Aristotle's History of animals. In ten books

ARISTOTLE'S

HISTORY OF ANIMALS.

IN TEN BOOKS.

TRANSLATED BY

RICHARD CRESSWELL, M.A..

ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD.

•

LONDON: GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK STREET,
COVENT GARDEN.

1878.

EONDON :

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,
STAMFOilU STKEET AND CHARING CKOSS.

PREFACE.

THE following Translation of Aristotle's History of Ani-
mals has been made from the text of Schneider. In a work
of considerable difficulty it is hardly possible entirely to
avoid errors ; but it is hoped that those which have escaped
are neither numerous nor important. The notes of
Schneider have been consulted throughout ; and in places
of difficulty the English translation by Taylor, the French
of Camus, and the G-erman of Strack, have been severally
referred to.

The work itself is the most ancient and celebrated contri-
bution to science which has come down to us ; and it is
hardly possible, when we consider the means of observation .
which were accessible at the time, to imagine a work of
more accurate observation. Erom the numerous quotations
in which our author avails himself of the experience of
hia predecessors in the same field, as well as corrects
their errors, there can be no doubt that Aristotle had the
advantage of many works which have perished in the lapse
of ages. In the Appendix to the present Translation
will be found the Essay of Schneider on the sources
whence Aristotle derived his knowledge of the animals he
describes ; and these sources, together with his own accu-

031 7

IV PEEFACE.

rate observations, are probably sufficient to account for the
correct knowledge of the history of animals displayed
throughout the work.

It is right, perhaps, to observe in this place, that Dr.
Smith, in his Dictionary of Biography, speaks of the ' His-
tory of Animals ' as partly the result of the royal liberality
of Alexander ; and doubtless Aristotle would gladly have
introduced into his work any fresh materials which might
have been made available to him either during his residence
at the Macedonian court, or by the subsequent victories of
Alexander in the East, if the information so obtained had
reached Athens in sufficient time to be incorporated. But
in the first instance he would naturally use the mate-
rials ready to his hand in the works of his predecessors,
and these were not few. The animals also which he de-
scribes are principally those of Greece and of the countries
with which the enterprising Greeks had frequent and com-
mercial intercourse. He says little of the animals of the
interior of Asia and of India, and speaks very cautiously of
such as he does mention ; and one who quotes his authorities
so freely would hardly have failed to notice the sources of
his information.

The study, or at least the knowledge of the classification
of animals appears to have been carefully pursued in the
earliest period of man's history. The oldest records that
we possess contain abundant notices of the peculiarities of
animals. The Mosaic law abounds in them, in its distinc-
tions between the clean and the unclean, a distinction not
then first established, but of the most remote antiquity.
Indeed it could hardly be otherwise than that men engaged
in the pursuits of agriculture and the chase should study
the habits of the animals that were valuable to them, as well
as those which were injurious. A study thus commenced

PKEFACE. V

by necessity, would eventually be pursued for its own sake -,
and not a few would be found who would investigate, and,
as far as they could, record the various phenomena they
observed. The paintings of Egypt and the sculptures of
Assyria are our witnesses of the skill with which animals
and plants were drawn, and of the minute perception
of their external forms ; and the knowledge thus gained
in the ancient centres of civilization would be sure to
circulate and increase when the intercourse with foreign
nations spread the knowledge and philosophy so acquired.

In the writings of Homer we find that the knowledge of
the anatomy of the human body had already made consi-
derable progress ; and the inspection of the animals offered
in sacrifice cannot fail to have added much to the general
knowledge of their history. A century later, we have the
poems of Hesiod, devoted to the encouragement of agricul-
ture and rural pursuits. Pythagoras, in the seventh cen-
tury B.C., may perhaps have left no writings, but we know
that he was an eminent student and exponent of natural
phenomena. His contemporary, Alcmseon of Crotona, is
especially mentioned by Aristotle ; and he is eminent among
natural philosophers as the first who is said to have recom-
mended to his followers the practice of dissection. Empe-
docles of Agrigentum left a work on the phenomena of na-
ture, of which a few fragments still remain, and there were
also others who, if they did not enter into the details of
what we now call natural history, treated generally of the
nature of things, and opened the field to those who would
study the subject in its particular parts. The empire
of Persia was still the dominant power, and was carrying
the civilization of the East to every part of the known
world when Ctesias wrote his great works, of which, un-
happily, only a few fragments remain. He described not

VI PREFACE.

only the history of his own time, "but also the natural history
of Persia and of India, and that probably with more accu-
racy than has been usually attributed to him. India he had
not visited personally, so that he could only describe it
from the information of others ; but this implies that he
was not alone in the studies which he devoted to natural
objects. With such predecessors and aided by his own
acute observations, we need not wonder that Aristotle pro-
duced a work which has ever been admired by naturalists,
and must continue to rise in their estimation the longer
it is in their hands.

The Index to the present volume has been formed on the
basis of that of Schneider, and considerable pains have been
taken to add as many names as possible from other sources,
especially the Index of Strack, and Kiilb's recent translation
of the History of Animals, both of which contain identifica-
tions of a great many animals. A few identifications have
also been added from Liddell and Scott's Lexicon, as well as
from Professor Bell's Catalogue of Animals in Captain Spratt's
work on Lycia ; and the cephalopods are named from Pro-
fessor Owen's article on that class, in the Cyclopaedia of
Anatomy. It is hoped, therefore, that the Index will be
found to contain a greater number of suggestions for the
identification of the animals mentioned by Aristotle than
have been hitherto published collectively. It is also right to
add, that it has been compiled after the translation was com-
pleted ; and, therefore, in any differences which may be found
between the identifications at the foot of the page and those
given in the Index, the reader will rather prefer the latter,
as the result of later research in works which were not ac-
cessible when the translation was made.

April 30, 1862. E. C.

PBEFACE. Vll

ANALYTICAL TABLE or CONTENTS.

BOOK I. — The work commences with a general review of
the animal kingdom, and several suggestions for a natural
arrangement of animals in groups, according to their
external form or their mode of life, a comparison of animals
among themselves, and a description of some of their habits.
Aristotle then introduces the human form, the best known
to man, as the standard of comparison to which he refers
the rest of the animal kingdom. The concluding chapters
of this book are occupied with a description of the several
parts of the human body, both internal and external.

BOOK II. — In the second book the different parts of ani-
mals are described. The animals are arranged in various
groups, viviparous and oviparous quadrupeds, fish, ser-
pents, birds. The only animals described are those with
red blood : the description of the rest being reserved for the
fourth book. Their internal organs are also described ; and
in the course of the book a few animals, as the ape, ele-
phant, and chameleon, are especially noticed.

• BOOK III. — The third book commences with a description
of the internal organs, beginning with the generative
system. A considerable portion of the book is devoted to
the course of the veins ; and Aristotle quotes from other
writers, as well as states the result of his own observations.
He then describes the nature of other constituent parts of
the body, sinews, fibres, bone, marrow, cartilage, nails,
hoofs, claws, horns, and beaks of birds, hair, scales, mem-
branes, flesh, fat, blood, marrow, milk, and the spermatic fluid.

BOOK IV.— Animals without blood, and first, the cepha-

Viii PEEFACE.

lopods, are described ; then the crustaceans, testacea, echi-
nidaB, aseidians, actiniae, hermit crabs, insects. In the eighth
chapter the organs of sense are considered, and afterwards,
the voice, sleep, age, and differences of the sexes in animals
are described.

BOOK Y. — In the former books animals are for the most
part described with reference to their several parts. In the
fifth book they are treated as entire, and especially with
regard to their mode of reproduction. First of all, our
author treats of spontaneous reproduction, and then of
those animals which spring from a union of the sexes ; and
from this he proceeds to some detail with respect to
different groups of animals, testacea, Crustacea, insects.
The book concludes with a long description of bees and
their habits.

BOOK YI. — In this book the same subject is continued
through the several classes of birds, fish, and quadrupeds.
This account of the reproduction of animals includes also
the consideration of the seasons, climates, and ages of
animals, and how far these influence their reproduction.

BOOK YII. — The seventh book is almost entirely devoted
to the consideration of the reproduction of man, and an
account of man from his birth to his death. This book
ends abruptly, and is probably imperfect.

BOOK VIII. — In the eighth book Aristotle passes on to
the most interesting part of his work, the character and
habits of the whole animal world, as it was known to him.
The amount of detail which he has collected and arranged
on this subject is most interesting. He treats, first of all,
of the food of animals, of their migrations, their health and
diseases, and the influence of climate upon them.

BOOK IX. — The subject of the eighth book is continued,
with an account of the relations in which animals stand

PREFACE.

to each other, and especially the friendship and hostility
of different species ; and these are for the most part re-
ferred to the nature of their food, and their mode of pro-
curing it. The notices of fish are not so numerous as those
of other groups : this would necessarily arise from the diffi-
culty of observation. At the conclusion of the book, an
essay on bees and their congeners is given at considerable
length.

BOOK X. — This book, in all probability erroneously as-
cribed to Aristotle, is occupied with a treatise on the
causes of barrenness in the human species. It appears
to be rather a continuation of the seventh book, which ends
abruptly ; but it is well placed at the end, as no genuine
work of our author.

THE HISTOEY OF .ANIMALS,

BOOK THE FIRST. "

CHAPTER I.

1. SOME parts of animals are simple, and these can be
divided into like parts, as flesh into pieces of flesh ; others are
compound, and cannot be divided into like parts, as the
hand cannot be divided into hands, nor the face into faces.
Of these some are not only called parts, but members, such as
those which, though entire in themselves, are made up of
other parts, as the head and the leg, the hand and the entire
arm, or the trunk ; for these parts are both entire in them-
selves, and made up of other parts.

2. All the compound parts also are made up of simple
parts, the hand, for example, of flesh, and sinew, and bone.
Some animals have all these parts the same, in others they
are different from each other. Some of the parts are the
same in form, as the nose and eye of one man is the same as
the nose and eye of another man, and flesh is the same with
flesh, and bone with bone. In like manner we may compare
the parts of the horse, and of other animals, those parts, that
is, which are the same in species, for the whole bears the same
relation to the whole as the parts do to each other. And in
animals belonging to the same class, the parts are the same,
only they differ in excess or defect. By class, I mean such as
bird or fish, for all these differ if either compared with their
own class or with another, and there are many forms of
birds and fishes.

3. Nearly all their parts differ in them according to the
opposition of their external qualities, such as colour or
shape, in that some are more, others are less affected, or

B

2 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. I.

sometimes in number more or less, or in size greater and
smaller, or in any quality which can be included in excess
or defect. For some animals have a soft skin, in others the
skin is shelly ; some have a long bill, as cranes, others a
short one ; some have many feathers, others very few ; some
also have parts which are wanting in others, for some species
have spurs, others have none ; some have a crest, others have
noo. But, so tc say, their principal parts and those which
furrn the bulk of their body, are either the same, or vary
only in their oppoaHefl, and in excess and defect.

4 By excess and defect I mean the greater and the less.
But some animals agree with each other in their parts neither
in form, nor in excess and defect, but have only an analogous
likeness, such as a bone bears to a spine, a nail to a hoof,
a hand to a crab's claw, the scale of a fish to the feather of
a bird, for that which is a feather in the birds is a scale in
the fish. "With regard then to the parts which each class
of animal possesses, they agree and differ in this manner,
and also in the position of the parts. For many animals
have the same parts, but not in the same position, as the
mammae which are either pectoral or abdominal. But of the
simple parts some are soft and moist, others hard and dry.

5. The soft parts are either entirely so, or so long as they
are in a natural condition, as blood, serum, fat, tallow, mar-
row, semen, gall, milk (in those animals which give milk),
flesh, and other analogous parts of the body. In another
manner also the excretions of the body belong to this class,
as phlegm, and the excrements of the abdomen and bladder ;
the hard and dry parts are sinew, skin, vein, hair, bone, car-
tilage, nail, horn, for that part bears the same name, and on
the whole is called horn, and the other parts of the body
which are analogous to these.

6. Animals also differ in their manner of life, in their ac-
tions and dispositions, and in their parts. We will first of
all speak generally of these differences, and afterwards con-
sider each species separately. The following are the points
in which they vary in manner of life, in their actions and
dispositions. Some animals are aquatic, others live on the
land ; and the aquatic may again be divided into two classes,
for some entirely exist and procure their food in the water,
and take in and give out water, and cannot live without it ,-

B. I.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 3

this is the nature of most fishes. But there are others
which, though they live and feed in the water, do not take
:n water but air, and produce their young out of the water.
Many of these animals are furnished with feet, as the otter
and the latax1 and the crocodile, or with wings, as the seagull
and diver, and others are without feet, as the water-serpent.
Some procure their food from the water, and cannot live out
of the water, but neither inhale air nor water, as the acalephe3
and the oyster.

7. Different aquatic animals are found in the sea, in rivers,
in lakes, and in marshes, as the frog and newt, and of
marine animals some are pelagic, some littoral, and some
saxatile. Some land animals take in and give out air, and
this is called inhaling and exhaling ; such are man, and all
other land animals which are furnished with lungs ; some,
however, which procure their food from the earth, do not
inhale air, as the wasp, the bee, and all other insects.3 By
insects I mean those animals which have divisions in their
bodies, whether in the lower part only, or both in the upper
and lower. Many land animals, as I have already observed,
procure their food from the water, but there are no aquatic or
marine animals which find their food on land. There are
some animals which at first inhabit the water, but afterwards
change into a different form, and live out of the water ; this

happens to the gnat in the rivers, and 4 which

afterwards becomes an oestrum.6

8. Again, there are some creatures which are stationary,
while others are locomotive ; the fixed animals are aquatic,
but this is. not the case with any of the inhabitants of the
land. Many aquatic animals also grow upon each other ;
this is the case with several genera of shell-fish : the sponge
also exhibits some signs of sensation, for they say that it is
drawn up with some difficulty, unless the attempt to remove
it is made stealthily. Other animals also there are which
are alternately fixed together or free, this is the case with a
certain kind of acalephe ; some of these become separated
during the night, and emigrate. Many animals are separate
from each other, but incapable of voluntary movement, as

1 Beaver,Castor fiber. 2 Medusa, or perhaps Actinia, or both.
8 Under the class fvrofjia are probably included all annulose animals.
* Some words appear to be lost in this place. 5 Tabami8,gad-fly.

B 2

4 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. |_B' r

oysters, and the animal called holothuria.1 Some aquatic
animals are swimmers, as fish, and the mollusca,2 and the
malacostraca, as the crabs. Others creep on the bottom, as
the crab, for this, though an aquatic animal, naturally creeps.

9. Of land animals some are furnished with wings, as birds
and bees, and these differ in other respects from each other ;
others have feet, and of this class some species walk, others
crawl, and others creep in the mud. There is no animal which
has only wings as fish have only fins, for those animals whose
wings are formed by an expansion of the skin can walk,
and the bat has feet, the seal has imperfect feet. Among

"sX^ birds there are some with very imperfect feet, which are
(therefore called apodes ; they are, however, provided with
very strong wings, and almost all birds that are similar to
this one have strong wings and imperfect feet, as the swallow
and drepanis ;3 for all this class of birds is alike both in ha-
bits and in the structure of their wings, and their whole

~*^*- appearance is very similar. The_annsj is seen at all times
of the year, but the drepanis can only be taken in rainy
weather during the summer, and on the whole is a rare bird.

10. Many animals, however, can both walk and swim.
The following are the differences exhibited by animals in
their habits and their actions. Some of them are gregarious,
and others solitary, both in the classes which are furnished
with feet, and those which have wings, or fins. Some partake
of both characters, and of those that are gregarious, as well
as those that are solitary, some unite in societies and some
are scattered. Gregarious birds are such as the pigeon,
stork, swan, but no bird with hooked claws is gregarious.
Among swimming animals some fish are gregarious, as the
dromas,5 tunny, pelamis,6 amia.7

11. But man partakes of both qualities. Those which
have a common employment are called social, but that is
not the case with all gregarious animals. Man, and the
bee, the wasp, and the ant, and the stork belong to this
class. Some of these obey a leader, others are anarchical ;
the stork and the bee are of the former class, the ant and
many others belong to the latter. Some animals, both in

1 Perhaps some species of Zoophyte. 2 Cephalopods.

3 Perhaps Sand martin. 4 Swift. 5 Some migratory fish.

6 A kind of tunny, still called palamyde at Marseilles.

7 A kind of tunny, Les Bonitons (Camus.)

B. I,] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 5

the gregarious and solitary class, are limited to one locality,
others are migratory. There are also carnivorous animals,
herbivorous, omnivorous, and others which eat peculiar
food, as the bee and the spider ; the former eats only honey )^
and a few other sweet things, while spiders prey upon flies • *
and there are other animals which feed entirely on fish. Som*
animals hunt for their food, and some make a store, which
others do not. There are also animals which make habita-
tions for themselves, and others which do not. The mole,
the mouse, the ant, and the bee, make habitations, but many
kinds both of insects and quadrupeds make no dwelling.

12. "With regard to situation, some are troglodite, as lizards
and serpents, others, as the horse and dog, live upon the sur-
face of the earth. Some kinds of animals burrow in the
ground, others do not ; some animals are nocturnal, as the owl
and the bat, others use the hours of daylight. There are
tame animals and wild animals. Man and the mule are al-
ways tame, the leopard and the wolf are invariably wild, and
others, as the elephant, are easily tamed. "We may, however,
view them in another way, for all the genera that have been
tamed are found wild also, as horses, oxen, swine, sheep,
goats, and dogs.

13. Some animals utter a loud cry, some are silent, and
others have a voice, which in some cases may be expressed
by a word, in others it cannot. There are also noisy
animals and silent animals, musical and unmusical kinds,
but they are mostly noisy about the breeding season. Some,
as the dove, frequent fields, others, as the hoopoe, live
on the mountains ; some attach themselves to man, as the
pigeon. Some are lascivious, as the partridge and domestic
fowl, and others are chaste, as the raven, which rarely /
cohabits.

14. Again, there are classes of animals furnished with
weapons of offence, others with weapons of defence ; in the
former I include those which are capable of inflicting an in-
jury, or of defending themselves when they are attacked ; in
the latter those which are provided with some natural pro-
tection against injury.

15. Animals also exhibit many differences of disposition.
Some are gentle, peaceful, and not violent, as the ox. Some
are violent, passionate, and intractable, as the wild boar. Some

6 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [_B. I.

are prudent and fearful, as the stag and the hare. Serpei .ts
are illiberal and crafty. Others, as the lion, are liberal,
noble, and generous. Others are brave, wild, and crafty,
/like the wolf. For there is this difference between the

/ generous and the brave — the former means that which comes
of a noble race, the latter that which does not easily depart
from its own nature.

16. Some animals are cunning and evil-disposed, as the

A fox ; others, as the dog, are fierce, friendly, and fawning.
) Some are gentle and easily tamed, as the elephant ; some are

/ susceptible of shame, an'd watchful, as the goose. Some

\ are jealous, and fond of ornament, as the peacock. But man
is the only animal capable of reasoning, though many
others possess the faculty of memory and instruction in
common with him. ISfo other animal but man has the power
of recollection. In another place we will treat more accu-
rately of the disposition and manner of life in each class.

CHAPTER II.

1 . ALL animals possess in common those parts by which they
take in food, and into which they receive it. But these
parts agree or differ in the same way as all the other parts
of bodies, that is, either in shape or size, or proportion or
position ; and besides these, almost all animals possess many
other parts in common, such as those by which they reject
their excrements, (and the part by which they take their
food,)1 though this does not exist in all. The part by which
the food is taken in is called the mouth, that which receives
the food from the mouth is called the stomach. The part
by which they reject the excrement has many names.

2. The excrement being of two kinds, the animals which
possess receptacles for the fluid excrement have also recepta-
cles for the dry ; but those which have the latter are not
always furnished with the former. Wherefore all animals
which have a bladder have a belly also, but not all that have
a belly have a bladder ; for the part appropriated to the
reception of the liquid excrement is called the bladder, and
that for the reception of the dry is called the belly.

3. Many animals possess both these parts, and that also
by which the semen is emitted. Among animals that have
the power of generation, some emit the semen into them-

1 The words in brackets should probably be excluded from the text.

B. I.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 7

selves, and some inject it into others. The former are
called female, the latter male. In some animals there is
neither male nor female, and there is a diversity in the form
of the parts appropriated to this office. For some animals
have a uterus, others have only something analogous to the
uterus. These are the most essential organs ; some of
which exist in all animals, others in the majority only.

CHAPTER III.

1. THERE is only one sense, that of touch, which is common
to all animals ; so that no exact name can be given to the
part in which this sense resides, for in some animals it is
the same, in others only analogous.

2. Every living creature is furnished with moisture, and
must die, if deprived of this moisture either in the course
of nature or by force. But in what part of the body this
moisture resides is another question. In some animals it is
found in the blood and veins, in others the situation is only
analogous, but these are imperfect, as fibres and serum.1 The
sense of touch resides in the simple parts, as in the flesh and
in similar places, and generally in those parts which contain
blood, at least in those animals which have blood ; in others
it resides in the analogous parts, but in all animals in the
simple parts.

3. The capacity of action resides in the compound parts,
as the preparation of food in the mouth, and the power of
locomotion in the feet or wings, or the analogous parts.
Again, some animals are sanguineous, as man, the horse, and
all perfect animals, whether apodous, bipeds, or quadrupeds ;
and some animals are without blood, as the bee and the
wasp, and such marine animals as the sepia and the carabus,2
and all animals with more than four legs.

CHAPTER IV.

1. THERE are also viviparous, oviparous, and vermiparous
animals. The viviparous, are such as man, and the horse, the
seal, and others which have hair, and among marine animals
the cetacea, as the dolphin and those which are called selache.*

1 Fibres and serum, as compared with veins and blood, refer to th«
circulation in animals without red blood.

2 Palinurus, Spiny Lobster. 3 Cartilaginous fishea.

8 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. T.

Some of these are furnished with a blow-hole, but have no
gills, as the dolphin and the whale. The dolphin has its
blow-hole on the back, the whale in its forehead; others
have open gills, as the selache, the galeus,1 and the batus.2
That is called the egg of the perfect foetus, from which the
future animal is produced, from a part at first, while the
remainder serves for its food. The worm is that from the
whole of which the future animal is produced, and the
foetus afterwards acquires parts and increases in size.

2. Some viviparous animals are internally oviparous, as
the selache ; others are internally viviparous, as mankind
and the horse. In different animals the foetus assumes a
different form, when first brought into the world, and is
either a living creature, an egg, or a worm. The eggs of
some animals, as birds, are hard- shelled, and are of two
colours. Those of the selache and some other animals are
soft-skinned, and have only one colour. Some species of the
vermiform foetus are capable of motion, others are not. But
in another place, when we treat of generation, we will dwell
more accurately on these subjects.

CHAPTEE V.

1. SOME animals have feet, others have none ; of the for-
mer some have two feet, as mankind and birds only ; others
have four, as the lizard and the dog ; others, as the scolopen-
dra and bee, have many feet ; but all have their feet in pairs.

2. And among apodous swimming animals some have
fins, as fish ; and of these some have two fins in the upper
and two in the lower part of their bodies, as the chryso-
phys3 and labrax ;4 others, which are very long and smooth,
have only two fins, as the eel and conger ; others have none
at all, as the lamprey and others, which live in the sea as
serpents do on land, and in like manner swim in moist places ;
and some of the genus selache, as those which are flat and
have tails, as the batos and trygon, have no fins ; these fish
swim by means of their flat surfaces ; but the batrachus5has
fins, and so have all those fish which are not very thin in pro-
portion to their width.

3. But the animals which have apparent feet, as the cepha-

' Squalus galeus. 2 Raia batos. 8 Spams auratus.

4 Perca labi'ax. 5 Lophius piscatorius and also L. barbatus.

B. T.j THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. '9

lopods, swim both with their feet and fins, and move quickly
upon the hollow parts of their bodies, as the sepia, teuthis,
and polypus : but none of them can walk except the polypus.
Those animals which have hard skins, as the carabus, swim
with their hinder parts, and move very quickly upon their
tail, with the fins which are upon it, and the newt both with
its feet and tail, and (to compare small things with great) it
has a tail like the glanis.1

4. Some winged animals, as the eagle and the hawk, are
feathered; others, as the cockchafer and the bee, mem-
branaceous wings ; and others, as the alopex2 and the bat,
have wings formed of skin. Both the feathered and leather-
winged tribes have blood ; but the insects, which have naked
wings, have no blood. Again, the feathered and leather-
winged animals are all either bipeds or apodous, for they say
that there are winged serpents in Ethiopia.3

5. The feathered tribe of animals is called birds ; the other
two tribes have no exact names. Among winged creatures
without blood some are coleopterous, for they have elytra
over their wings, as the cockchafer and the beetles, and others
are without elytra. The animals of this class have either
two or four wings. Those with four wings are distin-
guished by their greater size or a caudal sting. The diptera
are either such as are t small, or have a sting in their head.
The coleoptera have no sting at all ; the diptera have a sting
in their head, as the fly, horse-fly, gad-fly, and gnat.

6. All bloodless animals, except a few marine species of
the cephalopoda, are smaller than those which have blood.
These animals are the largest in warm waters, and more so
in the sea than on the land, and in fresh water. All creatures
that are capable of motion are moved by four or more limbs.
Those with blood have four limbs only, as man has two
hands and two feet. Birds have two wings and two feet ;
quadrupeds and fishes have four feet or four fins. But those
animals which have two wings or none at all, as the serpent,
are nevertheless moved by four limbs ; for the bendings of
their body are four in number, or two when they have two
wings.

1 Silurus glanis, L. (Strack). 2 Probably some kind of flying

squirrel. 3 Herodotus, ii. 76 : " the form of this serpent is similar

to that of the water-snake ; its wings are not feathered, but like those of
bats :'' the draco volann may have given rise to this storv.

10 THE HISTOIIY 01' ANIMALS. [B. I.

7. Those bloodless animals which have more than four
feet, whether furnished with feet or wings, always have more
than four organs of locomotion, as the ephemera, which has
four feet and four wings ; and in this it not only agrees writh
its peculiar manner of life, from which also it derives
its name, but also that it is winged and four-footed; and
all creatures, whether they have four feet or many feet,
move in the same direction, for they all move in the long
way of their bodies. All other animals have two leading
feet, the crab alone has four.

CHAPTEB VI.

1. THE following are the principal classes which include other
animals — birds, fishes, cetacea. All these have red blood.
There is another class of animals covered with a shell, and
called shell fish, and an anonymous class of soft-shelled
animals (malacostraca), which includes carabi, carcini, and
astaci ; and another of mollusca, such as teuthis, teuthos, and
sepia ; and another class of annulose animals. All these are
without blood, and the species with feet have many feet.
There are no large classes of other animals ; for there are
many forms which are not included under a single form, but
either stand alone, having no specific difference, as man, or
have specific differences, but the classes are anonymous.

2. All animals with four feet and no wings have blood.
Some of these are viviparous, others oviparous. The vivi-
parous are not all covered with hair, but the oviparous have
scales. The scale of a reptile is similar in situation to the
scale of a fish. The class of serpents, sanguineous land ani-
mals, is naturally without feet. Though some have feet, this
class is also covered with scales. All serpents, except the
viper, are oviparous. The viper alone is viviparous, so that
not all viviparous animals have hair ; for some fishes also are
viviparous. All animals, however, that have hair are vivi-
parous ; for we may consider the prickles of the hedgehog
and porcupine as analogous to the hair of animals ; for they
answer the purpose of hair, and not, as in marine animals
that are so covered, of feet.1

3. There are also many classes of viviparous quadrupeds,

1 The Echinidffi.

B. I.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 11

but they have never received names. Each kind must,
therefore, be taken separately, as man, as we speak of lion,
stag, horse, dog, and of others in like manner. There is,
however, one class of those that have a mane called lopburi,1
as the horse, ass, mule, ginnus,2 hinnus, and those which in
Syria are called mules,3 from their resemblance, though not
quite of the same form. They copulate and produce young
from each other, so that it is necessary to consider well the
nature of each of them separately.

4. We have now treated of these things in an outline, for
the sake of giving a taste of what we are afterwards to
consider, and of how many. Hereafter we will speak of them
more accurately, in order that we may first of all examine
into their points of difference and agreement ; and after-
wards we will endeavour to inquire into the causes of
these things, but it will be a more natural arrangement to
do so when we treat of the history of each. For it is evident
from these things what they are, and what we have to de-
monstrate.

5. Our first subject of consideration must be the parts of
which animals are made up, for these constitute the chief
and the whole difference among them ; either because they
have them or are without them, or these parts vary in posi-
tion or arrangement, or in any of the differences mentioned
before, in form, size, proportion, and difference of accidents,
First of all, then, we will consider the parts of the human
body ; for, as every one can best understand the standard of
money with which he is most familiar, so it is in other things.
And of necessity, man must be the best known to us of all
animals. The parts of the body are, indeed, plain enough to
every one's common sense ; but, that we may not forsake our
arrangement, and may have reason as well as perception, we
will speak, first of all, of the organic, and afterwards of the
simple, parts.

CHAPTER VII.
1. THESE are the principal parts into which the whole body is
divided. The head, neck, trunk, two arms, and two legs,

1 Animals with long hair on their tails.

2 Ginnus is the offspring of a mule and mare. Book vi. 24, 1.

3 Hemionus, perhaps the foal of a horse and wild ass, and so dis-
tinct from oreus, the foal of the he-ass and mare.

12 THE HISTOET OF AKLMALS. [B. I.

The whole cavity, from the neck to the pudenda, is called
the trunk. That part of the head which is covered with
hair is called the cranium, the fore part of this is called the
sinciput. This is the last formed, being the last bone in
the body which becomes hard ; the hinder part is the occi-
put, and between the occiput and sinciput is the crown oi
the head. The brain is placed beneath the sinciput, and the
occiput is empty j1 the cranium is a thin spherical bone covered
with a skin without flesh. The skull has sutures : in women
there is but one placed in a circle ; men have generally three
joined in one, and a man's skull has been seen without any
sutures at all. The middle and smooth part of the hair is
called the crown of the head ; in some persons this is double,
for there are some people double-crowned, not from any for-
mation of the bone, but only from the division of the hair.

CHAPTER VIII.

1. THE part immediately beneath the cranium is called the
face in mankind alone, for we do not speak of the face of a fish
or of an ox ; the part immediately beneath the sinciput and
between the eyes is called the forehead. Those in whom
this feature is large are tardy ; those who have a small fore-
head are easily excited ; a broad forehead belongs to those
w^° are ^akle *° ^e carrie(i away by their feelings ; a round
forehead is a sign of a passionate disposition.

2. Under the forehead are two eyebrows; if they are
straight, it is a mark of a gentle disposition ; the eyebrows
bent down to the nose are an evidence of an austere tem-
per ; if they incline towards the temples, of a mocker and
scoffer ; if they are drawn down, it is a sign of an envious
person. Beneath these are the eyes, which by nature are two
in number: the parts of each eye are,first, the upper and under
eyelid, the edges of which are furnished with hair. "Within
the eye, the moist part with which we see is called the pupil ;
round this is the iris, and this is surrounded by the white.
Two corners of the eye are formed at the junction of the eye-
lids, one in the direction of the nose, the other towards the
temple. If these corners are large, they are a sign of an evil
disposition ; if those near the nose are fleshy, and have a
swollen appearance, they are an evidence of wickedness.
1 This mistake is again repeated in Ch. xiii.

B% T-] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 13

3. All other classes of animals have eyes, except shell-fish,
and some other imperfect creatures, and all viviparous
animals except moles have eyes. A person might, however,
conclude from the following observation, that it has eyes,
though it is quite without them, for it certainly does not
see at all, nor has it any external eyes ; but, when the skin is
taken off, there is a place for the eyes, and the iris of the
eye is in the place which it would naturally occupy on the
outside, as if they had been wounded in their birth, and the
skin had grown over the place.

4. The white of the eye is generally the same in all animals,
but the iris is very different. In some it is black, in others
decidedly grey, in others dark grey, and in some it is the
colour of the goat's eye, and this is a sign of the best dis-
position, and is most to be prized for acuteness of vision.
Man is almost the only animal which exhibits a variety of
colouring in the eye ; there are, however, some horses with
grey eyes.

5. The eyes of some persons are large, others small, and
others of a moderate size — the last- mentioned are the best.
And some eyes are projecting, some deep-set, and some mo-
derate, and those which are deep-set have the most acute
vision in all animals ; the middle position is a sign of the
best disposition. Some people have an eye which is perpe-
tually opening and closing, others have an eye always intent,
and others a moderately -intent eye : this last is the best dis-
posed ; of the others, the one is impudent, and the other a
sign of infirmity.

CHAPTEE IX.

1. THE part of the head by which we hear, but do not breathe,
is the ear ; for Alcmseon is mistaken when he says that
goats breathe through their ears. One part of the ear has not
received any name, the other part is called the lobe. The
whole ear is made up of cartilage and flesh. Internally,
the ear has the nature of a shell, and the last bone is simi-
lar to the ear itself. The sound reaches this part last, as
it were in a chamber. There is no passage from the ear into
the brain, but there is to the roof of the mouth ; and a vein
extends from the brain to each ear.1 The eyes also are con-
nected with the brain, and each eye is placed upon a vein.
1 Eustachian tube.

11 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. I.

2. Man is the only animal with ears that cannot move them.
Among animals which have the faculty of hearing; some have
ears, and others, as winged and scaly creatures, have no ear,
but an open orifice in the head ; all viviparous animals, except
the seal, and the dolphin, and other cetacea, have ears ; the
selache also are viviparous. The seal has open orifices by
which it hears ; the dolphin can hear, though it has no ears ;
all other animals can move their ears, but man alone does
not move them.

3. The ears (of man) lie in the same circle with his eyes,
and not above them, as in some quadrupeds. The ears are
either smooth, hairy, or moderate. These last are the best
for hearing, but they do not in any way indicate the dis-
position. They are large, or small or middling, or they are
erect, or not at all, or only moderately erect. The moderately
erect are a sign of the best disposition ; large and erect eara
are an evidence of foolish talking and loquacity. The part
of the head between the eye and the ear is called the temple.

4. In the middle of the face is the nose, the passage for the
breath, for through this animals inhale and exhale, and
through it also they sneeze ; this is the expulsion of a con-
centrated breath, and is the only kind of breathing which is
esteemed ominous or sacred : moreover, inhaling and exhal-
ing is into the chest, and without the nostrils it is impossible
to inhale or exhale, for inhaling and exhaling is from the
breast by the windpipe, and not from any part of the head.
But it is possible to live without this respiration through the
nostrils. The smell also resides in this part ; this is the sense
of odour. The nostril is very moveable, and not naturally
immoveable like the ear.

5. One part of the nose, namely, the division between the
nostrils, is cartilaginous, but the passage is empty, for the
nose is formed of two divisions. In the elephant, the nostril
is very large and strong, and it answers to the purpose of a
hand,' for the animal can extend it, and with it take its food,
and convey it to its mouth, whether the food is moist or dry.
This is the only animal that can do so.

' 6. There are also two jaws, the upper and the under. All
animals move the lower jaw, except the river-crocodile, and
this moves the upper jaw only. Below the nose are two lips,
the flesh of which is very moveable. The mouth is the

B. I.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 15

centre A the jaws and the lips. The upper part is called
the roof of the mouth, the lower, the pharynx. The tongue
is the organ of taste. This sense resides in the tip, and, if
food is placed on the broad part of the tongue, the taste is
less acute. The tongue partakes of all the other sensations,
as harshness, heat, and cold, as well as that of taste, in com-
mon with the rest of the flesh.

7. The flat part of the tongue is either narrow or moderate
in size, the moderate is the best, and most apt for clear elocu-
tion. The tongue may be either too loose, or tied down, as in
stammerers and inarticulate speakers. The flesh of the
tongue is porous and spongy. The epiglottis is a portion
of the tongue, the double part of the mouth is the tonsils ;
that in many divisions the gums, they are fleshy, and in
them are fixed the bony teeth. Within the mouth there is
another part, the uvula, a pillar filled with blood. If this part
is swelled with relaxation, it is called a grape, and chokes.

CHAPTER X.

1. THE neck is the part between the head and the trunk ; the
front part is called the larynx, behind this is the O3sophagus.
The voice and the breath pass through the front part, the
trachea, which is cartilaginous, but the oesophagus is fleshy,
and placed farther in, near the vertebra of the neck. The
back of the neck is called the epomis. These are the parts
as far as the thorax. The parts of the thorax are some be-
fore and some behind. First of all, below the neck is the
breast with two mammae ; on these axe two nipples, through
which the milk of the female passes. The mamma is porous.
There is also milk in the breasts of men. The flesh of the
mamma in men is thick, in women it is spongy and full of pores.

2. The part below the thorax, in front, is the belly, and o4
this the navel is the centre. Beneath this centre, the part on
each side is called the iliac region ; the part in the centre, be-
neath the navel, is called the hypogastric region ; the lowest
part of this is called pubes ; above the navel is the epigas-
tric region ; the lumbar region is situated between the epi-
gastric and iliac regions.

3. Of the hinder parts the loin forms the division of the
body, whence also its name is derived (60^$ quasi /Vopiig).
The part of the central region which is like a seat is the but-

16 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. I.

tock ; that on which the thigh turns, the cotyledon. The
peculiar part of women is the uterus ; of men the penis, it
is external, at the extremity of the trunk in two parts ; the
upper part is fleshy and smooth, and is called glans ; this is
covered with an anonymous skin, which, if it is cut asunder,
does not unite again, neither does the cheek nor the eyelid.

4. Common to this and the glans is the prepuce, the re-
maining part is cartilaginous, readily increases in size, and
it is drawn in and out, contrary to that of the class of ani-
mals called lophuri. Beneath the penis are two testicles,
surrounded by a skin called the scrotum ; the testicles are
not of the same nature as flesh, nor are they made of flesh.
In another place we shall treat of the nature of all these
parts more accurately.

5. The pudendum muliebre is contrary to that of the
male, for it is hollow under the pubes, not projecting like
that of the male, and the urethra is outside the womb, for the
passage of the semen of the male, and for the fluid excre-
ment of both. The part of the body which joins the neck and
the breast is called the jugulum ; that which unites the side,
the arm, and the shoulder is the arm-pit. The region
between the thigh and the hypogastric region is called the
groin ; the part common to the thigh and the buttock on the
inside is the perineum, that of the thigh and buttock on the
outside is called hypoglutis.

6. We have previously treated of the trunk. The hinder
part of the breast is called the back : the parts of the back
are two shoulder blades and the back-bone ; below the thorax,
and opposite the stomach, are the loins ; the ribs belong
both to the back and the front of the trunk, and are eight
on each side, for we have never heard anything worthy of
credit concerning the Ligyes, who are said to have seven ribs.

CHAPTER XI.

1. MAN has upper and lower side, the front and the back, and
right and left side. The right and the left are nearly alike in
their parts and in every particular, except that the left side
is the weaker ; but the back parts are not like the front ;
nor the lower parts to the upper, except in this particular,
that the parts below the hypogastric region are full-fleshed
or lean in proportion to the face, and the arms also answer

B. I.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 17

to the proportion of the legs. Those persons who hare a
short humerus have also generally a short thigh : those who
have small feet have also small hands.

2. One of the double parts of the body is the arm. The parts
of the arm are the shoulder, humerus, elbow, cubitus, and the
hand ; the parts of the hand are the palm and five fingers ; the
jointed part of the finger is the condyle, the unjoin ted part
the phalanx. The thumb has but one joint, all the rest have
two. The bending of the arm and finger is always inwards.
The arm is also bent at the elbow : the inner part of
the hand is called the palm; it is fleshy, and divided
by strong lines. Long-lived persons have one or two lines
which extend through the whole hand ; short-lived persons
have two lines not extending through the whole hand. The
joint of the hand and arm is the wrist. The outside of the
hand is sinewy, and has not received any name.

3. The other double part of the body is the leg. The
double-headed part of the leg is called the thigh, the move-
able part is called the patella, that which has two bones
the tibia ; the front of this part is the shin, the hind part
the calf of the leg. The flesh is full of sinews and veins ; in
those persons who have large hips, the flesh is drawn up-
wards towards the hollow part under the knee, in those who
have not it is drawn down. The lowest part of the shin is
the ankle, and this is double in each leg. The part of the
leg with many bones is called the foot, the hind part of wrhich
is the heel. The front part is divided into five toes ; the
under part, which is fleshy, is called the sole of the foot ;
the upper part, (the instep,) is sinewy, and has not re-
ceived any name. One part of the toe is the nail, the other
is the joint ; the nail is on the extremity of the toe, and the
toes are bent inwards. Those who have the sole of the foot
thick, and not hollow, but walk upon the whole of the foot,
are knavish. The common joint of the thigh and the leg is
the knee.

CHAPTER XII.

1. THESE parts are possessed in common by the male and fe-
male ; the position of the external parts, whether above or be-
low, before or behind, on the right side or the left, will appear
on mere inspection. It is necessary, however, to enumerate

c

18 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. I

them, for the reasons which I have mentioned before, that
its proper place being assigned to each part, any diiference in
their arrangement in man and other animals may be less
likely to escape our notice.

2. In man, the parts of the body are more naturally di-
vided into upper and lower than in any other animal, for all
the upper and lower parts of his body are arranged accord-
ing to the order of nature above and below ; in the same
way, also, the fore and hind parts, and those on the right
and left, are placed naturally. But in other animals some
of these parts are either not at all so placed, or they are
much more confused than in man. The head is placed above
the body in all animals, but in man alone, as we have said, is
this part corresponding to the order of all things.

3. Next to the head is the neck, then the breast and the
back, the one before and the other behind ; and each of them
in the following order: — the stomach, loins, pudenda,
haunch, then the thigh and leg, and, last of all, the foot.
The legs have the joint bent forwards, in which direction
also is their manner of walking, and the more moveable part
of the legs as well as the joint is bent forward : the heel is be-
hind. Each of the ankles is like an ear. Prom the right and
left side come arms, having the joint bent inwards, so that
the flexures both of the legs and arms are towards each other,
especially in man.

4. The senses and the organs of sense, the eyes, nostril,
and tongue are in the same position, and in the anterior part
of the body ; but the hearing, and its organ, and the ears are
at the side, and upon the same circumference as the eyes.
Man has the eyes closer together, in proportion to his size,
than other animals. The sense of touch is the most accurate
of the human senses, and next to this the taste. In the rest
of his senses he is far surpassed by other animals.

CHAPTER XIII.

1. THE external parts of the body are arranged in this
manner ; and, as I have said, are for the most part named and
known from habit. But the internal parts are not so well
known, and those of the human body are bhe least known.
So that in order to explain them we must compare them with
the same parts of those animals which are most nearly allied.

•R. I.J THE HTSTOHY OF ANIMALS. 19

2. First of all, the brain is placed in the fore-part of the
head, and it occupies the same position in all animals that
have this part, which belongs to all sanguineous and cepha-
lopodous animals. In proportion to his size, man has the
Jargest brain of all animals, and the moistest. Two mem-
branes enclose the brain : that outside the skull is the strong-
est ; the inner membrane is slighter than the outer one. In,
all animals the brain is in two portions. The cerebellum is
placed upon the brain at its lowest extremity. It is different
from the brain both to the touch and in appearance.

3. The back of the head is empty and hollow in all ani-
mals in proportion to their size, for some have a large head,
but the part lying under the face is less in those animals
which have round faces ; others have a small head and large
jaws, as the whole tribe of Lophuri. In all animals the brain
is without blood, nor does it contain any veins, and it is
naturally cold to the touch. The greater number of animals
have a small cavity in the centre of the brain. And round
this a membrane filled with veins : this membrane is like
skin, and encloses the brain. Above the brain is the smooth-
est and weakest bone in the head — it is called sinciput.

4. Three passages lead from' the eye to the brain ; the
largest and the middle-sized to the cerebellum, the least to
the brain itself. The least is that which is nearest the nostril ;
the greater are parallel, and do not meet ; but the middle-
sized passages meet : this is most evident in fishes, and
these passages are nearer to the brain than the larger, but
the least separate from each other, and do not meet.

5. Within the neck is the oesophagus, which also de-
rives its additional name, the isthmus, from its length and
narrowness, and the trachea. The trachea lies in front of
the oesophagus in all animals which possess this part, that is,
all animals which breathe from the lungs. The trachea is
cartilaginous in its nature, and contains but little blood : it
is surrounded with many smooth rings of cartilage, and it
lies upon the upper part towards the mouth, opposite the pas-
sage from the nostril to the mouth, wherefore, also, if any
liquid is drawn into it in drinking, it passes out of the mouth
through the nostrils.

6. Between the passages is the epiglottis, which can be
folded over the passage which extends from the trachea to the

e 2

20 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. I.

mouth ; by the epiglottis the passage of the tongue is closed,
at the other extremity the trachea reaches to the middle
of the lungs, and afterwards divides to each side of the lungs.
For the lung is double in all animals which possess this
part, though the division is not so marked in viviparous ani-
mals, and least of all in man. The human lungs are ano-
malous, neither being divided into many lobes, as in other
animals, nor being smooth.

7. In oviparous animals, such as birds and the oviparous
quadrupeds, the parts are very widely separated, so that
they appear to have two lungs ; they are, however, only two
divisions of the trachea extending to each side of the lungs ;
the trachea is also united with the great vein and with the
part called the aorta. When the trachea is filled with air,
it distributes the breath into the cavities of the lungs, which
have cartilaginous interstices ending in a point ; the passages
of these interstices go through the whole lungs, always divid-
ing from greater into less.

8. The heart is connected with the trachea by fatty and car- t
tilaginous muscular bands. There is a cavity near the junction,
and in some animals, when the trachea is filled with breath,
this cavity is not always distinguishable, but in larger ani-
mals it is evident that the breath enters it. This then is the
form of the trachea, which only inhales and exhales breath,
and nothing else either dry or moist, or it suffers pain till that
which has passed down is coughed up.

9. The oesophagus is joined to the mouth from above, near
the trachea, being united both to the spine and the trachea
by membranaceous ligaments. It passes through the dia-
phragm into the cavity of the stomach, is fleshy in its nature,
and is extensible both in length and breadth. The human
stomach is like that of a dog, not a great deal larger than the
entrail, but like a wide bowel ; after this there is an entrail
simply rolled together, then an entrail of moderate width.
The lower part of the abdomen is like that of a hog, for it is
wide, and from this to the seat it is short and thick.

10. The omentum is united to the abdomen in the middle,
and is in its nature a fatty membrane, as in other animals
with a single stomach and teeth in both jaws. The mesente-
rium is over the bowels ; it is membranaceous, broad, and fat ;
it is united to the great vein and the aorta : through it extend

B. I.] THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. 21

many numerous veins at its junction with the intestines,
reaching from above downwards. This is the nature of the
oesophagus, trachea, and the parts of the abdominal cavity.

CHAPTER XIV.

1. THE heart has three cavities : it lies above the lungs, near
the division of the trachea. It has a fat and thick membrane,
by which it is united to the great vein and the aorta, and it
lies upon the aorta near the apex ; and the apex is placed in
the same situation in all animals which have a chest ; and in
all animals, whether they have or have not a chest, the apex
of the heart is forwards, though it often escapes notice by
the change of position in the parts when dissected. The
gibbous portion of the heart is upwards ; its apex is gene-
rally fleshy and thick, and there is a sinew in the cavities.

2. In all other animals which have a chest the heart is placed
in the centre ; in man it is rather on the left side, inclining
a little from the division of the mammae towards the left
breast in the upper part of the chest ; it is not large ; its
whole form is not long, but rather round, except that the
extremity ends in a point It has three cavities, as I have
said. The greatest is that on the right, the least on the
left, the middle one is of intermediate size. They are all
perforated towards the lungs. It has both the two smaller,
and all of them perforated towards the lungs, and this is
evident in one of the cavities downwards from its point of
attachment.

3. Near the principal cavity it is attached to the great
vein to which also the mesenterium is united, and in the
middle it is attached to the aorta. Passages lead from
the lungs to the heart, and they are divided in the same
way as the trachea, following the passages from the trachea
throughout the whole lungs, and the passages leading from
the heart are on the upper part. There is no passage which
is common to them both, but by their union they receive the
breath and transmit it through the heart ; for one of the
passages leads to the right cavity, and the other to the left.
We will hereafter speak of the great vein and the aorta in
the portion of our wrork which treats of these parts.

4. In all animals which have lungs and are viviparous, either
internally or externally, the lung has more blood than all the

22 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. I.

other parts ; for the whole lung is spongy, and through each
perforation branches of the great vein proceed. Those per-
sons are deceived who say that the lungs are empty, drawing
their conclusion from dissected animals, from which all the
blood has escaped. Of all the viscera the heart alone con-
tains blood, and in the lungs the blood is not in the lungs
themselves, but in the veins by which they are perforated.
But in the heart itself the blood is in each of the cavities,
but the thinnest blood is in the middle cavity.

5. Beneath the lungs is that division of the trunk which
is called the diaphragm. It is united to the ribs, the hypo-
chondriac region, and the spine. In the centre is a smooth
membranous part, and there are veins extending through it.
The human veins are thick in proportion to the size of the
body. Under the diaphragm, on the right side is the liver,
on the left the spleen, alike in all animals which are fur-
nished with these parts in their natural form and without
monstrosity, for already there has been observed an altered
order in some quadrupeds. They are joined to the abdomen
near the omentum.

6. The appearance of the human spleen is narrow and long,
like that of the hog. Generally speaking, and in most ani-
mals, the liver is not furnished with a gall, though this is
found in some animals. The human liver is round, like that
of the ox. This is the case also in animals offered for sacri-
fice, as in the district of Chalcis, in Euboea, where the sheep
have no gall, and in Naxos it is so large in nearly all the ani-
mals, that strangers who come to sacrifice are surprised, and
think that it is ominous, and not at all natural. The liver is
united with the great vein, but has no part in common with
the aorta. For a vein branches off from the great vein through
the liver, at the place where the gates of the liver, as they
are called, are situated. The spleen also is only connected with
the great vein, for a vein extends from this to the spleen.

