40 ]>lots of one-twentieth acre each. The
crop of 1910 was rather seriously injured by frost, but it was
nevertheless fairly satisfactory as to quantity and quality. The
past season was the fourth since the plants were set. The first
cutting was made on April 23, the last on June 29. The total
yield of all the plots was 9,020 pounds and 6 ounces.
Attention is called to the following conclusions, based upon
results, as of possible interest : —
(1) The use of fertilizer made up of a combination of ni-
trate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate of potash, in addition
to an application of manure at the rate of 10 tons per acre, has
not materially increased the crop in whatever quantity applied.
(2) The use of nitrate of soda in addition to manure at
the rate above named, in quantities ranging between the rate of
from 311 ])0unds to G22 pounds per acre, has not increased the
crop.
(3) The use of nitrate of soda in addition to a fairly liberal
application of acid phosphate and muriate of potash has some-
what increased the cro]), l)nt a quantity in excess of 311 pounds
has not resulted in further increase.
Cliemical Worh on Asparagus Roots. — It is a part of the
])lan of the experiments with fertilizers to study the effects of
varying treatment njjou the composition of the roots. This in-
vestigation on the chemical side is being carried on by Prof.
F. W. Morse, who will in due time report fully upon the results
of the analytical work. It was thought that a study of the re-
serve material stored in the roots in the autumn might offer
results of especial interest and im])ortance, and although the
26 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
investigation is not jet completed, this expectation has been
largely realized. The special object in view in the first collec-
tion of roots made was to study the effect of the varying nse of
nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda upon the reserve mate-
rial in the roots in the antnnm. The following points appear to
have been well established by the analyses so far made : - —
The amonnt of nitrogen in the roots in the fall: (1) is in-
creased by application of nitrate of soda; (2) is greater where
nitrate was used at the rate of 4GG pounds per acre than where
it was used at the rate of 311 pounds per acre; (3) is not
greater where the nitrate of soda was used at the rate of 622
pounds per acre than where it was used at the rate of 4G6
pounds per acre.
It is believed, although this has not yet been proved, that the
crop of the following season must bear a rather close relation
to the amount of reserve material in the roots in the fall. If
this be so, and if further investigation gives results in agree-
ment with those already obtained, the conclusion that the use
of nitrate of soda among our growers is not infrequently in
excess of the most profitable quantity would appear to be justi-
fied. This conclusion should, however, for the jiresent be re-
garded as tentative rather than fully established.
Cranberry Substations.
During the ]iast year our work in the interest of cranberry
growers has been put upon a much more satisfactory basis than
heretofore, through a special appropriation by the Legislature
to provide for the work. The amount of this appropriation was
$15,000. A bog containing about 12 acres, lying near Specta-
cle Pond in East Wareham, with a small amount of adjoining
upland, two small buildings and a powerful gasoline engine and
pump, were purchased for $12,000. A building to contain
screen and storage rooms, living and offi-ce rooms for an assist-
ant, and a small laboratory will be erected early this year at a
cost of about $2,000. The balance of the appropriation will
be used for the purchase of additional upland to provide readier
access to the building above referred to, in the making of needed
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 27
improvenicuts in llie i)innping machinery and in preparations
for experiments.
The cranberry bog pnrchased is planted with Early Black
and the Howe varieties. It lies a little above the nsual level
of the water in Spectacle Pond, the lift required to flood it
nsually varying between about 3 and 4 feet. The capacity of
the })0wer and pumping machinery is such that the bog can be
completely flooded in about six hours. The area of Si)ectacle
Pond is nearly 100 acres, and the supply of water is constant
and abundant. Being a " great pond " the waters are under
State control. Only one other bog, and that a relatively small
one, draws water from the pond, so that there must always be
water enough for any possible need for all kinds of experimen-
tal work. The bog when purchased was in exceptionally perfect
condition. It is one which has the reputation of more than
average fruitfulness. The crop last year^ as was the case with
most of the bogs in the cranberry districts of Massachusetts,
was moderate, and the net revenue derived from it was small.
It is, however, confidently anticipated that the product of the
bog will, over a series of years, be sufficient to produce a con-
siderable net income, which will be used in helping to meet the
expenses connected with our experimental work. The crop of
the past season brought $1,255 more than the costs of ordinary
maintenance, harvesting, packing, etc. The net sum available
towards the costs of experimental work, however, was substan-
tially $100 less than this, that being the amount which we were
compelled to pay for taxes, since the bog had not been the prop-
erty of the Commonwealth on the first of May.
It will be remembered that our cranberry work thus far has
followed two principal lines of inquiry relating (1) to the fer-
tilizer requirements of the crop; (2) to insects affecting it.
Fertilizer Experiments. — The fertilizer experiments begun
four years ago in Red Brook bog at Waquoit have been con-
tinued. The bog, however, gave only a very small crop during
the past season, — a result which we believe to have been due
in large measure to the effects of frost. The variations in yield
caused by uneven amount of frost damage were so great that it
28 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
was impossible to draw conclusions as to the specific effects of
the different fertilizer combinations. The fertilizer experiments
in the Red Brook bog at Waqnoit will be continued during next
jear, but meanwhile similar experiments will be begun in the
Spectacle Pond bog. It is believed that it will be best to dis-
continue the Waquoit experiments after next year, since thev
lie at such a distance from the station bog in Wareham as to
make proper attention to the work somewhat ditficult and ex-
pensive.
Insect Worh. — Dr. Franklin has devoted himself with great
enthusiasm and faithfulness to observations and studies on the
insects having a relation either injurious or beneficial to the
cranberry industry. He has accumulated a large amount of
valuable data, but his work is not advanced to the point where
publication seems called for.
Control Work.
Detailed reports concerning the various lines of control work
carried on by the station, prepared by the chemists in charge,
will be found in the later pages of this report.
Fertilizer Law. — We have found it impossible during the
past few years to exercise an efficient control over the trade in
fertilizers and to publish the reports without expending an
amount exceeding the sum brought in by the analysis or license
fees required by our law. The expenditure in 1909 exceeded
the amount of the license fees to the amount of nearly $1,000.
To provide for this excess expenditure by the use of other sta-
tion funds seriously reduces the amount available for experi-
mental work. Accordingly, the amount of analytical work in
connection with the fertilizer control during the past year has
been somewhat restricted, and the size of the bulletin giving
the results has been reduced. These reductions, while for the
time being necessary, are undesirable, and for this reason, as
well as for other important reasons, it has been decided to ask
for a revision of our fertilizer law. The preparation of the new
draft has required a great deal of study and many conferences
with parties affected by the law. The more important of the
11)11.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 29
changes which it provides arc an increase in the analysis lee
per fertilizer clement from $5 to $8, and bringing the various
grades of agricultural lime within its scope. The other changes
which have been made have been designed to remedy defects
from the standpoint of administration which the execution of
the old law had disclosed, and to make it more dctinite and ex-
plicit on a number of rather important points. The fertilizer
law at i)rcsent in force requires us to publish the dealer's cash
price and the percentage of difference between this price and
the commercial valuation of the fertilizer. It is not proposed
to retain this provision in the new law, as it is felt that it is on
the whole likely to prove misleading to the farmer, almost inev-
itably unfair to dealers, and from no point of view apparently-
serves any important use.
Dairy Law. — Much time has been spent during the past
year also in studying and rewriting the so-called dairy law.
Besides various perfecting changes, the most important moditi-
cation is to bring milk inspectors and the Babcock machinery
and apparatus which they use within the scope of the law.
There would seem to be equal reason that steps should be taken
to insure accuracy of work on the results of which, if unfa-
vorable, the milk dealer or farmer may be prosecuted for in-
fringement of one of our State laws, as for bringing those test-
ing milk and cream for determining its value within the scope
of the law.
Feed Law. — The increasing number of feedstuflCs in our
markets, and the increased extent to which materials of coni-
]il('x character are purchased and used by our farmers, have
gi-eatly increased the amount of work required to exercise effec-
tive control over the trade in feedstuff s, and we find it to be
impossible at the present time to properly execute the law and
to publish the results of our inspection for the sum of money
provided by the State legislative appropriation for the purpose.
It will be necessary, therefore, in the near future, to ask for
a revision of this law. The amount of the appropriation should
lie moderately increased to provide for the much greater amount
of work now required than was necessary when the amount of
30 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
the .'i]>proi)riation was fixed some eight years ago. In the case
of this hiw, also, practical experience in its execution has made
it ajjparent that some perfecting amendments are necessary in
order that it may operate smoothly and etfectively.
Inspection of Apiaeies.
The great desirability of the passage of a law providing for
the inspection of apiaries, with a view to the eradication and
control of contagious diseases of bees, was set forth at some
length in \ny last annual report. It seems proper, therefore, in
this report to refer to the fact that the Legislature of 1910
passed such an act. The execution of the law, however, was
placed with the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, but
the expei-imcnt station and college are working in harmony with
the secretary. He has named as inspector of apiaries the
apiarist of the college and station, Dr. Burton N. Gates, whose
appointment has already been referred to.
Buildings.
The new building for the departments of entomology and
zoology has been completed during the year and has been occu-
pied since September. It is a commodious, fireproof structure,
costing $80,000, and paid for by special a|)propriation. It pro-
vides ample accommodations for the experimental work in en-
tomology. The hothouse, a comparatively new and modern
building used in connection with the old insectary for experi-
mental work, has been moved on to new foundations and is con-
nected with the new building.
The necessity for increased accommodations for the research
chemical work of the station was pointed out in my last annual
report, in which it was stated that plans for enlargement and
modification of the old building for the purpose of securing the
increased accommodations needed were under consideration.
Mature study of the problem as to the best means of providing
the needed room, in connection with more exact estimates of the
cost of so enlarging and modifying our old laboratory as to
meet the requirements, has led to the conclusion that it is un-
wise to make the relatively large expenditure required for such
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 31
tiilariitMut'iit iiiid iii'.i<liti',';itiiiii. It scorns clear that the old Imild-
ing, hcnvcver enlarged and improved, must still fail to be en-
tirely adequate or satisfactory, and that therefore it is wiser at
this time to make oidy the few absolutely necessary changes,
invol\'iiig relatively little expenditure, leaving full ])rovision for
our needs until such time as the State shall grant the money
needed for a new building, which the growth of our work will
render imperative in the very near future.
WM. P. BROOKS,
Director.
32
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
ANNUAL REPORT
Of Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer of the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural Experiment Statiok of the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural College.
For the Year ending June 30, 1910.
The United States Appropriations, 1909-10.
Hatch Fund.
Adams Fund.
Dr.
To receipts from the Treasurer of the United
States, as per aj^propriations for fiscal year
ended June 30, 1910, under acts of Congress
approved March 2, 18S7 (Hatch fund), and
March 16, 1906 (Adams fund),
Cr.
By salaries,
labor,
publications, ....
postage and stationery,
freight and express,
heat, light, water and power,
chemical supplies, .
seeds, plants and sundry supplies
fertilizers, ....
feeding stuffs, ....
library,
tools, implements and machinery,
furniture and fixtures, .
scientific apparatus,
hve stock, ....
traveling expenses,
contingent expenses,
building and land, .
Total,
$15,000 00
$13,184 81
264 74
49 75
95 12
7 43
250 19
348 61
406 48
47 44
117 00
123 75
48 00
56 68
115,000 00
$13,000 00
$9,918 15
817 05
19 00
13 35
149 47
114 41
496 08
95 01
6 45
328 50
892 02
105 51
45 00
$13,000 00
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
33
State Appropriation, 1909-10.
To balance on hand July 1, 1909, ....
Cash received from State Treasurer,
from fertilizer fees, ....
from individuals (cranberry con-
tribution),
from farm i^roducts,
from miscellaneous sources, .
Cash paid for salaries,
for labor,
for publications, ....
for postage and stationery, .
for freight and express,
for heat, light, water and supplies,
for chemical supplies,
for seeds, plants and sundry supplies
for fertilizers,
for feeding stuffs,
for library,
for tools, implements and machinery
for furniture and fixtures,
for scientific apparatus,
for live stock,
for traveling expenses, .
for buildings and land, .
Balance,
$5,538 50
13,500 00
5,970 00
544 17
3,208 73
6,387 84
$8,434 28
9,447
30
2,313
60
928 20
381
42
341
94
542
26
2,348
15
532
83
1,468 03
188 46
26 70
240 95
1,018
52
80
38
2,299
51
358 33
4,198 48
$35,149 24
),149 24
34 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURIST.
WM. P. BROOKS.
The work in tlic de})artnient of agricnltiire during the past
year has been of about the usual scope and extent. The prob-
lems which are being investigated are for the most part related
to questions connected with the maintenance of fertility. Vari-
ous questions connected with the selection, adaptation and
methods of application of manures and fertilizers are being in-
vestigated. Most of our experiments have continued for a con-
siderable number of years. Some indication is afforded of the
amount of work in progress by the following statements. The
number of field plots on the station grounds used in experiments
the past year was 356. Our vegetation experiments have in-
volved the use of 352 pots; while as a check upon the work in
the open field, and as a method of throwing light upon a few
special pr()l)lems, 167 closed plots have been used..
No attempt will be made in this report to discuss the work in
detail. Attention is called, however, to a few of the more strik-
ing results.
I. COMPAKISONS OF DlFFEKI<:XT MaTEEIALS AS A SoURCE OF
NiTEOGEX.
These experiments, which are carried on in Eield A, were
begun in 1890. The materials under comparison as sources of
nitrogen are manure, one plot; nitrate of soda, two plots; dried
blood, two plots; and sulfate of ammonia, three plots. Nitrate
of soda and dried blood are used on one plot with muriate of
potash; on the other with sulfate. The sulfate of ammonia is
used on two plots in connection with muriate and on one in con-
nection with sulfate of potash.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 35
The different iiiatorialt^ furnishing cither nitrogen or potash
are used on the several plots in such amounts as to furnish, re-
spectively, equal (puintities per plot of nitrogen and of potash;
two of the three no-nitrogen plots which serve as checks receive
potash in the form of muriate, the other in the form of sulfate,
and all the plots in the field receive an equal liberal application
of dissolved bone black as a source of phosphoric acid.
The crops grown in the order of their succession have been:
oats, rye, soy beans, oats, soy beans, oats, oats, clover, potatoes,
soy beans, potatoes, soy beans, potatoes, oats and peas, corn and
clover for the last three years. The clover crop of the past
year, as w^as true of the two preceding years, was considerably
mixed with grass. The seed was sown early in August, 1909,
and just previous to the sowing of the seed one-half of each of
the plots in the field received a dressing of lime, at the rate of
a ton and one-half to the acre. It was thought that such an
apjdieation of lime would increase the efficiency of the sulfate
of ammonia as a source of nitrogen, and to some extent this ex-
pectation appears to have been realized. The differences, how-
ever, between the limed and unlimed halves of the plots were
relatively small, and the yields on the two halves were not sep-
arately determined.
The best crop of the past year was produced where nitrate
of soda was used as a source of nitrogen ; but the yields on
dried blood and on sulfate of ammonia used in connection
with sulfate of potash w^ere not much inferior. On the basis of
100 for nitrate of soda, the relative standing of the different
nitrogen fertilizers and the no-nitrogen plots as measured by
total yield during the past season was as follows: —
Per Cent.
Nitrate of soda, 100.00
Dried blood, 93.7.)
Sulfate of ammonia, .95.53
Barnyard manure 94.75
No nitro2:en, .91.79
The relative standing of the different materials as indicated
by total yield for the twenty-one years during which the exj)eri-
ment has continued is as follows : —
36 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Per Cent.
Nitrate of soda, 100.00
Barnyard inainire, 94.07
Dried blood, 92.38
Sulfate of ammonia, . . . . . . . .. 86.87
No nitrogen, 71.96
On the basis of increase in crop as compared with the no-
iiitrogen plots, the average of the twenty-one years shows the
following relative standing : —
Per Cent.
Nitrate of soda, 100.00
Barnyard manure, ' . . . . 78 . 85
Dried blood, 72.82
Sulfate of ammonia, . . . . . . . . .53.17
Nitrate of soda has given a much larger increase in crop
than any of the other materials, and since the pound cost of
the nitrogen of nitrate of soda is usually less than the pound
cost in any other chemical fertilizer, the superior economy of
its use is apparent.
II. MuPvIATE COiNIPAKKI) WITH SuLFATE OF PoTASK.
Our long-continued experiments comj^aring muriate with
high-grade sulfate as a source of potash have continued on Field
B. It will be remembered that the two potash salts are used in
such quantities as to furnish equal actual potash per acre.
These experiments were begun in 1892. Five pairs of plots are
under com])arison. From 1892 to 1899 the potash salts were
used in quantities (varying in different years, but always in
equal amounts on the two members of pairs of plots) ranging
from 350 to 400 pounds per acre. Since 1900 the quantity used
has been uniform on all plots, and at the rate of 250 pounds per
acre annually. Fine ground bone has been annually applied
to each plot throughout the entire period of the experiment,
and the rate of application is 600 pounds per acre. The season
of 1910 is the nineteenth year of these experiments. The crops
during that year were potatoes on one pair of plots, oats on one
pair, and asparagus, rhubarb and blackberries. The rates of
yield per acre on the dift'erent potash salts are shown in the
followina; tables : —
191
rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
37
Muriate of potash,
Sulfate of potash,
Rate per Acre (Pounds).
Asparagus.
5,604
4,143
Rhubarb.
24,587
25,856
Blackberries.
2,661
2,821
Rate per Acre.
POTATOES (bushels).
Merchantable.
Small.
Oat Hay
(Pounds).
Muriate of pota.sh
Sulfate of pota.sh
204.6
255.4
11.15
13.02
3,716
3,345
These figures call for but little comment, as they are in gen-
eral in full agreement with results previously obtained. The
asparagus gives a larger yield on the muriate of potash, which
indicates the correctness of the ordinary practice of asparagus
growers, who usually employ the muriate as a source of potash.
The rhubarb gives a slightly larger yield on the sulfate, and
it was noticed during this year, as it has usually been in pre-
vious years, that the proportion of leaf to stalk is greater on the
sulfate than on the muriate, the figures for this year on total
weight of leaf being at the following rates per acre : —
Pounds.
Muriate, 18,410
Sulfate, 20,560
'No explanation can at present be ofi^ered for this difi"erence.
The blackberries gave a larger yield on the sulfate, but the
difference is not great. This, however, is in accordance with
our observations in the case of most fruits^ strawberries alone
excepted, that sulfate of pota.sh gives a better yield than mu-
riate.
The difference in yield in potatoes on the two plots amounts
to rather over 50 bushels. Such differences have been common
in our experiments in earlier years, not only in this field, but
in others as well. The difference in character of foliage of the
potatoes on the two plots was sti'ikingly -evident from a period
very early in ihoiv a]i]iearance above ground. The foliage of
38 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan.
the potatoes on the muriate of potash plots was lighter in color,
it may be described as a pea green, while that on the sulfate
of jDotash plot was of a much darker shade. An attempt has
been made to demonstrate whether there is a difference in the
amount of chlorophyl developed in the foliage produced, respec-
tively, by the different potash salts, but the efforts so far made
have not demonstrated such a difference. It is perfectly clear,
however, that the muriate of potash as compared with sulfate
is distinctly unfavorable to the production of starch in the
tubers, the percentage of this constituent being almost inva-
riably considerably higher than in the potatoes produced on
the muriate.
The yield of oat hay on the muriate is consiaerably heavier
than on the sulfate, and this result seems to be somewhat in
harmony with results which we have previously obtained with
corn, in the ease of which grain the yield of stover on the
muriate appears to be usually heavier than on the sulfate under
otherwise similar conditions.
III. ^iteogejst Eeetilizeks at^d Potash Salts for Gaeden
Crops.
Three different nitrogen fertilizers, sulfate of ammonia, ni-
trate of soda and dried blood, and two potash salts, muriate and
high-grade sulfate, each salt being used with each of the nitro-
gen fertilizers, are under comparison on Field C. In connec-
tion with the fertilizers named dissolved bone black was used
in liberal amounts, which are the same on all plots. The com-
parison of these different fertilizers in this field was begun in
1891, but up to 1898 they were used alone. Since that time all
plots have received annually a dressing of stable manure, at the
rate of 30 tons per acre. The nitrogen fertilizers are used in
such quantities as to furnish nitrogen at the rate of 60 pounds
per acre, the potash salts in such quantities as to furnish 120
pounds of actual potash per acre, and the dissolved bone black
was applied at the rate of 320 ])ounds per acre. The crops of
the ])ast year won-e asparagus, strawberries and onions.
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
39
Yields per Acre.
Fertilizers.
Asparagus
(Pounds).
Strawberries
(Pounds).
Onions (Bushels).
Plot.
Large.
Picklers.
0.
No fertilizer, .
3,378
7,012
304.4
53.5
■■1
Muriate of potash, . )
Sulfate of ammonia, )
3,984
7,661
173.1
39 3
2,
Muriate of potash, . 1
Nitrate of soda, . J
5,057
5,088
258.3
69.0
3,
Muriate of potash, . ]
Dried blood, . . J
5,052
6,697
259.2
40.2
M
Sulfate of potash, . |
Sulfate of ammonia, J
3,764
6,087
150.0
34.6
M
Sulfate of potash, . |
Nitrate of soda, . J
5,235
5,204
300.6
56.4
M
Sulfate of potash, . 1
Dried blood, . )
5,417
7,488
253.4
37.9
Attention is called in commenting npon these resnlts to the
fact that mannre is used on Plot O at the same rate as on the
other plots.
Asparagus. — Asparagus has long been recognized as a rank
feeding crop, requiring liberal application of manure and fer-
tilizers. It will be noticed that this is the only one of the three
crops which appears to have been materially benefited by the use
of the fertilizers. The crop on Plot O, on manure alone, is
materially smaller than on either of the other two plots. Par-
ticular attention is called to the highly unfavorable effect of the
combinations containing the sulfate of ammonia. The yields
where this fertilizer was used are much below those produced
where the other nitrogen fertilizers are employed, and not ma-
terially gi-eater than where no fertilizer is used.
Strawberries. — It will be noted that in marked contrast with
the results obtained with asparagus the yields of strawberries
are highest on plots where sulfate of ammonia is used. A sim-
ilar result has been obtained in earlier years. The highest
yield of all has been produced where muriate of potash is used
in connc^ction with sulfate of ammonia, a combination which for
40 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
most crops has always seemed to be peculiarly unfavorable.
Whether a similar result would be obtained in soils less highly
enriched is at present a matter of uncertainty, but I desire to
point out that in ray judgment, based not only upon the yields
of strawberries, which are not as large on the best of our plots
as are obtained in good practice, but also upon the growth and
development of the vines, flowers and fruit, the rate of use of
manure and fertilizer in Field C is much too high for the best
residts. The vines have been over-rank, the fruit has set rather
imperfectly and ripened poorlj^
Onions. — Comparison of the yields on the different plots
shows that none of the fertilizers used in connection with ma-
nure have apparently been beneficial. The combination con-
taining sulfate of potash and nitrate of soda has done best; but
the most significant point in connection with these results is the
distinctly unfavorable effect of the combinations which contain
sulfate of ammonia. The yield where this fertilizer is used is
much below that on the other plots. The onions where this fer-
tilizer is applied appear to stand practically still for a number
of weeks after germination. They become distinctly unhealthy
and many die. By midsummer the unfavorable influence dis-
appears, the remaining plants take on a rank growth, the to]is
are heavy, the necks of the bulbs are thick, and comparatively
few well-ripened bulbs are jiroduced. It is probable that a
heavy application of lime in connection with the sulfate of am-
monia will in large measure, perhaps altogether, correct the
faulty conditions which appear to be due to the use of this fer-
tilizer.
IV. Relative Value of Diffet^ent Potash Salts.
The experiments comparing different potash salts were be-
gun in 18!KS. The following materials are under comparison:
kainit, high-grade sulfate, low-grade sulfate, muriate, nitrate,
carbonate and feldspar. There are 40 plots in all. Five have
received no potash since the experiments began. Each potash
salt is used on five different plots; in other words, there are five
series of plots. The crop during the past year was hay (mixed
timothy, redtop and clovers). The average yields on each treat-
ment are shown in the following table : —
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
41
Average Yield per Acre (Pounds).
Hay.
Rowen.
No potash, plots 1, 9. 17, 25, 33
Ivainit, plots 2, 10. 18, 26, 34
High-grade sulfate, plots 3, 11, 19, 27, 35
Low-grade sulfate, plots 4, 12, 20, 28, 36
Muriate, plots 5, 13, 21, 29, 37
Nitrate, plots 6, 14, 22, 30, 38
Carbonate, plots 7, 15. 23, 31, 39
Fine-ground feldspar, plots 8, 16, 24. 32. 40
6,240
6,656
6,416
0,864
6,976
7,784
6,280
6,824
698
966
1,866
2,058
1,752
1,916
1,984
1,256
Average of ail potash plots
6,828
1,685
The various potash salts used are employed iu such quantities
as to furnish substantially equal actual potash to each plot. In
the case of the feldspar, which is very fine ground, the quan-
tity enqdoyed on Plot 8 furnishes the same amount of potash
as that supplied by the different potash salts. Plot 10 receives
the same amount as Plot 8, Plot 24 receives twice as much.
Plot 32 three times as much, and Plot 40 four times as much.
Particular attention is called to the fact that up to and includ-
ing 1908 the plots now receiving feldspar had been annually
receiving a potash salt which had given results indicating a
high degTee of availability. It is believed that the crops on
these plots are still deriving considerable benefit from the re-
sidual potash applied in the earlier years of the experiment.
The following points seem especially worthy of notice : —
(1 ) The average yield of hay on all the potash plots exceeds
the average yield on the no-}x>tash plots by only GOO pounds.
The average yield of rowen on the potash plots exceeds the
yield on the no-potash plots by about 1,000 pounds. These
iigiircs indicate that the grasses, timothy and redtop, which
make U]) the bulk of the first crop^ are not dependent in very
high degree upon an application of potash, and the much larger
increase in the yield of rowen on the potash plots is clearly to be
atti'ibulcd to the fact that clovers make up the greater part of
the rowen.
(2) The kainit, while favorable to the grasses, such as tim-
othy and redtop, and therefore giving a first crop nearly equal
42 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan.
to the average for the potash salts, is distinctly inferior to any
of the materials supplying potash in its effects npon the rowen.
This is nnJonbtecUy due to the large proportion of chlorides
which kainit contains.
(3) It will be noticed that the yield of rowen on muriate of
potash is considerably less than on either of the sulfates, the
nitrate or the carbonate. We have noticed in our experiments
that the muriate almost always proves distinctly less favorable
to clovers than the sulfates. On the other hand, this salt ap-
])ears to be highly favorable to the timothy and redtop, as is
indicated by the relatively high yield of hay.
(4) The yield of rowen is highest on the low-grade sulfate
of potash^ and there is a noticeable difference in its favor in
the yield of hay also. It is possible that the magnesium con-
tained in this salt is proving of value for the hay crops.
The most marked result of the substitution during the past
few years of feldspar for the silicate of potash used in the
earlier years of the experiment on Plots 8, IG, 24, .32 and 40
has been the rapid disappearance of clover from these plots.
This fact indicates that the claim of the manufacturers that the
potash of the feldspar has been rendered available by the treat-
ment to which it has heon subjected is not justified by the facts.
After two years the clover has disappeared from these plots
almost as eom])letely as from the plots to which no j^otash has
been applied throughout the entire period of the experiment.
Y. Comparison of Different Phosphates.
Ten of the leading materials which may be used as a source
of phosphoric acid have been under comparison in one of our
fields since 1897. The different materials are applied to the sep-
arate plots in such quantities as to furnish equal amounts of
actual phosphoric acid to each. There are three check plots to
which no phosphate whatever has been applied during the entire
period of the experimeut. All the ]ilots receive annually equal
and liberal quantities of materials sup]ilying nitrogen and pot-
ash in highly available forms. The field has been used for a
large variety of crops, the succession having been as follows :
corn, cabbages, eoi-n, oats and Hungarian grass (followed by
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
43
11, mixed grass
rvc iilowed under), onions, onions, cabbages, coi
and clover three years, cabbages and soy beans. The crop this
year was potatoes. The results are shown in
table : —
Comparison of Phosphates.
the following
Plot.
No phosphate,
Arkansas rock phosphate,
South Carolina rock, .
Florida soft rock,
Phosphatic slag, .
Tennessee phosphate.
No phosphate, .
Dissolved bone black,
Raw bone meal, .
Dissolved bone meal, .
Steamed bone meal, .
Acid phosphate, .
No phosphate.
Yield
Merchant-
able
Potatoes
per Plot
(Pounds).
2,148
2,170
1,986
1,761
1,841
1,773
1,831
1,859
1,941
1,982
1,964
1,929
1,610
Yield per Plot
(Pounds).
Small.
Rotten.
94
6
89
12
53
23)4
107
24
76
18
109
34
53
36J-^
90
12.^
140
12
121
15
101
IIH
120
9,4
107
11}^
Yield
Merchant-
able
Potatoes
per Acre
(Bushels).
Loss
or Gain
per Acre
(Bushels).
286.4
-
289.3
+40.9
264.8
+ 16.4
234.8
—13,6
245.5
—2,9
236.4
—12,0
244.1
-
247.9
—0.5
258.8
+10.4
264.3
+ 15.9
261.9
+ 13.5
257,2
+8.8
214.7
-
The yield, as will be seen, was good on all plots. The aver-
age on the three check plots is 244.8 bushels of merchantable
])otato€s per acre. It will be noticed that the only one of the
phosphates used which has given any very considerable increase
in merchantable potatoes is the Arkansas rock phosphate, but I
am con\'inccd that the superiority of this phosphate is more
apparent than real. The field declines somewhat in fertility
from Plot 1 to Plot I.']. It will be noticed that Plot 1 without
phos])hato gives a yield of merchantable tubers larger than any
of the phosphate plots, with the exception of two, and that the
crop on two is practically the same in amount as on one. The
superior yield on these two ])lois is in my judgment merely a
consequence of the fact that the soil texture in that part of the
field is; more favorable to the crop. The conclusions to which
I would e;dl particular attention may be stated as follows: —
(1) The potato would apj^ear to be a crop relatively inde-
44 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
pendent of a supply of iiiiniediat'ely available phosphoric acid.
The result with potatoes offers a striking contrast to the result
obtained in 1908 with cabbages, with which the crop on some of
the best jihosphate plots was more than six times greater than
that produced on the no-phosphate plots.
(2) Although the phosphate used affected the total yield
but little, it was noticed that during the first few weeks of their
growth the vines on the plots to which the more available phos-
jihates had been applied (phosphatic slag, dissolved bone black,
dissolved bone meal and acid phosphate), made a much more
rapid growth than on the other plots. The use of a little phos-
phoric acid, therefore, in highly available form, seems likely to
prove a distinct advantage by pushing the crop more rapidly
forward, so that it may better resist attacks of insects or un-
favorable conditions which may occur later. It seems likely,
further, that where the crop is cultivated for an early market the
use of moderate amounts of highly available phosphoric acid
may prove beneficial.
(3) The potatoes produced on the plot to which phosphatic
slag has been annually applied for so many years were very
scabby, although the seed planted was treated with formalin,
as was that planted on the other plots also. So serious was
this trouble that the market value of the crop was very greatly
reduced, and the conclusion appears justified that a free use
of phosphatic slag in the same season that land is to be planted
with potatoes must in general prove highly undesirable. Slag
meal is a strongly alkaline fertilizer, and this is undoubtedly
the cause of the very scabby crop produced, since the scab
fungus is known to be most troublesome in soils which are
alkaline.
VI. Manuee Alone compaeed with Manttee and Sulfate
OF Potash.
This experiment, which occupies what is known as the south
corn acre, has been in progress since 1890. The field is divided
into four plots of one-fourth acre each. Good barnyard manure
from milch cows, at the rate of 6 cords per acre^ has been ap-
plied annually, with the exception of those years when it was
1911.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 45
feared so doing M'ould cause the newly seeded grass and clover
to lodge, to two of these plots. Manure at the rate of 3 cords
per acre, together with high-grade sulfate of potash at the rate
of 160 pounds per acre, was applied to the other two plots
from 1890 to 1895. Since the latter date the manure has been
ai)plied to these plots at the rate of 4 cords per acre in connec-
tion with 160 pounds of high-grade sulfate of potash, and
whenever, for the reasons above stated, the application of ma-
nure has been omitted from the other tw^o plots, both the manure
and the potash have been withheld from these plots. The plan
of cropping this field for the last twelve years has been corn
and hay in rotation in periods of tw^o years for each. During
the i)ast season the crop on this field has been hay, and the
average yields per acre have been as follows : —
Pounds.
!Maniu'e alone : —
Hay, 4,480
Roweii, 1,050
Manure and polasli: —
Hay, 4,400
Rowen, 940
The rowen crop of the past season was very small, owing to
the marked deficiency in rainfall. The corn cropS raised in
this field throughout the entire period of the experiment have
been very nearly e(pial under the differing nianurial treat-
ments. The hay crops have usually been somewhat larger with
the manure alone. The difference during the past season is
considerably less than the average.
^'I^. Average Corn Fertilizer compared \vith Ferti-
lizer Richer in Potash.
These experiments occupy wdiat is known as the north corn
acre. They have been in progress since 1891. This field, like
the south corn acre, is divided into four plots of one-fourth
acre each. Two of the plots receive a mixture furnishing ni-
trogen, phosphoric acid and potash in the same proportions in
which they arc contained in the average corn fertilizers offered
m our markets. The other two plots annually receive an ap-
46 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
plication of a honicMnade niixtnre, containing mnch Iojss phos-
phoric acid and more potash than is applied to the other plots.
For the past fifteen years corn and hay, two years each, have
regularly alternated. The crop of the past season was hay.
Owing to the marked deficiency in rainfall already referred to
the ro"wen crop was almost an absolute failure. The average
yields were at the following rates per acre : —
Pounds.
On the fertilizer rich in phosphoric acid and low in potash : —
Hay, 3,200
Rowen, .......... 330
On the fertilizer low in phosphoric acid and rich in potash: — ■
Hay, 3,500
Rowen, 240
The results of the past season are similar to those which we
have usually obtained, except that owing to the protracted
drought the production of rowen on the plots receiving the
larger proportion of potash is much lower than usual. In an
average season the yield of rowen on these plots has invariably
been greater than on the others.
VIII. South Acke Soil Test.
The crop raised in the south acre soil test which has continued
in this field since 1889 was corn. The succession of crops grown
on this field from the beginning of the experiment up to the
present time has been as follows: corn, corn, oats, grass and
clover, grass and clover, coru (followed by mustard as a catch
crop), rje, soy beans, white mustard (plowed in), corn, corn,
grass and clover, grass and clover, corn, corn, corn, grass and
clover, grass and clover, corn, oats and clover, buckwheat plowed
under, corn. During the continuance of the experiment the
field has been limed at the rate of a ton to the acre three times.
The results of the past season with corn were entirely similar
to those which have usually been obtained with that crop. Pot-
ash is still the dominant element. The average yield on the no-
fertilizer plots, three in number, was at the rate of 4.05 bushels
per acre. Muriate of potash alone increases the crop to nearly
23 bushels. Nitrate of soda alone gives a crop of 9 bushels.
Dissolved bone black alone gives a yield at the rate of 4.21
1911. J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 47
bushels. The average iiiereases due to the api)lieatioii of the
(.iift'erent fertilizers (used iu each case on four plots) were as
follows : —
Bushels
per Acre.
Nitrate of soda, 3.2
Bone black, . . . . . . • • . • 6.8
Potash, 28,3
If wc represent the average increase in grain due to the ni-
trate at 100, that due to the bone black is 21-2, that due to the
jiotash 880.9. Similar figures for the stover are: —
Pounds
per Acre.
Nitrate, 186.2
Bone black, 406.5
Potash, 1,922.7
IX. XoKTii AcKE Soil Test.
The soil test in this field was begun in 1890, and the crops
grown since that year in the order of succession have been as fol-
lows : potatoes, corn, soy beans, oats, grass and clover, grass and
clover, cabbages and turnips, potatoes, onions, onions, onions,
pi^tatoes, grass and clover, grass and clover, corn, soy beans,
grass and clover, grass and clover, grass and clover. The crop
the past year was soy beans, for which the potash appears to be
the dominant element. In this field one-half of each of the
plots, which are long and narrow, has received three applica-
tions of lime, respectively, in 1899, 1904 and 1907. On the
limed portion the increases due to the application of single fer-
tilizer materials for the muriate of potash alone was 10.22
bushels per acre; for the nitrate of soda alone, 0.12 bushels; for
the dissolved bone black alone, a loss of 4.45 bushels. The
umriate of potash in combination with the other fertilizer ele-
ments did not give as large an increase in the crop as when used
alone. The results will not be discussed in full at this time,
but I may add that they are such as to suggest that the soda of
the nitrate of soda is to a considerable extent either rendering
the natural potash compounds of the soil available, or is itself
to some extent taking the place of potash in the economy of the
plant.
48 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
X. Top-dkessijng for Hay.
The experiments in the production of hay, by using in rota-
tion as top-dressing barnyard manure, wood ashes and a mixture
of bone meal and muriate of potash, have been continued during
the past year in the nine-acre field where these experiments
have been in progress since 1893. The average yield for the
entire area this year was at the rate of 5,853 pounds per acre.
The yields on the different materials used in top-dressing were
at the following rates per acre: —
Pounds.
Barnyard manure, ......... 5,641
Fine ground bone and nuu'iate of potash, ..... 6,076
Wood ashes, 5,523
The crops this year were lighter than usual, as a consequence,
without doubt, of the marked deficiency in rainfall already re-
ferred to. The average yields to date under the different sys-
tems of top-dressing have been at the following rates per acre : —
Pounda.
Barnyard manure, 6,343
Wood ashes, 5,789
Fine ground bone and uuuiale of jjolash, ..... 6,159
The average yield of the 9 acres from 1893 to 1910 inclusive
has been at the rate of 6,134 pounds per acre. The rates of ap-
plication per acre are: —
1. Barnyard manure, . 8 tons.
2. Wood ashes, 1 ton.
I Ground bone, 600 i)ounds.
^- \ Muriate of potasli, 200 pounds.
XL Winter v. Sprincx Application of Manure.
The experiments in progress for the purpose of testing the
relative advantages of applying manure in the winter or in the
spring were begun in 1899. There are five pairs of plots. In
each pair the manure is applied to one plot some time during
the winter. At the same time sufficient manure for the other
and of the same quality is placed in a large heap, from which it
1911,
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
49
is spread in the si)ring-. The lickl in which these experiments
are in progress has a decided slope lengthwise of the plots, which
lie side by side. The manure which is put on in the winter is
applied to the various plots at different times. The crop of the
past season was hay, mixed timothy, redtop and clovers. The
supply of manure for use in the experiments this year was not
as large as usual and Plot 4 was not top-dressed. The results
on this plot, therefore, for this season illustrate simply the
residual effects of the two systems of applying manure. It
must be pointed out, also, that owing to the relatively slow
accumulation of manure used in this experiment the quantity
available for Plot 3 was not sufficient until the last of March,
so that this year the manure was applied both to the north and
south half of this plot on the same date, March 31. The results
are shown by the following tables.
Yield per Acre (Pounds).
North Half.
Winter Application.
South Half.
Spring Application.
Plot.
Hay.
Rowen.
Hay.
Rowen.
1
6,312
534
6,925
1,009
2
6,252
1,049
6,826
950
3
7,004
811
6,905
1,068
4
5,857
534
6,114
752
5,
8,904
930
8,528
1,563
Relative Yields (Per Cent.).
Plot.
North Half.
Winter Application.
South Half.
Spring Application.
Hay.
Rowen.
Hay.
Rowen.
1
2
3,
4
5,
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
109.7
109.2
98.6
104.4
95.8
188.9
90.6
131.6
141.0
168.1
50
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Hay and Bowen {combined).- — Average Yields.
North Half.
Winter Application.
South Half.
Spring Application.
Per Acre
(Pounds).
Per Cent.
Per Acre
(Pounds).
Per Cent.
1
2
3
4,
5
6,846
7,301
7,815
6,391
9,834
100
100
100
100
100
7,934
7,776
7,973
6,866
10,091
115.9 .
106.5
102.0
107.4
102.7
I'Jll.l PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 51
KEPORT OF THE CHEMIST.
JOSEPH B. LINDSEY.
This report is intended to give an outline of the work ac-
complished and in progress in the department of plant and
animal chemistry for the year 1910.
1. CoRRESPOIvDEISrCE.
There have heen substantially 5,000 letters sent ont during
tlie year ending Dec. 1, 1910, the estimate being made on the
l)asis of stamps used. The correspondence divides itself into
(a) answering letters of inquiry, (h) the execution of the fer-
tilizer, feed and dairy laws, (c) the testing of cows, and (d)
the ordering of supplies.
2. NUMEEICAL SUMMAEY OF WoRK IN THE ChEMICAL LAB-
ORATORY.
From Dec. 1, 1909, to Dec. 1, 1910, there have been received
and examined 101 samples of water, 459 of milk, 2,799 of
cream, 151 of feed stuffs, 223 of fertilizers and fertilizer mate-
rials. 44 of soils and 48 miscellaneous. In connection with
o.\|)ci-inionts made by this and other dei;)artments of the station,
tlicrc h-ave been examined 247 samples of milk^ 115 of cattle
feeds and 300 of agricultural plants. There have also been
collected and examined 890 samples of fertilizer, in accord-
ance witli the requirements of the fertilizer law, and 1,055 sam-
jiles of cattle feeds, in accordance with the requirements of the
feed law. The total for the year has been 6,432. This sum-
mary does ur>t include Avork done by the research division.
In addition to the above. 10 candidates have been examined
52 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
aud given certificates to oi3erate Babcock machines, and 4,047
pieces of Babcock glassware have been tested for accuracy of
graduation, of which 41, or 1.01 per cent., were inaccurate.
3. Laboratory Work of the Research Section.
Messrs. Holland and Reed have continued work on the prep-
aration of chemically pure insoluble fatty acids, and on the
perfecting of methods for their quantitative determination. In-
vestigations have also been continued relative to the cause of
rancidity of fats, and upon the composition and preparation of
chemically pure insecticides, particularly Paris green, arse-
nates of lead and arsenite of lime. Papers entitled " The
Purification of Insoluble Fatty Acids " and " The Determina-
tion of Arsenic in Insecticides " are presented elsewhere in
this report, and likewise in the " Journal of Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry."
Mr. Morse has devoted his time to studying the effect of fer-
tility on the chemical composition of asparagus roots, and pre-
sents a preliminary paper in this report and in the " Journal
of the American Chemical Society " entitled " Soluble Carbo-
hydrates of Asparagus Roots." Chemical analyses showed
clearly that there was a marked increase in the total nitrogen in
the roots, produced by the addition to the soil of different
amounts of nitrate of soda. Low applications of nitrate gave
an increase, medium still more, but high applications did not
appear to be more effective than medium ones.
The carbohydrates in the reserve material of the roots con-
sisted mainly of a soluble sugar, made up of fructose and glu-
cose, the former decidedly in excess. Nitrogenous fertilizers
apparently had no direct effect on the carbohydrates. In gen-
eral the increase in protein accompanied a lower proportion of
total carbohydrates, including fiber. Seventy-six samples of
roots were gathered in iS^ovember to repeat the nitrogen series
and to extend the investigations to the effect of phosphorus and
potassium.
Mr. Morse has also done some preliminary Avork in studying
the character of the drainage waters from miniature cranberry
bogs constructed under the direction of Director Brooks.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 53
At iiitcrviils stiulj has also been given to the chemistry of the
soils oil Field A, in hopes of ascertaining the cause or causes
of clover sickness, but no definite results can be reported.
4. Research Work in Animal J^TuTKiTioisr.
Work is in progress to study the effect of lactic and butyric
acids upon the digestibility of food. It has been shown that
molasses is responsible for a decided digestion depression upon
the foodstuffs with which it is fed. It being recognized that
such material in the digestive tract is a large yielder of organic
acids, it seemed at least possible that it is these acids which
check the further action of the micro-organisms, and prevent
their attacking the more difficultly digestible fiber, pentosans
and gums.
A paper is presented elsewhere in this report attempting to
show the protein requirements of dairy animals. Most dairy
animals respond to increased amounts of protein over a protein
minimum. By minimum is meant the amount required for
maintenance plus that required in the milk. An excess of 25
per cent, over the minimum seems to give very satisfactory
results, and is sufficient under most conditions.
Two experiments with dairy cows have been completed to
note the comparative effects of corn meal, dried beet pulp and
dried molasses beet pulp for milk production. Another experi-
ment with corn meal versus ground oats has also been com-
pleted. The results have not been worked out.
The complete records of the station herd have been tabulated
from 189G through 1909. giving such data as food cost of milk
production, dry and digestible matter required to produce defi-
nite amounts of milk, total solids and fat, relation of grain to
roughage, etc. The food cost of 5 per cent, milk for 1909 was
o..'] cents per quart.
Talmlntions.
There has been prepared and will be found elsewhere in this
report the following tabulations: —
1. Analyses of all cattle feeds made in this laboratory
throiiiih 1010.
54 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
2. Important ash constituents in cattle foods.
3. Composition of dairy products.
4. Digestion coefficients obtained from experiments made in
the United States.
5. Composition of fertilizer materials and of natural and
waste products.
6. Fertilizer constituents of fruit and garden crops.
7. Relative proportion of phosphoric acid, potash and ni-
trogen in fruit and garden crops.
8. Composition of some Massachusetts soils.
5. Report of the Fertilizer Section.
Mr. H. D. Haskins makes the following report : —
The principal work of this section has had to do with the
execution of the fertilizer law of the State. Our experience this
season indicated a very active demand for both chemicals and
factory-mixed commercial fertilizers. There was a larger num-
l)er of brands licensed than ever before. The inspection did not
include the collection of as large a number of samples as during
the previous year, although about the same number of brands
were analyzed. It has been necessary to curtail somewhat, in
order to keep as nearly as possible within the income derived
from the fertilizer analysis fees. The expense of the inspection
work has increased from year to year, and necessitates a larger
income. It has also become evident that the old law requires
many changes in order to make it applicable to present condi-
tions. An attempt to improve the law is now under consid-
eration.
Fertilizers licensed.
During the season of 1910 analysis fees have been paid by
88 manufacturers, importers and dealers, including the various
branches of the American Agricultural Chemical Company,
upon 465 distinct brands of fertilizer, including agricultural
chemicals and by-products. Five more certificates of compli-
ance have been issued, including 34 more brands than during
1909. Thev mav be classed as follows: —
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
55
Complete fertilizers,
Fertilizei-s furnishing; phosphoric acid and potash,
Ground bone, tankage and dry ground tish, .
Chemicals and organic compounds furnishing nitrogen,
Total,
316
14
53
82
465
Fertilizers collected.
With but few exceptions, representative samples of every
brand of fertilizer sold in the State have been secured. The
collection work was in charge of Mr. James T. Howard, the
regular insj^ector, assisted by J\Ir. A. B. Harris. As a gen-
eral rule an effort has been made to collect samples of the same
brand in different parts of the State, and to make one analysis
of a composite sample made up of equal weights of the several
samples. It is believed that this method will prove more sat-
isfactory than when the results are based upon the analysis of
a single sample. In all cases at least 10 per cent, of the num-
ber of bags found present were sampled; in cases where only a
small amount of any particular brand was found in stock a
larger percentage of the bags was sampled (often 50 to 100
])cr cent.), and in no case were less than five bags sampled
without the fact being stated on the guarantee slip which is sent
to the station laboratory with every brand of fertilizer sampled.
One hundred and fourteen towns were visited, and samples of
fertilizers were taken from 291 different agents. Eight hun-
dred and ninety samples were drawn, representing 487 distinct
brands. Some of the brands represent private formulas which
farmers have had manufactured for their own use. The analy-
ses of such brands were published in the bulletin in a table by
themselves.
Fertilizers analyzed.
A total of 612 analyses was made in connection with the
inspection of 1910. They may be grouped as follows: —
Complete fertilizers, .....
Fertilizers fuinishing potash and phosphoric acid
superphosphates and potash,
Ground bones, tankage and fish, .
Nitrogen compounds,
Potash compounds, ......
Phosphoric acid compounds, ....
Total,
such as
ashes
418
21
71
50
32
20
612
56
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
The analyses were made in accordance with methods adopted
by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. The
analysis of a composite sample was made whenever possible,
and in instances where such an analysis has shown a brand to be
seriously deficient in one or more elements, a new portion was
drawn from each original sample collected and a separate analy-
sis made. This was done to determine whether the shortage
was confined to one sample or whether it was general in case
of that particular brand.
Twelve samples of lava fertilizer, so called, were analyzed.
Although these materials have not been offered for sale in
Massachusetts, considerable literature concerning them has
been circulated, and it was thought best to have representative
samples examined and the results published.
Thirty-two more analyses \vere made than during the pre-
vious year.
Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredienis.
The following table of trade values of fertilizer ingredients
was used. It was adopted by the experiment stations of l^ew
England, New Jersey and Isew York at a meeting held in
March, 1910. For purposes of comparison the 1009 schedule is
also given.
Cents per Pound.
Nitrogen: —
In ammonia salts, ...........
In nitrates, ............
Organic nitiogen in dry and fine ground fish, meat, blood, and in high-
grade mixed fertilizers, .........
Organic nitrogen in fine ' bone and tankage, .....
Organic nitrogen in coarse ' bone and tankage, .....
Phosphoric acid: —
Soluble in water, . . . . . . .
Soluble in neutral citrate of ammonia solution (reverted phosphoric
acid),^ ............
In fine ' bone and tankage, . . . . . • .
In coarse ' bone and tankage, ........
In cottonseed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace and ashes, .
Insoluble in neutral citrate of ammonia solution (in mixed fertilizers),
Potash: —
As sulfate, free from chlorides, ........
As muriate (chlorides), ..........
As carbonate, ............
> Fine and medium bone and tankage are separated by a sieve having circular openings one-
fiftieth of an inch in diameter. Valuations of these materials are based upon degree of fineness
as well as upon composition.
* Dissolved by a neutral solution of ammonium citrate; specific gravity 1 09 in accordance
with method adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.
1011.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
57
These trade values will be found to correspond fairly with
the average wholesale quotations of chemicals and raw materials
as found in trade publications for the six months preceding
.March 1, plus about 20 per cent. They represent the average
pound cost for cash at retail of the various ingredients as fur-
nished by standai-d unmixed chemicals and raw materials in
large markets in Xew^ England and jS^ew York for the six
months preceding March 1, 1910. The cost of the mineral
forms of nitrogen (nitrate of soda and sulfate of ammonia) has
been somewhat lower than for the previous year, which has led
to a more general use of these forms of nitrogen. Xitrogen
from organic sources has been a cent higher than for the season
of 1909. The cost of phosphoric acid was one-half cent higher
than for the previous season. There was no material change
in the cost of the various forms of potash.
>'^ii]jiiii(irij of Analyses as compared iviiJi Guarantees of Licensed
Complete Fertilizers.
Manufacturers. "
13
2
«
= 11
t. * Q
Number equal to
Guarantee in Com-
mercial Value.
Number with One
Element below
Guarantee.
0 is
^^
4)
u ? a
E.2 3
3WO
8&
^■^ .
Za a
£-2 3
atqO
2;
W. H. Abbott
3
1
3
1
1
-
American Agricultural Chemical Company, .
78
55
75
19
3
-
Armour Fertilizer Works,
11
11
11
-
-
-
Baltimore Pulverizing Company, . . . .
4
-
2
4
-
-
Beach Soap Company
5
3
5
2
-
-
Berlishire Fertilizer Company, . . . .
8
6
8
2
-
-
Boiiora Chemical Company, . . . .
