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AN
UNIVERSAL HISTORY,
TWENTY. POUR BOOKS.
TRANSI^ATEp FROM THE GERMAN
> JOHN VON MULLER.
TN POUR VOLUMES.
VOL. IIL
BOSTON:
COTTONS AND BARNARD.
1834.
^ q|Ditizedby VjOOQIC
//^//^/
•9
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CONTENTS
THE THIRD VQLUME.
BOOK XYH.
ORADITAIi TRAirilTIOK PROM THK SOCXAL ORDER OP THE MID
DX.B AOKl, TO THiyT OP MODKRIT TIMEI. A. D. 121^8 — 1468.
Pace.
S«ct I. — ^Inteimnttm • 1
Ihot Ii;->«'RiidolphofHafa0baig • ^
Sect. in.-^AdolphaBdAllMrt>Kiog8ofCheG«iaiuM 4
Sect. IV. — ^The Hooae or Lnxembnig «• 6
Sect, v.— Naples and Sicily 6
Sect VI.-*The Pope t .w.. .6
Sect Vn.— The ItaUan Republics 10
Sect Vni.— Florence * 12
Sect IX.— Venice ....^ M
SectX.-^flan. - • 17
Sect XL— Savoy * 18
Sect XII. — Lewis of Bavaria ...fc*.,^..,. %o
Sect Xm.— Charles the Fowtb* ••'•<• •••• 82
Sect XIV — Wenceslaf. > 28
Sect XV.— SigisQiud. •••• 24
Sect XVL— Awtrian Emperora ^ 26
Sect XVn.— Naples and Sicily 27
Sect XVIIL-^The Popes 29
Sect XIX.— The Ceuioi]s«**« • 88
Sect. XX.^Floreiioe— •••••^•^ <• 86
4Bect XXI.^Gosmo de' Medici 89
Sect. XXIL— Literature • • 48
Sect XXIH.— yenioe * 47
S4ct XXIV.— Oenoa M
Sect. XXV.— Regasa 57
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Tl CONTENTS.
Sect. XXVI.— Milan '• «S
Beet XXVn.— Savoy 64
»Sect. XXVin.— Swilzerland 66
Sect. XXIX.— Austria J 75
Sect. XXX.— Bohemia 77
Sect XXXI.— BraDdenboif r 82
Sect XXXn .—The Electorate of Saxony 83
Sect XXXm.— Hene * 84
Sect XXXIV.— The Palatinate and Bavaria*. •• *••• 86
Sect XXXV.— Spain 87
Sect. XXXVI.— Portngal 90
Sect XXXVn.— France 98
Sect XXXVin.— Bwgundy lt)2
Sect XXXIX.->£ngland< 104
Sect'XL.— ScoUand 108
Sect XLI.— Scandinavia • 109
Sect XLn.— Poland % Ill
Sect XUU.- Hongary « 118
Sect XLIV— The Turka 114
Sect XLV.— The Mogols 119
Sect. XLVI.— Continuation of the Turidah History 121
Sect XLVn.— The great Mogol.-r 124
BOOK xvni.
OF THOSS RBVOLUTIOirs WHICH X8FXCIAX.LY COVTBIBVTXD TO
DXVXLOPE THS NEW ORDXR OF POLITICAL AFFAIRS A."D.
1468—1519.
9ect I.— Lewis the Eleventh • 126
Sect, n.— Maximilian • 183
Sect III.— Italy 184
Sect IV.— Florence 186
Sect V—Venice •/• 189
Sect VI.^The Lesser Italian Princes 140
Sect Vn.— The French in Italy 141
Sect Vin.— Ferdinand the Catholic 148
Sect IX.— America * 149
Sect. X.— Milan and Switzerland '• 161
Sect. XI.— Italian Wars •••• 1»8
Sect Xn.— Charles the 6fth 164
Sect Xm.— Portugal 166
Sect XIV.— France 167
Sect XV.— Switzerland • 161
Sect XVI.— The Turks • 167
Sect XVII.— Russia 170
Sect XVIII.— Poland— Scandinavia 170
Beet XIX.— England 171
Beet XX.— The Empire of the Germans 178
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CONTEirTt. fH
BOOK so;
9eet t— ChariM the Fifth.— nvnck the Fkik-^liMtk r«rh«n f%- m
Sect. n. — ^Tne SDafonofitlon «*-»^.t-'««»««««»*«»»*-'*««»— IW
Sect m.— ^onchnton bt the Age of Chaiievtho Fifth- • »«i,.«^ • « » . iQf
Sect IV.— Slate of ReliglonB PaitiBB .•••,,^-..,.. IM
Sect v.— Of the SStoation of the Donmrioni of dnrieethv Fifth %i
haa decease • • •••^♦-••tf 109
Sect VI.— France • •..f^».- gQl
Sect. Vn.— The Pope •^•.•**,.«..«t-.--.^. iOt
Sect VnL— Portogal -. 204
Sect IX.— Italy. «0«
Sect X.— Florence 209
Sect XI.— SaToyandGencTa 214
Sect Xn.— Switserland ••• 218
Sect Xm.— Great Britain 221
Sect XIV.— Scaodinayia 225
• Sect XV.— PDland, Phiflwa, and Comland 226
Sect XVI.— Riwia 22T
Sect XVn.— The Ottoman Empire and the North of Afiica 229
Sect XVni.—Conclwion of the Age of Charles the Fifth 282
BOOK XX,
TH» AQ« OF PHILIP THK BBCOWD. A. D," 1558— 1588.
Seet I.— Philip the Second 288
Sect n.— The Netherlands 288
Sect, m.— France ••• • 241
Sect IV— England ••.. 244
Sect V.-— Portagal and Morocco *; • *• 248
Sect VI.— Turkey and the North of Africa •• 262
Sect Vn.— Situation of Italy 254
Scot Vm.— Switzerland • •••• 257
Sect IX.— The German Empire •• ^ 268
SectX— Pohmd 259
Sect XI.— Sweden 262
Sect xn.— Denmark. ..•..•.... 264
Seet xm,— ConchMon • •••• •• 264
BOOK XXL
TH» PS»I0D or THB THIllTY TXARS' WAR. A. D. 1588—1648.
Seot L— ffitnatbn of the House of Habsbuig •••• 268
Seetn.— Hereditary Succession of Jnliers 2TI
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fill CONTENTS.
Page
Sect in. — ^England 272
Sect IV.— Commencement of the Thirty Yeare' War 278
Sect v.— Mantua • 276
Sect VI. — Cardinal Richelieu • 277
Sect Vn.— Gustavua Adolphus • • 279
Sect Vin.— Richelieu 281
Sect IX.— The Peace of Westphalia r • 28«
Sect X.— Spain.. • 296
Sect XI.— Portugal • 29«
Sect XII.— Great Britain 297
Sect XIII.— Ruflsia 299
Sect XIV.— The Turks.... 808
Sect XV.— Conclusion— » 804
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.,\i
UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
BOOK XVII.
GttADUAL TRANSITION FROM THE SOCIAL ORDER OF
THE MIDDLE AGES, TO THAT OF MODERN TIMES.
A. D. 1273-1463.
SECTION I.
INTERREGNUM.
Upwards of sixty towns, skuated between the Alps and
Cologne along the course of the Rhine, had formed the
Rhenish confederacy, which held its regular sessions at
Mayence, Worms, and Strasburg. In the north, eighty
commercial cities, of which Bremen, Hamburg, Lubeck,
Brunswick, Erfurt, and Dantzick were the principal, and
with which London, Bruges, Bergen, and Novgorod were
associated, formed the Hanseatic union. These combinations
were both fofunded on commercial interests, and differed
in that respect from the Swiss confederacy, the only object
of which was freedom.
As the more powerful electors refused to acknowledge
the monarchs who were chosen by some of their brethren
after the decease of Frederick, it appears that the German
empire possessed no point of union, by the influence of
which it might have been able to maintain its former ascen-
dency m the European commonwealth.^ From this time
the empire contained many powerful and flourishing princi-
Ealities, while die whole body was feeble and disjointed :
ence the national feeling underwent a change, and public
spirit diminished in proportion as the several states became
separate and distinct. The interest of their families was
the. chief object of the princes ; who not only provided for
VOL. III. 1 \
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2 ITNIYEBSAL HISTQRT*
the transference of their fie& as heritable property, but con-
cluded compacts of injberitance, by which the succession
was secured to distant relatives or friends. No longer
fearing the ascendency of the emperor, they cast a jealous
eye on the privileges of the inferior .nobles, to. whom each
Eetty prince stood in the same relation which the emperor
ad formerly held with respect to his own ancestors. Even
the form of ancient freedom remained only in those prov-
inces the princes of which had acquired but littlejpower, as
Franconia, Swabia, and the Rhenish territories. The ducal
authoriQ^ in Franconia and Swabia ceased at the extinction
of the family^ of Hohenstaufen : and from this time the knights
of the empire, for their own security, began to enter mto
the confederacy which still exists under their name. , It is
easy to conceive the unsetded state of affiurs, when there
was no emperor, no duke of Swabia, Franconia, or Austria,
and no landgrave of Thurin^ia : the roads, the navigable
waters, and indeed the whole face of the country, was ex-
posed to the predatory excursions of the lawless knights
and nobles, who inhabited innumerable fortresses ; and the
princes of the empire began to wish for a monarch, who
should have Sufficient authority and prudence to restore
order, but not power enough to render him dangerous to
their private interests.
SECTION n.
AUDOLPH OF HABSBURO.
At this period count Rudolph, of the house of Habsburg,
had acquired by his talents, boldness, and popular manners,
the esteem of the higher ranks ; as well as of the citizens,
whom he had frequently protected against the oppressions
of the barbarous and despotic lords in their vicbity : he had
long been the declared protector and chief of the ciues of
Zurich and Strasburg, and of the forest cantons which are
»tuated at the entrance of the Alps of St. Grothard. EBs
hereditary power was inconsiderable ; but as he had been
richly endowed by nature, he found resources which insured
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UNIVERSAL BISTORT.
him success,, in his great capacity and military talents. His
manners displayed the frankness and sincerity which distin-
giish a great man* Such was the chief whom the princes of
ermany placed on the throne of the empire. A. D. 1273.
Rudolpn conducted the a&irs of his government widi
paternal aignity, and with the benevolence which he had
been accustomed tp exercise toward the meanest of his
people. He made no display of external magnificence, but
founded his authority entirely on his merit ; and continued,
in great engagements, to evince as much contempt of death,
as when he had no crown to lose. He contributed to the
prosperity of the empire in n^any respects, and particularly
to the restoration of its internal peace ; and he laid the foun-
dation of the future greatness of his own house. Rudolph
^compelled Przemysl Ottocar, king of Bohemia and duke of
'Austria, to acknowledge his feudal subordination: but the
latter renewed the war, at the instigation of his consort;
and the emperor, on the Marchfeld m Austria, obtained a
decisive victory. A. D. 1278. The king was betrayed
by some of his people, whom he had irritated by many ty*
rannical proceedings, and was put to death, in his night,
by two noblemen of Stiria.
A. D. 1279. /Rudolph concluded a peace with the
young kmg Wencedaf, whom he left in possession of his
hereditary dominions, and married to his daughter, aprincess
of great beauty. Austria, Stiria, Carinthia, and Cfarniola,
were confiscated as vacant fiefe, and remained for four years
under the immediate tutelage of the crown. After havmg
obtained the consent of the electors at the diet of Augsbui^
(A. Ij>. 1282.), the emperor mvested his two sons, counts
Albert and Rudolph, with the duchy of Austria, Stiria, Win-
disraark, and Camiola, {is fie& of the empire. To the
landgrave Meinhard of Tyrol, of the bouse of the counts
of Goritz, who had always been his faithful firiend, and whose
daughter was married to count Albert, he gave the duchy
of Carinthia.
Such was the beginning of jthe dominion of the house of
Habsburg over its more considerable hereditary territories
within the empire. The landgraviate m Upper Alsaoe
devolved upon it by inheritance, tt^ether with estates in
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
Swabia, to which king Rudolf added his tnother's ioheritaiice,
the county of Kiburg, including Baden and Lenzburg;
together with the possession of Lucern, Freiburg, the pro-
tectorship of Sekingen, and some insulated estates, which
he ^cc[uired by various compacts.
SECTION III.
ADOLF AI^D ALBERT, KINGS OF THE GERMANS.
A* D. 1291. Rudolf died in advanced age, after hav-
ing confirmed the power of his own family, ?md oonferred
the greatest benefits on the empire by the restoration of
public order and tranquillity. The electors, partly fix)m •
dislike, and partly through jealousy of his son Albert, raised
count Adolf, of the house of Nassau, to the throne. A. D.
1292.
The family of Nassau is descended fix)m Otho, the brother
of that Conrad who had obtained the crown of Germany
at the extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty. This Otho
was a count, and resided at Laurenburg, on the Lahn : his
family became divided into several branches, from one
of which, viz. fi^m the house of Weilburg, Adolf was de-
scended.
The revenues attached to the rbyal office had been di-
minished, by a third-part, since the death of Ferdinand 11. :
several of them had been bestowed by Rudolf on nobles of
different ranks. This decline obliged those kings, who
possessed but moderate hereditary wealth, to contrive ex-
traordinary means of supporting their authority, and Adolf
cast his eye on Thuringia. The margrave Albert, of
Meissen, sovereign of that country, who was possessed with
an unnatural hatred against his legitimate sons, sold Thu-
ringia to Adolf, to the exclusion of them, and in favor of a
bastard son. Partly in order to obtain the money necessary
for this purchase, Adolf entered into a subsidiary treaty
agamst France with ipdward king of England. Meanwhile
Albert of Austria took advantage of this, and of other cir-
cumstances adverse to the influence of the king, formed a
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tJNlTKRSAL HISTOBT. 5
strooig pftr^ i^;ainst hnn, and procured fainiself to be deeted
in his stead. Adolf, who was a valiant commander, oootend-r
ed unsuccessfully for his dignity, and fell, as it is said, by the
hand of hisri^. A. D. 1298.
Kmg Albert was one of the firs{ princes who, in the ad-
ministration of their governments, brought into practice the
principles of the present monarchies. The privileges of the
nobles and the rights of the people, were the objects of his
detestation, because they continually opposed obstacles to
his wiU. He endeavored to carry his arbitrary designs
into execiiticKi, in every possible mode, by military force :
and, m order to maintain the power of his arms in sufficient
vigor, he found it necessary to extend his territories, as the
countries already subjected to his swa;^ were not able to fiir-
nish resources commensurate with his ambitious i»ojects.
He also endeavored to a^randize himself at the expense
of the margraves of Meissen ; and after many dissenaons
with his brother-in-law Wenceslaf, which procured him no
advantage, he'availed himself of an opportunity afforded by
the death of that nobleman^s heir (A. D. 1306.), in whom
the royal family of Bohemia became extinct, in order to
compel the states to elevate his own son to the throne. On
the failure of the house of Vlaarding in the person of John,
grandson of William count of Holland and Zealand, who
Sad formerly been elected king of the Grermans, he at-
tempted to appropriate those sovereignftes, and at the same
time alarmed die petty tribes in the Alps which bordered
on his hereditary dominions. He subdued Rudolf, arch<p
bishop of Salzbu]^, and oppressed his successor Conrad :
he ccmtended against the opposition which began to mani-
fest itself in Stiria, and infringed upon the liberties of IHenna.
This active prince attained the proposed object of almost
all his enterprises. He humbled the states, but drew upon
himself so much detestation on that account, that his neigh-^
bors entered into a confederacy i^ainst him : his activity
enabled him to dissipate their immature plans, but he
obtained no , further advantage from his good fortune. In
Bohemia,^ Hungary, and Bavaria, the admmistration of
afiirs was in disorder, and the authority of th^ sovereign
' in a precarious state ; but the general aversion to Albert
VOL. III. 1 *
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6 • tTNIVERSAL HISTOBT.
8uffic$ed to preserve all th^se countries fitxn sutjeictioQ to
bis nway. He was assassinated, not without the concur*
fence, as is supposed, of several princes, by his nephew
John, of whose inheritance he unjustly retailed possession
(A. D. 1S08.) ; and his house was excluded, during four gen-
erations, from the throne of Germany. This was the event
of the administration of a prince who possessed many good
' and great qualities, but who neglected to deserve and ac-
quire the affection and confidence of his people.
SECTION IV.
THE HOUSE OF LtTXEMBURG.
Henry, count of Luxemburg, who was recommended
only by his personal merit, succeeded to the throne of
Germany. He took advantage of the hatred of the Bohe-
mian nobles to the family of Albert, and of the need in
which they stood of his authority for their protection, in
order to induce them to bestow their crown upon his son
John : and thus the sceptre of Bohemia, after the death of
the mi^ided Wenceslaf, the last descendant of the anciep^
Idngs, and after the short reign of Rudolf of Austria, and_
the weak administration of ]Henry of Carinthia, came into
the hands of the counts of Luxemburg. John, who mar-
ried the princess Elizabeth, sister of Wenceslaf, was an ener-
getic and courageous prince. He and his successors opposed
not less resistance to the rising greatness of the house of
Habsburg, than the latter, in modern times, have maintained
against the growing power of Prussia.
SECTION V.
NAPLES AND SICILY.
It will be necessary, before we relate the expedition of
king Henry VH. into Italy, to take a view of the state of
that countiy since the time when Clement 11^. and Charles
of Apjou had extirpated the family of Hohehstaulbn.
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UNIVERSAL HISTOBT. . 7
The latter prince was king of Naples and Sicilyj and had
been invested with the chief temporal .dignity in Rome,
under the tide of Senator : he was justly hated for his ava-
rice, inhumanity, and haughtiness ; and was besides a foreign-
er, and of a nation whose ^manners were in many respects
opposite to those of the Italians. But Rudolf, king of the
Germans, was so far from foiTning a powerful party m Italy,
that he sold privileges to many of the cities, which became
the foundation of their liberties. The nobles were also
animated by a desire of independent power ; and it was in
this spirit that John Orsini, who succeeded to the chair of
St. Peter, under the name of Nicholas III., endeavored to
erect principalities for his family in Lombardy and in Tus-
cany (A. D. 1277.), and was accordingly the more anxious,
to find occupation at horne for his troublesome neighbor
Charles.
With this view he fomented discontents among the sub-
jects of that prince, whfch were augmented by the establish-
ment of the Inquisidon. The more they suffered from the
Vexations and oppressions of Charles and his French favor-
ites, the more they were iijclmed to listen to the }^roposals
of Cdnstantia of Hohenstaufen, queen of Arragon, who ve-
hemently urged her husband Peter, and her sons, to revenge
her family, and to raise themselves to a higher degree of
.power and splendor. The pope, however, who favorbd
these plans, died, and was succeeded by Martin IV., a
French cardinal, who was guided by totally diflferent inten-
tions ; but designs, which are projected in genuine accordance
with the public feeling, often produce their efect alter their
authors have ceased to direct their execution.
A. D. 1282. The astronomer Brunetti, in Romagna,
and the physician John Procida, in Sicily, communicated
on the same day the signal for the universal massacre of
the French. Peter of Arragon, soon after this occurrence,
was called to the throne of Sicily : Charles in vam had re-
course to* arms, and in vsun the pope launched his maledic-
tions : the former died of vexation for his lossj and the
descendants of the grand-daughter of the emperor Fred-
erick maintained, for centuries, the dominion which they
owed, in this instance, to the will pf the Sicflians. TTie
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8 UNIVKBSAL HlSTOn*
house of Anjou retained the kii^doin of Naples, d»B
tory in the vicbity of Rome, and the marquisate of AncoiMU
Frinces of conunanc&g talent, descended from this
family, acquired the crowns of Hungary, Dalmatia, Slavonia,
Croatia, and Poland. No royal French &mily had pos-
sessed more extensive territories since the time of Charle-
main : and if their dommions had been united under one
head, or had been capable of forming a whole, it would have
become even in that age the greatest power in Eurc^.
SECTION VL
THE POPE.
After the popes had succeeded in subjecting all the
princes and people of the Western world to their spiritual
authority, they began to acquire temporal dominion in Italy,
by the terrors of religion as well as by earthly weapons,
for the holy see, and frequently for their .own relatives.
The artifices which it was necessary to practise in ord6r to
attain these objects, involved the court ot Rome in projects,
in the pursuit of which the foundations of its greatness were
utterly neglected ; fbr its reputation diminished in propor-
tion as it approached to the character and principles dis-
played in the courts of temporal princes. The obscurity
also in which the truth had hitherto been enveloped,
speedily began to be dbsipated ; and the papacy had never
sustained a severer shock than that which it received in the
course of the contest^ between Boni&ce the Eighth and
Philip the Fair of France.
Cardinals of the fiunily of Colonna, flying from the per-
secution of the pope, who, whether jusdy or unjustly, was
excessively enraged against them, sought refuge in the court
of F^rance. The king was now engaged in a quarrel with
Rome, in which he had involved himself by venturing to
displace and imprison a bishop, and by imposing a ti^ of a
te^ on the estates of the church; and be was therefore
inclined to give the exiles a favorable reception. Boniface
asserted the principle of the universal and supreme authority
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UNTTEBSAIi BISTORT. 9
of his chair, oyer ail spiritual and temporal powers ; and
reminded the king that he reigned only by delegation from
himself. Philip caused this bull to be burnt in the pres-
fflice of an assembly of the ecclesiastical and temporal lords,
and summ(Hied the states-general of his kingdom. He
represented to this assembly, that Boniface, by means of
fraud and violence, had caused himself to be illegally elevat-
ed to the pontifical dignity ; and that he was now enid^v-
oring to rob^him (the king) of the authority which had been
conferred upon him by God : he appealed to the judgment
of the next general council 'of the church ; and untH that
should take pldce, he forbade all conmiunicatloii with the
Romish see.
The king, understanding at the same time that Boniface
• was endeavoring to excite Albert, the German monarch, to
war against him, sent the banished Sciarra Colonna mto
Italy, together with William Nogaret, a French com-
mander, who was hostile to the forms of the Romish ritual.
^ These emissaries foubd the pope m the little town of
^ Anagni, without any meaile of defence, but clothed in the
insignia of his dignity, and resolved rather to die than to
yisld. They treated him with contumely, and shut him up
in that place ; until at length some of the noblemen of the
vicbity taldng up arms in order to procure his liberation,
his persecutors quitted Anagni on the third day. The con-
sequence of this transaction was, that Boniface, tha^ whom
no pope since the days of Gregory the Seventh had a higher
feeling of his dignity, died, in the space of thirty-five days,
of grief and vehement indignation. A. D. 1303. His
measures had been consonant with ancient precedent, and
were justified by the existing regulations ; but he was not
aware of the character of his opponent, or of the alteration
which had taken place in the spirit of the age ; and this
heigligence in observing the progress of the prevailing ideas
continued to accelerate the decfine of the papal power.
A. D. 1305. Philip received the pardon of his ofilences
fitJm Benedict the Nmth ; and when Clement the Fifth,
archbishop of Bourdeaux, with the consent of the king,
ascended the papal chair, he continued to reside in France,
and clhiefly at Avignon : his six immediate successors, all of
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10 UNIVEBSAL HMTOBT*
whom were of French descent, in this respect followed hm
example.
But the holy see, at this period, had to contend with no
Henrys or Hohenstaufens ; nor did the daring spirit of
Philip descend on any of his successcHrs : establi^a usage^
roenaicant fnars, and thei InquisiticKi, rendered the papacy
apparently bvincible ; but the popes, while they resided in
a foreign country, were no longer the advocates of the free^
dom of Italy and of Europe ; and there existed at that pe-
riod no apprehaision of a universal monarchy. The sove-
reigns, on the other hand, had now established their power
on more lasting foundations, on the influence of gpld and
arms : they acquired a more extensive influence over their
people, and beheld with indignation th^ ma^tude of those
sums which were incessantly transmitted to the pope.
The pursuits of schola^c learning fiimished an exercise
for reflection ; a!nd what was of far greatei/ importance, pa-
triotic citizens, possessed of talent and courage, began to
write with freedom in their native language ; and the bold-
ness, the ironical style, and the happy representations which
their works contained,, acquired the approbation of the higher
and most influential classes.
SECTION vn.
THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS,
The rising republics of It^ had originally attached them-
selves to the party of the Gudphs, .mrough apprehension
of the Germans : during the latter days of the emperor
Frederick, and subsequently to his death, the young Eze-
lino di Romano was at the head of the Ghibellines.
One of his ancestors, who was a German, had received
jfrom the emperor Conrad the Second the fiefs of Onara
and St. Romano, in the dominions of Padua and Asole, as a
reward for his services ; and under Frederick Barbarossa,
one^of his family (also named Ezelino), had foueht in the
cause of freedom, as commander of the towns of Trevigi
and Vicenza, and afterwards of the confederacy of Lom*.
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UNITKRSAL HISTOttT. 11
bardy . Frederbk the Second gave his iOe^timate daughter
in marriage to yoiin| Ezelino, who in retum^put the em-
peror in possession oi the towns of Trevigi and Padua, and
received the appointment of general of the imperial arms in
Italy. Ezelino was laid under the great bann by Innocent
the Fourth, as a disturber of the peace of the country, and
on account of his unprecedented cruelties ; and Padua was
taken from him by Fontana, archbishop of Ravenna : but
be soon began to exert himself, and commenced his re-
vengeful operations against Padua, which had deserted his
cause, by enclosing 13,000 of the citizens of that place in
the ancient Roman amphitheatre at Verona, part ot whom
he destroyed by fire, and the rest by depriving them of food :
be razed Vicenza to its foundations, conquered Mantua, took
possession of Tuscany, and defeated the forces of the Mi-
lanese. At length he fell into the hands of his enemies,
and died of his wounds : but his^ brother Alberigo, and his
whole &mily, were put to death by the most dreadiiil tor-
tures. All the cities recovered their freedom, and pur-
chased from king Rudolf the right of exercising those privi-
leges which had hitherto been reserved for the empire.
From this itime forward republics began to appear in
Italy. Government was intrusted, to the ancient families ;
but the rpmains of factions stiD produced so much insecu-
rity, that even in the towns the houses of the great were
surrounded with strong towers and batdements, and fre-
Juendy with fosses. The most trifling occurrence pro-
oced skirmishes in the streets ; and 3ie victor m these
contests frequendy became the tyrant of his native city, untU
his rivals, as powerful and ambitious as himself, boldly
availed themiselves of his unguarded moments, and destroyed
his power ; or until the oppressed citizens secretly invited
some fortunate adventurer, or one of the prmces of France
or Naples, to assist them in regainii^ freedom. Treachery,
conspiracy, and assassination by poison and by the dagger,
came at last to be considered as necessary means of per-
sonal security; and all the transactions of civil life were
'often for a longtime interrupted.
From the midst of these disorders the light of knowledge
began to dawn, and virtues to display themselves, worthy
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^9 nJ9IV£BSAL HISTORY.
of the ancient Greeks and Romans. As tfae fife of nature
is maintaiined by the action and reaction of opposing powers j
and as religion is not designed to afford continual repose iii
this state of existence^ but to fortify us for the struggles of
life ; so the human faculties and the energy of the soul
stand in need of great exertions, and of impediments which
appear at first sight insurmountable, in order that, by re-acdng
upon themselves, they may awaken, develope, and exalt
those powers with which the Creator has endowed us.
SECTION vm.
FLORENCE.
Florence was governed by the descendants of those no-
bles who had founded the city on the ruins of Fiesole, at
the foot of a mountain, on the smiling shores of the Arno :
they had gradually increased its extent, protected its infant
e>pulation, and purchased privileges for its benefit. The
uondelmonti, the Amidei, the Bonati, and the Uberti,
were the chief families of the city.
It happened in the thirteenth century, than a widow of
the family of the Donati wished to many her only daughter,
a lady ot great beauty, to one of the Buondelmonti. The
young knight, who was ignorant of her intentions, had given
his promise to a daughter of the house of Amidei ; but as
h§^was on some occasion passing the house of the Donati,
the mother appeared at the door, entered mto conversation
with him, and pressed him to recall his promise to the
Amidei: Buondelmonti, influenced by the wealth and
power of the Donati, as well as by the uncommon beauty of
the young lady, consented to the prlposal. When the
Amidei were informed of this afiair, they entered mto a
confederacy with their relations, the Uberti, and resolved
to put Buondelmonti to death : some of the family hesi-
tated, lest the stability of the republic should be endangered
by the result of the contest ; but they were determined to
proceed by the impetuosity of Moscha Lamberti, who ex-
claimed, " The man who is always calculating results never
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imiTEIMAL HISTORY. 18
ventures to act !" Accordingly, at die fesdvil of Easter,
the^ posted four resoliKe men in the castle of the Amidei,
which was situated close by the bridge over the Amo ; and
when the knight, who was easily recognized at a distance
by his snow-white horse, passed it according to, his custom,
•they sallied forth and kiUed him at the foot of a statue of
Mars which stood near the spot.
The great families divided theii^dves thenceforward mto
parties, fortified themselves against each other, and aug-
mented their own power by all possible means. The em-
peror Frederick declaring himself on the side of the Uberti,
their adversaries were compelled to quit the c^ and retire
to their estates ; but when, after the decease of me emperor,
Ezelino had faUen, and the Ghibellines had become dispers-
ed, Sylvester de' Medici availed himself of this opportunity,
and with the assistance of a powerful party aniong the citi-
zens, banished the Uberti in their turn, and mtioduced a
regular form of government. Florence was now divided
into six districts, from each of which two anziani, or elders,
were annually elected : the head man of the people, and the
criminal judge, in whose hands the supreme authority in all
political, civil and criminal afiairs was entrusted, were chosen
during the short period of their administration, from the
other Italian cities, in order that they might be die less ex-
posed to the temptation of partiality. Tlie citizens capable
of bearing arms were arranged under twenty city banners,
and the peasants linder seventy-six country standards ; and
for each of these companies a captain was annually elected
at Whitsuntide. The point of union in every battle was a
large chariot hung with red ctoth, and drawn by oxen, and
bearing the great banner, which, at the commencement of
every campaip, was delivered with great solemnity to the
city commander, by the whole body of citizens assembled
m the new market. The sound of the great bell, Martmella, i
which, was incessantly tolled for a month previous to the
commencement of the expedition, served to announce the
feud and to summon the military power of the country:
it was carried with the army into the field, and was employed
to gve the signal for every enterprise ; for it was hdd dis-
honoraldeto attack the enemy by surprise.
VOL. III. 2
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14 umrcBSAL history*
Florence soon became the most powerful city in T^is-
cany, and reckoned Pistoja, Arezzo, and Siena, among the
number of its allies. Vdterra was destroyed, and her cit-
izens, as well as the inhabitants of several fortresses on the
Roman side, incorporated with the population of Florence ;
which became so populous, that after the plague, which
has been bcomparaDly described by Boccacio, had swept
away 96,000 persons, it still remained sufficiently powerml
for the defence of its freedom and dominion.
The Ghibellmes, who had been either banished or excluded
from all share in the administration of public afiairs, omitted
no opportqnity of disturbing the internal tranquillity of the
state ; and the contests thus excited frequently produced
chanees, more or less important, in the form of ue constitu-
tion, but uniformly to the dbadvantage of the ancient fami^
lies : for as the people became accustomed to arms, it was
found the more difficult to refuse to the defenders of their
country equal rights and powers with the superior classes.
Affiiirs were in this state when Gen Cancellieri, of a good
family in Pistoja, received a severe wound in a tournament,
from his kinsman Lore. When Lore went, by his father's
command, to beg pardon of the father of his wounded rela-
tive, the latter replied, " TTie wounds inflicted by iron are
' to be healed by iron, and not by words," and caused the
hand of the unfortunate youth to be cut off. All Pistoja
was now divided into parties, the difierent families flew to
arms, and the Donati of Florence declared themselves on
one side, and the Cerchi on the other. As the young men
of the house of the Donad rode out with their friends, during
the festivals of May, to see the dances of the country people,
the Cerchi rushed forcibly through their ranks and provoked
a batde. From that time arose the &cUons of the black and
the white ; the former of which colors was adopted by the
Guelphs, while the Ghibellines chiefly associated themselves
to the latter. The Ghibellines, together with their illustri-
ous poet, Dante Allighieri, a chief magistrate of the com-
monwealth, were overcome by the superior power of the
Gruelphs, and banished from the city.
Florence was ccmtinually improving, notwithstandineall
these disturbances, in population and magnificence. The
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UNIVERSAL HISTOBT. 15
tower of Robert, one of ^e earliest masterpieces of aicbi-
tecture, ivas raised during this period by the skilful band of
Giotto. Universal prosperity was diniised by comineKcei
while some particular families had the good fortune to ac-
quire ^reat wealth, and obtained accordingly the higbeft
distinction m the commcmwealtb.
SECTION IX.
VENICE.
The constitution of Venice was also formed during the
13th cientury. It had long been the policy of this city to
attach itself to that party on the continent which appeared to
promise the most powerful protecticm for its liberty. Its
maritime commerce imparted to its citizens a growing spirit
of enterprise, which was roused into new activity by the ccm-
quest of the^^ietians in Dalmatia, and by the acquisttioa
of several islands which fell into their hands after the occu-
pation of Constantmople by the crusaders. * The Venetians
possessed ^^ territory on the continent of Italy, but laid the
foundation of their power on the sea.
Each of the four islands on which the city is built had,
in the beginning, its separate government : the offices of *
government were few, and seldom the objects of ambition.
The several islands united themselves only in time of
war under a common leader, until Paulutius Anafestus ob-
tained the supreme power for life under the name of Doge.
A.D.709.
The power of this officer was regulated by the laws ; and
bstead of J)eing hereditary, it was conferred by the commu-
nity, when it became vacant by death, on some person
nombated by the other magistrates. The muldplication of
affiiirs, to which few could apply themselves without ihtemip-
tion to their necessary bu^ess, afterwards gave occasion to
the formation of a regular council, consisting of 240 mem- ^
bers, and chosen from the nobles and the citizens. One de-
partment of this body administered the financial, and another
the judicial aliairs of the state. The elections were made
6om the whole body of the citizens.
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16 umVCBSAL BISTORT.
In the period wbich succeeded the fidl of the imperial
house of Hohenstaufen, during wUch the cities of Itaty
were oppressed by a multitude of petty tyrants, it appeared
dangerous to allow free access to the deliberatioQS of the
council ; not only because secrecy and a more circumscribed
interest were necessary to the safety of the state, but also
because the effect of such enterprises as m^t be resolved
upon seemed in great measure to depend on the same cir-
cumstances. The first experiment was made on such of
the members as were vassals of the king of Cyprus : these
were excluded fix)m all such deliberations as mid reference
to that kingdom. The prohilntion was soon afterwards ex-
tended to all who were vassals of the continental princes of
Italy in the territory of Ferrara and Treviso. It was further
extended so as to include all the kinsmen of the persons
above described. These were excluded firom the great
council, and from the civil tribunal ; or at least firom govern-
ing their decisions, or hearing the votes whiclf were given
in those assemblies. When the rulers had thus proved by
experiment that they might venture on setting limits to the
eli^bility of candidates, in the eighth year of &e administra-
tion of the do^e Petrp Gradenigo, they effected the ereat
serratura del consMio (A. D. 1297 .j, by which all mose
who had not sat in me great council within that year, or the
four years preceding, as well as their descendants, were for
ever deprived of me privilege of being elected to that
The senators had taken the precaution, befi)re this last
measure was proposed, to cause all the most powerful mdi-
viduals of the different districts to be elected to the council :
ifaey had also given to the whde body of citizeni, the un-
limited right of fishing and fowling ; to the Pievegatins, the
privilege of dining annually with the d(^e, and of embracing
him on that occasion ; to the Nicolotti they had granted the
distinction of bbding the felucca of their district to the
magnificent Bucentaur which annually conveyed the doge,
when he went out on the festival of the ascension, to
perform the ceremony of throwing the wedding-ring into
the sea ; and they had entitled the inhabitants of thb isle
of St. Maria Formosa to receive a yeariy visit from the
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vmrmnsAh histoey. 17
doge, and the wnaH or chief lords. Numerous theanical
entertamments h^d also been appointed, and great activity
communicated to commercial enterprise. The ultimate
designs w^re so carefully concealed, that when the gas-
taldo of the JSTicolotti wished to be released from the pres-
idency of the tribunal of property {del proprio)^ which be-
longed to him by ancient custom, the government refused
consent, until that officer extorted it by many solicitations,
and by engaging to pay to the doge and themselves an
annual tribute of a thousand pounds of salt fish, as a recoro-
peuse.for the trouble which tney undertook. The senators
were denominated the " pregadi," or the " much entreated,**
on account of the labor attached to their office, which it
was supposed that none would willingly undertake.
A. D. 1310. In the last year but one of the reign of
the same doge, Bajamonte Tiepdo, Basseggi and Querini,
who were themselves nobles, fcnrmed the resolution of over-
turning the government, and collected a party among the
citizens for that purpose: their designs were dbcovoed,
but they nevertheless flew to arms, and a severe contest
ensued, whiph lasted a whole day. At length a convention
was concluded, by whiqh the conspirators were permitted
taleave the city. For die investigation of this, afikir a com-
mission, consisting of ten members of the senate, was ap-
Sointed, whose authority was at first limited to fourteen
ays : it was afterwards prolonged for six weeks, and again
for an indefinite ipetiod ; until at lei^th, while Francesco
Dandolo reigned as doge (A. D. 1335.), it was declared
perpetual, under the name of the council of ten. The
province of this body is to watch over all popular move-
ments '^ tending to a breach of the peace,'' and over all
such abuses of power as may give occasion to such dis-
turbances,
SECTION X.
MILAN.
A. D. 131 1. A year had elapsed after this event, when
Henry VII., king of the Germans, entered Italy. He found
VOL. ni. 2 *
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18 UNITBMAL HI8T0KT.
Milan divided betvmen the fiuniljr deOa Torre^ who were
ctaeAy Cruelphsy and the Visoonti, who bdeeged to the
&ction of the GhibelliDea. Guidotto della Torre, com-
mander of the city, and Matteo ViseoDti, an old and expe^
rieoced nobleman, appeared to have laid aside the animositj
of their respective parties ; but the Germans^ excited dii<-
oontent among the citizens. The artful Matteo seemed to
' have forgotten, from affection to the cause of his countrVf
his former attachment to the imperial party, and secretqr
contributed to excite the daring spirit which had animated
the ancient Milanese against the Fredericks : at length an
insurrection broke out ; and no sooner had the nobles of ibe
Torre taken up arms for the purpose of quelling it, than
Matteo ran to the palace, declaimed against the ever hostile
dispositions of that house, and agamst a design whub he
imputed to them of obtabing possession of. the person of
king Henry, in a tumult excited by themselves : this project,
as he said, could only be defeated by himself, with the assist-
ance of the German troops. The latter, inflamed with
rage, marched under the guidance of Matteo against Gui-
dotto, who was compelled to resist in his own defence.
Visconti, by the assistance of the Germans, killed the greater
part of the house of Tonre ; the rest were banished, and
their property confiscated ; and Matteo was shordy after-
wards appointed vicar-general of the empire (A. D. 1317.) :
he assumed, after a few years, the tide of sovereign lord of
Milan, the government of whkh continued in his house.
SECTION XI.
SAVOY.
During the wars of the emperors, the counts of Savoy had
availed themselves of the advantages of their situation ;
which enabled them to attack an army either at its entrance
into the passes of the Alps, or when it issued, disabled by
fatigue, irom the recesses of the mountains. Hence all
parties sought their alliance ; and the emperots, in particular,
bestowed upon diem a very extensive vicar-generalship in
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the empm. The noUemen who inhabited tiie vkinkf
either sought protecdoa m vohmtary submission^ or wece
subdued by force of arms : and the more they were divided
among themselves, the greater was the influence of the
count, who subjected to his power the \<x^ of Tarantaise,
and tamed the haugh^ independence of Turin and Asti.
While the count 6f Savoy on one side opened the passes
of the Alps to the imperial arms, he formed at the same
time a league of amity with the kings of England, who were
also powerful in France, where the count possessed territo-
ries in Dauphin6 and in other provinces : it was to his coi^
nection with England that Peter of Savoy owed the exten*
sion of the power of his family in the Pays de Vaud.
The latter country was divided among several powerful
chiefs and a great number of inferior ones ; and it was doubt-
fid whether the influence of the Upper Burgundy, of the
empire, or of Savoy wodd acquire the superiority. When,
after the deadi of Frederick of Hohenstaufen, Kichard of
Cornwall, brother of the kii^ of England, was invited among
other princes, by some of the electors, to the vacant throne,
Savoy immediately recognized his title. At this period the
count reduced under his sway the towns and fortresses of
Moudon, Romont, Murten, and Iverdun, the latter of which
made a vigorous resistance : and Richard, on his part, con-
firmed the possession of the Pays de Vaud to the house of
Savoy. A. D. 1263,. The territories of this family now
extended from the waters of Nice to the Aar. The counts
took no very deep interest in the contests of the Ghibellines
andGuelphs; but occasionally a^randized themselves at
the expense of both parties.
Such also was the policy which Amadeus advised king
Henry to pursue ; when the latter, as he enierged from the
mountains at Susa and contemplated the magnificent pros-
pect wMch Italy presented to his view, shed tears as he
reflected on the factions by which it was torn. This mon-
arch, however, endeavored to restore the salutary influ-
ence of a universal sovereignty in Italy: but his arrival
excited the anxiety of all those states which hai rendered
themselves independent Florence hastily concluded an
alliance with Robert king of Naples, notwithstanding that
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20 UmYKRSAL BISTORT.
the latter was so dangerous an enemy of the freedom of
Tuscany ; and in order to conciliate the domestic Actions
of that state, a part of the banished citizens were recalled :
the Orsini also, the roost powerful family in Rome, attached
themselves at this conjuncture to the piirty of king Robert.
Henry was preparing the means of a vigorous resistance to
so many enemies, when he unexpectedly died at Pisa, de-
stroyed, as it was supposed, by poison. A. D. 1313.
His son John, who found sufficient occupation in confirm-
ing the basis of his power in Bohemia, interested himself
.but little either in the affiurs of Italy or in those of the im-
perial ctown»
SECTION XU
LEWIS OF BAVARIA.
The last-mentioned prince, however, favored the pre-
tensions of Lewis of Bavaria, who was chosen kmg by one
party of the electors ^A. D. 1314.), while the votes of the
remainder fell on Frederick, duke of Austria. Thisf division
produced disturbances in tlie empire which lasted four years,
and were at last decided, on the field of Miihldorf (A D.
1 322) , m favor of Lewis, who gave battle to Frederick be&re
the latter could receive the remibrcement which his brother
Leopold was bringmg to his assistance. The victory was
decided chiefly by the unexpected arrival of the burgrave
of Numberg, of whose approach tlie enemy was ignorant:
the latter took king Frederick prisoner, together with many
of the nobles of Austria ; some of whom, as the price of
their ransom, acknowledged themselves as the vassus of the
burgrave, whose fs^mily from that time possessed in Austria
a feudal judicature. Henry, duke of Caruithia, was also
made prisoner by king John, with whom he had formerly
contended for the crown of Bohemia. Lewis, however,
dreaded the jealousy of the princes of the empire and the
influence df the pope, who was hostile to his interests ; and
his views were directed toward Italy, where John of Bohemia
was already endeavoring to stir up enemies against him
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UiriVERSAL. HisrroRT. 21
I
among the Lombards : a]l these circumstances induced him
to consent to a peace, which was honorable even to Fred-
erick. A. D. 1325.
Lewis, following the example of his four predecessors,
endeavored to consdiidate the power of his family, which
was divided into two branches : accordingly, at the extinc-
tion of the reigning branch of the house of Anhalt in Bran-
deoborg, he obtained the sovereignty of .that country for his
eldest son, Lewis (A, D. 1322.); and king John, whose
consent was necessary to this arrangement, was rewarded
widi Egra and the Lausitz.
Soon aftear the condusion of the treaty in which he had
acknowledged Frederick as co-regent, Lewis took a jour-
ney mto Italy. The pope, who resided at Avignon, was
mduced to expose him by the influence of the court of
France ; and the measures of the court of Rome were sup-
ported by the policy df Robert, kmg of Naples. This
opposition on the part of France was owing to die alliance
of Lewis with England, who had married die sister of the
king of that country, and had acquired great influence in
the Netherlands by this connection. But we prefer to take
another opportunity of discussing the consequences of these
relations, rather than intemipt the history of the German
emperors with the narrative of Italian afi&irs.
Lewis long found an enemy in Germany in the parson of
his brother Kudolf, the elector palatme. Such were Ihe
intestine divisions which ever prevented the house of Wit-
telsbach from attaining that power which the extent of its
territories seemed to promise it.
The policy of the house of Luxemburg and the influence
of the pope, eflfectually destroyed the peace of king Lewis
and of his family : and before the period of his death, which
took place suddenly at the close of a laborious reign, some
of the electors were already occupied in choosing a suc-
cessor. A. D. 1347. V
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SECTION xm.
CHABIiES THK FOUBTH.
The imperial crown nether reverted to the hoiue of
Nassau, although count Gerlach was now elector of May-
ence, nor to that of Habsburg, though duke Albert was
highly celebrated for his wisdom. After Edward^ king of
England, had refused to accept it, and Frederick of Meissen
had waived his pretensions for a sum of mon^y, count
Giinther of Schwartzburg having at length yielded and
closed his long opposition by a suspicious death, Charies of
Luxemburg, son and successor ot king John, was univer-
sally acknowledged emperor. He had civen ten thousand
marks to the margrave of Meissen, and twenty-two thou-
sand to count Giinther ; and had bestowed many presents
and privileges on the otl)er electors.
It appeared to be the chief object of Charles, during an
administration of thirtv years, to increase the power and
splendor of his house, by obtaming from the alienable
domains and privileges the greatest possible amount of'
money and other advantages. He was', beirides, carefiil to
maintain such a degree of pomp as should support in public
the ipajesty of the imperial crown and an appearance of
consistency.
He raised Mecklenburg and EUwangen to the dignity of
principalities of the empire : he bestowed hereditary offices
on the margrave of Meissen, and on the count of Schwarz-
burg; and gave the tide of duke to his brother Wences-
laf, count of Luxemburg, to the count of Bar, and to the '
margrave ot JuKers. On his journey into Italy, he sold
freedom to some of the towns, and independent power to
the tyrants who oppressed other parts of that country: but,
on the other hand, he promised not to visit it aeain without
•consent of the pope, and not to pass a night m Kome.
He promulgated that fundamental lieiw of the empire,
called the golden bull, which regulates the election of the
German monarchs, and some other ppmts of the constitu-
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UNIVKRSIAI^ HISTORT. 23
tion ; and on this occasion he adopted the language of the
ancient sovereigns of the world.
In imitation of the policy of' his father, who had cast-
trived to sever Silesia from its connection with Poland (A.
D. 1335.), and to annex it to bis own dominions ; Charles
availed himself of the unprincely disposition of his son-in-
law Otho, son of king Lewis, in order to bring the sove-
reignty of the marks of Brandenburg into his own family.
A. D. 1373. His hereditary dominions noilir extended
from the boundaries of Austria to those of Pomerania ; and
^ere was no prince in all Germany who equalled him in
riches, or who surpassed him in power, or in acquamtance
with the interests of his house.
.When Charles perceived that the conclusion of his life
was approaching, he abandoned the customs levied on the
Rhine to the electors, and gained the members of that body
by different measures suited to their diverse inclinations and
cut^umstances. One of these methods was a present of
a hundred thousand florins, by which he secured the
election of his son Wenceslaf to tlie title of king of the
Germans, during his own life : for the emperor had derived
too much assistance, in pursliit of the increase and confirm-
ation of his power, from the imperial dignity, not to wish
that his son might obtain it ; for in that age it was found
that it ini^ht be made, by good management, to. repay the
expenses it had cost.
SECTION XIV.
WENCESLAF.
Wenceslaf too early and too decidedly evinced prin-
ciples which were disagreeable both to the clergy and to the
nobles. He allowed tiie former to retam no considerable
share of influence ; he even proceeded to appoint Przemsyl,
duke of Teschen, a lay prince, to the office of vice-chan-
cellor of the empire; ana endeavored to arrogate to him-
self the privilege of deciding on the claims and the conduct
of the cardinals Vbo were contending for the papacy. He
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24 UNITKBAAL HI8TOBT.
a^peu-ed to encourage the resistance noade by the Rhenish
!and Swabian towns against |he noble members of the
societies of St. George and of the Golden Lion : bat when
that confederacy^ consisting of ei^ty cities, became too
powerful in consequence of its aj^nce with Switzerland,
he seemed to view without displeasure its dissolution. In
order to promote this change, he favored the establishment
of the constitution of circles ; for as the circles consisted of
spiritual and temporal principalities and of towns, and as the
Imights had considerable innuence in some of them, there
was but little danger of their being hiought to unite in
Qoeproject against the emperor.
The nobles of Bohemia, who thought him too partial to
die people, made him a prisoner (A. D. 1394.), under pre-
tence of violent and immoral conduct, and put him into the
safe custody of the dukes of Austria. He made his escape :
but ax years afterwards, on the most shallow pretences,
was deposed by the spiritual electors (A. D. 1400.), and
by the count palatine, who shortly afterwards became his
successor. Frankfort and Aix-la-Chapelle refused to take
any part in this transaction. Wenceslaf was so little like
other men, that the crown appeared not to be necessary to
his happiness ; he chose rather to content himself with his
goveitiment of Bohemia, than to retain the imperial title
without the power of pursuing those principles which he
thought just and necessary ; aiid hence he did not long
hesitate to execute the instrument of resignation that was
demanded of him.
SECTION XV.
SIGISMUND.
Frederick, duke of Brunswick, was elected m the
place of Wenceslaf, but was murdered on his return by a
private enemy. Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine, a
prince of jprudent and upright intentions, next obtained the
crown. After his death it was bestowed on Jodochus
of Luxemburg, margrave of Moravia, a nephew of
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Chailes the Fourth. A. P. 1410. Qa the deee83e uf this
niODarchy which soon followed his election^ Sig^smund, king
of Hungary, brother of Wencesla^ was unanimously chosen.
A. D. 1411. Wenceslaf, who was still livbg^ enjoyed his
dominion of Bohemia, and beheld with secret satisfaction
the origin of the Hussites, who shook the power of the
aristocracy which he hated and despised.
Few princes have united a greater number of crowns than
Sigishiund : he became possessor, in his early youth, of
Hungary, Dahnatia, and Bosnia, by his marriage with his
first wife, Mary of Anjou : eight years after his election as
king of the Germans, be succQ^ded ta the throne of Bohe-
mia, vacant by the death of his brother; he received the
imperial crown from the pope ; and tp all these dignities he
united the sovereignty of Moravia, Lausitz, Silesia, and
Brandenbure. But having suffered his'royal safe conduct,
which had been granted to John Huss, to be broken, in
consequence of which this honest and zealous declaimer
against the abuses of the church was burned alive at Con-
stance (A. D. 1414.), Sigismund became so much the
object of popular hatred, that he was obliged to mabtain a
war of eighteen years' duration against Ziska, Procopius,
and other leaders* of the Hussites ; and only a few months
before Us death attained to the quiet possession of the Bo-
hemian crown. This prince narrowly escaped captivity or
death, by the arms of the Turks, in the battle of Nicopolis :
and after the termination of the dismal imprisonment in
which he was kept by the nobles of Hungary, he reigned
in that country peacefully, but without performing any deeds
of fame against the Ottoman power. The loss of almost
the whole revenue of the German empire, and the turbulent
disposition of the people, were impediments almost insur-
mountable by the greatest talents. Sigismund was so desti-
tute of money, that he was obliged to sell the electorate
of Brandenburg for 400,000 marks, to the wise and valiant
count of Nurnberg, Frederick of Hohenzollem. A. D. 1417.
He received the sum of 100,000 marks from Frederick,
margrave of Meissen, as the price of the electoral hat of
Saxony, which he bestowed on the latter at the extinction
of the electoral branch of the femilyof Anhalt (A. D. 1422.),
VOL. III. 3
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26 umrsAsAL history.
without regard to the claims of that branch which resided
at Lauenburg. He also alienated for a sum of money the
hereditary estates of the family of Habsburg, of which the
Swiss, by his order, had taken possession on behalf of the
empire. A. D. 1416. Notwithstanding all these occur-
rences, Sigismund was so active in the restoration of order
in the church, and in other salutary reforms, that he was
evidendy prevented from achieving great and laudable en-
terprises by the want of power and not by defect of incli-
nation.
SECTION XVI.
AUSTRIAN EKPERORS.
The imperial power, debased by weak or unfortun&te
princes or by defective policy, did not recover its. splendor
after the death of Sigismund. Albert, duke of Austria,
a prmce endowed with many estimable Qualities, was son-
in-law to the late emperor; and the Hungarians, at his
coronation, stipulated diat he should not accept the crown
of Germany ; for the afiairs of the empire bad too frequently
deprived them of the presence of their former sovereign,
and had prevented him from giving any attention to me
progress of the Turkish arms. Albert was also compelled
to submit to a capitulation in Bohemia. But after the elec-
tors had in vain mvited the margrave of Brandenburg to
accept the crown, it was at length placed, with the consent
of the Hungarians, on the head of Albert (A. D. 1438.),
who however died when he had scarcdy found time to show
the Turks that he designed to guard the boundaries of
Christendom with greater vigilance. A. D. 1439.
A. D. 1440. His posthumous son, Ladislaf, succeeded
to his portion of the hereditary dominions in Germany,
and to his claim of election to the kingdoms of Hungary
and Bohemia. But the Hungarians, who stood in need
of a powerful chief for the support of their tottering throne,
elected Vladislaf king of Poland, during Ladislaf s minority ;
and m Bohemia, George Podiebradsky, one of the most
intelligent and enterprising noblemen of that country, united
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UNIVERflAL HI8TOBT. 27
the wishes of the prevuling facdoo, and of the impartial
and honest part oi the community. The imperial crown
was offered to Frederick, duke of Austria, who was obliged
to give up a considerable portion of that half of the heredi-
tary German dominions which belonged to his house. His
power was so much diminished by this division, that nothbe
but the name of his family, ana the public estimation of
his character, could have recommended him to this highest
dignity. The powerful house of Luxemburg, which had
been perceptibly enfeebled under the latter reigns, was now
extinct : and it was the object of the electors to choose a sove-
reign who should not be sufficiently powerfiil to compel obe-
dience. The electors of the palatinates of Saxony and of
Brandenburg were either too enterprising, or too much
dreaded for their power, to unite the votes m favor of their
claims.
SECTION xvn.
NAPLES AND SICILY.
Robert of Anjou, km^ of Naples, was one of the great-
est princes who have reigned in Italy since the destruction
of its imperial power; but after his death (A. D. 1343.),
the greatness of his family fell mto decay through the pas-
sions of its chie£i. His grandchild and successor Johanna
caused her husband An&ew, who was of the Hungarian
branch of her family, to be put to death (A. D. 1345.) ;
and by this measure drew on herself and on her kingdom,
the vengeance of his brother, Lewis the Great of France.
In vain she sought protecdon in the power of two other hus-
bands whom she successively mamed, and in the authority
of the papal court : the vengeance of Uood overtook her
through the arms of her cousin Charles, duke of Durazzo,
who put her to death and took possession of her kingdom.
A. D. 1382.
A. D. 1386. Charles was murdered in his turn a few
years afterwards, on account of his efhrts to place himself
on the throne of Huneary: after which Lewis of Anjou,
brother of Charles the Wise, l(mg of France, and adopted scm
oj the unfortunate Johanna, laid claim to the kingdom of
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28 UNIVERSAL HISTOAT.
Naples. His pretensions were vain ; tar Lancelot, son of
Charles of Dumzo, displayed such heroic qualities, that he
not only left to Lewis (a cunning and voluptuous prince)
the bare tide to the kingdom, but seemed almost to have
secured the union of all Ualy. But in the midst of his vic-
torious career, and before he had attained the fortieth year
of his age, Lancelot, enamoref], durine the siege of Penieia,
of the daughter of a physician of that place, gave peace to her
country for her sake, and was rewarded by poison, which
his mistress administered to him on the first opportunity^
A. D. 1414. His sister and successor, tne secona Jo-
hanna, was an encourager of learning and a votary of evety
species of enjoyment. Her intercourse with Fandolfelb
Alop, a youth of low birth, excitmg scandal and iealousyi
she was compeHed to choose a husband, and gave ner hand
to Jaques de la Marche, a French prince, who had scarcely
made himself acquainted with the military chiefi of the
country, when, in confidence of their support, he caused
himself to be proclaimed king. A. D. 141 5. The insulted
princess committed the revenge of her injuries to Jacob
Sforza of Cotknuola, a man who had been raised, by his
courage, good fortune, and enterprismg spirit, from die con-
dition of a peasant to. that of condottiere, or leader of k
ntimerous band, wholly devoted to his service. He expell-
ed the count de 1^ Marche, and aflerwards, in order to make
himself of greater importance, quitted the service of the
queen ; who, instead of buying him at the price which he
expected, appointed Alfonso kmg of Arragon and Sicfly,
who deserved the Surname of Wise, as heir to her possessions.
A. D. 1420.
The opposition of the titular kings of the family of An-
jou was too feeble to make any efiectual impression ; their
exertions were suflfcient only to preserve their contiguous
dominion of Provence. Alfonso, who was well aware how
probable it was that the views of the unstable court of Na-
ples might undergo a change, endeavored to secure the for-
tresses which commanded the city and the bay : but when
Johanna perceived his intentions, she reconciled herself widi
Sferza, expelled the Arragonese, and recalled the titulttr
king Lewis. A. D. 1424. Alfonso, however, again ac-
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UNIVERSAL RI8T0RT«
qtiired her iavoi*, and after. her death forcibly maintained
his claims. A. D. 1425. Naples and Siic^ily thus became
re-united, after a separation of one hundred and seventy-
three years. The independent spirit of the ancient Normans
still existed among the powerful towns and the barons, who
maintained tbeir privilege of preventing the king fiom im-
posbg any taxes without the consent of the parliament ; in
later times, however, the representation Of the municipal
towns was transferred to the capital. The imposts were
granted only for a limited period, and were at first raised
only upon the produce of estates ; but they were afterwards
extended to houses, and at length to articles of consumption,
especially to bread, meat, cheese, and oil.
SECTION xvm.
THE POPES.
The popes who resided at Avignon, appeared, for their
own benefit, to favor the division of power in Italy ; for by
this method they obtained adherents in opposition to the
* influence of die emperor, none of whom were alone suffi-
ciently powerful to become formidable to themselves. With
these views Benedict XII., who was a prudent and m many
respects an excellent pontiff, confirmed the authority of
the chiefs who had iusurped the supreme power in some
of the large cities : and the emperor Lewis, of the house
of Bavaria, could think of no better way of revenging him-
self, than by afibrding the same protection to those who
had made similar attempts in the papal towns. Thei^e two
SQvereiens, in reality, only sufifered a change to take place
which Siey could not have prevented ; for even the author-
ity of Lewis was not capable of re-establishmg supreme
power in Italy : he would in vain have attempted to effect
any considerable measure in Lombardy without the concur-
rence of the Visconti : or in Tuscany, without that of Cas-
truccio Castracani, the hero of Lucca.
Italy became continually more and more divided into
small and independent states : the house of Este, which
VOL. HI. 3 *
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90 UNIFXMAL mSVOBT.
even yet contmuesto mgHf estaUisbed its autborit)r at Mo-
• dena : that of Gkmzaga, at Mantua ; die famfly of Scala,
at Verona and Panna ; and tliat of Carrara, at Padua.
The confusion was augmented by the interference of John
king of Bohemia, who took Bfescia and Bergamo, and
whose design was to deprive the arms of Lewis of the supe-
riority whMch dexterity or good fiirtune might have con-
ferred upon him.
Pesaro and Rimini, two noblemen of the house of Ma-
latesta, made themselves sovereigns of Fano : and the ter-
ritory of Ancona was subject to £e Montefeltro. It wouU
occupy too much time to describe the characters of the
Maiifredi, the Alidosi, the Qrdelaffi, and ihe Polenta, the
heads of which families were in those ages sometimes the
fiithers and sometihies the oppressors of their country ;
while it not unfreijuendy hiq^pened that the sajne person
assumed both these characters in successicMi.
While the pre-eminence m RcHne was the object of con-
tention between the Colonna and the Orsini, Nicholas Rien-
li, a man of plebeian origin, who was inflamed by the
enthusiasm of the ancients, endeavored to restore freedom
to his native city by erectbg a tribunate of the people.
The people of Rome took up arms in favor of this cherished
name : they gained possession of the capitol, and drove out
the enemies of freedom. Rienzi was a man of courage
and integrity, and the revival of the virtues of ancient Rome
was expected from his influence, when suddenly, as if ex-
hausted by his exertions or oppressed by the greatness of
his own designs, he took flight ; but was made prisoner by
Charles IV. and sent in that character to the pope. Fran-
cesco Baroncegli endeavored to carry on his protect ; and
the papal court, in order to prevent the sqpcess of his plans,
sent back Rienzi himself, who soon caused Bar(mcedi to
be put to death, and immediately afterwards jnet his own
fate, during an insurrection, from the hands erf* the Cokmna.
The city was now in the utmost confusion ; and Clement
VI. sent finir cardinals for the purpose of restorip^ order :
this they speedily effected; for we year of jubilee was
^preaching, and the people were mciined to submit to any
conditions, rather than lose the profits of that festival by
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ynifiUMAJU WHOM. Si
sujf|gpfsHtptl@tr«^^ ia ^QOfoquence of
t^ijc disordeiff.
Afier the jubUee, the r^l^cs oC the towos «nd fortreasea
cppttnued to prosecute their feuds ; the maimers of the peo-
ple becaaie altogether barbcupous, and every sentunent was
uvyn[iersed in the prevailing devotion to sensual pleasures ;
QQithfi; justice aor hmnsMpaty had any influence, when op»
posed to the desire of wealth. It was common amone the
chiefs to cause the rivals of their power to be put to death
ait the most confidential entertainments, by the sword or by
poison ; or to pursue with dogs the enemies of their &mily
or the powerful citizens. Bamaba Visconti was accom-
panied by these ferocious beasts when he w^it through the
streets of Milan to seize oae of the Ugofini, and shut him
up, with his whole family, in gloomy towers where they
i|rere suffered to die of hui^er and to be devoured l^
wooos. This was a heroic age, like tb^t (d the Atrida.
'liie science of finance consisted in robbery, and the policy
qf the rulers in perjury. The open exercise of arms gave
place to the dexteri^ of the executioner ; and all Italy longed
for the presence of a pope whose humane influence might
put ai^ end to such temble excesses. These circumstances
induced the beneficent Gregory IX., the nephew of Clement
VI., to fix his residence at Home. A. P. 1376. The
evil destiny which pursued the papacy during the whole
of the 14th century, shortly afterwards decreed the death
of Gregory (A. D. 1378.) ; and the cai-dmals were unable
to decide wnether the vacant dignity should be bestowed
CO an Italian, in compliance with the wishes of the people,
or on a Frenchmmi, agreeably to the choice of the majority
of the electors. Two cardinals refused to accept of the
perilous honor ; but a third, Donate^ of Venice, already far
advanced in years, was shown tp the people under the title
of Urban VI. It is said that he had previously engaged to
resig^ thp papal crown in a few days after bis electicm, but
that he haa nevertheless determined to reign in opposition
to the will of the most powerful cardinals, whom, consist-
ently with the severity and ambition of his character, he op-
pressed and irritated by every species pf insult. This con-
duct occaidoned a conspiracy, which affi)rded him a welcome
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32 UHIVCR0AL HISTORY. '
pretence for imprisoiiiiig all the cafdinab; biriiops, and odi^
prelates whom he suspected. Those who had the good
fortune to escape assemUed at Fondi ; where, on the au-
thority of Nicolo Spinelli, a Neapditan Jurist, they proceeded
to a new election and made choice of cardinal Robert, the
last descendant of the ancient counts of Genevois. The
latter assumed the name of Clement VH. and repaired to
Avignon ; which city had been for seventy years the resi-
dence of the popes, and was now become their property by
purchase. Urban put the imprisoned cardinals to tlie most
dreadful tortures, and caused the greater part of them to be
executed.
The western part of the Christian world was now di-
vided between two factions, the chie6 of which were em-
ployed in mutually anathematizing each other, and in deliv-
ering over the followers of the opposite party to the flames
of hell. The most upright and intelligent mdividuals
raised their voices for a long time, but in vain, against the
corruptions of the church. Henry of Langenstein, a
native of Hesse and a teacher at Vienna, was one of the
earliest of those who proposed a universal council as a
remedy for these evils. The acute and honest Kerre
d'Ailly flourished at the same time, as weU as the eloquent
and courageous Gerson, who was banished from France be-
cause his sense of justice was tcx) rigid to bend before the pow-
«rful ; and the ingenious and benevolent Nicholas de Cle-
mangis, worthy of a better a^e. It frequently happened
that the two popes nominated different individuals to the
same benefice ; and every crime waas readily forgiven, on
condition that the perpetrator should acknowledge the
authority of the one or of the other. At this period
Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti murdered his uncle at ^Glan,
and his own son, Giovttmi Maria, fell by a conspiracy :
we have already seen how Johanna was put to death H
Naples. All Italy fell a prey to leaders of banditti of
French, German, English, and Italian origin.
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 33
SECllON XIX.
THE COUNCILS.
A. D. 1409. These scancl&h>i& luid (testniCdVI^ jrt»-
c^edings ^t l^kietfa gaire occasion to the coadcfl of Ptsa,
which deposed both the popes, and raised the prelate
Fila^di, a native of Crete, uiider the title of AleKanaer V.,
t6 th^ ][^pal thlrone^ This election was chiefly the conse-
quence of the intrigues of the Neapolitan cardinal Bal-
dassare Cossa, whose genius and energy rendered Mm
capable of the greatest as well as of the most mischievous
entefprises.
The two former popes refused to submit to the decision
of the council of Pisa, and the general anarchy was now
augmented by the pretensions of three contemporary pon-
tif6. Alexander, however, died within a )rear from his elec-
tion (A. D. 1410.), and was succeeded by the cardbal Cossa
before mentioned, under the name of John XXIII. John
was compelled, by the numerous and well commanded
ttoops of King Lancelot, to fly from Rome : pursued by his
enemies, and rejected by a great part of the chutch, he
had recourse to Sigbmund, kmg of the Germans. An in-
terview took place between toem at Mantua, m which
they resolved upon the council, which was immediately
afterwards summoned at Constance (A. D. 1414.), and
from which John hoped to obtain peace and the confirmation
of his title. His ally Frederick, duke of the lower Aus-
trian provmces, aflTorded him protection in his journeys.
Throughout all Italv, Germany, France, England, the north
of Europe, Poland, Bohemia, Huneary, and at Constan-
tinople, representatives of the churcn, and ambassadors of
the emperors, kings, nobles, cities, and universities, were
^pobted in ereat numbers to the universal assembly of
Christendom mat was about to be convened.
Soon after the deliberations of the council had com-
menced, it became evident, that a union of the churdi
was impossible, unless all the three popes would lay down
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34 UNIVERSAL HISTOBT.
their digni^, when a new and free election might take
place. Neither of them^ however, chose to be the first to
take this step. Corrari, or Gr^ory XII., was at Rimini ;
and Luna, or Benedict XIII., in Spain ; but the situation
of John was the most perplexing, who assisted at the coun-
cil, and became more and more convbced of the serious
and spiritus^ view in which this business was contemplated
by the northern prelates, whom he had expected to be able
to gain over to bs interest by m^ans of bribery and . per-
suasion. He knew that the most solemn assurances would
probably be sacrificed to the pretence or to the principle of
the public good ; and therefore resolved to withdraw. The
assembly appeared, firom its numbers, liable to those im«
Etuous movements which lead a crowd into acts of vio-
ice ; the cardinals, archbishops, and bishops present at
the council were estimated at 346 ; the prelates, teachers,
and masters of different universities and of the liberal arts,
at 564 ; and the multitude of princes, counts, nobles, and
knights, at 1600.
Under these circumstances John took the opportunity of
privately absconding, when the whole city was occupied in
attending a tournament, and retiring to Schaffhausen, an
Ausuian town, whither he was followed in the evening by
the duke. The terror of the council, which feared that its
objects might be frustrkted by tliis movement, was equaled
by the rage of the people ; and in the night all the Ital-
ians and. Austrians took flight. Ambassadors were des-
patched to the pope and the duke ; but as they refused to
return, the council declared that its decisions did not fail
on that account, to represent the voice of the church which
they were intended i<% unite and to reform. The sentence
of excommunication was pronounced against the duke, and
the monarch proclaimed him an outlaw.
Frederick was now declared to have forfeited all his do-
minions, and all claim to the performance of duties or
obligations of every kind ; he was deserted on every side ;
and Frederick, the burgrave of Niimberg (the ancestor
of the kings of Prussia), placed himself at the head of a
small imperial army of execution, while the emperor con-
trived, by means of the influence of Bern, to excite the
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UKlVfiRSAL HISTORY. 35
Swiss against him, by which means he lost his hereditary
estates in the Thurgau and Aargau. Such an opportunity
of putting an end to the power of the house of Habsburg
in this country, with the concurrence and at the reiterated
commands oi the supreme head of the empire and of the
church, seemed too favorable to be overlooked : and the
duke was compelled to submit. John, who was publicly
reproached with contempt of all religion, with unbounded
licentiousness, and Crimes of every kind, was deposed, and
committed to the custody of the elector-palatine : some
years afterwards, however, h6 regained his liberty, obtained
a cardinal's hat from his successor, and at length died at
Florencq.
Gregory the Twelfth, in the meantime, submitted ; and
as Benedict, whose obstinacy was invincible, was deposed
by a decree of the council, Otho Colonna, a prelate of
great wisdom, ascended the sacred chair under the name
of Martin the Fifth. A. D. 1414. This pontiff foupd
means to evade, under specious pretences, dmost every
regulation which the assembled church had adopted for
the limitation of the papal power ; but the constitution of
the church, which had hitherto been patriarchal, if not
monarchical, appeared, by the introduction of regular coun-
cils, one of which was to be held every ten years, to have
assumed an aristocratical form.