7. Next to these are the kidneys, which lie close to
the spine. In their nature they are like the kidneys of
oxen. In all animals that have kidneys the right kidney
lies higher than the left, and is covered with less fat, and is
more dry than the left. This is the same in all animals.
Passages lead from them to the great vein and to the aorta,
but not to the cavity ; for all animals, except the seal, ha\9

B. I.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 23

a cavity in their kidneys, though it is greater in some than
in others. The human kidneys, though similar to those of
oxen, are more solid than in other animals, and the passages
that lead to them end in the body of the kidney ; and this is
a proof that they do not pass through them, that they con-
tain no blood in the living animal, nor is it coagulated in
them when dead ; but they have a small cavity, as I said
before. From the cavity of the kidneys two strong pas-
sages lead to the bladder, and two others, strong and con-
tinuous, lead to the aorta.

8. A hollow, sinewy vein is attached to the middle of each
kidney, which extends from the spine through small branches,
and disappears towards the hip, though it afterwards ap-
pears again upon the hip. The branches of these veins reach
to the bladder ; for the bladder is placed lowest of all, being
united to the passages which proceed from the kidneys by
the neck which reaches to the urethra ; and nearly all round
its circumference it is united by smooth and muscular mem-
branes, very similar in form to those upon the diaphragm of
the chest.

9. The human bladder is moderately large in size, and the
pudendum is united to the neck of the bladder, having a strong
passage above and a small one below. One of these pas-
sages leads to the testicles ; the other, which is sinewy and.
cartilaginous, to the bladder. From this are appended the
testicles of the male, concerning which we will treat in the
part devoted to their consideration. These parts are the same
in the female, who differs in none of the internal parts except
the womb, the appearance of which may be learned from
the drawings in the books on anatomy. Its position is upon
the entrails. The bladder is above the uterus. In a future
book we will speak of the nature of the uterus generally ;
for it is not alike, nor has it the same nature in them all.

These are the internal and external parts of the human
body, and this is their nature and their manner.

24 THE HISTOBY OP ANIAIALS. [B. II.

BOOK THE SECOND.

CHAPTER I.

1. OP the parts of other animals some are common to them
all, as I have said before, and some belong to particular
classes, and they agree and differ in the manner often before
mentioned. For almost all animals which differ in kind,
have also their parts different in form, and there are some
which have only a proportionate resemblance, but differ in
kind, and others agree in kind, .but not in form, and many
parts belong to some which others have not. Viviparous
quadrupeds have a head and neck, and all the parts of the
head, but they differ from each other in their forms. The
lion has one bone in the neck, but has no vertebrae, and
when laid open its internal parts are like those of a dog.

2. Viviparous quadrupeds have fore-legs instead of arms,
and in all quadrupeds, especially those which have the fore-
feet much divided, they are analogous to hands, for they
use them as hands, and the left legs are less at liberty than
in men, except in the elephant, and this animal has the toes
less perfectly jointed, and its fore-legs much larger than the
hind ones ; it has five toes, and short ankles to its hind legs.
It has a trunk of such a nature and length as to be able to
use it for a hand, and it drinks and eats by stretching this
into its mouth ; this also it lifts up to its driver, and pulls
up trees with it ; with this organ it breathes as it walks
through the water. The extremity of the proboscis is curved,
but without joints, for it is cartilaginous.

3. Man is the only ambidextrous animal. All animals have
their chest analogous to man, but not similar to his, for he
has a wide chest, and theirs is narrow : no animal but man
has pectoral mammae ; the elephant has two mammae, but not
on the breast, though they are in that direction.

4. All animals, excepting the elephant, bend both their
fore and hind legs in contrary directions, and also contrary
to the way in which a man's limbs are bent. ' For in vivi-
parous quadrupeds, except the elephant, the joints of the

B. TT."! THE H[STO.ttT 0£ ANIMALS. 25

fore-legs are bent forwards, and those of the hind-legs back-
wards, and they have the hollow part of their circumference
opposite to each other : the elephant is not constructed as""]
some have said, but is able to sit down, and bend his legs, I s
but, from his great weight, is unable to bend them on both I f^ —
sides at once, but leans either to the right side or the left, and j
sleeps in this position, but its hind legs are bent like a man's^J

5. In oviparous quadrupeds, as the crocodile, lizard, and
such like, both the fore and hind legs are bent forwards,
inclining a little to the side, and likewise also in other ani-
mals with more than four feet, except that the middle joint
of their last pair of legs is always doubtful, and is rather
bent towards the side. And man also has both the flexures
of his limbs in the same direction, and those of his arms
and legs contrary to each other, for he bends the arm back-
wards, except that the external part of the arm is a little
inclined inwards, towards the side ; the legs bend forwards.

6. No animal bends the joints both of its fore and hind
legs backwards. The flexure of the cubitus and fore-leg is
in a contrary direction to the flexure of the shoulder in all
animals, and the flexure of the knee is contrary to that of the
hip ; so that since man bends his joints in the contrary direc-
tion to many animals, those which have such joints as man's
also bend them in a contrary direction to many animals. Birds
bend their limbs in a direction similar to that of quadrupeds,
for being bipeds, they bend their legs backwards, and have
wings instead of arms, or fore-legs, and these bend forwards.

7. The seal is like a maimed quadruped, for immedi-
ately beneath the scapula it has feet like hands, as are also
those of the bear, for they are five-fingered, and each of the
fingers has three joints, and a small claw : the hind feet are
five-fingered, and each of the fingers has joints and claws like
those upon the fore-feet ; in shape they are very like the tail
of a fish.

8. The movements of animals, whether they have four
feet or more, are in the direction of the longer diameter of
their bodies, and thus also they stand, the commencement
of motion is always on the right side of their bodies. The
lion and the camel, both the Arabian and Bactrian, walk with
the hind-foot following the fore-foot on the same side, and
this means that the right foot is not put before the left, but
follows it.

26 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B II.

CHAPTER II.

1. WHATEVER parts a man has before, a quadruped has be-
neath : those that are behind in man, form the quadruped's
back ; most animals have a tail, the seal has a small one, like
that of a stag ; hereafter we shall speak of apelike animals.
All viviparous quadrupeds are, so to say, rough, with hair,
and not like man, who, except on his head, has not much hair
on his body, and what there is, is very fine ; but his head is
more massy than that of other animals.

2. And all creatures that have their upper part rough
with hair, are quite smooth, or only slightly rough beneath ;
but man is contrary to this : and again, each eyelid in man
is furnished, with lashes, and he has hair, on the cheek, and
pubes ; other animals are not so furnished, having no hair
on the lower eyelid, or only a few hairs under the eyelid.

3. But some hairy quadrupeds are rough all over, as the
hog, the bear, and the dog ; the neck of others is the roughest
part, as in those which have a mane, like the lion ; in others
which have a mane, the back of the neck from the head to
the point of the shoulder is hairy, as the horse and the mule,
and among wild animals with horns, the bonassus. The
hipellaphus,1 as it is called, has a mane upon the point of
its shoulder, and so has the pardium,2 though both these
have a thin mane from the head to the shoulder, and the
hipellaphus has a beard upon its larynx.

4. Both of these are horned, and have a cloven hoof: the
female hipellaphus has no horns, it is about the size of a
stag ; there are hipellaphi in the country of the Arachotse,
where also are buffaloes. The wild differ as much from do-
mesticated oxen, as wild hogs from tame ones; for they
are black, and of great strength ; their nose is curved like
an eagle's beak, and their horns lie backwards ; the horns of
the hipellaphus are very like those of the dorcas :3 the ele-
phant is the least hairy of all quadrupeds. The tails of ani-
mals are like their bodies in roughness, and smoothness, in
as many as have tails in proportion to their size, for some
have very small tails.

1 Perhaps Nylghau (Liddel and Scott's Lexicon), or some large kind
of Stag. 2 Cameleopard. (Schneider.)

3 Gazelle or antelope, so named from the brightness of its eyes.

B TT.l TILE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 27

5. Camels have a part peculiar to themselves, called the
hump upon the back ; the Bactrian camel differs from the
Arabian ; the one has two humps, the other but one ; and they
have another hump below, like the one on their back, upon
which the rest of their body is supported, when they go
down upon their knees. The camel has four mammae, like the
cow, and a tail like an ass, and the pudendum is behind;
it has but one knee in each leg, and not many joints, as
some persons say ; this appearance arises from the position
of the abdomen. It has a a talus like that of an ox, mis-
shapen, and small in proportion to its size.

6. The hoof is cloven; it has not teeth in both jaws.
The cloven hoof is formed in this manner ; the lower part is
somewhat cloven, as far as the second joint of the toes, but
the upper part is four-cleft as far as the first joint of the
toes ; there is a membrane uniting the cloven parts as in
geese, the foot is fleshy underneath like that of a bear, where-
fore, when camels are used in war, and become footsore, their
drivers put them on leather shoes. All quadrupeds have
their legs bony and sinewy and without flesh, that is all
animals with feet are so formed, excepting man, and they
are without hips ; this is particularly the case with birds.
But on the contrary, the hips, thighs, and legs of man are
more fleshy than almost any other part of his body, for even
the calf of his leg is fleshy.

7. Some sanguineous and viviparous quadrupeds have many
divisions in the foot, like the hands and feet of man ; for
some, as the lion, the dog, and the panther, have many divi-
sions of the foot ; others are cloven-footed, and instead of
nails have hoofs, as the sheep, the goat, the stag, and the
river-horse. Some are without divisions in the foot, as the
solidunguli, the horse, and the mule. The genus of swine
belongs to both classes ; for in Illyria, Paeonia, and other
places, there are swine with a solid hoof. Those with a two-
cleft hoof have two divisions, before and behind ; in those
with a solid hoof this is continuous.

8. Some animals have horns, others have none ; most of
those with horns have also cloven feet, as the ox, the stag,
and the goat. "We have never seen an animal with a solid
hoof with two horns, and there are only a few that have a
solid hoof and one horn, as the Indian ass, and the oryx.1

1 Antelope Oryx.

28 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [5. IT

Of all animals with a solid hoof, the Indian ass alone has a
talus. Swine, as I said before, belong to both classes, so that
they have not a well-formed astragulus.

9. Many animals with cloven hoofs have a talus ; no ani-
mals with their feet in many divisions have a talus, nor has
man. The lynx has as it were half a talus, and so has the
lion, but it is more intricate, as some pretend. The talus is
always in the hind leg, and it is placed upright upon the gamb,
with the lower part outwards, and the upper part inwards ;
the parts called Coa1 turned inwards towards each other, and
the Chia turned outwards, and the projecting portions up-
wards. This is the position of the talus, in all animals
which are furnished with this part. Some animals have a
cloven hoof, and a mane, and two horns turned towards each
other, as the bonassus, an animal which inhabits the coun-
try between Pseonia and Media.

10. All animals with horns are four-footed, unless there is
any animal which metaphorically, and for the sake of a word, is
said to have horns, as they say that the serpents in the neigh-
bourhood of Thebes in Egypt have, though it is nothing
more than an appendage, that is called a horn. The stag is
the only animal that has solid horns, the horns of all other
animals are hollow for a part of their length, and solid at
the extremity ; the hollow part is principally formed of skin,
and round this is arranged the solid part, as in the horns of
oxen. The stag is the only animal which casts its horns ;
they are reproduced ; this takes place every year after the
anLnal has attained the age of two years ; other animals
never lose their horns unless destroyed by violence.

CHAPTER III.

1. THE parts of the mamma3 also, and the organs of genera-
tion, are different in man and in other animals For some
have the mamma3 forward on or near the breast, and two
mamma3 with two nipples, as man and the elephant, as I
said before, for the elephant has two mamma3 near the arm-
pits ; in the female they are small, and do not bear any
proportion to the size of the animal, so that they are
scarcely visible in a side view ; the males also have mammse as
well as the females, but they are exceedingly small.

1 Coa, the highest throw with the Astragalus with the convex side up-
permost, opposed to Chia, the lowest throw, sixes and aces.

B> II.] THE HISTORY OI ANIMALS. 29

2. The bear has four, other animals have two mammae upon
the thighs, and two nipples like sheep ; others have four nipples,
as the cow ; some animals have not their nipples on the breast
and thighs, but on the abdomen, as the dog and the hog,
they have many nipples, but not all of the same size ; other
animals also have more than two, as the panther, which has
four on the abdomen ; the lioness has two on the abdomen,
the camel has two mammae and four nipples, like the cow.

3. Among animals with a solid hoof the males have no
mamma3, except some horses which bear a resemblance to
their dams. Some males have the penis external, as man, and
the horse, and many others ; some internal, as the dolphin.
Of those animals in which it is external, some have it in
front, as those which I have named ; and some of these have
both the penis and testicles loose, as in man ; others have
them close to the abdomen ; some have them more, others
less loose, for this part is not equally free in the boar and
the horse.

4. The elephant has a penis like a horse, but small and less in
proportion to the size of its body ; its testicles are not external
but internal, and near the kidneys, wherefore also the work
of copulation is quickly performed. The female has the
pudendum in the same position as the udder of the sheep,
and when excited with desire, it is lifted up outwards, so as
to be ready for copulation with the male ; and the orifice of
the pudendum is very wide. Most animals have the penis
in the same direction, but some are retromin gent, as the lynx,
lion, camel, and' hare. In some males, as I have said, the
direction of the penis is different, but all females are re-
tromin gent, for even in the female elephant the pudendum is
placed under the thighs, as in other animals.

5. The penis is very different in different animals, for in some
it is cartilaginous and fleshy, as in man ; the fleshy part does
not swell, but the cartilaginous portion is erected ; in others
it is sinewy, as the camel and the stag ; in others it is bony, as
the fox and the wolf, the weasel and the martin, for the
martin also has a bony penis.

6. Again, man being a perfect animal, has the upper part
of his body less than the lower part ; the contrary is the case
with other sanguineous animals : by the upper portion of
his body we mean the portion of his body from the head to

30 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS, [B. II.

the anus ; and by the lower, the parts from hence down-
wards. In those animals which have feet the hind leg is
the lower part of the body in point of size ; and in those
without legs, the same relation is observed in their various
kinds of tails. Such is the nature of perfected animals, but
they differ in the development of their parts. Man in the
young state has the upper part of his body greater than the
lower ; but as he grows the proportion of his parts changes,
wherefore also he is the only animal which does not move in
the same way when young and when grown up, for at first
a child crawls like a four-footed animal.

7. Some animals grow in the same proportion throughout,as
the dog — others when they are first born have their upper
part proportionally less than the lower, but as they approach
maturity, the upper parts increase in size, as in the lophuri,
for in these animals the part from the hoof to the haunch never
grows after their birth.

8. There is a great difference in the teeth of animals, both
among themselves and from the human type ; all viviparous
and sanguineous quadrupeds have teeth ; some have teeth in
both jaws, which others have not ; this is the first distinction.
Those which have horns do not possess teeth in both jaws,
for they have no front teeth in the upper jaw. There are
others, as the camel, which, though it has no horns, has not
teeth in the upper jaw.

9. Some animals have tusks like the boar, others have not ;
some have pointed teeth, as the lion, panther, and dog ; the
teeth of others have an even surface, as the ox and the horse.
Animals with pointed teeth have their teeth fitting into each
other ; no animal has both tusks and horns, neither those
with pointed teeth nor any others. Most animals have their
front teeth sharp, and their hind teeth flat ; all the teeth of
the seal are sharp pointed, showing an approximation to the
race of fishes, for all fishes have pointed teeth.

j 10. None of these genera have a double row of teeth. But,
if we may believe Ctesias, there are some which have this
peculiarity, for he mentions an Indian animal called marti-
chora, which had three rows of teeth in each jaw ; it is as
large and as rough as a lion, and has similar feet, but its
ears and face are like those of a man ; its eye is grey, and
its body red ; it has a tail like a land scorpion, in which there

B TI ] THE HISTOET or ANIMALS. 31

is a sting; it darts forth the spines with which it ia
covered instead of hair, and it utters a noise resembling the
united sound of a pipe and a trumpet ; it is not less swift of
foot than a stag, and is wild, and devours men.

11. Man sheds his teeth, and so do other animals, as the
horse, the mule, and the ass ; man sheds his front teeth, but no
animal sheds the molar teeth ; swine do not shed any of their
teeth. About dogs, there is some doubt ; some persons think
they do not shed their teeth at all, others that they shed only
the canine teeth ; but it has been observed that they do shed
their teeth like men : perhaps it has escaped notice, because
they do not shed them before the inner ones, which are simi-
lar, are grown up.

12. And it is probable that the same takes place in other
wild animals, since they are said only to shed their canine
teeth. Young dogs are known from old ones by their teeth,
for young dogs have sharp white teeth, old dogs have them
black and blunted. The horse is in this respect different
from all other animals ; for while the teeth in other animals
become darker as they grow older, in the horse they become
more white.

13. Those which are called canine teeth are placed between
the cutting and the molar teeth, and partake of the nature of
both, for they are wide below, but sharp at the top. The
male has more teeth than the female in mankind, and sheep,
and goats, and swine. This has not been observed in other
animals. Those persons which have the greatest number of
teeth are the longest lived ; those which have them widely
separated, smaller, and more scattered, are generally more
short lived.

14. The last molar teeth, which are called wisdom teeth, ap-
pear, both in the male and female about the age of twenty,
and some women cut the molar teeth at eighty years of age,
causing great pain in the extremity of the jaw, and some
men also : this happens with persons who do not cut their
wise teeth at the proper age.

15. The elephant has four teeth on each side, with which he
grinds his food, for he reduces his food very sitiall, like meal.
Besides these, he has two tusks : in the male these are large,
and turned upwards ; in the female they are small, and bent
in the contrary direction. The elephant has teeth as soon

82 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [u. II.

as it is born; but the tusks are small, and therefore in-
conspicuous at first. It has so small a tongue within its
mouth, that it is difficult to see it.

CHAPTER IV.

1. ANIMALS have very differently-sized mouths, for some have
wide, open mouths, as the dog, the lion, and all animals
with pointed teeth ; other animals have a small mouth, as
man, or a moderately-sized one, as the swine. The Egyp-
tian river-horse has a mane like a horse, and a cloven hoof
like the ox ; it has a flat face ; the talus is like that of other
animals with cloven hoofs, and it has large projecting teeth ;
it has a tail like a hog, and utters a sound like the neigh-
ing of a horse ; it is about the size of an ass, and its skin is
so thick that shields are made of it ; its intestines are like
those of a horse or ass.

CHAPTER V.

1. SOME animals unite in their nature the characteristics of
man and quadrupeds, as apes, monkeys, and cynocephali.
The monkey is an ape with a tail ; cynocephali have the same
form as apes, but are larger and stronger, and their faces
are more like dogs' faces ; they are naturally fierce, and their
teeth are more like dogs' teeth, and stronger than in other
genera.

2. The apes are hairy in their upper parts, so as to bear
some resemblance to quadrupeds, and also in the lower,
because they are like men, for in this particular, as I said
before, there is a difference in men and brutes ; their hair
is coarse, and apes are rough both above and below. They
bear a strong likeness to men in their face, for their nos-
trils, ears, and teeth, both the fore and back teeth, are like
his ; and as for eye-lashes, though other animals are entirely
without them, the ape has them on the lower eye-lid ; they
are, however, very thin, and altogether small.

3. Upon the breast are two small mammae, with two nipples ;
the arms are like those of man, but hairy ; both the arms and
legs are bent- like those of man, the curves of the limbs being
turned towards each other. Besides these, it has hands, fin
gers, and nails like those of man. but all indicating an ap-
proximation to the brute ; their feet are peculiar, for they

B. FT.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 33

are like great hands. The fingers upon them are like those
on the hands, and the middle one is the longest ; the sole
of the foot is like a hand, except that it extends the whole
length of the hand like a palm, and is hard at the extremity,
and is a bad and obscure representation of a heel.

4. The feet are used for both the purposes of hands and
feet, and are bent like hands. The humerus and the femur
are short compared with the cubitus and the leg. The navel
is not prominent, and there is a hard place about the region
of the navel. Like quadrupeds, the upper part of the body
is much larger than the lower, almost in the proportion of
five to three, and the feet are like hands, and as it were
made up of hands and feet, a foot as far as the extremity
of the heel, and the remainder like a hand, for the fingers
are furnished with something like a palm.

5. The ape passes more of its time as a quadruped than
a biped, and like a quadruped, it has no nates, nor has it
a tail like a biped, but only something in representation of
a tail. The pudendum of the female resembles that of a
woman ; that of the male is more like a dog's. The monkey,
as I said before, has a tail, and all the internal parts of
the body are like those of man. The external parts of vivi-
parous quadrupeds are of this nature.

CHAPTER VI.

1. OVIPAROUS and sanguineous quadrupeds (for no san-
guineous land animal that is not either a quadruped or apodal
is oviparous) have a head, neck, back, upper and lower parts
of the body, and fore and hind legs, and something resem-
bling a breast, like oviparous quadrupeds : most of them also
have a large tail, some a small one ; all of them have many toes
and divided feet, and all the organs of sense, and a tongue,
except the Egyptian crocodile. And in this respect it re-
sembles some fishes, for the tongue of fishes is thorny, and
not free, and in some the place for the tongue is altogether
smooth, and without division (so that nothing is visible),
unless the lips are drawn aside.

2. They have no ears, only a passage for hearing ; neither
have they any mammae, and the penis and testicles are in-
ternal, and not external. They have no hair, but are covered
with scales, and all are furnished with sharp teeth. The

D

34 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [3. II.

river- cocodiles have eyes like hogs, and great sharp teeth,
strong claws, and an unbroken scaly skin. In the water
their sight is imperfect, but very good on land. They pass
the greatest part of the day on land, and of the night in the
water, for they cannot bear the cold air.

CHAPTER VII.

1. THE chameleon has the whole of its body like that of a
lizard, and the ribs, descending downwards, are joined to-
gether on the hypogastric region, like those of fish, and
the baek-bone stands up, like that of a fish ; its face is like
that of the chceropithecus.1 It has a very long tail ; the ex-
tremity is very smooth, and rolled together like a thong. It
is raised, upon longer legs than a lizard ; the joints of the legs
are bent in the same direction as the lizard's.

2. Each of its feet is divided into two parts, having the
same relation to each other as our thumbs have to the
rest of the hand : and, for a short distance, each of these is
divided into toes ; in the fore-feet the internal part has three,
the external two toes ; in the hind feet the internal part
has two, and the external three toes ; there is a claw upon
each of its toes like that of birds of prey ; its whole body
is rough, like the crocodile.

3. Its eyes are placed in a hollow, and are very large
and round ; surrounded with skin like the rest of its body,
and in the middle is left a small aperture through which
it sees ; this is never covered with skin. The eye is turned
round in a circle, and it can direct its vision to any side, so
that it can see where it will. The change in the colour of
its skin takes place when it is filled with air. It can acquire
either a black colour, like that of the crocodile, or ochreous,
like that of the lizard, or spotted with black, like the pan-
ther ; and this change takes place over the whole body, for the
eyes also change like the rest of the body, and so does the tail.

4. Its movements are slow, like those of the tortoise ;
when dying, it becomes ochreous, and retains this colour after
death. The oesophagus and trachea of the chameleon are
similar to the same parts in lizards ; it has no flesh, except a
little on the head and cheeks, and upon the appendage at the
end of its tail. It has no blood, except about the heart, and

1 Simla rostrata, or perhaps baboon. (The identifications of the
animals, unless otherwise noted, are taken from the German translation
by Struck, 1816.)

E II.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 35

eyes, and the parts above the heart, and the veins that ex-
tend from these : and even in these there is very little blood.
5. The brain lies a little above the eyes, and is continuous
with them ; and when the outside skin of the eye is taken
away, a bright object shines through it, like a bright
ring of brass. Through the whole of its body many strong
membranes are extended, which are much stronger than in
other animals. It breathes strongly for some time after it
has been dissected, and there are some slight movements of
the heart ; it also continues to contract its sides, but not the
other parts of the body. It has no distinct spleen ; and it
hides itself in rocks like the lizard.

CHAPTER VIII.

1. BIRDS also have many parts like the animals described
above. For all these have a head, neck, back, and under
parts of the body, and something resembling a breast. They
have two legs, and thus resemble men more than other ani-
mals, except that the joints bend backwards like those of quad-
rupeds, as I said before. They have neither hands, nor fore-
feet, but wings ; herein they differ from all other animals.
Again, the hip is like a thigh, large and united as far as
the middle of the abdomen, so as to look like a thigh,
when it is separated from the rest of the body ; and the thigh
where it is joined to the leg is another part. The class of
birds with crooked claws have the largest thigh, and
stronger breasts than others.

2. All birds have claws and many divisions of the foot ;
in most of them the toes are quite separate ; but the swim-
mers have their feet covered with a web, but even these have
distinct and jointed toes. All birds that fly high in the air
have four toes ; and, generally, these are placed three for*
wards, and one backward, like a heel ; a few birds have two
toes turned forwards and two backwards, as the bird called
jynx.1 This bird is somewhat larger than the spize,2 and is
variegated in appearance. The formation of its toes is pecu-
liar, and so is that of its tongue, which is like a serpent's.
This it can project from its mouth, as much as the width of
four fingers, and draw it in again. Like a snake it can turn
its neck quite round, whilst the rest of its body is perfectly
1 Jynx torquilla, wry-neck. ~ Fringilla, finch.

f

36 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. B. II.

still. It has large claws, like those of the colius,1 and it
hisses with its voice.

3. Birds have a mouth, but its construction is peculiar,
for they have neither lips nor teeth, but a beak, and
neither ears nor nostrils, but only passages for these organs,
for the nostrils in the beak, and for the ears in the head.
They have two eyes like other animals, without eyelashes ;
when heavy with sleep, they close their eyes with the
lower eyelid ; and all possess a nictitating membrane, which
closes the eye. The owl-like birds also use the upper eye-
lid. The same is the nature of the scaly animals, as the
tsaurians, and others of this class ; all of them close their
eyes with the lower eyelid, but they do not all wink like
birds. Again, birds have neither scales nor hair, but
feathers ; all the feathers have a stem.

4. Birds have no tail, but a rump ; in birds with long
legs, or palmated feet, this is short, in others it is large.
These last, when they fly, keep their legs close to the
body, but the others stretch them out behind them. All
birds have a tongue, but this differs in various kinds:
some have it large, others small. Next after man, some
birds articulate words better than any other animals ; this is
particularly the case with those with broad tongues. No
oviparous animal has an epiglottis on its trachea : but it
can close and open the passage, so as to prevent any heavy
thing finding its way into the lungs.

5. Some tribes of birds have spurs; this is never the
case with those which have crooked claws. Those with
crooked claws are more active in flight ; those which have
spurs, are heavier in their make.

6. Some birds have a crest, mostly formed of erect
feathers ; the domestic fowl, alone, is peculiar, for its crest
is neither flesh, nor very unlike flesh.

CHAPTEB IX.

1. AMONG aquatic animals, there is one class of fish, which
embraces many forms, and is separated from other animals,
for it has a head, and upper and lower parts, in which last
are the stomach and bowels, and a continuous and undivided
tail. This is not alike in all. They have neither neck nor
limb, nor internal and external testicles, nor mammse, nor
1 Perhaps Corvus galgulus.

B. II.] THE HISTOKY OF ANIMALS. 37

has any other animal mammae that is not viviparous, nor
indeed all viviparous animals, but those only that are inter-
nally viviparous, and not first of all oviparous. For the dol-
phin is a viviparous animal, wherefore it has two mammae,
not indeed above, but near the organs of reproduction. It
has not evident nipples, but, as it were, a stream flowing from
each side. From these the milk exudes, and the young ones
suck as they follow the mother. This has been distinctly
observed by some persons.

2. But fish, as we have observed, have neither mamma3
nor any external passage for the genital organs. In the
branchia they have a distinctive organ, through which they
eject the water they have received into their mouths ; and
they have fins, most fishes have four, but the long fishes, as
the eel, have only two placed near the branchia, and in this
respect the cestreus,1 a fish in the lake of Sipha3, is similar to
the eel,2 and so is the fish called ta3nia.3 Some of these
long fish have no fins, as the muraBna, nor have they divided
branchia like other fish.

3. Some fish with branchia have coverings over their bran-
chia ; in all the cartilaginous fishes they are uncovered. All
fishes that have coverings have the branchia placed on their
sides ; among the cartilaginous fishes some are broad in the
lowest part, as the narce4 and the batos ;5 some very long in
the sides, as all the galeodea.6 In the batracus,7 although the
branchia are on the sides, they are covered with a coriaceous,
not a prickly membrane, like those of fishes which are not
cartilaginous.

4. In some fishes with branchia they are single, in others
double, but the last towards the body is always single.
Some have but few branchia, others have many ; but their
number is always equal on both sides, and those with the
smallest number have always one on each side; this is
double in the capros ;8 others have two on each side, some-
times these are single, sometimes double, as in the conger9
and the scarus ;10 others have four simple branchia on each
side, as the ellops,11 synagris, muraena, and eel ; others have

I Mugil, mullet. 2 Mursena anguilla. 3 Perhaps Cepola tsenia.
4 Raia torpedo. 8 Raia batos. 6 The shark tribe.

7 Lophius piscatorius. 8 Perhaps Cottus cataphractus.

9 Murgena conger. i0 Scarus cretensis.

II Swordfish or sturgeon (L. and S. Lexicon), or Centriscus swlopax.

38 THE HISTOKY OF ANIMALS. [B. TX,

four, all divided except the last, as the cichle,1 perca,2 glanis,3
and cyprinus ;4 all the galeodea have five double branchiaon
each side, the xiphias5 has eight, which are double. This is
the manner and number of the branchia of fishes.

5. And fish differ in other respects besides their gills, for
they have no hair like viviparous quadrupeds, nor scaly
plates like oviparous quadrupeds, nor feathers like birds, but
the greater number of them are covered with scales ; some of
them are rough, and a very few are smooth. Some cartila-
ginous fishes are rough, others smooth. Congers, eels, and
tunnies are smooth. All fish except the scarus have pointed
teeth, and all have sharp teeth, some several rows of them, and
teeth on the tongue ; they have also a hard prickly tongue, so
united to the mouth as sometimes to appear without a tongue.

6. The mouth of some fishes is wide, like viviparous quad-
rupeds. They have no external organs of sense, nor even
passages for smelling or hearing ; but all have eyes without
eyelids, though their eyes are not hard. All fishes are san-
guineous ; some are oviparous, others viviparous ; all those
that are covered with scales are oviparous. The cartilagi-
nous fishes are all viviparous, except the batrachus.

CHAPTER X.

1. THE remaining class of sanguineous animals is that of
serpents ; these partake of both characters. The greater
portion of them inhabit the land, a few inhabiting water are
found in rivers. There are also serpents in the sea very like
those on land, except in their head, which is more like that
of the conger. There are many genera of sea-serpents, and
they are of all kinds of colours ; they do not exist in the
deepest part of the ocean. Serpents are apodal, like fishes.

2. There are also marine scolopendra},6 very like those on
land, but rather less ; they live in rocky places ; in colour
they are redder, and they have more feet, and slighter legs
than in the terrestrial species. These also, like the ser-
pents, are not found in deep places.

3. And there is a small fish which lives among the rocks,
which some call echineis ;7 some people use it for trials
and philtres ; it is not fit for food. Some people say it

1 A variegated fish. 2 Perca fluviatilis. 3 Silurus glanis.

4 Cyprinus carpis, Carp. b Xiphias gladius, Swordfish.

9 Nereis, or aphrodite. 7 Echeneis remora.

B> jjl THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 39

has feet, but it has none ; the fins, however, are like feet,
which gives it this appearance. I have now described the
external parts of sanguineous animals, their nature, and their
number, and the differences which occur amongst them.

CHAPTER XI.

1. FIBST of all we will speak of the internal parts of san-
guineous animals, for the greatest number of genera differ
from other animals, some being sanguineous, others ex-
sanguineous. The sanguineous genera are man, viviparous
and oviparous quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and whales, and
perhaps others that are anonymous, because they do not
form a genus, but simply species amongst each other, as the
serpent and the crocodile.

2. All viviparous quadrupeds have an oesophagus and
trachea, situated as in man, and so have oviparous quadru-
peds and birds, though there is some difference in the forma-
tion of these parts ; all that breathe by inhaling and exhaling
air have lungs, trachea, and oesophagus. The position of the
O3sophagus and trachea, though similar, is not the same, nor
are the lungs alike in all, nor similar in position.

3. All sanguineous animals have a heart, and a division
in the middle of the body, called a diaphragm. In small
animals its smallness and thinness render it less apparent.
The heart of the ox is peculiar ; for there is a kind of ox,
though not the whole genus, which has a bone in its heart,
and there is also a bone in the heart of the horse.

4. Not all animals have lungs, fish and those with gills have
no lungs. All sanguineous animals have a liver, generally a
spleen also ; but in oviparous animals that are not vivipa-
rous, the spleen is so small as nearly to escape notice, as in
most birds, the pigeon, kite,1 hawk,2 and owl. The aegocepha-
lus3 has none at all. Oviparous quadrupeds are of the same
nature, for they have a very small spleen, as the tortoise,
emys,4 phryne,5 lizard, crocodile, and frog.

5. Some animals have a gall upon the liver, others none.
Among viviparous quadrupeds the stag6 has none, nor the
deer,7 horse, mule, ass, seal, and some swine. The Achainian
etag appears to have the gall in the tail ; that which they call

1 Falco milvus. 2 Falco palumbarius. 3 Stryx otug.

4 Testudo coriacea. 6 Cervus elaphus.

7 Cervus capreolus, or C. Dama,

40 THE HISTORY OF AXIJIALS. JB« U-

gall in these animals resembles it in colour, but it is not liquid
like gall, but more like the spleen in its internal structure.

6. All, while they are alive, have worms1 in the head ; they
are produced in the hollow part under the hypoglottis, and
near the vertebrae, where the head is joined on. In size
they resemble very large maggots ; they are numerous, and
continuous, in number not generally more than twenty.
Stags, as I have observed, have no gall, but their intestines
are so bitter that dogs will not eat them if the deer are fat.

7. The elephant also has a liver without a gall, but when
the part where the gall is attached in other animals, is cut
open, a quantity of fluid like bile, more or less abundant, runs
out. Among those animals which inhale sea-water, and have
lungs, the dolphin has no gall. All birds and fishes have
galls, and all oviparous quadrupeds, to speak of them at
once, have a gall, greater or- less ; but in some fishes it is
placed upon the liver, as the galeodea, glanis, rine,2 leio-
batus,3 narce, and in some long fish, as the eel, belone,4 and
zygsena ;5 and the callionymus6 has a gall upon the liver,
larger in proportion to its size than any other fish. Others
have a gall upon the intestines, extending from the liver by
several thin passages ; the amia7 has it stretched out upon
the intestines, and equal to them in length, and many times
folded upon it. Other fish have the gall upon the intes-
tines, some at a greater, others at a less distance, as the
batrachus, elops, synagris, muraena, xiphias.

8. And the same genus often appears to have the gall
extended in both directions, as the conger, in some indivi-
duals it is turned towards the liver, in others suspended be-
fore the liver. The same structure is observed in birds, for
some have the gall turned towards the stomach, and others
towards the entrails, as the pigeon, crow, quail, swallow,
sparrow; in others it is directed both towards the liver
and the stomach, as the segocephalus ; in others, as the hawk
and kite, it is directed towards the liver and the intestines.

CHAPTER XII.

1. ALL viviparous quadrupeds have kidneys and a bladder,
but some oviparous animals have neither, as birds and

1 Possibly CEetrus nasalis. z Squalus squatina.

3 Eaia batos. 4 Syngnathus acus. * Squalus zygsena.

« Uranoscopus scaber. 7 A kind of marked scomber, mackerel ?

!B. II.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 41

fishes, and among oviparous quadrupeds the marine turtle
is the only one that has them at all proportionate to its size.
The marine turtle has the kidneys like those of oxen, and
that of the ox is like a great many kidneys joined together.
In all its internal parts, the bonassus1 is like the ox.

2. The position which these parts occupy is the same in all
animals, and the heart is in the middle of the body of all crea-
tures, except man. In him it is inclined towards the left side ;
and, as it was before observed, the apex of the heart is
directed forward in all, but in fishes it does not appear to
be so, for the apex of the heart is not directed towards the
chest, but towards the mouth and head, and the top of the
heart is suspended from the place where the right and left
bronchia are joined to each other, and there are also other
passages which extend from the heart to each of the bran-
chia, greater towards the larger branchia, and less towards
the smaller ; but that to the top of the heart in great fishes
is a thick white tube.

3. A few fishes, as the conger and the eel, have an oeso-
phagus, but even in these it is very small ; in some of the
fish that have a liver, it is placed on the right side, and has
no lobes ; in others, it is divided from the commencement,
and the greater part is on the right side. For in. some fish
each part of the liver hangs down, and the divisions are not
united at their origin, as in the tribe of fish called galeodea,
and in a species of hare which is found near the lake of
Bolba, in the place called Sycine, and in other places, so
that one might suppose that they had two livers, on account
of the distances at which the passages unite, as in the lungs
of birds.

4. In all animals the spleen is naturally situated on the
left side. The case has occurred that an animal having been
opened, has been observed to have the spleen on the right
side and the liver on the left, but such appearances are con-
sidered ominous. In all animals the trachea reaches to the
lungs (its nature will be described in another place) ; and the
oesophagus, in all that have this part, reaches to the stomach
through the diaphragm. For most fishes (as I observed be-
fore) have no resophagus, but the stomach is united directly
with the mouth. So that it often happens that, when great

J Bos grunniens.

42 THE HISTOET Or ANIMALS. [B. II.

fishes are pursuing small ones, the stomach falls forward
into the mouth.

5. All the animals that have heen mentioned have a
stomach, and in the same situation, for it is universally
placed under the diaphragm, and an intestine follows it,
and ends in the exit for the food which is called the anus.
But the stomach of different animals is variously formed,
for in the first place viviparous horned quadrupeds, which
have not teeth in both jaws, have four such passages, and
those animals are said to ruminate. For the ossophagus,
commencing in the mouth, extends to the parts just below the
lungs, and passes through the diaphragm to the great stomach.

6. The internal part of this is rough, and folded to-
gether ; and it is united, near the junction of the stomach,
to the part which, from its appearance, is called the net,
for the exterior is like a stomach, but the inside resembles
the meshes of a net ; in point of size, the net is much less
than the stomach. Next to this is the part called echinus,
because internally it is rough and channelled ; it is nearly
the same size as the net. Next to the echinus is the
enystrum, which is both larger and longer than the echinus,
and internally covered with many large and smooth folds ;
after this are the entrails.

7. This is the nature of the stomach of animals with horns,
and no teeth in the upper jaw. But they differ from each
other in the form and size of these parts ; and because the
oesophagus is sometimes united to the middle, and some-
times to the side of the stomach. Most animals which have
teeth in both jaws have but one stomach, as the man, dog,
bear, lion, and the wolf. The thos1 has all its intestines like a
wolf. All these have but one stomach, to which the bowel
is united. But in some of these the stomach is larger, as
the hog and the bear ; that of the hog is marked with a
few smooth lines. In other animals the stomach is less,
not indeed much larger than the intestine, as the dog, lion,
and man. In the forms of their bowels other animals
are divided into two classes, resembling these types ; for in
some the stomach resembles a dog's, in others a hog's, both
the greater and lesser animals in the same way ; and the
stomachs of various animals differ in size, form, thickness,
thinness, and the position of the junction of the oesophagus.

1 Fells onza, perhaps also canis aureus.

B. II.] THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 43

8. And the nature of the bowels differs in the before-named
animals, those, namely, which have not, and those which have
teeth in both jaws, in size, thickness, and folding. The intes-
tines of the ruminants are all large, and so are the animals
themselves ; there are a few small animals of this class, and
there is no horned animal which is very small. And some
have appendages to the intestines, for none of the animals
with teeth in both jaws have straight intestines. There are
enlargements in the bowels of the elephant, which give it
the appearance of having four stomachs ; in these the food is
detained, and apart from these there is no receptacle for the
food. Its intestines are very like those of the hog, except
that the liver is four times greater than that of the ox, and
other parts also ; the spleen is small in proportion to its size.

9. The stomach and intestines of oviparous quadrupeds
bear a similar proportion to each other, as in the land and
marine tortoise, the lizard, and both kinds of crocodiles,1
and similar quadrupeds ; for they have one simple stomach,
in some it is like that of the hog, in others like that of the
dog.

10. The class of serpents in almost every part of their
body resemble the saurians, which have feet, and are ovi-
parous, if we add to their length, and take away the feet ;
for snakes are covered with scales, and have their upper
and lower parts like saurians, except that they have no tes-
ticles, but, like fish, two passages united in one, and a
large and cloven uterus, but in other respects their in-
testines are so like those of saurians, except that from
their elongated figure their intestines are long and narrow,
that they might be mistaken for them, from their similarity.

11. For the trachea is very long, and the oesophagus still
longer, and the commencement of the trachea is close to
the mouth, so that the tongue appears to lie beneath it.
The trachea appears to be above the tongue because this
last can be retracted, and is not always in one position, as
in other animals. Their tongue is long, thin, and black,
and can be put forth for some distance. The tongue of
serpents and saurians is distinct from that of all other
animals, for the extremity of the tongue is cloven ; this is
most remarkable in serpents, for the extremities of their

1 Crocodilus niloticus and Lacerta stellio.

44 THE HISTOliY OF ANIMALS. [B. II.

tongues are like hairs. The seal also has a forked tongue.
The serpent has a stomach like a very wide entrail, like
that of the dog, afterwards a very long and thin intestine,
which is alike to its extremity.

12. Behind the pharynx is a small kidney-shaped heart,
so that at times the apex does not appear to be directed
towards the chest, next to this is a single lung, divided by
a muscular passage, very long, and descending a long
distance from the breast. The liver is long and simple,
the spleen small and round, like that of the saurians.
The gall resembles that of fish, in water serpents it is
situated on the liver, in others generally upon the intes-
tines. They all have pointed teeth, and as many ribs as
there are days in the month, for they have thirty. Some
persons say that in one respect serpents resemble the
young of the swallow, for if their eyes are pierced with a
pointed instrument, they will grow again, and if the tails of
serpents or lizards be cut off, they will be reproduced.

13. The same remarks will apply to the intestines and
stomachs of fishes, for they have one simple stomach,
but it differs in form, for in some fishes it is like a bowel,
as in the one called scarus. and this is the only fish that
appears to ruminate, and the size of the intestines is
simple and folded together, for it can be resolved into one,
by unfolding it. The appendages of the stomach appear
to be peculiar to fishes and birds, for birds have them
above the stomach, and few in number, but in fish they
are above, and around the stomach. Some have many ap-
pendages, as the gobius,1 galeus,2 perca, scorpios,3 citharus,4
trigla,5 and sparus.6 But the cestreus has many on one side
of the stomach, and only one on the other. Some have
only a few, as the hepatus7 and the glaucus,8 and the chry-
sophrys9 also has only a few, but some individuals differ
from others, for one chrysophrys has many, another has
only a few. There are some fish which have none of them,
as most of the cartilaginous genera; others have a few,
and some a great many, and all fish have these appendages
very near the stomach itself.

1 Gobio, gudgeon. 2 Shark. 3 Coitus scorpius.

* Probably Pleuronectes rhombus. 5 Mullus surmulentus.
6 Sparus maina. 7 Theutis hepatus. 8 Probably Gobio gozo.

* Sparus aurata.

IMI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 45

14. Birds have their internal parts different from each
other and from other animals ; for some have before the
stomach a crop, as the domestic fowl, pigeon, dove, and
partridge. The crop is a large and hollow skin, into which
the food is received before it is digested. Hence from the
oesophagus it is narrower, then wider, and where it descends
into the stomach it is smaller.

15. In most birds the stomach is fleshy and thick, and on
the outside there is a strong skin, which is separated from
the fleshy part. Some birds have no crop, but instead of
it a wide oesophagus, either wholly so, or in the part extend-
ing to the stomach, as in the coloeus,1 raven, and crow.
The quail has the lower part of the oesophagus broad, the
segocephalus has it small but wider, and so has the owl.
But the duck, goose, gull, diver, and bustard, have a wide
and broad cesophagus, and so have many other birds.

16. And some have a part of the stomach itself like a
crop, as the cenchreis ;2 and there are some which have
neither oesophagus nor a \vide crop, but a large stomach ;
these are small birds like the swallow, and the sparrow.
A few have neither a crop, nor a wide oesophagus, but a
very long one ; these are birds with a long neck, as the por-
phyrion.3 Almost all these emit a moister excrement than
other birds.

17. The quail has these peculiarities, for it has a crop, and
before the stomach a wide and broad cesophagus. And the
crop is at a great distance from the part of the oesophagus
before the belly, considering the size of the bird. Birds
have generally a small intestine, which is single when un-
folded, and birds have appendages, a few, as I have said, and
not placed above, as in fish, but below, near the end of the
intestine. Some birds have not these appendages, though
they generally have them, as the domestic fowl, partridge,
duck, night-raven,4 localus,5 ascalaphus,6 goose, bustard,
owl. Some of the small birds have them, but they are very
minute, as the sparrow.

1 Three kinds of birds are called by this name. Corvus graculue,
C. rnonedula, and Pelicanus graculus. 2 Falco tinnunculua.

3 Fulica porphyrion. * Ardea nycticorax. 5 Some kind of heron.
6 Some kind of owl.

46 THE HISTORY Or ANIMALS. [B. III.

BOOK THE THIRD.

CHAPTER I.

1. WE have treated of the other internal parts of animals,
their number, their nature and varieties. It now remains for
us to speak of the organs of generation. In females these are
always internal ; but there is much difference in males, for
some sanguineous animals have no testicles at all, in others
they are internal ; and in some animals with internal tes-
ticles, they are placed near the kidneys, in others near the
abdomen ; in other animals they are external. The penis
of these last is sometimes united to the abdomen, in others
it is loose as well as the testicles ; but in promingent and
retromingent animals it is suspended from the abdomen
in a different manner. Neither fish nor any other animal
with gills, nor the whole class of serpents, have testicles ;
neither has any apodal animal which is not internally vivi-
parous.

2. Birds have testicles, but they are internal and near
the loins, and so have oviparous quadrupeds, as the lizard,
tortoise, and crocodile, and among viviparous animals, the
hedgehog. In some viviparous animals they are situated in-
ternally upon the abdomen, as the dolphin among apodal
creatures, and the elephant among quadrupeds. In other
animals the testicles are external. It has been previously
observed, that the manner and position of their junction with
the abdomen is various, for in some they are joined on and do
not hang down, as in swine, in others they hang down as in
man.

3. It has also been observed that neither fishes nor serpents
have testicles, but they have two passages hanging down on
each side of the spine from the diaphragm, and these unite
in one passage above the anus, by above, we mean nearer
the spinal column. At the season of coition these passages
are full of semen, which exudes on pressure ; the differences

B. II I. J THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 47

among these may be seen by dissection, and in another place
they will each be considered more particularly.

4. All oviparous animals, whether bipeds or quadrupeds,
have their testicles placed in the loins below the diaphragm,
some of a white colour, others ochreous, but in all sur-
rounded with small veins ; from each of these a passage is
produced, which afterwards become united in one, and, as
in fish, open near the anus. This is the penis, which is in-
conspicuous in small animals ; but in the larger, as the goose
and such like, it becomes more conspicuous immediately
after coition.

5. And these passages, both in fish and other animals,
are joined to the loins below the stomach and between the
entrails and the great vein, from which passages proceed to
each of the kidneys ; and, as in fish, the semen may be seen
entering them at the period of coition, when these passages
become very conspicuous, but when this season is passed
the passages again become invisible. So also the testicles
of birds are either small or entirely invisible when not excited,
but when urged by desire they become very large ; this is so
remarkable in pigeons and partridges, that some persons
have supposed that they had no testicles during winter.

6. In some of those animals in which the testicles are placed
forwards, they are internal and upon the abdomen, as in the
dolphin ; in others they are externally conspicuous upon the
extremity of the abdomen. These animals are similar in
other respects, but differ in this, for in some the testicles
are uncovered, and others that have external testes they are
placed in a scrotum.

7. This is the nature of the testicles of all viviparous ani-
mals with feet : from the aorta, passages like veins proceed
to the head of each testicle, and two others from the kidneys,
these last are full of blood, but those from the aorta con-
tain no blood. From the head of each testicle to the tes-
ticle itself, there proceeds a thicker and more muscular pas-
sage, which is in each testicle reflected back to the head of
the testicle, and from this point they again unite upon the
penis towards the fpre-part of it.

8. And both these passages which are reflected back upon
themselves, and those which are seated upon the testicles,
are covered with the same membrane as the testes them-

48 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [_B. III.

selves, so that unless this membrane is taken away, they all
appear to be one passage. These last passages, which are
seated upon the testicle, contain sanguineous fluid, but less
than those above from the aorta; but in the reflected
passages of the duct which is upon the penis, the fluid is
white. A passage also leads from the bladder, and is united
to the upper part of this duct, which is enclosed in the part
called the penis as in a husk. The accompanying diagram
will illustrate the position of these parts.

9. The origin of the passage from the trachea, a ; the head
of the testes and the descending passages, b b ; the passages
which proceed from these, and are seated upon the testicle,
c c ; the reflexed passages which contain the white fluid,
dd; the penis, e ; the bladder,/; the testicles, g g. But
when the testicles are cut out or otherwise destroyed, the
upper passages are retracted ; in young animals castration
is performed by bruising the testicles, in older animals by
excision. And it has happened that a bull has begotten
young if admitted to the female immediately after castra-
tion. This is the nature of the testicles of animals.