1
-
1
1
-
-
Bowker Fertilizer Company
30
21
27
7
2
-
Joseph Breck & Sons Corporation,
3
1
3
2
-
-
Buffalo Fertilizer Company
8
1
6
6
1
-
Coe-Mortimer Company,
13
6
10
3
3
1
Eastern Chemical Company,
1
1
1
-
-
-
Essex Fertilizer Company,
12
4
10
5
3
-
R. & J. Farquhar & Co.,.
3
1
3
2
-
-
The Cireen Mountain Plant Food Company,
1
1
1
-
-
-
58
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Siuirmary of Analyses as compared with Guarantees of Licensed
Complete Fertilizers — Con.
Man UFACTURER8.
'A
<3 8
1^
° ^°
5 6
0 U
§^
- s
^n
— , o
OO
3 fl 3
A ®
(!
0) »>
"3
I. 0 0
^
S 3 «
E-Si §
30g
§HO
Z
;?;
-
1
1
3
6
3
-
1
1
6
17
9
8
12
3
3
5
2
4
6
1
1
7
4
-
1
2
1
2
-
1
1
-
3
9
5
6
8
2
2
3
1
1
1
-
5
6
-
4
15
9
1
1
-
-
5
4
5
6
1
-
3
2
s&
5j= .
^ M S
t. o o
S « oJ
■SIS
3HO
2;
.5.2
E-i »
x-^ .
■f m a
SiJ3
12;
C. W. Hastings
Lister's Agricultural Chemical Works, .
James E. McGovern, .....
Mapes' Formula and Peruvian Guano Company
National Fertilizer Company,
New England Fertilizer Company,
Olds & Whipple
Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Company,
R.T.Prentiss
Pulverized Manure Company,
W. W. Rawson & Co
Rogers Manufacturing Company, .
Rogers & Hubbard Company,
Ross Bros. Company
N. Roy & Son,
Sanderson Fertilizer and Chemical Company,
M. L. Shoemaker & Co., Ltd.,
Swifts' Lowell Fertilizer Company,
W. G. Todd
Whitman & Pratt Rendering Company,
Wilcox Fertilizer Works,
A. H. Wood & Co
The above table shows that 306 distinct brands of licensed
complete fertilizers have been collected and analyzed.
That 140 brands (45.75 per cent, of the whole nnniber an-
alyzed) fell below the mannfactnrer's guarantee in one or more
elements.
That 104 brands were deficient in one element.
That 30 brands were deficient in two elements.
That G brands were deficient in all three elements.
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
59
That 24: out of the 300 brands (7.85 per cent, of the whole
number) showed a commercial shortage; that is, they did not
show the amount and value of the plant food as expressed by
the lower guarantee, although the values of any overruns were
used to offset shortages.
The deficiencies were divided as follows : —
GO brands were found deficient in nitrogen.
80 brands were found deficient in available phosphoric acid.
71 brands were found deficient in potash.
When the data furnished by the above summary are compared
with those of previous years, it is clear that greater care has
been exercised on the part of the manufacturers, the guarantees
being more generally maintained.
More brands were deficient in potash than during the pre-
vious year, a fact which may be due to temporary shortage in
the supply of German potash salts in this country and corre-
spondingly higher prices. These conditions were due to Ger-
man legislation, which prevented the carrying out of contracts
with German mine owners held by American fertilizer manu-
facturers except on payment of heavy production taxes.
Commercial SJioriages.
The brands having a commercial shortage were mucli fewer
in number than for 1900, and the amount or value of the short-
ages was much less, as may be seen from the following table : —
Commercial Shortages in Mixed Complete Fertilizers for 1910, as Com-
pared with the Previous Year.
Number of Brands.
Commercial Shortages.
1910.
1909.
Over $4 per ton, . . .'
Between $3 and $4 per ton
Between $2 and $3 per ton, .' •
Between $1 and $2 per ton
Under $1 but not less than 25 cents per ton
None
None
None
6
18
1
2
5
14
35
GO
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
There were a few brands showing rather serious deficiencies
in some element of plant food, but which did not suti'er a com-
mercial shortage on account of an overrun of some other ingre-
dient. Such brands, of course, may be seriously out of balance,
and wdiile not excusable, the manufacturer evidently had no
intention to defraud.
Quality of Plant Food.
As a general rule the potash and phosphoric acid were fur-
nished in the forms guaranteed.
It is hoped that methods of analysis may soon be perfected
so that it will be possible to indicate the relative availability
of the organic nitrogen in mixed fertilizers. The importance
of this may, in a measure, be realized when it is remembered
that nearly 45 per cent, of the nitrogen used in the complete
fertilizers this year was derived from organic sources.
Grades of Fertilizer.
The following table shows the average comparative commer-
cial values, the retail cash prices and the percentages of
difference of the licensed complete fertilizers analyzed in
Massachusetts during the season of 1909 and 1910, grouped ac-
cording to commercial valuation. Those having a valuation of
$18 or less per ton are called low grade ; those having a valua-
tion of between $18 and $24 are called medium grade ; and those
having a valuation of over $24 are called high grade.
High
Grade.
Medium Grade.
Low Grade.
1909.
1910.
1909.
1910.
1909.
1910.
Average ton valuation,
$27 63
$28 81
$20 69
$21 04
$15 32
$15 61
Average cash price, .
$39 05
$38 40
$33 85
$33 51
$29 51
$27 80
Average money difference,
$11 42
$9 59
$13 16
$12 47
$14 19
$12 19
Percentage difference,
41.33
33.28
63.61
59.26
92.62
78.03
The percentage of difference column becomes a convenient
method of comparing the commercial worth of fertilizers of the
same grade and cost, and usuallv indicates fairly the most eco-
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
61
iioiiiieal fertilizer to purchase. It should never be interpreted
jis representing only the profit which the manufacturer makes
on his fertilizer. It must include not only the profit, but all
other expenses connected with the manufacture and delivery of
the goods, such as grinding, mixing, bagging, transportation,
agents' profits, long credits^ interest and depreciation of factory
plants.
Composition according to Grade. — The following table
shows the average composition of the complete commercial fer-
tilizers, according to grade, as sold in the Massachusetts mar-
kets during 1910: —
^^
B
Per Cent, of
CJ o
Z
d
Phosphokic Acid.
J3
^s
Grade.
T3
B
n
o
'o
£
Z
5
i
"o
'So
<" C
e
a
g
a
o
01
1
.2
1
111
•z
PL,
d.
CO
Ph
<
Ph
Ph
High
151
44.67
4.22
3.88
3.26
7.14
7.63
18.90
Medium
120
35 50
2.65
4.86
2.81
7.67
5.06
15.38
Low
67
19.83
1.77
4.55
2.46
7.01
3.06
11.84
A study of the above tables shows : —
1. That the percentage difl^erence or percentage excess of the
selling price over the valuation in the low-grade fertilizer is
over twice what it is in the high-grade goods.
2. That with a 88 per cent, advance in price over the low-
grade fertilizer, the high-grade furnishes over 84 per cent, in-
crease in commercial value.
3. The average high-grade fertilizers, with a 14.6 per cent.
advance in price over the medium-gi'ade goods, furnishes about
28 per cent, more plant food and about 37 per cent, increase
in commercial value.
4. That wnth a 38 per cent, advance in price over the low-
grade fertilizer, the high-grade furnishes more than 78 per cent,
increase in available plant food.
5. The medium-grade goods cost about 20 per cent, more
62
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
than the low-grade goods and furnish over 34 per cent, greater
commercial value.
6. That the per cent, of nitrogen and jx)tash is very much
higher in the high-grade goods than in the low or medium
grade.
7. A ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes about
49 pounds more nitrogen, 21/2 pounds more available phos-
phoric acid and 91 pounds more actual potash than does a ton
of the low-grade goods.
8. A ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes about
31 pounds more nitrogen and about 51 pounds more potash than
does a ton of the medium-grade goods.
Table showing the Comparative Pound Cost, in Cents, of Nitrogen,
Potash and Phosphoric Acid in its Various Forms in the Three
Grades of Fertilizer.
Element.
Low-grade
Fertilizer.
Medium-grade
Fertilizer.
High-grade
Fertilizer.
Nitrogen,
Potash (as muriate),
Soluble phosphoric acid, ....
Reverted phosphoric acid, ....
Insoluble phosphoric acid
35.62
7.57
8.01
7.12
3.56
31.85
6.77
7.17
6.37
3.19
26.66
5.67
6.00
5.33
2.67
This table emphasizes the marked increase in the cost of
plant food wherever the low and medium grade fertilizers are
purchased. It shows that nitrogen has cost 8.96 cents, avail-
able phosphoric acid about 2 cents and potash 1.9 cents per
pound more in the average low-grade fertilizer than in the high-
grade goods. It shows that nitrogen has cost 5.19 cents, the
available phosphoric acid 1.11 cents and the potash 1.10 cents
more per pound in the average medium-grade goods than in the
average high-grade fertilizer. A comparison with the previous
year shows that more high-grade brands have been sold this
season than for 1909. There is, however, altogether too large
a proportion of low and medium grade brands sold at present
(55.33 per cent, of the whole). It is evident that too many
purchasers select a fertilizer for its low cost, and without much
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 63
regartl for the plant food which they are getting. The object
in buying a fertilizer should be to get the largest amount of
plant food in the proper form and proportion for the least
money. The high-grade goods approach as near this ideal as is
possible in case of factory-mixed fertilizers. It costs just as
much to freight, cart and handle the low-grade fertilizers as it
does the high grade. Nitrogen and potash in low-grade fer-
tilizers cost from a third to a half more than if obtained from
high-grade goods. The farmer cannot afford to buy low-grade
fertilizers.
Unmixed Fertilizers.
Miscellaneous Substances. — Ground Bone. — Thirty-
nine samples of ground bone have been inspected and analyzed.
Nine* were found deficient in phosphoric acid and 5 in nitrogen.
None of the brands, however, showed a commercial shortage of
50 cents per ton. The average retail cash price for ground
bone has been $31.13 per ton, the average valuation $29.75, and
the percentage difference 4.G4.
Ground Tankage. — Twelve samples of tankage have been
analyzed. Four were found deficient in nitrogen and 4 in
phosphoric acid. The average retail cash price per ton was
$31.82, the average valuation per ton $31.28, and the percent-
age difference 1.73. Nitrogen in fine tankage has cost on the
average 20.34 cents, while nitrogen in coarse tankage has cost
15.25 cents per pound. Two samples have shown a commercial
shortage of over 50 cents per ton.
Dissolved Bone. — Two samples of dissolved bone have been
analyzed and botli were up to the guarantee placed upon them,
riie average retail cash price per ton has been $29.07, the aver-
age valuation $20.17, and the percentage difference 13.37.
Dry Ground Fish. — Twent^^-three samples of dry ground
fish have been examined, of which 5 were found deficient in
nitrogen and 4 in phosphoric acid. The average retail cash
price per ton was $39.05, the average valuation $38.89, and the
percentage difference 1.95. Nitrogen from dry ground fish has
cost on the average 20.39 cents per pound. Two brands have
been analyzed, which show a commercial shortage of over 50
cents per ton.
64 P:XPERIMENT station. [Jan.
Wood Aslies. — Thirteen samples of wood ashes have been-
analyzed, of which 1 was deficient in potash and 2 in phos-
phoric acid, although none of the samples showed a commercial
shortage. Three samples put out by H, C. Green & Co., im-
porters, were simply guaranteed " Pure wood ashes." The
agent for three ears of these ashes, Ross Bros. Company,
Worcester, Mass., stated that the ashes were of such j)oor qual-
ity that no charge would be made for them. Under present
conditions of price and quality, the purchase of wood ashes is
of questionable economy. They should never be bought with-
out a guarantee of potash, phosphoric acid and lime.
Ground Bock. — The Farmhood Corporation of Boston,
Mass., has offered a product called " Farmfood " which is un-
questionably a ground mineral. It was guaranteed 2 per cent,
phosphoric acid and 5 per cent, potash, both " in bond," mean-
ing presumably associated with silica and not soluble. An
analysis reveals the presence of 2.55 per cent, phosphoric acid,
of which only .38 per cent, was available (dissolved by neutral
citrate of ammonia). Only .56 per cent, of potash was found
soluble in boiling water, and only .06 per cent, was found solu-
ble in dilute hydrochloric acid. The commercial value of the
product was $1.65 per ton, which would hardly pay cartage.
The New England ]\Iineral Fertilizer Company ^ of Boston,
Mass., has put out a product called " New England mineral
fertilizer," which is apparently largely ground rock. The ma-
terial was guaranteed .23 per cent. ]ihosphoric acid and 1.50 per
cent, potash. Our analysis showed .18 per cent, phosphoric
acid, .10 per cent, water-soluble potash and .35 ])er cent, potash
soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. The plant food in a ton
of this materia] is valued at 24 cents, although $17 is the adver-
tised price in ton lots. Aside from the guarantee of potash and
phosphoric acid, the firm makes a claim for a given percentage
of soda, lime, magnesia, iron, sulfur, silica, chlorine and
alumina. Although some of these elements are essential to the
growth of ]ilants, yet they are found in most soils in sufficient
quantities to meet the needs of growing vegetation, so that they
' The New England Mineral Fertilizer Company, 19 Exchange Place, Boston, should not be
confused with the New England Fertilizer Company, 40 North Market Street, Boston. The
latter is an old company which has done business in Massachusetts for many years, and disclaims
any connection with the New England Mineral Fertilizer Company,
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 65
have no particular significance in this connection. The extrav-
agant claims made by the company for this " New England
mineral fertilizer " are overdrawn, and border somewhat upon
the ridiculous.
NiTiiOGEN Compounds. — Sulfate of Ammonia, — Two sam-
ples of sulfate of ammonia have been analyzed and found well
u]) to the guarantee. The average cost of the pound of nitrogen
in this form has been 15.65 cents.
Nitrate of Soda. — Sixteen samjjles of nitrate of soda have
been analyzed and only 1 was found deficient in nitrogen. The
average cost of nitrogen per pound in this form has been 1(5.50
cents.
Dried Blood. — Three samples of this material were exam-
ined, 2 of the brands showing a considerable overrun and 1 a
slight deficiency in nitrogen, the latter containing, however,
considerable phosphoric acid. The average cost of nitrogen
from blood has been 20.16 cents per pound.
Castor Pomace. — Six samples of castor pomace have been
inspected and the guarantee was maintained in each instance.
The average cost of nitrogen in this form has been 22.29 cents
per pound.
Cottonseed Meal. — Nineteen samples of cottonseed meal
used for fertilizer have been examined. These were licensed
by 6 companies doing business in Massachusetts. Nitrogen
from cottonseed meal has cost on the average 28.47 cents per
]>ound. Seven out of the 19 samples analyzed showed a com-
mercial shortage amounting to over 50 cents per ton.
Potash CoMPOUNns. — Carbonate of Potash. — Only 1
sample of carbonate of potash was analyzed during the season.
Tt sold so that the pound cost of actual potash was 7.54 cents.
ITigh-grade Sulfate of Potash. — Nine samples of high-grade
sulfate of potash have been examined and the potash guarantee
was maintained in every instance. The pound of actual potash
in this form has cost, on the average, 4.64 cents.
Potash-magnesia Sulfate. — Seven samples of double sulfate
of potash and magnesia have been examined, and all have been
found well up to the guarantee. The pound cost of actual pot-
ash in this form has been 5.46 cents.
Muriate of Potash. — Eleven samples of nmriate of ]iotash
OG EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
have been examined, and only 1 deficiency was fonnd. The
jjonnd of actnal potash as nmriate or chloride has cost on the
average 4.06 cents.
Kainit. — Two samples of kainit have been analyzed and
fonnd well np to the guarantee. The ponnd of actnal potash
from kainit has cost 4.21 cents.
Phosphoric Acid Compounds. — Dissolved Bone Black. —
Three samples of dissolved bone black have been examined.
Two of these were fonnd somewhat low in available phosphoric
acid, although only 1 showed a connnercial shortage of over 50
cents per ton. The pound of available phosphoric acid from
this source has cost, on the average, 5.91 cents.
Acid Phosphate. — Ten samples of acid phosphate have been
examined, all but 3 being found well up to the minimum guar-
antee. No commercial shortages of over 50 cents per ton were
noticed. The ponnd of available phosphoric acid from acid
phosphate has cost 5.76 cents.
Basic Slag Phospliate. — Five samples have been analyzed,
and the phosphoric acid ran low in 2 instances. There were no
commercial shortages of over 50 cents per ton. The pound of
available phosphoric acid (by Wagner's method) from basic slag
has cost, on the average, 5.01 cents.
The complete results of the fertilizer inspection may be found
in Bulletin 135.
Miscellaneous Woi'k.
During the early part of the year some two months were
devoted to the detailed mineral analysis of asparagus roots, in
connection with fertilizer experiments carried on by the agri-
cultural department. There has also been examined a number
of cases of abnormal soils due to over-fertilization ; such condi-
tions are found particularly in greenhouse and tobacco soils, and
in the latter case is confined to soils possessing an impervious
subsoil, which will not permit of the free circulation of soluble
saline materials.
In addition to the above work the fertilizer section has an-
alyzed home mixtures, chemicals, by-products, soils, insecti-
cides, etc., for farmers and farmers' organizations. We have
insisted that all such material be taken according to furnished
directions, which is more likely to insure representative sam-
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 67
pies, without wliicli an analysis is of little value. In case of
soils, but few complete detailed analyses have been made, and
those only when abnormal conditions pointed to malnutrition
or over-fertilization. In many cases tests were made to deter-
mine the relative amount of organic matter present and the
acidity. Advice as to the use of fertilizer on any particular
soil has been based more particularly upon the general charac-
ter of the soil, previous manurial treatment, crop rotation, cul-
tivation, and upon the crop to be grown.
In the analysis of by-products, refuse salts and materials used
as fertilizers, the report has included the relative commercial
value of the material and the best method of utilizing the same.
During the year 300 miscellaneous analyses were made for citi-
zens of the State and for the various departments of the experi-
ment station. They may be grouped as follows : —
Fertilizers and by-products used as fertilizers, .... 223
Soils, 44
Miscellaneous materials, 33
Total, 300
As in the past, co-operative work was done in connection with
the study of new methods of analysis for the Association of Offi-
cial AgTicultural Chemists. Much time and study were also
given to perfecting a suitable method to determine the relative
availability of nitrogen from organic sources in mixed fertil-
izers. Tests were also made on 80 brands of fertilizer selected
from the 1910 official collection, to ascertain the efficiency of
the improved alkaline-permanganate method in detecting the
presence of low-grade organic ammoniates.
G. Repokt of the Feed and Daiky Section.
Mr. P. H. Smith- reports: —
Tlie Feed Law.
During the past year 1,055 samples of feedstuff s have been
collected by Mr. James T. Howard, official inspector. These
sam])les have been analyzed and are soon to be published, to-
gether with the necessary comments.
Analytical Work. — The analvtical work has consisted of
68 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
protein and fat determinations on all samples, a fiber estimation
in many eases and a microscopic examination when further in-
formation seemed desirable. A protein and fat guarantee are
required bj law. It is felt, however, that the protein and fiber
content of a feedstuft' are a much better index of its true value.
Protein is the most valuable constituent, while fiber is of least
value, and it is a fact that any feedstuff which contains a rela-
tively high fiber percentage is quite apt to contain some infe-
rior by-product. For this reason more fiber determinations
have been made this year than ever before.
Compliance with the Laiv. — Fewer violations of the law
have been noted than in previous years. Reputable manufac-
turers and dealers are coming to believe that the statute works
no hardship in honest products. The time is not far distant
when to neglect to brand a feedstuff will make the purchaser
suspicious of its merits. In the future, violations of the feed-
stuff's law will be placed in our attorney's hands for settlement.
In several instances this has already been done, and one case,
where goods were not guaranteed, has been taken into court.
The dealer entered a plea of guilty and the case was j^laced on
file. It is not the intention of those having the enforcement of
the law in charge to be overbearing in regard to this matter,
but any law which is not enforced soon becomes inoperative.
The benefits of the law are so obvious as to render it unwise
to allow it to become a dead letter.
New Law. — At the time the present law was passed it was
not possible to secure the requirement of a fiber guarantee.
Since that time other States have enacted statutes which not
only require a protein, fat and fiber guarantee on all feedstuff's,
l)ut in addition a statement of composition in the case of all
compounded feeds. It is believed that Massachusetts should
enact a law requiring every package of feedstuff sold or offered
for sale to have attached the following information : —
1. The number of net pounds in the contents of the package.
2. l^ame, brand or trademark.
3. l^ame and principal address of the manufacturer or job-
ber responsible for placing the commodity on the market.
4. Its chemical analysis expressed in the following terms:
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUxMENT — No. 31. 69
(<i) ininiminn percentage of crude protein; (&) minimum per-
centage of crude fat; (c) maximum percentage of crude fiber.
5. If a compounded or mixed feed, the sj^ecific name of each
ingredient therein.
A revision of the present statute is now under consideration
which will include the above requirements, together with such
changes as have from time to time suggested themselves.
Definitions. — At present there is more or less confusion be-
Iwcen different States and different sections of the country in
regard to names of commercial feedstuflfs. A feedstuff which
is recognized by one name in the west may be known by an
entirely different name in the east. Again, manufacturers of
low-grade goods often attach names which are misleading or at
best mean nothing. The l^ational Association of Feed Control
Officials is considering uniform definitions for the different
commercial feedstuff s. Such a group of definitions, if adopted
by the feed control officials of the different States, will be of
great benefit to the retailer and manufacturer,
WeigJit of Sacl-cd Feeds. — There is a growing tendency on
the part of some manufacturers to state the gross weight of a
package instead of the weight of the contents. Others state
both net and gross weights. The State law calls for the weight
of the contents of the package. Purchasers who buy sacked
feeds should see that they are getting full weight. The dif-
ference between gross and net weight will amount to about 1
]>ound per sack.
Co-operaiion. — It is a difficult matter to enforce the provi-
sions of the feedstuffs law without the co-operation of both re-
tailers and consumers. Consumers should refuse to buy goods
which are not guaranteed, and retailers should refuse to handle
goods which are received without a guarantee.
The Dairy Lrnr,
The work required by this act is divided into three natural
subdivisions: (1) the examination of candidates, (2) the testing
of glassware, and (.'>) the inspection of nuu'hines.
(1) Examination of Candidates. — During the past year 10
candidates were examined for ])roficiency in the Babcock test.
70
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
All candidates are refused a certificate who fail to show profi-
ciency in manipulation or who do not have a good working
knowledge of the principles underlying the test. Eight candi-
dates passed the examination at the first trial, and 2 certificates
were withheld until further proficiency was acquired. The idea
has been prevalent that the experiment station gives instruction
in Babcock testing. Such is not the case ; all candidates must,
before presenting themselves for examination, have acquired a
thorough knowledge of the test.
(2) Examination of Glassware. — During the past year
4,047 pieces of glassware were examined, of which 41 pieces,
or 1.01 per cent., were inaccurate. This is the lowest percent-
age of inaccuracy found during the ten years that the law has
been in force. Following is the summary of the work for the
entire period : —
Year.
Number of
Pieces tested.
Number of
Pieces
condemned.
Percentajre
condemned.
1901
5,041
291
5 77
1902,
2,344
56
2.40
1903
2,240
57
2 54
1904
2,026
200
9.87
1905
1,665
197
11.83
1906
2,457
763
31.05
1907, ...;....
3,082
204
6.62
1908
2,713
33
1.22
1909
4,071
43
1.06
1910
4,047
41
1.01
Totals
29,686
1,885
6.34'
The passage of this law has prevented 1,885 pieces of inac-
curately graduated glassware, representing 6.34 per cent, of
the entire number tested, from coming into use.
(3) Inspection of Bahcock Machines. — Since the 1909 in-
spection 1 creamery has suspended operations. During the
present inspection, recently completed, 28 places were visited,
of which 15 were creameries, 12 milk de])ots and 1 a chemical
laboratory. Ten of the creameries were co-operative and 5
' Average.
1911.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
"1
were proprietary. The 12 milk depots were iu every case pro-
i^rietary. Twenty-eight machines were examined, 2 of which
were condenmed, but on second inspection a few weeks later
they were found to have been put in good condition. Those in
use are 10 Facile, 0 Agos, 5 Electrical, 4 Grand Prize, 2
Wizard, 1 unknown. The glassware was, as a whole, clean, and
with two exceptions Massachusetts tested. Where untested
glassware was found in use, the provisions of the law were
made plain, and it is not expected that there will be a repeti-
tion of the offense. Unless machines are set on firm founda-
tion and the bearings kept well oiled, the required speed cannot
be maintained economically, and machines will not give satis-
faction. The Babcock machine should be as carefully looked
after as the cream separator in order to give efficient service.
The creameries and milk depots where machines were in-
spected are as follows : —
Creameries.
Location.
Name.
President or Manager.
1. Amherst, .
2. Amherst, .
3. Ashfield, .
4. Belchertown,
5. Brimfield, .
6. Cummington,
7. Egremont, .
8. Easthampton,
9. Heath,
10. Hinsdale, .
n. Monterey, .
12. New Salem,
13. North Brookfield
14. Northfield,
15. Shelburne,
16. Wyben Springs
Amherst
Fort River,> . . . .
Ashfield Co-operative,
Belchertown Co-operative,
Crystal Brook,
Cummington Co-operative,
Egremont Co-operative, .
Hampton Co-operative, .
Cold Spring
Hinsdale Creamery Company,
Berkshire Hills Creamery,
New Salem Co-operative,
North Brookfield, .
Northfield Co-operative,
Shelburne Co-operative,
Wyben Springs Co-operative, .
VV. A. Pease, manager.
E. A. King, proprietor.
Wm. Hunter, manager.
M. G. Ward, manager.
F. N. Lawrence, proprietor.
D. C. Morey, manager.
E. A. Tyrrell, manager.
W. S. Wilcox, manager.
F. E. Stetson, manager.
W. C. Solomon, proprietor.
F. A. Campbell, manager.
W. A. Moore, president.
H. A. Richardson, proprietor.
C. C. Stearns, manager.
I. L. Barnard, manager.
H. C. Kelso, manager.
' Pays by test. Testing done at Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
2. Milk Depots.
Location.
Name.
Manager.
1. Boston, .
2. Boston,
3. Boston,
4. Boston, .
5. Boston,
6. Boston, .
7. Cambridge,
8. Cheshire, .
9. Dorchester,
10. Slieffield, .
11. Southboro,
12. Springfield,
13. Springfield,
D. W. Whiting & Sons,
H. P. Hood & Sons, .
Boston Dairy Company, .
Boston Jersey Creamer j', .
Walker-Gordon Laboratory,
Oak Grove Farm,
C. Brigham Company,
Ormsby Farms, .
Elm Farm Milk Company,
Willow Brook Dairy, .
Deerfoot Farm Dairy,
Tait Bros
Geo. Whiting.
W. N. Brown.
W. A. Graustein.
T. P. Grant.
G. Franklin.
C. L. Alden.
J. R. Blair.
W. E. Penniman.
J. K. Knapp.
L. C. Smith.
S. H. Howes.
Emerson Laboratory, .
H. C. Emerson.
Milh, Cream and Feeds sent for Free Examination.
During tlie past year the experiment station has analyzed a
large number of samples of dairy jiroducts and feedstuffs sent
for examination. Such work, where the results are of general
interest, is a legitimate part of the station work. The station
will not, however, act as a private chemist for manufacturers.
Correspondence is solicited before samples are shipped, as in
many cases the required information can be furnished without
resorting to a chemical analysis, which will save shipping ex-
penses to the applicant and the exj)ense of a costly analysis to
the experiment station. Upon application, full instructions for
sampling and directions for shipping will be furnished, which
will often obviate the necessity of sending another sample for
analysis in place of one improperly taken.
Analysis of Drinking Water.
During the past year 101 samples of drinking Avater have
been analyzed for residents of the State. The greater part of
these were farm supplies where pollution was suspected. On
reporting an analysis, suggestions are in all cases made as to
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 73
improviuii,' the suppl,y when necessary. Parties wishing for
water analysis should observe the following points : —
1. Application should be made for analysis.
2. A fee of $3 is charged for each analysis, payable with
the application.
3. Only samples of water received in experiment station con-
tainers are analyzed (containers sent on application).
4. The experiment station does not make bacteriological ex-
aminations.
5. The experiment station does not undertake a mineral
examination of waters for medicinal properties.
Miscellaneous W()7-l:
In addition to the work already described, this section has
conducted investigations and made other analyses as follows: —
1. It has co-operated with the Association of Official Agri-
cultural Chemists in a study of the methods for the determi-
nation of acidity in gluten feeds.
2. It has co-operated with the officials of the ^ew England
Corn Exposition in making analysis of corn in connection with
the awarding of prizes.
3. It has co-operated with the Bowker Fertilizer Company
in making analyses of corn in connection with the awarding of
prizes.
4. It has arranged and furnished exhibits and speakers in
co-operation with the extension department for (a) the better
farming special; (?>) the better farming trolley special; (c)
an exhibit for several of the Massachusetts fairs; (d) an ex-
hibit for the New England Corn Show.
T). It has conducted an investigation in connection with cases
of alleged arsenic poisoning of horses through eating sulfured
oats, with negative results.
0. In connection with the experimental work of this and
other departments of the experiment station, this section has
made analyses of 247 samples of milk, 115 samples of cattle
feeds and 300 samples of agricultural plants.
74 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Testing of Pure-hred Cows.
The work of testing cows for the various cattle associations
continues to increase. Such work is a tax upon the time of the
head of this section, and, owing to the uncertainty of steady em-
ployment, it is often difficult to secure men to do the work. Two
men are now employed permanently in connection with the
Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrshire tests. The rules of the above
associations require the presence of a supervisor once each month ■
for two consecutive days at the farms where animals are on
test. The milk yields noted by the supervisors at their monthly
visits are used in checking the records reported by the owners
to the several cattle clubs. The Babcock tests obtained at that
time are likewise reported, and used as a basis for computing
the butter fat yield for each month. Up to June 1, 1910, the
supervisors were only required to spend one day in testing
Guernsey cows. At the annual meeting of the American Guern-
sey Cattle Club, in May, 1910, the rules were changed so as to
require a two-day monthly test. While this practically doubles
the work for this breed, it is felt that a two-day basis is much
more accurate in computing tests.
During the past year 1 214-day test and 44 yearly tests with
Guernsey cows, 10 7-day and 88 yearly tests with Jersey cows,
and a number of yearly tests with Ayrshire cows have been com-
pleted.
The Holstein-Friesian tests usually cover periods of from 7
to 30 days, and require the presence of a supervisor during the
entire test. During the past year 16 different men have been
employed at different times in conducting these tests, which
give rather irregular employment during the winter months.
On account of the uncertainty of the work such men are diffi-
cult to obtain, but thus far it has not been necessary for the ex-
periment station to refuse an application. For the Holstein-
Friesian association 11-2 7-day, 5 14-day, 11 30-day, and one
semi-official year test have been completed.
There are now on test for yearly records 96 Jersey, 28
Guernsey and 8 Ayrshire cows.
1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 75
REPORT OF THE BOTANIST.
G. E. STONE.
The routine and research work of the botanists and assist-
ants for the past year followed similar lines to those of other
years, except that perhaps the routine work has had a tendency
to increase, leaving less time for research work. This has been
remedied to a considerable extent, however, by the addition of
Mr. Sumner C. Brooks as laboratory assistant. Mr. Brooks
was graduated from the class of 1910, and his appointment as
assistant relieves Mr. Chapman of much routine work and
gives him time for research, for which he is well fitted. Miss
J. V. Crocker has, as usual, been of much service in attending
to the correspondence and records, and has given valuable as-
sistance in the seed testing. Much assistance has, as formerly,
been obtained from the undergraduate students, and Mr. E. A.
T.arrabee and Mr. Ray E. Torrey have devoted all their spare
time to the department, and were employed during the whole
summer vacation.
Diseases More or Less Common during the Year,
The season of 1910 opened unusually early, as is shown by
the meteorological records and by the blossoming of trees,
shrubs and flowers. The season was, on the whole, rather dry,
and crops suffered to some extent from drought, a condition
which was emphasized by the severe droughts of the two pre-
ceding years.
The peach leaf curl, which naturally follows a cold and
rainy period, was quite common. Some frost occurred in IMay,
and in some localities it was reported in June. The effects of
this showed on asparagus, and frost blisters were common on
apple foliage. An unusually large amount of apple foliage
was sent in to this department for examination in early sum-
76 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
nier. This was affected not only with frost blisters, but con-
siderable injury was caused by a mite, the effect being in many
cases similar. An early outbreak of apple scab was also noticed
on apj)]e foliage.
Strawberries were of poor quality, and considerable rot of
the fruit occurred, owing to excessive rainfall. The foliage of
rock maples and oaks was affected to an unusual extent with
Gloeosporium. In many sections maples in general were af-
fected with this fungus, causing a browning of the leaf and
inuch defoliation, and many inquiries were received concern-
ing this trouble.
Some of the diseases which were more common are as fol-
lows: hollyhock rust, sweet pea trouble, apple rust, hawthorne
rust, quince rust, black rot of grapes, crown gall, sycamore
blight, blossom end rot of tomatoes, ])ear blight and pear scab,
corn smut and maple leaf spot (Rhytisma). Considerable in-
terest is also manifest in the chestnut disease, which is becom-
ing more noticeable in this State.
The following is a list of the less common diseases reported
during the year : ash rust, bean rust, rose rust, pea mildew, rose
mildew, currant Anthracnose, Anthracnose of melon, rust on
strawberry leaves, cherry leaf spot (Cylindrosporium), potato
rot, horse chestnut blight (Phyllosticta), apple scab, cane blight
of raspberries (Coniothyrium), blackberry Anthracnose and
cherry leaf blight (Cercospora). Besides these may be men-
tioned troubles with which no organisms are associated, namely,
frost blisters, frost effect on asparagus, sun scald and sun
scorch, malnutrition of cucumbers and aster yellows.
lUll.l PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 77
REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST.
H. T. FERNALD.
The year 1910 has been marked by numerous changes in this
department. The resignation of Prof. C. H. Fernald in June,
as station entomologist, marks the first change in the head of this
portion of the station work since the department was established
in 1888. The resignation, at the same time, of Mr. J. N.
Summers from his connection with the station, and the poor
health of the writer during the early part of the year, neces-
sarily seriously affected the work accomplished, and the time
taken in the fall by moving into new quarters has practically
prevented anything besides routine work.
The development of a new line of investigation has been
made possible by the appointment of Dr. B. N. Gates as station
apiarist. Dr. Gates's work will be, at least for the present, en-
tirely under the Adams fund.
Mr. Arthur I. Bourne has been appointed assistant in ento-
mology, and is, in general, in charge of the correspondence and
of considerable of the experimental work. His appointment
will enable the head of the department to devote more time to
the larger problems relating to insects in this State, both in
general and in connection with Adams fund projects, than has
heretofore been the case.
It has ])roved to be impossible to obtain an orchard near the
station in which to continue the observations on the size and
importance of the different broods of the codling moth. The
movement for better fruit in Massachusetts has been nowhere
more evident than in Amherst, and the results, though most
desirable iu general, have been disastrous for the continuation
of this series of observations, which must now be discontinued.
A loTi'i' delay in moving the greenhouse to its new site, and in
making it ready for use, has prevented taking up this year the
78 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
experiments on the resistance of muskmelons to fumigation.
These can be resumed during 1*J11, however.
Further tests of methods of controlling wire worms attacking
seed corn have been continued on Mr. Whitcomb's farm. The
results of the tests already made were referred to in the last
report, and were also published in the '^ Journal of Economic
Entomology " for August, 1909. It was distinctly stated in
the latter publication that these methods were still in the exper-
imental stage, but that it seemed desirable to test them on a
larger scale in different parts of the country. Several of the
agricultural papers suggested this to their readers, and the re-
ports received as to results varied from excellent to failure, by
preventing germination. A few cases of failure have been in-
vestigated, and in every case so far appear to have been due to
the use of coal tar instead of gas tar, or to giving the corn such
a heavy coating of the tar as to, of itself, prevent germination.
On the whole, the treatment can hardly be considered as having
been fairly tested in all cases.
One objection to the method is that the seed must be treated
first with tar and then with the Paris green. During the past
season it has been attempted to avoid this, while obtaining
equally good results, by the use of arsenate of lead. The par-
ticular brand used in these experiments was disparene, which
comes in paste form. This was diluted till about as thick as
paint. Then the corn was added and the whole thoroughly
stirred. The corn was then spread out till dry.
Unfortunately, wire worms proved to be few in the fields
where the treated corn was -planted, so that the value of the test
was restricted to a determination of the effect of the treatment
on the germination of the seed. From this standpoint, however,
it was a success, having no injurious effect whatever. Plans
have already been made to continue this work another season,
and fields badly infested with wire worms are to be made use of,
so far as these can be found.
Bates of the hatching of the young of the oyster-shell scale,
the scurfy scale and the pine-leaf scale have been continued as
far as possible. The object of this has been stated in previous
reports, and it need only be added here that the observations
]911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 79
should be continued for several years, if averages of value are
to be obtained.
Nearly ten years ago a study of the Marguerite fly, a pest
too familiar to many florists, was begun, but was soon dropped
for lack of material. More having been obtained, this investi-
gation has been resumed, and it is hoped that the entire life
history of the fly may now be learned, together with effective
methods for its control.
Observations on the distribution limits of insect pests in
Massachusetts have been continued as opportunity has offered,
and some interesting facts on this subject have been obtained.
Work of this kind must, from its very nature, be fragmentary
for a long time, and for years the gathering and preservation
of the observations made are all which it will be possible to
accomplish. As the time required for this is but a few mo-
ments per week, or even per month, however, the results are
well worth the trouble.
Investigations on the importance of the Sphecidae as para-
sites have been continued, and a number of additions to our
knowledge of the group have resulted. The subject is a large
one, however, and the amount of time available for this pur-
pose has been much less than could be desired. Experiments
M'ith insecticides have been almost at a standstill from their
entomological side, waiting for pure materials of known compo-
sition to be provided by the chemical department. Some of
these have been satisfactorily obtained during the fall and the
tests of them can be begun in the spring of 1911. The chemical
results of this work will be reported upon by that department.
so EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
CHARLES ANTHONY GOESSMANN.
Charles Anthony Goessmann, chemist, investigator, teacher and phil-
osopher, passed to the higher life Sept. 1, 1910.
Karl Anton Gossmann was born in Nanmburg, in the Grand Duchy
of Hesse, Germany, June 13, 1827. He was the son of Dr. Heinrich
Gossmann, who was a fellow student of the noted chemist Frederich
Wohler. When the boy was seven or eight years of age the family
moved to Fritzlar in Hesse and here young Gossmann spent his boy-
hood days. His father wished his son to become a pharmacist, and he
received training in pharmacy previous to his becoming a university
student. He entered the university of Gottingen in 1850, and studied
chemistry, botany, physics, geology and mineralogy. He received the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1851 for a dissertation on the
" Constituents of the Cantharides." Wohler early recognized the
ability and industry of the young chemist, and made him assistant
in his laboratory, and upon the appointment of Limprecht to a pro-
fessorship, Gossmann became a privatdocent and Wohler's first as-
sistant. He assumed charge of the chemical laboratory, and lectured
on organic and technical chemistry as well as to students of pharmacy.
His American students during the period were Chandler, Marsh, Joy,
Nason, Caldwell and Pugh.
During his stay at Gottingen he received a number of flattering
offers from other institutions, and made the acquaintance of Schonbein,
the chemical physicist who discovered gun cotton and ozone; of
Schrotter, noted for his researches in phosi:)horus ; of A. W. von
Hoffmann and of the celebrated Fi-ench chemist Sainte Clair Deville.
In 1857 Gossmann left Gottingen on leave of absence, and visited
the universities and a number of manufacturing establishments in
Germany, Austria, France and England, and then journeyed to the
United States upon invitation from Eastwich Brothers in order to
become scientific director of their large sugar refineries. It was his
intention eventually to return to Germany and teach technical chem-
istry, but he became so interested in the new country, and observed
such a wide field of futui-e usefulness for the technical chemist, that
he decided to make the United States his permanent home.
After completing his work at Philadelphia be went to Cuba in order
to study the methods of handling sugar then in vogue. On returning
to the United States he Avas engaged as chemist by the Onondaga
Salt Company of Syracuse, a position which he retained until 1869.
e,^. f/>-4^-
BoKN June 13, 1827. Died Skft. 1, 1910.
[Brief sketch of life, page 80.j
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 81
Wliile in ils employ, he visited and exaniinod the salt springs in
Canada, Michigan and Louisiana. During the latter part of this
Syracuse period he spent a i)ortion of each year as professor of
chemistry and physics at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy,
and he was invited to occupy the position permanently.
In 1868, at the earnest solicitation of his friend, the late Col. Wil-
liam S. Clark, he accepted the professorship of cTiemistry at the
]\Iassachusetts Agricultural College, and held it continuously until
Lis retirement in June, 1907. He was placed at the head of the
Massachusetts Exj^eriment Station, a private enterprise started in 1878,
and was instrumental in securing" the establishment of the Massachu-
setts State Agricultural Experiment Station in 1882, being made its
director and chemist, — positions which he held until it was merged with
the Hatch Experiment Station by act of the Legislature in 1895.
Professor Goessmann served as chemist to the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture from 1873 until his retirement, and for many
years also acted as associate analyst of the Massachusetts State Board
of Health. He became the first president of the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists, and w^as a charter member of the American
Chemical Society, which he also served as president and vice-president.
He w'as a member of the German society of naturalists and physicians,
of the Physico-Medical Society of Erlangen University, a fellow of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and a mem-
ber of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and of the Massachu-
setts Meteorological Society.
In 1889 Amherst College conferred upon him the degxee of Doctor
of Laws.
In this connection space forbids any extended reference to his
work. Briefly it may be classihed into four periods : —
1. The Goitingen Period of Seven Years, 1850-57.
In addition to his work as teacher in the university he found time
to make and publish the results of twenty-five distinct investigations,
all of which may be found in the "Annalen der Chemie u. Pharmacie."
Among the most important of these papers may be mentioned the
discovery of arachidic and hypogseic acids in the peanut oil, the con-
stituents of the cantharides, the composition of cocoa oil and the
constitution of leucine. This latter paper was considered of so much
importance that it drew forth a letter of commendation from Wohler
to Dumas and secured for Gcissmann membership in the Physico-
Medical Society of the University of Erlangen, an honor which he highly
prized.
82 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
2. The yimerican Period of Eleven Years previous to the Massachu-
setts Agricultural College, 1858-69.
He made a number of contributions to the "American Journal of
Science " on the chemistry of brine and salt, and while in the em-
ploy of the salt company at Syracuse devised a process for the re-
moval of calcium and magnesium chlorides from salt which was of
inestimable value to the salt industry of the United States. He also
contributed papei'S to the " London Chemical News " on sugar refining.
S. The Massachusetts First Period, 1869-86.
During this jjeriod, in addition to teaching, Professor Goessmann
made a study of the agricultural conditions in the State, was a fre-
quent contributor to the agricultural press, and gave numerous lec-
tures before the State Board of Agriculture,
His more prominent investigations may be briefly referred to under
the following headings : —
(a) Beets for Sugar, and Sugar Beets as an Agricultural Enterprise.
— He carried on investigations with the sugar beet both in the field
and laboratory, and demonstrated the feasibility of growing beets for
sugar in certain sections of Massachusetts, and concluded that, with the
proper education of the farmer and capitalist, the production of sugar
from the beet should prove a jorofitable American industry. (Reports of
the Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1876.)
{h) The Value of Early Amber Sorghum as a Sugar-producing
Plant. — His study of the plant as a possible source of sugar led him
to conclude that " the presence of a large amount of grape sugar in
all the later stages of growth ... is a serious feature in the com-
130sition of the juice, impairing gi'eatly the chances for a copious
separation of the cane sugar by simple modes of treatment." This
prophesy has been literally fulfilled, in spite of the later efforts to
utilize this plant as a commercial source of sugar.
(c) Reclamation of Salt Marshes. — Goessmann made a thorough
investigation of the condition of the marshes in southeastern Massa-
chusetts, and embodied his results in a number of valuable papers
before the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. His studies
included the chemical conditions of the soils, and he recommended
diking when necessary, suitable fertilizers and especially thorough
drainage and cultivation. (Reports of the Massachusetts State Board
of Agriculture, 1874, 1875, 1876.)
(d) The Application of Chemistry to Fruit Culture. — His studies
were devoted particularly to the composition of the ash of different
fruits, and to the influence of the various forms of mineral fertility
upon yield and quality. He emphasized the need of a thorough study
of the functions of the several mineral elements in plant growth, a
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 83
subject still calling for much careful investigation. lie proved to his
own satisfaction that muriate of potash promoted particularly the
growth and improved the quality of fruit; and, further, that an in-
crease of potash was accompanied by a corresponding decrease in lime
and phosphorus. He called attention to the fact that the young
branches of peach trees affected with *' yellows " contained excessive
amounts of lime and phosiahoric acid, and that a judicious pruning,
together \\ith liberal applications of muriate of potash, restored the
affected trees to a vigorous growth, which contained normal amounts
of potash, lime and phosphoric acid. (Twenty-seventh and thirty-
second reports of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture.)
(e) The Chemical Composition of Different Varieties of Corn, and
the Preservation of Corn in Silos. — Goessmann gave considerable at-
tention to the value of corn for cattle, and in a comprehensive paper
l)ul)lished luunerous analyses of different varieties of the entire corn
plant, as well as of the stalks, ears and cobs. About 1880 attention
was being given to the method of preserving corn in the silo, and the
claim was made by Dr. J. M. Bailey and others that corn thus pre-
served (ensilage) did not sutfer loss by the process, but Avas actually
superior in feeding value to the original product. Goessmann in two
admirable papers exi^lained and discussed the principles of animal
nutrition founded upon the researches of German investigators, showed
the i^lace of corn in the animal economy, pointed out the changes that
took place during the process of fermentation, and made clear the
relative merits of the drj^ and preserved corn. His statements concern-
ing the relative value of silage and dry corn, made in 1880, hold true
at the present time. (Reports of the Massachusetts State Board of
Agriculture, 1879-80, 1880, 1881.)
(/) The Inspection of Commercial Fertilisers. — Goessmann was
instrumental in securing the passage of a law authorizing the inspec-
tion of commercial fertilizers, which became operative Oct. 1, 1873,
and as State Inspector of Fertilizers under the new law he made a
]n-eliminary report the same year. (Twenty-first report of the Mas-
sachusetts State Board of Agriculture.) It is believed that this was
the first law enacted in the United States requiring an official inspec-
tion of fertilizers. He found many of the materials offered to be
of uncertain composition, and to vary greatly in price; "these same
articles cost the farmers . . . about one-half the amount more than
they ought to ". His work along this line from year to year cor-
rected most of these abuses, and was unquestionably of great pecuni-
ary value to the farmei's of the State and nation.
4. The Massachusetts Second Period, 1886-1907.
The Massachusetts State Agncultural Experiment Station was es-
tablished by act of the State Legislature, and Goessmann was made
84 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
director and cliemist. The yearly grant of $5,000 was soon increased
to $10,000, and in 1885-86 a new chemical laboratory was completed.
He relinquished most of his college work, and devoted his energies to
a thorough organization of the station.
The chief lines of work pursued by the station under his guidance
are mentioned under the following general headings : —
1. The free analyses of fertilizers, refuse materials suitable for
fertilizing purposes, coarse and concentrated feeds and drinking waters.
2. Experiments with dairy cows to test the relative feeding values
of home-grown fodders and of commercial feedstuffs.
3. Feeding experiments with soiling crops, and the introduction and
testing of new fodder crops.
4. Experiments with pigs to determine the rations best suited for
13ork production.
5. Feeding experiments with steers and sheep to determine the cost
of beef and mutton, and to study the rations best suited for such pur-
poses.
6. Field experiments to determine the nitrogen-acquiring power of
the legumes.
7. Field experiments to study the best fertilizer combinations for
market-garden cro^DS.
S. Field experiments to ascertain the relative values of different
forms of phosphoric acid.
9. Fertilizers best suited for })ermaneut grass lands.
10. The effects of various forms of plant food in modifying the
quality of the jjroduct.
11. Compilation of tables of analyses of fertilizers, cattle feeds,
dairy products and fruits made at the station.
He devoted himself to the executive work of the station, and care-
fully supervised all of the experimental work as well. While not a
rai)id worker, he succeeded in accomplishing a great deal because of
his steady and long-continued application. Since 1886 practically all
of his papers were published in the annual reports of the experiment
station.
After the merging of the State and Hatch stations, in 1895, advanc-
ing years made it necessary for him to relinquish many of his re-
sponsibilities. He continued, however, until his retirement to supervise
the inspection of fertilizers and the general work in the fertilizer and
soil laboratory.
Aside from his services as investigator and teacher, it is important
to remember that he inspired in others a zeal for further study and
accomplishment. There are to be found among his pupils presidents
of colleges and schools of agriculture, directors of experiment station^,
research and technical chemists, teachers, as well as workers in many
lines of industry having a direct bearing upon agriculture.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 85
Pi'ofessor Goessmann possessed a wonderfully retentive memory, and
l)eing' a great reader he was especially well informed on a wide
variety of topics. He was a good conversationalist, and if interested
in a subject poured forth a torrent of information, interspersed with
opinions of his OAvn. He had a genial disposition, a winning pei'son-
ality, and when he was amused his smile of appreciation was not soon
lo be forgotten. One did not need to be long associated with him to
feel his influence for good and to realize that he was much i^iore than
an ordinary man. In fact, his verj'^ presence seemed to exhale a sort
of spiritual essence which lifted one to a higher level of thought
and feeling,
Goessmann was indeed a pioneer in the cause of agrienltural investi-
gation in the United States, or, as one of his students expressed it,
he was a foundation builder. He was a leader, and pointed the way
to a fuller understanding of the principles of science as applied to
agrieultu.re. Every experiment station woi-kei", every tiller of the soil,
and in fact every citizen in our great country, either directly or in-
directly, has been benefited by this man who has recently ]iassed into
the Great Beyond.
J. B. LINDSEY.
86 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION.
BY J. B. LINDSEY.
The Effect of Protein upon the Production and Com-
position OF Milk.
Investigations and observations indicate that milk is not a
simple fluid secreted directly by the blood, bnt a complex sub-
stance resulting from the activity of the milk cells. The cells
and milk glands take from the blood and lymph vessels sub-
stances suited to their purposes, and by chemical and physiologi-
cal processes convert them into a different substance, namely,
milk. Milk, therefore, consists for the most part of recon-
structed cell substance, and it is not possible, by any system of
feeding, to produce very great modification in its composi-
tion. The composition of milk depends principally upon the
breed and individuality of the cow, stage of lactation and de-
velopment of the milk cells.
G. Kuhn,^ M. Fleischer ^ and E. Wolff,- during the years
1868 to 1876, studied the additions to the different basal
rations of increasing amounts of protein upon the composition
of the milk, and noted only very slight variations. They
observed that of all the milk components the percentage of fat
was the most influenced by the food supply. N. J. Fjord and
F. Friis,^ as a result of experiments by the group method with
1,152 cows, concluded that the protein was practically with-
out influence in varying the proportions of the several milk
ingredients. ^Y. II. Jordan '^ has conducted a number of trials,
and failed to note any specific influence of the protein in
■ Landw. Versuchsstationen 12 Bd., 1869; Journal fiir Landw., 1874.
2 Die Versuchsstationen Hohenheim, Berlin, 1870; R6sum6 in Die Ernahrung der Landw.
NiUzthiere, E. Wolff, 1876.
' Beretning fra den Klg. VeterinEer. og LandViohoiskole Lab. for landokonomiske Forsog.
Kopenhagen, 1892; R63um6 in Centralblatt f. Agricultur Chemie, 22 Jahrg., 1893. s. 604.
< Maine Experiment Station, reports for 1885-86, 1886-87; New York Experiment Station,
Bulletin 197, 1906.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 87
varying the proportion of the milk eonstituents. Armsby,^ as
well as Whitcher and Wood,- has drawn similar conclusions.