Martin contrived, during his life, to render the eflfect of
this alteration imperceptible. Condulmere, or Eugenius
the Fourth, havmg entered into a contest with the council
of Basle, the latter set up another pope against him in the
person of the first duke of Savoy, who had quitted his
government and was living in a delightful solitude at Ri-
paille on the lake of Geneva, and who took the name of
Felix the Fifth. A. D. 1439. Eugenius opposed to
the fathers of Basle the authority of the council, which
first. assembled at Ferrara, and afterwards at Florence, and
especially his own personal merits (^A. D. 1438^; for
while the former had been deposing him, he had enected,
at a great expense, the union of the Greek with the Romish
church. John Palaeologus, emperor of Constantinople,
who with many of his clergy was at Florence, gave his
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S6 VNIirKMAL HISTOJB^T,
coo^eot to the arrangement ; ajotd from that time a part]r
has existed in the western countries, which is attached to
the Greek church, and is called the " United." The coun-
cil of Basle was compelled, by the disturbances of war, to
remove to Lausanne, as the emperor had withdrawn from
it the protection of his authonty. Under Sarzano, or
Nicholas the Fifth (A. D. 1449.), the schism was healed
by the moderation of his opponent Felix, who laid aside
the papal dignity, and died in the character pf deacon of
the college of cardinals. A. D. 1451. From this time
the councils were disused; but the impressions which they
had made to the disadvantage of Rome, remuned and
gradually developed themselves. All the popes, with one
exi^eption, were henceforward chosen from among the Ital-
ians; they were accordingly better acquainted with the
policy of their country, and they founded a temporal
power in the territory of the state ; but the people ot for-
eign countries became more estranged froi^ tnem.
SECTION XX.
FLORENCE.
We have already seen that in Florence the class of
citizens obtained a superiority over the nobles, which was
continually increasing ; the jealousy of the parties rose at
length to such a height, that it appeared necessary to the
safety of the state to entrust the adminbtration to. a for-
eigner ; and the choice fell upon Walter, a member of the
French family of Brienne, which, during the misfortunes
of the Greek empire, had acquired the sovereignty of
Athens, A. D. 1342. Walter soon suffered himself to
be persuaded, that if he could succeed in depressing the
families of the powerful citizens, such as the Altoviti and
Ruccellai, it would be possible for him to acquiie an ab-
solute power. The people were at first pleased with the
oppression of these objects of their envy ; but they soon
discovered their mistake, and repented ol havbg called in
tbe foreigner. They now began to flatter the nobles, and
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.CWIVSIISAL BISTORT. 97
mtsy evea placed the eseuteheons of Ittuslrious families
ower their doors, as if to acknowledge tbeioselves among
the number of ibeir clients ; and when the nobles rode
abroad they were greeted with acclamations, which re-
minded them of their ancestors the founders of Florentine
liberty. While people were in this disposition, the duke
demanded to be mv:ested with unlimited authority ; but the
gov^imient represented to him, ^^that such nretensions
were unknown in Florence, where the name of liberty was
cherished and honored ; that no lengtii of time or extent
of power was capable of extbguishing this sentiment ; nor
could the merit of any individual, however great, render it
safe to entrust an audiority of that description in his hands :
that the remembrance of their freedom was renewed by
every public place, by the courts of justice, the standards
and banners of their troops ; and that he who might wish
to rule against the will of the people, would not long retain
his power." The duke replied, *' that freedom cannot
' poss3)ly exist where faction rules ; and that no condition
18 more unhappy than a state of public disquiet." The
communities were now called together, and the goveni-
ment proposed to them to confer absolute power on the
duke for one year ; but the people, whose great aim it was
to humiliate the governing families, exclaimed, ^' Be it so
forever ! "
The palace of the state was now delivered over to the
duke, whose arms were every where displayed instead of
those of the ci^ : he forbade the wearing of arms, under
pretence of preventing tlie excesses of faction ; and imme-
diately proceeded to augment the imposts. Places of pro*
fit and honour were conferred on people of low condition,
while persons of greater importance were punished for
trifling errors with haughtiness and severity : a nutnber of
Frenchmen were admitted to the privileges of cidzenship ;
the customs of that nation began to predominate, and tne
duke surrounded himself with a body guard. The nobles
and the citizens of ancient families twice conspired to re-
store the former constitution : the mechanics, who were
scaring firom the diminution of demand for labor, <Hice
entered into a combination for the same purpose ; and the
VOL. HI. 4
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S6 UN ITEBSAL HIITOmT.
arehbbhop Acciajoali^ who fawi at first been a friend of
the duke, became a party to these undertakings. These
designs, eidier from lear or avarice, were betrayed : upon
which the duke summoned three hundred of the most con-
siderable persons in the city, under pretence of holdmg a
council, but in reali^ in order to secure their persons
while he was assembling his guards : but they, aware of
their danger, admonished each other ** to die gbriously,
with arms in their hands, for the cause of Florence.''
The nobles, citizens, and artificers, assembled in a body ;
at nme in the mornine, some ran into the great place, ex-
claiming, ^^ To arms for freedom ! " The population of all
the quarters hastened to their accustomed posts; the
French, who were running totvards the palace, were put to
death in the streets ; and the duke, wer having lost the
best part of his adherents, was compelled to capitulate with
one of the Medici, who commanded the party ^ bis ad-
versanes This capitulation took place under the media-
^on of the ambassadors of Siena, and other strangers, who
were accidentaUy present. William of Scesi, who had
oeen the instrument of the duke's oppressions, was deliver-
ed up, and executed, together with fab son : and while the
mob was engaged in insulting their remains in the most
horrible manner, the nobles consented to allow the duke
immediately to quit the city in security.
The administrators endeavoured to fortify, by the spirit
of liberty, the constitution which had now been restored by
die popular detestation of slavery; and the newly acquired
freedom was proclaimed m city and country. A thi^rd
part of the high offices of the state and the half of the infe-.
rior posts, were reserved for the ancient families ; and Flo-
rence might now have become a happy republic, if the lat-
ter had been capable of imbibing the genuine spirit of
republican equality: they however soon manifested by
their conduct so little regard for the other classes, that the
whole body of citizens, conceiving themselves deceived,
flew to arms, destroyed the great citadels, and took exclu-
sive possession of the government. From this period,
whoever aspired to public offices was otjliged to adopt a
popular manner of life, and the love of anns and the lofiy
feeling of self-e3teem were lost.
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UKITERSAL HISTORY. 30
*I1i08e citisens who bad enriched tfaemsehres hj mdustij
and commerce had scarcely possessed themselves of the
sovereignty by these means, when the common people
were inspired by some ambitious individuals whh the idea,
that the numbers and courage of the multitude are able to
command power, riches, and every good thing. Hence
arose insurrections, in which the houses of opulent indi-
viduals were frequently plundered. As, in the conduct of
life, one bad action is often the cause of another; so it was
here found necessary to subvert the constitution, in order
diat those who had beeh thus injured might not have it in
their power to take revenge. The common people were
willing to incur any risk, because they had nothing to lose :
individuals who had been educated in the peacefiil arts,
when they were called to conduct the government, mani-
fested less courage than the fonner rulers of the state, but
were more anxious for the acquisition of money and for the
conveniences of life. It was- through the operation of such
causes, that the sovereign power in Florence came into the
hands of the people.
Wh^n the nobles, by force of arms under wise conduct,
expelled the Ghibellines, the state was at open war : when
the citizens of illustrious families undertook the govern-
ment, the arts of peace flourished ; and now when the
common people domineered, every thing was venal ; and
the mean yet proud rulers of Florence endeavored, by an
' expenditure above their means, to procure that splendor
wmch was denied to diem by their birth.
SECTION XXI.
While the affiurs of the republic were in this state, a
private citizen, who was distinguished by his liberality,
guided at his pleasure the actions of the multitude. Cosmo
de' Medici was descended from an ancient family, which
is said to have flourished in Greece at the period when the
Latin emperors governed in Constantinople, and which, by
a s^es of illustrious heads, acquired an honorable name
in Florence. John, the father of Cosmo, a man of a mild
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40 UNtVERSAX, HISTOKt.
( •
and prudent character, had been gonfaloniere of the repub-^
lie m the war against Filippo, duke of Milan; during
which, the state had in three years incurred a debt of three
mSlion six hundred thousand scudi. This was a sum
which in that age it appeared scarcely possible for a small
state to discharge ; and John de' Medici proposed a tax
which should be levied on the interest of capital, and which
would consequently fall on himself aoid on the rest of the
wealthy citizens. This sacrifice procured him the love of
the people, together with the jealousy of his equals ; but
he remained at a distance from all such offices as could
have given him the appearance of peculiar authority and
influence. At the approach of death he said to his two
sons, " I leave you a name universally honored and be-
loved, together with an honestly acquired fortune : keep
yourselves at a distance from all those dignities of the state,
m which it might be supposed that your power or properQr
could pervert the course of justice : accept such offices as
may be offered to you, without seeking them ; and beware
of taking any share in the intrigues of factions." John
died at the age of sixty-eight ; and his sons, Cosmo and
Lorenzo, were accompanied to his funeral by twen^-six
persons of the family of Medici, by all the members of the
government, and by all the ambassadors t>f foreign states
who were at that time in Florence.
Cosmo was the richest private person in Italy ; and 128
commercial houses in Europe, Asia, and Africa, were es-
'tablished under his name. He was not distinguished by
external pomp ; but he -maintained an. hospitable table ;
his house was open- to the needy and unfortunate, and
was the residence of the learned as well as of the most
polished society. He supported almost all the members
of the admmistration with his wealth, and frequently before
they desired it : but he kept these transactions so secret,
that his son discovered them only after his death. He
pleased the priesthood by founding or endowing churches,
altars, and convents ; and gamed over the mechanics by
the advantages which he allowed them to derive from the
building of his palace and of four elegant pleasure-houses,
which cost*^ him seven hundred thousand scudi. The
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UIVIVE&SAI' ' HISTORY. 41
whole ChrsstUo world was fiUed with the fame of his bene*
ficeoce, in building an hospital at Jerusalem for the recep-
tion of the pilgrims who visited the holy sepulchre ; and all
the learned venerated the individual who had established a
library that was regarded as an admirable one even for the
university of Padua.
While Cosmo was thus conciliating the popular esteem,
Rinaldo degli Albizi was mcessantly employed in the in-
vention of means to ruin him. He paid the debts which
had hitlierto prevented Cosmo's enemy, Bernardo Gua-
dagni, from becoming gonfaloniere ; and as soon as he had
thus elevated! the latter to that dignity, earnestly entreated
him to deliver their country from a citizen who, as he said,
was in reality cheating it of its freedom. Cosmo was
cited, under various pretences,. to appear before the gov-
ernment, and arrested as soon as he arrive(^ m the state
palace : the party of Rinaldo called the people together in
a tumultuary manner, and having terrified them widi false
alarms, persuaded them to appoint two hundred reform-
ers of the state. The enemies of Cosmo were not agreed
whether to banish or to put him to death ; but he, con-
cluding from the alarm bells, the noise of weapons and
other sounds, that there was a powerful party in his favor,
was more apprehensive of poison than of being put to death
by violence, and therefore refrained from food during four
whole days. Francesco Maltevolti, to whose custody he
was confided, was frequently requested bv his enemies, m
the. name of the government, to deliver Florence from the
perils which menaced it, and the prisoner firom his fear, by
a strong draught of poison : but he replied, *' I am a no-
bleman of Siena, and incap^le of adishonorable act."
He went to Cosmo, whom he found TfflSausted and dis-
tressed ; reminded him that he was the nephew of hi^
friend the pious Orlando ; assured him that he was equally
incapable of the base action which had been proposed to
him, and of fearing the menaces of those who would have
incited him to perpetrate it ; and he persuaded his prisoner
to eat. A facetious man, a relation of the gonfaloniere,
afterwards obtained permission to dine with Cosmo and
Maltevohi : Cosmo gave the latter a sign that he should
VOL. lit. 4*
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4S VmWISBMAL HI8TQET«
leave him alone with this person, whom be gained over hy
magnificent promises, and by a present of eleven hundred
scu^ made to him on the spot. The gonfaloniere called
the people together : Cosmo was delivered from danger of
his hfe ; but, with all the family of Medici, was sentenced
to banishment for a certam numb^ of years. A. D. 1429.
The gonfaloniere was rewarded by bodi parties.
Cosmo was received at Venice with greater respect than
Alcibiades had formerly experienced at Lacedsmon, and
was consulted by the senate on the most important affiurs.
Many of the princes of Italy ofiered to restore him to hb
country : but he refused ; declaring, that he forgave ev&rv
tbingto his fellow-citizens: and when he was recallea,
(A. jD. 1430,) he manifested as much generosity as Me-
tellus had shown under similar circumstances.
A year affer his banishment^ Rinaldo Albizi, who had
been summoned to give an account of the abuses of his
power, filled the great square with armed men, and com-
EUed the government to adopt defensive measures. Pope
mgenius the Fourth, who was present, mediated a ces-
sation of hostilities ; and in the mean time the government
summoned to their assistance the people of the Pistdese
mountabs, who came into the city by night. The com-
muniues were now assembled ; and the government, amidst
the loudest acclamations, proposed the recall of Cosmo.
All his enemies were banished ; he ^received from his £^
low-citizens the appellation of father of his country ; and
firom the rest of Jtaly and fix>m posterity, that of Cosmo the
Great. From this time his ccmduct was in all respects
V more cautious than before : he was master of Florence,
while he appeai^d^ be only one of her citizens } and
while foreign piflpH were suitors for his daughters, he
-married them tojEtizens of his own counUy. Such was
the origin of the influence of the Medici at Fbrence.
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imirSBSAL HlSTOmT.
SECTION xxn-
LITERATUBE.
The genius of the Medici and of their fellow-citizens,
was beneficial to all nations; and a small republic. now
gare a new proof that the admiration of virtue, science,
and the fine arts, may impart a splendor to the most un-
important city, which ^lipses the fame of powerful mon-
archies.
The arts and sciences have come to us fix)m the south.
The countries of Germany were still enveloped in darkness
in the age of the Othos, when monks and certain persons
of greater temporal importance brought the classical au-
thors over the Alps ; but the din of arms soon sUenced the
voice of the muses. Italy at this time possessed the anon-^
ymous author who celebrated the first Berengar; and,
subsequently, Domnizo who sang the praises of the eoun-
tess Mathildis, with several other respectable Latin poets.
When the republics rose upon the ruins of the imperial
power, and the paths to the highest offices were open to
every one.possessed of 'wisdom and eloquence, Italy exhi-
bited the first example of an harmonious naticmal dialect.
The pursuit of knowledge was attempted in two difier-
ent ways : some devoted Siemselves to the cuhivadon of
the abstract sciences ; and if we are to estimate genius, not
by the direction which the circumstances of the times may
induce it to assume, but by its intrinsic merits, we cannot
refuse our admiration to the powerful mind of Tho^mas
Aquinas, who was the wonder of his asaand has been the
preceptor of many succeeding geneH[^^ Natural phi-
k>sophy and chemistry were as ye^e1^[^Hed in a manner
almost as mysterious as magic : AlbertulBagnus of Lau-
ingen on the Danube, who was for soin^time bishop of
Ratisbon, and the contemporary of Roger Bacon, was the
first person in Germany who turned the attention of men
to subjects of this nature. Peter of Apone soon afterwards
astonished all Italy by his pretensions : he was said to have
been instructed m the seven liberal arts by seven spirits,
. whom he detained spell-bound in a certain crystal : what-
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44 UKITXBSAL HlStO&n
ever money he disbursed, found its way back t^n into his
pockety and this miracle we need not dispute, since he re-
ceived one nundred and fifty pounds for every visit which
he made as a physician without the ci^, and tour hundred
ducats per diem for his attendance during the illness of
pope Honoriud the Fourth. His figurative language and
strange conceits were unintelligible to the greater part of
his contemporaries ; and he would have been seized by the
Inquisition, if his death had not opportunely deprived that
tribunal of its prey : the holy office, however, caused him
to be burned in effigy ; while his mistress caused his body
p be privately interred.
While the profound thinkers were engaged in exploring
uncertain paths' through these obscure regions, the wiser
Florentines employed themselves in the cultivation of the
ttalian language. In the 14th century, Dante, of the no-
ble family of Aligliieri, wrote the " Divina Conunedia;" a
work which displays ail the majesty and boldness that ex-
cite our admiration in the ancients and in Milton : it abounds
with the fervor of genius, with patriotism, and genuine
love of virtue ; and is the earliest production of modern lite-
rature which we may ventuj;e to compare with the jn^orks
of the ancients. Dante is not always equal to hims^f : be
frequently ofifends against the precepts of good taste, and
bears traces of barbarous rudeness ; but he is never com-
mon or low, and loses himself only in the lofty flights of
his imagination. Dante survived his banbhment from Flo-
rence twenty years, and died at Ravenna at the age of six-
ty-six. A. D. 1321.
His fellow-citizaa, Francesco Petrarca, was already in-
spired by the {^^kkof the ancients and the charms of
L^ura. In vaii^ipiit^er, incensed against him, burned
his copes of t}fl[^ient poets and orators : be was des-
tifted to impart^o the language of his country the most
perfect refinement, and to furnish readers of lensibility, in ^
all succeeding ages, with the most elegant gratification.
He became an orator in consequence of the misfortunes of
the times, the perception of which had deeply peneurated
bis mind ; and he was made a poet by Laura, a daughter
of the knight of Noves jnd the wife of Hugo of Sade,
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UNIVERSAL HISTOHT. 4B
whom Petrarch has immortalised by his admirable sonnets,
written m his lonely dwelling near a rivulet in the valley
of Vaucluse. After he had celebrated the conqueror of
Carthage, Rome and Paris rivalled each other in tesd^ring
their lively sense of his merits. In the 37th year of bin
age he was crowned ^th laurel in the capitol. The om-
peror Charles the Fourth found him at Mantua, and
mvited him to accompany him in his journey to Rc»ne.
" It is not sufficient," said Charles, " that I anajgoing to see
Rome ; I wish to see it with your eyes." The Floren-
tines, by whose turbulent proceedings his family had been
banished, sent information to him by Boccacio, that the
republic had restored his confiscated property. He died
at the age of 74. A. D. 1373.
Giovanni Boccacio was also the son of a Florentme
merchant; his relations intended to educate him for a
merchant, or a teacher of ecclesiastical law; but nature
destined him to be the scourge of human follies. He also
began to compose in verse ; but when he met with die
poetry of Petrarch, he destroyed his own compositions,
and afterwards wrote in prose in a style of as much rim-
plicity and liveliness as the best works of the Greeks ; it
might be said that he brought the muses down firom Par-
nassus into the circle of social Hfe. He is copious, and
sometimes licentious ; but his Decamerone must always be
considered a masterpiece. Boccacio was, in comparison
with the Grecian authors, what I*etrarch was if we com-
pare him to the Roman ; and Constantinus Lascaris says,
with justice, that he is second in eloquence to none of the
Grreeks ; and that his hundred tales outweigh the works oS
an hundred poets. A. D. 1376.
During a century and a half immediately succeeding the
age of these great men, the best authors and orators were
the secretaries of state of Florence, or of the pope ; or the
tutors and friends of the Medici. Among them were Co-
luccio, a Florentine secretary of state, of whom the duke
of M3an complained that he had done him more injury
with his pen than fifteen hundred Florentine knights ; Lieo-
nardo Bruni, the first of the house of Aretino, who wrote
in Greek and Latin like one of nhe ancients, and who was
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46 UNiySBSAL HI8T0BT« '
one of the earliest goo^ historians of Italy ;^ his soecessori
Charles ; Francesco Poggio, was the author of a history,
but especiaUy of some excellent letters which abound with
antique wisdom ; and he was one of the roost distinguished
restorers of good taste. The knight Accialotti was de-
nongjnated the prince of juridical subdeties, and in his old
age quitted his professor's chair at Siena with sorrow, b^
cause he happened to have only forty hearers. In Barzi-
zip, Cicero seemed to live again. Tne learned Francesco
Barbaro defended Brescia for the Venetians against the
arms of Milan, in the midst of pestilence and insurrection ;
but the most illustrious of all was iBneas Sylvius Piccolo-
mini, who was banished in his youth, with the rest of the
nobility, from Siena : he devoted himself to the first of the
arts, to agriculture ; was secretary to several cardinal le-
gates, to the council of Basle, and to the emperor Frede^
rick III.; became afterwards a cardinal, and at length pope,
by the tide of Pius II. : his writings display a lively and
agreeable spirit, and are ornamented with the graces of
antiauity.
While the dawn of good taste began to appear in these
great men, the Greeks, who were obliged to fly from Con-
stantinople with their treasures of ancient literature, found
a welcome reception under the roof of Cosmo de' Medici.
The knight Manuel Chrysoloras, now instructed the Flo-
rentines in reading and cornprehending those writings of
.the ancient Greeks whoifi Boccacio had taught them to
admire ; and John Arg}nx)pulus afterwards instructed the
son and grandson of Cosmo. Argyropulus was ennobled
by a series of illustrious ancestors ; he carried his ideas of
morally almost too far, when he destroyed his translation
of Plato in order that it might do, no injury to that of his
friend Theodoras of Gaza, which wa3 not so well executed
as hh own. Theodoras was also one of those who loved
knowledge for its own sake, and not from interest or vanity.
The learned men above mentioned, with Callistus the
teacher of Reuchlin ; Demetrius Chalcocondylas, who su-
perintended the printing of Homer ; John Lascaris, who
was sent by the house of Medici to collect literaiy trea*
flures ; Constantinus Lascaris, Hermonymus the Laced«-
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UMXTKBSAL HISTOBT. 47
moDiin, and many o&en, were engaged in grammatieal
pursuits ; and ipaiiy were excellent caligraphers«
The first attempts in tlie art of printing, which is called
in the contract of Guttenberg with the citizens of Stras-
burg, " the wonderful secret," were feeble and slow. A.
I>. 1439. Guttenberg, who was a nobleman of Mayence,
injured his fortime in the pursuit ; and as he was defrauded
during his life by his associates, posterity also, for a long
time, did him the injustice to attribute bis invention to
another.
SECTION xxm.
VCNICB.
> When the Venetians had brought a long war against
the Grenoese to a victorious conclusion, they began to erjBCt
a sovereignty on the continent, which brought £eir repub-
lic into the greatest difficulties ; but which in the sequel
was the only part of their splendid acouisitions that re-
mained permanendy their own. The nobles and free cities
in their vicinity, apprehending that they might become as
powerful by land as they were by sea, imbibed the utmost
jealousy against the Venetians. Such was the occasion of
the long wars of the family of Visconti : of a hundred years
of incessant commotion, and of two centuries of timid po-
licy. But when recent discoveries opened new channels
of trade, and when it was, no longer possible to maintain
their possessions in the Levant against the arms of the
Turks, the Venetians retained scarcely any thing except
their acquisitions on the continent.
A. p. 1403. The foundation of this dominion was the
capture of the town of Padua, in consequence of whicK
the city of Verona, terrified at the enterprises of Francesco
Carrara, sent their standard to Venice by the hands of
Antonio Mafiei. Hereupon the thirteen communities
(comuni) submitted, and sujffered their privileges to be'
confirmed to them by the Venetians, (lliese people are
of German origin : they live between the Adige and
Brenta, under tiieir own laws, imd are governed by their
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4S UifITS«SAI» B|i90»T.
mta council of thirty-nine, and their smaller couaKul'Or
uiirteen.) Since the time ^^hen Dalmatian Zara was
brought, by the arms of the crusaders, under the sove-
reignty of the Venetians, several cities on the coast had
also placed themselves under their protection : Sebenigo
had been induced to take that step through fear of the
power of Hungary ; and Lesina had been transferred to
Venice by the last of its sovereigns. *
It was not long before the powerful city of Pisa, which
was exhausted by its enterprises, and threatened by Tus- '
cany, sought in vain for better means of security. The
Venetians were aware what danger they incurred of entail-
ing a heavy burden on their state, by receiving this great
town under their protection ; and the question was put
sixty-one times in the senate, before the majority of votes
decided according to their wishes.
Although the lorms of the constitution of Venice were
neither introduced upon any one occasion, nor were uni-
versally so ancient as this age, it will yet be proper to de-
scribe them in this place, before we go on to consider the
more important afiairs of Europe in later times. We shall
then find it impossible to bestow sulSicient attention on the
internal administration of any single commonwei^lth.
In the period which immediately succeeded the serra--
tura del comigUo. or the limitation of eligibility to a certain
number of families, a few additional members, as Mainotto
Pulci and Nicolo di Scrovigno, of Padova, were associated
vrith these aristocrats. A. D. 1301. The addition which
was made to their numbers at the period of the last strug-
gle with Geneva, (A. D. 1381,) wi^s more considerable ;
notwithstanding that the, exclusion of all fiareign, vassals had
been renewed in 1320, and that the newly-admitted citi-
zens were obliged to make a previous renunciation or lim-
itation of their claims to places in the government But
the ancient families became extinct m the course of time,
and their dignities were inherited by new houses. We
dbaU observe the most ancient names and trace a spirit of
cdbstinate discontent, among the Buranelli, Nicolotti, and
Poggiotti.
The election of the dpge soon 4}eased to be confirmed
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,mnT£B8AL HI8T0(ET« 48
by the people : he direw money to tbem, asd the senate
endeavored to regulate their choice by the opinion of die
public. When Sagredo and Foscarini were suspected of
avarice and interested conduct in their adroinistrafions, die
electors were changed^ and the people were contented :
but when the real ground of this prejudice became known,
Foscarini was, on anodier occasion, elected by acclamation.
The supreme power resides, at Venice, in die great
council, in which the nobles have seats by hereditary pri*
vil^e when they have«ttamed then* twenty-fiftti year : fmm
the number of those who are between tbe ages of twenty-
one and twenty-five, thirty are annually chosen, as members
of this assembly, bv lot. The right of introducing subjects
for discussion resides in the doge, the six superi(»r counsel-
lors, the president of the criminal tribunal, and the advo-
cates of the community ; and it somethnes happens diat
the senate makes a communication. The legislative func-
tion, the power of pardon, and the disposal of offices, re-
side in uie great council. A place is not unfrequendy
rather a sort of ostracism than a reward : die expensive
and unproductive dignities are readily bestowed on wealtliy
nobles, who are notwithstanding wiling to receive diem,
because they open the way to still higher posts; and a
mean office is often a punishment to the nobleman cm vAiom
it fa imposed ; because they are not all of the same char-
acter with Epaminondas, to whom his fellow-citizens in-
trusted the clearing of the public shores. Extraordinary
places, which depend on the mutable condition of external
relations, are at the disposal of the senate.
The elections are conducted m the following manner :
bt a bag, which contains as many balls as ther^ are mem-
bers in£e council, sixty are of gold : those who happen to
ge(t the latter, draw lots a second time, in s,uch a manner
as to reduce dieir number to thirty-six : these are die electa
ors, and divide themselves into four colleges, each of
which c(mtains nine members* During the time of elec-
inn, nine offices are ccmferfed every day ; in every col-
lage^ eadi one ofihe nine members names a candidate for
onecQ^ these offices, die nomination to wMch Ms to the^
freposer hy lot : thus feur t^ndidates are nominated by
VOL. III. 5
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80 mffmsBSAL histobt*
Ihe four colleges for every office ; and the deetioo it «t
length made by a majority of votes in the great council.
None of those who seek an office on the same day, no re*
lations of any of the electors, nor any persons who ture
debtors to the state, are allowed to vote ; nor is more than
one vote received from each name and family.
The senate consisted of only sixty members ; but it was
usual, as among the Swiss democracies, to double and even
to treble its numbers in extraordinary cases. These addi-
* dons became afterwards incorporated ; and the chief coun-
sellors, the wise men (savi), the criminal judges, the coun*
cil often, the administrators of St. A^ark, the treasurer, the
dire^^tor of the arsenal and fc»tresses, and prmcipal officers
of J^ergamo, were by degrees added to the number, in or-
der that the senate might be assisted by their knowledge of
business, as well as that the good will of these officers
might be conciliated* The number of senators, which is
not always the same, may amount to about three hundred.
Every afiair, that comes before the senate, is prepared
and introduced by the college, which consists of the doge,
the three chiefs of the criminal tribunal, and the sixteen
savi : the college is guided by the six great savi. And
dius afiairs of all kinds are retained m the hands of a few,
until they are matured for a conclusion. The great savi
are in possession of tiie secrets and the maxims of the
state, and are the persons in whom the greatest confidence
is reposed. The Venetians perhaps learned this institution
, firom the Carthaginians ; unless mey adopted it, without
reference to any example, from the suggestions of reason.
Domenico Mobnos, a savi, merited the memorable accusa-
tion of Marco of Trevigi, " that he had filled all Europe
with the fame of his wisdom, and gained as manv admirers
as there were statesmen." The constitution of Venice has
tiiis excellent peculiariQr ; that while those individuals, who
are formed by nature for rulers, and whose numbers are in
all ages and countries very small, have every resource in
their power which caii contribute to the preservation of the
laws, they are wholly destitute of the means ^hich might
enable them to overturn the government. The business of
the state is kept so secret, tiiat when the Avogadori have
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ftdrninistered the oath of secrecy respecting any affior, to*
every senator, it must not be mentioned even by the mem-
bers of tl)e senate in their private meetings in any other
place. The power of declaring war, of makio^ treaties of
peace and of alliance, and of administering tne resources
of the republic, is within the province of the senate : but
though that body had the power of abandoning the whole
condnental territory of the state, it could not make the
most trijfling alterations in the laws, without the concur-
rence of the great council.
The monarchical dignity was vested in his most serene
highness the doge ; the aristocracy m the senate ; and the
democracy in tlie great council : no class is in possession
of die whole sovereignty, which belongs to the laws alone.
All afiairs are conducted by the senate; but whatever
comes before that body, is previously exammed by the
savi. The senate can confer no official employment; but
it appoints inspectors of the admmistration, and represses the
passions of individuals by the laws : it protects the subjects
of the republic against the numerous inferior nobility, with-
out oppressmg the latter ; because it is necessary to pre-
vent the aristocracy from becoming formidable, as well as
to take care that itsprivileges shall not be confined to too
small a number. The senate, with admirable prudencey
controlled Venice by means of fear and hope, and contriv-
ed, in its external relations, to keep the impetuous pas-
sions of the more powerful states in check, and to main-
tain the dignity of the republic towards foreign potentates.
When Venice declared herself on the Side of any state, it
was more a matter of honor than of military importance,
and conferred an appearance of solidity in die opinion of
the public. Another excellent maxim was, to live on good
terms with their neighbors, but to maintain the closest con-
nection with those states that were by one degree further
distant.
The council of ten i^ the protector of the people against
the great, and of the state against the spirit of fac^on : and
since it has to watch over the incalculable caprices and ar-
tifices of passion, it is not bound by the ordinary forms of
kw, but is subject only to the " reason of state." Hence
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58 UNIVCB8AI. Ht9T0Er.
ft cixttdses less sev?rity^ toward offices against mora&tjr,
tbui toward politic^ cnmes* The Venetians have been re-
proached witn being so entirely occupied with the endeavor to
preserve their present ccmdition, as to have omitted even
the necessary attention to the maiqtenance of public mo-
rals : those political virtues, however, by means of which
alone it was possible for the citizens (wh6 were merely
members of the government) to distinguish themselves,
have flourished among the Venetians, in as great a degree
as in any other state. Immorality is indeed regarded, in
persons of a certain class, without disapprobation, because
these indidduals bv that meaiis diminish their own influ-
'ence with the people, which might otherwise become too
great ; while, on die other hand, a person who has betray-
ed a secret of state, is punished widiout appeal, and widi-
out knowing his accusers.
Tlie three state mquisitors are to the council of t^i,
what that college is to the senate : they are superior to all
the citizens, even to tlie doge himself : when unaninMHis,
they have the power of inflicting punishment, but not of
capitally condemning without the concurrence of the ten.
The authority of the council of ten is independent of the
senate : the latter has indeed sometimes interceded with
them, at the request of some foreign prince, but in vain ;
and this is even advantageous to the senate, which, stand-
ing as it does at the head of afl[airs, ought not to be expos-
ed, to the ill-will of foreigners. The ten employ, as meir
spies, a crowd of monks, prostitutes, watermen or gondo-
heri, and lacqueys.
We must, however, judge, of the power of this body fix)m
its beneficisd influence on the whole community, as we
ought indeed to decide on the merits of the republic, rath-
er from the principles of its administration than from the
letter of i^ laws. If we survey it in this point of view, we
shall find that the council of ten is the main pillar of the
state, and the chief bulwark of fireedom : its powers would
otherwise have been long ago circumscribed by the peri-
odically elected correctors of the laws {carretiori deUt
hggi). Some senators, indeed, with upright intentions,
endeavored about twenty years ago (A. D. 1761), to in-
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UNITERSAL HISTOIOr. 53
troduce alterations of this tendency ; but the voice of the
people was in favor of the ten : and while the power of
the state inquisitors was diminished, the ten retained their
criminal juirisdiction over the nobiHty in its whole extent.
' The enforcement of rigid discipline was a task recom-
mended to both bodies : and in every circumstance regard-
ing public peace, thb dignity of the republic, the care of,
its subjects at home, and its splendor abroad ; that high
authority, the stedfast exercise of which had for so many
s centuries preserved Venice, was fuDy confirmed to the
council often.
The three judicial courts of forty, consist of as many
nobles, who must be above the age of thirty, and of whom
not more than two of the same name and family can sit in
the same court. The ancient civil quarantia determines
respectmg appeals from the city tiibunals, and the crimmal
decisions of die provincial judges, when these have been
pronouncc^d without the concunience of the council often; ,
and gives judgment in cases, the decision of which, on ac-
count of the power of one of the parties, would be hazard-
ous to the inferior offices. The most ancient families
xisually sit in this court, the spirit of which was a constant
object of apprehension, because it is older than the other
parts of the political system, and was always jealous of
those institutions : but the opposition of two courts^ which
are never indulgent one to another, is advantageous to the
subjects ; for without some principle of opposition, no re-
public can long maintam its vigor. The new civil qua-
r^ntia determmes appeals from the continent of Italy and
from Dalmatia ; and the objects of the criminal quarantia
are sufficiendy explained by its name.
' When the doge dies, all the members of the great coun-
cil, who are above thirty years old, draw balls out of a hag,
which contains thirty of gold : from these thirty, nine are
chosen by lot ; of these nine, four nominate five electors
each J and five four each, making in the whole forty elect-
ors. Out of these forty, twelve are chosen by lot, each of
whom nominates two electors, except the first, who ap-
points three ; these make in all twenty-five. From these
twenty-five, nine are again chosen by lot, each of whom
VOL. III. 5*
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tA 0NIVKBSAL HISTOBT.
ntmes five, viz. the whole number fortT-five. From dui
number the lot separates eleven, eight of vrtiom nominateB
each four, and each of the remainiug three appoints three;
so that the whole number is forty-one. From these forty-
one, who are confirmed by the great council, the doge is
elected by a majority, consisting of not less than twenty-
five. This form of election was appointed in the age of
the doge Marino Morosini. A. D. 1250.
The sons, brothers, and nephews of the new doge, im-
mediately quit the government during his life ; and his own
authority has been so circumscribed by the correttori deBa
permisstonej that he is nothing more than president of die
college and the councils. He has the privilege of intro-
ducing the subjects of deliberation, and may clothe them in
whatever form he prefers ; but when he has once given his
opinion, hd is not even permitted to support it, as such a
proceeding would be contrary to his digni^ ; and it now
becomes £e province of the advocate of the community to
speak in his behalf. He superintends the arsenal, the
docks, and the church of St. Mark. He .^ves, in the
course of the year, five entertainments, which consume
two-thirds of his income, and thus reduce his recompense
to the mere dignity of his office.
The procurators of St. Mark have seats for life in the
senate, together with the superintendence of afiairs relating
to testaments, guardianships, and debts : the business of the
ofiice is transacted by nine of their number, and the other
members are merely titular. Great care has been taken
to leave very litde power in the hands of officers whose
appointment is for lite.
The six superior counsellors constitute the cabinet, and
are also the ephori of the doge, whos^ proceedings ther
have continually under their inspection : when four of their
number are unanimous, they may make a proposition to the
council, even without his concurrence. These persons are
the presidents of the criminal quarantia.
Of the power of the censors, nothing remains but the
name, as their office now consists only in the superintend-
ence of the Hveiy servants of the republic : they have,
however, during their official existence of forty months, a
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UiriVEllSAL BISTORT. 5f
scat and vote in the senate ; they assist at the cnmimd tri*
bunalsy and succeed to posts in the council of ten, or in the
number of the six supenor counsellors.
The three advocates of the community are acquainted
with the most secret affidrs ; they have the privilege of en-
tering uncalled, and as often as they choose, into the as-
sembly of the council, which they can compel to postpone
the execution of its resolutions, or even to alter them :
they can make no arrangements, but watch over all abuses.
Any one of the three possesses the authority of the whote
number ; and their power is so great that Scarpi advised
that it should never be conferred 6n a man of spwess cha-
racter, lest he should become dangerous.
The senators must at least have attained their 25th, and
the ten and the siic superior counsellors, at least their 40ck
year. In ancient times, distinguished abilityvb maritime
affiurs was the most powerful recommendation. When it
was desirable, which frequently happened, to place am
office in the hands of a dependent man, poverQr was the
decisive qualification ; and riches were necessary for those
posts which were at die same time expensive and unpro-
ductive. It was designed thftt the richest should be the
most powerful, and therefore the marriages of the reigning
nobles with the daughters of wealthy citizens were never
forbidden. All the corporations possessing bdependent
privileges, which confer a jurisdiction not emanating from
the supreme power, are abolished. Many laws have been
enacted, since the thirteenth century, against the abuses of
ecclesiastical power ; and the court of Rome usually gave
way to them without contest, under the specious pretence,
that such matters were allowable and customary. The
Svemment, on the same grounds, cherished the spirit of
^don among the provincial ' nobility, and supported the
peasants agamst the power of the towns.
As the offices in the military service were not distributed
by the commanders, the general had no party attached to
his interests, and could therefore at any time be safely dis-
missed or made prisoner. The command of the land
forces was generally conferred on foreigners, while that of
the fleet was bestowed on noble Venetians ; for the sea is
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56 UNIVERBAL Ht!lTORir.
the element, the foundation, and the securiiy of Venice i
her territorial dominions are of subordinate importance.
The government incurred but litde hazard of being over-
turned by the nobles, who were in no country of so great
.importance as at Venice. The commons are also m every
respect unfettered, except that they are forbidden to inter-
fere in politics ; for the ten sftate inquisitors are not formi-
dable to persons of this class, but to the most powerful of
the nobles, and to ambitious ecclesiastics. The history of
the states of Italy is in general disfigured with massacres ;
but it has seldom happened in Venice that one nobleman
has been put to death by another, because many prejudices
on which the notion of honor is usuallv founded, are here
overcome bv maxims of state. The tounders of the con-
stitution of Venice, like the ancient Lacedaemonians, made
the preservation of their institutions the exclusive object of
their solicitude, and, like them, founded freedom upon
obedience. They were unwilling to confer power in per^
petuity ; and preferred that all officers should be kept in
continual dependence, and that those to whom the supreme
authority was entrusted, should be mcessantlv dependent on
each other. They overlooked die private frailties of men
without sanctioning them, as they wished that the govern-
ment should be at the same time the object of awe and of
afiection. The power of Venice is mit small, but her
perseverance in established maxims is worthy of our vene-
ration. '
SECTION XXIV.
GENOA.
Genoa was aggrandized by its n^time commerce. The
emperors of Constantinople have been insulted in the bar*
bor of their capital by Genoese ships; and sultans have
sought their favor, as the means of acquirbg a footing in
Europe. Phocaea, Chios, Lesbos, Lemnos, and Samo-
thracia, were once the dommions of Genoese nobles ; and
the fertile Crimea, with many scattered places in the Black
and Grecian seas, were their gold mines. This republic
not only maintained a contest for the islands of Sardinia
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UimnBRSU!. HISTOaT. B9
and Coffftca, hurt earlj acquired pow^ on the CoMMOtii
by trhicjb her interests were brou^t into collision with dioaa
01 Milan and Piedmont.
The same inconstancy was still perceptible in the Ge-
noese, which the Romans had remarked in their ancestors
the Ligurians: and in consequence of this trait in their
diftracter, the government of 'Genoa never became respect**
able by its adherence to permfpaent maxims, but was ex-
posed to perpetual disturbances. The people knew as lit-
tle bow to govern as to obey : equality was insupportable
to the nobles at home, and they governed their subjects
with extreme severity, while they rendered even thdr ty-
ranny contemptible, by combining it with avarice.
Neither the laws, nor any^ separate party in Genoa, were
sufficiently powerful to mamtain a preponderating authori-
ty \ and therefore the republic was frequently obliged to
accept, and even to seek protection, by submitting to some
fcoreign power: but as obedience was btolerable to the
Genoese, they often became burdensome, and not unfre-
quently treacherous, to their protectors. This republic at
lengdi forfeited the esteem and adecdonof its confederates!
and its remote possessions easily fell into other hands.
SECTION XXV.
RAGUSA.
EvKit Ragusa preserved her mdependeQce longer than
Genoa. X^c territory of this republic is a line of coast
extending scarcely forty Italian miles in length, and from
two to three miles m breadth ; yet its history deserves a
place in the memorials of Europe. In the transactions of
the ereater states, we are liable to lose sight of many traits
of character ; but in those of small republics, individuals
arepresented more distincdy to our view.
The ancient Epidaurus was destroyed by a horde of
Slavonians ; and' a number of the fugitives built, on a
neighboring peninsula, the town of Ragusa. The new
C(mimonwealth was attacked in its mfancy by that barbar-
oyfs race : but the priesthood found means, on this occa-
mon, to mitigate the fiiry of tUe enemy, who contented
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S8 UmVEBSAL HI8TOBT.
themselves with levjdng a contribotion. Tlie numbers of
the communi^ were now increased hj^ mamr fugitives from
the ruins of Salona, and the mountains oi lUyrium ; and
the assembled multitude built a new Ragusa, (A. D. 690,)
better constructed than the former, which was situated on
a rock in the bottom of a small bay, and strengthened by a
citadel placed upon the eminence. The community elect-
ed magistrates : on important occasions the people were
summoned : ambition was unknown, as it was the common
and exclusive wish of all to preserve their freedom. The
surrounding country possessed but little fertility : under cir-
cumstances nearly similar, the Romans became the con-
querors of the world, and the Ragusans a people remarka-
ble for their bdustry. Ragusa was the market for the su-
perfluous productions of Bosnia: manufactures were es*
tablished, the operations of which imparted an increase of «
value to the goods wliich were to be exported ; and by
these me^ns the city was provided with the necessaries of
Hfe, and in process of time became opulent.
A. D. 867. The Ragusans were equally remarkable
for their valor m the defence of their city, which was be-
sieged in vain for a whole year by the Moors of Africa^
whom they pursued across uie Adriatic into Italy, as fru: as
Benevento and Capua. They purchased from a prince of
Bosnia their territory, which was ahnost entirely a forest,
but which they converted into a garden. , The Ragusans
were disturbed by the confusion which took place after the
decline of the regal power in Bosnia : but they attached
themselves to the Greek emperors, who had it in their power
to protect, but could not easily oppress, their common-
wealth.
At this period a tower, at the entrance of the haven, be- .
longing to a Rascian nobleman, threatened both the free-
dom and the subsistence of Ragusa : the commanders of
this fortress were gained over to the republic, by being ad-
mitted into the government, and they surrendered the tow-
er. The government was now in the hands of the nobles :
the assemblies of the people had fallen into disuse; and
the rulers consisted of the descendants of the founders,
and of noble Bosnians. The surrender of the above-men*
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VmnBBMl. HIiTOBT. 59
tbaed lower was celebrated bjr an annual fesdval ; for tri-
fling affiurs are important to such small republics. A prince
of Chelm presented the Ra^usans with the neighboripg
island of Meleda; and they mhierited Breno from its last
The affairs of the city were now in a prosperous state,
when a tyrant made his appearance on the stage : Dami-
ano, one of the rettori, whose power lasted two years, wish-
ed to prolong the period of his authority ; and as the sen-
ate could undertake no business without the concurrence
of the rettori, it was impossible, according to the estab-
lished forms, to proceed to a new election : these honest
citizens, it must be confessed, paid by far too much regard
lo established f(»rms, m suffering the laws to be subverted
on their account. Damiano ordered the noble youths of
the house of Bobali, who were zealous supporters of free-
dom, to be made prisoners : but they had the good for-
tune to escajpe. After this abuse of usurped authority,
Peter Benessaj the son-in-law of the tyrant, who preferred
the freedom of his country tp the splendor of his family,
secredy assembled the senators ; and it was resolved to
apply to Venice for a commissioner, who should restore
the authority of the laws. The Venetians, in pursuance
of this request, dispatched two galHes, under pretence of
conveying presents for the emperor Henry to Constantino-
ple : about A. D. 1210. Damiano entertained the cap-
tain of the vessels, and accepted an invitation to retunt the
visit on the following day ; but as soon as he arrived on
board, Benessa summoned the citizens to arms in the cause
of freedom, while the Venetians weighed anchor, and car-
ried off Damiano as a prisoner : the latter, unable to endure
his situation, killed himself, by striking his head agamst the
side of the galley. While die peoj^e were engaged in
plundering ti^e palace, the senate, under the direction of
Venice, elected Lorenzo Querini as count of the city ; but
stipulated that he should undertake no measure contrary to
the laws, without th^ concurrence of the great council.
Dandolo, the successor of Lorenzo, conducted himself
ki such a manner as to make the Ragusans sufficiendy
srafiible of the loss of their mdependence ; and during
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so mnruMAL histobt.
die discomem which arose from his lueaBimt, a GeooeM
fleet mtde its appearance, (A. D. 1333,) but the factions
were too powerlul to allow the cidseiis to send home the
Veocliaii count on board of iu The Venetians encouraged
the spirit of faction in Ragusa, restored the assanUief of
the communitiesi in order to turn the attention <^ the peo-
ple from the senitte, and augmented the numbers of the lat*
ter by new appointments, in order that it might costain a
number of members, who should owe their dignity to the
influence of Venice. Some of the nobles at length applied
for assistance to Lewis, king of Hungary, who delmred
the city from the yoke of the Venetians.
The influence of this protector appeared to be attended
with the less danger to the liberty of the state, as liewis
had no son : and it was absolutely necessary to ha?« re-
course to some power for asastance, pardcularfy on ac-
count of the navi^tion of Ragusa, which, since the empe^
ror Andronicqs II. had ceased to maintain a fleet, had
become extreme^ hazardous in the seas of Grreece; while
Genoa, Venice, and the tjrrants of the islands, ahemately
exercised all kinds of violence. The senate of Ragusa
turned its attention to the power of Orchan, tihe son of Os-
man, whose authority was sdready so great on the Asiatic
coasts, on the Hellespont, Propontis, and at the entrance
of the Black Sea, that all commercial nations were obMged
to conciliate his favor. In or^er to reconcile the peo{de to
an alliance with the Turks, a nun was induced to declare,
that this measure had been revealed to her as the will of
God. A compact was formed, (abo« A. D. 1330,) by
which the Ragusans engaged to pay to Orchan the jrearly
sum of five hundred sequins : tms tribute, together with
presents for the nobles, is sdU annually sent to the great
sultan ; in return for which, Ragasa is taken under his
protection, and its commodities are exempt from tolls.
The government of Ragusa consists of the great council,
the senate, and the smaller council. All the nobles above
the age of eighteen jrears have the privilege of a seat in the
. greater cotmcil, which enacts the laws, elects the magis-
trates, and exercises the power of pardon. Forty-five
pregadi, who must all be more than forty years old, cofi»
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stitute the senate, which prepares the business to be hid
before the greater council, has the power of dedarmg war
and of forming alliances, and is the court of appeal in the
last resort. Twelve persons are chosen from among the
members of the greater council, one of whom, on the
death of each senator, is appointed to fiD up his place : and
when this body is reduced to the number of four, it is
again completed. The smaller council consists of seven
senators, and possesses the executive power. The head
of the commonwealth is an officer called a rettore, without
whose concurrence nothing can take place : but his autho-
rity lasts onhr four weeks. He never sdrs dbroad, except
on popular festivals, and at the letting of c^tam branches
of the revenue ; and on these occasions is adorned with a
mantle of red damask, with red stockings and shoes, which
were insignia of the supreme power in the Grecian empire,
and with the more modern ornament of a prodigiously long
periwig : he is preceded by a band of musicians, accoia-
Iianied by the smaller council and the secretaries, and fol-
owed by a body guard of twelve unarmed men.
Three senators are annually a[^lnted proveditori of the
city, whose offices it is to watch over the execution of the
laws, and to see that they keep the strong in subjection, and
maintain in security the rights of the weak. No aheraticm
can take place in the laws, without the concurrence of
seven-eighths of the votes in the greater council ; but the
operation of a law may be suspended, on some particular
occasions, by the concurrence of three-fourths of those votes.
It sometimes happens that, in periods of danger to the
state, one of the members of the council makes a speech
in Latin : and on such occasions the orator is congratulated
by the nobility, and presented by the state with a pair of
capons. The rewards bestowed by a republic on a citizen
are usually not very splendid ; but they are the free gift
of bis. own country, and thence incalculably valuable.
Treasurers are elected every five years from among the
eldest of the senatc^s, who have die superintendence of
'the finances. They have the privilege of distributing
twelve hundred pounds in secret alms, and of portioning
&e daughters of poor noblemen : for it is the interest of the
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68 uinrsBBAL niuromw.
government to acquire the afiection of the people ; and it
will not allow the nobles to become so needy as to render
them desperate. Four judges conduct criminal processes ;
but they cannot condemn to death without the concurrence
of the senate : and four judges have the direction of the
civil tribunal. The suits of the poor, of widows and or-
phans, are conducted gratuitously by young noblemen, who
wish to obtain the esteem and love of their fellow-citizens ;
others take care that the city is properly supplied with pro-
visions, guard against the introduction of foreign wines, and
watch over the management of the hospitals, the conduits,
the armory and other public buildings, the streets, the
commerce in salt, the citadel, and the territory. The sen-
ate is thus relieved from a number of troublesome details,
and the youth are occupied, and acquire the means of hon-
orable distinction, by the industrious exercise of their tal-
ents. Three physicians and two surgeons are in the pay
of the republic, in order that the poorest individual may
easily obtain medical assistance, especially when the plague
races in the neighboring provinces of Turkey.
The population of Kagusa is divided into five classes :
First, the clergy are dependent on the archbishop, who is
chosen by the pope from two individuals nominated by the
senate : mis body advances the necessary sum of money
for the expenses of the bulls, and by this means keeps the
prelate in a state of dependence. Secondly, the nobility
are styled illustrious, are held in great reverence, and kept
under exceUent order : the government is entirely in the
hands of this class; the archbishop and the cathedral chap-
ter are elected from among its members, and, in order that
the persons of the rulers may be held mviolable, a noble-
man can be only conducted to prison by one of his peers
or equals. Rousseau says, that if a law has been enacted,
ordaining that whoever enters into the council must place
his right foot in the room before his left, even this regula-
tion must be religiously obeyed: thus, in Ragusa, the
length of the counsellors' robes is so accurately determined,
that when Tuberone Cerva came into the council with a
longer garment than was permitted, the superfluous length
was cut off; and this disgrace affected him so violently,
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UKIVSRSAL InSTOVY. 6S
that he quitted public life, and entered into a monastery.
Thirdly, the citizens are the descendants of families which
are frequently of considerable antiquity ; or of the children
of noblemen, either of illegitimate birth, or the fruit of
marriages with persons of a lower rank : they are eligible
to the inferior offices. Fourthly, the people, consisting of
tradesmen, artisans, seamen, Greeks, Bosnians, and Jews,
are the clients of the noble families. Fifthly, the peasants
cultivate the ground' for the proprietor, and receive a part
of the produce as their recompense : they are brave as well
as industrious, and have often lost their lives in defence of
their masters, against the predatory Montenegrins.
. . «
SECTION XXVI.
MILAN.
The Visconti, who governed Milan, domineered most
cruelly over the citizens, oppressed their neighbors, and
were incessantly embroiled with their own family. John
Galeazzo, who had poisoned his uncle Barnaba, and re-
ceived the title of duke from Wenceslaf, king of the Ger-
mans, (A. D. 1395^, entertained plans for die subjection
of all Italy, and diea in the midst of a splendid career of
victory. A. D. 1402. His son, John Maria Angelo, im-
prisoned his own mother ; and irritated the people to such
a degree by his cruelty and avarice, that ne was put to
death : his brother Philip was expelled, and freedom re-
stored. A. D. 1412.
About this time Fantino Cane, lord of Vercelle, Alex-
andria, Tortona, and Novara, left all these dominions to his
widow, Beatrix of Tende : the latter married the banished
Philip; coUeeted a military force, conquered Milan, and
caused the demagogues to be executed. A few years af-
terwards, Philip beheaded Beatrix under pretence of adul-
tery. A. D. 1418. This duke carried on wars in Lora-
bardy, by i!neans of able generals, for his own aggrandize-
ment, while he remained at Milan, abandoned to ^lup-
tuous pleasures. He left, at his death, (A. D. 1447^,
only an illegitimate daughter ; ^ and the senate and people
again restored the freedom of the city.
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64 ' UNXTSBSAL HISTOBT.
Tbe military power of Italy was chiefly in the hands of
cond6ttieri or leaders of banditti, who were ambitious or
depraved, or overwhelmed with debts. Their followers
consisted of people who neither had nor wished for any
honest means oi maintaining themselves; who were in
danger of punishment for their crimes, or had been reduced
to poverty by misfortune : they lived on the pay which
they received from their chief, or more commonly on the
plunder which they obtained from the enemies of the princes
or cities into whose service they had entered. We haye
already seen, in the history of Johanna the Second of Na-
ples, the part which was acted by Jacob Sforza, the valiant
peasant of Cotignuola. His son Francesco, who possessed
mapy good qualities, married Blanca, die illegitimate
daughter of the last duke Visconti ; and the confidence of
the Milanese raised him to the command of the army of
the republic.
He afterwards took oocasicHi to quarrel with the admini-
strators of the public afiairs ; made himself sovereign (A.
D. 1451) ; and, having assumed the title of duke, erected
a citadel. He died in advanced age, crowned with gkny
and fortune (A. D. 1467 J ; and left to the bouse of the
Sfeirza the dominions which he had acquired, which com-
C bended not only the state of I^an in its present iextent*
the considerable districts which have since been sever-
ed from it by the Venetians, the Grisons, the Swiss, and
the dukes ot Savoy and Parma.
SECTION xxvn.
SAVOY.
The dignity as weH as the power of the counts of Savoy,
was now increasing.' A. D. 1365. Amadeus, called,
from hb favorite color, " the Green Count," received from
the emperor Charles the Fourth, a vicegerency of the em»
pire, comprised in twelve dioceses, and so extensive in au-
thority, that not only the ultimate decision of the appeals
brought before the imperial tribunals belonged to him, but
he had also the power of restoring, at all times, and at his
own pleasure, the validity of all die obsolete privUegea of
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trKinSRSAL BISTORT. 65
tliB empire. His descendant, Amadeus the Eighth, re-
ceived die tide of duke from Sigismund, son of Charles the
Fourth. A. D. 1416.
The importance of rounding and filling up the vacant
spaces in the boundaries of a state, which consisted of dis^
tmct and separate sovereignties, and the necessity of di-
minishing the authority of the nobles who were sufficiently
powerful to oppose the duke, were the means of training
the princes of this family to an unusual degree of activity
and vigilance. They took part- in ^11 the wars of the
neighboring countries; sometimes they allied themselves
with the feeble, in opposition to states dangerous by their
superior power, and sometimes m conjunction with a more
powerful ally, when they hoped by such means to aggran-
dize themselves. They flattered the vanity and took ad-
vantage of the poverty and other difficulties of the em-
perors, in order to obtain privileges which added weight to
then* authority. It was a fortunate circumstance for their
views, that their neighbors were either feeble in themselves,
or Jealous of each other : they did not, however, found
their power upon these variable circumstances 5 but turned
their attention to military affidrs with so much success, that
they obtained greater advantages with their own troops
than others gained by their mercenaries. Almost all tlie
ruling princes of this family fought at the head of their
own armies.
. With all their valor, however, they did not neglect policy.
They usually supported the cause of the citizens against
the great barons, m the hope that both parties would be-
come enfeebled in the contest, and might thus be rendered
more subservient. They took the part of the Greek
princes who reigned in Montserrat,* against the marquises
of Saluzzo, who, from their situation, were the most for-
midable to them ; and in consequence of this interference
the latter were compelled to become their vassals. At the
same period, they caused the privileges of the emperor
over his territory to be transferred to them, as well as the
feudal superiority of the bishops of Ivrea over Montserrat
which the ancient counts of that country had presented to
the tutelary saint of their church. They afterwards formed
VOL. III. 6*
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66 uKivs&SAL HisTomr.
matrimoiiial comiexioDs with the Gredc prince Palnoloeim,
who was of imperial family, and had become by mamage
count of Montserrat ; and thus secured the succession to
themselves. During the wars of the Genoese and Vene-
tians, they attached themselves to the party of the latter ;
because diey entertained hopes of aggrandizmg themselves
at the expense of the former : but as soon as Genoa wa4
vanouished, and Venice was establishing her dominion on
the Continent, the green count hastened to mediate a peace,
before the latter should become too powerful. In the mid-
dle of the 15th century, they estabhshed, as a family law,
the right of primogeniture and the indivisibility of their do-
, minions, wmch has hitherto suffisred in consequence of
partidon.
SECTION xxvin.
SWITZERLAND.
About the same period which gave birth to the com-
monwealth of Venice, occurrences took place in the moun-
tains of St. Gothard, which in the end gave origin to the
well-known confederacy of Switzerland.
The history of Wilham Tell and the men of the three
cantons, is not the commencement of Swiss liberty, but is
a circumstance which serves to confirm the existence and
the more ancient freedom of the old confederacy of Uri,
Schwyz, and Unterwalden. The internal government of
these forest cantons is also more ancient, and ^ bears the
original stamp of nature. The whole population of each
of diese vallies exercises the supreme power under the su-
perintend^ce of their landanunan, and entrusts its execu-
tion to a council and to judges, appointed without any re-
gard to nobility, and without a treasury or any other au-
thority than that which is conferred by the will of the nub-
Uc. Unterwalden was at that period divided by the forest
of Kemwald into two communities, one of which has carried
on wars and made conquests, without the concurrence of
the other.
Hese vallies were under the immediate guardianship of
the empire ; but king Albert of Habsburg, whose father
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DNrrftHSAL HISTOBT. ^
Iwd been their {Protector ih turbulent times, pro{y>sed that
they should place themselves under die hereditary protec-
tion of Ws family, which was near, and very powerful ; but
they, being systematically averse to change, and regarding
this king, who was feared by his other neighbors,, with dis-
trust, refused to accept his proposal. The king, therefore,
the more readily allowed the governors whom he appointed
over the hereditary states of Habsburg in these countries,
to be mvested with all the authority of the empire ; which
they exercised without moderation over the mountaineers,
whom the king, through ignorance of their character, held
in contempt. The people, ever undaunted in a just cause,
banished the governors, and demolished the fortresses
(A. D. 1308) ; but neither violated the private estates of
die boose of Habsburg, nqr committed any blpoddied ex-
cept in the weU-known instance of William TeB, who
avenged his own injuries on the governor, Herrmann Gress-
ler. Before the king had time to adopt any measures in
consequence of this afEair, which was not considered of im-
portance enough to deserve much attention, he was mur-
dered by his nephew; and his successor, Henry the
Seventh, confirmed the ancient constitution of the forest
cantons. A. D. 1309.
Afier the death of Henry, Frederick the son of Albert
and Lewis of Bavaria were elected; and the Swiss de-
clared m favor of the latter. Leopold, the brother of
Frederick, therefore seized the opportunity presented by a
feud which had arisen between the canton of Schwyx and
the monastery in the Einsideln, of which he was protector,
to lead an army against these forest cantons ; and a batde
took place in tiie narrow pass of Morgarten, between the '
mount Sattel and the lake of Aegeri, in which the Swiss
made so good use of the advantages which local situation
gave them over their imprudent enemy, that die latter was
totally defeated. Count Otho of Strasberg made an irrup-
tion on the same day into Unterwalden, and suffered a
similar discomfiture. These warlike deeds were the first
achievements which rendered the Swiss celebrated m
foreign countries, and gave respectability to the union
amcmg dieir neighbors. The confederacy neither made
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^S!^
68 UNIVERSAL HI8T0AT.
any alteration in its duties as a portion of the empire^ nor
m the private relations of the estates or people belonging to
the family of Habsburg in the forest cantons ; but contented
itself with directing the exertions of the community to the
simple object of maintaining its established constitutipn.
By this moderate proceeding, it claimed the esteem even
of its enemies.
The Austrian city of Lucem, lying on the lake which
bears the same name, and surrounded by the other forest
cantons, was seventeen years afterwards received into the
confederacy, in the same spirit of moderation. A. D.
1332. The union of aU the territories surroundmg that
lake, was of great importance : the social spirit of the citi-
zens of Lucem, encouraged by the successful example of
their neighbors, induced them to accede to the union;
but their object and intention in taking^^at step, was not
the overthrow of their government, butibe maintenance of
their legal rights and relations.
Berchtold Von Zaringen, who governed under the Swa-
bian emperors the territory of Burgundy, (situated at the
feet of the Alps and in mount Jura,) had founded the city
of Bern (A. D. 1191), as an asylum for the nobility and
commoners of the neighboring country, who, from ancient
times, had lived as freemen under the imperial protection,
but had been exposed to manifold oppressions from the
greater provincial nobility. The citizens of Bern early
manifested a noble and enterprising spirit, not only in de-
fending iheir own freedom, which was subject to frequent
attacks, but in communicating similar advantages to the
neighboring people, who were in th^ same situation.
Bern at length Appeared desirous of adding dominion to
her 'independence, and received the city of Laupen in
pledge from the emperor Lewis ; accordingly the nobles of
the country united in a league for effecting her destruction.
In this perilous situation, they received from the forest
cantons, who we^e not under any obligation to help them,
the most magnanimous assistance (A. D. 1339) ; and un-
der the conduct of Rudolf von Erlach, gained by their
courage and military skill, an important victory. From
this time forth they remained members of tile Swiss Con-
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY*
fed^acy, in which relation they were soon afterwards ctm-
firmed by a perpetual league. A. D. i353. Bera
formed, besides, a particular federal republic oa the west-
em fixmtier ctf the cantons, which was partly estabMshad
by confederacies with Solothum, Biel, Freibiiig, and Va-
lais, which bad separate rights of their o#b, which they
were ^sirous of maiBtaining ; and pardy by receiving the
inhabitants of the valley of Hasli, the nobles of the upper
district, and many other noblemen and peasants, under
their protection, and admitting them to the rights of citi-
zenslup. •
The community annually elected a mayor, officers who
presided under him over the quarters oi the city, and a
council, which originally consisted of twelve but was after-
wards doubled. As the residences of the citizens of Bern
were dispersed over a considerable extent of country, it
wafi ordamed at an early period, that a selection of two
I^ndred pers(uis should represent the communis in im-
portant anairs ; and in order to preclude the necessity of
teo firequentljr calling this large body together, four out of
en^ry town-district were nominated, to take |NX>visio]iaIly
into their consideration all measures that might be ne-
cessary.-
Zunch was a place of great antiquity, which, by the
natural advantages of its situation, had gradually recovered
from the eifects of the disasters that accompanied the de-
struction of the western empire, and haa subsequendy
risen to considerable importance by the influence of its two
ecclesiastical establishments, and of many privileges which
had been conferred on it by kings and emperors of Ger-
many. It was governed by a body of nobles and citizens,
consisting of thirty-six members ; and the executive gov-
erament was ccnnmitted to one-third of this number, of
which eight w^e citizens and four nobles or knights, who
held their autbcnity during only four months : the number
twelve was indeed most commody adopted at the foundar
tien of Grerman municipalities. Tiie statutes w^re enacted,
the counsellors elected, and all measures of general im-
pertanoe were resolved on, in the assemblies of the coitl-
munity. Party spirit at length shook this constitution ; and
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70 ' UNIVERSAL BISTORT.
Rudolf Brun took advantage of the abuses to which a long-*
coatmued administration is usually liable, in order to repre«
sent a change as absolutely necessary, and to introduce a
new form of government. The former rulers, who were
eidier ccmscious of some delmquency, or wished to obtain
assistance from abroad, or believed that their presence
would be willingly dispensed with, withdrew into foreign
countries.
The office of burgomaster was now created, and wa«
bestowed for life, together with extraordinary powers, on
Rudolf Brun. A. D. 1336. The municipality was dis-
tributed into companies, in such a manner that all the noble
and wealthy citizens might constitute one body with the
title of constables, out of which the new burgomaster and a
few others should choose the half of the council ; while the
remainder of that body was elected by the rest of the citi-
zens, who were divided into thirteen companies, with the
title of masters of the guilds. These companies^ or guilds,
were at the same time societies of artisans.
The expelled rulers, with the nobles of the vicinity, en-
tered into a conspiracy against the new institution. At
their head was count Hanns, of the family of Habsburg,
lord of Rappersw}rl, a town which is also situated on the
lake of Zurich: this enterprise was, however, unfortunate ;
the count was made prisoner, and Rapperswyl destroyed.
This occurrence excited the indignation of the other princes
of Habsburg, especially of Albert duke of Austria, whose
reputation as a politic ruler was very great ; and Rudolf
Brun, seeing himself in danger of being mvolved m a war
with this prince, proposed to the Swiss to admit his city as
a member of the perpetual league. A. D. 1351. His
application was accepted ; and Zurich thus acquired the
assurance of support, and Switzerland obtained a bulwarit
and a market in a friendly country. It was also agreed,
that the constitution of Zurich should not be destroyed by
force ; but that every state might remain at liberty to efiect
peacea1)ly any alteration which it might think fit to adopt.
The Alps of St. Gothard, and the rivers Thur and Air,
were fixed as the boundaries of the country wUch the
confederacy was bound to protect.
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UfiriVSBSAL HISTOBT. 71
The expected war broke out ; 'but as the duke was now
too much rafeebled by age and disease to prosecute it
with vigor, it was many times interrupted by negociations.
The people of Glaxis, among, the other subjects of Aus-
tria, were summoned to lend their assistance against Zu-
rich. Claris lies on the rivers which form the lake of
JZiu*ich, and had been bestowed, some centuries before
these events, as an estate, on the monastery of Sekingen, of
which the duke was protector. But the people of Claris,
who, like all the Alpiqe tribes, possessed certam privileges,
and whose rights had been infringed by some late bnova-
tions, refused to take any part in this war, killed the gover-
nor Stadion, (A. D. 1362), who endeavored to compel
dieir services ; and, with exceptions m favor of the privi-
leges of Sekingen, took an oath of allegiance to the dwiss
confederacy. They were accounted excellent combatants;
and like most races of shepherds, accustomed to endure
fatigue and the inclemencies of the seasons, were much
better adapted for the defence of a country, than to form
the infantry of a regular army.
The Swiss afterwards took possession of Zug, a city
which had been inherited by the house of Habsburg from
the counts of Lenz})urg and Kiburg. But the confede-
rates were desirous of incorporated brethren, and not of
subjects ; and therefore the three original forest cantons,
together with Lucem, Bern, Zurich, Claris, and Zug, form
the eight ancient states of the confederacy. In af&irs,
however, in wWch Bern, being more distandy situated,
takes no part, only seven states are enumerated.
A. D. 1354. " Duke Albert laid siege to Zurich with a
much larger army than it was possible to maintain in such
a country. He afterwards induced Charles the Fourth to
declare an imperial war against the confederates ; but the
latter found means to convince the Cermans, that no me-
thods of defence against superior power are attended with
less inconvenience than confederacies, which demand no
sacrifices from dieir members. The etnjperor was unable
to counteract the force of public opinion for any considera-
ble time ; and the campaign, which had been opened with
great parade, was feebly conducted and produced no im-
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78 innTERBAL HISTOBT*
portant conseauences. From that time, die anhnoshy of
the house of Habsburg against the Swiss, was si]8pa[iiled
for thirty years.
The three forest cantons fcirmed the centre of the league,
around which all the new confederates attached themselves;
they retained their own intimate connexion, and have fre-
quently acted for themselves, without reference to the rest
of the cantons. Their union depends not on a common
chief or a senate, but on the general sentiment, the love of
liberty : every separate state, therefore, detained its own
separate and peculiar capabilities ; whole, with regard to
die interest of their common country, they have but one
soul. There is this difference between the Swiss and die
ancient Greeks, that die latter wefre of an impetuous char-
acter, while the former were remarkably calm and sedate ;
diat among the confederates, the commanding quali^ was
soundness of understanding ; among the ancients, a ridi
exuberance of ideas. Though Athens and Sparta, accord-
ingly, attained to a degree of importance which was never
ascribed to Zurich or to Bern, the freedom of the Greeks
was lost by the faults of that nation, in a very short time
after they had attained the highest gfcry ; while the con-«
federacy yet exists, and will continue until revolutions, ex-
ternal to its constitution, shall swallow up this peaceable
government, together with other states of inferior power.
Whenever tiiat event shall take place, the integrity, indus-
try, and sedateness of the national character, Will either
gain the esteem of the conqueror, and await a favorable
^change of circumstances at home, or it will induce the peo-
ple to seek a new country beyond the ocean, or in other
distant reeions of the earth.
Soon after the wars of which we have been speaking,
Gersau, a village which had purchased its freedom, enteriMl
into a treaty of mutual defence with the forest cantons (A.
D. 1359) ; and though it contained only four hundred
men, retained its liberty as long and as inviolably as the
powerful state of Bern. This prosperous £^t is governed
by a landamman and a council of nine ; each of whom, in
important cases, associates with himself one or two of the
country people.
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 73
A. D. 1375. The peace of the. country was disturbed
by a numerous and irregular host, consistbg of 'English
and of the vassals of French noblemen : this body had been
collected byEnguerrand, lord of Coucy, for the purpose
of compelling the .dukes of Austria to pay the marriage
portion of his mother, who was also their aunt. The con-
federates situated on the borders, rendered themselves for-
midable by the successful attacks of their wandering par-
ties ; and at length the army of Coucy, having received
some satisfaction from the dukes, was dissolved.
The power of the family of Habsburg was divided, and
m the hands of princes who possessed a chivalrous spirit,
though they were destitute of systematic policy, and
of the qualifications necessary to rulers. Hence arose
disorders, oppression on the part of the public officers, and
exasperation on that of tlieir subjects and neighbors : and
hence, at length, that war was occasioned in the upper
frontier countries, which was entirely conducted by the no-
bles against the democracy. It must be observed, that the
citizens and peasants had arisen to a greater degree of
affluence, while the nobles had been dissipating their patri-
monial wealth in a variety of follies. This war was decid-
ed by the victory gained by the four forest cantons at Sem-
pach (A. D, 1386), and by the advantages which the peo-
ple of GJaris obtained at Nafels, (A. D. 1388). The ex-
ploits of these days were equal to the most brilliant of an-
cient history, and left to the nation the blessing of freedom, '
together with spkndid examples of valor: they are still
celebrated, and with good reason ; for the lot of this peo-
ple would still be emdable, if they only knew how to die like
their ancestors !
. The object of the succeeding wars was not so much the
acquisition or defence of. liberty, as of their dominions.