10. The uterus of the females that possess this organ is not
of the same nature, nor alike in all, but they differ from
each other both in viviparous and oviparous animals. The
uterus is double in all those animals in which it is situated
near the external organ of generation, one part lying on the
right side, the other on the left, but the origin is one, and
there is but one os uteri, which is like a very fleshy tube,
and inmost animals, especially those of a large size, it is
cartilaginous. One part of this organ is called the uterus
and delphys (whence the word adelphi, brothers), and the
vagina and os uteri are called metra.

11. In all viviparous animals, whether bipeds or quadru-
peds, the uterus is placed below the diaphragm, as in the
human female, the bitch, sow, mare, and cow, and it is the
same in all horned animals. At the extremity of the uterus
most animals have a convoluted part called the horns ; these
are not distinct in all oviparous animals ; but in some birds
they are placed near the diaphragm, and in some fishes
below, as in the viviparous bipeds and quadrupeds. But
they are thin, membranaceous, and long, so that in very small
fish each part of the roe appears as one ovum, as if the fish

B. III.] THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. 49

which are said to have a crumbling roe had hut two ova, for
it is not one ovum but many, and therefore it may be resolved
into many.

12. In the uterus of birds the vagina is below, fleshy and
tough, but the part near the diaphragm membranaceous and
rery thin, so that the eggs appear to be outside the uterus.
In large birds the membrane is more conspicuous, and if
inflated through the vagina, it swells and enlarges at places ;
in small birds these parts are not conspicuous. The uterus
of oviparous quadrupeds, as the tortoise, lizard, frog, and
such like, is of the same nature, for the vagina below is one
and fleshy, but the division and the ova are higher up and
near the diaphragm.

13. In those apodal creatures which are outwardly vivi-
parous and inwardly oviparous, as the sharks and selachea
— [The selachea are apodal, furnished with gills, and vivi-
parous]— the uterus is divided, and as in birds, it com-
mences below and extends towards the diaphragm. The
ova are situated between the division, and above near the
diaphragm ; and the animal is produced from the ovum after
this has descended into the open space.

14. The difference between the uteri of these fish and
others may be studied more accurately in drawings of dis-
sections. Serpents also differ much both among themselves
and from other animals, for all serpents except the viper are
oviparous ; this one is viviparous, though at first internally
oviparous, wherefore, in many rsspects, its uterus resembles
that of the cartilaginous fishes. The uterus of the serpent
is long, like the body, and descends downwards, beginning
from one duct and continuing on either side of the spine as
far as the diaphragm, as if each were a passage, in which the
ova are placed in order ; these ova are not extruded singly,
but connected together like a chain.

15. In all animals that are either internally or externally
viviparous, the uterus is situated above the abdomen ; in all
oviparous creatures it is placed below, near the loins. Those
that are externally viviparous, but internally oviparous, par-
take of both characters, for the lower part in which the ova
are situated is near the loins, the other part whence the ova
are extruded above the intestines. And there is also this
difference in the uteri of animals ; those which have horns

£

50 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B III.

and not teeth in both jaws have cotyledons in the pregnant
uterus, and some of those also with teeth in both jaws, as the
hare, the mouse, and the bat. But other viviparous animals
with teeth in both jaws, and with feet, have a smooth uterus.
The embryo is not united to the cotyledon, but to the
womb. This is the manner of the internal and external
heterogeneous parts of animals.

CHAPTEE II.

1. Or the homogeneous parts of animals, the blood is com-
mon to sanguineous animals ; and so is the part in which it
is contained, which is called a vein ; analogous to these, in
exsanguineous animals are the serum and the fibre. That
which especially constitutes the body is flesh or its analogue :
the bone and its analogue ; the spine and the cartilage.
Next to this we place the skin, membranes, sinews, hair,
nails, and their analogue ; after these, adeps, fat, and excre-
mentitious matters ; then are faeces, phlegm, and bile, both
the yellow and the black.

2. But inasmuch as the blood and the veins seem to
occupy the chief place, we will first of all speak of these,
both for other reasons, and because former writers do not
appear to have described them rightly. The difficulty of
understanding them is the reason of their errors, for in
dead animals, the nature of the principal veins is obscure,
for they collapse as soon as the blood has escaped, and it
pours out of them as from a vessel. No part of the body,
except the veins, contains any blood, except the heart, which
has a little ; but it is all in the veins. In living creatures
their nature cannot be distinguished, for they are internal,
and out of sight ; so that those who consider them only in
dead and dissected animals, cannot see their principal ori-
gins. But some, by the examination of emaciated persons,
have distinguished the origin of the veins, from the appear-
ance of those which are external.

3. For Syennesis,1 a Cyprian physician, speaks thus :
" The larger veins are thus constituted. From the navel
around the loins, through the back to the lungs, under the
breasts ; that from the right to the left, and that from the

1 Syennesis, a physician of Cyprus. Very little is known of him j
b« must have lived in or before the fourth century B.C.

B. III.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 51

left to tlie right. That from the left, through the liver to
the kidney and the testicle ; that from the right to the spleen,
the kidney, and the testicle, and from thence to the penis."

4. Diogenes1 of Apollonia writes thus : " The veins are
thus placed in man. There are two very large ones, which
extend through the stomach by the spine of the back, one
to the right and the other to the left, each to the leg nearest
itself, and upwards to the head by the collar-bone, and through
the neck. Prom these great veins others extend through the
whole of the body, from the right to the right side, and from
the left to the left side. The largest are two from the heart,
surrounding the spine of the back ; and others, a little higher
up, through the breasts under the arm-pits, each to the hand
nearest itself ; and the one is called the splenetic, the other
the hepatic vein.

5. " The extremity of these veins is divided, one branch
goes to the thumb, and another to the wrist, and from these
many small branches are extended upon each hand, and the
fingers ; and others, smaller still, branch off from these first
veins, from the right side to the liver, from the left to the
spleen and kidneys. The veins, which go to the legs, are
divided near the junction, and extend through the whole
thigh ; but the largest of these extends to the back of the
thigh, and appears thick ; another, less thick, passes through
the inside of the thigh, and afterwards veins extend by the
knee to the leg and foot. As on the hands, they are distri-
buted upon the tarsus of the foot, and from thence to the toes.

6. " A number of small veins are distributed on the
stomach and the lungs. Those $>hat extend to the head,
through the jugular region, appear large in the neck. Erom
the extremity of each of these many veins are distributed
upon the head, some on the right side to the left, others on
the left side to the right, they all end near the ear. And
there is a second vein upon the neck on each side, some-
what less than the other, to which the principal veins of
the neck are united. These pass inwards, through the
neck, and from each of them veins pass beneath the
shoulder-blade and to the hands ; and near the splenetic and

1 Diogenes of Apollonia -was an eminent natural philosopher of Crete,
in the fifth century B.C. He wrote a work, wtpt <f>vfftw£, in which he
treated of natural philosophy in the widest sense of the words: a few frag-
ments are still extant, of which this quoted by Aristotle is the longest.

52 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [_B. III.

hepatic veins there appear others a little less, which they
divide when any disease attacks the skin ; but the hepatic
and splenetic veins are divided for any disease in the neigh-
bourhood of the stomach.

7. Other veins pass from these, beneath the breasts;
and there are other small ones, which proceed from each of
these through the spinal marrow to the testicles, and others
beneath the skin, through the flesh, reach the kidneys ; in
men they terminate upon the testicles, in women on the
uterus. The first veins from the stomach are wider, and
afterwards become smaller, until they pass over from the
right to the left, and from the left to the right ; these are
called the spermatic veins. The thickest blood is beneath
the flesh, but that which is in excess in these places be-
comes thin, and warm, and frothy." These are the opinions
of Syennesis and Diogenes.

8. Polybus1 writes thus : "There are four pair of veins, one
from the back of the head through the neck, on the outside,
near the spine on either side, as far as the thighs and the
legs, afterwards through the legs to the ancles, on the out-
side, and to the feet. Wherefore, in complaints of the back
and thigh, they divide the veins upon the poplitic region, or
ancles, on the outside. Another pair of veins pass from the
head, by the ears, through the neck, these are called the
jugular veins ; and others within, near the spine, lead by the
loins to the testicles and the thighs, and through the poplitic
region on the inside, and through the leg to the inner part
of the ancle, and the feet ; wherefore, in complaints of the
loins and testicles, they bleed in the poplitic region and ancles.

9. tl The third pair of veins, from the temple through the
neck, and beneath the scapula, reach the lungs ; those from
the right to the left, under the breast, to the spleen and
kidneys ; and those from the left to the right side, from the
lungs, under the breast, and liver, and kidney ; and both
end beneath the testicles. The fourth pair from the forepart
of the head and the eyes, under the neck and collar-bones ;
from thence they extend through the humerus to the elbow,
and through the cubitus to the wrist and the fingers, and
through the lower part of the arm to the arm-pits, and the

1 Polybus, a pupil of Hippocrates, a native of the island of Cos ; he
lived in the fourth century B.C. Many treatises on medical subjects are
attributed to him.

B. III."] THE HISTORY OP ANIMALS. 53

upper part of the lungs. The one reaches as far as the
spleen, the other to the liver ; afterwards they both pass
over the abdomen to the pudendum."

CHAPTER III.

1. THE opinions of other persons are nearly these ; and
there are other physiologists, but they have not treated so
accurately of the veins. But all agree in placing their
origin in the head and brain, in which they are incorrect.
But, as I have remarked before, it is difficult to discern the
course of the veins ; indeed, it is impossible to understand
them unless a person will examine animals which, after
emaciation, have been killed by strangulation. The follow-
ing is the nature of the veins : There are two veins in the
interior of the chest, near the spine ; the larger of these is
placed forward, the smaller is behind ; the larger is inclined
to the right side, the smaller to the left ; and this by some
persons is called the aorta, from the sinewy portion which
is seen in dead animals.

2. These veins have their origin in the heart, for they
pass completely through the other intestines, and always
preserve the character of veins. The heart is, as it were, a
part of them, and especially of the more forward and larger
one, for these veins are above and below, and the heart is in
the middle of them. The heart of all animals contains cavi-
ties, but in the heart of very small animals the largest cavity is
scarcely perceptible, in moderately sized animals the second
cavity is scarcely visible, but in large animals they are all
three distinct enough. And when the apex of the heart is
turned forwards, as I have observed, the principal cavity is
on the right side, and above it the least is on the left side,
and the middle-sized one is between them ; the two smaller
are far less than the greater.

3. All these are perforated towards the lungs, but im-
perceptibly so from the minuteness of the passage, except
in one place. The great vein is suspended from the upper
portion of the principal cavity; and on the right side ; after-
wards through the cavity a vein extends again, as if the
vein were a part of the cavity in which the blood stagnates.
The aorta has its origin from the middle cavity, but in a dif-
ferent manner from the vein, for it communicates with the
heart by a much narrower pasf age, and the vein is continued

54 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS, [B. III.

through the heart. But the aorta passes from the heart, and
the great vein is membranous and like skin, but the aorta ia
narrow and very sinewy, and as it is continued towards the
head and the lower parts of the body, it becomes narrow and
quite sinewy.

4. A portion of the great vein is first of all extended up-
'wards from the heart to the lung, and to the junction of
the aorta, this vein being undivided and large ; from this
place it divides into two branches, the one towards the lung,
and the other to the spine and the lowest vertebra of the
neck. The branch which goes to the lungs is first divided
into two branches, and afterwards it is continued upon every
tube and passage of the lungs, greater to the greater, and
less to the less, so as to leave no part in which there is not
a passage and a small vein. These last are invisible from their
minute size, so that the whole lung seems to be full of blood.

5. And the passages from the vein are above the tubes which
extend from the trachea. And the vein which is continued
upon the vertebra of the neck, and upon the spinal column,
returns again to the spine, as Homer writes in his poems : "He
cut off the whole vein which passes up the back and returns
again to the neck;"1 and from this vein branches extend to each
rib and to each vertebra ; but that which is upon the vertebra
near the kidneys branches in two directions. These branches,
then, of the great vein are subdivided in this manner.

6. And above these, from that part which is continued from
the heart, the whole is again divided into two directions, for
some reach to the sides and the clavicles, and afterwards
through the armpits to the arms, in the human subject, but
in quadrupeds to the fore-legs, to the wings in birds, and to
the pectoral fins in fishes. The commencements of these veins,
when they are first of all divided, are called jugular veins ;
and having branched off in the neck from the great vein, they
are continued to the trachea of the lungs. And if these
veins are held on the outside, men fall down dead with in-
sensibility, with closed eyes, but without choking.

7. Extending in this manner, and receiving the trachea
between them, they reach the place where the jaws unite
with the head ; and again from this point they are divided
into four veins, one of which bends backwards and descends

1 Iliad, xiii. 546.

B. III.J THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 55

through the neck and shoulder, and meets the first division
of the vein by the joint of the arm ; the other portion ter-
minates in the hand and fingers ; and another branch ex-
tends from each part near the ear to the brain, where it
is divided into many small branches upon the membrane
which surrounds the brain.

8. The brain never contains blood in any animal, nor does
any vein, small or great, terminate upon it ; but some of
the other branches that extend from this vein surround the
brain in a circle, and others, end upon the organs of sense
and the teeth in very small veins. In the same manner,
also, the branches of the smaller vein, which is called the
aorta, are divided : they are continued beside those of the
great vein, but the tubes are smaller and the branches less
than those of the great vein.

CHAPTER IV.

1. THE veins, then, are thus distributed in the parts above
the heart, but the part of the great vein which is below the
heart passes through the middle of the diaphragm, and is
united to the aorta and spinal column by membranous flaccid
passages. From this a short and wide vein passes through
the liver, from which many similar branches extend to the
liver, and disappear upon it. There are two branches of the
vein, one of which terminates upon the diaphragm, and what
is called the praecordia, the other returns through the arm-
pit to the right arm, and unites with the other veins near
the interior part of the elbow. For this reason physicians
treat certain diseases of the liver by venesection in this vein.
2. From the left of this there is a short and wide vein,
which reaches to the spleen, and the branches of this vein
are lost upon this organ, and another portion branching off
in the same way from the left the great vein passes up to
the left arm, except that the last-mentioned pass through
the liver, but this one through the spleen. Other branches
also separate from the great vein, the one to the omentum,
the other to the pancreas ; and from this many veins extend
through the mesenterium, and all end there in one great
vein, which passes through the whole intestine and the
Btomach, as far as the oesophagus ; and many veins branch
off from them around these parts.

56 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IIL

3. Both the aorta and the great vein continue as far as
the kidney each as a single duct ; from this point they are
more closely united to the spinal column, and are each di-
vided into two parts, like the letter lambda (A), and the
great vein is placed farther back than the aorta. The
aorta is more closely united to the spinal column, near the
neart, and the junction is formed by small sinewy veins.

4. The aorta leaves the heart as a large hollow passage,
but as it advances it becomes narrower and more sinewy.
Prom the aorta, veins extend also to the mesenterium, like
those from the great vein, but far inferior in size, for they are
narrow and muscular. They terminate in small hollow
muscular veins. No branch of the aorta extends to the
liver and the spleen, but the branches of either vein extend
to each hip, and both touch upon the bone. Branches
reach the kidney both from the great vein and the aorta ;
they do not, however, enter the cavity, but are taken up in
the* substance of the kidney.

5. Two other strong and continuous passages reach from
the aorta to the bladder, and others from the cavity of
the kidney ; but these do not communicate with the
great vein. From the centre of each kidney a hollow
sinewy vein passes through the other veins to the spinal
column; first of all they disappear upon each hip, and
then appear again in branches towards the hip ; their ex-
tremities are distributed upon the bladder and penis in
the male, and upon the uterus in the female ; no branch
of the great vein passes to the uterus, but many and thick
ones reach it from the aorta.

6. Prom the aorta and great vein branches are distributed
to the nates ; at first they are large and hollow, afterwards
they pass through the legs, ending upon the feet and toes ;
and others again pass through the nates and thighs, alter-
nately from right to left, and they join with other veins
below the knees.

7. The nature and origin of the veins are evident from this
description. In all sanguineous animals, the nature and origin
of the principal veins are the same, but the multitude of smaller
veins is not alike in all, for neither are the parts of the same
nature, nor do all possess the same parts. Nor are the veins
equally apparent in all animals ; but they are more manifest in

B. III.] THE HISTORY OP ANIMALS. 57

those which have most blood, and in the largest creatures ; but
in those animals which are small, and have not much blood,
either by nature or from excess in fat, they are not so easily
investigated, for some of the passages are confused, like
rivulets that are lost in beds of mud ; and there are some
animals which have but few, and these fibres instead of veins.
The great vein is very conspicuous in all, even the smallest
animals.

CHAPTER V.
1. THE following is the nature of the sinews of animals.

sinewy

tions are always sinewy, for they are not hollow, and are
extensible, like the sinews which end upon the bending of
the bones : for it is not the nature of sinews to be con-
tinuous from one origin, like the veins, for the veins have
the whole form of the body as in outline sketches, so that
in emaciated subjects the whole mass appears full of veins,
for the same place is occupied by veins in lean persons that
in fat ones is flesh.

2. The sinews are drawn round the joints and flexures of
the bones ; but, if their nature were continuous, the con-
tinuation would be evident in emaciated persons. The
principal parts of the sinews are around the part of the
body appropriated to leaping, and this is called the poples.
Another double sinew is the tendon of the neck, and the epi-
tonus and the sinew of the shoulder, which aid in the support
of the body. The sinews around the joints have not re-
ceived any name, for all the bones where they are contiguous
are bound together by the sinews.

3. And there are many sinews round all the bones ; there
are none in the head ; but the sutures of the skull are
adapted to each other. It is the nature of sinew to tear
readily lengthwise, but across the fibre it is indivisible,
and it is very extensible. The sinews are surrounded by
a mucous, white, and gelatinous fluid, by which they are
nourished, and from which they seem to derive their origin.
The vein does not alter its form by combustion, but the
einew is entirely destroyed. Neither does it unite after
division.

53 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [fi. Til.

4. Numbness does not take place in those parts of tbef
body which contain no sinews. The sinews are most abund-
ant on the hands and feet, and on the ribs and shoulder-
blades, and round the neck and arms. All sanguineous
animals have sinews ; but in those which have not jointed
limbs, and are without feet and hands, the sinews are small
and inconspicuous, so that in fishes they are most distinct
near the fins.

CHAPTER VI.

1. THE fibres are between the sinews and the veins ; but
some of them are moistened with serum, and they extend
from the sinews to the veins, and from the veins to the
sinews. There is also another kind of fibre, which is pro-
duced in the blood of most, but not of all animals. When
this is extracted from the blood, it does not coagulate, but
if it is not taken out of the blood it coagulates. These
fibres are present in the blood of most animals, but not in
that of the stag, prox,1 and bubalis,2 and some others ; so
that their blood does not coagulate like that of other
animals : the blood of stags is very like that of hares ;
for in both of these coagulation takes place ; not firm, as
in other animals, but trembling, like that of milk, if no co-
agulating substance is put into it. The blood of the
bubalis coagulates more thickly, only a little less so than
that of sheep. This is the nature of veins, sinews, and
fibres.

CHAPTER VII.

1. THE bones of animals depend upon one bone, and are
connected with each other, like the veins ; and there is no
such thing as a separate bone. In all animals with bones
the spinal column is their origin. The spinal column is
made up of vertebra, and extends from the head to the hips.
All the vertebrae are perforated; the upper part of the
head is a bone joined to the last vertebra, and is called the
skull, the saw-like part is the suture.

2. This is not alike in all animals, for the cranium of
some consists of a single bone, as in the dog ; in others it
is compound, as in the human subject. The female has

1 Cervis Capreolus, or C, dama. 2 Antilope gnou.

B. TII.J THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 59

one suture, in a circle ; the male has three, meeting at the
top of the head, like a triangle ; and human skulls have been
seen without sutures. The head is not composed of four
bones, but of six ; two of these are placed above the ears,
and are small compared with the rest.

3. From the head the jaw-bones descend. All other ani-
mals move the lower jaw, the river-crocodile alone moves
the upper jaw. In the jaws are the order of the teeth, which
are bony, in some parts they are perforated, in others they
are not. These are the only bones too hard to be engraved.

4. From the spinal-column, which is the point of union, ori-
ginate the clavicles and ribs ; the breast also is placed upon
the ribs, and some of these are united, others are not, for
no animal has a bone round the stomach. There are also
the scapulae upon the shoulders, and these are conti-
nued upon the arms, and those again to the hands ; and
in all animals with fore legs the nature of the bone is
the same.

5. At the extremity of the lower part of the spinal co-
lumn, and next to the hip, is the socket, and the bones
of the lower extremity, with those of the thigh and leg,
which are called the colenes. The ancles form a portion
of these, and the part called the spur in all creatures with
ancles. Continuous with these are the bones of the feet.
Viviparous animals with blood and feet do not differ much
in their bones, but rather by analogy, in hardness, softness,
and size. Again, some of the bones contain marrow, whilst
others, in the same animal, have none.

6. Some animals do not appear to have any marrow at all
in their bones, as the lion, whose bones are very small and
slight : or there may be marrow in a few of its bones, as in
those of the thigh and fore leg ; otherwise, in the lion, the
bones are particularly solid, for they are sufficiently hard to
emit fire like stones on concussion. The dolphin also has
bones, but it has no spine, like fish. Some sanguineous ani-
mals differ partially from these, as the class of birds. In others,
as fish, the bones are only analogous, for viviparous fish have
a cartilaginous spine, like those which are called selachea ;
the oviparous fish have a spine, which is like the backbone
of quadrupeds.

7. It is a peculiarity in fish that some species have small

60 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. III.

spines in the flesh separated from each other. Serpents are
like fish, for their back-bone is spinous ; among oviparous
quadrupeds the greater animals have a bony vertebral
column ; the lesser have a spinous one.

8. Tor all sanguineous animals have either a bony, or a
spinous column. The remainder of the bones exist in some
animals, but not in others, for if they have the limbs, they
have the bones belonging to them ; for those that have not
hind and fore legs have not hams, nor are they present
in those animals which possess limbs unlike those of quad-
rupeds, for in these they vary in size and proportion. This
is the nature of the bones of animals.

CHAPTEE VIII.

1. CAETILAGE is of the same nature as bone, but it differs
in the greater and less, and neither bone nor cartilage are
reproduced if they are cut off. In sanguineous and vivi-
parous animals living on the land the cartilage is imper-
forate, and does not contain marrow, like the bones ; but the
flat selachea, which have a cartilaginous spine, have a carti-
lage analogous to bone containing a liquid marrow. Vivi-
parous animals, with feet, have cartilage about their ears,
nostrils, and extremities of their bones.

CHAPTEE IX.

1. THEEE is another class of parts, which, though not the
same as these, are not very different, as nails, hoofs, claws,
and horns, and besides these, the beak of birds which alone
possess this part. For these are both flexible and fissile.
But bone is neither flexible nor fissile, but brittle ; and
the colour of horns, nails, claws, and hoofs follow the
colour of the skin and the hair : for in black animals the
horns are black, and so are the claws and hoofs in those
with claws ; in white animals they are white. There are
also intermediate colours, the nails also are of the same
nature.

2. But the teeth are like bones ; wherefore, in black men,
Ethiopians, and such like, the teeth and the bones are
white, but the nails are black, like the rest of the skin.

B. III.] THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. 61

The horns of most animals are hollow at their "base, and
surround a bony process on their heads ; but at the ex-
tremity the horn is solid and single. The stag's horns are
solid throughout, and divided ; and these animals alone cast
their horns ; this is done annually, if they are not cut
off. Concerning those that are cut off, we shall speak here-
after.

3. The horns are more nearly allied to skin than to bone,
so that in Phrygia and elsewhere there are oxen which
have the power of moving their horns, as they do their
ears ; and of those which have nails (and all that have
toes have nails, and those that have feet have toes, except
the elephant, which has its toes undivided, and scarcely
distinguished, and no nails at all) — and of those with nails,
some have straight nails, like men, others crooked, as the
lion among beasts, and the eagle amongst birds.

CHAPTER X.

1. THIS is the nature of hair and its analogues and skin.
All viviparous animals, with feet, have hair; oviparous
animals, with feet, have scaly plates ; and those fish alone
which produce friable ova are covered with scales ; for the
conger and mura3na among long fish have not such ova, and
the eel produces no ova. The hair differs in thickness, thin-
ness, and size, according to its situation, both in the parts of
the body which it occupies, and the nature of the skin, for
upon thick skins the hair is generally harsh and thick,
the hair is both thicker and longer in the hollow and
moist parts of the body, if they are such as to be covered
with hair.

2. And the case is similar in those animals which are
covered with plates or scales. If animals covered with soft
hair are placed in good pastures their hair will become
coarser ; and, on the contrary, it becomes finer and less in
those that have coarse hair. Warm and cold situations also
make a difference, for the hair of natives of warm climates
is harsh, but it is soft in those of colder climates. Straight
hair is soft, crisped hair is harsh.

3. It is the nature of hair to split ; and different kinds
of hair are dissimilar in excess and deficiency ; some are so
changed by harshness as to bear slight resemblance to hair,

62 THE HISTOliY OF ANIMALS. [u. III.

and are more like spines, as in the hedgehog, wherein they
resemble nails. So again the nails in some animals are not
different from bones in point of hardness.

4- Man has the thinnest skin in proportion to his size.
There is a mucous, glutinous fluid in the skin of all animals,
less in some, more in others, as in the skins of oxen, from
which glue is made ; and sometimes glue is made from fishes.
"When the skin alone is cut it is insensible, especially
that upon the head, from the absence of flesh between that
and the bone. Wherever the skin is without flesh it does
not unite again after being cut, as the thin part of the
cheek, the prepuce, and the eyelid. In all animals the skin
is continuous, and it is only wanting in places where there
are natural passages for exudation, and at the mouth
and nails. All sanguineous animals have a skin: all,
however, have not hair, but those which are described
above.

5. The colour of the hair changes in men as they grow
old, and the hair becomes grey. This takes place in other
animals, but not so remarkably as in the horse. The hair
begins to grow white from the extremity. Most white
animals are white from their birth, wherefore it is plain
that whiteness does not arise from dryness, as some persons
suppose, for no animal is born dry. In the exanthematous
disease, called whiteness, all the hair becomes hoary ; and
some patients, who have suffered from illness, after the hair
has fallen off on recovery, have regained their dark-coloured
hair. Hair which is covered up becomes white more
readily than that which is exposed to the air ; in man the
temples are the first to grow grey, and the fore part of
the head before the hind part, and last of all the hair on
the pubes.

6. Some of the hair exists on the body at the period
of birth, and some appears afterwards. In man alone the
hair on the head, eyelashes, and eyebrows exist at birth.
The hair on the pubes, in the armpits, and on the chin ap-
pear successively after birth, so that the parts on which
the hair appears at birth, and those on which it grows after-
wards are the same in number. In old age the hair on the
head especially is the first to fail, and falls off. This is
only in front, for no one ever becomes bald on the back

a. ra.i THE HISTOET or ANIMALS. 63

of the head. The smoothness on the crown of the head
is called baldness, that upon the eyebrows depilation ;
neither of these takes place before the commencement of
puberty.

7. Children, women, and eunuchs never become bald. If
a person be castrated before puberty, the hair which grows
after birth never makes its appearance ; if after puberty
these alone fall on% except the hair on the pubes. "Women
have no hair upon the chin, excepting a lew of those in
whom the catamenia have ceased, and the priestesses in
Caria : and this appears ominous of future events. Women
also have other hair, but not much. There are some
persons, both male and female, who from their birth are
without the hair which grows after birth ; but those per-
sons are barren who have not hair on the pubes.

8. The rest of the hair grows proportionally, either more
or less. Thaifupon the head grows the most, then that on
the chin, and thin hair most of all. The eyebrows grow so
thick upon some aged persons as to be cut off, for they are
placed upon the symphysis of the bone ; and this being
separated in old persons, a more abundant moisture exudes.
Those on the eyelids do not grow, but they fall off,
when persons come to puberty, and especially in those off
warm sexual desires ; they become grey very slowly. If the
hair is plucked out during the period of growth, it comes
again, but not after it has done growing.

9. Every hair has at its root a glutinous moisture, which
will adhere to anything with which it comes in contact,
soon after it is drawn out. In spotted animals the spots
exist both in the hair and upon the skin, and upon the skin
of the tongue. As for the beard, some persons have a thick
one, both beneath the chin and upon it ; in others, these
parts are smooth, and the beard is on the cheeks. Those
who have smooth chins are least likely to become bald. The
hair grows in some diseases, as in phthisis especially,
and in old age, and upon ciead bodies, and the hair becomes
harder instead of softer. The same is the case with the
nails. In persons of strong passions, the hair that is born
with them decreases, while that which comes after birth in-
creases.

10. Those who suffer from enlarged veins are less likely

64 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. Ill,

to become bald ; and if they have this disease after they are
bald, the hair sometimes grows again. The hair, when
cut off, does not grow again from the extremity, but in-
creases by growth from the root. The scales of fishes
become harder and thicker, and in those that are growing'
thin and old they become still harder. The hair and wool
of old animals becomes thicker, though the quantity de-
creases ; and the hoofs and claws enlarge as they grow old,
and the beaks of birds. And the claws grow in the same
way as the nails.

11. Feathered animals, like birds, do not change their
colour by age, excepting the crane, for this bird is ash-
coloured, and becomes black by age. But from the change
of season, when it becomes cold, some of those having but
one colour, black or grey, become white, as the crow,
sparrow, and swallow ; but none of those which are white
become black. At different seasons of the yellr many birds
change the colour of their plumage, so as to render it difficult
for those who are not acquainted with them to recognise
them.

12 And many animals change their colour with a change
of water ; for in one place they are black, and in another
white ; and the same thing takes place at the season of co-
ition. There are many waters of such a nature that if
sheep drink of them before sexual intercourse, they produce
black lambs ; as at that which is called the cold river in the
Thracian Chalcis (in Astyritis). And in Antandria there
are two rivers, one of which turns the sheep white, the
other black ; and the Scamander appears to make the sheep
yellow, wherefore some people think that Homer called
the Scamander the Xanthus.

13. Other animals have no hair internally, nor upon the
bottom of their feet, though it is on the upper part. The
hare alone has hair on the inside of its cheeks, and upon
its feet, and the mysticetus1 has no teeth in its mouth,
but hairs, like hog's bristles. The hair, if it is cut off,
increases below, but not above. Feathers do not grow
either above or below, but fall out. The wing of the bee,
if it is plucked off, does not grow again, nor that of any
other creature which has an undivided wing ; nor does the
1 Balsena Mysticetus.

B. in.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 65

sting of the bee grow after it is plucked out, but the animal
dies.

CHAPTER XI.

1. THERE are membranes in all sanguineous animals. Mem-
brane is like a dense thin skin, but it differs in kind, for it
is neither divisible nor extensible. There is a membrane
round every bone and every intestine, both in the greater
and smaller animals ; they are inconspicuous in small ani-
mals, owing to their thinness and small size. The principal
membranes are two, which surround the brain, one round
the bones of the head, and this is stronger and thicker than
that round the brain itself; and after these, the membrane
which surrounds the heart. A thin membrane does not
unite after it has been cut asunder, and the bones, when de-
prived of their jnembranes, become inflamed.

2. The omentum is a membrane. All sanguineous ani-
mals have an omentum ; in some it is fat, in others it con-
tains no fat. In viviparous animals, writh cutting teeth in
both jaws, it has its origin and is suspended from the middle
of the stomach, where it appears like a suture of this organ.
In those that have not teeth in both jaws, it is suspended
in the same way from the principal stomach.

3. The bladder also is membranous, but its character is
different, for it is extensible. All animals have not a
bladder, but all viviparous animals have this organ, and the
tortoise alone of oviparous animals. When the bladder is
cut it does not re-unite, except at the very origin of the
urethra, or only very rarely, for it has happened sometimes.
No moisture passes into the bladder of dead animals ; but
in living creatures there are dry compounds, from which are
formed the stones that are found in persons labouring under
this disease ; sometimes they are of such a nature in the
bladder as to differ in nothing from shells. This, then, is
the nature of veins, sinews, and skins, and of muscle and
membrane ; and of hair, nails, claws, hoofs, horns, teeth and
beaks, and of cartilage, bone, and their analogues.

CHAPTER XII.

1. IN all sanguineous animals, flesh, and that which is like
flesh, is between the skin and the bone, or what is analogous

66 TIIE HISTORY Of ANIMAL8. FB- ilt>

to bone : for the same relation which a spine bears to a bone,
is also borne by flesh to that which is like flesh, in animals
possessing bones and spines. The flesh can be divided in
every direction, and so is unlike sinews and veins, which
can only be divided in their length. The flesh disappears
in emaciated animals, giving place to veins and fibres. Those
animals which can obtain abundance of good food have fat
instead of flesh.

2. Those that have much flesh have smaller veins and
redder blood, and their intestines and stomachs are small ;
but those which have large veins and dark blood, and large
intestines and great stomachs, have also less flesh, for those
that have fat flesh have small intestines.

CHAPTER XIII.

1. ADEPS and fat differ from each other, for fat is always
brittle, and coagulates upon cooling, but adeps is liquid, and
does not coagulate; and broths made from animals with
adeps do not thicken, as from the horse and hog, but that
made from animals with fat thickens, as from the sheep and
goat. These substances also differ in situation, for the
adeps is between the skin and the flesh ; but the fat only
exists upon the extremity of the flesh. In adipose animals
the omentum is adipose, in fat animals it is fatty : for the
animals with cutting teeth in both jaws are adipose, those
that have not cutting teeth in both jaws are fat.

2. Of the viscera in some animals the liver is full of
adeps, as in the cartilaginous fishes, for oil is procured from
these during the process of decomposition, the cartilagi-
nous fish are particularly free from adeps on their flesh,
but the adeps is separated on the stomach. The fat also
of fishes is adipose, and does not coagulate ; and some
animals are furnished with adeps on the flesh, and others
apart from the flesh ; and those creatures in which the
adeps is not separated from the flesh have less of this
substance on the stomach and omentum, as the eel : for
these creatures have little fat on the omentum. In most
animals the adeps collects principally upon the abdomen,
especially in those which take little exercise.

3. The brain of adipose animals is unctuous, as in swine ;
that of fatty animals is dry. Of all the viscera the kidneys

B. III.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. G7

are surrounded by the greatest quantity of adeps in all ani-
mals ; that on the right side is always the least adipose ;
and let there be ever so much adeps, there is always a space
left between the kidneys. They are also the most fatty of
the viscera, and especially in sheep, for this animal some-
times dies from the entire concealment of its kidneys in fat.
This excessive fat around the kidneys arises from good
pasture, as in the Leontine territory of Sicily ; wherefore
also in the evening they drive away the sheep which have
been feeding during the day, in order that they may take
less food.

4. The fat around the pupil of the eye is common to all
animals ; for all have fat in this part, that possess it, and are
not hard-eyed. Eat animals, both male and female, are
more inclined to be barren, and all old animals become fat
more readily than young ones, especially when they increase
in depth, having obtained their proper width and length. (/

CHAPTEB XIV.

1. THE following is the nature of the blood. This is most
essential and common to all sanguineous animals, and is not
superadded, but exists in all animals that are not in a perish-
ing condition. All the blood is in a vessel called the veins,
but in no other part of the body, except the heart. The
blood of all animals has no sense of touch, nor has the excre-
mentitious matter in the stomach ; neither have the brain, nor
the marrow, any sensation of touch ; but wherever the flesh
is divided, the blood flows in the living subject, unless the
flesh is perishing. It is the nature of the blood to have a
sweet juice, as long as it is healthy and a red colour, and
that is bad which either by nature or disease is black. The
best kind of blood is neither very thick nor thin, unless it
is vitiated either by nature or disease.

2. In living animals it is always warm and moist, but
when taken out of the animal the blood of all creatures co-
agulates, except that of the stag and deer, and perhaps some
others of the same nature. The blood of all other creatures
coagulates, unless the fibre is taken out of it. Bullock's
blood coagulates faster than that of any other animals.
Amongst sanguineous animals, those which are both inter-
nally and externally viviparous, have the most blood, and

r 2

68 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. B. in.]

•after them the oviparous sanguineous animals ; those which
are well disposed, either by nature or by health, have not a
great deal of blood, as in those that have just drank ; nor
a very little, as in those which are very fat. Pat animals
have pure blood, though the quantity is small ; as they be-
come more fat they lose a portion of their blood, for fat is
free from blood. Fat is not corruptible, but blood and the
parts that contain blood are very corruptible ; of these the
parts surrounding the bones are most corruptible.

3. Man has the thinnest and purest blood, that of the ox
and ass is the thickest and blackest of all viviparous ani-
mals. The blood is thicker and blacker in the lower than iu
the upper part of animals. The blood palpitates in the veins
alike in all animals ; this alone of all the fluids exists in every
part of the body of living subjects, and as long only as they
are alive. The blood first of all exists in the heart of all
animals before it is distributed through the body. When de-
prived of their blood, or if the greater part escapes, they faint
away ; but when a very great deal is lost, they die. When
the blood becomes very much liquefied, illness ensues, for it
becomes like serum, and flows through in such a manner,
that some have perspired blood ; and when taken out of the
body, it does not coagulate into a mass, but into separate
and divided portions.

4. In sleeping animals, the blood in the extremities
is diminished, so that it does not flow freely when they
are pricked. Blood is formed from serum, and fat from
blood. When the blood becomes diseased, hemorrhoids
are produced, either in the nose or anus, and a disease
called ixia.1 When the blood becomes corrupted in the
body, pus is formed, and from pus a scab. The blood
in females differs from that of males, for it is more thick
and black in females of similar health and age. In the
whole of the body the quantity of blood is less in females,
but internally they are more full of blood. Of all females,
women have the most blood, and the catamenia are more
abundant in them than in other females.

5. When this blood is diseased, it is called a flooding.
Women have a less share in other diseases ; but a few are
afflicted with ixia, and with hemorrhoids and bleeding

1 Varicose veins.

B. III.] THE ELISTOBT OF ANIMALS. 69

from the nose ; when any of these take place, the catamenia;
decrease. The blood differs in proportion to the age in quan-
tity and appearance, for when very young, it is more like
serum, and very abundant ; in the aged it is thick, black,
and in less quantity ; in those in the prime of life it is be-
tween these. In aged persons the blood coagulates quickly
in the body, or on the surface ; but in young persons this
does not take place. Serum is imperfect blood, because it
has not ripened, or because it has become more fluid.

CHAPTER XV.

1. CONCERNING marrow, for this is one of the fluids which
exist in some animals. All the natural fluids of the body
are contained in vessels, as the blood in the veins, and the
marrow in the bones, and others in membranes, skin, and
cavities. The marrow is always full of blood in young ani-
mals ; but when they grow older, in the adipose it becomes
adipose, in fat animals fatty. There is not marrow in all
the bones, but only in those that are hollow, and not even
in some of these, for some of the bones of the lion have no
marrow, others but little ; wherefore some persons say the
lion has no marrow at all, as was before observed. In the
bones of swine there is very little marrow, in some none at
all.

CHAPTER XVI.

1. THESE fluids are nearly always co-existent with animal,
life ; but milk and the spermatic fluid are produced after-
wards. Of these the milk is always secreted in those ani-
mals in which it is present. The spermatic fluid is not
secreted in all, but in some as in fishes are what are called
melts. All animals having milk have it in the mamma3.
All animals that are both internally and externally vivi-
parous have mamma3, that is, all that have hair, as man, and
the horse, the cetacea, as the dolphin, seal, and whale, for
these also have mammae and milk.

2. Those animals that are only externally viviparous, and
oviparous animals, have neither mammae nor milk, as fish,
and birds. All milk has a watery serum, which is called
whey, and a substantial part called curds ; the thicker kinds
of milk have the most curds. The milk of animals without

70 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. III.

cutting teeth in both jaws, coagulates, wherefore cheese is
made from the milk of domestic animals. The milk of those
with cutting teeth in both jaws does not coagulate, but re-
sembles their adeps, and is thin and sweet ; the milk of the
camel is the thinnest of all, next is that of the horse ; in
the third place that of the ass. Cow's milk is thicker.

3. Under the influence of cold, milk does not coagu-
late, but becomes fluid ; by heat it is coagulated, and be-
comes thick. There is no milk in any animal before it
has conceived, or but rarely ; but, as soon as it has con-
ceived the milk is produced ; the first and last milk are
useless. Sometimes milk has come in animals not with
young, from partaking of particular kinds of food ; and even
in aged females it has been produced so freely when sucked,
as to afford nourishment for an infant. And the shepherds
round _<Eta, when the shegoats will not endure the approach
of the males, cut their udders violently against a thorn, so
as to cause pain ; at first, when milked, they produce
bloody, and afterwards putrid milk, but at last their milk
is as good as that of those which have young ones.

4. The males, both of man and other animals, rarely pro-
duce milk ; nevertheless, it is found in some cases : for in
Lemnos, a he-goat has given from the two nipples, which
are always found on the penis, so much milk, that cakes of
cheese were made from it. The same thing happened to
another he-goat, which was produced from this one ; but
such things as these are considered ominous : for, on inquiry
being made of the god of Lemnos, he replied that there
should be an additional supply of cattle. A small quantity of
milk has been forced from some men after puberty; from
others a great quantity has been produced by suction.

5. There is a fatness in milk which becomes oily when
it is cooked. In Sicily, and other countries, when there is
an abundant supply of goat's milk, they mix ewe's milk
with it, and it coagulates readily, not only because it con-
tains abundance of curd, but also because it is of a drier
nature. Some animals have more milk than enough for the
support of their offspring, and this is useful for making
cheese, and for putting aside. The best is that of the sheep
and goats, and next, that of the cow. Mare's milk and ass's
milk are combined with the Phrygian cheese. There is

B. III.] THE H1STOEY OF ANIMALS. 71

more cheese in the milk of the cow than of the goat : for
the shepherds say, from an amphora of goat's milk they can
make nineteen cakes of cheese, each worth an obolus, and
thirty from cow's milk. Other creatures have only enough
for their young, and no superabundance useful for making
cheese, as all those animals which have more than two mam-
mae, for none of these have a superabundance of milk, nor
will their milk make cheese.

6. Milk is coagulated by the juice of figs, and by rennet ;
the juice is placed upon wool, and the wool is washed in a
little milk ; this coagulates upon mixture. The rennet is a
kind of milk, which is found in the body of sucking animals.
This rennet is milk, containing cheese, for the milk be-
comes cooked by the heat of the body. All ruminating ani-
mals contain rennet, and the hare among those with cutting
teeth in both jaws. The older coagulum is the better,
for such rennet is useful in diarrhrea, and so is that of the
hare. The rennet of the fawn is the best.

7. The greater or less quantity of milk drawn from
those animals which have milk, differs in the size of the
body, and the variety of the food. In Phasis there are very
small cows, each of which gives a great deal of milk ; and
the large cows of Epirus give an amphora and half
of milk from each of their two mammae ; and the person
who milks them stands up, or only leans a little, because
he cannot reach them sitting down. The other animals of
Epirus are large except the ass, but the largest are the
cows and the dogs. These large cattle require more pas-
ture ; but the country has a great deal so excellent, that
they can be changed to fit places every hour. The oxen
are the largest, and the sheep, called Pyrrhic ; they have
received this name from king Pyrrhus.

8. Some kinds of food check the milk, as the medic grass,
especially in ruminating animals. The cytisus and oro-
bus have a very different effect; but the flower of the
cytisus is unwholesome, and causes inflammation; the orobua
does not agree with pregnant cattle, for it causes difficulty
of parturition. On the whole, those animals which are
able to eat the most food, as they are better adapted for
parturition, will also give the most milk, if they have enough
food. Some of the flatulent kinds of food, when given to

72 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [fi. IIT.

animals, increase the quantity of milk, as beans given freely
to the sheep, goat, ox, and chimcera,1 for they cause the udder
to be distended ; and it is a sign that there will be plenty
of milk when the udder is seen below before parturition.

9. The milk lasts a long time in those that have it, if
they remain without sexual intercourse, and have proper
food ; and in sheep it lasts longer than in any other animals,
for the sheep may be milked for eight months , Altogether
the ruminating animals produce milk in greater abundance,
and more fitted for making cheese. Around Torona the
cows fail in their milk a few days before calving, but give
milk all the rest of the time. In women dark-coloured
milk is better for the children than that which is white ;
and black women are better nurses than white women. The
most nutritions milk is that which contains the most cheese,
but that which contains less cheese is better for infants.

CHAPTER XVII.

1. ALL sanguineous animals eject the spermatic fluid ; the
office it performs in generation, and how it is performed,
will be treated of in another place. In proportion to his
size man ejects more than other animals. This fluid, in ani-
mals covered with hair, is glutinous, in others it is not glu-
tinous ; in all it is white, so that Herodotus is mistaken
when he says that the Ethiopians have black semen.2 The
semen comes out white and thick if it is healthy, but after
ejection it becomes thin and black ; it does not thicken with
cold, but becomes thin and watery, both in colour and den-
sity. By heat it coagulates and thickens, and when it has
been ejected for any time into the uterus, it comes out more
thick, and sometimes dry and twisted together. That which
is fruitful sinks in water, but the barren mixes with it. All
that Ctesias said about the semen of the elephant is false.

1 Some kind of domestic goat, bvit not known,

2 Herodotus, iii. c. 97, 101.

B. IT,] THE IIISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 73

BOOK THE FOURTH.

CHAPTER I.

1. WE have hitherto treated of sanguineous animals, the
parts possessed by all as well as those which are peculiar to
each class, and of their heterogeneous and homogeneous,
their external and internal parts. We are now about to
treat of ex-sanguineous animals. There are many classes
of these, first of all the mollusca.1 These are ex-sanguineous
animals, which have their, fleshy parts external, and their
hard parts internal, like sanguineous animals, as the whole
tribe of cuttle-fish. Next the malacostraca, these are
animals which have their hard parts external, and their in-
terior parts soft and fleshy; their hard parts are rather liable
to contusion than brittle, as the class of carabi and cancri.

2. Another class is that of the testacea. These are ani-
mals which have their internal parts fleshy, and their ex-
ternal parts hard, brittle, and fragile, but not liable to
contusion. Snails and oysters are instances of this class.

3. The fourth class is that of insects, which includes many
dissimilar forms. Insects are animals which, as their name
signifies, are insected either in their lower or upper part, or in
both ; they have neither distinct flesh nor bone, but something
between both, for their body is equally hard internally and
externally. There are apterous insects, as the julus and
scolopendra ; and winged, as the bee, cockchafer, and wasp ;
and in some kinds there are both winged and apterous in-
sects ; ants, for example, are both winged and apterous,
and so is the glowwor'n.

4. These are the parts of animals of the class mollusca (ma-
lacia) ; first the feet, as they are called, next to these the
head, continuous with them ; the third part is the abdomen,
which contains the viscera. Some persons, speaking incor-
rectly, call this the head. The fins are placed in a circle
round this abdomen. It happens in many of the malacia
that the head is placed between the feet and the abdomen.

1 The Cephalopoda.

74 THE niSTOET OF ANIMALS [ft. Tf.

5. All the polypi, except one kind, have eight feet, with
a double row of suckers. The sepia,1 teuthis,2 and teuthos3
possess as a characteristic part two long proboscidiform mem-
bers, which have rough suckers at their extremities, with
which they seize their food and bring it to their mouth ; and
when a storm arises they weather it out, fastening these
members upon a rock, like an anchor. They swim by means
of the fin-like members which are attached to the abdomen.
There are suckers upon all their feet.

6. The polypus4 uses its tentacula both as feet and hands,
for it brings its food to its mouth with the two that are above
the mouth, and it uses the last of its tentacula, which is
the sharpest of all, in the act of coition ; this is the only
one which is at all white, and it is divided at the ex'tre-
mity, it is placed upon the back ; and the smooth part, in
front of which are the acetabula, is called the back. In
front of the abdomen, and above the tentacula, they have a
hollow tube, by which they eject the sea- water which they
have received into the abdomen, if any enters through the
mouth. This part varies in position, and is sometimes on the
right side, sometimes on the left, and by this its ink is
ejected.

7. It swims sideways upon the part called the head,
stretching out its feet ; as it swims it is able to see forwards,
for the eyes are upwards, and the mouth is placed behind.
As long as it is alive the head is hard, as if it were inflated ;
it touches and holds with its tentacula bent downwards,
a membrane is extended throughout, between the feet, if it
falls into the sand, it can no longer hold by it.

8. The polypus and the above-mentioned malacia differ
from each other ; the abdomen of the polypus is small, and
the feet are large ; but of the others, the abdomen is large,
and the feet small, so that they cannot walk upon them.
They have also differences among each other; the teu-
this is the smallest, the sepia wider ; the teuthos is much
larger than the teuthis, for it reaches the length of five cubits.
Some sepise are two cubits long, and the tentacula of the
polypus are as long, and even larger in size.

9. The class of the teuthos is rare, and differs in form from

1 Sepia officinalis. 2 Loligo vulgaris (Owen).

3 Loligo media (Owen). 4 Sepia octopodia.

B. IT.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 75

the teuthis, for the extremity of the teuthos is wider ; and,
again, the fin is placed round the whole abdomen, but it is
wanting in the teuthis. It is a marine animal, as well as
the teuthis. After the feet, the head of all these animals is
placed in the middle of the feet, which are called tentacula ;
one part of this is the mouth, in which are two teeth ; above
these are two large eyes ; between these is a small cartilage,
containing a small brain.