Morgan et aJs. conclude from numerous investigations that
protein is without specific influence in the formation of milk
fat.^ Kellner,'* in summing \\\) the results of numerous ex-
periments, especially of German origin, says '' in so far as it
is possible by means of food to effect the action of the milk
glands, the protein of the several f(Jod groups exerts a very
pronounced influence. This influence is especially noticeable
in increasing the quantity of the milk. Only after the long-
continued feeding of a ration known to be deficient in protein
does the water content of the milk increase, and the dry matter
and fat show a noticeable decrease."
This station from time to time has conducted a number of
experiments to observe the influence of difterent amounts of
protein in increasing the quantity of milk, to note the protein
re(piirements of dairy animals and also to study its influence
in modifying the })roportions of the several milk ingredients.
Some of these results have been published in reports of the
station. It is proposed to briefly summarize the results already
given publicity, and to describe somewhat in detail our more
recent observations.
Experiment I.^ — 1895.
This experiment was undertaken wuth six cow^s by the re-
versal method. The animals Avere from five to ten years of
age, had all calved in the early autumn, and none had been
served when the experiment began.
Weighing Animals. — The animals w^ere weighed once be-
fore feeding and watering at the beginning and end of each
half of the trial, and once each week during the continuance
of the experiment. It would have been better to have weighed
each animal for three consecutive days at the beginning and
'Wisconsin Experiment Station, reports for 1885-86, New Hampshire Experiment Station,
Bulletin 90, pp. 12-14; Bulletin 18, p. 13.
' Ibid.
' Landw. Vers. Stat., 62 (100.5), nos. 4,5; pp. 251-286; Ahs. Experiment Station Record
Vol. 17, p. 286.
* Die Ernahrung d. Landw. Niit^^thiere, erste Auflage, p. 519; aI.so, funfte Auflage, p. 539.
' Ninth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 100-125.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
end of the experiment; the weights, however, were prubahly
sufficient to give an accurate average weight of each animal.
Sampling and Testing the Milk. — A composite sample of
each cow's milk was made for five consecutive days, and pre-
served with bichromate of potash. Great care was used to se-
cure representative samples. The total solids and fat were
determined by approved gravimetric methods.
Dates of the Experiment.
Dates.
Days.
High Protein.
Low Protein.
Oct. 24 through Nov. 18, 1895, .
Nov. 28 through Dec. 23, 1895, .
26
26
Cows I., IV., VI.
Cows II., III., V.
Cows II., III., v.
Cows I., IV., VI.
At least a week elapsed after the animals were placed upon
full rations before the experiment proper began.
Average BniJii Balions fed to the Six Cows {Pounds).
Character of Ration.
Wheat
Bran.
Chicago
Gluten
Meal.
Corn
Meal.
Hay.
Sugar
Beets.
High protein
Low protein
3
3
5.83
5.83
15.17
16.17
12
12
Each of the cows received 3 pounds of bran and 12 pounds
of beets daily. One of the cows, Ada^ received only 5 pounds
of corn or gluten meal per day, while the others received each
0 pounds. The amount of hay fed differed slightly in the case
of individual cows, depending upon their ability to utilize it.
The hay was of good quality, containing 9.73 per cent, of crude
protein; the brau 10.20 per cent.; the gluten meal 42.73 per
cent., and the corn meal 11.36 per cent., all on a dry-matter
basis.
Tt will be seen that the basal ration consisted of hay, beets
iiiid bran, and that the variable factor was the corn or gluten
meal.
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
89
Average Weight of Animals and Average Digestible Nutrients in Daily
Rations (Pounds).
Weight
of
Animal.
Digestible Nutrients.
Character of Ration.
Protein.
Fat.
Fiber
and
Extract
Matter.
Total.
Nu-
tritive
Ratio.
High protein, ....
Low protein, ....
941
938
3.07
1.46
.59
.52
10.23
12.45
14.06
14.43
1:3.86
1:9 43
Three of the cows varied in weight from 800 to 900 poniids,
and three others from 1,000 to 1,000 pounds. During the high-
])rotein period the cows gained in total 101 pounds, and during
the ]ow-i)rotein period there was a total loss of 64 pounds. The
average weight of the herd during each of the two halves of the
experiment was substantially the same.
The figures for digestible nutrients were secured from actual
analysis of the feedstuffs used, together with average diges-
tion coefficients, actual digestion tests not being made. The
total digestible nutrients consumed was the same in case of
each of the halves of the experiment, the difference being in
the excess of digestible protein and the corresponding deficit
of carbohydrates. The high-protein ration had evidently too
narrow a ratio, and the low-j^rotein ration too wide a ratio for
the be.st results.
Protein Balance (Pounds).
Character of
Ration.
Cows.
Protein
digested.
Protein
required
for Main-
tenance.
Protein
contained
in Milk
(N.X6.25).
Protein
Excess
over Main-
tenance
and Milk
Require-
ments.
Hiffh protein,
Low protein.
Ada,
Una,
Bessie, .
Beautv,
Red, .
Spot,
Ada, .
Una, .
Bessie, .
Beauty,
Red,
Spot,
69.16
79.56
81.12
84.24
82.16
82.16
33.54
36.40
37.96
40.82
39.00
39.00
14.56
16.38
15.60
18.98
19 24
17.94
14.56
16 12
15.60
18.98
18.72
18.20
20 31
18,66
26 03
22.28
24.26
28.00
17.84
17.84
22 51
17.92
22.08
20.72
34.29
44.52
39.49
42 98
.38 66
36.22
1 14
2,44
— .15
3.92
-.1.80
Total hisrh, .
Total low.
Average per cow, high.
Average per cow, low.
478 40
226.72
79.73
37.79
102.70
102.18
17 12
17.03
139.54
118.91
23 26
19,82
236.16
5.63
39 36
.94
' Calculated by allowing .7 of a pound digestible crude protein per day per 1,000 pounds live
weight.
90
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
In this experiment the percentage of protein in the milk was
nut determined, and the average figures secured for the exper-
iment innnediatelj following were employe<l. Calculations
show that in the high-protein period there was a surplus of
nearly 100 (97.5) per cent, of digestible protein over that re-
quired for maintenance and milk production, while in the low-
])rotcin period the tntal digestil)le jn^otein consumed and the
amount required were about equal.
Influence of Protein on the Milk Yield.
Herd Results in Pounds.
Character of
Ration.
Average
Weif^ht of
Cow.
Yield
of
Milk.
Protein
digested.
Protein
required
for Main-
tenance
and Milk.
Protein
Excess
over that
required
for Main-
tenance
and Milk.
Per-
centage
E>;cess.
High protein, .
Low protein, .
941
938
4,241.5
3,095.5
478.40
226.72
242.24
221.09
230.16
5.63
97.5
2.3
It is quite evident that the ration with the large excess of
digestible protein exerted a marked influence on the milk-secret-
ing organs, causing an increase of approximately 15 per cent,
in the milk yield. The average daily milk product per cow
during the high-protein period was 27.2 pounds, and during
the low-]U'oteiii ])eriod 23.7 pounds, and it therefore may be
said that both rations produced a fair yield. The period was
too short to note the effect of the larger amount of protein on
the general condition of the animal; it is believed, however, that
if such an amount had been fed for a long period of time, the
result would have been over-stimulation, indigestion and a re-
fusal to eat the large amount of gluten meal.
Effect of the T! at ions on the Composition of the Milk (Per Cent.).
Character of Ration.
Total
Solids.
Fat.
Solids not
Fat.
High protein,
Low protein
13.67
13.45
4.51
4.28
9 16
9 17
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
91
Composite samples of each cow's milk were secured for five
(lays of each week. These composites were averaged, and this
average represented the composition of the milk of each cow
for the period. The a\erage percentage produced by each cow
was nndtipled by the pounds of milk she i)ruduccd, thus secur-
ing the weight of total solid matter and fat yield by each ani-
mal in the herd. These totals were added and the amount di-
vided by the total amount of milk given by the herd, and the
quotient represents the average percentage of total solids and
of fat, as stated in the table.
The results indicate that during the low-protein period, the
cows produced milk containing .23 per cent, less fat than in the
period when the high protein was fed. The difference is not
pronounced and may be considered within the limit of a reason-
able experimental error.
Experiment II. ^
This experiment immediately succeeded experiment T. and
was conducted with the same cows, excepting that cow IT. (Una)
was replaced by Guernsey. The general plan of the experi-
ment, methods of caring for the cows, feeding and sampling
of milk were all identical with the preceding experiment.
Bates of the Experiment.
Dates.
Days.
High Protein.
Low Protein.
Jan. 27 through Feb. 16, 1896, .
Feb. 29 through March 20, 1896,
21
21
Cows I., II., VI.
Cows III., IV., V.
Cows III., IV., V.
Cows I., II., VI.
It will be seen that each period lasted twenty-one days, with
a ]U'oliniinary feeding of seven or more days.
Averarje Daih/ Bntions fed to the Six Coivs {Pounds).
Character of
Ration.
Wheat
Bran.
Chicago
Gluten
Meal.
Linseed
Meal.
Corn
Meal.
Hay.
Millet and
Soy Bean
Silage.
High protein, .
Low protein,
2.83
1.92
3 00
1 92
5.83
10 33
10 33
28.33
28.33
' Ninth annual report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 100-125.
92
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
The bran contained 18.87 per cent., the Chicago gluten 39.75
per cent., the old-process linseed meal 41.99 per cent, and the
corn meal 11.36 per cent, of protein in dry matter. The
Ksilage was a mixtnre of barnyard millet and soy beans, the
latter being quite well podded; it contained about 81 per
cent, of water and 12 per cent, of protein in dry matter. Each
aiiiuuil received from 9 to 11 pounds of hay, 20 to 30 pounds
of silage, during each half of the experiment. In the high-
protein ration from 2 to 3 pounds of bran were fed, 3 pounds
of gluten and 1.5 to 2 pounds of linseed meal. In the low-
protein ration 1.5 to 2 pounds of bran were given and 5 to
0 pounds of corn meal. The above table shows the averages.
The cows ate their rations clean in every case.
Average Weight of Animals and Average Digestible Nutrients fed daily
(Pounds).
Character of
Ration.
Weight
of
Animals.
Protein.
Fat.
Fiber
and
Extract
Matter.
Total.
Nutritive
Ratio.
High protein, .
Low protein, .
899
900
2.85'
1,45
.65
.54
9.96
11.44
13.46
13.42
1:4.04
1:8.85
The individual weight of the individual cows varied from
703 to 1,004 pounds. The cows changed very slightly in
weight during each half of the experiment.
The digestible nutrients were calculated from the analyses
of the feed, with the aid of a^^erage digestion coefficients. The
high-protein ration contained substantially twice as much di-
gestible protein as the low-protein ration. The fat varied but
slightly, and the difference in the amount of carbohydrate mat-
tor depended naturally upon the different amounts of ]u-otein
fed. The total nutrients consumed in two rations were the
same.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. :U.
93
Protein Balance {Pounds).
Periods of Twenty-one Days.
Ch.\R-\ctbr of
R.WION.
Cows.
Protein
digested.
Protein
required
for Main-
tenance.
Protein
contained
in Milk
(N x6.25).
Protein
Excess
over Main-
tenance
and Milk
Require-
ment.
Higii protein,
Low protein.
Ada,
Guernsey,
Bessie, .
Beauty,
Red, .
Spot,
Ada, .
Guernsey,
Bessie, .
Beauty,
Red, .
Spot,
50 61
60.61
■ 61 53
62.58
62.58
62.58
25.20
31 50
30 24
31.29
31.29
32.55
11.21
12.60
12.18
14 41
14.91
13.86
11 34
12 30
12 09
14.07
14.70
13.84
15.42
19 52
18.98
16.22
17 37
20.29
12.83
16 36
15.90
15.08
16.05
16.65
23.98
28.49
30 37
31.95
30.30
28.43
1.03
2.84
2.25
2.14
.54
2.06
ToUil hish
Total low, ....
.\verage per cow, higli, .
Average per cow, low, .
-
360.49
182.07
60.08
30.34
79 17
78.34
13.19
13.06
107.80
92.87
17.97
15.48
173.52
10.86
28.75
1.81
Influence of Protein on Milk Yield.
Herd Results in Pounds.
"o
^
°1
PI
m
■^
■n
-a
?-.
Character of
60
^
0)
£
P d
D' a
"■j £1 ''i
o'5 d
Ration.
>0
«5
a a
d
'5
■9.Sg
gs.s
rotein E
that re
Mainten
Milk.
60
d
<
>-'
Q
Ph
CL,
Ph
fU
High protein,
899
3,261.0
25.82
360.49
186.97
173.52
92.8
Low protein.
900
2,877.0
22.73
182.02
171.21
10.86
5.1
It will be seen that on the high-protein ration the cows re-
ceived 92.8 per cent, more digestible crude protein than was
reqnired for maintenance and for the milk produced, while in
low-protein ration the excess was only 5 per cent., the amount
digested and the amount fed being substantially equal.
The figures show that for a period of twenty-one days, while
not changing in weight, the herd produced 13.3 per cent, more
milk on the high-protein diet, showing very distinctly the in-
fluence of the excess of protein. This experiment exactly con-
firms the experiment immediately preceding.
94
EXPERIIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Composition of the Herd Milk [Per Cent.).
Characteu of Ration.
Total
Solids.
Fat.
Solids
not Fat.
Nitrogen.
Protein
Equiva-
lent.
High protein
Low protein
13.82
14.10
4.83
5.02
8.99
9.08
.526
.518
3.28
3.23
The samples were taken and averages secured in the same
way as in the previous experiment. Here we have a direct
reversal of the results, the low-protein ration showing a trifle
higher average fat percentage than the high-protein ration.
This may also be regarded as within the limit of error. The
percentage of nitrogen in the milk produced during each half
of the experiment is substantially the same, and this in spite of
the fact that the low-protein ration contained but 1.45 pounds
of digestible protein, and the high-jn-otein ration 2.85 pounds.
Experiment 1 11.^
This experiment was one of a series designed to study the
effect of food stuff's upon the composition of milk and of butter
fat. Only that portion of the experiment is here published
which shows the influence of jDrotein upon the 3'ield and com-
position of the milk. It was planned on the group system,
five cows composing each group. The first two periods of the
experiment only are needed in this connection.
Duration of Ex
periment.
Periods.
Dates of E.xperiment.
Length
Weeks.
First period: both herds standard ration, . •
<^prnr,r\ nprinrl- / Hp^d I., Standard ration, . \
Second period. | jj^^^ jj _ cottonseed ration, /
Nov. 17, through Dec. 7, 1900,
Jan. 5, through Feb. 8, 1901,
3
5
See r6suni6 in fourteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 162-168.
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
95
Average Daily Ilalions {Pounds).
First period: both herds, standard grain ration.
Herds.
Standard
Grain
Ration.
Meal. H^>-
Rovven.
Herd I
Herd II.,
9
9
-
8-12
8-12
10
10
Second period: Herd I., standard ration; Herd II., cottonseed ration.
Herd I
Herd II
9
5 3
8-12
8-12
10
10
Tke standard ration consisted of 3 pounds of wheat bran.
5 pounds of ground oats and ^ pound each of cottonseed and
si'luten meals. The cottonseed meal contained some 9 per cent,
of oil and 54.54 per cent, of protein in dry matter.
Average Dry and Digestible Nutrients in Daily Hat ions {Pounds).
First period: both herds, standard grain ration.
Herds.
Dry-
Matter.
Protein.
Fiber
and
Extract
Matter.
Fat.
Total.
Nutritive
Ratio.
Herd I
Herd II...
26.15
26.97
2.44
2.49
12.84
13.25
.68
.69
15.95
16.42
1:5.8
1:5 9
Second period: Herd I., standard grain ration; Herd II., cottonseed ration.
Herd I
Herd II
25.00
25.69
2.34
3.20
12.27
11.62
.66
.73
15.27
15.55
1:5.8
1:4.1
The digestibility of the standard grain mixture was asccr-
lained by actual experiment. Average coefficients were used
for the other feeds. Both herds received substantially the
same amounts of protein and total digestible nutrients in the
first period. Each herd averaged in live weight about 950
])onnds. In the first period the amount of digestible protein
was ample to enable the cows to do good work. In the second
period Herd II. received .SG of a pound more of digestible
protein than did Herd I.
96
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Total and Average Daily Yield of Milk (Pounds).
First period: both herds, standard grain ration.
Herds.
Total Herd
Yield.
Average
Daily Yield.
Herd I.,
Herd II.,
2,332.5
2,405.3
22.2
22.9
Second period: Herd I., standard ration; Herd II., cottonseed meal ration.
Herd I.,
Herd II.,
3,856.3
3,898.1
21.9
22.2
111 the first period Herd II. produced 3.1 per cent, more milk
tlniii Herd I., and in the second period 1 per cent. more. It
would appear, therefore, that the amount of protein fed in the
first jjeriod was ample, and that the increase given to Herd
II, in the second period was not needed and did not increase
the milk flow. In the first period Herd I. gained 6 pounds in
live weight, and Herd II., 83 pounds. In the second period
Herd I. lost 87 pounds, and Herd. II., 73 pounds.
Average Composition of the Herd Milk {Per Cent.).
First period; both herds, standard grain ration.
Herds.
Total
Solids.
Fat.
Solids
not Fat.
Nitrogen.
Protein
Equiva-
lent.
Ash.
Herd 1
Herd II
14.15
14.27
5.00
4.93
9.15
9.34
.538
.546
3.36
3.41
.73
.72
Second period: Herd I., standard ration; Herd II., cottonseed meal ration.
Herd I
Herd II
14.16
14.30
5.06
4.98
9.10
9.32
.550
.562
3.44
3.51
.73
.71
The analyses for the first period represent the average of 3
separate samples, each covering a period of five days; those for
the second period represent the average of 5 separate samples,
each covering a period of five days. Each five-day composite
represented the average composition of the herd milk for one
week. The separate analysis of each cow's milk was not made.
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
97
In the first 2)eriod the milk of the two herds showed itself
to be practically identical in composition. In the second period
the substitution of 3 pounds of cottonseed meal for 4 pounds
of the standard ration, thereby increasing the digestible pro-
tein in the ration .86 of a pound, had no effect whatever in
varying the proj^ortions of the milk. It is well to remember
in this connection that nearly a month intervened between the
first and second }»eriodH ^, and that the period itself covered five
weeks. It is possible that, if the standard ration had contained
a pound less of digestible protein daily, some difference may
have been observed in the composition of the milk produced by
the two herds in the second period.
Influence of Protein on Ike Milk Yield {Pounch).
Herd Results, Second Period.
1.4
o
^
•2
5; o g
E" 0) <D
m
Character of
Ration.
s
"3
-a
bp
T3
.9
i
>-i
a
a2
"5 9
.9
.9 ...9^
a
t6
5
2
Ss
o
o-SSS
<
H
Ph
cu'^
^
p-i
PH
Standard, .
94tj
3,856.3
409.5
115.5
132.6
161.4
65.0
Cottonseed meal,
939
3,898.1
560.0
115.5
136.8
307.7
122.0
In so far as this experiment throws any light on the protein
requirements, it indicates that Herd 1. was receiving ample
protein (65 per cent, above the minimum requirement), and
that the addition of more protein (122 per cent, above the
minimum) was without any noticeable influence upon the milk
yield.
Experiment IV.
This experiment was completed during the winter of 1897-
98, although the results have not been published. It was
conducted on the reversal method, with twelve mature grade
Jersey cows, all of Avhich had freshened the previous summer
and autumn.
Weu/hiiif] Animals. — Each animal was weighed for three
• This excessive lapse of time was due to some of the cows not being in best of condition.
98
EXrERliAIENT STATION.
[Jan.
consecutive tlavs, before feeding in the afternoon, at the begin-
ning and end of each half of the experiment.
Weighing and Sampling the Milk. — The weight of each
milking was taken on a spring balance sensitive to 1 onnce, and
the weights preserved on prepared record sheets. The milk
was samj^led for five consecutive days by the usual method, as
described in accounts of the many feeding experiments given in
previous reports. It was preserved with bichromate of potash
and analyzed by gravimetric methods.
Character of Feeds. — The feeds used were all of good qual-
ity and of average composition. The hay was composed largely
of Kentucky blue grass, sweet vernal grass and a liberal admix-
ture of clover.
Dates of the Experiment.
First Half.
Dates.
Weeks.
High-protein Cows.
Low-protein Cows.
Nov. 13, 1897 to Jan. 14, 1898,
9
Guernsey, Midget, Susie,
Beauty, Sadie, Alice.
Bessie, Mary, Mildred,
Nina, Blossom, Jennie.
Second Half.
Jan. 24 to March 27, 1898, .
9
Bessie, Mary, Mildred,
Nina, Blossom, Jennie.
Guernsey, Midget, Susie,
Beauty, Sadie, Alice.
It will be observed that ten days were allowed for changing
the feeds given the animals.
Average Daily
nations f
cd to Each Cow (Pounds).
Charactku of Ration.
Wheat
Bran.
Gluten
Feed.
Corn
Meal.
English
Hay.
Corn
Silage.
High protein, ....
Low protein, ....
3
3
5.5
15
4
10.9
11.0
25.7
25.7
It will be seen that the two rations were practically identi-
cal, excepting that 4 pounds of corn meal were substituted for a
like amount of gluten feed. Different cows received from 10
to 12 pounds of hay and from 20 to 30 pounds of silage. Each
animal received exactly the same amount of gi'ain daily.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
99
Average Dry and Digculible Xulricnts in Daily Rations {Pounds).
Dry
Matter.
Digestible Organic Nutrients.
Nu-
tritive
Ratio.
Ch-^Racter of Ration.
Protein.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fat.
Total
Nu-
trients.
Iligli protein, ....
Low protein, ....
24.17
24.24
2.10
1.G7
13.00
13.70
.50
.53
15.60
15.90
1:6.7
1:8.9
The herd averaged about 900 pounds in weight. The amount
of dry matter and of total digestible nutrients fed in each ration
was substantially the same; the high-protein ration contained
about .4 of a pound more digestible protein than the low-protein
ration. The excess over the low-])rotein ration is not marked
and is very much less than that fed in experiments I. and II. ,
I )rcviousl v mentioned.
Herd Gain in Live Weight {Pounds).
Character of Ration.
Gain or Loss.
High protein.
Low protein,
-f353
-1-223
Both rations caused a gain in weight, the excess being in
fa\or of the high-protein ration. This may have been ex-
pected, as the low-protein ration had rather too wide a ratio
to be productive of the best results.
Protein Balance {Pounds).
Herd Results; Periods of Sixty-three Days.
Character of Ration.
Protein
digested.
Protein
required
for Main-
tenance.
Protein
contained
in Milk
(N.X6.25).
Protein
Excess
over Main-
tenanre
and Milk
Require-
ments.
High protein
Low protein
1,587.6
1,262.5
476.28
476.28
591.76
563.23
519.6
223.0
100
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Influence of Frolein on Milk Yield.
Herd lleaulta in Pounds.
Character of
Ration.
Average
Weight of
Cow.
Yield
of
Milk.
Daily
Yield of
Milk Per
Cow.
Protein
digested.
Protein
Excess
over that
required
for Main-
tenance
and Milk.
Per-
centage
Excess.
High protein, .
Low protein, .
900
900
16,257
15,347
21.5
20.3
1,587.6
1,262.5
519.6
223.0
48.6
21.4
The {U'erage amount of digestible protein fed daily per cow
in the high-protein ration — 2.10 pounds- — could not be. con-
sidered excessive, although it was 48.6 per cent, more than was
required for milk and maintenance. The average amount of
digestible protein fed daily per cow in the low-protein ration
was 1.07 pounds, which was 21.4 per cent, above that neces-
sary for milk and maintenance. The high-protein ration,
being 48.6 per cent, in excess of the protein minimum, pro-
duced 5.9 per cent, more milk than did a ration made up of
similar feedstulis which was 21.4 per cent, in excess of the
minimum. Such a diiference in an experiment extending over
a period of sixty-three days is believed to be too i^ronounced to
be attributed to an experimental error, and is evidently the
result of the increased amount of protein fed. In this con-
nection it may be remarked that if the practical feeder pur-
chased all of his grain, it would be to his advantage to buy
gluten feed rather than corn meal. If he produces his own
corn, the feeding of one-third bran, one-half corn and cob meal
and one-sixth siluten feed would be advisable.
Composition of the Herd Milk
{Per Cent.).
Character of
Ration.
Total
Solids.
Fat.
Solids
not Fat.
Nitrogen.
Protein
Equiva-
lent
(N. x6.25).
Ash.
High protein, .
Low protein, .
14.55
14.44
5.11
5.01
9.44
9.43
.58
.59
3.64
3.67
.75
.74
lUll.l
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
101
Samples of milk from each cow were taken weekly for five
fonseciitive days, aud tested for total solids and for fat. The
average percentage prodnced by each cow for the nine weeks
was mnltiplied by the amonnt of milk prodnced during the
same period, and the amounts of total solids and of fat pro-
duced by the entire herd on each of the two rations calculated.
These amounts, divided by the total milk yield, gave the aver-
age percentages of total solids and fat produced by each herd
for the entire period.
The product of each milking of the six cows receiving the
two different rations was also mixed, and composite five-day
samples tested for total solids, fat, nitrogen and ash. In case
of total solids and fat the average results varied less than .1
])er cent, from those secured by the other method. The average
results stated in the table above represent those secured by the
last-described method.
It will be seen that the two rations produced milk of sub-
stantially the same composition. While the excess of protein
appeared to have noticeably influenced the amount of the milk
produced, it was without influence on its composition.
Experiment V. — 189S.
This experiment was conducted on the same plan as experi-
ment IV., and the conditions were substantially the sauie.
Nine cows only were used, being divided into herds of five and
four.
Dates of the Experiment.
First Half.
Dates.
Days.
High-protein Cows.
Low-protein Cows.
April 4 to April 29, 1S08,
26
Blos.som, Jennie, Bessie,
Mary, Mildred.
Beauty, Alice, Guernsey,
Midget.
Second Half.
May 8 to June 2, 1898, .
26
Beauty, Alice, CJuernsey,
Midget.
Blossom, Jennie, Bessie,
Mary, Mildred.
Nine days elapsed between halves, and the halves themselves
lasted twentv-six days each. The " cow balance " was hardly
102
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
satisfactory in this experiment, five cows receiving one ration
at the same time fonr were receiving the other, and vice versa.
These were the only animals at the time that were in sni table
condition.
Average Daily Rations fed
to the ^
'ine Cows
{Pounds
^).
Character of Ration.
Wheat
Bran.
Gluten
Feed.
Corn
Meal.
English
Hay.
Rowen.
High protein
Low protein, ....
3
3
5
1
4
9 3
9.3
9.3
9.4
These two rations differ only in that -i ponnds of corn meal
took the place of a like amonnt of glnten feed.
Areracie Drt/ and Digestible Nutrients in Daily Rations (Ponnds).
Dry
Matter.
Digestible Organic Nutrients.
Nu-
tritive
Ratio.
Character of Ration.
Protein.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fat.
Total
Nu-
trients.
High protein
Low protein, ....
23.62
23.44
2.41
1.96
11.97
12.39
.43
.44
14 81
14.79
1:5.4
1:6.8
In the so-called low-protein ration the herd received snhstan-
tially 2 ponnds of digestible protein daily; in the high-protein
ration this was increased .4 of a ponnd. The total digestible
nntrients fed were the same in each case. The cows averaged
970 to 900 ponnds in live Aveight during the two halves of the
experiment. In the low-protein ration the amonnt of protein
fed was sufficient to give satisfactory results.
Herd Gain in Live Weight (Ponnds).
Character op Ration.
Gain or Ix)S3.
High protein,
Low protein,
+76
4-115
[911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
103
Protein Balance (Pounds).
Herd Results; Periods of Twenty-six Daya.
Protein
Protein
Excess
Cn.\R.\CTER OF R.VTION.
Protein
required
Protein
over Main-
digested.
for Main-
contained
tenance
tenance.
in Milk.
and Milk
Require-
ments.
High protein,
563.9
156.8
184.4
222.7
Low protein,
458.6
155.5
174.8
128 3
Influence of Protein on Milk Yield.
Herd Results in Pounds.
Ch.\racter of
R.\TION.
Average
Weight of
Cow.
Yield
of
Milk.
Daily
Yield of
Milk Per
Cow.
Protein
digested.
Protein
Excess
over that
required
for Main-
tenance
and Milk.
Per-
centage
Excess.
High protein, .
Low protein, .
960
950
4,693.5
4,370.6
20.06
18.68
563.9
458.6
222.7
128.3
65.3
39.0
The average amount of dige.^tible protein fed daily to each
cow ill the high-protein ration was 2.41 ponnds, and the excess
over that reqnired for milk and maintenance was G5.3 per cent.
In the low-protein ration each cow received 1.96 ponnds daily,
and an average excess of 39 per cent, above requirements.
Dnring the high-protein feeding the herd produced Y.4 per
cent, more milk than when it received the low-protein ration,
showing the influence of the larger amount. Whether all of
the milk increase was due to the extra protein consumed is
uncertain. The low-protein ration naturally had a wider ratio,
and evidently was rather better suited to fatteniing than to milk
|)roduction, and was indicated by the increase in live weight.
Composition of the Herd Mill; {Per Cent.).
Character of
Ration.
Total
Solids.
Fat.
Solids
not Fat.
Nitrogen.
Protein
Equiva-
lent
(Nx6.25).
Ash.
High protein, .
Low protein, .
14 83
14 90
5 00
5 07
9 84
9.82
.63
.66
3 93
4 00
.74
.76
104
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
The above figures represent the average of five-day composite
samples of the milk produced by the herd of nine cows while on
the two different rations. Samples of each cow's milk were also
tested five daj^s in each week for total solids and fat. The aver-
age of the two herds by this method varied less than .1 per cent.
fr()m the above figures. It is^ therefore, evident that the differ-
ence in the amount of protein in the ration did not vary the
fat, solids not fat, nitrogen or ash content of the milk.
Experiment YL — 1905-06.
This experiment, hitherto not reported, was carried out by
the group method, six coavs constituting each of two groups.
The object of the experiment was to note the effect of a ration
low in digestible protein, — the amount required in the milk
])]us that for maintenance, — as compared with one containing
approximately ^ pound in excess. The effect of the two rations
was to be noted (a) on the condition of the animals; (h) on the
yield of milk, milk solids, fat and nitrogen; (r) on the relative
shrinkage; {d^ on the composition of the milk.
Plan of the Experiment. — The twelve cows were divided
as evenly as possible into two groups. The first few weeks
both groups received the low-protein ration in order to establish
a basis for comparison. The record of the milk yield and its
composition is reported for the last week of this preliminary
j)eriod. At the beginning of the period proper, Group II. re-
ceived the high-protein ration, and Group I. continued on that
low in protein.
Tlisiori/ of ilie Cows.
Name.
Breed.
Age
(Years).
Last Calf
dropped.
Davs
with Calf,
Beginning
of Test.
Blanche,
Daisy,
Fancy,
Gladys, .
Maude,
May,
Betty,
Dora.
May Rio, ,
MoUv,
RedlL,
Samantha,
Grade Guernsey,
Grade .Jersey,
Grade Jersey,
Pure .Torsey, .
Grade Guernsey,
Grade .Jersey,
Grade .Jersey,
( irade .Jersey,
Piue .Jersey, .
(irade Jersey,
Grade Jersey,
Grade Jersey,
October,
August,
August,
December,
December,
July,
November,
August,
October,
July,
November,
August,
1005
1905
1005
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1005
1905
1911.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
105
Weighing Cows. — Each cow was weighed for three con-
secutive days at the beginning and end of the period proper,
before watering and feeding in the afternoon. These weights
were also taken twice during the intervening time.
Sampling Feeds. — Samples of hay and silage were taken at
the beginning of the period, and every two weeks thereafter.
In case of the hay, forkfuls were taken here and there from
the entire amount to l)c fed for the day, run through a feed
cutter, subsampled, the final sample brought to the laboratory
in glass-stoppered bottles, dry-matter determinations made at
once and the sample saved for a composite. The silage was
similarly sampled, excepting that it was not run through the
cutter. The grain was sampled daily, preserved in glass-
stoppered bottles, and at the end of the period analyzed.
Sampling Milk. — The milk of each cow ^vas sampled for
five consecutive days in each week by the usual method, and the
composite tested for fat. total solids, nitrogen and ash.
Dates of the Experiment.
Preliminary Period.
Herd.
Character of
Ration.
Dates.
Weeks.
Cows.
I
n.. .
Low protein, .
High protein, .
January 27 through
February 2.
January 27 through
February 2.
1
1
Blanche, Daisy, Fancy,
Gladys, Maude, May.
Betty, Dora, May Rio,
Molly, Red II., Samantha.
Period Proper.
I.,
II..
Low protein.
High protein.
February 10 through
April 27.
February 10 through
April 27.
Blanche, Daisy, Fancy,
Gladys, Maude, May.
Betty, Dora, May Rio,
Molly, Red II., Samantha.
Average Daily liations consumed by the Two Herds {Pounds).
Preliminary Period.
Herd.
Character of
Ration.
English
Hay.
Corn
Silage.
Wheat
Bran.
Corn
Meal.
Gluten
Meal.
I
II.,
Low protein, .
Low protein.
12.6
12.6
22 5
22.2
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.3
-
Period Proper.
1.,
II..
Ix)w protein.
High protein.
12.6
13 0
22.2
21.0
3.4
3.7
3.3
1.2
2.2
106
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
The amount of hay fed to the different cows varied from 11
to 15 pounds; silage, from 20 to 30 pounds; bran, from 3 to 4.5
pounds; corn meal, from 3 to 4.5 pounds, and gluten meal,
from 2 to 3 pounds daily.
Average Amounts of Drij and DigcsPihle Matter consumed by Each Cow
daily {Potinds).
Preliminary Period.
Herd.
Character of
Ration.
Dry
Matter.
Pro-
tein.
Fiber.
Ex-
tract
Matter.
Fat.
Total.
Nu-
tritive
Ratio.
I
II., .
Low protein.
Low protein.
21.75
22.51
1.22
1.27
3.58
3.63
8.39
8.68
.42
.43
13.61
14 02
1:10.6
1:10.4
Period Proper.
I.. .. .
II.,
Low protein,
High protein, .
21.70
22.18
1.22
1,76
3. 58
3.60
8.37
8.14
.41
.41
13.58
13.91
1:10.5
1: 7.2
Herd T. averaged 912 pounds and Herd II. 903 pounds in
live weight. On the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight. Herd
I. would be receiving 1.34 pounds of digestible protein and
14.9 pounds total digestible matter, and Herd II., 1.95 pounds
digestible protein and 15.4 pounds of total digestible matter
daily in the period proper. The digestible matter' was calcu-
lated from actual analyses of the feeds, and average digestion
coefficients. It seems probable that the results are a trifle low,
and that more material was actually digested than the calcula-
tions show, for the animals appeared well nourished. Herd I.
gaining 225 pounds, and Herd II., 215 pounds during the
eleven weeks of the period proper. The low-protein ration was
evidently somewhat deficient in protein and too wide. The
high-protein ration must have satisfied the protein require-
ments, and on the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight, it con-
tained .6 of a pound more of digestible protein daily than did
the other ration.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 107
Weight of Animals at Beginning and End of Experiment {Pounds).
d
Herd.
-a
.2
1
a
i3
"5
>>
-a
3
0!
>>
03
>>
i
«
^
"o
T)
03
s
a
'3
FL|
m
Q
^
O
S
S
PQ
M
S
g
«
0^
O
I.. .
Beginning, .
1,167
837
835
732
778
1,010
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
End, .
1,230
892
865
707
813
1,077
-
-
-
-
-
-
+225
Beginning, .
_
_
_
_
_
672
843
758
1,018
1,007
1,013
_
II., . \
End, .
'
"
"
"
"
"
712
877
808
1,088
1,063
978
+215
Judging from the above weights it would appear that both
herds were well nourished and able to add slightly to their
live weight.
Crude Protein Balance {Pounds).
Preliminary Period: One Week.
Character of Ration.
Protein
digested.
Protein
for Main-
tenance.
Protein
for Milk.
Protein
Deficit.
Per-
centage
Deficit.
Low protein, Herd I.,
High protein. Herd II.,
51.3
53.3
30.4
30.4
27.18
28.66
—6.28
—5.76
—11.0
-9.7
Crude Protein Balance {Pounds).
Period Proper, Eleven Weeks.
o
a
h^
a
•a
-a
"g^
^s^
1
a
•s
3 C!
2.x
T3 a
t- 9 S
Herd.
■5
p a
S2;
o cj s
0)
C3
s
o
a
'S
8
at
2S
„, 0 3
O G <U
a
Q)
O
U
Ph
fL,
fu
w
^
Betty, .
118.58
37.30
45.87
35.41
42.6
Dora, .
124.74
46.35
53.55
24.84
24.9
May Rio,
128.59
42.20
49.82
36.57
39.7
II.,
High protein, j
Molly, .
133.21
56.76
52.48
23.97
21.1
Red II., .
174.02
55.79
70.01
48.22
38.3
Samantha,
133.21
53.68
56.54
22.99
20.9
Blanche,
104.72
64. 6S
43.55
-4.51
-^.2
Dai.sy, .
99.79
46 62
44.20
6.97
7.7
Fancy, .
92 40
45 82
49.49
—2.91
—3.1
I., .
Low protein, j
Gladys, .
93.90
38.81
50.88
4.21
4.7
Maude, .
77.77
42.85
34.98
—.06
±
May,
96 25
56 27
49.49
—9.51
—9 0
108
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Influence of Protein on Milk Production (Pounds).
Preliminary period: both herds, low-protein ration.
"o
'5
a >>
•5-2 £
Oj o S.
Pi
2
Q
73.
S
Ph .
Ration.
Ic3
ercentage
or Excess
over
ments.
o
&
"o
2
o
2
Oco
is
<
Q
PL,
H
<
>H
>-l
;>H
Low,
-
1.22
—11.0
747.8
17.80
108.95
37.97
27.18
Low,
-
1.27
—9.7
821.3
19.55
115.66
40.67
28.66
Percentage excess,
Herd IV. over
-
-
-
9.8
-
6.20
7.00
5.50
Herd I.
Period proper:
Herd I., low protein; Herd IL, high protein
Low,
High, .
912
903
1 22
1.76
31.3
7,415.6
8,906.5
16.05
19.28
1,102.10
1,294.80
398.90
473.00
272.60
328.30
Percentage increase,
high over low.
-
-
-
20.1
17.50
18.60
20.00
It was hardly possible, with the cows at our disposal, to
select two herds of six each that would produce substantially
equal amounts of milk. It will be seen, therefore, that Herd
II. in the preliminary period was producing nearly 10 per
cent, more milk and from 5.5 to 7 per cent, more protein and
fat than Herd I.
In the second or period proper, covering eleven weeks, this
percentage was increased from 9.8 to 20 in case of the milk;
substantially similar increases were also noted in case of the
milk ingredients. Otherwise expressed, Herd II., receiving
the high-protein ration, nearly maintained its flow during the
second period, while each cow in Herd 1. showed an average
daily decrease of 1.75 pounds, or practically 10 per cent.
In the preliminary period both herds were receiving from
10 to 11 per cent, less protein than was actually needed for
maintenance and milk. In the second period the low-protein
herd had approximately reached a balance between income and
outgo, while the high-protein herd was receiving 31.3 per
cent, of crude protein in excess of requirements. The effect
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ;jl.
109
of this extra protein may be elearly seen in iiiaintaiiiinii; the
flow of milk. It would be of interest to know whether it would
have maintained its influence throughout the entire milking
period. The herd receiving the shortage of protein was obliged
to adjust itself to the low-protein diet. It was able to increase
somewhat in live weight (fatO, but its milk flow was of
necessity noticeably checked. It is quite probable that some
cows of pronounced ability as milkers would not shrink as
rapidly as others on a low-protein diet, but for a time would
have taken the needed protein from that stored in the body.
Effect of Prolcin on Average Composition of the Milk {Per Cent.).
Herds.
Period.
Character of
Ration.
Total
Solids.
Fat.
Solids
not Fat.
Protein.
I
I
I.,
II., .
Low protein.
Low protein,
14.57
14.86
5.08
5.38
9.49
9.48
3.63
3.69
Increase,
-
-
.29
.30
±
.06
II
II
I..
II., .
Low protein,
High protein,
14.08
14.54
4.95
5.31
9.13
9.23
3.49
3.69
Increase,
-
, -
.46
.36
.10
.20
The above average figures were secured by taking the average
of the weekly analysis of the milk produced by each cow and
multiplying it by the pounds of milk produced, the result being
the pounds of the several ingredients produced by each cow.
These were added, and gave the total milk and milk ingredi-
ents produced by each herd. The total ingredients divided by
the total milk produced gave the average percentages. The
fact that the milk produced by each herd did not show the same
composition in the preliminary period prevents a direct com-
parison. It will be observed, however, that in case of Herd I.
the milk in the second period changed but little in composition
from that produced in the first period, the principal difference
being a slight increase in the fat, due evidently to the ad-
vance in lactation. Herd IT. produced milk also with only
slight variations in the two periods. The fat increased .86 of 1
110 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
per cent., being abont the same increase as with Herd I. The
protein showed rather more of an increase than in case of Herd
L, and this may possibly be attributed to the influence of the
extra protein in the food. It must be remembered that Herd
1. received a ration deficient in protein, and the increased
amount given to Herd 11. may have had a slight eftect upon
the milk protein. With this exception it is safe to state that
the protein was entirely without influence upon the composi-
tion of the milk.
Experiment VII. — 1907-08.
This experiment was conducted with six cows, the only ones
avaibible at the time, and was by the group method.
The object of tlie experiment was jJrimarily to note the effect
of rations low and high in jjrotein (a) upon the condition of
the animals, (b) upon the yield of milk, and (c) upon the rela-
tive milk shrinkage.
TJie plan of the experiment consisted in dividing six cows
into two herds of three each, wdiich were known as Herds D and
E. The first ten days were regarded as preliminary, to accus-
tom the two herds to their distinct rations. Herd D received
the low-protein ration and Herd E the one high in protein.
Wcighi7ig Cows. — Each of the cows was weighed for three
consecutive days at the beginning and end of the experiment,
and every fourth week during its progress. They were weighed
in the afternoon before being fed or watered.
Sampling Feeds. — The hay was sampled in the usual way
at the beginning of the experiment, and every two weeks there-
after. The grain was sampled daily and preserved in glass-
stoppered bottles, and eventually tested for dry matter and for
the ordinary ingredients.
Character of Feeds. — The hay w^as a mixture of grasses, the
finer varieties, such as Kentucky blue grass, predominating. It
contained a noticeable admixture of clover.
Samplinrj MiU\ — The cows were milked twice daily, and
the single milking of each cow in each herd was poured into a
common receptacle, mixed and the herd mixture sampled. This
method was continued for five consecutive days, each single
1911.]
PUBLIC DOCOIENT — No. :J1.
Ill
sample composited, luid eventually tested for solids, fat and
nitroiien. It will therefore be seen that herd samples only were
analyzed, and not the product of individual cows.
History of Coxos.
Herd.
Cows.
Breed.
Age
(Years).
Last Calf
dropped.
Days
with Calf
at Begin-
ning of
Trial.
D, . . .
E, . . .
Samantha, .
May Rio,
Daisy, .
Fancy,
Gladys,
Red III., .
Jerscy-Holsteiu, .
Pure Jersey,
Grade Jersey,
Grade Jersey,
Pure Jersey,
Grade Jersey,
4
4
8
7
4
2
September 3
September 12
August 23
September 1
October 7
October 27
8
I)i(ralio)i of iJte E.r peri mot t.
IIekd.
Character of
Ration.
Dates.
Number
of
Weeks.
Cows.
D, . . .
E, . . .
Low protein, .
High protein, .
Nov. 23, 1907, through
Mav 8, 1908.
Nov. 23, 1907, through
May 8, 1908.
24
24
Samantha, May Rio,
Daisy.
Fancy, Gladys, Red
III.
Bat ions consumed daily by Each Cow (Pounds).
Herd.
Character of
Ration.
Cows.
Hay.
Wheat
Bran.
Corn
Meal.
Gluten
Feed.
D, .
E, . . .
Low protein,
High protein.
[ Samantha,
May Rio,
[ Daisy,
[Gladys, .
Fancy, .
[Red III.,
20
20
20
22
•16
3.40
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.40
2.50
4.50
4.00
4.00
3 90
4.60
3.40
Average,
Herd D,
Average,
Herd E,
-
-
20.7
19.3
3.13
2.97
4.16
3.97
The difference in the two rations consisted in the substitu-
tion of corn meal for gluten feed. The latter, as is well known,
112
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
is a by-product of the former, hence the general character of
the two variables was the same, and particularly the protein.
Diyestible Matter in Daily Rations {Pounds;).
Character of
Ration.
Cows.
Digestible Nutrients.
Nu-
tritive
Ratio.
Herd.
Pro-
tein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hy-
drates.
Total.
D, .
E, .
Low protein, .
High protein, .
[ Samantha,
May Rio,
I Daisy,
[Gladys, .
l Fancy, .
Red HI.,
1.44
1.29
1.29
1.88
2.14
1.58
.48
.43
.43
.38
.43
.31
14.27
12.87
12.87
12.23
13.65
9.97
16.19
14.59
14.59
14.49
16.22
11.86
1:10.7
1:10.6
1:10.6
1:6.9
1:6.8
1:6.6
Average,
Herd D,
Average,
Herd E,
-
-
1.34
1.87
.45
.37
13.34
11.95
15.12
14.19
1:10.6
1:6.7
The above figures were secured from the actual analyses of
the feeds and average digestive coefficients. It is clear that
Hei'd 1^ received a ration with a very wide nutritive ratio,
while Herd E received a ration with a medium ratio.
Average Weight of Cov\s at BeginniiKj and End of Period (Pounds).
Herd D.
Herd E.
Daisy.
May Rio.
Samantha.
Fancy.
Gladys.
Red HI.
Beginning,
End,
920
923
898
907
1,003
1,063
973
1,013
810
818
680
782
Total gain. Herd D, 69 pounds.
Total gain. Herd E, 150 pounds.
Herd E made a larger gain than Herd D, but this appears to
be due largely to the gain made by Red III., a heifer with
first calf.
Crude Protein Balance (Pounds).
Herd.
Character of
Ration.
Average
Weight.
Protein
digested
(N.X6.25).
(Protein
required
for Main-
tenance
(N.X6.25.)
Protein
required
for Milk
(N.X6.25).
Protein
Excess
or
Deficit.
Per-
centage
Excess
or
Deficit.
D, .
E, .
Low protein.
High protein.
935
832
675.36
942.48
328.00
291.75
351.50
389.37
—4.14
261.36
— .6
38.4
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
113
The total pi'oteiu digested was calculated from the amount
digested daily multiplied by the number of days of the experi-
ment. The protein for nuiintenance was calculated from the
average weight of each herd, allowing .7 of a pound of digesti-
ble protein per 1,000 pounds live weight. The protein in the
milk was calculated from the actual analysis of the milk. It is
admitted that the above results are only approximate, being
secured partly from average figures, and on the basis of crude
in place of true protein. They indicate, however, that Herd D
was receiving a ration rather deficient in protein, and that Herd
E was receiving at least 38.4 per cent, over that required for
maintenance and milk.
Milk Yield and Milk Shrinkage.
Character of
Ration.
Milk produced and Shrinkage.
Herd.
Total
Yield
(Pounds).
First Week
(Pounds).
Last Week
(Pounds).
Per Cent.
Shrinkage.
D
E.
Low protein,
High protein.
9,287.1
11,161.5
446.3
514.5
368.8
401.6
17.4
21.9
In spite of the fact that the three cows comprising Herd
D received hardly sufficient protein for maintenance and milk
produced, they did not shrink as much during a period of
twenty-four weeks as did the three cows in Herd E, which re-
ceived substantially 38 per cent, protein in excess of supposed
requirciiicnts. Such a result can only be explained on the
ground that the animals were too few in number to give accu-
rate results by the grouj) method, and that individuality rather
than food appeared to be the controlling factor. See also Exper-
iment VIII.
Experiment VIII. — 1908-09.
This experiment was planned primarily to study the protein
requirements of dairy animals. It will not show the effect of
protein upon the chemical composition of the milk.
Plan of the Experiment. — Inasmuch as the cows in the herd
calved at different times, the experiment was planned with
pairs of cows, i.e., each pair of cows, when ready, was started,
114 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
one on a diet approximately sufficient to furnish protein for
maintenance plus that contained in the milk, and the other on
a diet containing some ^ pound more protein daily than the
maintenance and milk requirements.
Duration of the Experiment. — The experiment was planned
to continue substantially through a milking period, or until the
animals were so far advanced in lactation as to cease to respond
to the influence of food.
Weighing the Cows. — Each animal was weighed for three
consecutive days at the beginning of the period, and for three
days each two weeks thereafter.
Sampling Feeds. — The hay fed was sampled at the begin-
ning of the period for each pair of cows, and each two weeks
thereafter. The samples were placed in glass-stoppered bottles,
taken to the laboratory and dry-matter determinations made
at once. The method of sampling has been described in preced-
ing experiments.
Each kind of grain was sampled daily during the process of
weighing out, and the composite samples preserved in glass-
stoppered bottles. Dry-matter determinations were made once
each month, and the monthly samples composited.
Character of Feeds. — It was intended to procure one lot
of ha}' of the same quality sufficient to last during the entire
experiment. Owing to several unfortunate circumstances this
was not possible. Three different lots were secured, and com-
posite samples of each analyzed. The digestibility was not
determined, but approximate coefficients applied, depending
upon the analysis and general appearance of the hay. The
several grains were procured in large amounts and average
digestion coefficient applied.
Sampling Mill'. — The milk of each cow was sampled for
five consecutive days at the beginning of the period, and each
two weeks thereafter. It was tested for total solids, for fat
by the Babcock method in duplicate, and for nitrogen by the
Kjeldahl method.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
115
History of the Cows.
Pairs.
Cows.
Breed.
Age
(Years).
Last Calf
dropped.
Daily
Yield at
Beginning
of Ex-
periment.
Pounds.
■ 1
.... . . I
III., .
.v., . . {
v.. . . 1
Minnie,
Mary, .
Samantha, .
Chub, .
Betty, .
May Rio,
Daisy, .
Cecile, .
Red m., .
Betty II., .
Grade Holstein, .
Grade Holstein, .
Jersey-Holstein, .
Grade Holstein, .
High-grade Jersey,
Pure Jersey, .
High-grade Jersey,
Pure Jersey, .
High-grade Jersey,
High-grade Jersey,
8
10
6
10
4
6
11
4
2
2
September 12,
September 5,
August 27,
September 1,
September 25,
October 13,
October 22,
October 10,
October 30,
26.0
26.0
26,0
20.0
26.3
27.5
28.7
25.7
29.0
Duration of Experiment.
Cows.
Preliminary
Period began.
Period Proper.
Number
of Days.
Minnie,
October 10,
October 17 through April .30,
196
Mary,
October 10,
October 17 through April 30,
196
Samantlia,
October 10,
October 17 through May 28,
224
Chub,
October 10,
October 17 through May 28,
224
Betty,
October 24,
November 14 through June 11,
210
May Rio, .
October 24,
November 14 through June 11,
210
Daisy,
October 31,
November 14 through May 28,
196
Cecile,
October 31,
November 14 through May 28,
196
Red III., .
November 28,
December 12 through June 11,
182
Betty II., .
December 17,
December 26 through June 11,
168
IIG EXPERIMENT STATION.
L'ations consumed daily by Each Cow (Pounds).
[Jan.
Character of
Ration.
Number
of
Days.
Cows.
Hay.
Wheat
Bran.
Corn
Meal.
Gluten
Feed.
196
Mary, .
21.4
3.0
-
3.93
224
Chub, .
17.6
3.0
-
3.51
High protein, .
210
Betty, .
19.4
3.0
.80
3.87
196
Cecile, .