The pontinual exercise of their arms ^ave the Swiss
infantry so decided a superiority, that, until the introduc-
tion of modern tactics, it was too formidable to dread an^
fresh attacks. The Swiss were never overcome in their
own country : and even their defeats at Basil and Marig-
nano were not less honorable than victories.
The example of aggrandisement was chiefly displayed
VOL. III. 7
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74 UNIVCBSAL HISTOBT.
by Bern, which took advantage of the financial difficuldes
of the neighboring nobles to purchase their dominions, and
of the perplexity to which other states had reduced the
house of Habsburg, in order to make conquests. They
contributed principally, in the favorable moment of the
council of Constance, (A. D. 1415), to overthrow the pow-
er of that house in the Aargau : the representatives of west-
ern Christendom had summoned them to this achievement;
the emperor and die church dissolved the compact of peace
which subsisted between the house of Habsburg and the
forest cantons, and which bad hitherto been religiously ob-
served ; and, at length, the hereditary estates of that fam-
ily, in the vallies of Switzerland, were confiscated. These
common acquisitions were, and still conunue to be, |ov-
erned by magistrates chosen alternately from the victorious
cantons 5 and their annual accounts, together with the com-
plaints of their subjects, are examined by deputies appoint-
ed by all the participating cities and states. These com-
mon domams form an additional bond of union between
the latter; but dieir administiration is accused of many
gross abuses, and of a perpetual conspiracy of the provin-
cial governors with th^ deputies, especially with those of
the democracies which expose that office to sale, to the .
prejudice of the interests of their subjects. Complaints
are, b fact, renewed, similar to those which were brought
, against the Athenians and Lacedemonians during the pe-
riod of tlieir domination. The sums, however, which are
given for offices in the democratic states, preclude the en-
trusting of power to men wholly destitute of property, who
would scarcely be restramed by the rules of propriety.
. At the death of Frederick, the last count of Tokenburg,
a civil war took place between Zurich and Schwyz; both
which Slates earnestly \nshed eithei* to take the subjects of
the late nobleman under their protection, or entirely to
connect and incorporate them wiui their own country ; and
ofiered them tlie rights of citizenship in perpetuity, as well
as a share in the privileges of their late master. Schwyz
was the eldest, but Zurich at that time the most powerful,
of those states whom the founders of the liberties of the
country, occupied with afiairs of greater importance, had
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OimrSBSAL HISTOAT. 76
alkfwed to hold the first nmk. The war tiook a turn un*
fayorable to the interests of Zurich} agabst which all the
confederates declared themselves. That state, therefore,
concluded an alliance with Austria : but the contest was
carried on successfully on her part ; for the city itself was
divided by factions, and neither tlie negociations for peace,
nor the operations of war, could be carried on unanimously.
After some bloody battles had been fQught, Zurich was
again left to herself; and at length agreed to tlie same pro-
posals which had been made to her before she had tried
the fate of arms. A. D. 1450.
SECTION XXIX.
AUSTRIA.
All the different branches of the house of Habsburg
became extinct about the same period. They were all de«
scended from Albert, who, in the year 1352, had besieged
Zurich. Rudolf his eldest son, who first assumed the tide
of archduke and was a ruler of great talents, had acquired
the county of Tirol. Margaret, the former sovereign of
the country, had intended to declare Stephen, duke of
Bavaria, her heir ; but while the latter neglected the op-
portunity afforded by this favorable moment, and was
amusing himself with entertainments, Rudolf was not de-
terred by the severity of the season, from undertaking a
journey to the residence of Margaret, whom he succeeded
m persuading to change her intentions. A. D. 1363. The
archduke died however in the bloom of youth, without
heirs (A. D. 1365); and his brothers, Albert and Leopold,
divided his territories. The fonner inhefited Austria; and
the latter, who had many sons, obtained all the remainder.
A. D. 1375.
Albert the Third restored peace and order. to the state,
which had been kept in perpetual alarms by the predatory
nobles. For this purpose it was necessary to levy a land-
tax, the produce of which amounted to a hundred thousand
pounds. His pious son,. Albert the Fourth, undertook a
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UNIVCKSAL HISTOB.T.
pilgrimage to the Qpty Land (A. D. 1S9&); whSe Ml
servants, with the help of the clergy, the citizens, and the
Jfews, were engaged in carrying on the war against the
domestic robbers, many of whom were publicly hanged,
while such of them as were noblemen of very high rank,
were executed in the night, by drowning diem in the
Danube. A. D. 1404. This duke caused one hundred
heretics to be burned to death in Stiria. He was the
father of Albert the Fifth, to whom the last emperor of the
house of Luxemburg gave his daughter, and who succeed-
ed to his father-in-law in the empire, and in the kingdoms
of Bohemia and Hungary (A. D. 1438) ; but he s^med to
have inherited these three crowns, only to adorn his pas-
sage to the tomb. A. D. 1439. His posthumous son,
Ladislaf, a mild and beautiful youth, was acknowledged by
his people as king, only a short time before his death (A.
D. 1458) ; and with him expired that branch of the house
of Habsburg, which was descended from Albert the Third.
Leopold, who had fought bravely Against the Venetians,
and the cities of the Rhenish confederacy^ lost the battle
of Sempach, together with his life, in a contest with the
Swiss. A. D. 1386. He left behind him the reputation
of a hero ; and his family owes to him the acquisition of
Freiburg, in the Breisgau, which delivered itself, with his
assistance, from the tyranny of Egon, count of Fiirstem-
berg. A. D. 1368. Leopold left four sons, one of whom,
named William, an active and amiable prince, gained the
affection of the heiress of Poland : that princess was how-
ever obliged, by political considerations, to marry Jagel,
?and prince of Lithuania, by the addition of whose territory
oland was raised to the rank of a powerful monarchy. Of
Leopold the Long, the brother of^William, we only know
that he repressed, by very severe measures, the spirit of
liberty in tlie inhabitants of Vienna. A. D. 141 1 . Ernest
and Frederick transmitted the hereditajTy dominions of
Leopold to their descendants.
Frederick, the unfortunate friend of pope John the
Twenty-third, was deprived of the family estates in the
Aargau, by the fathers assembled at Constance. His son
Sigismund, during his long administration, lost the Thurgau ,
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VmVZna'Mh HISTORT. 77
10 the Smss (A. D. 1460) ; and, as he died childless, left
Tirol and all the remaiDing frontier territories, to Ernest,
the only surviving archduke. A. D. 1495.
Ernest had two sons : one of these was the emperor Fre*
derick, and the other the chivalrous archduke Albert. A.
D. 1424. The former oudived his brother, and Ladislaf
the son of Albert, and saw his son Maximilian elected kine
of the Germans, appointed heir to his coiism of Tirpl, and
married to the heiress of the dukes of Burgundy.
SECTION XXX.
BOHEMIA.
Pn^ue and Bohemia had attained, imder the kings of
the house of Luxemburg, to a high degree of prosperity
and civilization. We have ahready spoken of lung John,
who first compelled the nobles, after maiy years of confu-
sion, to respect order. He retained the Silesian principal-
ity of Glogau, and by such means acquked pretensions to
the Polish cities of Pos^n and Kalisch. Casimir of
Teschen, whom he invested with the fief of Glogau, to-
gether with the dukes of Oppek, Sagan, Oels and Wolau,
Steinau, Brieg and Lignitz, Miinsterberg and Ratibon, and
at length the whole b(Kly of Silesian princes, most of whom
were jealous of Poland, placed themselves under the pro-
tection of king John : Casimir, king of the Poles, re-
nounced all share in these proceedmgs. A. D. 1335.
A. D. 1 346. Charles, the fourth emperor of that name,
was, as a sovereign, worthy of John his fajther. He had
received in the university of Paris, and at the court of
France, an education superior to that of roost princes of
the age. He began his reign by relieving the people firom
a part of their burdens : and though his necessities were so
great, as to compel him to borrow m the city of Spires a
sum of one thousand pounds, which he obtained with diffi-
culty, and under humiliating conditions, he seized with
such vi^ance every opportuniQr of enridiin^ himself, that
in the end he succeeaed in amassmg a considerable trea-
VOL. III. 7*
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76 unnrxBSAL BisTosr.
tore^ He now founded an umveraiy b Praguei far At
four nations of Bohemians^ Poles, Saxons, and Bavuiansi
whom he arranged in the above-mentioned order: and
without oppressing his own country, he purchased the
Upper Palatinate and Brandenburg.
The Upper Palatinate, in the ' mountains which extend
from the north of Bavaria to the forest of Bohemia, had
been mortgaged by the last princes of the family of Ho*
henstaufen to the dukes of Bavaria. Rupert, a count pa-
latine of that family, sold his claims to the emperor Charles,
who was his father-in-law, for twenty thousand marks.
Charles su£fered a small part of this territory- to remain un-
der the dominion of the duke of Bavaria, m consideratioD
of a sum of money ; but the 'princes of Bavaria continued
' to maintain that dukedom to be inalienable ; and during
the disturbances which accomp^ed the reign of Wencea-
laf, the^ rendered their declaration valid by the good for-
tune ot their arms.
The marks of Brandenburg, the count of which territo-
ry held the hereditary office of arch-chamberlain, were go-
verned gloriously by the family of Anhalt. Berlin flourish-
ed under their sway, in the enjoyment of exemption from
foreign judicature and arbitrary decisions ; the rivers were
rendered navigable, and Stendal and Soltwedel became com-
mercial towns, whose names were famous in the Hanseatic
league, and m the havens of the Baltic. John of Anhidt
died without heirs ; and the emperor Lewis, without regard
to the rights of the nation, under the pretence that the feu-
dd claim to Brandenburg belonged only to that branch of
the house of Anhalt, which was now extinct, resumed the
marks as a reverted fief of the empire, and bestowed them
b that character on his sen Lewis. A. D. 1322. The
latter fixed his residence at Berlb, the inhabitants of which
were animated b]^ an enterpriang spirit, directed to the im-
TOOvAnent of their country and the preservation of liberty.
The encroachments of the eccleaastics were repressed by
many popular commotions, and the magistrates were com-
pelled to observe the laws.
After the death of this emperor, the dukes of Bavaria
found an indefatigable enem^ in Charles the Fomth. He
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ONItSmSAL HISTORY. 79
invested Rudolf of Anhalt, elector of Saxony, with the fief
of the old mark ; he relinquished his feudal claims over
Stargard; and raised the princes of Mecklenburg, who
had received Stargard from Brandenburg, to the rank of
independent dukes.
While Charles was surrounding the electorate with rivals
and enemies, an occurrence, suitable to the romantic spirit
of the age, took place, which presented an opportunity of
interfering with its internal constitution. A miller named
Rehbok, declared himself to be the elector Woldemar,
(who had been manjr years dead), j^retending that he had
returned from pilgrimage, after having spent a long time
m penance. The emperor encouraged this adventurer,
procured a party to advocate his pretensions, and called
nim his brother-in-law : he was besides supported with an
armed force by Rudolf of Saxony. Lewis of Bavaria was
accordingly compelled to seek a full reconciliation with
Charles, upon wnich the adventurer was recognised as an
impostor.
Otho, the son of Lewis, afterwards sold the electorate of
Brandenburg to Charles, in order to be able to devote
himself, without interruption, to pleasure. A. D. 1373.
But the electors possessed large , demesne estates m the
marks, and the tolls afforded a revenue of 160,000 dot
hurs : the country was cultivated by a numerous peasantry,
distributed m far more numerous villages than at present ;
and the value of estates, coinpared with that of our own
nmes, was in the proportion oi one to ten.
Charles the Fourth united under his hereditary sceptrA,
Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, the Lausitz, and Brandenburg:
but previous to the introduction of regularly disciplined
standmg armies, every popular commotion was sufficient to
overthrow such a power as his. This became manifest
under his sons.
This emperor, by the advice of the electors, promul-
edited the golden bull, which was framed by his counsellor
Bartolus ; to whom, as the latter was not a nobleman, he
presented the arms of Bohemia. A. D. 1356. The iro«
perial elections were thus regulated, eighteen years after
die diet of the electors at Reuse, (A. D. 1338), by which
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80 T7VIVSRSAL HI8TOBT.
the empire had been declared independent of the will of
thepope.
This prince was also the legislator of Bohemia : but,
although he, on the one hand, aimed at the extirpation of
many abuses, and, among others, of the judicial combat |
and, on the other, paid so much respect to the ancient
rights of his subjects, that he demanded military service
from them only during four weeks without pay ; yet his
laws, probably on account of the neglect of some estab-
lished forms, were not confirmed by the states. He sue*
ceeded, however, in circumscribing, in a certain degree,
the power of the nobles ; and, in cases of wounding or
maiming, established the Mosaic law of retaliation.
A. D. 1378. The spirit of investigation which had been
excited at Prague by the studies which were there pur-
sued, developed itself under the reign of Wenceslaf.
The difference of opinioQ, which was prosecuted with
extreme rancor, at first regarded only . the metaphysical
subtildes of the reality, or the mere nominality of universal
ideas. The division was afterwards increased by national
antipathy, the Bohemians demanding three voices in the-
academical senate, in which the votes were given accord-
bg to the three nations. The other three nations, there-
fore, returned their records, msignia, and matriculations to
the king ; and many thousand students, with their teachers
and masters, quitted Prague. A..D. 1409.
This twofold fermentation was augmented by religious
difierences. John Huss, rector of the university, a man
who was distinguished from his colleagues not more by hi3
knowledge of the original languages of the holy scriptures,
than by his eminent vutues, zeabusly opposed the abuses
which, during a long period of ignorance and forbearance,
had been introduced into the church. When the council
of Constance assembled, king Sigismund sent Henry of
Lefib to Prague, to invite Huss and his learned friend Je-
rome, under the assurance of a safe convoy, to appear be-
fore diat assembly. The prelates hated the moral censor,
and hoped to be able to repress the growth of the spirit of
free inquiry ; and Sigismund was induced to second their
purposes. Huss was condemned, although the Bohemians
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,l7NtT£RSAL HISTOBY. $L
\h vain &J)pealed to the roydl promise for his security : he
Wai defirered by the bishops to the secjular arm^ and his
soul given to the devil ; " and I," he replied, " give up fey
spirit into the hand of my God and Saviour." He was
burned alfve, (A. D. 1414), and continue to pray in the
midst of the flames. His friend Jerome suffered the
same punishment, which was justly esteemed by Pog-
gio, the Florentine, to be preferable to that which was in-
flicted upon Socrates.
The base compliance of Sigisraund cost him the crown
of Bohemia, (A. D. 1418), which he in vain epdeavored
to govern after the death of Wenceslaf. With the firm-
ness which belongs to a good cause, Ziska and Procopius, th*
leaders of the Hussites, maintained the rights of their coun-
try and of outraged humanity. Their arms Were the
terror of Austria, Franconia, and Saxony ; and their
speeches before the councils, the voice of conviction, of
good sense, and of the unconquerable mind : they were at
J^ngth divided by the artifices erf their enemies, (A. D.
1436), and Sigismund was acknowledged a few months
before his decease.
A. D. 1439. The short reign of Albert was followed
by the long minority of Ladislaf : and after the premature
death of the latter, (A. D. 1466), George Podiebradsky,
a Bohemian nobleman, and a Hussite, at first without a tide,
and afterwards with the royal dignity, administered the gov*-
ernment of the country according to the principles of equity,
and with extraordinary wisdom and vigor. A. D. 1 467. The
people were in a state of agitation, the joint effect of the
spirit of inquiry and the tyranny of persecution ; and as
mey were destitute of guidance, ^ multitude of parties
arose : the Calixtines, however, reunited themselves to the
church, as the latter admitted them to the communion.
The high'-spirited Taborites resolved themselves into the
peaceable communities of the Moravian brethren : tfieir
directors received consecration from Stephen, a bishop of
the Waldenses, and Fulneck became the chief seat of their
union, which possessed two hundred churches. The
Abrahamides, who contented themselves with the simple
worship practised by that patriarch ; and the Deists, who
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UiriTXRSAL' HISTOmT.
held the em^o^ent of human reason to be the only safe
source of religious doctrine, kept themselves more care*
fully concealed.
SECTION XXXI.,
BBANDENBUBG.
The house of Luxemburg, the male line of which ex-
mred with Sigismund, had previously been deprived of
JBrandenburg. This country, under the late feeble admin-
istrations, had been agitated by terrible disorders : the
roads were insecure, even to the deputies of the provincial
assemblies ; and the lakes and rivers were infested by rob-
bers, until Frederick, burgrave of Niirnberg, undertopk,
for the sum of one hundred thousand Hungarian florins,
to tranquilize the marches. He drove the violent Wikard,
of Rochow, from Potsdam, defeated Dietrich of Quitzow,
the chief of the nobles who had conspired against the peace
of the country, and demolished the oppressive fortresses.
Frederick was descended from a younger branch of the
family of Hohenzollern, (of whom the eldest had perhaps
twelve thousand subjects, and a revenue of seventy thousand
florins,) which was descended from Thassilo of Altorf, of
the race of the Guelphs. Eiselfriedrich, a descendant of
this count, probably acquired the burgraviate of Niirnberg
by marriage with an heiress of Yohburg* This family ag-
grandized itself at the extinction of the dukes of Meran,
who had dominions in Franconia, Tyrol, and Upper Bur-
gundy : and king Rudolf, who was brother-in-law to the
burgrave Conrad, favdi'ed the enterprises of his son Fre-
derick. The principality, which was afterwards governed
by two lords ol Anspach and Baureuth, was thus formed
around the fortress of Niirnberg. Frederick purchased
the mark of Brandenburg from Sigismund. A. D. 1417*
Frederick and his successors were possessed of so many
distinguished qualities, of so great activity, prudence, and
perseverance, that the nobles of the marks were kept in
order; the insurrections in Berlin appeased ; and the state,
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UKITERSAL RI8T0B.T. 93
as it were created anew, became of importaDce to all the
powers of the vicinity. The son of the first Frederick,
who bore his father's name, took advantage of the diffi-
culties into whi'ch the Teutonic order which governed
Prussia had fallen, (A. D. 1440,) and obtained the new
mark, claimed Pomerania, (A. D. 1464), and laid the
foundation of those pretensions to Poland, which were ren-
dered valid after the lapse of three hundred years.
The emperor Sigismund, who .was unable to impart
vigor either to the execution of the laws, or to his own
word and will, thus founded the authority of 'th6 house of
HohenzoUern, in Brandenburg, while his own daughter
brought crowns into the family of Austria. Both these
families were descended from the ancient count Albert, of
Habsburg ; the Austrian branch being derived from his
son Rudolf, and that of the burgi*ave from his daughter
Clemenda; and both, as we have just seen, acquired at
the same period a new degree of splendor.
SECTION xxxn.
THE ELECTORATE OF SAXOmT.
The electorate of Saxony fell, about the same time, to
the margraves of Meissen. As the electorate of Branden-
burg was attached to the possession of the city of that
name, so was that of Saxony, by the authority of the golden
bull of Charies IV., to the town of Wittenberg.
The electors of Saxony of the family of Anhalt, who
had hfeld that dignity ever since the fall of Henry the Lion,
became extinct, just at the time whi&n Sigismund, who was
engaged in his war against the Hussites, stood in the ut-
most need of the aid of Frederick, the^artial and power-
ful margrave of Meissen and landgrave of Thuringia. The
duke of Lauenburg, and the new elector of Brandenburg,
were also joint competitors for the electorate of Saxony.
Henry the Lion had taken the territory of Lauenburg
from the Slavonians ; and one of his sons bestowed it, as a
fief, on the count of Holstein : the latter, who was taken
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jmsomer by WoMemar, kingofDeniBark, gwe tbis di^nft
for bis ransom ; and Woldemar transferred it to his son4Qr
kw, the count of Orl^miinde. Orlamunde being made
prisoner by the count of Schwerin, Lauenburg again served
as a ransom : and Schwerin, who had been supported in a
war which he had carried on by the electors of Saxony of
the house of Anhalt, gave it to them as a remuneration iat
their expenses. From that time forth it was governed by
a younger branch of that family, who expected to succeed,
to the electorate on the extinction of the elder : and the
imperial protonotary Michel von Priest, provost of Bunz-
lau, either with or without the concurrence of the em-
peror, had prepared a deed of reversion for the duke of
Laueuburg.
On receiving intelligence that the electorate of Saxony
had become vacant, the elector of Brandenburg, Seken-
dorf, sent to the emperor, and begged to be invested with
that fief : but it was now discovered that the margrave <^
Meissen was also provided with a deed of reversion, pre-
pared by the same protonotary. The profusion of the
emperor himself, and the pleasures of his consort Barbara,
of Cilley, who was another Messalina, rendered poverty
the common condition of his court : and the war againiSt
the Hussites proved to be the " reason of state " which de-
cided in favor of the margrave. The elector of Branden-
burg concluded a paternal treaty of succession with the
new electoral house, by which diat fainily which should
first become extmct, left all its possessions to its survivors.
A. D. 1435.
SECTION XXXffl.
A. D. 1373. A more ancient compact of inheritance,
with regard to the estates in Thurinpa, abeady existed
between the family of Meissen and that of Hesse. A. D.
1248. Judith the eldest sister of the last landgrave of
Hiuringia, was the ancestor of the family of Meissen ; and
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OHIVKBSAL HlSTOinr. 86
tiib landgrtvesof Hesse are descended from her niece
Sophia. The parents of the latter occupy a distinguished
Ei in the list of saints ; and her husband was Henry the
aanimous, duke of Brabant, whose family is traced
wards to the Carlovingians. After the death of her
faosband, Sophia con(]|uered the dominion of Hesse from
the Thuringian inheritance, on behalf of her minor scm
Henry, who transferred it to the empure as a fief (A. D.
1292} ; in consequence of which he became a prince of
the empire, under the title of landgrave, which had been
retained from Thurinda.
The possession of Ziegenhayn was afterwards acquired/
bat the chief foundation of tlie power of this family was
teid by. another Henry in his marriage with Anna oi Cat*
lenelnbogen. A. D. 1479. This heiress of powerful
dounts brought the true old Cattenland, situated at the
mouotain of Melibog, and all that had been added to it in
a long course of centuries, into the house of Hesse, which
How reigned from the shores of the -Dymel to the fertile
^ beautiful district caUed the Bergstrasse, where the
aerchiepiscopal estates of Mayence bwder on the dominions
ol the Palatinate.
SECTION XXXIV.
THE PALATINATE AND BAVARIA.
After the extinction of the princes of Luxemburg, and
when the houses of HohenzoUem and Meissen were ad-
vancing toward thek more recent splendor, the family of
Wittenbftch, whibh ruled m Bavaria and* in the palatinate
of the Rhine, might eaialy have become the most powerful
in Germany, had not its prosperity been prevented both by
enon and misfortunes.
A. D. 1265. The dominions of this family had been
divided in an early age ; and the treaty which was con-
cluded atPavia (A. D* 1329) by the emperor Lewis, duke
of Bavaria, with his nephew Rudolf, prince palatbe, seemed
CO complete the separation, which now became evident in
VOL. III. " 8
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86 TTNIVSBSAL HISTORY.
all afiairs of state. At the contested imperial election, tba
father of Rudolf was opposed to his own brother ; as was
Maximilian of Bavaria, m the seventeenth century, to tlie '
count palatine Frederick, when the latter was elected king
of Bohegiia. The countries were separated by many for-
eign dominions : and the emperors of the family of Lux-
emburg opprefSsed the house of Lewis.
Lewis himself, who had at lengtli succeeded ia uniting
the whole of Bavaria under his sway, contributed to en-
feeble his family by dividing tliat country among four sons.
Stephen at length remained sole duke of Upper Bavaria, at
•Munich ; and Albert, of Lower Bavaria, at Straubingen.
The princes of this house have always had the singular
fortune to reign in widely distant countries. We have al-
ready seen that Brandenburg was governed by the sons of
Le\iis, who bequeathed to the lower Bavarian branch of
his family, whose revenue in that country did not exceed
tWenty-eight thousand florins, the earkioms of Holland,
Zealand and Hennegau, and the hereditary possessions of
his wife Margaret, heiress of the house of Avesnes. The
dukes of Lower Bavaria reigned in both dominions for
eighty years, until the princess Jacqueline inherited the
Netherlands in conformity with the law of that country.
That portion was left by her, notwithstanding the 6ppo-
sition of the emperor Sigismund, whose power was insuf-
ficient to support his objections, to the duke of Burgundy ;
and Lower Bavaria became united to the upper division
of that country, from the ruling family, of which, other
branches had sprung.
A. D. 1424. This union, however, was not effected
without great misunderstandings. Sigismund declared
Lower Bavaria t6 be a reverted imperial fief, and entrust-
ed its administration to Albert o( Austria, his nephew :
while the four princes of Upper Bavaria were contesting
the question, whether Lower Bavaria should be inherited
by the first-born or by all the four. The states, who best
understood the constitution of the country, and wer^ pro-
bably the best judges of what would be advantageous to
its interests, decided that Lower Bavaria reverted to the
collective family of Upper Bavaria ; but that, until a new
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UNIVEBSAL HISTOBT. 87
arrangement should be agreed upon, the former district
should be administered in comroon by a deputy and receiver.
The duke of Austria was at length induced to give up his
claira, and the emperor confirmed the succession to the
family of Wittelsbach ; which gradually arose to great im-
portance without any reunion of the power of its different
branches.
The house of the electoral palatinate of the Rhine, how-
ever, under active and inteDigent princes, attained to a
much greater degree of splendor : among these we must
reckon Rupert, the original founder of the university of
Heidelberg (A. D. 1346) ; his second successor, of tlie
same name, who mounted the throne . of the German em-
pire (A. D. 1400^; the judicious elector Lewis (A. D.
1439) ; and especially that Frederick who is justly styled
the Victorious, who gained the batde of Sekenheim, (A. D.
1462), and was the most powerful prince on the Rhine,
and the father of his cx>untry. The family of Lowenstein,
at Wertheim, is descended from the unequal marriage of
this latter prmce with Clara of Tettingen.
In all other EuFopean countries, as well as in the em-
pire, the superiority was acquired by great vassals : and
even where they were not sufficiently powerful to establish
independent dommion, they were at least able to prevent the
monarch from obtsdning absolute power.
SECTION XXXV.
SPAIN.
The possessions of the Moors, or Arabs, in Spam, whose
sovereign held his residence at Grenada, were confined to
the province of Andalusia ; and the Christian part of the
peninsula was governed by the four kings of Navarre, of
Arragon, of Casdle and Leon, and of Portugal.
That the sense of common danger was scarcely capable
of uniting their power in pursuit of one object, wvls suflS-
ciently demonstrated when Abu Haf, the Merinide prince
of Morocco, united the whole power of the Moors tor the
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88 UlinrERSAL RISTOET.
refief of Algezira. This town, situated on a hill in a fimg
and very advantageous position on the shore o[ the straitSf
had risen to the rank (/one of the mpst importtuit cities of
Spain : it was defended with gunpowder, and held out
three years against kinc Alfonso the Eleventh ; but its fale
was decided by the defeat which the powerful army of Aba
Haf sustained near Tarifia, on the banks of the Salado,
from the united forces of Castile and Portugal. A. D.
1340. The chief of the Merinides had made his entrjr
into Spain with the pride of Xerxes ; and, like that Per-
sian in his adversity, fled dismayed in a fishing-boat. He
owed tliis defeat to the military skill of the Spaniards,
which had begun to approach perfectTon. Algezira wa#
demolished ; and the plough now passes over her 0iagni<^
ficent streets.
The progress of die kingdom of Castile was retarded bf
the internal commotions, which were excited chiefly by the
clergy, against Pedro, the son of Alfonso, jusdy or ixyuabr
ly surnamed the Cruel ; and which terminated, after a vio^
lent contest, in the murder of that prince, and in the reign
of his spurious brother, Henry ot Transtamara. A. D.
1369. From this period the throne of Castile became
firmly established ; and its dominion was extended over
Biscay, where Ithe Cusculdunas exult in their descent fran
the aborigines of Spain.
Pedro, king of Arragon, son of the conqueror of the
Baleares, acquired (A. D. 1282), by means of the Sicilian
vespers, as fine a kingdom as that which the arms of the
Cid had bestowed on bis ancestors. Jayme the Second,
his son, united Sardinia to the dominions of Arragon. A*
D. 1326.
Pisa and Genoa had long endeavored, with variable for-
tune, to obtain possession of diis island, which was gor*
erned, in a state of independence, by four judges $ and
would have preserved its freedom if the government bad
possessed prudence equal to its courage : but the wUxy
of the king was facilitated by internal disturbances.
Navarre continued to be the smallest of the kingdoms of
Spain, because the succession of females often transferred
h to foreign princes : it descended firom the fan^ily of I&f
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UHITSBSAL HISTOmr* 9t'
nto the counts of Champagne (A, D. 1234), and from
itter to the kings of France. A. D. 1284. Johanna
of France, who was excluded by the Salic law from the
succession to the crown of her native country, conferred^
Navarre, the kingdom of her grand-mother, on Philip,*
count of Evreux (A. D. 1328) ; and m like manner, the
daughter of her descendant brought it into the family of
Arragon. A. D. 1426. The king of Arragon had chil-
dren by another wife; and the daughter of the princess of
Navarre conveyed her inheritance to the family of the
counts de Foix. Her descendant, Francis Phoebus, dying,
without heirs (A. D. 1479), his surviving sister brought
the estate to her husband, John of Albret (A. D. 1483),
who was deprived of more than the half of that territory by
the arms ofArragon, and whose only grand-daughter occa-
sioned the transferring of Lower Navarre to the house of
Bourbon. A. D. 1655. Navarre seemed indeed to ex-
i&t in the vicinity of France, for the purpose of affording a
perpetual example of the advantages of diat law -which -ex-
cludes females irom the succession to the crown. In the
kingdoms of Spain, where religious enthusiasm contributed
m so great a degree to politick events, the clergy enjoyed
an extraordmary share of authority. The bishops of this
country had from early ages been elected by the elders of
the church, who constituted the chapter ; but as the king
influenced these elections, and the archbishops consecrated
those who, in fact, had been chosen by his recommenda-
tion, the court had but little to fear from the power of the
bishops, which was in reality identified with its own. The
popes afterwards arrogated to themselves the privilege of
nomination ; and the clergy made no objection to this in-
novation, as it increased dieir collective importance, by
uniting them as ah independent body under one ecclesias-
tical chief: the kings, however, lost by these means the
disposal of the immense estates which had been bestowed
on the church by their pious or artful predecessors. For
this reason Don Pedro, king of Castile, forbade the nope,
for the future, from bestowing any bishopric or benence m
his.dominions ; and it was probably on account of this pro-
hibition that he obtained the surname of- " The Cruel : ''
VOL. III. 8*
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90 tmtTxmtAL' Rmolnr.
but die pedple fiatened to the voiee of the suprame shep*
herd.
Scarcely any kind of knowledge was cultivated except
gach as related to ecclesiastical affiurs. Don Inigo Lopes
de Mendoza, and Fernando Perez de Grusman, were the
first protectors of profane literature, at the court of John
the Second, kmg of Arragon. The character of public
morals, consistendy with the spirit of the times, was chi««
yalrous, grave, and di^ified, if not severe. Gaming cardi
were invented in Spain, but the use of them was fisrbiddeii
to the knights of Castile.
SECTION XXXVI.
PORTUGAL.
A. p. 1357. Don Pedro* king of Portugal, endeavored
io^vbtBtnrby jmtiee aird wisdom, that authority which his
mndfather Denis had acquired by his personal merits.
Pedro, though frugal with regard to himself, was perse*'
vering and vigilant, and beneficent to others ; but so se-
vere, that he was more feared than loved ; and it has been
said of him, that he should either have reigned forever, or
not at all, as he had acqubed a degree of power which was
in danger of being abused by a less benevolent prince. He
had improved the condition of the citizens, and protected
them agamst the oppressions of the nobility ; and he wished,
in common with republican legislators and despots, to re-
duce all classes to an equality of privileges. A prebendaiy
having murdered a shoemaker, was Only coiroemned by
the ecclesiastical power to be excluded from the chdr dur-
bg one year : the son of the shoemaker having revenged .
his father's death on the priest, was ordered by the king to
abstain from making shoes for a like period. Ferdinand,
the son of Pedro, who was a less vigorous prince, did not
ffrosecute his father's plans ; and as he left only a daughter,
A. D. 1367), who mftned John, king of Castile, (A. D.
1383), Portugal was in great danger of losing its inde-
pendence.
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■■
Tb« queen dowager, Leonora Telles de Meoeses, ad-«
mimstered the regency, in which the interest of cowt
Ourem predominated. The latter, who was suspected by
tbe states of the kingdom, and detested by the people, was
the object of a conspiracy, into which a great number of
nobles and citizens entered, who disliked the Castilian yoke.
Jdm, the natural son of king Pedro, and grand-master of
the ecclesiastical and military order of Aviz, placed himself
at die head of the malcontents : the conspirators rushed
into the fortress, and penetrated into the chamber of the
Sieen, where Ourem was put to death before the eyes of
at princess, by Don Ruy Pereyra. In the meanwhile
the gates were closed ; and m order to try the temper of
the people, a report was spread, that the grand*master had
fiillen by die arm of count Ourem. The people imme-
diately began to storm the palace in the utmost fury ; but
when John showed himself at a window, they set up a
riiout of joy, mixed with execrations against tbe Castilians.
The bishop of Lisbon, who Was m the interest of the latteri
was hunted from the tower of the cathedral, and dogs licked
his blood on the banks of the Tagus. In this emergency
k was not difficult to persuade £e queen to take mght;
and her party, and that of her daughter, was immediately
aibandoned as the weakest* The grand*master, in order to
accelerate the attainment of his object, gave out that he
was about to repair to England, from fear of the Castilians ;
upon which the nation conferred on him tbe regency, and
the supreme command of die whole power of Portugal.
The king of Castile approached Portugal with a large
vtm ; and the states of uie countir, who were assembled
at Uoimbra, declared him to have forfeited his right by thit
proceeding ; as it was his du^ to have promised not to ior
troduce any foreign force mto the kingdom. • These mea-
sures appeared to some of the assembly to be too hosdle ;
but while they were deliberating on the subject, Don Alw
rez Pereyra stood up, gave it as his opinion that the grand-
master should be cnosen king, and declared, that if any
man, either in that assembly, or elsewhere, was inclined
to dispute it, lie was ready to maintm his own opiniont
ind tne grand-master's right, in judicial combat, before
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judges and witnesses. The greater port of the nobks were
inc&ed to the party of the Casdlians ; but as the citizens
were decidedly in iavor of John and of the national inde-*
pendence, he was proclaimed king. In the plains of Al-
mbarotta, under the command of Don Ruy Pereyra, 7,000
Portuguese, animated by the cause of their country, ob-
tained the victory over 30,000 Castilians. A. D. 1385.
The reign of Don John, which lasted forty-eight years,
was disdnguished by a degree of splendor and happiness,
of which Portugal had never before seen an example. His
sons, under the command of Pereyra, (A. D. 1416), not
only Conquered, at the head of his whole knighthood, the
great and strong town of Ceuta, beyond the suraits, but the
third of these princes, named Henry, by his discoveries
gave the first impulse which led to the establishment of. a
new order of things throughout the world.
Henry resided on the coasts of the ooean, surrounded
with virtuous friends ; (for to devote his life to the disco-'
very of truth, is virtuous m every man, however situated ;
and how much more virtuous in a prince of the middle
ages !) There he pursued the path which was indicated >
by the remarks of ancient geographers, and by a few ob-
scure vestiges. Zareo discovered Madeira (A. D. 1419),
on which island an Englishman, named Machem, was
found, who had been driven thith.er, and cast away in a
storm, and had become savage in the solitude of its forests*
Don Gonsalez Velho Cabral discovered the two Azorean
islands, which are dedicated to the Holy Virgin and St.
Michael. Terceira was soon added to their number ; and
Payal was descried by some young adventurers. While
Alfonso the Fifth, the grandson of Don John, in the holy
war against the Moors of Fez, conquered the Alcassar of
Cegu and Arzilla (A. D. 1469), and while Tangiers opened
its gates to him in terror, other heroes were engaged in
exploring the paths of the Carthaginians, the Pharaohs, and
the Rolemies. A. D. 1 47 1 . St. Thomas was discovered
in the time of Henry ; a setdement was made on the gold
coast ; and IHego Cane had sailed to the south as far as '
Congo. The king obtained charts even from the Vene-
tians, of the importance of which they had no conception :
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xjtrmEBBJda Hisftisf. 99*
the seotheMi ccean 'appeared to tbem t^ be itoo pevrAwt
ervr to become the path of conunerce, and ihe ^twmif
Ct^ 5eerned to bar tip the entraDce tothe eouoitries o( m
e98t. But the more adrenturous hero of Portugal, Vasco
die Grama, called this ppomoDtory the Cape of Good Hope,
sailed round it, arrived in the East Indies, and thus opened
an tmtried and a noble field for the comiterce of Eorope,
and ibr extensive ciirilization. No nation in that age was
superior to the Piwttuguese.
SECTION xxxvn, ^
FRANCE.
The authority of the crown in France, during the risiga
df Phffip the Fair, the'grandson of St.' Lewis, was no loc^jer
increased by patriarchal wisdom and virtues, but bjr all &e
methods which the circumstances of the age permitted an
enterprising prince to undertake. Philip augmented the
kingdom bjr his marriage widi the heiress of Champagoe
and Navanre. A. D. 1285. He ordained that sudi do*
minions as were given to princes of the blood as a portion,
^ouid not be inherited by females ; by which reguktion
the consolidadon of France, as an undivided countiy, wa«
greatly promoted. It had frequently haf^ened, under
preceding reigns, that the kbg, on the acquisition of a new
dominion, liad received the investment of fiefs fix>m th#
superior lords, who were at the same time his own vassals :
and in order to put an end to the absurdity and inconv^
nience of this practice, Philip enacted, diat in such, cases
the lord paramount should receive a compensation in lieu
of his claim of superiority, but that the king should never
be held a vassal on accodnt of any of his possessions. The
balienable tenure of the royal estates became gradually
^ablished as a fundamental maxim.
Tlie power of the nobles had been augmented by the
assumption of authority, in every possible way ; and the
kings, when they undertook to curtail that power, com<-
menced their operations by in^oducing distinctions, in con-
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94 umrciisAL histoet*
sequence of which certain cases (cos rayaux) were re«
served for their own decision. They afterwards spread
abroad an opinion, that they were the especial defenders of
aH good old usages, derived from the Franks ; and, in the
character of the heads of the commonwealth, the natural
judges in all matters of national concern. This latter pre-
tence was capable, under a dexterous and intelligent prince,
of receiving a most extensive application ; for the most
trifling afiairs may be shown to have some relation to th^
interests of the whole community. Cases of high treason,
murder, rape, counterfeiting of the coin, of breaches of
the peace, and of convoys, were especially reserved to the
supreme national judge. The king was at the same time
the greatest proprietor of land, and could therefore render
his tribunals less expensive than any other : in other in-
stances it might be truly said, respectbg the lord of the
court, as weU as tlie litigating parties, "that judgment and
justice often cost more than tihey were worth ;" hence the
judges were willing to pass over such causes as they found
it difficult to determine ; appeals were continually on the
bcrease, and the royal court became the most extensive
in its jurisdiction.
The parliament held its sittings at such times and places
as the king chose to appoint ; and Philip now ordered that,
for the future, a parliament should annually sit at Paris for
two months, after Easter and .All-Saints' day. Scarcely
fifty years afterwards, Charles the Wise caused it to be
enacted, in an assembly of the states-general, that the par-
liament should sit during the whole year ; and at another
time, he chose that it should never separate until the mem-
bers of the succeeding assembly shoudd have been chosen»
This was the origin of the parliament, which was the coun-
cil of the supreme royal judicature, and the immediate re-
presentative of the king himself. The votes were taken,
not according to the majority, but to the importance of the
voting counsellors, by the presidents, who, during the
vacations, were the only judges. Prelates sat in tlus as-
sembly until Philip the Long, son of Philip the Fair, con-
fined the sphere of their operations to ecclesiastical affiurs*
The judging counsellors (conseiUers jvgeurs) were chosen
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mnVSRSAI. BISTORT. 96
from among the nobles, and the reporting counsellors fix)m
the jurists : their number was indeterminate, and the elec-
tion was made by the chancellor, the three presidents, and
the ten royal deputies. Care was taken to choose the
coimsellors out of the different provinces, that the assembly
might be better able to observe the usages of all. But the
election soon became nothing but a fresh confirmatidn in^
office ; as it was enacted, that no office could be vacated,
except by the free will, or the decease, or the formal dis-
placement of its possessor. Justice was never administered
tree of expense, because the fees of the courts everywhere
contributed to defray the expenses of the tribunals ; and
upon this principle even St. Lewis was not ashamed to
farm out the baUiwicks.
From this time the decisions of the parliament served to
fill up the deficiencies of the obsolete and defective laws :
the olim, or most ancient records, were collected by Jean
de Montluc. - The kings magnified the authority of the
parliament as thfeir own, and readily permitted them pub-
licly to place themselves, in their wisdom, beyond the reach
of missive letters, and all appearance of foreign influence,
just as the best of the emperors honored the senate, whose
power was entirely dependent on themselves. The great
statesmen, Macchiavelli and Sarpi, jusdy considered the
parliament as the fundamental security of the French con-
stitudon ; because this institution prevented the master of
the military force and revenue of the counUy from appear^
ing to be also master of the laws.
With respect to the public administration of justice,
Philip foUowed the system of his ancestors ; but he took
greater liberties with the property of his subjects than they
had done. Besides the produce of his demesne lands, he
had inherited the tolls, the feudal acknowledgements, espe-
cially those which were paid at the sale of a fief, or its
transference to a collateral family, the revenues of the tri-
bunals, and the price of manumissions. He willingly ex-
changed the obligations of villeinage for a tribute ; and
even compelled the villeins of the crown estates to purchase v
their freedom, or to pay an annual tax. This principle
was followed by his eldest son and successor, I^wis X.,
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M UtflVEBSAL RISTOBT.
wbo> eauded h to be aanounced^ '< 1^ ev^ w»9m ia dii
whole kingdom of the Franks should be fre^; tfaot diev^
fore, in the name of the king, and hr the tdTice «f Ms
cdQDsellors, freedom, was now proclaimed thiougbout tho
eountr)r, and was to lie obtained on reasottaUe condiiions*"
When PhtUp was about to pajr his debts, he altered the
intrinsic value of the com : and when thi& fraud was ^i^
covered, he pretended that diis operatioii was the efieel of
a mistake, and assured his subjects;, vupGo. his< honor, tlial
he would indemnify all the sufferers, and would pled^
die crown' revenues for that purpose. Under pretenoife
that this was an affidr which concerned the. whole nadonr, he
appointed^ in every one of the thirty mints of his kingdom,
an overseer of the business of exchanging, and of the swbQ.
coiUk These persons compelled the barons to buy or to
sell silver at the most inconvenient times that they could
nlect : a refusal was certain to be followed by a legal prd* -
oess ; and the vexation became so great, that they pr#*
ferred to abandon altogether their privilege of coining : m
consequence of which the king's money became the only
specie in circulation ; and this was so frequendy altered in
its value, as to be productive of universal confusion. *
Philip the Liong imposed a tax on salt, which was in^
creased by Phillip de.Valois during the wars with England;
and though the wars at last ceased, the augmented impost
remained. The Jews were compelled to purchase an in^
complete security, by the paymeht of large sums to the
king. The ecclesiastics were obliged to contribute a tenth
part of their revenues : for the popes, who now resided at
Avignon, were in the power of the crown, and were there*
fore obliged to allow it at least a joint share : and the infe*
rior orders of the clergy were fleeced by the avarice of the
superior prelates. The contributions of the citizetift were
the source of their modern influence in affidrs; and the
court had rendered itself deserving of diem, by the esfcour^
agement which it gave to the endeavors of that class*
At this period the spiritual and temporaMords arid repre-
*N*^toit homme, qui en juste payement de moDiioy«T^pixtconnoitto
d» jow aa jour.
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imiYSBSAL H18T0ET. W ,
\
WDttrtivM of the citieB were summoned under the tide of
the states-general ; not with the intention of restoring the
ancient national assemblies of the Franks, but because ex-
traordinary sacrifices were necessary for the preservadon
of the country. The foundation of the national assemblies
of the Merovingians was the legislative power which be-
longed to the nation ; while that of the states-general was
merely the public exigencies of the moment. Philip, m
order to attach the citizens to his interests, began to de-
clare them exempt from the odious and unjust exactions of
power; from the forced loans and military services to which
they had been subjected. He recommended his deputies
to the cities to conceal the extent of their power, and to
make report to him of those who were most obstinate in
their refusal to pay the impost, declaring " that he intend-
ed to gam over such persons by eentle methods, in order
that no disaster might be incurred.'' Every town sent two
or three deputies, furnished with the proper instructions
and powers : the king negociated with each class separate-
ly, and gave the most positive assurances that he would
accept their grant as a favor, and not build upon it any
new pretence of right ; be adduced the state of public
affiiirs as the motive which obliged him to take the present
step, and furnished the assembly with information upon
those subjects, in order that each individual might perceive
the necessity for the supplies which he was about to vote.
In consequence of the powers thus acquired, this assembly
proceeded, after his death, to assume the power of calling
ministers to account, and even of punishing them ; of nom-
inating the supreme governor of the finances, and of re-
jecting or confirming treaties. They hanged, beheaded,
and burned ministers, as in the instances of Enguerrand de
Marigny, who had filled the office of viceroy under the
reign of Philjp the Fair, and Pierre des Essarts, grand
governor-general of finance. From this time the opera-
tions of debasing the coin, of raising forced loans, and of
confiscating of estates, were more sedulously pursued.
The three sons of Philip were overwhelmed with debt, and
their successors involved m such disastrous wars against
VOL. HI. 9
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9o UNIVERSAL HI8T0&T.
England, that the necessities of the state were contmuaBy
increasing, and at length the taUie was xieclared perpetual.
The prosperity of the citizens had a considerable influ-
ence on the mode of conducting war, chiefly by bringing
infantry into use : every city had its captain, and every
provmce a district captain. Arsenals were established in
the cities, and private feuds among noblemen forbiddien, on
the penalty of forfeiting their domains. The cities also
laid the foundation of the art of fortification. As nobility
was distinguished by exclusive privileges, and was itseli
conferred by the profession of arms, many of the youth de-
voted themselves to waj-, collected needy or disorderly
persons, and formed banditti, which were the terror of the
enemy, and not unfrequently the scourge of their own
countrymen.
One of the most remarkable acts of Philip the Fair, was
the abolition of the order of knights-templars. A trea-
cherous brother, who lay in prison with a citizen of Baziers,
related to the latter a number of ungodly and scandalous
practices which existed among them : this relation came to
the ears of the king ; and as the order was extremely opu-
lent, a secret command was dispatched to all the king's
oflicers, to imprison all the knights throughout the whole
kingdom on the same night: pardon was promised to all
those who should make a circumstantial confession ; but
the more obstinate were put to the rack, with such cruelty,
that many died from the torture. Their property, which
was probably their chief crime, was confiscated.
It is certain, that after the Holy Land had been re-con-
quered by the infidels, the knights-templars entered into
treaties with the latter, by which they were able to aflford
the pilgrims more effectual assistance than by an idle dis-
play of indignation : but it was less probable that they de-
nied' Christ, of whose sepulchre they were thd guardians,
than that ignorant and partial judges misinterpreted certain
expressions or customs which the knights might have
learned from s5me mystical sect in the east : nor is it likely
that they worshipped a picture of Mohammed, whom the
Arabians themselves do not adore under any sensible re-
presentation. But their fraternal kindness, their* decorous
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UKITERSAL BISTORT. 99
eiterior, and their charities, were imputed to hypocrisy,
and considered as crimes.
In consequence of these accusations, the pope, who re-
sided at Avignon, and was under essential obligations to the
kihg, formally abolished the order in the council of Vi-
enne. A. D. 1312. The most distinguished commanders
and masters of the order, together with sixty-eight of the
knights, were burnt alive : they died protesting their inno-
cence, and invoking the supreme Judge of all the earth.
The grand-masfer, in particular, summoned Philip the Fair
before the judgment-seat of Grod ; and it was remarked,
that the king died within the same year, after having con-
fiscated the greater part of the estates which the council
had recognized as the property of the order of St. John.
In Arragon the knights-templars resisted the attempts
.made to destroy them ; in Castile they were set at liberty ;
and in Portugal they transferred themselves to the order of
Christ, of which Castro-Marin, in Algarve, was the prin-
cipal seat, and the abbot of AlcaQova the visitor. At May-
ence, Hugo Wildgraf suddenly made his appearance in the
chamber of the synod, accompanied by twenty knights in
complete armor ; made a protest and appeal, and none of
the members of the assembly were hardy enough to con-
demn them.
Philip the Fair and Pope Clement the Fifth, both died
shortly after this crimmal transaction ; and the throne of
France was successively filled by the three sons of the
former, who were all insignificant princes and unfortunate
husbands. Lewis the Tenth caused Margaret of Burgun-
dy, his consort, who was convicted of infidelity, to be
strangled ; Philip tlie Long was not more happy with Jo-
hanna of Burgundy ; nor Charles the Fan- with Blanca, a
princess of the same family. The house of Philip the
Fair, which had been strengthenec' by three sons, thus be-
came extinct within thirteen years after his death.
Philip de Valois,. son of his brother, succeeded to the
throne (A. D. 1 327 ;) but Isabella, daughter of Philip the
Fair, the atrocious murderer of her husband, the king of
England,^ gave rise, by her pretensions to the throne of
France, to a war which lasted one hundred years, and
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100 UVmBBSAL H18TQ&T.
which entirely arrested the progress of civil order «id of
legislation.
The first prince of the house of Valois, had, howeydr,
the merit of increasing the royal power of France, by ob->
taining Dauphine from Humbert de la Tour du Pin, who
was weary of the cares of business and of life, and sought
to end his days in retirement and repose. A. D. 1349.
The heir apparent to the crown of France obtained the
appellation ot Dauphin, from this province, which had been
acquired two hundred years before, by & hero ^named
Wigo, for that family from which Humbert was descended
in the female Une. A treaty of demarcation was con-
cluded with Savoy.
Philip of Valois was in other respects better calculated
for a good king in peaceable times, than to maintain the
security and the military reputation of his kingdom, during
the storms which Edward of England raised aeainst him.
He lost the great battle of Crecy (A. D. 1S46) ; and his
calamities were renewed by the still more unfortunate day
of Poitiers, (A. D. 1356^, where kmg John fell into the
hands of the Engfish ; ana France was m extreme danger
of falling mto utter anarchy, but for the mterposition of the
dauphin Charles. .
Charles, who was one of the greatest princes in the
house of Valois, inventive in wise measures, unshaken in
adversity, and accustomed to contemplate occurrences in
their true colors, while others were led away by the im-
fulse of the moment, was the preserver of the kingdom*
)harles put an end, on the one hand, to deeply rooted
abuses, and on the other, set bounds to the fury of the de-
magogues : he enlivened the periods of calamity by diver*
sions; and was so economical, that after having, by his
pmdence, overcome the En^di, without a battle, he
brought the treasury into so flourishing a condition, that a
part of the imposts could be remitted as unnecessary. He
disapproved of cards and dice, because he perceived that
they were in danger of becoming prejudicial to the practice,
of military exercises.
•His generous disposition prevented him from opposing
his father in his project of founding the power of the house
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nmVKRSAL BISTORT. 101
of Burgundy. A. D. 1 36 1 . The last duke of that family .
was dead, and kbg John, who was his heir, immediately
invested his son Philip, who had been his companion in
ciaptivity in England, with that duchy (A. D. 1363) : the
latter married Sf argaret, the sovereign of Tranche Comte,
in Burgundy, which, according to the custom of that coon-
try, descended to females. She was the daughter of Lewis
01 Mechlin, count of Flanders, Artois, Mechlin, and Ant-
werp : and as her brother died without issue, inherited his
territories. Philip became the ancestor of a family, which
for eighty years maintained a counterpoise to the power
of the crown, and carried on a succession of severe con-
tests ; and even at its destruction, became the occasion of
still more extensive wars, which lasted for centuries.
Charles the Wise was succeeded at too ^arly a period
by his son, Charles the Sixth, who, at his father's decease
was a minor, and passed the greater paitof his mature age
in a state of insanity. Both these causes of weakness
tempted the ambition of the princes of the blood, espe-
cialty of Lewis of Orleans, and John the son of Philip of
Burgundy. Valentina Visconti, wife of the former, whose
pa*etensions to Milan gave rise a century later, to wars of
sixty years' duration, contributed especiaUy to inflame the
animosity of these parties. A. D. 1404. The duke of
Orleans was murdered ; and fifteen years afterwards (A.
D. 1419), Charles obtained revenge on the Burgundjans,
by the assistance of the dauphin. But an alliance was
formed between Philip the Second of Burgundy and Hen* >
ry the Fifth of England, against Charles the Seventh, who
had succeeded to his father. A. D. 1416. Henry havine
gained a splendid victory over the French, in the field ot
Agincourt, was proclaimed king of France, in Paris, with
the consent of the old king ; and the dauphin, to whom, on
his accession, nothing remained but Orleans, wandered
about like an oudaw.
VOL. ni. 9*
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102 USIVEBSiX aiSYOBT.
SECTION XXXVffl.
BUBGUNOT.
A. D. 1440. The first duke of Burgimdy, athk deatfai
was possessed of the most extensive donunions ; but so
destitute of monejr, that his widow, according to the custom
of the country, laid his keys, purse, and girdle, upon bis
grave, in die first twen^-four hours, as a tojcen that she
renounced that portion of his territories, which was nefther
a fief nor a part of her own inheritance. Her son John,
who distinguished himself by his undaunted vak)r in the
Turkish wars, and who would have been a great man if he
could have controlled his passions, married Margaret of
Bavaria ; and by that connection conferred on his family
jnretensions which were afterwards employed for the ac-
quisition of Holland, Zealand, and Hennegau.
With the exception of Italy, the Netherlands at this pe-
riod surpassed all the other countries of Europe in bdusr
try, population, and opulence : Lyons alcxie contained
150,000 manufacturers. The source of. this prosperi^
was freedom : the sovereign of the country levied certain
fixed imposts from the people and estates ; and 'the pro-
portion of each individual was setded anew every fourth
year. The states were allowed to grant extraordinary
subsit^s on occasions of emergency ; and the prince m^
queil(j^paid'a visit to the cities previously to such demandiy
m order to incline the inhabitants to his wishes. The tax€;g
were soon imposed on artides of consumption, or on prpr
perty, in land or money. The people of the Netiierlaioda
united to their commercial spirit the love and the practice
of arms : a bloody battle took place between Ypr^ ao^
Poperinguen, because the people of ti>e ktter invtetted tba
cloths made in the former ; and a civil war was oarnied ^
in the streets of Ghent, in which the cloth-makers, James
Artavelle, and Gerhard Dionisy, defeated the fullers and
dyers, who fought under John Bacon. Dendermond
fought against Ghent, ' which destroyed its maii^fact^^s.
Artavelle, by his alliance with Edward king of England,
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vmwmm4^ distort. 1MB
coo^buted to excite the jbuo4red years' wwr wi A Frsnee ^
aod his son Philip, at the head <^ the citizens, fought m the
field against *Charle8 the Sixth, and PhiKp the First of
Burgundy.
A. D. 1419. The power of Burgundy was never mfxe
considerable than under Philip the Good, son of John, who
WiW duke of Burgundy, lord of Tranche Comte, count of
Artoiis and Flanders, margrave of Antwerp, and lord of the
town of Mechlin. He purchased the county of Namur ;
b9paineduke pfLothier, Brabant, and Limburg, by the death
of ^ prince of his own name ; he partly inherijted from bis
mother, and pardy purchased the earldoms of Holland,
Ziealand, and Hennegau; and acquired the duchy of
Luxemburg by compact. For many years he carried on,
mth ability, as well as courage, a contest against Charles
the Sevendi, in revenge for the death of his father ; and
as soon as he quitted die alliance of the English, France
was {saved. Charles was glad to purchase peace, by mort-
gaging to him the towns situated on the Somme (A. D.
1436) ; and Philip perceived that it would conduce more
to his interest to govei'n his own dodiinions in tranquillity,
than to persevere in an alliance which was odk)us to the
nation.
^ Charles of Orleans, son of the hereditary enemy of
Bwrgundy^ was a prisoner in his hands ; and Philip gener*
oDtify^ restored him to freedom, and gave him his own niece
in marriage. In like manner he set at liberty Renatus of
Anjou^ the titular king of Naples and count of Provence,
almost without ransom.
Philip founded his authority on good order and the
happiness of his people. He instituted a well-organised,
government: he was a beoefieent patron of intelligent men ;
acquired the love of the citizens by his popular manners ;
surrounded himself with an imposmg magnificence^ for-
gave jbsurnecdons because he did not fear ihetm $ exercised
the ^oblea in military practices, and treated them with due
repeat, while he kept them under strict discipline. He
wouM ,Qot allow 5hein to intermarry with the citizens, be*
C9ii$e jiMch .« praotiee m^ht have produced conaequence^
dangerous to princely power:, the noble families w«rt
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104 inmrCBSAL Ht8T0BT«
arranged m catalogues ; and heralds at arms watched over
trifling circumstances, which he knew how to render of
importance to hi^ government. He at the same time en-
deavored, by the introduction of rules of politeness, to
civilize the knights, and to inspire them with reverence for
their lords : he raised the most distinguished to a rank that
8 laced them nearer to himself, by the order of the golden
eece ; but he caused the valiant and powerful John of
Granson to be put to death, on learning mat he had acted
in a manner incompatible with his duty. The court of
Philip was the most brilliant in the west of Europe ; his
rank was next to the royal dignity ; he was revered by all
princes, and by the eastern nations as the " great duke of
the west." After an administration of neany fifty years,
he left a state such as we may imagine the land of promise ^
to have been m its happiest period. His vessels of silver
and of gold were valued at upwards of two millions.
Charles the Sevendi succeeded in restoring the mon-
archy of France. The English, who wished to appropriate
that dignity to themselves, forfeited the prize of their victo-
ries. Talbot was driven out of Guienne'; the proud and
resdess spirit of the family of Britanny was subdued ; and
Lorraine, the dukes of which were on all sides most threat- •
ened by those of Burgundy, attached themselves to the
party of the king. Charles prepared the way for die im-
provement of aU the arts of peace and of war, which are
the genuine sources whence national greatness springs.'
' SECTION XXXIX.
^ ENGLAND.
A. D. 1272. The love of freedom had so much in-
creased in England, under the feeble administrations of
John and of Bteniy the Third, that their more active suc-
cessor, Edward the First, was scarcely able to keep it
within bounds : this king confirmed his authority in Ireland,
defeated and subjected the Britons of Wales, and was die
terror of the Scots.
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UKITERSAL HI8TORT. 106
H» SOD, Edward the Second^ who was too much de«
voted to his farorites, became the victim of his own weak*
ness, and of the cruelty of his perfidious wife. A. D.
1307.
The latter was the mother of Edward the Third, the
' conqueror of France. A. D. 1327. His conquests, how-
ever, were not permanent : and the valor and lofty spirit
with which his good fortune inspired the English, was the
noblest fruits of his victories. If that nation had possess-
ed a sufficiently perfect system of laws, their valor would
have been formidable only to their enemies : but Richard
the Second, son of the Black Prince, who gained the vic-
tory of Poitiers, and who died before his father, was una-
ble to keep them within the bounds of obedience ; and
lost his throne and life through the rebellion of Henry of
Bolingbroke. A. D. 1377.
A. D. 1399. This Henry, the son of John of Gaunf,
who was the third son of Edward, did not succeed to the
crown m his father's right ; because Edward Mortimer*
earl of March, and husband of Philippa of Clarence,
would have taken precedence of him m that line ; but de-
duced his title from his mother, and, through her, from Ed-
mund of Lancaster, who was the son of Henry the Third,
and elder than Edward the First. ^From these claims
arose a contest, which lasted upwards of eighty years, be-
tween tlie rival families of York and Lancaster, the parti-
sans of which were distinguished by the white and the red
rose, as their respective emblems. The flame of discord,
sometimes almost smothered, and at others breaking out
with new fury, brought destructicm upon the royal family,
and on almost die whole of the nobility of higher rfuik.
The natk>nal freedom was not infringed upon by the
mat Edwards ; who depended, for support in their splen-*
did enterprises, on the afiection and contributions of the
people. The industry of the citizens was the chief source
of revenue; the king, who was master of the coasts and
havens, exacted a toll on the export of the staple commodi-
ties, wool and hides, and the third penny for every pound
of foreign goods, while strangers were obliged to pay a still
heavier tax at the chief custom-house. The imposts
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106 UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
which the nation granted, were the twelfth penny from such
ol^ects of commerce as were not staple commodities, or a
fifteenth from the revenues of the towns, which might
amount to about thirty thousand pounds sterling. There
was an addition or two shillings upon every cask of wine
imported, the greater ^art of which was from France.
The tax on every hydage of land, and the imposts on the
towns and villages, were denominated the great subsidy ;
and produced, at the rate of foot shiDings on land, and two
shillings and six-pence on moveables, seventy thousand
pounds sterling : this tax, on land only, produces in our
times two millions annually ; and as the quantity of gold and
silver in circulation is not more than ten times as great as
in those days, 1,300,000Z. of the above sum have been
produced by the improvement of the countiy. The annual
export, soon after the battle of Crecy, amounted to 294,-
184Z. ; of which 189,900Z. consisted of unmanufactured
wool, and only 9,548/. of coarse cloths: on the other
hand, the value of the goods imported was 38,970Z., of
which 10,900/., consisted of fine cloths. The Flemings
were the people who enriched themselves at the expense
of their ignorant neighbors. The taxes were voted by
the representatives of the cities and other communities,
with tlie concurrence, of the barons, and (by sufierance of
the other houses) of an assembly of ecclesiastics. A par-
liament was held every year : the districts and boroughs
allowed their representatives stipends; for which reason
the sessions were probably shorter. There was no duke
m the upper house, until the time of the hero of Poitiers,
to whom his father gave the title of duke of Com\yall : be-
fore Edward the Third, the kings themselves bore the du-
cal tide of Normandy ; but that king dropped the claim to
the duchy on account of his pretension to the sovereignty
of France. All titles referred either to territorial posses-
sions or to dignity : as a seat in the upper house was con-
ferred not by birth but by the possession of an estate, the
constitution of parliament was entirely representative : but
this part of the institution was soon altered when the ci-
tizens began to acquire possession, by their wealth, of the
seats of noblemen. The importance of the parliament ol
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UNIYCRSAL HISTORY. 107
England, like that of the states-general of France, was
owing to the public necessities.
The maxim was now traced, that the king is under the
law ; because, by it, he sits on the throne to impart to the
law that which he receives from it, viz. authority and efTec-
Wre power. The judicial office was divided, under Ed-
ward the First, into three branches : first, the eldest tribu-
nal, or court of King's Bench ; second, the Norman tribu-
nal, or court of Exchequer, for the affairs of the crown es-
tates ; and, third, the court of Common Pleas, which had
been restored by the Magna Charta, and in which, since
die beginning of the reign of Edward the Second, all trans-
actions are recorded and published. The English jurists
rescued the nation from die yoke of the civil and ecclesi-
astical laws of Rome ; and even the provincial synods, and
the decrees cf papal legates, were not allowed to invalidate
the legal customs of the country.
The heavier the taxes which the people are able to pay,
the greater the resources of the king for enterprises : and,
on diis principle, tlie chief object of policy with the Ed-
wards was to increase the prosperity of the nation. They
encouraged industry, and removed the obstacles to its pro-
gress; facilitated the transfer, and secured the posses-
sion oi] property. Even in the thirteenth century, they at-
tempted to induce industrious strangers to settle in the
country ; and in the fourteenth, the products of foreign
lands could be dispensed with : the importation of ck)tns
manufactured abroad was prohibited; and, according to
the testimony of learned historians, Edwar<f the Third
forbade the export of unmanufactured wool, in order to
confine its manufacture to the English. The spirit of the
navigation act is apparent in the regulation of Richard the
Second, that English ships should at least be preferred.
The magnificence of this sovereign, and of his barons, is a
proof that the kingdom contained a great quantity of gold
and silver plate : their opulence was in fact greater than
their knowledge of the manifold uses to which wealth can
be applied. ' .
This was altogether a happy period for England, since
the nation was as free as was necessary to its prosperiQT)
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108 VmiTEMMAL HISTOSr.
and was as much devoted to mdusOy and oommeree ts
was compatible with the militaiy spirit connected with hs
security and magnanimity of character. The princes of
the house of Valois were scarcely able to support their tot-
tering dir^ne ; and the haughty chiefs who ruled beUnd
their loiW Snowdon, over the descendants of the ancient
S[ymri, bent their hitherto unconauered necks to the yoke
of the victorious Edward, who ordered the bards to be ex-
tirpated, that they might no longer remind their country-
men of their ancient independence ; and that the patriotic
songs of Merlin and Taliessin might be buried in oolivion :
but he left the people in possession of their civil rights.
Edward also destroyed, as far as was m his power, the
historical monuments of the Scots, which fostered their de-
sire of national independence.
SECTION XL.
•COTLAMD.
The crown of Scotland was contested by Robert Bruce
and John Baliol, the latter of whom placed himself under
the protection of Edward. The noble Wallace summoned
the peasants of Clydesdale : and his enthusiasm soon suc-
ceeded m assembling the warriors of the valleys and islands
b the cause of king Robert and of Scotland,' which be-
came victorious ; though not till after the death of Edward.
From this period the names of the heroes of Scodand,
which hitherto had remained hidden in the mists of their
native hills, be|in to shine in history. Among them we
remark James Douglass, the friend of Robert Bruce, and
the ancestor of an heroic race, who had a parliament m
bis own dominions, bestowed knighthood, and fought at
tlie head of two thousand men in a family feud against the
Percys, and defended his country against England ; Gil-
bert Hamilton, who msulted the pride of Le Despencer,
the favorite of Edward the Second, in that monarch's pre-
sence ; James Mount Stewart, the son of kibg Robert ;
and the Campbells and Macaulys.
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UNIVERSAL HlSTOilT. ' 109
The Hebrides, a short time before, had been partly
conauered and partlypurchased from the kings of Norway :
lie Mac Doogals of Lorn, first-born of Argyle, were lords
of Argyle, Midi, and the northern islands ; and the Mac
Donalds were their younger brothers. The great Mac
Donald, the l<»'d of the isles, who governed So&or, or the
southern islands, resided in lona : he received the homage
of his vassals, seated on a rock in the lake of Day ; and
thirteen judges under his authority decided the suits of the
people at Na Ck>rlle, and were rewarded with a tax amount-
ing to a tenth of the disputed sura. The great Mac Do-
nidd rendered himself independent in Sodor ; and joined
the party of the English against the Scots.
A. D. 1422. The fifteenth century brought with it in
the British isles, as the fourteenth h^ done in France, an
interruption to the /progress of national prosperity, through
the rage of factions. Even the history of diese periods b
less to be relied on : every thing is more or less enveloped
in obscurity. We shall onljr observe, that after Henry the
Fourth had seated the family of Lancaster on the throne,
and Henry the Fiith, by his victory at Agincdurt, and by
the advantage which he took of the dissensions of France,
had raised his people to the pinnacle of military glory, the
country was abandoned, under the protracted administration
of the gentle Henry the Sixth ^A. D. 1461), to the most
dreadful excesses of faction, untd its reputation abroad and
good order at home were utterly destroyed, and the imbe-
cile mcHiarch forfeited both his tlurone and life. A. D. 1 47 1 . ,
SECTION XU,
SCANDINAVIA.
The race of Woden became extinct m Sweden in the
twelfth century ; and in the fourteenth, the houses of the
deified heroes of Denmark and Norway expired in the per-
sons of Woldemar and Olaf. Margaret, who was daughter
of ihe former, mother of the latter, and heiress of both,
defeated Albert of Mecklenburg, king of Sweden, cora-
VOL. III. 10
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110 UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
felled him to abandon his crown, and united the three
ingdoms of Scandinavia by the league of Calmar. A. D.
1398. Had she been capable of conquering national* pre-
judices as well as armies, her dominions would have con-
stituted a great and powerful monarchy.
But the passions of her people were too powerful for her
policy : and it was perhaps better that these three natious
should remain in the tranquil possession of freedom, than
that they should become fonnidable to the inhabitants of
southern Europe. Margaret died without issue : her cousin
and successor Erich, of the family of the dukes of Pome-
rania, was expelled from the three kingdoms (A. D. 1439) ;
upon which Denmark invited Christopher, a duke of Ba-
varia, who was also acknowledged by Sweden and Norway.
A. D. 1448. After the death of Christopher, the crown
of Denmark and Norway fell into the possession of that
family which still retains the sovereignty.
The title of count or earl was introduced into Amerland
and Rustringia in the time of the emperor Frederick Bar-
barossa : King Harold of Denmark had abandoned this
district to the son of Charlemain : Laringia, in which Del-
menhorst is situated, was conquered from the Friezeland^
ers : Sibbet Papinga, and other district chiefs, placed
themselves voluntarily under the protection of the earls, of
whose dominion Oldenburg was the seat. Earl Gerhard
intoxicated Hajo, its feudal lord, and obtained by artifice
the domain of Barel. Earl Dietrich united Delmenhorst
and Qldenburg by inheritance : this nobleman had two
sons by Hedwig, sister of the last earl of Holstein, one. of
whom, Gerhard, succeeded him in Holstein, and the other,
Christian, became king of Denmari^, and contended with
Charles Knutson and Steno Sture for the crown of Sweden.
This was the origin of the house of Oldenburg, which
now governs a large portion of the earth : the descendants
of that venerable race, which formerly considered it a great
conquest to rescue from the waves, by means of dykes, a
tract of land on the shores of the sea of Oldenburg ; and
which in those days held the reins of a gentle government
over a free people, now domineers over all Scandinavia
and from the frontiers of HoUand to those of Chma.
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U17IVERSAL HISTORY. Ill
The counts of Holstein, of the house of Schaumburg,
bequeathed their fertile country, in which agriculture and
pasturage is advantageously alternatefon the same spot, to
the sons of the princess Hedwig. A. D. 1459. The
states of the country declared in favor of Christian, who
promised to bestow the fiefs on native noblemen : he con-
firmed the clergy and the knights in their exemption from
tolls and taxes : he promised to leave the country, when-
ever he should be absent in Denmark or elsewhere, under
the administration of the bishops of Lubeck and Sleswick,
with the assistance of a council of five respectable land-
holders. In his reign, Holstein became a dukedom.
SECTION XLH.
POLAND.