10. In the mouth is a small piece of flesh, for these animals
have no tongue, but use this instead of a tongue. After
this, on the outside, the abdomen is apparent. The flesh of
this can be divided, not in a straight line, but in a circle.
All the malacia have a skin around this part. After the
mouth, they have a long and narrow oesophagus ; and con-
tinuous with this is a large round crop, like that of a bird ;
this contains the stomach, like a net. Its form is spiral,
like the helix of a whelk ; from this a thin intestine turns
back, to the vicinity of the mouth. The intestine is thicker
than the stomach.

11. The malacia have no viscus, except that which is
called the mytis,1 and the ink which is upon it. The most
abundant and largest of all is that of the sepia ; all ex-
clude this ink, when alarmed, but especially the sepia ; the
mytis lies beneath the mouth ; and through this the oeso-
phagus passes ; and where the intestine turns back the ink
is beneath, and the same membrane surrounds both the ink
and the intestine. The same orifice serves for the emission
of the ink and the faeces.

12. There are some appearances of hair2 in their bodies ;
the sepia, teuthis, and teuthos, have a hard part upon the
forward part of the body ; the one is called sepium (the
bone of the cuttle-fish), the other xiphus (the pen of the
1 oli go) . These two are different ; for that of the sepia is
strong and wide, partaking of the nature of spine and bone,
and it contains a spongy, friable substance ; but the pen of the
teuthis is thin, and cartilaginous. In their form also they
correspond with the differences of the animals themselves.

1 Kohler supposes the part called by Aristotle mytis to have been
the glandular appendages on the vena cava and two visceral veins.
(Owen in Todd's Cyclopedia of Anatomy, Art. Cephalopoda^)

2 Probably the branchia.

76 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. TV.

The polypus has no hard internal part, but a portion of car-
tilage round the head, which becomes hard as they grow old.

13. The females also differ from the males, for the latter
have a passage beneath the oesophagus, extending from
the brain to the lowest part of the body. That part to
which it reaches is like a teat. In the female there are two
such organs, which are placed above. In both sexes, some
small red bodies are placed under these. The polypus has
one capsule of eggs, which is uneven on the surface ; it is
large ; internally it is all of a white colour, and smooth.
The multitude of the ova is so great as to fill a vessel larger
than the head of the polypus.

14. The sepia has two capsules, and many eggs are in
them, like white hailstones. The position of each of these
parts may be seen in anatomical diagrams. In all these
creatures the male differs from the female, and especially
in the sepia. The fore part of the abdomen of the male
is always darker than the back ; and more rough than in
the female, and variegated wi ,h stripes, and the extremity
of the body is more acute.

15. There are many kinds of polypus ; one, which is the
largest of all, is very common. Those near land are larger
than those which are caught out at sea. There are smaller
kinds, which are variegated ; these are not articles of food ;
and two others, one of which is called eledone,1 differs in
the length of its feet, and is the only one of the malacia with
a single row of suckers, for all the rest have two ; the other
is called bolita3na,2 and sometimes ozolis.

16. There are two other kinds which dwell in shells, which
some persons call nautilus3 (and nauticus), and others call
it the egg of the polypus ; its shell is like that of the hollow
pecten, and not like that which has its shells close together.4
This animal generally feeds near the land ; when it is thrown
upon the shore by the waves, after its shell has fallen off, it
cannot escape, and dies upon the land. These animals are
small in form, like the bolita3na ; and there is another,5 which

1 Eledone moschata.— Leach. (Owen.)

2 Eledone cirrosa. — Leach. (Owen.) 3 Argonauta argo. (Owen.)
* This is probably the meaning of the passage. Two kinds of pectens

were distinguished ; the one large, hollow, and of a dark colour, the other
broad and sweeter, but harsh.
5 Nautilus Pompilius. (Owen.)

V,. IV 1 THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. 77

inhabits a shell like a snail. This animal never leaves its
shell, but remains in it, like the snail, and somct imcs stretches
out its tentacula. Let thus mueh be said about the malacia.

CHAPTER II.

1. OF the malocostraca, there is one genus, of carabi,1 and
another, very like it, of astaci ;a these differ from the carabi,
which hare no claws, and in some other respects. There
is a third genus, of carides,3 and a fourth, of carcini.4 There
are more genera of carides, and of carcini ; for among the
carides are the cyphse,6 the crangon,6 and a small species, for
these never grow large.

2. The family of carcini is more various, and not so easily
enumerated ; the largest genus is that called maia,7 the next
to this the pagurus,8 and the Heracleot carcini ; and, again,
those that live in rivers. The other genera are small, and
have not received any name. On the Pheuician coast there
are some that they call horsemen, because they run so fast
that it is difficult to catch them, and when opened, they are
empty, because they have no pasture. There is another
small genus like carcini, but in shape they resemble astaci.

3. All these creatures, as I observed before, have their
hard and shelly coats on the outsides of their bodies in the
place of skin, the fleshy part is internal. Their under parts
resemble plates, upon which the females deposit their ova ;
the carabi have five feet on each side, including the claws ;
the carcini, also, have in all ten feet, including the claws,
which are last. Of the carides, the cypha have five on each
side ; those near the head are sharp, and five others on each
side of the stomach have flat extremities ; they have no
plates upon the under pa/t of their body ; those on the
upper part are like the carabi.

4. The crangon is different, for it has, first of all, four
plates on each side, and, afterwards, three slight ones, con-
tinuous with those on each side, and the greater part of the
remainder of its body is apodal ; all the feet are directed
outwards to the side, like those of insects ; but the claws,
in those that have them, all turned inwards. The carabus

1 Palinurus, spiny lobster (Bell's Crustacea). 2 Lobster.

3 Prawns. * Crabs. * Shrimp. • Perhaps Prawn,

7 Perhaps Maia squinado. 8 Cancer pagurus, Great crab.

78 THE mSTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. IT.

also has a tail, and five fin-like appendages. The cypha,
among the carides, has a tail, with four fin-like appendages.
The craiigon has fin- like processes on each side of the tail,
and the middle of them is spinous on both sides ; but this
part is wide in the crangon, and sharp in the cypha. The
carcini alone are without a tail ; the body of the carabi and
carides is elongated, that of the carcini is rounded.

5. The male carabus is different from the female, for the
female has the first foot divided ; in the male it is formed of
a single claw, and the fin-like process on the lower part is
large in the female, and interchanged with each other in the
neck ; in the male they are small and not interchanged. In
the male, also, the last feet are furnished with large and
sharp processes like spurs ; in the female these are small and
smooth. They all have two large and rough processes, like
horns, before their eyes, and two, smaller and smooth, below.

6. The eyes of all these animals are hard, and capable of
motion, inwards, outwards, and to the side ; the same is the
nature of the carcini, in which they are even more move-
able. In colour the astacus is all of a dull white, sprinkled
with black ; it has eight small feet, as far as the large ones ;
after these the large feet are far greater and wider at the
extremity than in the carabus, and they are unequal in
size ; for on the right side the broad part at the end is long
and smooth, on the left side the same part is thick and
round ; they are both divided from the extremity like a jaw,
with teeth above and below, only that in those on the right
the teeth are all small and sharp, and they are sharp at the
extremity of the left side ; in the middle they are like molar
teeth ; in the lower part are four close together, but in the
upper part three, but not close together.

7. In both claws the upper part is moved and pressed
down upon the lower ; both are placed sideways in position,
as if intended by nature for seizure and pressure ; above
these large feet are two rough ones, a little below the
mouth ; and still lower, the branchial organs around the
mouth,, which are rough and numerous, and these are con-
tinually in motion ; it bends and approximates its two
rough feet towards its mouth ; the feet near the mouth have
smooth appendages.

8. It has two teeth like the carabus, above these the long

B. IT.] THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 79

horns, much shorter and smoother than in the carabus ; four
others of the same form as these, but still shorter and
smoother ; and above these are placed its eyes, which are
small and short, and not large like those of the carabus.
The part above the eyes is acute and rough, as it were a
forehead, and larger than in the carabus : on the whole,
the head is sharper and the thorax much wider than
in the carabus, and its whole body is more fleshy and soft :
of its right feet, four are divided at the extremity, and four
not divided.

9. The part called the neck is externally divided into five
portions, the sixth and last division is wide and has five plates ;
in the inside are four rough plates, upon which the females
deposit their ova. On the outside of each of these which
have been mentioned, there is a short and straight spine,
and the whole body, with the part called the thorax, is
smooth, and not rough as in the carabus. On the outside
of the large feet there are great spines. The female does
not in any way differ from the male, for whether the male
or female have larger claws, they are never both of them
equal.

10. All these animals take in sea- water through their
mouths ; the carcini also exhale a small portion of that which
they have taken in, and the carabi do this through the
branchiform appendages, for the carabi have many branchi-
form appendages. All these animals have two teeth : the
carabi have two front teeth, and then a fleshy mouth in-
stead of a tongue, from this an oesophagus continued on
to the stomach. And the carabi have a small oesophagus
before the stomach, and from this a straight intestine is
continued. In the caraboid animals and the carides, this
is continued to the tail in a straight passage, by wrhich they
eject their excrements, and deposit their ova. In the carcini
this is in the middle of the folded part, for the place wherein
they deposit their ova is external in these also.

11. All the females also, besides the intestines, have a
place for their ova, and the part called my tis1 or mecon, which
is greater or less, and the peculiar differences may be learned
by studying the individual cases. The carabi, as I have ob-
served, have two large and hollow teeth, in which there i»

1 Perhaps the liver.

80 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. IT,

a juice resembling the mytis, and, between the teeth, a
piece of flesh resembling a tongue ; from the mouth a short
oesophagus extends to a membranous stomach ; in the part
of this nearest the mouth are three teeth, two opposite and
one below.

12. And from the side of the stomach there is a simple
intestine, which is of equal thickness throughout, reaching to
the anus. All these parts belong to the carabi, carides, and
carcini ; and, besides these, the carabi have a passage sus-
pended from the breast and reaching to the anus ; in the
female this performs the office of a uterus, in the male it
contains the spermatic fluid. This passage is in the cavity
of the flesh, so as to appear to be between portions of the
flesh, for the intestine is toward the curved part, but the
passage towards the cavity in the same way as in quadru-
peds. In the male this part differs in nothing from the
female, for both are smooth and white, and contain an ochre-
ous fluid, and in both sexes it is appended to the breast.

13. The ova and spirals occupy the same position in the
carides. The male is distinguished from the female by
having in the flesh upon the breast two distinct white bodies,
in colour and position like the tentacula of the sepia ; these
appendages are spiriform, like the mecon of the whelk;
their origin is from the acetabula, which are placed under
the last feet. These contain a red sanguineous flesh, which
is smooth to the touch, and not like flesh. Prom the whelk-
like appendage there is another spiral fold, about as thick
as a thread, below which there are two sand-like bodies
appended to the intestine, containing a seminal fluid.
These are found in the male, but the female has ova of a
red colour ; these are joined to the abdomen, and on each
side of the intestine to the fleshy part of the body, enclosed
in a thin membrane. These are their internal and external
parts.

CHAPTEE III.

1. IT happens that all the internal parts of sanguineous ani-
mals have names, for all these have the internal viscera ; but
the same parts of exsanguineous animals have no names, but
both classes have in common the stomach, oesophagus, and
intestines. I have before spoken of the carcini, and their

B. IT.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 81

legs and feet, and how many they have, and in what direc-
tion, and that, for the most part, they have the right claw
larger and stronger than the left; I have also mentioned
their eyes, and that most of them are able to see sideways.
The mass of their body is undivided, and so is their head,
and any other part.

2. In some the eyes are placed immediately below the
upper part, and generally far apart ; in some they are placed
in the middle, and near together, as in the Heracleot carcini
and the maia. The mouth is placed below the eyes, and
contains two teeth, as in the carabus, but they are long
and not round, and over these there are two coverings,
between which are the appendages, which the carabus
also possesses.

3. They receive water through their mouth, opening the
opercula, and emit it again by the upper passage of the mouth,
closing the opercula by which it entered; these are im-
mediately beneath the eyes, and when they take in water
they close the mouth with both opercula, and thus eject
again the sea-water. Next to the teeth is a very short
oesophagus, so that the mouth appears joined to the sto-
mach, and from this proceeds a divided stomach, from the
middle of which is a single thin intestine ; this intestine
ends externally beneath the folding of the extremity, as I said
before. Between the opercula there is something resembling
the appendages to the teeth of the carabi ; within the abdo-
men is an ochreous chyme, and some small elongated white
bodies, and other red ones scattered through it. The male
differs from the female in length and width, and in the abdo-
minal covering, for this is longer in the female, farther from
the body, and more thick-set with appendages, as in the female
carabi. The parts of the malacostraca are of this nature.

CHAPTER IV.

1. THE testacea, as cochlea?,1 and cochli,2 and all that are
called ostrea,3 and the family of echini, are composed of
flesh, and this flesh is like that of the malacostraci, for it is
internal; but the shell is external, and they have no hard
internal part. But they have many differences amongst
themselves, both in regard to their external shells and their
1 Land snails. ? Marine. 3 Bivalves.

82 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [u. IV.

internal flesh, for some of them have no flesh at all, as the
echinus ; in others it is entirely internal and out of sight,
except the head, as the land snails and those called coccalia,1
and in the sea the purpura2 and the ceryx,3 the cochlus, and
all the turbinated shells.

2. Of the rest some are bivalves, others univalves. I call
those bivalves which are enclosed in two shells ; the univalves
are enclosed in one shell, and the fleshy part is uncovered,
as the, lepas.4 Some of the bivalves can open, as the
pectens and mya, for all these are joined on one side, and
separated on the other, so as to shut and open. There
are other bivalves which are joined on both sides, as the
solen ; others which are entirely enclosed in their shells, and
have no external naked flesh, as those which are called tethya.5

3. And there is a great difference amongst the shells
themselves, for some are smooth, as the solen, mya, and
some conchas, called by some persons galaces ;6 other shells
are rough, as the limnostrea,7 pinnae, some kinds of conchae,
and the whelk ; and of these some are marked with ridges, as
the pecten and a kind of concha, others are without ridges, as
the pinna and another species of concha. They also differ in
thickness and thinness, both in the whole shell and in certain
parts of the shell, as about the edges, for in some the edges
are thin, as the mya; others are thick-edged, as the limnostrea.

4. Some of them are capable of motion, as the pecten, for
some persons say that the pectens can fly, for that they
sometimes leap out of the instrument by which they are
taken. Others, as the pinna, cannot move from the point
of attachment ; all the turbinated shells can move and crawl ;
the lepas (patella) also feeds by going from place to place.
It is common to all those with hard shells to have them
smooth in the inside.

5. Both in univalves and bivalves the fleshy part is united
to the shell, so that it can only be separated by force ; it is
more easily separated from the turbinated shells ; it is a
characteristic of all these shells, that the base of the shell
has the helix directed from the head. All of them from their
birth have an operculum ; all the turbinated testacea are

1 Some small land snail with a conical shell.

2 Purpura. 3 Whelk. 4 Patella, limpet.
5 Ascidians. 6 Chama, L. 7 Ostrea edulis.

U, IV.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 83

right-handed, and move, not in the direction of the helix,
but the contrary way.

6. The external parts of these creatures are thus distin-
guished ; the nature of their internal structure is similar
in all, especially in the turbinated animals, for they differ
in size and in the relations of excess, the univalves and
bivalves do not exhibit many differences. Most of them
have but few distinctive marks from each other, but they
differ more from the immovable creatures. This will be
more evident from the following considerations. In na-
ture they are all alike, the difference, as before said; is in
excess ; for in larger species the parts are more conspicuous,
and less so in those that are smaller. They differ also in
hardness and softness, and such like affections.

7. For all have on the outside of the shell, in the mouth,
a hard piece of flesh, some more, some less ; from the middle
of this are the head and the two horns ; these are large in
larger species, in the little ones they are very small. The
head is protruded in the same manner in all of them, and
when the creature is alarmed it is again retracte«f; some
have a mouth and teeth, as the snail, which has small, sharp,
and smooth teeth.

8. They have also a proboscis, like that of the fly, and this
organ is like a tongue. In the ceryx and the purpura this
organ is hard, like that of the my ops and oestrus, with which
they pierce through the skins of quadrupeds ; but this is
more powerful in strength, for they can pierce through the
shells of the baits. The stomach is joined quite closely to
the mouth ; the stomach of the cochlus is like the crop of a
bird ; below this there are two hard white substances like
nipples, which also exist in the sepia, but are much harder.

9. From the stomach a long, simple intestine reaches as far
as the spiral, which is on the extremity of the body. These
are distinct, and in the purpura and the ceryx are in the
helix of the shell. The bowel is continuous with the intes-
tine. The intestine and bowels are joined together, and are
quite simple, to the anus. The origin of the bowel is around
the helix of the mecon,1 and here it is wider. The mecon is,
as it were, a superfluous part in all testacea, afterwards an-
other bend causes it to return to the fleshy part ; the end of

1 The so-called liver (Strack). Papaver (Scaliger).

G 2

84 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. |_B. IV.

the entrail, where the faeces are emitted, is near the head, aiid
is alike in all turbinated shells, whether terrestrial or marine.

10. In the larger cochli a long white passage, contained
in a membrane, and in colour resembling the upper mastoid
appendages, is joined from the stomach to the oesophagus,
and it is divided into segments like the ovum of the carabus,
except that it is white, while the other is red. It has
neither exit nor passage, but it is contained in a thin mem-
brane, which has a narrow cavity. From the intestine
black and rough bodies descend continuously, like those in
the tortoise, but they are less black.

11. Both these and white bodies occur in the marine cochli,
but they are less in the smaller kinds. The univalves and
bivalves are in some respects like these, and in others they
are different, for they have a head, horns, and mouth, and
something like a tongue, though in smaller species these
are inconspicuous from their minute size, and they are not
discernible when the animals are dead or at rest. They all
contain the mecon, but not in the same position, nor of the
same size, nor equally conspicuous. In the lepas it is in the
bottom of the shell, in the bivalves near the hinge.

12. They all have hair-like appendages placed in a circle,
and so have the pectens, and that which is called the oVarium
in those that have it ; where it is possessed, it is placed in a
circle on the other side of the circumference, like the white
portion in the cochli, for this is alike in all. All these parts,
as I have said, are conspicuous in the larger kinds, but in
smaller not at all, or scarcely so, wherefore they are most
conspicuous in the larger pectens, and these have one valve
flat like an operculum.

13. The anus is placed in the side in some of these crea-
tures, for this is where the excrement passes out. The mecon,
as I have said, is a superfluous part enclosed in a thin mem-
brane in all of them ; that which is called the ovarium has no
passage in any of them, but it swells out in the flesh. This is
not placed upon the intestine, for the ovarium is on the right
side and the intestine on the left ; the anus is the same as in
others ; but in the wild patella, as some persons call it, or the
sea-ear (haliotis), as it is named by others, the excrement
passes out below the shell, for the shell is perforated. The
stomach also is distinct behind the mouth, and so is the ova-

B. IT] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS, 85

rium in this animal. The position of all these parts may be
vseen in dissections.

1A The creature called carcinium1 resembles both the
malacostraca and the testacea, for this in its nature is similar
to the animals that are like carabi, and it is born naked
(not covered with a shell). But because it makes its way
into a shell, and lives in it, it resembles the testacea, and
for these reasons it partakes of the character of both classes.
Its shape, to speak plainly, is that of a spider, except that
the lower part of the head and thorax is larger.

15. It has two thin red horns, and two large eyes below
these, not within nor turned on one side, like those of the
crab, but straight forwards. Below these is the mouth,
and round it many hair-like appendages ; next to these, two
divided feet with which it seizes its prey, and two besides
these on each side, and a third pair smaller. Below the
thorax the whole creature is soft, and when laid open is
yellow within.

16. From the mouth is a passage as far as the stomach ;
but the anus is indistinct ; the feet and the thorax are hard,
but less so than those of the cancri ; it is not united with the
shell like the purpura and ceryx, but is easily liberated from
it. The individuals which inhabit the shells of the strombus
are longer than those in the shells of the nerita.

17. The kind which inhabits the nerita is different, though
very like in other respects, for the right divided foot is small,
and the left one large, and it walks more upon this than the
other ; and a similar animal is found in the concha?, though
they are united to their shells very firmly ; this animal is called
cyllarus.2 The nerita has a smooth, large, round shell, in
form resembling that of the ceryx, but the mecon is not
black, but red ; it is strongly united in the middle.

18. In fine wreather they seek their food at liberty, and if a
storm arises, the carcinia hide themselves under a stone, and
the nerita3 attach themselves to it like the patella, the
ha3morrhois, and all that class, for they become attached
to the rock, where they close their operculum, for this re-
sembles a lid ; for that part which is in both sides in the
bivalves is joined to one side in the turbinated shells : the
interior is fleshy, and in this the mouth is placed.

1 Hermit crab. 2 Cancer Diogenes.

86 THE HISTOBY. OP ANIMALS. TB> j^

19. The nature of the haemorrhois, the purpura, and all
such animals is the same. But those which have the left
foot greater are not found in the shells of the strombus, but
in the neritse. There are some cochli which contain an ani-
mal like the small astacus, which is found in rivers ; but
they differ from them in having the inner part of the shell
soft. Their form may be seen by examining dissections.

CHAPTER V.

1. THE echini contain no flesh, but this part is peculiar, for
they are all of them void of flesh, and are filled with a black
substance. There are many kinds of echinus, one of which
is eatable ; in this one the ova are large and eatable, both in
the greater and the less.

2. And there are two other kinds, the spatangus and that
called bryttus ; these are inhabitants of the sea, and rare.
Those which are called echinometraB1 are the largest of all.
Besides this, there is another small species, which has long
and sharp spines ; this is procured from the sea, in many
fathoms water, and some persons use it for stranguary.

3. Around Torona there are white marine echini, which
have shells, and prickles, and ova, and are longer than others ;
but the prickle is neither large nor strong, but soft, and the
black parts from the mouth are more in number, and united
to the outward passage, but distinct among themselves, and
by these the animal is as it were divided. The eatable kinds
are particularly and especially active, and it is a sign of them ;
for they have always something adhering to their spines.

4. They all contain ova, but in some they are very small,
and not eatable : that which is called the head and mouth in
the echinus is downwards, and the anus placed upwards.
The same thing occurs in the turbinated shells, and the
patella; for their food is placed below them, so that the mouth
is towards the food, and the anus at or on the upper part of
the shell.

5. The echinus has five hollow internal teeth, in the midst
of these a portion of flesh like a tongue ; next to this is the
oesophagus ; then the stomach, in five divisions, full of faecu-
lent matter : all its cavities unite in one, near the anus,
where the shell is perforated. Beneath the stomach, in an-

1 Echinus esculentus.

B. IT.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 87

other membrane, are the ova, the same number in all, they
are five in number, and uneven.

6. The black substance is joined above to the origin of the
teeth, this black substance is bitter and not eatable ; in many
animals there is either this substance or its analogue, for it is
found in tortoises, toads, frogs, turbinated shells, and in the
malacia ; these parts differ in colour, but are entirely or nearly
uneatable. The body of the echinus is undivided from be-
ginning to end, but the shell is not so when seen through,
for it is like a lantern, with no skin around it. The echinus
uses its spines as feet, for it moves along by leaning upon
them and moving them.

CHAPTER VI.

1. THE creatures called tethya1 have a most distinct charac-
ter, for in these alone is the whole body concealed in a
shell. Their shell is intermediate between skin and shell,
so that it can be cut like hard leather : this shell-like sub-
stance is attached to rocks ; in it there are two perforations,
quite distant from each other, and not easily seen, by which
it excludes and receives water, for it has no visible excre-
ment as other testacea, neither like the echinus, nor the
substance called mecon.

2. When laid open, there is first of all a sinewy membrane
lining the shell-like substance, within this the fleshy sub-
stance of the tethyon; Unlike any other creature, its flesh,
however, is alike throughout, and it is united in two places
to the membrane and the skin from the side, and at its
points of union it is narrower on each side ; by these places
it reaches to the external perforations which pass through
the shell ; there it both parts with and receives food and
moisture, as if one were the mouth, the other the anus, the
one is thick, the other thinner.

3. Internally there is a cavity at each end, and a passage
passes through it ; there is a fluid in both the cavities. Be-
sides this, it has no sensitive or organic member, nor is there
any excrementitious matter, as I said before. The colour of
the tethyon is partly ochreous, partly red.

4. The class acalephe2 is peculiar ; it adheres to rocks like
gome of the testacea, but at times it is washed off. It is not

1 Ascidian molluske. 2 Actiniae.

88 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. FT.

covered with a shell, but its whole body is fleshy ; it is sen-
sitive, and seizes upon the hand that touches it, and it holds
fast, like the polypus does with its tentacula, so as to make
the flesh swell up. It has a central mouth, and lives upon
the rock, as well as upon shell-fish, and if any small fish falls
in its way, it lays hold of it as with a hand, and if any eat-
able thing falls in its way it devours it.

5. One species is free, and feeds upon anything it meets
with, even pectens and echini ; it appears to have no visible
excrement, and in this respect it resembles plants. There
are two kinds of acalephe, some small and more eatable,
others large and hard, such as are found near Chalcis. Dur-
ing winter their flesh is compact, wherefore in this season
they are caught and eaten ; in summer time they perish, for
they become soft; if they are touched they soon melt down,
and cannot by any means be taken away. When suffering
from heat, they prefer getting under stones. I have now
treated of malacia, malacostraca, testacea, and of their exter-
nal and internal parts.

CHAPTER VII.

1. INSECTS must now be treated of in the same manner.
This is a class which contains many forms, and no common
name has been given to unite those that are naturally
related, as the bee, anthrene,1 and wasp, and such like ;
again, those which have their wings enclosed in a case, as
the melolontha,2 carabus,3 cantharis, and such like. The
common parts of all insects are three — the head, the abdo-
men, and the third, which is between these, such as in other
animals is the breast and back. In many insects this is one,
but in the long insects with many legs, the middle parts are
equal to the number of segments.

2. All insects survive being divided, except those which
are naturally cold, or soon become so from their small size,
so that wasps live after they are cut asunder; either the
head or the abdomen will live if united to the thorax, but
the head will not live alone. Those which are long, and
have many feet, will survive division for a considerable time ;
both the extremities are capable of motion, for they walk
both upon the part cut off and upon the tail, as that which is
called scolopendra. All of them have eyes, but no other
' Wild bee. 2 Chafer. 3 Beetle.

B. TV.] THE HISTO11T OP ANIMALS. 89

manifest organs of sense, except that some have a tongue.
All the testacea have this organ, which serves the double
purpose of tasting and drawing food into the mouth.

3. In some of them this organ is soft ; in others very
strong, as in the purpura ; in the myops and oestrus this
member is strong, and in a great many more ; for this mem-
ber is used as a weapon by all those that have no caudal
sting.

4. Those with this weapon have no small external teeth,
for flies draw blood by touching with this organ, and gnats
sting with it. Some insects also have stings, which are
either internal, as in bees and wasps, or external, as in the
scorpion. This last is the only insect that has a long tail ;
it has claws, and so has the little scorpion-like creature1
found in books. The winged insects, in addition to other
parts, have wings. Some have two wings, as the flies ;
others four, as the bees ; none of the diptera have a caudal
Sting. Some of the winged insects have elytra on their
wings, as the melolontha ; and others no elytra, as the bee.
Insects do not direct their flight with their tail, and their
wings have neither shaft nor division.

5. Some have a horn before their eyes, as the psych a32 and
carabi. Of the jumping insects, some have their hind-legs
larger ; others have the organs of jumping bent backwards,
like the legs of quadrupeds. In all, the upper part is dif-
ferent from the lower, like other animals.

6. The flesh of their bodies is neither testaceous nor
like the internal parts of testacea, but between the two.
"Wherefore, also, they have neither spine nor bone, as the
sepia ; nor are they surrounded with a shell. For the body
is its own protection by its hardness, and requires no other
support; and they have a very thin skin. This is the
nature of their external parts.

7. Internally, immediately after the mouth, there is an
intestine which in most insects passes straight and simply
to the anus, in a few it is convoluted ; these have no bones
nor fat, neither has any other exsanguineous animal. Some
have a stomach, and from this the remainder of the intes-
tine is either simple or convoluted, as in the acris.3 The

1 Phalangium Cancroides. Linn. Schneider.

2 Butterfly. 3 Locust.

90 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS^ f B. IV.

tettix (grasshopper) alone of this, or any other class of
living creatures, has no mouth ; but, like those with a caudal
sting, it has the appearance of a tongue, long, continuous,
and undivided, and with this it feeds upon the dew alone.
There is no excrement in the stomach. There are many
kinds of these creatures, they differ in being greater or less ;
those called achetae are divided beneath the diaphragm, and
have a conspicuous membrane, which the tettigonia has not.
8. There are many other creatures in the sea which it is
not possible to arrange in any class from their scarcity.
"For some experienced fishermen say they have seen in the sea
creatures like small beams, black and round, and of the same
thickness throughout ; others like shields, of a red colour,
with many fins ; others1 like the human penis in appearance
and size, but instead of testicles they had two fins, and that
such have been taken on the extremity of grappling irons.
This is the nature of the internal and external parts of all
animals of every kind, both those which are peculiar to cer-
tain species, and -those which are common to all.

CHAPTEE VIII.

1. WE must now treat of the Senses : for they are not alike
in all, but some have all the senses, and some fewer. They
are mostly five in number ; seeing, hearing, smelling,
taste, touch, and besides these there are none peculiar to
any creatures. Man, then, and all viviparous animals with
feet, besides all sanguineous and viviparous animals, have all
these, unless they are undeveloped in any particular kind,
as in the mole.

2. For this creature has no sight, it has no apparent eyes,
but when the thick skin which surrounds the head is taken
away, in the place where the eyes ought to be on the out-
side, are the undeveloped internal eyes, which have all the
parts of true eyes, for they have both the iris of the eye,
and within the iris the part called the pupil, and the
white ; but all these are less than in true eyes. On the
outside there is no appearance of these parts, from the
thickness of the skin, as if the nature of the eye had been
destroyed at birth ; for there are two sinewy and strong
passages proceeding from the brain, where it unites with
1 Perhaps Pennatula,

B. IV.l THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 91

the spinal cord, reaching from the socket of the eye, and
ending upon the upper sharp teeth.

3. All other animals are endued with the perception of
colours, sounds, smells, and taste. All animals have the
fifth sense, which is called touch. In some animals the
organs of sense are very distinct, and especially the eyes,
for they have a definite place, and so has the hearing. For
some animals have ears, and others open perforations : so
also of the sense of smelling, some animals have nostrils,
others passages, as the whole class of birds. In the same
way the tongue is the organ of taste.

4. In aquatic animals and those called fish, the tongue is
still the organ of taste, though it is indistinct, for it is
bony, and not capable of free motion. In some fish the
roof of the mouth is fleshy, as in some cyprini among river
fish, so that, without careful examination, it appears like a
tongue. That they have the sense of taste is quite clear,
for many of them delight in peculiar food, and they will
more readily seize upon a bait formed of the amia and other
fat fishes, as if they delighted in the taste and eating of
such baits.

5. They have no evident organ of hearing and smelling,
for the passages which exist about the region of the nostrils
in some fish do not appear to pass to the brain, but some of
them are blind, and others lead to the gills ; it is evident,
however, that they both hear and smell, for they escape from
loud noises, such as the oars of the triremes, so as to be
easily captured in their hiding-places.

6. For if the external noise is not loud, yet to all aquatic
animals that are capable of hearing, it appears harsh and very
loud ; and this takes place in hunting dolphins, for when they
have enclosed them with their canoes, they make a noise from
them in the sea, and the dolphins, crowded together, are
obliged to leap upon the land, and, being stunned with the
noise, are easily captured, although even dolphins have no
external organs of hearing.

7. And again in fishing, the fishermen are careful to
avoid making a noise with their oars or net when they per-
ceive many fish collected in one place ; they make a signal,
and let down their nets in such a place that no sound of the
oar or the motion of the waters should reach the place

92 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IT.

where the fish are collected, and the sailors are commanded
to row in the greatest silence until they have enclosed them.

8. Sometimes, when they wish to drive them together,
they proceed as in dolphin catching, for they make a noise
with stones that they may be alarmed and collected together,
and thus they are enclosed in a net. Before their inclosure,
as it was said, they prevent a noise, but as soon as they have
enclosed them, they direct the sailors to shout and make a
noise, for they fall down with fear when they hear the noise
and tumult.

9. And when the fishers observe large shoals at a dis-
tance, collected on the surface in calm, fine weather, and
wish to know their size, and of what kind they are, if they
can approach them in silence, they avoid their notice, and
catch them while they are on the surface. If any noise is
made before they reach them, they may be seen in flight.
In the rivers, also, there are little fish under the stones,
which some persons call cotti i1 from their dwelling beneath
rocks, they catch them by striking the rocks with stones,
and the fishes fall down frightened when they hear the
noise, being stunned by it. It is evident, from these con-
siderations, that fishes have the sense of hearing.

10. There are persons who say that fish have more acute
ears than other animals, and that, from dwelling near the
sea, they have often remarked it. Those fish which have the
most acute ears are thecestreus2 (chremps),3 labrax,4 salpe,5
chromis,6 and all such fishes ; in others the sense of hearing
less acute, because they live in the deeper parts of the
ocean.

11. Their nature of smelling is the same, for the greater
number of fishes will not take a bait that is not quite fresh ;
others are less particular. All fish will not take the same
bait, but only particular baits, which they distinguish by the
smell ; for some are taken with stinking baits, as the salpe
with dung. Many fish also live in the holes of rocks, and
when the fishermen want to entice them out, they anoint
the mouths of these holes with salted scents, to which they
readily come.

1 Perhaps Cottus gobio L., miller's thumb. Salmo Fario (Stracfy.

2 Mullet. 3 Unknown. 4 Perca Labrax.

5 Scomber. 6 Unknown.

B IV.~| THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 93

12. The eel also is enticed out in this way, for they place
a pitcher of salt food, covering the mouth of the pitcher
with another vessel pierced with holes, and the eels are
quickly drawn forth by the smell of the bait. Baits made
of the roasted flesh of the cuttle fish, on account of its
strong smell, attract fish very readily. They say they put
the roasted flesh of the polypus upon their hooks for nothing
but its strong smell.

13. And the fish called rhyades,1 when the washings of
fish or of fetid drains are emptied into the water, make
their escape as if smelling the foetid odour. They say that
fish soon smell the blood of their own kind ; this is plain
from their hastening from any place where the blood of
fishes may be. On the whole, if any one use a putrid bait,
the fish will not come near it ; but if a fresh strong-smelling
bait is used, they will come to it from a great distance.

14. This is especially observable in what was said of
dolphins, for these creatures have not external organs of
hearing, but are captured by being stunned with a noise, as
was before observed ; neither have they any external organs
of smell, yet their scent is acute. Therefore, it is evident
that all creatures have these senses. Other kinds of animals
are divided into four classes ; and these contain the mul-
titude of remaining animals, namely, the malacia, malaco-
straca, testacea, and insects.

15. Of these the malacia, the malacostraca, and insects have
all the senses, for they can see, smell, and taste. Insects, whe-
ther they have wings or are apterus, can smell from a great
distance, as the bee and the cnips 2 scent honey, for they
perceive it from a long distance, as if they discovered it by
the scent. Many of them perish by the fumes of sxilphur :
ants leave their hills when origanum and sulphur are
sprinkled upon them. Almost all of them escape from the
fumes of burnt stags' horns, but most of all do they avoid
the smell of burnt styrax.

16. The sepia, also, the polypus, and the carabus are
caught with baits ; the polypus holds the bait so fast that
it holds on even when cut : if a person hold cony za to them,
they let go as soon as they smell it. So, also, of the sense
of taste, for they follow different kinds of food, and do not

1 A fish living in shoals. 2 Perhaps some species of ant.

$4 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IV.

all prefer the same food, as the bee approaches nothing that
is putrid, only sweet things ; the gnat not what is sweet,
but what is acid.

17. As I before observed, the sense of touch belongs to
all animals. The testacea have the senses of smelling and
tasting. This is plain from the baits used, as those for the
purpurae ; for this creature is caught with putrid substances,
and will be attracted from a great distance to such baits,
as if by the sense of smell. It is evident from what follows
that they possess the sense of taste ; for whatever they
select by smell, they all love to taste.

18. And all animals with mouths receive pain or
pleasure from the contact of food. But, concerning the
senses of sight and hearing, it is not possible to say anything
certain, or very distinct ; the solens, if a person touch them,
appear to retract themselves, and try to escape when they
see an instrument approaching them, for a small portion of
them is beyond the shell, the remainder as it were in a retreat ;
the pectens. also, if a finger is brought near them, open and
shut themselves as if they could see.

19. Those who seek for neritae do not approach them with
the wind, when they seek them for baits, nor do they speak,
but come silently, as if the creatures could both smell and
hear ; they say that if they speak, they get away. Of all testacea,
the echinus appears to have the best sense of smell amongst
those that can move, and the tethya and balanus in those
that are fixed. This is the nature of the organs of sense in
all animals.

CHAPTER IX.

1. THE following is the nature of the voice of animals,
for there is a distinction between voice and sound. Speech,
again, is different from these. Voice is due to no other part
except the pharynx, the creatures, therefore, without
lungs are also without voice. Speech is the direction of the
voice by the tongue ; the vowels are uttered by the voice
and the larynx, the mutes by the tongue and the lips ; speech
is made up of these : wherefore, no animals can speak that
have not a tongue, nor if their tongue is confined.

2. The power of uttering a sound is connected with other
parts also ; insects have neither voice nor speech, but make

B. IV.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 95

a sound with the air within them, not with that which is
external, for some of them breathe not, some of them buzz,
as the bee with its wings, and others are said to sing, as the
grasshopper. All these make a noise with the membrane
which is beneath the division of their body in those which
have a division, as some families of grasshoppers by the
friction of the air. These insects, bees, and all other insects
raise and depress their wings in night, for the sound is the
friction of the air within them. Locusts produce a sound
by rubbing themselves with their legs, which are adapted
for leaping. None of the malacia utter any sound or natural
voice, nor do the malacostraca.

3. Fish also are mute, for they have neither lungs,
trachea, nor pharynx. Some of them utter a sound and a
squeak; these are said to havea voice, as the lyra1 and chromi,2
for these utter, as it were, a grunt ; so does the capros, a fish
of the Achelous, the chalceus3 and coccyx,4 for the one
utters a sound like hissing, the other a noise like that of
the cuckoo, from whence also its name is derived. Some of
these utter their apparent voice by the friction of their
gills, for these places are spinous, in others the sound is
internal, near the stomach. For each of them has an organ
of breathing, which causes a sound when it is pressed and
moved about.

4. Some of the selachea also appear to whistle, but they
cannot be correctly said to utter a voice, only to make a
sound. The pectens also make a whizzing noise when they
are borne upon the surface of the water, or flying, as it is
called ; and so do the sea-swallows,5 for they also fly through
the air in the same way, not touching the sea, for they have
wide and long fins. As the sound made by birds flying
through the air is not a voice, so neither can either of these
be properly so called. The dolphin also utters a whistle
and lows when it comes out of the water into the air, in a
different way from the animals above-mentioned — for this
is a true voice, for it has lungs and a trachea, but its tongue
is not free, nor has it any lips so as to make an articulate
sound.

5. The oviparous quadrupeds, with a- tongue and lungs,

1 Trigla Lyra. 2 Cottus cataphractus. 3 Zeus faber.

4 Trigla hiruudo. 3 Flying fish.

SI3 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IV.

utter a sound, though it is a weak one. Some of them hiss
like serpents ; others have a small weak voice, others, as tho
tor.toise, utter a small hiss. The tongue of the frog is pe-
culiar, for the fore-part of it is fixed, like that of a fish ; but
the part near the pharynx is free and folded up. "With this it
utters its peculiar sound. The male frogs make a croaking
in the, water when they invite the females to coition.

6. All animals utter a voice to invite the society and proxi-
mity of their kind, as the hog, the goat, and the sheep. The
frog croaks by making its lower jaw of equal length, and
stretching the upper one above the water. Their eyes ap-
pear like lights, their cheeks being swelled out with the
vehemence of their croaking ; for their copulation is gene-
rally performed in the night. The class of birds utter a
voice: those which have a moderately wide tongue have the
best voice ; those also in which the tongue is thin. In
some kinds both male and female have the same voice ; in
others it is different : the smaller kinds have more variety
in their voice, and make more use of it, than the larger
tribes.

7. All birds become more noisy at the season of coition.
Some utter a cry when they are fighting, as the quail ; others
when they are going to fight, as the partridge ; or when they
have obtained a victory, as the cock. In some kinds both
male and female sing, as the nightingale ; but the female
nightingale does not sing while she is sitting or feeding her
young : in some the males alone, as the quail and the cock ;
the female has no voice. Viviparous quadrupeds utter dif-
ferent voices ; none can speak — for this is the characteristic
of man, for all that have a language have a voice, but not
all that have a voice have also a language.

8. All that are born dumb, and all children, utter sounds,
but have no language ; for, as children are not complete in
their other parts, so their tongue is not perfect at first ; it
becomes more free afterwards, so that they stammer and
lisp. Both voices and language differ in different places.

9. The voice is most conspicuous in its acuteness or depth,
but the form does not differ in the same species of animals ;
the mode of articulation differs, and this might be called
speech, for it differs in different animals, arid in the same
genera in different places, as among partridges, for in some

B. IV.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 97

places they cackle, in others whistle. Small birds do not utter
the same voice as their parents, if they are brought up away
from them, and have only heard other singing birds. For the
nightingale has been observed instructing her young, so
that the voice and speech are not naturally alike, but are
capable of formation. And men also have all the same voice,
however much they may differ in language. The elephant
utters a voice by breathing through its mouth, making no
use of its nose, as when a man breathes forth a sigh ; but
with its nose it makes a noise like the hoarse sound of a
trumpet.

CHAPTER X.

1. CONCERNING the sleep and wakefulness of animals. It is
quite manifest that all viviparous animals with feet both
sleep and are awake ; for all that have eyelids sleep with the
eyes closed ; and not only men appear to dream, but horses,
oxen, sheep, goats, dogs, and all viviparous quadrupeds.
Dogs show this by barking in their sleep. It is not clear
whether oviparous animals dream, but it is quite plain that
they sleep.

2. And so it is in aquatic animals, as fish, the malacia,
the malacostraca, the carabi, and such like creatures. The
sleep of all these animals is short: it is plain that they do sleep,
though we can form no conclusion from their eyes, for they
have no eyelids, but from their not being alarmed ; for if
fish are not tormented with lice, and what are called psylli,
they may be captured without alarming them, so that they
can be even taken with the hand. And if fish remain at
rest during the night a great multitude of these creatures
fall upon and devour them.

3. They are found in such numbers at the bottom of the
sea as to devour any bait made offish that remains any length
of time upon the ground ; fishermen frequently draw them
out hanging like globes around the bait. The following con-
siderations will serve still more to confirm our suppositions
that fishes sleep ; for it is often possible to fall upon the
fish so stealthily as to take by the hand, or even strike them
during this time ; they are quite quiet, and exhibit no signs
of motion except with their tails, which they move gently.
It is evident, also, that they sleep, from their starting if

I£

98 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IV.

anything moves while they are asleep, for they start as if
they were waked out of sleep.

4. They are also taken by torchlight while asleep ; those
who are seeking for thynni surround them while asleep ; it is
evident that they can be captured from their stillness, and
the half-open white (of their eyes). They sleep more by
night than by day, so that they do not move when they are
struck ; they generally sleep holding by the ground, or the
sand, or a stone, at the bottom, concealing themselves be-
neath a rock, or a portion of the shore. The flat fishes
sleep in the sand; they are recognized by their form
in the sand, and are taken by striking them with a spear
with three points. The labrax, chrysophrys, cestreus,
and such-like fish are often taken with the same kind of
weapon while asleep in the day time, but if not taken then,
none of them can be captured with such a spear.

5. The selache sleep so soundly that they may be taken
with the hand ; the dolphin, whale, and all that have a blow-
hole, sleep with this organ above the surface of the sea, so
that they can breathe, while gently moving their fins, and
some persons have even heard the dolphin snore. The ma-
lacia sleep in the same manner as fish, and so do the mala-
costraca. It is evident from the following considerations
that insects sleep ; for they evidently remain at rest without
motion ; this is particularly plain in bees, for they remain
quiet, and cease to hum during the night. This is also evi-
dent from those insects with which we are most familiar,
for they not only remain quiet during the night because
they cannot see distinctly, for all creatures with hard eyes
have indistinct vision, but they seem no less quiet when
the light of a lamp is set before them.

6. Man sleeps the most of all animals. Infants and
young children do not dream at all, but dreaming begins in
most at about four or five years old. There have been men
and women who have never dreamt at all ; sometimes such
persons, when they have advanced in age, begin to dream ;
this has preceded a change in their body, either for death
or infirmity. This, then, is the manner of sensation, sleep
and wakefulue&s.

B. IV.l THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 09

CHAPTER XI.

1. IN some animals the sexes are distinct, in others they are
not so, these are said to beget and be with young by a like-
ness to other creatures. There is neither male nor female
in fixed animals, nor in testacea. In the malacia and
malacostraca there are male and female individuals, and in
all animals with feet, whether they have two or four, which
produce either an animal, an egg, or a worm from coition.

2. In other kinds the sexes are either single or not single ;
as in all quadrupeds there is the male and female, in the
testacea it is not so, for as some vegetables are fertile and
others barren, so it is in these. Among insects and fishes
there are some that have no differences of this kind, as the
eel is neither male nor female, nor is anything produced
from them.

3. But those persons who say that some eels appear to
have creatures like worms, of the size of a hair, attached to
them, speak without observation, not having seen how they
really are ; for none of these creatures are viviparous with-
out being first oviparous, none of them have ever been ob-
served to contain ova ; those that are viviparous have the
embryo attached to the uterus, and not to the abdomen, for
there it would be digested like food. The distinction made
between the so-called male and female eel that the male has
a larger and longer head, and that the head of the female
is smaller, and more rounded, is a generic, and not a sexual
distinction.

4. There are some fish called epitragwe, and among fresh-
water fish the cyprinus and balagrus are of the same nature,
which never have ova or semen ; those which are firm and
fat, and have a small intestine, appear to be the best.
There are creatures, such as the testacea, and plants, which
beget, and produce young, but have no organ of coition ;
and so also in fishes the psetus,1 erythrhinus,2 and the ehanna.
All these appear to have ova.

5. In sanguineous animals with feet that are not ovip^-
rous, the males are generally larger and longer lived than

1 Pleuronectes Lingua and Rhombus,

2 Perca marina, or Spams erithrinus..

100 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. IV.

the females, except the hernionus, but the females of this
animal are both larger and longer lived : in oviparous and
viviparous animals, as in fish and insects, the females are
larger than the males, as the serpent, phalangium,1 ascala-
botes,2 and frog ; in fish likewise, as in most of the small
gregarious selache, and all that inhabit rocks.

6. It is evident that female fishes have longer lives than
males, because females are caught of a greater age than the
males ; the upper and more forward parts of all animals
are larger and stronger, and more firmly built in the male ;
the hinder and lower parts in the female. This is the case
in the human subject, and all viviparous animals with feet :
the female is less sinewy, the joints are weaker, and the
hairs finer, in those with hair ; in those without hair, its
analogues are of the same nature ; the female has softer
flesh and weaker knees than the male, the legs are slighter ;
the feet of females are more graceful, in all that have
these members.

7. All females, also, have a smaller and more acute voice
than the males, but in oxen the females utter a deeper sound
than the males ; the parts denoting strength, as the teeth,
tusks, horns, and spurs, and such other parts, are possessed
by the males, but not by the females, as the roe-deer has
none, and the hens of some birds with spurs have none ;
the sow has no tusks : in some animals they exist in both
sexes, only stronger and longer in the males, as the horns of
bulls are stronger than those of cows.

1 Aranea tarantula. 2 Lacerta Gekko.

B. V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 101

BOOK THE FIFTH.

CHAPTER I , '« . . , t

1. AYE have hitherto treated of the .external and internal
parts of all animals, of their senses, voioo, ancv ;sl£,e)p,/.;\viili I
the distinctions between the males and ' ieicales ; it remains'-
to treat of their generation, speaking first of those which
come first in order, for they are many, and have numerous
varieties, partly dissimilar, and partly like each other. And
we will pursue the same order in considering them as we
did before in their division into classes ; we commenced our
consideration by treating of the parts in man, but now he
must be treated of last, because he is much more intricate.

2. We shall begin with the testacea, and after these treat
of the malacostraca, and the others in the order of their
succession. These are the malacia and insects, next to
these fishes, both viviparous and oviparous ; next to them
birds, and afterwards we must treat of animals with feet,
whether viviparous or oviparous ; some viviparous creatures
have four feet, man alone has two feet. The nature of ani-
mals and vegetables is similar, for some are produced from
the seed of other plants, and others are of spontaneous
growth, being derived from some origin of a similar nature.
Some of them acquire their nourishment from the soil,
others from different plants, as it was observed when treat-
ing of plants.

3. So also some animals are produced from animals of
a similar form, the origin of others is spontaneous, and
not from similar forms ; from these and from plants are
divided those which spring from putrid matter, this is the
case with many insects ; others originate in the animals
themselves, and from the excrementitious matter in their
parts ; those which originate from similar animals, and have
both the sexes are produced from coition, but of the class of
fishes there are some neither male nor female, these belong
to the same class among fishes, but to different genera, and
some are quite peculiar. In some there are females but no
males, by these the species is continued as in the hyDenemia
among birds.

102 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. Y.

4. All these among birds are barren, (for nature ia
able to complete them as far as the formation of an egg,)
unless persons suppose that there is another method of
c-oittmunfcatiftgv t&er male influence, concerning which we
shall speak mere plainly hereafter. In some fish, after the
spontaneous production, of the ovum, it happens that living
ereatnfes a*ie: produQecl, some by themselves, others by the
aid of the male. The manner in which this is done will be
made plain in a future place, for nearly the same things take
place in the class of birds.