17.0
3.0
.43
3.48
168
Betty II.,
16.4
3.0
1.00
3.00
196
Minnie,
20.0
3.0
3.51
.51
224
Samantha,
22.0
3.9
3.90
-
Low protein,
210
May Rio,
19.6
3.0
4.80
-
196
Daisy, .
19.3
3.0
4.00
.44
182
Red III.,
19.5
3.0
4.00
.41
Average, high protein, .
-
-
18.4
3.0
.74
3.56
Average, low protein.
-
-
20.1
3.2
4.10
.45
The substantial difference in the rations of the two lots of
cows consisted in the fact that the high-protein cows received
the gluten feed and the low-protein cows the corn meal.
Dry and Digestible Matter in Daily Fat ions (Pounds).
Dry
Matter.
Digestible.
Character of
Ration.
Cows.
Pro-
tein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hy-
drates.
Total.
Nu-
tritive
Ratio.
High protein, .
Low protein, .
Mary, .
Chub, .
Betty, .
Cecile, .
Betty II.,
Minnie, .
Samantha,
May Rio,
Daisy, .
Red III.,
25.1
21.3
23.9
21.1
20.7
23.8
26.0
24.2
22.7
23.7
2.05
1.79
1.95
1.74
1.61
1.47
1.44
1.36
1.34
1.36
.55
.38
.43
.38
.38
.42
.43
.44
.39
.41
12.26
10.41
12.04
11.06
10.32
12.23
12.90
12.70
11. el
12.63
14.86
12.58
14.42
13.18
12.31
14.12
14.77
14.50
13.34
14.40
1:6.57
1:6.28
1:6.66
1:6.84
1:6.93
1:8.95
1:9.62
1:10 51
1:9.30
1:9.95
Average, high protein,
Average, low protein.
-
22.4
24.1
1.83
1.39
.42
.42
11.22
12.41
13.47
14.27
1:6.65
1:9,61
It will he seen that the cows receiving the larger amount of
protein did not receive by .8 of a pound as much total digesti-
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
117
ble matter as the low-protein cows. The amount of food fed
daily to each cow was ganged partly by the appetite of the
animal. The high-protein cows received only .44 of a pound
more digestible protein than the other herd.
Influence of Eations on Weight (Pounds).
Characteu of Ration.
Cows.
Average
Weight.
Weight at
Beginning.
Weight at
End.
Total
Gain or
Loss.
High protein,
Low protein,
Mary, .
Chub, .
Betty, .
Cecile, .
Betty II.,
Minnie, .
Samantha,
May Rio,
Daisy, .
Red III.,
1,074
1,011
869
sor)
743
971
1,068
826
830
837
1,047 ,
955
843
783
742
923
995
825
798
807
1,102
1,067
. 895
827
745
1,018
1,142
827
862
867
-f55
+ 112
+52
+44
+03
+95
+ 147
+02
+64
+60
Herd average, high.
Herd average, low.
-
900
906
874
869
927
943
+266
+368
The cows receiving the low-protein ration gained rather more
in weight than the other herd ; whether this was due to the
character of the ration, or whether it simply depended upon
the individuality of the animal, it is difficult to say.
Tnie^ Protein Balance (Pounds).
Character of
Ration.
Cows.
True
Protein
digested.
Protein
required
for Main-
tenance.
Protein
found in
Milk.
(N.X6.25).
Excess
over
Main-
tenance
and Milk
Require-
ments.
Per-
centage
Excess.
High protein, .
Low protein.
Mary, .
Chub, .
Betty, .
Cecile, .
Betty II.,
Minnie,
Samantha, .
May Rio,
Daisy, .
Red III.,
350.97
368.24
380.61
316 38
256.82
277.15
320.40
284.48
259.20
247.13
147.35
158 52
127.74
110.45
87.37
133.22
167.46
121.42
113.87
106.63
143.10
124.71
156.35
136.07
114.69
143.73
168.14
136.07
140.52
119.58
60.52
85.01
96.52
69.86
54.75
00.20
—15.20
26.99
4.80
20.92
20.8
30.0
34.0
28.3
27.1
+
—4.5
10.5
19
9.2
The high-protein cows received an average of 28 per cent,
of protein over maintenance and milk requirements, while in
case of the low-protein cows the percentage varied from an
actual shortage of 4.5 per cent, to a surplus of 10.5 per cent.
' Amines were determined and deducted from the total protein, the above results being ex-
pressed as tru-^ albuminoids.
118
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
R^
f/2
^
Weekly
hrinkage
(Per
Cent.).
0
■<
US
t>-
y^
to
CO
(M
05
o>
«n
t^
a>
•*
■*
"^
^
■^
'^
'"'
'^
'"'
"
'^
M
S
n
M
^1
0-3
o
-*
"5
O
00
o
o
u:s
CM
o
00
0
0
05
CO
■*
CO
(M
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1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
119
Influence of Protein on Milk Shrinkage {Average Results).
Character of
K.^TION.
Weight of
Cow
(Pounds).
Digestible
Protein
consumed
dailv per
Cow
(Pounds).
Percentage
Excess of
Protein over
Require-
ments.
Total
Shrinkage
(Per Cent.).
Weekly
Shrinkage
(Per Cent.).
High protein,
Low protein.
900
906
1.83
1.39
22
3
34.7
33.9
1.4
1.4
The average amount of digestible protein consumed daily
l)_v each of the high-protein cows (1.83 pounds) was not quite
as high as intended, hence the difference between the low and
b.igli protein rations was not particularly pronounced, i^ever-
theless, one would expect if the conditions were reasonal)ly
satisfactory that the low-protein cows would have shrunk in
their milk yield (over an average of two hundred days) rather
more than the high-protein cows. Such, however, was not the
case, the shrinkage of both herds being substantially i«dentical.
The only explanation that can be offered is the undue influence
of individuality and the small number of cows in each group.
For example, Mary shrunk 49 per cent, during the experiment,
it being characteristic of this animal to dry off quite rapidly
after she had been four months with calf; Daisy also had
such a tendency. The individuality of each animal, as well
as its age and condition, all have a pronounced influence,
especially when the experiment is extended over a long period
of time, and in order to arrive at the truth a large number of
animals must be used with as near similar conditions as it
is possible to secure. Is it probable that if an animal receives
sufficient protein to supply the daily demands of her body
(maintenance) and of the milk produced, she will not shrink
in her yield during a milking period any more than when she
is receiving 25 to 50 per cent, protein in excess of the actual re-
quirements? In other words, is it not possible that the excess
protein acts as a stimulus for a time, after which the in-
dividuality of the animal becomes the more pronounced factor ?
120 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Conclusions.
The following general conclusions may be drawn from the
experiments reported : —
1. A large excess of digestible protein (1.5 pounds, or 100
per cent.) above the protein minimum increased the flow of
milk some 15 per cent, in experiments extending over periods
of four weeks.
2. No particular difference was noted in the milk yield in
case of two herds of cows receiving the same amount of total
digestible matter, one receiving 65 per cent, and the other 122
per cent, of digestible protein above the protein minimum. Such
a result indicates, at least, that the former excess was sufficient.
3. A 50 per cent, excess of digestible protein daily above the
protein minimum in an experiment by the reversal method,
extending over a period of nine weeks, produced some 5.9 per
cent, more milk than did a ration with 21 per cent, excess
protein.
4. Under similar conditions an excess, above the minimum,
of 05 per cent, digestible protein produced 7.4 per cent, more
milk than did an excess of 39 per cent, (experiment covered
twenty-six days ) .
5. In experiment YL, extending over a period of eleven
weeks with twelve cows, by the group method, an excess of
.54 of a pound of protein, or 31.3 per cent., over the protein
minimum, produced an apparent increase of 10 per cent, in
the milk yield.
In experiment VIIL, extending over periods of twenty-four
to thirty weeks with ten cows, by the group method, the cows
receiving the protein minimum did not shrink any more than
those receiving each .44 of a pound, or 28 per cent., protein
abo\'e the minimum.
G. The group method of experimentation is best suited for
conducting experiments where a relatively large number of ani-
mals — twenty or more — is available. With a less number the
influence of individuality is altogether too pronounced.
7. An excess of 30 per cent, of digestible crude protein above
the protein minimum (equal to 1.80 pounds of protein per
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 121
day) will be productive of satisfactory results iu case of cows
weighing 900 pounds and i)roducing daily 12 quarts of 4 per
cent, milk.^
An excess of 50 per cent, of digestible crude protein above
the protein minimum is believed to be ample for all ordinary
requirements.
8. Protein in excess of the above suggested amounts may
temporarily increase the milk yield, but it seems probable that
in many cases the influence of individuality is likely to be
more pronounced than the efi^ect of the protein consumed.
9. Under the usual conditions, varying amounts of protein
appear to be without influence upon the composition of the
milk,
' Armsby, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 346, United States Department of Agriculture, expresses
substantially the same idea in allowing .05 of a pound of digestible true protein for each pound
of average milk, in addition to the maintenance requirement of .5 of a pound of digestible true
protein per 1,000 pounds live weight. It is possible that animals can even do very good work
with .04 of a. pound of protein for each pound of milk.
122 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
THE DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC IN
INSECTICIDES.
BY E. B. HOLLAND.
During the past three years the writer ^ has given considerable
time to the study of arsenical insecticides, with special reference
to their manufacture, composition and use, — the main object
of which was to provide the entomological department of this
station with chemicals of known composition, suitable for an
extended investigation to determine their effect in practical ap-
plication under varying climatic and atmospheric conditions.
For more than a decade the analysis of arsenicals has received
marked attention because of the high value of a number of these
salts as insecticides. The sale of inferior, adulterated or imita-
tion products lacking in efficiency, or causing severe injury to
foliage, has rendered necessary a certain amount of supervision
by the agricultural experiment stations of the country. In sev-
eral States special laws have been enacted to regulate the sale
and to provide for an inspection of such materials. Arsenic as
trioxide or pentoxide is the active constituent of these com-
pounds, and various methods of several distinct types and nu-
merous modificatious have been proposed for its determination.
Some of the methods are applicable to arsenous acid and others
to arsenic acid.
Methods.
As the work planned l)v the entomological department would
require many analyses, it was desirable that the methods adopted
should be reasonably short and simple, though accuracy would
1)0 the controlling factor. The literature on the determination
of arsenic was reviewed at some length. The results, while
somewhat overwhelming, can be roughly summarized under
gravimetric methods, volumetric methods and processes for the
elimination of substances liable to affect the determinatiou. A
» Assisted by Dr. R. D. MacLaurin, Prof. S. F. Howard, C. D. Kennedy and J. C. Reed.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 123
classification of this character is open to criticism, but will serve
the purpose intended.
The gravimetric methods include the hydrogen sulfide pre-
cipitation of arsenous acid ^ weighable as arsenous sulfide after
removal of the excess sulfur; the jSTeher modification- of the
Bunsen method," precipitating arsenic acid with hydrogen sul-
fide, Aveighable as arsenic sulfide ; the modified Levol method,
precipitating arsenic acid with " magnesia mixture," weighable
as magnesium pyro-arsehate ; and the Werther method,^ precipi-
tatiug arsenic acid with uranyl acetate, weighable as uranyl
pj'ro-arsenate. The inherent faults of the sulfide methods render
them impracticable. The modified Levol method, the most
])rominent of the gravimetric, is complicated, tedious and tends
towards low results. All of these methods are time consumers,
and none of them appear to have met with favor, having of late
been almost entirely superseded by volumetric.
The volumetric methods include the Kessler method,^ oxidiz-
ing arsenous acid with potassium bichromate and titrating the
excess chromic acid with standard ferrous sulfate, using potas-
sium ferri-cyanide to determine the end point ; the permanganate
method, titrating arsenous acid with standard potassium perman-
ganate to a rose color; the ]\lohr method, titrating arsenous acid
with standard iodine in the presence of sodium bicarbonate,
using starch paste as indicator; the Bunsen method,*^ based on
the difference in amount of chlorine evolved from hydrochloric
acid by a given weight of potassium bichromate in the presence
of arsenous acid, the gas being conducted into potassium iodide
and the free iodine titrated with standard sodium thiosulfate,
using starch paste as indicator ; the Krickhaus method,^ reducing
arsenic acid to arsenous with hydrochloric acid and potassium
iodide, and titrating the free iodine with standard thiosulfate ;
the Bennett modification ^ of the Pierce method,^ precipitating
arsenic acid with silver nitrate and titrating the silver in the
precipitate with potassium sulphocyanate, according to Vol-
hard; ^^ and the Bodeker method,^ ^ titrating arsenic acid with
» Fresenius, Quan. Chem. Anal. » Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 21, 431 (1899).
= Ztschr. Analyt. Chem., 32, 45 (1893). » Proc. Col. Sci. Soc, Vol. 1.
' Ann. Chem. Pharm., 192, 305. '" Liebig's Ann. Chem., 190, 1 (1878).
* Jour. Prakt. Chem., 43, 346 (1848). •' Ann. Chem. Pharm., 117, 195.
» Poggend. Ann., 118, 17, Series 4 (1863).
s Ann. Chem. Pharm., 86, 290.
' Engin. and Min. Jour., 90, 357. See Sutton for earlier references.
124 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
standard uranyl nitrate, using potassium ferrocyanide to deter-
mine the end point. The Kessler and Bodeker methods are ob-
jectionable in their requirement of an '^ outside " indicator.
The Bunsen and Bennett methods are lengthy, and demand very
careful manipulation. The permanganate titration is not as
sensitive as the iodine, and the Krickhaus method offers no ad-
vantages in its application to arsenic acid over a similar reduc-
tion and titration with iodine. In other words, the iodine titra-
tion method (Mohr) seemed to us rather superior to any otlier
in point of accuracy, manipnlation and time, and was adopted
for the work in view.
There are a number of processes that are noted more particu-
larly as a means of eliminating impurities likely to effect the
arsenic determination, among which may be mentioned the dis-
tillation processes of Fischer,^ Piloty and Stock,- Stead, ^ and
Jannasch and Seidel,^ using hydrochloric acid in connection
with reducing substances such as ferrous salts, hydrogen sulfide,
and potassium bromide and hydrazine hydrochloride. The above
list of methods is far from complete, but attention has been called
to practically every type applicable to commercial products.
loDiXE Method (Moiir).
As previously stated, the iodine method appeared to off'er the
greatest advantages, and was selected. A clear understanding
of the character and limitations of the reaction underlying the
method is necessary at the outset. Iodine is an indirect oxidizer,
acting on the elements of water with the formation of hydriodic
acid and the liberation of oxygen.
AS2O3 + 4 I-f 2 HoO = AS2O5 + 4 HI.
The oxidation cannot be conducted in an acid or neutral solu-
tion because of the reversible action of the hydriodic acid. If
the latter is neutralized with sodium bicarbonate as rapidly as
produced, the reaction will proceed to completion. Caustic
alkali or carbonate cannot be employed, as they absorb iodine,
the former being especially active. The reaction between starch
1 Ztschr. Analyt. Chem., 21, 266 (1882).
2 Ber. Deut. Chem. Gesell., 30, 1649 (1897).
3 Sutton, Vol. An.il., Edit. 9, 159 (1904).
« Ber. Deut. Chem. Gesell., 43, 1218 (1910).
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 125
and ioJiiK! in the presence of liydriodie acid or solu1)le iodide is
one of the most sensitive in analytical chemistry, forming the
characteristic bine iodide of starch. A more delicate indicator
conkl not be desired. Since the method was first api)lied to the
analysis of arsenicals nnnierons modifications have been devised
to insnre complete solution of the arsenic, to prevent oxidation,
to eliminate or render innocuous substances that might effect the
titration, and to enlarge its field of application so as to readily
include the arsenates. The Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists began work on insecticides in 1899 and has rendered
valuable service.
New Processes.
The introduction of the Thorn Smith process ^ marked a turn-
ing point m the analysis of arsenicals. It was intended particu-
larly for Paris green, and is the official method for that sub-
stance. Solution of the arsenic is effected by boiling the sample
with a slight excess of sodium hydrate, which readily unites
with the free arsenous acid, and also with the combined after
displacing the copper. In presence of a reducing substance like
sodium arsenite, the copper is precipitated as cuprous oxide and
a portion of the arsenous acid oxidized to arsenic. This oxida-
tion necessitates a subsequent reduction of the filtrate with
hydrochloric acid and potassium iodide (hydriodic acid), and the
removal of the excess iodine with thiosulfate. The solution is
neutralized with dry sodium carbonate, an excess of sodium bi-
carbonate added, and titrated with iodine. The process is
accurate, though the double titration is objectionable.
Avery and Beans devised a very ingenious process - noted
for its simplicity. The Paris green is pulverized, solution
effected with concentrated hydrochloric acid in the cold, neu-
tralized Avith sodium carbonate, the precipitated copper redis-
solved with sodium potassium tartrate and titrated as usual.
The copper held by the alkaline tartrate colors the solution but
does not effect the titration. Plydrochloric acid, however, is a
poor solvent for free arsenic, and unreliable, which constitutes a
very serious objection to the process. Avery noted this error
and advised ^ that samples showing a tendency to separate white
» Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 21, 769 (1899). 3 Jour. Amcr. Chem. Soc, 25, 1096 (1903).
2 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 23, 485 (1901).
126 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
arsenic slionld be treated with N/2 hydrochloric acid, 5 to 10
cubic centimeters for each ,1 of a gram, and boiled gently. In
case arsenic remains undissolved, a cold saturated solution of
sodium acetate, 3 grams salt for each .1 of a gram of substance,
is added, and boiling continued until solution is effected. By
another modification ^ suggested by Avery, and reported by
Thatcher,- 1 gram sami:)le is boiled five minutes with 25 cubic
centimeters of sodium acetate solution (1-2), dissolving the free
arsenic which is removed by filtration. The residue is dissolved
in dilute hydrochloric acid and both solutions titrated.
Haywood attempted, in several ways,^ to modify the original
A very-Beans process so as to insure solution of the free arsenic.
After treating the sample with a slight excess of hydrochloric
acid at laboratory temperature, sodium carbonate was added
and the solution boiled. In another case sodium bicarbonate
was employed, but the results were unsatisfactory in both in-
stances, due to more or less reduction of copper and accompany-
ing oxidation of arsenous acid. Accurate results were secured,
however, by filtering off the hydrochloric acid solution and boil-
ing the residue with 5 grams of sodium bicarbonate, titrating
both solutions.
Haywood proposed still another modification ^ which might
be considered a simplified Avery-Thatcher process ; ^ .4 of a
gram sample is boiled ten minutes with 25 cubic centimeters
sodium acetate solution (1-2) to dissolve free arsenic, and con-
centrated hydrochloric acid carefully added UJitil solution is
effected. After neutralizing with a solution of sodium carbonate,
avoiding an excess, alkaline tartrate and sodium bicarbonate are
added and titrated as usual.
The Avery, Avery-Thatcher and Avery-Haywood processes
employ the same reagents, dift'cring only in their application.
The co-operative investigation ^ of the association in 1904 showed
that the three above modifications, together with the Haywood,
gave closely agreeing results, with little, if any, advantage in the
* Optional official method, Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem.
2 Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 20, 196 (1903).
3 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 25, 963 (1903).
* Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 20, 197 (1903). Optional official method of the association.
* Loco citato. .
« Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 21, 98 (1904).
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 127
two-solution processes over the one. In 1905 the results ^ with
the Avery-Thatcher and Avery-Haywood modifications were not
as satisfactory though the average difference was not excessive.
In weighing the merits of the Thorn Smith process and various
modifications of the Avery-Beans, with apparently little choice
as to accuracy, the Avery or Avery-Haywood process, with one
titration of a single solution, certainly appeals to chemists in
'' control " work from the standpoint of manipulation, possible
mechanical losses and time. This does not warrant any less
care in conducting the analysis, but, if anything, demands
greater attention. The essential features of the Avery-Haywood
process have been employed at the Massachusetts station for
the work on arsenites, though considerably modified as to detail.
Practice at Massachusetts Station.
Having adopted Thatcher's suggestion ^ as to ratio of sample
to acetate solution, 1 to 25, and finding 25 cubic centimeters
rather inadequate for proper boiling and agitation, double quan-
tity of each is taken. To prevent slight loss of sample in trans-
ferring to flask, due to both adhesion and dusting, boats of
folded filter paper are employed, and found very serviceable,
particularly for Paris green and arsenic for standard solution.
After boiling the solution five minutes with acetate, the direc-
tions call for the careful addition of concentrated hydrochloric
acid until solution is effected. Such a procedure in our hands
gave extremely variable results and generally a low test for
arsenic. This error necessitated several weeks of experiment-
ing, and was found to be due to the addition of concentrated
acid, dilute acid (1-3) giving uniform results in practically
every instance, and a higher test. Probably this has been one of
the sources of trouble v/itli the chemists reporting on association
samples by the above process in past years. Neutralizing with
sodium carbonate, in dry form or concentrated solution, will
introduce an error if added in excess. The use of sodium bicar-
bonate is preferable for the purpose as the latter salt does not
absorb iodine and eliminates an unnecessary reagent. As con-
' Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 22, 27 (1905).
2 Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 21, 99 (1904).
128 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
centratioii lias a certain influence on titration, it is advisable to
maintain approximately the same volume in every case. The
tendency of some solutions to become muddy on titration can
often be relieved by additional bicarbonate, though the condi-
tions involved seem to have no appreciable influence on the
results. The quality of all reagents employed in the determina-
tion should be proved by blank tests, which should not exceed
.10 of a cubic centimeter iodine solution for the amounts em-
ployed. Some lots of bicarbonate have been found unfit for
such work. Due recognition should be given the blank in calcu-
lating results.
Considerable trouble is often experienced in determining in-
soluble matter with hydrochloric acid, due to the splitting off of
Avhite arsenic, especially with Paris gi'een. To offset the diffi-
culty it was found advisable to combine the determination with
that of preparing the arsenic solution by simply filtering off the
residue. The points noted above may be briefly summarized : —
Transfer 2 grams of finely ground sample, together with 50
cubic centimeters of sodium acetate (1-2), to a 500 cubic centi-
meter graduated flask, and boil five minutes. Cool under tap,
add about 00 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid (1-3), and
shake until solution is effected. Make to volume and filter.
Pipette 25 or 50 cubic centimeters into an Erlenmeyer flask,
neutralize with dry sodium bicarbonate, add 25 cubic centimeters
of sodium potassium tartrate ^ (1-10), to redissolve precipitated
copper, approximately 3 grams of sodium bicarbonate, water
sufficient to make a volume of 100 cubic centimeters, 2 cubic
centimeters starch paste (1-200), and titrate with 1^/20 iodine
to a permanent blue color. Toward the end of the reaction cork
the flask and shake vigorously, to insure proper end point. Cal-
culate results as arsenous oxide. The residue in the graduated
flask is brought onto the filter, well washed, calcined in a porce-
lain crucible and weighed as insoluble matter.
The above process has given excellent results with copper
aceto-arsenite, copper arsenite and calcium arsenite. Sodium
acetate does not prevent hydrolysis of copper and calcium arse-
nites, as in the case of Paris green, but serves to take up free
' Used only with the copper arsenites.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 129
arsenic. The presence of such inii)uritics as cuprous and ferrous
compounds, sulfurous and nitrous acids or other oxidizable sub-
stances is a source of error by the iodine titration method.
Iodine Method for Aese nates.
The increasing use of lead arsenate as an insecticide resulted
in a demand for a rapid volumetric method for the determina-
tion of the arsenic acid. The Gooch and Browning process,^ as
modified by Haywood,^ serves to readily reduce arsenic acid to
arsenous, in which form the iodine titration method is applicable.
The process in our hands did not at first prove satisfactory, but
eventually yielded concordant results after minor changes. As
the differences are largely a matter of detail, not involving
principle, only the modified process will be given.
Transfer 2 grams of finely ground sample, together with 60
cubic centimeters of nitric acid (1-3), to a 500 cubic centimeter
graduated flask; bring to boil, cool, make to volume and filter.
Pipette 50 or 100 cubic centimeters into a 150 cubic centimeter
Jena Griffin beaker, add 10 cubic centimeters of sulfuric acid
(2^1), evaporate, heat in an air bath at 150-200° C. to expel
last traces of moisture, and then on asbestos board, to the appear-
ance of dense white fumes, to insure complete removal of nitric
acid. Add a small quantity of water, and when cold, filter
through a sugar tube under suction into a 300 cubic centimeter
Erlenmeyer flask, and wash to about 150 cubic centimeters. Add
10 cubic centimeters of potassium iodide (165-1,000) and boil
until free iodine is expelled, — solution practically colorless, —
Avith the reduction of arsenic to arsenous acid.
AS2O5 + 4 HI = AsoOs + 41 + 2 H2O.
Dilute, cool immediately, neutralize approximately three-
quarters of the free acid with 20 per cent, sodium hydrate solu-
tion, add starch paste, and if any free iodine remains, add
dilute (Isr/50) thiosulfate carefully, with vigorous shaking, to
the absence of blue color.
2 1 + 2 Na2S203 = Na2S406 + 2 NaT.
' Amer. Jour. Sci., 40, 66 (1890).
2 Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 23, 165 (1906). Provisional method of the association.
130 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Make up to about 150 cubic centimeters, add excess of sodium
bicarbonate and titrate as usual with N/20 iodine, reporting as
arsenic oxide. The residue in the graduated flask is brought
onto the filter, washed, calcined and w^eighed as insoluble matter.
Care should be taken to have sufficient sulfuric acid to cover
the bottom of the beaker when heated on asbestos. A decided
excess of acid is also necessary when boiling with potassium
iodide to insure vigorous action and rapid volatilization of
iodine. Undue concentration should be avoided. If free iodine
persists add more water and continue the boiling. The use of
caustic soda is permissible under the conditions described. The
hydrate is a much more convenient and rapid agent than the
carbonate. Practically no difference was noted in the titration
when the lead sulfate was allowed to remain, but the data at
hand do not cover a sufficient number of samples to warrant a
statement that this will always hold true.
The iodine method, as modified for arseuites and arsenates,
has been given a careful study, and proved repeatedly, in the
work at the Massachusetts station, to yield excellent results in the
analysis of the insecticides mentioned, if reasonable attention is
paid in following the details. While no radical changes in the
method have been recommended, this article is offered in hopes
that some of the points noted may prove of assistance to other
analysts working along similar lines.
1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 131
PURIFICATION OF INSOLUBLE FATTY ACIDS.
BY E. B, HOLLAND.
Workers in oils and fats experience the same difficnlty in
obtaining chemically pure products as investigators in other
lines of organic chemistry. The best insoluble fatty acids on the
market — judging from our experience — are unsatisfactory in
both physical characteristics and neutralization number. In
general appearance the acids that are offered resemble granu-
lated curd, though varying in color from white to yellow, and
contain considerable dust and dirt. The molecular weight, as
measured by titration in an alcoholic solution, may deviate from
the theoretical by 10 to 15 points. These statements apply to
chemicals marked " C. P." and bearing the name of a reputable
manufacturer or dealer.
The writer required stearic, palmitic, myristic, lauric and oleic
acids for certain tests, and, finding it impossible to purchase
them of the desired quality, was forced to undertake a study of
various methods for their purification. As the character of the
unsaturated acids is so unlike that of the saturated, only treat-
ment of the latter will be considered at this time. The methods
that seemed the best adapted for the purpose were (a) distilla-
tion of the fatty acids in vacuo, (b) crystallization from alcohol,
and (c) distillation of the ethyl esters in vacuo, and all were
given extended trial.
A. Distillation of the Fatty Acids in Vacuo.
Direct distillation under reduced pressure was successfully
employed a few years ago by Partheil and Ferie,^ starting with
Kahlbauni's best acids. Upon careful test the writer found that
the method possessed certain objectionable features which render
it rather impracticable for ordinary use. Tf it was merely a
> Arch. Pharm., 241, 545 (1903).
132 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
question of distillation of the acids the process would he less
difficult, but for fractionation, using a Bruehl or similar type
apparatus, it proved almost impossible, in case of the higher
acids, to prevent solidification in the side neck (outflow tube).
The danger arising from a plugged apparatus at the high tem-
2)erature involved has also to be taken into account. An attempt
was made to heat the tube and keep the acids liquid by means of
a hot-water jacket, also by an electrically heated asbestos cover-
ing, but neither process fully met the requirements of the case.
The slow distribution of heat in vacuo is, of course, one of the
obstacles in the way. Eor the distillation of solids of high melt-
ing point Bredt and A. van der Maaren-Jansen ^ devised an
elaborate piece of apparatus having a flask and receiver of spe-
cial construction, and an overflow tube heated by electricity, but
it is hardly suited for a general laboratory or for handling any
considerable quantity of material.
There are two other conditions necessary for a successful dis-
tillation of fatty acids, namely, absence of moisture and' a cur-
rent of hydrogen or carbon dioxide to prevent bumping and to
lessen decomposition. Overlapping of the acids in different
fractions cannot be obviated entirely, and if an unsaturated acid
was present in the original, it will probably appear in nearly
every fraction.
Students under the direction of Professor Burrows of the
University of Vermont have applied this process for a partial
separation of the insoluble acids of several oils with a fair meas-
ure of success. With all due allowance for the possibilities of
the method in the production of pure saturated fatty acids, the
inherent difficulties render it inadvisable in most instances.
B. Crystallization from Alcohol.
Crystallization in this connection is practically limited in its
application to the removal of a small amount of impurities,
especially unsaturated acids. It can hardly be considered other
than a supplementary treatment, though excellent for that pur-
pose, to follow either of the distillation methods. Dry neutral
alcohol suitable for such work can be prepared by distillation
after treatment with caustic lime. In dissolving the acids care
1 Liebig's Ann. Chem., 354, 367 (1909).
i
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 133
should be taken to avoid heating to a higher temperature than is
required for solution, or to prolong the heating unduly, as it
will cause the formation of esters. Several minutes' boiling of
the different fatty acids in alcohol caused the following loss in
neutralization number : —
Stearic acid, ...... 1.70
Pahnitic acid, ........... .56
Myristic acid, 2.24
Laurie acid, . 89
Oleic acid, 28
Esterification undoubtedly causes a serious error by this
process of purification. Under more careful treatment the
change is not as rapid as shown above, but is evidently cumula-
tive and may even exceed the figures given. Further study may
warrant the substitution of a more stable solvent, such as acetone.
For the filtration a water or ice jacketed funnel is almost neces-
sary, particularly for the acids of low melting point, and suc-
tion is a time saver. Repeated crystallization is needed to bring
out the true crystalline structure and silvery luster of the leaflet.
Vacuum drying at a low temperature is one of the most efficient
means for removing adhering alcohol and traces of moisture
without injuring the structure. Crystallization as a whole is
wasteful of acids and solvent unless both are recovered, but is
essential for the production of a superior product.
C. Distillation" of the Ethyl Esters ix Vacuo.
As ethyl esters distill freely in vacuo, the process admits of a
more ready application, and to products of a greater range of
purity, than docs a distillation of the acids. After considerable
experimenting it was found that the esters are easily prepared
by heating in an open flask equal parts (100 grams) of fatty
acids and alcohol, together with a small quantity (10 cubic cen-
timeters) of concentrated hydrochloric acid, using capillary
tubes to prevent bumping. The reaction requires about thirty
minutes, after which the excess of hydrochloric acid can be
removed with a scparatory funnel. The distillation is con-
•luctod in a .''jOO cubic centimeter " low " side neck flask, with
a small (8 inch) Licbic; condenser and a large size Druehl frac-
134 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
tiouation apparatus. Heat is furnished by means of a linseed
oil bath, and suction bj a pump of any type, using a mercury
manometer to prove constancy of vacuum. The neck of the
flask from the shoulder to an inch or more above the side tul>e
should be wound with asbestos paper to prevent cracking, due
to sudden changes of temperature. The condenser should be
kept full of water, without circulation, to serve as a hot-water
jacket. The vacuum should be as high as the flask will safely
withstand, but above all uniform, otherwise the fractions are of
questionable value. The temperature range of an ester also
varies with the distance between surface of liquid and side tube.
At least one redistillation of like fractions is necessary.
As the esters are very stable, more difficulty was experienced
in finding some means for their quantitative decomjoosition than
in any other portion of the work. Heating with mineral acids
hydrolizes the fatty acids very slowly, even under pressure. If,
however, the esters are first saponified ^ by heating over a naked
flame with twice their volume of glycerol and an excess of caus-
tic potash until all the alcohol is expelled, and then the result-
ing soap dissolved in water and heated on a water bath with a
slight excess of sulfuric acid, the separation is readily accom-
plished. This plan was suggested by the Lefi"mann-Beam sapon-
ification for volatile acids, and after extended trial proved the
most thorough and rapid means for decomposing the esters.
The resulting acid should be washed in a separatory funnel with
boiling water until clear, and the cake allowed to drain. As
previously stated, several crystallizations are necessary if a
crystalline product of satisfactory melting point and neutrali-
zation number is to be secured. When crude acids are employed
it is also advisable to crystallize at the outset to exclude a major
])art of the unsaturated acids, which otherwise would prove
troublesome.
To summarize : saturated fatty acids may be purified by dis-
tillation of the acids or their ethyl esters. The latter method is
less hazardous and easier to manipulate, although more steps
are required. Crystallization is a finishing rather than an ini-
tial process of purification.
1 Observing the usual precautions given for the determination of insoluble fatty acids, Massa-
chusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, twenty-first report, p. 130 (1909).
1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 135
THE SOLUBLE CARBOHYDRATES IN ASPAR-
AGUS ROOTS.
BY FRED W. MORSE.
This paper is a simple statement of progress in a stndj of
the composition of the asparagus plant, and is part of an investi-"
gation of the fertilizer requirements of asparagus now being
conducted at this agricultural experiment station.
The nutrition of asparagus shoots in early spring necessarily
depends on the material stored in the roots, since the mode of
growth of the young shoots up to the time, of cutting for the
table renders assimilation from the atmosphere nearly impossi-
ble. Hence, roots were selected as the first portion of the plant
to be studied.
A search of the literature of asparagus failed to show any-
thing about the composition of the roots beyond a few scatter-
ing ash analyses and a brief article by Vines ^ on the reser^'e
proteins.
Very recently, however, Wichers and Tollens - have reported
an extensive study of asparagus roots, and called attention to
similar work by Tanret,^ brief abstracts of whose articles had
been overlooked.
Since the work has been wholly independent of that just men-
tioned, it is believed that this report of progress will be of value
at this time.
All the material for the work here reported was prepared in
other divisions of the department, and consisted of finely pul-
verized samples of individual root systems. All of the plant
below the surface had been dug up, freed from earth and dried
1 Proc. Royal Soc, 52, 130-132: Abstr. Jour. Chem. Soc, 64, 431.
2 .Tour. f. Landwirth., .58, 101-llfi.
' Bui. Soc. Chem. (4), 5. 889, 893; Compt. Rend., 149, 48-50; Abstr. Jour. Chem. Soc. (1909),
Abatr., 634; Chem. Abstr., 3, 2677.
136 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan.
at about 50° C. The roots were secured in November of the
second year after setting, when translocation from the tops was
believed to be complete. Eor subsequent study of the effects
of different fertilizers the individual samples were separately
analyzed ; but for this report detailed results are unnecessary.
The average proximate comj)osition of the dry matter of IH
roots was as follows : —
Per Cent.
Protein (nitrogen x 6.25), 11.03
Fat, 1.00
Fiber, 15.39
Nitrogen-free extract, 66.34
Ash,' 6.24
The proximate composition showed clearly that the soluble
non-nitrogenous matter included most of the reserve material
of the roots.
The methods of the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists - for sugars, starch, pentosans and galactans were em-
ployed for estimating the different carbohydrates in the reserve
material.
An examination of 25 roots showed 12 to contain no reducing
sugars^ while most of the others had only traces present ; there-
fore reducing sugars were not estimated, but were reckoned with
total sugars. The latter were especially abundant, and ranged
from 26.4 per cent, to 50.8 per cent., only two samples contain-
ing less than 35 per cent, calculated to dry matter.
Pentosans were determined in 16 samples, and ranged from
Y.32 per cent, to 10.68 per cent, in the dry matter. Galactans
were determined in 4 individual samples and in a composite
sample, but were insignificant in amount, averaging only 1.04
per cent.
In the estimation of starch by the diastase method, it was
found that there was no more glucose obtained than was account-
able from the diastatic extract. Subsequent examination re-
vealed starch in only microscopic traces. Six different sam-
ples, after having undergone the diastase treatment as for starch,
• Ash determinations were made in the fertilizer division of the department.
2 Bulletin No. 107, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, pp. 38-56.
1911.] • PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 137
were filtered and washed, and the residues then subjected to two
hours' boiling under reflux condensers, with 100 cubic centi-
meters of HCl of approximately 6 per cent. After cooling the
solutions they were nearly neutralized with NaOH, and made
up to 250 cubic centimeters. The reducing sugars were then
determined by Fehling's solution and the weights of copper cal-
culated to glucose. The G samples averaged 8.6 per cent, of
glucose by this hydrolysis ; but since the same samples averaged
8.G7 per cent, of pentosans, reckoned from furfurol-phloro-
glucid, it is improbable that there are any hydrolizable carbo-
hydrates unaccounted for by the usual analytical methods.
From these different analyses it was found that the dry mat-
ter of 16 roots contained —
Per Cent.
Sugars calculated as invert sugar, 41.43
Pentosans, ........... 8.78
Galactans, 1.04
The carbohydrate forming over 40 per cent, of the dry matter
was at first assumed to l)e sucrose. The analytical procedure
had shown it to be soluble in cold water and inactive to Feh-
ling's solution until hydrolized, which was easily accomplished
by dilute acids. Repeated attempts to recover sucrose by means
of strontium hydrate ■^ resulted in securing only very small
quantities of a straw-colored syrup which could not l)e crystal-
lized, but did not reduce Fehling's solution.
Methyl alcohol was found to extract considerable quantities
of the sugar from the roots, which suggested raffinose; but no
mucic acid could be obtained by oxidation with nitric acid,
although a parallel test with lactose under the same conditions
yielded it in abundance.
Osazones were prepared from both methyl alcohol and water
extracts, before and also after inversion. The characteristic
yellow, crystalline precipitate was easily obtained in every case.
Five such precipitates had their melting points determined, and
thoy ranged between 203 ° and 210 °, and were accom])anio(l by
an ('\'(ilution of gas. Glucosazone was evidently lho only one
forniod.
I E. Schulze, Zeitschr. Physiol. Chem., 20, 513-515.
138
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
About 100 grams of roots were extracted by cold water and
the extract concentrated on the water bath to a thick, black,
tenacious syrup, which was strongly reducing to Fehling's so-
lution. Heat and probably acid salts had brought about a
nearly complete hydrolysis during the evaporation. This ex-
tract failed to yield mueic acid, but oxalic acid was readily
formed.
Portions of the syrup were subjected to distillation with
HCl of 1.06 specific gravity, and yielded a small quantity of
furfurol. The furfurol-phloroglucid, after being dried and
weighed, was found to lose about two-thirds of its weight by
solution in hot 93 per cent, alcohol, indicating that it was largely
methy 1-f u r f u rol .
The action of polarized light was observed upon freshly pre-
pared water extracts of two different roots, and upon three
syrups which had been fractionated by strontium hydrate. The
solutions were clarified by lead subacetate, and the readings
were made in a Schmidt and Haensch triple shade sacchari-
meter through a 200 millimeter tube. The solutions were then
inverted and again polarized, together with two solutions of the
dense water extract above mentioned.
Subsequent to the readings, the actual strength of sugar in
each solution was determined with Fehling's solution. The
solutions were necessarily dilute, because the roots on moisten-
ing swelled to a large volume and small charges had to be used.
The three syrups were small in amount, as before mentioned,
and the black syrup from the water extract was difficult to
clarify to a point where light would pass through it.
Polarization before Hydrolysis.
Root 34,
Root 40,
Syrup A,
Syrup B,
Syrup C,
Sugar in 100
Cubic
Centimeters
(Grams).
1.738
2.259
2. 023
2.775
Saccharimeter
Reading.
+0.5
—1.4
+2.88
—1.6
zero
Specific
Rotatory
Power
(Degrees).
+5.0
— 10.0
+ 18.9
—10.0
zero
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
139
Polarization after Hydrolysis.
Root 34, ,
Root 40, ,
Syrup A,
Syrup B,
Syrup C,
Extract 1,
Extract 2,
Invert Sugar
iu 100 Cubic
Centimetera
(Grams).
.893
1.189
1.381
1.4G1
.452
.936
2.350
Saccharimeter
Reading.
—2.33
—4.10
—3.45
—5.25
—1.30
—3.00
—7.80
Specific
Rotatory
Power
(Degrees).
— 4S
—59
—49
—62
—49
— 55
The action on polarized light both before and after inversion
excludes the possibility of the carbohydrate being pnre sucrose,
while the failure to secure it with strontium hydrate renders its
al)sence probable.
Fructose was clearly demonstrated by the osazone and the
negative optical activity, also by fine reactions with resorcin
and hydrochloric acid. Glucose is indicated by the osazone and
the fact that the specific rotatory power of the inverted solu-
tions is not high enough for pure fructose. Fructose clearly
predominates over the glucose, and the non-reducing property
before hydrolysis indicates some condensation product formed
between them. The behavior of individual root extracts does
not point to any fixed proportion of the two sugars.
These results are, on the whole, in close agreement with those
of Wichers and Tollens. There was, however, a marked differ-
ence in the behavior of the water extract of the roots, which con-
tained the sugar-like carbohydrate. Wichers and Tollens used
boiling water, and state that only a portion of this carbohydrate
was soluble in water w^hen extractions were made on the water
bath. Their solutions also reduced Fehling's solution before
hydrolysis.
My extractions were all made with water at 20° C, and until
liydrolized, had either no reducing action or precipitated no
more than traces of copper.
This difference in solubility and reducing action is doubtless
140 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
due to the stage of development of the roots, since Wichers and
Tollens worked upon roots gathered in April and July instead
of in November.
Tanret isolated two distinct crystalline carbohydrates from
the root sap, one of which had a rotation of — 35.1 and the
other + 0O.3. Syrups A and B fractionated with strontium
hydrate showed opposite rotations before inversion, but lack of
material has given no opportunity to confirm further his obser-
vations.
Grateful acknowledgment is made of suggestions received
from T)r. Joseph B. Lindsey during the jirogress of this inves-
tigation.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
141
SEED WORK, 1910.
BY G. E. STONE.
The seed work for I'JIO iucliulcs seed germination, separa-
tion and the testing for purity. The number of samples of seed
sent in for germination exceeded that of 1909, the total num-
ber being 296. This germination work seems to be on the in-
crease from year to year, and a great many more varieties of
seed are tested for germination than has been the case in the
past. Of the total number of samples sent in this year. 152
Avere miscelhnieous seeds, a trifle over 50 per cent, of the total
number. The number of samples of onion seed sent in was a
little less than in 1909, and tobacco averaged about the same.
The average germination of the tobacco seed, 95 per cent., was
slightly better than usual. The lowest germination of any sam-
ple of tobacco seed sent in was 89 per cent. On the whole,
onion seed last year did not seem to be up to the previous year's
standard, as the average germination of all samples was only
77.4 per cent., as against 82.2 per cent, in 1909. The germina-
tion of the tobacco seed, with a lowest percentage of 89, tends
to prove the theory that large seeds produce large plants ; there-
fore in succeeding years better crops are obtained, and, as a
result, better seed.
Table 1. — Becords of Seed Germinai'wn, 1910.
Number of
Samples.
Averace
Per Cent.
Per Cent, of Germi-
nation.
Kind of seed.
Highest.
Lowest.
Onion,
Tobacco,
Lettuce,
Cucumber, .
Alfalfa,
Clover,
Red clover.
Miscellaneous,
75
7
41
10
4
4
77.4
95 0
77.7
93 7
98 2
93 0
lon.o
66.0
100.0
99.0
100.0
99.0
100.0
97.0
99.5
100.0
3.0
89.0
15.0
85.0
97.0
88.0
98.5
Total
296
-
-
-
142
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
The work in seed separation for 1910 was carried on as usual,
and altbough a smaller number of samples was separated than
in 1909, the total amount of seed separated, 1,552 pounds, was
greater. Of this, 1,183 pounds were onion seed. The principal
varieties of seed separated were onion, tobacco and lettuce. The
separation of onion seed also tends to show that the seed was
not as good this year as it was in 1909, as the average percent-
age of good seed was only 88.7 per cent., while the amount of
discarded seed was slightly larger than in 1909. As in years
j^ast, several growers have requested that this station test the
germination of seed both before and after separation, and the
results this year resemble those of previous seasons so closely
that they will not be inserted in this report. In the case of
the separation of lettuce seed, the grower sending the seed often
requests that a certain amount, sometimes in excess of the actual
need, be taken out. This, however, is believed to be a good
practice in the case of lettuce or tobacco seed, as it is certain that
better germination results from removing more than is abso-
lutely necessary. Table 2 shows the records of seed separation
for 1910.
Table 2. — Records of Seed Separation, 1910.
Kind of Seed.
Number
of
Samples.
Weight
(Pounds).
Per Cent.
of Good
Seed.
Per Cent.
of Discarded
Seed.
Onion,
Tobacco
Lettuce,
40
62
13
115
1,183.82
44.96
323.45
88.7
89.6
74.4
11.3
10.4
25.6
Total,
1,552.23
-
-
No effort has been made on the part of the station as yet to
establish and maintain a seed-control laboratory for the purpose
of testing the purity of seed, and therefore in the past year the
number of samples of seed sent in for examination as to their
purity has been small. In all, some 30 samples have been ex-
amined ; mostly clovers and grasses, but as this work takes con-
siderable time, no grass mixtures have been examined for
purity.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 143
The station is always glad to receive samples of seed for ger-
inination, and it is believed that if the fanner would send his
seed in for examination for purity also, he would very often
save himself a great deal of trouble arid expense, as much of the
seed sold in this State is full of weed seeds. It is believed that
there should be a seed-control act in Massachusetts, as has been
stated in our previous reports, and the sooner this comes the
better the farmer will be served by the seedsmen, since they are
perfectly willing to handle good seed if it is what the farmer
wants and demands.
All samples of seed to be germinated or separated should be
addressed to G. E. Stone, Massachusetts Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Andierst, Mass., and the express or freight on
these seeds should be prepaid.
144 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
AN OUTBREAK OF RUSTS.
BY G. E. STONE.
For the past three years certain rusts have increased mate-
rially in this State as well as in other sections of the United
States. The rust on the apple, which has been scarcely notice-
able for years, at least on our cultivated fruit trees, has become
quite common the last three seasons. It was particularly prev-
alent three years ago, and quite a little of it has been noticed
on api^le leaves the past two years. The hawthorne (Crataegus),
a plant closely related to the apple, has shown a much greater
tendency to rust in the period above mentioned than formerly,
and some anxiety has been felt by nurserymen who have had to
contend with this in their nurseries.
The ash rust, which is supposed to have as one of its hosts
the grass known as Spartina, has occurred much more com-
monly than usual during this period. It is to be found on
young growths of ash trees, distorting the twigs. There have
also been severe outbreaks of the bean rust lately, although this
has given little trouble in former years ; and the hollyhock, rose
and quince rusts have been much more common than formerly.
1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 145
SWEET PEA TROUBLES.
BY G. E. STONE.
One of the most unsatinftietory types of troubles with which
the pathologist has to deal is that having no specific organism
as its primary cause. It is especially difficult to diagnose such
diseases where the conditions of growing the plants are almost
entirely unknown, and this is the case with most of the miser-
able, sickly looking sweet pea plants sent into the laboratory
for diagnosis. There may be well-defined troubles associated
with sweet peas, but from 1)0 to 100 i)er cent, of them may bi;
])re\ented if the grower has even an elementary knowledge of
the conditions required by this plant.
When sweet peas are planted in ])oor soil, without care or
j)reparation, unfavoral)le results may be looked for. That such
is too often the case is evident from an examination of the ma-
terial which is sent in for examination. To obtain a good cro])
<tf sweet peas unusual care should be given to j)reparation. A
light soil is better than a heavy, compact soil. It is impossible
to grow this crop without a good depth of garden loam, and, if
this is not availalile, it must be secured by deep trenching and
heavy manuring. ]\Iost skillful gardeners maintain that the best
results are obtained by having a soil which the sweet pea roots
can penetrate deeply, and in which they can develop luxuriantly.
A trench IY2 to 2 feet deep and the same width, filled with
maun re and loam, is usually sufficient. If a good depth of root
develojnuent is desired, it is best to sow the seeds in trenches
■J to () inches below the surface, and as the plants mature the
soil can be gradually hoed around the stems. The many speci-
mens which we receive from growers testify to the poor condi-
tions in which the plants have been grown, there being little root
or stem development, and often tubercles on the roots are lack-
ing. Proper conditions count very much in growing sweet peas,
and w^hen these are given, many so-called " diseases " peculiar
to this plant disappear.
146 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
A SPINACH DISEASE NEW TO MASSACHU-
SETTS.
BY HARRY M. JENNISON, B.S.
Early in the spring of 1910 the writer's attention was at-
tracted to a plot of winter spinach growing on the college
grounds which had been practically mined by a fnngns causing
a spotting of the leaves. The olivaceous color of the spots on
the diseased leaves suggested the possible presence of a Clad-
osporium as the causal organism, but upon microscopical exam-
ination the fungus was determined to be Heterosporium varia-
lilc, Cke. This organism is closely related to that causing the
Heterosporium disease of cultivated carnations, known as
"■ fairy ring."
It was supposed that a disease which could so completely
devastate this crop would have been extensively reported, but
upon thorough search of the literature only a few references to
this particular spotting of spinach could be found. In 1905
Clinton ^ reports having collected in the open market in E^ew
Haven, (^onn., specimens of spinach leaves affected with the
above-mentioned fungus, and he refers to it as " leaf mold."
Ilalsted ^ in his investigations on the fungi attacking the
s])inach plant does not include Hetcrosporiii7n in his list. Since
1908 Tvced "^ has been studying its occurrence and injurious
effects in the truck crop regions of Virginia, where it causes
large losses annually to the truck farmers of that State. At
Amherst the disease was found infecting winter spinach, grow-
ing on two widely separated ]ilots. Immediately adjacent to
one of these was a considerable area set with young spinach
' Clinton, G. P., Connecticut Agricviltural Experiment Station, report for 1905, Part V., p. 275.
■ Halstead, B. D., New Jersey AsricuUural Experiment Station Bullotih No. 70, 1800.
' Reed, H. S., in Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station circular No. 7, revised edition,
p. 80, 1910.
i
Showing Ilc/erosporiinn Disease of Spiuacli.
1911.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 147
plants for the hitc spring crop. Careful examination, however,
failed to reveal any indications of this disease on the young
]»lants. As has been suggested, this fact seems to indicate that
ihe causal organism is not a true parasite, and that it cannot
infect healthy, vigorous plants, being more probably one that
is capable of infecting its host only after the latter has become
weakened by adverse climatic conditions, or injuries produced
by other causes.
Further observations upon this interesting phase unfortu-
nately could not be made, but in a recent text-book on the " Dis-
eases of Economic Plants " ^ the following statement is found :
" The disease does not seem capable of attacking healthy, vig-
orous plants, but usually follows injuries produced by other
agencies."
The first indications of the presence of the disease are sub-
circular areas of dead tissue from % to ^/4 of an inch in diam-
oler and brownish in color. (See cut.) These spots soon
become niore noticeable by the development of a greenish-black
felt of fungous mycelium, bearing couidiophores and conidia,
on both the upper and lower sides of the leaf. The spots are
frequently more numerous toward the apex of the leaf, and by
the time the fungus felt is well developed, the intervening leaf
tissue is yellowed and presents a sickly appearance. Often the
leaf is so badly infected that the diseased areas coalesce, leav-
ing very little of the leaf tissue visible.
The market value of the crop is lessened if the leaves are
at all spotted, and when badly diseased it is not salable. Even
if the whole jdant does not collapse from the effects of the
fungus, it is greatly injured, and trimming off the injured
leaves necessitates extra labor and expense at harvest time.