A. D. 1295. Poland, which had become a kingdom
since Przemysi, after the extinction of the dukes of Dant-
zic, had felt himself strong enough to wear a crown, was
engaged in war with the kings of Bohemia, who laid claim
to the feudal superiority of Cracow, with the dukes of
Stettin, who wished to inherit the domains of the Dantzic
branch, with the electors of Brandenburg, who asserted
themselves to be lords paramount of Pomerania, against
the ambitious views of the Teutonic knights in Prussia ;
and, finally, in a severe contest with the restless spirit of
the nobles at home.. Dantzic was preserved, and at the
extinction of the royal family of Bohemia (A. D. iSll),
Cracow remained to Poland ; but Silesia w^s abandoned
to the house of Luxemburg.
The race of the Piasts, who in the course of ;^ve hun-
dred years had raised Poland to a certain degree of civili-
zation and to considerable power, expired with Casimir
the Great (A. D. 1370), who was a conqueror and legis-
lator, and the founder of the university of Cracow. He
was succeeded in his dignity by his sister's son, Lewis of
Anjou, king of Hungary, who was also justly surnamed the
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112 , , UNIVERSAL HISTORT:
Great, and whose father had given up Red Russia to Po-
land for the prospect of the succession.
A. D. 1382. Lewis, however, had no sons : the hus-
band of his eldest daughter Maria, was Sigismund of Lux-
emburg, who obtained the kingdom of Hungary ; and
Hedwig, or the Poles, neglected to insist <m the compact
by whiclyking Lewis endeavored to secure the permanent
union of his crowns. Hedwig not only retamed the sove-
reignty of Poland, together with that of Volhynia and Red
Russia, hut also gave her hand to Jagel, the grand prince
of Lithuania, who, together with all his people, ad(»>ted
the Christian faith (A. D. 1386) ; and from that period the
kingdom of Poland arose to the greatest importance.
Dantzig UsuaUy freighted three hundred ships with com
for England, the Netherlands, and France ; and even Con-
stantinople frequently received supplies from Poland.
Dantzig owed its elevation chiefly to the change which had
taken place in the Vistula ; for the bed of that stream be-
came gradually choked up to such a degree, that the towns
which were situated farther inland, not excepting Culm,
the original seat of the commerce of that nver, were
obliged to yield the palm to Dantzig, which lay near^ to
ther sea.
A. D. MIO. King Wladislaf Jagel, in the battle of
Tanereberg, gave the first blow to the power of the Teu-
tonic knights. In other respects, uniformity of religion
appeared, to this newly converted prince, to be necessary
to his power ; and hence he proceeded with the utmost
severity against pagans and heretics : he enacted, however,
that DO man should be included in this number without
investigation.
A. D. 1437. His son, Vladislaf, was elected king by
the people 6f Hungary, in consequence of which that
kingdom and Poland became again united under one head :
but this young prince lost his Hfe when scarcely twenty
years old, in the battle of Varna, against sultan Morad. A.
D. 1444.
Casimir, the brother of the younger Vladislaf, and his
successor on the throne of Poland, was one of the greatest
princes of his age, and was frequently invited by the Hun
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• ^arians and Bohemians to become their soyereiRu. A. D.
1466. He aggrandized Polawd in a long contest with the
Teutonic knights, in the. course of which he acquired Po-
lish Pruissia, and the feudal superiority ov^r the rest of the
Prussian territory. The latter countries were extremely
flourishing in that age: but- the Teutonic knights disregard-
ing the rights of their own subjects, and insulting the neigh-
boring princes by their arrogance, their conduct excited
internal discontent, and facilitated the enterprise of Casimir.
Polish Prussia retained its own diets, i& accustomed laws,
judicial forms, and coinage ; and the deputies of this coun-
try ^ave their vote in the regal ejections. The mighty
Casimir reigned nearly half a century, and saw Vladislaf,
one of his sons, seated on the thrones of Bohemia and
Hungary.
SECTION XLffl.
HUNG^ABT.
In. the commencement of the fourteentti century, the
family of Arpad, the chieftain who, four hundred years be-'
fore, had first conducted the Hungarians into the country
wMch they now occupied, expired in the person of An-
drew III. A. D. 1301. Several parties endeavored to
intnoduoe different princes to the. sovereignty; and tlie
thrque retntuned for many years in a tplttf^ing state, until
Charles Robert of Anjou, of the royal family of Naples,
imparted a new splendor to die kingdom by the wisdom
and vigor of his long^administratipn ( A, D. 1310), and pre-
pared for his son Lewis an era of distinguishea good for-
tune and glory. A. Pu X343. Lewis died, after a reign
of forty years (A. D. 1382), just at the era when the arms
• of, the GitlanMiis began to me^aee^ the frontiers ; and Hun-
gary bad now the misibrtune to become .again the. prey of
ra^g factions, and at lagt to obtain (A. D. 13&6), in Si-
gisiXHind, an enteiprisiDg king, who was a foreigner and a
kwless tyrmt* Sigismund maintained his throne during
half a century, but rather by compliance than vigor : and
VOL. III. 10*
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114 UNIYEBSAL HISTORY.
tboudi he was defeated by the Turks in the batde of Ni- '
copous, jet Hungary remained untouched, because the
neighboring government of Turkey was rendered moi^e
peaceable ; at first by misfortunes, and ajfterwards by the
pacific character of less ambitious sultans.
We have already seen that the reign of Albert of Aus-
tria was very short, and that after his death (A. D. 1437),
and during Ladislafs feeble minority (A. D. 1439), king
Vladislaf governed both Poland and Hungary, until the fa-
tal day of Varna. A. D. 1444. The courage and intelli-
gence of John Hunyad, the administrator of "^eroy^ pow-
er, now became the safeguard of Hungary, and the bul-
wark of western Christendom. That nobleman died
shortly after he had acquired immortal fame at Belgrade,
against the conqueror df Constantinople (A. D. 1456) :
and the government, which was conducted in the name of
Ladislaf, had scarcely time to display its perfidy and ingra-
titude toward the house of Hunyad, when that family be
came extinct by the death of the young prince. A. D.
1458.
The voice of the nation now called Matthias, the son of
the hero John Hunyad, to the throne. Matthias surpassed
all the sovereigns of his age in wisdom as in good fortune :
but it is to be regretted that he did not, like las father, turn
his victorious arms against the barlrarians, rather than
a^amst Bohemia and Austria. On the death of this great
kmg (A. D. 1490), Hungary elected Vladidaf, the son of
Casimir of Poland, who was abeady king of Bohemk.
SECTION XLIV.
THE TURKS.
The Turks are descended from an ailcient race of peo-
ple, who were long accustomed to wander through the east-
em regions beyond the Caspian, and frequendy poured
their swarms over the south of Asia. The Scythians, who
had held Asia in subjection twenty-ei^t years before Cy-
rus, inhabited this region. Here die Mbssageta^also wim-
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ONITBRSAL BISTORT. 115
Stood the arms of the Persians ; here Arschah raised die
martial bands, which for five hundred years upheld the
throne of the Parthians ; and here, in die fifth and sixth
centuries, powerful Chans reigned; who were alternately
flattered by the Romans and by the Persians. It was
heiiice, after Turkestan submitted to the creed and the laws
of the commander of the faithful, that those valiant
youths descended, who were the ornament and security,
and afterwards the imperious masters, of the dynasty of
Bagdad ; who severed provinces from its dominion, and
rendered the successors of Mohammed slaves in their own
palace. From these Turks proceeded the house of Seljuk
(A. D. 1035), who conquered Asia firom the confines of
Persia and India to those of Phrygia. The Seljuk sultans
in Lesser Asia canied on wars, during two hundred years,
against the western crusaders and the Greek eJnperors ;
and the power of the Mogols alone destroyed the throne of
Iconium.
At this period Solyman, accompanied by fifty thousand
men, pardy of his own race, and pardy of the tribe of the
Oghuzi, quitted the country of his ancestors on the Gihore,
in order to escapd subjection to the yoke of the Mogols.
He proceeded through Media ; and, continually foUowed
by the conquerors of Asia, pursued his way to the confines
of S3rria, where he was drowned in the vicinity of Hakb.
While one division of his horde endeavored, by various
roads, to find Its way back again to the northern* Steppe,
others followed his son Erdogrul toward Lesser Asia. The
Sultan Ala-ed-din Kai Kobad, who reigned at Iconium,
l^dly received this warrior ; but vainly hoped that his own
power would be supported by die twelve troops which ac-
compuited his march : they consisted on^ of twenty-five
thousand men, and were too feeble to withstand the five
hundred thousand which composed die Mogolic swarm.
Yajat^d-<&i Kai^Chosni, the succeeding sultan, fled ; and
his kingdom, which was enfeebled by the insaasate ani-
mosity of iris -scMVBj Rokn-ed-din-Kilig Arslan and Azz-ed-
din-Kai Kawns, was entirely d^strcgred under the reigns of
Masud, son of die last*mentioned prince, /and of Ala-ed-
din-Kai Kawus, the nephew of Masud. The Turkish fol-
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116 UNIVERSAL BISTORT.
lowers of Erdogrul dispersed themselves in the meanwhiley
in those disti-icts of the Taurus which in remote periods had
protected the savage freedom of the Isauri, in the moun-
tains of Phrygian Ida, and in other hilly tracts of Lesser
Asia. They showed themselves not disinclined to adopt
order and civilization from Alexius PhiianthropicuSy and
the few intelligent statesmen of the declbing empire : but
the first Palaeologus who reigned in Constantinople, for the
sake of economy, discontinued the pay of the frontier gar-
risons ; and under his son Andronicus, good commanders
were the objects of dread to the timid, court, and finally
became its victims. i
The early valor of Osman, son of Erdogrul, • was de-
veloped at that period aniong the Turks : it is said to have
been first displayed in the vicinity of Troy. A. D. 12^9.
It is supposed that he quitted that territory when, after the
reign of Cazan, the son of Argun, the torrent of the Mo-
gols gradually retired from the country, which they .left in
die utmost conftision. ,A. D. 1304. Osman inspired his
army with heroic valor and religious enthusiasm : the plea-
sures of this life, and the joys of paradise, were equally ex-
pected by the banditti assembled around the standard; which
he pretended to have received from the last of theSelju-
kides.
He was accompanied by holy dervises, whose exterior
was as severe 'as that of the anchorites of the fourth cen-
tury, but who were elevated, by the effects of opium, to
visions which led to active enterprises, instead of the qui-
etude of contemplative, life: they were men of firm and
heroic character. .The; kingdom of Osman was erected in
the interior of Qithynia; and Prusa, at the foqit jof.the
.Mysian Olympus, became his capital. A. D^ I3Q3. ...
In the time of Jiis, son Orchan, almost the whole of
Lesser Asia was already subjected, partly by. the Ottoman
troops, «ind partly by other Turkish tribes. A. D. 1326.
A very small number of towns remained under the Greek
empire ; a portion of Cilicia was subiect to the sultan: of
Egypt; and fortresses in possession of the western powers
here and there commanded an island, or a small extent of
coast. But even Greece and her islands experienced the
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UKITERSAL HISTOBY. 117
irresistible poWer of the Turks. The court of CoDStanti*
nople accelerated its downfal by internal divisions, which
were never morejdestructive than when the friends of An-,
dronicus the younger, in the hope of obtaining the eovarn-
ment under his name, induced him to undertake a civil war
agamst his grandfather, who was already seventy years old :
and when, after the death of both the former, John Kanta-
kuzenus, the most powerful individual in the empire, was
removed from the regency by the hatred of the courtiers,
and compelled to take up arms in his own defence.
Within six years after this occurrence, Tnrace and Mace-
donia were nearly reduced to a desert, and became the
prey of the Servians and Turks, whose assistance was
sought by both parties. Kantakuzenus, indeed, ascended
the throne ; but the empire was so exhausted^ that he was
unable to maintain it: he retired into the agreeable solitude
of Mount Adibs, and left the empire to «fohn Paleologua,
who was immersed in sensuality.
A. D. 1360. During these disturbances, the Turks
took Adrianople, which, in magnitude, was the third city in
the Greek empffe, and the key of Bulgaria and Servia*
Morad, the son of Orchan, or nis elder brother Sol3rmaD,
completed this enterprise without much resistance. Adri-
anople was soon adorned with mosques, hung within with
magnificent tapesl^es, ornamented with marble, and covered
with roofs of copper, which glittered far over the surround-
ing plains ; it became, from that time forth, the seat of a
western power, which in the course of time formed the great
monarchy of European Turkey.
' This Morad, the sultan of die Ottoman Turks, formed a
regular corps of twelve thousand captive Christian youths,
called Janissaries, whose arms obtained, during two hun-
dred years, an almost uninterrupted succession of victories;
imd who, upwards of two hundred years longer, have pro-
tected the Turkish empire against the military science of
the Europeans, which, during the latter period, has become
greatly superior to their own. Mora^ designed and trained
uiem to the knowledge and love of no other employment
•but arms, and taught them to devote their whole Kfe to his
interests and to warfare : they depended on him for their
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118 ^ UNIVERSAL BISTOaY.
sustenance, clothing, and pay ; he bestowed great rewards
on them, distributed them in barracks, and forbade them
to marry. No institution similar to this insisted among tlie
Europeans : the courage of the Germans disdained to sub-
mit to the restraints of discipline ; and the great bands of
France and Italy were more formidable to their own coun-
try and friends than to their enemies. The principal ob-
J'ect of attention in these armies, was to form an impenetra-
le array : a good infantry was only to be found in the
Alps and in die mountainous districts of Spain, among
tribes who were too poor to procure a costly suit of defen-
sive' armor, and were therefore obliged to supply its place
by their courage and dexterity.
' The irresistible progress of the. Ottoman Turks, arose
from very natural causes. They took the great city of
Philippopolis from the Greeks ; but these towns were now
.considerable in no. respect but in circumference, as the
greater part of the houses were empty and falling to decay.
Morad had more difficulty in conquering the martial Bul-
garians and Servians; and was killed. by a youth of the
latter nation, near Cossowa. A. D. 1389. His son Ba-
jessid, surnamed Dshilderun, or lightning, rekindled, in a
more terrible manner, the fury of the Ottomang.
Against this warrior, Hungary, Germany, and France
assembled an army of an hundred thousand men, which
was, conducted from Ofen by king Sigisraund : six thousand
cavalry and four thousand infantry followed the undaunted
John, prince of Burgundy, the illustrious vassals of En-
guerrands ue Coucy, the last lord of Montfaucon Mumpel-
gard, and .the flower of the nobility. The advanced guard
cWas under the command of the king of Hungary ; Bur-
gundy came next ; and the Hungarians and Bohemians
displayed their force under the banner of St. George.
Coucy, at the head of five hundred French, a thousand
English, and a thousand Hungarian archers, had obtained
a slight advantage, when, on.a sudden, the sultan Bajessid,
with two hundred and fifty thousand men, endeavored to
surround the Christian army on all sides. The duke of
Burgundy, who, though he heard and saw the danger, was
ignorant of its extent, advanced with bis whole force, but
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VNIVSSSAL HISTORY. 119
I
without concert with the rest of the army ; while Sigismund
and Coucy in vain ^ideavored to restrain him. The count
of Artois exclaimed among the French troops, '' Montjoy
and St. Denys ! will ye leave the fame of this day to the
Germans ? " and these troops joined in the attack. Bajessid,
having arranged his army in a crescent, and stationed the
caval^ of the Spahi, arranged in the manner of the^ Janis-
saries, made a stand. The French soon saw themselves
surrounded^ and fought with ine&ctual valor for life and
liberty : their fate spread an universal panic throughout the
army; subordination was entirely destroyed, and each
sought his own safety in flight Sigismund escaped, ac*
companied by five knights, to the Danube, reached Con-
stantinople, and at length arrived in his own countr}^ by
sea, Coucy, Artois, Burgundy, La Tremouille, and all
the most powerful barons, were taken prisoners, and the
former died in captivity. Bosnia was afterwards subject-
ed ; and Manuel Paleologus was compelled to resign hi.s
throne to his nephew, who was patronized by the sultan.
SECTION XLV.
THE HOOOLS.
After the battle of Nicopolis, there appeared no com<-
petent rival of the power of the Ottomans, in Europe ;
when a revolution took place, to the eastward of the Cas-
pian sea, which entirely changed the relation!^ of power.
The kingdom of Balkh, situated in that part of Asia, com-
prises regions which may well contest the prize of fertility
with the plains of Aifdalusia and Damascus : and in the
midst of Sogdiana, in a beautiful and well-watered valley,
eight or nme days' journey in length, stands Sarmacand,
the ancient seat of power and literature. The country of
Sogdiana is overlooked by the mpuntafns of Ferguna,
which are rich in gold, silver, copper, and precious stones,
and inhabited by an independent pastoral nation of the
Turkish race : in the magnificent and extensive city of
Kesch, not far from Sarmacand, Timur was viceroy of
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130 UHiTBBSAL HISTOBT.
mmxy fertile aod p<qnikus distriels betonging to the MogOh
fie chan of Jagatai, who, like himselfy was descended from
Jengis Chan. The presoit chan had given himself up lo
repose, on the throne of hb fathers ; but he stiU retained
the name of sovereign, which remains with his family to
this day. Timur, who was a great warrior and an artful
man, persuaded the chan to appoint him nowian^ or prime
minister.
Under the pretence of forcing some faithless viceroys,
who bad declared themselves independent sultans or chans,
to submit to their legitimate sovereign, Timur proceeded
to re-establish the Mogolic power, in the same manner as
Cyrus fought at first in the cause of his uncle Cyaxares.
Persia was quickly subdued. Timur next excited divinons
among the golden horde, which held Astrachan, Casan, and
the Crimea under its sway, and reigned over the Russians.
Nothing was able to withstand the terrors of artillery, which
he employed, for the first time, m these Regions.
Timur penetrated on one side toward the west, and pro-
mised protection to the princes of Lesser Asia, who had
been oppressed by die sultans ; while his grandson, Pir
Mohammed Jehan Ghir, on the other, over-ran the coun-
try of Hindostan firom the northern mountains ; and the
Greek emperor found an unexpected deliverance from the
Mogol arms. Timur obtamed a decisive victory near An-
cyra, in the plains of Galatia, over the sultan. Bajessld
himself, worthy of his fathers and of his focmer greatness,
fought with the iiiry of despair, for freedom or the death
of a hero ; but the Mogols, throwing a mande over him,
took him alive, and brought him ignombiously before the
conqueror, whom he despised. A. D. 1399. The un-
fortunate sultan, consumed by grief, was despatched by
Timur to the graves of the Ottomans. The whole of les-
ser Asia was plundered and laid waste : the knights of St.
John in vain opposed a resistance of fifteen days, in the
citadel of St. reter near Smyrna : the Mogols filled the
harbor ; only a small part of the order escaped ; And Ti-
mur erected a tower as a monument of his victory, consist-
ing of an equal number of stones and human heads.
A. D. 1401. He now turned his cou^e toward the east
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. ISl
and north-east } and all the Ulysses of the golden horde,
on receiving information of this movement, raised their At- y
bitkas, mounted their Tatar horses, and retreated into the
steppes beyond the Wol^ and the Uralsk : the terrors of
God came upon them in the night ; they saw the Mogols
in imagination, and began to " slay on^ another. {lence
arose family feuds which demanded revenge of blood ; of
which Ivan, czar of the Russians, took advantage, to restore
the independence of his country.
Timur also vanquished the Egyptian mamelukes ; and
on bis return to his own country, sent an army of two hun-
dred thousand men against the dynasty of Sing, which at
tbatvtime reigned in China. He died in the seventy-first
year of his age, and the thirty-sixth of his reign. A. D.
1406.
SECTION XLVI.
CONTINUATION OF THE TURKISH 'HISTORY.
The tottering empire of the Ottoman Turks was still
farther weakened by the effeminate Solyman, the restless
Issem, and the perfidious and cruel Musa, sons of Bajessid ;
and by their disobedient pashas : and was scarcely restored
by the mild and prudent administration of Mohammed the
First, and his noble vizier Bajessid. A. D. 1413. Ncme
of the European powers were able to prevent its returning
prosperi^ : Sisismund, who had revenged his wife on some
of the nobles of Hungarv, was thrown into a dungeon eighty
feet below the surface o/the earth ; and when he regained his
liberty, his attention was occupied by the affidrs of the west.
A.'D. 1420. Morad, the wordiy s(» of Mohammed,
restored the janissaries to their former fame : he was heroic,
and at the same time gentle ; and a just estimator of the
vanity of external greatness, to which he preferred the real
enjoyment of life, as often as his regal duties would permit.
He did not take Constantinople, though the expiring em-
pire scarcely breathed under John the Eighth. A. D.
1422. This emperor made a journey to Italy, the ex-
VOL. III. 11/
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UNITEK8AI. BISTORT.
peoses of which were defrayed by the pope, id order to
promote the union of the Greek and Romish churches ; a
measure to which he subscribed, because he expected by
means of it to obtain assistance. After his return from
Florence, (A. D. 1438), the division became still wider
than before ; because even those who had been dearly paid
for their concurrence, now execrated the compact they
had made. The inhabitants of Constantinople were chiefly
engaged in theological conti oversies ; and tne city, with it»
immediate neighborhood, contained three hundred con-
vents ; while the whole military power did not amount to
'five thousand men.
The sultan Morad maintained peace with Hungary.
Cardinal Julian, the papal legate, released the Hungarians
firom their oath ; and as Morad was enjoying his pleasures
in Magnesia, they thought it a good opportunity -to attack
his kingdom both by sea and land. lung Vladislaf, ac-
companied by Hunyad, advanced to the shores of the Black
sea, and Morad once more arose to vindicate the fame of
the OttoraaJ arms. A. D. 1444. The batde of Varna
ensued, in which the victory for a long time inclined to
Hunyad : Morad called on God to avenge the peijury of
the Christian; and at this moment, the youthful king,
agamst the wishes and counsels of Hunyad, broke into the
ranks of the janissaries : his head was soon struck off, and
carried about on the point of a spear ; and the sight of it
inspired his own army with such terror, that Morad gained
' the victory.
A. D. 1451. His son, Mohammed the Second, inherit-
ed all his father's virtues except his inoderadon ; and con-
bined with them a more enterprising spirit. From the
commencement of his administration, the destruction of the
eastern empire was his ruling passion: and in the 1123d
year from the building of Constantinople, he besieged tha,t
city with the utmost exertion of his power. A. D. 1453.
The emperor Constantme, the Genoese hero Giustiniani,
the grand duke Lucas Notaras, and every individual who
was interested for the Jast remains of the empire, and for
the religion of their fathers, were not less active in its de-
fence. The sdtan lay fifty days before the city, and
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY* 123
shook its massy walls with machines of unexampled power.
The Turks, entered on one side by a neglected postern,
just at the moment when their comrades hkd scaled it in
another quarter. Constantine fell as he was fighting val-
iantly on the wall : the multitude, relying on prophecies,
took refuge in the church of St. Sophia; but the city was
plundered, and its inhabitants enslaved. The great duke
and logothete Lucas Notaras, whose life had been spared,
was executed, together with his sons, because he refused
,an infamous request of the sultan ; and Mohammed, for a
similar reasom, put to death, with his own hand, the son of
Phranzes, the protovestiary. Thus ended the Roman em-
pire, fifteen hundred years after the batde of Pharsalia.
The imperial name, however, still existed in the family
of the Comnei at Trebizond, on the Black sea, \^hich,
together with jmie surrounding country, submitted at the ap-
Ejarance of Mohammed. A. D. 1462. The emperor,
avid Comnenus, was put to death at Constantinople.
The Palaeologi still retained the greater part of the an-
cient Peloponnesus ; but Mohammed feund mefiins to terrify
Thomas, one of the princes of that district, to such a de-
gree, that he took refuge in Italy ; and the former having
§amed Demetrius over to his interest, took possession of
le country, and led the prince into TTirace. A^D. 1462.
Italy now trembled for its safety : Nicholas the Fifth,
and after him Pius the Second, sent the most urgent en-
treaties to '^U the western Christians : Pius even determin-
ed to animate this new crusade by his own presence; but
> he was prevented by death from executing his purpose.
A. D. 1464.
Alexander, or, as he was called by the Turks, Scan-
derbeg, of the noble race of the Castriotes, preserved,
during his life, the fireedom of Coroja in Albania. ^ The
great batde fought by H'unyad, at Belgrade (A. D. 1467),
saved Hungary : the impression which it produced on the
sultan, remained to the day of his death, and induced him
to content himself with the complete subjection of Servia.
The Vayvodes of Moldavia defended themselves with so
much valor, that he was satisfied with their apparent sub-
mission. A. D. 1465.
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124 VNirZBSAL DISTORT.
Mahommed adorned Constantinople with new magnifi-*
cence, and introduced the pomp of a regular court. He
is said to have been fond ottranslations fi^om the works of
the ancients, particularly respecting the achievements of
Alexander : he caused bis own history to be written by
Angiolello, a Vicentine slave bebnging to his son Mustafa,
and patronized the art of painting.
It was especially fortunate for the Christian nations of
the west, that Hassan el Tawil, (who is called Usong by
HaUer) by his prudence and distinguished talents, impart-
ed an extraordinary vigor to the kingdom of Persia, which
had been in a state of great disorder ever since the death
of Abu Said, the Mogolic chan ; he endeavored, both by
embassies and correspondence, to convince the duke of
Burgundy, the republic of Venice, the Medici, and other
western princes, how important lus kingdom was to their
welfare. This prince has found in Haller a biographer who
deserves to be compared widi the author of the Cyropsdia.
The mamelukes in Egypt, and the houses of Merin, and
Abu Hs^, in Tunis and Morocco, retabed their sove-
reignties until the sixth century.
SECTION XLVn.
THE GREAT MOOOL.
A.-D. 1398. The great Mogol of the femily of Timur,
confirmed his sway in the East Indies. M3rrsa Pir Mo-
haftimed, the founder of that empire, had found the suc-
cessors of the ancient, sultans of Ghaur, in that state of
weakn^s into which the d3n[iasties of the east usually sink,
in the course of a few generations, from the combined ef^
fects of the climate and of despotism. When Timur him-
self marched across the northern mountains into Hindostan,
Sha Mahmud, under the walls of Delhi, fought a decisive
battle against his troops, which were inspired by religicm,
avarice, and ambition. Timur was accompanied by the
garrisons of all the places which he had subjected in his
progress ; and their number was become i^ great, that he
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UMVERSAL HISTORY. 126
was apprehensive lest they should set themselves at b'berty
during the batd^ ; he therefore caused them aH toTbe put
to deatli, and afterward defeated the Sha, and plundered
his deserted capital.
Tifnur pursued the defenders of Hindostan to the passes
of Kupeli, where the Ganges issues from the mountains,
and ih this sacred region obtained his second victory : he
completed the conquest of the mountainous district, and a
part of his army subdued the country to the southward.
A. D. 1406. After his death, and t'be murder of Pir Mo-
hammed, his kingdom, like that of Alexander, was divided.
But the great sultan Borbr, preserved the dominion of the
opulent and powerful country of Hindostan in his family,
which was the reigning djmasty at the time when the Por-
tuguese came, (as Marai Ben Joseph says), from the dark
unknown ocean beyond Negroland, and landed in the East
Indies.
The discovery of the East Indies and of America ; the
union of the kingdoms of Spain under Ferdinand ; the
accession of power whith the kings of France received by
the incorporation of Burgundy; the tennination of the civil
wars of England ; the actions of Gustavus Vasa in Sweden,
and of Ivan Vasilievitsch in Russia ; the alterations in the
constitution of the German empire, arising partly from the
power of Austria, and partly from the reformation ; pro-
duced new arrangements in the political frame of Europe,
gave rise to new interests, opmions, and manners, and new
institutions, both in militarv affairs and in commerce.
TOL. in* 10*
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BOOK XVIII.
/
OF THOSE REVOLUTIONS WHICH ESPECIALLY CONTRBBU-
TED TO DEVELOPE THE NEW ORDER OF POLITICAL
AFFAIR8.--A. D. 1452^— Iftld.
SECTION I.
LEWIS THE ELEVENTH.
Chables the Seventh, king of France, was succeeded by
his son, Lewis the Eleventh, in the sovereignty of his king-
dom, which had been rescued from the yoke of the Eng-
lish by the good fortune of the former, and which now be-
gan to assume ( A. D. 1461), among the nations of Europe,
a rank in some degree proportionate 'to its power. The
judgment which we form of statesmen, is often decided
rather by the consequences of their measures, than by an
impartial estimation of their character : and it has accord-
ingly happened, that the enemies of the kingdom, whose
importance was so much augmented by Lewis the Eleventh,
have frequently refused to do justic^to his talents. He
said with truth, that his codncil was in his own head ; and
it would, in fact, have been difficult for the most accom-
plished minister to point out a better method of turning to
account the circumstances of his age, than that which he
adopted.
The exorbitant power of the nobility appeared to him
the greatest obstacle to that unity in the administration of
afiairs, which imparts energy and rapidity of execution to
the enterprises of a government : and he was so entirely
occupied m diminishing the privileges of tliat class, that
even his intemperate passions were incapable of diverting
his atteution from the prosecution of his views. He was
too well acquainted with the real extent of his power, to
engage unnecessarily in foreign quarrels ; and conceived
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UNIVIIRSAL HISTORY. 127
that the most important benefits whach he couM confer oa
his success(Ms; would be to render them masters of their
own dominions : but even in this respect he refrained from
a premature display of his authority, by which the nobles
might hare been alarmed, and perhaps induced to enter
into a combmation against bis designs.
He appeared to follow the course of events, while in
reaKty he frequently guided them. His enemies were as
powerful, and more opulent, than himself : accordingly he
opposed them not by force, but by cunning, in which he
hoped to be superior to them, because they were numerous,
and had different and frequently conflicting views, while
his own will was uniform and undivided, and his attention
constantly directed to the opportunities which their weak-
nesses or misfortunes misht offer to his advantage. He
not only misled his enemies to their ruin, but gave to hk
administration a degree of reputation for order and justice,
in ai&irs of a private nature, in which that of his adversa-
ries was defective. He resembled Augustus in the sim-
plicity \of his manner of life, in his power of dissimulation,
and in the readiness to perpetrate any crime that could
contribute to his interests; and like Augustus, he was
greater in the cabinet than in the field : for both these
sovereigns possessed a degree of timiditv in the midst of
their ambitious plans, which was the origm of the extraor-
dinary caution of thpir measures, and proved to be a source
of torment to themselves, which avenged the misfortunes
they inflicted on their enemies.
jrhilip the (rood, duke of Burgundy during the life of
Charles the Sevendi, who was generally at variance with
his son Lewis, had given the young pnnce an asylum at
his court. A. D. 1467. Philip left a son narhed Charles,
who was as ambitious as the king, while his passions were
more impetuous, and his character far more noble and ex-
alted : his pride contemned the employment of artifice,
and his feelings were so vehement as entirely to deprive
him of self-control. The finest countries on this side the
Alps, the two Burgundies, and almost the whole of Belgi-
um, were his property : to these he added the duchy of
Gelder* and the .county of Ziitphen, which he bought of
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128 UNIVERSAL RISTORT«
Arnold of Egroont, duke of Gelders, having delivered that
nobleman from the imprisonment in which he had been
held by his own son.
Sigismund, lord of the disjoined provinces of Austria,
who was in want of money to support a war against the
Swiss (A. D. 1469), had alrea'dy mortgaged to the duke
the county of Pfirt, and manv towns m Alsace and Swabia,
Charles besides entertained hopes, that Renatus of Anjou,
the titular kmg of Naples, whom Lewis had offended;
would bequeath to him the county of Provence. Lorraine
was not capable of resistbg the power of Burgundy ; and
it appeared to be in the power of Charles to erect a king-
dom of Austrasia, or of Lorraine, and thus for ever ta
separate France from Germany and Italy. The king had
reason to be anxious for the sa^ty of DLuphine and Lyons;
for his sister, the regent of Savoy, is said to have enter-
tained ai) attachment to the duke ; and the emperor Fred-
erick was inclined to present him with a regal crown, if
he would consent to betroth his daughter and heiress to the
archduke Maximilian.
Against this powerful sovereign of the most populous and
wealthy countries, no military enterprise of die king was
successful: the only weapon remaining was artifice, by
which he endeavored to entangle his rival in foreign quar-
rels ; and Charles facilitated these designs of his enemy,
by pretensions and undertakings which alarmed the empire,
and irritated the Swiss, who generally contemplated aU
external changes with indijfference.
The king, who had already found an opportunity in his
youth, of appreciating the chai:acter of this nation, led
forty thousand men to disperse the council of Basel, and
to make a diversion in favor of the war, in which Austria
was engaged with them. No victorious body of troops had
^ver made so strong an impression on him as-^ the fifteen
hundred Swiss produced, who at St. James on the Birs
(A. D. 1444), after having killed four times their own
number, suffered themselves to be cutoff, to a man, by the
superior numbers of their enemy, while not a single indi-
vidual offered to surrender. A. D. 1452. From that
time France ^ sought their friendship and alliance; and
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univbbsaij history. 129
Lewis coBftrived to make iiiends at Bern^ ajod in other
towns, by means of bribes : fear the poverty of these mpuo-
taineers rendered gold the most valuable thing among them,
next to freedom. Nicholas von Diesbach of Bern, a man
whose reputation, eloquence, and popular manners, ren-
dered him the most important individual in that canton ;
Jost von Sillinen, provost of Beronmiinster ; Hanns Wald-
man, the best knight and the greatest man at Zurich ;
many of the confessors, and the warlike youth ; were espe-
ciaHyydevoted to the king. Charles at the same, period
ojffended the emperor by his pride, and by his oppressive
treatment of the territories he held under mortgage in
Alsace, in such a manner, that the house of Austria was
eager to accede to any alliance,- by which this insulting
and injurious conduct might be punished.
A. D. 1474. In this state of affidrs the king mediated a
" perpetual adjustment " of the ancient animosity of the
house of Austria against the confederates, and advanced a
sum of money to Sigismund for the ransom of his territo-
ries, between whom and Switzerland a treaty was conclud-
ed. The bishops of Strasburg and Basel ; Renatus, the
young duke of Lorndne, and the most ccxisiderable cities
of -Alsace, took the part of the confederates. Bern pro-
mised its assistance to the king agamst the duke; eveVy
thing was managed according to the wishes of the friends
of Lewis ; and Haibian von Bubenberg, the chief magis-
trate, their opponent in all these af[airs, who possessed in
an extraordinary degree the veneration of his contempora-
ries, was excluded from the assemblies of £he council.
Charles, however, refused to accept the ransom which
was offered by Sigismund, in consequence of which the
latter had recourse to forcible measures; and by the deci-
fflon and advice of the Swiss ambassadors, caused Peter
von Hagenbach, the tyrannical magistrate to whom Charles
had confided the government of the mortgaged fiefs in Al-
sace, to be beheaded. This proceeding was probably in-
stigated by the king, whose mterest it was to render the
animosity irreconcilable : the duke swore to revenge his
officer ; and Lewis seized this moment to propose an alli-
ance with the Swiss, and to offer assistance, and a supply
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130 ' UNIVEBSAL HISTORY^
of provisions to the towns of the lower confederacy : an
hereditary alliance was concluded with Austria, and the
emperor Frederick summoned the Swiss to their duty a»
members of the empire. Qharles, on the other hand, armed
the force of Burgundy, some Italian mercenaries, and the
Savoyard population of the neighbcmng Pays de Vaud,
The canton of Bern, undaunted by these preparations, sent
the high provosts, Petermann von Wabem and Nicholas
von Schamacthal, with three thousand men, over mount
Jura, against Tranche Comte ; and aM the confederates
concurred in a declaration of war at the diet at Lucem. ,
This was the beginning of the Burgundian war, which
had so important a share in new-modelling the political
system of Europe. The duchy was laid waste ; but at
the approach of Charles, the Swiss retreated to the eastern
, side of Jura, where they took possession of the dominions
of prince William of Orange-Chateau Guyon, who com-
manded in the service of Burgundy : terror accompapied
their march, as they neither gave nor demanded quarter.
The Swiss troops were better adapted for fightmg than
for sustaining the fatigues of long-continued warfare. The
aids sent by their confederates arrived but slowly ; pardy
because these good allies would have been glad to see
their power, as well as that of Burgundy, exhausted in
the contest ; and partly because they were desirous of dis-
cerning the probable issue of the contest before they took
any active part. Meanwhile the troops of Bern conquered
the Pays de Vaud, where James de Romont, of the house
of Savoy, endeavored to obstruct their passage. These
wars really deserved the name of Joumies, which was com-
monly applied to them ; for few mstances occurred of re-
sistance on the part of the fortresses.
The, duke of Burgundy extended his force out of the
middle passes of the Jura, towards the lake of NeufchateL
Here he besieged and took the fortress of Granson, which
was occupied by a Swiss garrison, whom he caused to be
hanged, probably with the design of terrifying their coun-
trymen. A. D. 1476. This injury, however, only served
to inflame their national pride ; and they soon took revenge
in the batde which the duke, through his impetuosity, suf*
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UNIVEnSAL HISTORT.. ^ 131
fered himself to be compeUed to fight In a narrow defile,
where his superiority of numbers was of no avail. His
army no sooner perceived the unexpected firmness of t^e
despised enemy, than they took flight; and his camp,
which resembled the most splendid court, together with up-
wards of four hundred pieces of artillery, and six hundred
colors and standards, fell into the hands of the victors.
The duke, not dispirited by this disaster, appeared in a
few months before Murten, a small town, which was de-
fended with heroic valor by Hadrian von Bubenberg, who
now manifested himself a true patriot, when the defence
of his country was at stake. The confederates assembled
slowly : the duke of Lorraine, who had been driven out of
his own country, came to the assistance of the common
cause, \^th only two hundred faithful knights and four
counts of Leiningen. The people of Bern, and of all
Switzerland, were left by the authorities to their own will ;
and they exerted their powers with redoubled vigor in the
plains and on the heights of Murten against the enemy,
who, on this oQcasion, had chosen a field which allowed
him piore room for the display of his forces than in the
former batde, and which was much nearer to their own
country. The victory was decided by Hanns von Hallwyl,
a knight, and coilimander of the advanced troops and ar-
tilleryj who infused his own ardent spirit into all around
him. The duke was obliged, by an astonishing display of
vigor on the part of the Swiss, to abandon his camp and
artillery with great loss, and to save his own life by a pre-
cipitate flight. "
The affrighted Pays de Vaud once more submitted to the
conquerors. This misfortune seemed to have deprived the
duke of all his presence of mind, in consequence of which
his army, having suflfered greatly in the engagement, was
dispersed and still more enfeebled. The duchess of Savoy
now displeased even Charles, who sent her a prisoner into
his own dominions. The house of Savoy with difficulty
obtained a peace from the conquerors, by the sacrifice of
Murten and other places on the frontiers.
Renatus shortly afterwards entreated the Swiss, in the
most earnest manner, to re-occupy and defend Lorraine, as
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132 UKITXBSAL BISTORT.
Chaiies was besiegii^ his capital city, Nancy : eight thou-
sand of their troops joyfully obeyed the sumaions, and
marched, in the midst of a severe winter, across the moun-
tainous tract of the Wasgau. The battle of Nancy took*
place on the 6th of January (A. D. 1477), m which the
Swiss took advantage of the broken grcHuid, and got into
the rear of the enemy's position : the troops of Bui'gundy
fled, and the duke lost his life by means of an Italian con-
dottiere, who betrayed him. With him expired the male
fine of the house of Burgundy.
Lewis hereupon took possesion, agreeably to the laws,
of the vacant duchy ; paitly as a forfeited, and partly as ft
reverted fief. Burgundy remained in possession of Maria,
the daughter and heiress of the late duke, who now, at the
desire of the states of the coun^, married the archduke
Maximilian. The influence of tKe citizens was now mack
greater than usual, because the flower of the nobility had
fallen in the late battles ; and the former, who were carefid
of their liberties,' preferred the mild and popular son of the
distant emperor to the dauphin. Maria died ^A. D. 1478),
after having borne a son named Philip ; and ner dominions
were governed by Maximilian, as administrator, on behalf
of the infant. During his Yegency, the people, who sus-
pected him of designs against their ngbts, made him prison-
er at Bruges (A. D. 1482) : but even these Netherlanders,
who prescribed such rigid bounds to the authority of their
ruler, maintained his cause against France. A. D. 1487.
Lewis acquired as much as he could obtam. without exier-
tion ; but his character was not such as to induce iant to
aim at the subjugation of the Netherlands by the power of
the French monarchy. He gained over Fourbin,. the mia»-
ister of Charles c^ Anjou, nephew and heir of the titidir
king Renatus^ count of Provence, who ^ecfaffed the king
his heir. A. D. 1481. After theunion of Rrovence with
the crown, the odly remsdning great vassal, who was capa-
ble of controlling the power of the king, was Francis 11.
duke c^ Brittany, who had no scm.
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SECTION n.
9 HAXIMILIAN.
Miaximilian, who had acquired the duchy of Burgundy
and the Netherlands, chiefly because he 'was litde the ob-
ject of apprehension, ^inherited also from bis cousin, the
archduke Sigismund, the disjoined provinces of Austria.
The four sovereignties of Bregence, rludence, Feldkirch,
and Sonnenberg, in the Vicinity of Arlenbetg, which had
formerly been under the dominion of the house of Mont-
fort, were now transferred to that of Austria, together with
the Swabian bailiwick at Akorf, the inheritance of the
Guelphs, a remnant of the power of the ducal house o(
^ Swabia ; the county of Nelleriburg, in the Hegau, border-
ing on Zurich and Schafhausen; the county of Goritz,
and the Italian districts bordfering (m VefiSee, abftig the
confines of the bishoprics of Trent and Brixen ; with the Ty-
rolese. The state of the Austrian finances under Freder-
ick in. was so far from flourishing in proportion to this
extent of territory, tHat the ^rhperor was obb'ged to allow
king Matthias to hold the reins of government in Vienna
for some years, in lieu of the payment of a sum of one
hundred and twenty thousand ducats : and Maximilian for-
gave the people of Bruges the insult offered to his toajesty
by his imprisonment, in consideration of five hondted thou-
sand ducats ; and made the receipt of five hundred thou-
sand florins an essential condition of his marriage with
Blanca Maria Sforza. The states of the empire also
showed more inclination to grant him a supply of men than
any pecuniary aid, towards his war against the Turks.
This prince, after the death of his first wife, was on the
point of a marriage with the heiress of Brittany ; which, if
It had taken place, would have thrown the monarchy of
France into greater difficulties than the power of Burgundy
had already occasioned it. French artifice, however, pre*
vented this misfortune ; and Anne gave her hand to Charles
the Eighth. A. D. 1491. The states of Brittany deter-
voi.. III. 12
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134 UNIY£aSAL HISTOAY*
mbed that, in. the event of her bearing two sons, the sec-
ond of them should mherit the dukedom; but neither
Charles, nor Lewis the Twelfth, who succeeded him on
the throne, and who married his widow, left any -male
issue : and Francis the First undertook, on this conjunc-
ture, to incorporate Brittany with the dominions of the
crown ; to which it was henceforward inseparably attached*
At the same time a regulation was established, by which
every province should be considered as incorporated, which
the king had governed during ten successive years. ^ A. D.
1 531 . But this most extensive and fertile of the European
kingdoms would have attained its predominant influence,
and the ancient boundaries of Gaul would have been re-
stored, at a much earlier period, if these results had not
been prevented by an administration destitute of any fixed
principles : for while the hou^e of Maximilian was estab-
lishing its power in the Netherlands, France was exhausting
its resources m a contest of fifty years, for the acqjuisition
of a precarious dominion, separated from its own territory
by the Alpine barrier.
SECTION ra.
ITALY.
A. D. 1450. We have already seen, in the seventeenth
book, that Francesco Sforza acquired the dominion of the
Visconti at Milan, by die success of his arms ; and that he
confirmed his authority by his wise measures. A, D.
1467. His son Galeazzo was murdered by some youths,
who were inspired with the desire of imitating Brutus and
Cassius, and restoring the freedom of the republic ; but his
widow, BcHia of Savoy, by the assistance which she de-
rived from the possession of the citadel, preser^^ed the du-
cal pbwer for her sou John Galeazzo, who was yet a minor.
A. D. 1478. Ludovico Moro, the brother of the mur-
dered prince, a sagacious and enterprising man, d,estroyed
his nephew by means of slow poison (A. D. 1494), an,d
assumed the government ; but as he stood in fear of the
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 136
king of Naples, whose daughter was the widow of the un-
fortunate John Galeazzo, he sent the . cardinal Ascanio
Sforza to the court of France, commanding him to repre-
sent to Charles the Eighth, that if the latter wished to
prosecute those claims on the kingdom of Naples which he
had inherited from the house of Anjou, he and some others
vof the Italian powers were inclined to support his preten-
sions.
The kingdom, however, (as the Italians dwiominate
Naples), was under the sway of a collateral branch of the
house of Arragon. Alfonso the Wise, king of Arragon
and Sicily, who had deposed queen Johanna the Second,
died without legal heirs; inconsequence of which Arragon
devolved on his brother (A. D. 1468^ ; but Alfonso had
bequeathed Sicily and Naples to Don Ferrando, his natural
son. The reign of this prince was long and vigorous ; but
while he appeared to imitate the mildness of Caesar, he
found either pretences or secret methods for removing out
of his way many of the noblemen whose influence was for-
midable to his authority: he also excited the enmity of the
lower classes by his burdensome imposts. The notorious
qualities of his eldest son, Don AJfopso, were siich as to
promise nothing but undisguised tyranny.
At this period, the chair of St. Peter was filled, after a
succession of some excellent pontifis, and others whose
character was in no respect above mediocrity, by Alexan-
der the Sixth, of the Spanish family of Borgia. The in-
clinations of this high-priest of Christendom were not dis-
similar to those by which Caligula and Nero have acquired
so distinguished a place in the annals of voluptuousness :
in other respects, his favorite project was to acquire a con-
siderable power in Italy for Caesar, the most enterprising
of his sons.
Caesar Borgia was a man of a remarkably active mind,
and of great strength of character. Neither his father nor
himself was deficient in the boldness necessary for system-
atic viUany ; and Caesar acquired, by means of treachery
and assassination, the sovereignty of many Italian cities,
which be afterwards governed with clemency and justice.
The rulers of Italy were in general men more remarkable
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136 CNIVE&SAL HIS^tOBY.
(or imagination and eloquence, than for good sense and
real knowledge : the restraints of all laws, divine and hu-
man, were despised; and scarcely an age can be men-
tioned in which contempt of religiop, and crimes of ev^
species, have been more openly msplayed.
SECTION IV.
FLORENCE.
Cosmo de' Medici, the father of his country, died at
Florence m the seventy-fifth year of his age. A. D. 1464.
The emperor, king Lewis the Eleventh, the pope, and all
the neighboring princes and cities, sent embassies to the
Fk)rentines, expressive of then: synipathy, on account of
the loss of such a citizen. His son, Pedro de' Medici, w^
^ man of sound intellect and refined manners ; but .as thp
infirm state of his health prevented him firom exerting great
aptivity in business, it became evident that the power of the
Medici wa9 only personal : and Luca Pjtti did not hesitate
tQ declare, that many things which had been tolerated j^
so old and so great a m^ as Cosmo, could not be alloT^Q4
in Pedro. The lattier had, besides^ offended severa} of
those who were indebted to him, by demanding payments.
A. p. 1472. Pedro left two sons ; the elder oi whom,
Lorenzo, acquired the surname of ^^ Father of the Muses,^'
by his spljBndid taleats, and by his love of polite literature.
Julian, his brother^ was a youth whose character was nctf
less estimable. 4
There pi^isted at thfit tiojy^t in Florence, a law, by which
the d^Oghter^ were excluded firom inheritailce, wheo ther0
Was no especial testamentary disposition in their favor. In
eonsequei^cis of this reflation, ^ lady who had married
iaip ii^ faia^y of the Pazzi w^ deprived of the hereditary
astatic of her {amily. The Pazzi believed that the Medid
fni^ by their influence have procured a difi^rent terminsi-
tioQ to the affair, they ei^tered into a conspiracy with Fran-
cesco Salviati, archiHshop of Pisa, and some of the nojbles
of Florence, to destroy this family on the 26th of April
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XJNIVEBSAL' HISTORY* 137 n
(A. D. 1478), when the cardinal Riario, nephew of pope
Sixtus the Fourth, was about to make his entry mto me
city. For this purpose they went early to the church of
St. Rfparata, in which the brothers were accustomed to
attend divine service : and at the moment of the elevation
of the host, Francesco Pazzi, as had been concerted, ac-
costed the youngest, threw his arms in a familiar manner
round him, in order to ascertain whether he had armotur
under his clothes, and inquired concerning his health. As
the young men were entirely unconscious of their danger,
the conspirators found it an easy matter to put Julian to
death ; and Lorenzo was wounded, but was saved by the
concourse of priests, who hastened to the spot, and con-
veyed him into the sacristy. While the church was filled
with the tumult of arms, the archbishop of Pisa, accompani-
ed, as was usual among the great, by an armed suite, came,
as if to pay a visit of ceremony, into the state palace, at the
moment when the magistrates were at dinner : while he
was speaking to them, his attendants occupied the steps
'and doors of the building, broke into the saloon, and got
possession of the palace ; while the terrified members of die
government saved themselves by flight. Pazzi ran into the
square, exclaiming, " Long live the people, long live the
fireedom of Florence !" In less than an hour, &e whole
population was assembled in arms around the palace ; but
contrary to the expectation of the conspirators, they ap-
peared as defenders of the rulers and of the Medici : they
laid fire to the doors, took the palace, and hung Pazzi, the
archbishop, and many others, out of the window of the
Sreat saloon. Bandi^i, one of the conspirators, who had
ed to Constantbople, was delivered up by the sultan Mo-
hammed, out of regard for Lorenzo. The son of Julian,
supposed to be illegitimate, mounted the papal chair forty-
five years afterwards, under the name of Clement the
Seventh.
The preservation of Lorenzo was a [ fortunate circum-
stance for Italy : princes and republics were kept in peace
by his prudent measures ; and it is asserted of him, that he
never said or did any thing relative to public affairs, that
was not laudable and worthy of his high reputation. Pope
VOL. III. 12*
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188 l^NIV£BS^ HISTOIUr.
Sixtusjiaid the city under excompumiciitio]^, on aecount
of the death of the archbishop of Pisa, aad appointed duke
AJfonso of Calabria, the son of Don Ferrando of Naples,
executor of the deqree.* As Alfonso demanded that tbfi
Medici should be banished from Florence, as a prelimina^
condition of peace, Lorenzo declared that he yiras far from
wishing to preserve his importance or his life at the hazard
of his country ; and that he would take a decided step in
favor of the latter, at the risk of all bis own intierests : h^
immediately retired to Naples, to the court of that very
prmce who had endeavored to procure his rjun } and ao
completely gained the confidence of Don Feixando, that
the latter was ever after a steadfasit friend of Florence.
Lorenzo g^ned many powerful friei^ds by his ;cnagnaninK;>u$
conduct ; and the days of the pope were shortened by enyy
and chagrin.
From that time Lorenzo the Magnificent, reigned in
the greatest splendor, though without a title: he aban-
idoned all commercial pursuits ; adorned the qity and hi^
own estates with noble edifices, an4 assembled around hinoi
ibe most mgenious and learned perspns of the age. Lo-
renzo engaged Angelo Puliziano as the teacher of his chil-
dren. The celebrated prince Pico of Mirandola, who w^^
a prodigy of early leammg and extensive knowledge, took
up his residence at Florence y Lorenzo employed Joh^i
Lascaris, at his own expense, to collect the writings of th^
ancients in Greece and Asia; he encouraged MarsigUp
Ficini to undei^take the trmiislatioin of Platp ; and he found;-
ed an university at Pisa. He was hiniself a goo4 ppet, a^4
employed his leisure hoyrs with music, or with the worl^
of statuaries, f>aint6rs, aio4 ^rchiteds. {{^ ^pps^^sed f
jpenetraUng .genius and a sound understanding ; ^uncpn^uQP
•activity and firmpes^, .together with an engaging gracefi^-
ness en manner, aitd an ^^eeable wit. Mke alpaost ev;^
individual of his family, he was devoted to pleasure,.
Lewis (the Eleventh endeavcured to obtain hi^ friepidship,
through the me^i^tion of the Jjistofisui Philip d^ .Co^iines ; ;
{K>pie I];tnocent the jEIigbth was happy to obtam j|;us dau^-
iter in awarriage for his joiephew, ,prmce Cibo } B(Iatthi?is
Hunyad applied to him for counsel ; the sult£|p of JCg}^t
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UNIVfeliSAL HIStOKY. 189
hoQoreci \mx with preheats ; ^d the grand sigaor of the
Qttooians with proofs of his esteem. His death, which
happened m the 44th year of his age (A. D. 1492), was ^
great misfcHtune to Italy ; for his son Fedro, who inherited
iSi his father's possessions, was destitute gf his talents.
SECTION y*
VENICE.
Venice, a short time before this period, had acquired pos-
session of a kingdom. Charlotte, heiress of the familjr
of Poitiers Lusignan, which was in possession of the sov0- '
r^ignty of 'Cyprus, ^vas involved in war with h^r illegitimate
brother James, on account of the succession. The latter,
in order to strengthen his party, married Catharine Coma-
ro, the daughter of a senator of Venice (A. D. 1471) : his
alnbassadors chose her from among seventy-two young no-
(iJie ladies, who were presented before them in the state
palace ; and the republic declared her its daughter. After
the death of the king (A. D. 1473)^ her title to the throne
wae maintained by the family ol Davila (to which the
great hist(^ian of diat name belonged), by the viceroy qf
9ie house of Constanzi, and especially by the Venetian ad-
miral Piero Mocenigo, and by the high reputation of her
mother country. The C)rpriots, excited by letters from
Rome, which accused Csdiarine of ])oisonmg the. king,
broke into the palace, and put the pbysicidn and two noble
Venetians to death, in her presence ; but before the king
of Nipples could give .support to this rebeflion, it was QMell-
ed by the valiant commanders, Coriolano and Sorenzo.
Jjames the Third, whom Calharine bore after the de^ath
of the king, died in early infancy : and the anxiety a^end-
a^t oii.il WAT with Turkey, afforded the republic a pretcpLt
for sending Giorgio Comaro, a brother of the queen, to
%Cffif^ and for persuading her to fix her residence at
Venice. A.'D. 1486. Tlie standard of the .republic iwras
fV^cted in the gre^t place of the capital city Famagosla ;
and Cfttbarine was received on board the Buoentaur by the
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140 UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
doge Agostin Barbarigo, and by a numerous suite of sen-
ators and noble ladies; and was afterwards conducted,
with great pomp, to the church of St. Mark, at the high
altar of which she formally transferred the kingdom of Cy-
prus to the republic of Venice. She lived twenty-four
years after this transaction, revered by her fellow-citizens,
and in her splendid villas enjoyed pleasures which she
preferred to the pursuits of ambition. The illegitimate
sons of her husband were honorably supported at Padua.
The expelled queen Charlotte died in poverty at Rome,
after having transferred her title to the family of Savoy.
Duke Lewis of Savoy had already acquired a claim to
the sovereignty of Cyprus, by his marriage with Anna of
Lusignan, daughter of king James ; and his descendants,
to this day, call themselves kings of Cyprus and Jeru-
salem.
Cyprus, however, remained under the dominion of Ve-
nice, which was the principal state in Italy. The most
""considerable commerce with the east, before the discove-
ries of the Portuguese, was carried on by the Venetians,
by way of Alexandria, and was favored by the sultans of
the mamelukes. The city was not only very opulent, but
its military force was much superior to that of the other
Italian states.
SECTION VI.
THE LESSER ITALIAN PRINCES.
The princes of the house of Este, as vassals, partly of
the enipire, and partly of the church, for centuries gov-
erned Ferrara, Modena, arid Reggio, with the title of mar-
quis : but JBorso had obtained the rank of duke from the
emperor Frederick the Third (A. D. 1452) ; and his suc-
cessors had preserved that tide. ,
In a similar manner, the descendants of Lewis Gonzagj^
who had expelled the powerful Buonaccolsi fi'om Mantua,
had a short time before acquired the title of marquis from
the pmperor Sigismund, in return for some service render-
jed to him by John Francis^ A. D. 1433.
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DNIVEBSAL HISTORT. 141
Miraodola, at that time a fortified town, was the resi-
dence of the princes Pico : the Malespma reigned ^at
Malssa ; the Grimaldi at Monaco ; and the young Guidon^ ^
Ubaldo di Montefeltra maintained his power with difficult
at Urbino.
The dukes of Savojr for a considerable time had ob-
tained the character ot mild rather than of great or fortu-
nate princes ; and their power had been much diminished
by short reigns and frequent minorities.
SECTION vn.
THE FRENCH IN ITALY.
The situation of Italy was such as we have above de-
^rihed, when the negotiations of the duke of Milan ex-
cit^d the king of France to a campaign against Naple$.
Dfothing was capable of resisting the overpowerbg impetu-
o^ty of the French troops, and the immovable firmness of
the Swiss, of whom Charles had a strong body in his army.
4^. D. 1495. Don Ferrando was lately de^d, his liie
having been shortened, as it was believed, by a dread of
t|ie«e preparations ; and Alfonso, in terror, abandoned the
government which he had scarcely assumed, and retirecji
in^o the solitude of monastic life, whither he was said to be
j^tllpyired by revengeful spirits, the ghosts of the, murdered
nppies. In a few days after the accession of his son, Don
Feirando, ^enty thousand French, and six thousand
Swiss troops completed the conquest of Naples. Charles
overraui Jt^ly, which was afterwards plundered by his suc-
ce3SQr, Lewis: but the Spaniard Ferdinand obtained a
permanent conquest, while the Swiss despised the acqui-
sition.
T^he manners of the French were displeasing to the
NeJitpoUtans : even the character of the king was deficient
ii) the greatness which commands obedience, while he
Zfianif^sted a degree of insolent vanity, which provoked the
ipdigUjation of people of all ranks. It was therefore not
long before a league was formed betweerf pope Alexander ;
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142 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. .
the emperor Maximilian, who had just succeeded to his
father ; Ferdinand, king of Arragon and Castile, and the
Venetians, against the French ; in which Ludovico Moro,
the original source. of all these evils, participated. In a
part of the Parmesan territory, near Foronovo, and on the
banks of the Tanaro, die allies awaited the approach of the
king, who' was riiarching back with his weakened force,
intending to attack him, when his army should gradually
descend from the passes of the Apennines. His advanced
guard, consisting of the Swiss troops, cut a passage through
the lines of the enemy, who were three times more nu-
merous ; and the king lost only two hundred men, in a
battle which cost his adversaries three thousand. From
this time until the reign of Lewis -the Fourteenth, the
artillery of the French armies was always protected by
Swiss troops.
Since the period when the descendants of Charlemagne
divided his empire, and subsequently to the decay of the
family of Hohenstaufen, scarcely any political connection
. had subsisted between the different states of Europe, while
the princes contented themselves with confirming their au-
thority in their own dominions : but the undertaking of
Charles in Italy awaked the jealousy of Austria and Spain ;
and by degrees the idea of a balance of power necessary
to the' preservation of universal security was developed.
The interest which all states took in the .transactions of
others became greater, and partitions among the people
themselves more frequent. Thus the characters of the dif-
ferent Nations became more polished, and knowledge soon
began to spread itself more widely.
One of the first consequences of this more intimate con-
nection was the propagation of the venereal disease, the
.first remarkable effects of which were displayed during the
Italian war. Christopher Columbus was not yet returned
from his second voyage to America, whence it is commonly
supposed that the Spaniards brought it ; lior had the latter
yet landed at Naples, when the disease made its appear-
ance in that country among the French troops. It is high-
ly probable tliat this infection, like that of the small-pox, is
a native of the hot climate of Africa ; and that it was
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 143
brought to Europe from the coast of Gumea. The terror
inspired by its first ravages was so great, that it is recorded
by all the historians of that age : it was even supposed to
be the angel of death mentioned in the apocalypse, which
should destroy the third part of the human race. Those
who were attacked by this disease were abandoned and
separated from mankind, until it found its way to the in-
habitants of palaces, and to ithe heads of the Christian
world, among whom it met with better treatment. So
great a schism arose among the medical professors of Leip-
sic about the method of cure, that they separated from
each other, followed by a number of students, and tlius
gave occasion to the foundation of the university of Wit-
tenberg, and that of Frankfort on the Oder.
After the death of Charles the Eighth, Lewis the
Twelfth endeavored to act the same part toward Milan
which his predecessor had supported with regard to Na-
ples. It is, however, necessary to explain the manner in
which the relations of power were changed in favor of
Austria : Philip the Fair, son of Maximilian by Maria of
Burgundy,' and heir of ^Austria, the Netherlands, and Up-
Ejr Burgundy, married the heiress of Arragon, Castile,
eon, and all the other dominions of the catholic sovereigns
Ferdinand and Isabella.
SECTION vm.,
FERDINAND THE CATHOLIC.
Ferdinand, the first prince who resumed the ancient title
of " the catholic," was the son of Don Juan the Sec6nd,
who had inherited the kingdom of Arragon and Valencia,
the incorporated earldom of Catalonia, the Balearic isles,
and Sicily, from his brother Alfonso the Wise. Isabella,
the wife of Ferdinand, was sister to Henry the Fourth, the
last king of Castile. A. D. 1451.
It was declared, by the contrivance of Carillo, arch-
bishop of Toledo, and Don Ferrando Gonzalez de Men-
doza, that Henry was incapable of procreation ; and that
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144 UNIVERSAL BISTORT.
his reputed daughter, Jphanna, was the fruit of An adul-
terous intercourse which had taken place, with the kmg's
consent, between the queen and Bernard of Cueva, count
of Ledesma, and first duke of Albuquerque. The ttiar-
3uis de Villena, indeed, endeavored to secure the title of
le princess, and attempted, with that view, to procure a
marriage between her and Alfonso the Fifth, king of Por-
. tugal : but the Portuguese iSroops were defeated ; Truxillo,
the capital of Villena, was taken (A. D. 1474) ; and 4he
party of Isabella supported her in the succession to the
throne. The extensive kingdom of Castile had been aug-
mented, during the preceding reign (A. D. 1462), by the
acquisition of the strong fortress of Gibraltar, which had
been taken from the Moors by the dukes of Medma Sidonia
and Arcos, and the grand master of the order of Alcantara.
The Moorish kingdom of Grenada was all that remained
of the empire of the Arabs in Spam ; and this state was
shattered by the factions of the Zegri and the Abencer-
irages, which were inflamed to the utmost pitch of exasper-
ation by the fate of an innocent queen, who had been ca-
lumniated and unjustly executed. The bravest knights of
the family of the Abencerrages lost their lives in a tumuk,
to which this aifair gave occasion. The throne was now
the object of contention between Mohammed el Zagal, tmd
his nephew Abn Abdallah ; and these circumstances were
improved to their own advantage by the sovereigns of Cas-
tile ; for Isabella had now declared her husband co-regent.
The noble spirit of the Moorish knights enabled them, how-
ever, to prolong their resistance for teij years j and Fer-
dinand lost twenty thousand men before Zagal could be
compelled to give up Baeza. But when Ferdinand had
thus become master of the mountains of Alpujarra, he ter-
rified the Moors by building the city of Sante F6, which
manifested his intention of keeping Grenada in a state 6f
perpetual siege. A. D. 1492. This capital of their domin-
ions was at lengtli given up ; and the inhabitants stipulated
jbr that freedom in religion which their fathers had formerly
'allowed to the Spaniards. Several of the nobles, however,
, abandoned the profession of Islam for that of Christianity ;
and while the posterity of Zagal still remains in the Afirican
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UNIVERSAL HISTORT. 146
Telemsan, the family of the Abencerrages flourish in Spain,
under the title of marquis Campohejar. Thus ended, in
its seven hundred and seventy-ninth year, the empire of
the Mohammedans in S^iain.
When Charles the Eighth, subsequently to this conquest,
began hig preparations for his Italian expedition, he restored
to Ferdinand the Pyrenean regions of Cerdagne and Rou-
sillon, which Don Juan the Second had mortgaged to the
king of France.
The popular right of election in Spain had fallen, in the
lapse of time, into oblivion. The people were content
with maintaining their privileges, the most important of
which belonged to the inhabitants of Arragon and Cata-
lonia, who with justice retained their participation in those
national rights, which had been restored by a state of war-
fare, that lasted seven hundred years. Ferdinand attached
himself to the ecclesiastical party, as the means of securing
his domination ; for he was well aware in how great a de-
gi'ee that party had contributed to the mirfortunes oT the
last king of Castile, who had imprudentiy offended them
by refusing to permit the pope to nominate Torremada to
the archbishopric of Leon. Ferdinand accordingly took
care to preserve a perfect cordiality with the court of Rome,
and thus to make the head of the church a tool for the go-
vernment of her body. The zeal which he manifested as
defender of the faith, was in exact proportion to the ob-
tuseness of his moral sense.
He assumed, in this latter character, the grand master-
ship of the ecclesiastical orders of knights of St. Jago, Ca-
latrava, and Alcantara, which had been founded and very
richly endowed, during the ancient religious wars, hy pious
superstition. The fraternity of St. Jago had received the
dignity of knighthood from Ferdinand the Second, king of
Leon ; thfe order of Julian de Pereyro had acquired riches
aod fame by the conquest of Alcantara ; and that of Cal-
atrava had been founded by Sancho the Third of Castile.
During the late religious war, and subsequent to the batde
of Zamora, Isabella induced the knights of St. Jago to elect
the king for theu* grand-master : their example was followed
by the other orders ; and thus that important dignity was>
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146 vmrm^BAi, histo&t.
inseparably united to the crown. The court by these
means acquired the most powerful influence among all the
noble families whose sons aspired to promotion in the or-
ders ; together with the distribution of twenty-seven digni-
fied posts, of one hundred and seventy-two benefices, and
the control over a revenue of four millions five hundred
thousand reals de vello : at the same time it precluded the
possibility of any person in Spain, except the king, becora-
mg head of a military union. Ferdinand afterwards Erect-
ed a council of the orders.
Before the conquest of the Moors was compelled, Men-
doza, a minister of state, and Alfonso de Salez, bishopr of
Cadiz, sketched, during a residence at Seville, the plan of
an inquisition of the faith ; an institution which had already,
during more than two centuries and a half, depressed the
mental vigor of many of the nations of Europe. Its first
exploit in Spain was the confiscation of property, and mur-
der of a. great number of the citizens of Seville, descended
from Jewish ancestors, and who were accused of an incli-
nation to the faith of their fathers.
Brother Francis Ximenes de Cisneros, commissary-
general of the Franciscans, and confessor to the queen,*
gained over the latter to this project. The church of Cas-
tile, in which all affairs had hidierto been conducted by the
archbishop, of Toledo and the synod, under the superin-
tendance of die pope, resisted the introduction of the pkn ;
and Sixtus die. Fourth, who foresaw the power which tliis
institution would give to the court, even over the clergy,
for a long time refused his concurrence. At length, how-
ever, the latter consented ; and brother Thomas, of Tor-
quemada, a dominican and prior of the holy cross at Sego-
via, became the first inquisitor : he employed two hundred
familiars, and had a personal guard, of fifty horsemen.
A. D. 1481. In the first year of his office, seventeen
thousand persons, who were either denounced by others,
or who accused themselves under extreme terrors, because
this was made a point of conscience, underwent examina-
tion. Two thousand were in a short time burned alive ;
and with the property of these victims, Torquemada found-
ed the convent of St. Thomas at Avila, into which no per-.
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UlflVERSAL HISTORY, 147
8011 was admitted whose ancestors had been either of Moor*
ish or Jewish race.
The Jews, who, during the dominion of the Moors in
Spain, had generally been suffered quietly to pursue their
successful occupations, afterwards received orders to quit
the kipgdom within six months : they were allowed to take
with them their silver, gold, and jewels ; but all their pro-
perty of other kinds was confiscated ; and all Christians
were forbidden, on pain of excommunication, to give bread
or water to any of that devoted nation. Of the Jews
residing in the territory of Castile, who were eighty thou-
sand in number, many fled to Portugal, and many to Mau-
ritania; and ihose who inhabited Arragon, retired into
Navarre : the emigration amounted in the whole to one
hundred and seventy thousand families.
While Mendoza, the successor of Carillo in the arch-
bishopric of Toledo, was compelling the Castilians to re-
ceive the inquisition, Arragon in vain offered Ferdinand a
large sum oi money for the privilege of remaining exempt
from this cruel scourge ; and vain were the mediatorial re-
presentations of the Justizia, the constitutional preserver of
the freedom of me country. These peaceable methods
having failed, Peter of Arbues, first inquisitor-general in
Arragon, was killed in a tumult of the people, on his ap-
pearance in the cathedral church of Saragossa: Teruel
revoked ; and the king, who, like Lewis the Eleventh, was
artful in the highest degree, but deficient in that greatness
of soul which controls the minds of the people, hesitated
when he saw money on one side and opposidon on the
other. During this state of irresoludon, Torquemada en-
tered the chamber in which Ferdinand and Isabella were
sitting, with a crucifix concealed under his mande : he
held It before their eyes, exclaiming, " he whom your ma-
jesties behold was sold for thirty pieces of silver : will you
again betray him ? he will find means to revenge himself."
The priest left the crucifix standing, and went away : it
was now resolved to introduce the inquisition into Arragon
by force of arms. Leon, Valencia, and Sicily resisted to
a still later period, but with an equally unfortunate result.
Although the Moors had given up the sovereignty of
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148 ^ UNIVERSAL. HISTOHY. ^
Grenada under the express condition of freedom for thek
religious profession, they were now ordered to submit
either to baptism or banishment: the ecclesiastics and
lawyers, in an assembly over which the archbishops of
Toledo and Grenada presided, having declared their opin-
ion " that Ferdinand and Isabella were not obliged to keep
their promise with these infidels." On this occasion much
blood was shed ; many were deprived of their liberty, and
many of their property. -Ximenes extended his fury to the
literature of the Arabs, and ordered their books to be de-
stroyed. The vigor of these proceedings was renewed
under the reign of Charleys the Fifth.
In no country was the inquisition more destructive in its
effects, or the conspiracy of the throne and altar agamst
the spirit and character of the people more dreadfully suc-
cessful, than in* Spain. The Spanish soldiers at that period
possessed a superiority which is only to be attained by a
long course of experience in wars carried an chiefly by in-
fantry : none but the troops of Switzerland and the janis-
-saries were to be compared with them.
Domanial territories and subsides w^e the sources of
the revenue. The crown lands which had been alienated
by the last king of Castile (A. D. 1480), were revoked
by a decision extorted from tne cortes of Toledo, by means
of a commission, the president of which was a Hieronymite
friar.