5. Whatever are produced spontaneously in living crea-
tures, in the earth, or in plants, or in any part of them,
have a distinction in the sexes, and by the union of the
sexes something is produced, not the same in any respect,
but an imperfect animal, as nits are produced from lice,
and from flies and butterflies are produced egg - like
worms, from which neither similar creatures are produced,
nor any other creature, but such things only. Eirst of
all, then, we will treat of coition, and of the animals that
copulate, and then of others, and successively of that which
is peculiar to each, and that which is common to them all.

CHAPTER II.

1. THOSE animals in which there is a distinction of the
sexes use sexual intercourse, but the mode of this intercourse
is not the same in all, for all the males of sanguineous
animals with feet have an appropriate organ, but they do
not all approach the female in the same manner, but those
which are retromingent, as the lion, the hare, and the lynx,
unite backwards, and the female hare often mounts upon
the male; in almost all the rest the mode is the same, for
most animals perform the act of intercourse in the same way,
the male mounting upon the female ; and birds perform
it in this way only.

2. There are, however, some variations even among birds;
for the male sometimes unites with the female as she sits
upon the ground, as the bustard and domestic fowl : in
others, the female does not sit upon the ground, as the
crane ; for in these birds the male unites with the female
standing up ; and the act is performed very quickly, as in
sparrows. Bears lie down during the act of intercourse,

B. V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 103

which is performed in the same manner as in those that
stand oil their feet, the abdomen of the male being placed
upon the back of the female : in the hedgehogs, the abdo-
mens of both sexes are in contact.

3. Among the large animals, the roe-deer seldom admits
the stag, nor the cow the bull, on account of the hardness
of the penis ; but the female receives the male by sub-
mission. This has been observed to take place in tame
deer. The male and female wolf copulate like dogs. Gats
do not approach each other backwards, but the male stands
erect, and the female places herself beneath him. The fe-
males are very lascivious, and invite the male, and make a
noise during the intercourse.

4. Camels copulate as the female is lying down, and the
male embraces and unites with her, not backwards, but like
other animals. They remain in intercourse a whole day.
They retire into a desert place, and suffer no one to ap-
proach them but their feeder. The penis of the camel is so
strong, that bowstrings are made of it. Elephants also
retire into desert places for intercourse, especially by the
sides of rivers which they usually frequent. The female
bends down and divides her legs, and the male mounts upon
her. The seal copulates like retromingent animals, and is a
long while about it, like dogs. The males have a large penis.

CHAPTER III.

1. OVIPAROUS quarupeds with feet copulate in the same
manner : in some, the male mounts upon the female, like
viviparous animals, as in the marine and land turtle, for
they have an intromittent organ by which they adhere toge-
ther, as the trygon and frog, and all such animals.

2. But the apodous long animals, as serpents and mu-
ra3nse, are folded together, with the abdomens opposite, and
serpents roll themselves together so closely, that they seem
to be but one serpent with two heads. The manner of the
whole race of saurians is the same, for they unite together
in the same kind of fold.

CHAPTER IV.

1. ALL fish, except the flat selache, perform the act of
intercourse by approaching each other with their abdomens

104 THE HISTORY OP ANIMALS. [B. V.

opposite : but the flat fish, with tails, as the batos, trygon,
and such like, not only approach each other, but the male
applies his abdomen to the back of the female, in all those
in which the thickness of the tail offers no impediment.
But the rhinse, and those which have a large tail, perform
the act by the friction of their abdomens against each other,
and some persons say that they have seen the male selache
united to the back of the female, like dogs.

2. In all those that resemble the selache, the female is
larger than the male; and in nearly all fish the female is
larger than the male. The selache are those which have
been mentioned; and the bos, lamia, seetus, narce, batra-
chus, and all the galeode. All the selache have been fre-
quently observed to conduct themselves in this way. In all
viviparous creatures the act occupies a longer time than in
the oviparous. The dolphin and the cetacea also perform
the act in the same manner, for the male attaches himself to
the female for neither a very long, nor a very short time.

3. The males of some of the fish which resemble the
selache differ from the females, in having two appendages
near the anus, which the females have not, as in the gale-
odea ; for these appendages exist in them all. Neither fish
nor any other apodal animal has testicles, but the males,
both of serpents and of fish, have two passages, which be-
come full of a seminal fluid at the season of coition ; and all
of them project a milky fluid. These passages unite in one,
as they do in birds ; for birds have two internal testes, and
so have all oviparous animals with feet. In the act of
coition this single passage passes to, and is extended upon
the pudendum and receptacle of the female.

4. In viviparous animals with feet, the external passage
for the semen and the fluid excrement is the same : inter-
nally these passages are distinct, as I said before in descri-
bing the distinctive parts of animals. In animals which
have no bladder, the anus is externally united with the
passage of the semen, internally the passages are close
together ; and this is the same in both sexes : for none of
of them have a bladder, except the tortoise. The female of
this animal, though furnished with a bladder, has but one
passage ; but the tortoise is oviparous.

5. The sexual intercourse/ of the oviparous fish is less evident,

B. V.] THE HISTOIIY OF ANIMALS. 105

wherefore many persons suppose that the female is impreg-
nated by swallowing the semen of the male ; and they have
been frequently observed to do this. This is seen at the
season of coition, when the females follow the males, and are
observed to strike them on the abdomen with their mouths,
this causes the males to eject their semen more rapidly.
The males do the same with the ova of the females, for they
swallow them as they are extruded, and the fish are born
from those ova which remain.

6. In Phoenicia they use each sex for capturing the other ;
for having taken the male cestreus, they entice the females
with it, and so enclose them in a net. They use the females
in the same way for catching the males. The frequent obser-
vation of these circumstances appears to corroborate this
manner of intercourse among them. Quadrupeds also do
the same thing, for at the season of coition both sexes emit
a fluid, and smell to each other's pudenda.

7. And if the wind blows from the cock partridge to
the hen, these last are impregnated ; and often, if they hear
the voice of the cock when they are inclined for sexual
intercourse, or if he flies over them, they become pregnant
from the breath of the cock. During the act of intercourse,
both sexes open their mouths, and protrude their tongues.
The true intercourse of oviparous fish is rarely observed,
from the rapidity with which the act is accomplished ; for
their intercourse has been observed to take place in the
manner described.

CHAPTER Y.

1. ALL the malacia, as the polypus, sepia, and teuthis,
approach each other in the same manner, for they are united
mouth to mouth ; the tentacula of one sex being adapted to
those of the other ; for when the polypus has fixed the part
called the head upon the ground, it extends its tentacula,
which the other adapts to the expansion of its tentacula,
and they make their acetabula answer together. And some
persons say that the male has an organ like a penis in that
one of its tentacula which contains the two largest aceta-
bula. This organ is sinewy, as far as the middle of the ten-
taculum, and they say that it is all inserted into the nostril
of the female.

106 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. V.

2. The sepia and loligo swim about coiled together in this
way, and with their mouths and tentacula united, they swim
in contrary directions to each other. They adapt the organ
called the nostril of the male to the similar organ in the
female ; and the one swims forwards, and the other back-
wards. The ova of the female are produced in the part
called the physeter, by means of which some persons say
that they copulate.

CHAPTER VI.

1. THE malacostraca, as the carabi, astaci, carides, and sucli
like perform the act of intercourse like the retromingeut
animals, the one lying upon its back, and the other placing
its tail upon it. They copulate on the approach of spring,
near the land ; for their sexual intercourse has often been
observed, and sometimes when the figs begin to ripen.

2. The astaci and the carides perform the act in the same
manner ; but the carcini approximate the fore part of their
bodies to each other, and adapt also the folds of their tails to
each other. First of all, the smaller carcinus mounts from
behind, and when he has mounted, the greater one turns
ou its side. In no other respect does the female differ
from the male, but that the tail, which is folded on the
body, is larger and more distant, and more thick set with
appendages : upon this the ova are deposited, and the excre-
ment ejected. Neither sex is furnished with an intromittent
organ.

CHAPTER VII.

1. INSECTS approach each other from behind, and the
smaller one subsequently mounts upon the larger. The
male is always the smaller. The female, which is below,
inserts a member into the male, which is above, and not the
male into the female, as in other animals. In some kinds
this organ appears large in proportion to the size of the
body, especially in those that are small, in others it is less.
The organ may be plainly discerned if two flies are sepa-
rated while in the act of coition. They are separated from
each other with difficulty, for the act of intercourse in such
animals occupies a long time. This may be plainly discerned
by common observation, as in the fly and cantharis.

2. All adopt the same method, the fly, cantharis, spon-

B. V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 107

dyla1, phalangium, or any other insect that copulates. All
the phalangia that spin a web unite in the following manner.
The female draws a filament from the middle of the web, and
then the male draws it back again, and this they do a great
many times till they meet, and are united backwards, for
this kind of copulation suits them on account of the size
of their abdomen. The copulation of animals is accom-
plished in this manner.

CHAPTER VIII.

1. ALL animals have their proper season and age for coition ;
the nature of most creatures requires them to have inter-
course with each other when winter is turning into summer.
This is the spring season, in which all animals with wings,
feet, or fins, are incited to coition. Some copulate and pro-
duce their young in the autumn and winter, as some aquatic
and winged creatures. Mankind are ready at all seasons,
and so are many other animals which associate with man ;
this arises from greater warmth, and better food, and is
usual among those which are pregnant only for a short time,
as the hog, dog, and those birds which have frequent
broods. Many animals appear to adapt the season of coi-
tion to that which they consider the best for the nurture of
their young.

2. Among mankind the male is more disposed for sexual
intercourse in the winter, and the female in the summer.
Birds, as I have observed, generally pair 'in the spring aud
summer, except the halcyon. This bird hatches its young
about the time of the winter solstice. "Whereupon fine days
occurring at this season are called halcyon days, seven before
the solstice and seven after it. As Simonides also writes
in his poems, " as when in the winter months Jupiter pre-
pares fourteen days, which mortals call the windless season,
the sacred nurse of the variegated halcyon."

3. These fine days take place wherever it happens that
the solstice turns to the south, when the pleiades set in the
north. The bird is said to occupy seven days in building
its nest, and the other seven in bringing out and nursing
its young. The halcyon days are not always met with in this

1 A beetle living at the roots of trees, Carabus.

108 THE HISTORY OT? ANIMALS. |_B. V.

country at the time of the solstice, but they always occur in
the Sicilian Sea. The halcyon produces five eggs.

4. The sethuia and the larus hatch their young among the
rocks on the sea-side, and produce two or three, the larus
during the summer, and the sethuia at the beginning of the
spring, immediately after the equinox ; it sets upon its eggs
like other birds ; neither of these kinds conceal themselves.
The halcyon is the rarest of all, for it is only seen at the
season of the setting of the pleiades, and at the solstice, and
it first appears at seaports, flying as much as round a ship,
and immediately vanishing away. Stesichorus also speaks
of it in the same manner.

5. The nightingale produces her young at the beginning
of summer. She produces five or six eggs. She conceals
herself from the autumn to the beginning of spring. Insects
copulate and produce their young during the winter when-
ever the days are fine, and the wind in the south, at least
such of them as do not conceal themselves, as the fly and
ant. Wild animals produce their young once a year, unless,
like the hare, they breed while they are nursing their young.

CHAPTER IX.

1. PISH also generally breed once a year, as the chyti. All
those which are caught in a net are called chyti ; the thyn-
nus, palamis, cestreus, chalais, colias, ahromis, psetta, and
such like, the labrax is an exception, for this alone of them
all breeds twice a year, and the second fry of these are much
weaker. The trichias1 and rock fish breed twice, the trigla is
the only one that breeds three times a year. This is shewn
by the fry, which appear three times at certain places.

2. The scorpius breeds twice, and so does the sargus, in
spring and autumn, the salpa once only in the spring. The
thynnis breeds once, but as some of the fry are produced
at first, and others afterwards, it appears to breed twice.
The first fry makes its appearance in the month of Decem-
ber, after the solstice, the second in the spring. The male
thynnis is different from the female, for the female has a fin
under the abdomen, called aphareus, which the male has not.

3. Among the selachea, the rhine alone breeds twice in
the year ; at the beginning of the autumn, and at the period

1 Clupea Sprottus.

B. V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 109

of the setting of the Pleiades. The young are, however, better
in the autumn. At each breeding season it produces seven or
eight. Some of the galei, as the asterias, seem to produce
their ova twice every month. This arises from all the ova
not being perfected at once.

4. Some fish produce ova at all seasons of the year, as the
muraena: for this fish produces many ova, and the fry
rapidly increase in size, as do those also of the hippurus,1 for
these, from being very small, rapidly increase to a great
size ; but the muraena produces young at all seasons, the
hippurus in the spring. The smyrus differs from the mu-
rsena, for the mura3na is throughout variegated and weak.
The smyrus is of one colour, and strong ; its colour is that
of the pine tree, and it has teeth both internally and ex-
ternally. They say that these are the male and the female,
as in others. These creatures go upon the land, and are
often taken.

5. The growth of all fish is rapid, and not the least so in
the coracinus among small fish. It breeds near the land,
in thick places full of seaweed. The orphos also grows
rapidly. The pelamis and thynnus breed in Pontus, and
nowhere else. The cestreus, chrysophrys, and labrax, breed
near the mouths of rivers. The orcynes and scorpides, and
many other kinds,, in the sea.

6. Most fish breed in March, April, and May ; a few
in the autumn, as the salpe, sargus, and all the others of
this kind a little before the autumnal equinox; and the
narce and rhine also. Some breed in the winter and summer,
as I before observed, as the labrax, cestreus, and belona in
the winter ; the thynnis in June, about the summer sol-
stice : it produces, as it were, a bag, containing many
minute ova. The rhyas also breeds in the summer. The
chelones among the cestraei begin to breed in the month of
December, and so does the sargus, the myxon, as it is
called, and the cephalus. They go with young thirty
days. Some of the cestrei do not originate in coition, but
are produced from mud and sand.

7. The greater number of them contain ova in the
spring, but some, as I observed, in the summer, autumn,
and winter. But this does not take place in all alike,

1 Coryphee na hippurus.

110 THE IIISTOliY OF ANIMALS. [B. V-

nor singly, nor in every kind, as it does in most fish
which produce their young in the spring: nor do they
produce as many ova at other seasons. But it must
not escape our notice, that as different countries make a
great difference in plants and animals, not only in the habit
of their body, but also in the frequency of their sexual in-
tercourse and production of young; so different localities
make a great difference in fish, not only in their size, and
habit of their body, but in their young, and the frequency
or rarity of their sexual intercourse, and of their offspring
in this place or that.

CHAPTER X.

1. THE malacia breed in the spring, and first of all the marine
sepia, though this one breeds at all seasons. It produces
its ova in fifteen days. When the ova are extruded, the
male follows, and ejects his ink upon them, when they be-
come hard. They go about in pairs. The male is more
variegated than the female, and blacker on the back. The
sexes of the polypus unite in the winter, the young are pro-
duced in the spring, when these creatures conceal themselves
for two months. It produces an ovum like long hair, similar
to the fruit of the white poplar. The fecundity of this animal
is very great, for a great number of young are produced
from its ova. The male differs from the female in having a
longer head, and the part of the tentaculum which the fish-
ermen call the penis is white. It incubates upon the ova
it produces, so that it becomes out of condition, and is not
sought after at this season.

2. The purpurae produce their ova in the spring, the
ceryx at the end of the winter; and, on the whole, the
testacea appear to contain ova in the spring and autumn,
except the eatable echini. These principally produce their
young at the same seasons, but they always contain some
ova, and especially at the full and new moon, and in fine
weather, but those which live in the Euripus of the Pyrrh&i
are better in winter. They are a small kind but full of ova.
All the cochleae appear to contain ova at the same season.

CHAPTEH XI.

1. THE undomesticated birds, as it was observed, generally
pair and breed once a-year. The swallows and eottyphuii

B. V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. Ill

breed twice, but the first brood of the cottyphus is killed
by the cold, for it is the earliest breeder of all birds. It
is able, however, to bring up the other brood. But the
domestic birds, and those capable of domestication, breed
frequently, as pigeons during the whole summer, and do-
mestic fowls. For these birds have sexual intercourse, and
produce eggs all the year round, except at the winter
solstice.

2. There are many kinds of pigeons, for the peleias and
peristera are different. The peleias is the smaller, but
the peristera is more readily tamed. The peleias is black
and small, and has red and rough feet, for which reason
it is never domesticated. The phatta is the largest of
the tribe, the next is the cenas, which is a little larger than
the peristera, the trygon is the least of all. If the peristera
is supplied with a warm place and appropriate food, it will
breed and bring up its young at any season of the year. If
it is not properly supplied, it will only breed in the summer.
Its young ones are best during the spring and autumn,
those produced in the hot weather in summer are the worst.

CHAPTER XII.

1. ANIMALS also differ in the age at which sexual inter-
course commences. For in the first place the period at
which the spermatic fluid begins to be secreted, and the age
of puberty is not the same, but different j for the young of
all animals are barren, or if they do possess the power of
reproduction, their offspring are weak and small. This is
very conspicuous in mankind, and in viviparous quadrupeds
and birds, for in the one the offspring, in the other the
eggs, are small. The age of puberty is nearly the same in
the individuals of each kind, unless any alteration takes
place, either as ominous, or from an injury done to their
nature.

2. In men this period of life is shown by the change of
voice, and not only by the size but by the form of the
pudendum and of the breasts in women, but especially by
the growth of hair on the pubes. The secretion of the
spermatic fluid commences about the age of fourteen, the
power of reproduction at twenty-one. Other animals have
no hair on the pubes, for some have no hair at all, and

112 THE HISTORY OP ANIMALS. [iJ. V.

others have none upon their under side, or less than on
their upper side, but the change of the voice is conspicuous
in some of them. And in others different parts of the body
signify the period of the formation of the semen, and of the
power of reproduction.

3. In almost all animals the voice of the female and of
the young is more acute than that of the male and the older
animals, for even the stags have a deeper voice than their
females. The males utter their cry at the season of copula-
tion, the females when they are alarmed. The voice of the
female is short, that of the male longer. And the barking ot
old dogs is also deeper than of young ones, and the voice of
the horse also varies. The females utter a little small cry
as soon as they are born, and the males do the same, but
their voice is deeper than that of the female, and as they
grtfvv older, it still increases. When they are two years
old, and reach puberty, the male utters a great deep voice,
that of the female is greater and clearer than it was at first ;
this continues till they are twenty years old at the outside,
and after that the voice, both of the male and female, be-
comes weaker.

4. For the most part, then, as we observed, the voice of
the male differs from that of the female in depth, in those
animals which utter a lengthened sound. There are, how-
ever, some exceptions, as oxen; for in these animals the
voice of the female is deeper than that of the male, and the
voice of the calf than that of the full-grown animal ; where-
fore also in the castrated animals, the voice changes the
other way, for it becomes more like that of the female.

5. The following are the ages at which animals acquire
the power of reproduction. The sheep and goat arrive at
puberty within a year after they are born, and especially
the goat, and the males as well as the females, but the off-
spring of these males and of the others is different.
Eor the males are better the second year than when they
become older. In hogs, the male and female unite at eight
months old, and the female produces her young when she is
a year old, for this agrees with the period of gestation.
The male reaches puberty at eight months old, but his off-
spring are useless till he is a year old. But these periods,
as we have said, are not always the same, for swine will

B. V.] THE HISTORY Ol1 ANIMALS. 113

sometimes copulate when they are four months old, so as to
have young and nurse them at six months old, and boars
sometimes reach puberty at ten months old, and continue
good to three years old.

6. The bitch reaches puberty within a year after birth,
and so does the dog, and sometimes this takes place at
the end of eight months, but more frequently in the
male than in the female. The period of gestation is
sixty days, or one or two, or perhaps three days more, but
never less than sixty days, or if they produce young in a
less time, it never comes to perfection. The bitch is ready
for sexual intercourse again in six months, but never sooner.
The horse reaches puberty in both sexes at two years old,
and is capable of reproduction, but its offspring at that age
are small and weakly. For the most part, sexual inter-
course begins at three years of age, and the colts continue to
improve from that period till they are twenty years old.
The male is useful till he is thirty years old, so that he can
beget during almost the whole of his life, for the horse
generally lives five-and-thirty years, and the mare more than
forty, and a horse has been known to live seventy-five years.

7. The ass reaches puberty in both sexes at the age of
thirty months ; they rarely, however, produce young till
they are three years, or three years and six months old.
But it has been known to be pregnant and bring up its
young within the year. The cow a] so has been known to
produce young and rear it within the year after birth, which
grew to the ordinary size, and no more.1

8. These are the periods of puberty in these animals.
The seventieth year in man, and the fiftieth in woman,
is the latest period of reproduction, and this happens
rarely, for only a few have had children at this time of life.
Sixty-five is generally the boundary in one sex, and forty-
five in the other. The sheep produces young till it is eight
years old, and, if well treated, until it is eleven, though the
act of copulation is continued in both sexes during the
whole period of life.

9. Pat goats are rarely productive, wherefore they com-
pare barren vines with barren goats, but they are pro-

1 This probably means " to such a size as might be expected from
the early age of the parent."

114 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS, [.B. V.

ductive when they are lean. The rams copulate with the
old sheep first, but they do not follow after the younger;
and the younger, as I before observed, produce a smaller
offspring than the older.

10. A wild boar will beget till he is three years old,
but the progeny of older animals is inferior ; for he has
not the same power or strength. He generally goes to the
female when full of food, and without having been to
another female, or, if not, the act of coition is of shorter
duration, and the progeny smaller. The sow produces the
smallest number of pigs at her first litter, but at the second
they are more flourishing. She also produces young when
old, but the act of coition is longer. At fifteen years old,
she no longer produces young, but becomes fierce .

11. If well-fed, she will be more ready for sexual in-
tercourse, whether young or old ; and, if rapidly fattened
when pregnant, she has less milk after parturition. As
regards the age of the parent, the young of those in the
prime of their age are the best, and those that are born at
the beginning of winter. The worst are those born in the
summer, for they are small, and thin, and weak. If the
male is well fed, he is ready for sexual intercourse at all
seasons, by day as well as by night ; but if not well fed, he
is most ready in the morning, and as he grows old, he be-
comes less disposed for it, as was said before. And it fre-
quently happens that those which are impotent, through
age or weakness, and cannot copulate readily, will approach
the female as she lies down tired with long standing. The
sow generally becomes pregnant when she hangs down
her ears in her heats ; if she is not pregnant, she becomes
heated again.

12. Bitches do not copulate during the whole of their
life, but only to a certain period. Their coition and preg-
nancy generally takes place till they are twelve years old,
but both males and females have been known to perform
the act of coition at eighteen and even twenty years of
age ; but old age takes away from both sexes the power of
reproduction, as in other animals.

13. The camel is retroningent, and performs the act of
intercourse in the manner already described ; the period of
its coition in Arabia is in the month of September; tl

B. V.] TUE HISTORY OP ANIMALS. 115

female goes with young twelve months, and produces one
foal, for the animal is one of those which produce but
one. Both the male and female arrive at puberty at the
age of three years, and the female is ready for the male
again at the end of a year after parturition.

14. The elephant arrives at puberty, the earliest at ten
years of age, the latest at fifteen, and the male at five or six
years old. The season for the intercourse of the sexes is
in the spring : and the male is ready again at the end of
three years, but he never touches again a female whom he
has once impregnated. Her period of gestation is two years,
and then she produces one calf, for the elephant belongs to
the class of animals which have but one young one at a
time. The young one is as large as a calf of two or three
months old. This, then, is the nature of the sexual inter-
course of those animals which perform this function.

CHAPTER XIII.

1. WE must now treat of the mode of reproduction, both of
those animals which use sexual intercourse, and those which
do not ; and, first of all, we will speak of the testacea, for
this is the only entire class which is not reproduced by
sexual intercourse. The pur purse collect together in the
spring, and produce what is called their nidamental capsules
(melicera), for it is like honey-comb, though not so deeply
cut, but, as it were, made up of the white pods of vetches.
These capsules have neither opening nor perforation, nor are
the purpurae produced from them ; but both these and other
testacea are produced from mud and putrefaction. But
this substance is an excrementitious matter both in the pur-
pura and the ceryx, for these last also produce similar cap-
sules.

2. The testacea which produce these capsules are gene-
rated in the same way as the rest of their class, but more
readily when there are homogeneous particles pre-existing
among them ; for, when they deposit their nidamental cap-
sules, they emit a clammy mucus, from which the scales of
the capsules are formed. When all these have been depo-
sited, they emit upon the ground a sort of chyle, and small
purpurae spring up upon the same spot and adhere to the
larger purpurae, though some of these can hardly be dis-

i 2

116 1HE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. T.

tinguished by their form. But if they are taken before
the breeding season, they will sometimes breed in the
baskets, not indeed anywhere, but they collect together
like they do in the sea, and the narrow limits of their place
of captivity make them hang together like bunches of fruit.

3. There are many kinds of purpurae, some of which are
large, a* those which are found near Sigeum and Lectum ;
and others are small, as those in the Euripus and on the
Carian coast. Those found in gulfs are large and rough.
Most of them contain a black pigment ; in others it is red,
and the quantity of it small. Some of the largest weigh
as much as a mina. Near the shore and on the coast they
are small, and the pigment is red. Those which are natives
of the north contain a black pigment ; in those of the south
it is red, generally speaking.

4. They are taken in the spring, about the time that they
deposit their capsules, but they are never taken during the
dog-days, for then they do not feed, but conceal themselves
and get out of the way. The pigment is contained between
the mecon and the neck. The union of these parts is thick,
and the colour is like a white membrane; this is taken
away. When this is bruised, the pigment wets and stains
the hand. Something resembling a vein passes through it,
and this appears to be the pigment ; the nature of the rest
resembles alum.1 The pigment is the worst at the period of
depositing their nidamental capsules.

5. The small ones are pounded up, shells and all, for
it is not easy to separate them ; but they separate the
larger kinds from the shells, and then extract the pig-
ment. For this purpose the mecon is divided from
the neck, for the pigment lies above the part called the
stomach, and when this is taken away, they are divided
asunder. They are careful to bruise them while alive, for
if they die before they are cut up, they vomit up the pig-
ment ; for this reason they keep them in the baskets till
a sufficient number is collected, and there is time to procure
the pigment.

6. The ancients did not let down or fasten any basket-net
to their baits, so that it often happened that the purpura
fell off as they were drawn up ; but at the present time the;

1 Evidently a corrupt reading.

B.V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 117

use basket-nets, in order that if the purpura should fall off,
it may not be lost. They are most likely to fall off when
full, but when empty it is difficult to draw them from
the bait. These are the peculiarities of the purpura. The
nature of the ceryx is the same as that of the purpura, and
so are their seasons.

7. They both have opercula, and so have all turbinated
shell-fish, from the period of their birth. They feed by forc-
ing out their tongue, as it is called, beneath the operculum :
the purpura has a tongue larger than a finger, with which it
feeds upon and pierces the conchy lia, and even the shells of
its own species. Both the purpura and the ceryx are long^
lived, for the purpura lives six years, and its annual increase
is seen in the divisions on the helix of its shell.

8. The mya also deposits nidamental capsules ; those
which are called limnostrea are the first to originate in
muddy places, but the conchae, chemae, solens, and pectens
find their subsistence in sandy shores ; the pinnae grow up
from their byssus both in sandy and muddy shores. The
pinnae always contain a pinnophylax, either like a small caris
or cancer, and soon die when this is extracted. On the whole,
all the testaceaare produced spontaneously in mud, different
kinds originating in different sorts of mud ; the ostrea is
found in mud, the conchae and others that have been men-
tioned in sand. The tethya, balanus, and others which live
on the surface, as the patella and nerita, originate in holes
in the rocks. All these reach maturity very soon, espe-
cially the purpurse and pectens, for they are matured in one
year.

9. Very small white cancri are produced in some of the
testacea, especially in the myae that inhabit muddy places,
and next to this in the pinnae those which are called pinno-
terae ; they occur also in the pectens and limnostrea. These
animals apparently never grow ; and the fishermen say that
they are produced at the same time as the creatures they
inhabit. The pectens disappear for some time in the sand,
and so do the purpurse. The ostrea (bivalves) are produced
in the manner described, for some of them originate in
shallow water, others near the shore, or among rocks, or in
rough hard places, or in sand ; and some have the power
of locomotion, others have not.

118 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. V.

10. AmoDg those that are not locomotive, the pinnae are
fixed ; the solens and conchas remain on one spot, though
not fixed, and do not survive separation from their home.
The nature of the aster1 is so hot, that if it is captured
immediately after swallowing anything, its food is found
digested ; and they say that it is very troublesome in the
PyrrhaBan Euripus. Its form is like the paintings of a
star. The creatures called pneumones are spontaneously
produced. The shell which painters use is very thick, and
the pigment is produced on the outside of the shell ; they
are principally found in the neighbourhood of Caria.

11. The carcinium also originates in earth and mud, and
afterwards makes its way into an empty shell, and when it
grows too large for that, it leaves it for a larger one, as the
shell of the nerita, strombus, and such like ; it frequently
occurs in the small ceryx. When it has entered the shell,
it carries it about and lives in it, except that as it grows it
migrates into a larger shell.

CHAPTEB XIY.

1. THE nature of the testacea is the same as that of crea-
tures without shells, as the cnidae2 and sponges, which inha-
bit the holes in rocks. There are two kinds of cnidse, some
which live in holes in the rocks, and cannot be separated
from them, and other migrating species which live upon the
smooth flat surface of the rocks. (The patella also is free
and locomotive.) In the interior of the sponges are found
the creatures called pinnophy laces, and the interior is closed
with a net like a spider's web, and small fish are captured
by opening and closing this web, for it opens as they ap-
proach, and closes upon them when they have entered.

2. There are three kinds of sponges ; one of them is thin,
the other is thick, and the third, which is called the
Achillean sponge, is slender, compact, and very strong ; it
is placed beneath helmets and thigh-pieces, for the sake of
deadening the sound of blows ; this kind is very rare. Among
the compact kinds, those which are very hard and rough are
called tragi. They all grow upon the rock or near the
shore, and obtain their food from the mud. This is evident,
for they are full of mud when they are captured. This is
1 Star-Ssli. 2 Actinia.

B. V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 119

the case with all other fixed things, that they derive their
food from the spot to which they are attached.

3. The compact species are weaker than those which are
thin, because their point of attachment is smaller. It is
affirmed that the sponge possesses sensation; this is
a proof of it, that it contracts if it perceives any pur-
pose of tearing it up, and renders the task more difficult.
The sponge does the same thing when the winds and waves
are violent, that it may not lose its point of attachment.
There are some persons who dispute this, as the natives of
Torona. The sponge is inhabited by worms and other living
creatures, which the rock-fish eat when the sponge is torn
up, as well as the remainder of its roots. But if the sponge
is broken off, it grows again, and is completed from the por-
tion that is left.

4. The thin sponges are the largest, and they are most
abundant on the Lycian coast ; the compact sponges
are softer, and the Achillean are more harsh than the
others. On the whole, those that inhabit deep places with
a mild temperature are the softest, for wind and cold
weather harden them, as they do other growing things, and
stop their increase. For this reason the sponges of the
Hellespont are tough and compact ; and, altogether, those
beyond Malea, and those on this side, differ in softness and
hardness.

5. Neither should the heat be very great, for the sponge be-
comes rotten, like plants, wherefore those near the shore are
the best, especially if the water is deep near the land, for the
temperature is moderated by the depth. "When alive, before
they are washed, they are black. Their point of attach-
ment is neither single nor dispersed over the whole surface,
for there are empty passages between the points of attach-
ment. Something like a membrane is extended over their
lower part, and the attachment is by several points ; on the
upper part are other closed passages, and four or five which
are apparent. Wherefore some persons say that these are
the organs by which they take their food.

6. There is also another species called aplysia, because it
cannot be washed. This has very large passages ; but the
other parts of the substance are quite compact. When cut
open it is more compact and smooth than the sponge, and

120 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [u. V.

the whole is like a lung ; of all the sponges this one is con-
fessed to have the most sensation, and to be the most
enduring. They are plainly seen in the sea near the sponges,
for the other sponges are white as the mud settles down
upon them, but these are always black. This is the mode
of production in sponges and testacea.

CHAPTER XV.

1. AMONG the malacostraca the carabi are impregnated by
sexual intercourse, and contain their ova during three
months, May, June, and July. They afterwards deposit
them upon the hollow part of their folded tail, and their
ova grow like worms. The same thing takes place in the
malacia and oviparous fish, for their ova always grow.

2. The ova of the carabi are sandy, and divided into
eight parts ; for a cartilaginous appendage, round which the
ova are attached, is united to each of the opercula at their
junction with the side ; and the whole resembles a bunch of
grapes, for every one of the cartilaginous appendages is fre-
quently subdivided, and the divisions are apparent to any
one who will separate them, but when first seen they
appear to be united. Those ova which are in the centre
are larger than those which are contiguous to the perforation,
and the last are the least.

3. The smallest ova are as large as millet ; the ova are
not continuous with the perforation, but in the middle.
For two divisions extend on each side, from the tail
and from the thorax, and this is also the line of junction for
the opercula. The ova, which are placed at the side, cannot
be enclosed, unless the extremity of the tail is drawn over
them ; this, however, covers them like a lid.

4. The female, in depositing her ova, appears to collect
them on the cartilaginous appendages by means of
the broad part of the folded tail. She produces them
by pressing with her tail and bending her body. These
cartilaginous processes at the season of oviposition in-
crease in size, in order to become appropriate recep-
tacles for the ova. The ova are deposited on these pro-
cesses, as those of the sepia are deposited upon broken
pieces of wood or anything floating in the sea. This is the

3. V.] THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 121

manner of depositing them ; but after they have been
ripened twenty days, they are cast oft' altogether in a mass,
as they appear when separated from the parent ; in fifteen
days, at the outside, the carabi are produced from these ova,
and they are often taken off less than a finger's length. The
ova are produced before Arcturus, and after Arcturus they
are cast off.

5. The cyphse among the carides contain their ova about
four months. The carabi are found in rough and rocky places,
the astaci in those that are smooth ; but neither of them
inhabit mud. For this cause the astaci are found in the
Hellespont and near Thasus ; the carabi in the neighbour-
hood of Sigeum and Athos. Fishermen, when they pursue
their calling in the open sea, distinguish the rough and
muddy places by the nature of the shore, and other signs.
In the spring and winter they come near the shore ; in sum-
mer time they go into deep water, sometimes for the sake of
warmth, and sometimes for the cold.

6. Those called arcti1 breed nearly at the same time as the
carabi, wherefore they are most excellent in winter and in
spring before the breeding season, and they are worst after
they have deposited their ova. They change their shell in
the spring, like the serpent, which puts off its old age, as it
is called. Both the carabi and the carcini do this when they
are young, as well as afterwards. All the carabi are long-
lived.

CHAPTER XVI.

1. THE malacia produce a white ovum after sexual inter-
course ; in the course of time this becomes sandy, like that
of the testacea. The polypus deposits its ova in holes or
pots, or any other hollow place ; the ovum is like bunches of
the wild vine and of the white poplar, as was observed
before ; when the ova are produced they remain suspended
from the hole in which they were deposited : and the ova
are so numerous, that when taken out they will fill a vessel
much larger than the head of the polypus in which they
were contained.

2. About fifty days afterwards the young polypi burst the
eggs and escape, like phalangia, in great numbers. The par-
ticular shape of each limb is not distinct, though the general
1 Perhaps, Cancer spinosissimus.

122 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [u. V,

form is plain. Many of them perish from their small size
and debility. Some have been observed so small that they
could not be distinguished, unless they were touched, when
they were seen to move.

3. The sepia also deposits eggs, which resemble large,
black, myrtle seeds. They are united together like a bunch
of fruit, and are enclosed in a substance which prevents
them from separating readily. The male emits his ink
upon them, a mucous fluid, which causes their slippery
appearance. The ova increase in this way ; and when first
produced they are white, but when they have touched the
ink they become large and black. When the young sepia,
which is entirely formed of the internal white of the ovum,
is produced, it makes its way out by the rupture of the
membrane of the ovum.

4. The ovum which the female first produces is like hail,
and to this the young sepia is attached by the head, as birds
are attached to the abdomen. The nature of the umbilical
attachment has never been observed, except that as the sepia
increases the white always becomes less, and at last entirely
disappears, like the yolk of the eggs of birds.

5. The eyes are at first very large in these as in other
animals, as in the diagram. The ovum is seen at A, the eyes
at B and C, and the embryo sepia itself at D. The female
contains ova during the spring. The ova are produced in
fifteen days ; and when the ova are produced they remain
for fifteen days longer like the small seeds of grapes, and
when these are ruptured the young sepias escape from the
inside. If a person divides them before they have reached
maturity, the young sepias emit their foeces aud vary in
colour, and turn from white to red from alarm.

6. The crustaceans incubate upon their ova, which are
placed beneath them ; but the polypus and sepia and such
like incubate upon their ova wherever they may be depo-
sited, and especially the sepia, for the female has often been
observed with her abdomen upon the ground, but the female
polypus has been observed sometimes placed upon her ova,
and sometimes upon her mouth, holding with her tentacula
over the hole in which the ova were deposited. The sepia
deposits her ova upon the ground among fuci and reeds,
or upon any thing thrown in the water, as wood, branches,

B. V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 123

or stones ; and the fishermen are careful to place branches
of trees in the water. Upon these they deposit their long
and united ova like branches of fruit.

7. The ova are deposited and produced by repeated
exertion, as if the parturition were accompanied with pain.
The teuthis oviposits in the sea. The ova, like those
of the sepia, are united together. Both the teuthus and
sepia are short-lived, for very few of them survive a year.
The same is the case with the polypus. Each egg produces
one small sepia, and so also in the teuthis. The male teuthus
differs from the female ; for if the hair (branchia) are drawn
aside, the female will be seen to have two red substances
like mammae, which the male does not possess. The sepia
also has the same sexual distinction, and is more variegated
than the female, as I observed before.

CHAPTER XVII.

1. IT has already been observed that the male insects are
less than the female, and that the male mounts upon the
female ; and the manner of their sexual intercourse has been
described, and the difficulty of separating them. Most ol
them produce their young very soon after sexual intercourse.
All the kinds except some psychaB (butterflies and moths)
produce worms. These produce a hard substance, like the
seed of the cnecus,1 which is fluid within. Prom the worm
an animal is produced, but not from a portion of it, as if it
were an ovum, but the whole grows and becomes an articu-
lated animal.

2. Some of them are produced from similar animals, as
phalangia and spiders from phalangia and spiders, and atte-
labi,2 locusts, and grasshoppers. Others do not originate in
animals of the same species, but their production is sponta-
neous, for some of them spring from the dew which falls
upon plants. The origin of these is naturally in the spring,
though they often appear in the winter, if fine weather and
south winds occur for any length of time. Some originate
in rotten mud and dung ; and others in the fresh wood ot
plants or in dry wood ; others among the hair of animals, or
in their flesh, or excrements, whether ejected, or still exist-
ing in the body, as those which are called helminthes.

1 Cantharus tinctorius, a plant of the thistle kind. L. and S.

2 The larva of some species.

124 THE HISTORY OP ANIMALS. [B. V,

3. There are three kinds of these, the flat worms, the
round worms, and those which are called ascarides. From
these creatures nothing is produced ; but the broad worm is
attached to the intestine, and produces something like the
seed of the colocynth, and this is used by physicians as a
proof of the presence of the worm.

4. Butterflies are produced from caterpillars ; and these
originate in the leaves of green plants, especially the rha-
phahus, which some persons call crambe. At first they are
smaller than millet, afterwards they grow into little worms,
in three days they become small caterpillars, afterwards they
grow and become motionless, and change their form. In
this state the creature is called chrysalis. It has a hard
covering, but moves when it is touched. They are united
to something by weblike processes, and have no mouth nor
any other visible organ. After a short time the covering is
burst, and a winged animal escapes, which is called a but-
terfly.

5. At first, while in the caterpillar state, they take food
and evacuate fceces, but in the chrysalis state they do nei-
ther. The same is the case with all other creatures which
originate in worms, and those which produce worms after
sexual intercourse, or even without this process ; for the
offspring of bees, anthrena?, and wasps, while they are young
worms, consume food and evacuate excrement, but when
from worms they receive their conformation they are called
nympha3, and neither feed nor evacuate, but remain quiet in
their covering until they are grown. They then make their
escape by cutting through a place where the cell is fastened on.

6. The penia1 and hypera2 also are produced from a
kind of campe (caterpillar) which make a wave as they
walk, and as they advance bend the hinder extremity
up to that which has preceded. The creature pro-
duced always derives its colour from the campe in which
it originates. A certain great worm, which has as it were
horns, and differs from others, at its first metamorphosis
produces a campe, afterwards a bombylius, and lastly
a necydalus. It passes through all these forms in six
months From this animal some women unroll and separate
the bombycina (cocoons), and afterwards weave them. Itie

1 Some species of larva. 2 Geometra.

B T ] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 125

said that this was first woven in the island of Cos by
Pamphila, the daughter of Plateos.

7. From the worms in dry wood the insects called carabi
are produced in the same manner ; for at first they are im-
moveable worms, and afterwards the carabi are produced by
the rupture of their case. The crambides originate in the
plant called crambe, and these also have wings, and the
prasocurides from the plant called prasum (onion). The
oestri are produced from the little flat creatures that are
found on the surface of rivers. Wherefore also they con
gregate in the greatest numbers around the waters where
such animals are found. The kind of pygolampis which
has no wings originates in a small, black, hairy caterpillar.
These undergo another change, and turn into the winged
creatures called bostrychi.

8. The empides originate in ascarides, and the ascarides
originate in the mud of wells and running waters which flow
over an earthy bottom. At first the decaying mud acquires
a white colour, which afterwards becomes black, and finally
red. \Vhen this takes place, very small red creatures are
seen growing in it like fuci. At first these move about in a
mass, afterwards their connection is ruptured, the creatures
called ascarides are borne about in the water, after a few
days they stand erect in the water without motion and of a
hard texture, and subsequently the case is broken and the
empis sits upon it until either the sun or the wind enables
it to move, then it flies away.

9. The commencement of life in all other worms, and in
all creatures produced from worms, originates in the influ-
ence of the sun and wind. The ascarides are produced in
greater numbers, and more quickly, where the various
matters are mixed together, as in the works conducted in
the Megarian territory, for putrefaction thus takes place
more readily. The autumnal season also is favourable to
their increase, for there is less moisture at that time of the
year. The crotones1 originate in the agrostis, the melo-^
lonthae from the worms which originate in the dung of oxen \
and asses.

10. The canthari which roll up dung, hide, themselves in
it during the winter, and produce worms, which afterwards

1 Ticks. Acarus ricinus.

126 THE HISTORY OF ANIiTALS. [B. V.

become canthari; and from the worms which inhabit the
osprea,1 winged creatures, like those already mentioned,
derive their existence. Flies originate in dung which has
been set apart, and those who are employed in this work
strive to separate the remainder which is mixed together,
for they say that the dung is thus brought to putrefac-
tion.

11. The origin of these worms is very small ; for first of
all a redness is perceived, and motion commences, as if they
were united together. The worm then again becomes still,
afterwards it moves, and then again is immoveable. From
this the worm is completed, and motion recommences under
the action of the sun and wind. The myops is produce^ in
wood. The orsodacnse2 from the metamorphosis of worms,
which originate on the stalks of the crambe. The cautharis
from worms which dwell on the fig tree, apium (pear tree),
and pitch tree, for there are worms on all these, and on the
cynacantha.3 They assemble round strong smelling things
because they originate from them.

12. The conops springs from a worm which originates in the
thick part of vinegar; for there seem also to be worms in things
which are the farthest from putrefaction, as in snow which has
laid for some time : for after having laid, it becomes red,
wherefore, also, the worms are such and hairy. Those in the
enow in Media are large and white, and furnished with but
little power of motion. In Cyprus, when the manufacturers
of the stone called chalcitis burn it for many days in the
fire, a winged creature, something larger than a great fly,
is seen walking and leaping in the fire.

13. The worms perish when they are taken out of the
snow, and so do these creatures when taken from the fire.
And the salamander shews that it is possible for some
animal substances to exist in the fire, for they say that fire
is extinguished when this animal walks over it.

14. In the river Hypanis in the Cimmerian Bosphorus,
about the summer solstice, capsules larger than grape-seed
are floated down the river : when these are ruptured, a
four-footed, winged creature makes its escape, which lives
and flies about till the evening. As the sun descends, it

1 Vetches, leguminous plants. 2 Chrjsomela oleracea.

8 Perhaps the dog rose, or sweet briar.

B. V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 127

becomes emaciated, and is dead by sunset, having lived but
one day ; for which cause it is called ephemerum. Most
animals which spring from caterpillars or worms, are first of
all enclosed in a web, and this is their nature.

15. The wasps which are called ichneumons, which are
smaller than the others, kill the phalangia, and carry them
to a wall, or some other place with a hole in it ; and when
they have covered them over with mud, they oviposit there,
and the ichneumon wasps are produced from them. Many
of the coleoptera, and other small and anonymous creatures
make little holes in tombs or walls, and there deposit their
worms.

16. The period of reproduction, from its commencement
to its conclusion, is generally completed in three or four
weeks. In the worms and worm-like creatures, three weeks
are usually sufficient, and four weeks are usually enough
for those which are oviparous. In one week from their
sexual intercourse, the growth of the ovum is completed.
In the remaining three weeks, those that produce by gene-
ration, hatch and bring forth their ova, as in the spiders,
and such like creatures. The metamorphoses generally
occupy three or four days, like the crisis of diseases. This
is the mode of generation in insects.

17. They die from the shrivelling of their limbs, as large
animals do of old age. Those which are furnished with
wings have these organs drawn together in autumn. The
myopes die from an effusion of water in their eyes.

CHAPTER XVIII.

1. ALL persons are not agreed as to the generation of bees,
for some say that they neither produce young, nor have
sexual intercourse; but that they bring their young from
other sources ; and some say that they collect them from
the flowers of the calyntrus,1 and others from the flower of
the calamus.2 Others again, say that they are found in the
flowers of the olive, and produce this proof, that the swarms
are most abundant when the olives are fertile. Other per-
sons affirm that they collect the young of the drones from
any of the substances we have named, but that the rulers
(queens) produce the young of the bees.

' Honeysuckle. 2 Heed.

128 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. V.

2. There are two kinds of rulers, the best of these is red,
the other black and variegated : their size is double that of
the working bees ; the part of the body beneath the cincture
is more than half of the whole length : by some they are
called the mother bees, as if they were the parents of the
rest; and they argue, that unless the ruler is present,
drones only are produced, and no bees. Others affirm that
they have sexual intercourse, and that the drones are males,
and the bees females.

3. The other bees originate in the cells of the comb, but
the rulers are produced in the lower part of the comb, six or
seven of them separated, opposite to the rest of the pro-
geny. The bees have a sting, which the drones have not :
the kings and rulers have a sting which they do not make
use of, and some persons suppose that they have none.

CHAPTER XIX.

1. THEHE are several kinds of bees, the best are small, round,
and variegated : another kind is large, like the anthrene : a
third kind is called phor ; this is black, and has a broad
abdomen : the drone is the fourth, and is the largest of all ;
it has no sting, and is incapable of work, for which reason
people often wrap something round their hives, so that the
bees can enter, but the drones, being larger, cannot.

2. There are two kinds of rulers among bees, as I observed
before. In every hive there are several rulers, and not a
single one, for the hive perishes if there are not rulers
enough (not that they thus become anarchical, but, as they
say, because they are required for breeding the bees) ; if
there are too many rulers they perish, for thus they become
distracted.

3- If the spring is late, and drought and rusts are about,
the progeny is small. When the weather is dry, they make
honey. When it is damp, their progeny multiplies ; for
which reason, the olives and the swarms of bees multiply at
the same time. They begin by making comb, in which they
place the progeny, which is deposited with their mouths, as
those say who affirm that they collect it from external
sources. Afterwards they gather the honey which is to be
their food, during the summer and the autumn ; that which
is gathered in the autumn is the best.

B. Y.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 129

4. Wax is made from flowers. They bring the material
of wax from the droppings of trees, but the honey falls from
the air, principally about the rising of the stars, and when
the rainbow rests upon the earth. Generally no honey is
produced before the rising of the Pleiades. "We argue that
wax is made, as I said, from flowers, but that the bees do
not make honey, but simply collect that which falls ; for
those who keep bees find the cells filled with honey in the
course of one or two days. In the autumn there are
flowers enough, but the bees make no honey, if that which
they have produced is taken away. But if one supply was
taken away, and they were in want of food, they would
make more if they procured it from flowers.

5. The honey becomes thick by ripening, for at first it is
like water, and continues liquid for some days, wherefore it
never becomes thick if it is taken away during that time.
It requires twenty days to make it consistent; this is very-
plain from the taste of it, for it differs both in sweetness
and solidity. The bee carries honey from every plant
which has cup-shaped flowers, and from all those which
contain a sweet principle, but does not injure the fruit ; it
takes up and carries away the sweet taste of plants with
its tongue-like organ.

6. The honey-comb is pressed when the wild figs begin
to appear; and they produce the best grubs when they
can produce honey. The bees carry the wax and bee-
bread upon their legs, but the honey is disgorged into
the cells. After the progeny is deposited in the cells,
they incubate like birds. In the wax cells the little worm
is placed at the side ; afterwards it rises of itself to be fed.
It is united to the comb in such a manner as to be held
by it. The progeny both of the bees and drones from
which the little worms are produced, is white. As they
grow they become bees • and drones. The progeny of the
king-bees is rather red, and about the consistency of thick
honey. In bulk it is as large as the creature which is pro-
duced from it. The progeny of the king-bee is not a worm,
but comes forth a perfect bee, as they say ; and, when the
progeny is produced in the comb, honey is found in that
which is opposite.