Since the disease is new to this locality, and there have been
siudi limit('<l opportunities to study it and the factors responsible^
for it. it is impracticable to offer any remedies at present. If
the disease is sporadic, and caused by adverse conditions, the
proper remedy would be to find out Avhat those conditions are
and remedy them. On general lines, however, it would be well
> Reod, in Stevens & Hall's" Diseases of Economic Plants, — Heterosporiose," p. 288, 1910.
148 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
to employ sanitary methods in growing the cro}i, to nse seed
from healthy and vigorous i)lants, and try to prevent injuries
from insects, etc.
Additional References.
Reed, Science, ii. s.. Vol. 31, p. 038, 1910.
Cooke, Grevielea, Vol. 5, p. 123, 1877.
Tnbeuf & Smith, " Diseases of Plants," p. 51(i, 1897.
"Market Gardener's Journal" (Louisville, Ky.), Vol. 7, No. 5, 1910.
1911.1 PUBLIC DOCOIFAT — No. 31. 149
ABNORMALITIES OF STUMP GROWTHS.
BY GEORGE H, CHAPMAN.
For the past few years there have been called to our attention
on stnmp land and burned-over wood lots various malformations
and abnormalities of the leaves of sprouts growing from the
sluiu])s; and in connection with other physiological work being
done in the laboi-atorj,- these conditions were studied, with
the idea of discovering, if possible, the cause and relationship
to other physiological diseases, such as those arising from mal-
nutrition; also mosaic disease, overfeeding and o'dema.
These diseases are all different in character, but it might be
well to give a brief description of them at this point.
Overfeeding, particularly with nitrates, may be recognized
by a slight increase in size of leaf, the color being darker and
the leaf stifFer in t< xture. The cells of the leaf, with the ex-
ception of the bundles, are normal in form and are larger, but
the bundles are distorted, and this causes a distortion of the
leaf, due to the form of the bundles. The leaf is usually some-
what larger than normal, and the distortion curves the edges
of the leaf downward, i.e., rolls them toward the under side.
All investigators agree that the mosaic disease is purely a
physiological one, but there seems to he much doubt as to
whether it is infectious or contagious in character, or both.
Therc^ seems to be some difference in opinion, also, as to the
direct cause of the disease. In tomatoes it is always produced
when the vines are heavily pruned, and in the work here it
has been shown that it is connected in no wav with methods of
transplanting the youug plants, and only results from subse-
(pient ])rnning.
It has been found that tobacco is much moi-e snscejitible un-
' Presented as part, work for degree of M.Sc.
' Dept. of Veg. Plus, and Path., Ma.ss. .\Kr. Exp. Sta.
150 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
cler conditions wbick tend to produce the disease than is the
tomato.
In the case of tobacco, A. F. Woods ^ found that when a
plant was grown in soil containing small roots of diseased plants
the disease occurred in a short or long period of time, as the
case might be. In our observations on the tomato we have been
unable to verify this statement, as in no case has the disease
appeared when normal plants were grown in soil which con-
tained roots of plants which had been badly diseased, and in
the growing of tomatoes year after year in the station green-
houses there has never been the slightest evidence of infection
arising from the soil.
In the case of the tomatoes grown under glass, the disease
did not make its appearance when the plants were left normal,
but occurred when the plants were pruned. These conditions
held true for soils in which there were diseased roots as well as
for those in which tomatoes had not previously been grown.
The appearance of mosaic disease has been described by many
investigators, and nearly all have described it in a similar man-
ner^ but more particidarly with reference to tobacco than to the
tomato. The general characteristics of the disease are the same
for both plants, but some difference is found in its appearance in
extreme cases on the tomato, as Avill be noted from the following
description.
In the first stages of the disease the leaf presents a mottled
appearance, being divided into larger or smaller areas of light
and dark green patches. At this point, however, no swelling
of the areas is noticeable, but as the disease progresses the
darker portions grow more rapidly, while the light-green areas
do not grow so rapidly, and leaf distortion is brought about.
In the case of tomato, the light-green areas become yellowish
as the disease progresses, and in badly affected plants become
finally a purplish red color. This purplisi coloration is found
principally on plants which are exposed to strong light, but
does not always occur, as it has been found that sometimes, even
in badly infested plants, the disease may reach its maximum
without showing any reddish coloration whatever. The reddish
« U. S. Dept, Agr., Bur. of Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUIMENT — No. 31. 151
r.i)pearance is noticeable only on the npper surface of the leaf,
and appears to extend only through the palisade cells. As yet
no investigation has been made with reference to its character,
but from its appearance nnder the microscope it is thought that
it may be due to the breaking down of the chlorophyll grannies
as a resnlt of the diseased condition of the leaf.
Under all conditions of disease, however, the leaves are much
distorted and stiff, and often very badly curled, usually with the
edges rolled up over the leaf, and never possessing the flexi-
bility of healthy, normal leaves.
CEdema is perhaps the least liable to be confounded with
other physiological troubles as its appearance is more strongly
characteristic. Only a brief description will be given here, as
this trouble does not enter into the discussion in this paper.
L^sually the leaves, as a whole, hang pendent, but the leaflets
curl strongly upward ; on close examination it is found that the
veins, midrib and surface of the leaf show elevated more or
less frosty areas, somewhat resembling the masses of conidia of
some of the Erysyphas; although in mild cases this condition is
not striking, but the leaves usually have a more or less pearly
luster at some stage of its development. The epidermal cells are
very much enlarged in these areas and turgid, and the chloro-
phyll-bearing cells are also greatly changed. For a detailed
description and discussion of this trouble no better work can
be found than that of G. F. Atkinson.^
It can be seen from these brief descriptions that unless care
were exercised it might be easy to confound these troubles, espe-
eiidly in the case of the first two. Keeping this in mind we
will pass on to a more detailed description of the malformation
of stump growth subsequent to the burning oif or cutting do\\ai
of large trees.
The malformation appears to be worst in the first two or three
seasons' growth, the sprouts outgrowing the trouble as their age
increases. From our observations this trouble appears to occur
in two distinct forms: first, as an abnormal growth of stem and
leaves, they sometimes reaching a size five to ten times that of
normal young plants of the same species. This form of the
• N. Y. (Cornell Univ.) Agr. Exp Sta., Bui. No. 53, "(Edema of Tomato."
152 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
leaf was especially noticeable in such sprouts as asli, poplar and
plane tree, and sometimes occurred also on chestnut and oak,
although it may be mentioned that they were occasionally very
much distorted.
When the leaves were simply abnormally large it was foimd
that tlie structure of the cells and their relative positions were
analogous to a healthy, normal leaf, but that they were rela-
tively much larger, and were of a stiffer texture than the nor-
mal specimens.
Very often it was found that the cell contents, especially the
coloring matter, were brought into undue prominence, richly
colored red leaves being of frequent occurrence. Occasionally,
also, leaves having a decided yellow color, but otherwise ap-
pearing strong and healthy, were observed. This excessive col-
oration was evidently due to the abnormal deposition of pigment
or activity of colored cell sap. When the leaves were green, the
color seemed to be deeper than that of normal specimens.
The second form of the malformation has much the appear-
ance of that caused by overfeeding, or excessive use of nitrates ;
i.e., a severe distortion of leaves, but in this case accompanied by
excessive ju-oduction, usually smaller in size than the normal,
but thickly clustered. Distorted leaves did not usually show
much abnormal coloration, but occasionally a reddish or yellow-
ish color was observable.
Usually the leaves were much more numerous and very badly
distorted, the veins and ribs being especially twisted in various
ways. The texture of the leaf was very stiff, much more so
than in the case of the abnormally large leaves, the tissue having
hardly any elasticity, and breaking easily, with a crackling
sound. Plates I. and II. (Figs. 1, 2 and 3) show the two forms
of this trouble better than mere description.
There is a remarkable dearth of literature bearing on this
specific trouble, although much has been written in a general
way on somewhat similar physiological troubles, but dealing
principally with field crops and forced plants. In the reports of
the various experiment stations will be found more or less lit-
erature on physiological troubles, and Woods,* Suzuke,^ Stur-
1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18.
2 Bui. Col. Agr., Tokyo, Vol. IV., repts. for 1900.
Fig. 1. — C'liestnut (Castanea dentatu), showing Diseased (Left) aud Healthy (Right)
Shoots.
Fig. ■>.— Ked Oali {Qiierrus rubra), sliowing Diseased (Left) and Healthy (Riglit)
Shoots.
PLATE I.
Fig. 3. — Poplar {I'aptilds fjruiididentata), sliouuij; l)i.?L'asi.'d ^Rijilit; and lluallliy
(Left) Shoots.
Fig. 4. — Jlosaic Disease on Tomato.
PLATE II.
Fig. 5. — AVhite Oak, showiuj
Diseased Shoot.
PLATE III.
Fig. 1. — Mature pycnidia, showing a few iiuic-ellular hyaline spores and orifice from wliicli tliey
have been expelled.
Fig. 2. — Nearly mature pycnidia, with attaclied Altcrnaria spores.
Fig. 3. — Mycelium threads giving rise to AHernaria spores and an immature pyciiidium.
Fig. 4. — Common type of AHernaria.
Fig. 5. — Conidial form of Cladosporium developed from niicrosclcroiia found on gummy excre-
tions.
All from camera lucida drawings.
PLATE III.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 153
gis/ Czapek,- Stone/ Atkinson ■* and others have dealt with
various physiological tronhles more in detail.
From onr observations and experiments in the field and green-
house we have come to the conclusion that it is a well-developed
form of malnutrition, using malnutrition in its broadest mean-
ing, i.e., to include any physiological troul)le which is caused
by an excess or lack of any one or more nutritive substances
necessary for the normal metabolism of a plants, and is allied
to the phenomena exhibited in a severe case of overfeeding.
Logically it is what one would expect when a large tree is
suddenly cut oif or the top killed, and practically all transpira-
tion, respiration, or, in short, all photosynthesis and leaf metab-
olism, is suddenly arrested. We have a violent disruption of the
normal metabolism of the tree. The balance between root ab-
sorption, photosynthesis, etc., and the metabolic processes of
the leaves is suddenly broken, and we have the roots, which are
still alive, attempting to do their normal work without the aid
of the leaves ; starch formation is arrested and carbon assimila-
tion cannot take place. In the roots there remains a great re-
serve store of food and during the winter no root pressure. As
most woods are cut in the fall and winter, the trees are dormant,
and forest fires also occur largely in fall and spring during this
dormant period. Now, when spring comes and circulation
starts, the adventitious buds are called upon to produce new
shoots for the utilization of the reserve food in the roots. This
they try to do in the manner we have described, by producing
abnormally large leaves or a great number of small and dis-
torted leaves. This distortion will l)e discussed later.
Of the trees which have come under our observation, maples,
oaks and chestnuts seem to l)e the most susceptible to leaf dis-
tortion, while such trees as the ash, poplar and plane usually
have abnormally large leaves with very little distortion. How-
ever, in some cases both conditions are observable.
The theory which has been advanced above as to the cause of
the disease has been borne out ly experiments carried on in the
■ Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1808, and others.
2 Biochemie der Pflanzen (general).
' Ma.ss. Agr. Exp. Sta. report.s.
* N. Y. (Oornell Univ.) Agr. Exp. Sta., Bill. No. 53.
154 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
field and laboratory. The results of these experiments will be
discussed later in the paper.
Relation to Mosaic Disease.
It was at first thought that there might be some relation be-
tween the so-called " mosaic disease " and this, but from our
observations we have been able to find only a superficial rela-
tionship, i.e., as regards the distortion of the leaf in its first
stages. Other investigators,^ as has been previously mentioned,
have proved that the " mosaic disease " can be communicated
from one plant to another l)y inoculating a healthy plant with
the juice of a diseased plant, and that the new growth subse-
quent to the inoculation will come diseased in nearly every case.
This is not so in the case of sprout growth, however, as in no
instance were we able to bring about a diseased condition of
normal plants by inoculating them with juice taken from dis-
eased leaves. As it was impossible to carry on these inocula-
tion experiments in the laboratory, the work was done in the
field, and observations taken from time to time.
Experiments in Inoculation.
In order to prove that, unlike mosaic disease, this malfor-
mation could not be communicated from a diseased sprout to a
healthy one, the following experiments were made. Two series
of ten inoculations each were made ; in one case diseased tissue
was inserted at the base of the terminal bud of normal, healthy
sprouts; in the second series the terminal buds of healthy
sprouts were inoculated with the filtered juice from diseased
plants. In all cases a healthy plant was inoculated with the
tissue or juice of a malformed plant of the same kind, i.e., a
maple was inoculated with juice from a diseased maple shoot,
etc. In not one case could we find that the trouble was either
contagious or infectious in character. The results of these inoc-
ulations are given in Table I., and from these results it is evi-
dent that the disease cannot be communicated from one plant
to another.
> a. F. Wootls, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
155
Table 1.
Series A. — Showing Results of Inoculation of Healthy Young Grawth
with Tissues from Malformed Plants.
Plant.
Numlier
inoc-
ulated.
Number
dis-
eased.
Remarks.
Maple (Acer rubrum),
10
None.
The terminal bud died in two cases,
hut this was due to mechanical in-
Chestnut {Casta:iea denlata), .
10
None.
jury.
Oak iOuercus alba).
8
None.
Poplar (Populas tremuloides).
10
None.
The terminal bud died in three cases,
but this was due to mechanical
injury.
Series B. — Filtered Juice used for Inoculation.
Plant.
Number
inoc-
ulated.
Number
dis-
eased.
Remarks.
Maple {Acer rubrum),
14
None.
Chestnut {Castanea dentala, Borkh.),
11
None.
Oak {Quercus alba).
10
None.
Inoculated twice two
weeks apart
Poplar {Populus tremuluides),
10
None.
with juice.
Ash (Fraxinus Americana),
5
None.
The appearance of the leaves of " mosaic " plants is usually
different from that of diseased shoots in the case under discus-
sion. In mosaic these are flattened areas of cells which are
lighter in color than the normal areas, and which are also
smaller in size, growing more slowly than the normal cells, this
causing a general unevenness or distortion of the leaf.
On the other hand, in the troul)le under discussion, where
fibuormality occurs, the tissue of the leaf itself is not so much
distorted as the vessels and veins. These are usually curved
more or less, and thus distort the leaf. The leaf, also, is always
of a healthy dark-green color, and shows no division of color
into light and dark areas. Plate II. (Figs. 4 and 5) shows a
typical mosaic loaf and some from affected sprout growth.
The cause of mosaic is not exactly known, hut it has been
produced re])eatedly by severe ])niiuiig in the case of tomatoes,
156 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
tobacco and other allied plants. It occurs on tobacco, also,
without pruning in the field, due to some functional disarrange-
ment in all probability; but in the case of tomato we have not
been able to find a case in which the disease occurred on a plant
which was allowed to grow normally, that is, without pruning.
Plants in the field are also not so susceptible to it. and it is
rather difficult to conceive just why it is that under similar
conditions, but with different plants, we sometimes get the char-
acteristic mosaic disease and sometimes only a condition such as
the one under discussion.
IiELATION OF PtOOT AreA TO INTENSITY OF DiSEASE.
In the course of our experiments it was observed that in the
same locality, with the same kinds of trees, there was a marked
difference in the intensity or severity of the malformation. It
was thought that the size of the original tree and its correspond-
ing root area might liear some relation to the severity of the
disease. I\ough estimates were uuide of several root systems
from which first-year sprouts were growing which were dis-
eased, and in general it was found that the larger the root area
the more distortiou of the leaves. This seemed to be the gen-
eral rule, l)ut from the limited munber of observations we were
able to make it would be unwise to make a positive statement
as to the absolute truth of this observation.
When young trees had been cut down or killed by burning,
there was not such severe distortion, but more of a tendency to
produce abnormally large leaves. As a result of our observa-
tions it may be stated that there is a relationship existing be-
tween the amount of active root surface and the severity of the
trouble along the lines we have pointed out.
It has been stated elsewhere in this article that the severity
of 'the disease diminishes from year to year as the plant grows
older, and it would be natural to expect stich a recovery for two
reasons : first, the shoot is larger the second year than the first,
thus having more leaf surface to effect transpiration, respira-
tion, carbon assimilation, etc. ; and secondly, some part of the
root system, owing to lack of food (available), which the first
year's leaves have been unable to supply, has died from general
11)11.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 157
wcakeiiiug; lliu.s the second year, and so on from year to year,
we have a general attempt to balance np the root system and the
leaf system. It is believed that this view is in accordance with
the trnth, although no specific Avork has been done here to prove
it other than general observations.
Chemical Tests of Abnormal Leaves.
In view of the fact that physiological diseases in general are
principally caused by derangement of the function of some
organ of a plant, as a result of poor nutrition (lack or excess of
some necessary plant food), it was thought that it would be well
to obtain, in a general w^ay. an idea as to the presence and ab-
sence of certain substances in the leaves of diseased plants.
Owing to pressure of other work it was necessary to use dried
specimens for examination. The specimens, however, were not
over one or two months old when the examinations were made,
therefore no great change of constituents could have taken
place, with the exception of loss of water, and this was not of
any importance. A complete analysis was not made of the
leaves, but comparative tests were made, comparing the sub-
stance in healthy leaves A\ith the same amount of diseased
leaves. The substances tested for were principally nitrates,
enzymes and starch.
As Woods ^ in his bulletin on mosaic disease advances the
theory that it is caused by an excessive amount and increased
activity of oxidizing enzymes, such as oxidase and peroxidase,
equal amounts of leaves from healthy and diseased leaves were
tested to see if there w^as any increase or decrease in the relative
amounts i)resent. It was found that in general there was
usually present in diseased leaves a slightly larger amount than
in the healthy leaves, but it was not necessarily so, as in five
cases out of eighteen there was less present ; but this may pos-
sibly have been due to individual variation in the leaf itself, as
the method of taking equal weights of leaves for examination
has some drawbacks, but no better method has as yet suggested
itself.
It was found that catalase, another ertzyme which was discov-
' Loc. cit.
158
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
ered in connection with tobacco by Loew,^ was present in both
healthy and diseased leaves in comparatively small amounts,
1)1 it that there was practically no dilt'erence in the amounts pres-
ent. Twenty samples of healthy and diseased leaves were
tested, and below will be found a table containing the averages
of these tests. The comparative amounts present were repre-
sented by the oxygen developed from a standard solution of
hydrogen jjeroxide, which contained 3 per cent. H2O2.
Table II. — A)nount of Oxygen developed from Healthy and Abnormal
Leaves.
[Averages of twenty
samples.]
Number
of
Samples.
Amount
of Oxygen
developed.
Time.
20
20
118.5
114.0
30min.
Healthy,
30 min.
The samples were shaken during the test, as this has been found to increase the amount of
oxygen developed.
Fifteen grams of leaves were used in each eai3e.
Individual variations were found in most cases between leaves of different kinds, but not suffi-
cient to warrant distinctive mention.
Thus, in respect to the amount of catalase present we find
that there is a difference between this disease and mosaic, for
in the case of mosaic disease there is less catalase present in
the diseased leaves than in the healthy ones.^
Colorimetric tests of healthy and diseased leaves were made
to determine the relative amounts of nitrates present, and it
was found that in the case of diseased leaves a deeper color was
obtained than in the case of healthy specimens. The test for
nitrates used was the well-known diphenylamine reaction.
Only approximate results were obtained, but sufficient to show
that nitrates were more abundant in diseased leaves than in
normal specimens. This tends to confirm the idea that this dis-
ease is more a form of malnutrition or overfeeding than a spe-
cific trouble, such as " mosaic."
Aside from the direct work on the disease it was observed in
some few cases that diseased leaves were more liable to the
1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Report No.
2 Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. report, 1908.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 159
attacks of leaf-suckiiig insects, such as aphis, etc., as in a few
instances specimens of diseased shoots were obtained which
showed the effects of these insects, and some aphides were found
also. No insects were observed, however, on healthy shoots, or
to so great an extent on shoots which had only a slight indica-
tion of the disease in question. It appears from our observa-
tions that the disease renders the shoot more liable to the
attacks of insects on account of its weakened condition, in some
respects it being far more normal ; also, the attacks of insects
intensify the disease by taking from the leaf a large amount
of proteids and sugars. The effects of insects have been noted
by various authorities, among which may be mentioned Woods ^
and Suzuki.- More specific and interesting facts on this point
might be brought out by further observations and detailed study
in conjunction with entomologists, but this is without the scope
of the present paper. It is, however^ true that insects seem to
in-efer a diseased leaf to a healthy one under these conditions.
More purely chemical work would undoubtedly be of great
interest in connection with this interesting disease, and no doubt
will find a place in a future report, but it is thought that
enough has been done with the disease to bring out several new
points in regard to it.
CoNCLrSIONS.
(1) The abnormal condition of leaves, shown by severe dis-
tortion and increase in number, and also sometimes in size, may
be classed under the malnutrition diseases, due to functional
derangement, as no fungi or bacteria have been found associated
with it. It must therefore be due to internal conditions, such
as an abnormal metabolism.
(2) It is allied to those pathological conditions which may
be brought about by excessive use of nitrates or overfeeding.
(3) It is not allied to mosaic disease, which it somewhat re-
sembles, as this is capable of transmission from one plant to
another, and in no case have we been able to bring this result
about by inoculation with tissue of malformed leaves.
(4) From our observations it is not of a permanent character,
« U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18.
2 Gen. Bui. Col. Agr., Tokyo, Vol. IV.. No. 4.
160 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
as the sbodl will uutgruw it in from three to five years, and does
not seem to suffer any serious ill effects from the trouble.
(5) It is caused by a sudden disruption of the metabolic
processes of the tree, all leaf activity being suspended ; and there
being no normal relationship between root metabolism and leaf
metabolism, the new shoot is unable to properly bring into avail-
able form the food supplied for the nourishment of the tree. In
other words, there is an attempt on the part of the leaves to cor-
relate their functions with a root area many times larger, and
consequently a pathological condition is set up within the tissue,
due, as has before been said, to imperfect metabolism.
1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. '61. IGl
PEACH AND PLUM TKOUBLES.
BY KAYMONL) DblAN WHITMARSH, B.S.
^lany diseases uf the plum and peach have been known and
described for years. Standing probal)ly first among the most
serious of the fungi are '' l)rown or fruit rot," or Monilia (Scle-
rotliiia frucligena (Pers. ) Sehroet.), and scab {(Jladosporiu7tL
carpopliylhim, Thilmen). These fungous troubles have been
Aery noticeabk^ in the peach and j)lum orchards at the college
during the past year or two.
The writer began investigations early in January, 1909,
nuiinly to determine the cause of so much gum flow on the
peach, almost every tree being affected to a greater or less ex-
tent. In connection with this study nearly every phase of the
above diseases as they are described by various writers was
noted, and a brief resume of their characteristics and methods
of treatment is given here, with observations on "" gummosis "
of the peach.
This paper has lieen prepared under the supervision of Dr.
G. E. Stone of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and to
him I wish to express my heartiest thanks for his many sugges-
tions, criticism of manuscript and verification of observations.
Beown Rot ok Fruit Ivot, ]\[onilia (Sclerutinla frucUgena
(Pers.) Schroet.).
Distrihiifioii ojid Hod Plants. — This disease is reported by
Saccardo as being found in Germany, France, Austria, Italy,
Belgium, Great Britain and the United States, where it is
known as Monilia frucUgena, one of the " imperfect fungi,"
Tubeuf and Smith speak of the disease as being very common
in the United States and Great Britain. It was first described
in the United States by Dr. C. H. Peck in 1881 ; since that time
1G2 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
a great many investigators have been at work on it. Finally,
Prof. J. B. S. Norton in 1902 sncceeded in giving us its life
liistorj in full, having found the ascos])ore stage. Within the
United States, at least, the greatest damage is caused to the
stone fruits.
Symptoms {on Fruit). — The first indications of the disease
on the fruit are Itrown spots of a leathery ajipearance, which
enlarge rapidly, and after the mycelium has become mature, the
conidiophores break through the epidermis and give to the spots
a downy, dirty, grayish-bro^vn color, due to the great quantity
of couidia produced by the fungus. The fruit then shrinks and
withers to a thin, tough pellicle. In this " mummied " condi-
tion it hangs on the trees over winter or falls to the ground,
where the fungus remains dormant until the right conditions of
moisture and temperature cause it to become active and attack
its host the following spring. The dormant or sclerotium form
of this fungus occurs where the '' mummied " fruit has laid on
the ground over winter, covered by a thin layer of soil. These
sclerotia give rise to apothecia, which are funnel-shaped, re-
sembling small toadstools. The asci line, the cup-shaped por-
tion of the apothecia and each ascus, contains eight ascospores.
So far as I know this has not been found by any of the Massa-
chusetts Experiment Station staff. The fungus will attack the
fruit at different stages of its growth, but it makes the greatest
headway on fruit that is almost mature. If the fruit has been
attacked by the curculio, or injured in any way, the fungus
readily takes advantage of the injury to get in its deadly work.
It might be said, however, that althongh it attacks the fruit
most readily where it has been injured, it will also attack the
])erfect fruit should the humidity and the temperature of the
atmosphere be right. In the case of plums the fungus may
have been working for some time within the tissue without
being outwardly noticeable. This fact has put many shippers
to great disadvantage and caused them much loss.
On Floivers. — The fungus usually first attacks the flowers
just after the petals fall, but it has been known to attack them
previous to that time. The first iuflication that the fungus is
present is a slight brown discoloration on some part of the
lull.] rUBLlC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 163
Howers. This rapidly spreads until it altects the whole flower,
and frequently extends into the pedicles. These diseased flow-
ers often remain on the tree several weeks, until a heavy rain
or damp weather comes, when they begin to fall, and as they
are very sticky, owing to their decaying condition, they adhere
very eftectively to leaves and fruit, and serve as a new place of
infection. They may remain in these new locations for some
time before they are washed to the ground. When the fungus
from the flower penetrates the pedicle, we have what is com-
monly called "' twig blight."
On the Twigs. — One form in which the fungus attacks the
twigs is commonly known as twig blight, and it is apparently a
result of the early attacks on the blossoms. I have noticed it
attacking both the peach and plum, but more often the former.
The fungus penetrates the pedicle and into the tissues of the
twig, causing a flow of gum. This fungus often works around
the entire stem, cntting oft" all source of nourishment from the
distal portion of the twig, causing it to die. The gummy por-
tions and girdling resemble quite closely the symptoms of an-
other disease, known as canker. In summer and early fall, as
well as in spring, we often find this blighting of twigs, the
source of infection being the fungus from the decaying fruit.
This bores through the pedicle and then ramifies through the
stem, often girdling it, as in the case of the blight, where the
source of infection was the flowers. The injury in both cases
nearly always is confined to a point near the attachment of the
fruit or flowers. When the girdling is complete the leaves
beyond the point of attack dry np and die.
Another form in which I have noticed it might be called the
" Ijrown spotting of twigs." This phase of the disease has been
described by Dr. G. E. Stone of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. The spotting occurs on the new shoots, and was not
noticed except in the case of the peach. These spots may be
single, or several may come together, forming a more or less
irregular mass. In these spots we find Monilia, which presents
similar characteristics to the one found on the fruit. The prin-
cipal distinction between this and the common Monilia of the
fruit consists in the smaller spores of the former. Numerous
164 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
cultures and comparisons made of the two types of Monilia —
that on the fruit and on the stem, made by Dr. Stone — show
that the spores of the one on the twig are always smaller when
grown in any media than those of that on the fruit, and the two
species react quite ditferently chemically when grown in solu-
tions on diflt'erent media. ^
On the Leaves. — In wet weather, especially, one often no-
tices spots on the leaves. These are found on both the upper
and lower surfaces, but are generally most conspicuous on the
upper. During wet, warm weather, if one examines these spots
carefully he will find here and there small grayish masses of
powder, which are in reality the conidia of the '' brown rot "
fimgus.
Spoj'es. — The spores, more or less oval shaped, are one
celled, and their coutents are quite noticeably granular. These
spores germinate readily in water, producing a mycelium whose
contents are granular, as in the case of the spores. The myce-
lium is broken up here and there by cross walls. The spores
are produced in chains by a sort of budding, the last one of the
chain being the newest one. When grown on cidture media
(prune agar) these spores form much longer chains than on the
fruits out of doors.
Means of Spore Dispersal. — The influencing factors in the
spreading of this fungous disease are wind, rain, insects (espe-
cially plum curculio), etc. Many minor ways in which the
spores are disseminated might be enumerated, but the three
above-named methods are probably by far the most influencing.
Methods of Control. — I would suggest the following ways
in which to lessen the attacks of this disease. Destroy all
" mummied " fruit which hangs on the trees or has fallen to
the gTound. Cut off and burn all twigs that are infected with
the fungus luycelium. Keep the trees pruned, so that there
will be a free circulation of air and plenty of light, because
a tree which is crowded with cross limbs and has in consequence
too much foliage acts as a convenient forcing house for " brown
• Dr. Stone has observed this species on the twig for many years in Massachusetts, the twig
sometimes being very badly spotted. .l/oniVi'a isalso sometimes associated with C/nrfosporn/?H,
but the Monilia by far predominates. Where lime and sulphur has been used as a spring spray
these spots have beenentirely absent, with a much better annual growth of the twig as a result.
(See Nineteenth Annual Report, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 166.)
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 165
rot." Thin the fruits so tbat they do not at least come in con-
lact with one another. By using the above precautions and
applying the following s])ray mixtures for "' brown rot," '' scab "
and '' plum curculio '' 1 believe that the fungus can be almost
entirely controlled. For the Elberta, Belle, Reeves, and other
varieties of peaches of about the same ripening season, the fol-
lowing is advised: (1) about the time the calyces of shucks are
shedding, spray w'ith arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 jwunds
to 50 gallons of water. In order to reduce the caustic proper-
ties of the poison, add milk of lime made from slaking 2 pounds
of stone lime. The date of this treatment is too early for scab,
and ordinarily no serious outbreaks of brown rot occur so early,
so that the lime sulphur may be omitted with reasonable safety ;
but during warm, rainy springs, especially in the south, the
lime sulphur will doubtless be necessary in this application.
(2) Two or three weeks later, or about one month after the
petals drop, spra}^ with self-boiled lime sulphur; 8 pounds of
lime, 8 pounds of sulphur and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to
each 50 gallons of water. (3) About a month before the fruit
ripens, spray with the self-boiled lime sulphur, omitting the
poison.
For earlier maturing varieties, such as Waddell, Carmen and
Hiley, the first two treatments outlined above would probably
be sufficient ordinarily, but in very wet seasons varieties sus-
ceptible to rot would doubtless require three treatments. Late
varieties, such as Smock and Salway, having a longer season,
^\'ould not be thoroughly protected by three applications. In
view of the results obtained on midseason varieties it seems
likely that three ti-eatments will ordinarily be sufficient for the
late varieties.
Black Spot or Scab (Cladosporium carpophylhim, Thiim.).
History and Disfrihufioi). — This fungus was first noticed in
1876 by Von Thiimen of Austria, who was at that time botanist
to the Austrian Experiment Station. In the year following,
1877, he described the fungus, giving it the above name. Since
that time it has been met with quite commonly in this country.
In Saocardo's " Syllogo Fuugorum " we find a co]iy of Von
IGG EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Tbiiiueu's description^ which mentions only that it was found
in tlie locality of Klosternenburg, where the Austrian Experi-
ment Station was located.
On the Fruit. — Small, round, blackish spots on the skin of
the fruit are the first indications of the disease. These spots
usually appear when the fruit is about two-thirds grown, most
frequently on the upper side of the fruit, and if the spots are
very numerous they will, as they grow, coalesce and form a
large, irregular, diseased area. When the fruit is thus attacked
it becomes one-sided, due to the fact that a corky layer of cells
is formed by the fruit under the diseased area as a protective
layer. This corky layer is incapable of further growth, and
hence we get, as a result, the ill-formed fruit. The corky layers
are often ruptured, leaving deep cracks, which furnish an ideal
place for the growth of the spores of Monilia, which are always
ready to take advantage of such injuries. Hence we often find
both troubles on the same specimen. This disease attacks the
fruit much in the same way as the scab of apple and pear. Its
attacks are generally most noticeable on the late varieties of
fruits, and it thrives most luxuriantly during damp weather.
On the Leaves. — This fungus causes a shot hole appearance
of the leaves. The first indications one has of the disease upon
the leaves are scattering brown spots. These spots, as a rule,
spread over the leaf, and as the fungus matures the tissues dry
up and the diseased portion falls out, leaving a circular opening.
This fungus seems to prefer the part of the leaf between the
veins. The spores of the fungus attacking the leaf agree with
those growing on the fruit, with the possible exception that they
are somewhat smaller, but no doubt this slight variation is due
to the environment rather than being a specific character.
On the Twigs. — Sturgis gives an account of this fungus at-
tacking the peach twigs. He states that the twigs are marked
more or less abundantly with circular spots, somewhat resem-
bliug in appearance the " birds' eye rot " of grapes (Spaceloma
ampelinum, DeBarv). Frequently the spots join together and
cover the twig so thoroughly as to destroy the pinkish-brown
color of the bark. Although not having seen this phase of the
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 167
disease, it apparently resembles in outward appearance very
much the spotting that I described as due to the brown rot
fungus.^
Peach Leaf Cuel {Exoascus deformans (Berk.) Fuckel).
This disease is found commonly in Massachusetts, and, as a
matter of fact, more inquiries are sent to the station in regard to
this trouble than any other peach disease. It is found in almost
all ]iarts of the world where the peach is grown to any extent,
and has been seen by the writer in great quantities in the large
orchards along the shores of Lake Erie.
It attacks the leaf buds just as they begin to open in the
spring, also the tender shoots, flowers and young fruit, but is
not so noticeable as on the leaves. The leaves become very
much swollen, wrinkled and curled, and a little later take on
the appearance of a moldy gray covering. In the earlier stages
of the disease the leaves often show red or pinkish blotches, but
they turn a brownish color as they grow older and fall to the
groimd. Cold and damp, or rainy, weather in the spring
greatly favors this disease, and in fact determines the degree
of severity of the attack. It often defoliates the trees to such
an extent that they are not able to lay up sufficient material for
their needs, or ripen the wood properly, so that when winter
comes the trees are often found to be much weakened. In some
cases the disease has been so severe that the trees were not able
to endure the cold of winter, and consequently were winter
killed.
It was previously thought that infection took place only by
perennial mycelia. but this theory has gradually been discarded.
Infection may take place by perennial mycelia, but most writers
and observers now agree that infection is due almost entirely to
the spores, which live over winter on the bark of trees and in
other places.
The Elberta peach is one of the most susceptible varieties to
the attacks of this fungus, but all varieties seem to be more or
' For other points of interest in regard to the fungus not given in this paper see Arthur's and
Chester's writings.
168 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
less subject to the disease. Trees injured by other agencies,
and consequently weakened, seem to be more susceptible to at-
tack than healthy, vigorous trees.
It will be readily seen that it is probably useless to spray the
trees after the leaves become infected, but since the spores live
over winter on the bark, the trees should be sprayed in the
spring, while the spores are still dormant.
It is generally accepted by all the largest and best growers
that the lime sulphur wash, used for the control of San Jose
scale, is by far the best remedy for this trouble, although some
prefer Bordeaux and others copper sulphate solution, where the
scale is not present. Since there is nearly always danger from
scale infestation, however, it seems wiser to use the lime and
sulphur, which is undoubtedly of great fungicidal value, as well
as one of the best remedies for the scale.
The spray should be ajiplied to the trees from one to two
weeks before the buds open, if possible on a quiet day when the
atmosphere is free from moisture.
If the above directions are followed, this treatment should
suffice for the leaf curl and the San Jose scale. For this spray
mixture use 10 pounds of good fresh stone lime and 15 pounds
of sulphur to each 50 gallons of water. Make up the above
spray solution as recommended by Quaintance.
Heat in a cooking barrel or vessel about one-third of the total
quantity of water required. When the water is hot, add all the
lime and at once add all the sulphur, which previously should
have been made into a thick paste with water. After the lime
has slaked, about another third of the water should be added,
preferably hot, and the cooking should be continued for one
hour, when the final dilution may be made, using either hot or
cold water, as is most convenient. The boiling due to the slak-
ing of the lime thoroughly mixes the ingredients at the start, but
subsequent stirring is necessary if the wash is cooked by direct
heat in kettles. Tf cooked by steam, no stirring will be neces-
sary. After the wash has been prepared it must be well strained
as it is being run into the spray pump or tank. The wash may
be cooked in large kettles, or, preferably, by steam in barrels or
tanks.
1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 1G9
Plum Pockets (Exuascus Pruni, Fiickel).
The organism causing the disease known as " phnn pockets "
is closely related to that causing peach leaf cnrl, although not
occurring on the peach. It was previously thought that the
source of infection was only tlii'ough the hibernating mycelium
in the twigs and branches, but from what can be learned in re-
gard to this more investigation seems to be needed on this point.
A short time after the young fruit forms, it becomes yellowish,
much swollen and stoneless.
These hollow, dropsical-like plums are often streaked \vitli
red at first, but after a time they take on a moldy, grayish ap-
pearance, similar to the peach leaf curl, and soon fall to the
gi'ouud. This moldy covering is composed of sacs (asci) which
contain the spores.
The attacks of this parasite are generally local, possibly only
one tree in a large orchard being affected, and the treatment
given for peach leaf curl would ])robab]3^ suffice here.
Black Knot {PloirrirjJitla morhofin (Schw.) Sacc).
One often notices in small family orchards containing a va-
riety of trees, where little care is given them, that some of the
plum trees show signs of a disease known as black knot. The
knots often extend entirely around the limbs, and as a conse-
quence the more distal parts of the limbs receive but little nour-
ishment, and finally die.
Black knot, if given no treatment, usually destroys the value
of the tree within a year or two, even if it does not kill the tree
in that time. Almost all varieties of plums are subject to this
disease. The first noticeable indication of the disease in the
spring is the enlargement of liud)s and branches affected. The
bark then breaks open, and this new surface soon becomes cov-
ered with a moldy, green-like sulistance which contains the
spores. This is followed by black knots containing s]X)res
which become mature before the next spring. The spores evi-
dently obtain a foothcild on their host through cracks or injuries
caused bv various agencies. It is iherefore essential in llie care
170 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
of an orclmrd that one should be careful not to bruise or injure
the trees.
The wind is probably the greatest agent for conveying the
spores from tree to tree. Eemedial measures consist in prun-
ing off the knots and burning, and it has been advised that they
be cut out when young, and the exposed area coated with paint.
Observations and experiments have shown that early spring
spraying materially lessens the infection.
Plum Leaf Spot or Shot Hole (Cylindrosporkim Padi,
Karst).
This disease causes spots on the leaves somewhat circular in
outline, which often become joined. These aifected parts
usually have a reddish outline, and finally the diseased tissue
turns dark brown and falls out. The leaves turn a yellowish
color and often begin to fall in July, but the most severe defo-
liation usually occurs in August and early in September. The
great loss from this disease is caused by defoliation before the
tree stores up sufficient starch and ripens its wood enough to
enable it to stand the cold of winter. Continual attacks very
much weaken the tree and eventually kill it, but if lime sulphur
, is used thoroughly, little trouble will be experienced from this
disease. This same disease also affects the cherry.
Peach Skot Hole (Cercospora circumscissa, Sacc).
The effects of this disease resemble those caused by Cylindro-
sporium of the plum. The diseased spots fall out. and the small
branches are also attacked, often causing a great nundier of the
young shoots to die. Spray with lime sulphur, as for j^each leaf
curl.
Shot JTolc Effort caused hy improperly mixed Bordeaux.
When improporh^ mixed Bordeaux is used for a summer
spray, we invariably find the leaves badly riddled with holes,
due to the burning of the tissues. One can readily distinguish
this type of shot hole from those previously described, for the
leaves which come out ou the new shoots remain unaffected,
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 171
Avliereas. it' the troiil)Ic had been due to a fungus, tbo iicw leaves
Avuuld also become affected. Bordeaux is not, therefore, always
safe to use on nuiture foliage, even at reduced strengths, for it
has often been known to cause trouble when used at only half
strength.
GUMMOSIS OF THE PeACK.
For the past two years there has been an abundance of gum
flow in the college peach orchard. This has been found to the
greatest extent on the early varieties, and owing to the poor
condition of many of the trees it has seemeil best to destroy
them. The following gaim disease which I am about to de-
scribe resembles almost identically in most of its life history the
gummosis of Frunus Japonica, described by Massee as due to
Cladosporhim epipJiylhiin, Fr. In this ease (gummosis of
peach) I believe the species to be Cladosporhim, cai-pophylum,
Thiim. Massee mentions in his paper a species of Macrospo-
riuni that is often found in connection with this gum flow, but
he is unable to find any genetic connection between the two
fungi. Instead of finding a Macrosporium fungus in connec-
tion with the gummosis of peach, I have, with very few excep-
tions, found a species of Alternaria ^ or AUernaria form, which
is apparently something new, as the fungus, in addition to the
ordinary alternaria spores, bears pycnidia bodies containing
many minute byline spores. These in turn give rise to Alter-
naria spores and more pycnidia. I could not, however, estab-
lish any genetic connection between this form of Alternaria.
and the Cladosporium.
Prohahle Cavse of Gummosis.
On the trunks and large branches the gum flow is evidently
due to borers, frost cracks and sun scald, and a copious flow of
gum at any place of injury is generally found. These places
serve as a refuge for the spores of Cladosporium and Alterunria,
and we find some form of Penirilliiim inhabiting the same mass.
Put whatever the original cause of the flow, it is certain that
these forms of Cladosporium and Alternaria take a hand in
' The organism which we term Alternaria here may possibly bean undeveloped form of some
other type, such as Pleospora, etc.
172 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
sti Ululating' the host to a more abundant How. The niyccliuni
of these fungi penetrate every portion of the gum, and their
fungous threads may be seen even penetrating the host itself.
On the Finiit-hearing Wood.
The gum flow is almost without exception found at the base
of the pedicle bearing diseased fruit. These gummy masses
may be confined to a small area in the region of the pedicle, or
may extend some little distance below and above the pedicle,
sometimes becoming so bad as to entirely girdle the branch, thus
killing the entire distal portion. When this happens it is best
to cut the diseased member off some two or three inches below
the gummy area. I believe this gum flow is first caused on
these small branches by the brown rot fungus, which is, without
an exception, found on the fruit attached to the diseased pedicle.
But as soon as this fungus causes the flow of gum the Cladospo-
rium and Altcrnaria come in, as in the case of the injuries on
the trunks and large branches. After the above fungi, Cladospo-
rium and xilternaria, get a foothold, it would seem that the
brown rot fungus is less noticeable. Monilia is often to be
found in these gummy masses, but in masses containing Clad-
osporium and Alternaria this fungus has been found very spar-
ingly. These masses become soft during the damp spring
weather, and are usually washed to the ground by rains.
Appearance of Cladosporium and Alternaria, under the Above
Environment.
At first the gummy mass is light in color, but after it remains
on the tree some time it becomes browned and blackened. On
sectioning one of these masses it is found that the darkened area
is near the surface, due to the formation of dark, thick-walled
cells, while farther in the mycelium becomes gradually lighter
in color, until nearly colorless at the center. On inoculating
branches of peach trees with the conidial form of Cladosporium
grown on prune agar it was found that some little time after-
wards a greenish growth of Cladosporium appeared. After the
spores had disappeared there soon appeared small, tear-like
drops, which, as the season advanced, grew larger and darker
Sliowins]
a Cross-section of a Three-year-old Peach Twi^
" Gummosis."
affected with
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 173
ill color. On exaiiiiiiation in the fall these masses were found
to contain inycelium and spores similar to those found in other
gummy masses in the orchard. These chains of dark spores
produce many thick-wallod spores, or micro-sclerotia, as de-
scribed by Massee, and these thick-walled spores, or niicro-
sclerotia, in turn give rise to many small byline conidia, while
another form of the micro-sclerotia gives rise to a mycelium
which bears numerous conidia. In the gummy mass one finds
j)rcs{>iit many pycnidia of a brown color, similar in color to the
micro-sclerotia, and from their situation, color, etc., one would
take them for different stages of the same fungus. However, on
isolating these pycnidial bodies, which were tilled with myriads
of minute byline spores, and growing them on pure cultures, I
was unable to get any connection between the two; but I found
that the minute byline spores without exception gave rise to
other pycnidia and Alter naria spores; the AUernaria spores,
growing on the same mycelium as the pycnidia, in turn gave
rise to i\vcnidia and AUernaria spores.
Histological Changes Accompanying Guniinosis,
The cut facing this i)age represents a cross-section of a dis-
eased twig of a i)each tree, showing two well-developed annular
rings and a third ])artly developed. This twig was probably at-
tacked by the brown rot fungus, together with Cladosporium and
a form of AUernaria.
This section, which is a typical one, shows that the disease
did not destroy the cambium ring until the fall of the second
year, but the disease may have made its ai)pearance even a year
earlier. The noticeable feature in this illustration is that the
last layer of wood formed was very much thinner towards the
uninjured side of the twig than the injured side, and ibis ring
of wood is not complete near the area where guniinosis had
set in. There is also a noticeable thickening of the incomplete
I'ings of wood near the point of injury, a fact due probably to
the difference in tension occurring in the stem produced by the
injury from gummosis. The cambium, at the margin of the
diseased area where it has attempted to heal over, is also much
174 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
thicker tliaii at the opposite side of the twig, where the tension is
different.
Microscopical examinations of sections also showed that con-
siderable healing of the wound caused by gummosis took
place. The callus forming as a result of this healing developed
ridges along the side of the wound. The cavity of the wound
was entirely filled with gum, which contained Cladosporiuni
and a form of AUcrnaria.
Suggestions in Begaid io tlie Treatment of Gummosis.
In very l)ad cases of gunnnosis it would be best to destroy
the tree, since it is of little value and may possibly furnish
an ideal place for the development of undesirable organisms.
Eranches may be cut off a few inches below the affected areas.
Since this disease undoubtedly originates from the practice of
leaving " mummied " fruit attached to the tree, it is best to
remove and destroy them. It is even a question whether " mum-
mied " fruit should be left on the ground. Practically all cases
of infection from giimmosis have occurred where the " mum-
mied " fruit was left on the tree, and came in contact with the
limb or branch.
Care should also be exercised in pruning, and this should be
done in winter or early spriug. A clean, sloping cut should be
made, and large wounds should be covered with paint or coal-
tar. This treatment will prevent infection from the wounds.
The practice of good sanitation and systematic spraying of
peach trees, together with cultivation and feeding, will un-
doubtedly hold this disease in check.
DlRECTlOA'S FOR MAKING SuMMER SPEAY MiXTURE.
Essentials.
In making the self-boiled lime sul])hur, plus arsenate of lead.
as recommended for the summer sprayings, the first essentials
are to have good stone lime, a perfect mixture of the ingredi-
ents, and tw^o men to attend to the mixing. After being mixed
it is necessary that the mixture l)e kept well agitated while in
the taid\, for if not it will settle, no matter how well made. To
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 175
acconipli.sli this it is suggested that those using a power outfit
employ an agitator of the propellor type, as most others will
allow a little settling; and where this occurs an eveu mixture
of the sjH'aying materials is not obtained.
Directions.
The following method has been found to woi'k out satisfacto-
rily in making 250-gallon quantities. First, weigh out AO
pounds each of good stone lime and flour of sul])hur. Take the
above (piantity of lime and place in the bottom of a barrel (one
holding 50 gallons is a convenient size to use Avhen not making
over 300 gallons at a time) ; then pour on water slowly and
evenly. A good way to do this is to use a fine spray from a
nozzle. As soon as the lime begins to slake have the sulphur
sifted over the lime, adding just enough water while doing this
to keep the lime from burning. By the time the sulphur is
added the lime has become very active, and requires one per-
son's attention to stir the mixture while another adds the water
just fast enough to keep the mixture from burning. AVatcr
should be added cautiously to obtain the best results in slaking.
If the above directions are followed there will first be a thick,
pasty substance which gradually becomes thinner as more water
is added. The lime ought to keep the mixture well heated for
several minutes, but as soon as it becomes well slaked water
should be added. If allowed to cook too long the sulphur will
go into solution and combine with the lime to form sulphides,
and this form is harmful to the foliage. Weigh out 10 pounds
of arsenate of lead, add water, aud stir until thoroughly mixed ;
then strain through a sieve (20 to 30 mesh to an inch is satisfac-
toi-y) either into the s])ray tank or Ijarrel containinji' the lime-
sulphur mixture. On the addition of the arsenate of lead to the
lime sulphur, a dark-colored mixture is obtained. If the mix-
ture has been pro]ierly made there will be very few settlings,
and very little, if any, sulphur floating on the surface. The
ingredients of this mixture ought not to settle for nearly half
an hour. The above mixture should be strained into the spray
tank and the tank filled with water. The solution is then ready
to be sprayed on the trees.
176 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
COJ^CENTRATED LiME-SULPHUR SOLUTION.
The iiicoiiveuienee experienced in preparing- the linic-snlphm-
wash by cooking with steam or in open kettles at homo has been
one of the principal objections to this spray. Certain mann-
factnrers have therefore put on the market concentrated solu-
tions of lime-sulphur wash which have only to be diluted with
Avater for "use. These commercial washes have proved to be
{iliout as effective in controlling the scale as the well-cooked lime-
sulphur wash, «nd, although somewhat more expensive, have
been adopted l)y many commercial orchardists in preference to
tlie home-prepared spray. They are especially useful for the
smaller orchardist, whose interests do not warrant the construc-
tion of a cooking plant. In other ways, too, they possess ad-
vantages ; for instance, those using the commercial washes may
always have on hand a stock solution, so that the spray may be
quickly prepared and advantage taken of favorable weather
conditions. These preparations should usually be used at the
rate of 1 gallon to 10 gallons of water.
Literature Ctped.
1. 8accartlo, P. A. Syllojje Fungoruiu, Vol. IV., j). :?4, 188(i.
2. Tubeuf & Smith. Diseases of Plants caused by Cryptogamic Para-
sites, p. 497, 1897.
3. Peck, C. H. Thirty-fourth Report of the New York State Museum,
p. 35.
4. Norton, J. B. S. Transactions of the Academy of Science, St. Louis,
Vol. XII., No. 8, pp. 91-97.
5. Stone, G. E. Nineteenth Annual Report, Massachusetts Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, p. l()(i.
6. Scott, W. M. and Ayres, T. Willard. Bureau of l^lant Industry,
Bulletin No. 174, pp. 24, 25.
7. Saccardo, P. A. Sylloge Fungorum, Vol. IV., ]i. 353, 188().
8. Sturgis, W. C. Twentieth Annual Kei^ort, Coiniecticut Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, p. 269.
9. Arthur, J. C. Indiana Bulletin No. 19, pp. 5-8, 1889.
10. Chester, P. D. Delaware, Eighth Annual Report, pp. 60-63, 1896.
11. Massee, George. Kew Bulletin, p. 1, 1 pi., 1899.
12. Quaintance, A. L. Bureau of Entomology, Circular 124, The San
Jose Scale and its Control, pp. 12, 13.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 177
CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS OF APPLE
VARIETIES.
BY J. K. SHAW,
I. INTKODUCTION.
The conditions of soil, climate and culture under which our
nianv varieties of fruit succeed are little understood. Most of
the publications dealing with varieties concern themselves with
histories and technical descriptions, and but very little with the
conditions under which the planting of this or that variety is to
be recommended. As a result of this lack of information a
given variety is planted under widely varying conditions, under
some of which it docs well and under others it does poorly.
At the present time fruit growing, more especially the grow-
ing of apples, is entering a new era. The increased demand re-
sulting from the lessened production during the past decade ;
improved methods of culture, especially a better understanding
of the combating of insects and diseases, and better business
methods have stirred up growers all over the apple regions to a
renewed interest in the business. This movement has had its
origin in the Pacific coast and intermountain regions, but will
soon, if it has not already, become general over a large portion
of North America.