One branch of the domanial revenue of Arragon, had
been rendered peculiarly productive by Don Pedro the
Fourth. Even m the times of the Romans, the wool of
the Spanish sheep had been improved by the introduction
of Arabian rams. This antient example was followed by
Pedro with great success ; and the management introduced
by him was imitated in Castile by Ximenes, who, as min-
ister, succeeded to Mendoza. From this time, Spain has
been annually traversed by five millions of sheep, which
are conducted by twenty-five thousand shepherds: ten
thousand compose a flock, and each flock is divided into
ten stocks. The annual produce of each sheep is estimated
at twenty-four reals, the fourth part of which sum belongs
to the king : all the flocks were originally his property : the
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 149
last was sold by Philip the Second ; but the laws and tho
council of tfie great royal flock still subsist. The sheep
travel every year, in forty days, from the sources of the
Duero and Ebro, four hundred miles, into the soutliern
districts ; and through this whole route, which lies through
corn fields, gardens, and vineyards, a path of at least ninety
feet wide is everywhere open to them. This migration
proceeds, as in the Alps, from the impulse of nature; and
if deprived of the guidance of their shepherds, the sheep
would still, wander forth and find their favorite pastures.
During the war which Alfonso the Eleventh, king of
Castile and Leon, carried on at Algesiras, against Abu
Hafo, a prince of the dynasty of the Merinides, the alca^
vala, or great tax on all purchases, was first raised, with
the consent of the states of the kingdom. This impost is
levied upon all the products of the earth and of human art|
and is reckoned at ten per cent. The collection of this
revenue employs a countless multitude of officers, and
gives occasion to frequent searches, which are in the high-
etJt degree oppressive to domestic life. One branch of the
' alcavala is the trade in salt, of which commodity every
villagers compelled tb purchase a certain quantity : the
people are not allowed to sell any portion which they may
DC unable to consume ; and in order to enhance the price
of this article, some of the salt works have been destroyed,
and the approaches to others are secured by a guard of
soldiers.
SECTION IX.
AMERICA.
Tlje' discovery of the New World opened to the cathf)lic
krags unexpected sources of wealth. Men of great genius
and extraordinary acquirements had been occupied, for a
century preceding this period, in investigating the ocean,
in the hope of finding a more expeditious or convenient
passage to the East fiidies than through Egypt. A tradi-
tion existed, that when the Moors inundated Spain, seven
VOL. III. 13*
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150 TTNIVERSAI. HISTORY.
hundred years before this time, a Portuguese ai^hl^shopi
accompanied by seven bishops and a great body of Chris-
tians, had found refuge with their flocks in an island be-
yond the great ocean, called Antilia or Septemtirade : it
was known that a country caDed Wine-land had been dis-
covered beyond the ocean by the Normans ; a ship which
had been carried far out t,o sea by a storm in the fifteenth
century, was reported to have visited such a country.
Marine charts at Venice, and the remarks of Behaimb, an
inhabitant of Nuremberg, who constructed a globe, con-
tributed to strengthen die conjectures of enterprising in-
dividuals.
Christopher Columbo, a native of Genoa, in order to
ascertain the foundation of these opinions, after tedious
solicitations and delays, at length succeeded in procuring
assistance from Ferdinand and Isabella. He obtainea
about two hundred and fifty ounces of gold in heavy
masses, firom the inhabitants of the Antilles and St. Do-
mingo, and observed some of them to be possessed of
ornaments of the same metal : avarice was excited by
these circumstances, to prosecute the new discoveries with
greater zeal ; but the adventurers were subjected to a tax
for the royal treasury, amounting to the half of the silver,
and a third of the gold, which they should acquire in St.
Domingo and Cuba. It was soon found that this impost
was out of aU reasonable proportion to the expenditure of
the adventurers ; and the court was therefore obliged to
lower its demands to a fifth of the silver and a twentieth of
the gold. Romano Pane, however, a. Spanish missionary,
who discovered tobacco in St. Domingo, contributed essen-
tially to improve the revenue from Uiis quarter : for that
weed became not less productive than the gold mines to the
royal treasury.
America, for a long time, seemed an inexbausftible source
of riches : in the earliest period, when only the mines of
the Antilles, of comparatively trifling value, were known,
the amount appeared incalculable ; and yet the influx of
the precious metals, from the New World into Europe,
continued progressively to increase during an hundred and
forty years. Newfoundland and the neighboring contment
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UKIVCRSAL HISTORY* 151
diacoTered about this time by John Cabot, an En-
glishman, and by the French : but the search was carried
on with the greatest activity before the discovery which the
Spaniards made of those remarkably profitable mines, the
produce of which was so abundant, as to render it impos-
sible any longer to work such as liad been previously known,
with an adequate return. After die lapse of an hundred
and fifty years, America acquired a new and more noble
source of interest.
Such were the dominions and the prospects of Ferdi-
nand and Isabella. Their only son died before his parents,
and without heirs ; and the prize of the exploits of so many
heroes and of ancient and modern policy, fell consequent^
ly, by the marriage of dieir eldest daughter, Johanna, to
the archduke Philip ; who was the only son of MaximiUan
and Maria of Burgundy.
SECTION X.
MILAN AND SWITZERLAND.
A. D. 1500. In the same year in which Charles the
Fifth, son of Philip, was bom, Lewis the Twelfth, king of
France, acquired the dukedom of Milan. Valentina Vis-
conti, wife of Lewis of Orleans (who was the ancestor of
Lewis, brother of Charles the Wise), had given rise, dur^
ing her life, to many calamities ; and the tide derived fix>m
her name gave occasion to the Milanese war, which was
undertaken in ord^r to expel the family of Sforza. Both
the king and the duke calculated especially on the assist-
ance of the Swiss.
. A. D. 1499. The Swiss were at this time engaged in
the last war against Austria, which had been excited chief-
ly by the interests of the Grisons.' T^e Rhaetians, inhab-
itants of that territory, were a free and active people, and
had bjr decrees united themselves into confederacies, in
imitation of the Swiss : like the latter, these republicans
were moderate enough to content themselves with such a
degree of freedom as was consistent with the established
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152 DNITfiBSAL HISTORf.
privileges of the barons. A. D. 1424. Austria retained
Its anpient rights of sovereignity over the greater part of
the league of ten jurisdictions, until the middle of tne pre-
ceding century, at which time its claims were alivnated by a
peaceable contract : and it still possesses Razun, and ex-
ercises the constitutional privilege of that sovereignty, by
nominating, every third year, the judge of the upper coun-
try of the Grisons. The freedom of thjBse people was at
|hat time an object of apprehension to their neighbors, who
dreaded lest they should extend their territory into tlie
country of Tyrol, and the whole eastern district df the Alps.
In addition to this, the nobility of Swabia hated the Swiss
on account of the events of ancient wars, and despised tliem
for their democratic simplicity, while the citizens and pea-
sants of that country envied their freedom : and in propor-
tion as tlie Swiss showed themselves disposed to cultivate
a good understanding witli France, they became obnoxious
to tlie displeasure of Maximilian, who entertained a per-
sonal as well as a political animosity against the French.
A. D. 1495^ The Swiss and the Grisons having formed
a mutual alliance, a war broke out against the confederates,
in which all the adherents of AusU'ia, in Upper Germany,
took part. A. D. 1499. This contest, the theatre of
which extended from tlie boundary of Tyrol to Base), last-
ed ten months : during that time, eight battles were fought,
in all of which the advantage was decidedly in favor of the
Swiss ; nearly two tliousand citadels and villages were de-
sti*oyed, an^ twenty thousand men lost their lives. Tliis
war ended in a treaty, which was concluded at Basel, and
which was zealously promoted, for their own pui-poses, by
France and Milan.
The king, indeed, by means of a large' sum of money,
procured a renewal of his alliance widi tlie republic ; but
both he and the duke obtained soldiers against the will of
the magistrates, so that Both the hostile armies contained
Swiss troops. The duke was betrayed near Novara, by
Tumean, a native of Uri (A. D. 1600) ; who wa^ after-
wards executed for his tieachery to ms native country.
Milan continued twelve years under the yoke of the French.
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miVCIUSAL HISTORY. 16S
SECTION XI.
ITALIAN WARS.
Lewis the Twelfth had no sooner completed this con-
quest, than he concluded a treaty for the partition of the
kingdom of Naples, with Ferdinand, king of Spain. Fre-
derick, the son of the first Don Ferrando, had nothing but
his rights to oppose to these acts of oppression ; and was
consequently obliged to submit. A.D. 1501. But the
army of Lewis was soon reduced by an extraordinary
mortality ; the joint effect of the climate, to which the
French were unaccustomed, and of their licentious conduct:
the Italians were also offended by their domineering man-
ners and their neglect of decorum. The Spaniards were
free from all these disadvantages ; and, therefore, when the
partitioning powers disagreed about the prize of dieir injus-
tice, the superiority was on their side. Ferdinand had,
besides, in Gonsalvo de Cordova, a skilful general for his
army, which was itself under excellent discipline. A. D.
1503. The French were again driven from their con-
quests, which remained in the possession of their opponent
and of his family.
Lewis afterwards formed a league, at Cambray, against
the Venetians, with his enemies, the emperor and the king
of Spain, and with pope Julius ibe Second. A. D. 1509.
The senate, in this emergency, opposed the superior power
of its enemies with great firmness : its generals displayed
courage and skill ; and its subjects an invincible attachment
to the cause of the republic. An opportunity soon occurred
which rendered it practicable for the perseverance of the
Venetians to effect the disunion of a coalition between
courts of such different interests ; and Lewis now perceived
that the emperor, the pope, and the king of Spain, had
combined with the Venetians, and the Swiss whose pride
be had imprudendy offended, to expel him from Italy.
They effected their purpose (A. D. 1512) ; and Maximil-
ian Sforza, son of the imprisoned Lodovico Moro, was re-
stored to his dignity. The Swiss gained a victory at No-
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164 0KIV£BSAL HISTORY.
vara, which not only completed the conquest of this duchy,
but encouraged them to make an irruption into France ;
and the king was obliged to conclude a peace at Dijon (A.
D. 1513), which, though he did not observe it, manifested
the difficulties that surrounded him.
After his death, Francis commenced his warlike reign
by a passage across the Alps (A. D. 1515), which has
been not unjustly compared to that of Hannibal. He
effected a division among the Swiss ; defeated in the bat-
tle of Marignano, which lasted three days, that party which
remained firm in its attachment to duke Sforza ; regained
possession of the dukedom of Milan ; and renewed treaties
of alliance with the Swiss and the Venetians.
Loredano, doge of Venice, who was now nearly eighty
years old, had thus the satisfaction of seeing the storm
which had so fearfully threatened the destruction of the re*-
public, pass away without any important ill effects. The
Swiss concluded a peace with Francis the First (A. D.
1516), which subsists between themselves and the French
to this day (A. D. 1521) ; and a treaty of alliance, which
has been seven limes renewed.
That great problem, which of the great powers should
acquire the preponderance over all others by the conquest
of Italy, the solution of which had been contested for
twenty years, remained undecided: the Spaniards do-
mineered at Naples, and the French at Milan.
SECTION xn.
CHARLES THE FIFTH.
A. D. 1616. The battle of Marignano was soon fol-
lowed by the death of Ferdinand the Catholic, who had al-
ready survived his queen and his son-in-law Philip, and had
lately augmented his power by the acquisition of Upper
Navarre. John of Albret governed the kingdom of Na-
varre in right of his wife, Catherine de Foixj and had
taken part in the wars of the greater powers with Lewis
the Twelfth. A. D. 1512. On this latter account he
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t7NIV£BS41< HI8TOBT. 166
was excommtinicated by the pope, and \Vas expelled by
that obedient son of the church, the catholic king : he kept
' possession, however, of the lower districts and of Beam.
Charles of Austria, the son of Philip, grandson of the
emperor, and heir of the hereditary sovereignties of Austria
and Burgundy, succeeded, in the sixteenth year of his age,
to all the power of Ferdinand in Spain, Italy, and America.
His mother Johanna, ^the daughter of Ferdinand, had lost
her husband, Philip the Fair, in the twenty-sixth year of
his age ; and her grief on this occasion was so excessive as
to deprive her of reason, in which condition she survived
nearly fifty years. Three years after the death of Ferdi-
nand, Charles succeeded his grand fadier Maximilian in the
imperid dignity. Fortunate adventurers conquered, for
his advantage, the extensive, populous, and wealthy empire
of America, and subjected the powerful Navatiaks of Mex-
ico, and the peaceful and magnificent sovereignty of the
children of the sun, the Incasof Peru. Charles possessed
great power on the coast of Africa, and drove the French
from Milan ; and his brother acquired the kingdoms of
Hungary and Bohemia. The house of Austria had arrived
at this pitch of greatness only a litde more than tliirty years
after that period, when Frederick the Third had found
himself unable to mamtain his authority in Vienna.
SECTION Xffl.
PORTUGAL.
Manoel, king of Portugal, whose reign is jusdy called
the golden age of that nation, closed his life about this
time. A. D. 1521. During his administration, Vasco de
Gama had landed at Calcutta, on the coast of the East
Indies, after a voyage of ten months ; and Amerigo Ves-
pucci, the fortunate Florentine, who has given his name to
the world which was found by Columbus, shortly after-
wards discovered the rich country of Brazil. A. D. 1498.
Pearo Alvarfez de Cabral also sailed thence to the country
of the Zamorin of Calecut, while Gama and his successors
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166^ UNITZfiSAU HISTORT.
explored the whole coast of Mozambique, Sofala,. and the
East Indies; and Albuquerque soon rendered Goa the
seat of a PoUuguese empire. The Hindoos were at this
time particularly unable to withstand the Portuguese, be-
cause they were oppressed by the Mogul sultan Babr, the
conqueror of Bengal and Guzurat.
Every fresh expedition brought new constellations, for-
eign manners, strange animals and plants, and unknown
appearances of nature and of man, within the limits of
European knowledge.
In the internal administration of Portugal, principles
were adopted similar to those which had been introduced
in Spain : the kings of the former country appropriated to
themselves the grand-mastership of the ecclesiastical knight-
hoods of Avi^, Christi, and St. James, and thus acquired
the patronage of six hundred and seventy-six benefices.
These privileges, together with the pensions which they had
always oeen accustomed to assign out of the produce of
the crown lands,* to the descendants of those heroes by
whose assistance the kingdom was founded, Wa^-sufficient
to render the nobility dependent on the court ; especially
as the ecclesiastical knights were not in Portugal, as in
other countries, absolutely prohibited from marrying.
Hence the families of the nobles were more numerous but
less independent; and hence the nobility, as a body, were
less powerful in this kingdom than in others, while the au-
thority of the clergy was greater here than in almost any
other country.
The states of the kingdom wer« still powerful ; and they
suffered the brother of king Edward, and of the noble
prince Henry, to die a captive in the hands of the Me-
rinides, rather than consent to ransom them, by restoring
the fortress of Ceuta. They exercised the legislative au-
thority, in conjunction with the king ; but Don Joan the
First favored the Roman jurisprudence, y^hich affi>rds
support to absolute power. The laws of die country were
arranged in the reign of Manoel, in five books.
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I^NIVCRSAI^ BISTORT. 1S7
. I
SECTION XIV.
J'RANCE.
No king of France, since the age of Philip the Fourth|
had more zealously contributed to the importance of the
Erliaments t)ian L<ewis the Eleventh. This prince estab-
bed a parliament at Grenoble, while yet only dauphin :
as sooa as he succeeded to the sovereignty, he divided the
district to which thegurisdiction of the. parliament of Tou-
louse extended, and erected a new court at Bourdeaux,
for the country beyond the Garonne ; and after the re-
union of the duchy of Burgundy, he introduced the parlia-
ment at Dijon. He caused writings relative to treaties of
peace and financial regulations to be prepared in that of
jraris, because he found that it was necessary to allow the
nation to retain the appearance of some participation in
public affairs ; and that magistrates, who owed their c^cial
existence to his favor, were more accommodating than the
nobles and states-general. The parliament was gained
over by these means to the court party, and seldom or
never raised its voice in favor of the rights of the ancient
national assemblies. In like manner, during the evil times
of the fourteenth and the beginning^of the fifteenth centu-
ries, when the court and the different factions endeavored
in aU possible ways to strengthen their power, even the
universities had been allowed to assume political influence.
Lewis the Eleventh rendered himself more and more
bdependent: the crown estates were considerably aug-
mented during his reign. The nation, durbg that of his
f^er, bad allowed the tailh to be rendered perpetual ;
and he Observed the most exa6t economy^ as well with re-
gard to receipt as expenditure. His own inclinations were
so far trom expensive, that his manner of life was such as
would, hardly be thought suitable to a private man of good
fiHtune. His annual revenue amounted to 4,700,000
Dounds ; a sum which, according to the computation of
Henault, would have been equsu to 23,000,000 in the
money of the age of Lewis the Fifteenth.
VOL. 111. 14
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158 UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
He formed the principal instrument of the power of the
kingdom, which was a standing army, consisting chiefly of
foreign mercenaries, dependent on himself. A body of
seven thousand Scots had been commanded by Douglas,
one of their own countrymen, under marshal de la Fayette,
in the last English war, out of whom Charles the Seventh
formed a Scottish body-guard. The kings of Scotland
were, from their situation, the natural allies of the French.
Lewis the Eleventh concluded the first subsidiary treaty
with the Swiss, by which the kings of France acquired the
privilege, with the concurrence of the Swiss magistrates,
of recruiting their armies in the cantons. It has been cal-
culated that 600,000 Swiss have entered the French ser-
vice within three centuries. The national army, properly
so called, or gens d'armerie, consisted of forty-five ap-
pointed companies, each of which contained one hundred
men at arms ; and every man had six horses. A militia,
called Frank-archers, served among the light cavairy as
well as with the infantry ; but Lewis changed their consti-
tution, and formed them into a better organized body of
10,000 infantry : in their former state they lay dispersed
throughout the wliole kingdona; but he now kept' them
collected in more considerable bodies, ready to execute
any sudden command. Their only employment was the
use of their arms, manoeuvres and tactics. The mode of
conducting war acquired a new appearance ; and it was
no longer in the power of the vassals, with their contempt-
iblf^ banditti, to withstand the troops of th^ king.
The power of the monarchy was thus increased by the
vigilant use which the court made of favorable occurrences;
while the states-general, who were seldom assembled, and
"consequently had opportunities of becoming acquainted
with public afl[airs only at distant intervals, proceWed un-
systematically. If, as there is reason to believe, the weak-
ness of the intermediate power is destructive of the inter-
ests of a monarchy, the parliaments deserve to be severely
censured ; for they continued their sessions uninterruptedly,
and had therefore the opportunity of forming and pursuing
a system of political maxims, but they paid more regard to
the interests of their own college, than to those of the com-
monwealth.
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. IS9
There remained at length onhr the three folbwing fun-
damental maxims of policy in France: "That the royal
authority can never descend to a female ; that die crown
lands are unalienable ; and that the minority of the king
ceases at the expiration of his thirteenth year." The first
is an ancient civil law, founded upon the military habits of
the Salic Franks, and might', perhaps, have been universal-
ly introduced with advantage : the second may be modified
by imperious calls of state necessity ; and the third, an in-
stitution of Philip the Third and Charles the Wise, is
scarcely conformable to nature, which rarely renders a
child thirteen years and one day old, capable of managing
all the interests of a nation consisting of 25,000,000 peo-
ple.
The chancellor, or officer to whom state afiairs were re-
ferred, was anciently the king's deputy in matters of busi-
ness : the secretaries were under his direction ; and all
affeirs were expedited by the notaries. At the conclusion
of the fifteeoth century, the royal council of state was form-
ed, which consisted of the above-mentioned officers, and
of an indeterminate number of counsellors ; it was the com-
mon point in which the conduct and direction of all public
business centered. Charles the Eighth declared this body
to be a supreme court of judicature {cour .souveraine), and
thus rendered it a fit instrument for keeping the parliaments
in order.
Since the introduction of regular standing armies, the
financial department was become much more important to
the prosperity of the state ; and the tide of secretary of
finance, ever since Florimond de Robortet had filled the
office in the time of Charles the Eighth, had been ex-
changed for that of secretary of state. The only ground
of a claim to the dignity of counsellor of state, was the will
of the king ; and Lewis the Eleventh used to prefer per-
sons of no original importance, whose greatness was entire-
ly owing to his favor ; who had no peculiar privileges which
, they were anxious to protect ; and who existed exclusively
for him and for the execution of his purposes. A prepon-
derating authority was conferred in succeeding reigns,
sometimes on an individual minister, and "sometimes on
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180 0NITER8AL UI8TOKT.
several, acoordmg to the caprice of the r^ent, or to die
circumstances of the age : but even under the most feeble
administrations, the error of the Merovingian lace, that ot
suffering power to remain hereditary m a family, was avoid-
ed : the competition for such dignities mdeed, rendered
such a mistake hardly possible.
In those provinces which possessed written laws, justice
was administered according to the Roman code, while ia
others the judicial decisions were founded on two hundred
and eigh^ tlifferent laws of precedent ; and were m all
points influenced by the royal ordinances. The trial by
ordeal, so common among the ancient Franks, had been
abolished by St. Lewis ; and the appeals to judicial com-
bat were circumscribed by Philip the Fair.
After the death of Lewis the Eleventh, the parliament
of Rouen was formed from the echiquier, or district list of
the ancient dukes of Normandy : Lewis the Twelfth erect-
ed another for Provence at Aix ; and Francis had scarcely
secured himself in his dukedom of Milan, when he provid-
ed that state vrith a similar court.
But it was not in this instance alone that the maxims ot
Lewis the Eleventh were adopted by his successors : the
military force of the kingdom, as it was the chief instru-
ment in the maintenance of their power, continued to be
the principal object of their solicitude. They had inherited
from him a code of military law, improved artillery, and a
body of Swiss infantry : Charles the Eighth augmented the
latter description of Force, and surrounded his person with
the body-guard of one hundred Swiss. The Grerman in-
fantry, and the black bands alone, which constituted a body
of six thousand troops, originally formed in the Netherlands,
were equally celebrated in the wars of that age. Francis
the First, probably incited to this attempt by the excellent
treatise of Macchiavelli, endeavored to reduce the nsilitia
of France to the form of the Roman legions ; but his un-
dertaking was unsuccessiul, only because he confined his
attention too exclusively to the form.
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UHnnCBSAt EISTOBT. liSl
SECTION XV.
SWITZERLAND.
Switzerland, after the war with Burgundy, was torn to
pieces by foreign and domestic factions ; especially by the
{*ealousies which had subsisted, from a very early period,
>etween the inhabitants of the country and those of the
towns ; and which were augmented to the highest degree,
when Bern endeavored to introduce Soluturn and Freiburg
ii\to the perpetual confederacy.
Freiburg had been founded (A. D. 1178), like Bern, by
the dukes of Zaringen ; but on their own hereditary do-
mains, and not on the territory of the empire : hence this
city descended by inheritance to the counts of Kiburg (A.
D. 1277), who sold it to the family of Habsburg- Austria
{A. D. 1452); from whom it passed, in a similar manner,
to tie dukes of Savoy. Freiburg, however, from time to
time, purchased immunities, and at length obtained inde-
pendence : but a system of policy was requisite (A. D.
1478), in order to place her on an equality with Bern, as
the attention of many of the directors of her afiairs was
turned rather to foreign powers thaji to the real interests of
the state : the noble families, besides, intermixed far less
with those of the citizens than at Bern ; an(i it was impos-
sible to produce an uniformity of manners, and principles,
in a community in which the classes inhabitmg the upper
and lower streets could never be brought to speak the same
language.
Soluturn was originally more independent than Freiburg,
and had to defend itself chiefly against the encroachments
of the cathedral of St. Ursus. Austiia pretended to no
rights over this city, and only twice attempted (once by
force of arms, and once by secret intelligence) to obtain
possession of the town. The citizens had the advantage,
m the first attempt (A. D. 1318), by their magnanimity :
the enemy having lallen into the Aar by the breaking of
the bridge, they rescued them as they were carried down
by the current, supplied their wants, and then set them free,
VOL. III. 14*
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MS UNIVSB6AI« HI8T0BT.
The other design (A. D. 1382), that of scaling th6 city by
surprise, was discovered by a faithful rustic.
Freiburg was frequendy engaged in inveterate wars
against Bern, while the latter had been, from ancient umes,
in alliance with Solutum. After the Burgundian war, Bern
endeavored to introduce both these cities, wluch had faith-
fully adhered to her during the contest, into the Swiss con*
federacy ; but the inhabitants of the country were sojeal*
ous of die designs of the citizens, that a conspiracy broke
out at Lucem (A. D. 1480), the object of which was the
destruction of the town walls, and the introduction of un-
limited democracy. This division so inflamed the animos-
ity of the two classes, that there was reason to apprehend
danger for the stability of the union.
There resided at tnis period, in a lonely part of the can-
ton of Underwalden, a man named Nicolaus von der Flue,
descended from an ancient and respectable family, who
in his youth had been a warrior in the service of his coun-
try, but since his fiftieth year had devoted himself exclu-
sively to the contemplation of God^^nd of nature, and who
was accustomed to communicate his precepts of wisdom^
simplicity, and patriotism, to all who visited him. When
brother Claus ^as he vwras now usually called) became aware
of the impendmg danger, he repaired to Stanz, whese the
confederates were assembled : the tall spare figure of the
hoary-headed man filled them with veneration : he told
them " that Gpd, who had bestowed freedom and victory
on the ancient Swiss^ had revealed to him, that unanimity
was the only method by which those blessings eould be
mamtamed, and that immoderate desires are die most for*
midable enemies : that Freiburg and Solutum deserved to
be received without distrust ; and that it should be estab-
lished as a fundamental maxim, that no state in the union
should aggrandize itself at the expense of another, or en-
deavor by force to introduce changes in its consUtudon."
His advice was followed in both respects ; and it was en-
acted, that in Ae event of any internal commotion, Frei-
burg and Soluturn (to which Basel, Schafbausen, and Ap-
penzell were afterwards added^ should use their influence
solely for the purpose of mediation, instead of increasing
the disturbance by taking the side of either party.
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nKITSBSAL HISTOBr. 168
A. D. 1501. Basel and Schafhausen, which Vvet^ re-
ceived into the confederacy twenty years afterwards, had
both established themselves m the neighborhood, and under
the protection of ecclesiastical foundations; some noble
^families were at the head of their constitution, until they
were either destroyed or reduced to poverty in private
quarrels, and m the wars against the Swiss ; after which
the supreme power devolved on the tribes into which the
citizens were divided. The constitution of the two states
afterwards continued to differ in this respect ; that while at
Basel the nobles were entirely excluded from public afiairs,
at Schafhausen they retained one or two associaticms, after
the manner of tribes, which like those of the other classes,
take their share in the administration.
Appenzell is a very elevated region in the Alpine district,
which has formed itself around the mountain called Hohen*
Sentis. This desert at first afforded pasturage to roving
shepherds, who depended on the abbot of St. Gall for pro-
tection and the rites of worship ; but having increased in
numbers and wealth, and finding themselves oppressed by
the governors appointed by the abbot, they joined in an
insurrection against him (A. D. 1403) ; displayed, in many
engagements and campaigns, a degree of valor which ap-
E eared almost romantic ; and became the terror of the no-
les, from the Thur to the Tirol. At length they com-
pelled the abbot to acknowledge their rights. These dr-
cumstances, together with other difficulties into which the
abbot fell, in common with the city of St. Gall which arose
b the vicinity of his monastery, induced him to conclude
a right of citizenship or a defensive league, with Zurich,
Lucem, Schwyz, and Glaris (A. D. 1461) ; which irom
that time elected alternately, out of their own body, a head-
man or district-chief over his territory. Under tfiese cir-
cumstances, the town of St. Gall and the district of Ap-
penzell thought it necessary to render their ancient connec-
tions with the Swiss stronger and closer. From that time
the privileges of the prelates and the liberties of the people
were for the greater part defined with mildness and equity,
afid agreeably to the laws : those privileges were however,
by degrees, entirely purchased, and both Appenzell and
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164 UNIVERSAL HI6T0BT.
St Grail became indepeticlent ; the former becombg at
length the thirteenth canton of the league, and the cityi
with its abbot, holding the first rank among those which, by
varibus compacts, have been confederated with the Swiss.
The " Lower Union " with the Alsacian and Rhenish
towns, was dissolved soon after their common quarrel with
Burgundy ; the cit}'^ of Miilhausen alone remaining in alli-
ance with the Swiss, and preserving by their aid an inde-
pendent political existence, even when the other places
were compelled, by the power of Lewis the Fourteenth, to
exchange their privileges as imperial cities for the condition
of provincial towns of France. The connection of the
Swiss with Rothwyl, which is situated in the midst of
Swabia, subsisted also a hundred years after this period ;
until it became impossible, during the thirty years' war, to
maintain the neutral system of the confederates in a place
so distant.
Biel, which in the first ages of the republic of Bern,
connected itself with that city for the sake of protection,
and which became a Swiss town chiefly through its meaos,
remained closely and firmly united with the confederates.
Though situated on the border of the German empire, ai^d
in some respects subject to an imperial prince, the bishop
of Basel, Biel, and the neighboring country maintained a
constitution which was extremely complicated, but accu-
rately defined by positive laws. ^
The various mutual relations of the counts, princes, and
people of Neufchatel, gave occasion, in a similar manner,
to different connections with Bern, Freiburg, Soluturn, and
Lucem. An anpient race of counts, during the middle
ages, had cultivated and governed the country on the shores
of the lakes of Biel and Neufchatel, and other estates
which extended far up toward the Alps ; and Rudolf of
Habsburg, when king, had bestowed the feudal superiority
to the lords of Chalons, ancestors of the princes of Orange.
The county of Neufchatel (for all the rest had been pre-
viously lost by wars and misfortunes) descended from the
family of the first sovereigns, to heirs whose claims were
founded on marriages : these were the counts of Freiburg
in Swabia, the margraves of Baden and the dukes of
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trNlTERSAL HlfitOBT. IM
Longuenlle. The lord paiamount in vain asserted tint
the succession belonged to himself: the people of Neuf-
chatel, Bern, and other Swiss cantons, opposed his pre-
tensions. Before the line of the dukes of Longueville ex-
Eired, the upper Burgundian family cf Chalons-Orange
ecame extinct, as well as the principal branch of the
bouse of Nassau itself, which, by the right of an heiress,
had acquired Orange, together with the remaining claims
belonging to that house. These claims, as far as'^they af-
fected Neufchatel, were transferred by William of Orange,
king of England, to Frederick king of Prussia. A. D,
1 694. When, after>the extinction of the family of Lon-
gueviile, the succession became an object of contention
among many distinguished personages, the states of the
country declared for the king '(A. D. 1707), who assumed
the tide of count, with the dignity of a sovereign prince.
A. D. 1708. Neufchatel, amidst all its changes of ad-
ministration, had gradually acquired a constitution as per-
fect as could reasonably be desired : all the departments
of the government were hapjHly balanced ; the decision! of
disputable points was entrusted to Bern, and the security
of the whole constitution to the four cantons which had the
privilege of citizenship.
The seven Ceuts, which constitute the territory of the
Upper Valais, were distinguished from an early period of
history by their love of freedom and democracy. The
noble families^ of Thurn, of Gestelenburg, and of Raron,
^ when they became too powerful in the estimation of the
people, were expelled by a tumultuary ostracism, and their
fortresses demolished. The bishop of Sitten, who had
transferred to the king the ancient earldom, or presidency
of the country, was obliged to submit himself to the will
of the multitude. None of their other neighbors were so
formidable to the people of Valais as the count of Savoy ;
who, partly in right of his office as beadle of the ancient
monastery of St. Maurice, domineered over the Lower
Valais and the neighboring districts. This country there-
fore endeavored, at an early period, to obtain the friendship
of Bern and of the Swiss democracies ; and was protected
by the former against Savoy, and by the latter against any
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166 UNITCBSAL HISTOftT.
ueurpaticMis that Bern might hare been inclined to make*
Lower Vaiais was at length taken'from the house of Savoy
by force of arms. Matthaeus Schyner, bishop of Sitten
and ^ cardinal, during the Italian wars, in which he took
part, rendered himself and his country important to the
contendbg powers : and he exercised such influence in all
the afl[airs of Switzerland, by his distinguished talents as a
popular leader, that his friendship was courted by kings
and emperors. The prize which the confederates gained
in these wars, consisted in some districts of Milanese terri-
tory lying at the foot of St. Gothard, which are to Ijhis day
(A. D. 1512) governed bybailiffi appointed alternately by
twelve of the cantons. At a still earlier period, during the
sovereignty pf the Visconti (A. D. 1403), the three can-
tons nearest Milan had taken possession of the whole valley
, of Leventina, wliich is surrounded by mountains, and dT
the pass of Bellinzona ; and to these were now added (A.
D. 1519) the fortress of Locarno, the flourishing districts
of Lugano, and some other vallies : there were other places,
during these calamitous times, destitute of protection and
of a magistracy, which, of their own accord, acloiowledged
the government of Switzerland.
The Rhaetians confirmed their authority in the moun-
tains of Bormio, in the opulent Valtellin, and at Chia-
venna, ^tuated at the entrance of their passes. Hence
the Swiss could always take their choice, whether they
\70uld await the approach of enemies, coming from the
south, in their own mountains or at the entrance ef that
district: and these pastoral tribes, attached to freedom,
found means, in these beautiful regions, to obtain compen-
sation for the want of many luxuries.
A. D. 15*5. The day of Marignano was the last occa-
sion on which the confederacy displayed its military strength
aeainst foreign armies. The pope, duke Sforza, the army
of Ferdinand the Catholic, wmch was lying on the Po, the
emperor, and Henry the Eighth, king of England, who
were all in confederacy with die Swiss and the Venetians,
awaited the conclusion of this action as the signal for join-
ing one party or the other. The giant battie, as it was
called by marshal Trivulzi, lasted three days; whence,
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^ uKxvsiisAL HisTomr. 167
after losing many thousand men, the remainder of the Swiss
force withdrew into the Alps in such compact and regular
order, that their enemies were afraid to pursue them ; and
from that day forward they remained undisturbed in thdr
own country.
SECTION XVI.
T^E TUBKS.
Greece and the whole of western Asia obeyed the
peaceable Bajessid, son of Mohammed, the conqueror of
Constantinople. His kingdom was as yet so pre-eminent
in wealth, unity, and military science, that if he had been
endowed with the talents and activity necessary to the em*
ployment^and increase of the advantages which he already
possessed, no power in Christendom would have been able
to set bounds to his progress. But this opportunihr once
neglected, was irretrievably lost : for, b the time of Selim
and Solyman, the bravest and most illustripusof allthe sul-
tans, a more connected system of defence was developed
among the states of Europe. Of all the rulers of the
Turkish power, next to Mohammed the Second, Selim th6
First was the greatest. He completed, in the time of
Bogdan the Third, the subjection of Moldavia, which had
hitherto maintained, a valiant resistance under the command
of Stephen. The Bojars. stiU retained the privilege of
choosing their prince, of which they were afterwards de-
prived by the eifl^ts of their own factious spirit. His
grandfather had already rendered the chans of the Crimea,
who were the descendants of Jenghis, his vassals and allies ;
and that dignity was now filled by SahibGuerai. Asia was
the theatre of his heroic achievements.
Ismael, am Arab who was revered by his troops as a
prophet and a victorious commander, had dethroned the
family of Usong in Persia, restored the faith of the sect of
AK, and established a formidable empire. He fought
against the janissaries near Tabriz, and contrived to inter-
cept their supplies. Selim blamed the sultan of the Egypt-
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168 umvsKSAi. HirroxT.
kn mamelilkes for Has disaster ; anerted thatheiiad «il«
fiilly dehjed the business of collecting provisbns; «id
would listen to no representadoos on Us pan. The ma«
mehikes were no contemptibie militia : the sultans d Ka-*
hira were on friendly terms with Venice and odier western^
EDwers ; they were opulent ; and the throne was not un-
equendy adorned by a prince of great and amiable quali*
ties, and beneficent and favorable to the sciences, such as
they exist in that country. Their territory was the resi-
dence of the prince of die faithful, the successor of the
Seat prophet, and the supreme head of the followers of
lam. The reigning sultan, Malek el Ashraf Abul Nasr
Seif-ed-Klin Kausul 6auri,was a chief who preserved order
at home,* and was respected abroad by the princes of India,
the Imam of Yemen, the Nubians, the people of Habesh,
and the Europeans : he was possessed of a fleet, and be-
loved by the mamelukes, to whom he granted unbounded
license in all respects not injurious to the sovereignty. A.
D. 1516. This sultan fought a batde with Selim in the
plains of Dabek, northward of Damascus, and in the begin-
ning of the action took the Turkish camp ; but the effect
of die artillery, in which his enemy was gready superior to
him, and the treachery of two of his principal commanders,
at length compelled him to retreat ; and he was killed in
his flight by the falling of his horse. Damascus and Jeru-
salem now surrendered, and Selim became Chadim al Har*
amaim, or keeper of the sacred places.
Malek el Ashraf Tuman Bey, the nejdiew and successor
of Kausul Gauri, lost his kingdom in a decisive battle
which took place near his capital, Kahira : he fought va*
liandy in person ; but the Turks obtained the victory m thia
mstance also by *meaiis of their artillery. The traitccr
who dreaded their master even b captivity, obtuned per
mission from the victor to cause him to be put to death
(A. D. 1617) ; but Selim's joy was damped by the death
of his visier, Joseph Sman, who fell in the battle.
The chalif Motawaldcel Mohammed, to whom his father
the old Mostamser Abul Sabr Jakub, had traasferred tlMt
dignity, sent Selim toward Coostantinc^e : and Sioai^ witl|
aU tt^B Arabian valUes in the vicmity^ submitted at his ap^
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vmrmiBAL, bistort. Ufi
proach. Just at this time, an admiral' returned from an
expedition on which he had been sent by the sultan Grauri,
at the request of the Venetians, to destroy the new Portu-
guese settlements in the East Indies : Selim caused this
officer to be thrown into the Red Sea, and refused to re- -
new the treaties of commerce with Venice^ intending to.
take possession of all the islands and coasts which that re-
public possessed in his seas. The destruction, of the sUltan
of Kahira was a greater disadvantage to them than the
league which the European powers had concluded at
Cambray.
A. D. 1520. Selim was succeeded, ajfter an enterpris-
ing reign of eight years, by his son Solyman, who received
from the Turks the surname of El Kanuni, or " the law-
giver ; " and from the Europeans, that of " the magnifi-
cent." He took Erzerum from the Persians, and com^
pelled them to consent to a partition of Jmfistan, or Geor-
g'a, which was so divided that three of its seven provinces
11 to himself, three remained with its former masters, and
the last was given to the prince who was appointed to gov-
ern the whole country, but was dependent on both the
powers. The conquest of Rhodes (A. D. L522^ cost him
180,000 men : he was unaccustomed to relinquish an en-
terprise while there remained any possibility of carrpng it
into effect ; and at length, by means of his heavy artillery,
triumphed over the undaunted courage of the grand-master
LOle Adam, and the knights of St. John. Solyman also
vanquished the army of king Lewis of Hungary and Bohe-
mia, in the battle of Mohacs (A. D. 1526) ; which v^-
followed by the death of his youthful adversary, who was
misled into a marshy district where he lost his life. The
victor supported the Transylvanian Vajrvode Zapoyla, who'
had been elected king by a part of the nation, against Fred-
erick of Austria, and made himself master of more than
half the kingdom of Hungary. A. D. 1527.
i
TOL. III. 15
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170 UHITSBSAL BISTORT.
SECTION xvn.
RUSSIA.
Nearly at the same period tliat witnessed the destruction
of the Greek empire (A. D. 1462), the czar Ivan Basilo*
vitch raised his kingdom from that state of humiliation pn>
dueed by internal divisions, which had compelled it for a
lon^ time to bend to the yoke of the Tartars: his wife was
Sophia, the daughter of Zoe, whose fadier, Manuel Palso-
iogus, was the last Greek emperor that reigned with dignity
at Constantinoplie. Ivan endeavored to ammate his exten*
sive empire by introducing the industry of western Europe ;
but foreigners were, with reason, terrified at the barbarism
of the prevailing customs. This sovereign, having a dis-
pute with the city of Revel, seized on forty-nine merchants^
natives of that place, who bad settled at Novogorod, kept
them imprisoned three years, and entirely confiscated their
property.
It appeared, however, that the czar was not deficient in
the desire of increasing his importance : he entered into
amicable relations with Maximilian (A. D. 1505), who
called him "brother;" and bestowed great encourage-
ments and facilities on the commerce of the seventy-three
cities of the Hanseatic league. He also approved of the
treaties of partition, of which Italy afforded examples; and
concluded one of a similar nature with Christian the Sec-
ond, kbg of the Danes, against Sweden.
SECTION XVffl.
POLAND.-— SCANDINAVIA. ^
Poland was in this age a considerable power,, but the
superiority of the czars was already perceptible ; to whom
this countiy was obliged (A. D. 1506), even under the
reign of a monarch of great talents, to anandon Smolensko
and Pleskow. When Sigismund, the son of Casimir, suc-
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tmiTKllSAL HISTORY. 171
ceeded to his brothers, John, Albert, and Alexander, a
great part of the Sarmadan forests was abeady^ culdvated,
and Poland was enriched by the exportation of corn ; but
the state of bondage in which by far the greater part of the
nadon was held, prevented them from making any progress
in the arts of civil life, or in the caltivauon of the mental
powers : hence the rude productions of the country were
exported in their unmanufactured state ; all kinds of com-
merce were abandoned to the Jews; foreign ornaments
were purchased at a dear rate ; and almost the only enjoy-
ments of life were the pleasures of the table. Their more
intelligent king attempted to effect a change in the state of
manners ; but as he was unable to remove the cause, his
endeavors were in vain. >in other respects, he availed
himself of the rude multitude of his barons and their slaves,
who, accustomed to the yoke, were destitute even of the
idea of desertion. In Scandinavia, Christian the First,
John, and Christian the Second, of the family of Olden-
burg, contended with various success against Sten and
Swante Sture, champions of the independence of Sweden.
SECTION XIX.
ENGLAND.
A. D. 1461. Edward the Fourth, of the house of
York, by force of arms (the only source of power in the
absence or impotence of the laws) obtained possession of .
the throne of England, which had been filled by the inno-
'cent Henry of Lancaster } he polluted it with the blood of
that mild prince, and left it to his sons under the tutelage
of their uncle Richard, a cruel tyrant, who deprived them
/of their rights, and put both, or at least one of them, to
death. A. D. 1483. Edward himself had, in like man-
ner, murdered one of his ^own brothers. The order of
succession to the throne was in confusion ; the greater part
of the nobility had fallen in the civil wars ; and the culti-
vation, industiy, and prosperity of the country were inter-
rupted, and even decayed.
Henry of Richmond was descended, on his father's side,
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17fi UHmSBSAL HMTOJtT.
from die French princess Ci^mne ; wboy after die lieedi
of Henry the Fittb, king of En^and, had married Ovren
Tudor, a Welsh gendeman : his modier was descended
from an illegitimate son of John of Gaunt, the son of Ed*
ward the Third, who could not have advanced the shadow
of a claim to the crown. Henry's tide was ^ utterly de-
ficient ; and though he had married a daughter of Edward
the Fourth, he made no pretensions founded on that cir-
cumstance ; perhaps, because he had no irrefragable proofa
of the decease. of one of her brodiers. He defeated the
odious Richard in the batde of Bosworth, and was acknow-
ledged king by the parliament. A. D. 1485.
Nothing indeed remained of freedom but the forms t
national prosperity, the chief source of the importance of
the commons, had vanished ; and only the vidence of the
different panics compelled the kings to pay them some
external respect From thb dme, every Englishman pos-
sessed of u freehold estate of the clear annual value of forty
dsiUings, gave his vote for the election of the representa-
tives of the natkm m the lower house : but those possessed
of an equal or a superior mcome, arising from a fief, were
not allowed to vote, on the ground that they were not to be
supposed independent, as being vassals. On the same
principle, a duke of Bedford was expeUed from the upper
house, because he was too poor to give a vote altogether
uninfluenced as a peer of England; It was also enacted,
oo accocDit of the dependence of the clergy on the pope,
that a parliament was capable of legislatbg without the
concurrence of the spiritual, though not without that of the
temporal lords.
The times were unfavorable to liberty : numerous con-
spiracies, and the many circumstances which threatened a
renewal of the former disturbances, served the court as a
pretence for " acting with a vigor beyond the law." |
The king rendered himself more independent of his
people, by the economy of his administration ; and the
projects which he commenced, were prosecuted by the
energy of his impetuous son, Henry the Eighth. A. D,
1609. England, her insular situation considered, had her
sftare of influence in the wars of Europe ; but her autho-
rity was by no means preponderant.
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OMITEBSAL HI8TOBT. 173
SECTION XX.
THE EMPIRE OF THE GERMANS.
The empire of the Germans was constituted in a rao«t
extraordinary manner : it was a federal republic ; but its
men;ibers were so diverse, with regard to form, character,
and power, that it was extremely difficult to introduce
universal laws, or to unite the whole nation in measures of
mutual interest.
The patriotic emperor Maximilian the First, endeavored
to remedy this defect, tlie whole danger of which became
apparent in proportion to the advancement of the neigh-
boring power of France. All the territories not comprised
in the dominions of one or other of the electorates, were
disdibuted into the six circles of Bavaria, Swabia, the
Rhine, Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Franconia. In
the course of the combinations which took place among the
powers of Europe, the necessity of order and of vigor iti
which Germany stood, became continually more manifest;
and Maximilian, accordingly, caused these ancient circles
to be augmented by the four new ones : viz. the electoral
circle, which comprises the four electorates which lie near
the Rhine J Upper Saxony, containing Saxony and Bran-
denburg ; the Austrian circle, comprehending the hered-
itary dominions of the emperor; and tlie Burgundiao,
including the territories which his family had acquired by
his marriage. Each division of the empire was superin-
tended by a chief -magistrate. It was designed that the ^ ^
constitution of each cbcle should be a representation m
miniature of the whole empire ; and that each should pos-
sess its separate president, assemblies, and regulations.
This was an excellent design ; but it was impeded in its
execution by the religious dissensions which arose soon
after this period. These differences created a party, which
exerted a power separate from that of tl^gir common
country ; it acquired leaders of its own, whose projects
were generally in opposition to the measures of the su-
preme head of the empire : and thus, contrary to the ordi-
VOL. III. 15*
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174 UNXITEksAL HitTOBT*
nary progress of national power, prepared the way for the
destruction of uni^ and national feeling. It afterwards
happened, that extensive countries, such as Bohemia and
the provinces incorporated with it. though they became
more germanized, did not acquire the constitution of the
circles : whSie in many of the circles, one of the ranks ob-
tained the whole power, or at least so decided a superiority,
that the observance of ihe laws was endangered in various
ways, and the diets were discontinued: other circles,
which retained then* ancient fdrms, forfdted a part of their
political importance.
in former times, the contentions between the princes
and people of Germany were decided by judges, who usu-
ally took Hl^e imperial eourt for their guide ; but when the
emperors became too much occupied in prosecuting their
Italian wars to attend to the concerns of their own country,
they delegated the care of administering justice to courts
and provincial tribunals. The decisions of these courts,
however, were respected only by those who had neither
power nor connections sufficient to insure the execution
of their decrees : and hence, especially after the decline of
the imperial authority, incessant feuds were carried on, un-
der the savage maxim that *' might gives right ; " and the
Srogress of the national prosperity was necessarily impeded,
laximilian, together with Berchtold of Henneberg, elector
of Mayence, and other benevolent princes, long sought fat
a remedy ; and it was finally enacted, that a supreme court
of justice, for the adjudication of all causes between the
members of the empire, should be erected in perpetuity in
some free imperial city. The members of this tribunal
were at first (A. D. 1495) elected by the diet of the em-
pire: afterwards (A..D. 1607), the emperor chose two
assessors as representatives of the circles which belonged
to hira : all the electors followed his. example ; and eight
assessors were chosen by the six elder circles. A per-
petual internal peace was now proclaimed ; all feuds were
prohibited ^sMnd an imperial regency was instituted, wfaidi,
whenever Flanders or Italy should require the emperor's
presence, might always rmnainatthe head of affiurd, in
order to guard against sudden emergencies.
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DmVBRSAL HIS^OBT. IfS
The aherations which had taken place in the manner of
ccmducting war, |iad a considerable influence on the afikiri
of Germany ; as the emperors, instead of the ancient mili-
tary services, henceforward required proportionate pecuni«*
ary contributions, by means of which they procured infan-
try: and George of Frundsberg quickly organized this
force according to the best maxims of the military art of
those times.
The election of Charles the Fifth, the first emperor t6
whom conditions were fdhnally prescribed, appears a suit-
able occasion for taking a brief survey of the electors, as
well as of the imperial powers.
The monarchs of Germany were nominated in Ae be-
ginning by the previous agreement of the prelates and
dukes, and prpposed to the people, who were assembled in
great multitudes : they were accepted by the latter, and
enthroned on the ancient royal seat near Rense on the
Rhine ; or at Aix-la-Chapelle, the residence of Charle-
mab ; or at Frankfort, which in that age was situated near*
ly in the middle of the empire ; or in any other place which
circumstances rendered expedient. A greater or smaller
number of princes was summoned, according to the cirr
cumstances of the times in which each election took place ;
until by degrees, though without any positive law, it be-
came estabbshed, that the three archchanceUors of the (Jer-
man, the Italian, and the Burgundian territories, the latter
of which had been acquired in the eleventh century ; the
elector ' palatine of the Rhine, as the emperor's original
representative ; the duke of Saxony, who of all the dukes
of ancient Grermany was the only one that retained suffi-
cient power ; together with the margrave of Brandenburg,
and the king of Bohemia, who were the most powerful
princes on die frontiers, where 'the Teutonic and Slavonic
tribes were intermixed ; were alone necessary to the elec-
tion of the emperor.
This institution was rather the effect of accidental cir-
cumstances, than the resuh of a plan of nanonal represent-
ation ; unless we consider Swabia, Franconia, and other
important countries, to have been represented by the arch-
biaiops in whose metropolitan dioceses they were included :
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176 UNITEBSAL HISTOBT.
and even in this respect, no provision wa& made for the
people of Bavaria, Austria, and other countries. In reality,
the dukes of Bavaria and of Austria were not even men-
tioned'in the golden bull : the former, on account of the
minute divisions of their territory, and of the prejudice
which Chai'les the Fourth entertained against them ; and
the latter, because their power was originally too incon-
siderable, and because the eider branch of their family had
become extinct at the death of the emperor Frederick the
Second ; while the younger, under Albert the First, had
rendered itself the object of general hatred, and afterwards
fell into divisions.
This law of Charles the Fourth professed to introduce
no new regulation, but merely to record the established
practice ; it was, however, like other human performances,
not undnctured with the personal relations of its authors.
The spirit of the age, apd the character of Charles, might
induce us to seek for the gro)^ld of this institution in a
superstitious veneration for the number seven ; or it the
hereditary offices, the greater part of which were merely *
conducive to tlie splendor of die imperial court : such a
research would, however, be vain ; because the reasons
which attached hereditary offices to particular dignities
must themselves be sought in considerations of a similar
kind.,
The manner of the imperial elections,. as it was describ-
ed by the law. of Charles the Fourth, and determined by
custom, is as follows : as soon as the death o( an emperor
is announced to the elector of Mayence, as archchancellor
of Germany, he invites all the electors to a convention at a
specified time, which must be within one month, and is
usually held at Frankfort on the Maine. The election
itself must take place withih threq months ; and it is com-,
pleted by such electors as are personally present, and by
representatives of the absentees. Ori the day of tlie elec-
tion, they ride, in their electoral habits, from the council-
house of the city to the cathedral church of St. Bartholo^
mew : here they hear mass ; and having afterwards taken
the oath, proceed to die election in secret conclave. When
tiiey have decided, either by a majority of votes or unani-
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mflVEBSAL BISTORT. ITT
t
mou^hr, the new emperor is proclahned to the jieople htm
a planorm in front of the choir. The imperial msignit
copststs of a golden crown ; a sceptre ; a globe called the
imperial apple, equally the emblem of universal dominioOi
and of the emptiness of all earthly things (in reference to
which latter object, it was in the Greek empire filled with
earth) ; the sword of Chaj-lemain ; the copy of the gosbels
which was found in his grave ; and a mande which nad
been presented by an Arabian prince to one of the empe-
rors, and was at Aat time of great value.
The emperor takes an oath to maintam the profession of
the catholic faith ; to protect the church and the admin-
Tstration of justice ; to restore all the rights belonging to
the empire ; and to observe a faithful deference to the pope
and to the church of Rome. The bystanders then declare,
that, "conformably to the apostolic command, which ordains
that every soul be subject to the higher powers, they will
obey this emperor." The order of this ceremony is an
abbreviation of that practised at Byzantium. The emperor
now usually creates a few knights; and hsdy, repairs again
to the senate-house clothed with all his trappings, where
he devours a meal fit for an emperor, and is waited on by
the electors, who fulfil their hereditary offices widi the ut-
most pomp.
The coronation was formerly performed at Aix-la-Cha-
pelle : but this custom has been discontinued, both on ac-
count oif the loss of time and the increase of expense with
which it was attended. The emperors no longer receive
the crown of Lombardy at Monza, or that of the empire
from the pope. Since the time of Maximilian, they as-
sume the tide of emperor without undergoing the papal
solemnity.
The electors are, by their birth, the privy counsellors of
the emperor : they ought, in the phraseology of Charles
the Fourth, " to enlighten the holy empire, as seven shining
lights, in the unity of the sevenfold spirit ; " and according
to the same monarch, are the " most honorable members
of the imperial body." The rights which the emperor can
legally exercise without their consent ; those which he can
exert with their concurrence, but without that of die odier
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178 UNIVERSAL BISTORT.
^
States of tiije empire ; and those which belong only to an
universal decision of thq. empire, have been very variously
determined. It is decided that all affairs relating to the
enacting of new, or to doubtful interpretations of the ancient
laws, to wars, taxes, levies of men, fortifications, treaties of
peace and of alliance, shall be determined by die concur-
rent voice of the electors, princes and states. • But as the
form, of the constitution was more accurately defined at the
peace of Westphalia, we shall find a better opportunity to
treat of it in the twenty-first book.
At the period of the election which followed the death
of Maximilian, Albert of Brandenburg, a nobleman of
sound understanding and princely manners, was archbishop*
and elector of Mayence; Richard -of Greiffenclau, who
had the prosperity of his country sincerely at heart, filled
the same offices at Treves ; and count Herman of Wied,
a nobleman whose mind was open to truth, and moderate
, in all respects, at Cologne ; Lewis, of the Polish and Lith-
uanian family of Jagel, had the title of king of Bohemia,
which was governed for him by guardians ; tue palatinate
of the Rhine was administered by Frederick, a nobleman
of great talents ; the elector of Saxony, of the same name,
deserved his tide of the Wise ; and Joachim of Branden-
burg was distinguished for his knowledge.
Francis the First, king of France, the victor of Marig-
nano, who as ahero commanded the admiration, and as a
man acquired by his open and noble conduct the affection
of all who approached him ; and Charles of Austria, the
grandson of Maximilian and king of Spain, were the com-
petitors for the imperial crown. The election was decided
in favor of the prince who sprang from German blood ;
. for his rival was so powerful, and his dominions so near,
that the states of the empire would scarcely have been
able to maintain their cherished independence under such
an emperor.
The power of ^e emperor was defined by an electoral
capitulation, which has not only been renewed at every
succeeding election, but has frequently received essential
additions. It must be allowed that the imperial authority
which was formerly tut small, was by this instrument re-
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UNITERSAL HISTORT. 179
duced to a shadow ; and thattlie electors, without the con-
currence of the other states, have transformed the consti-
tution into an oligarchy.
We will now recount the principal points of this law, as
it exists at present : the emperor must reside in Germany ;
all public affairs must be transacted in German or in Latin*
The emperor confirms to the states, all their royalties, pfi-
vileges, rights and usages t he neither introduces foreign
troops into the empire without their consent, nor permits
others to do so : the states which submit to the administra-
tion of the laws, are liable to no forcible proceedings : the
emperor undertakes no wars, and enters into no treaties oa
behalf of the empire, either within or without its bound-
aries, but with the consent of the electors, or at least of
the principal among them : he offers no impediments to the
assembling of the diets : he respects, in every thing, the
legislative authority of the assembled states : he observes
all the concordats, or national compacts, with the holy see
of Rome : reverted fiefs are to be incorporated with the
imperial territories, and not to be, otherwise, arbitrarily
disposed of; and even if the emperor himself should hold
an imperial fief contrary to th^ laws, he must give it up at
the requisition of the electors : he can neither impose new
taxes, nor prolong the appointed durati(»i, or increase the
amount of those already granted : he cannot oppose the
election of a king of tlie Romans, which, however, can
only take place when he may himself become incapable of
conducting the operations of government, whether from
physical inability or protracted absence : he confirms the
confederacy of the electors and that of the Rhine ; and
considers the former as ^e fundamental pillars of the em-
pire, without whose consent he can neither grant a rever-
sion, nor make any alteration in feudal afiairs, nor alienate
the imperial revenues, nor divert them to foreign purposes :
he co-operates with them in introducing a new and solemn
regulation respecting the coining of money : he supports
tlie electors in their rank, which immediately follows that
of crowned heads and dowager queens ; so that even their
ambassadors take ^precedence of mere princes : he can
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180 DNIVEBSAL H18T0BT.
never demand to see the family compacts of any of the
yassals of the empire, nor ever give a new interpretation
of feudal duties in favor of his own family : he cannot allow
die empire to be drained of men, by subsidiary treaties
with foreign powers : he acknowledges a provisional power
to reside Ju the assembled college of electors : he will pro-
mote the constitution of the circles, and never prevent the
states from ^embling in diet : he undertakes to levy no
troops without the concurrence of the empire ; and the
generalship of the empire is bound in duty to the whole
body as well as to him : he will never grant assistance to
neighboring powers, in such a manner as to endanger the
peace of the empire. >
Many pomts however m these obligations, which we
have represented in the sense in which they are taken by
the par^ of the states, are of doubtful determinadon and
application ; and from the state of affiiirs, cannot possibly
be literally observed. Hence we can only consider as a
general result, that the electors have enfeebled the opera-
tions of the supreme imperial power to such a degree, (not
however in favor of the liberty of the people, but for the
acquisition and maintenance of absolute pow^er m their
own hands), that the emperor must either remain inactive,
or gain them over to his party, or be constantly at war
with them.
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BOOK XIX-
SECTION L
CHAHLCB THE TIFTH. — ^FRANCIS THE TIRST.— MARTUT
LUTHER.
The house of Habsburg had. united under its grasp
Spain, Naples, Sicily, Austria, Burgundy, the imperial
crown of Grermany, Mexico and Peru, and had nearly
added Bohemia and Hungary to its acquisitions, when two
individuals rescued from its yoke the freedom of Europe*
This term is understood to signify the co-existence of a
number of states ; each of which has its peculiar laws and
customs, and offers to those who may be the objects of
persecutiop under any particular government, the choice of
a secure asylum among several countries. One conse-
quence of this division is, that the princes of the different
states do not, in all cases, venture on such proceedings as
they otherwise might adopt, or securely abandon them
selves to the negligence of Asiatic despots : on the con-
trary, the action and re-action of a mukitude of interests
maintain a certain degree of life in the political framie of
Europe.
One of those individuals, by whose means Charles the
Fifth was in some degree restrained from availing himself
to the utmost of his preponderance, was Francis 3je First.
This prince was tlie most accomplished knight of that sera
in which a Bayard was the ornament of chivalry, and one
of the most enlightened and amiable men of the polished
age-of the Medici : he was monarch of a nation worthy of
such a king, and in reality only blamable for possessing,
in his own character, the peculiar faults of his people.
These defects, however, were such as would perhaps have
rendered him incapable of arresting, alone, the progress of
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182 UNIVERSAL HISTOiir-
his rival. The other of these champions, original a pri-
vate individual, was Dr. Martin Luther, a monk from the
county of Mansfeld, and a professor in the university of
Wittenberg. This man, who was possessed of sound m- '
tellect and of courage, but nether of extraordinary learn-
ing nor of cultivated taste ; without the aid of any other
power than that of common sense exerted on many im-
portant subjects, and that of truth wherever he attacked
abuses ; by his heroism alone, imparted to the half of Eu-
rope a new soul; created an opposition which became the
safeguard of freedom; and, without any such design, con-
tributed greatly to the successful issue of the contest so
long maintained with indecisive results by Francis and his
son. There is nothing in history more deserving of con-
sideration, than the spectacle of an individual or a small
state, contending victoriously, by such means only as are
withm the reach of all, against all the gifts of fortune and
all the terrors of power.
Nothing was wanting to i*ender Charles the Fifth the
greatest prince in Europe, except that quality which Lu-
Uier opposed to him, the dauntless courage inspired by the
consciousness of pure intentk)ns. Charles had from his
youth accustomed himself to a certain external moderation
m the free country of Flanders, and in the politic court
which he inherited from Ferdinand the Catholic. The
Weakness of his bodily constitution contributed to this habit ;
and , he had a peculiar faculQr of foresight, of suspecting
every thing, and of regarding every occurrence with dis-
trust. Hence it resulted, that his plans were combined
with ability, though the execution was defective : he was
not so well adapted for sudden resolutions as for reflection.
If, however, he also failed in previously concerted plans, it
proceeded chiefly from his notcalculatuig so well the moral
as the physical force opposed to him ; so that he was un-
prepared for the disinterested courage of heroism. The
higher departments of political science were in his time
entirely uncultivated. Charles, it is true, read Thucydides
and Machiavel assiduously ; but there is a wide difference
between merely studying an author, and imbibing so en-
tirety his spirit, as to be enabled uniformly to keep his
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DNITSRSAL HISTORY. 183
principles in view, amidst the turmoil of business and the
conflict of the passions. Besides, as every reader sees
objects in that point of view to which his inclination directs
him, so Charles had chiefly acquired from history the art
of dissimulating, which he confounded with the talent of
governing. It must be allowed that the contradiction, in
his own situation, between appearance and reality, might
easily lead him into this mistake : his power appeared im-
measurable, while he was in fact under the necessity of
concealing the mediocrity of his resources. Though king
of the opulent territories of the Sopth, heir of Burgundy
and lord of the New World, he was often destitute of
money ; the gold mines, when first worked, did not im-
mediately produce a great revenue 5 and political economy
was in its infancy. From the want of money proceeded
weakness in the military discipline, which was also in itself
defective in system. Armies disbanded themselves, or
plundered their countrymen, when pay or subsistence was
defective ; and for the same reason they were the more
ready, in the moment of victory, to abuse their fortune by
giving a loose rein to licentiojus passions : the generals were
as yet not sufficientiy their masters ; Charles himself did
not pdssess the commanding character of a hero } nor had
tactics confirmed the habit of implicit obedience. Hence
enemies, neidier better provided with money, nor better
instructed in the art of war, often defeated the army of the '
emperor, through the influence of the moral causes which
inspired their own soldiers, and often frustrated the objects
even of his victories. It is evident, firora the composition
of the armies of those days, that their leaders reckoned less
upon the dexterity and accuracy of well-calculated ma-'
noeuvres than upon the impetus of large and unwieldy
masses. The companies in the French regiments con-
tamed from five hundred to six hundred men. The
squadrons of the emperor consisted qf sixty lancers in
complete armor, one hundred and twenty half-armed cui^
rassiers, and sixty light-horsemen, furnished with long
muskets : his companies of infantry comprised one hun-
dred pikes, fifty halberds, two hundred muskets, and fifty
supernumeraries. When the contest was to be decided by
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184 TTIOrERBAI. HISTOBt.
inmnsic force, the advantage was on the side of Ae troops
of France and Switzerland.
If Charles had given up the German empire to his
brother, whose character excited less distrust ; or if, con-
tented with the power he already possessed, he bad re»
nounced all plans of aggrandizement, he would have de-
served a more illustrious name.
SECTION n.
THE REFORMATION.
Luther executed a work which had been for ages in a
course of preparation. '
The leaders of those pations which had destroyed the
Roman empire, had adhered to the chair of St. Peter, and
had employed its authority to confirm the foundations of
their newly erected thrones : the pope was the guardian
and common father of the princes and people of tlie western
nations. When he undertook to humiliate the emperors
of the German states, tlie plan laid by his lust of domina-
tion proved equally agreeable to the ambition of the princes,
and to the independent spirit of the citizens. As the sev-
eral courts introduced the practice of keeping on foot re-
gular troops in their own pay, money became the support
of monarchies ; and the riches of the church, especially the
large sums which were continually flowing towards Rome,
soon came to be regarded with envious eyes. The kings,
during successive centuries, had been engaged in endea-
voring to diminish the power of the nobles, and in some
countries had gained their object ; in others, the latter had
succeeded, by strenuous exertions, in establishing an in-
dependent power. To princes of both these descriptions
it naturally appeared insuflferable that an ecclesiastical
sovereign, residing in a distant country, should exercise
autliority within their dominions, and in many cases even
over themselves.
Those nations which were less exposed to the effects of
these political collisions, were, in proportion to the gradual
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OlflVfiRSAL HISTORY. 185
» revival of more Gberal habits of thinkiDg, oflended at the
ignorance, scandalous manners, absurd practices, and ty-
rannical pride of a hierarchy, who were incapable of per-
ceiving that some attention was necessary, on their part,
to the spirit of the times. Even in divine worship, there
were many things which had been derived firom pagan
rites, or iiivented in the darkness of ancient barbarism ;
and which had become unmeaning, from the mere lapse
of time, or absurd in the view of increasing intelligence :
hence the sudden applause which attended the attacks
made on such fooleries by WicklifFe in England, and by
Huss in Bohemia : but the way had been already in some
measure prepared, even for these early reformers, by Ber-
engar of Tours, Henry of Autun, and Arnold of Orleans ;
by many courageous orators, in synods of the church ; by
writers in the imperial interest ; by insulted Franciscans ;
by pious mystics, who had expiated in flames the sanctity
of dieir lives ;- and by wits, who tore die mask from hy-
pocrisy, and held her up to ridicule.
In the fifteenth century, subsequently to the scandalous
schism, and to the loud remonstrances of the councils of
Constance and Basel, the revival of ancient learning had
given a new impetus to the human mind. Among those
individuals who successively imparted to the new modes
of thinking a vigor which it was impossible to restrain, we
must enumerate Nicholas the Fifth, the founder of the
Vatican library, who rewarded Philadelphus with a house,
an estate, and several thousand ducats, for a translation of
Homer ; the magnanimous Pius the Second, and his suc-
cessor, whose merits, have not been justly estimated by
posterity ; the emperor Frederick the Thh'd, who was a •
lover of botany, chemistry, and astronomy ; Alphonso the
Wise, who attended the lectures of the Neapolitan profes-
sors even in his old age ; the liberal Matthias Hunyad,
whose pleasure and pride consisted in his intimacy with
learned Italians ; and above all, the illustrious house of
Medici. The growth of knowledge had been gradually
developed, chiefly in the flourishing universities of Wurtz-
burg, Rostock, Lyons, Ingolstadt, Basel, Tubinpn, Turin,
Poitiers, Toledo, Copenhagen, and Upsal. Hence had
VOL. III. 16* /
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186 mavmsMAh histcat.
resulted a diffusion of literature, an enthusiastic love,, and
often- a servile imitation of the great authors of antiquity ;
which, aided by the vigorous and penetrating genius of the
age, had produced a freedom of sentiment that disdained
to submit longer to the yoke of antiquated terrors.
The Italians, especially the learned Florentines,-ca8t off
in their indignation all the restraints by which the purest
religion keeps the passions within bounds ; and the danger
of an unequal union between truth and error, was once
more displayed. In the consciousness of their own pre-
eminence, they despised the barbarians, as tliey esteemed
the people of the north ; and imagined that they could
continue to impose upon tliem with ideas, to which they
were themselves far , superior. Many important proposals
were indeed made ; but the court of Rome refused to
listen even to the most moderate demands.
Yet the Holy See had already received such lessons of
experience as might have sufficed to render it more cau-
tious. In the latter periods of the council of Basel, the
afiairs of Rome were managed by iEneas Sylvius, a man
equal in talent and far superior in courage to Cicero. It
had cost him infinite trouble, and no smaJl sums of money,
to render the agents of the elector of Mayence manageable,
and after having gained the emperor, the duke of Bavaria,
and the elector Palatine, to procure at Ascha&nburg, and
by degreed every where, the desired authority for the oon-
torbat which had been concluded at Vienna. This com-
pact, which was named from Aschaffenburg because the
reception which it there met with decided its fate, settled
the relations of the German church to the see of Rome, in
a manner tolerably advantageous to the latter ; but which
naturally became, through die increasing demands of the
Italians, an inexhaustible source of disputes^
The emperor Maximilian complained that half a million
of ducats went annually from Germany to Rome. It hap-
pened that a priest, whose mistress had been taken from
him, had committed a murder in the public way. The
- story of the false appearances of the Virgin and the five
wounds, played off at Bern, by masked Dominican friars,
on a journeyman tailor named Jetzer, is well known. The
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sensuaBty of the South, as manifested by legates and their
followers, fcMrmed too impudent a contrast with^tbe chaster
ignorance of the northern nations: artd even among the
latter, the priests endeavored too openly to indemnify them-
selves, by various indulgencies, for the restrictions imposed
upon them by their vows. t
Lastly, Leo the Tenth, who was liberal to prodigality,
and more remarkable for his talents, than for the modera-
tion of his plans or of his manners, had contracted enor-
mous debts with the banking-house of Fugger at Augsburg;
partly to defray the expenditure occasioned by the building
of the church of St. Peter, the wonder of architecture, and
partly for more profane purposes. In order to discharge
this debt, it was proposed to publish an unlimited absolu-
tion for sins, on pecuniary conditions. It may easily be
' supposed that the fortunate dealers in this new traffic, who
would certainly not forget their own interests, were obnox-
ious to the envy of their monastic brethren ; nor could the
Pope fail to excite similar feelings in princes, who could
not, without difficulty, procure much smaller suras from
their subjects. But this was not enough : Tetzel, one of
the preachers of these indulgences, as if with the design
of making the scandal as striking as possible, taught openly,
that for cveiy species of crime, of whatsoever denomina-
tion, absolution might be purchased by money. However
strange these doctrines might sound in the German univer-
sity of Wittenberg, the sober Swiss were not less shocked
by the juggles of Samson, anotlier of the sellers of indul-
gences, who, in his public preachings, imitated the sound
which the soul emits, while, at the moment when its ran-
som is paid, it ffies-up out of the flames of purgatory.
These occurrences induced Martin Luther, in Saxony,
to speak against the validity of such indulgences and all
the scandal connected with the traffic, in a powerful voice,
which however Tvas but the echo of the universal sentiment.
Luther had not that extensive learning which rendered
Erasmus so illustrious : bat he possessed and cultivated
that knowledge of the foundations of religion, which is ne-
cessary for the reformation of a church ; and nature had
endowed him with a clearness of perception which carried
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188 UNIVERSAL HISTOBT.
him further in the pursuit of truth than the most elaborate
investigations ; together with an ardent and vigorous imagi-
nation, not the result of ideas acqtired by study, but of his
internal faculty. His eloquence was of a very popular de-
scription ; and he employed his native language in a more
powerful manner than any of his contemporaries. He was
at the same ume full of patriotism ; and, in maintaining ac-
knowledged truth, a hero., During his life, this vehement
man was the guardian angel of peace ; and the flames of
religious war were kindled immediately after his decease.