130 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS- [fi. V.

7. After the grub is covered up, it has wings and
feet ; and when it has acquired wings, it bursts through
the membrane, and flies away. It evacuates an excremen-
titious matter while it is a worm, but not afterwards, until
it is perfected, as I observed before. If a person cuts off
the head of the grub before its wings are acquired, the
other bees devour it ; if a person having cut off the wings
of a drone lets it go, the bees will eat off the wings of the
other drones.

8, The bee will live for six years, some have lived for
seven, and if a swarm lasts nine or ten years, it is con-
sidered to have done well. In Pontus there are very white
bees, which make honey twice every month. In Thernis-
cyra, near the river Therm odon, are found bees which make
cells in the earth, and in hives with a very small quantity
of wax, but their honey is thick. The cells are smooth
and homogeneous. They only do this in the winter, and
not all the year round ; for there is a great deal of ivy in
the place, which flowers at this season of the year, and from
this they carry away the honey. From the higher regions
of Amisus a kind of white honey is procured, which the
bees form upon the trees without wax. The same is also
found in another place in Pontus. There are also bees
which form triple cells in the earth ; these form honey, but
never have grubs. AH such as these, however, are not cells,
neither are they formed by every kind of bee.

CHAPTEE XX.

1. THE anthrenae1 and wasps form cells for their progeny
when they have no rulers, but are wandering about in
search of them, the anthrense upon some high place, the
wasps in holes. But when they have the rulers they form
their cells underground. All their cells are hexagonal, like
those of bees ; they are not formed of wax, but of a web-
like membrane, made of the bark of trees. The cells of
the anthrenae are far more elegant than those of wasps.
Upon the side of their cells they place their progeny, in the
manner of the bees, like a drop of liquid united to the wall
of the cell. The progeny in all the cells is not alike, but in
some they are so large as to be almost ready for flight, in
others are nyinphae, in others grubs.

v Hornet, Apis terrestm.

B. T.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 131

2. The only excrementitious matter is found in the cells
of the grubs, as in the case of bees. As long as they are
nymphffi they remain motionless, and the cell is sealed over,
and on the other side of the cell which contains their pro-
geny, there is a drop of honey in the combs of the anthrenas.
The grubs of these creatures are produced in the autumn,
not in the spring, but they evidently grow most rapidly at
the full moon. The progeny and the grubs are not united
to the bottom, but to the side of the cell.

CHAPTER XXI.

1. SOME of the bombycia1 form an angular cell of mud,
which they attach to a stone or something else, and smear
with a kind of transparent substance ; this is so very thick and
hard, that it can scarcely be broken with the blow of a spear.
In this they deposit their ova, and the white maggots are
contained in a black membrane ; and wax is formed in the
mud without any membrane, this wax is much more yellow
than that of bees.

2. The ants also have sexual intercourse, and produce
maggots which they do not attach to anything. As these
grow, they change from small round things to long articu-
lated beings. The season for their production is in the
spring.

3. The land-scorpions also bring forth many egg-like
maggots, upon which they incubate. When the young
ones are perfect, they drive out and destroy their parents
like spiders, for they are frequently eleven in number.

CHAPTER XXII.

1. THE arachnia copulate in the manner already described,
and produce maggots which at first are small. After their
metamorphosis they become spiders, not from a part but
from the whole of the maggot, for they are round from the
first. "When the female has produced her ova, she in-
cubates upon them, in three days they acquire limbs. All
of them produce their young in a web, which is thin and
small in some species, but compact in others. Some are
enclosed entirely in a round receptacle, and others are only
partially covered by the web. All the young spiders are
1 Apis cementaria,

K 2

132 THE HISTORY OF ACTUALS. [%. T.

not produced at once, but as soon as they are hatched they
leap out and shoot forth a web. If they are bruised
they are found to contain a thick white fluid like that of
maggots.

2. The field-spiders first of all deposit their ova in a web,
of which one half is attached to themselves, and the other
external, they incubate upon this, and produce their
young alive. The phalangia deposit their ova in a thick
basket which they weave, upon this they incubate. The
smooth kinds produce a small number, the phalangia a great
many. "When they are grown, they surround their parent
in a circle, kill and throw her out. They often seize the
male in the same way if they can catch him, for he assists
the female in incubation. Sometimes there are as many as
three hundred round a single phalangium. The little'
spiders become full-grown in about four weeks.

CHAPTER XXIII.

1. LOCUSTS copulate in the same manner as all other in-
sects, the smaller mounting upon the larger, for the male
is the smaller. They oviposit by fixing the organ which is
attached to their taii (the ovipositor) in the ground. The
males do not possess this organ. Many of them deposit
their ova in one spot, so as to make it appear like a honey-
comb. As soon as they have deposited their ova, egg-like
maggots are formed, which are covered with a thin coating
of earth like a membrane, and in this they are matured.

2. The young are so soft as to collapse if they are only
touched. They are not produced on the surface, but a
little below the surface of the soil ; and as soon as they
are matured, they escape from the coat of soil in which
they are enclosed as small black locusts. Their skin is
subsequently ruptured, and they then attain their full size.
They produce their young at the end of summer, and then
die.

3. For as soon as they have deposited their ova, small
worms make their appearance on their necks, the males also
perish at the same time : they come out of the earth in the
spring. Locusts never shew themselves in mountainous
countries, nor in poor land, but in plains, and broken soil,
for they deposit their ova in fissures. The ova remain in

B. V.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 133

the soil during the winter, and in the summer the locusts
are produced from the germs of the preceding year.

4. The young of the attelabi are produced in the same
manner, and the parents die after having deposited theii
ova. Their ova are destroyed by the rains of the autumn,
if the weather is wet ; but if that season is dry, many atte-
labi are produced, because they are not equally destroyed ;
for their destruction appears to be irregular, and to take
place by accident.

CHAPTER XXIV.

1. THERE are two kinds of grasshoppers : some are small.
These are the first to appear, the last to perish. Others,
which chirp, are large : these appear last, and disappear
first. There is another difference between the small and
large kind. Those which chirp have a division in the middle
of the body : those which do not chirp have none. The large
ones, which chirp, are called achetse ; the small are called
tettigonia. Such of these as are divided, sing a little.

2. Grasshoppers do not appear where there are no trees, for
which reason they are unknown in the open country of
Cyrene, but are abundant near the city, and especially
among olive trees, for these do not give much shade, and
grasshoppers are not produced in the cold, nor in very shady
groves. Both the large and small ones have sexual inter-
course with their own kind, copulating with each other on
their backs. The male inserts his organ into the female, in
the same manner as other insects. The female has a divided
pudendum. The female individual is the one which receives
the male.

3. They deposit their ova in fields, piercing the soil with
the organ at the extremity of their body, like the attelabi ;
for the attelabi also oviposit in the fields, for which reason
they are common in Cyrene. They oviposit also in the
reeds which are used to support the vines; these they
pierce: and so they do in the stems of the scilla. The
young ones are washed into the earth, and are common in
rainy weather. The maggot, when it is grown in the earth,
becomes a tettigometra : these are sweetest before they
have ruptured their covering.

4. And when the season arrives for their appearance,

131 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [». T.

about the solstice, they come forth by night, and immedi-
ately burst their envelope, and the tettigometra becomes a
grasshopper. They immediately become black and hard,
acquire their full size, and begin to chirp. In both kinds
the males chirp ; the others, which do not chirp, are females.
When first produced the males are the sweetest : after the
sexual intercourse, the females are sweetest, for they contain
white ova.

5. If a noise is made as they fly along, they emit a fluid
like water, which the agriculturists describe as if they emitted
both a liquid and solid excrement, and that they feed on dew ;
and if any one approaches them with a bent finger, which
is gradually straightened, they will remain more quiet than
if it is put out straight at once, and will climb up upon the
finger ; for, from the dimness of their sight, they climb upon
it as if it were a moving leaf.

CHAPTER XXY.

1. THOSE insects which are not carnivorous, but live upon
the juices of living flesh, as lice, fleas, and bugs, produce
nits from sexual intercourse ; from these nits nothing else
is formed. Of these insects the fleas originate in very small
portions of corrupted matter, for they are always collected
together where there is any dry dung. Bugs1 proceed from the
moisture which collects on the bodies of animals: lice from
the flesh of other creatures ; for before they appear, they
exist in little pimples which do not contain matter : and if
these are pricked, the lice2 escape from them. Some persons
have been afflicted with a disease arising from excessive
moisture in the body, of which people have died, as they say
that Alcmon the poet, and Pherecydes of Syria did.

2. And in some diseases lice are very common. There is
a kind of lice, which they call wild, and are harder than the
commoD sort, which are difficult to eradicate from the body.
The heads of children are most subject to be infested
with lice, and men the least so, for women are more liable
fo them than men. Those that have lice in the head are
less subject to headache. Many other animals are infested
with lice : for both birds have them, and those which are
called phasiani, unless they dust themselves, are destroyed by
1 Cinex lectularius. 2 Perhaps Acarus Scabiei, Itch insect.

B. V.J THE HISTOKY OF ANIMALS. 135

them. And so are all those creatures which have feathers
with a hollow stem, and those which have hair, except the
ass, which has neither lice nor ticks. Oxen have both ;
sheep and goats have ticks, but no lice ; hogs are infested
with large, hard lice, and dogs with those which are called
cynoraistae. All lice originate in the animals that are in-
fested with them. All creatures that have lice, and wash
themselves, are more liable to them when they change the
water in which they bathe.

3. In the sea is a kind of lice1 growing on fish ; but these
do not originate in the fish, but in the mud. Their ap-
pearance is that of wood-lice with many feet, except that
they have a wide tail. There is one species of marine lice
which occur everywhere, and especially infest the trigla.
All these creatures are furnished with many legs, are ex-
sanguineous, and insects. The oestrus2 of the thynnus occurs
near the fins : in shape it is like a scorpion, and as large as
a spider. In the sea between Gyrene and Egypt, there is a
fish called the phtheira, which accompanies the do]phin ; it
is the fattest of all fish, because it enjoys an abundance of
the food which the dolphin hunts for.

CHAPTER XXVI.

1 THEEE are also other minute animals, as I observed be-
fore, some of which occur in wool,3 and in woollen goods ; as
the moths, which are produced in the greatest abundance
when the wool is dusty, and especially if a spider is enclosed
with them, for this creature is thirsty, and dries up any
fluid which may be present. This worm also occurs in gar-
ments. There is one which occurs in old honeycombs, like
the creature which inhabits dry wood : this appears to be
the least of all creatures, it is called acari, it is white
and small. Others also are found in books,4 some of which
are like those which occur in garments : others are like
scorpions ;5 they have no tails, and are very small. And on
the whole, they occur in everything, so to say, which from
being dry, becomes moist, or being moist, becomes dry, if it
has any life in it.

1 Perhaps Oniscus Ceti, or Isora. 4 Dumestes Pellio, and D. lar-
8 Perhaps Lerncea branchialis. darius.

2 Tinea pellionella, or T. sarcitella. 5 Phalangium cancroides.

136 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. B. V.]

2 There is a little worm which is called xylophthorus,1
which is no less extraordinary than these animals ; for its
variegated head is projected beyond its case, and its feet are
at the extremity, as in other worms. The rest of the body
is contained in a case made of a substance like spider's web,
and a dry material on the outside of this ; so that it appears
to walk about with this attached to it. These creatures are
attached to their case, and as a snail to its shell, so the
whole of the case is joined to the worm, and it does not fall
out of it, but is drawn out of it, as if they were joined toge-
ther. If a person pulls off the case, the creature dies, and
becomes as helpless as a snail without its shell. As time
advances, this grub becomes a chrysalis, like a caterpillar,
and lies without motion : but the nature of the winged
creature that is produced has never been ascertained.

3. The wild figs upon the fig-trees contain a creature
called psen ;2 this is at first a little worm, and afterwards
having ruptured the case, the psen flies out, and leaves it
behind. It then pierces the unripe figs, and causes them
not to fall off, wherefore gardeners place wild fruit near the
cultivated kinds, and plant the wild and cultivated plants
near each other.

CHAPTEB XXVII.

1. THE sexual intercourse of sanguineous and oviparous
quadrupeds takes place in the spring. They do not, how-
ever, all copulate at the same season ; but some in the spring,
others in the summer or autumn, as the season is appropriate
for bringing up the young of each species. The tortoise pro-
duces hard, two-coloured eggs, like those of birds. Having
deposited her eggs, she buries them, and makes a beaten
place above them. "When this is done, she sits upon them.
The eggs are hatched the following year. The emys goes
out of the water to deposit her eggs, and digs a hole like a
cask, in which she places her eggs and leaves them. Having
left them alone for less than thirty days, she digs them up
again and hatches them and leads them at once to the water.

1 Tinea graminella, Tinea lichenella, Tinea Xylophorus, or perhaps
larva of Phryganea.

2 Cynips Psenes.

B. V.] THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. 137

The marine turtles deposit their eggs in the earth like do-
mestic birds, and cover them up with earth and sit upon them
during the night. They produce a great many eggs, as many
as an hundred.

2. The saurians and both the land and river crocodiles
produce their eggs upon the land. Those of the lizards are
hatched spontaneously in the earth ; for the lizard does not
live a whole year, for it is said to live only six months. The
river crocodile produces as many as sixty eggs, which are
white. She sits upon them for sixty days, for they live a long
while. A very large animal is produced from these small
eggs ; for the egg is not larger than that of a goose, and the
young is in proportion, but when full grown the creature
measures seventeen cubits. Some persons say that it grows
as long as it lives.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

AMONG serpents the viper is externally viviparous, but first
of all internally oviparous. The ovum, like that of fish, is
of one colour and soft skinned. The young are produced
in the upper part. They are not enclosed in a shelly covering,
neither are the ova of fish. The little vipers are produced in
a membrane, which they rupture on the third day, and some-
times they make their escape by eating their way through
the mother. They are produced one by one in the course
of a day, and their number often exceeds twenty. Other
serpents are externally oviparous, but the.ir ova are joined
together like women's necklaces. When the female deposits
her eggs in the soil, she incubates upon them. These also
are hatched in the second year. This is the manner of the
production of serpents, insects, and of oviparous quadrupeds.

138 ' THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. j~J?. VI,

BOOK THE SIXTH.

CHAPTER I.

1. TEE above describes the manner of reproduction in ser-
pents, insects, and oviparous quadrupeds. All birds are
oviparous, but the season of sexual intercourse and of bring-
ing out their young is not the same in all ; for some copu-
late and produce eggs at all seasons, as we may say, as the
domestic fowl and the pigeon, for the domestic fowl lays
eg^s all the year round, except two months at the winter
solstice. Some of the finest birds will lay sixty eggs before
they want to sit, though these are not so fruitful as the
more common kinds. The Adrianic fowls are very small,
but they lay every day ; bu-t they are cruel, and often kill
their chickens. Their colour is variegated. Some of the
domestic birds lay twice a-day, and some have been known
to lay so many eggs that they died very soon.

2. The domestic fowls, as I said, lay continually ; but the
pigeon, dove, trygon, and osnas lay twice a-year ; and the
pigeon ten times. The greatest number of birds lay in the
spring ; and some of them produce many young, and this in
two ways ; some producing their young often, as the pigeon ;
others producing .many at a time, as the domestic fowl. All
birds with crooked claws, except the cenchris,1 lay but few
eggs. This bird lays the most of any of its class ; for it has
been observed to produce four, and it even produces more.
Some birds ]ay their eggs in nests ; but those that do not
fly, as partridges and quails, do not make nests, but lay their
eggs on the ground and cover them over with rubbish. The
lark and tetrix 2 do the same.

3. These birds make their nests in a place sheltered from
the wind. That which the Beotians call a?rops 3 is the
only bird that makes its nests in caverns in the earth.
The cichlse4 make nests of mud like swallows in the tops of
trees ; but they place them in order close to each other, so

1 Falco tinnunculus. 2 Tetrao tetrii or Otis tetrix.

s Merops apiaster. 4 Turdus, thrush.

B. VI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 139

that from their proximity they look like a chain of nests.
Among the birds which make solitary nests, the hoopoe
makes no real nest, but lays its eggs in the stumps of hollow
trees, without building at all. The coccyx1 lays its eggs in
houses and holes in rocks. The tetrix, which the Athenians
call " urax," makes no nest on the ground or in trees, but
in herbaceous plants.

CHAPTER II.

1. THE eggs of all birds are alike and have a hard shell, if
they are produced by sexual intercourse and are not decayed,
for domestic fowls sometimes lay soft eggs. Birds' eggs* are
two-coloured, externally white, internally yellow. The eggs
of birds inhabiting the sides of streams and lakes differ from
those living on dry land, for in the eggs of aquatic birds the
yolk bears a much larger proportion to the white.

2. The colours of eggs vary in different kinds of birds.
Some have white eggs, as pigeons, partridges ; some yellow,
as those inhabiting streams ; others are spotted, as those of
the meleagris2 and phasianus;3 the eggs of the cenchris are red
like vermilion. In the egg itself there is a difference ; for
one end is pointed, the other round. The round end is pro-
duced first. The large, sharp eggs are males ; those which
are round and circular at the sharp end are females.

3. They are matured by incubation. Some are hatched
spontaneously in the earth, as in Egypt, being buried in
dung ; and they say that in Syracuse a drunkard placed eggs
beneath his mat, and drank without ceasing until the eggs
were hatched ; and eggs placed in warm vessels have been
matured and hatched spontaneously.

4. The seminal fluid of all birds is white, like that of
other animals ; and when they copulate the female receives
the male semen near the diaphragm. The egg at first appears
small and white, afterwards red and bloody ; as it grows it be-
comes quite ochreous and yellow ; when it becomes larger a
distinction is made, and the internal part becomes yellow,
the external white; and when it is perfected it is set at
liberty, and excluded just at the period when it is changing
from soft to hard. So that during exclusion it is not har-

1 Cuculus canorus. 2 Numida Meleagris.

3 Phasianus colchicus.

140 THE HISTORY OP ANIMALS. [B. TT.

dened ; but as soon as it is excluded it thickens and becomes
hard, unless it is diseased. And eggs have been known to
be excluded in the state in which all eggs are at a certain
period of their growth ; for they were entirely yellow, as the
young bird is afterwards. Such have also been o'bserved in the
domestic fowl beneath the diaphragm, where the eggs of the
hen are placed, entirely yellow, and as large as eggs usually
are. This has been considered ominous.

5. They are mistaken who say that the hypenemia (barren
eggs) are the remains of former acts of sexual intercourse ;
for young birds, as fowls and geese, have been frequently
observed to lay such eggs without any sexual intercourse.
Barren eggs are smaller, not so sweet, and more fluid than
fertile eggs, and they are more numerous. If they are placed
under a bird, the fluid part never thickens, but both the
yolk and the white remain in their original state. Many
birds produce these eggs, as the domestic fowl, partridge,
pigeon, peafowl, goose, and chenalopex.1

6. Eggs are hatched more readily in summer than in
winter ; for in the summer the domestic fowl will hatch in
eighteen days, but in winter sometimes in not less than
twenty-five days. Some birds also are more adapted for
incubation .than others. A thunder-storm during the season
of incubation will destroy the eggs. What are called cyno-
sura and uria (addled eggs) are more frequently produced
in the summer. The hypenemia2 are by some persons called
zephyria, because they say that birds receive these winds in
the spring. They do the same thing if they are touched
with the hand. The hypenemia become fertile ; and eggs
that are produced by sexual intercourse are changed to an-
other kind, if the hen which contains either hypenemia or
fertile eggs has sexual intercourse with another bird before
the eggs begin to change from yellow to white, and the
hypenemia become fertile, and the fertile eggs produce birds
of the nature of the second male.

7. But if the change from yellow to white has already
taken place, neither the barren nor the fertile eggs are al-
tered, so as to change to the nature of the/second male. And if
the sexual intercourse should be discontinue d while the eggs
are small, those which existed previously undergo no chauge}

1 CEnas tadorna. 2 Eggs formed without sexual intercourse.

B. VI.] THE HISTORY OF AXIMALS. 1.41

•but if the act is repeated, a rapid increase in size takes place.
The nature of the white and yolk of the egg is different, not
only in colour, but in other properties, for the yolk coagu-
lates with cold, while the white remains fluid, but the white
coagulates with heat, which the yolk does not, but remains
soft, if it is not burnt ; and it becomes consistent and dry
by boiling rather than roasting.

8. The white and yolk are separated from each other by
a membrane. The chalaza3 at the extremities of the yolk
have nothing to do with generation, as some persons suppose.
These spots are two, one below and one above. If many
whites and yolks of eggs are taken out, and mixed together
in a vessel, and cooked with a slow and moderate heat,
the yolks will all collect in the middle, and the whites will
surround them. Young domestic fowls begin to lay eggs at
the beginning of the spring; they lay more than those
which are older, but those of the young birds are smaller,
and if birds are not permitted to incubate, they are de-
stroyed and become sick.

9. After copulation birds ruffle and shake themselves,
and often cover themselves with chaff, and this also they do
when they have laid. Pigeons draw up their tail, geese
go and bathe. The pregnancy and conception of barren
eggs is quick in most birds, as in the partridge, on ac-
count of the violence of their sexual desires ; for if the hen
stands in the way of the breath of the male, she con-
ceives, and ^immediately becomes of no use for fowling ; for
the partridge appears to have a very distinct smell. The
production of the egg after copulation, and the production
of the young by incubation, do not occupy the same length
of time in all birds, but varies according to their size. The
egg of the domestic fowl is perfected in ten days after
sexual intercourse, and that of the pigeon in a shorter time.
Pigeons are able to retain their eggs even in the act of
parturition. If they are disturbed by anything occurring
in the neighbourhood of their nest, or a feather be plucked
out, or if anything else troubles or disturbs them, they re-

'tain the egg they were about to lay.

10. This is peculiar to pigeons, and so is the following :
for they kiss each other when the male is about to mount,
or else they will not endure it. The older bird lirst gives

142 THE HISTOKY OF ANIMALS. [B. VI*

a kiss, but afterwards lie mounts without kissing, but
younger birds always kiss before copulation. This also is
peculiar to these birds. The females kiss and mount upoii
each other like the males, when there is no male present.
They do not project anything into each other, but produce
more eggs than those which produce fertile ones ; from these
eggs nothing is hatched, but they are all barren.

•
CHAPTER III.

1. THE production of the bird from the egg is alike in then:
all, but the period of completion varies, as I observed be-
fore. In domestic fowls the first sign of alteration takes
place after three days and nights. This period is longer in
larger birds, and shorter in small birds. During this period
the upper part of the yolk advances to the small extremity
of the egg, which is the beginning of the egg. This is the
part from which the chicken is excluded, and the heart is
visible like a red spot in the white of the egg.

2. This spot palpitates and moves as though it were en-
dued with life. From this, as it increases, two involved
sanguineous passages like veins lead to each of the sur-
rounding tunics ; and a membrane which has sanguineous
passages encloses the white at this period, and separates it
from the venous passages. A short time afterwards the
body is distinguished, at first very small and white, but the
head is distinct, and in this the eyes are the most enlarged.
And this continues for some time, for afterwards the eyes are
reduced in size and approach each other, but the lower part
of the body has not at first any proportion to the upper part.

3. One of the passages from the heart extends into a
circle around the embryo, and the other to the yolk, as if
it were an umbilical cord. The origin of the young bird
is in the white, its nutriment is derived from the yolk
through the umbilical cord. On the tenth day, the whole
of the young bird and all its parts are distinct, but its
head is still larger than the rest of the body, and the eyes
are larger than the rest of the head. They have no sense
of sight. If the eyes are taken out at this period, they
are larger than beans, and black ; when the skin is
taken from them, they are seen to contain a white and coJd

B. YI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 143

fluid, very brilliant in appearance, but without any hard
substance. This is the manner of the development of the
eyes and head.

4. At the same period the viscera are visible, but the
stomach, and intestines, and the veins from the heart still
appear to extend towards the navel. From the navel a
vein appears to extend upon the membrane which encloses
the yolk, and the yolk itself is at this period fluid, and
more abundant than in its natural state. The other extends
to the membrane which encloses the whole membrane con-
taining the embryo, and the membrane of the yolk and the
fluid between them, and when the young birds have grown
a little more, part of the yolk goes to one end, and part to
the other, and between them is the fluid white ; but the
white is still below the lower part of the yolk, where it was
at first, but at the tenth day the white disappears, for it has
become small, viscid, thick, and rather yellow.

5. This is the position of all the parts : the first and last
part adjoining the shell is the membrane of the egg, not the
membrane of the shell, but beneath this. This contains the
fluid white ; within this is the young bird, and a membrane
surrounding it, and separating it from the fluid ; beneath
the embryo is the yolk, to which one of the veins extends,
and the other to the white which encloses it. A membrane
containing a fluid resembling sanies encloses the whole, and
then another membrane which surrounds the embryo itself,
as I observed, and separates it from the fluid. Below this
the yolk, enclosed in another membrane, which is reached
by the umbilical cord Jrom the heart, and the great vein, so
that the embryo does not appear to be in either of the fluids.

(3. About the twentieth day, if the hatching has been de-
layed beyond this period, the young bird is able to chirp
when moved externally, and if the shell is taken off, by this
time also it is downy. Tfce head is placed over the right leg
upon the side, and the wing is over the head. At this
period the chorion-like membrane is visible, which is united
with the lowest membrane of the shell, to which one of the
umbilical cords passes, and the young bird is complete. The
othei- chorion-like membrane is also visible, enclosing the
yoitf. To this the other umbilical cord extends. Both of
these cords are attached to the heart and the great vein. At

14/4 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. FB. VI.

tho same period the cord which is attached to one chorion
falls off, and is separated from the animal, but the one which
passes to the yolk remains suspended from the young bird
by a thin bowel, and a considerable portion of the yolk is
contained in the young bird, and some of it is found in the
stomach.

7. At this period also they eject an excrementitious
matter into the external chorion, and contain it in the
stomach. The external excrement is white, the internal
yellow. At last the yolk, which has been continually
wasting and advancing, is entirely taken up and enclosed in
the young bird. So that portions of it may be observed in
the intestines of birds if they are dissected on the tenth
day after exclusion from the egg. But it is set at liberty
from the navel, nor does any communication remain, but
the whole is separated. About the before-mentioned period
the young bird sleeps, but it stirs itself, and looks up, and
chirps when it is touched, and the heart swells up with the
navel, as if the embryo were breathing. This is the manner
of the development of the chick in the egg.

8. Birds also produce some barren eggs, as well as those
from sexual intercourse, but they produce nothing after in-
cubation. This is particularly observed in pigeons. Double
eggs have two yolks ; in some a thin division of white pre-
vents the yolks from mixing together ; others have not thi-s
division, but touch each other. There are some hens which
always lay double eggs, and in these the peculiarities of the
yolks have been observed; for a certain bird having laid
eighteen eggs, hatched two chickens from each of them, ex-
cept those that were addled ; all the rest were productive, <
except that one of the twin chickens was Irage and the
other small in each. The last, however, was monstrous. -

CHAPTER IV.

1. ALL the pigeon tribe, as the phatta and trygon, generally
produce two eggs ; the trygon and the phatta are those
which generally lay three. The pigeon lays, as I said, at
every season ; the trygon and the phatta in the spring, and
uot more than twice. The second brood are hatched when
the first has been destroyed, for many birds destroy them.

B. VI.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 145

It sometimes lays three, as I have said, but it never brings
out more than two young ones, and sometimes only one,
the remaining egg is always addled. Very few birds begin
to lay before they are a year old ; but when they have once
begun to lay, they all, as we may say, naturally contain eggs
to the end of their life, though it is not easy to see them in
some birds, from their small size.

2. The pigeon usually produces one male and one female,
and of these the male is often hatched first ; and having laid
an egg one day, she omits many days and then lays another.
The male sits during a portion of the day, and the female
during the night. The first young one is hatched and able to
fly within twenty days, and the egg is billed on the day before
it is hatched ; both the old birds keep the young ones warm
for some time, as they do the eggs. During the time of
bringing up their young the female is fiercer than the male :
this is also the case in other animals. They produce young ten
times in a year, and sometimes eleven times ; those in Egypt
even twelve times. The cock and hen birds copulate within
the year, for they do this at the end of six months.

3. And some say that the phatta and trygon are matured
when three months old, and they consider their great num-
bers as a proof of this. The female contains her eggs four-
teen days, and then sits upon them fourteen more ; in four-
teen days after this the young ones fly so well that it is
difficult to catch them. The phatta lives, as they say, forty,
years ; the partridge more than sixteen years. The pigeon,
after having brought out her young, lays again in thirty days.

CHAPTEB V.

1. THE vulture builds its nest in inaccessible rocks, where-
fore its nest and young ones are rarely seen. For this
reason Herodorus, the father of Bryson the sophist, says
that vultures come from another part of the earth, which is
invisible to us, giving as a reason for his opinion, that they
are seen in great numbers suddenly following the path of an
army. But difficult as it is to observe them, their nests have
been seen. The vulture produces two eggs. No other car-
nivorous bird has been observed to produce young more than
once a year; but the swallow more frequently produces
young twice a year than the carnivorous birds. If a person

L

116 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. VI.

pierces the eyes of young swallows they recover, and are
able to see afterwards.

CHAPTER VI.

1. THE eagle produces three eggs, of which two only are
hatched. This is also related in the poems of Musaeas.
The bird which lays three eggs, hatches two, and brings up
but one. This frequently happens ; but three young have
bee.?} seen in the nest. W hen the young begin to grow, one
of them is turned out by the parent, because she dislikes the
trouble of feeding it. At this period it is said to be without
food, so that it does not capture the young of wild crea-
tures, for a few days the talons are turned back, and the
feathers become white, so that it then becomes cruel to its
young. The phene1 receives and brings up the ejected
young one.

2. The eagle incubates for thirty days ; this is the usual
period of incubation for large birds, as the goose and the
bustard. Moderately sized birds usually sit twenty days, as
the ictinus 2 and hierax.3 The ictinus usually produces two
young ones, and sometimes three ; the ^Etolian kite, as it
is called, sometimes produces four. The raven produces not
only two, but, as they say, many eggs, which she sits upon
for about twenty days. She also turns out some of her
young ones. Many other birds do the same thing ; and
generally those which produce several turn out one.

3. All kinds of eagles do not behave in the same way to
their young ; but the pygargus is cruel ; and the black eagles
are careful for the food of their young ; but all birds with
crooked talons as soon as their young can fly well beat them
and drive them from the nest. And most birds of other
classes, as I have before observed, do the same tiling ; and
when they have brought them up, they take no more notice
of them, except the crow. This bird cares for its young a
long while, for as it flies past them it gives them food after
they are able to fly.

CHAPTER VII.

1. THE cuckoo is said by some persons to be a changed hawk,

because the hawk which it resembles disappears when thf

1 Vultur cinereus, ossifragus, osprey. a Kite. 3 Hawk.

B. VI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 147

cuckoo comes, and indeed very few hawks of any sort can be
8i>en during the period in which the cuckoo is singing except
tor a few days. The cuckoo is seen for a short time in the
summer, and disappears in winter. But the hawk has crooked
talons, which the cuckoo has not, nor does it resemble the
hawk in the form of its head, but in both these respects is
more like the pigeon than the hawk, which it resembles in
nothing but its colour ; the markings, however, upon the
hawk are like lines, while the cuckoo is spotted.

2. Its size and manner of flight is like that of the smallest
kind of hawk, which generally disappears during the season
in which the cuckoo is seen. But they have both been seen
at the same time, and the cuckoo was being devoured by the
hawk, though this is never done by birds of the same kind.
They say that no one has ever seen the young of the cuckoo.
It does, however, lay eggs, but it makes no nest ; but some-
times it lays its eggs in the nests of small birds, and devours
their eggs, especially in the nests of the pigeon, when it has-
eaten their eggs. Sometimes it lays two, but usually only
one egg ; it lays also in the nest of the hypolais,1 which
hatches and brings it up. At this season it is particularly
fat and sweet-fleshed ; the flesh also of young hawks is very
sweet and fat. There is also a kind of them which builds a
nest in precipitous cliff's.

CHAPTER VIII.

L. IN many birds the male alternates with the female in the-
duty of incubation, as we observed in speaking of pigeons,
and takes her place while she is obliged to procure food for
nerself. In geese the female alone sits upon the eggs, and
aaving once begun, she never leaves them during the whole-
process of incubation. The nests of all water birds are
situated in marshy and grassy places, by which means they
can keep quiet and still have food within their reach, so that
y do not starve all the while. The females alone, among
the crows, sit on the eggs, which they never leave ; but the
males bring them food and feed them.

2. The females of the pigeons begin to sit at twilight, and
remain on the nest the whole night, till dawn ; and the male-
the rest of the time. Partridges make two nests of eggs*
1 Sylvia curucca, hedge sparrow.

L 2

148 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [fi. YI

upon one of which the male sits, on the other the female ;
and each of them hatches and brings up its own : and the
male has sexual intercourse with its young as soon as they
are hatched.

CHAPTER IX.

1. THE peacock lives about twenty -five years, and produces
young generally at three years old ; by which time also they
have obtained their variegated plumage : and it hatches in
thirty days, or rather more. It only produces young once
a-year, laying twelve eggs, or not quite so many. It lays
its eggs at intervals of two or three days, and not regularly.
At first they lay only eight. The pea-fowl also lays barren
eggs : they copulate in the spring, and lay their eggs imme-
diately afterwards.

2. This bird sheds its feathers when the leaves of the
trees begin to fall, and begins to acquire them again with
the first budding in the spring. Those who rear these
birds place the eggs for incubation beneath domestic fowls ;
because the peacock flies at, and torments the hen when
she is sitting; for which reason some of the wild birds
make their escape from the males before they begin to lay
and sit. They place only two eggs under domestic fowls,
for these are all that they can hatch and bring out ; and
they take care to put food before them, that they may not
get up and desert their incubation.

3. Birds at the season of sexual intercourse have large
testicles. In the more lascivious they are always more evi-
dent, as the domestic cock and the partridge. In those
that are not always lascivious, they are less. This is the
manner of the gestation and reproduction of birds.

CHAPTEE X.

1. IT has been already observed that fish are not always
oviparous, for the selache are always viviparous. All the
rest are oviparous. The selache are viviparous, having
first of all produced ova internally ; and these they bring up
in themselves, except the batrachus. Fish have also, as I
observed before, very different uteri in different kinds : for
in the oviparous genera the uterus is double, and situated
low down. In the selache the uterus is more like that of birds.
There is this difference, however, that the ova are not placed

B VI ] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 140

near the diaphragm, but in an intermediate position near
the spine ; and when they have grown they change their
place from this part. The ovum in all fish is not of two, but
of one colour ; and it is more white than yellow, both in its
early stages, and after the formation of the embryo.

2. The development of the ovum is different in fish and
in birds, in that it has not the umbilical cord which passes
to the membrane of the shell ; but only the passage which
leads to the yolk in the eggs of birds. The rest of the deve-
lopment of the ovum is alike in birds and fish ; for it takes
place at the extremity, and the veins have their origin in
a similar manner in' the heart ; and the head, and eyes, and
upper parts of the body are larger than the rest. As the
young fish increases, the ovum continues to diminish, and
at last it disappears, and is absorbed, like the yolk in the
eggs of birds. The umbilical cord is attached a little below
the abdomen. At first the cord is long, but it becomes less
as the fish grows, and at last is small, and finally absorbed,
like that of birds.

3. The embryo and the ovum are enclosed in a common
membrane, and beneath this there is another membrane, in
which the embryo alone is enclosed. Between these mem-
branes there is a fluid substance. The nutriment contained
in the stomach of the young fish is similar to that in the
young birds, partly white, and partly yellow. The form of
the uterus must be learned from dissection. This organ is
different in different fish, as in the galeode by themselves, and
the flat fish by themselves : for in some the ova are attached
near the spine to the centre of the uterus, as I observed be-
fore, as in scylia.1 They descend when they begin to increase,
when the uterus is double, and are attached to the diaphragm,
as in other fish : the ova descend into each division.

4. The uterus of these fish, and of the other galeode, has a
small appendage attached to the diaphragm like a white
nipple, which is not present unless they are pregnant. The
scylia and the batis have a shell-like substance, which con-
tains the fluid of the ovum. In form the shell resembles the
tongue of a wind instrument, and hair-like passages are at-
tached to the shells. The young of the scylia, which some
persons call nebria galei, are born when the shell falls off and
bursts. The young of the batis when they are brought forth

1 Dog fish Squalus stellaris.

150 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [s. VI.

are excluded by the rupture of the shell. In the acantheas1
galeos the ova are attached to the diaphragm above the
nipples ; and when the ovum descends, the young is attached
to it after it is set free. The reproduction of the alopex is
in the same manner.

5. Most galei which are called smooth have the ova placed
between the divisions of the uterus, like those of the scylia ;
and as they surround it, they descend into each division of
the uterus, and they are produced, attached to the uterus
by an umbilical cord ; so that when the ova are taken out,
they appear similar to the embryo of quadrupeds. And the
long umbilical cord is attached to the lower part of the
uterus, each part, as it were, attached to an acetabulum ;
and to the middle of the embryo near the liver. And when
it is dissected, the food is like an egg, though the ovum be
no longer there. There is a chorion, and peculiar membranes
surrounding each of the embryos, as in quadrupeds.

6. The head of the embryo when it is just produced, is
upwards ; but as it grows and reaches maturity, it is placed
downwards. The males are placed on the left, and the
females on the right, or there are males and females together
on the same side. The embryo, when dissected, resembles
that of quadrupeds, in having its viscera such as it has, as the
liver, large, and full of blood. In all the selache the ova are
placed high up, near the diaphragm ; many larger, and many
smaller : and the embryos are placed below, wherefore it is

Erobable that such fish produce their young, aud copulate
*equently during the same month, for they do not produce
all their young at once, but frequently, and for a long while ;
but those that are in the lower part of the uterus are matured
and brought to perfection.

7. The other galei both emit and receive their young into
themselves, and so do the rhine and the narca ; and a large
narca has been observed to contain eighty young in herself.
The acanthias is the only one of the galei which does not
admit its young into itself, on account of their thorns.
Among the flat fish the trygon and batos do not admit their
young, on account of the roughness of the tail. Neither
does the batrachus admit its young, on account of the size
of their heads, and their thorns ; and this is the only one

is not viviparous, as I previously observed. These are
1 Squalus Acanthias.

B. VI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 151

their mutual differences, and the manner of the develop-
ment of tbeir ova.

8. At the season of sexual intercourse, the seminal ducts
of the male are full of fluid, so that a white matter escapes
when they are pressed. These passages are divided, and
originate in the diaphragm and the large vein : at the same
season the passages of the male are conspicuous, and may be
compared with the uterus of the female. When it is not
the season of sexual intercourse, they are less conspicuous,
from not being in use. In some fish, and sometimes, they
are not visible at all, as it was remarked of the testicles of
birds. The seminal and uterine passages are different in
other respects also, and because those of the male are at-
tached to the loins, those of the female are easily moved,
and enclosed in a thin membrane. The nature of the pas-
sages of the male may be seen in works on anatomy.

9. The selachea become pregnant again while with young,
and the period of gestation is six months. Among the galei,
the asterias produces young the oftenest ; for it produces
twice in a month : it begins to copulate in the month of Sep-
tember. All the other galei except the scylia produce twice
in the year ; the scylia but once. Some of them have their
young in the spring. The rhine produces its first brood in
the spring, and its last in the autumn, near the winter season,
and the setting of the Pleiades. The second fry are the most
numerous. The narca produces its young in the autumn.
The selache descend from the ocean and deep water to the
shore, to produce their young, both for the sake of the
warmth, and care of their offspring.

10. No other fish but the rhine and the batos have ever
been observed to unite with others not of their own kind,
but there is a fish called the rhinobatus, which has the head
and upper part of the rhine, and the lower part like the
batus, as it were made up of both. The galei and the
galeoeides, as the alopex, dog-fish, and the flat fish, as the
narce batos, leiobatos and tnrgon, are in this manner ovovi-
parous.

CHAPTER XI.

1. THE dolphin, whale, and other cetacea which have a
biow-hole but no gills, are viviparous, and so are the

1-52 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. VI

pristis and tlie bos. For none of these have an ovum, but
a proper foetus, from which, when perfected, an animal is
developed, as in man and the viviparous quadrupeds. The
dolphin usually produces one, and sometimes two young
ones. The whale generally and usually produces two and
sometimes one. The phocaena is similar to the dolphin,
for it is like a small dolphin. It is produced in the Pontus.
In some respects the phocaena differs from the dolphin, for
its size is smaller, it is wider in the back, and its colour is
blue. Many persons say that the phocsena is a kind of
dolphin.

2. All these creatures which have a blow-hole, breathe
and inhale air ; and the dolphin has been observed while
asleep with the muzzle above the water, and it snores in
its sleep. The dolphin and phocsena give milk and suckle
their young. They also receive their young into them-
selves. The growth of the young dolphins is rapid, for
they attain their full size in ten years. The female is preg-
nant for ten months. The dolphin produces her young
in the summer-time, and at no other season. They seem
also to disappear for thirty days during the season of the
dog-star. The young follow their dam for a long while,
and it is an animal much attached to its offspring. It lives
many years ; for some have been known to live twenty-five
or thirty years ; for fishermen have marked them by cutting
their tails and then giving them their liberty. In this way
their age was known.

3. The seal is amphibious, for it does not inhale water,
but breathes and sleeps. It produces its young on laud,
but near the shore, in the manner of animals with feet ; but
it lives the greater part of its time, and obtains its food in
the sea, wherefore it is to be considered among aquatic
animals. It is properly viviparous, and produces a living
creature, and a chorion, and it brings forth the other mem-
branes like a sheep. It produces one or two, never more
than three young ones. It has also mammas, so that it
suckles its young like quadrupeds. It produces its young
like the human subject, at all seasons of the year, but es-
pecially with the earliest goats.

4. When the young are twelve days old, it leads them to
the water several times in the day, in order to habit uate

B. VI.] THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 153

them by degrees. It drags its hinder parts along, and does
not walk, for it cannot erect itself upon its feet, but it con-
tracts and draws itself together. It is fleshy and soft, and
its bones are cartilaginous. It is difficult to kill the seal
by violence, unless it is struck upon the temple, for its body
is fleshy. It has a voice like an ox. The pudendum of the
female is like that of the batis, in all other animals of the
class the pudendum resembles that of the human female.
This is the manner of the development and nature of the
young of aquatic animals which are either internally or
externally viviparous.

CHAPTER XII.

1. THE oviparous fish have a divided uterus placed on the
lower part of the body, as I observed before. All that have
scales are viviparous, as the labrax, cestreus, cephalus, etelis,1
and those called white fish, and all smooth fish except the
eel. Their ova resemble sand. This appearance is owing
to their uterus being quite full of ova, so that small fish
appear to have only two ova ; for the small size and thinness
of the uterus renders it invisible in these creatures. I have
before treated of the sexual intercourse of fish. The sexes
are distinct in almost all fish, though there is some doubt
about the erythrinus2 and the channa, for all these are
found to be pregnant.

2. Ova are found in those fish which have sexual inter-
course, though they possess them without intercourse.
This is observable in some kinds of river fish ; for the
phoxini3 appear to be pregnant as soon as they are born,
and when they are quite small. They emit the ova in a
stream ; and, as I observed before, the males devour great
numbers of them, and others perish in the water. Those
are preserved which they deposit in their appropriate situa-
tions. For, if all were preserved, the numbers that would
be found would be immense. Not all those that are pre-
served are fertile, but only those on which the seminal fluid
of the male has been sprinkled. When the female produces
her ova, the male follows, and scatters his semen upon them.
Young fish are produced from those ova which are thus
sprinkled. The remainder turn out as chance may direct.

1 Perhaps the Sea-bream, Sparus. 2 Perhaps Perca marina.

3 Cyprmus Phoxinus.

154 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. VI.

3. Th<? same thing also occurs in the malacia; for the
male sepia sprinkles the ova of the female as they are de-
posited; and it is reasonable to suppose that the other
malacia do the same, although it has only been observed in
the sepia. They produce their ova near the land, the cobii
deposit them upon stones, and that which they produce is
flat and sand-like. The rest do the same, for the parts near
the land are warmer, and provision is more abundant, and
there is better protection for their young against larger
fish, for which cause very great numbers deposit their ova
near the river Thermodon, in the Pontus, for the place is
sheltered and warm, and the water is sweet.

4. The majority of viviparous fish reproduce once in
a-year, except the small phycides,1 which reproduce twice
a-year. The male phyces differs from the female, being
darker-coloured and having larger scales. All other fish
produce from seed, and emit ova ; but that which is called
the belone, at the season of reproduction bursts asunder,
and in this way the ova escape ; for this fish has a division
beneath the stomach and bowels, like the serpents called
typhlin«.2 When it has produced its ova, it survives, and
the wound heals up again.

5. The development of the ovum is alike, both in those
that are internally and those that are externally oviparous.
For it takes place at the extremityof the ovum, and it is en-
closed in a membrane. The eyes are the first part that is con-
spicuous ; they are large and spherical ; so that it is plain that
they are mistaken who say that the mode of development re-
sembles that of vermiform creatures, for in them the order
is different, and the lower parts are formed first, and after-
wards the head and eyes. When the ovum is taken away,
they assume a circular form, and for some time continue to
grow without taking in any food, by absorbing the moisture
of the ovum. They afterwards derive their nutriment, as
long as they continue growing, from the water of the river.

6. When the Pontus is cleansed, something is floated
out into the Hellespont which is called fucus. It is of a
yellow colour. Some say that it is naturally a plant. This
takes place at the beginning of summer. The oysters and
email fish which live in these places feed upon this fucus ;

1 MugiL Some species of mullet. 2 Lacerta apus.

B. VT.] TEE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 153

aud some maritime persons say that they obtain their purple
from this plant.

CHAPTER XIII.

1. THE pond and river fish begin to reproduce usually when
five months old. They all produce their ova at the begin-
ning of summer. Like the marine fish, the females of these
kinds never emit all their ova, nor the males all their
semen, at once ; but both sexes are always found to con-
tain a portion of the reproductive substance ; they pro-
duce their ova at the proper season. The cyprinus five or
six times a-year, and especially under the influence of the
stars. The chalcis reproduces three times, all the rest but
once a-year.

2. They deposit their ova in the stagnant parts of rivers
and ponds among the reeds, as the phoxinus and perca. The
glanis and the perca produce their ova in strings, like the
frog. That which the perca produces is so involved that, on
account of its breadth, the fishermen collect it together from
among the reeds in ponds. The larger individuals of the
glanis produce their ova in deep water, some where it is a
fathom deep ; but the smaller ones in shallow water, and
especially at the root of the willow or some other tree, and
among the reeds and mosses.

3. The fish fold themselves together, sometimes a large
one with a small one, and approximate the passages, which
some call their navel, from which they eject their respective
seminal matter, the females their ova, and the males their
spermatic fluid. Those ova with which the semen of the
male has been mixed immediately or in the course of a day
become whiter and larger, and in a short time the eyes of
the fish make their appearance ; for in all fish, as in other
animals, this part is most conspicuous, and appears the largest.
But, if the seminal fluid does not touch any of the ova, as in
the case of sea-fish, these become useless and barren.

4. From the fertile ova, as the fish increase in size, some-
thing like a shell is separated ; this is the membrane which
envelopes the ovum and the embryo fish. As soon as the
seminal fluid is mixed with the ova a glutinous matter is
formed, which fastens them to the roots or other substance
on which they are deposited. The male watches over the
place where the greatest number of ova are deposited, and

156 THE HISTOET Or ANIMALS. [B. VT.

the female departs as soon as she has spawned. The develop-
ment of the ovum of the glanis proceeds the most slowly, for
the male remains by them for forty or fifty days, in order
that they may not be devoured by fish chancing to come
that way.

5. Next to this is the cyprinus. The ova, however, of
these which are preserved escape very quickly. The deve-
lopment in some of the small fish takes place on the third
day, and the ova upon which the seminal fluid has fallen
begin to increase on the same day, or shortly afterwards.
The ova of the glanis become as large as the seed of the
orobus. Those of the cyprinus and that class, about the
size of millet. The ova of these fish are produced and deve-
loped in this manner.

6. The chalcis assembles in great numbers to deposit its
ova in deep water. The fish which is called tilon deposits
its ova near the shore, in sheltered places ; this fish also is
gregarious. The cyprinus, balerus, and all others, so to
say, hasten into shallow water to deposit their ova, and thir-
teen or fourteen males often follow a single female, and when
the female has deposited her ova and departed, the males
that follow her sprinkle their semen upon them. The majo-
rity of the ova are lost, for the female scatters them abroad
as she is moving forward, unless they fall upon any sub-
stance, and are not carried away by the stream. None of
them, except the glanis, watch their ova, unless the cyprinus
meets with them in great numbers, when, they say, that this
fish watches them.

7. All the male fish have semen, except the eel, and this
one has neither semen nor ova. The cestreus migrates from
the sea into lakes and rivers ; the eel, on the contrary, leaves
them for the sea. Most fish, therefore, as I observed, pro-
ceed from ova.

CHAPTER XIY.

1. SOME originate in mud and sand: even of those kinds which
originate in sexual intercourse and ova, some, they say, have
appeared both in other marshy places and in those which once
surrounded Cnidus, which became dry under the influence of
the dog-star, and all the mud was parched up, but with the
first rains the waters returned, and small fish appeared with

B. VI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 157

the return of the waters. This was a kind of cestreus, which
originates in coition, about the size of small msenidia,1 but
they had neither ova nor semen. In the Asiatic rivers,
which do not flow into the sea, other small fish, of the size
of epseti,2 are produced in the same manner. Some persons
say that the cestreus is always produced in this manner, but
in this they are mistaken, for both the females are known
to have ova and the males semen. But there is some one
kind of them which originates in mud and sand.