This movement will result in more or less change in the rela-
tive importance of commercial varieties, some becoming less
esteemed and others gaining in favor. The consumer will come
to prefer varieties of better quality and those better suited to
various purposes. The same is true within a variety, where
specimens grown to more perfect d(n^elopment will receive pref-
erence.
To attain the highest degree of success it will be more neces-
f^avy than in the past for each grower to choose those varieties
which he can grow, under his conditions of soil and climate, to
178 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
their highest perfection. A mistaken choice will be a serious
thing, and one that will require valuable time and much cx^jense
to correct.
The present paper is the result of a study, carried on for the
past four years, of the effect of varying climatic conditions on
varieties, and an attempt is here made to lay down certain prin-
ciples as to the climatic adaptations of varieties. Questions of
soil and culture are given only incidental consideration. For
the former there has not been sufficient opportunity, and a con-
sideration of the latter would lead into the whole field of orchard
management. Many samples of different varieties, grown under
widely varying* conditions, have been examined pomologically,
and some of them chemically, and a study made of the pomologi-
cal and meteorological literature available.
This paper does not make specific recommendations of varie-
ties for any section of the country or for the country in general.
That is more or less a local problem into which enter questions
not considered here. Among them are those of soil, market
demands, methods of culture to be followed, the individual
preferences of the grower and many others. If the conclusions
of this paper are sound, they should aid in such choice, for
many varieties that might otherwise be considered are excluded
as not being suited to the climatic conditions of the locality
under consideration, while from those that are adapted climat-
ically, the ones best suited to soil and other conditions may be
singled out.
The subject under consideration is a large one. To under-
stand at all fully the relations of apple variation to climate
will require prolonged study and experiment. This paper is,
in a large degree, introductory, and may contain errors and
omissions which should be corrected. The writer will greatly
appreciate any suggestions as to corrections or additions that
should be made.
The work has been done as Adams fund research, and at the
same time in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the de-
gree of Doctor of Philosophy from the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural College. It has been done under the direction of Prof.
F. C. Sears, to whom the thanks of the writer are extended for
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 179
advice ;uk1 criticism, and to Prof. F. A. Waugh as well, who
has givcu inauj helpful suggestions. The chemical work has
been under the direction of Dr. Charles Wellington, and assist-
ance in the analytical work has been rendered by Mr. E. L.
Winn and Mr. B, Ostrolenk of the senior class in the college.
Many experiment station horticulturists and fruit growers in
many sections of the country have aided by giving information
and by furnishing samples of apples. It is impossible to name
them all here, but their many favors are here acknowledged and
hearty appreciation extended.
II. THE CAUSES OP VARIETAL VARIATION.
The causes of the great differences in apple varieties may be
gr()U]:ed under three heads: those arising from (1) cultural
conditions, (i^) differences in soil types, (3) differences in
climate.
CuLTUKAL Variations.
The methods pursued in the growing and in the care of the
trees have great influence on the character of the fruit. It is
affected in every way, in size, form, color, keeping (piality, ship-
jnng quality and dessert quality. These variations have been
given only incidental investigation of such ])hases as relate
directly to the climatic differences that have been the special
object of study. A few of these may, however, be given pass-
ing attention at this [xiint.
Every orchardist growing any number of trees is aware that
there are great differences in the individuality of the trees, even
when grown in the same orchard and under apparently identical
conditions of climate and soil. One tree may be very produc-
tive and its neighbor only moderately so. The apples may differ
in many of their characters. Further along in this j^aper some
data are presented bearing on this question (see page 194).
These individual differences have been ascribed to various
causes, the principal ones of which are. perhaps, those of bud
variations or varietal " strains," and that of the influence of
the stock.
The method of handling the soil has great influence on the
fruit, especially Avhether the orchard is in sod or is cultivated.
180 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
This lias been shown in various bulletins from dilTercnt experi-
ment stations. The Baldwin seems especially intlueuced hy con-
ditions of orchard culture, and other varieties more or less so.
Certain experiments at this station -^ have shown marked ef-
fects from the use of different fertilizers. This question has
been little investigated, but no doubt great variation in fruit
may be produced by the fertilizer used on the land. Differences
in pruning also have their effects. A tree kept Avith an open
top will admit an abundance of sunshine, resulting in a higher
colored fruit ; in many other w^ays the effect of pruning may be
shown in the character of the fruit.
Many fruit growers have discovered, to their grief, that Bor-
deaux mixture has a decided effect on many varieties, by pro-
dncing russetiug. On the other hand, the liuie-sulphur prepara-
tion has frequently been found to render the appearance of the
fruit better than when not sprayed at all.
Soil Yakiation.
It has been shown that the nature of the soil has great effect
on the character of the fruit. Bed apples are likely to be higher
colored on sandy soils than on clayey soils, Not enough is
known regarding this question to make any very definite gen-
eralizations on the subject. H. J. Wilder has determined the
soil adaptations of various varieties, and shown that different
varieties have decided preferences as to soils.^ The question of
the adaptation of varieties to soils is much complicated by the
question of stocks already alluded to. 'No doubt varieties have
soil preferences w^hich are general to the variety, and not seri-
ously modified by differences in stock. ISTevertheless, the writer
is satisfied that much greater uniformity w^ould be found in
the adaptation of varieties to soils were they grown on their
own roots.
Cliimatio Yariatiox.
In a l)road Avay, the limits of apple growing are governed by
climatic conditions. The apple is a fruit of a temperate cli-
mate, and does not flourish in the far north nor in the warmer
' Report, Massachusetts Experiment Station, 22, Part II., p. 10.
2 Proceedings American Pomological Society, 31, p. 138 (1909).
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 181
sections of the temperate zoues. The apple adapts itself imder
cultivation to a considerable range of rainfall, and in districts
of deficient precipitation irrigation is practiced. Therefore,
the question of rainfall has comparatively little weight in the
general cultivation of the apple. Sunshine has considerable
effect, but it is not a limiting factor anywhere in the apple belt.
The great climatic factor which limits the distribution of apjdes
in general, and of the different varieties in particular, is tem-
perature.
Over the greater part of the North American continent the
northern limit of successful apple growing is fixed by the min-
imum winter temperature. Different varieties of the common
apple vary greatly in their ability to withstand minimum win-
ter temperatures, and the condition of the tree, particularly as
regards moisture content at the time minimum temperatures
occur, has great influence in determining whether the tree
survives. Very few, if any^ varieties will withstand a tem-
perature much below — 40° F. without being killed back more
or less. In many cases a considerably less severe temperature
is fatal to even the hardiest varieties. With the possible excep-
tion of the extreme northern Pacific coast, under conditions of
a maritime climate, there is nowhere in North America a region
where certain varieties will not produce fruit in summer, pro-
vided they can withstand the cold of winter. In other words,
the summers are warm enough to mature fruit of short-season
varieties, provided the winters do not kill the tree before it has
reached the bearing age.
The apple does not succeed in the southern portions of
North America, although fruit may be produced in every State
of the I^nion, and probably in portions of Mexico. The diffi-
culty in the way of the southern extension of apple growing
seems to be largely the heat during the summer. The trees fail
to grow during hot periods in the growing season, and fail to
set, or at least to mature fruit. The latter is especially true of
winter sorts, and many varieties grown in the south are short-
season ones, which are able to nurture fruit before the hot pe-
riods of Julv and August arrive.
182 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
The Mean Sutniner Temperature.
For this work we have used as a measure of the summer heat
an average monthly mean for the growing season. This has
heen taken as comprising the months of March to September
inclusive. The monthly means for these seven months, as given
in publications of the United States Weather Bureau and Can-
adian Meteorological Service, are averaged. This gives, for
points within the apple-growing regions of Xorth America, tem-
peratures varying from about 52° to about 70° or 72°. Sum-
mer means have been computed for a great number of stations,
and from these the isotherms given in Fig. 16 are drawn. This
map is intended principally for study in connection with the
matter given later in this paper, but it may be proper to explain
it at this point, and to discuss the variations in the summer
mean that occur and the causes thereof. In connnon wilh other
questions of temperature, the summer mean for a given section
is determined by a number of considerations. Among these are
the following: (1) latitude, (2) elevation, (3) site and aspect,
(4) soil, (5) culture, (0) prevailing winds, (7) sunshine.
The first two require no explanation. Temperatures vary
inversely with the latitude and altitude, but, owing to the in-
fluence of the other features mentioned, no ratio can be lai<l
down that is of any value.
With regard to slope, little need be said. The sunnner mean
on a north slope may be several degrees lower than that of a
corresponding southerly slo]ie, though we have been unable to
find any data showing the amount of ditference. Slo]ie must
be considered in estimating the probable temperature of an
orchard site.
Soils containing a large proporliou of sand will not only be
warmer than clayey soils, but will also influence the air tempera-
ture in the orchard to a considerable degree.
Hedrick found that the soil in a tilled orchard was from l.f
to 2.8° warmer than a corresponding plat in sod.^ Tliis nnist
have an influence on the air temperature in the orchard.
Prevailiug winds influence the summer mean. These are de-
» Bulletin 314, New York Experiment Station.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMFAT — No. 31. 183
tcrniined by inouiitaiu ranges and other topographic features, by
the temperatures of bodies of water over which the air may
liave passed, and perhaps by other considerations.
The prevalence of a large proportion of sunshine will operate
to raise the temperature in the orchard. The effect on the
protoplasm of the tree will, owing to the heat absorptive powers
of the dark colored bark, be even greater. This has been shown
by Whitten. He also found that in peaches the color of the
bark modifies in a marked nunmer the thermal effect of the sun.^
The temperatures on which this work is based were presumably
all taken in the regulation shelters of the Weather Bureau,
where this effect would be less than in the orchard. The prob-
able amount of sunshine should be taken into consideration in
estimating the summer mean of an orchard.
III. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE APPLE.
For convenience in discussion, the life history of the apple
(fruit) may be somewhat arbitrarily divided into four periods:
(1) that of growth, which extends from the blossom to the
attainment of full size; (2) that of ripening, which covers the
period from the termination of the first until the apple is picked
from the tree; (3) that of "after ripening," extending from
picking until the apple is in perfect eating condition; and (4)
that of decay, covering the subsequent deterioration and break-
ing down of the fruit. Various fungous diseases may enter in
during these periods and terminate the life of the apple at any
time. These are not considered in this discussion. The second
and third periods are scarcely differentiated in summer apples,
these being ordinarily fit for immediate consumption on ])ick-
ing. In winter apples, on the other hand, there is a distinct
period of ripening following the picking of the fruit.
Inasmuch as the discussion of these periods of growth will be
largely from a chemical standpoint, it may be well to consider
briefly the chemical composition of apples before discussing
their development.
Apples vary widely in chemical composition, according to
\ariety, stage of development and conditions of growth. They
• Report American Pomological Society, 26, p. 47 (1900).
184 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
contain ordinarily from 80 to 88 per cent, of water, most win-
ter varieties when maturing averaging perhaps abont 84 per
cent., the remainder of the frnit comprising the total solids.
The solids consist of the following substances: first, starch, of
which there may be 3 or 4 per cent., in growing apples; second,
sugars, of which there may be from 5 to 12 per cent., averaging
perhaps 8 or 10 per cent. The total sugars are made up of at
least three distinct compounds: sucrose, of which we may find
from none to 6 per cent. ; and a mixture of dextrose and levu-
lose, of which there may be from 5 to 10 per cent. These two
latfer sugars are separated in the laboratory Avith some diffi-
cidty, and comparatively few figures are available to show their
relative proportions, but it is evident that the levulose in apples
is in excess of the dextrose, a condition not usually found in
plant substances where these two sugars occur together. Of
organic acid we may find from .12 to 1.50 per cent., presumably
as some form of malic acid.
The foregoing solids are all soluljle in water. The insoluble
solids are largely of a carbohydrate nature, and consist of cellu-
lose and pentosans for the most part. In the chemical work
reported in this paper determinations of the total insoluble dry
matter have been made and given as insoluble solids, and consist
of those portions of the apple not dissolved liy hot water under
the conditions prescribed in the method of the Official Associa-
tion of Agi'icultural Chemists.^
Apples, particularly in the green state, contain small amounts
of tannin. In the work here re]:)orted no determinations of this
have been made, but a few analyses are available from other
sources, giving the percentage present. The characteristic flavor
and aroma of apph^'^ are due for the most part to certain esters
or flavoring oils. These exist in the apple in very minute quan-
tities, and though they are of great importance in determining
the value and quality of the fruit, no attempt to determine the
amount has ever been made, so far as the knowledge of the
v/riter goes. Indeed, it is probable that, owing to the minute
quantities present, their determination would be extremely dif-
* United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 107, revised.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 185
ficiilt. if not absolutely iiujxjssible. We can judge of their
presence and abundance only by the taste and the aroma of the
fruit.
Returning now to a consideration of the changes in the fruit
during the four periods of development already mentioned, we
find them taking place somewhat as follows. During the period
of growth the amount of total solids of course increases greatly.
This increase may continue into the ripening period, but after
that there is a relative loss of total solids. The percentage,
also, of total solids increases during the period of growth and
during at least a part of the ripening period, but after that its
changes are much dependent upon conditions. The percentage
of acid in the fruit is largest in the early stages of growth, and
decreases more or less steadily during the entire history of the
fruit. The percentage of starch increases during the early part
of the growth, and at varying points, under different conditions,
it begins to decrease, and disappears during the ripening proc-
ess. The sucrose increases pretty steadily until the ])ei"iod of
after ripening is complete, and then more or less rapidly de-
creases, and frequently entirely disappears in the process of
decay. The point of maximum of sucrose content may be taken
as the point of full maturity of the fruit, with a fair degree of
accuracy in most eases. The reducing sugars, dextrose and levu-
lose, increase during the period of growth, and may or may not
increase slightly during ripening. In the later periods of ripen-
ing and decay they in most cases tend to increase, at least until
the final stages of decay.
Comparatively little can be said regarding the behavior of
the insoluble solids during the pcM'iods of growth and ripening.
During the periods of after ripening and decay they pretty
steadily decrease. Probably they are at their maximum during
the early stages of ripening. The stage of development of the
insolultle solids of the apple is of great account in determining
the quality and condition of the fruit; they compose for the
most part the cell walls of the fruit. During the later stages of
development of the fruit the middle lamellii^ of the cell walls
seem to soften, ])ei-ha]is through the action of some en/yni. This
186 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
results in a comparatively easy separation of the individual
cells from each other and in the mealy taste found in the over-
ripe apple. ^
Comparatively little is known of the behavior of the flavoring
oils, but it is evident that they do not develop very noticeably
until the period of ripening. It would seem, however, that
they develop during the later stages of the ripening period and
tlirough the period of after ripening, and tend to disappear as
the stage of decay progresses.
Little, also, is known regarding the behavior of the tannin
of the fruit, but it is prol)al)ly highest during the late stages
of growth. It may be connected with the development of color
in red apples, and inasmuch as it seems to disappear during the
ripening stage, when the apple is taking on color, it may be
that it contributes iu some way to the formation of pigment in
the epidermal cells of the fruit.
IV. THE PERFECTLY DEVELOPED APPLE.
• In the course of investigation herein reported, the writer has
made a somewhat careful study of some twenty varieties of ap-
ples, chosen from among the more ]U'ominent and widely dis-
tributed sorts. From five to fifty or more samples of each
variety have been received from many different localities scat-
tered over the entire apple-producing portions of North Amer-
ica. These apples have been carefully examined and their char-
acteristics noted, and from two to twenty samples of each variety
have been subjected to chemical cxamiuation. In the case of the
Ben Davis variety, during the past four years nearly two hun-
dred samples have been received, and fifty or more of these have
been given a more or less complete chemical examination. These
samples have varied widely in physical appearance and chemi-
cal composition. These variations are dealt with in a later
division of this paper. The study of these varieties, added to
other general observations, has enabled the writer to form a
fairly definite conception of them, when developed to their
highest perfection in appearance, quality and chemical compo-
sition. The point of perfect development is taken as that where
> Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 94, p. 92.
191 ] .] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 187
the after-i'ipeniiiii,- stage is complete and before any signs of dete-
rioration appear. A variety in this condition is at the point of
highest dessert quality. Especial consideration will be given in
this discussion to the question of high quality in each variety.
Before entering into this discussion, it may be well to con-
sider the relation between chemical composition and quality.
In the first place, it may be said that quality is used with sev-
eral different meanings. It may refer to the dessert quality of
the fruit or to its value for kitchen purposes. The apple of
high dessert quality is different from the apple of high kitchen
quality. We also speak of the shipping quality of fruit, and
high shipping quality is in a measure opposed to high kitchen,
and even more to high dessert quality. The apple which ships
well will usually be a fair keeper, but these two qualities are by
no means coincident. The chemical determinations which
throw the most light on quality are those of the sugars and acid
and of the insoluble solids, the latter being of greater impor-
tance than is usually considered to be the case.
The apple of high dessert quality is low in its content of in-
soluble solids, this signifying a tender flesh and prol)ably thin-
walled cells. It is high in sugars, more particularly sucrose.'
The amount of acid is proportional to the quantity of sugars;
the higher the content of sugars the higher must be the content
of acid, in order to bring an agreealile blending of these two
constituents. If a large proportion of the sugars is sucrose,
the proportion of acid needs to be larger than if the proportion
of sucrose is low, in order to give the same quality. The ratio
of acid to total sugars most favorable to high dessert quality will
vary greatly with iutlividunl tastes. Some prefer a sweet a]i])le,
and, on the other hand, many like a fairly acid frnit. If the
sugars are in the proportion approximately of two-thirds reduc-
ing sugars to one-third sucrose, the following may be taken as a
-fair estimate of the varying ratio of total sugars to acid for
different flavored fruits. These ratios will not hold for fruits
that have eutci'cd into the stage of ]ihysiological decay.
188
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Total Sugars to Acid
as Malic
.010
to
.025
.025
to
.035
.o:«
to
.045
.045
to
.060
.060
to
.085
Sweet apples,
Mild sub-acid.
Sub-acid,
Acid, .
Very acid, .
It has been said tliiit a low percentage of insoluble solids
is necessary for higli quality in dessert frnits. For cooking
purposes this is of minor importance, and the ratio of sugars to
acid is narrowed ; that is^ the relative amonnt of acid should be
larger than in dessert frnits.
Apples of good shipping quality have invariably a high per-
centage of insoluble solids, and as this is opposed to high dessert
quality, it follows that we should not expect to find the highest
table quality and highest shipping quality in the same fruit.
Most varieties that keep well have a relatively high proportion
of their sugars in the form of sucrose. It ap]iears that an apple
in order to keep well must be well nourished, and have stored
up a large amount of soluble solids, principally in the shape of
sugars. Table 1 shows the averages of a number of analyses of
most of the varieties that have been examined. In these aver-
ages only analyses of normal, well-grown and well-ripened fruit
have been included.
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
189
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190 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
We may now proceed to the discussion of each of these varie-
ties, and will endeavor to set forth the appearance and quality
of these varieties when grown to their highest perfection. The
conditions nnder which perfection is attained, and the effect of
nnfavorahle conditions, are discussed in detail in a later section
of this paper. These descri2)tions are not intended to be coni-
j)lete descriptions of the variety, but should be read in connec-
tion with a technical description, if one is not already familiar
with the general appearance of the variety.
WeallJiij. — AVell-gTown AYealthies should be about 75 to 80
millimeters in diameter and well colored over the entire surface.
The color should be a deep, rich red, distributed in the form of
stripes and splashes, deepening to a blnsh on the sunny side.
Poor color is a sign of imperfect development in this fruit.
The apple should be very synnnetrical in form and appearance.
It is altogether a handsome fruit when well grown. The chem-
ical analysis shows that the variety is low in total solids, a con-
dition that we find in most summer and early fall varieties. It
is low in all the constituent solids except acid. This high ratio
of acid to sugar makes it a good cooking apple, but its low con-
tent of insoluble solids makes it acceptable for the table, in spite
of its rather low content of sugars.
Maiden BlusJi. — The well-grown Maiden Blush is of about
the same size as the Wealthy, of a clear waxen yellow color, with
a generous bright red blush on the sunny side. It is fairly high
in solids, and, for a fall apple, is especially high in sucrose.
The total sugars are, however, rather low, and the insoluble
solids and acid high. Its chemical analysis indicates it to be a
good cooking ap])le and fairly good for table use for those pre-
ferring an acid fruit.
Fajucusc. — Fameuse should attain a diameter of at least 70
millimeters, and a deep red, almost crimson color, over nearly
its entire surface. Its chemical analysis shows its excellent
table quality, although the percentage of insoluble solids is some-
what high. The relation of sugars to acid is good. It is re-
markably low in sucrose and not ]»articularly high in total
sugars.
Mcintosh. — The Mcintosh should grow a little larger than
1911.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 191
the Fiuiieiisc, reaeliiiig about SO inilliineters. The color shoiihl
be a dee}), rich crimson, a little lighter on the shady side and
showing sometimes rather obscure splashes and stripes. This
variety is one of the most highly esteemed as a dessert fruit.
The low content of insoluble solids is in accordance with this
estimate, though it does not express fully the excellent texture
of this variety. Xeither does the analysis give indication of its
agreeable aroma and flavor. The content of sugars is good for
a variety of its season and the ratio of acid is excellent. The
analysis in many ways closely resembles that of the Fameuse,
thus indicating the relationshij) considered to exist between the
two varieties.
Jouaihan. — This is a favorite table apple of high quality.
It should attain a diameter of 70 to 75 millimeters and be of
a deep rich straw yellow, almost completely covered with a
deep, rich crimson blush. It is a very handsome apple when
well grown. Its tender flesh is indicated by its low content of
iusoluble solids. It is only fairly high in sugars even for a
variety of its season, and on this account lacks the richness of
flavor of the Grimes and lloxbury Russet. Its ratio of sugars
to acid places it among the sub-acid varieties.
Grimes. — Grimes when well grown should reach a size of
75 to 80 millimeters or more, and should be, when ripe, a clear
waxen yellow, and may be covered with a slight russeting over
the entire surface. When grown in dry climates this russeting
may appear in only a slight degree or not at all, a condition
which perhaps adds to the good appearance of the fruit. The
Grimes is remarkable for its high content of total solids, largely
in the form of sugars, and of these a large proportion is in the
form of sucrose. The last fact, together with its rather low
content of acid, accounts for the almost sweet taste of this
variety.
King. — The King when well grown should be not less than
80 to 85 millimeters in diameter, and may be quite variable in
form, but should be colored over its entire surface with a deep,
rich red, somewhat splashed and mottled. Inasmuch as only
two samples of this variety were analyzed, less dependence can
be put on the figures given than could he if a larger number had
192 EXPERIINIENT STATION. [Jan.
been examined. Its high (jnality is shown in its analysis, but
it is due to no one constituent. The King is good in every
respect. It is a more acid apple than the Grimes, although the
ratio of sugars to acid is the same. This is due to the fact that
a smaller proportion of the sugars is in the form of sucrose.
Bhode Island Greening. — The Rhode' Island Greening
should reach a size of about 85 millimeters and possess a clear,
greenish-yellow skin. It may shoAV a faint red blush on the
sunny side, although this character may not appear in fruit that
is otherwise well developed. It is generally considered a variety
of excellent cooking quality, and this is shown in its high ratio
of acid to sugars and in its relatively high sucrose content,
while its high content of insoluble solids does not detract from
its value for this purpose.
Northern Spy. — The Northern Spy is reputed to be one of
the highest quality of winter varieties. It should reach a size
of 80 to 85 millimeters, and be well covered with bright red
stripes and splashes. Spies of poor color are frequently, though
not always, of inferior quality, depending on the nature and
cause of the inferiority. The low content of insoluble solids of
the Spy is in accordance with its well-known tenderness of flesh
and the readiness with which it bruises.
Baldwin. — The Baldwin should reach a size of 75 to 80 mil-
limeters, and be of even deeper color and more evenly distrib-
uted. It is a better shipping apple than the Spy, but hardly as
good for the table. This condition of affairs is indicated in its
higher percentage of insoluble solids. It is also higher in su-
crose and in the ratio of acids to sugar.
Esopus. — This variety should reach a diameter of 75 milli-
meters at least, and the skin should be a deep, rich straw yellow,
almost completely covered with deep, rather dull red splashes
and stripes. This, like the Jonathan, often appears with a poor
color, indicative of imperfect development. The Esopus stands
among the best as an all-round high quality variety, and its
chemical analysis is in accord with this. It is about medium in
its content of insoluble solids, indicating that it is sufficiently
firm of flesh to ship and cook well, but not enough to seriously
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ;il. 193
injure its table quality. It is about iue<liuiu in sugars and the
relative amount of sucrose is fairly high. Its ratio of sugars to
acid places it among the more acid table fruits and less acid
cooking varieties.
Yellow Newtown. — The Yellow Newtown should be from
80 to 85 millimeters in diameter, of a clear, greenish-yellow
color, sometimes slightly blushed on the sunny side, and may
often show over a considerable portion of the surface a grayish
scarf skin characteristic of the variety. Its anal^'sis indicates
it to be of somewhat firmer flesh than the Esopus and somewhat
less acid ; otherwise, it is very similar in its constitution.
^Vinesap. — The Winesap should be about 75 millimeters
in diameter, and should be deeply colored, although the color
is hardly as dark as that of Jonathan. It should, however,
when well grown, show little or no signs of the ground color of
the fruit. Its analysis places it in the highest class. It is
rather high in insoluble solids, but very high in sugars, being
exceeded oidy by the Roxbury and Grimes. However, a smaller
])ortion of the sugar is in the form of sucrose than in either of
the other two sorts.
Stayman Winesnj). — This variety is quite similar to the
Winesa]), It should reach a little larger size and is not quite
as red in color. The ratio of acid to sugars is somewhat higher,
but this excess of acid is obscured by the higher amount of
sucrose, so the acidity of the apple is about the same to the
taste.
Rome Beauty. — As only three samples of this variety have
lieen examined we do not feel like venturing on any very posi-
tive statements in regard to it. It would seem to reach a size
of 80 millimeters and a color somewhat less marked than other
red varieties. It shows a relatively high proportion of sucrose,
but is only fair in the amount of total sugars. It is rather
liigli in insoluble solids to be a good table fruit, and altogether
the analysis is not indicative of very high quality.
Smitli Cider. — The same remarks concerning the study of
the Rome Beauty will apply to this variety. Very few sam-
]iles have been examined, and how typical the analysis given is,
194 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
the writer does not feel confident. It is remarkably high in
insoluble solids, but whether this characteristic is constant or
not will require further study to determine.
lloxhury Russet. — The Roxbury Russet should reach a size
of 75 to 80 millimeters. The amount of russeting is dependent
on climate. A moist atmosphere during the early stages of
growth seems to contribute to the increase of russeting. Its
analysis shows a high content of sugar, a large proportion of
A\-hich is in the form of sucrose. It is also high in acid, but
in view of the amount and form of the sugars it is not partic-
ularly acid to the taste. It is high in insoluble solids, indicat-
ing firnniess of flesh and good shipping qualities. Altogether,
it is one of the high quality varieties, as indicated by its chem-
ical composition.
York Imperial. — The York Imperial should reach a size of
about 80 millimeters, and be of a clear waxen yellow, partially
overlaid with a pinkish red. Sometimes this over color deepens
to a moderately dark red, but this is not necessary to the attain-
ment of high color and pleasing appearance. Its analysis indi-
cates its sub-acid flavor, and it shows as low a ratio of acids to
sugars as any of the varieties here reported.
Ben Davis. — The Ben Davis should attain a diameter of 75
millimeters, and fairly deep red color over almost its entire
surface. Partial coloration in this variety is a sure sign of
imperfect development. It enjoys the reputation of being one
of the best varieties to ship and keep, and one of the poorest
for both kitchen and table uses. This o]union is supported by
its chemical analysis. It is especially high in insoluble solids
and low in everything else, although the proportion of sugar in
the form of sucrose is fairly high. The total sugars, however,
are low for a winter variety. Its serious deficiency as a table
fruit is its high insoluble solids content, and as a kitchen fruit
its low ratio of acids to sugar.
V. THE INDIVIDUALITY OF THE TREE.
The question of the individuality of the tree has already been
mentioned (see page 179). The careful measurements that have
been made of the apples from several Ben Davis and Baldwin
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 195
ti-ecs tor the ]);ist tliree years afford some interesting data on
lliis pdint. Tlu> trees are on nearly level land at the lo[) of a
slope. The soil is a nniforni gravelly, clay loam, and the trees
are of the same age, and vary only a little in size. In the years
1908-10, every apple home to matnrity by these trees has been
measured, as described in the last report of this station,^ and
the results for the individual trees are presented in Table 2.
' Report Massachusetts Experiment Station, 1910, p. 198.
196
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
O^ o
^ M M
rococo
•«'■«'
■« ■«'
-h'-h'
gs^
^CO
toco
•^ Tf<
T}^ -^
mm
is
So
oo
88
M M
■H -B
■H -H
a CO
il
oo
f5
^°1
T3 O
*Q
-h'-h-h' -h'-h'-h' -h'-h'-h' -h'-h'
t-- ei oo (M »0 <M (MOO CO oo r
CD O t •- I-- ':D CO »— I (M O 00 (M »
CO IM O
r-i C^ 1-1 T-( ^ r-l
-H -H ^^
<M Oi »0
OQC-H
-H -H 41
OQOr^
CO Tf c^
t-- t^ t^ CO CO t—
^ C^l (M
-h' -h -h'
»o »>» CO
CO cc »o
oo r^oi
■H -H
OCI
O "O
■V M
■H -H
■H -H
rt rx
t^c^
<MO
CO t^
^co <-» r^
ICO "■
Z <
S222 Ss22 S22;
^22 ^22 ^22
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 197
A study of this table shows some positive signs of indiviJual-
ily ill the trees in the characters of size, form and i^rodiictive-
iiess. Size is of course considerably affected by the number of
npples borne, though not as much as usual in this case, as the
trees have not matured a very heavy crop during the period of
observation. The marked seasonal fluctuation in size will be
considered later. We can say that Ben Davis trees 7 and 2 show
a tendency to bear large apples and trees 3 and 5 a tendency
to bear smaller fruit, though in 1910 tree 5 bore the largest
fruit of any, but at the same time the crop was lightest of all.
Among the three Baldwins, the rank has been the same each
year, in spite of the fluctuations in productiveness. In varia-
bility there are no constant difl'erences. In the Ben Davis there
seems to be a relation between variability and number of apples
produced, the greater the number of apples the greater the
standard deviation and coefficient of variability, — a relation
that is to be expected.
In form, the situation is much the same. Ben Davis tree 7,
which produced the largest apples, has invariably borne the flat-
test ones, usually by a considerable margin. Tree 2 shows a
fairly constant character of producing more elongated apples
than its fellows. In the Baldwins, also, there are sigTis of slight
difi^erences between the trees.
The variation in number of apples borne by the different
trees is great. Ben Davis tree 8 has averaged about three times
as many apjilcs as tree 5, and they have been larger. A part of
this dili'crence is due to thc^ fact that tree 8 is somewhat larger
llian tree 5, but the difference in size is not enough to account
for all the difl"erence in productiveness.
Productiveness is one of the most important qualities of a
variety or individual tree. If the tree does not produce at least
n fair crop of fruit, all other valuable qualities it may possess
lose their attractiveness to the commercial grower, while great
])roductiveness covers a multitude of deficiencies. Other inves-
tigations, and common observations as well, have shown very
marked diiferences in the bearing ability of different trees.^
In our opinion, these differences, as well as any others which
may occur, are generally due to one or more of four influences:
' See Macoun, Report Central Experiment Farm for 1903, p. 102.
198 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
(1) differences in soil, (2) differences in aspect or exposure,
(3) some inherent quality of the tree^ (4) the influence of
stock.^
That the first two of these cause difference no one will dis-
]iute, but there are many variations which can hardly be ex-
plained by differences in soil or site. It has been assumed by
many that variations in productiveness arise from within the
tree, and are transmissible. We know of no direct evidence to
support this view. Inheritable variation in color and form has
appeared in certain varieties. The Collamer, Banks and pos-
sibly Gano apples are instances of the former, and a probable
case of the latter has been reported by the writer.^ Whether
the slight differences in form and size reported here are trans-
missible by bud is by no means certain. We are of the opinion
that they are not, for it seems possible to explain these and the
other variations in productiveness, not attributed to soil and
site by reference to a different cause.
Waugh has shown that in plums different stocks produce
marked modification in the trees grown on them.^ Apple stocks
do not differ as widely as do the plum stocks, above referred to,
but the observed differences are also less marked. Every apple
tree of a named variety is growing on a stock of a different,
unnamed variety, i.e., a seedling. These seedlings differ to a
considerable degree. May not the slight differences observed
between individual trees of a variety, growing under apparently
similar conditions, be largely due to the influence of the seed-
ling root ? We know of no direct evidence to support this view,
but to us it seems a more promising theory than that of indi-
viduality of the different buds.
If this supposition is true, it is probal)le that the production
of the most desirable trees of a given variety would be favored
by growing on a particular known root ; thus the Baldwin
grown on roots of Spy, Wealthy or Siberian Crab might be an
especially desirable tree, while if grown on Tolnian or King ^ it
might be less desirable, Different soils and localities might be
1 There are, of course, large seasonal fluctuations in productiveness due to conditions peculiar
to the different years. These are not considered in this discussion.
- See Report Massachusetts Experiment Station, 22, Part II., p. 1S7.
' T?e!X)rt Mas.saehusetts Experiment Station. 21, Part Tl., p. 174.
■■ Tlie varieties mentioned are random selectionsfor illustration. There is no reason to lielieve
that they would influence the Baldwin as indicated.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
199
suited by ditfereiit stocks. We know of no experiments to learn
what are the preferences of diHereiit xarieties or soils, but it ap-
pears to be a desirable and promising line of investigation.
VI. THE MODIFYING EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON THE DE-
VELOPMENT OF THE APPLE.
Ox Form.
In the last report of this station ^ the question of the variation
in form of the Ben Davis was dealt with to some extent, but
without arriving at any very definite conclusion as to the cause,
further than that it was climatic and closely related to the near-
ness of large bodies of water. Since this report was written,
two years' further work have been completed, which serve to
emphasize the conclusions mentioned above, and to show, fur-
ther, that there are large seasonal fluctuations in the index of
form. The following figures from a few selected stations will
illustrate this: —
Table 3. — Seasonal Variation in Form.
Number
of
Apples.
Mean Index
of Form.
Standard
Deviation.
Coefficient
of
Variability.
Charlottetown, P. E. I.: —
1907
1908,
1910,
74
122
135
1.0511±.0049
1.1250±.0052
1.0557 ±.0043
.0619±.0034
.0858 ±.0037
.0744±.0031
5.88±.31
7.63±.33
7.05±.29
Abljot.sford, (Quebec: —
1907,
1908
1909
1910
151
129
184
115
1.1788±.0039
1.1739±.0041
1.1986±.0031
1.1356 ±.0029
.0735 ±.0028
.0683 ±.0029
.0628 ±,0022
.0455±.0021
6.23±.24
5.82±.23
5.24±.21
4.01±.18
Isle la Motte, Vt.: —
1907,
1908,
1909
203
170
148
1.1547±.0024
1.1406±.(X)27
1.1475 ±.0033
.0735 ±.0024
.0526 ±.0020
.0590 ±.0023
6.28±.27
3.74±.15
5.14±.24
Amher.st, Mass.: —
1907
1908
1909
1910
284
2,321
1,866
2,914
1.1656±.0023
1.1515±.0008
1.1338±.0009
1.1238±.0007
.0581 ±.0017
.0589 ±.0006
.0527 ±.0006
.0504 ±.0004
4.98±.14
5. 29 ±,05
4 65 ±.06
4.48±.04
Storrs, Conn.: —
1907
1908
1909,
147
131
140
1.1557±.0030
1.1423±.0041
1.1330±.0035
.0534±.0021
.0689 ±.0029
.0622 ±.0025
4 62±.18
6.03±.21
5.49±.24
Marblehcatl, Mass.: —
1908.
1910
192
176
1.1021 ±.0029
1.0982 ±.0033
.0598±.0021
.0651 ±.0023
5.42±.18
5,93±.22
Sandwich, Mass.: —
1908
1909
162
143
1.1281±.0021
1.1167± 0036
.04O7±.OO15
.0654 ±.0025
3.67±.14
5.86±.24
1 Report Massachu.setts Experiment Station, 22, p. 194 (1909). The reader is referred to thia
paper for the methods used in measuring and studying this variation in form.
200
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
This has led to a study of the diti'ereiices in the climatic
conditions in the ditferent years. The apple during its early
stages of growth, following blossoming, is relatively more elon-
gated than is the mature fruit. During the later periods of
growth it enlarges in cross diameter relatively more. A study
of the temperature during the latter part of the summer failed
to show any differences corresponding to the variations in form.
An examination of the daily mean temperatures for a period
at and following the blossoming period gave more positive re-
riAY
^ 5 7 9 W \3 \S \7 \9 21 23 25 27 29 3\
Ttnp
70-
60-
«50-
4-0-
■
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-V
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908. mt>tx ofroRn 1.1315 _
__.j 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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_ 1910. int>c:x w TORn 1.123a
^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
*nARK:> t>ATt Of r<ii,i iMoon
f,Xt.
Fig. 1.
suits. At Amherst the apples measured in the last four years
have been successively more and more elongated. The temper-
atures during the blossoming season for the last three years are
shown in Fig. 1. The date of full bloom and index of form
are also shown. We do not know the date of full bloom in
1907. An examination of this chart shows that the tempera-
ture for a period of two or three weeks following blossoming
has been lower each year, in agreement with the greater elonga-
tion of the fruit.
We have data for a number of other stations, and all show a
similar correspondence of temperature and form. Fig. 2 shows
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
201
coiitlitioiis in the Lake ('liaiii])lain vallev, the apples being from
Lsle la ^Totte, Yt., and temperature data from Burlington. We
rtntr
eo'-
70-
60-
50-
\
>
f
\ ■
1
.
(HAHKAin VALLtY.VT.
JCJHL.
Pi?i'f., ?iV i^i^i^
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907: IMDEX or fORH I.I54K -
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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909. in
>ti. orroRn i.i47%5. .
1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
* IARkIs I)ATE or fULL ftLOOM "
__
.1.1
Fig. 2.
do not know the date of bloom in 1008, but it was probaldy not
far from June 8. In Fig. 3 the temjierature data are from
50<JTHtRn inDIAHA.
Ttnp
•>
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J
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)
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908. IHD>tA cr^ f=-Onn
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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910. iri[>E:A of-rORH 1.155^..
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1
\
HAftK.S DATf. or Nil. FSLOOM
.,,
Fig. 3.
Salem, Ind., and the apples from ^Mitehell ; in Fig. 4 both
ajiples and temperature data are from Bentonville, Ark,
An examination of these charts shows a reasonably close
agreement with that for Amherst. A period of cool weather,
202
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
probably during a space of two or three weeks, results in greater
elongation of the fruit, presumably through a prolongation of
the period of relatively greater axial elongation before re-
ferred to.
This theory explains not only the seasonal variations but the
greater elongation in the vicinity of large bodies of water, for
the fact that in such locations the weather is relatively cool
during the spring needs no discussion. In this connection we
have observed that the seasonal fluctuation in form is less near
1
5
1
7
1
9
n
21
2
.
5
:^1
i
L
9
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60-
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APt
Fig. 4.
the great lakes and the ocean than at a distance from them, this
showing the influence on the form of the apple of the equalizing
effect on the temperature of the large bodies of water.
In gathering the apples from the trees under observation in
Amherst, they have been divided into four lots, by bisecting the
tree with a perpendicular plane running east and west, and
again with a horizontal plane about midway of the head of the
tree. This divides the tree into quarters designated upper
south, lower south, upper north and lower north. The sections
of each tree have approximately equal amounts of bearing wood.
From the first these different portions of the tree have shown
differences in form which have been meaningless and confusing
until the theory of the temperature following l)lossomiug was
i
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
203
proposed. If this is the correct solution we ought to expect the
upper south portions of the tree, owing largely to its exposure
to the ^varmth of the sun, to give the flattest apples, and the
lower north to give the most elongated ones, with the other two
portions intermediate. The calculations for the three years
1!)()8-10 are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. — Variation in Form in Different Parts of the Tree.
Number
of
Apples.
Mean Index
o£ Form.
Standard
Deviation.
Coefficient
of
Variability.
Ben Daois.
Upper south: —
1908, .
1909, .
1910, .
Lower south: —
1008, .
1909, .
1910, .
Upper norlh: —
1908, .
1909, .
1910, .
Lower north: —
1908, .
1909, .
1910, .
Baldwin.
Upper south: —
1909, .
1910, .
Lower south: —
1909, .
1910, .
Upper north: —
1909, .
1910, .
Lower north: —
1909, .
1910, .
518
552
707
714
379
893
414
305
576
676
287
809
4G7
235
290
137
327
168
177
86
1.1643 ±.0017
1.1390±.0015
1.1299±.0013
1.1512±.0015
1.1302 ±.0018
1.1249 ±.0011
1.1553 ±.0020
1.1333 ±.0020
1.1216±.0016
1.1406±.0016
1.1338±.0O21
1.1171±.0012
1.1877 ±.0019
1.1955±.0024
1.1688±.0020
1.1792±.0031
1.1809±.O02O
1.1792±.0030
1.1586 ±.0026
1.1717±.0044
.0593±.0012
.0520±.0011
.0500 ±.0009
.0619±.0011
.0516±.0012
.0489 ±.0009
.0607±.0014
.0509 ±.00 14
.0544±.0010
.0644±.0011
.0529±.0015
.0505 ±.0008
.0606±.0013
.O537±.OO10
.0500 ±.00 14
.0536 ±.0022
.0548±.0014
.0575±.0021
.0522±.OO19
.0602 ±.0031
3.61±.07
4.57±.10
4.43±.09
4.19±.07
4.57±.12
4.35±.08
3 91 =
4.40=J
4.85=1
4.58±.07
4 07±.14
4.52±.08
5.10±.13
4.49±.16
4.28 =
4.57 =
4.64±.13
4.S8±.18
4.51 =
5.14 =
I'hc relative rank of the different parts of the trees of the
Ben Davis is as follows: —
1908.
1909.
1910.
1. Most flattened
2,
3.
4. Most elongated, ......
Upper south.
Upper north.
Lower south.
Lower north.
Upper south.
Lower nortli.
Upper north.
Lower south.
Upper south.
Ixjwer south.
Upper north.
Lower north.
204 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
It is seeu that the upper south (piarter of the tree yiehled the
flattest apples each year, and usually by a considerable margin,
while the most elongated fruit comes from the lower portion of
the tree, and, in two of the years under consideration, on the
north side. On the whole the figures for the different parts of
the tree support the theory already presented that the elongation
is due to relatively cold weather, and gives support to the idea
that the heat of the sun has much to do with the temperature
of the tree itself and prol^ably the development of the fruit.
In the Baldwins the relative rank is as follows for both j'ears:
upper south, uj^per north, lower south, lower north.
On Sizk.
The size of an apple is determined by several factors. Each
variety has its individuality in this respect. Culture is impor-
tant, an abundance of nitrogenous fertilizers and an abundant
supply of moisture being favorable to the attainment of large
size. An excessively heavy crop prevents the development of
full size of the individuals, but a light crop does not seem
favorable to any larger fruit than a moderate one. Young trees
usually bear larger fruit than mature ones, while in very old
trees the fruit is commonly inferior in size. The differences
due to age are probal)ly in considerable degree at least due to
the influences already mentioned.
Aside from these influences the summer temjDcrature seems
to have considerable influence. Some evidence on this point
was presented in an earlier paper.^ Table 4 (]iage 203) gives
further data on this point.
The mean summer temperatures at Amherst were as follows:
1908, .58.8°; 1900, .50.7°; 1910, .58.9°.
The size of the apples is in a general way in accordance with
these tem])eratures.
In 1910 the apples were much larger than in 1908. while the
temperature was ]iraetically the same. This may be due to
increased amounts of fertilizer which have been :i]i]iliod. The
orchard was lined in the spring of 1909, and this may have had
• Report Massachusetts Experiment Station, 22, pp. 204, 211 (1909).
ho 1. noRTHfcRll
2, HORTH <iMTRAL
5 AtlMAPOukVMl.
5. <triTRAl..
6. 50C4TH <E.NT^AU.
T SoOTHtRM.
\1
FIG. S. — APPLE BELTS OF NORTH AMERICA.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 205
an crtcct by lil)eratiiig increased ainount.s uF plant food. It
tloes not seem possible to account for tbe increased size by tem-
perature conditions.
Data from other localities sinular to that previously pub-
lislied might be presented, but inasmuch as they show no new
features, it is deemed unnecessary to do so.
On General Development.
The question of variation in form and size having been espe-
cially considered, we may now proceed to a consideration of
the dirtcrences in the general development of different varie-
ties, with more particular reference to color, keeping quality
and table quality. These arc the characters of paramount ini-
])ortance in determining the commercial value of a lot of apples.
In order to discuss these questions we have found it convenient
to divide the country into belts.
Apple Belts of North America.
^^^■ tlnd in pomological M'ritings frequent mention of differ-
ent a])])le " belts," such as the Baldwin belt or the Ben Davis
lielt. This term is understood to designate a certain area over
v.'hich the variety named is the leading one grown. We find
many other varieties referred to a given belt, as the I^orthern
Spy and Rhode Island Greening, which are referred to the
Baldwin belt. In connection with the work herein reported,
and for convenience in the discussions, the writer presents the
division of IS^orth America into apple belts, shown in Fig. 5.
1. The northern belt, in which the Fameuse is the most char-
acteristic sort.
2. The north central l)clf, perhaps the most recognized of
any. It is characterized by the Baldwin, ISTorthern Spy, Rhode
Island Greening, Hubbardston and uumy others. It comprises
the oldest and in some ways best understood portion of the
apple region of I^orth America,
3. The Annapolis valley, in which we find varieties similar to
the second belt, but where the season is shorter and many of the
varieties of the second belt do not mature well.
206 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
4. The uorthwesterii belt, comprising the States of Minnesota
and Wisconsin and adjacent territory; somewhat like tlie Bald-
win belt to the east, but having winters too severe for many of
the varieties of that belt. It is characterized by the Oldenburg,
Wealthy, Hibernal, Northwestern Greening and many others.
5. The central belt, which is of less importance. There is no
one variety that predominates over the whole of this territory.
In eastern sections we find the Yellow Newtown, Smith Cider
and Fallawater, and west of the mountains the Rome Beauty.
0. The south central belt, one of the largest and most im-
jjortant. There are three varieties that are quite generally
spread over this belt, the Ben Davis^ Winesap and York Impe-
rial. The Grimes is quite general and important in the western
part, also the Jonathan.
7. The southern belt, which extends to the southern limit of
apjile growing, and is characterized by the Yates, Terry, Shock-
lev and Horse as leading varieties.
The figure shows these belts somewhat roughly. They de-
pend on latitude and altitude more than anything else. Inas-
much as the altitude along the Appalachian Mountains is varia-
ble, it is im]iossible to show the belts with entire accuracy.
Each belt will dip further south than is indicated in the higher
elevations of this region. Some varieties are found generally
distributed through the entire range of its. belt from east to
west. Others do not extend the entire length. The western
portion of the territory covered has a smaller precipitation, and
this may affect some varieties. More important than this, how-
ever, are the higher summer temperatures which prevail, an<l
which cannot be successfully withstood by some varieties grown
in the east. Other varieties succeed even' better in this warmer
summer climate than they do in the cooler and more humid
east. The dotted lines in the figure show a possible division of
the belts, but such division is not very definite nor of great
value. 'No attempt is made to map the Rocky Mountain and
Pacific Coast apple region, owing to the fact that the distribu-
tion of varieties there is governed largely by elevation, and
would be very difficult to map, especially on so small a scale
as the figure shows.
11)11.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
207
Dislnhulion of Varieties.
A few varieties^, most of theiii well known and of ratlior gen-
eral distribution, have been selected for a special study in con-
nection with this work. We may now proceed to a discussion of
the distribution and some of the characteristics of these varie-
ties.
Oldenhurg. — This variety extends over almost the entire
apple-growing region of North America. We find it recom-
FiG. 6
mended as a commercial variety in some region of every a])ple
belt shown in Fig. 5, with the ]iossiblc exception of the south-
ern. The two principal reasons for the wide distribution of
this variety are its extreme hardiness, which enables it to
withstand the severe winters of the far north, and the short
season of maturity, which enables it in the south to ripen before
the hot periods of July and August. In addition to this it is
an early, regular and fairly abundant bearer, and not particu-
larly subject to disease and insect injuries, and the fruit stands
handling quite well.
' Figs. 6 to 14 are intended to show the territory over which the various varieties have been
recommended as desirable commercial sorts. The places of origin of each variety, so far as
known, is indicated by a cross.
208
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Man.
Wealthij. — The Wealthy is a fall apple of rather wide dis-
tribution. It is growing in favor, especially as a tiller in new
orchards, and its territory of cultivation is spreading. It orig-
inated in Minnesota, and finds its highest favor in the north-
western belt. It also succeeds perfectly over a greater part at
least of the north central belt. It is cultivated somewhat in
New Jersey, but does not find favor south of there. It will
mature a little farther north than the Baldwin, and is not sub-
ject to winter-killing as is the Baldwin in severe winter temper-
1
Fig. 7.
atures. It ia found in greatest perfection through southern
New Hampshire and Massachusetts, and along a line passing
Avest just south of Lake Ontario and through the Province of
Ontario, south central Michigan and southern Wisconsin,
Wolf liircr. — The Wolf Biver is reputed to be a seedling
of the Alexander, one of the Russian varieties, and it may serve
as a type of this class of apples. It is of Wisconsin origin and
has attained high favor in that State. It appears to succeed
best in the central and northern parts of the northwestern belt,
in the northern part of the north central belt and the southern
part of the northern belt. When grown too far south it does not
keep well, is a|)t to become mealy and tasteless and is of general
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 31.
209
inferior quality. The Russian varieties as a class arc reputed
to be of poor quality. They are not of the highest quality, but
much of their reputation for inferiority results, in our opinion,
from their being grown too far south. As a class they belong to
the northern frontier of apple growing, and w^hen grown there,
many of them are equal to the better varieties of the more
southern apple regions.
Maiden Blush. — This variety is a fall sort, orioinatine' in
Burlington. X. J., in which State it has attained its highest
mVI s
^
1 >^
^ n,^^
TVvJr%i
^l_
^^
r^ '
_-X-
I \ / — ^~-\
— {
^
T
^J- P--
v
J
^Ant<^6t
^
MAlbtM b»-y5H
Fig. 8.
favor. It is grown with success as far north as Long Island
and southern Connecticut, and west through southern Indiana
and central and southern Illinois. It does not withstand the
dry climate of the plains as well as some others, but reaches as
far west as eastern Xebraska and Kansas. It is cultivated suc-
cessfully south into the mountains of Virginia. Gould says : — -
On Cecil sandy loam, at 900 to 1,000 feet elevation, it is inclined to rot
severely, but on the more clayey soil of the Piedmont regions it does well.
Its season of ripenings varies considerably, ranging' from summer to early
fall. In the middle Piedmont orchards it Avonld probably ripen in
August or early September. At one point in North Carolina having an
altitude of 3,500 to 4,000 feet, with rather less friable loam, some very
fine sj)ecimens have been seen the middle of October.^
» Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 135,- p. 38.
210
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
It will be seen that the Maiden's Blush belongs to the central
belt and the northern part of the south central belt.
Fameiise. — The Fameuse is one of the most northern of
commercial apples. It is grown in most parts of the northern
belt, also in northern Indiana and Illinois and in southern
]\Iichigan, though in these regions the variety does not attain
the quality of the St. Lawrence and Champlain valleys. It
becomes a fall apple, and is of poor color and inferior flavor.