His frankness procured him the utmcj^t respect from all the
princes of his own creed ; au/i he never concealed any
thing which he believed to be contemplated by a court, if
it were contrary to the interests of his country : his doc-
trine, whether addressed to the prince or to the peasant,
was equally suitable to the duties of the respective ranks.'
He loved Uie gende Melancthou, his fellow-laborer, and
admired his superior learning. He might condemn bis
opponents ; but he did not, like Calvin, allow himself to
persecute them. Though unconquerably stedfast in pre-'
sence of the emperor and the empire, and in his opposition
to all the art and power of Rome, he was in private life a
good man and a cheerful companion ; and so disinterested,
diat he left at his decease scarcely any thing but debts.
Ulrich Zwingli, pastor of the foundation of the Blessed
Virgm in Einsidel^ and afterwards at Zurich, had, at a still
earlier pieriod, testified against the prevailing abuses ; but
had he not been aided by the fiery zeal of Luther, and by
his incessant attacks on the common enemy, Zwingli, like
many other well-meaning preachers of truth, would ,have
remained unknown, or would at least have failed to pro-
duce any important revolution. He possessed the soul of
a patriot and republican, which mailifested itself not lesa in
his civil than in his religious undertakings : for he did not
satisfy himself with leading his church into the wav of
truth only ; but endeavored to give to his country all the
principles and habits necessary to the preservation of free-
dom. He was as zealous in the cause of civil order, of
domestic virtue, and of the beneficent policy of perpetual
peace, as in his controversial pursuits. His speeches in-
spired dn irresistible feeling of the necessity of reform.
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imilheRSAI. RISTOKT. 189
Later than either of these, arose Jean Chauvin (CaWn)
of Noyon in Picardy, a teacher at Geneva. This man,
together with the spirit of an ancient legislator, possessed
a genius and peculiarities, which gave him in some re-
spects decided advantages : his failings were only the re-
dundancy of those virtues, by means of which he accom-
plished his work. He also was endued with indefatigable
mdustry in the stedfast pursuit of one object, and with im-
movable firmness in his principles and his duty : in life and
in death he exemplified the seriousness and the dignity of
a Roman censor. He contributed in an extraordinary de-
gree to the freedom of -Geneva ; and his authority united
the freauently dissenting Jtdministrators. From the influ-
ence of his situation and of his native language, he assisted
even more than he foresaw, in accelerating the progress of
the human mind : for among the Genevese and the French,
the principle of free discussion, on which he was obliged at
first to ground his own proceedings, and which he after-
wards endeavored in vain to control, became more fruitful
of consequences than among nations less inquisitive than
the former, and less audacious than the latter. Philosophic
ideas were hence developed by degrees ; which, if not suf-
ficiently pure from the passions and views of their pronriul-
gators, have at least banishled a host of gFoomy and inju-
rious prejudices, and have opened prospects of genmne
wisdom in the conduct of life and of superior happiness.
These consequences did not, however, appear imme-
diately: on the contrary, religious controversies gave a
wrong direction to many acute minds, and furnished them
with employments which are no longer interesting to us :
whereas we find in the writings of Italians of thiat age, and
of a still earlier period, more noble principles of human and
civil life, and a more unfettered philosophy. It is never-
theless true, that these latter writers, misled by passion and
by evil example, surpassed in many respects the bounds of
moderation ; while the more considerate people of ^ the
North required cooler an(^ more accurate investigations.
Luther, as it easily happens in revolutions, was carried,
principally by contradiction and opposition, much &rther
than he at first intended to go ; and his cause having onoe
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190 XTNIVXRS^L HlftTOBT.
beeir adopted by the nation, becaine mvincible. The pe-
cuKar character of the work which he performed, was
however, ]ike all good religious institutions, negative : he
taught nothing essentially new. What can man know of
things above the sphere of his senses, more than has been
comprised in our records, sentiments, and wishes, from
early times ? But he destroyed a great portion of the
strange garb in which truth had been, in darker ages, en-
veloped, if not totally hidden. What he suffered to re-
main, because the newly-opened eye was as yet too weak
to endure the full splendor of the day, he left to the labors
of later and more mature ages. The Bible, of which he
made an excellent translation, was the foundation and sup-
port of his whole system.
Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, protected the
rising party with the moderation peculiar to his character.
John, his brother and successor, was the chief of that body
which acquired the name of Protestants, by their protest
at the diet at Spires against the regulations of the emperon
and the Romish party : he was already inclined to risk
every thing in defence of the new doctrine. The Protest-
ants soon afterwards delivered to the emperor at Augs-
burg, a confession of faitli, by which their professions
acquired a definite form : and the union which die princes
of their party formed at Smalkalde gave them polidcal
importance.
A. D. 1647. The war which was conducted by John
Frederick, elector of Saxony, Philip, landgrave of Hesse-
Cassel, and other protestant princes, against Chai*les the
Fifth, broke out on the death of Francis the First and' of
Luther, which happened nearly at the same time, and about
fifteen years after the conclusion of the league of Smalkalde.
This, like almost all wars carried on by a combination of
several states ags(Mist an individual power, was conducted
in a feeble and unconnected manner.
The cause received but little assistance from the popular
enthusiai^m for the new faith, because the first ardor of this
feeling had subsided ; and the contest was managed too
exclusively by the rulers, without sufiicient participation on
the side of the people. The elector, moreover, as well as
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UNlVeBSAL HISTORY. 191.
many others of bis party, satisfied themselves with devoutly
waiting for miracles, instead of performing the wonders of
heroism. The consequence of this error was, that ' the
elector was defeated in the battle of Miihlberg, and made
prisoner. A- similar fate, shordy after, befell the land-^
grave, who had submitted with imprudent confidence in
the good faith of his enemy.
Charles, free fix>m his rival of France, and firofn the op-
position of the Germans, forgot, in the fulness of his ioy,
th6 moderation which had generally disdnguished his char-
acter : he now thought himself master of the empire (A.
D. 1548), and took no pains to conceal this opinion: he
had Qonquered owing to the want of ability rather than to
the weakness of his enemies ; and his future conduct was
ore calculated to irritate than to terrify. Francis, whom
^ had so often defeated in vain, and whom he had for-
lerly made prisoner at the battle of Pavia, was no more,
[enry the Second, whose qualities were less brilliant than
lose of his father, by forming a connection with the very
-ince who had chiefly contributed to Charles's late victo-
ry, became more dangerous to the emperor than the latter
had been with all his wars, which were carried on -with va-
lor, but almost without plan. Maurice, duke of Saxony, as
ivell as the present elector, was great-grandson to Freder-
ick the Good ; but Ernest had transmitted the electorate
to his sons, Frederick the Wise, and Jolin the Stedfast, who
was the father of John Frederick : Maurice had inherited
the territoiy of Meissen from his grandfather duke Albert,
his uncle George, and his father Henry. He, as well as
the elector, and the fathers of both them, was attached to
the doctrines of Luther : but remarking the political failures
of John Frederick, and either foreseeing in them a source
of advantage to himself, or fearing that the whole house of
Saxony might become a sacrifice to these errors, he at-
tached himself to the party of the emperor. The latter,
-^— -L. yj^jjQ^ of Miihlberg (A. D. 1548), bestowed on
lectoral dignity, which, together with the territo-
er since remained in the junior line. When th^
_^ afterwards became either suspected, or detested
as a despot by his own party, Maurice resolved to acquire
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UV mnrxmsAL Hitxamr*
renown amon^ the Protestants, as be bad already deriice^
Emer from his former connection with the catholic party*
e deceived the emperor as to tlie object of his preparatioos;
and made bis attack so suddenly, that Charles, instead of
offenng any resistance, saved himself by a precipitate flight
(A. D. 1 552) ; and the council of Trent was obliged to
clisperse. The imprisoned princes were hereupon set at
libeily ; and the disturbances in the empire were setded,
first by a convention concluded at Passau, and afterwards
by a formal peace in matters of religion. A. D. 1555.
Maurice, however, did not live to witness this contract
he died in the bloom of his youth of the wounds which
he had received. A. D. 1553. His brother Augustus,
the most prudent prince of his ase, concluded a compact
at Naumburg, with the family of John Frederick, who was
also lately deceased. By this agreement, Augustus retainei ^
the electoral dignity (A. D. 1554), and the princes of tt
line of Ernest received Altenburg, in addition to dieir othi
hereditary territories in Thuringia. The decease of thi
counts oi Henneburg afterwards contributed to the aggraa
disement of both these branches of the house of Saxony.
A. D. 1 583. While Maurice ww obliging the emperor tc
retreat, Henry the Second had conquered the ecclesiastical
principalities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Rochus of Ly-
nar had in vain endeavored to retard the enemy before the
first of these places, by his defence, in which art he was
the most distinguished man of the age. By these con-
quests France obtained firm footing in the midst of Lor-
raine. The bishops transferred to the king the autiiority
which they had hitherto exercised over their cities ; and
the latter henceforward maintained in the Qerman empire
a power divided between the bead and the remote mem-
bers.
From this period the kings of France ceased to
cut^ their Italian wars, llie dukedom of Milan,
Charles the Fifth had wrested from the former
conferred, after the death of Francesco Sfor:
1535), on the son of the emperor ; and nothini
mained to the French in Italy^ but the marquisa] ^
kzzo. On the other hand, tiie situation of affairs in
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^ mOTSKSAL HISTORY.
many became continually more important: the gi:
nasties, as those of Saxony and Bavaria, having Ir
a law for the indivisibility of their dominions, wl:
vided for the future against those frequent partitlo?
had formerly enfeebled them. By these means their pow-
(er acquir^sd a degree of solidity which rendered their alli-
nce more valuable : but at the same time the overthrow
of such a dynasty became an object of greater solicitude,
in proportion as die consequences must necessarily be of
greater importance to the coijqueror.
^ SECTION m. ,
COlfcLtTSION OS tHE AGE OF CHARLES THE FIFTH.
Charles, mors; enfeebled bj^diseases which had impaired
his vital pow€rs|^ and by vanoJi^ causes of dissatisfaction,
than by age, tofk the resoludoji, soon after the cdnclusion
of the religiojj/ peace^ who!)/ to withdraw himself from
public aflairs. In his yo^ lie had given up his hereditary
dominions in Germanjr fjn his brother (A, D. 1521); and
duriijg one of these ireijnent intervals in which his confi-
dence in his own foriuiiK tailed him (A* D. 1531), had
^ cai:sed Ferdinand insteaS^Qf his own son to be declared
' 'ifli bf the Romnbs, or p^JDsumpiive successor to the impe-
ilWMi : in like nianrtfer he now actually transferred the
empiMEo the former, and all his other dommions to the
latter. (A. D. 1555—1556). Endeavors were in vain
used to obtain Upper Alsace and Breisach for Pinlip, in
order that he pjight have, as possessor of l^yi^ntrdy^ road
through his own territory to the Rhine ; aiui that thlbiear-
er connection witli the Netherlands migiit remain^ open
fro:n this side. Froni these causes, combine^'^Wi oUier
circumstances, a long disuniot arose between the politics
of the court of Vienna and those of Madrid. This was,
however,^ fortunate for the people of those times : and if,
as there is reason to believe, dominions of too great extent
are not favorable to the interests of humanity, it has also
tended to the prosperity of later ages. Whd can calculate
VQL. ux. 17 ' ..
^
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
vhich FrRiice might have su&red, if she had been
by the dominions of Philip, during her civil
loriy years ? And if he had been emperor, how
le Hollanders have been able to erect, themselves
into an independent state, when they must have had to
c(Hitend with the whole power of the imperial crown, added
to their other difficulties ?
A. D. 1526. Long before this time, after the batde of
Mohacs, in which Lewis king of Hungary and Bohemia
had fallen, Ferdinand had been chosen king by the princes
and nobles, municipalitiestand populace of the kingdom of
Bohemia (A. D. 1527), on condition of confirming their
constitution^ a proceeding, as they alleged, consonant with
their establishe4 freedom. A similar negocianon took
Elace in Hungarjr, in pursuance of a compact which had
een concluded in the time of the grandlalher of Lewis.
But in this country tlie sultan SolyimnTH^^^'^S^ ^^ failed
of success in the siege of Vienna (j\- 0^^529), as well as
in some of his other enter Apses, had contt-lt^ed, witli the
assistance of a powerful dojMsiic party, to*^ive effectual
support to John Zapoyla, the\;^bel vaywode of Traasyl-
vania : and Ferdinand could neiTher acquire secure pos-
session of the royal dignity in Btjheraia during the life of
John, nor obtain command, eveii»after his death, (A, D,
1540), of the capital city of pfen togetber witii a large
part of its acMacent territory, or df the pnnripality of Tran-
sylvania. The fonne r d e sc e n t ! e i^^lgth^ s 1 1 cc e ssors of So-
lyman, and the latter remained undertne dominion rfJolin,
and of a line of princes most of whom maintained a good
understanding with the Ottoman Porte, and occasioned
gss to the king of Hungary.
ihe infernal power of Ferdin^d, and of his
raincreasmg: some disturbances had taken
Imia about &e time of the batde of Miihlberg,
period the power o# the emperor appeared to be
at its greatest height ; and^Ferdmand took advantage of
this opportunity to circumscribe the uncontrolled freedom
of election, wUch the states, composed principally of Hus-
sites, had hitherto exercised. The wars which were car-
ried on against the dreaded enemy of the Christian name.
€
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UmvSRSAL HISTOAT.^ ^^
^
priMHp
idispCRRy
Served as a pretence for intpoduciag imposts whic
well as in Silesia were speedily rendered perpeti
also excited the zeal of tiie most distinguished prid
knights ; and, above aU, they made it appear indisp
necessary, for the security of the west of Europe, that the
power of the house of Austria should be augmented.
The prudent and laudable administration of Ferdinand,
and especially that of Maximilian the Second, who governed
all the subjects of his kingdom, without regard to their
articles of faith, with paternal mildness, contributed greatly
to the same end.
SECTION IV.
STATE OF RELIGIOUS PARTIES*
Those personj^pb eyAused the greatest influence on
the progress of^SSt mt^X ^ commerce, were to be found
among the Ca^Kf^^Sms sect had received from its
republican founWrs,TMBpirit of economy and strict mo-^
rality : whili others surpassed them in the fine arts, and in
every occupation that demands a vivid imagination, their
principal pursuits wei-e the acquisition of property, and the
severe sciences. They ^ere attached to freedom, on ao^
count of the security which it gives to life and property ;
but they were less remarkable for desire of innovation, than
for steadfastness in the defence of their inherited or acquired
rights. The disciples of Luther were their equals with
respect to industry and economy ; but were, on the whole,
more attached to the pleasures of social life. They brought
Saiony mto so flourishing a condition, as well with regard to
industry as to literature and science, that this electorate ac-
auired a sort of authoritative pre-eminence over most of
le other German states, in all that relates to taste and
learning. The diversity of character which each sect thus
acquired, rendered the people of tlie various states of Ger-
many at least as foreign to each other as to the French, or
Spaniards 5 and, under such circumstances, the common
feeling necessary to the unity of a nation, could not long
t
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^^^^Lowing chiefly to the exertkms of the Jesuits, that
^K^^Kipks of the reformers did not universally obtain
^^^^Rind even superiority. The founder of this ordeff
I^ffiras Loyola, a Spaniard, was a man of warm imagina- ^
tiod and strong passions ; and his whole soul, endued with
these qualities, had abandoned itself in his early years to a
vehement zeal for the religion which he professed. After
having distinguished himself in war, especially against the,
infidels, he became the founder of a religious order : an
occupation to which he had been strongly inclined from his
youth. In the monastery of Montserrat, which is scarcely
accessible, situated in a wilderness, and elevated above all
the mountains of Catalonia, he copied the rules of a spirit-
ual life, which had been prescribed by a holy abbot, a rela-
tion of cardinal Ximenes. His heated imagination repre-
sented, in a vision of tlie night, Mary the mother of Jesus,
from whom he received tlie gift of continence. At another
time the mystery of the Tring^ug^s jR||dered clear to his
comprehension, by the tonei^of^aTiamchord. Again, '
Jesus Christ and Satan appeahd to him V the form oi re-
cruiting officers ; and, like the )io<it!fful*ercules, at the /" ,.
diverging patlis of virtue and pleasure, he, of course, chose \
the better part. ,
The original plan of the order of Jesus was simple, de-
vout, and innocent : after the death of the author, it was
improved first by Lainez, and afterwards by Aquaviva ;
men who were endued widi the deepest knowledge of hu-
nFian nature, and immutably steadfast in pursuit of one main .
object. Tliey deserve, indeed, to be considered as the
founders of a society which will bear a comparison with the
great institutions of the lawgivers of antiquity : like the lat-
ter, this system took endre possession of the will, and of all
the faculties of the mind ; like them it inspired its members
with extraordinary activity, and infused a spirit of obedi-
ence so implicit, that the whole order resembledi a healthy
' body, actuated by a vigorous soul. Whoever entered into I
the society, renounced, as it were, his individual existence, j
and submitted himself, soul and body, to the general, as |
though his voice was actually tliat of Jesus Christ. He j
now stood in the relation of son and brother to the order, I
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UKIVERSAL BflSTOttV* 197
^rxd abandoned aJl his former and social relations : fa|%[u^
accept offices, but not without the consent of the SipP"*
whose known will, even when not formally expressed, was
to be his only law. The correspondence, and the learned
undertakings of the whole order, were placed under the
direction of this officer. It was forbidden to make any in-
terpretations, objections, or conjectures, rearing to his or-
ders, or to any thing tliat he did or might do. Every in-
dividual was a Jesuit, and no longer a Spaniard, or a Ger-
man, or a Frenchman 5 and no man was allowed to harbor
a partial affection for any prince or any country. The
constitution of thejesuits, in some particulars, remained a
secret : even the Pope was acquainted only With the spirit
of their institution ; and Paul the Third had allowed aliter-
- ations to be made, without requiring to be informed in what
they consisted.
The first fraternity was established by Claudius Aqua-
viva ; and the order, in a'short time, possessed congrega-
tions of both sexes inr,''i^^ry country : here a secret was
imparted to an indhniiual ; there a key to the house of
prayer was given to another t ail participated in th^ privi-
lege of indulgence, and in the good works of the whole com-
munity. The order was divided into six assistances, and
each of the latter mto forty provinces ; it possessed 638
colleges, and 22,500 publicly acknowledged members.
We will not investigate the merits of the Jesuits with
regard to princes or to human nature, but tleir history
proves that they understood the art of disseminating and of
confirming certain ideas ; that they possessed the means of
elevating feeble individuals to the authority of lords of the
earth and of its kings, and of placing them^ as far as man
can be raised, above the instability of fortune; and that they
knew how to provide support for the future duratioi^ of
their society. History records no institution, since the
time of Pvtiiagoras, which has been found capable, like this,
of giving laws successfuUy to savages, to half-civilized men,
and to nations in a very advanced stage of refinement
, The Jesuits, without external splendor, had more influence
in extensive kingdoms than any order had before possessed ;
and, without being themselves monks, they exemplified
VOL. Ill, 17*
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ISB xmyrvBSAL hutost.
l|^ia|ftfier was worthy of imitation in the lives of the regular
m^mcuizr clergy. It is said that they made a distinction
between those despots who were also usurpers, and those
who were tyrannical in the exercise of their legitimate au-
thority ; and that they held it lawful for any man to de-
stroy the latter, while they only permitted^ the people to
emancipate th^selves from the yoke of the former. They
are also accused of allowing breaches of morality of every
kind, if it were for the advantage of the order : in reality,
they were all things to all men ; in Spain and in America
they showed themselves to be masters of policy ; in France
they were men of great learning ; and in the catholic parts
of Germany, the patrons of prejudice.
SECTION V.
or THX SITUATION OF THE DOMINIOim OF CHABLE8 THS
PIFTH AT HIS .DECEASE.
In the commencement of the reign of Charles the Fifth,
the Spaniards made an attempt to recover their political
freedom ; but their endeavors were unsuccessful, and they
were thenceforward content to obey. In other enterprises,
however, as well as in inventions and literary productions,
they still displayed, during this century, their ancient spirit of
bold enterprise ; wlule the Germans were devoted, on one
hand, to religious controversies, and on the oth^, to the
grosser pleasures of sensuality. This diversity of charac-
ter rendered it not easy for one individual to govern both
nations ; and the difficulty was still further increased by
some peculiar circumstances in the situation of certain parts
of Germany : thus, on one sid^. Saxony and Brandenburg
were incessantly adopting regulations excellently calculated
to augment their resources^ by promoting civil order and
cultivation ; and on another, it was necessary to maintain a
very eautious policy towards^e princes of the Palatmate,
on account of their vicinity to France.
Charles the Fifth neither attached the princes and people
of his dominions by confidence and affection, nor held
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tnriTXItSAL HI8TQ&T. 190
them l^fi^ctually in check by the influence of fear. * Hi$
habits of life were pimple, and resembled those of a private
nobleman. He usuaUy rose early, and dined at nine
o'clock; from one o'clock, his time was occupied, bjr
ilancing7parties until five, when he suppeM. His provi^
sions were chiefly furnished by the cduntry in which he
happened to reside ; but in that age, foxes, seals, and other
animals which are now banished from the table, formed n
part of the entertainment* In his clothing also, and do-
mestic regulations, he was remarkably moderate. It waa,
however, his greatest misfortune, that he could never con-
ceal the dissimulation of his character : his words were few,
expressed slowly, and in a low unvarying tone : in fact,
nothing spoke but his tongue, and none believed him.
, This potentate, in his fifty-sixth year, gave the world the
extraordinary and astonishiog spectacle of the renunciauon
of all bis crowns ; and withj^rew to the monastery of St.
Just, which is jsltuated among well*watered gardens and
meadows in the plains of Estremadura : there he lived with
his sisters, the widowed queens of France and Hungary,
like a man whose happiness is entirely independent of ex-
ternal greatness ; who felt the charm of equsdity ; ''and who,
having abandoned the business of the world, was best quali-
fied to estimate its worth. He passed two years, and ter-
minated bis life, in this retirement. A. D. 1568.
The emperor had given Spain, Milan, Naples, and
Sicily, the Netherlands and America, to his son Philip.
Mexico and Peru would have been totally depopulated,
had not Charles set bounds to the pursuits of' avarice and
fanaticism, by commanding that the Indian tribes should
be re-established, and the mines worked by imported slaves.
The aborigines of these countries had not made such pro-
gress in the arts of civil life, as to deserve a comparison
with the inhabitants of Europe ; for they were unacquainted
with iron, the principal instrument of agriculture ; they
were ignorant of the arts of writing and of the use of coin
as an instrument of commerce ; and derived their subsist-
ence firom the spontaneous production^ of their bountiful
soil. It was, in fact, from this time, that their hamlets be-
gan to improve in extent, in strength and civil regulations ;
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200 XSmVET^iAh IttSTORT.
in other words, that their toims^ according to the European
acceptation of the word, began to be numerous : but it 19
impossible to say to what degree of civilization these na-
tions might have attained, if they had escaped the tempo-
ral and spiritual despotism of the Spaniards, to whose yoke
they were now subjected.
Charles had contrived to draw from all the other coun-
tries which his son inherited from him, as well as from
America, sums as large as it was possible to obtain without
irritating the people to measures of violent resistance. The
consequence of these proceedings was a contest between
the different nations of the Spanish monarchy and the court,
which became every day more obvious : the people of
these countries endeavored to maintain their rights in their
ancient forms, while the emperor was attempting to subdue
the spirit of liberty. In Italy and Spain, the court suc-
ceeded in establishing its uncontrolled authority ; while, in
the Netherlands, the people recovered tiieir freedom. But
the apparent advantages which the government had gained
in the former instances, enfeebled the foundation of the
monarchy to such a degree, that it has ever since been
found impossible to excite, among those degenerate people,
any considerable spirit of enterprise for usetul undertakings.
Rulers are willing enough to encourage industry in the arts
and in productive branches of science, provided that their
subjects will consent to abstain fVom discussions relating to
their own rights, and will submit to the dictates of their
vgovAnors as to the disposal of their property.
Similar principles came generally into practice. In the
history of die princes of the German empire, new and in-
creased taxes on land and on consumption,, begin to be
observable. The dangers which threatened the state, or
the necessity for an expenditure suitable to the spirit of the
age, were usually the pretences for these impositions j and
when by custom they had become supportable, it was not
difficult to find reasons for rendering them perpetual.
The princes of the empire framed their system of, in-
ternal government, in other respects, on the model of the
imperial administration of justice, which had subsisted ever
since the time of Maximilian the First. Even in the reign
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of Charles the Fifth, a dealer in cattle ha4 the boldnes^ |o
make war against the ^lectors of Saxpjoy and Branden-
burg. This disturbance, It is true, was remedied j but it
was thought so highly dangerous, that Joachim the Secood,
elector of Brandenburg, could find no better means of re-
sistance against tl^e leader and his banditti, than to employ
the public executioner of Berlin to entice him into that
city : he fell into the snare ; but maintained his right, in a
public audience, which lasted three hours, in such a man-
ner as to excite a considerable degree of sympathy ; and
though he was at last executed on the wheel, the elector
could npt afterwards reflect on the transaction without
remorse.
It must be confessed, however, that most of the princes
showed greater dexterity in augmenting their revenue than
in regulating their expenses : even the prudent Saxon,
Frederick, was content to suffer the progress of reforma-
tion, only on condition that it should not presume to ap-
proach his court. Sumptuous entertainments, gaming,
numerous suites, and expensive festival, gave rise every-
where to financial embarrassment.
SECTION VI.
FRANCE.
Lewis the Twelfth had diminished the expenses of his
government to the half of tlieir former amount ; but Fran--
cis the First, at the beginning of his reign, departed from
the frugal maxims of his predecessor. His views were
usually just ; but they were often warped by passion ; and
even policy afibrded a seeming justification of his errors :
he believed that a splendid court would augment bis aii-
tfaoriQr by its imposing effect, and would allure tlie nobles
to quit their retirement ; while habits of expensive dissipa-
tion would destroy their resources, and would by that means
remove one of the greatest obstacles to the absolute power
ff the monarch. Lewis the Twelfth had resorted to tem-
porary means, perhaps to the sale of offices, for the pur-
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203 VKlTBRSAIi HIBTOmY.
pose of defraying the expenses of his wars: whereas Fran«
cis increased the assessment of a st^din^ impost called the
taUle, a tax which produced in his time nine millions.
But when^ in advanced age, he began to perceive the van-
ity of expensive pleasures, and the ill consequences of neg-
lected economy and of bad example, he repaired the dis-
order of his finances by more strict attention to such subjects,
paid his debts, and left at his decease 1,700,000 dollars in
his treasury.
Henry, though by the favor of circumstances he was
more fortunate in the early part of his reign, was neither
equal to Francis in understanding nor in energy ; and he
siiflTered himself to be governed by the selfish and vicious
persons who surrounded him.
SECTION vn.
THE POPE.
The treasury of t}ie holy see was now exhausted, in
consequence of the enterprises of the family of Borgia,
whose politic plans had been frustrated by obstacles which
could not be toreseen ; and of the wars of Julius the Sec-
ond, or Rovere, who entertained the grand design of driving
the barbarians out of Italy. About this time tibe great ca-
thedral of papal Christendom was begun to be reared, ac-
cordyig to the plan of Bramante, over the graves of the
aposdes ; and Leo the Tenth, of Medici, who set no limits
either to his expenditure or to his bounty, aggravated the
distresses of the treasury by his profusion, which obliged
him, as we have already seen, to have recourse to the as-
sistance of the Fuggers of Augsburg, the most opulent
family in Europe, who had laid the foundation oi their
prosperity in the unobtrusive and industrious pursuits of
commerce, and the immense profit accruing to them from
the quicksilver mines of Quadalcanal.
Among the succeeding pontic, namely, Hadrian the
Sixth, who was a pious dieologian ; Clement the Seventh
of Medici, who was endowed with excellent faculties in
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 203
several respects, yet not with such qualities as were neces-
sary to the prosperity of the pontificate in times so difficult;
the crafty Paul the Third, who, however, was more solicit-
ous for th'e welfare of his fanaily, the Farnesi, than for that
of the holy see ; Julius the Third, who was liberal in his
manner ol life, and munificent in his disposition ; and Ca-
riffa, or Paul the Fourth, remarkable for his haughty mo-
nastic severity ; — among all these persons, who successively
sat in the pontifical chair, there was no individual who
possessed the talents that were requisite for retrieving the
disordered finances of the see. In Germany also the Re-
forrtiation was nearly as injurious to the interests pf the
pope in the catholic, as in the protestant states : the courts
most remarkable for devotion^ or at least for hypocrisy,
kissed his feet, while they were busily engaged in fettering
his hands.
It was fortunate that Francis had concluded a compact
relating to the liberties of the Gallican church, a short time
before the appearance of Luther. In consequence of this
concordat, which had been attempted to be carried under
.Lewis the Eleventh, but which was at that time defeated
by the efcrts of the parliament and of the university, af-
fairs relating to tlie benefices were removed from the con-
trol of the untractable parliament, to that of the minister
of state, who was. more inclined to pay Regard to political
circumstances; yet writers of later times confirmed the
Gallican church in the maxim, << that the pope has no right
to consider the bishops as merely his substitutes, and die
synods as councils dependent on his will." The court took
advantage of this disposition, and made so good use of the
means within its power, that the Romans were obliged to
abandon all hopes of deriving any revenue fi-om the church
of France, without its own permission, conjoindy with that of
the king. The court asserted and exercised the right of
holding provincial synods ; and these assemblies ratified this
principle, " that when the pope swerves, in matters of doc-
trine, firom the established forms ; when he becomes heret-
ical or schismatical, and when he stands in need of refor-
mation, the councils are superior to him." Even the
monks no longer ventured to maintain his infallibility, but
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merely to assert that, among dilSisrent propositions, that is
to be preferred which is the most directly opposed to the
heretics ; and it became, in the end, the prevailing opin^
ion, that mfalGbility is to be ascribed only to the church.
This way of thmking mitigated the severity of the duty of
implicit belief, and rendered the Romish more dependent
on the royal court ; while the latter, by means of the nu-
merous presentations to spiritual digniJes, which it appro-
priated to itself, acquired a powerful instrument for render-
ing the nobility dependent. Some splendid relics of tlie
magnificent hierarchy of Rome were however suffered,
tlirough the collusion of the two courts, to remain in
France ; and it is easily conceivable that Catholicism, thus
modified, must have been far more agreeable to a regal
government, than the republican spirit of the Reformation.
SECTION vm.
PORTUGAL.
The popes, perhaps without being aware of what they
were assisting to bring about, fsince even the Roman gov-
ernment has more often availed itself of circumstances
than called them forth) contributed to establish the political
system of John the Thh*d, by which the Portuguese nation
was subjected to oppression. John might possibly feel all
the devotion to the holy chair which he professed ; but it
is certain that die first eflfect of the inquisition, and of the
favoi*able reception he gave to the Jesuits, was to increase
his revenue, and to render his authority more absolute.
Tfiis prince, from whose reign the decay of Portugal
may be dated, endeavored to render himself master of the
riches of the Jews, of which nation, though they had been
banished by his grandfather, his kingdom contained a great
number, who were however obliged to conceal the profes-
sion of their faith. The king manifested so violent a de-
sire for the establishment of the inquisition in his dominions,
in order, by its means, to discover this devoted race, and
to punish diem by confiscation and death, that Paul the
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tKniC&8AL HISTOKT. 8K(
Third, who, as well Jas' other ponti£, ^metimes had re-
course to them for pecuniary assistance, long refused his ,
concurrence. At length, however, John obtained tlie ob-
ject of his desire 5 and first the rojral confessor, and after
him a son of the king, were appointed general inquisitors
of the faith : immediately the nobles accounted it an honor
to be appointed as servants of the holy tribunal, and to
attend these miserable wretches to the stake* Similar tri-
bunals were, in a short time, erected at Evora, at Coimbra,
and at Goa, in the East-Indies ; and the property of the
criminals flowed rapidly intp the royal treasury, as the court
was directed, by positive instructions, rather to spare the
lives than the seductive riches of the accused.
John the Third had the honor of being the very first
king who received the Jesuits. His minister at Rome re-
commended the rising order as missionaries for India ; and
whilst Francis Xjivier was spreading religion and the fame
of his order in that part of the world, Simon Rodriguez
obtslined such an ascendancy over the king, as to induce
\\m\ to assume the title of especial guardisMi and adminis-
trator of the society : and to impose it on himself, as a duly,
to sign all the proposals which they should send to him,
without investigation or delay. At Coimbra the Jesuits
performed penitential processions, and their lives were ex-
amples of Spartan severity. This spectacle of voluntary
poverty and rigid discipline, procured them great credit
with the people : but the university raised its warning voice
against the'order,^ which evidently aspired to a superiority
over all the prerogatives of kings, and all the rights of na-
tions. The municipality of Oporto forbade parents, under
pain of forfeiting the privileges of citizenship, to allow their
children to be educated among them ; and cardinal Henry,
one of the king's sons, waS hostile to their interest. On the
other hand, the king, tlie queen and the court, remained
zealously devoted to Rodriguez and his successor Gonsalez.
The opposition was chiefly founded 'on the jealousy of the
monks, who perceived the advantages which the Jesuits
would derive from the combination they aflfected of the
characters of the regular and secular clergy, as well as from
the novelty of their rules, their distinguished activity^ the
VOL* III. 18 g
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206 UNITERSAI. HI8T0BT.
favor of the nobles, and the instruction of the rising gene*
ration. The king committed to their care the education
of his grandson ; and they separated the young Teotonio
from his father, the duke of Braganza, by force : for to the
humility by which they acquired the confidence of the des-
potic king, they united, under favorable circumstances, a
sufficient degree of boldness. E>on John submitted himself
to the authority of their general, and was rewarded by the
honor of being buried in the garb of the order. A. D.
1555. .
There existed, in fact, a tacit conspiracy of the supreme
powers, temporal and spiritual, against the constitutional
rights of the people, which effected the annihilation of the
privileges of the different ranks ; and in order to evade
the necessity of obtauiing their consent to the raising of new
taxes, their rulers imposed them under ancient names.
The afiairs of the courts were managed by the intrigues of
ecclesiastics, until, in the eighteenth century, when the
submission of the people appeared unbounded, the kings
wielded the whole force of absolute power, and caused it
to be felt even by the Jesuits and the church.
But in the times of which we are treating, the pope
found it necessary to conduct himself with extreme caution
towards the imperial court : in France he was obliged to
give up many things, in order to avoid the l6ss of his whole
influence, and especially the annates : in Spain and Portu-
gal he countenanced the introduction of the absolute power
of the naonarch ; but it was necessary to take measures for
preserving this authority under the control of the Jesuits :
while in Italy the temporal principality of the states of the
church was founded on arms and negociations.
SECTION IX.
ITAJUHi I
Pope Julius the Second seized on Bologna, and put an
end to the influence of the BentivogU, who had held that
ancient seat of learning under their authority : he retained.
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 207
through his perseverance, the sovereignty of Ravenna, the
ancient residence of the Goths and exarchs ; and made his
own nephew, Francesco Maria Rovere, whose lofty mind
and heroic courage was worthy of his uncle, duke of Ur-
bino. Ludovico Gonzaga, the general of Clement the
Seventh, put an end to the turbulent freedom of Ancona,
and subjected it to the authority of the pope ; the court of
Naples still made an annual acknowledgment of his feudal
superiority ; he reckoned the Esti of Ferrara, together with
tlie Roveri, among the number of his vassals ; and Paul
the Third succeeded in obtaining the same dignity for his
own son, Piero Lodovico Farnese, ^hich Clement the Se-
venth had formerly procured for his family, the Medici.
When Leo the Tenth assisted to drive the French out
of Italy, he transferred Parma and Piacenza from the do-
minion of Milan to that of the church ; and during the
vacancy of the papal chair, which followed his death, Par-
ma was preserved for the church by the historian Guicci-
ardini, who displayed admirable presence of mind. A. D.
1645. Paul the Third gave these cities, with the consent
of Charles the Fifth, to his son, who was already in pos-
session of Castro and Ronciglioni : he received them as a
fief of the church, with the title of duke. Piero Lodovi-
co, who, though abandoned to voluptuousness of. all kinds,
was a prince of strong talents, was murdered during the
life of his father (A. D. 1517) : but the emperor, who had
given his natural daughter to the young Octavio Farnese,
and had taken him under his protection, enabled him to
maintain his authority. Octavio reigned nearly forty years,
confirmed the power of his family, and transmitted it to his
son Alexander, who was one of the greatest generals of
that age.
Charles the Fifth aggrandized the family of Este, which
akeady held the sovereignty at Modena, Reggio, and Fer-
rara, by the gift of Carpi, a dominion which had been pos-
sessed by a branch of the house of Pico of Mirandolo, but
which ought in Justice to have devolved upon the other
branch of that mmily. Almost all the states of Italy were
at that period absorbed by or dependent 6n the Spanish
monarchy : Venice alone maintained the appearance of
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206 UNITERSAL filSTORT.
ea&re freedom, and endeavored to preserve a eood uoder-^
standing witb tlie emperor. It was long a fundamental
Eoint in the policy of this state, to prevent any prince fron,i
ecoming too powerful in Lombardy, by the acquisition of
Milan : but when an irresistible course of events transferred
the latter sute to Spain, the senate consoled itself with the
reflection, that it was desirable to have a neighbor so pow-
erful as to be under no temptation to aggrandize himself at
the expense of the republic ; and who besides could not
adopt measures of that nature, without exciting the alarm
of the other powers of Europe.
Genoa had placed herself under the protection of France;
and the greater part of her nobles were soldiers in the ser-
vice of Francis the First : but this state of dependance was
not even compensated by internal repose ; as the factions
of the Adorni and Fregosi continued to disturb with their
broils, the tranquillity of the siat^. At length Andrew
Doria, who had been injured by the court of France, re-
solved to become the Timoleon of Genoa, and to confer
upon his country the benefits of freedom and laws.
In order to accomplish his purpose, he entered into
connection with Charles the Fifth, appeared unexpectedly
before the city, and was admitted. A. D. 1528. He be-
gan like Thrasybulus, by publishing amnesty ; and pro-
ceeded to unite the different parties by intermarriages and
other civil connections. Far from attemptbg, under pre-
tence of the public good, to arrogate to himself an odious
pre-eminence, he made all tlie citizens of any degree of
respectability, with the exception only of the Adorni and
Fregosi, eligible to the government : and after having en-
acted that a doge should be chosen every two years, and
that the state should be governed under his presidency by
eight govematori, and by a council of four hundred, Doria
retired to the simple station of a Senator. This great man,
in his 87th year, commanded the fleet which secured to the
Genoese the possession of the island of Corsica (A. D.
1560^ ; and died in his 94th year, without ever having ob-
tained the dignity of doge.
Corsica had been taken in former times from the Ara-
bians, by Hugo Colonna, who delivered the island to the
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UKll^ERSAL HISTORY. 209
ipe, anjd who afterwards held it as a fief from the latter.
be citizens of Pisa deprived his (amily bf this possession:
from them it was taken by the Genoese. There subsisted
from that time an' hereditary enmity between the wealthy
Genoese and the unpolished Corsicans. At length Sampiero
of Basbelica, who had espoused the only daughter of the
wealthy general Omano, pobted out to the French how
advantageous arid easy it would be to drive the Genoese,
who were allies of the Spaniards, from this post so im-
portant to Italy. The French admiral, Paul de Termes,
was supported in this undertaking by the fleet of the pasha
Sulejman ; but their united efforts were unavailing against
the valor and good fortune of Doria. After the death of
the latter, Sampiero endeavored in vain to excite his
countrymen to a systematic effort for the recovery of their
independence ; and was at length himself put to death,
either by the brother of his wife, whom he had murdered,
or by an assassin in the pay of the Genoese.
SECTION X.
FLORENCE.
The revolutions of the Florentines ended in the destruc-
tion of the republican form oPtheir constitution.
Piero de Medici, the son of the celebrated Lorenzo,
was a man of amiable disposition, a perfectly accomplished
knight, and a ruler of considerable talents ; but (like all
the members of his family) too much addicted to pleasure,
and not possessed of sufficient self-control for the circum-
stances in which he was placed. On the invasion of
Charles the Eighth (A. D. 1494), seeing no possible means
olf resisting the power of France, he delivered up Pisa and
Leghorn to the troops of that natiofi, without a formal con-
sultation of the authorities of the state. This step drew
on him the hatred of the Florentines to such a degree, that
he was obliged, from regard to his Mra safety, to leave the
city : his palaces were plundere^frhis family was con-
demned to banishment, and a price set upon their heads.
VOL. III. 18*
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210 CVIVBB8AL HisTonr.
Piero had abandoned himself^ and was of course deserted
by bis friends.
During the four foUowing years, the people were chiefly
guided by the preaching of a dominican iriar named Sa-
vonarola, an orator, who to the ardent zeal of a prophet,
added the spirit of a republican. He was at last burnt
alive as a heretic ; and after hb death Florence approached
with rapid strides to the condition of a lawless democracy :
the deliberations of the coyncil lost their authority ; every-
thing was determined by party spirit ; the most respectable
of the citizens withdrew from public business ; and the vir-
tuous gonfaloniere, Soderini, was scarcely able to preserve
the appearance of order. Even under this irregular con-
stitution the Florentmes subdued Pisa (A. D. 1509), and
bade defiance to the pope ; but Julius, to punish them,
employed his > influence at the court of Spain, and having
by its means procured the assistance of Naples (A. D.
1512), replaced Julian and John de Medici, brothers of
Piero, who was already dead, in the authority which their
house had possessed at Florence, eighteen years before.
After the decease of Julius the Second, John, the younger
of these brothers, was chosen as his successor (A. D.
1513), under the name of Leo the Tenth. His influence,
and tne necessity of preventing the recurrence of similar
disorders, confirmed the authority of his amiable brother
Julian ; and, after the premature death of the latter (A. D.
1516), that of his nephew Lorenzo, the son of Piero.
Tliese prbces rendered their era illustrious by the unex^
ampled liberality of the patronage which they bestowed oq
the arts and sciences ; while they secured the attachment
of the multitude by their liberality. A specious pretext
having presented itself for expelling the family of Kovere
from Urbino, Leo subjected bimselt and the church to th9
expense of eight hundred thousand ducats, for the purpose
of putting Lorenzo in possession of that dukedom.
li was for this secona Lorenzo, that the Florentine se-
cretary of state, Nicholas Macchiavelli designed his political
work entided '* the Prince." This author, in his excellent
essay on the history 4kf Livy, had already displayed the
principles on which the foundation and support of republi-
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can governments depend. In his later work he drew u,
portrait of the arts of tyrants, which it is necessary to know
in order to be able to defeat them. In this book he flattered
tlie views of Lorenzo ; who, in an age in which it was Evi-
dent to evqry statesman that the weakness of Italy was
owing to its division into so many small states, had con-
ceived the apparently feasible project of obtaining posses-
sion of Lucca and Siena, fortifying Florence, and thus
founding a new Italian kingdom which should extend from
sea to sea. This plan, which was strengthened by Lorenzo's
relationship to Leo the Tenth, the friendship of Francis the
First, and the mutual jealousy of , those powers who, if
united, might have defeated it, was frustrated by the death
of Lorenzo, which happened in the 27th year of his age.
A. D. 1519. He was the last prince of the male line of
Cosmo, the father of his country ; and left only a daughter,
the celebrated Catharine de Medici,, afterwards queen bf
France.
Shordy after the death of Lorenzo ,and of Leo the Tenth,
Zanobi feuondelmonti and Luigi Alamani, two of Machi-
avel's most intimate friends, conspired to rescue their couht
try from the domination of Cardinal Julius, a natural son
01 that brother of Llorenzo who had been murdered by the
Pazzi. They were supported in this undertaking by Car-
dinal Soderini, at the court of pope Hadrian the Sixth ;
who, himself a native of the Netherlands, was unacquainted
with th^ violent passions and factious views of the parties of
Italy. Julius adhered to the emperor's party, and entered
into the great league against the dominion of the French
in Italy : and on the death of Hadrian, he was supported
by the imperial interests, and elected pope with the tide of
Clement die Seventh. A. D. 1523. Julius managed his
affairs so artfully, that his elevation to the papal chair wa$
chiefly owing to the prince who had resolved on his ruin ;
and, notwithstanding his libertine manners, he gained the
'confidence pf the severe Hadriari. When he became
pope, he would gladly have preserved the neuti'ality which
oecume the common father of the contending parties ; but
the vehement rivalry of Francis the First and Charles the
Fifth, involved him in their quarrels : he was obliged to
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212 UNIVCRSAIi HISTOBT.
expose himself to the vicissitudes of their 6>rtunes, and fell^
on the decline of the French power m Italy, into the ut«
most difficulties : for at this penod, George of Frundsperg,
an imperial general, plundered Rome with as little mercy
as the Groths had formerly exercised, and besieged the
pope himself in the castle of St. Angelo. A. D. 1527.
Alexander, the natural son of Julius, or of the second Lo-
renzo, who was director of public affiiirs at Florence, now
sought his safety in flight ; and upon this occasion the an-
cient freedom of the constitution was restored under the
gonfaloniere Capponi.
But the house of Medici arose from this temporary de-
cay to permanent greatness. A. D. 1529. Clement con-
cluded a treaty of peace and alliance with the emperor,
who gave his illegitimate daughter, Margaret, to Alex-
ander, and engaged to put his son-in-law in possession of
the ancient wealth and authority of his family. The Flo-
rentines resisted this arrangement; and the city was besieged
during ten months by the emperor's army ; at first, under
the command of the last prince of Chalons-Orange, and
after his death, under that of Ferdinand Gonzaga. After
having exhausted all their means of defence, the citizens
laid down their arms (A. D. 1530) ; begging at the same
time that a regular form of government might be established
within three months. The emperor, upon this nominated
Alexander de' Medici as hereditaiy duke of Florence : -six
of the enemies of his family were beheaded, and the rest
Either detained in prison or banished. .
Alexander, after the example of the ancient tyrants, built
a citadel for the security of his person and authority : he
took upon himself the supreme direction of afiairs of all
kinds, and abolished the office of gonfaloniere of justice.
Twelve citizens were appointed reformers; and from these
he received the palace and the whole authority of the an-
cient government : forty-eight citizens were appointed as
counsellors of state, fdur of whom were to fulfil the duties
of the office, and to be replaced by an equal number every
three months. The ordmary busmess of the interior was
committed to the council of two hundred, but under the
direction of the reigning sovereign.
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 213
The duke conducted bis government on prudent and
moderate maxims, until Lorentino, another member of the
house of Medici, probably envious that a spurious branch
of the family had possessed himself of the power, under-
took, with great artfulness, to effect his ruin. He resolved
to deprive him of the love and veneration of ll^e people
before he attempted his life ; and his first step for this pur-
pose was to acquire the confidence of the duke. Th«y
studied Tacitus together : and when Alexander's mild dis-
position startled at the malicious tyranny of Tiberius, his
friend demonstrated to him how necessary it would be to
adopt such measures in a country which had but lately lost
its freedom ; and (developed so profound a system of policy, .
that the duke soon began to rely implicidy on his judgment.
LoreJitino flattered his voluptuous dispositions ; and while
he abused all die powers with which he was entrusted,
affected to lament that the severity of the sovereign com-
pelled him tp sdch conduct, and took opportunities to point
out to the Florentines the dangers to which the chastity of
their wives and daughters was exposed. He obtained so
completely the confidence of the duke, that he caused se-
cret stairs to be made, by means of which he could at all
hours, and unperceived, gain access to his chamber.
When he supposed that the minds of men were worked up
by his arts to a proper pitch of irritation, he assassinated
the duke, and called on the people to assert their freedom.
A. D. 1637.
The young Cosmo de' Medici, a descendant of a brother
of that Cosmo who was called the father of his country,
prevented, by his presence of mind, the success of this enr
terprize. He took his measures with so much celerity,
that the more prudent among the citizens, independent pf
the obstacles which the state of Europe at that time pre-
sented, thought proper to abandon the idea of re-establish-
ing the republic. Lorentino took flight ; but a faithful ser-
vant of the murdered duke pursued him during nine
years, through different countries, and ultimately put him
to death.
Cosmo, the first grand duke of Tuscany, really deserved
this tide, which he received from pope Pius the Fifdii
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214 UNIVEBSAL HISTORY.
(A. D. 1569), and which was confii:med to his son by the
emperor Maximilian the Second. A. D. 1555. In the
course of his reign, which was as wise, as fortunate, and
almost as long as that of Augustus, the Florentines forgot
the former republican constitution of their government.
He conciliated the good will both of the French and
Spaniards ; abstained from all domestic confiscations ; and,
though he made no enactment by which the ecclesiastics
were prevented from acquiring landed property, he for-
bade the notaries to make legal attestations of such con-
tracts.
From the survey which we have just taken, it appears,
that at the time when Charles the Fifth abandoned the
government, Milan and Naples were in the power of bis
son, and Genoa and the grand duke in his interest ; Mar-
Piret, the widow of Alexander, had married tlie duke of
arma ; the Gonzaga had noither the power nor the im-
prudence to undertake any thine hostile to 'the tranquillity
of Lombardy; the senate of Venice was. desirous only of
Eeace ; and the pope was the natural ally of the catholic
ing. The knights of St. John, to whom Charles the
Fifth had given die islands of Malta and Gozo, under con-
ditions which kept them in a kind of dependence on the
king of Sicily, contributed to keep the seas and coasts free
from pirites. Italy was flourishing from its natural fertility
and the eflfects of its ancient cultivation, and in the expec-
tation of a durable peace : in the sunshine of prosperi^, it
lost the ancient spirit of enterprize which had ' raised so
many of its states to the proud eminence of freedom and
greatness, yet its people bad now teisure to resign them-
selves in security to the enjoyment of pleasure and re-
pose.
SECTION XI.
SAVOY AND GENEVA.
The house of Savoy, whose prosperitv had been great-
ly dist^irbed by the unfortunate part it nad taken against
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DNITERSAL BISTORT. -216
the confederates in the war of Burgundy, as well as by fac-
tions and the frequent vicissitudes of policy incident to
short reigns and minorities, appeared now to be totally
ruined by the still more c£(lamitous occurrences which at-
tended the reign of Charles the Third. A. D. 1536.
That duke having joined the party of the emperor against
Francis the First, the kin^ seized a favorable opportunity
of entering into an intimate connexion with Bern, con-
Suered Savoy, and leaving the Swiss in possession of all
le shores of the lake of Geneva, and of the whole dis-
trict of the Pays , de Vaud, hastened to incorporate the
duchy with the dominions of France, and erect a parlia-
ment in Chambery.
The inhabitants of the Canton of Bern had long taken
a lively interest in the struggle in which Geneva was in-
*cessantly engaged with the house of Savoy. Savoyard
noblemen had been, during a long series of years, the
bishops and magistrates of that city : and the dukes were
constantly bent on the project of making themselves mas-
ters of the place ; which was of extreme importance to
them, not only on account of its situation, but of the spirit
of freedom which animated its inhabitants, and which, un-
less they could contrive some means of extinguisliing it,
would probably at length ihfect their own towns in the
Pays de Vaud. They had similar views with regard to
Lausanne, which, as well as Geneva, was the theatre of
that incessant agitation inevitable in those states where thel
rights of a powerful body of citizens, and the authority of
an ecclesiastical prince, are not sufficiently distinguished
from each other. The dukes had, in reality, no justifiable
pretext for interfering in the affairs c^ these cities i but
they had often found means, under the administration of
weak and dependent bishops, to cause the public business
to be committed to their own management ; and in favor-
able conjunctures, afforded by the dissensions between the
bishops and the people, had assumed to themselves the
menacing office of mediators.
The Genevese-, whose forefathers had chiefly been in- '
duced by the attractions of freedom to choose this city for
their place of residence, kept a. watchful eye on every ille-
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&16 xmavzMAL histobt.
gal innovation which the bishops might be inclined to at-
tempt in favor of the projects of their ambitious neigh-
bors, and strengthened their own party by alliances. The
first of these was concluded with Freiburg, which had for-
merly been* rescued from the power of Savoy by the as-
sistance of Bern. The intimate connexion between these
two cities, together with the influence of the new opinions
in matters of faith, soon produced alliances between Bern
and Geneva : and it was owing to this connexion tliat the
latter city, in which the love of liberty was superior to
every other consideration, escaped subjection to ecclesias-
tical and temporal tyranny. Freiburg refused to have any
fartlier connexion with innovators on the ancient faith.
The citizens of Bern, however, while they appeared
only as protectors of Geneva, made so judicious an use of
the advantages of their situation, that the Pays de Vaud
fell under their dominion : for the duke of Savoy was re-
duced to the necessity of putting them in' possession, as a
pledge for the maintenance of peace, of that district ; by
which they obtained an acquisition equal to a third part of
their former territory. It was not difficult, under theise
circumstances, to find a specious pretext, in the hatred of
the nobles against the citizens, or in other causes, for con-
verting this acquisition into a permanent conquest ; and the
rupture which took place between the duke and France
facilitated the execution of the plan. Bern received no
assistance in this afiair from the other cantons of Switzer-
land : on the contraiT, most of- those states saw, with dis-
satisfaction, that the t^ays de Vaud was torn from a catho-
lic prince, and that Bern, the object of their jealousy, be-
came still more powerful by the acquisition. Bern, in
order to render its preservation the more easy, invited
Freiburg and Valais to participate in the prize ; and when
Chablais, as well as the Pays de Vaud, had been subdued,
the citizens of Bern showed an inclination to protect Gene-
va nearly in the same manner as Lausanne, and laid claim
to the property of the expelled chapter of the cathedral,
and to some pther ecclesiastical possessions ; in which at-
tempt, however, they were disappointed. The bishop,
Peter von Baume, had declared himself decidedly on the
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vnpnoMA xnvosr. 217
^(96^ df the duke; unci ar the state of afiain ia the c^
iSotded ho other prospect than thet of the destruction of
his religious dignity, as weH as of Us t^nporal power, his
conduct in this respect was exactly that which might have
been expected : he quitted the city, and his power was
now formally declared to be abolished. The stune pro«<
cedure took (dace at Lausanne ; with this difierence, that
as at Geneva the community took possession of the con*
focated^ property of the church, so the senate of Bern
here assumed to themselves the rights of the prince and
biihbp, Sebastian de Montfaucon, who had thought proper
to abscond,, and from whom all « prospect of reconciliation
ttith his people was cut off by the reformation of the church
Which the senate introduced.
Things remained in this situation until Henry the Second ,
itii PhSip the Second cmicluded the peace of Cfaateatt
G^»nbf6sis, after the defeat of the French at the batde of
St. Quentin (A. D. 1559) ; whm, in pursuance of thai
treaty, Eflaanuel Philibert of Savoy, samamed Iron-head,
fl^rti his powers of endurance, was reinstated m his hei*ed*
itary dukedom. This arrangement compelled the senate
df Bern and their confederates, to abandon the iarther side
of the lake of Geneva Chablais, and the smaH territory
of Gex situated at the principal pass of Mount Jura. A.
D. 1564v They retained the Pays de Vaud, and it was
evident that this cirii^umstanCe was not easily to be forgot-
ten : for the nobles of that country formed several conspi-
i^cieS to restore it to the authority of the duke ; and the
6thef Swiss cantons, in all the treaties which they con*
eluded with the house of Savoy, during upwards* of a cen*
tury, engaged to give the people of Bern no assistance to*
wards defending that territory.
Geneva was surrounded by the dominions of an active
and prudent prince, supported by the power of Spain, and
by an exasperated noMHty : it was sorpetimes af enmity
with France, and detested by her as the mother and
illtylum of the Huguenoid; and, when in aUianoe i^ith
Fi^sMcC) cdold expect no dssistarice from die distracted
t^fk^i^ovf of that kingdom : it was often shaken to its
ftflMllidons by interna) dissensions; but it subsisted' notr '
VOL. xu. 19
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218 UKXTSBSJkL HWTCmX.
wid)staiidiiig all these dangers, supfxvted hy the Tutimi
with which the lore of freedom inspired its magnanimoitf
citizens, and by ^e activity and vigilance of the illustrious
directors of its affiiirs. Its distinguished moral power so
raised the reputatbn of this state, that it was often a party
to the negociauons of tlie great powers of Europe; and
it was almost the principal seat of a religious sect, which,
however, did not take its origin in this city.
The constitution of Geneva was free, but not accurately
defined : and from this cause the government was fre-
quently obliged to adopt sudden and secret resolutions on
matters of the highest import ; while at other times the
people were assembled to deliberate on the most minute
regulations of police. Less regard was paid to the num*
her or the names of those to whom the afiairs of the state
were committed, than to their political virtue and wisdom;
and the citizens were in the habit of comparing the cooh
dition of Geneva with that of other countries, which en^
joyed a lower d^ree of freedom, instead of making in-
vidious comparisons among themselves. Hence private
ambition was lost in the sentiment of the gk>ry of their
country ; and the authority of the magistrates, though it
was deficient in the sanction which time imparts to ancient
institutions, was founded on distinguished abilities and pop-
ularity, which are in all countries its proper and legitimate'
support. The citizens of Geneva borrowed some of the
forms, of their constitution from the Swiss- cantons; but
they imbibed a spirit which ,was peculiar to themselves, and
which gave to this little republic a venerable and eternally
memorable place in the history of human nature.
SECTION xn.
awiTzxiojafp.
The spirit of rivalry that subsisted jn Switzerland, be-
tween the inhabitants of the towns and those of the coun-
try, was ibi^otten in the more vehement contests excited
by the reformadon ; but there still esusted internal causci
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of dispute between the several miBiicqMlitiesaiiddieoounp
try people under their immediate jurisdiction. This class
OT rulers was that which was first exposed to the influence
of foreign gold and military habits : these formed, ac-
cording to the ideas prevalent at that time, a striking con-
trast with the dignity and integrity of the administrators of
a ^republic ; and this collision was productiva of so much
indignation, that the people, who were, however, generally
the unsuspecting instruments of secret counter-parties,
made many insurrections, with the intention of depriving
them of their honors and lives.
The prudence and ascendency of the government of the
canton of Bern preserved the country, at the conclusbo of
tbewars of Milan, from universal anarchy ; and the only
violent tumult which took place among the country people
of that canton was quelled by the ^hultheiss, Jacob von
Wattewyl, who manifested the dignity and firmness of ao
ancient Roman.
The patriotic spirit displayed by Zuinglius, whose sys-
tem tended to habituate the nation to the domestic virtues,
to justice and quietness, and to induce them to live on
peaceable terms among the surrounding monarchies, but
by no means in the relation of intimate friendship with
them, alarmed the democratic leaders of the people for
the revenue which they annually derived from Paris and
Rome, and which had assisted in no small degree to sup-
port the catholic religion in these democracies, distin-
guished, amid the darkness of the middle ages, by their
opposition to the encroachmcDts of ecclesiastical power.
The veneration which is usually found among a natioD of
shepherds for sensible representations and ancient rites, io
the worship of the Deity, also contributed materially to the
^same end; while, on the other hand, a mode of belief
which approached much nearer to perfection, was accept*
able to the more advanced state of civilization in the
towns. The latter system was embraced by private per-
sons of ordinary station ; and from its severity was agree-
able to the popular idea, that the Dei^ is most acceptably
served by the subjection of that part of our nature which
appears to be the most dissimilar to perfect purity.
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The |0vni8 which adopted the reiormed .religion, witii
the consent and advice of their -communities and peasants
n^ted the proposal of a league with France; forbade all
their countrymen to enter into foreign military service ; and
enacted that the punishment of death should be inflicted on
all tliose who were convicted of receiving pensions : and
it must be alknved that the population and prosperity of
the country were for a considerable space of time pi'omo*
ted by these regulations.
The council at Bern determined to adopt the reforma-
tion, at the period when the majority of the citizens and
country people appeared to approve it. At Basel, Schaff-
hansen, St. Galle, in the country of Glaris, and in part
of Appenzel the voice of the people was declared in it&
favor oy such tremendous movements, as manifested that
opposition on the part of the authorides would be utterly
in vain ; and even the magistrates themselves. were rather
unwilling to admit the new creed from tlie mere dread of
ionovation, than inclined to retain the ancient system on the
ground of its own merits. On the contrary, whatever
came from Zurich could not be well received in the pas*
toral distriots ; and it is possible that the reformers might
have attacked die opinions of. the honest fathers of these
people, with too litde moderation : in Bern also, it was with
extreme difficulty that the new faith could be established io
thid mountains. But the common subjects of the union
were in the most perplexed and confused condition : twice
within diree years, civil war broke out between the ruling
canton^ : and the catholic party, though the less numerous*
eonsisting of men who were not to be enervated by seden«-
tary trades nor by the adoption of any modern indulgences, •
and who had in no degree departed from the simple life
of their forefathers, commonly came off with the victory jf
while the officers of the towns endeavored to conduct the
war in the scientific manner followed by the soldiers of
kings, and acted the part of half-instructed men, opposed
to the hardy sons of nature. The catholics were, how-
aver, under the necessity of consenting to reasonable terms
of peace, because the towns were more powerful, and
therefore in acondltiou to sustain the burden pf war for
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tkpipnr time ; and Zuridi was, after a9, tliei^'best itiar-
An equipoise was^ thus ^tabli^ed, and the confederates
vrere imperceptibly led to tolerate both parties in the torn*
mem dominions, of the union : but they were not brought to
^is result by attending, to the suggestions of reason ; for
even in our times, the most intolerant principles preyailed
ia the exclusive dominions of individual cantons : and it
appears that a republican government is not necessarily a
free consutution, since it is possible that under it, men
ma^ be forbidden to worship the Deity in the manner
which they think best. The catholics of Switzerland,
however, never permitted the introduction of the in-
quisition ; and among the reformers, the exorbitant influence
of the preachers was diminished in proportion to the ex-
tension of knowledge among other classes : so that at length
every one was at liberty to think as he pleased, though he
was permitted to teach only the established doctrine ; and
in that age, and among states so feeble, these limitations
may be excused.
In the times immediately succeeding the reformation, the
governments of the towns became more popular and peace-
able in proportion, as the military spirit was taught to sub-
mit itself to the laws. Among the reformed cantons, the
greater part of the ancient vigor and hilarity of character
was lost: the people became more domestic and industrious,
but thdr enjoyment of life was diminished.
SECTION xm.
GBEAT BRITAIN.
It would be difficult to name a country in which, during
tbese ccmvulsions of the Christian world, the arbitrary wlU
of the monarch exerted a more capricious influence over
the determination of the most important questions of com^
science, than in England. The maxims of Henry the
Seventh, and the lawless impetuosity of his successor, had
enfeebled the parliament, and reduced it to a servile de-
VCL. III. 19* »
I i
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peDdenea cm the wiD of the king ; while the oehWq^lM
oeen destroyed and the commous ruined, in the wars te»
tpreen the rival houses of York and Lancaster. The
hierarchy, consisting of 60,000 individuals, the 13,000
churches, and 645 monasteries, under their Italian chief^
who was possessed of the keys of die kii^dom of heaven,
StUl constituted a body capable of maintaining its own will
in opposition to that of the monarch; because the privileges
enjoyed by their members and dieir property, effectual^'
protected them against the encroachments of tyranny ; and
because they were supported by that most universid and
indelstructible power, which coerces even him who widds
the sword and possesses the revenue,— the force of public
opinion : but diis support was undermined by the reforma*
ticm.
Under Henry the Seventh, the acquirement of learning
had begun to be extended ; the ancients became known,
aoid communicated to their readers the sound understand*
ing and the loitv and daring spirit which breathes through ,
their works. The light of reason thus imparted, was fatal
to the age of chivalry, — ^when the nobility '* performed pil*
grimages in countries which could never be found in fh«
map ; and amused themselves by defying persons unknown
to them, to single combat tat ladies whom they had
never seen.'' The forests of Wales alone remained im*
Krvious to the spirit of tiie age ; and were sdll governed
^ barons, who, surrounded by marksmen, and on th^
guard dav and night against enemies, bestowed estates on
such of their soldiers as distinguished themselves by theu:
valor ; in order, to use the expression of Wynne, " to de-
termine, by the prowess of these men, whether they or
their neighbors snould be the first to salute." But even
here, English and Latin were taught at Conway ; and at
Caernarvoo, the commencement S[ dviKzatkxi was dis-
cernible in the manners of the people. In Engbnd, fh*
study of the ancients soon begin to produce a perceptible
effect on the acquisition of science, and even on the tma^
ner of conducting business.
This change was effected by men of the common class ;
for the restprers^of learning were more frequendy oppressed
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dtfa |»>t ri&4> One oiaa waa ohierred piiMaeiitiog Jam
stiidiet by the side of a rireri and catching the pieces of
wood diat occasioBilly floated down its current, in order
to provide himself with fuel for the whiter ; another em«.
pbyed his nights in making ahoes, that he might be at
libarlf to study during the day. The love of independenosi
which usually accompanies genius, induced Erasmus to
gaia fa]^ livehhood by correcting books, at the time when
Charles the Fifth and Henry the. Eighth were eaeerly^ in^
viting him to come to their courts. Grocyn, the nrst pro-
fessor of Greek at Oxford, received no salary ; for a man
who understood that language, was suspected of an incli*
nation to heresy. Twenty grammar schools were however
opened in a short time ^ and Thomas More read lectures
before an assembly of the most respectable citizens of
London, on Augustine's excellent work of the city of God.
More himself, in his boldness before a haughty and all*
powerful minister, in his immovable attachment to convie«»
tioQs which were disasreeable to the kins, and in dia
Suanimity with which he conducted himself on the aeafr
d, displayed a spirit worthy of the ancients. • The libqr^
ality of hb mind still survives in his Utopia ; although that
work proves that he was more capable of transporting himi*-
self into former ages, than of transferring the spirit of dio
ancient philosophy to his own times. These restorers of
literature prq)ared the way for the reformation : they were
not themselves its authors } for the external forms of Htm
catholic religion wore more resemblance to the customs of
the Greeks and Romans : but they put the humaA mind in
motion, and the consequence was, that every thing was sub-
jected to examination ; which was to be conducted in the
sixteenth century, according to the history of the church ;
in the seventeenth, according to the new philosophy ; and
since the time of Bayle, according to the dictates of sober
reason.
Henry the Eighth was displeased with the pope, who
refused to ^ve his sanction to the divorce between the kinE
and his wife, the sister of Charles the Fifth : in the fury of
his passion, he availed himself of the ideas rendered cur-
rent by the reformation ; declared himself visible head of
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Mi' mufiMAL
tht einiich of hi$ kmgdom (A. D. 1584) ; ind bf fkb
measure, destroyed in a moment, the autbori^ of the ca«
nonical rights oi Rome. But wheo Heory Teotured arfai*
trarily to impose the limits to the right of iufestigatioD,
which the reformatiou necessarily pre-supposed, he in*
volmi all parties in equal condemnation ; and several times
atered his creed, as his passions prompted.
A. D. 1547. Under his son £dward, the principles of
the reformer of Geneva were introduced witn barbarous
fury : the monastic libraries were destroyed^; the universi-
ties were abandcxied; whole ship-loads of manuscripts
were'sold to Flemish dealers, and others were consumed
in cleaning plate and other domestic uses. The revolutioa
under this prince, was the effect of passion long restrained
' and rendered furious by opposidon.
A. D. 1553. After the premature decease of this
]mnce, his sister and successor Mary, prohibited all the in-
novations which had been introduced during the nineteen
years preceding : she sent a legation in testimony of her
^obedience, to the pope ; maintained the authority of Rome
with fire and sword, and married the catholic lung Philip
the Second. Tliis connection appeared finally to turn on
the side of Spain the balance ot power, which England
had during forty years maintained between Charles and
Francis. Henry the Second, although he had the good
fortune to recover Calais from the English, the last prise
of the victories of their Edwards, was compelled to enter
mto a trea^ of peace with Philip. •
During this century, the French endeavored to form
connections with Scotland, in order to give the kings of
England employment in their own island : but the former
kingdom was never an equal match in power for the latter;
and ft was besides so disturbed by mtemal dissensions,
that most of the kings of ttie house of Stuart had fallen by
an untimely death. Under such a state of affairs, it was
scarcely to be expected that Mary, either during her long
minoriQr, or her reign, devoted to levity and licentious in*
trigues, could give energy to the sceptre of her fathers.
Henry the Eighth,, when he declared all the British
states an individual empire, had raised Ireland at the same
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tirtie to the ran|c nt a kingdom. That coontrj, eren m
those, tiipes, frequently refused to submit to the regulatbns
of the English parliament, which were foreign to its maih»
ners and often hostile to its interests : and at hngth, under
the vice-royalty of Sir Edw(u-ds Poynings, the government
of England was obliged to declare Ireland exempt from all
taxes except those imposed by the Irish parliament ; and to
acknowledge the legislative authority of that body, with
respect to all acts passed by them, with the consent of the
king in council.
SECTION XIV.
SCANDINAVIA.
The long-continued struggle between Denmark and
Sweden was decided against the house of Oldenburg, in
consequence of a stroke of policy by means of which
Christian the Second hoped to reduce the latter kingdom
forevpr to a state of subjection. A. D. 1620. He had
caused all those nobles who were obnoxious to him as de-
fenders of the rights of Sweden, to be executed, contrary
to all the principles of faith and justice ; and at the
same time oppressed both kingdoms with unlawful im-
posts.
A. D. 1521. Under these circumstances, Crustavus
Vasa, a leader who possessed the power of imparting to
the people his heroic spirit, and whose views weie so just
as to lead him to undertake no more than what was capa-
ble of being carried into execution, raised his arm for the
deliverance of Sweden. He first communicated his own
enthusiasm to the intrepid and hardy miners of Dalecar-
lia ; and Setting out at their head from the valleys of He-
demora, appeared before the walls of the capital.
A. D. 1623. The tyrannical monarch, a brother-in-law
of Charles the Fifth, was deposed by his subjects of both
countries, and lived six and thirty years in poverty and im-
prisonment : and while Denmark was rendered hapg^ by
the wisdom and mild government of his uncle,
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erick the First, and his son and succoaaor ChmAm tbe^
Third, Sweden recovered its independence, and continued
for nearly forty years to venerate the benefic^t virtues
and mature wisdom of Grustavus.
The whole of Scandinavia adopted the creed of Ludier.
SECTION XV.
POUINO, PRUSSIA, AND COUltLAND.
Poland, under both the Sigiemunds, was well govern*
ed, and enjoyed an age of prosperity.