2. It is evident from the following considerations that
some of them are of spontaneous growth, and do not origi-"
nate either in ova or semen. Those which are neither ovi-
parous nor viviparous are all produced either from mud or
sand, or from the putrid matter on the surface, as also the
foam in sandy places produces the aphya.3 This aphya never
increases in size, and is barren, and as time advances it
perishes, and another fry is formed. Wherefore it may be
said to be reproduced at every season, except for a short
time; for it continues from the autumn arcturus to the
spring. This is a proof that it sometimes originates in the
soil, for it is not captured by fishermen in cold weather, "but
on a fine day it may be taken as it comes up from the ground
for the sake of the warmth. When they have dragged the
ground and scraped up the surface, the fish are more nume-
rous and better. The other aphyae are inferior, on account
of their rapid growth.

3. They are found in shady and marshy places, when the
earth becomes warm in fine weather, as near the temple
of Athene in Salamis, and near the tomb of Themistocles,
and near Marathon, for foam is formed in all these places.
It makes its appearance in such places, and in fine weather :
it appears also at times in seasons of much rain, and when
foam is formed of rain water, wherefore also it is called
aphrus ; and sometimes it is found on the surface of the sea,
in fine weather, where it is whirled about, and, like the little
maggots in dung, so this is found in the foam which floats on
the surface ; wherefore also this aphya is carried by the sea
in many directions, and it abounds and is captured in the
greatest abundance when the season is moist and warm.

4. There is another aphya derived from fish, for that
which is called cobitis is derived from small and inferior

1 Sardine. , 2 Atherine epsetos. 3 Melanurus juvenculua.

158 THE HISTOET OP ANIMALS. [B. VI,

gobii, which bury themselves in the earth. The membrades
are produced from the phalerica. The trichides come from
these, and the trichise from the trichides ; from one kind of
aphya, which inhabits the port of Athens, the encrasicoli
are derived. There is another kind of aphya which originates
in the moenis and cestreus, but the barren aphrus is very
soft, and endures only for a short time, as I said before, and
at last nothing is left but the head and eyes. The fisher-
men, however, have now found a mode of conveying it from
place to place, for it lasts longer when salted.

CHAPTER XV.

1. EELS are not produced from sexual intercourse, nor are
they oviparous, nor have they ever been detected with semen
or ova, nor when dissected do they appear to possess either
seminal or uterine viscera ; and this is the only kind of san-
guineous animal which does not originate either in sexual
intercourse or in ova. It is, however, manifest that this is
the case, for, after rain, they have been reproduced in some
marshy ponds, from which all the water was drawn and the
mud cleaned out ; but they are never produced in dry places
nor in ponds that are always full, for they live upon and are
nourished by rain water. It is plain, therefore, that they
are not produced either from sexual intercourse or from ova.
Some persons have thought that they were productive, be-
cause some eels have parasitical worms, and they thought
that these became eels.

2. This, however, is not the case, but they originate in
what are called the entrails of the earth, which are found
spontaneously in mud and moist earth. They have been
observed making their escape from them, and others have
been found in them when cut up and dissected. These
originate both in the sea and in rivers wherein putrid mat-
ter is abundant ; in those places in the sea which are full of
fuci, and near the banks of rivers and ponds, for in these
places the heat causes much putridity. This is the mode of
generation in eels.

CHAPTER XVI.

1. THE reproductive function is not active in all fish at the
same time or the same manner, nor are they pregnant during
the same length of time. Before the season of sexual inter-

B. VI.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 159

course the males and females begin to assemble, and at the
period of intercourse and the production of their ova they pair
together. Some of them do not remain pregnant more than
thirty days, and others not so long ; but all of them remain
so for a number of days, which can be distributed into seven.
Those which some persons call marini remain pregnant for
the longest period. The sargus becomes pregnant in the
month of December, and remains so for thirty days. The
kind of cestreus which some persons call the cbelon and the
myxon are pregnant at the same time as the sargus. All
these suffer in their pregnancy, wherefore they are driven to
the shore at this season ; for in the vehemence of their desire
they are carried towards the land, and always continue in
motion during this period till they have produced their ova.
The cestreus is more remarkable for this than any other fish.
As soon as they have deposited their ova, they become quiet.

2. In many fish there is a limit to their reproductive powers,
when worms make their appearance in their abdomen. These
worms are small living creatures, which expel the repro-
ductive substance. The small fry of the rhyas makes its ap-
pearance in the spring, and that of many others about the
vernal equinox. Other fish do not produce at this season of
the year, but in the summer or near the autumnal equinox.

3. The atherina produces its young first of all, near the
land. The cephalus is the last. This is evident from the
small fry of the former appearing first, and that of the latter
last of all. The cestreus also produces among the first. The
salpa in most places deposits its ova during the summer, and
sometimes in the autumn. The aulopias, which they call
anthias, produces its ova in the summer season. After these
the chrysophrys, labrax, mormyrus, and all those which are
called dromades ; the trigla and cocarinus are the latest of
all the gregarious fish., These oviposit in the autumn. The
trigla deposits her ova in the mud, which causes her to be
late, for the mud continues cold for a long while. The cora-
cimus is next to the trigla, and goes among the sea weed to
deposit her ova : consequently they frequent rocky places.
It continues pregnant for a long while. The msenides
oviposit at the winter solstice. Many other marine fish
oviposit in the summer, for they are not captured at this
period. The msenis is the most productive of all fish, and

TOO THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. VL

the batrachus the most so among the selache. They are,
however, rare, for they perish very readily ; they oviposit in
shoals and near the land.

4. The selache, as being viviparous, are less productive.
These are particularly preserved by their large size. The
belone is late in producing its young, and many of them are
burst by their ova in the act of parturition ; for these ova
are not so numerous as they are large. They surround the
parent as if they were phalangia; for she produces them
attached to herself, and if any one touches them they make
their escape. The atherina deposits her ova by rubbing her
abdomen against the sand. The thynni burst with fat. They
live two years. The fishermen argue thus : when the thyn-
nides fail one year, the thynni fail the year after. They
appear to be a year older than the pelamus.

5. The thynni and scombri copulate at the end of Fe-
bruary, and produce their young at the beginning of June.
They produce their ova, as it were, in a purse. The growth
of the thynnides is rapid ; for when these fish produce their
young in the Pontus, they produce from the ovum creatures
which some persons call scordylse, and the Byzantines call
auxidae, because they grow in a few days. They go out in
the autumn with the thynnus, and return in the spring as
pelamides. Nearly all other fish grow rapidly, but those in
the Pontus more rapidly than in other places ; for the amia3
there increase visibly every day. It is necessary to re-
member that the same fish have not in the same place the
identical time of coition and gestation, nor the same period
of reproduction and completion of their offspring. For those
which are called coracini produce their ova at the time of
wheat harvest, though, generally speaking, the order of their
reproduction is that which I have mentioned.

6. The conger also becomes pregnant, though this circum-
stance is not equally distinct everywhere on account of its
fat ; for the organ of reproduction is long, like that of ser-
pents. It becomes distinct, however, when laid upon the
fire ; for the fat smokes and consumes away, and the ova,
when pressed, jump out with a cracking noise. If any
person will feel and rub them with the finger, the fat will
appear smooth and the ova rough to the touch. Some con-
gers have fat but no ova ; and others, on the contrary, have

B. VI. j THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 1G1

no fat but such ova as I have described. We have now
treated of nearly all the oviparous animals, whether furnished
with fins, or wings, or feet, and of their sexual intercourse,
gestation, development, and such like subjects.

CHAPTER XVII.

1. WE must now treat of the nature of viviparous animals with
feet and of man at this period. We have already treated in
general and in particular of their mode of coition. It is
common to all animals to be elevated with the desire and
pleasure of sexual intercourse. The females become savage
when their young are produced, the males at the season of
coition ; for horses bite each other and drive about and pur-
sue their riders. The wild boars are very savage at this sea-
son, although coition renders them weak,

2. And they fight wonderfully among themselves, and
make themselves as it were breastplates, and render their
skin callous beforehand by rubbing themselves against trees
and frequently wallowing in the mud and drying themselves.
They fight together and drive each other out of the herd so
fiercely, that not rarely both of them perish in the fight.
The same is the nature of bulls, rams, and goats ; for although
at other seasons they pasture together, at the period of co-
pulation they quarrel and fight together. The male camel
also is violent at this time, whether it is a man or a camel that
approaches him, and he will at all times fight with a horse.

3. The nature of wild animals is the same. For bears,
wolves, and lions are savage if they are approached at this
season ; but they do not quarrel much among themselves,
for none of them are gregarious. The she bears are savage
in defence of their cubs, and bitches for their puppies. Ele-
phants also become wild at this period. Wherefore they say
that in India those who have the care of them do not permit
bhem to have sexual intercourse with the females ; for they
become mad at such season and overturn the houses, which
are badly built, and do many other violent acts. They say
also that abundance of food will render them more gentle.
They also bring others among them which are directed to
beat them, and so they punish them and reduce them to a
state of discipline.

4. Those creatures which have frequent sexual intercourse,

M

162 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [iJ. VI.

like domestic animals, as the hog and dog, appear to be less
influenced by these circumstances on account of the fre-
quency of their coition. Of all females the mare is the most
violent in her sexual desires, and then the cow. Mares are
subject to the affection called hippomania, and this name is
transferred from this single animal to intemperate and lasci-
vious persons. They are said to be affected by the wind at
such seasons : wherefore in Crete they never separate the
stallions from the mares. When the mares are thus affected,
they separate themselves from the other horses. In swine
the same affection is called xangifyiv, to desire the boar.
They never run to the east or the west, but either north or
south.

5. When they suffer from this affection, they will allow
no one to approach them, till they either are so fatigued that
they can go no further, or come to the sea: they then eject
some substance, which has received the name of hippomanes,
like that on a new-born colt. It resembles the capria of
the sow. Poisoners diligently seek for this substance, /it
the season of sexual intercourse they lean upon each other
more than at other times, and move their tails, and utter a
different sound from that which is common to them. A
fluid like semen also flows from their genital organs, but it
is much more thin than that of the male ; and some per-
sons call this fluid hippomanes, though it is not thai
which is produced upon colts. It is difficult to collect
this fluid, for it does not appear in large quantities.
When they are desirous of sexual intercourse, they often
make water, and sport together : this is the nature of
horses.

6. Cows desire the bull. They are so taken up by their
passion, that the cowherds cannot manage them. Mares
and cows shew the vehemence of their desire by the swelling
of their genital parts. Cows also, like mares, make water
very frequently. The cows also mount upon the bull, and
follow, and stand beside him. The younger animals, both
among horses and oxen, are the first to desire sexual inter-
course ; and in fine weather, when their health is good, the
vehemence of their desire is still stronger. If the manes
of the mares are cut, their desires become weaker, and they
are rendered more gentle.

B. VI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 163

7. The stallions recognise the mares of their own herds
by the scent ; and if any strangers become mixed with them
a few days before the period of coition, they bite them till
they go away, and each stallion feeds apart with his own
mares. Thirty mares, or rather less, are given to each ; and
if any male approaches, he turns and goes round the mares
in a circle, and then prepares to fight. If any one of the
females attempts to move, he bites and prevents her.

8. At the season of sexual intercourse the bull pastures
with the cows, and fights with other bulls : at other times
the sexes keep themselves separate : this is called arifjiaytXt/v
(despising the herd) ; those in Epirus are often not seen for
three months : and generally all, or nearly all, wild animals,
do not herd with their females before the season of sexual
intercourse : but as soon as they come to puberty the males
separate themselves, and cease to feed with the females.
Sows, when they are urged by sexual desire, or, as it is
called, desire the boar (xangav), will even attack men.
In bitches this affection is called 6xv£av, to desire the
dog.

9. "When females are urged with desire, their genital organs
are swollen with heat, and a fluid secretion takes place.
Mares scatter about a white fluid at this season. In no
creatures -are the catamenia so abundant as in women. In
sheep and goats at the season of coition, there are certain
signs before copulation : there are also signs ; fter copu-
lation, but these again cease till the period of parturition,
when they again occur. By this means shepherds under-
stand that they are about to produce their young. After
parturition there is a great purification, which at first is not
very full of blood, but becomes so afterwards.

10. In the cow, the ass, and mare, this purification is
abundant, on account of their great size; but still it is
small, considering how large they are. When the cow is
urged by desire, she undergoes a brief purification, about
half-a-cup full, or a little more. The time of this purification
is peculiarly the period for sexual intercouse. Of all quad-
rupeds the mare suffers the least, and is the most cleanly in
parturition : neither is her loss of blood great considering
the size of the animal. In cows and mares, the failure of
the catamenia in the second, fourth, and sixth month is con-

M 2

164 THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. [B. TL

sidered as a sign of pregnancy ; but it is not easy for anyone
to understand this, who does not follow and accustom him-
self to them : and some persons are of opinion that they have
no catamenia. The female oreus has no catamenia, but her
urine is thicker than that of the male.

11. On the whole, the liquid excrements are thicker in
other animals than in man ; and those of female sheep and
goats thicker than in the males of the same animal. That
of the she ass is thinner, of the cow is harsher, than of their
respective males. After parturition the urine of all creatures
becomes thicker, and especially in those which have no puri-
fication. When females begin to feel sexual desires, their
milk is like pus ; it afterwards becomes useful after parturi-
tion. Sheep and goats become fat when they are pregnant,
and consume more food ; and so do cows, and all other quad-
rupeds.

CHAPTER XVIII.

1. GENERALLY speaking, the sexual desires of animals are
more violent in spring. They do not all, however, copulate
at the same seasons, but at the time of year which will cause
them to produce their young at the proper season. The
period of gestation in domestic swine is four months. They
never produce more than twenty pigs ; and if they have
many, they cannot bring them all up. When aged, they
produce in the same manner, but they copulate more
slowly. They become pregnant with one act of coition;
but they submit themselves to the boar very frequently, on
account of their rejection of the capria after they are preg-
nant. This takes place in all, but some will also eject the
semen.

2. If any of the pigs are injured or deteriorated during
pregnancy, it is called metachseron. This may take place in
any part of the uterus. In parturition the sow gives the
first teat to the first pig. It is not necessary that she should
go to the boar as soon as the sexual appetite is felt, or before
her ears begin to hang down ; for otherwise she desires to
go again. If she goes to the boar when she is desirous of it,
the impregnation is complete in a single act of intercourse.
Barley is a proper food for the boar at the period of coition.
It should be cooked for the female after parturition. Some

B. VI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 165

sows produce excellent pigs from the first ; others do not
produce good offspring and pigs till they are grown up.
Some persons say that if one of the eyes of a sow is put out,
she generally speaking dies very soon. Most of them live
fifteen. Some die in less than twenty years.

CHAPTER XIX.

1. SHEEP become pregnant after three or four acts of sexual
intercourse. If rain falls after the act of intercourse, it
must be repeated. The nature of goats is the same. They
generally produce two, and sometimes three. Cases have
occurred of their producing four. The period of gestation
in the sheep and goat is five months ; and in some places,
where the weather is warm and fine, and food is abundant,
they have young twice a-year. The goat will live eight
years. The sheep lives ten years, or generally rather less ;
but the leaders of the flock live fifteen years ; for in every
flock they select one of the males as a leader, who, when
called by the shepherd, places himself at the head of the
flock. They are accustomed to this duty even when young.
In Ethiopia the sheep live twelve or thirteen years, and the
goats ten or eleven.

2. Both the sheep and goat enjoy sexual intercourse as
loDg as they live. Sheep and goats produce twins, if either
the pasture is good, or the ram or he-goat, or the ewe
belongs to a race producing twins. They produce females
or males both from the nature of the water (for there are
some waters that cause them to produce males and others
females) and from their manner of sexual intercourse ; and
if the wind is northward during copulation they produce
males ; and if it is southward, females ; and one which na-
turally produces females will change its nature and produce
males ; so that it is necessary to see that they stand to the
north during the act of sexual intercourse. If any are ac-
customed to copulate early, and the ram is introduced to
them late, they will not endure it.

3. The lambs are white or black according as the veins
beneath the tongue of the ram are white or black ; for the
lambs are white if the veins are white, and black if they are
black. If they are both black and white, the lambs also are
of two colours ; and if red, then the lambs are red. They

166 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. VT.

are more ready for sexual intercourse if they drink salt
water ; so that they should be supplied with salted water
both before and after parturition, and again in the spring.
The herdsmen do not constitute any leader among the flocks
of goats, because it is not their nature to be stationary, but
they are active and ready to move from place to place. If
the older sheep prepare for sexual intercourse at the proper
time, the shepherds consider it a sign of a good year for the
sheep ; if the younger ones are ready first, it will be a bad
sheep year.

CHAPTER XX.

1. THERE are many kinds of dogs. The Lacedemonian dogs,
both male and female, begin to have sexual intercourse at
eight months old. Some also lift their leg to make water
about this period. The bitch becomes pregnant with a single
act of coition ; this is particularly evident in those -which per-
form the act in secret, for they become pregnant when once
united. The period of gestation in the Lacedemonian bitch
is the sixth part of a year, that is sixty days, or it may be one,
two, or three days more or less. The puppies when they
are born are blind for twelve days. The bitch is ready for
sexual intercourse six months after she has produced her
young, and not sooner. In some the period of gestation
is the fifth part of a year, this is seventy-two days. The
puppies of such bitches are blind for fourteen days. Others
are pregnant the fourth part of a year, that is three whole
months ; their puppies are blind seventeen days. The fe-
male appears to desire the male for the same length of time.
2. The catamenia in bitches last for seven days, and at
the same time the genital organs are swollen with heat ;
during this period they will not endure coition, but during
the seven days which follow, for they all appear usually to
desire the male for fourteen days. This affection continues
in some for sixteen days. The purification from parturition
takes place at the birth of the young ones ; it is thick
and phlegmatic, and the quantity produced in partu-
rition is small in proportion to the size of the body/
Bitches generally have milk five days before parturition ; in

1 (Or perhaps) after parturition the discharge becomes thinner in
consistence.

B. TT.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 167

some cases it appears seven, and in others four days before-
hand ; the milk is good as soon as the young are born. The
Lacedemonian bitch gives milk in thirty days after sexual
intercourse ; at first it is thick, but becomes thinner after-
wards. The milk of the bitch is thicker than that of other
animals, except the sow and the hare.

3. There is evidence of their having reached the age of pu-
berty, for as in the human subject the mammae begin to
enlarge and become cartilaginous ; it is, however, difficult to
detect this without practice, for the enlargement is not very
great. This takes place in the female, nothing of the kind
occurs in the male. The males generally begin to lift up their
leg to make water when they are six months old. Some do
not do so till they are eight months old, and others before
they are six months old, for, to speak plainly, they do this as
soon as they reach puberty ; all the females sit down to make
water : some, however, even of these lift up their leg for
this purpose. The female never produces more than twelve
puppies, generally five or six, and sometimes only one ;
those of Lacedremon generally have eight ; both sexes con-
tinue to enjoy sexual intercourse as long as they live.

4. It is a peculiarity of the Lacedemonian dog, that it is
more ready for sexual intercourse after hard work than when
idle ; the male of this kind lives ten years, the female for twelve,
most other dogs live fourteen or fifteen years, some even
twenty, for which reason some persons think that Homer is
right when he makes the dog of Ulysses to have died at
the age of twenty. On account of the hard work which the
Lacedemonian dogs have to endure the female lives longer
than the male ; in other races this is not so plainly observed,
but the male is usually longer lived than the female. The
dog does not shed any teeth except those called the canine
teeth, these are shed by both sexes at four months old.
Because they shed these only, a question is raised, for some
persons altogether deny that they shed only two teeth, for
it is difficult to meet with these, and others, when they see
that they shed these, think that they must shed all their
teeth. People judge of the age of a dog by its teeth, for in
voung dogs they are white and sharp, in old ones they are
black and blunted.

LG8 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. '"u. VI.

CHAPTER XXI.

1. THE cow is impregnated with a single act of coition,
and the bull mounts upon her with such violence that she
bands beneath his weight. If he fails to impregnate her
after twenty days, she is again admitted to the bull. Old
bulls will not mount the same cow several times in the
same day unless there is some intermission, but young bulls,
incited by the strength of their desires, will force the same
cow several times, and will mount upon many in succession.
The bull is one of the least lascivious of animals. The
conqueror copulates with the female, but if he become im-
potent from frequent sexual intercourse, the inferior will
attack him, and often prevail.

2. Both the male and the female commence sexual inter-
course, so as to produce young, at a year old, though not
generally till they are a year and eight months old, or two
years old according to general agreement. The female is
pregnant nine months, and produces her young in the tenth
month ; some persons affirm that parturition takes place at
ten months to a day ; if any of them calve before the above
mentioned time, the calf is abortive and does not live, and
even if born a little before the proper time it cannot live,
for the hoofs are imperfect. The female generally produces
one at a time, sometimes two. She continues to bear and
to have sexual intercourse as long as she lives.

3. The female usually lives fifteen years, and so does
the male if he is not castrated ; some live for more than
twenty years if they have an active body. They usually
place castrated oxen as leaders of the herd, as they do in
sheep, and these live longer than the others, for they do
no work, and feed in a superior pasture. They attain per-
fection at five years old, wherefore some say that Homer
was right when he spoke of the male flourishing at five
years old, and the cow at nine years old, for both expres-
sions have the same meaning.

4. Oxen change their teeth at two years old, not all of them,
however, but only like the horse ; they do not cast their hoofs
when they are lame, but only swell very much about the
feet. The milk is good immediately after calving, but the
cow has no milk beforehand. The milk which is first formed

B. VI.] THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 169

becomes hard like a stone when it is coagulated ; this takes
place if it is not mixed with water. They do not produce
young before they are a year old, except in some remarkable
cases, for some have been known to copulate at four months
old. Most of them desire sexual intercourse in the months
of April and May. Some, however, are not impregnated
before the autumn. When many become pregnant and
admit the male, it is a sign of cold and rainy weather. The
usual discharges occur in cows as they do in mares, but the
quantity is less.

CHAPTEB XXII.

1. BOTH the horse and mare begin to use sexual intercourse
at two years old. Such early cases, however, are rare, and
their offspring small and weak ; and generally they com-
mence at three years old, and they continue to produce
better colts till they are twenty years old. The period of
gestation is eleven months; parturition takes place in the
twelfth. The male does not impregnate the female in any
particular number of days ; but at times in one, two, or
three, sometimes in more. The ass mounts and impregnates
more quickly than the horse ; and the act of intercourse is
not laborious in horses as it is in oxen. Next to the human
subject, the horse in both sexes is the most lascivious of all
animals. The sexual intercourse of the younger horses takes
place before the usual age according to the goodness and
abundance of their food. The horse generally produces but
one colt, or sometimes two at the outside. The hemionus has
also been known to produce two, but this is considered extra-
ordinary. The horse begins sexual intercourse at thirty
months old, so that it can produce proper colts when it has
done changing its teeth. Some have been known, they say,
to impregnate mares while changing their teeth, unless they
were naturally barren.

2. The horse has forty teeth. It sheds its four first teeth
at thirty months old, two above and two below. A year
afterwards, it sheds four more in the same manner, two
above and two below. And again, at the end of the next
year, it sheds four more in the same manner. "When it is
four years and a half old, it sheds no more ; and individuals
hava 'been known to shed them all at first, and others that

170 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [3. VI.

have shed them all in the last year. These circumstances
are rare, so that it usually happens that the horse is most
fit for sexual intercourse at four years and a half old. The
older horses are more full of semen, both the males and the
females, than younger ones. Horses will copulate both with
their dams and with their offspring ; and it is thought to be
a sign that the herd is complete, when they copulate with
their offspring. The Scythians ride upon their pregnant
mares when the embryo begins to turn in the uterus, and
say that it renders parturition more easy. All other quad-
rupeds lie down in the act of parturition ; wherefore their
young are always produced lying on their side ; but when
the mare feels that the time for parturition is approaching,
she stands upright to part with her colt.

3. Horses generally live eighteen or twenty years ; some
live twenty -five or thirty years ; but if they are carefully
treated, their life may be extended to fifty years. Thirty
years, however, is a very long life for the male, and twenty-
five for the female. Some have been known to live forty
years. Males live a shorter time than females, on account
of the act of sexual intercourse ; and those that are brought
up separately longer than those which live in herds. Fe-
males attain their proper length and height in five years ;
the males in six. In six more years the fulness of body is
acquired, which continues till they are twenty years old.
The females attain perfection more rapidly than the males ;
but in the uterus the males are the more rapidly developed.
This is also the case in the human subject. This also takes
place in those animals which produce several at a birth.

4. They say that the mule sucks for six months, but the
mare will not permit it to come afterwards, because it
drags and hurts her. The horse sucks for a longer time.
The horse and the mule attain perfection after casting
their teeth ; and when* they have cast them all, it is not
easy to know their age. "Wherefore they say that, before
casting its teeth, the horse has its mark, which it has not
afterwards. After the teeth have been changed, the age
is usually ascertained by the canine tooth ; for that in
riding horses is generally worn down, for the bridle rubs
against it. In horses which have not been ridden, it is large
and not worn. In young horses it is small and sharp.

B. VI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 171

5. The male copulates at all seasons, and as long as ho
lives ; the female also as long as she lives ; and at all seasons,
unless they have on a fastening or some other hindrance, no
peculiar time is appropriated for copulation in either sex,
for there is no period of coition when they cannot also bring
up their young. In Opus there was a horse in a herd
which engendered when he was forty years old ; but it was
necessary to lift up his fore legs for him. Mares begin to
desire sexual intercourse in the spring ; and when the mare
has foaled, she does not become pregnant again immediately,
but waits for a time^ and produces better foals at the end of
four or five years. It is quite necessary that she should
wait one year, and should pass through a fallow, as it were.

6. The horse, then, bears young at intervals, as I have
observed ; but the ass is not subject to intervals. Some
mares are quite barren, and others, though they conceive,
yet do not produce their young ; and they give as a reason
for this, that .upon dissection the foetus was found to contain
other reniform bodies round the kidneys, so that it appeared
to have four kidneys. As soon as the mare has foaled, she
eats the chorion, and bites from the head of her foal the
substance called hippomanes. In size this substance is
somewhat less than a dry fig. Its form is flat and round,
and its colour black. If any person is at hand to take it
before the mare, and she smells it, the scent renders her
wild and mad. For this reason it is sought after and col-
lected by poisoners. If an ass copulates with a pregnant
mare, the pre-existing foetus is destroyed. Those who keep
herds of horses do not place a leader ove» them, as they do
over oxen, for they are not naturally stationary, but active
and wandering.

CHAPTER XXIII.

1. THE male and female ass begin to copulate at thirty
months old, and shed their first teeth at the same period.
They lose their second pair of teeth six months afterwards,
and their third and fourth in the same way. These fourth
teeth are called the marking teeth. Sometimes the ass has
become pregnant and brought up its young at a year old.
The she ass parts with the semen after coition, if she is not
prevented ; and therefore, immediately after coition, they

172 THE HISTOET Or ANIMALS. [fi. VI.

beat her and drive her about. She foals in the twelfth
month, and generally produces one foal, for this is their
nature, though cases of twin births have occurred. If an
ass mounts upon a mare, he destroys her foetus, as I observed
before. But the horse does not destroy the foetus of the
ass, if the mare has been impregnated by a he ass.

2. The pregnant female has milk at the end of ten months.
After parturition, she will admit the male on the seventh
day, and is very easily impregnated at that period. She
will also receive it afterwards. If she does not produce
young before losing her marking teeth, she can never be
impregnated all the rest of her life. She does not like men
to be witnesses of her parturition, nor will she produce her
young in the day time ; but when it is dark she retires, and
so produces her young. She continues to procreate during
her whole life, if she has begun before losing her marking
teeth. The ass lives more than thirty years, and the female
longer than the male. When a horse copulates with an ass,
or a he ass with a mare, abortion is more frequent than be-
tween congeners, a horse with a mare, or two asses together.
"When the horse and ass are mixed together, the period of
gestation follows from the male parent. I mean to say that
it takes the same time as if the parents had been congeners ;
but in size, form, and strength the produce of their union
generally resembles the female parent.

3. If the union takes place frequently, and sufficient time
is not allowed to intervene, the female soon becomes barren.
For which reason those who attend to this business do not
permit them to Ifave continual intercourse, but interpose a
proper interval. The mare will not admit the he ass, nor
the she ass the horse, unless the he ass has been suckled by
a mare. They are careful, therefore, to admit only those
asses which they call hippothelse, i.e. asses which have been
suckled by a mare. These copulate by force in the pastures,
like horses.

CHAPTER XXIV.

1. THE oreus (mule) mounts and copulates after shedding
the first teeth, and when seven years old is able to engender ;
and the ginnus is produced when he mounts upon a mare.
After this he no longer continues to copulate. The female

B. VI.] THE HISTORY Or ANIMALS. 173

oreus also has been impregnated, but the foetus has never
been known to conie to maturity. The hemioni (female
mules) of Syria, near Phoenicia, admit the male and pro-
create. The kind, however, though similar, is not the same,
Those which are called ginni are produced from a mare,
when the foetus has received some injury in the uterus, like
dwarfs among men and metachoera among swine ; and the
ginnus, like the dwarf, has a large genital organ.

2. The hemionus has a long life; for they have been
known to live for eighty years, as in Athens, when they
built the temple, this individual, though failing with age,
helped in drawing, and went beside them, and encou-
raged the yoke mules to their work, so that an edict Mras
made, commanding the corn-dealers not to drive it away
from the vessels filled with corn. The female mule (oreus)
grows old sooner than the male. Some persons say that she
is purified when making water, but the male ages more
rapidly from smelling the urine.

3. This is the manner of the reproduction of these ani-
mals. Those who are employed in bringing up these animals
recognize the young from the old in this way. If the skin,
when drawn back from the cheek, soon recovers its shape,
the animal is young ; if the skin continues wrinkled for a
long while, the creature is aged.

CHAPTER XXY.

1. THE camel is pregnant ten months, and always produces
a single young one, for this is its nature. They separate
the young camel from the herd at a year old. The camel
will live more than fifty years. The season of parturition
is in the spring, and the female continues to give milk until
she conceives again. Their flesh and milk are exceedingly
sweet. The milk is drunk mixed with two or three times
its quantity of water.

2. Elephants begin to copulate at twenty years old. "When
the female is impregnated, her period of gestation, some per-
sons say, is a year and a half; other people make it three
years. The difficulty of seeing their copulation causes this
difference of opinion respecting the period of gestation. The
female produces her young bending upon her haunches.
Her pain is evident. The calf, when it is born, sucks with

174 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. VI.

its mouth, and not with its proboscis. It can walk and see
as soon as it is born.

3. Wild swine copulate at the beginning of winter. They
produce their young in the spring. For this purpose the
female gets away into inaccessible and precipitous places,
where there are caves and plenty of shade. The males re-
main with the females for thirty days. The number of pigs
and the period of gestation are the same as in the domesti-
cated herd, and their voices are much alike : the female,
however, grunts more and the male less. The castration of
the male makes them larger and more fierce, as Homer
writes. " He brought up a castrated wild boar, which was not
like a beast fed upon food, but resembled a woody moun-
tain peak." Castration takes place from a disease like a
swelling in the testicles, which they rub against the trees
and so destroy them.

CHAPTER XXYI.

1. THE female deer usually copulates, as I observed before,
from allurement ; for she cannot endure the male on account
of the hardness of the penis. Some, however, endure copu-
lation as sheep do. "When sexual desire is felt, they lie
down beside each other. The male is changeable in his dis-
position, and does not unite himself to a single female, but
in a short time leaves one for another. The season for
sexual intercourse is in August and September, after Arctu-
rus. The period of gestation is eight months. The female
becomes pregnant in a few days, and frequently in one day.

2. She generally produces one fawn, though some have
been known to bear twins. She produces her young by the
road side, for fear of wild beasts. The growth of the fawns
is rapid. The female has no purification at other times, but
after parturition her cleansing is sanguineous. The female
usually conducts her fawn to some accustomed place, which
serves them for a refuge. It is usually an opening in a
rock, with but one entrance, where they can defend them-
selves against those who would attack them.

3. There are fables about their long life. They do not,
however, appear to be worthy of credit ; and the period of
gestation and growth of the young does not agree with the
habits of long-lived animals. In the mountain called Eter

B. V.T.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 175

piio'is, in Argiuusa, in Asia, where Alcibiades died, all cbe
deer have their ears divided, so that they can be known if
they migrate to another place, and even the foetus in utero
has this distinction. The females have four nipples, like
cows.

4. As soon as the females are impregnated, the males go
and live apart from them, and, urged by their sexual desires,
they each go apart and make a hole, in which they emit a
strong smell like he goats, and their faces become black, by
being sprinkled like those of goats. This continues till
after rain, when they turn again to their pasture. The
animal acts in this way on account of its violent sexual de-
sires and its fatness. In summer time this is so great
that they cannot run, but are taken by those who pursue
them, even on foot, in the second or third race.

5. They frequent the water both on account of the heat
and the difficulty of breathing. At the period of sexual
intercourse, their flesh is inferior both in taste and smell,
like that of he-goats. In winter they are thin and weak,
and in the spring are most active for the chase. When
chased, they sometimes rest awhile, and remain standing till
their pursuers come up with them, when they start afresh.
They seem to do this from a pain in their intestines ; for
their viscera are so thin and weak that if they are only
struck gently they are ruptured, though the hide remains
sound.

CHAPTER XXVII.

1. BEARS perform the act of sexual intercourse in the man-
ner already described, not mounting upon each other, but
lying down upon the ground. The female is pregnant thirty
days, when she produces one or two, or at the outside five
cubs. The foetus is smaller, in proportion to the size of the
parent, than that of any other animal ; for it is less than a
weasel, and greater than a mouse. It is without hair and
blind, and its legs and almost all its parts are without
joints. Its season of sexual intercourse is in March.
The cubs are born at the time of concealment. At this
season both the female and the male are very fat. When
they have brought up their young, they show themselves
in the third month of the spring. The porcupine also

176 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [T5. VI.

conceals itself, and is pregnant for the same number of
days, and in other respects resembles the bear. It is very
difficult to capture the she bear when pregnant.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

1. IT has already been observed that the lion both copulates
and makes water backwards. They do not copulate and
produce their young at all seasons of the year, though they
produce annually. The young are produced in the spring.
The female generally produces two, never more than six,
and sometimes only one. The fable which says that the
uterus is ejected in parturition is a mistake. It has arisen
from the rarity of the animal, those who invented the fable
being ignorant of the true state of the case. The race of
lions is rare, and not to be found in every place, but only in
the country between the Achelous and the Nessus in the
whole of Europe. The young of the lion are very small at
their birth, so that they can hardly walk at two months old.
The Syrian lions produce five times ; at first five cubs, and
then one less every time. After this they produce no more,
but continue barren. The lioness has no mane, though the
lion has. The lion only sheds its four canine teeth, two
above and two below. They are shed when the animal is
six months old.

2. The hyasna is of the colour of the wolf, but it is more
hairy, and has a mane along the ridge of its back. It is a
mistake to say that each individual has the sexual organs of
both sexes. That of the male resembles the same organ in
the wolf and the dog. That which has been imagined to be
the female organ is placed beneath the tail, and it resembles
that of the female, but is imperforate, and the anus is be-
neath it. The female hyena has an organ similar to that
which bears its name in the male. It is placed beneath the
tail, and is imperforate. Beneath this is the anus, and below
this again the true genital organ. The female hyena has an
uterus like that of other animals of the class, but the female
is rarely captured. A certain hunter said that he caught
eleven hyaenas of which only one was a female.

3. Hares copulate backwards, as I formerly observed, for
it is a retromingent animal. They copulate and produce

B. 71.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 177

their young at all seasons. They become pregnant a second
time while they are pregnant, and produce their young every
month. They do not produce their young continually, but
as many days as may be intervene. The female has milk
before the young are produced. As soon as her young are
born, she copulates again, and conceives while giving milk.
Tne milk is as thick as that of the sow. The young are
born blind, like those of many animals with divided feet.

CHAPTER XXIX.

] . THE fox copulates, mounting on the back of the female.
The young are born blind, like those of the bear, and are
even more inarticulate. When the season of parturition
approaches, the female goes apart, so that it is rare to take
a pregnant fox. When the young are born, the dam licks
them, in order to warm and mature them. She never pro-
duces more than four.

2. The periods of gestation and parturition, both in point of
time and the number of the young, are the same in the wolf as
in the dog, and the young are blind, like those of the dog.
They copulate at one season of the year, and the young are
produced in the beginning of summer. A fabulous story
is told of their parturition ; for they say that all the she
wolves produce their young in twelve days in the year ; and
the reason which is given for this fable is this, that during this
number of days Latona was brought from the Hyperborean
regions to Delos, in the form of a wolf, for fear of Juno.
Whether this is or is not the period of parturition has never
yet been ascertained. At present it only rests upon tra-
dition. It does not appear to be true, nor that other tale
which says that wolves only produce once in their life.

3. Cats and ichneumons produce their young in the same
manner as dogs, and live upon the same things. They live
about six years. The young of the panther are born blind.
They are never more than four in number. The jackal
is impregnated like a bitch, and the young are born blind.
They produce two, or three, or four. Its length towards
the tail is great. Its height is small. It runs very swiftly,
although its legs are short ; but on account of the softness
of its tissues it can leap a great distance.

4. In Syria there are animals called hemioni which are

178 THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. [fi. VI.

different from those derived from a mixture of the horse and
ass, though they resemble them in appearance. As the wild
ass is named from its resemblance to the domestic kind, the
wild asses and the hemioni differ from the domestic race in
speed. These hemioni are derived from their own congeners,
of which this is a proof. For some came to Phrygia in the
time of Pharnaces, the father of Pharnabazus, and remain
there still. There are now only three, though they say that
at first there were nine.

CHAPTEB XXX.

1. THE reproduction of mice is more wonderful than that
of any other animal, both in number and rapidity. For a
pregnant female was left in a vessel of corn ; and after a
short time the vessel was opened, and a hundred and twenty
mice were counted. There is a doubt respecting the re-
production and destruction of the mice which live on the
ground ; for such an inexpressible number of field mice have
sometimes made their appearance that very little food re-
mained. Their power of destruction also is so great that
some small farmers, having on one day observed that their
corn was ready for harvest, when they went the following
day to cut their corn, found it all eaten.

2. The manner of their disappearance also is unac-
countable ; for in a few days they all vanish, although be-
forehand they could not be exterminated by smoking and
digging them out, nor by hunting them and turning swine
among them to root up their runs. Foxes also hunt them
out, and wild weasels1 are very ready to destroy them ; but
they cannot prevail over their numbers and the rapidity of
their increase, nor indeed can anything prevail over them
but rain, and when this comes they disappear very soon.

3. In a certain part of Persia the female foetus of the mice
are found to be pregnant in the uterus of their parent.
Some people say and affirm that if they lick salt they become
pregnant without copulation. The Egyptian mice have hair
nearly resembling that of the hedgehog. There are other
kinds which go upon two feet, for their fore feet are small
and their hind feet large.2 They are very numerous. There
are also many other kinds of mice.

J Perhaps ferret, Mustek varo, or weasel.
2 Serboa, Dipus gerbillus, or D. jacuius.

B. TIT.] THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 179

BOOK THE SEVENTH.

CHAPTER I.

1. THE circumstances attending on the growth of man, from
his conception in the womb even to old age, derived from his
peculiar nature, are after this manner. We have already
treated of the distinctions of the male and female and their
parts. The male begins to have semen at about the age of
fourteen complete. At the same time hair begins to appear on
the pubes. As Alcmaeon of Crotona says that flowers blossom
before they bear seed, about the same period the voice begins
to become more harsh and irregular. It is neither quite
harsh, nor deep, nor all alike, but it resembles a discordant
and harsh instrument. This is called rgaytjs/u, to have a
voice like a goat.

2. This is more conspicuous in those who attempt the
gratification of sexual desires ; for those who are vehement
in these desires rapidly pass into a man's voice. In those
that refrain themselves the contrary occurs. In those who,
like some singers, endeavour to avoid this change, the voice
will continue for a long while, and never undergo any great
change. The breasts also and pudendum not only increase
in size, but their general appearance is changed. At this
period of life, if a person is' urged to the emission of semen,
the discharge is accompanied with pain as well as pleasure.

3. About the same period also the breasts of females en-
large, and the catamenia make their appearance. They re-
semble the blood of a newly killed animal. In young girls
only do they appear white, especially if they make use of
fluid food. This complaint stops the growth and weakens
the body of girls. The catamenia usually appear when the
mammae are about two fingers high. The voice of girls also
becomes deeper at this period, for on the whole the voice of
women is more acute than that of men, and the voice of
girls than that of old women, as the voice of boys is more

3T 2

180 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [u. Til.

acute than the voice of men. The voice of female children
also is more acute than that of males, and the windpipe is
more acute in girls than boys.

4. They also want especial care at this period, for their
sexual desires are very strong at the commencement, so
that if they now take care to avoid every excitement, except
such as the change of their body requires, without using
venery, they generally remain temperate in after-years. For
girls who indulge in venery when young, generally grow up
intemperate ; and so do males if they are unguarded either
one way or both ways ; for at this age the ducts open, and
afford an easy passage for the fluid through the body, and
at the same time the memory of past pleasures causes a
desire for present gratification.

9. Some men never have hair on the pubes from their
birth, nor seed, on account of the destruction of the parts
appropriated to the semen. There are some women also
who never have hair on the pubes. The male and female
also change their habits of sickness and of health, and
the proportions of their body, whether slight or stout,
or of a good habit. Some thin boys after they attain
puberty become stout and healthy, in others the contrary
takes place. This is the case also with females ; for whe-
ther boys or girls have their bodies loaded with excre-
mentitious matter, this is separated in the one by puberty,
in the other by the catamenia. They become more healthy
and thriving when that which had prevented health and
growth is removed.

6. Those which are of the contrary habit of body become
more thin and delicate ; for their naturally healthy condi-
tion is separated in the puberty of one sex., and the cata-
menia of the other. There is also considerable variety in
the bosoms of young girls, for in some they are very large,
in others small. This generally takes place in those girls
which have much superfluous humour, for when the cata-
menia are about to appear, but before they arrive, the more
fluid the patient is, the more necessary it is that the breasts
should increase until the catamenia make their appearance,
and the breasts, which then begin to increase, remain so after-
wards. In youths and aged men the breasts are more con-
spicuous, and more like those of females ; and in those who

B. VTI.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 181

are of a soft habit of body, and are smooth and not full of
veins, and in dark persons also more than fair ones.

7. Until twenty-one years of age the semen is unpro-
ductive, afterwards it becomes fertile, though boys and girls
produce small and imperfect children : this is also the case
with other animals. Young girls conceive more readily,
but after conception suffer more in parturition, and their
bodies frequently become imperfect. Men of violent pas-
sions, and women that have borne many children, grow old
more rapidly than others ; nor does there appear to be any
increase after they have borne three children. Women of
violent sexual desires become more temperate after they
have borne several children.

8. Women who have attained thrice seven years are well
adapted for child-bearing, and men also are capable of- be-
coming parents. Thin seminal fluid is barren. That which
is lumpy begets males ; what is thin and not clotted, females.
The beard also appears on the chin of men at the same
period.

CHAPTER II.

1. THE catamenia appear when the moon is on the wane, from
which some persons would argue that the moon is a female,
for the purification of women and the waning of the moon
occur together, and repletion occurs again in both after the
purification and waning. In few women the catamenia
occur every month, but in most at every third month.
Those in whom they continue for only two or three days
escape with ease: it is more difficult for those in whom
it continues for a longer time, for they suffer during the
whole period. In some the purification takes place all at
once, in others by degrees ; in all, however, the pain is con-
siderable as long as they are present. In many wo-
men, when the catamenia are nearly ready to appear, the
womb suffers so much from strangulation and disturbance,
until they are discharged.

2. Conception naturally takes place immediately after
this discharge in women, and those who do not then con-
ceive, are usually barren. Some women, however, who
have never menstruated, conceive. Such persons contain
in themselves as much of the fluid as is usually left behind

182 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. VII

after the purification, but not so much as to make its ap-
pearance externally. Some women in whom the uterus has
closed immediately after the purification, conceive even while
menstruating, but do not conceive afterwards. The cata-
rnenia sometimes occur even in pregnant women. Such
women usually bear imperfect children, and their offspring
either do not grow up, or are weakly.

3. It frequently happens that from the want of sexuai
intercourse, or from youth and the period of life, or from
long abstinence, the uterus descends, and the catamenia
occur several times in the month, until they conceive; after
which the parts return to their proper place : and sometimes
even in women with a good habit of body, if the humours
are abundant, an effusion of the semen takes place if it is
too moist.

4. It has already been observed that this purification is
more abundant in women than in any other creature. In
animals that are not viviparous no symptoms of anything of
the kind occur, for this superfluous matter is returned into
their own body, for in many the females are superior to the
males in size, and in many it is turned to the formation of
plates, or scales, or abundance of feathers. In viviparous ani-
mals with feet, it is turned to the formation of hair and bulk
of body (for man is the only animal that is smooth), or of
urine ; for in almost all animals this secretion is thick and
abundant. In women, on the contrary, all the superfluous
matter of the body is directed to this purification.

5. The case of the male is the same, for in proportion to
his size, man emits more semen than other animals ; (where-
fore, also, man is the smoothest of all animals,) and among
men those which abound in humours, and are not very full
fleshed, and fair men more than dark ones. So also among
women. For in those that are full fleshed, the greater part
of the secretion goes to the supply of the body, and in the
act of sexual intercourse, fair women have naturally more
seminal fluid than dark ones. Liquid and acid foods also
increase this kind of intercourse.

CHAPTER III.

1. It is a sign that women have conceived when the puden-
dum remains dry after coition. If the labia are smooth they

B. VII.] THE HISTOET OF AKIMALS. 1S3

will not conceive, for it slips out ; nor will they if the labia
are thick : but if there is a sensation of roughness and re-
sistance when touched with the finger, and the labia are
thin, they are then adapted for conception. In order that
they may be able to conceive, such women must prepare the
uterus, and the contrary that they may not conceive ; for
if the labia are smooth they do not conceive : so that some
women, in order that the semen may fall outside the uterus,
anoint themselves with oil of cedar, or with ceruse, or oil
mixed with frankincense.

2. If it remain seven days, it is evident that conception
has taken place, for in this period what are called the out-
pourings take place. The purification takes place in many
women after conception. Thirty days afterwards in the
case of conceiving a female child, and forty in the case of
a male. After parturition, also, the purification lasts a simi-
lar number of days, though it is not exactly the same in all.

3. In the same number of days after conception the dis-
charge no longer takes its usual course, but is turned towards
the mammae, in which the milk begins to make its appearance.
At first the milk appears very small, and like a web in the
mammae. After conception, the first sensation generally
takes place in the iliac region, which immediately appears
more full in some persons. This is more conspicuous in
slight persons. If the child is a male, a movement is usually
felt on the right side of the groin, in about forty days ; if a
female, the movement occurs on the left side, in about
ninety days. We must not suppose, however, that an accu-
rate judgment can be formed in this way, for it often happens
that the movement is felt on the right side when a female
child, and on the left when a male child is conceived. All
these, and such like things, vary in a greater or less degree.

4. About this period, also, the foetus becomes divided ; it
previously existed as an undivided mass of flesh. If it pe-
rishes within seven days, it is called an effluxion ; if in
forty days, an abortion. The foetus often perishes within
this period. If the male foetus is excluded within forty
days, and is put out into any other fluid, it becomes dis-
solved, and disappears. If placed in cold water, it becomes,
as it were, surrounded with a membrane. When this is
taken off, the foetus appears about as large as a large

184 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. Til.

ant. Its parts are visible, both those of generation, and all
the rest ; and the eyes are very large, as in other animals.
It' the female foetus perishes within the three months, it
generally appears without divisions. If it survives to the
fourth month, the parts appear formed.

5. The whole completion of the parts is more slow in the
female than in the male, and parturition is more frequently
delayed to the tenth month. After birth, females attain to
youth, and puberty, and old age, more rapidly than males,
and those that have borne many children more rapidly than
others, as it was observed before.

CHAPTER IV.

1. WHEN conception has taken place, the uterus usually
closes immediately for seven mouths. In the eighth month it
opens, and the foetus, if properly developed, begins to descend
in the eighth month. If the foetus is not properly deve-
loped, but checked in the eighth month in parturition,
women who bear in the eighth month do not exclude it, nor
does the foetus advance downwards in the eighth month,
and the uterus does not open itself. It is a sign that it is
not properly developed, when it is born before the circum-
stances I have described take place.

2. After conception, women suffer throughout their whole
body, and their sight becomes dim, and they are afflicted
with headache. In some, these symptoms occur very soon,
as early as the tenth day ; in others they are delayed, in
proportion as they have an abundance or deficiency of super-
fluous matter in their bodies. Nausea and vomiting often
seize upon them, and on those especially in whom the puri-
fications become stagnant, and do not yet fly to the mamma3.
Some women suffer at the commencement of pregnancy, and
others in the more advanced stages, when the foetus be-
gins to grow. Eetention of urine also frequently attacks
them at last.

3. Those that are pregnant with a male foetus, usually
pass through the time more easily, and retain a better
colour throughout. If a female is conceived, the contrary is
the case ; for they are generally more discoloured, and
suffer more during the period of gestation. In many cases
the legs swell, and a swollen condition of the flesh is also com-

B. Til] THE HISTOEV OF AXIMAJLS 185

mon. In some women, however, the condition is contrary.
Pregnant women are apt to have all sorts of fancies, which
change very rapidly. Some persons call this longing.
These fancies are strongest when a female is conceived, and
there is but little pleasure in their gratification. In a few
women the condition of the body is better during preg-
nancy ; they suffer most when the hair of the foetus begins
to grow. Pregnant women lose the hair which grows on
the parts that are hairy at birth, while it becomes more
thick upon the parts on which it appears subsequent to
birth.