Specimens received from Prince Edward Island were dull
red and green, and small in size, while those from southern
Quebec w^ere very good spcciuiens of the variety.
/9CrrT
^
(/ n,^^
Wl^
Ci^'^
y
r
'^--^
^^^\\
\.^
'-v^'^
/
\
n<lflTOiH
v/
I
\
J
<Rint5
Fig. 9.
Mclntosli. — The Mcintosh is similar to the Fameuse and
succeeds in similar territory. It does well further south, how-
ever, being at its best in south central New England and western
New York. While it has been known a long time, it has not
attained great favor as a commercial variety until recently, prob-
ably on account of its susceptibility to the apple scab, which has
heretofore been difficult to control in a satisfactory manner.
It is now gaining rapidly in popularity, and the territory of its
culture is spreading. It is not grown to any extent west of
Michigan, excepting in the far northwest. Throughout the
Baldwin l)elt it is a fall apple, and south of this it becomes a
\
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 211
late Slimmer or early fall variety, and is inferior in llavor and
color to those grown farther north. Beach says : —
It is adapted to a wider range of localities than is the Fameuse. . . .
Til western New York it cannot be expected to keej) much later than
October in ordinary storage without considerable loss, but in cold storage
it may be held until December or January. When grown in more north-
ern or elevated regions it is often held in good condition until raid-winter
or later.'
Jonathan. — This variety had its origin in the Hudson val-
ley, where it is now grown to a considerable extent, as well as in
Long Island and southern Connecticut. Tt is a favorite in the
south central belt west of the mountains and in favored portions
of southwestern Michigan. It is at its best in central Illinois,
northern Missouri and eastern Kansas and ISTebraska. In Vir-
ginia and Xorth Carolina it seems to succeed best at elevations
of 1,200 to 1,500 feet or more. It has received considerable
favor in the intermountain and pacific northwest apple regions,
where conditions are similar to those in the regions already men-
tioned. It requires good care and a fairly rich soil in order
to develop to its best. It should receive more attention from
growers in regions where it succeeds well. It loses its sucrose
in storage more readily than most varieties, after which, while
still of good desert quality, it lacks the richness possessed by
apples high in sucrose. It is necessary to harvest this variety
at the proper time of maturity. If allowed to hang too long
on the tree, especially if the weather is warm, it develops the
defects of overripe apples, and will not keep well.
Grimcfi. — Grimes is an old Virginia apple which has spread
very generally over the south central 1)elt. Tt is well known
ovci- nearly all of this territory, especially in the western por-
tion of it. Its culture extends west to central T^Tebraska and
eastern Kansas. In the northern portion of this belt it is a
late fall and early winter apple; in the southern portion it is
more strictly a fall variety. It is grown to some degree north
of the territory indicated, being found frequently in southern
Michio-an. In its more northern locations it is smaller than in
« Apples of New York, Vol. 1, p. 133.
212 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
the south and more acid, the latter being a quality that is
appreciated by some, inasmuch as in the south the variety has
a mild subacid flavor. Gould says : —
An orchard twelve to fifteen years old in Bedford County, Va., on
Porters clay, at 1,500 feet elevation, with southeast exposure, j^roduces
fruit of uiuisual excellence, notable for its good size, fine yellow color,
crispness of texture, and rich, spicy flavor. This orchard has had
hardly fair care. The fruit of this variety from it reaches edible
maturity early in October, but y>ossesses good keeping qualities for the
variety. On the same farm, at a point having somewhat lower eleva-
tion and a looser type of soil, it matures considerably earlier, and is not
of such excellent flavor as from the location above mentioned. Produced
at elevations of 2,000 feet in the upper sections of the Blue Eidge
region, it may be kept under fairly favorable conditions until early
winter. ... At ]>oints south of Virginia, at the elevations of the Pied-
mont region, it is inclined to drop prematurely, but when grown at
points having not less than 1,500 feet altitude it is highly prized in its
season. One grower in the southwestern part of North Carolina has this
variety at 2,500 to 2,800 feet elevation, and also at an altitude 400 to
600 feet higher. It is his experience that the fruit grown at the latter
elevation will kee]) two months longer than that from the lower level.
The fruit is also finer in appearance and more satisfactory in every way
at the greater elevation. For best keeping qualities it should not be
allowed to become too mature before j^icking.^
Favorable reports on it have been received from certain
localities in l^ew York, but in general as grown in this State
it does not develop in size, color or quality as well as it docs
in more southern latitudes, and there is a high percentage of
loss from drops and cnlls.-
Tompl'ins King. — The King is a variety found over a
limited portion of the north central belt. It is a standard
apple in western Ncav York, and is grown in southern Ontai-io
and to some extent in Michigan. It is also a favorite variety
in Annapolis valley in ]^ova Scotia, where it succeeds to a
high degree. The tree is weak, and requires high cultivation
and good care. It is scarcely known west of Lake Michigan,
and is met with scatteringly ns far ns Virginia, where it is
found in the higher levels of the Blue Ridge. The tree is
1 Bureau of Plant Industry, Rulletin 135, p. 36.
2 Beach, Apples of New York, Vol. 1, p. 154.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 213
evidently not able to withstand the hot dry summers of the
middle west.
Esopus. — This is an old variety, but one that has never
been very largely cultivated. This may be partially accounted
for by the fact that the tree is not particularly vigorous nor es-
pecially productive, and is somewhat susceptible to diseases.
The apple is of suj>erior quality, being much better than the
Baldwin, which it considerably resembles. It has been grown
somewhat in the Champlain and ]\Iohawk valleys. It is an
apple of limited cultivation for the Baldwin belt. Gould says,
regarding its behavior in Virginia and Xorth Carolina : —
At lower levels it usually drops prematurely, and even on Porters
black loam at 2,000 feet elevation it often rots and drops seriously. At
3,000 to 3,500 feet altitude in North Carolina, on a rather loose loamy
soil with porous subsoil containing more or less red clay, it develops
more satisfactorily, keeps well into the winter, and does not manifest in
any marked degree the defects observed at the lower levels.^
It has recently attained high favor with the growers in cer-
tain portions of the Pacific northwest. In our opinion this
variety is deserving of wider cultivation inasmuch as it is an
excellent variety for all purposes. In fact, so far as the fruit
goes we believe that none of the better known varieties of com-
mercial apples answers so well the requirements of a general
purpose market apple. When well grown it is of good size and
attractive appearance, and is adapted for both dessert use and
cooking. It is also a reasonably good shipping a])ple. It re-
quires the better care and higher cultivation which orchards
are destined to receive in the near future.
RJiode Island Greening. — The distribution of the Rhode
Island Greening is very similar to that of the Baldwin, but is
perhaps adapted to somewhat wider range of conditions; being
a green apple it does not call for conditions adapted to the pro-
duction of good color necessary for the Baldwin, It attains
better size and appearance than the Baldwin when grown
towards the northern limit of its culture. It is possibly some-
what hardier in tree. It is grown all through the north central
> Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 135, p. 34.
214
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
belt, and extends somewhat further south in the higher eleva-
tions. In the south it becomes a fall apple, and is apt to ripen
prematurely and drop and sometimes to decay on the trees.
Northern 8py. — This is a variety of the Baldvi^in belt, and
its distribution is very similar to that variety, although less
general. It is at its best in the Champlain valley and in west-
ern New York. Some excellent specimens have been seen from
southern New England, but they do not keep as well as those
from farther north. It seems to be somewhat capricious as to
soils and culture, and in localities of ill success it is not always
possible to determine the cause of the difficulty. When grown
BAuowm
ORK inp.
Fig. 10.
in the south it rots badly and drops, nor does it attain the high
color and quality that characterize it in its more northern
home.
Baldwin. — The Baldwin is the standard winter apple of
the northeastern United States. It is distributed all over the
north central belt, and is so nearly confined to it as to lend its
name to that zone. It is also grown to a considerable extent in
the Annapolis valley and very sparingly in the central belt,
although it rarely attains any cominercial standing in this re-
gion. It is not grown west of Lake Michigan, owing to the
extremes of maximum and mininumi temperatures which there
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
215
prevail. In the iiortliwcslern belt the winters are too severe
and the trees winter-kill; while .sonth of this region the summers
are so warm that the variety ripens prematurely and is apt to
rot and drop. These same remarks will apply to many other
varieties of the Baldwin belt, most of them being too tender to
withstand the winters west of Lake Michigan. The Wealthy,
which is very well adapted to the Baldwin belt, is an exception
t(j this, and grows to perfection in both regions. We have ob-
served the Baldwin for several years in an orchard growing on
the higher elevations of the Green Mountains. Here it occa-
sionally matures pretty well. In other years it is small, dull
r7r-_^^
/^^^\^&
/>2VW^^I^%
m
^
I ( / ^V~~~-^~i aV
-yf
\ \ / / — f~\
— /
"^^
/^~v
^T
^-~L / P-S^
r'^
\-^
y
^Hi Si^
Y
'X R.I. <iRtLOIM
I
xj "-"
Fig. 11.
green and red in color, and of acid, astringent flavor, indicat-
ing that the variety has not had sufficient heat to mature prop-
erly. In the Champlain valley, while a standard market apple,
it in most seasons fails to reach the size, color and quality that
it does in western New York and south central New England.
The same applies to its growth in Maine. One may observe in
traveling northward through that State increasing signs of im-
maturity. In Massachusetts 1,000 to 1,200 feet is about the
limit of certain full maturity.
Winesap. — The Winesap is a variety that has been kno^^Ti
for a louir time and has been tested over a wide area. It be-
216 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
longs to the south central belt, being grown from southern New
Jersey, Virginia and North Carolina west through the Ohio
valley to southern Nebraska. It reaches as far south as Geor-
gia on the higher elevations. It reaches the highest favor in
the eastern section of this belt, being of secondary importance
west of the Allegheny Mountains. When grown in southern
New England it is somewhat inferior in size, of doubtful color
and flavor, although it keeps better than when grown in many
places in its native region. It has found very little favor north
of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Specimens from Arkansas
Fig. 12.
and Alabama were of medium size, though somewhat inferior
in color and of only moderately good quality. Summarizing
his observations regarding its behavior in Virginia and North
Carolina Gould says : —
It is apparent that the conditions in the northern portion of the Pied-
mont region at 1,000 to 1,200 feet elevation do not produce the best
results, and that in the more southern counties of Virginia which have
been referred to the conditions produce very excellent fruit, but less
satisfactory results are secured at points having elevations which much
exceed that of the Piedmont region, while still farther south this variety
can be grown at higher altitudes than is j^ossible in the northern portion
of the Piedmont. Its behavior tluis indicates in an interesting wav the
i
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 217
eorrespoiuling relationship between altitiule and latitude in their influ-
ence upon the behavior of tliis variety.^
Rome Beauiy. — The Rome Beauty is an apple grown prin-
cipally in sonthern Ohio, althongh it is found quite generally
over the entire middle portion of the central belt. It is men-
tioned as a valuable commercial apple for Maryland, Delaware,
sonthern Ohio, southern Indiana and southern Illinois, Speci-
mens from Arkansas were of poor quality, but were of good size
and color.
In Virginia, on Cecil sandy loam, at 900 feet, it is especially satisfac-
tory, particularly in view of the fact that these conditions are unfavor-
able to most varieties. So grown, it is said to keep until the holidays.
Cecil clay and Porters clay at elevations of 1,000 to 1,500 feet, in the
northern Piedmont and Blue Ridge regions, usually combine conditions
which ai-e favorable to this varietj'. At 1,500 feet altitude on Porters
clay it becomes an early winter variety of very fine appearance and
good dessert quality. As a rule, it is considered especially well adapted
io sandy soil. On Porters black loam, at 2.300 feet, it is considered of
more than usual value. It is highly prized in western North Carolina,
where it occurs at an altitude of 3,000 feet, on a deep porous mountain
loam. It is, however, somewhat inclined to dro}?."
Yorh Imperial. — While the York Imperial is believed to
liave originated fully one hundred years ago, its period of com-
mercial development extends over a much shorter time. It
came from southeastern Pennsylvania, and there it has attained
its greatest commercial value. It has spread, however, over
nearly the whole of the south central belt. It is recommended
as a valuable commercial variety in l^ew Jersey, through
southern Ohio to sonthern Iowa and Nebraska. To the south
it is much valued as far as North Carolina on the higher ele-
vations and w^est through Missouri and eastern Kansas. Its
distribution is therefore very similar to the Ben Davis, although
it has not spread into northern localities as has that variety,
nor does it extend quite as far west. As to its behavior in the
southern Appalachian Mountains Gould says: —
It appears to be less influenced by soil conditions than by elevation.
In the Piedmont orchards having less than 1,000 to 1,200 feet elevation
• Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 135, p. 46.
2 Gould, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 135, p. 43.
218
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
serious rutting and premature dro2Jping are apt to occur, and wliile
frequent exceptions to tliis have been observed, it is sutficiently constant
to suggest that extensive plantings of it in this region should be made
cautiously, if at all, except in the northern portion, where it appears to
be more nearly free from serious faults than almost any other commer-
cial variety that is being grown, and is considered one of the most
profitable sorts. This applies specially to locations in Rappahannock
County, in close proximity to the mountains. In the Blue Ridge region
above an elevation of 1,200 to 1,500 feet premature dropping is gen-
erally less severe than it is at lower points. Especially satisfactory re-
sults have usually been obtained on Porters clay at these middle eleva-
tions, where very heavy crops are expected, at least in alternate years.
If heavy dropping occurs in such cases, a sufticient quantity of fruit
SHOt KLY.
Fig. 13.
usually remains to result in a heavy crop. At the higher altitudes this
is considered a valuable variety, especially in North Carolina, where it
has grown at 2,500 to 3,500 feet altitude. . . . The contrast between this
variety and Winesap in the manner in which they respond to the in-
fluence of elevation is of interest. The elevation at which Winesap
begins to deteriorate and above which it becomes more inferior as the
elevation increases appears to be about the point below which York
Imperial is inclined to manifest certain faults which tend to disappear
at higher altitudes.^
Fell 01V Nevdown. — This variety is one of restricted culti-
vation. The only region in the east where it can be said to have
» Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin ISf), p. 49.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 219
(.'oimncrcial sttuidiiig is in ihc Hudson Valley and l^ong Island,
and in the Upper Piedmont and l]lne llidge sections of \h--
ginia and North Carolina. It has also attained favor in certain
sections of the Pacific northwest. It is therefore an apple of
the central belt. The climatic conditions, particularly the
mean summer temperature, of the several regions where this
variety is cultivated are even more alike than is indicated by
the temperature maj). The tree makes a slow growth and is
rather late in coming into bearing. The variety requires better
care than do many of the leading commercial sorts. The tree
is evidently unable to withstand the conditions of the western
plains, and apparently does not succeed west of Indiana. We
are confident, however, that if given good care it will do well
in many places in Pennsylvania and central Ohio, provided,
also, that the soil conditions are right. Gould devotes consid-
erable s})ace to a discussion of the behavior of this variety in
the southern' Appalachians, mostly with reference to its soil
preferences. He concludes that it requires a soil or high fertil-
ity and of a loose, friable texture; and a subsoil comparatively
open and porous. Bearing on climatic conditions he says: —
This apple is found i^rineipally in the mountains, at various altitudes
and in coves where Porters black loam abounds, often at elevations not
exceeding the general level of the Piedmont. Even these lower jjoiuts,
where the drainage is good, are favorable places for this variety, though
the higher altitudes are to be preferred.^
In Nelson County, Va., the slopes of the mountains and hills
at elevations of 1,000 to 1,500 feet are considered desirable
locations. In northeastern Georgia premature dropping was
ol)s('rvod. In Fig. 13 the solid line shows where the variety i'^
generally recommended, and the dotted line includes additional
territory where we believe it would do well in favorable loca-
tions and with good care.
Ben Davis. — This variety has been quite fully dealt Avith in
a previous publication.^ We have little to add to the statements
made at that time. Many other samples of the variety have
I Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 135, p. 48.
> Massachusetts Experiment Station Report, 1910, p. 107.
220
EXPERIMENT STATION,
[Jan.
been studied and additional data as to variation in form and
size have been secured, and these are set forth in an earlier
portion of this paper. It cannot be grown to its full develop-
ment north of southern Pennsylvania, central Ohio and In-
diana, north central Illinois and central Iowa, although it is
often a profitable commercial variety further north than this.
It is, however, inferior in most respects to the variety grown
south of that line. It is apt to be hard and astringent and
poorly colored, and undersized unless grown under relatively
high cultural conditions. The map given in Fig. 14 shows the
Fig. 14.
distribution of this variety. This shows it extending farther
north than the map given in a previous report. It should be
borne in mind that the previous map shows the area over which
it is the leading commercial variety and the present map the
area where it may be said to rank as a valuable commercial sort.
SJiocHey. — Shockley is a variety belonging almost exclu-
sively to the southern belt. It flourishes in regions where the
summer heat is greater than that favorable to most commercial
varieties. It is recommended for cultivation in the hill and
pine belt regions of South Carolina, and west through northern
and central Alabama to northeastern Texas. Gould gives the
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 221
following concerning its behavior in the southern Appahichian
Mountains : —
At 1,500 feet altitude in Albemarle County, Va,, on Porters clay, this
variety is not considered of special value, but at the same elevation in
Georgia on a soil containing rather more sand than Porters clay does,
with good culture it comes to a high degree of perfection, and when
held until midwinter it generally brings very satisfactory prices in local
markets. In the southwestern part of North Carolina, at 1,700 feet
elevation, on a friable, porous loam, with good culture it bears annual
crops of highly colored fruits, which develop to a larger size than under
most conditions. In North Carolina at 3,500 to 3,800 feet, while the
Shockley bears heavily and colors well, it is usually too small to be of
much value, especially as other more desirable sorts succeed at these
elevations. The clay and clay loam soils of the Piedmont region, with
the usual elevations of those soils, may be expected, as a rule, to produce
this variety in a fair degree of perfection.'
The Relation of Temperature to Development.
The Mean Summer Temperature. — There is a close relation
between the mean summer temperature and the development of
the fruit. For every variety there can be determined a mean
summer temperature at which it reaches its highest and most
satisfactory development. Any departure from this mean re-
sults in greater or less inferiority of the fruit, the degree of in-
feriority depending on the amount of the departure, and the
variety. For the successful growth of the tree the mean sum-
mer temperature is of little significance, but the major control-
ling factors are the minimum winter temperature and the mean
of the hottest part of the summer. Other factors enter in, but
Ave believe that these are the principal ones and nnist first be
complied with if a variety is to succeed.
The Winter Mitiimum. — The temperature which a tree of a
given variety can withstand cannot be stated with definiteuess.
If depends not only on the degree of cold, but also on the con-
dition of the tree and the rapidity and amount of the fall anf]
subsequent rise of the temperature. In the northwestern belt
ibis is the great problem of apple culture, and much study has
been given to it. The Minnesota ITorticnltnral Society men-
> Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin 135, p. 43.
222 EXPEPvIMExNT STATION. [Jan.
tioiis tbe following varieties as of sufficient hardiness to endure
the severe winters of that State : ^ —
Of the first degree of hai'diness, Oldenburg, Hibernal, Charlamofif,
Patten, Okabena.
Of tlie second degree of hardiness, Wealthy, Tetofski, Malinda, Peer-
less, Northwestern Greening.
Many other sorts thrive in the more favorable parts of this
belt, but the great bulk of the varieties grown in localities of
similar summer temperatures in the east perish from winter-
killing. The minimum winter temperatures in this territory,
according to the records of the Weather Bureau,- are around
— 40° F., which may be considered a degree of cold which any
tree of Pyrus mains can rarely endure without injury (see Fig.
15). It should be borne in mind that this temperature must
be taken in accordance with the methods of the Weather Bureau
and with correct instruments, else the figures obtained are likely
not to be comparable.
The Heat of Summer. — A glance at the figures (Figs. 6-14)
giving the distribution of varieties shows that some extend the
entire length of its belt, while others succeed well only through
the eastern portion. There are three differences between the
eastern and western portions of these belts. Tn the west we find
(1) lower humidity, (2) less precipitation, (3) more severe
heat during the summer. Probably all these have their influ-
ence in limiting the western spread of certain varieties, for their
effects on the plant are similar, in that they tend to dry it out.
In relative importance the greater heat is probably of the great-
est significance followed by rainfall and humidity.
The Effects of Low and High Mean Summer Temperatures.
— The effects on the fruit of a low summer heat, as indicated
by the mean summer temperature, are as follows : —
7. Greater Acidity. — It is shown that the acidity of the
fruit steadily decreases all through the stages of growth, ripen-
ing and decay. It naturally follows that if the fruit does not
have time to mature properly it will be acid, and this is clearly
shown in the table of analyses.
1 Report, 1907, p. 34. " United States Weather Bureau, Bulletin Q.
PIQ. 16. — ISOTHERMS OP MINIMUM WINTER TEMPERATnBE.
221
tio
the
(
Pal
(
less
\
bel
sin
kil
ace
tre'
15;
be
aiu
not
giv
eiit
the
eas
hea
enc
eff(
In
est
by
frn
ing
ha\
sho
\
lull.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 223
'^. A Higher Content of Insoluble Solids. — The analyses
show that there is a decided tendency for the insoluble solids
to decrease during the stage after ripening. The figures do not
show just when the content of insoluble solids is highest, but it
must be at or before the time of picking. The analyses also
give clear indication of the immaturity of the fruit when grown
too far north. This is especially marked in the case of the Ben
Davis, doubtless owing to the fact that some lots of this variety
came from the far north of the region in which it matures prop-
erly, and it falls far short of full maturity. It shows an average
content of 2.97 per cent, for the Ben Davis belt and 3. GO per
cent, for the specimens from north of this region. Other sorts
show similar differences.
3. Greater Astringency. — All apples in an immature state
doubtless contain small amounts of tannin. No determinations
of tannin have been made in connection with this work, nor
have we discovered any report that shows conclusively just what
changes in tannin content go on in the growing and ripening
fruit. Nevertheless, it is evident to the taste that green apples
have greater astringency than do ripe specimens, and we have
rejieatedly observed a markedly greater astringency in northern-
grown apples than in the same sort grown farther south.
^. Less C oloration. — It is well known that plants exhibit
brighter, more intense coloration when grown in high latitudes
and altitudes. This is true of the coloration of red apples. In
the north we find bright intense reds, which become duller
towards the south, with a tendency toward a pinkish red towards
the southern limit. The proportion of the fruit covered, how-
ever, behaves in a different way. We find the greatest pro-
portion of color near the middle of a distribution, with a
decrease to both the north and south. We find then, near the
center of a distribution of most varieties of red apples, fruit well
covered with fairly bright color, which is brighter and more
intense in northern varieties than in those of the south.
5. Decreased Size. — When the season is short or cool it i«?
natural that a variety should not reach the mnximiim size. It
is somewhat difficult to determine, in lots of varying size, how
much of the difference is due to climatic causes and how much
224 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
to cultural methods and conditions. However, in the case of
the Ben Davis a study of the table on page 199 shows clearly
not only the general influence of the different regions on size,
but also that of different seasons, and almost invariably a lower
summer mean is accompanied by decreased size.
6. Scalding in Storage. — It has been shown by Powell ^ and
Beach - that immature apples are more likely to scald in storage
than are those that have been well matured on the trees. In
order to keep longest in storage an apple should have fully com-
pleted the stages of growth and ripening on the tree, and been
picked and without delay placed and kept in a temperature
barely above the freezing point of the fruit. In practice it is
necessary to allow a margin for safety, owing to possible lack of
uniformity of the temperature at dift'erent times and in differ-
ent parts of the storage rooms, but the better the control of the
temperature the closer may the ideal conditions be approached.
It is probable that scalding may also appear on fruit that has
I'cen poorly grown, but still has reached full maturity. The
chemical work here reported indicates that fruit matured on
poor soil or under unfavorable cultural conditions may be in
some respects similar to immature fruit. The poorly grown
fruit is lower in most of the soluble solids.
When a variety is grown where the summer mean tempera-
ture is excessively high we note the following effects : —
1. Uneven Ripening. — Summer and fall varieties always
show a tendency to ri])en unevenly, making it desirable to make
two or more pickings as the different specimens reach maturity.
Late fall and winter sorts show less evidence of this, though a
difference in the maturity of specimens in a lot of winter fruit
may be detected without difficulty. Inasmuch as the result of
growing a variety south of its natural range is to cause earlier
maturity, and fall varieties tend to become summer varieties, it
is to be expected that the uneven ripening characteristic of sum-
mer sorts should follow. This is not marked with winter varie-
ties unless they are grown a considerable distance south of their
most favorable localities.
' Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 48.
2 New York Experiment Station, Bulletin 248; Iowa Experiment Station, Bulletin 108.
1011.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 225
2. Premaluve Dropping. —It is but natural that dropping
of ripened fruit should follow uneven ripening, and this is
conimonlv observed to be the case. We find, also, that apples
may drop even at immature stages when the summer heat is too
great for the liking of the variety, particularly when the heated
period closely follows the period of blossoming.
3. Rotting on the Tree. — This is another sign of summer
heat too great for the variety, which is right along the line of
those already mentioned. It occurs with most varieties only
when the heat is excessive. The Jonathan is especially subject
to this trouble, because the margin k-tween temperature that
will give the maximum size, color and quality and one that will
cause rotting seems to be narrow, and perhaps within the range
of seasonal fluctuations. Therefore there is great danger that
(he apples will become overripe and decay before being picked.
Ji. Poor Keeping Quality. — This defect of southern-grown
specimens is also along the same lines of those already dealt
Avith. The apples mature to the end of the ripening or after-
ripening stages, and being still subject to high temperature, con-
tinue rapidly on the road to decay. It is probable that in many
cases this difficulty might be largely overcome by picking the
apples at the proper stage and placing them at once in cold
storage. I am informed by Mr. W. A. Taylor of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture that Baldwins grown in West Virginia
kept in a satisfactory manner when handled in this way. The
chemical work here reported shows no material difference in
the chemico-physiological processes of the growth and maturing
of the fruit of a given variety^ whether grown in the north or
m the south, but only in the degree of completeness with which
they are achieved.
The converse of this proposition is that northern-giwvn fruit,
if well matured, will keep better than that variety grown far-
ther south, and this indicates that any variety should be grown
as far north as possible to fully mature it in the coolest seasons
that are likely to occur. The progress of the stage of after ripen-
ing may be easily controlled if the proper facilities are at hand,
hut It is an advantage to have the air temperature low at this
time unless it is desired to hasten instead of retard this stace.
22G EXPERIMP:NT station. [Jan.
5. Lack of Flavor'. — The basis of flavor iu apples has already
been discussed. The leading element of flavor for discussion
here is that of the flavoring oils. It appears that for high de-
velopment of these a relatively cool atmosphere is desirable.
Summer and early fall varieties do not, as a rule, possess high
flavors, and any late fall or winter variety grown so far south
that it ripens before the cool weather of autumn comes is likely
to be inferior in the development of flavoring oils.
6. " Mealiness." — This is another sign of overripeness that
is an indication that the variety is grown in too great summer
heat. Mention has already been made of the softening of the
middle lamelLr, which is the cause of this mealiness (see page
186). The result is that wdien eaten the cells separate from each
other without breaking open and releasing the juices contained
therein, and the apple is said to be " dry," whereas it probably
contains a normal amount of water. Some varieties, the Jona-
than, for example, do not show this characteristic in marked
degree, but most varieties do if they can be kept long enough
without parasitic decay, and the warmer they are the shorter
the time necessary to bring about this result.
7. Less Intense Color. — A red variety grown to the south
of its normal range is apt to show a less intense color, though
it may be pretty well spread over the fruit. There is often
a decided tendency toward a pinkish red, which may appear
pale or faded in extreme cases.
Bright sunlight during the ripening period of the fruit has
much to do wdth the attainment of high color, especially
if at this time the nights are cool and frosty. But in order
for these influences to have their full efl^ect the apple must
have been brought to the proper stage of development by a
sufficient amount of heat during the ]ieriod of growth. Under-
developed apples do not take on a satisfactory color, no matter
how favorable the conditions may be during the ripening period.
8. Smaller Size. — This effect does not manifest itself unless
1hc variety is grown far to the south of its most favorable region.
The signs of overripeness show themselves much sooner as one
goes south over the distribution of a variety. Nevertheless,
in some cases, at least, it is evident that a variety may fail
lUlL] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ;il. 227
to reacli its uonual size on account of too severe summer heat.
It is probable that this occurs most noticeably in the extreme
south of the apple region. Wo have seen evidences of it in
the Ben Davis and Winesap that were grown about as far south
as these varieties are much cultivated.
The Optimum Mean Summer Temperature. — It is evident
from the foregoing discussion that the development of the high-
est perfection in any given variety is closely related to most
favorable mean summer temperatures. In Table 5 is given a
list of varieties, with an estimate of the optimum temperature
for each sort, and in some cases of their possible range and
hardiness with respect to the cold of winter. The list of vari-
eties includes all those that are given the double star, indi-
cating highly successful varieties, in the list of the American
Pomological Society, with a number of additions of varieties
that, for various reasons, seemed worthy of consideration. In-
asnnich as we consider keeping quality of considerable account
with most sorts, the policy has been to prescribe about as low
a temperature as will suffice to thoroughly mature a variety,
leaving a margin of about 2° for seasonal fluctuations; that
is, we believe that any variety may be matured when the sum-
mer mean is 2° lower than the one given. This applies more
particidarly to the fall and winter varieties. We believe, on
the other hand, that any increase in the summer mean for any
variety, unless it be the earliest ones, will be a disadvantage,
though a very slight one, if the rise is not more than 1° or
2°. Up to a certain degree the overmaturity of the fruit in
a too warm climate may be overcome if the grower will pick
at the time of full maturity and put the fruit at once in cold
storage. If the heat is too great, however, even with this method
the fruit will be inferior in flavor and color, and, in very ex-
treme cases, in size. We believe that a departure of more than
2° in either direction from the temperatures given will be a
noticeable disadvantage with any of the winter varieties. This
remark will apply less to the fall sorts and still less to the sum-
mer varieties ; or, to put it in other words, the earlier the variety
the greater may be its range of temperature without marked
deterioration of the fruit. There are doubtless errors in the
ease of some varieties, concerning which we have limited infor-
228 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Illation. It is hoped that these may, in time, be corrected, as
we are able to learn more concerning the behavior of these varie-
ties under different conditions.
In Table 6 these same varieties are grouped under their op-
timum temperatures for convenience in reference.
In Table 5 there is also given for some varieties the range of
temperature which they can stand without serious deterioration.
This is, as already stated, closely connected with the season of
the variety, being wide with early sorts and relatively narrow
with most winter sorts. Just how much difference there is be-
tween the ranges of varieties of the same season is difficult to
say. It is complicated with a variety of related questions.
In the case of a few of the varieties given in Table 5 an at-
tempt Is made to give their hardiness with respect to the winter
cold. Inasmuch as the ability of the tree to withstand cold de-
pends on a variety of factors other than the temperature, it is of
no use to attempt to state this in degrees. The designation
Ex. H. is used for the varieties equal in hardiness to those classi-
fied as 9f the first degree of hardiness ; the designation V. 11. for
those of the second degree of hardiness (by the Minnesota Hor-
ticultural Society) ; and the designation H., M. and T. for vari-
ous degrees of hardiness below these two classes. Many of the
more southern sorts are not gi*own far enough north on account
of a lack of summer heat to test their winter hardiness in a satis-
factory manner. Therefore it is impossible to make any state-
ments regarding them, nor would there be any practical value in
such statements were they possible.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
229
Table 5.
— Mean Su
mmer Temperatures
2
H§f
H If
SQ
SS
i
.§£
0
■3
3
a
"5
■w 3
c
»;
•— 3
0
a
O
C5
O
a
Akin
52
Holland Winter, .
57
Alexander,
54
H.
Horse, ....
66
Arctic
53
H.
Hubbardston,
57
Arkansas,
65
Huntsman, .
62
N.
N.
Arkansas Black,
63
Hyde King, .
60
Babbit, . . . .
57
Ingraham,
62
Bailey Sweet,
58
Baldwin,
56
N.
M.
Jefferis
57
Baxter, ....
53
H.
Jewett
54
Beach, ....
65
Jonathan,
59
N.
N.
Ben Davis, .
64
M.
H.
July
59
Benoni
59
Bethel
53
H.
Kent Beauty,
58
Bietigheimer,
53
Keswick,
58
Bismark,
53
King David, .
59
Black Gilliflower, .
55
Kinnaird,
59
Blenheim,
55
Blue Pearmain,
54
H.
Lady, ....
58
Boiken, ....
57
Lady Sweet, .
57
Bonum,
65
Lankford,
61
Borovinka,
53
Lawver,
64
Bough
57
Limbertwig, .
66
Buckingham,
66
Longfield,
57
Buncombe, .
66
Lowell
Lowland Raspberry,
58
68
Cabashea,
58
Cannon Pearmain,
65
Maiden Blush,
61
M.
V. H.
Charlamoff, .
53
Ex.H.
Malinda,
54
N.
H.
Chenango,
57
Mann, ....
55
M.
Collins
65
McAffee.
60
H.
Cooper Market,
60
Mcintosh,
56
W.
H.
Cox Orange, .
35
McMahon,
Melon, ....
55
57
Delicious,
59
Milden, ....
58
H.
Dominie,
60
Milwaukee, .
54
H.
Dudley,
53
M inkier,
Missouri Pippin, .
60
64
Early Harvest,
56
V. VV.
Monmouth, .
57
Early Joe,
56
Mother
58
Early Pennock,
56
Early Strawberry,
58
Newell, ....
55
English Russet,
56
Newtown Spitzenburg,
60
Esopus, ....
59
N.
Northern Spy,
56
M.
H.
Ewalt
58
Northwestern Greening,
55
V. H.
Fallawater,
60
Okabena,
52
Ex.H.
Fall Harvey,
57
Oldenburg,
52
V. VV.
Ex.H.
Fall Orange, .
57
Oliver
64
Fall Pippin, .
58
Ontario,
56
H.
Faineuse,
54
M.
H.
Ortley
61
Fanny, ....
63
Flushing Spitzenburg, .
58
Paragon,
64
Foundling,
54
H.
Patten
Payne, ....
55
62
Ex.H.
Gano, ....
64
M.
Peck Pleasant,
58
Gideon
54
H.
Peerless,
56
V. H.
Golden Rus.set,
56
Pewaukee,
53
V. H.
Golden Sweet,
58
Plumb Cider,
57
Gravenstein, .
55
M.
M.
Pomme Gris,
55
N.
Green Sweet,
58
Porter, ....
57
W.
Grimes
62
M.
H.
Primate,
Pumpkin Sweet, .
57
57
Haas
59
H.
Hagloe, ....
60
Ralls
62
Hibernal,
52
N.
Ex.H.
Rambo,
60
Holland Pippin, .
57
Red Astrachan,
54
W.
H.
230
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Table 5. — Mean Summer Temperatures — Concluded.
2
1^
§S
Bi
SQ
m
SQ
i
3^
6
s
<u
.2
W)
'■V
tc
TS
'-^ 3
a
t-
■5 3
a
(-,
a«
C3
c«
ft-w
a)
«
O
«
W
O
tf
K
Red Canada,
59
M.
Tolman,
56
M.
H.
Red June,
58
M.
Tompkins King, .
56
M.
M.
Rhode Island Greening,
56
M.
H.
Twenty Ounce,
58
M.
Ribston,
55
N.
Twenty Ounce Pippin,
58
Rolfe, ....
56
H.
Roman Stem,
61
Wagener,
59
Rome Beauty,
60
Walbridge,
54
H.
Roxbury Russet, .
57
W.
H.
Washington Royal,
56
Wealthy,
56
W.
V. H.
Salome
55
H.
Westfieid,
56
Scott Winter,
55
V. H.
White Astrachan, .
54
Shiawasse,
55
H.
White Pearmain, .
62
Shockley,
65
N.
White Pippin,
61
Smith Cider,
61
Williams
57
W.
Smokehouse, .
60
Willow
64
Stark, ....
62
M.
H.
Windsor,
55
H.
Stayman Winesap,
63
Winesap,
64
M.
St. Lawrence,
54
Winter Banana,
58
Sutton
56
Wolf River, .
54
M.
V. H.
Swarr
58
Swazie, ....
55
N.
Yates
67
Switzer, ....
58
Yellow Belleflower,
Yellow Newtown,
61
60
W.
V. N.
Terry
67
N.
Yellow Transparent,
53
W.
V. H.
Tetofaki,
53
V. W.
V. H.
York Imperial,
62
M.
Titovka,
56
H.
I
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
231
Table CJ. — Optimum Temperatures hy Groups.
52°
Hibernal
Okabena
Oldenburg
53°.
Arctic
Baxter
Bethel
Bietigheimer
Bismark
Borovinka
Charlamoff
Dudley
Pewaukee
Tetofski
Yellow Transparent
54°.
Alexander
Blue Pearniaiu
Fanieuse
Foundling
Gideon
Jewett
Malinda
Milwaukee
Red A.strachan
St. Lawrence
Walbridge
White Astrachan
Wolf River
55°.
Black (Jilliflower
Blenheim
Cox Orange
Gravenstein
Mann
McMahoa
Newell
Northwestern Greening
Patten
Poniine Gris
Ribston
Salome
Scott Winter
Shiawasse
Swazie
Windsor
56».
Baldwin
Early Harvest
Early Pennock
English Russet
Golden Russet
Lowland Raspberry
Mcintosh
Milden
Northern Spy
Ontario
Peerless
Rhode Island Greening
Rolfe
Sutton
Titovka
Tolman
Tompkins King
Washington Royal
Wealthy
Westfield
57°.
Babbit
Boiken
Bough
Chenango
Fall Harvey
Fall Orange
Holland Pippin
Holland Winter
Hubbardston
Jefferis
Lady Sweet
Longfield
Melon
Monmouth
Plumb Cider
Porter
Primate
Roxbury Russet
Williams
58°.
Bailey Sweet
Cabashea
Early Joe
Early Strawberry
Ewalt
Fall Pippin
Flushing Spitzenburg
Golden Sweet
Green Sweet
Kent Beauty
Keswick
Lady
Lowell
Mother
Peck Pleasant
Red June
Swarr
Switzer
Twenty Ounce
Twenty Ounce Pippin
Winter Banana
59°
Benoni
Delicious
Esopus
Haas
Jonathan
July
King David
Kinnaird
Red Canada
Wagner
60°.
Cooper Market
Dominie
Fallawater
Hagloe
Hyde King
McAffee
Minkler
Newtown Spitzenburg
Rambo
Rome Beauty
Smokehouse
Yellow Newtown
61°.
Lankford
Maiden Blush
Ortley
Roman Stem
Smith Cider
White Pippin
Yellow Bell flower
62°.
Akin
Grimes
Huntsman
Ingram
Payne
Ralls
Stark
White Pearmain
York Imperial
63°.
Arkansas Black
Fanny
Stayman Winesap
64\
Ben Davis
Gano
Lawyer
Missouri Pippin
Oliver
Paragon
Willowtwig
Winesap
65°.
Arkansas
Beach
Bonum
Cannon Pearmain
Collins
66°.
Buckingham
Buncombe
Horse
Limbertwig
Shockley
67°.
Terry
Yatea
232
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Cheinical Dcterininations.
The work here reported is based in considerable degree on
cbeniical work done in the laboratory of the college. During
the past two years over 150 samples of apples have been sub-
jected to partial analysis, the results of which^ so far as they
are deemed worthy of publication, are presented in Table 7.
The names and locations of the growers are as follows: —
Name.
Post-office Address.
Name.
Post-ofEce Address.
F. Bovyer, .
Charlottetown.P.E.I.
Slay maker & Son,
Wyoming, Del.
C. E. Hardy. .
Hollis, N. H.
Dr. S. S. Guerrant, .
Callaway, Va.
Edw. Lefavour, .
Marblehead, Mass.
G. C. Sheible, .
Tiptop, Ky.
Massachusetts Agricul-
G. H. & S. G. Ellis, .
Dayton, Tenn.
tural College, .
Amherst, Mass
J. 0. Kelley & Sons, .
Je£F, Ala.
J. M. Fisk, .
Abbottsford, Que.
Joe H. Burton, .
Mitchell, Ind.
T. L. Kinney, .
South Hero, Vt.
J. C. B. Heaton,
New Burnside, 111.
G. H. Wright, .
Middlebury, Vt.
Geo. T. Lincoln,
Bent»nville, Ark.
Wilfred Wheeler,
Concord, Mass.
Geo. L. Sipes,
West Fork, Ark.
F. S. Wallbridge,
Belleville, Ont.
C. S. Bouton,
Springfield, Ark.
Connecticut Agricul-
tural College,
Storrs, Conn.
G. S. Christy, .
Lincoln, Neb.
New York Experiment
Kansas State Agricul-
Station, .
Geneva, N. Y.
tural College,
Manhattan, Kan.
Wm. Miller,
Gypsum, O.
Ira Townsend,
lola, Kan.
U. T. Cox, .
Proctorville, O.
J. B. Fergus,
Kincaid, Kan.
Wm. Stewart,
Laudisburg, Pa.
G. B. Prince,
Santa F6, N. M.
F. H. Fasset,
Meshoppen, Pa.
E. F. Cadwallader, .
Mountain Park, N. M.
S. H. Derby, .
Woodside, Del.
Stirling & Pitcairn,
Kelowna, B. C.
A. J. Norman, .
Harris' Wharf, Md.
As a rule the samples represent about the best type of the
various varieties grown in the different localities. The samples
received varied from a half dozen to a barrel, and from these
from six to twelve good specimens were selected for analysis.
They were ground in a food chopper, and after weighing a sam-
ple for sugar determinations, were preserved in a glass jar with
formaldehyde. The methods of analysis followed were those of
Bulletins 66 and 107 of the Bureau of Chemistry.
The determination of total solids was made by drying 2r)
grams on pumico iu n wntor oven at 05° to 98° for twenty
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 233
to twenty-two hours. This i)rol)ably gives results too low, but
iliis method seemed the l)e>t with the facilities at hand. Insol-
uble solids were deternuned by washing 25 grams with 500
cubic centimeters hot water on muslin filters, and drying on
pumice fourteen hours at 95° to 98°. The reducing sugars
were determined by reducing Fehling's solution and weighing
the precipitate as cuprous oxide ; the sucrose, by means of the
])olariscope; and malic acid, by titrating with N/10 alkali with
])henolphthalein as an indicator.
Most of the analyses were made during the winter of 1910-11.
All samples, save those from Amherst, were shipped direct to
cold storage in Holyoke, Mass., and transferred to Amherst a
few samples at a time, as needed, where they were held as cool
as possible. The Andierst samples, as well as all those of 1910,
were kept in an excellent cellar storage at the college. The lab-
oratory numbers were given in order of analysis, work being
begun with No. 1 in November. 1910, and completed about
]\rarch 1. 1911. The samples of 1910 were analyzed in March,
and while no notes of their condition were taken, it can be said
that they were in excellent condition, most of them eating ripe.
These analyses form the basis for the chemical side of the
discussions of the different varieties in this ])aper. There are,
however, certain questions not dealt with elsewhere which may
receive consideration at this point.
Nearly all the differences in analyses between the different
samples, aside from those fairly attril)utable to the unavoidable
errors of sampling and analysis, can be traced to one of two
causes: (1) varietal differences; these are brought out in Table
1; (2) those attributable to different stages of maturity of the
fruit. The chemical changes occurring in the growth and ripen-
ing of the apple are clearly brought out in the work of the
Bureau of Chemistry, reported in Bulletin 94 of the Bureau,
and the reader is referred to that publication for a discussion
of this question. During the past winter analyses were made of
four samples in November and again in Februnrv. These
were : —
234
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
November.
February.
November.
February.
Greening,
Baldwin,
No. 4
No. 1
No. 93
No. 98
Baldwin,
Mcintosh,
No. 2
No. 27
No. 97
No. 102
Reference to the analyses of these samples will show that they
are in entire accordance with the resnlts reported in the above-
mentioned pnblication. A stndy of the figures given shows
that, as a rnle, varieties grown to the north of their natural
range exhibit the characteristics of immatnre fruits. The
analysis of the Ben Davis, sample 91, indicates an apple that
failed to mature on the tree, and has gone down in storage after
the manner of immature fruit. In general, the analysis of
this variety shows that the more northern-grown specimens are
low in solids and sugars and high in insoluble solids and acid,
and the same is generally true of the other varieties.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
235
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EXPERIMENT STATION.
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1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 243
VII. SUMMARY.
Some of the more important results of this work may be sum-
marized as follows : —
1. The many variations in apple varieties arise from many-
causes, which may be grouped as (1) cultural, using the word
in a broad sense; (2) soil; and (3) climatic. Of climatic in-
fluences, temperature is the most potent.
2. The life history of the apple may for convenience in dis-
cussion be divided into four periods: (1) growth, extending
from the blossom to the attainment of full size; (2) ripening,
extending to the time of harvest; (3) after ripening, extending
to complete edible maturity; and (4) decay, covering the period
of physiological breaking down.
3. The apple of superior table quality is high in sugars, espe-
cially sucrose, and low in insoluble solids, indicating a tender
flesh and fine texture. The acid is proportionate to sugars; the
ratio may vary somewhat to accord with different tastes. Good
kitchen apples are wider in ratio of sugars to acid, and the pro-
portion of insoluble solids is of little significance. Good ship-
ping apples are high in insoluble solids.
4. In any variety of apples, high development at full nui-
turity is marked by the attainment of full normal size for the
variety, high color, well spread over the apple, and a high devel-
opment of sugars, especially sucrose.
.5. Each variety has a characteristic chemical composition,
fairly constant when perfect maturity is attained. Most of
the difi'erences found in difi'erent samples of a variety are due
to a difference in the stage of development reached.
0. The fruit of individual trees shows slight differences in
A/c, color, form and abundance that are characteristic and not
due to environmental conditions. Some of this may be due to
bud variation, but it is believed that most of it is due to the in-
terrelation of stock and scion.
7. Variation in form in the Ben Davis, and probal)ly in
other sorts as well, is due principally to the temperature during
n period of about two or three weeks following blossoming. The
lower the temperature the more elongated the apple. This elon-
244 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
gation is seen in apples grown near large bodies of water, which
lower the temj^erature at this season of the year, and in seasons
when the tem^Derature is low owing to seasonal fluctuations.
This influence is also seen in the form of apples in different
parts of the tree. Those in the lower north portion are more
elongated than those from the warmer, upper south portion.
8. Seasonal temperature aft'ects the size of apples, a cool
season resulting in smaller fruit. This is marked only in full-
season varieties, and is especially noticeable in the more north-
erly portions of their distribution. On the other hand, in the
extreme south a variety is apt to be smaller than when grown in
a somewhat cooler climate.
9. For convenience in discussion, IvTorth America may be
divided into seven apple belts, each having a fairly character-
istic list of varieties. These are named and illustrated in the
text.
10. Some varieties are of wide distribution; others more or
less limited. Varietal qualities favoring a wide distribution are
(1) great hardiness of tree, (2) a short season of development,
(3) great vigor and ability to thrive under generally unfa-
vorable conditions, (4) productiveness and good market qual-
ities.
11. The northern limit of apple growing is fixed by the min-
imum winter temperature, and the southern limit by the heat
of the hottest part of the summer, occurring usually in July or
Augaist.
12. The attainment of the highest quality, appearance and
keeping quality is very largely dependent on the warmth and
length of the growing season. This may be measured with fair
satisfaction for the apple-growing regions of ISTorth America by
an average of the mean temperatures for the months of March
to September inclusive. This is called the mean summer tem-
perature, and give temperatures ranging from 52° to 72°.
13. Factors determining the mean summer temperature in a
given orchard are (1) latitude, (2) elevation, (3) site and as-
pect, (4) soil, (5) culture, (G) prevailing winds, (7) sunshine.
14. The optimum mean sunnncr temperature for different va-
rieties may be determined with fair satisfaction, and some deter-
ii
i
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 245
ininations are shown in Tabic 5. A departure of over 2° from
this mean will result in less desirable fruit, though this may not
be marked in short-season varieties.
15. A summer mean too low for a variety results in (1)
greater acidity, (2) increased insoluble solids, (3) greater as-
tringency, (4) less coloration, (5) decreased size, (6) scalding
in storage.
16. A summer mean too high for a variety results in (1)
uneven ripening, (2) premature dropping, (3) rotting on the
trees, (4) poor keeping quality. (5) lack of flavor, (6) "meali-
ness," (7) less intense color (8) decreased size.
246 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
COMPILATIONS.
Introduction.
BY J, B. LINDSEY.
A compilation of the chemical composition of fodder articles,
agricultural chemicals and manurial residues was first made by
Prof. C. A. Goessmann and his assistants in 1887, and published
in the fifth report of the Massachusetts State Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, pages 181-227. This compilation included
all analyses made by Goessmann and his co-workers since 1868.
It was later enlarged to include compilations of the analyses
made at this station of dairy products, fruits, garden crops and
insecticides. The parties largely responsible for the details of
the several compilations were W. H. Beal, C. S. Crocker, J. E.
Lindsey, H. D. Haskins, E. B. Holland and P. IT. Smith. In
189G the classification of fodder articles was considerably modi-
fied and improved ; the present compilation of agricultural
chemicals and manurial residues has undergone a similar re-
arrangement, and the available analyses have been added to the
compilation of fruits and garden crops. Naturally a few mate-
rials, being no longer of interest, have been omitted.
The tables of compilations are as follows : —
Table I. Composition and Digestibility of Fodder Articles, pp. 247-
265.
Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles, pp. 266-271.
Table III. Analyses of Dairy Products, p. 272.
Table IV. Coefficients of Digestibility of American Fodder Articles,
pp. 273-303.
Table V. Analyses of Agricultural Chemicals, etc., pp. 304-323.
Table VI. Analyses of Fruit and Garden Crops, pp. 324-338.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 24:
Compilation of Analyses of Fodder Akticles
AND Dairy Products, made at Amherst,
Mass., 1868-1910.^
p. H. SMITH AND J. B. LINDSEY.
Table I. — Composition and Digestibility of Fodder Articles.
I. Green fodders,
(a) Meadow grasses and millets.
(b) Cereal fodders.
( c ) Legumes.
(d) Mixed and miscellaneous.
11. Silage.
III. Hay and dry, coarse foddei-s.
(a) Meadow grasses and millets.
(b) Cereal fodders.
(c) Legumes.
(d) Straw.
(e) Mixed and miscellaneous.
IV. Vegetables, fruits, etc.
V. Concentrated feeds.
(a) Protein.
(b) Starchy.
(c) Poultry.
Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles.
Table III. — Analyses of Dairy Products.
Explanation of Table I.
Under composition the figures mean that each 100 pounds of the
fodder contains so many pounds of water, protein, fiber, etc.
Water. — The approximate average which is likely to occur in the
material is stated.
Ash refers to the residue which is left behind when the material is
burned, and consists of lime, potash, soda, magnesia, iron, phosphoric
and sulfuric acids.
Protein is a collective name for all of the nitrogenous matter; it
corresponds to the lean meat in the animal, and may be termed
> Part III. of the report of Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry.
248 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
" vegetable meat." It serves as the exclusive source of flesh, as well
as a source of heat or energy, and fat.
Fiber is the coarse or Avoody part of the plant. It may be called
the plant's framework. It is a source of heat or energy and fat.
Nitrogen-free extract represents the sugars, starches and gums. It
is the principal source of heat or energy and fat.
Fat includes not only the various oils and fats in all grains and
coarse fodders, but also waxes, resins and coloring matters. It is
also termed ether extract because it is that portion of the plant soluble
in ether. It serves as a source of heat or energy and body fat.
Under digestibility the figures mean that so many pounds of protein,
fiber, nitrogen-free extract and fat in 100 pounds of the fodder are
actually digested and made use of by the animal. No feed is entirely
digestible; concentrates are more digestible than coarse fodders. The
data inider digestibility have been worked out by actual experiment.
In cases where no figures appear, data as a result of experiments are
lacking.