Albert of Brandenburg, the grand-master of the Teu«
tonic knights in Prussia, sacrificed the duties of his order
to the advantage of his family, A. D. 1525 : he declared
himself of the Lutheran persuasion, married the daughter
of Frederick king of Denmark, and accepted the heredi*
tary dukedom of Prussia as a fief from Poland. He re-
linquished for a sum of money the feudal lordship of Livo-
nia, which had belonged to the former grand-masters ever
since the coalition of the orders of knights of the cross
and sword-bearers.
By this arrangement, Walter von Plettenberg became
independent military lord in the countries of Livonia and
£sthonia, which last had been transferred a hundred and
eighty years before by a Danish king, to Burkard of the '
three lions. Walter was raised to the rank of a prince
of the German empire : but in the time of Gotthard Kett-
ler, the Russian czar Ivan Vasilievitsch, under the pre-
tence of liereditary right, but in reality with tlie view of
approaching nearer to the more cultivated parts of Europe
by means of the harbors of the Baltic, mvaded Livonia
with the fury of a barbarian chieftain. A. D. 1560. In
the universal terror, the people of Eslhonia placed them-
selves under the protection of Sweden ; and the military
lord transferred his rights to the king of Poland. The lat-
ter followed the example of Albert of Prussia : he em-
braced the Lutheran creed, married a princess of the house
of Mecklenburgh, asd accepted Courland and Semgalliai
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• mtiVKiuiAL HnTOinr. WT
with the nmk of hereditary duke, as t fief from Pdltod*
A. D. 1561. His family Vetained this acquiutbn a hun*
dred and fifty years.
SECTION XVI.
BUSSIA.
Ivan, the czar whom we have had occasion to mention
in the last scc^on, had the same sentiment respecting the
necessity of a reformation in his dominions, the same en-
ergy and enthusiasm, as Peter the Great ; but, owing to
^e rude state of the age in which he lived, he remained
nevertheless a barbarian. He was the terror of his sub-
jects, because he believed it indispensably necessary to
exact from them implicit obedience. He conquered the
great Tartaric countries of Casan and Astracan, and
united them permanendy to his dominions.
The Nomadic tribes of Baschkiria soon betook them-^
selves to his powerful protection. He received the pro-
duce of their hunting excursions, and provided them in re-
turn with salt ; for he traded in commodides of almost
every kind. In order to facilitate the protection of tliese
tribes, as well as to ensure their subjection, he restored
the ancient Nogay residence of Ufa, which secured him
the possession of a district extremely fertile, consisting of
forests and meadows, and watered by rivers abounding in
fish.
Ivan endeavored, by all the means he could imagine, to
gain the attachment of the hordes : he endced the Votjaks
with cheap brandy ; he allowed Chrisdanity to be tau^ty
but not to be forced on the natives ; and while civilized
Europe was engaged in wars on account of religion, toler-
ation reigned in the dominions of the czar.
During his reign the Danes and Prussians began to di-
vide the Lapponian territory on the shores of the Northern
sea. None but seamen from Bergen and Drontbeira had
visited these inhospitable coasts, and their proceedings were
unknown to the rest of Europe^ until chance conducted
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288 xmrrEmajOj bistoat.
timber' lome stiJiM from Antwerp^ md now theseri 9f tb^
monks vm uroiisod uy coavey- to the Launders the (tox^ .
solatioDS of religion. Kuriles and Ruasiaiis came after-
wards into the .country ; the districts became more and
more populous, and commerce extended itself, chiefly
owing to the impulse dtdOnminiiiiiaTed to it by Simon von Sa-
lingen. Even in this icy desert, contests arose relating to
the boundaries ; and on the three kings^ day, at Kola, the
Norwegians of Wardoehuus still protest against the occu-
pation of the country by the Russians.
Gustavus Vasa avoided the haughty czar, who refused
to give audience to liis ambassadors and referied them to
the governor of Novogorod. The same chief had replied
to a request made by the king of Denmark for his media-
tion, " that he could not comprehend how any man could
propose that a czar, descended from the emperor Augustus,
should enter into relations of any sort with a Swede, who
was only an elective kinjg." In his transactions with Den-
mark he acted also in the most arbitrary manner. To the
commerce with the English he showed the greatest favor :
Richard Chancellor and Sir Hugh Willoughby, having in
bis reign undertaken a voyage of discovery to the north
coast, discovered the harbor of Archangel.
Jermdk Timofeov having found a pass through the
Verchoturian mountains toward Sibenar- soon subdued
Kutschum Chan, and presented Ivan with a kingdom a$
extensive as that which he received from his ancestors*
From this time the dominion of the Russians extended
itself continually towards the east, until, under Peter the
Great, the extremity of the continent of Am was exploi^d.
Departing, still later, from that boundary, tliey discovered
the Aleutian, Fox, and Kurilian islands, the extensive pro-
montory of Alaska, tlie great island Kadjak, and th«
western shores of America. The boundaries of this ianh
mense empire, on the sides of China and Sweden, were
defined by treaties.
Tribes of Finns inhabited the districts in the neighbor-
hood of die capital, Tobolsk 5 Nogay Tartars dwelt in the
d«sert regions of the copper mines, and beypnd them the
tBarlikeivindepeBdent, and enterprising Kirg^ses. Around
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VNIYEASAJU HISTOBT« 289
die like of Aral the Karakalpaks contributed by their
agrioulture to the power of the Kirgisian shepherds ; Mon-
ies and Tungusesi the brethren of the Mandshurs who
reign in China ; and Samoiedes, the descendants of the
aborigines, who by the effect of their situation and ancient
barbarism, are sunk into the deepest corruption of man-
ners.
Siich was the vast extent of power which Russia attained
under Ivan Vasilievitsch, although science had disappeared
10 consequence of domestic wars, and through the subjection of
the country to the Tartars. So great was the ignorance that
prevailed, that when Christian the Third of Denmark pre-
sented the czar with a clock,^ that prince refused to receive
it, and returned answer, <^ that such a piece of enchantment
was not fit for a Christian king who believed in one (rod,
and who was resolved to have nothing to do with the
pfenets."
Moscow, the qapttal, was fourteen miles in circumfer-
ence, and was surrounded by three walls,, with batdements
of di&rent colors. The fortress called the Kremlin,
which was the residence of the czar, the patriarch, and the
chief dignitaries of the clergy, was fcurtified by strong tow-
ers and by walls of enormous thickness. Five and thirty
churches, covered with gilt or silvered metallic plates, pre-
sented a glittering spectacle to all the country within view
et the city ; and m die tower of Ivan Veliki was a bell of
prodigious dimensions, which was rung for the amusement
of the mighty potentate. At the end of the great place
was the temple , of Jerusalem. The Russians trembled
before the bonHidless authority of their monarch ; and the
;of Europe indistincdy' perceived his fearful power.
SECTION xvn.
ime OTTOIUH BMPIBX AITD THE NOBTH OJ AFBICA.
The high and mighty Solyman, the conqueror of half
Slimgary, whom diirteen batdes had rendered the terror
of Germany, who was the confederate of Francis the First,
VOL. HI. 20
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230 UNIVERSAI* HI8T0&T.
i
and who now filled the throne of the Ottoman padishas,
endeavored, like the czar, to raise bis people from their
state of barbarism by a better regulated plan of govern*
ment ; and with that view, modelled the court in a more
splendid manner, and organized the divan. But he sacri*
ficed Mustapha, Bajessid, and four others of his sons, to-
gether with fifty thousand of their adherents, to his suspi-
cions : this act gave occasion to the custom of keeping me
successor to the throne shut up among'women and eunuchs;
and from this epoch the degeneracy of the family may be
dated.
During his reign, and under his protection, arose the
African republics, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. Aruk
Barbarossa, the son of a potter of Lesbos, whose lofty
mind was capable of the boldest plans, with die assistance
of a number of young men who were devoted to him, de-
livered Algiers from the Spaniards. His companions in
arms elevated him to the supreme command 5 and he, like
a true tyrant, caused all those persons to be put to death
who might have endangered the security of his new power :
this gave rise to a conspiracy, by which the Spaniards were
invited to return ; but their Vessels foundered within view
of the city. Aruk, with only a thousand men, afterwards
overthrew the ruling dynasty of Abu Hafs at Tunis ; and
he was engaged in the taking of Telemsan when he heard
of the preparations of the king of Spain : he marched to
meet his enemy like a hero, and fell on the field of batde.
A. D. 1617.
The soldiers chose his brother Shereddin to succeed
him ; who concluded a defensive alliance with the sultan,
received from Constantinople some troops of janissaries
and ships, and fortified Algiers. Francois de la Garde
shortly after made him an offer of the friendship of Fran-
cis the First, which he accepted ; and in conjunction with
the admiral Enghien, he assisted the most Chi;istian king
to plunder the coasts of his Catholic majesty, especially
those of Naples.
About the same period died Mohammed, who had re-
established the authority of the dynastjr of Abu Hafs at
Tunis. Hassan, who was his favorite among four and
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UNTVKRSAL UVfTOKT. 281
diirty sons, and whom he had declared bis successor, in
order to secure his father from the irresolution incident to^
old age, had poisoned him immediately after the execution ^
of the testament, and afterwards murdered his bn>dsers.
One of them, however, named Raschid, escaped to Al-
giers, and was sent to Solyman 5 who espoused his quarrel,
and equipped a fleet of two hundred and fifty vessels in
order to place him on the throne of his ancestors. After
the capture of Tunis, Tripoli was taken from Don Pedro
de Navarra by Shereddin Barbarossa.
Hassan, the murderer of his father and brothers, fled to
Charles the Fifth, who resolved to embrace tliis pretence
for taking possession of the coast, and sent over a Spanish
army ia a fleet of five hundred vessels. Sinan lay m tlie
Goletta with six thousand men, and Shereddin himself was
posted under the artillery of Tunis with fifty thousand.
The Spanish army was inspired with the ancient enthusH
asm of the knights of the cross ; their fire stormed tlie
fortress, and even Shereddin was obliged to give way. At
this moment ten thousand Christian slaves burst their fet-
ters and made themselves masters of the citadel of Tunis,
This day cost the lives of thirty thousand of the people of
Tunis. Shereddin retreated into the interior of the coun-
try, and the Spaniards plundered the seat of the power of
the Abuhafide. Hassan wasput in possession of the coun-
try : he gave up the harbor to the emperor, and Tripoli
was placed under the direction of the knights of St.
John.
These occurrences only served to inflame the rage of
Shereddin against the coa^ of Italy. Charles's fleet was
destroyed by a violent tempest; and the knights of St. John
were soon driven from Tripoli.
We shall see, in the foDowing Book, how the power of
the SherlSs was established at this period in Morocco.
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2tt uNxrxBaAL HifiTOwr.
sEcHoii^ xvm.
ooncLnsioir oi* tHS age of chables the riTTR.
Charies reckoned among his dominions the greater part
of the roost fertile provinces, and of the most warlike na»
tions of Europe : he was sole master of the treasures
of America ; and the power of his fortunate son was now
so much augmented by his marriage with, Mary, queen of
England, that France was obliged to seek alliances against
him in Sweden^ at Constantinople, and among the protes--
tants of Grermany.
Russia wasemerging from its barbarism ; and the Otto-
man empire had long been the terror of the civilized world.
Either of these powers, should their energy be increased
by improved laws and customs, might shake the system of
European society to its foundations.
The revolution ultimately e^cted in commerce and in
d)e relations of polidcal power by the gold mines of Peni^
was in progress, but was not yet developed. The human
mind, more adventurous and enlightened than in former
ages, but too much occupied by controversies which it is
not possible to decide, was in commotion. Great altera-
tions had taken place since the time of Lewis the Eleventh,
and still greater changes were to be expected ; for every
thing was out of proportion, and the rulers of the great
states of Europe were more formidable from ^e extent
of their dominions, than from their Ability to animate
and govern them, or to avail themselves of their re-*
sources.
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BOOK XX.
TOE AGX OF PHIUP THE SECOND. A. O. l6S*-ttn
SECTION 1.
PHILIP THE SECOND.
Philip tbe Second, the only legitimate son of Charles
the Fifth, was about twenty-nine years old when he suc-
ceeded to the inheritance of the sovereignty of Spain, Na-
$les, Milan, Scily, Upper Burgundy, all the Netherlands,
lexko, and Peru ; and he had already obtained the
crowns of England and Ireland by his marriage with Mary.
His father was still living when his general, Emanuel Phili-
bert of Savoy, obtained the memorable victory at St. Quentin
over the constable Montmorency, of which the late emperor
said, that it opened to his son the way to Paris. His uncle
Ferdinand was emperor, king of Bohemia and Hungary,
and prince of the hereditary dominions of Austria. Of the
nations subject to the house of Austria, some were martial
in their temper and now accustomed to military discipline ;
others acute, enterprising, and successful in the peaceful
arts. The silver mines of Potosi were becoming continu-
ally more productive : two of the most distinguished com-
manders, Don Juan of Austria, his natural brother, and
Alessandro Famese, the son of his illegitimate sister, were
both in his service, and devoid of all pretensions to his
crowns. The inhabitants of the South were completely
reduced to obedience, though they had not yet beeig^so
long inured to despotism as to have lost their energy of
VOL. III. 20*
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234 UNlVCRSAIr HISTOBT*
character ; and the Flemings, who had been warmlj at*
tached to his father, were well inclined to support their
present master.
No other prince was ppwerful enough to venture oo
disputing the pre-eminence of f^ilip. His nephew Don
Sebasdan, king of Portij^al, was a child : in France, the
death of Henry the Second waS succeeded by the feeble
administration of Francis the Second, and by the long
minority of Charles the Nbth : in Sweden, the turbulent
reign of the unfortunate Erich the Fourteenth had followed
the decease of Gustavus Vasa : in Poland, the extinction of
the dynasty of Jagello was the signal for the most destructive
commotions ; and the sultans of Turkey kept themselves
shut up in their seraglio* Among the republics, Genolia was
in the interest of Spain ; Venice in fear of her power ; and
the catholic part' of Switzerland in alliance with her against
the protestant districts. The pope was often obliged,
against his inclination, to support the Catholic king ; be*
cause the latter had taken upon hiqiself the office of de«
fender of the faith.
With all these advantages Philip united a reflecting
mind, systematic principles in politics, a keen and steady
attention to all such events as might happen b any countty
to favor his interests, great perseverance, admirable firro«
ness under adverse occurrences, and an appearance of
devotion calculated to make a strong impression on thd
people, together with that stately reserve which the multi-
tude mistakes for dignity. Notwithstanding this severity
of deportment, his manners were affable and gracious, when
he chose lo assume that character. He suflfered nothmg
to stand in the way of his undertakings : he regarded re-
ligion and crime as two instruments, of which he equaUy
availed himself without hesitation, according as either was
suitable to his purposes ; for he seemed to think that the
performance of certain exterior rites of devotion, and a
strict adherence in religious opinions to the keys of Rome,
gave him unbounded license in all other respects. ,
The natural gloom of bis disposition extended its infiu*
enge over his violent passions, with which he combined a
host of political prejudices ; for his inclinatbns were stiB
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vntvvBSAh HiirroRT.
ttoni despotic thdti'bis principles. He tboaghl tmfy of sa-
crificing everj diing to his interest ; but never imagmed
that his real interest could consist in the happiness of hia
subjects, and in the confidence and esteem of the lieigb*
bonng states. The only art of government which he em*
ployed, was to terrify and abase all those to whom birth or
wealth, or talent, had given any degree pf independent
greatness ; and however decided his superiority, he could
condescend to employ the meanest instruments, in order
to compass, every object : united to a character such as
this, which diffiised universal suspicion and disquietude,
his political principles were a real misfortune ; for they
only served to render him more persevering in pernicious
undertakings.
Philip has been compared, with justice, to Tiberius*
Both these tyrants attempted and accomplished the abase-*
ment of the character of their people ; both were equallv
dreaded by their own families and by their subjects ; both
full of the deepest dissimulation, cowardly, severe towards
others, and licentious in tlieir own habits : but the tyranny
of Philip was uniformly more insidious ; whereas Tiberius,
at last, entirely diacarded the mask. They were both men
of weak mmds : their souls were not sufficiendy vigorous to
be capable of combining the sentiments of humanity with
ifae possession of regal power.
Mary queen of England died shordy after Philip's ac-
cession to his other dominions (A. D. 1558] ; and he had
rendered himself too odious to tl^ people ot diat nation, to
hope to retain his influence over them, or to'^gab the hand
of Mary's more prudent sister. His remembrance was
inseparably connected in the minds of the English, with the
loss of Calais ; and from the«decease of Mary he confined
himself to Spain.
'The judges of the inquisition soon began to develope the
whole power of their horrid commission. Carranga, arch-
bishop of Toledo, languished in despair eight years in the
dungeons of Valladolid ; and if it had not been for the in-
terference of the pope, he would have been burnt as a
heretic. All the advantages which the natural fertility of
the soil, the ancient example of Moorish industry, the Te-
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236 UI^IVEHSAL BISTORT^
storatkm of learning, and the native energy of their mindfly
seemed to have secured to th^ Spaniards, speedily disap-
peared : the confidence of social intercourse was destroyed,
and the pleasures of friendship were annihilated, by the
pestilent activity of the spies employed by the court and
the inauisition. The Moors of Grenada became weary of
the yoke and made an insurrection : but the overwhehning
ppwer of Philip subdued their spirit, and tliis occurrence
only furnished his suspicious tyranny with new food and a
fresh . pretext. He endeavored, in the same manner, to
extinguish the spirit of liberty which from ancient times
had distinguished the Flemings, and had rendered them so
enterprising and opulent, but which, unquesuonably, con-
tributed to the extension of the Lutheran doctrines among
them. He resolved to introduce the inquisition and new
taxes ; determined that there should be one mode of wor*
ship and one Lord ; and, in the end, sacrificed his whQle
interest in that country to these fantastic schemes^
SECTION n.
THE NETHERLANDS.
The ancient masters of the Netherlands, who had by
degrees reclaimed the country which extends from the
mouths of the Rhine to those of the Elbe and Weser, had
no other means of performing this undertaking, than by in-
viting men, by the attractions of security for property and
social order, to settle among them. It was necessary to
oppose the exertions of a great number of men to the in-
. roads of the ocean ; for the 2uydersee, the Dollar, and the
sea of Harlaem had, by sudden irruptions within the mem-
ory of man, overwhelmed the insecure coasts with the
waves of the ocean : hence it was requisite to protect the
rest of the country by immense dams. But before such
works could be undertaken as the cultivation of the heaths
of Drenthe and Overyssel, or the improvement of the sands
of Guelders, or the preservation of the rest of the Batavian
peninsula, it was necessary that the inhabitants shquld be
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wtntsBAt uftTter* 28r
aaspred that they trere laboring for themselves «nd their
children. Hence the ancient counts of this ooumry hed
governed it with paternal mildness, and Philip the Good
with his peculiar prudence and benevolence. When the
necessities of the state increased, the exemptions were
diminished; and the nobles, ecclesiastics, and citiiaens,
when they became purchasers of lands subjected to the
taxes, were with justice prevented from commooicating to
such acquisitions their personal privileges, which would
have had the effect of increasing the burdens of llie uopri-
vileged class. But all the taxes on consumption^ or on the
property of the inhabitants, were impoi^d witli the coosent
of the states.
Charles the Fifth several times gave these assembliee
CMuse of alarm : but ancient laws and established custom
justified his intolerance of innovators in matters of faith ;
and when he required an augmentation of the impostOi
he grounded his demand on the pressure of the circmm^
stances of the times, and gained the mipds of the people
by his flattering manners. In fact, he respected his sub*
jeets of the Netherlands, and promoted their interests.
Philip was offended by the open simplicity of their man-
ners : he was too proud to manifest any particular esteem
for them, and he preferred the more obedient Spaniards as
officers. By this conduct he offended the counts Egmont
and Horn, and the prince of Orange, and thus provided
leaders for the disaffected ; while all the odious and oppress*
sive measures, which were devised by himself and his mi*
nisters, strengthened the opposition.
Under these circumstances, the king resolved to send
the duke of Alva iilto the Netherlands, to terrify the »>•
habitants into submission by his atrocities. A. D» 1567.
,It has been computed, that in six years upwards of eighteen
thousand individuals perished by the orders of this com-
mander under the hand of the executioner. But Ae
ministers of kings understand courts better than nations, .
Alva knew how to calculate the number of tlie inhabitants^
and the measure of their physical powers ; and what were
these compared with the resources of his master? But be
had omitted in his calculation what the resolute firmness
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JI38' tnffiTxmiAi. Hi8To&r#
of an irritated people is capable of performine : be was
tborougbljr acquainted witb the usual character of courtiers ;
but he was incapable of coDceiving the strength of virtue
such as was displayed in the prince of Orange.
Count/WiUiani of Nassau had become prince of Orange
by the will of his cousin Renatus, who, by bis mother's
side, was the heir of Philibert the last prince of Orange, of
the bouse of Chalons in Upper Burgundy. Philibert bad
fallen, during the siege of Florence, in a combat widi the
people of Pisa and Volterra, who were hastening to the re-
lief of the Fbrentines. William possessed, in the county
of Burgundy, the extensive estates of Chalons ; and in
Flanders, those by' which the ancient house of Orange had
been rewarded for its services to the dukes of Burgundy :
at the same time he was royal staddiolder in the provinces
of Holland, 2^aland, and Utrecht. He appeared, in de-
claring himself on the side of the national rights, to hazard
in every respeet, more than he could hope to gam ; espe-
cially if we consider the irresoludon, the dissensions, and
the inconsiderable resources of the multitude, and the
jealousy of their leaders.
His love of freedom, which the court might posably
have tamed in the beginning by the adoption of the modt
gende measures, was shocked at the idea of the fetters
which he perceived the king to be preparing for the nobles,
as well as for the citizens ; and he saw that no regard
whatever was paid to the maxims of rectitude. William
was not one of those enthusiastic heroes who inflame a peo-
lie for the establishment of independence : he possessed
\y no means an impassioned character ; but, on the con-
trary, an unruffled tranquillity of mind, a cool understand-
ing, and a native perception of right, which he maintained
with great perseverance^ He exhibited the extraordinary
union of the characteristics of a statesman, with the vir-
tues of an ancient Roman ; and of the simple manners of a
privzte citizen, with die sound and correct judgment of a
man experienced in the world.
As his only object was the public good, and as he' sacri-
ficed bis own interest to those of Holland, he succeeded in
uniting the different parties in pursuit of one object ; and
t
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UMIVK&SAL aisTovr. 2Si
directed their measures witbout a title, and without their
even perceiving the extent of his influence. By his ca-
Eacity and his virtues he acquired their confidence ; and
e was now equally inaccessible to the temptations and to
the menaces of the court ; he was neither terrified with
the sword of Alva, nor deceived by the arts of Ludwig von
Reqiiesen ; nor perplexed by the boldness or by the arti*
fices of Don Juan of Austria. •
When Philip committed the task of reducing this coun*
try to obedience to Alexander Farnese, the best general of
his age, William found means to frustrate both his power
and his military talents. The prince at length succeeded,
by means of the compact concluded at Utrecht (A. D.
1579), in uniting seven proviaces of oppoate constitutions
and circumstances, in one republic : and aldiough there
now existed neither a committee of the states-general,
which had formerly been assembled, nor the privileges
which were afterwards attached to the office of stadthdder,
he remained at the head of the new confederacy. The
fitates assembled in great numbers ; and bis courage, calm-
fiess,' and penetration gave him that ccunmanding influence
which the orators among the Greeks procured by their
talents.
The constitution of tlie unified Netherlands was simply
that of a league for mutual defence against all enemies
whatsoever ; and as this is necessarily a lasting cause of
union, so the confederacy was declared to be permanent :
but as this was their only common object, the consdtution
of each separate province, town and district, remained un-
changed, and subject only to such alterations as its inha*
bitants might thmk proper to adopt. Their exertions
in the cause of liberty arose naturally from the circum-
stances of their country, which owed its very existence to
freedom: for they could neither preserve their land, nor
provide for their own sustenance without great exertions ;
and great exertions are impossible among slaves. But
even the nature of the country provided them with powers
ful means of defence ; for as their labor was necessary to
its preservation, so they oould at any time lay it under
water.
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BIS onirBKaAL histcuct*
Thejr paid so little attention in the beginniiig of tfael^
career, to the plans of the constitution which they ultimate*
Sr adopted, that they did not hesitate to offer the higbeit
igni^ of their state. to Matthias of Austria^ brother of the
emperor Rudolf, to Francis duke d'Alen^on, brother of
the king of France, and to Robert earl of Leicester, the
favorite of the queen of England. The Hollanders were
ignorant of their own strength, and thought it an idle dream
to imagine that they could support themselves by their
own exertions, against the power of the Spanish monarchy ;
and induced by this idea they Committed the dangerous
mistake of putting themselves under the protection of the
foreigners above-mentioned. Happily for them the arch^
duke was not a man of enterprise, when he saw that he
had to do with a people who were not easily terrified ; the
duke d'Alen^on, who was of a vehement character, but
was destitute of fixed principles, marred bis own projects^
by manifesting too openly that he loiended to subjugate
t^ose who hful applied to him for protection and defence ^
and earl Leicester, who knew no God but interest, and no
country but the court, was not calculated to acquire infiu*
ence among such a people.
A. D. 1584. Before the new republic was secureh'
seeded, the prince of Orange fell by assassination : tkxigh
bom to great possessions be left behind bim nothing hat
debts ; and he had endeavwed to secure no other fortunes
for his sons, than- such as they might acquire for themselves
by their virtue and abilities. Maurice, l»s first-bom, whose
education had been conducted, according to the custom
of otir forefathers, on the model of the ancients, had eager*
ly adopted the Roman method of making war ; and when
be bi^an to command the Hollanders, A. D. 1567, the
officers who had grown old in service, ridiculed the learned
rules which the young soldier wished to introduce. But
Maurice, full of the genius of the ancients, raised hts views
far above the precepts of Basta, Melzo, and Croce, the
most esteemed teachers of the art of war in that age ; and
began, in imitation of the Romans, by introducing military
discipline, and a better method of encampment : in tte
attack and defence of fortified places, which was the
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VmrtBSAL MlStOltt. Ml
•cience of which he stood most in need, he manifested ex-
traordinaiy abXties'; ad weU as in the incessant invention
of auxiliary resources, in opposition to the measures of
Alexander. He had this one advantage over the Span-
iards, that activity developed his talents, and his good for-
tune increased his influence ; while the dural^on of the war
consumed the treasure and the flower of the troops of
Spain, and the success of Alexander excited the jealousy
ot Philip. This general is said to have fallen a sacrifice
to the vexations be experienced. A. D. 1592.
Maurice, who was, stricdy so called, the first stadtholder,
or* administrator of political power in the new republic,
contrived to balance its relations, (A. D. 1587), bodi with
France and England, so prudendy, that he happily pre-
served its independence on each side ; and in the prose-
cution of the Spanish war, secured the favor of both by
ine«is of their common interests.
sEcnoi* in.
riUNCK.
While the king of Spain was exerting himself in vain to
subdue the Hollanders, he conceived the project of sub-
jecting the French monarchy to his power, under the name
of his favorite daughter, Clara Eugenia.
After the peace of Chateau Cambresis, the French na-
tion was dispirited, and its resources exhausted : an insur-
rection took place in Guienne against the collectors ot the
salt-duty ; agriculture was neglected ; and the capital, the
citizens of which, as well as the nobility, were wholly ex-
empt from the land-tax, began! to exert a very pernicious
influence on the population of the provinces. The eccle-
siastics complained of the^tax of a twenty-fifth, which had
been imposed on the bells and church plate, and the pro-
duce of which had been expended, by the policy of the
state, in a war carried on in favor of the Protestants of
Germany^ against a catholic emperor. Recourse was soon
had to new forced loans ; and the iaiUe was augmented
VOL. HI. 81
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ftiH UHITSIUIAL Bit TOBT.
exacily at the time when the spirit of party, emmttog
from the court, was kindling the flames of domestic war,
which necessarily diminished the productiveness of the
country : this tax was quadrupled during the turbulent reign
of Henry the Third. The court, instead of displaying
the simple manners of the time of Lewis the Twelfth, or
4he elegant refinement of Francis the First, was the theatre
of the most shameless vice and of unpunished crime.
Catharine de Medici, widow of Henry the Second, and
mother of Francis the Second, Charles the Ninth, and
Henry the Third, was a woman of a weak and narrow un-
derstanding ; but licentious enough to make use indiffer-
ently of the mask of 'virtue, or the abominations of tyran-
ny, as they best suited her purpose. Public spirit was
not yet entirely destroyed ; but the artifices of faction mis-
led tbe opinions of , men with regard to the real advantage
.of the state. One individual, the chancellor de I'Hopits^,
whose genius and exalted soul deserves to be commemo-
rated in' the histor) of human nature, employed the author-
ity which tliis miserable age still allowed to the public voice,
as expressed by the states-general, for the purpose of in-
troducing a more perfect administration of justice; and
excellent laws were promulgated by the assemblies at Blois
and Moulins, under the most debased governments. This
chancellor was the first who openly maintained that the
sale of ofiices was advantageous ; contrary to the opinion
of Catharine, who wished that court favor should be still
more powerful than wealth, and who, in the certainty that
she should have been no loser by the change, would wil-
lingly have permitted the state to lose the revenue it derived
from the appointment of counsellors of the parliaments.
The abuse soon rose to such a height, that the sale of a£«-
ces was again introduced, in a manner not without resem-
. blance to the laws of the ancients.
The divisions in the court of Francis the Second, where
. several parties were striving for superiority, gave rise to
the conspiracy at Amboise, the object of which was to
break the formidable power of the dukes de Guise ; and
excited many domestic wars, of which religion was the
pretence or the watch-word. The harmless and reasonable
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.demand of freedom in reKgious matters, was contended for
by one party^ and refused by the otlier with increasing
eagerness ; because the leader who embraced either side
of the question, drew a multitude of people into bis interest.
Hence the princes of the house of Bourbon, and the dukes
de Guise, princes of Lorraine', carried on, under Chai*les
the Ninth and Henry the Third, eight religions wars, the
real causes of which were the weakness of the kings, and
the approaching extinction of the dynasty of Valois.
It was chiefly the levity of character which disgraced
these two kings, both of whom w^re possessed of some
good qualities, diat rendered them so easy to be misled by
the influence of evil counsels. -Thus Charles the Ninth
was induced to sully tlie annals of his country with the
massacre of St. Bartholomew: a stroke of state policy
against the Huguenots, which, like that of Christian the
Second against the nobility of Sweden, was productive of
as much mischief to the court, as to diose against whom it
was directed ; for it converted that party into irreconcilable
enemies, whose arms might have held in equipoise the
overbearing power of the Guises. The vigor and talent
which Henry the Third had in some instances manifested,
were lost in his bvoof pleasure : and he thought to atone
for his sins by penitential processions, without reflecting
that other faults which he committed' in his kingly capacity,
were the causes of his misfortunes.
In this situation of ailairs, Philip expended the greater
f)art of the revenue, which the contests in the Netherlands
eft at his disposal, in fomenting the disturbances in France ;
but the ambition of the party leaders counteracted bis de^
signs : for after Guise, on whom the hop^s of a great part
of the nation were fixed, had been murdered by command
of the king against whom he was continually m rebellion,
each of his survivors chose rather to sell himself to the
legki«viate successor^ than to cnntrihiite to subject his coun-
try to. the yoke of die Spanish tyrant.
Henry the Fourth, whose character was diametrically
opposite, and who chose to display his indulgence for popu-
lar prejudices in changing his religion, quickly succeeded
in tranquillizing all parties ; and even in rendering France
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8IPl CifWWMM*
a Ibnnidable encmy^ to Spatn, ootmthstawlmg the civil mf
of thirty years, in which the former natioa had been uk
volved* During that struggle, amidst all its desolatiag
eflfects, the excitemeot produced. by the agitatioa of inter*
cats so powerful as those which had been the sources of
contention, had imparted to the nation an energy which
only stood in need of a better object.
nenry the Second had left behind him a debt amount-
ing to forty-two millions ; and Henry the Third, one of
three hundred and thirty millions : but Henry the Fourth,
although he was 'obliged to incur heavy expenses in order
to defeat or to bribe his enemies, not only discharged all
the state debts, but left a considerable sum in his treasury,
together with an army competent to the greatest under<»
takings. Sully, Henry's miniister, who dis|dayed as much
heroism in his struggles against court intrigues, as his
masttff in his contests with the Spaniards, had in that short
spate of time, by the influence of his virtue and wisdom,
retrieved the disordered affiiirs of the state : a striking ex-
ample of what may be done for France, by the spirit of
order, the courage and integrity of an individual.
Philip, instead of becoming the father and umpire of
Europe, as he would have been if he had employed his
podigious power for the preservation of peace, rendered
liimself the object of universal detestation by his fatsj am*
bition. Henry the Fourtli, who was an excellent general,
especially in the management of infantry, was not so ex-
ten«vely learned in the whole compass of the art of wsr^
as prince Maurice of Orange ; but he was superior to him
in the power of inspiring his soldiers with the ardor of en*
thuaasm. His benevolent and amiable character, his recti-
tude and intrepidi^, gave him the victory over all the in?
sidious contrivances of Philip.
SECTION IV.
ENGLAND.
' A. D. 1559. Elizabeth queen of England, the daughter
of Henry the Eighth, and sister of Edward the Sixth andj
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of Mary, was zealously supported by her subjects in her
opposition to all the hostile projects of the Spaniards against
die Protestants and the Netherlands. The tyranny of her
father, which consisted in transitory oppression and in sin-
gle instances of barbarity, had not destroyed the spirit of
tne nation or undermined its laws. His arbitrary proceed-
ings were endured, partly through the terror* which the
court of the star-chamber inspired ; and partly because the
influence of the peek's was so much diminished, the com-
mons so much impoverished, and the king, enriched by
the plunder of the monasteries, under so litde pecuniary
difficulty 5 that the free spirit of the English nation could
neithter control him by open resistance nor by the refusal
of subsidies. Elizabeth was more frequendy under the
necessity of applying to her faithful commons for supplies
tdwards the prosecution of her wars against Philip, and
these were granted without difficulty. The English
cruisers were remunerated by the booty which the galleons
from Mexico and Pern afforded them. The queen was
able to accomplish all her objects, because she desired
nothing but what was suitable to the spirit of the age ami
of the nation.
The enterprises of the English by sea, were as de-
structive to the power of Spain, as those of prince Maurice
and Henry the Fourth by land : and die naval power ofc
the Spaniards niever recovered from the blow which its
" invincible armada " received from the English and the
Dutch. A. D. 1588. ^
The queen had sufficient understanding, and even learn-
ing, to be able to distinguish, in the religious disputes of
die age, the rational grounds of contention from those which
had been overstrained by the spirit <rf party. She was a
moderate protestant : she maintained, at the same time,
with distinguished prudence, the dignity which became her
station ; and displayed in great emergencies intrepid firm-
ness.
Refinement of taste and manners were cultivated as the
means of gaining her approbation, and the knowledge of '
die ancients as the road to places of honor and profit. The
military character of her age displayed something of ro-
voL. in. 21*
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SM6 tJmvXBAiJU V8X09Y.
numtic qptodor, together with a cbivakous n^tiiii^^if
respect towards the fair sex ; and at no former period had
England possessed a greater number of eminent statesmen,
warriors, and men of learning. Towards the end of tbif
reign arose Bacon, the only man sbce the time of Aristotle^
who, surrounded with numerous and imposing errors, sur«
veyed in one comprehensive view all that was yet knowny
^d foresaw the future and more remote limits of human
knowledge : he aroused the world to labor for the " aug-
mentation of science," and the human mind was awakened
ftom its tedious slumber.
The militia con^sted of eighty-seven thousand men, half
of whom were practised in military exercises : the cavalry
^af fourteen thousand strong, of which number three thou-
sand sOTved as light-horsemen ; and nine thousand men
were engaged in other employments in the field and in
fortresses. The militia of Yorkshire, and a part of the
principality of Wales, and some garrisons in the Marchess
|re not mcluded in these numbers. Sir John Smith was
^principal teacher of tactics, apd Sir Robert William^
fndeavored to introduce the military discipline of the an-
cient Romans.
The queen had thirty-three ships of the fine, and b^
coasts were so well protected that they were seldom disr
turbed by corsairs ; while those of Spam were often plun-
dered by EngUsh commanders. A. b. 1580. Sir Fran-
ei$ Drake made a voyage round the world ; and Richard
Grenville discovered the country of Vingandecaow, which
m honor of the queen was named Virginia, and where
Raleigh and Smith founded the ^orth American colonii^s.
Elizabeth's revenue did not exceed one million sterling. ||
t)ut the suppoit of her people was never refused to her ;
fmd the parliament consented in this reign, for the first time,
to double the subsidies. In sudden and very pressing
fiSEipi^encies, however, the queen was under the necessity
of semng a part of the crown lands ; and her successors
hence bec$une more dependent on the will of the coznmons.
The tyyo archbishops and twenty-four bishops continued)
/even after the Reformation, to sit m the upper house ; pot
however ^s a disdnct class, but as representatives of their
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buppl^ : dney W^e noounated bjr the mefg;^^ j^
Uieir episcqspai ordlnajdon from the hands of cm^"^ ^ ^
and mo bi$liops. The queen had aI$o the noocuii^n (^
a third part ot the benefices ; and of these ther^ w^i^ (^
thousand belonging to parish . churches, and about ^ipf
archdeaconries. The ctergy had no very distipgui^^d r^-
putafiQP ; their mtellectual acquirements w^e nojt ^i^p^cj^
or fyfif^ emial to those of the other classes : aii4 ^ fj^
far from b^ng* consideried a misfortune by iiitelSgent meni
who looked on the high church as ** a horse which was
still kept always saddled, in readiness for the pope."
The temporal lords, who had seats in the upper house,
were one marquis, sixteen earls, two viscounts, and forty
barons, peers of the realm. The commops were chosen,
as in more ancient times, by counties, cides, and boroughs.
Ope instance of bribery was discovered ; Thomas f<0|9ge
paving given four pounas sterling to the voters of a borpu^
town.
England was in a prosperous condition : common lan^s
urere irequently enclosed, and a better system of manage-
ment began to appear in agriculture and in the breeding pf
cattle ; in consequence of which, advances took place in
the prices of wool, rents, and the wages of labor. Th^
robbers were driven from the morasses of Solway, and irop
doors and blood-hounds consequendy fell into disuse, as no
.longer necessary.
Amidst the proud and barbarous independence of Ire-
land, Tyr O'Neale perceived the advantages of civili^^ation,
and was attracted by the graces of genius and the fine arts.
The natural course oi affairs, accelerated by the Re-
formation, produced laws in the midst of the commodons
of Scodand, the object of which was peace and prosperity.
Queen Mary was endued with a much larger share of at-
^racdons than was advantageous to her, surrounded as she
^83 by rude barons and peaantic preachers.
She fled from the vengeance of her Scottish subjects ;
^t her 0vil star led her to Elisabeth, who thought it neces-
niy, for the peace and security of Blnglandt to put her to
4^. A. D. 1587.
Thus, whilst the Hollanders were esublisbing their in-
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Mtt milTSBSAL BItTOn/
dependence, and Henry die Great was restoring to Franca
die enjoyment of her long lost tranquillity, an Augustan
ace was preparing it^lf in England. Among the powers
of which we have as yet spoken, Spain, the most powerful^
was the only one which fell into a state of decline ; because
her king, the euemy of his own interests, preferred rather
to throw the world mto confusion, than to promote the hap-
E'ness of his people, bjr adopting a system of government
unded upon liberal principles.
SECTION V.
POBTVOAL AND MOBOCCO.
A. D. 1555. After the death of king Juan the Thmi,
the minister wished to take Don Sebastian, who was still
in his minority, out of the hands of the monks ; who, he
thought, were not men fit to be entrusted with the educa*
tjoo of a prince : and be was the more solicitous on this
account, because the young king had already manifested
an inclination to extravagant and fanatical notions. But
the Jesuits gained over the cardinal Henry, brother to the
late king, by means of a legation a latere, which the pope
bestowed on him and which rendered him more dependent
on Rome. With his assistance, they carried matters so
far that their enemies, and even the queen-dowager, were
obliged to quit the court. They caused the chairs of pro-
fessors of toe laws to be given to members of their body ;
and obtained, accordingly, the power of expounding the
laws and of modifying £eir temper. Subsiaies had been
obtained from Rome for the support of the naval power of
Portugal; and hence the enterprising fleet of that kingdom
came to be dependent on the pope. Don Alessio Menezes
foresaw the consequences of these proceedings, and died
of grief. A. D. 1569.
When the king became of age, the cardinal was also
removed. The old queen wishing that the king should
marry, they gave her to understand that this could not take
place, so long as she continued to receive the income of the
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queOBS : tipon this, she withdrew from the ooiut^ but u
die king showed some signs of tenderness Sot his rejected
grandmother, the Jesuits, under pretence of showing him
to the people, caused his attention to be diverted by travel*
ling. They afterwards persuaded him to enact laws, by
which the perfect purity of the ancient church was to be
restored : but as this project was found to be unattainable,
the only efiect of these regulations was to augment the in-
fluence of the absolving confessors. The nation now be-
gan to murmur ; and in order to give it a subject on which
to fix its attention, the Jesuits advised the long to under^
take an expedition against the Sheriff.
The Sheriff, whom we usually call king or emperor of
Morocco, is sovereign of the country which reaches from
the straits of Gibraltar and from the western coast of Africa
into the desert beyond the mountains of Daran. This
ccrantry is two hundred and fifty leagues in length from
nordi to south, and a hundred and forty in breadth from
east to west : it consists almost universally of fertile dis-
tricts, and contains a number of towns. which are large and,
for that part of the world, opulent. The descendants of
the great prophet of the Arabs are called Sheri&.
An individual of this family, named Muley Meheres,
[duridered the caravans which were travelling to Mecca,
and was obliged by the reigning prince of Fez tu take refuge
in the mountains. The Merinides at that time were mas-
ters of the country. Many of the sherifis took upon tliem-
selves the profession of saints, which consists in renouncing
the world, in order, by the duration and intensity of their
d^wdons, to become absorbed in the fountain ot the eter-
nal light, and to be assimilated to the nature of God. By
this method ifaey acquired a privilege most acceptable to
the passions, all actions becoming to them for the future
guiltless and indsferent. Veneration for these impostors
induced the hereditary princes of the wandering shepherds
of that mountainous country to pay them dthes ; and with
the revenue thus acquired, the sheriffi( took intp their pay
a body of five hundred men, and ^t possession of the httb
town of Tarudant. From this tmie they declared thei»-
selves the messengers of God, commissioned to deliver
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2Sd' tnvmmsAL anvoxr.
Mftgrftb or the western country, from its infidol posseisoirs.
meaning die Portuguese.
A trifling victory filled all Magrab with confidenee : the
saints took their course to Morocco, where the eoiir of the
Meriiiides, seated on the throne of his fathers and sur*^
rounded by the nobles, was murdered (such, as they said,x
was the will of God) by two of their number in the face
of the people : and Morocco swore allegiance to the sberift
Hamed, who was the founder of the present dynasty.
The neighboring princes were reduced to obedience (A. D.
1519) ; sheriff Mohammed conquered Fez, a Persian chief
having brought Turkish soldiers to his assistance ; Henry
the Eighth of England, who concluded a treaty of com-
merce with him, relating to his sugar plantations at Taru-
dant, provided him with arms and ammunition, and his
cofiers were filled by the united treasures of many con*
quered states. Abdallah, the son of tins sheri^ was the
prince against whom Don Sebastian directed his arma*
ment.
The king of Portugal was occupied with the idea of
going to the East Indies and being there crowned enaperor
of the East, when a brother of Abdallah, who had been
banished by the sheriff, applied to him for assistance.
The old queen, sister of Charles the fifth, endeavored to
counteract the design of an African campaign ; but she
was unable to prevent it, and soon died from the effect of
vexation. Meanwhile the king, full of zeal but utterly
destitute of military knowledge, sailed to Africa. Sheriff
Abdallah, although eighty years of age and in a dying state,
arranged the order of batde : but be did not live to wit**
ness the victory ivhich his troops obtained ; for during the
beat of the engagement, and while, with closing eyes, he
laid his finger on his lips as a signal that his death must be
concealed, the vital spark escaped. A. D. 1^78* Sebas*
lian disappeared, and probably fell .in the action ; yet
many were for a long time of opinion, that he. bad beeii
made prisoner in consequenee of having lost his . way, and
that he was living in the condition of a slave, in distant
countries.
The king's great uncle, cardinal Henry, one of the sons
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m
«f Bmaiwely up6n the news of this dkaiter assumed the
crown : ha was thix only remaining male desoendant of
Emanuel^ except Auton, prior at Crato, an illegitimate son
of the diriee of Bejo. Don Edward, ^ther of Emanuel's
sons had left two daughters ; the eldest of whom, Maria,
was mmried to tiie illnstrious Alexander Farnese, duke of
Parma ; but her pretensions were opposed by a fundamen*
tal law of Lam^o, by which she was exclucied, as being a
foreigner, from the succession : the second, Catharine, had
married the duke of Braganza, and the title to the throne
was legally her's. The old king was conscious of her rights,
and intended to declare her his successor : but Don Juan
Mascarenhas betrayed this circumstance to the Spanish
ambassador. The wife of Charles the Fifth, and motlier
of Philip 'the Second, was a daughter of king Emanuel:
she was exohided from the right of aucceseion as a forcien-
er, but her son aspired to the throne ; and on the day
when the pious and peaceable old man intended to declare
bis soccesaor, the Jesuits so terrified him with superstitious
flrognostkss and with the power of Philip, that he died at
last without having made any decision. A. D. 1580.
The duke of Braganza was a nobleman of peaceable
dispositions and contracted views; and the confusion in
which the affairs of France were involved, the hitherto
trifling power of Holland, and tlie disinclination of Queejn
Elizabeth to foreign wars, cut off all the sources of his
hopes. The strs^tagems and the arms of the duke of Alva
rendered Philip master of Portugal: the nobles wej;e
gained over, the people terrified, and enterprising individ-
uals put to death under various pretences. A small num-
ber of troops was sufficient to secure the government
against the attempts of the prior of Crato, wbicb were few
and unsuccessful : and Braganza was contented with the
dignities bestowed upon him.
Eight hundred and sixty^-seveit year« after the destruc-
tion of the monarchy of the Visigoths, the whole peninsu-
la was again united under , one head: a great and happy
empire, if Philip had only known the first duty' of, a
ruler!
The queen-regent, grandmother of Sebastian, had esta*
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blisfaed, in imitfttkin of whatCbaileadw Fiftb hid dcMe m
Spain, t council of stite conasting of spiritiitl and tawpo-
ral brds, for the assistance of the voong Idof during his
minority. This council, which had been substituted in the
room of the former deputies of the states, was abolished
by the new sovereign : and as it is a standing maxim of
despotism, to divide in order to unite under its own power ;
Philip did not choose that Portugal should possess a com-
mon point of union in her ancient ca{Htal, and therefore
erected at Oporto a separate jurisdiction for the oortfaern
provinces.
SECTION VI.
TDBKET AMD TBS KOBTB OF AISIOA.
A. D. 1566. Selim the Second, padisha of tibe Otte»
nan Turks, whose harem contuned two thousand womcil,
was induced by court intrigues and tempted by the ^es-
erous wine of Cyprus, to declare war against the Venetiaos
who were masters of that island. Malek el Asfaraf Abun-
aser Barsabai, nephew of the great Sabtdin, had rendered
the kings of Cyprus tributary about the year 12S6 ; and
Selim, under pretence of some infraction of the compact
which had been renewed by bis ancestors, made himself
master of the island. A. D. 1571. Mustapha Pasha
took the capital Famagosta, after a vigorous defence, and
caused its commander, the noble Barberigo, to be cruelly
murdered. These events renewed the terror of Italy^ and
^excited the enthusiasm of all the Christians of the south
of Europe ; who furnished a fleet, under the name of his
holiness pope Fius the Fifth (Ghioiliari), the command of .
which was given to Don Juan of Austria, the son of Charles
the Fifth by Barbara Blomberc. This commander, who
bad been educated together with Philip's tmfortunate son
iad Alexander Famese, was equal to his two companions
in talent, and their superior m the graces of his person*
'and" in heroic courage : he was only twenty-six years of
age when, as admiral of the Christian fleet, he gptve batda
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to the Turks in the famous action of Lepanto (A. D.
1571) ; in which thek* naval |N)wer received a shock which
it did not recover for many years.
Don Juan, after diis victory, conquered Tunis and Vi-
serta ; and would have founded a powerful kingdom in
tbe nofth of Africa, which would blave extended • to the
coasts of the Atlantic, and over counti-ies which were the
gnmAfies of southern Europe, if he had not been prevent-^
ed by the jealousy of Philip. After his reroovid, SerbeU
bne, cofomandant of tbe citadel of Tunis, was left desti-
tote of siiccoft', and was therefore obliged to surrender tbe
fortress to Sinari, the captain pasba, who sent the prince,
a descendant of the Abuhaffidse, who had been governor
of die place under 'the protection of Spain, in chains to
Constantinople. Don Juan never came again into thiii
eountry : he was appointed governor of the Belgic prov-
inces; and after undergoing innumerable vexations, by
Which his constitutitHi was weakened^ be died (A. D.
1576), not without suspicion of having taken poison. The
dake of Parma quitted the world in a similar manner ( A«
D. 1599) : and Don Carlos, infant pf Spain, had already
been executed by order of his father. A. D. 1568.
The Turks, notwithstanding their defeat at J^pantO)
stffl retained possession of the kingdom of Cyprus ; but
from that time they made no considerable conquests during
sixty years. Morad, Mebmed, and Achmed, the succes*-
sors of Selim, afoaiidoned tfaemseJves to voluptuousness,
and forgot' both friends and enemies. Ibrahim Pasha,
graiid visier of the Tliird Mohammed, or Mehmed, pro
cured the abolition of tbe offices of the six visiers who had
aeais in the ifivan ; aad the padisha, coetented with having
pcit to^ death his niaete«n bfotbers, whose bodies were
thrown into the sea, left the management^ all buaioess to
his minister, and reserved Bothing iinr himself but the eor
joyments of his seraglio.
tou m. . 92
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S54 vmfMMMja. ■mtomt.
SECTION VH.
SITUATION OF ITALY.
In Italy, M9an, Najries, and l^iljr were sulgect to
Spain. The voluptuous reign of pope Julius the Third
was followed by the haughty goverament <^ Caraffii, or
Paul the Fourth, who was succeeded bjr Pius the FourA
or Medighino, and Pius the Fifth or GhisQieri, distinguidied
for their holy zeal. Buoncompagni, or Gregory the
Thirteenth, reigned next, whose piety and good intentions
inspired veneration ; and afterwards Montalto, who took
die name of ^xtus the Fifth. The measures of this poiK>
tiff were directed by the wise and steady policy of a great
statesman : he did not neglect his dudes c^i account of the
Kwer of the church : he established a system of poKce in
>me, wliich had hitherto been the scene of the excesses
of powerful nobles, and he accumulated a treasure for fu«
ture emergencies : he was well aware <^ the hypocrisy of
Philip, and was secretly ifae enemy of his pdicjr. Aldo*
brandini, Pope Clement the Eighth, found it indispensably
necessary to adopt the severity of his predecessor as the
rule of his conduct, on account of die licentTousness of the
nobles, who, under the long reign of the mild Ehioncom*
pacni, had entirely thrown off the restramts of social order.
The ruling dynasty of Este, at Ferrara and Modena,
became extinct: Cesar, the descendant of an unequal
marriage, became duke of Modena, and the pope Akio-
brandini took F^rara from the family. A. D. 1&97.
Cosmo the first grand duke of Tuscany, whom we have
compared with Aueustus, had also a melancholy resem-
blance to the fate of that emperor in his domesdc misfeff-
tttnes : a duke of Ferrara poisoned Lucreda his .wife, a
daughter of the grand duke ; Ormni, a prmce, found some
eaute for putdng to death IsabeUa, the sister of the former:
the cardinal John de Medici was murdered by his brother
Garcia in consequence of a hunting quarrel ; Co«no, the
&ther of both the young men, killed Garcia with hh own
band ; their vnretched mother died of grief: and die grand
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duke c«tt9ed his eldest dau^ter to be poisoiie^t an aGCount
of aa unbecomiag attachment.
A. D. 1576—1587. Francis the Second, grand duke,
met his fate in the following extraordinary maimer : Pedro
Buonaventuri, a young Florentine, who was learning com-
merce at Venice, resided near the palace of the family of
Capello : an intrigue took place between him and Bianca,
the daughter of that senator ; and the lady becoming preg-
nant, the lovers retired into Pedro's native country, where
they lived in pover^. On some fesdve occasion, the
beauty of Bianca attracted the attention of the grand duke ;
and his confidant, Mondragone, procured him an oppor^
tunity of meeting her in his house. From this time
Buonaventuri became opul^t, and was advanced to itn-
])ortant offices. He abused the favor which he had ob-
tained, in oppressing the brothers of a widow of whom he
had become enamored ; and the duke reproaching him with
this misconduct, was threatened by him : the prince now
permitted the brothers whopa Pedro had injured to revenge
themselves; and this they effected by murdering him.
The grand duchess,' a daughter of the emperor Ferdinand,
was, deceased ; and Francis now married Bianca, who was
acknowledged by the citizens of Venice as a daughter of
the repubUc. Bianca, who had conceived an enmi^
against cardinal Ferdinand her brother-in-law, attempted,
some time afterwards, to poison him at an entertainment;
but the cardinal, perhaps warned of his danger, refused to
* eat of the suspected dish : the grand duke, who was igno-
rant of the afi&ir, b order to convince him that his suspi-
cions w»e groundless, ate of it ; and Bianca, who saw that
she was lost, partook also in despair, and died with her
husband.
A* p. 1587 — 1609. The cardbal, who now became
grand duke and patriarch of the famify, was a piince of
such distinguished wisdom in the management of state af-
feini, that many of his principles became fundamental max-
ims in the pdicy of more powerful courts. But in private
life he abandoned himself, without reserve, to yoluptuousi-
ness of all kinds. Florence followed his example ; and
the ancient constitution was forgotten in the enjoyment
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«f MMud j^tmures : even indusoy began to idadine $ fyr
the manufacture of cloth produced, under the reign oS
Cosino the Second, scareeiy an eighth pert'of the sum
'which it hid yielded in the latter years of the first gmad
duke ; and monopolies, and the privileges of corporations,
contributed greatly to arrest the progress of the prospeiity
of the state* Florence, however, still continued the most
refined, the most beautiful, and one of the most opulent of
dues.
The house of Savoy wai^ in unceasing activity. When
Emanuel Philibert, in consequence of the treaties of
Chateau Cambresis and Noyon, had entered into posses*
sion of liis territories, he found not m<»*ethan nine hundred
tliousand subjects : his clear revenue amounted to only two
hundred thousand scudi : the barons, who were in number
about ten thousand, exerted privileges which were in part
usurped ; and the exercise of which i^ is at all times ex-
tremely difficult to reconcile with a good system of admin-
istration* The duke was possessed of military taknta;
but his good sense convinced him, that llie first and nxHtt
important object of his attradon anust necessarily be the
establishment of order, and of a new and firm foundatiim
for the future welfare of the state. He raised a militia of
twelve thousand men, whom he enciouraged by privileges,
and whose nnmber he increased threefold befcH^ his de^*
cease; he founded the citadel at Turin, and fortified
Montmelian in Savoy, and Vercelle in Italy ; quadrupled
the rev^ue, and encouraged the cultivation of the olive^
and the manufacture of silk. He purchased from the faxtP-
ily of Doria the dominion of Oneglia, most advantageouriy
situated in the midst of the Genoese terrkory : «id so C0»-
firmed his authority by means of his excellent administop-
tion and prudent measures, as to prevent the meeting of the
States-General, and thus to bring those assemblies inib
disuse.
A. D* 1684-*-ie30. His son Charles Emanuel po»-
Itessed the eminent talents of a great prince ; and in cases
of emergency, the capacity so necessary in his situation,
^f accommodating himself to^^U occurrences, and of avafl-
ing Inmself of all the resotirces within bis power : iie dish
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Tj^tf^A great presence of mind, coura^ and dexterity in
the tntnagenieat of affiurs ; but he neither acquired nor
deserved confidaice, because his desire of aggrandizetnent
iodiiced him to forget his ^fomises, whenever circumstan-
ces reodoped it s^rviceaUe to his interests. He exchanged
SaliixaO) though it was important to him from its sitnadon,
fer Bresse aikl Bugey (A. D. IGOl) ; and thereby pre-
pared Sof duke Victor Amadeus, the acquisition of a part
d* Montserrat. A. D. 1631.
SECTION VIU.
/
smiTSSSIiAND.
Though tbe pensioners of Riilip excited suspicions and '.
foisnoderstandmgs among the confederate states of Switzer-
-iaiid»yet the coiodection of this country with France be-
came more intimate. Under Charles the Ninth, the court
owed the preservation of its honor and safeur at the re-
treat of Meaux, to colonel Pfyffer, a native of the canton
of Lucerne ; and in this reign the first colonel-general of
the Swiss troops in the service of France was appointed.
Henry the Third was often supported by the revenue as
well as by the arms of Switzerland ; and during the perils
to wUch Henry the Fourdi was exposed, Bern and Ge-
Qeva» l^ ena|)loyiBg the troops of Charles Emanuel of Sa-
voy which were destined against him, made an important
diversion in his favor (A. D. 1689) ; tbe issue of which
would have been niore honm'able and more advantageous,
it tbe dangerous coonecdons, and perhaps the private inter-
ests, of certain leading persons of Bern, had not been the
means of proeuring the conclusion of a treaty at' Nyon,
between the r«>ub]]c and Savoy, by which Geneva was in
efl»ct sacrificed. A., D. 1 59 1 .
All the communities of the German district of Bern,
made representations on this subject, iiill of truth and
energy; and the Schultheiss at Wattewyl, who, according
to an establidied maxim should have held his dignity for
life, was compelled to abandon his place. There existed
VOL. m. . 22*
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VHtnBMAL ■tflV0ftt.
in tho peuet caatons a spirit of eqmdiQr, ad a degree af
inibrm&tion respecting the affiurs of gorennDeiit, wMefi
made it necessary to attend to the voice of the people in
all matters of impmtaoce : and as their ooofidcnce is the
only strength of these states, iiothbg can contrtbute more
to the atuunmeat of that end, than theff consent to the
measures of the corniseHons^ aod a sentiment of freedom
.which could not exist, in an eoial d^ee, under any lests
popular form of government. When the g we r ume at ei
Zurich acceded, contrary to the wishes of the communi-
ties, to the treaty with France (A. D. 1614),. that mea-
sure was for the first tlfne proposed to the people after its
conclusion. From this time forth the governments of
Switzerland became mcNre nyaterious, and the inequality
of ranks more evident : the two sects were also disposed
to make sacrifiees to their religions zeal, of the most inju-
rious tendency to the welfare of the state ; and benoe tbe
confederacy lost a great part of its extehwl raspeetaUii^'
aod of its mtrinsio worth.
SECTION IX.
THE OERMAN KKFOUB. ^
Philip could expect no assistance from the German
branch of the house of Austria, between wfaicfa and die
court of Spain, an unceasing coohiess and distrust subsist-
ed for sixty years* Ferdinand the First and Maximitiati
the Second, were prudent and judieious prin<6es ; th^
maintained toleration, and were principaHy anxbus for the
peace and prosperity of then: people. Rudolf the Second
was entirely devoted to study. The pardtion of tbe Rus-
sian territories, the mutual jealoasy of the two branches of
the house of Saxony (A. D. 156t), and the f^eblfenesiJ
of that of Brandenburg, facilitated die preservation of the
peace of Germany.
A. D. 1663—1686. The electorate of Saxony was
die most flourishing state of the empire. He sagacious
Augustus regulated it by wise laws, and instituted a fni*
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pfttAe fKli'uiiidof apf^ls for the^ purpose of wonAiiigcrmr
fbe^ enttmetits ; b^ availed himsetf in rositters of ipoM*
C6l economy, of the intelligence of Bernhani voo Arnim,
whose vlevt^s the government of Berlin had been iocapabfe
6( sp|)l'eeiating ; tmd (HVided the publie domains by his
advice. A^ieuHare began vcy flourish, and gave birth to
commercial industry and manufactures.
Saxony would hare been a prosperous country if it had
ftot been thrown into confusion by the divisions of the kin-
dred sects of Augsburg and Geneva (A. D. 1*76), «rfaich
were driven to the utrao^ pitch of exiaispcwrtbii by die
iftis-named form of concord. The minority ef^die ekctor
Christian the Second (A. D. 1591), was disturbed by in-
quisitions in search of concealed Calvinism.
While individual states were advancing itt the eai«6r of
improvement, the common bond of union between tfaemi,
tes^ad of becoming firmer, was relaxed by controvermes.
Wfaen die visitation of the supreme court of jtidicatnre
came to the turn of the protectant states, die n«ces^tty
woric was completely at a stand. A. D. Id88.
SECTION X.
POLAND.
Om tit the last benefits which thie dynasty of Jttfgf^
conferred on Poland, was the incorpcvation of Lithuania
with that kingdom, which was concluded at the diet of
Lublin. A. D. 1569. The first prince of this dynasty ^
bad united thes^ territories ; but it was a disputed point
Whether the highly fertile countries of Wolhynia, PodoKt,
and Kyow, which had been conquered firom the czars by
tbe former princes of Lithuania, should be ccmsidered as
belonging to that country or to Poland. Sigismund Au-
gustus procured them to be considered as appurtenances of
Red Russia, which was a province of the kingdom.
The spirit of the age so facilitated the pn^ess of nove^
opinions, that tjie protestants soop possessed forty chineheti
on the territories of the nobility : and the Arians and So>
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mmmf who, in tlMir doctrines, went beyond any of tha
{HTOteetint sects, increased in Poland to a greater degree
than in any other country. Rukan, in the territory of
Stendomir, became the principal seat of the Socinian or
Unitarian societies. The mcorporation of Lithuania
could not be obtained without the consentof the nobles of
the Protestant and Greek churches; and in order to pro-
cure their concurrence, the ]Nx»fession of faith of the latter
was fennally established, wlule the former were raised to
so perfect an equality with the catholic nobility, that thegr
were allowed, on the simple condition of remainbg Qhrie-
tiaos, to beoonie members of the senate, and to be e%ible
to the highest offices in the state. Thus it was owing to
the state of political afiairs that the s{Hrit of toleration was.
legaKaed in Poland; as the spirit of intolerance, had
been fostered by the circumstances of other states.
A. D. 1572. This arrangement was soon followed by
the death of the excellent kmg. Siffismimd Aimistus, tM
last descendant of the male Gm of JageUo. On this oo*
casion the diet, ccxisisting of one hundred and e^tv-tf«»
country deputies, assembled, and enacted, that in Suture
no kine should be allowed to cause his successor to be
elected durine his own life; and bcm this time forward
the kings of Poland were chosen nearlv in the foUowmg
manner : In the plains of Wola, near Warsaw, the senate
and the people were assembled. The forum was com*
posed of the ardtbishop, primate of Gqesen, the avchUsbop
of Lemberg, fifteen bidic^s, thir^r-seven varvodes, ^hose
dignity was similar to that of the dukes (Mother countries in
the middle ages ; eighty-two castellans, who were senators
in peace, and deputies of the vay vodes in war ; and tea
great officers of the crown. The senate of Poland was
not an aristocratic assembly, the members of which held
their seats by birthright; but the great council of the k^ig,
who bestowed the places, and of the republic, to the hoo*
or and advantage of which its measures were to be direct-
(sd. Tbe king had the power of appobdng officers, but
not of reinoving them ; and the high cbaocelbr and the
treasurer wwe not even accountable to him. The senate
assemUed in a wooden house, around which, and in a space
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tticios^ with a wall and ditch, the dcpirtfes w^e sttftioofed ;
the nobles, or their representatives, were arranged at a
still greater distance.
* Not only were the kings chosen, but the forms of the
coiistitiition were also prescribed in these assemblies : by
their regulations the monarch was forbidden of his own ats-
thority to make war or peace; to conclude treaties; to
appoint ambassadors^ to impose taxes; to make innova*
tions of any sort with respect to religion or the laws ; or to
filienate any of the hereditary possessions of the crowd.
He had the right of conferring offices, but could bestow
only one place on an individual, and was not aitewed to
revoke the appointment during the life of the possessor.
Crown lands were also at his disposal, but under the same
limitations as prevailed with respect to c^ces. He had the
fiomination of archbishops and bishops, of twelve abtK)ts,
and one prior, and the presentations to benefices : but in
order to exempt him from the temptation of permitting
long vacancies, and appropriating the revenues to his own
<^jiire, he was obliged to make his election within six months,
(otherwise the right of appointing the archbishops atid
bishops reverted to the pope,) and that of bestowing the
inferior offices on the bishops. The king convoked the
diet, presided over its sittings, and gave his assent to ks <^
actments, without which the latter were not valid. The
judges administered justice in his name. The king wje
regarded as the fountain of all honor, and could confer
the privileges of nobility : but if a nobleman had occasion
to vindicate the rights of his station, his appeal was made
to the estates of the kingdom. Lastly, tte monarch had
the power of summoning his nobility to arms, and of com-
manding them when assembled.
• The main design of the Poles was to give majesh'^ to
the king, authority to the senate, and freedom to the whole
body of the nobility ; and the latter object was punSued so
for, that the resolutions of the diet were required to be
unanimous. In cases of emergency, arising from the licen-
'tiousness of a powerful nobleman, or by the capricious ex-
ercise of the royal veto, the remainder of the natk>n enter-
ed into a confederacy against the offender.
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90t imiVEB^AX. RItVOftT.
' III tbe ooofederation which took place after Iha deaAi c^
Sigismuod Augustus, all the religious sects^ were bduded
under the natne of dissidents. The greater part of the
senators, and Firley, marshal of the diet, were devoted to
the new faith, and five thousand churches were in the pos-
sessions of ministers of that persuasion ; but though Sza-
franiec, a protjestant, was proposed as successor to the de«
ceased monarch under these favorable circunostances, jet
the votes, were united in favpr of Henri de Valois, duke of
Anjou, and brother of Charles the Ninth f A. D. 1573) ;
a prince who had already signalized himselt in France hy
his heroic courage.
A. D. ] 574. On the decease of his brother, Henry
quitted Poland with a degree of precipitation not endr^Iy
reconcilable with propriety, and hastened to assume im
f>vemnient of his more brilliant but less happy kingdom of
ranee. The Poles proceeded to elect in ms stead Ste-
phen Bathori, prince of Transylvania (A. D. 1575), who
was a wise and valiant ruler, and who married Anna .la-
geUo, the sister of th^ late king, in compliance with the
wish of his subjects, who were apprehensive lest she should,
by marriage, confer any pretext lor a claim to the throne
on a fcHreign family. Anna persuaded her husband to
adopt the catholic faith.
Bathori was succeeded by Sigismuod Vasa the crown
prince of Sweden, who, by his maternal line, was a de-
scendant of Sigismund the First.
SECTION XI.
SWEDEN.
The kingdom of Sweden was governed rather by die
personal authority of the monarch than by setded laws,
and its external importance depended more on the charae-
ter of its inhabitants than on the amount of its revenue.
The income of Gustavus Vasa did not surpass twenty-four
thousand marks, while bis expenses frequently exceeded
sixty thousand ; and yet he was the object of veneration
not only to his own people but to all Europe.
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UK1VKBSAI4 HisTomr^ 963
A. D. 1568. It was owing to the absurd conduct of
his eldest son, and the artifices of his second, that Eric the
Fourteenth was deposed, and that John became king in
his stead. The artifices of his wife, Catharine of Poland^
and of the Jesuits, inspired this monarch with a predilection
for Catholicism, which had very nearly drawn upon him a
fate similar to that of his brother : he, lived, however, to
see his son Sigismnnd seated on the throne of Poland.
Sigismund had eagerly imbibed from the Jesuits, by
whom he was educated and in whoi^e order he held the
post of tertiarius, the same spirit of proselytism which an-
imated his mother t and he thought proper to manifest his
dislike of the Protestant nobilitv, in a manner which soon
destroyed their confidence in nim. When he could pre-
vail on one of this class to become a Catholic, all the
churches of the dissidents on his estates were shut up ; die
bondsmen were compelled to follow the example oi their
superiors, and the free men to quit his territory : but when,
on the odier hand, a Catholic nobleman went over to the
Protestant party, dien the pourt maintained the freedom of
his subjects as to religion. Dissident churches were for-
bidden on all the crown estates, and Protestants were ex-
cluded from the senate.
The Swedes, who had scarcely kriown how to forgive
hi$i father's tranouil preference for Catholicism, were, una-
ble to endure a king who was endeavoring with imprudent
zeal to counteract all the sentiments and nabits which had
been introduced among them since the accesiA)n of Gus-
tavus Vasa : they therefore deprived him of the kingdom,
(A. D. 1597), and committed die administration of afiirs
to his uncle Charles, duke of Sudermania ; at first under
the tide of protector and afterwards of king. A. D. 1604.
Charles had frequendy not more than a diousand dollars
in his treasury ; but his prudence and successful adherence
to die maxims of his father, sufficed to confirm his
power.
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SB4 mmruMUL bi^toht.
SECTION xn.
DSNMARK*
Though Denmark bad by no means yet forgotten that
her kings had formerly been sovereigns of Sweden, yet
few attempts were made towards the re-union of Scandi-
navia ; because Christian the Third was suflSciently occu-
pied in abolishing the national council of the Norwegians,
and in completing the incorporation of Norway with Den-
Biark, in order to provide against the risk of another sim-
ilar loss. This operation was rendered much more easy
to the pious monarch by a measure of king John in the
early part of this century ; who had beheaded the most
powerful of the Norwegian nobility, and had by that means
diminished the power of the nation.
SECTION Xffl.
CONCLUSION.
In all the monarchies of Europe, that of the pope not
excepted 5 and even among the republics, a decided ten-
dency towards the concentration of power in the hands of
one or a few individuals, was perceptible in the latter end
of this century. The cardinals were not so frequently
consulted; the republics became more aristocraticai ; the
monarchies were unlimited, and the despotic governmeots
less cautious. For as, in later ages, the manners of the
court of Lewis the Fourteenth and the tactics of FredeT'*
ick the Second, influenced the neighboring states, so tha
system pursued by tlie domineering court of Philip, served
more or less as an example to his contemporary sove-
reigns. The recent and rapid increase in the quantity of
the precious metals, and the progress of tlie industrious
arts, also contributed to the same end, by producing a mul-
titude of new desires, which rendered the courts more ava-
ricious and the nobles more dependent
L
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UNIYEHSAL HISTORY. 266
In this case, as in most others, the interests of humanity
gained on one hand and lost on the other. Power had
Eassed into a smaller number of hands, and obedience had
ecome more uniform ; in consequence of which the pro-
gress of cultivation was less freauently disturbed by war,
and the arrangements of civil lilS^, the arts and sciences,
were pursued with less interruption : but in those countries
in w^iob d^poti^m Established its. detested sway, public
spirit necessarily expired : s^ubjects were willing less fre-
quently than free citizens, to die for their country ; or,
what is still more difficult, to live only for its good.
A. D. 1598. The year in which the peace of Vervins
was concluded, was the epoch of resuscitation to tlie great-
ness of France, apd an ill-omened period to Russia, on ac-
count of the extinction of the dynasty of Rurick the Va-
rseger, which bad reigned b that country during seven cen-
turies and a half. In the same year, a horrible disease
brought Philip the Second to the end of his career; during
which be had lost the united Netherlands ; had seen the
pow^ of Engkod and of France confirmed under the do-
minion of his enemies ; had laid the foundation of the de-
cay of his own nionarchy ; had given, though lord of the
gold mines, the first example of a bankruptcy ; and, in an
administration of two and forty years, had. acquired the
detestation of all his contemporaries, and, according to the
diverse views of the difierent parties, the contempt or tlie
curses of posterity.
23
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BOOK XXI.
THE PERIOD OF THE THIRTir TEARS' WAR.--A. D.
1M6— 1M6.
SECTION 1.
SITUATION or THE HOUSE QY HABSBOBO.
The seventeenth century, at hs commencement, feimd ^
Spain drained of its treasure and destitute of eminent men ;
consequently neither b a condition to |)ro8ecute a war with
vigor, nor likely to make great advances in the road of
improvement, during an interval of ]^ace. Philip the
Third was naturally a very weak prince ; and his prime
minister, the duke of Lerma, had impressed him to such a
degree with the necessity of unceasing suspicion, that he
not only held no communication with his suDJects, but did
not even venture to converse with the queen without previ*
ously consulting the duke. The colonization of America,
the war in the Low Countries, and the incessant enter-
prises of his father, had produced a pernicious efieet on
the population of Spain ; and the present kins banished
two hundred thousand Moors, who constituted the most
industrious portion of the remaining inhabitants. A. D.
1610.
The political importance of Spain was preserved by two
individuals ; the first of whom, Ambrose Spinola, was an
excellent general according to the tactics of that age ; and
the other, Bedmar, a consummate negociator. Both were
zealous for the interests of their master, as the source of
their own fortunes.
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UlffI¥fimaiAL HiSTOftT. ^7
The em^etoT Rudolf die Second, inclined to peaceful
pursuits, was compeUed by his brother the archduke Mat-
thias, to abdicate the crowns of Hungary and Bohetnia*
A. D. 1608. Matthias was not destitute of talents ; but
both he and Rudolf died without male issue. A. D. 161 1.
Ferdinand, a descendant of the first emperor of the
same name, bad been educated in Spain, and appeared to
be governed by this one prevailing maxim with regard to
his duty as a monarch, <' uat it was necessary that his own
creed, in matters of religion, should be the only mode of ^
faith in his dominions ; and in temporal afiairs, his bound-
less authority the only power." There were, however, in
the hereditary dominions of the emperor, as well as in
Hungary and Bohemia, a great number of mdividuals who
were attached to the principles of Protestantism, and zeal-
ously devoted to the cause of ancient freedom : the mea*
sures of the court of Spain met wilh impediments equally
inip<Mrtant, arinng from the state of its finances ; which,
were eximusted to such a degree, that the troops were fre- ^
quently obliged to extort subsistence from the territory in
which they lay : and under these circumstances, the ne-
cessity of uniting the interests and power of the two
branches of the house of Habsburg became so urgent, as
to extinguish the mutual jealousy which had now subsisted
for sixty years. A. D. 1616. •
Portugal was now under the power of Spain ; and saw,
as the consequence of her subjection, the greater part of
die discoveries and conquests of her better days tail into
the hands of strangers. The Dutch who were forbidden,
as rebels against thcv authority of Philip, to purchase in
Lisbon the commodities of the East Indies, went to the
-latter country in search of them, where they found an ad-
ministration which had been rendered feeble by the influ-
ence of the climate, by luxurious and effeminate habits,
and by spiritual and temporal tyranny : and while Philip
the Third (A. D. 1630), after a siege of three years,
which cost him from eighty to a hundred thousand men,
got possession of Ostend, the Dutch took the isles of Mo-
lucca from his Portuguese subjects.
All Asia arose for the expulsion of the strangers it most
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detested : in the F^ Indies their empire W8s dflslfoyed
by the Dutch ; the sopbi Sha Abbas made himself master
of the magnificent Ormuz, called the diamobd of the
East ; Toxogunsama terrified by the fate of other sove-
reigns, forbade Christians of all denominadons to enter the
empire of Japan ; and, by seventeen years of persecution,
destroyed the newly planted faith : the same reasons in-
duced the necush of Habesh to enforce a similar exclu-
sion of the Western believers, while he maintained in this
empire the ancient form of Christiahity.
Of all the foreign possessions of the Portuguese, Goa
in the East Indies, the safety of which was fi-equendy en-
dangered by the nadves, and Brazil in America, whicb
was often threatened by the Dutch, alone remained : and
the state of weakness to which they were thus reduced,
was the reward of their tame submission to tyrants whom
they detested.
The English commander, Sir Walter Ralagh, was only
withheld by the inadequacy of the resources entru^ed to
him, from giving a most dangerous overthrow to the power
of the Spaniards, even in America.
Italy endured their yoke with Impauence, and evea
Rome wished to see them humbled : Venice had good
reason both to fear and to hate the two lines of ihe family
of Habsburg ; for the marquis of Bedmar took part in a
conspiracy against the constitution of the republic, and dis-
seminated writings calculated to excite discord among their
subjects; while Ferdinand protected the pradatory Us-
kochs, who inhabited the mountains beyond Daknatia.
The overbearing power and the lofty tone of the cabinet
of Madrid were insupportable to the dukes of Mantua ai^d
Savoy.
The Italian possessions of the Spaniards were separated
from ^{16 hereditary dominions of the emperor, hy die Ve-
netian and Valtelline territories. The latter, a fertile and
populous valley, which had been conquered by the coi^e*
derated cantons, in their wars against the house of Sforza,
^ould, if it could be obtained, serve to connect the divided
possessions of the Austrian family. The inhabitants of the
Valtelline, who were chiefly catholic, bore with impatience
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UNmfiSSAL HtSTO&T. 8Q9
die joke ot the cantmis, the greater part of which were
protestants ; and Milan gave an indulgent ear to their com-
plaints.
A. D. 1610. The good and great Henry the Fourth,
kmg of France, whose excellent qualities were not appre-
ciated in his own age, was assassinated, and liis kingdom
became again the prey of factions. His widow, Maria de'
Medici, sacrificed the welfare of the state to her personal
inclinations ; and her son, Lewis the Thirteenth, who was
a child at the time of his father's death, never became a
man of independent character. The power of a state de-
pends not so much on the numerical amount of its forces,
as on the intelligence which animates their movements ;
and France, which in tlie latter part of the reign of Hen-
ry the Fourth seemed likely to produce an universal revo-
lution in the condition of Europe, entirely lost its political
importance.
Holland no longer sought foreign protection ; and free
nations are never more powerful than when they are
obliged to depend exclusively upon their own resources
for defence, and when the magnitude of the dangers which
menace them compels the developement of their moral
energy. The authority of the prince of Orange united
the provinces in the conunon pursuit of the public good :
to hmi, as Stadtholder, the appointment of the principal
cheers in the army and in the cities was confided, in order
that the republican party might not be subjected by those
to whom peace might be dearer than liberty : and he ex-,
ercised the privilege of pardon, because every otlier ob-
ject was to be sacrificed to the maintenance of the laws,
and it was therefore necessary to give due weight to every
consideration which could efiect Aeir execution.. In the
midst of its contest for freedom, the republic erected a
mighty empire in the East ; and its seamen took posses-
sion of the herring fishery, which produced, according to
tl^e computation of Raleigh, a return of 1,700,000 pouuds
sterling.
iln this state of affiurs, Clara Isabella Eueenia, the
daughter of Philip the Second, who possessed me hered-
itary government of the Spanish Netherlands, conjointly
VOL. III. 23*
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87d OHire&SAL RKroitr.
with Albert of Austria, son of MaximiEflB the Seeond,
endeavored to put an end to the disturbam^s which had
now subsistect during more than forty years. The Fran-
eiscan proyinctal, J(An Neyen, prepared the wdy fer the
twelve years' truce ^A. D. 1609), which was concluded
by the privy counsellor, Lewis von Verheyk, and ratified
by Spinola. A. D. 1621.
From this time Holland was recognized as an independ-
ent state ; and its minister, Van Aersens, was formalrjr.ac*
knowledged as ambassador at Paris. .Peace, however,
proved more dangerous to the republic than war; not
merely because its citizens bst their martial habits, hot
chiefly on account of the jealousy which begati to arise be-
tween the stadtholder and the states-general. The latter,
who were eight hundred in number, had been summoned
for the last time, as the real representatives of the nation,
to deliberate on the affair of the truce : their ofBce and
title was thenceforward borne by a committee of their
number. They had, indeed, assembled less frequently
from the time when Elizabeth had given them the assurance
of her protection, on condition that the English ambassa-
dor should be entided to assist at their consultations : and
it was now pretended that a select proportion of the whole
body, appointee} in perpetuity, was best fitted to control
the council of state, whose office was also perpetual, and
which was accused of illegally favoring the ambition of
the house of Orange. Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius
refused to submit to the theological mandates of the synod
of Dordrecht ; but the execution of the former of these
great men, and the imprisonment of the latter,, by which
It was intended to strike terror into the Anti-Orange party,
had the contrary effect of fortifying their opposition.
Both the prince and the states-general were, however,
duly sensible, that the interests of the republic were likely
to be implicated in the determination of the disputed suc-
cession to the duchy of Juliers, which was also one of the
causes of the thirty years' war.
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SECTION n.
BCREDITARY SUCCESSION OF JULIER8.
The earls of Teisterbant bad distinguished themselves
by their contests with the Normans, as early as the ninth ,
century ; and their descendants founded two sovereignties
in Westphalia, which were afterwards known under the
names of the duchy of Cleves and the earldom of Mtrk.
One part of these territories had been received from the
emperor as pledges; another obtained from the arch-
bishops of Cologne by conquest ; and a third portion had
voluntarily placed itself under the protection of these
princes. The whole sovereignty had been finally united
under one head, by the marriage of the earl of Mark with
the heiress of Cleves. In the same manner, John of
Cleves, at a later period, added the three neighboring
states of JulierS; Berg, and Ravensberg, to the possessions
of his family. The wealth of the house of Teisterbant,
which had been accumulating for centuries, became at the
death of the insane earl, John William, the object of nu-
merous claims. A. D. 1609. It belonged to the dector
of Saxony in right of an ancient reversion, in the event
of the family becoming totally exfinct : but the right to
these territories, which had been united, as above mention-
ed, bjr marriages, was subject to other and very different
auestions ; such as whether the daughter of the eldest sister,
le wife of John Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg, or
the second sister, the duchess of Pfalz-Neuburg, who
was still Jiving, was to be regarded as the nearest heiress ?
These countries deserve to be reckoned among the most
fertile provinces of Germany : their value is enhanced by
the industrious character of their population, and their sit-
uation at the entrance of the Netherlands renders them
of great political importance.
The principal claimants could not adjust their preten-
sions, and appealed to arms : prince Wolfgang of Neuburg,
in order to secure the assistance of the princess Clata
Isabella, and of her husband the archduke Albert, became
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£re mmrvftSAL histost.
a catholic (A. D. 161S), whik the elector c( Bhuideo-
burg declared himself of the reformed creed of the prince
of Orange. A. D. 1614.
SECTION m.
England attained during this age to sach a degree of
power, as to be able to maintain t£^ balance of power m
important ipatters.
James Stuart, king of Scodand and son of the unfor-
tunate Mary, succeeded on the death of Elizabeth to the
crown of England ; and thus united, under one head; two
kmgdoms whose rivalry had frequently prevented them
from undertaking and sustaining, with undisturbed security,
a distinguished part in the politics of Europe. James,
however, was destitute of the vigor which had characterized
Elizabeth ; and could neither invest his person with dignity
nor his commands with authority. His vanity and timidity,
^ his busy researches into the dubious meanbgs of the pro-
phecies, and his wretched taste, rendered him contemptible
and ridiculous ; while be openly displayed, in his pubKc
documents, the principles ot desix>tism, which Henry die
•Eighth and Elizabeth had put in practice in silence and
security. He was governed by the duke of Buckingham,
a man who with great personal beauty combined all the
vanities 'to wliici) that quality can seduce, but who was
destitute of its chief advantage, the art of pleasine. In
his childish correspondence with the king, he signs himself
^* his rasyesty's most submissive dog, Steenie ; " and the
king calls himself ^' the good old dad and gossip."
This monarch was not of a character to exercise a pow-
erful influence in Europe : and the people were too much
occupied with maritime expeditions, to bestow much atten-
tion on the affairs of the continent. Id the latter part of
the reign of Elizabeth, an East India Company had been
established, which was regarded at Sumatra and Bantam
as a deliverer; for in hatred of Philip, Europe and Asia
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x^ere of ohe accord : k new Engbud had begun to Be co^'
Ionized beyond the Atlantic ; ^and the ic]r ocean was ex-
!)Iored, and Spitzbergen discovered and deoominajied New*
bundland. James, who was at an equal distance iirom
the vices and virtues of Caesar and of Trajan, was in the
mean time* employing himself in studying the book of Re-
velations, with speccriative defences of the doctrine of
passive obedience, and with the petulance of Buckingham,
SECTION IV.
C0MHENCEME19T OF THE THIRTY YXABs' WAB*
Frederick of Simmerh, elector palatine, was son-in4aw
of James the Firsit of England ; and his family, which was
descended from Stephen, son of the elector Rupert, who
bad been king of the Germans, manifested an extraordinary
zeal for the reformed creed. Palatine theologians were the
authors of the catechism of Heidelberg; a book in which,
notwithstanding that the controversial parts are too dog-
matical and severe, the consoling spirit of Christianity is
impressively displayed ; and which became not a prescript
of faith, but the manual of the greater part of the Cal-
viiiists of Germany. The sciences were no where culti-
vated, with greater success than at Heidelberg: and the
princes palatine were distinguished for their valor and ge-
nius in war.
Frederick wsfS seduced by religious zeal, by love of
glpry, and by Elizabeth the king's daughter, to accept the
crown of Bohemia. This kingdom, accustomed to a mild
administration, was terrified at the prospect of the intolerant
principles of government, which Ferdinand, even during
the life of Matthias, had not indistinctly announced^ The
Bohemians vented their indignation on his counsellors, and
offered the crown to the elector palatine, on the ground
that the kine had broken the compact, and had therefore
no further claim to their allegiance. But Frederick, less
through want of power than from a deficiency in the requi-
site energy and talent, was unable to keep the party which
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3f 4 UBITSMAL HifMnr.
existed in Bdhemia and in the empve, united in one nar«^
suit. His cousin Maximilian duke of Bavaria, a pnnce
of great activi^ and firmly attached to the catholic re»
ligion, espoused the cause of the emperor, who was his
most potent neighbor, in opposition to the interests of his
own family. Frederick, defeated and helpless, abandoned
the contest in despair, and forfeited both the crown and his
dectorate.
The failure of this enterprise produced the destruciion
of the remainder of the constitution of Bcrfiemia, and of
the ,protestant union in the empire wluch had neglected to
support its own interests. ,
The fundamental laws of that kingdom were annihilated :
a ereat number of noblemen were beheaded, and people of
inierior condition executed on the wheel ; upwards of thirty
thousand families were compelled to emigrate, and pro-
paiy bekn^g to the protestants was confiscated, to the
amount, as it was said, of 54,000,000 dollars. The em-
peror Ferdinand, strengthened by victory, and by the ac-
quisition of treasure, now turned the arms of his experienced
generals, Wallensteio, Tilly, and Spinola, against the pro-
testants of the empire. The ecclesiastical electors were
from their order attached to his cause : the most intelligent
of that class, John Swikard of Cronberg, archbishop of
Mayence, adviised the adoption of moderate measures;
but as his advice was not followed, he consulted the ap-
parent interests of his archbishopric, and accommodated
nimself to the circumstances of the times. Jqhn George
the First, elector of Saxony, whose predecessor had ob-
tained by his victories the religious peace, was full of ha-
tred against the Calvinists, jeak>us oi the reputation of the
count paladne, and confided implicitly in his court preacher,
Ho^ of HoSnegg, who was supposed to be in the pay of
Ferdinand, and who gave free rein to his bitter zeal against
the Calvinists and the Bohemian brethren. The elector,
George William of Brandenburg, was misled in the sdme
manner by his chief minister, the count of Schwartzenberg:
he remained a Calvinist, but manifested no vigor, and ex-
pected to be able to secure himself by submission.
This weak monarch was also Duke of Prussia. Albert
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vmvrmMAL HitTomw. 376
FVederick, sod ot that grand-tnaster of tljie Teatooic
kotghts who had viohted his oath to the (vder for the pur-
pose of securing Prussia to his family, had been dqpnved
of his^understandiog in early youth, by the pious folly of
his preachy and counsellors, who bad gcfea him, with the
intentioD of allaying his carnal appetites, a narcotic potion,
which had destroyed his mental powers. He had left the
duchy as a fief of Poland, to his cousin, the elector John
Sigismund, father of Greorge William, A. D. 1618.
These territories, regarded as the dominion of an elector,
formed a considerable state ;. and the cultivation of the
demesne lands was very much improved :. but the finances
were so incapable of meeting any great em^gency, that
John Sigismund wa# obliged, durbg the contest for the
succession of Juliers, to pledge his tolls on the river Elbe
to ibe Danes, in order to raise two hundred thousand
dollars : and though the number of regular troops, in the
time of George William, never exceeded two thousand
men, yet money was often wanting for the daily ex*
penditure.
Brunswick and Hesse were enfeebled by the partition
of their territories. Two princes were descended from
duke Ernest, one of whom reigned at Luneburg and the
other at Wolfenbiittel, with the title of duke ; and the
house of Luneburg had been agam subdivided into inferior
branches. But the house of Hes3e sufiered still more
severely, from the hatred which, inflamed by religious ani-
mosity and political jealousy, had become habitual between
the landgraves of Darmstadt and Cassel ; the former of
whom continued to profess the Lutiieran faith, while the
latter adopted the system of the Calvinists : and the inher-
itance of the landgrave of Marburg furnished them with
an especial occasion of dispute. The mutual exaspera-
tion of the two families was never more keen than under
Maurice, who reigned at Cassel, and who was not an igno-
rant prince, although he was so little capable of elevating
his views above the character of his age, tiiat he took a
perscmal share in the prevalent controversies, and en-
deavored to carry Calvin's ideas into execution by force.
The Lutherans ddighted themselves with manifesting
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976 vmrrEMAi* Hirresr.
how raany particulars there were in which the CaMaists
accorded with the Turks ; and how the htter were tteycr*
theless better than the former : while 4he Caliriaists wef9
of the opinion, " that wlien fire and water should unite
without ttie one being dried up, or the other extinguished,
then, and not till then, an union with the Lutherans might
be supposed possible." With these sentiments, each pai^
tj carried on its part in the contest separately ; and the
consequence was, that the Catholics easily got the better of
both.
At this period the court of France was too much oooo*
pied with the party disputes by which it was agitated, to
interest itself iii the afiairs of Europe. Holland was alst
divided by faction ; and the great ^Atholder, prince Mau*
rice, died of grief for the loss of Breda. King Janie^
instead of afibrding his son-in-law any assistance, was oecu*
pied with the visionary idea of obtaining in in£inta for his
son : and Charles was educated in despotic principles, und
devoted to Buckingham. Christian the Fourth, king of
Deumark, when he saw Germany almost reduced to sub<-
jection, perceived the dangers to which the neighboring
states were likely to be exposed ; and possessing the phV*
fical strength of the old northern heroes, as well as their acr
tivity and love of glory, took arms in favor of the Pro-
testants : but his deficiencies in arrangement and in the
science of war were so great and evident, that be was
quickly convinced of his own impotence. Sigismundy
king of Poland, who had sacrificed the kingdom of Sweden
to bis devotion to the mass, was transported with senseless
exultation at the misfortunes of the German Protestants.
SECTION V.
1CA9TUA.
The house of Gonzaga, which had govemeo inantua
and Montserrat, became extinct in Italy; and Charles duke
of Nevers and Rethel, a descendant of a brother of the
first duke, sim'ived alone in France : but the Spaniards,
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XSniTRJkBAL HISTORT* 877
AOtwkhstandifig his ckiniy took possesekiD of the country ;
and the imfortunaie Mantua, the. seat of the fine arts and of
peaceable vi^ptuoiisness, was ravaged with 6re and sword
by the barbarous Caria Malat^ta, who respected neither
right nor station. ,
' But Cardinal Richelieu, who had now overcome tl^e ri-
vals of his power in the ministry of France, perceived the
importance of having a princely family in Lombardy in
the interest of his country ; and on tliis account he main-
tained the title of the duke of Nevers so efiectually, that
the Spaniards were obhged to consent to a treaty of peace
at Cherasco, by which Charles became duke of Mantua,
and obtained a patt of Montserrat (A. D. 1631); while
the remainder of the latter country was added to the do-
minions of duke Victor Amadeus the First, of Savoy.
Richelieu manifested a just sense of the important ad-
vantages that would accrue to the house of Habsburg b^
the proposed appropriation of the Valtelline t^itory, which
would give continuity to |heir German and Italian domin-
kms. The Catholics of that district had murdered all
the Protestants in one day (A. D. 1620) ; and in order to
free themselves from the authority of the confederates,
who were mostly heretics, had applied for protectbn to the
Spanish government at Milan ; which, by means of the
clergy, had instigated their previous measures : while the
Swiss, who should have assisted the confederates, were
divided among themselves by religious differences and by
Spanish pensions. But even this state of perplexity as-
sisted the projects of Richelieu.
SECTION VL
CABDINAL RICBEUBU.
Richelieu found France divided between the power of
the king and that of the nobles ; provincial governors in
possession of legal authority; parliaments in a state of
formidable opposition to the court ; foreign connections ne- ^
glpcted ; the treasury empty ; the military department in
VOL. iu« 24
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2rB uNxvfiJisAi. HMCwnr.
a stste of die utmoBl disorder; the govemmeiit conduoled
upon ix> fixed principles, and the throne destitute of digoky*
Notwithstaodmg all these difficulties^ Richelieu had the
bddness to renew the designs of Henry the Great, for the
diminution of the power of the house of Habsburg which
was now more than ever prepboderant.
This project was facilitated hy the miinner in which Fer-
dband abused hb good fortune. A. D. 1629. At the
time when the edict of restitution obliged the Protestant
/States to restore all the ecclesiastical domains which bad
been confiscated during the preceding seventy-four years,
the insolent haughdness and the exactions of the soldiery
had ofifended even the Catholics ; and Bavaria herself be-
gan to perceive, that as one state after another became
subjected until no effectual power of opposition should re-
mam, the value of her own alliance must sink proportion-
ally in the estimation of the conqueror. %
Ferdinand, throwing aside aU moderation, while his
troops were giving - alarm to tl^ frontiers of Switzerland,
proposed to the diet of Ratisbon to insist upon the validity
of the imperial claims on the united provinces of the
Netherlands : he opposed all participation of the French
in the afiidrs of Italy ; declared himself the enemy of Gus-
tavus Adolphus king of Sweden, whose cousins, the dukes
of Mecklenburg, had been outhiwed and banished without
even the form of a trial ; and endeavored to introduce a
standing army, which should be formed and maintained at
the expense of the empire, but should remain at his dis-
posal. At the same time, without the advice or consent
of the states, be gave the duchy of Mecklenburg, to bis
general Wallenstem ; and utterly disregarded the claims
of the ancient ducal family of that country, as well as
those of the electors of Brandenburg. ,
Twenty milli(xi& were in a few years extc»ted bom
Brandenburg, ten from Pomerania^ and seven fix>m Hesse ;
and the ministers of the emperor, arrayed in cosdy robes,
seemed to design by their magnificent appearance to in-
sult the depressed c<»>dition of the impoverished jmrinces.
The party of the opposition was disarmed, and Wallen-
stein was able to pronounce his own mandates and the corn-
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nttoids of the cotnri, as {mbHe kws : Im ftietid Egmdiarg,
the chief minister of the emperor, was commonly believed
to be designed as the future duke of Wirtemberg, and a
prince of Lorraine as the duke of Saxony ; while the pre-
sent elector, John Greoree, was now treated with indifier-
ence. Whether the habit of independence had rendered
the exalted power of the emperor mtolerable to the states,
or whether Ferdinand really designed to deter them from
future opposition by a tyrannical display of his authori^,
it is certain that a general feeling of subjection under a
heavy yoke was prevalent in the emphre.
SECTION vn.
GUSTAYUS ADOI.PHU8.
*
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was now in his
thirty-sixth year : his father had left him a well-confirmed
authority, though without treasure : the nobles who might
have endangered his power had been humbled in the pre-
ceding revolutions, and there was nothing to fear from
Russia, Poland^ or Denmark. The czar, Michael Ro-
manoff, purchased peace from the young king, at the ex-
pense of a part oi Livonia ; and the king of Denmark
renounced the claim which the house of Oldenburg had
hitherto maintained, to reign over the Swedes against their
will. The talents and energy of Gustavus obliged Sigis-
mund king of Poland, either entirely to abandon his long
cherished hope of restoration to the throne of Sweden, <x
at least to defer his expectations to a more remote enu
The mterest which Gustavus took in the fate of the house
of Mecklenburg, accustomed th^ oppressed and discon-
tented portion of die empire to lode upon him as their
protector. '
Crermany appeared, in reality, to be the country in
which he might seek for power and opulence with the
greatest prospect of success : he knew that, though the
royal power was circumscribed in Sweden by definite laws,
yet the devotion of nations to extraordinary men is not to
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9MI vnamtmjos nwrprnt.
h% coained bj ruk$; aad he usdertook to render bm
people a nation of heroes.
His method of conducting war was of his own inventioni
and founded upon excellent principles : he was weU ac-
quainted with the experience and the maxims of antiquity '
but bis intelligent fmind was able to modify them accordinz
to the nature of tbe weapons and other circumstances of
modern times : he felt the inconveniences of tbe beavy in*
fantry ; and as be placed more reliance on the execution
of manoeuvres than on physical strength, he disposed that-
species of fprce in smaller divisions, and mixed tbem in
platoons among the cavalry. Together with the lofty char-
acter of bis genius, which manifested itself in the great-
ness of his plans, he combined the power of attention to
minute details in tbe organization of nis army, and a calm
and penetrating insist into circuHistaoces of the greatest
mtricacy : he also knew how to inflame his troops with
teli^u^ ardor.
His habits were of tbe most simple kind : though a mfiQ
of huge stature, be shared in all the bodily fatigues of his
soldiers ; though the boldness of bis enterprises astonished
the world, he was personally mild, beneficent, susceptible
of friendship and love, eloquent, popular, and full of re*
liance on Providence : the prindpad traits of bis charact^
were magnanimity and gentieness.
Gustavus, by his sudden and unexpected appearance in
the empire, by bis irresistible progress, and finally, by the
victory of Leipsic, revived the confidence of the protestant
princes in their own power. With their assistance he. de-
feated the best generals of the emperor ; over-ran tbe whole
of Lower Germany, to tbe Rhine and tbe Danube ; and
at length, in the battie of liutzen (A. D. 1632), found a
victorious death, which the greatest commanders would
prefer to the longest life.
The commerce of Mecklenburg, and the support which
tbe emperor afforded to the king of Poland, would have
sufficed to justify this interference of Gustavus : but both
tbe king oi Sweden and the court of France had naturally
andjustly been alarmed at the union of the whole power
of Germany, in the band of a ruler who assumed the tone
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' UmVERSJUL filSTOBT. Sgl
of an universal sovereien : aod the efficacy of a good im«
litary system, directed oy the energetic genius of a sinde
leader, wp never more eminently displayed than on mis
occasion.
A. D. 1632. Gustavus Adolphus had educated com-
manders, who, subsequent to his death, and to the separate
peace concluded by the elector of Saxonv (A. D. 1635),
(continued for sixteen years to maintain the reputation of
tjie Swedish arms and the cause which they had adopted,
until the conclusion of the peace of Westphalia. Baniet
resembled the late king in peneti'ation, as well as in his
countenance ; he knew as well how to conquer, as after a
defeat to assume such a posture as though he had not been
beaten ; and had the art to compel the. confederated
princes to continue on the side of the Swedes, or at least
not to take part against them. They were all equal to
Torstenson as generals ; but the latter was superior to most
of them in private virtues.
SECTION vm.
RICHELIEU.
A. D. 1634. When the affairs of Sweden, tStet the
defeat at Nordlingen, appeared to have fallen into the ut*
most peril, Richelieu openly declared his designs. TIm
cardinal, who had the perseverance of an old Roman, and
whose resolutions were as circumspect and mature as those
of a senator of Venice, was the all-powerful minister of
Lewis thq Thirteenth, who stood gready in need of such a
statesman. He entertained and carried into efiect the plan
of rendering France the most powerful state in Europe.
Though the mother and the brother of his master were the
chief movers of many conspiracies against his authority and
his life ; while the king, who was in all respects a weak
man, regarded him rather with fear than affection ; though
the French army was far inferior to the veteran troops of
the emperor, and the finances in the utmost disorder;
•Ibough the nation was ignorant of his iperit, and the nobles
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UHIFZIUAI. HISTOmT.
eontiiiiially eaUed his attentioD from the moat important
afiairs of state by their petty court cabals, yetRicheliea
had in great measure contributed to fix the determinatioa
of the king of Sweden ; he carried mto execution the de-
signs of the latter (which were left at his death in a half
complete state) and disappomted the revjying hopes of the
enemies of France*
Sweden possessed great men, who had only one deficien-
cy, which the cardinalhad it in his power to supply : name-
ly, the resources of a powerful state.
A. D. 1635. In the year after the battle of Nordlingeo,
the troops of France simultaneously attacked the Austrian
monarchy at every accessible point, in order to prevent the
forces ot the latter from acting with decisive efiect m any
quarter. They commenced operations in the Vakelliney
in, order, that it might be more difficult to recrait the im*
perial armies out of Italy, and that the latter country might
be secured from any attempts on the part of the Germans;
while they might give occupation, in Flanders, to the Span-
iards, and in Ae empire, relieve the Swedes. A body of
twenty thousand infruitiy and seven thousand cavahy acted
against Flanders ; three corps, each consisting of ten thou-
sand infantry and four thousand cavalry, covered the fron*
tiers on the side of the Netherlands, Lorraine, and Bur-
gundy; and other armies were employed in the empire
and in Italy. At the period when Richelieu entered upon
his administration, France was in possession of no ships of
war ; yet within ten years, a French naval force burned
and destroyed a whole Spanish f]eet. The United Pro-
vinces received an annual subsidy of 1,200,000 livres;
Sweden and Savo^, each 1,000,000; and several princes
of the empire, vanous sums. The frontiers were forufied ;
and the annual expenses of the war amounted to 60,000,000,
although France was not particularly oppressed with new
taxes. In the year in which the cardinal died, the crown
estates produced 22,500,000; the forests and waters,
1,600,000; casual sources of revenue (including a loan
of 8,000,000), 37,000,000; the greater and lesser taille,
the voluntary contributions.of the clergy, and the territories
of the states. 61,6pO,000; the farmed imposts amounted
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t7NIVERSAL HISTORY* tSM
not to more than 26,000,000 : and though the sum total
scarcely exceeded 125,000,000, 10,000,000 remained in
the treasury after all the demands upon it were satisfied*
Five millions three hundred thousand were expended in
the maintenance of foreign relations ; 3,490,000 for secret
. services, and 2,785,000 for pensions : the minister of state
had at his disposal 2,272,000; the expenses of the war
by land amounted to 58,565,000 ; and those of the navy,
CO 6,700,000 ; the permanent interest of the debt demand-
ed 1,455,756; secret alSairs in tlie interior, 2,600,000;
and extraordinary disbursements were estimated at
2,000,000.
Richelieu had found France in a state of commotion,
with an exhausted treasury, and destitute of political influ-
ence,; he Jeft it, (A, D. 1642), after seven years of war, far
more opulent than it bad been during the seventeen years
of peace which elapsed between the administration of Sully
and his own ; and with an external influence which was
decisively displayed in the negociations for the peace of
Westphalia. The duke of Mantua was indebted to him
for his territory ; the Orisons for the most beautiful district
of their dominions, and the Protestant party in Germany
for its consistency : he supplied Sweden with the means
of carrying on a long, glorious, and advantageous war;
and laid the foundation of the power of Liewis the Four-*
teenth.
' Upper Burgundy still belonged to Spain, and Alsace to
Austna. Ancient treaties of neutrality, concluded under
the mediation of the Swiss, guaranteed Upper burgundy,
and the French frontiers on that side. It was of the ut-
most importance to the king of Spain to continue in peace-
able possession of the latter country; as his connection with
the Netherlands was by that way secured;; whenever he
waS' on friendly terms with Savoy or Switzerland, his troops
had a convenient road through this country from Italy, to-
ward the Austrian dominions of Alsace, into the territories
duefly of ecclesiastical princes, and into Lorraine ; through
lAich they arrived in the Belgian districts. If the plan
respecting the Vakelline had entirely succeeded, the do>-
I rf the house of Habsburg would have surrounded
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UNIVERSAL BISTORT.
and cime in contact with all those European states which
were most important from their situation, populousness,
and fertility, fix>m Sicily to Holland and Poland. Henry
the Fourth, in order to break this chain, had exchanged
Bresse, Biigey, and Gex, for Saluzzo, at the peace of
hvons ; and ftichelieu, in the same spirit, took advantage
ot the discontent of the prince of Mumpelnurdt who had
been (tended by the haughty conduct of Spain, to draw
him over to the French mterest; The cardinal alleged
several instances in which the compact relating to the neu-
trality had been infringed, for the purpose of prevendng
its renewal : and the Swiss were at last obliged to leave
this frontier to its fate. As soon as the connection was
thus interrupted,^ the family of Habsburg experienced the
utmost difficulty in the defence of its widely extended fron-
tiers ; and the French entered Upper Bui^undy, Alsace,
and the contiguous territories of Austria, witiiout much
difficulty. Richelieu thus prepared the way fen: the incor«-
g>ration of the two first ; just as Henry the Second had
rmerly facilitated the conquest of jJorraine, by taking
possession of the three bishoprics.
Richelieu concluded a treaty with HoUand for the par-
tition of the Spanish Netherlands ; where Frederick-Heniy,
the old prince of Orange, maiutained the fame of his broth-
er's arms. But the republic was aware that France was
become a mdre formidable neighbor than Spain : and
Frederick-Henry prosecuted the war without vigor, and
thus acquired a reputation for policy equal to his. former
fame as a soldier.
The allies of Richelieu frequently failed to give him all
the support in their power, and sometimes abandoned him
entirely : he would not, however, make peace at their ex-
pense ; but perceiving how important their very existence ^
was to die authority of his court, seemed to excuse their
conduct on account of the difficulties of their situation.
A. D. 1642. The cardinal died in the midst of the
war, which he was carrjrbg on against the emperor and die
king of Spain. The exhausted (empire stooa at this time
peady in need of peace ; but the weakness of the minor*
rty of Lewis the Fourteenth seemed to hold out a prospect
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of concluding it at a later period, with less disadvantage to
Austria. It was well knoWn that the Swedes would be un*
able to continue the war without powerful support ; and
negociations were commenced; but were prosecuted with
extreme slowness : the loss of a province would have been
less mischievous than the influence which France tlius ac-
quired in the affairs of the empire. .
But Conde and Turenne, heroes like those of antiquity,
began to announce their illustrious career : the former in
the plains of Rocroy (A. D. 1643), gave a deadly blow
to the Spanish infantry ; and all the art of Mercy was re-
quired to withstand, in the Black Forest, the arms of Tu-
renne, to whom these campaigns served as a school in the
art of war. The victorious army of duke Bernhard of
Weimar, was attached to the interest of the French, through
the influence of general Von Erlach. The Swiss con-
tributed more to the conclusion of peace by making an ir-
ruption into Bohemia, and obtaining possession of a part
of Prague, than the most subtle negociations could have
done : and the thirty years' war thus ended where it had
begun. The emperor was convinced that nothing was to
be eained by prosecuting it further ; the king of Spain had
forfeited Portugal, and was in danger of ..losing Naples.
The count d'Avaux, who was more earnestly bent upon the
conclusion of peace than any other individual in the French
ministry at Miinster, availed himself of these circumstan-
ces : his more penetrating colleague Abel Servien, had less
confidence in the good faith of his opponents, and his
views were not so disinterested.
Cardinal Mazarin now reigned in France ; for Lewis
die Fourteenth was only in his tenth year, and the queen*
mother Anna, daughter of Philip the Third, adopted the
policy of the minister. Richelieu had prepared the. way
tor great occurrences, which now seemed to follow as of
their own accord ; and their execution was facilitated by
the more pliant moderation of Mazarin, whose character
had less of over-awing greatness, and who was therefore
lett dreaded by the rest of Europe. Both these minl^rs
were iUustrious men, though in different ways.
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SECTION IX.
THE PEACE OF WiSSTFHALIA.
A.D. 1648. Peace was concluded in the Westphalian
towns of Miinster and Osnaburg, under the mediation of
the pope and the Venetians, between the em]>eror Ferdj-
nand the Third, Philip the Third, king of Spain, and the
princes of the empire who belonged to their party, on one
side ; and Lewis the Fourteenth, Christina, queen of Swe-
den, the states-general of the United Provinces, and those
princes oi the empu-e, mostty protestants, who were in
alliance with the French and Swedes, on the other. Only
France and Spain now remained at war. This peace is the
foundation of the whole modern system of European poli-
tics, of all modem treaties, of what is called the freedom
of Germany, and of a sort of balance of power among all
the countries of western Europe.
The arrangements of this treaty gave a more decided
form to the ecclesiastical and temporal polity of the em-
pire ; secured the advantages obtained in the late contest
oy France and Sweden ; ordained some new relations be-
tween the different powers, and altered the situation of the
great famflies of Germany. It will be useful, on diis oc-
casion, to take a view of different parts of the constitution
of the empire.
The emperors invest the ecclesiastical princes of the
empire, by means of the sceptre, with their feudal tempo-
ralities, but not until the pope has confirmed their flectipn :
and these princes, like the emperor himself, must observe
the conditions of a stipulation, into which, as is usual in
elective states, they are obliged to enter. The pope dis-
poses of all dignities in Rome, or within two days' journey
from that city, and of all such as become vacant by deposi-
tion, transfer, renunciation, or the invalidation of irregular
elections, or have been left by deceased cardinals and other
persons, who have held any office or dignity about the
person of his holiness ; as well as of all benefices of the
second class, which fall vacant in the odd months, as Jan-
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UNIT£B8AL UlSTOHT. / 287
uary, March, Ma^,'&z;c« Letters of grace, rescripts, pro-
visions, and coadiutories, are eitlier aouses, or at least ex-
traordinary methods of influencing the appointments to
ecclesiastical dignities : but these reservations of die holy
chair have been continually diminishing ever since the re-
formation.
In protestant countries, the ecclesiastical institutions de-
pend entirely on the supreme temporal power t in these
respects the princes of the several states have assumed thh
authority which was exercised in primitive times by the
communities, and in the middle ages by the pope. In con-
sequence of this arrangement, every change of creed which
took place among the princes of tne empire, between the
religious pacification and the treaty of Westphalia, was at-
tended with the most vexatious consequences to their sub-
jects : but at thfe latter period it was enacted, that the
evangelical party or Lutherans, and the reformed or Cal-
vinists, should enjoy in the empire absolute toleration and
the free exercise of their religious rites; and that the latter
should be independent of the opinions of the prince, and
should remain as they were practised by the majority of
the inhabitants in each country, on the first of January of
the Normal year, or 1624. It remains, however, a ques-
tion of 'jurisprudence, whether this Norma is binding be-
tween Lutherans and Calvinists inhabiting the same coun-
try, when that country has not been expressly named ; and
whether its authority extends to the Palatmate. ' When
any person becomes a protestant, who ii^ an inhabitant of
a country which had not adopted that cre^d before the
year 1624, he is allowed five years to sell or let his landed
property ; at the expiration of which period the sovereign
can compel him to quit his territory. When a {)rotestant
prince turns catholic, that circumstance has no influence
on the situation of his subjects, with regard to their relig-
ious establishments : but tne catholic jurists are of opinion,
tliat he may in this case grant a simultaneum to his new
companions in religious beUef. The protestants do not ac-
knowledge a prince, under these circumstances, to possess
his former power in ecclesiastical aflairs, because be held
tkat authority only as the chief of their religious commti«-
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288 mriTSRSAL bistort.
nity: and on the otber hand, a protestant prince does not
possess the same autiiority over the catholic part of lus
subjects, as in the churches of his own creed.
These regulations are not to be regarded as civil, but as
political laws, guaranteed in the peace of the empire ; the
spirit and form of which was discussed by the two religious
parties, in that character, not man to man, but rank to
rank. Such affairs belong neither to the imperial chamber,
nor tQ the council of the imperial cpurt, both of which are
tribunals of justice ; but to the national representation, or
imperial diet. It would have been diametrically opposite
to the spirit in which the peace was concluded, which was
intended to place both parties in an equality of rights, to
attempt to subject the ecclesiastical afikirs of the protestants
to lay tribunals ; because the authority of these courts m
such affairs is denied in the catholic church.
The treaty declared, that all grievances should be re-
moved within three years ; in default of which the sufiering
party should recur for assistance to France, Sweden, and
the other parties to the contract of peace. But, as it was
not possible to define accurately which was the suffering
party over the whole empire, this notable clause produced
no effect. ^
These arrangements are contained in the treaty of prirfcc,
concluded with the Swedes at Osnaburg : but Lewis the
Fourteenth, at Miinster, also guaranteed to the German
protestanu the exercise of the same faith which he per-
secuted in France with the utmost cruelty.
All the states of the empire were confirmed in their
common and peculiar rights and usages : the emperor en-
gages to enact or to expound no law ; to impose no tax ;
to carry on no war 5 to erect no fortification | and to con-
clude no alliance or treaty of peace, without their consent/
The states are permitted to ^ter at pleasure mto connec-
tions with each other, or with foreign powers, provided they
do nothing hostile to the emperor and empire,' prejudicial
to the peace of the country, or contrary to their feudal
oaths. Diets are to be held frequently ; the imperial com-
pact taken at the time of election 5 the order of execution,
and the police and justice of the empire, are to be reformed
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UNIVEBSAL HISTORY. 289
and regulated. Commerce is to be protected, and no new
toUs are to be imposed.
As the constitution of the aulic council had fallen into
confusion, in consequence of the religious differences, as
well as of the abuses of the supremacy and power of the
states, a plan for an improvement in its order had been
sketched previously to the war. Some things relating to
this new arrangement were determined by the treaty of
peace; but it was never entirely accepted or rejected.
This highest tribunal of the empire has no distinctly pre-
scribed form of procedure : a judge, chosen from among
the counts or lords, is its chief; and he is assisted by pre-
sidents and assessors, a number of writers and readers, and
a crowd of procurators and agents. The affairs of this tri-
bunal are introduced in audiences, and transacted in sen-
ates ; which consist of the assessors, who are appointed
and maintained by the states of the empire : their number
ought to be fifty ; twenty-four of whom are elected by the
states of the protestant party, and an equal number by
those of the catholics, and two are nominated by the em-
peror ; but it was found impossible to provide for the re-
muneration of so great a number : the income of the aulic
demesne never exceeded 70,000 dollars ; nor did the as-
sessors ever exceed the half of tlie number prescribed.
In consequence of these deficiencies, together with the dis-
use of any arrangement in the order of the processes, the
decline of the visitations, and the complexity arising from
every change in the affairs of Europe and of the empire,
as well with regard to the processes as to the party spirit
of the members of the court ; the confusion, and the arrear
of untransacted business, is augmented almost to infinity.
Four presidents were ordained ; but only two, (both of
whom as well as the judge were appointed by the em-
peror,) could be maintained. This tinbunal is influential
not merely by its decisions : the resolutions of the senate,
which by practice become precedents, iinpart to it in effect
a share of the legislative power ; and the dvhia which it
lays before the diet, are similar to motions, which are sel-
dom infringed upon.
By this treaty, the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and
VOL. III. 25
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290 UNIVERSAL HISTOBT.
Verdun, which had been so long ago acquired, together
with Moyenvic, were formally confirmed to France, but
with the reservation of the metropolitan rights of Treves :
Austria abandoned the town of Breisach, the landgraviate
of Alsace, and the imperial jurisdiction of the ten cities ;
and the king soon began to arrogate more than had been
transferred to him: the ten imperial cities came to be
tre^ed as municipal towns, and the nobles, who possessed
estates in Alsace, as French vassals; and both were obliged
by degrlees to submit. Even the imperial union of Stras-
biirg, including the bishopric and city and the monasteries
of Marbach and Ludern, soon existed only in name and*
in the claim to a few estates lying on the hither side of the
Rhine.
The dominions of the dukes of Pomerania Stettin, the
city of Wismar in the territory of Mecklenburg, and the
confiscated ecclesiastical principalities of Bremen and Ver-
dun, were the indemnification of Sweden. Pomerania, in
pursuance of ancient compacts of inheritance, ought to
have reverted to Brandenburg; and Frederick- William
received as an indemnity for that part which had been con-
firmed to Sweden, the secularized archbishopric of Mag-
deburg, and the confiscated bishoprics of Halberstadt, Min-
den, and Camin.
This prince, the successor of a weak and betrayed fa-
ther, in a few years laid the foundation of the greatness of
Prussia. The possession of Pomerania, a country abound-
ing in luxuriant pastures, where the Oder was to be the
bqundary between the Swedes and Prussians, and which
afforded an important commercial road for the Polish and
Silesian products, laid Germany and Poland open to the
Swedes. The elector, on the other hand, acquired a terri-
tory far more fertile than his former dominions; while
Mi n den put him in possession of a country much nearer
to the hereditary dominions of Juliers, to which he had
pretensions.
Wismar, a city which was formerly an important mem-
ber of the Hanseatic league, and which, together with Ros-
tock, was the best town in the dominions of Mecklenburg,
afforded the Swedes a good harbor : and the dukes were
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UNIVERSAL HISTORT. 291
remunerated for this sacrifice with the secularized bishop-
rics of Schweria and Ratzeburg, and the benefices of Mi-
row and Nemerow, belonging to the order of St. John.
Bremen commanded the mouth of the Weser, and Ver-
11 dAi gave Sweden an influence in the circle of Westphalia,
which, together with the other acquisitions of that crown,
was sufficient to have laid the foundation of a permanent
interest in Germany.
In this treaty the Swiss confederacy also was declared
to be perfectly independent of the German empire, and
exempt from its tribunals. This declaration, which was
obtained by John Rudolf Wetstein, burgomaster of Basel,
was the joint effect of the intercession of the French, and
of the desire which the emperor had to procure a good
understanding with the Swiss. '
With .regard to Italy, the peace of Cherasco was con-
firmed.
Holland, which, as soon as it was acknowledged by
Spain as an independent republic, had no farther motive
for continuing the war, made a separate peace, in which
France, its ally, took no part. The old prince Frederick-
Henry, who was now dead, had pointed out to the states
how important it was, for the preservation of their freedom,
that their enfeebled neighbors, the Spaniards, should be
left io possession of their remaining dominions in the Ne-
therlands. The party of the opposition also wished for an
opportunity of removing the army from under the disposal
of the ambitious stadtholder, William the Second.
The independence of Holland and its East Indian con-
quests, was acknowledged and confirmed by Spain : the
two countries agreed mutually to forbear from navigating
near each other's coasts ; as the Dutch wished to exclude
all competitors from the Spice Islands, and the Spaniards
to shut up the country in which her gold-mines are situa-
ted, with the most jealous care. The European ports of
both countries were to be open to each ; and neither was
to impose heavier duties on the other, than those which
were levied from their own subjects.
The spirit of all the commercial treaties of the Span-
iards, consists in preserving to themselves a monopoly of
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292 UNIVERSAL HISTO&T.
the commerce with their transmarine dominions, and in
availing themselves of the industry of other European na-
tions : they did not even seek those commodities in the
countries where they are manufactured*; but encouraged
the foreigners who brought them to their coasts. The
only piece of good policy which they adopted in this re-
spect consisted in bestowing equal privileges on the mer-
chants of different nations, in order that they might profit
by the competition : and on this principle the Hanseatic
towns soon obtained the same facilities as the Dutch.
The Spaniards abandoned Maestricht, which had been
taken by Frederick-Henry, to the Dutch, on condition
that the prince-bishop of Liege should retain his preroga-
tives in the internal administration of the city. They dso
gave up Bois-le-duc, Breda, Bergen-op-Zoom, Gravelines,
and Hulst; and afterwards Dalem, Valkenberg, and the
country of Rolduc : and commissioners were appointed to
decide all doubtful points, and to regulate the tolls.
Holland, after a severe . struggle of eighty years, thus
obtained from its ancient enemy the prize of its persever-
ance ; and acquired his esteem and confidence, as well as
the Dutch Netherlands : and from that period the court of
Brussels depended upon the Hague for the maintenance
of its power.
John-George, elector of Saxony, who was reigning at
the commencement of the thirty years' war, and who sur-
vived its conclusion, had received the margraviate of Lau-
sitz as an hereditary pledge, on condition of assisting the
emperor in the reduction of the protestants of Bohemia,
and of accommodating himself as far as possible to the
wishes of the imperial court. The states of the Lausitz
had formerly devoted themselves; with the consent of Lewis
of Bavaria, elector of Brandenburgh, to the emperor
Charles the Fourth, king of Bohemia ; and Ferdinand the
Second now transferred their country to the dominion of
Saxony.
The misfortunes of the elector Palatine and the resdess
ambition of Maximilian of Bavaria, had the following ter-
mination : All the states of the empire which had suffered
in consequence of the disputes concerning Bohemia, or
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UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 293
«
from the thirty years' war, were reinstated in their properties
.and rights ; except that the duke of Bavaria retained that
rank in the college of electors which had formerly belonged
to the elector Palatine, together with the Upper Palatinate
and its capita], Amberg : in return for which he remitted
a demand on the emperor of thirteen millions, and the
claims of Bavaria to the country of Upper Austria. On
the other hand, Charlesr Lewis, son of the unfortunate
elector and king Frederick^ who died in grief and poverty,
and the place of whose burial is not even known, was re-
instated in the Palatinate, and an eighth place was ci'eated
for him in the electoral college : it was also settled, that in
the event of the house of Bavaria becoming extinct, the
elector Palatine should resume the fifth seat in that college,
together with the Upper Palatinate; and should give a
compensation to the allodial heirs of Bavaria. The other
expelled branches of the Palatine family, were in like
manner restored to their rights, with the exception of cer-
tain fiefs, which remained in the possession of those on
whom they had been bestowed, durmg the war, by the ex-
isting masters of the Palatinate.
The dukes of Wurtemberg were restored in this man-
ner: and the county of Mumpelgard retained the fiefs
which it possessed in Alsace, as well as Clairval and Pas-
savant, m Upper Burgundy.
The margraves of Baden, at Hochberg, were also in-
cluded in the amnesty ; and every thing contained in the
edict of restitution which had reference to these princes, as
indeed the whole of that act, was annihilated by die present
peace.
The duke of Croi was likewise included in tha peace,
and his dependence on France was without prejudice to
his interests.
For the rest, those who had suffered any loss previous
to their adoption of the party of France or Sweden, re-
ceived no indemnification ; while such nobles as had suf-
fered losses after their declaration in favor of one or other
of those crowns, received indemnities. On this principle
the emperor was willing to do justice to his pr6testant sub-
jects in Bohemia and his hereditary dominions ; but what
VOL. III. 25*
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294 UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
they had lost was regarded as having been forfeited hf the
laws of war.
The peace of Westphalia indemnified the landgrave of
Hesse Cassel with the secularized abbacy of Hersfeld, the
possession of the greater part of the Westphalian county of
Schaumburg, and the acknowledgment of feudal superiority
over the smaller portion, which was bestowed on the broth-
er-in-law of the last count and noble lord of Lippe. The
feudal superiority of the county of Waldeck, a district ad-
vantageously situated, fertile, and abounding in mineral
riches, was also confirmed and guaranteed to the land-
graves; and the right of primogeniture was confirmed in
both the families of Hesse. M these advantages were
obtained by the talents and energy of Amelia of Hanau,
mdow of William the Sixth, for a family which was desti-
tute of a ruling head (William the Seventh being in his
minority), which was oppressed by its relatives, betrayed
by its generals, and in the most imminent peril of utter ruin.
The new masters of the secularized ecclesiastical princi-
palities took their seats on the b^nch of the temporal
{rinces. Protestant bishops and prelates were elected at
iubeck, and alternately at Osnaburg, at Quedllnburg, Her-
vorden, Gemrode, and Gandersheim. In consideration
that the family of Holstein had delayed the secularization
of Lubeck, the chapter determined to elect six bishops in
succession from that family ; and the sixth procured his
son to be named coadjutor. It was resolved that whenever
the turn should come to the protestants at Osnaburg, the
bishop should be elected from the Hanoverian family of
Brunswick.
The whole treaty, although concluded in two places, was
declared to be ofie instrument, one fundamental law of die
German empire, and a pragmatic sanction : and was guar-
anteed by France and Sweden. The constitutions of Grer-
raany, Holland, and Switzerland, thus acquired a simul-
taneous recognition and guarantee.
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tTKiyE&SAL HtSfORT. SIS
SECTION X.
SPAIN.
The war continued eleven years longer between France
and Spain ; but was feebly prosecuted, even on the part
of the former. During the minority of Lewis the Four-
teenth, disorders arose which reduced even Conde, and
shortly afterwards Turenne, to go over to the side of the
Spaniards. But the twofold despotism under which Spain
suffered, had enfeebled that kingdom to such a degree, as
to render it incapable of taking advantage of favorable oc-
currences.
Cardinal Mazarin, in person, at length concluded a
treaty in the Isle of Pheasants, with Don Lewis de Haro,
Spanish minister of state ; which was denominated, from
the neighboring mountains, the peace of the Pyrenees.
Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip the Fourth^ married
the young king of France (A. D. 1659), who renounced
all the hereditary pretensions arising from this aQiance :
the county of Rousillon was transferred to him ; and the
Pyrenees, as they ought naturally to be, rendered the boun-
dary of the two monarchies : on the side of Flanders, the
county of Artois was united to France, and the trade of the
latter country with Spain placed on the footing of the most
favored nations.
Don Lewis, who concluded this treaty, had succeeded
to the power and office of the count duke de Olivarez, who
had acquired the favor of Philip the Fourth by methods
of every description, not excepting the most ignoble, and
afterwards kept him long in a state of subjection ; for which
no political good fortune indemnified the king. Haro was
ignorant and irresolute ; and full of the idea 3iat the power
of his master, which he had appropriated to himself, was
superior to that of all other princes and states. For this
reason, he took no pains to infuse new life into the mo-
narchy : on the contrary, the military departmetat was ne-
glected, and the sums designed for diat service dissipated
on other objects ; the energy of the generals was held in sub-
iection by slavish fear, and public spirit was entirely extinct.
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896 CrHIVERSAL HI8T0XT.
SECTION XI,
PORTUGAL.
During this war, the court of Spam had forfeited the
kingdom of Portugal. The Portuguese had reason to de*
test the foreign masters to whom they owed the loss of the
East Indies, and who contributed by their haughtiness and
oppressions at Lisbon, to maintain the national antipathy.
The Spanisli court had permitted the pope to practise an
oppressive despotism over Portugal b matters relating to
the constitution. The court chamber was subjected to the
bann, because it had imposed taxes according to the laws,
upon the estates of the ecclesiastics. The finances were
exhausted on objects foreign to the interests of the nation,
while their celebrated navy was suiSered to fall into decay.
A. D. 1640. Under these circumstances, Don John
duke of Braganza, overturned the Spanish d)masty m Por-
tugal, almost without the sheddins of blood, by the mere
declaration that he was the legitimate king. He was a
ruler of moderate abilities, and his character by no means
enterprising : the power of Spain was in the vicinity, and
Braganza had scarcely any external assistance. The
quarrel, for it hardly deserved to be called a war, continued
twenty-eight years ; and Braganza maintained possession
of the throne by the will of the people. The states of the
kingdom acknowledged Don John the Fourth : they re-
newed the fundamental laws of Lamego ; and declared that
if the king should die without heirs, and should survive his
brother, his nephew should inherit the sovereignty.
The Jesuits acquired so much influence over John the
Fourth and his queen, Louisa Gusman, of the family of
Medina Sidonia, that they might more properly be said to
reign in Portugal; while other individuals of their order
exerted its credit and influence in support of the court of
Spain. The king endeavored to gain over the maritime
powers of Europe for the support of his authority : he pro-
mised a port of Brazil to the Dutch; he allowed a free
trade to the English, not only in Portugal but in her Afri-
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T7NIVERSAL HISTORT. 29T
candommions (A. D. 1641); and promised to treat the
French in the same manner as the most friendly powers.
These treaties appeared to be equally favorable to all the
maritime powers ; but then: solid advantages were the prize
of the most industrious.
SECTION xn.
GREAT BRITAIN.
The kingdom of Great Britain was involved in a civil
war, which was rather the effect of the natural course of
afiairs than of the great abuses of royal power, or of any
systematic plan pursued by the opposition. After the de-
struction of the higher class of the nobility and of the pro-
perty of the citizens which took place during the civil wars,
and the consequent immoderate elevation of the power of
the crown, the prosperous age of Elizabeth conferred ex-
traordinary opulence on the commons, who, during the
reigns of James and Charles, acquired the courage to em-
ploy it' for their own benefit.
Charles perhaps imagined that he was only exercising
his hereditary powers, of which his pedantic father had
given him ideas altogether erroneous. He replied to re-
presentations with severity ; and expected to be able to
give a degree of authority to his proclamations, which the
victors of Agincourt and Cressy would scarcely have ven-
tured to demand. At the same time he irritated cardinal
Richelieu by his feeble support of the French Huguenots,
and Austria by words, though not by actions, in favor of
his brother-in-law the elector palatine. He offended the
English by his predilection for the Roman catholic faith;
and the favored missionaries of that church forgot the
maxims of prudence : one of their number proved that
the pope was legiiimate lord of England and Ireland ;
another, that unless the Irish catholics were indulged with
the unrestrained possession of their religion, they had a
right to elect another king ; and the nuncio of the queen,
who was a French princess, displayed his influence with a
splendor which was odious in the eyes of the people.
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298 UNIVERSAL IIISTORT.
Queen Elizabeth, without regard to the resources of her
successors, had alienated many of the crown estates:
James was prodigal towards his favourites ; and Charles
fell into difficulties in consequence of the disordered state
of his financial affairs, and endeavored to obtain money
by imposing taxes without the consent of the parliament.
He manifested, on all occasions, a perseverance which
was utterly destitute of foundation in system and in know-
ledge of men ; and therefore often showed that timidity
and irresolution, on the appearance of opposition, which
are usually manifested in the efforts of a man of clouded
understanding. Charles was magnanimous, amiable, and
learned ; but deficient in steadfast exertion, in the gift of a
sound judgment, and in the dignity and vigor necessary to
the situation in which he stood.
Samuel Vassall, who afterwards founded the town of
Boston in New England, was the first member of parlia-
ment who opposed the illegal levy of a tax on the impor-
tation of every pound or cask of certain commodities.
The king exacted the customs, during fifteen years, with-
out authority from the parliament ; an arbitrary tax was
levied on ships (A. D. 1640) ; many feudal privileges and
ancient abuses were exercised with increased severity;
contributions and loans, called voluntary, were exacted by
force; soccageswere arbitrarily demanded, and distributed
with partiality ; the rights of pre-emption and purveyance
were exercised in an offensive manner ; personal freedom,
or the people's privilege of being tried by their equals,
and of remaining unmolested in their own house^, was in-
fringed in various modes ; the forms of law were disre-
garded by the court of star-chamber ; martial law was
exercised in time of peace ; Englishmen were subjected
to long and extremely injurious imprisonments, and op-
pressed with exorbitant fines ; and, to crown the whole,
their rights and complaints were treated with neglect, and
even contempt.
From the discussions to which these grievances gave
rise, arose others relating to tlie nature and origin of polit-
ical constitutions. The nation, uncertain to whom the su-
preme power justly belonged, consulted its interests : a civil
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UNIT£RSAL HISTORY. 299
war arose ; and, amidst the conflict of the passions, the
state negociations and the common rights of war were fol-
lowed by the disappearance of all subjection, the suppres-
sion of the prevailing form of worship, and of all estab-
lished forms and authorities. Enthusiasts, equally inac-
cessible to reason or revelation, to a senS; of propriety or
any moral restraint, exercised the most irresistible influence
on tlie course of events. The high church sunk into mis-
ery, the ancient nobility were degraded to the level of the
mob, the whole constitution fell into ruin, and tlie king
finally perished by the axe of the executioner.
The horror of this deed pervaded all Europe : ^ven
Alexei Michailovitsch deprived the English of the commer-
cial privileges which they had enjoyed in Russia.
SECTION xm.
RUSSIA.
The empire of Russia recovered slowly and with diffi- '
culty from the effects of a revolution, which had no resem-
blance either to that of Portugal or of England.
Fedor, the son of the czar Ivan Vasilievitsch, and the
last prince of the family of Rurik, having died without male
heirs (A. D. 1598), the Bojars elected Irene Gudenov,
his widow, as successor to the throne : but as she refused
to accept that dignity, the patriarch of Moscow, the arch-
bishop of Novogorod, the princes of the royal family, the
Bojars, and all the nobility, united their votes in favor of
Boris Gudenov, her brother.
The new czar was honored with embassies from Sha
Abbas the Great, king of Persia, the emperor Rudolf the
Second, the kings of the North, and the Hanse towns.
Boris, in imitation of the policy of Ivan, protected the
commerce of Lubeck and Stralsund ; gave the same privi-
leges to the Dutch as to the English, and allowed the Ger-
man protestants the free exercise of their religion. He
further encouraged commerce by loans without interest : a
duty of five per cent, was levied upon all imported articles ;
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300 UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
but every man was permitted to export goods to the amount
of his imports, free of duty.
A. D. 1604. Boris was governing his empire with wis-
dom and reputation, when Gregory Atrepieff, a young monk,
conceived the project of attempting to obtain possession of
the throne of Kn^ia. Boris was accused of having put to
death, by different methods, both the late czar and his
brother prince Demetrius : Atrepieff personated the latter,
fersuaded the vayvode of Sendomiers, and many other
^olish noblemen, of the truth of his pretensions ; and pro-
mised, if he should be restored by their arms, to aggran-
dise them, and to favor the Roman catholic faith : many
of the Bojars forsook the czar, who died of grief, and left
the throne to his son Fedor.
A. D. 1605. Moscow was conquered by the Poles,
and Dmitri ascended, as was supposed, the throne of his
fathers, and married the daughter of the vayvode of Sen-
domiers. It is on many accounts doubtful, whether the
legitimate heir of the monarchy was not concealed under
the name of Atrepieff: his administration was laudable;
he manifested an exalted mind, and displayed many vir-
tues : on the contrary, he appeared to prefer the customs
of Poland, and offended the pride of some of the nobles,
in such a manner as to occasion an insurrection which cost
him his life.
A. D» 1606. Wasilej Suskoi having been elected in
his place, another Dmitri pretended to be that unfortunate
czar. Moscow was besieged by the Poles ; and prince
Gallitzin compelled the czar to deliver himself up as a pris-
oner, in which condition he died.
The majority of the votes was now in favor of Vladis-
laf Vasa, a Polish prince, who by this election would have
been indemnified for the loss of the crown of Sweden, and
would have become the most powerful prince in the north
of Europe. But the same zeal for the Roman Catholic
religion, the difference of the manners, and the haughtiness
of the Poles, excited the indignation of the Russians.
Conspiracies, treasons, and murders, filled Moscow with
distrust and bloodshed : more than one general massacre
involved even the common citizens ; and the treasure of
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UNIVERSAL BISTORT. 301
the czar was transported to Warsaw. Three successive
Dmitris in this manner deluded the nation.
A. D. 1613. The great men and nobles of the empire,
wearied with the confusions that prevailed, assembled for
the purpose of deciding who should govern Russia. They
passed three days in fasting and prayer ; and so rigorously
was this ordinance observed, that even mothers refused their
milk to sucking babes. At length tlie nobles and the dep-
uties of the states united their votes in favor of a boy of
fifteen. Michaila Romanoff, a son of the archbishop Phil-
aretus, and grandson, by the mother's side, of the czar
Ivan Vasilievitsch, was raised to the throne ; and it was re-
solved that the czars should thenceforward be nominated
from the family of Romanoff, and invested with the sole
power of the administration.
Michaila ascended the throne of an humiliated empire :
all tlie institutions of Ivan, and all the useful regulations
that Boris attempted to introduce, had vanished ; the ex-
haustion was universal, and the influence of Poland and
Sweden predominant. The young czar conducted his
measures for the restoration of the power of his kingdom,
chiefly in a peaceable and imperceptible manner.
About this time the Cossacks began to attach themselves
to the Russians : a multitude of young men who wished
only to lead an independent life, had formed these hordes
on the shores of the Jaik and of the Caspian sea, where
they lived under the government of an ataman, in a repub-
lic without women. The czar afforded them protection,
and many of their number at length married their captives.
The Saporogian cossacks had collected in the region
about the falls of the Dnepr. Lyanskoronsky, a Polish
nobleman, whom they had chosen for tlieir ataman, had
conducted them into the Ukraine, and the prudent king
Stephen Bathori had taken them into his pay : but Sigis-
mund Vasa, and Vladislaf, in compliance with the urgent
entreaties of his counsellors, endeavouring to convert thera
by force to the Roman Catholic faith, the Saporogians ap-
Eealed to ai-ms. Vladislaf gained one victory by artifice,
ut in vain : their avenger, Chmielniizki, the conqueror
of the Polish generals, made an irruption into the kingdom,
VOL. III. 26
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302 UHITERSAL HI8TOBT.
at the head of 100,000 savage warriors, and obliged the
king, John Casimir Vasa, to make the peace of Szborow.
The latter had the weakness to al(ow this treaty to be
broken ; in consequence of which these free und valiant
hordes transferred themselves to Alexei Michailovitsch,
czar of Russia.
A. D. 1645. Under this Alexei, who was the father
of Peter the Great, Russia prepared herself for that splen-
did light which was soon to blaze forth with such rapidity
in her realm. As yet, indeed, her power was formidable
only to the Asiatics and to her own subjects. A. D. 1636.
Richelieu had an indistinct knowledge, that an emperor
and great duke of all Russia, Kasan, Astrachan, and Sibe*
ria, reigned in the North, and sent Talleyrand into his do-
minions as an ambassador : but as yet no ambassador re-
mained in Moscow longer than until his commission was
completed ; and Alexei could not comprehend for what
reason Frederick von Gabel wished to reside at his capi-
tal, on the part of Denmark. His knowledge of Europe
was derived from the answers that he received to his nu-
merous questions from foreign merchants ; until he at
length Caused a political gazette to be translated into the
language of bis court. *
He was the first czar who sent an embassy to the em-
Eeror of China ^ and hgLxaad^rttd J^obolsk the staple mar-
et for Cbiri|se silk, nreciou/ stones^^and other manufac-
tures. He *endeavore£Mo «ivert the commerce of the
Persians from its track, by way of Bassora and Haleb, and
to induce them to adopt the way across the Caspian, up
the Volga, and through Russia.
This plan was interrupted by the rebellion of Stenka
Raszyn, a cossack of the Don, the Pugatscheff of his age.
Raszyn corrupted the army, chiefly by promising to restore
the ancient liturgy, and to abolish that which had been re-
formed by the patriarch Nikon ; but his designs were be-
trayed by the ataman, and he was put to death by being
quartered.
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UNIVERSAL HISTOHT. 303
SECTION XIV.
THE TURKS.
While the czar was combating the hereditary barbarism
of his people, the empire of the Turks was falling to de-
cay. Under Achmed the First, Egyptian rebels, for the
first time, carried the head of the pacha about on a spear.
Distinguished qualities, no longer the means . of advance-
ment, now only served to expose their possessors to de-
struction ; and the welfare of the provinces was sacrificed
to avaricious courtiers.
The Turkish nation, or soldiery, for that people never
coalesced with the inhabitants of the country, remained
inaccessible to all improvements in the art of war, and to
all the progress of European civilization. Their language,
which is intermixed with a great number of Arabic, Per-
sic, and Zagay words, has different characters for the use
of the common people, the merchant, the man of learning,
and the statesman : there are no characters for the vowels,
and the thirty-three consonants have only seventeen cha-
racters to express them. Every district has Its peculiar
dialect. The books of the Europeans thus remained
sealed to the Turks ; and the literature of the latter equal-
ly unintelligible to tlie former. The Turks fell into a
state of decline, not so much from degeneracy, as because
they remained stationary.
A. D. 1616. The effeminate Achmed died in his
twenty-seventh year, from the consequences of excess.
His brother Mustafa was excluded from the throne on ac-
count of his imbecility (A. D. 1617); and Osman, the
son of Achined, put to death (A. D. 1622), because he
attempted to govern with vigor, and to enforce strict mili-
tary discipline. At last, however, Morad the Fourth, the
conqueror of Bagdad, reduced the janissaries to order :
he was the last great padisha in the Ottoman family, but
died at an early period, exhausted by intemperance. A.
D. 1640. His brother Ibrahim was put to death in the
same year in which the Christian powers concluded their
thirty years' war, from which the Sublime Porte reaped
no advantae:e. A. I). IGiS.
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804 0NtVKRSAI« BISTORT^
SECTION XV.
CONCLUSION.
Such was the situation of Europe at the period when
the family of Habsburg,' exhausted by its own efibrts, was
obliged to submit to.the vexatious conditions which FraDce,
with the assistance of Sweden and of the protestant party
in Germany, was enabled to impose : and from that time
Lewis the Fourteenth assumed the ascendancy.
Remote states had also undergone violent commotions ;
but Poitugal was content under the sovereignty of a na-
tive king ; and the Porte was occupied in consuming the
natural resources of her beautiful provinces in sloth and
effeminacy. On the other hand, it was impossible to cal-
culate what might be the future power of England; and
none but Frederick William foresaw the formidable great-
ness to which Russia would attain.
During the one hundred and fifty years of the superior-
ity of the house of Habsburg, a number of great men,
called into existence by Providence exactly at the time and
place io which their powers would be most effective, had
decided the direction of human affairs : these illustrious
individuals had shown themselves at the head of simple
and feeble nations ; and had proved that virtue, which is
at our command, is more effective than power, which is
distributed by the hand of blmd fortune.
END OF THE THIRD YOLUME.
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