Net Energy Value. — The entire amount of heat or energy contained
in a feeding stuff is termed its total heat or energy value. All of
this heat or energy cannot be utilized by the animal for the purposes
of maintaining its body in a state of equilibrium, or for aiding in the
production of growth and milk. The several losses may be enumerated
as follows: (a) the undigested material, i.e., the faeces; (b) the incom-
pletely used material of the urine; (c) the work required in the proc-
esses of digestion and assimilation in preparing the nutrients so that
they can be used for maintenance and for the production of growth
and milk. These several sources of loss expressed as energy, deducted
from the total energy, leaves the real or net energy value.
The calorie is the unit of energy measurement.
The small calorie represents the amount of heat required to raise
1 gram of water 1° C.
The large calorie represents the amount of heat necessary to raise
1 kilogram (1,000 grams) of water 1° C.
The therm, a name proposed by Armsby, represents the amount of
heat required to raise 1,000 kilograms of water 1° C. It is to be pre-
ferred to the small or large calorie as a unit of measurement be-
cause it can be expressed in fewer figures.
In the last column of the following table, headed net energy value, is
given the number of therms contained in 100 pounds of tlie different
feeding stuffs, based on the results of very carefully conducted experi-
ments by Kellner, a German investigator.^
> For a fviU explanation of the components of the animal body, the composition of feeds, the
different ways in which the food is ixsed in the animal body and the explanation for using the
therm in the calculation of rations for farm animals, see Farmers' Bulletin 346, United States
Department of Agriculture, prepared by H. P. Armsby.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
249
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
265
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266
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles.^
[Figures equal percentages or pounds in 100.)
Name.
I. Green Fodders.
(o) Meadow Grasses and Millets.
Orchard grass,
Millet
Barnyard millet,
Hungarian grass,
Japanese millet, ......
(6) Cereal Fodders.
Corn fodder,
Oats
Rye
(c) Legumes.
Alfalfa,
Horse bean, ......
Soy bean (early white), . . . ,
Soy bean (medium green), average, .
Soy bean (medium green), in bud, .
Soy bean (medium green), in blossom,
Soy bean (medium green) in pod.
Soy bean (medium black).
Soy bean (late),
Alsike clover,
Mammoth red clover, ...
Medium red clover, average.
Medium red clover, in bud,
Medium red clover, in blossom,
Medium red clover, seeding.
Sweet clover,
White lupine,
Yellow lupine, .....
Canada field peas, average,
85
80
0.43
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.33
0.39
0.72
0.27
0.44
0.41
0.57
0.64
0.66
0.64
0.72
0.70
0.60
0.53
0.50
0.52
0.58
0.51
0.61
0.43
0.45
0.40
0.50
0.56
0.43
0.67
0.42
0.22
0.30
0.56
0.57
0.31
0.21
0.55
0.53
0.58
0 60
0 52
0.50
0.68
0.50
0.272
0.57
0.71
0.58
0.65
0.40
0.26
0.44
3.08
• Many of these analyses were made in earlier years by the Massachusetts State Experiment
Station. The percentages of the several ingredients will vary considerably depending upon the
fertility of the soil, and especially upon the stage of growth of the plant. In the majority of cases
the number of samples analyzed is too few to give a fair average. The figures, therefore, must
be regarded as close approximations rather than as representing absolutely the exact fertilizing
ingredients of the different materials. (J. B. L.)
2 Evidently below normal.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
2G7
Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con-
tirmed.
[Figures equal perceutages or pounds in 1(X).J
Name.
I. Green Fodders — Con.
(c) Legumes — Con.
Canada field peas, in bud,
Canada field peas, in blossom, .
Canada field peas, in pod, ....
Cow pea, average,
Black cow peas,
Whip-poor-will cow peas, ....
Flat pea
Small pea,
Sainfoin,
Serradella
SuUa
Spring vetch
Hairy or sand vetch, average, .
Hairy or sand vetch, in bud.
Hairy or sand vetch, in blossom.
Kidney vetch
Average for legumes,
(d) Mixed and Miscellaneous.
Vetch and oats,
Apple pomace,
Carrot tops,
Prickley comfrey, .....
Common buckwheat, .....
Japanese buckwheat, .....
Silver-hull buckwheat, ....
Summer rape, ......
Sorghum,
Teosinte
II. Silage.
Corn,
Corn and soy bean
Millet
Millet and soy bean
' Too low; 0.43 nearer correct
0.50
0.45
0.52
0.45
0.40
0.49
0.75
0.40
0.68
0.36
0.68
0.36
0.55
0.52
0.65
0.44
0.53
0.30'
0.21
0.69
0.37
0.44
0.26
0.29
0.34
0.26
0.47
0.42
0.65
0.26
0.42
0.44
0.32
0.37
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.32
0.31
0.57
0.37
0.58
0.45
0.51
0.54
0.57
0.28
0.44
0.30
0.12
1.08
0.76
0.54
0.53
0.39
0.78
0.29
1 18
0.39
0.36
0.62
0.44
0.11
0.11
0.13
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.20
0.12
0.12
0.10
0.13
0.12
0.16
0.08
0.12
0.14
0.02
0.13
0.12
0.09
0.14
0.14
0.10
0 11
0.90
0.18
0.35S
0.14
0 11
2 Evidently too high.
268
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Table II. — Feetilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con-
tinued.
(Figures equal percentagea or pounds in 100.]
Name.
III. Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders.
(a) Meadow Grasses and Millets.
. Barnyard millet,
Hungarian grass,
Italian rye grass,
Kentucky blue grass, .'
Meadow fescue,
Orchard grass
Perennial rye grass,
Red-top, .......>
Timothy
English hay (mixed grasses), . . . .
Rowen,
Branch grass,
Fox grass
Salt hay (variety uncertain), . . . ,
(6) Cereal Fodders.
Corn stover, from field, ....
Corn stover, very dry
Oats,
(c) Legumes.
Alsike clover.
Mammoth red clover.
Medium red clover.
{d) Straw.
Barley,
Soy bean
Millet
(e) Mixed and Miscellaneous.
Vetch and oats,
Broom corn waste (stalks),
Palmetto root,
Spanish moss,
White daisy,
•
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2.88
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1.79
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1.19
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1.20
1.54
6
14
0.93
1.98
4
14
1.23
1.60
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14
1.16
1.47
4
14
1.07
0.95
3
14
1.20
1.42
13
14
1.34
1.61
13
14
1.72
1.58
1
16
1.06
0.87
1
16
1.18
0.95
1
16
1.05
0.64
17
40
0.69
0.92
17
20
0.92
1.22
3
15
2.451
1.90
6
15
2.26
2.10
3
15
2.14
1.162
10
15
2.21
2.42
2
15
0.95
2.03
1
15
0.69
1.04
1
15
0.68
1.73
4
15
1.29»
1.27
I
10
0.87
1.87
1
12
0.54
1.37
1
15
0.61
0.56
1
15
0.26
1.18
0.43
0.52
0.53
0.39
0.37
0.38
0 53
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.48
0.19
0.18
0.23
0.20
0.26
0.65
0.63
0.52
0.47
0.19
0.25
0.18
0.60
0.47
0.16
0.07
0.41
> Too high; 1.90 nearer correct.
3 Too low; 1.
2 Evidently below normal,
nearer correct.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
269
Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con-
tinued.
[Figures equal percentages or ixjunds in 100.]
Name.
•23
J'
a
a)
l-i
2
03
78
0.12
0.17
78
0.46
0.48
88
0.24
0.44
86
0.24
0.52
89
0.23
0.56
88
0.15
0.34
89
0.16
0.46
89
0.08
0.10
80
0.22
0.62
80
0.29
0.51
93
0.08
0.40
90
0.17
0.38
89
0.19
0.49
3.27
1.55
3.45
1.53
2.08
2.09
5.61
2.12
13.55
0.18
8
3.68
0.86
7
7.08
2.05
8
4.50
0.31
8.5
4.13
0.40
9.5
5.87
0.21
9
5.97
1.42
8.5
5.35
1.30
11
4.32
2.00
10
2.94
1.67
10
2.62
2.08
10
3.04
0.98
8
7.84
1.54
8
3.04
0.58
IV. Veget.\bles, Fruits, etc.
Apples,
Artichokes,
Beets, red
Sugar beets,
Yellow fodder beets,
Mangolds,
Carrots,
Cranberries,
Parsnips
Potatoes, .......
Japanese radish,
Turnips,
Ruta-bagas,
V. Concentrated Feeds.
(a) Protein.
Red adzinki bean,
White adzinki bean, .....
Saddle bean, ......
Soy bean
Blood meal (Armour's)
Brewers' dried grains, ....
Cottonseed meal,
Distillers' dried grains, ....
Gluten feed,
Gluten meal, ......
Linseed meal (new process).
Linseed meal (old process).
Malt sprouts,
Bibby's dairy cake,
Sucrene feed,
Pea meal,
Peanut meal,
Proteina, .......
1
1
1
3
1
2
167
20
106
46
21
56
12
1
1
1
1
1
270
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Table XL — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con-
tinued.
[Figures equal percentages or pounds in 100.]
Name.
V. Concentrated Feeds — Con.
(o) Protein — Con.
Rye feed 11 11 2.36 1.08 1.60
Wheat middlings (flour) 44 10 3.06 1.01 1.65
Wheat middlings (standard) 103 ID 2.88 1.28 2.06
Wheat mixed feed 282 10 2.72 1.44 2.57
Wheat bran, 116 10 2.59 1.45 2.79
(6) Starchy.
Ground barley 1 13 1.56 0.34 0.66
Buckwheat hulls 1 12 0.49 0.52 0.07
Cocoa dust, 1 7 2.30 0.63 1.34
Corncobs, 8 8 0.52 0.63 0.06
Corn and cob meal 29 11 1.38 0.46 0.56
Corn kernels 13 11 1.82 0.40 0.70
Corn meal, 3 14 1.92 0.34 0.71
Corn and oat feed (Victor) 2 10 1.38 0.61 0.59
Corn, oat and barley feed (Schumachers), . . 1 8 1.80 0.63 0.83
Cotton hulls 3 11 0.75 1.08 0.18
Hominy meal 125 11 1.65 0.76 1.27
Common millet seed 2 12 2.00 0.45 0.95
Japanese millet seed, 1 12 1.58 0.35 0.63
Molas-ses (Porto Rico) 1 24 0.51 3.68 0.12
i
Dried molasses beet pulp, 1 8 1.60 1.47 0.16
Oat kernels 1 11 2.05
Oat feed, 14 7 1.26 0.75 0.48
Oat feed (low grade) 15 7 0.88 0.70 0.35
Peanut feed 2 10 1.46 0.79 0.23
Peanut husks 1 13 0.80 0.48 0.13
Louisiana rice bran, . 1 11 1.42 0.83 1.70
Rye middlings 1 11 1.87 0.82 1.28
Damaged wheat, 1 13 2.26 0.51 0.83
Wheat flour 2 12 2.02 0.36 0.35
(c) Poultry.
American poultry food 1 g 2.22 0.52 0.98
Meat and bone meal, 10 6 5.92 - 14.68
Meat scraps 4 9 7.63 - 8.11
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
271
Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con-
cluded.
[Figures equal percentages or pounds in 103.)
Name.
1.^
d
2
J3
0-6
1
VI. Dairy Products.
Whole milk
297
86.4
0.57
0.19»
0,16
Human milk,
3
88.1
0.24
-
-
Skim milk,
22
90.3
0.59
0.182
0.20
Butter milk
1
91.1
0.51
0,05
0.04
Whey
1
93.7
0.10
0.07
0,17
Butter,
117
12.5
0.19
-
-
' From Farrington and WoU.
2 From WoU's
Handbook.
272
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1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 273
Table IY. — Coefficients of Digestibility of
American Fodder Articles. Experiments
MADE in the United States.'
J. B. LINDSEY AKD P. H. SMITH.
Experiments with Ruminants.
Experiments with Swine.
Experiments with Horses.
Experiments with Poultry-.
Experiments with Calves.
Complete through Aug. 1, 1910,
Explanation of Table IV.
The first compilation of all digestion coefficients resulting from ex-
periments made in the United States was made and published by J. B.
Lindsey in 1896." Jordon and Hall also published very comi^lete
data in 1900." Since then the writer and his co-workers have revised
and published similar tables in 1902^ and 1906.^ The present publica-
tion is intended to be complete to December, 1910.
By coefficient of digestibility is meant the percentage of the ingi'e-
dients which the animal can actually digest. Thus, of the 6.3 pounds
of total protein in 100 pounds of Timothy hay, experiments have shown
that 48 per cent., or 3 pounds, are digestible. The figure 48 is the
digestion coefficient. The average coefficients determined have been
applied to the average fodder analyses in Table I., and have enabled
us to calculate the average amount of each fodder constituent digesti-
ble.
> Being a portion of the report of the Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry.
2 Ninth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 157-170.
' Bulletin 77, United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations.
* Fourteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 195-216.
6 Eighteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 224-248.
274
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PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
301
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302
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Average Digestion Coefficients obtained with Poultry.^
IGerman and American Experiments.!
Kind of Fodder.
Number
of
Experi-
ments.
Organic
Matter.
Crude
Protein.
Nitrogen-
free
Extract.
Fat.
Bran, wheat,
Beef scrap, .
Beef (lean meat),
Barley, .
Buckwheat, .
Corn, whole.
Corn, cracked,
Corn meal, .
Clover, .
India wheat.
Millet, .
Oata,
Peas,
Wheat, .
Rye,
Potatoes,
46.70
80.20
87.65
77.17
69.38
86.87
83.30
83.10
27.70
72.70
62.69
77.07
82.26
79.20
78.33
71.70
92 60
90.20
77.32
59.40
81.58
72.20
74.60
70.60
75.00
62.40
71.31
87.00
75.05
66.90
46.94
46.00
85.09
86.99
91.32
88.10
86.00
14.30
83.40
98.39
90.10
84.80
87.04
86.70
84.46
37.00
95.00
86.30
67.86
89.22
88.11
87.60
87.60
35.50
83.80
85.71
87.89
80.01
53.00
22.60
1 Compiled by J. M. Bartlett, Bulletin 184, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 303
LiTERATUKE.
The following publications have been consulted in compiling
the foregoing tables of digestibility : —
Colorado Experiment Station, Bulletins 8, 93.
Connectient (Storrs) Experiment Station, reports for 1894-96, 1898;
Bulletin 43.
Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletins 43, 58.
Kansas Experiment Station, Bulletin 103.
Louisiana Experiment Station, Bulletin 77, second series.
Maine Experiment Station, reports for 1886-91, 1893, 1894, 1897,
1898, 1900; Bulletins 110, 184.
Maryland Experiment Station, Bulletins 20, 41, 43, 51, 77, 86.
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, reports for 1895-99,
1901-05, 1907; and Digestion Experiments, Series XII., XIIL, XIV.,
XV., unjiublished,
Massachusetts, State Experiment Station, reports for 1893, 1S94.
Minnesota Experiment Station, reports for 1894r-96; Bulletins 26,
36, 42, 47, 80, 99.
Mississippi Experiment Station, report for 1895.
Nevada Experiment Station, Bulletins 64, 66, 71.
New York Experiment Station, reports for 1884, 1888, 1889; Bulle-
tin 141.
North Carolina Experiment Station, Bulletins 80c, 81, S7d, 97, IIS,
148, 160, 172.
Oklahoma Experiment Station, Bulletins 37, 46.
Oregon Experiment Station, Bulletins 6, 47, 85, 102.
Pennsylvania Experiment Station, reports for 1887-94, 1897, 1898,
1900-01, 1903-04, 1906-07.
South Dakota Experiment Station, Bulletin 114.
Tennessee Experiment Station, unpublished data.
Texas Experiment Station, Bulletins 13, 15, 19, 104.
Utah Experiment Station, Bulletins 16, 54, 58.
United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal In-
dustry, Bulletins 56, 106.
"Wisconsin Experiment Station, report for 1889; Bulletin 3.
Wyoming Experiment Station, Bulletins 69, 78.
304 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Table Y. — Compilation of Analyses of Aghi-
cuLTURAL Chemicals, Refuse Salts, Phos-
phates, Guanos, Ashes, Lime Compounds,
Marls, By-products, Refuse Substances and
Animal Excrements.
H. D. HASKINS AND L. S. WALKER.
A. Chemicals and Refuse Salts.
(a) Nitrogen chemicals.
(b) Potash chemicals.
(c) Refuse salts.
P). Phosphates and Guanos.
(a) Natural phosphates.
(b) Dissolved phosphates.
((') Guanos.
C. Ashes^ Lime Compounds and Marls.
(«) Ashes.
(6) Lime compounds.
{c) Marls.
D. By-products and Refuse Substances.
(a) Abattoir products.
(t») Fish products.
(c) Seaweeds.
(d) Vegetable products.
(e) Wool products.
(/) Miscellaneous substances unclassified.
E. Animal Excrements.
F. Insecticides.
As a rule, the analyses reported in the following compilation
were made at this laboratory.' Some of them were made many
years ago. Eefuse products from various manufacturing in-
dustries are likely to vary more or less in composition, due to
frequent changes in the parent industry. The revision of the
1 In the compilation of analyses of seaweeds, five of said analyses were taken from Bulletin
No. 21 of the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 305
compilation every five years, however, insures quite reliable
figures in most instances. In case of the agricultural chemicals
and by-products which are commonly known to the fertilizer
trade, the present compilation includes the samples collected by
our inspectors during the last five years, as well as those samples
sent by farmers and farmer organizations. In all cases where
samples are forwarded for analysis, they are taken according to
printed directions furnished from this office, which is a reason-
able assurance that the analyses are representative of the mate-
rials sampled. In many instances extremely wide variations
occur in different analyses of the same product. This empha-
sizes the importance of careful sampling as well as the purchase
of such materials on a specific guarantee of plant food which
they furnish.
In the majority of instances only the highest, lowest and
average percentage of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid are
given in the tables, but it should be remembered that blanks do
not imply the absence of the other ingredients.
306
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
1-1
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(a) Nitrogen Chemicals.
Calcium cyanide,
Carbonate of ammonia
Nitrate of potash,
Nitrate of soda,
Nitrate of lime,
Nitrogenous chalk
Phosphate of ammonia
Sulfate of ammonia,
(6) Potash Chemicals.
Carbonate of potash, high grade,
Carnallite,
Hard salts,
Kainit,
Krugite,
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
307
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(a) Natural Phosphate.
Apatite
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South American bone ash.
South Carolina rock phosphate,
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(b) Dissolved Phosphates.
Acid phosphate,
Basic slag phosphate, ....
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
309
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(6) Lime Compounds — Con.
Boiler cleanings.
Burned lump lime, .
Carbonate of lime (coral).
Gas-house lime.
Ground lime stone (unburned).
Gypsum,
Lime waste from tannery.
Lime waste from sugar factory.
Lime waste from soda factory.
Lime sludge from glue factory.
Magnesia lime, ....
Nova Scotia plaster (gypsum),
Onondaga plaster, New York, gypsv
1=
1911.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
313
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Ammoniate,
Blood and bone.
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Beef scrap.
Bone soup.
Bone scrapings, .
Concentrated tankage.
Condensed bone steam,
Dried blood,
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Dried soup from rendering
Fresh-cut bone,
Ground bone (raw), .
Ground bone (steamed).
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 31.
315
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1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
319
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PUBLIC DOCUIVIENT — No. 31.
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324 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Table YI. — Compilation of Analyses of Fiiuits
AND Garden Crops.
H. D. HASKINS.
A. Analyses of fruits.
B. Analyses of garden crops.
C. Relative proportions of phosphoric acid, potassium oxide and
nitrogen found in fruits and garden crops.
The figures in A and B are in parts per 1,000. To convert into
percentages or pounds in 100, move the decimal point one place to
the left.
Some of the following analyses were taken from the compila-
tion of E. Wolff. Those marked with an asterisk (*) were
made at the laboratory of the Massachusetts Agricultural Ex-
periment Station,
The tables will be found suggestive when one is preparing
fertilizer formulas for various fruit and garden crops. One
has also to consider, however, in making such fertilizer mix-
tures, the influence of cultivation and crop rotation as well as
the plant food in the soil.
Members of the clover family are not dependent wholly upon
supplied nitrogen, they having the power, after a vigorous start,
to acquire atmospheric nitrogen when plenty of potash phos-
phoric acid and lime are supplied. An excess of phosphoric
acid may be used in formulas without danger of loss from leach-
ing. The same is true, to a certain extent, in case of potash,
although this element is more often found in a water-soluble
form in soils than is phosphoric acid. The well-kno^vn system
of crop fertilization advocated originally • by Wagner is based
upon the necessity of an abundant supply of potash and phos-
phoric acid in the soil, while the nitrogen is added in such lim-
ited amounts and at such times as will provide for the maxi-
mum growth of the crop and the minimum loss through
leaching.
1
1911.]
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
325
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332
EXPERIMENT STATION.
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1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
333
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334
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, Potassium Oxide
AND Nitrogen in Fruits and Garden Crops.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potassium
Oxide.
Nitrogen.
Fruits.
Ericacece: —
*Cranberries,
3.0
-
*Cranbernes,
3.33
2.66
Rosacese: —
Apples,
2.7
2.0
*Apples,
1.9
1.3
Cherries,
3.3
-
*Peaches,
1.3
-
Pears,
3.6
1.2
Plums,
4.3
-
Strawberries, ....
1.4
-
^Strawberries, ....
2.6
-
*Strawberry vines.
.7
-
Saxif ragaceaj : —
*Currants, red, ....
2.1
-
*Currants, white, ...
2.8
-
Gooseberries, ....
1.9
-
Viticea?: —
Grapes,
3.6
1.2
Grape seed,
1.0
2.7
Garden Crops.
Chenopodiacea;: —
*Beets, red,
4.1
3.3
Beets, sugar,
2.88
1.75
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
335
C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, etc., in Fruits
AND Garden Crops — Continued.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potassium
Oxide.
Nitrogen.
Chenopodiaccaj — Con.
*Beets, sugar,
4.8
2.2
Beets, sugar, leaves,
4.28
4.28
Beets, sugar, tops.
2.3
1.7
Beets, sugar, seed,
1.5
-
Mangolds,
4.66
2.0
*Mangolds,
4.2
2.1
Mangold leaves, ....
6.25
3.75
Spinach,
1.7
3.06
*Spinach,
1
19.2
6.8
Compositoe : —
Artichoke,
.63
-
*Artichoke, Jerusalem, .
2.8
2.7
Lettuce, common.
5.3
-
Lettuce, head, ....
3.9
2.2
*Lettucc, head, ....
7.7
4.0
Lettuce, Roman, ....
2.3
1.8
Convolulaceai : —
Potato, sweet, ....
4.6
3.0
Cruciferae: —
Cauliflower,
2.3
2.5
Cabbage, leaves, ....
4.1
1.7
Cabbage, Savoy, ....
1.9
2.5
Cabbage, white, ....
4.1
1.7
*Cabbage, white, ....
11.0
7.6
336
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, etc., in Fruits
AND Garden Crops — Continued.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potassium
Oxide.
Nitrogen.
Cruciferae — Co7i.
Kohlrabi,
1.6
1.8
Radishes,
3.2
3.8
Radish, horse, ....
3.9
2.2
*Ruta-bagas,
4.1
1.6
Turnips, white, ....
3.6
2.3
*Turnips, white, ....
3.9
1.8
Turnips, white, leaves,.
3.1
3.3
Cucurbitacese: —
Cucumbers,
2.0
1.3
Pumpkins,
.56
.69
GraminciE: —
Barley, grain, ....
.61
2.43
Buckwheat, grain,
.43
2.51
Corn, whole plant, green, .
3.7
1.9
*Corn, whole plant, green, .
2.2
2.8
Corn, kernels, ....
.6
2.8
*Corn, kernels, ....
.6
2.6
*Corn, stover, ....
4.4
3.7
*Corn, whole ears, ....
.8
2.5
Hay, English, ....
5.03
3.93
Millet, seed,
.51
2.84
Oats, grain,
.65
2.38
Rye, grain,
.67
2.10
Wheat, grain, ....
.65
2.50
1911.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
337
C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, etc., in Fruits
AND Garden Crops — Continued.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potassium
Oxide.
Nitrogen.
Leguminosae : —
Alfalfa, hay,
2.93
4.05
Bean straw,
3.3
-
Clover, hay,
3.4
3.58
*Cow pea, green {Dolichos), .
3.1
2.9
Garden beans, seed.
1.2
4.0
Hay of peas, cut green,
3.4
3.4
Peas, seed,
1.2
3.G5
Pea straw,
2.8
4.0
Soy bean seed, ....
1.21
5.12
*Small pea, dry (Lathyrus sybestris),
3.4
4.2
*Velvet beans, kernel,
1.7
4.0
*Velvet beans, with pod,
1.56
2.3
Liliacese: —
*Asparagus,
3.05
3.0G
Asparagus,
1.3
3.6
* Asparagus roots, ^ ....
4.60
3.45
Onions,
1.9
2.1
*Onions,
2.6
-
Solanacese : —
Potatoes,
2.5
2.1
*Potatoes,
4.1
3.0
Potato tops, nearly ripe.
2.7
3.1
Potato tops, unripe.
3.7
5.3
» Twenty-four analyses.
338
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
C. Relative Proportions of Phosphoric Acid, etc., in Fruits
AND Garden Crops — Concluded.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potassium
Oxide.
Nitrogen.
Solanacese — Con.
Tobacco leaves, ....
7.71
3.71
*Tobacco, whole leaf, .
13.46
5.65
Tobacco stalks, ....
4.15
1.78
*Tobacco stems, ....
10.7
3.8
*Tomatoes,
8.7
4.5
Umbelliferae: —
Carrots,
2.7
2.0
*Carrots,
5.7
1.7
Carrot tops,
2.9
5.1
Carrot tops, dry, ....
8.0
5.1
Celery,
3.5
1.1
Parsnips,
2.8
2.8
*Parsnips,
3.3
1.2
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 339
COMPOSITION OF SO:\IE MASSACHUSETTS
SOILS.
BY J. B. LINDSEY.
In the year 1892 samples of typical soils were taken from
diflfcrent parts of the State under the general supervision of
Prof. "William P. Brooks. Prof. Benjamin K. Emerson, the
geologist of Amherst College, advised as to the most snitable
location to secure some of the soils, in order that they might be
representative. The soils were carefully a^nalyzed under the
direct supervision of the late Prof. C. A. Goessmann, and the
completed results of each soil are here presented for the first
time.
Description of Ty^pes.
Soil N^o. 1. — Ten inches surface soil taken on the j!:rounds of the
Massachusetts agricultural experiment station, north of Hatch
barn.
Soil No. 2. — Ten inches surface soil taken on Ag-awam Plains, not
cultivated for ten years.
Soil No. 3. — Twelve inches surface soil taken from hill pasture in Aga-
wam. The soil known as Agawam red sandstone.
Soil No. 4. — Granite till from Dedham, locality of Fox Hill; 12
inches surface soil.
Soil No. 5. — Cranberiy bog from Colony Stock Farm ; 6 inches sur-
face soil.
Soil No. 6. — Diked Salt Marsh, Marshfield; tide shut off twenty years
ago; soil cultivated.
Soil No. 7. — Soil of alluvial foi-mation from Hadley meadows; over-
flowed in 1862 and 1872, and a deposit of sand was left which
injured it materially.
Soil No. 8. — Virgin soil, taken from South River salt marsh, ]\Iarsh-
field, Mass.
Soil No. 9. — Natural fresh-water meadow from Sudbury, Mass. ; very
wet.
Soil No. 10. — Gneiss till from Shutesbury, Mass. ; very baiTon.
Soil No. 11. — Mica schist from Deerfield, Mass. ; taken from base of
hill. Virgin soil, good pasture land, never cultivated.
Soil No. 12. — Limestone till from Pittsfield, Mass.
Soil No. 13. — Copperas rock from Hubbardston, Virgin soil, very
strong.
340
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
-is
O
CO
fX
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s
^
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6
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o
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0
00
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t^-^ 0 ^ CJ CO
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Oi
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td
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b
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to
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3
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k<iphm2;k
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 341
According to Ililgard ^ " Virgiu soils with high plant food
percentages are always j)roductive, provided, only, that extreme
physical characters do not interfere with normal j)lant growth."
By high plant food percentages is meant 1 per cent, of acid
soluble potash, 1 of lime, the same or less of magnesia and .15
per cent, of phosphoric acid. In case there is a low percenttige
of one of the above elements, it is an indication that tliis will
be the first to fail, and will have to be supplied in the form of
farm-yard manures or chemical fertilizers. The total percent-
age of nitrogen in the soil is of less importance than the nitro-
gen percentage in the humus, of which there should be at least
4 per cent, to insure satisfactory production.
It will be seen that none of the above soils could be classed
as highly productive, yet by comparing the anal3'ses with the
standards for average soils as given further on, it will be seen
that, in so far as their chemical analysis is concerned, most of
them would be capable of producing satisfactory crops.
Miscellaneous Soil Analyses.
From time to time during the last ten or fifteen years the
station has had occasion to examine soils sent from different
sections of the State. The following tabulation shows the per-
centages of the more important fertilizer constituents which
they contained. The data concerning the history of each soil
are not at present available. From our present knowledge of
the value of chemical analysis in determining soil fertility it
is doubtful if such data would have proved particularly helpful,
so much depending upon the physical character of the soil and
subsoil, drainage and the character of the crops to be grown.
This matter is briefly referred to further on. In general it
may be said that the soils were taken from the cultivated fields
of Massachusetts farms.
1 Soils, by E. W. Hilgard, p. 343.
342
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Table of Miscellaneous Soil Analyses {Per Cent.).'^
Source.
a
o
to
o
75.
<
o
a
1
Ph
;2
O
s
.85
.78
.44
1.41
.24
.36
.23
.26
.112
.23
.16
.114
.20
.16
.253
.16
.13
.271
.48
.11
.36
.18
.24
.17
.08
.15
.07
.11
.20
.15
.21
.10
.21
.16
.11
.28
.22
.07
.29
.24
.11
.23
.14
.15
.23
.27
.13
.11
.20
.25
.29
.27
.21
.15
.26
.14
.30
.12
.25
.20
.08
.15
.11
.37
.30
.56
.02
.22
.56
.21
.13
.25
.16
.205
.401
.35
.387
.26
.13
.04
.09
.25
.26
.19
.11
.04
.11
.11
.04
.07
.20
.06
.01
.14
.06
.07
.47
.17
1.02
Abington (garden?),
Amesbury (reclaimed marsh)
Amherst (Massachusetts Agricultural College, productive),
Amherst (Massachusetts Agricultural College, unproduc-
tive).
Amherst (Massachusetts Agricultural College, experiment
station).
Amherst (Massachusetts Agricultural College, south acre),
Amherst
Amherst,
Amherst
Amherst, .....
Amherst, .....
Amherst, .....
Amherst, .....
Amherst, .....
Arlington (average of 3 samples),
Athol,
Barre (average of 3 samples),
Belmont, .....
Berlin,
Bernardaton
Bernardston, ....
Beverly
Beverly,
Bisbees,
Boston,
Boston,
Boston,
Boston,
Boston,
Boston,
Boston,
Boston,
Boston (near seacoast),
6.21
7.38
8.57
G.02
4.25
6.69
6 04
8 53
1 Analyses made by H. D. Haskins and assistants.
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
343
Table of Miscellaneous Soil Analyses (Per Cent.) — Continued.
Source.
Brockton (greenhouse?)
Brookfield, .......
Brookline (greenhouse?), . . . .
Brookline (greenhouse?)
Cambridge, ......
Canton, .......
Clinton
Clinton,
Concord,
Concord (asparagus),
Conway, .......
Conway,
East Holliston,
East Whately
East Whately,
East Whately,
East Whately,
East Whately,
Florence (tobacco),
Florence (tobacco),
Foxborough,
Foxborough (average of 7 samples), .
Framingham, ......
Framingham
Gloucester (low and swampy; reclaimed),
Greenfield
Hadley,
Hadley (mill pond basin),
Halifax (average of 6 samples), .
Halifax (average of 2 samples), .
Halifax
Hampden,
Hampden, ....■■•
Harding
9.88
4.30
9.47
12.18
a
o
1
73,
<
1
1
6
6
a
3
s
(2
.42
.19
.11
.47
.36
.29
.93
.23
.21
.51
.07
.25
.18
.29
.18
.30
.19
.23
.22
.13
.15
.22
.24
.81
.48
.21
-
.13
.24
.09
.24
.07
.17
.44
.09
.21
.19
.14
.14
.14
.25
.24
.11
.34
.18
.19
.09
.18
.12
.32
.49
.08
.18
.53
.81
.98
-
.96
.37
-
.28
.08
.10
.21
.25
.16
.17
.34
.23
.13
.13
.13
.86
.60
.74
2.42
.30
.30
.15
.49
.24
.17
.08
.56
.28
.03
.09
.66
.31
.22
.10
.09
.26
.20
.23
.13
.41
.30
.08
.14
trace
.12
344
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Table of Miscellaneous Soil Analyses (Per Cent.) — Continued.
Source.
1
'5
el
o
a
o
75
'3
<
.S
o
a
1
6
6
a
'i
s
6
•p
■R
O
a
.3
Harding,
-
.12
trace
.11
.41
Harding,
-
.17
.04
.13
.24
Harding,
-
.14
trace
.17
.33
Haverhill
-
.17
.45
.20
1.30
Haverhill (meadow, 3H feet), .
72.60
1.01
.09
.12
1.01
Haverhill (bank of river), .
-
.51
.21
.13
.32
Holliston,
-
.20
.22
.25
1.00
Hubbardston, ....
-
.26
.12
.39
1.88
Lenox,
-
.07
.39
.28
1.41
Lenox,
9.18
.29
.23
.32
.10
Lenox,
-
.28
.34
.33
.85
Lenox,
-
.30
.17
.26
1.20
Lynn,
-
.39
.40
.32
1.51
Longmeadow, ....
-
.34
.20
.21
.54
Maiden (garden soil), .
12 57
.64
-
.49
.79
Mansfield (average of 3 samples),
-
.16
.15
.13
1.28
Mattapoisett
-
.19
.20
.11
.73
Merrick
-
.13
.35
.29
.79
Monson
8.46
.24
.03
.21
.10
Montague (corn experiment plat),
-
.16
.13
.37
1.41
Newbury
-
.26
trace
.16
.15
Newbury,
-
.28
.13
.15
.29
Newbury,
-
.28
.16
.23
.17
Newbury,
-
.28
.29
.15
.11
Newbury,
-
.29
.17
.15
.15
Newton,
-
.18
.01
.23
.59
Newton
-
.18
.01
.23
.59
Newton,
-
.23
.07
.13
.76
Newton
.-
.22
.01
.14
.42
Newton,
-
.26
.08
.14
.82
Newton,
-
.22
.01
.14
.42
Newton,
-
.38
.23
.22
.85
Newton,
-
.10
.15
.22
1.19
Newton Highlands,
7.42
,31
.18
.16
-
1911.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
345
Table of Miscellaneous Soil Analyses (Per Cent.) — Continued.
Source.
1
o
"a
O
d
3
<
o
'%
o.
o
J3
o
a
O
6
•o
o
a
Newton Highlands,
-
.34
.07
.50
.65
New Bedford (average of 6 samples),
-
.24
.14
.25
.53
Northampton (average of 3 samples),
-
.14
.19
.39
1.00
North Adams
-
.00
.36
.89
2.41
North Adams
-
.23
.14
.62
.40
North Adams,
-
.25
.10
.55
.30
North Eastham (asparagus farm).
-
.22
.05
.07
.58
North Easton,
-
.12
.09
.21
-
North Easton,
-
.19
.24
.20
-
North Weymouth
-
.35
.10
.34
.67
North Weymouth, ....
-
.32
.32
.25
.71
Norton
-
.18
.05
.09
.75
Norton (average of 3 samples), .
-
.14
.15
.09
.84
Orange,
-
.20
.11
.28
..38
Orange,
-
.44
.20
.20
.49
Plymouth,
-
.15
.10
.18
.50
Rutland (sanatorium),
-
.20
.16
.25
.09
Scituate
-
.33
.13
.10
.16
South Carver
-
.06
.08
.19
.23
South Carver,
-
.10
.29
.59
.48
South Carver
-
.11
.31
.39
.27
South Framingham (average of 6 samples
.
G 89
.22
.14
.19
.47
Springfield,
-
.16
.18
22
.57
Springfield,
-
.15
.16
.16
.55
Springfield,
-
.39
.14
.48
1.32
Sunderland,
14.09
.64
.70
.49
.54
Swift River
-
.23
.09
.23
.17
Taunton
-
.34
.23
.22
trace
Tewksbury (average of 2 samples), .
G.93
.36
-
.29
.64
Truro
-
.19
.24
.27
.81
Upton (carnation soil).
-
.41
.44
.20
.64
Upton (carnation soil),
-
.23
.69
.23
.83
Upton (carnation soil).
-
.50
.81
.46
CO
Waltham (greenhouse?),
-
.76
.40
.47
.83
346
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan.
Table of Miscellaneous Soil Analyses {Per Cent.) — Concluded.
Source.
Webster, ......
Wellesley,
Westfield,
Westminster
West Newton, .....
West Springfield (average 14 samples);
Weymouth, .....
Whately
Whately,
Williamstown, .....
Winter Hill
Worcester, ......
Worcester, ......
1.25
0.39
.28
.29
.32
.14
.25
.24
.12
.13
.27
.27
.29
.14
.03
.66
.25
.13
.25
.51
.11
.02
.20
.21
.18
.07
.05
.28
.31
.30
.16
.36
.24
.58
.36
.37
.23
.45
.20
1.77
.95
.28
1.14
.97
.34
1.07
.94
.18
.92
1.23
1.57
EuiioPEAN Standards for Comparison (Hilgard).^
Practical Bating of Soils by Plant Food Percentages.''
Potash.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Limb.
Total
Nitrogen.
Grade of Soil.
Clay Soil.
Sandy Soil.
Poor
Below 0.05
Below 0.05
Below 0.10
Below 0.05
Below 0.05
Medium, ....
0.05-0.15
0.05-0.10
0.10-0.25
0.10-0.15
0.05-0.10
Normal
0.15-0.25
0.10-0.15
0.25-0.50
0.15-0.20
0.10-0.15
Good
0.25-0.40
0.15-0.25
0.50-1.00
0.20-0.30
0.15-0.25
Rich
Above 0 . 40
Above 0.25
Above 1.00
Above 0.30
Above 0.25
In case of the above analyses of Massachusetts soils, the pot-
ash percentage varies from .01 to 1.02, with an average of .26;
the phosphoric acid from .01 to .98, with an average of .21;
the lime from .06 to 3.57, with an average of .71, and the ni-
trogen from .02 to 2.42, averaging .30.
' Soils, p. 343.
2 According to the late Prof. Max. Maercker of the Halle Station, Germany.
1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 347
Judging from such results most of the soils can at least be
classed as normal from a chemical standpoint, some of them
good and a few rich. Practically all of them are quite suit-
able for crop production if properly handled. One, however,
would not care to say, from a chemical analysis alone, whether
any one of them was suited to a particular crop, so many other
conditions entering into the problem. Brooks, in Circular No.
29 of this station, has made this matter clear, as follows: —
1. The Crop Adaptation. — While the chemical condition of a soil
is not altogether without influence in determining the crops to which
it is suited, this, as a rule, at least within such range of soil variation
as exists in this State, plays a much less important part than mechani-
cal and phj'sical peculiarities. The crops to which a soil is suited
are determined chiefly by its drainage, its capacity to hold and to
conduct water, its temperature and its aeration, and these in turn
are determined by the mechanical structure of the soil and sub-soil.
Variations in the proportions of gravel, sand, silt and clay, and not
in chemical comiiosition, cause the usual differences in these respects.
The varying proportions of these, therefore, usually determine the
crops to which a soil is suited.
2. Fertilizer Requirements. — The results of a chemical analy.sis of
a soil do not, as a rule, afford a satisfactory basis for determining
manurial requirements. The chemist, it is true, can determine what
the soil contains, but no ordinary analysis determines with exactness
what proportion of the several elements present is in available form
for the crop. Indeed, there is no such thing as a constant ratio of
availability. While one crop finds in a given soil all the plant food
it requires, another may find a shortage of one or more elements.
Further, on the very same field one crop may find an insufficient amount
of potash ; another may find enough potash for normal growth, but
insufficient phosjihoric acid; while a third may suffer only from an
insufficient supply of nitrogen.
Most of our soils are of mixed rock origin, and, as a rule, i^ossess
similar general chemical charactei'istics, providing they have been
farmed under usual conditions. The manurial and fertilizer require-
ments are determined more largely in most soils by the crop than by
IDeculiarities in the chemical condition of the soil.
3. Crop Diseases. — The chemical composition of the soil may in
some instances exercise a controlling influence in determining a con-
dition of health or disease, and is never unimportant from the stand-
point of vigorous, normal and healthy growth; but in the ease of
most diseases, the immediately active cause is the presence of a parasitic
fungus, and this fungus is usually capable of fixing itself upon the
348 EXPERlMExXT STATION. [Jan. 1911.
plant, whatever may be the composition of the soil. A knowledge of
the chemical composition of soils, therefore, will not make it possible
to advise such manurial or fertilizer treatment as will insure immunity
from disease.
Conditions under which Analyses will be made.
For the reasons which have been briefly outlined, the chemical analysis
of soils does not, as a rule, afford results which have a value commensu-
rate with the cost; and this station, therefore, will not make such
analysis unless the soil differs widely from the normal in natural
characteristics, or has been subjected to unusual treatment of such a
nature as to probably greatly influence its chemical condition. In
order that we may decide whether analysis seems called for, corre-
spondents are urged to write before taking samples, and when doing
so to state all the conditions as fully as possible. This statement should
include a full description of the soil and as full a report as possible
as to the manures and fertilizers applied and crops raised for a num-
ber of years previous to the date of writing. In all cases in which,
on the basis of the information given, it appears that a chemical
analysis promises results of value, such an analysis will be made, and
for the present free of charge; but, as explained in the jDreceding
paragraphs, such analyses appear to be only rarely worth while. It
will usually be possible to give helpful advice in relation to the use
of manures and fertilizers on receipt of a full statement as to the
character and history of the soil and the crop which is to be raised,
and such advice will always be gladly given.
In case analysis is regarded as desirable, full directions for taking
and forwarding samples will be sent.
INDEX.
INDEX.
Agricultural chemicals, etc., compilation of analyses of,
Agriculturist, report of, .
Alfalfa, co-operative experiments with,
Alternaria in connection with gummosis,
Ammonia, sulfate of, quality of.
Analyses, tables of, . . .
Tabulation of, . . .
Animal excrements, compilation of analyses of.
Animal nutrition, research work in.
Apiaries, inspection of, .
Apple, acidity as affected by temperature,
Approximate composition of varieties,
Astringency as affected by temperature,
Average analyses of varieties,
Belts of North America, .
Characteristics of varieties: —
Baldwin,
Ben Davis,
Esopus,
Fameuse, .
Grimes,
Jonathan, .
King,
Maiden Blush,
Mcintosh, .
Northern Spy,
Rhode Island Greening,
Rome Beauty,
Roxbury Russet,
Staj'man Winesap,
Smith Cider,
Wealthy, .
Winesap,
Yellow Newtown,
York Imperial,
Chemical examination of.
Color as related to temperature.
Coloration as affected by temperature.
Color of, .... .
Distribution of varieties: —
Baldwin,
Ben Davis,
Esopus,
Fameuse, .
Grimes,
Jonathan, .
Maiden Blush,
Mcintosh, .
Northern Spy,
352
INDEX.
Apple, distribution of varieties — Concluded.
Oldenburg,
Rhode Island Greening,
Rome Beauty,
Shockley, .
Tompkins King, .
Wealthy, .
Winesap,
Wolf River,
Yellow Newtown,
York Imperial,
Influence of heat of summer on.
Insoluble solids as affected by temperature
Keeping quality, ....
Lack of flavor in, .
Mealiness of, .
Mean sunmier temperature for varieties.
Mean summer temperature in relation to development
Modifying effect of climate on development of.
Modifying effect of climate on form,
Modifying effect of climate on general development.
Modifying effect of climate on size, .
Optimum mean summer temperature.
Optimum temperatures by groups, .
Premature dropping,
Relation of temperature to development.
Rotting on the tree,
Scalding in storage as related to climate.
Seasonal variation in form.
Size as affected by temperature.
Size as related to temperature.
The development of the, .
The perfectly developed, .
Uneven ripening as related to climate.
Varieties, climatic adaptations of.
Varieties, climatic adaptations of summarized.
Variation in form in different parts of the tree
Winter minimum temperature in relation to dev
Apples, causes of varietal variation,
Climatic variation,
Cultural variations.
Individuality of the tree,
Soil variation.
Arsenates, iodine method for.
Arsenic, determination in insecticides,
Iodine method for determining.
New processes for determining in insecticides.
Practice in determining at Massachusetts station,
Ashes, lime compounds and marls, compilation of analyses
Ashes, wood, quality of, ....
Asparagus, breeding experiments in substation,
Fertilizer experiments. Concord,
Nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for.
Substation, Concord,
Asparagus roots, chemical work on.
Soluble carbohydrates in,
Basic slag phosphate, quality of.
elopment
of,
207
213
217
220
212
208
215
208
218
217
221
223
225
226
226
229
221
199
199
205
204
227
231
225
221
225
224
199
223
226
183
186
224
177
243
203
221
179
180
179
194
180
129
122
124
125
127
310
64
24
25
39
24
25
135
66
INDEX.
353
Black knot, Plowrightia 7norhosa,
Black spot or scab, appearance on fruit,
Appearance of the leaves,
Appearance on the twigs,
Cladosporium carpophylum, Thum.,
Blood, dried, quality of.
Bone, dissolved, quality of.
Ground, quality of,
Botanist, report of, . . .
Brown or fruit rot, Monilia, .
Symptoms on flowers,
Symptoms on fruit,
Symptoms on the leaves.
Symptoms on the twigs, .
Peach and plum, methods of control.
Buildings,
By-products and refuse substances, compilation of analyses of.
Candidates for Babcock test, examination of.
Carbohydrates, soluble, in asparagus roots.
Castor pomace, quality of, .
Cercospora circiunscissa,
Chemical department, summary of work in.
Chemical research, laboratory work in, .
Chemicals and refuse salts, compilation of analyses of.
Chemist, report of, ... .
Cladosporium carpophylum, Thum.,
Cladosporium in connection with gummosis.
Climatic adaptations of apple varieties, .
Commercial shortages (fertilizers), .
Control work, .....
Corn fertilizer v. fertilizer richer in potash,
Correspondence, .....
In chemical department.
Cottonseed meal, quality of,
Cows, pure-bred, testing of,
Cranberry, fertilizer experiments in substation.
Insect work, .
Substation,
Cylindrosporimn Padi, .
Dairy law, .
Execution of.
Dairy products, compilation of analyses of.
Table of analyses of, . . .
Demonstrations, lectures and.
Determination of arsenic in insecticides, .
Digestion coefficients obtained with poultry, average
Digestibility, tables of, literature consulted.
Director, report of , . . .
Entomologist, report of.
Ethyl esters, distillation of, in vacuo,
Exoascus deformans,
Exoascus pruni, ....
Experiments, general.
Extension work, future provision for.
Fatty acids, crystallization from alcohol.
Distillation in vacuo,
Purification of , . . •
354
INDEX.
Feed and dairy section, miscellaneous work in,
Report of,
Feed law,
Analytical work under.
Compliance with, .
Execution of.
New law needed.
Feeds, weight of sacked,
Feldspar, non-availability of.
Fertilizer ingredients of fodder articles,
Fertilizer ingredients, trade values of,
Fertilizer law, ....
Fertilizer section, miscellaneous work of.
Report of, .
Fertilizers, analyzed,
Collected, ....
Commercial shortages in.
Complete, analyses compared with guarantees.
Comparative cost of plant food in different grad
Composition of different grades.
Grades of,
Licensed,
Quality of plant food in.
Unmixed,
Fish, dry ground, quality of.
Fodder articles, coefficients of digestibility.
Experiments with calves.
Experiments with horses.
Experiments with poultry.
Experiments with ruminants, .
Experiments with swine.
Fodder articles, compilation of analyses of.
Composition and digestibility of.
Digestibility of American, coefficients of, .
Fertilizer ingredients in, tables of,
Food stuffs, definition of, ... .
Fruit and garden crops, compilation of analyses of,
Fruits, fertilizer constituents of, .
Relative proportion of phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen
Garden crops, compilation of analyses of.
Fertilizer constituents of.
Nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for.
Relative proportion of phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen
Glassware, examination of , .
Gossman, Charles Anthony, tribute to, .
Guanos, compilation of analyses of,
Gummosis, histological changes accompanying,
Of the peach.
On fruit-bearing wood,
Probable cause of, .
Suggestions for treatment of.
Hay, top-dressing for, .
Information, dissemination of.
Insecticides, compilation of analyses of.
Determination of arsenic in,
INDEX.
355
Iodine method for arsenates, .
For determining arsenic, .
Kainit, influence on hay crop,
Leaf curl of peach,
Lectures and demonstrations,
Lime compounds, compilation of analyses of.
Lime-sulphur solution, concentrated.
Machines, Babcock, inspection of, .
Mailing lists, numbers in, .
Manure v. manure and sulfate of potash for hay,
Manure, winter, v. spring application of, .
Marl, compilation of analyses of,
Monilia, spore dispersal of, .
Spores of, .... .
Milk, composition of, esffcct of protein on.
Cream and feeds, free examination of.
Milk secretion, studies in, .
Conclusions, .....
Milk yield and shrinkage.
Muriate compared with sulfate of potash.
Muriate of potash, influence on rowen crop.
Nitrate of soda, quality of, .
Nitrogen, comparison of materials as sources of.
Nitrogen fertilizers for garden crops.
Relative efficiency of.
Nutrients, effect on weight of animals.
Onions, nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for.
Organization, ....
Papers, technical, list of.
Peach and plum troubles,
Peach gummosis, ....
Peach leaf curl, Exoascus deformans,
Peach shot hole, Cercospora circumscissa.
Phosphates and guanos, compilation of analyses of,
Phosphates, comparison of.
Phosphoric acid compounds, qualitj' of,
Ploivrightia morbosa,
Plum leaf spot, Cylindrosporium Padi,
Plum pockets, Exoascus pruni,
Potash compounds, quality of.
Potash, low-grade sulfate, influence on rowen crop.
Muriate and sulfate compared.
Potash salts for garden crops.
Relative value of different.
Protein, influence on composition of milk,
Influence on milk shrinkage.
Influence on milk yield, .
Publications, .....
Available for distribution.
Circulation of, ... ■
Purification oi insoluble fatty acids.
Refuse substances, compilation of analyses of.
Report of agriculturist, ....
Botanist, .....
Chemist, .....
356
INDEX.
Report of director, . .
Entomologist, ....
Feed and dairy section, .
Fertilizer section, ....
Treasurer, .....
Research, ......
Rock, ground, comparative worthlessness of,
Rusts, an outbreak of, .
Seed germination records, tables of,
Seed work, 1910
Shot hole effect caused by improperly mixed Bordeaux,
Soil test, north acre,
South acre, ....
Spinach disease new to Massachusetts,
Staff, changes in, .
Station staff, ....
Strawberries, nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for,
Stump growths, abnormal, conclusions relative to.
Experiments in inoculation.
Leaves, chemical test of, .
Relation of root area to intensity of disease.
Relation to mosaic disease,
Abnormalities of, .
Sulfate of pota.sh compared with muriate.
Summer spray mixture, directions for making,
Sweet pea troubles.
Tankage, quality of, .
Top-dressing for hay.
Trade values of fertilizing ingredients,
Treasurer, report of, .
Work, lines of, ....
PAGE
13
77
67
54
33
23
64
144
141, 142
141
170
47
46
146
13
11
39
159
154
157
156
154
149
36
174
145
63
48
56
33
16
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