4. A male foetus usually moves more freely in the womb
than a female, and the parturition is not so long. If a fe-
male, the parturition is slower. The pain in the birth of
female children is continuous, and dull; in the birth of
males it is sharp, and far more severe. Those who, before
parturition, have sexual intercourse, suffer less in the pro-
cess. Sometimes women seem to suffer, not from any pain
of their own, but from the turning of the head of the child ;
and this appears to be the commencement of the pain.
Other animals have a single exact period for parturition,
for one time is appointed for them all. The human subject
alone varies in this particular, for the period of gestation is
seven, eight, or nine months, or ten at the outside, though
some have even advanced as far as the eleventh month.

5. If any are born before the seventh month, they never
live. Those of seven months are the first that are developed,
but these are usually weakly, wherefore, also, they wrap
them in wool. Many of these infants have the passages,
as the ears and nostrils, imperforate. As they grow, how-
ever, they assume a proper form, and many of them survive.
In Egypt, and some other places, where the women suffer
little pain in parturition, and where they bear many chil-
dren with ease, those even at the end of eight months are
capable of living, even although they should be monstrous ;
but in such places children born in the eighth month may
survive and be brought up. In Greece, however, few of
them survive, and most of them perish ; and people suspect
that if any of them survive, the exact period of conception
must have been mistaken by the mother.

6. Women suffer most in the fourth and eighth month.

18G THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. VII.

and if the foetus dies in the fourth or eighth month, they
usually die also ; so that not only children born in the eighth
month often perish, but their mothers also perish with them.
In the same way, the period of conception probably is mistaken
by those who have been pregnant more than eleven months ;
for in these cases the beginning of the conception escapes
the notice of females, for frequently after the uterus baa
been distended with flatulence, women have copulated and
conceived, and supposed that the former condition in which
they observed the usual symptoms, was the commencement
of gestation.

CHAPTEE V.

1. THE human subject also differs from other animals, as
to the number of the perfect offspring produced at a birth.
For the human subject differs both from animals which
produce but one, and those which produce many; for,
generally speaking, and, in most cases, women have but
one child at a time, though cases of twins occur frequently,
and in many places, as inr Egypt, three or four at a
birth have been known in some particular places, as I
have observed before. Five at a birth are the most that have
been produced. This has been observed to take place in
many cases, but in one case only have twenty been pro-
duced at four births, for five were born each time, and many
of them were reared. In other animals, if the twins are
male and female, there is no more difficulty in rearing and
preserving them, than if they were both of the same sex.
In the human subject there are few cases of twins surviving,
when one was male and the other female.

2. The human female and the mare copulate after con-
ception more than any other creatures, for all other females,
when they have conceived, fly from the males, except those
which, like the hare, become pregnant a second time during
gestation. But the mare, having once conceived, does not
form a second foetus, but generally produces a single foal.
In the human subject it happens sometimes, though rarely.
Those which are conceived a long while afterwards never
come to perfection, but, from the pain which they cause,
destroy the original foetus ; and a case has occurred in
which twelve imperfect embryos have been produced at

B. VI.T.1 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 187

one time. If the second conception take place soon after
the first, they bear and produce the foetus, as if it were a
twin. This, they say, was the case with Iphicles and Her-
cules.

3. The possibility of the case is manifest, for an adulteress
has been known to produce one child like her husband, and
another like her paramour; and a case has occurred of a
woman having conceived twins, and then conceived a third
child upon them ; and when the proper time came, the
twins were born perfect, the other was only a foetus of five
months old, which died immediately : and in another case,
a woman produced, first of all, a foetus of seven months old,
and then twins, perfectly developed ; the former perished,
but the latter survived. And some women have conceived
at the same time as they miscarried, and haye ejected
one foetus while they bore the other. In most females,
who have cohabited after the eighth mouth after conception,
the child has been born filled with a shining mucous-like
substance, and has often appeared full of the food which has
been eaten by the mother ; and if she has fed upon food
more than usually salt, the child has been born without nails.

CHAPTER VI.

1. THE milk that is produced before the seventh month is
useless ; but as soon as the child is alive the milk be-
comes good. At first it is salt, like that of sheep. Most
women during pregnancy are affected by wine, and if
they drink it they become faint and feeble. The begin-
ning and the ending of the reproductive power in both
sexes is marked in the male by the emission of the
semen, in the female by the catamenia. They are not, how-
ever, fertile when these first occur, nor while they are
still small and weak. The period of the commencement
of these signs has been mentioned. In women the cata-
menia usually cease at forty ; but if they pass over this age,
they go on to fifty ; and some have even produced children
at that period, but none later than this period.

2. The reproductive function in men usually continues
active till they are sixty years old ; if they pass beyond this
period, till they are seventy ; and some men have had chil-
dren at seventy years old. It frequently happens that, when

188 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. VII,

:narriages are unfruitful, both men and women become preg-
nant, if the marriage is dissolved and they marry again. The
same thing takes place respecting the birth of male and
female children. For sometimes only children of one sex
are produced by a marriage ; and if this is dissolved, and the
parents marry again, children of the other sex are produced.
These things also vary with the age of the parents; for
some when young have female children, and when older
males, though the contrary sometimes takes place.

3. The same is the case with the whole of the reproductive
function. For some persons have no children when they
are young, but have them afterwards ; others have children
at first, but none afterwards ; and there are some women
who conceive with difficulty, but when they have conceived
bear children ; others conceive easily, but the foetus never
comes to maturity. There are also both men and women
who only produce children of one sex, as the story goes of
Hercules, who had but one daughter in seventy-two children.
Those who have been barren, and either after great care, or
from any other cause, at last conceive, more frequently
bear a daughter than a son. It often happens also that men
who have engendered become impotent, and subsequently
return to their former condition.

4. Maimed parents produce maimed children ; and so also
lame and blind parents produce laine and blind children ; and,
on the whole, children are often born with anything contrary
to nature, or any mark which their parents may have, such as
tumours and wounds. Such marks have often been handed
down for three generations ; as if a person had a mark on
their arm which was not seen in the son, but the grandson
exhibited a dark confused spot on the same place. The
circumstances, however, are rare; and sound children are
generally produced from lame parents ; nor is there any com-
plete certainty in these matters ; and children resemble
their parents or their grandparents, and sometimes they
resemble neither. This is handed down for many gene-
rations ; as in Sicily, a woman cohabited with an Ethiopian,
her daughter was not black, but her daughter's child was so.

5. For the most part the girls resemble their mother, and
the boys their father ; though the contrary is often the case,
and the females resemble their father, and the males their

B. VII. 1 THE HISTOKY OF AKIMALS. 189

mother, and the different parts of the body resemble either
parents. Twins have sometimes no resemblance to each other,
but they are generally much alike ; and one woman coha-
bited with a man, and conceived seven days after parturi-
tion, when she bore a child as like her former as if they had
been twins. Some women, as well as other creatures, pro-
duce young resembling themselves, others bear those which
resemble the male, as the horse called Dicsea in Pharsalia.

CHAPTER VII.

1. THE seminal fluid in its emission is preceded by wind.
The manner of its emission exhibits this; for nothing is
expelled to a great distance without pneumatic force. If the
seminal fluid is taken up by the uterus and retained there,
it becomes inclosed in a membrane. For if it is expelled
before it becomes articulated, it appears like an ovum inclosed
in a membrane, but without any shell, and the membrane is
full of veins. All animals, whether furnished with fins, feet,
or wings, whether viviparous or oviparous, are produced in
the same manner, except that the umbilicus in viviparous
animals is turned towards the uterus, and in others to the
ovum ; and in some cases both ways, as in a certain kind offish.
Some of them are surrounded by a membrane, others by a
chorion. First of all, the foetus is contained within the last
envelope. Then there is another membrane over this, which
is in part united to the matrix and is partly separate, and
contains water. Between these is a watery or sanguineous
fluid, which in women is called prophorus.

2. All animals that have a navel increase by the navel '•>
and in those which have acetabula the navel is united to the
acetabulum ; and in those which have a smooth uterus the
navel is united to the uterus upon a vein. The position of all
quadrupeds in the uterus is stretched out ; that of fishes is on
the side ; bipeds, as birds, are folded together. The human
foetus lies folded up with its nose between its knees and its
eyes upon them, and its ears turned outwards. All animals are
alike in having the head placed upwards at first. As they
grow, the head turns round, and the birth of all animals is
naturally with the head forwards ; for even in those that are
folded together the presentation of the feet is unnatural.
The embryo of quadrupeds contains excrementitious matter,

190 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. Til

as soon as it is matured, both fluid and solid. The latter is
contained in the extreme parts of the intestine, the former
in the bladder.

3. If animals have acetabula in the uterus, these aceta-
bula always become smaller as the foetus grows, and at
last disappear. The umbilical cord is a covering for veins,
of which the origin is in the uterus. In those crea
tures which have acetabula it originates in them ; in those
that have not acetabula it originates in the vein. In the
larger animals, such as the foetus of oxen, there are four
veins ; in smaller animals, two ; in very small animals, as in
birds, there is but one. Two veins reach the foetus through
the liver, from that part called the gates of the liver, towards
the great vein ; and two go to the aorta, where it is divided
into two parts ; and there are membranes round each pair
of veins, and the umbilical cord surrounds these membranes
like a covering. As the foetus increases, these veins diminish.
The embryo, as it grows, advances into the viscera, where
its movements are manifest. Sometimes it remains rolled
up near the pudendum.

CHAPTER VIII.

1. WHEK the pains of parturition come on, they extend to
many and various parts of the body, but especially to one or
other of the thighs. Those who suffer most in the bowels are
delivered most rapidly ; those who suffer much in the loins
are delivered with difficulty ; those whose pain lies in the
subumbilical region, more quickly. If the child is a male,
a liquid, serum-like discharge, of a pale yellow colour, pre-
cedes ; if a female, this discharge is sanguineous, but still
fluid. Some women have neither during the period of par-
turition.

2. In other animals parturition is not painful, and it is
evident that they suffer but moderately in the pains of
labour. In women the pains of parturition are more violent,
especially in those that are inactive or that are not well made
in their sides, and are unable to hold their breath. They
also suffer more in parturition, if they breathe in the mean-
time, compelled by the necessity of respiration. At first a
fluid escapes when the fcetus comes to the birth, and the mem-

B. VII.] THE IIISTOKY OF ANIMALS. 191

branes are ruptured; after this, the embryo is excluded, the
uterus being turned, and the uterus being turned inside-out.

CHAPTER IX.

1. THE division of the umbilical cord often requires the care-
ful attention of the midwife ; for by skilfulness she may not
only assist in difficult labours, but should attend carefully
to the circumstances, and apply the ligature to the umbilical
cord of the child ; for if the secundines fall out with the
child, the umbilical cord must be bound with a ligature of
worsted, and cut above the ligature, and where it is bound
it joins together, and that which is joined with it falls off.
If' the ligature becomes loose, the child dies from loss of
blood. If the secundines do not come out at once, while
they remain within, and the child is outside, the umbilical
cord must be tied and divided.

2. Frequently the child, if weak, has appeared as if born
dead, until the umbilical cord was tied, for the blood flowed
from the child to the navel and the surrounding parts ; but
some skilful midwife being present, by pressure on the navel
from within has revived the child, just as if it had been filled
with blood from the first. It has been already observed, that
all animals are naturally born with the head forwards. Chil-
dren also have their hands pressed down against their sides.
As soon as they are born they begin to cry and bring their
hands to their mouth. They emit excrements, some imme-
diately, others very soon, but all in the course of a day. This
excrementitious matter is very abundant, considering the size
of the child. Women call it the meconium. Its colour is like
that of blood, and it is black and pitch-like. Afterwards it
becomes milky, for the child immediately draws the breast.
The child never cries before it is entirely in the world, not
even though its head is protruded in difficult cases, while
the body is within the uterus.

8. Those women in whom a flooding has preceded the
period of delivery are delivered with more difficulty, and if
the purifications are small after parturition, and only as much
as they are at first, and do not continue for more than forty
days, such women are stronger, and more ready for conception.
After children are born, for forty days they neither laugh
nor weep when awake, but sometimes do both in their sleep ;

192 THE HI STOUT OF ANLMAL3. [p. Til.

nor do they usually feel when they are tickled, but they sleep
the greater part of their time. As they grow, the period ot
wakefulness continually increases ; and it is evident that they
dream, but it is some time before they remember their imagi-
nations. There is no difference in the bones of other ani-
mals, but they are all born perfect. In children the bone
called bregma is soft, and does not become strong for some
time. Some animals are born with teeth, but children begin
to cut their teeth in the seventh month. The front teeth
naturally appear first, sometimes the upper teeth and some-
times the under. Children cut their teeth more easily if
their nurses have warmer milk.

CHAPTER X.

AFTEB parturition and purification women become full
of milk ; and in some it not only flows through the nipples
but through other parts of the breast, and sometimes from
the cheeks ; and if this fluid is not matured nor secreted,
but remains full, hard knots are formed, which remain for
a long time ; for every part of the breast is so spongy that,
if a hair is swallowed with the drink, pain ensues in the
breasts, until it either escapes spontaneously with the milk,
or is sucked out, this is called *"g/%'<p. They continue to
have milk until they conceive again. It then ceases, and
is quenched in other creatures as well as in the human
subject. The catamenia seldom take place while milk is
secreted, though this sometimes occurs in women while
nursing. On the whole, an effusion of fluid seldom takes
place from many parts of the body at the same time, and
those that have haemorrhoids have usually less purifica-
tion. In some it takes place through ixise (varices), and
is secreted from the loins before it reaches -the uterus ; and
those who vomit blood when the purification is suppressed
suffer no harm.

CHAPTER XI.

CHILDBED are very subject to spasms, and especially those
that are in a good condition and have abundance of rich
milk, or whose nurses are fat. "Wine is injurious in this
complaint, and dark-coloured wines more so than those that
are pale, and food that is not fluid, and windy aliments, and

B. VII.] THE HISTOKY OF ANIMALS. 193

stoppage in the bowels. Children with this complaint gene-
rally die before the seventh day : wherefore also this day
has received a name, as if it gave some hope of the recovery
of the child. Children suffer most at the full moon. Chil-
dren are in great danger when the spasms originate in the
back, especially if they are advancing in age.1

1 The seventh book ends very abruptly, and hence it has been thought
that what is now called the tenth book, in which the subject of repro-
duction is continued, would have its proper place here, as a continua-
tion of the seventh. Whether a portion of the genuine work of
Aristotle has been lost which would have completed the subject is
another question ; but there can be little doubt that the tenth book, hi
the form in which we have it, is no genuine work of Aristotle ; some of
the opinions are contrary to those which he has expressed, and the
whole style and language is different from that of Aristotle. Schneider
therefore has placed the tenth book at the end of the work, that he may
neither entirely exclude that which in former times was considered a
portion of Aristotle's^ treatise on Animals, nor yet allow a fictitious
book to interrupt the genuine writings of his Author.

194 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. Till.

BOOK THE EIGHTH.

CHAPTER I.

I. THE nature of animals and their mode of reproduction
has now been described. Their actions and mode of life
also differ according to their disposition and their food.
For almost all animals present traces of their moral dis-
positions, though these distinctions are most remarkable
in man. For most of them, as we remarked, when speaking
of their various parts, appear to exhibit gentleness or
ferocity, mildness or cruelty, courage or cowardice, fear
or boldness, violence or cunning ; and many of them ex-
hibit something like a rational consciousness, as we re-
marked in speaking of their parts. For they differ from
man, and man from the other animals, in a greater or less
degree ; for some of these traits are exhibited strongly in
man, and others in other animals.

2. Others differ in proportion. For as men exhibit art,
wisdom, and intelligence, animals possess, by way of com-
pensation, some other physical power. This is most con-
spicuous in the examination of infants, for in them we see,
as it were, the vestiges and seeds of their future disposition ;
nor does their soul at this period differ in any respect from
that of an animal ; so that it is not unreasonable for animals
to present the same, or similar, or analogous appearances.
Nature passes so gradually from inanimate to animate things,
that from their continuity their boundary and the mean be-
tween them is indistinct. The race of plants succeeds imme-
diately that of inanimate objects ; and these differ from each
other in the proportion of life in which they participate ;
for, compared with other bodies, plants appear to possess
life, though, when compared with animals, they appear in-
animate.

3. The change from plants to animals, however, is gra-
dual, as 3 before observed. For a person might question to

B. VIII.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 195

which of these classes some marine objects belong ; for many
of them are attached to the rock, and perish as soon as they
are separated from it. The pinnae are attached to the rocks,
the solens cannot live after they are taken away from their
localities ; and, on the whole, all the testacea resemble plants,
if we compare them with locomotive animals. Some of them
appear to have no sensation ; in others it is very dull. The
body of some of them is naturally fleshy, as of those which are
called tethya ; and the acalephe and the sponge entirely re-
semble plants; the progress is always gradual by which one
appears to have more life and motion than another.

4. In the vital actions also we may observe the same man-
ner. For vegetables which are produced from seed ap-
pear to have no other work beyond reproduction ; nor do
some animals appear to have any other object in their exist-
ence. This object then is common to them all ; but as sen-
sation advances, their manner of life differs in their having
pleasure in sexual intercourse, in their mode of parturition
and rearing their young. Some of them, like plants, simply
accomplish their peculiar mode of reproduction at an ap-
pointed season, and others are diligent in rearing their
young ; but as soon as this is accomplished they separate
from them, and have no farther communication ; but those
that are more intelligent, and possess more memory, use
their offspring in a more civilized manner.

5. The work of reproduction is one part of their life, the
work of procuring food forms another. These two occupy
their labour and their life. Their food differs in the sub-
stances of which it consists, and all the natural increase of the
body is derived from food. That which is natural is pleasant,
and all animals follow that which is pleasant to their nature.

CHAPTEE II.

1. ANIMALS are divided according to the localities which
they inhabit ; for some animals are terrestrial, others are
aquatic. They also admit of a ternary division, those that
breathe air and those that breathe water, one of these classes
is terrestrial, the other is aquatic ; the third class does not
breathe either air or water, but they are adapted by nature
to receive refreshment from each of these elements ; and some
of these are called terrestrial, others are aquatic, though they

o *

196 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [ B. Till.

neither breathe air or water; and there are other animals
which procure their food and make their abode in either of
these elements. For many that breathe air, and produce
their young upon the land, procure their food from the water,
where they generally make their abode ; and these are the
only animals which appear to be doubtful, for they may be
arranged either as terrestrial or aquatic animals.

2. Of those that breathe water, none have feet or wings,
nor seek their food on land ; but many of those that are ter-
restrial, and breathe air, do so ; some of them so much so, that
they cannot live when separated from the water, as those
which are called marine turtles, and crocodiles, and hippo-
potami, and seals, and some of the smaller creatures, as the
water tortoise and the frog tribe; for all these are suffocated
if their respiration is suspended for any length of time. They
produce their young and rear them on dry land ; others do
so near the dry land, while they reside in the water.

3. Of all animals the most remarkable in this particular
is the dolphin, and some other aquatic animals and cetacea
which are of this habit, as the whale and others which have
a blowhole ; for it is not easy to arrange them either with
aquatic or terrestrial animals, if we consider animals that
breathe air as terrestrial, and those that breathe water as
aquatics, for they partake of the characters of both classes ;
for they receive the sea and eject it through their blowhole,
and air through their lungs, for they have this part, and
breathe through it. And the dolphin, when captured in nets,
is often suffocated, from the impossibility of breathing. It
will live for a long while out of water, snoring and groaning
like other breathing animals. It sleeps with its snout above
the water, in order that it may breathe through it.

4. It is thus impossible to arrange it under both of these
contrary divisions, but it would appear that the aquatic ani-
mals must be further subdivided; for they breathe and
eject water for the same reason as others breathe air, for
the sake of coolness. Other animals do this for the sake
of food ; for those animals which obtain their food in the
water, must also, at the same time, swallow some of the
fluid, and have an organ by which they can eject it. Those
creatures which use water instead of air for breathing have
gills; those that use it for food have a blowhole. These

B. VIII.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 197

creatures are sanguineous. The nature of the malacia and
malacostraca is the same ; for these swallow water for
food.

5. Those animals which breathe air, but live in the water,
and those which breathe water, and have gills, but go out
upon dry land and take their food there, belong to two divi-
sions of aquatic animals. This last division is represented
by a single animal called the cordylus (water newt) ; for
this animal has no lungs, but gills ; and it goes on dry land
to procure its food. It has four feet, so that it appears na-
tural that it should walk. In all these animals nature ap-
pears to be, as it were, turned aside, and some of the males
appear to be females, and the females have a male appear-
ance ; for animals which have but small diversity in particular
parts, exhibit great variations in the whole body.

6. This is evident in castrated animals ; for if a small
portion only of the body is destroyed, the animal becomes
a female ; so that it is plain that if a very minute portion
in the original composition of an animal becomes changed,
if that portion belongs to the origin of the species, it might
become either male or female ; or, if taken away altogether,
the animal might be neuter. And so, either way, it might
become a land or aquatic animal, if only a small change took

place it happens that some become terrestrial and

others aquatic animals, and some are not amphibious which
others are, because in their original generation they received
some kind of substance which they use for food. For that
which is natural is agreeable to every animal, as I have said
before.

CHAPTER III.

1. "WHEN animals are divided in three ways into aquatic
and land animals, because they either breathe air or water,
or from the composition of their bodies ; or, in the third
place, from their food, their manner of life will be found to
agree with these divisions. For some follow both the com-
position of their bodies and the nature of their food, and
their respiration of either water or air. Others only agree
with their composition and food.

2. The testacea which are immpveable live by a fluid
which percolates through tne dense parts of the sea, and

198 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. VIII.

}>eing digested because it is lighter than the sea -water, thus
returns to its original nature. That this fluid exists in the
sea, and is capable of infiltration is manifest, and may be
proved by experiment; for if anyone will make a thin
waxen vessel, and sink it empty in the sea, in a night
and a day, it may be taken up full of water, which is
drinkable.

3. The acalephe (actinia) feeds upon any small fish which
may fall in its way. Its mouth is placed in the centre of its
body. This organ is conspicuous in the larger individuals :
like the oyster, it has a passage for the exclusion of its food,
which is placed above. The acalephe appears to resemble the
internal part of the oyster, and it makes use of the rock, as
the oyster does of its shell. (The patella also is free, and
wanders about in search of food.)

4. Among the locomotive testacea, some are carnivorous,
and live on small fish, as the purpura, for this creature is
carnivorous, it is therefore caught with a bait of flesh:
others live upon marine plants. The marine turtles
live upon shell-fish, for which purpose they have a very
powerful mouth ; for if any of them take a stone or any-
thing else, they break and eat it. This animal leaves the
water and eats grass. They often suffer and perish, when
they are dried up as they float on the surface, for they are
not able to dive readily.

5. The malacostraca are of the same nature, for they eat
everything ; they feed upon stones and mud, seaweeds and
dung, as the rock crabs, and are also carnivorous. The spiny
lobsters also overcome large fishes, and a kind of retribution
awaits them in turn, for the polypus prevails over the lobster,
for they are not inconvenienced by the shell of the lobster,
so that if the lobsters perceive them in the same net with
them, they die from fear. The spiny lobsters overcome the
congers, for their roughness prevents them from falling off".
The congers devour the polypi which cannot adhere to them
on account of the smoothness of their surface ; all the ma-
lacia are carnivorous.

6. The spiny lobsters also live on small fish, which they hunt
for in their holes, for they are produced in such parts of the
sea as are rough and stony, and in those places make their
habitations j whatever they capture, they bring to their mouth

B. Till.] THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 199

with their double claw, as the crabs do. "When not fright-
ened they naturally walk forwards, hanging their horns down
at their sides. When alarmed they retreat backwards, and
extend their horns to a great distance. They fight with
each other like rams with their horns, raising them and
striking each other. They are often seen in numbers as if
they were gregarious.

7. The malacostraca lead this kind of life. Among the
malacia the teuthis and sepia prevail over the large fish.
The polypus generally collects shells which it empties of
their contents and feeds upon them, so that those who
seek for them find their holes by the shells that are scat-
tered about. The report that they eat each other is a
mistake ; but some have the tentacula eaten off by the
congers.

CHAPTEB IV.

1. ALL fish at the season of oviposition live upon ova ;
in the rest of their food they are not all so well agreed, for
some of them are only carnivorous, as the selachos, conger,
channa, thynnus, labrax, sinodon, amia, orphus, and niu-
Tsena ; the trigla lives upon fuci, shell-fish, and mud ; it is
also carnivorous. The cephalus lives on mud, the dascillus
on mud and dung. The scarus and melanurus on sea- weed,
the sal pa on dung and fuci, it will also eat the plant called
horehound ; it is the only fish that can be caught with the
gourd.

2. All fish, except the cestreus, eat one another, especially
the congers. The cephalus and the cestreus alone are not
carnivorous. This is a proof of it. They are never cap-
tured with anything of the kind in their stomach, nor are
they captured with a bait made of flesh, but with bread ;
the cestreus is always fed upon sea-weed and sand. One
kind of cephalus which some persons call chelone lives near
the land, another is called peraas. This last feeds upon
nothing but its own mucus, for which reason it is always
very poor. The cephalus lives upon mud, wherefore they
are heavy and slimy. They certainly never eat fish, on
account of their dwelling in mud; they often emerge
in order to wash themselves from the slime. Neither will
any creature eat their ova, so that they increase rapidly,

200 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [rt. VIII.

and when they increase they are devoured by other fish, and
especially by the acharims.

3. The cestreus (mullet) is the most greedy and insatiable
of fish, so that its abdomen is distended, and it is not good for
food unless it is poor. When alarmed it hides its head, as if
its whole body were thus concealed ; the sinodon also is car-
nivorous, and eats the malacia. This fish and the channa
often eject their stomachs as they pursue small fish, for
their stomach is near the mouth, and they have no oesophagus.
Some are simply carnivorous, as the dolphin, sinodon, chry-
sophrys, the selache and malacia; others, as the phycis,
cobius, and the rock-fish, principally feed upon mud and
fuci, and bryum, and what is called cauliou, and any matter
which may be produced in the sea. The phycis eats no
other flesh than that of the shrimps. They also frequently eat
each other, as I before remarked, and the greater devour the
less. It is a proof that they are carnivorous, that they are
captured with bait made of flesh.

4. The aniia, tunny, and labrax generally eat flesh,
though they also eat sea-weed. The sargus feeds after the
trigla when the last has buried itself in the mud and
departed, for it has the power of burying itself, then the
sargus comes and feeds and prevents all those that are
weaker than itself from approaching. The fish called
scarus is the only one which appears to ruminate like quad-
rupeds. Other fish appear to hunt the smaller ones with
their mouths towards them, in this way they naturally swim ;
but the selachea, dolphins and cetacea throw themselves on
their back to capture their prey, for their mouth is placed
below them, for this reason the smaller ones escape, or if
not they would soon be reduced in number ; for the swiftness
of the dolphin and its capacity for food appear incredible.

5. A few eels in some places are fed upon mud, and any
kind of food which may be cast into the water, but gene-
rally they live upon fresh water, and those who rear eels
take care that the water which flows off and on upon the
shallows in which they live may be clear, where they make
the eel preserves. For they are soon suffocated if the water
is not clean, their gills being very small. For this reason
those who seek for them disturb the water. In the Stry-
mon they are taken about the time of the rising of the

B. VIII.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 201

Pleiades. For the water is disturbed at this season by the
mud which is stirred up by contrary winds, otherwise it is
useless to attempt to obtain them. When dead, eels do
not rise and float on the surface, like other fishes, for their
stomach is small ; a few of them are fat, but this is not
usually the case.

6. When taken out of the water, they will live five or six
days ; if the wind is in the north they will live longer than
if it is in the south. If they are removed from the ponds
to the eel preserves during the summer they perish, but
not if removed in the winter ; neither will they bear violent
changes, for if they are taken and plunged into cold water,
they often perish in great numbers. They are suffocated
also if kept in a small quantity of water. This takes place
also in other fish, which are suffocated if kept in a small
quantity of water which is never changed, like animals
which breathe air when enclosed in a small quantity of
air. Some eels live seven or eight years. Fresh- water fish
make use of food, and devour each other, as well as plants
and roots, or anything else that they can find in the mud ;
they generally feed in the night, and during the day dwell
in deep holes. This is the nature of the food of fish.

CHAPTER V.

1. ALL birds with crooked claws are carnivorous, nor are
they able to eat corn even when put in their mouths. All
the eagles belong to this class and the kites, and both the
hawks, the pigeon hawk namely, and the sparrow hawk.
These differ in size from each other, and so does the trior-
ches. This bird is as large as the kite, and is visible at all
seasons of the year ; the osprey and vulture also belong
to this class. The osprey is as large as the eagle, and ash-
,oloured. There are two kinds of vultures, one small and
whitish, the other large and cinereous.

2. Some of the night birds also have crooked claws, as
the nycticorax, owl, and bryas. The bryas resembles an
owl in appearance, but it is as large as an eagle ; the eleos,
segolius, and scops also belong to this class. The eleos is
larger than a domestic fowl, the segolius is about the size of
that bird, they both hunt the jay. The scops is less than

202 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. VIII

the owl ; all three of these are similar in form, and carni-
vorous. Some that have not crooked claws are carnivorous,
as the swallow.

3. Some birds feed on worms, as the finch, the sparrow,
batis, chloris, titmouse. There are three kinds of titmouse ;
the spizites is the largest, it is as large as the finch.
Another is called the orimis, because it dwells in mountains ;
it has a large tail. The third resembles them in everything
except its size, for it is very small. The sycalis also, the
megalocoryphus, pyrrhulas, erithacus, hypola'is, oestrus, ty-
rannis are of this class. The last of these is the least, it
is not much larger than a locust ; it has a purple crest, and is
altogether a graceful and well-formed bird. The bird called
anthus also, which is of the size of the finch ; the orospizus is
like the finch, and nearly of the same size, it has a blue stripe
on its neck, and lives in mountainous places. The wren
also lives upon seeds. All these and such like birds either
partly or entirely live on worms.

4. These birds, the acanthis, thraupis, and that which is
called chrysometris, all live upon thorns, but neither eat
worms or any other living creature, and they both roost and
feed in the same places. There are others which feed on
gnats ; these live chiefly by hunting for these insects, as the
greater and lesser pipo, both of which are by some per-
sons called woodpeckers. They resemble each other in
their cry, though that of the larger bird is the louder,
and they both feed by flying against trees. The celeos
also, which is as large as a turtle dove, and entirely
yellow ; its habit is to strike against trees ; it generally lives
upon trees, and has a loud voice. This bird generally in-
habits the Peloponnesus. There is also another called
cnipologus, which is small, about the size of the acanthyllis ;
its colour is cinereous and spotted, and its voice is weak ;
this bird also pecks trees.

. 5. There are other birds which live upon fruit and grasses,
as the phaps, phatta, peristera, cenas, and trygon.1 The
phatta and peristera are always present, the trygon only in
summer time ; in the winter it is not seen, for it hides itself
in holes. The cenas is generally seen and captured in the
autumn. The cenas is as large as the peristera but less than

! Different species of pigeons and doves.

B. VJ.IT.1 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 203

the phaps. It is generally captured as it is drinking ; it
comes to this country when it has young. All the rest
come in the summer, and make their nests here, and all,
except the pigeon tribe, live upon animal food.

6. All birds, as far as food is concerned, are either ter-
restrial or live in the neighbourhood of rivers and ponds,
or near the sea. Those that have webbed feet pass the
greater part of their time on the water ; those with divided
feet near the water. Some of these dive for their food,
such as live upon plants and do not eat flesh ; others, as the
heron and white heron, live in ponds and rivers. The latter
of these is smaller than the former, and has a flat large bill.

7. The pelargus also, and the gull, the latter is ash-co-
loured, and the schcenilus, cinclos, pygargus, (and tryngas)
this last is the largest of these small birds, for it is of the
same size as the thrush ; all these birds wag their tails. The
calidris also, this bird is variegated and ash-coloured. The
kingfisher also lives near the water ; there appear to be two
kinds of this bird, one of which utters its cry as it sits
upon the reeds, and the other, which is larger, is silent;
they both have a blue back. The trochilus also, and the
kingfisher and cerylus also live near the sea. The corona
also lives upon animals which are cast on shore, for it is
omnivorous. The white gull also, the cepphus, sethyia, and
charadrius.

8. The heavier web-footed birds inhabit the neighbour-
hood of rivers and ponds, as the swan, duck, phalaris, colum-
bis, and the boscas, which is like a duck, but smaller ; and
the bird called corax, which is as large as the pelargus, but
its legs are shorter, it is web-footed and a swimmer, its
colour is black ; this last bird perches upon trees, and is
the only one of this class that builds its nest in such places.
The great and small goose also, the latter is gregarious, and
chenalopex, the aix, and the penelops. The sea eagle also lives
near the sea, and fishes in the waters of lakes. Many birds
are omnivorous ; those with crooked claws seize upon other
animals which they can overcome, and upon birds. They do
not, however, devour their own congeners, as fish frequently
do ; ail the tribes of birds drink very little, those with
crooked claws do not drink at all, or only a few of them,
and these but seldom; of these the cenchris drinks tha

204 THE HISTORY OP ANIMALS. [B. Till.

most • the kite rarely drinks, though it has been observed
to do so.

CHAPTER VI.

1. ANIMALS covered with scaly plates, as the lizard and
other quadrupeds and serpents, are omnivorous, for they eat
both flesh and grass, and serpents lick their prey more than
any other animal ; all these creatures, and indeed all with
spongy lungs, drink very little, and all that are oviparous are
of this kind, and have but little blood. Serpents are all
very fond of wine, so that they hunt the viper by placing
vessels of wine in the hedge-rows, and they are captured
when intoxicated. Serpents devour any animal that they
may have captured, and when they have sucked out the
juice, they reject all the remainder ; nearly all such animals
do this, as also the spiders. But the spiders suck the juice
without swallowing the animal. Serpents suck the juice
internally.

2. The serpent swallows any food which may be presented
to it, for it will devour both birds and beasts, and suck eggs.
"When it has taken its food it draws itself up, till it stands
erect upon its extremity, it then gathers itself up and con-
tracts itself a little, so that when stretched out the animal
it has swallowed may descend in its stomach ; it does this
because its oesophagus is long and thin. Phalangia and
serpents can live a long while without food, this may be
seen in those that are kept by dealers in medicine.

CHAPTER VII.

1. AMONG viviparous quadrupeds, those that are wild and
have pointed teeth are all carnivorous, except some wolves,
which, when they are hungry, will, as they say, eat a certain
kind of earth, but this is the only exception. They will not
eat grass unless they are sick, for some dogs eat grass and
vomit it up again, and so are purified. The solitary wolves
are more eager for human flesh than those which hunt in
packs.

2. The animal which some persons call the glanus and
others the hyaena, is not less than the wolf, it has a mane
like a horse, but the hair all along its spine is more harsh
and thick. It also secretly attacks men, and hunts them

B. VIII.] THE IIISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 205

down ; it hunts dogs also by vomiting like men ; it also
breaks open graves for the sake of this kind of food.

3. The bear is also omnivorous, for it eats fruit, and on
account of the softness of its body it can climb trees ; it
eats leguminous seeds also ; it also overturns hives and eats
the honey, and it feeds upon crabs and ants, and is car-
nivorous, for its strength enables it to attack not only deer,
but wild hogs, if it can fall upon them secretly, and oxen.
For when it meets the bull face to face, it falls upon its back,
and when the bull attempts to throw it, seizes its horns
with its fore-legs, and biting upon the shoulder of the bull,
throws it down. For a short time it can walk upright on
its hind legs. It eats flesh after it has become putrid.

4. The lion, like all other wild animals with pointed teeth,
is carnivorous ; it devours its food greedily, and swallows
large pieces without dividing them ; it can afterwards, from
its repletion, remain two or three days without food. It
drinks very little. Its excrement is small, and is not made
more than once in three days or thereabouts, and it is dry
and hard like that of a dog. The wind from its bowels has
an acrid smell, and its urine is powerfully scented, for which
reason dogs smell to trees, for the lion, like the dog, lifts its
leg to make water. It produces also a strong smell when
it breathes upon its food, and when its bowels are laid open
they emit a strong scent.

5. Some quadrupeds and wild animals seek their food in
the neighbourhood of ponds and rivers, but none of them
except the seal live near the sea ; of this class are the crea-
ture called beaver, and the satherium, the satyrium, the
otter, and that which is called latax. This creature is
broader than the enydris, and has strong teeth, for it often
goes out in the night and with its teeth gnaws off the osiers.
The enydris also will bite men, and they say will not leave
its hold till it hears the noise of its teeth against the bone-
The latax has rough hair, the nature of which is between
that of the seal and that of the deer.

CHAPTER VIII.

1. ANIMALS with pointed teeth drink by lapping, and some
that have not pointed teeth, as mice. Those which have an
even surface to their teeth draw in the water as horses and

206 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [li. VIII.

osen ; the bear neither draws in the water nor laps it, but
gulps it down. Some birds draw in the water, but those
which have long necks imbibe it at intervals, lifting up their
heads ; the porphyrion alone gulps it down. All horned
animals, both domestic and wild, and those that have not
pointed teeth eat fruits and grass, and are incapable of en-
during hunger, except the dog, and this animal eats fruit
and grass less than any other.

2. The hog eats roots more than other animals, because
its snout is well adapted for this operation, it is more
adapted to various kinds of food than other animals. In
proportion to its size its fat is developed very fast, for it be-
comes fat in sixty days. Those who occupy themselves in
fatting hogs know how fast they fatten by weighing them,
when lean ; they will become fat after starvation for three
days. Almost all other animals become fat, after previous
starvation. After three days those who fatten hogs feed
them well.

3. The Thracians fatten them by giving them drink on
the first day, then at first they omit one day, afterwards two,
three, or four, till they reach to seven days. These creatures
are fattened with barley, millet, figs, acorns, wild pears, and
cucumbers. Both this and other animals with a warm
stomach are fattened in idleness, and the sow also by wal-
lowing in the mire. They prefer different kinds of food at
different ages. The hog and the wolf fight together, a sixth
part of its weight when alive, consists of bristles, blood, and
fat. Sows and1 all other animals grow lean while suckling
their young. This then, is the nature of these animals.

CHAPTER IX.

1. OXEN eat both fruits and grass. They become fat on
flatulent food, as vetches, broken beans, and stems of beans,
and if any person having cut a hole in the skin inflates them
and then feeds the older cattle, they fatten more rapidly,
and either on whole or broken barley, or on sweet food, as on
figs and grapes, wine, and the leaves of the elm, and especially
in the sunshine and in warm waters. The horns of the calf,
if anointed with wax, may be directed in any way that is de-
sired, and they suffer less in the feet if their horns are
rubbed with wax, or pitch, or oil.

B. VIII.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 207

2. Herds of cattle suffer less when moved in frost than
in anow, They grow if they are deprived for a long time
of sexual intercourse ; wherefore the herdsmen in Epirus
keep the Pyrrhic cattle, as they are called, for nine years
without sexual intercourse, in order that they may grow.
They call such cows apotauri. The number of these crea-
tures reaches four hundred, and they are the property of
the king. They will not live in any other country, though
the attempt has been made.

CHAPTER X.

1. THE horse, mule, and ass feed upon fruit and grass, but
they fatten especially on drinking, so that beasts of burden
enjoy their food in proportion to the quantity of water
which they drink, and the less difficulty there is of obtain-
ing drink, the more they profit by abundance of grass.
When the mare is in foal, green food causes her hair to be
fine, but when it contains hard knots it is not wholesome.
The first crop of Medic grass is not good, nor if any stinking
water has come near it, for it gives it a bad smell. Oxen
require pure water to drink, but horses in this respect re-
semble camels. The camel prefers water that is dirty and
thick ; nor will it drink from a stream before it has dis-
turbed the water. It can remain without drinking four
days, after which it drinks a great quantity.

CHAPTER XI.

1. THE elephant can eat more than nine Macedonian me-
dimni at one meal, but so much food at once is dangerous ;
it should not have altogether more than six or seven me-
dimni, or five medimni of bread, and five mares of wine,
the maris measures six cotyla3. An elephant has been known
to drink as much as fourteen Macedonian measures at once,
and eight more again in the evening. Many camels live
thirty years, and some much more, for they have been known
to live an hundred years. Some say that the elephant
lives two hundred, and others three hundred years.

CHAPTER XII.

1. SHEEP and goats live upon grass. Sheep pasture for a
long while in one place without leaving it, but goata change

203 THE HISTOilY OF ANIMALS. [B. Till,

their places very soon, and only crop the top of the grass.
The sheep fatten rapidly with drinking, and for this reason
during summer they give them salt, a medimnus to each hun-
dred sheep ; for in this manner the flock becomes more
healthy and fat, and frequently they collect and bring them
together for this purpose, that they may mix a great deal of
salt with their food ; for when thirsty they drink the more.
And in the autumn they feed them with gourds which
they have sprinkled with salt, for this makes them give more
milk. When driven about in the heat of the day they drink
more towards evening. If fed with salt after parturition,
the udder becomes larger.

2. Sheep fatten on green shoots, vetches, and all kinds of
grass, and they fatten more rapidly when their food is
salted. They fatten more rapidly if previously starved for
three days. During autumn northern water is better for
sheep than southern, and pastures towards the west are
good for them. Long journeys and weariness make them
lean. Shepherds distinguish the strong sheep during winter
by the frost adhering to their wool, which is not the case
with those that are sick; for those that are not strong
move about in their weakness and shake it off.

3. The flesh of all quadrupeds which feed in marshy
grounds is inferior to that of those which live on high
ground. Sheep with wide tails endure the winter better
than those with long tails, and short woolled-sheep better
than long-woolled, and those with curly wool are more
affected by the cold. Sheep are more healthy than goats,
though goats are the stronger. The fleece and the wool of
sheep which have been devoured by wolves, and garments
made of such wool are more subject to vermin than others.

CHAPTER XIII.

1. THOSE insects which have teeth are omnivorous, but those
which have a tongue only live upon fluids, which they collect
from all sources with this organ. Some of these are omni-
vorous, for they feed upon all kinds of fluids, as the fly.
Others only suck blood, as the myops and oestrus. Others,
again, live upon the juices of plants and fruit. The bee is
the only insect that never touches anything putrid. It uses

B. VIII."] THE IlISTOlir OF ANIMALS. 209

no food that has not a sweet taste. They also take very
sweet water, wherever they fall upon any that is pure. The
different kinds of animals then use these kinds of food.

CHAPTER XI Y.

1. ALL the actions of animals are employed either in sexual
intercourse, or in rearing their young, or in procuring food
for themselves, or in providing against excessive heat and
cold, and the changes of the seasons. For they all have
naturally a sensitiveness respecting heat and cold, and, like
mankind, who either change their abodes in cold weather,
or those who have large estates, pass their summer in cold
countries and their winter in warm ones ; so animals, also, if
they can, migrate from place to place. Some of them find
protection in their accustomed localities, others are migra-
tory ; and at the autumnal equinox, escape at the approach
of winter, from the Pontus and other cold places ; and in
spring retreat again before the approach of summer from hot
to cold countries, for they are afraid of excessive heat. Some
migrate from places close at hand, and others from the
very ends of the earth.

2. The cranes do this, for they travel from Scythia to the
marshes in the higher parts of Egypt, from which the Nile
originates. This is the place where the Pygmies dwell ; and
this is no fable, for there is really, as it is said, a race of
dwarfs, both men and horses, which lead the life of troglo-
dites. The pelicans also are migratory, and leave the river
Strymon for the Ister, where they rear their young. They
depart in great crowds, and those that are before wait for
those behind, for in flying over the mountains those behind
cannot see the leaders.

3. The fish also, in the same manner, migrate either from
or to the Pontus, and in winter they leave the deep water
for the s-ake of the warmth of the shore, and in summer
they escape from the heat by migrating from the shore into
deep water. Delicate birds, also, in winter and frosty wea-
ther, descend from the mountains to the plains, for the sake
of the warmth ; and in summer they return again to the
mountains for fear of the heat.

4. Those that are the most delicate are the first to make
he change at each extreme of heat and cold, such as the

f

210 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. VIII.

mackerel migrate sooner than the tunnies, and the quails than
cranes ; for some migrate in August, others in September
They are always fatter when they migrate from cold coun-
tries* than when they leave warm countries, as the quail is
more fat in the autumn than the spring : and so it happens
that they migrate alike from cold countries and from warm
seasons. Their sexual desires are also more violent in the
spring, and when they leave warm countries.

5. Among birds, as it was previously remarked, the crane
migrates from one extremity of the earth to the other, and theyj
fly against the wind. As for the story about the stone, it is a[
fiction, for they say that they carry a stone as ballast, which;
is useful as a touchstone for gold, after they have vomited it
up. The phatta and the peleias leave us, and do not win-i
ter with us, nor does the turtle ; but the pigeon stays;
through the winter The same is the nature of the quail,
unless a few individuals both of the turtle and quail remain
behind in sunny spots. The phatta and turtle assemble in
large flocks when they depart, and again at the season of
their return. The quails, when they commence their
flight, if the weather is fine and the wind in the north, go in
pairs, and have a successful voyage. If the wind is south
it goes hard with them, for their flight is slow, and this
wind is moist and heavy. Those that hunt them, therefore,
pursue them when the wind is in the south, but not in fine
weather. They fly badly on account of their weight, for
their body is large. They therefore make a noise as they
fly, for it is a toil to them.

6. When they come hither they have no leader, but when
they depart hence, the glottis, ortygometra, otus, and cy-
chramus, which calls them together at night, accompany
them ; and when the fowlers hear this sound, they know
that they will not remain. The ortygometra in form resem-
bles the birds which inhabit marshes. The glottis has a
tongue which it projects to a great length. The otus resem-
bles an owl, and has small feathers at its ears. Some per-
sons call it the nycticorax, it is mischievous and imitative,
it is taken like the owl, as it dances from side to side, one
or other of the fowlers compassing it about. On the whole,
birda with crooked claws have short necks, broad tongues,
and. a capacity for imitation. And so has the Indian bird,

B. Till.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 211

the parrot, which is said to have a tongue like a man. T<
becomes the most loquacious when intoxicated. The crow, the
swan, the pelican, and the small goose, are gregarious birds.

CHAPTER XV.

1. IT has already been observed that fish migrate from the
deep water to the coast, and from the coast to the deep
water, in order to avoid the excesses of cold and heat. Those
that frequent the neighbourhood of the coast are better than
those from deep water, for the feeding grounds are better
and more abundant. For wherever the sun strikes the plants
are more frequent, and superior, and more delicate, as in gar-
dens, and the black shore-weed grows near the land, and the
other kinds rather resemble uncultivated plants. The neigh-
bourhood of the coast is also more temperate, both in heat and
cold, than the rest of the sea ; for which reason the flesh of
fish which live near the shore is more compact, while that of
' fish from deep sea is watery and soft. The sinodon, cantha-
rus, orphos, chrysophrys, cestreus, trigla, cichla, dracon, calli-
onymus, cobius, and all the rock fish live near the shore. The
trygon, selache, the white congers, the channa, erythrinus,
and glaucus inhabit deep water. The phagrus, scorpius, the
black conger, the mura3na, and coccyx occupy either situa-
tion indifferently.

2. They vary also in different places ; as in the neighbour-
hood of Crete the cobius and all the rock fish are fat. The
tunny also becomes good again after Arcturus, for it is not
tormented by the oestrus after that period ; for which reason
also it is inferior during the summer. In lakes near the sea
also there are several kinds of fish, as the salpa, chrysophrys,
trigla, and nearly all the rest. The amia also is found in
such situations as in the vicinity of Alopeconnesus, and in
the lake of Bistonis there are many fish. Many of the colias
do not enter the Pontus ; but they pass the summer and
rear their young in the Propontis, and winter in the^Egean.
The thynnus, pelamis, and amia enter the Pontus in the
spring and pass the summer there, and so do nearly all the
rhyades and the gregarious fish. Many fish are gregarious,
and gregarious fish have a leader of the shoal.

3. They all enter the Pontus for the sake of the food
(for the pasture is more abundant and superior, on account

p 2

212 THE HTSTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. VIII.

of the fresh water), and for fear of the large creatures,
which are smaller there ; and except the phocona and dol-
phin, there is no other found in the Pontus ; and the dolphin
is small, but when we leave the Pontus we find a larger
dolphin. They enter this sea for the sake of food and rear-
ing their young ; for the situation is better for this purpose,
and the fresh sweet water nourishes the young fry. When
they have reared their young, and the fry begin to grow,
they migrate immediately after the Pleiades. If the south
wind blow during the winter, they leave the place more
slowly ; but with a north wind they swim faster, for then
the wind helps them along. The small fry is captured ini
the neighbourhood of Byzantium, for they make no long
stay in the Pontus.

4. The other fish are seen both in their egress and ingress.
The trichia is only seen as it enters, and is not observed to
leave again ; and if one is captured at Byzantium, the fisher-
men purify their nets, for it is unusual for them to return.
The reason is this : these are the only fish that swim up into
the Ister, and when this river divides they swim down into
the Adriatic. The following is a proof; for the converse
happens here, and they are never captured entering the
Adriatic, but as they leave it.

5. The tunnies, as they enter, swim with their right side
to the shore, and leave with their left side to the shore ; and
some persons say that they do this because they see better
with their right eye, and their sight is naturally dim. The
rhyades move during the day, and in the night remain quiet
and feed, unless the moon is bright, in which case they con-
tinue their journey and do not rest themselves. And some
persons engaged about the sea say that after the winter.'
solstice they do not move, but remain quiet wherever they
may be till the equinox.

6. The colise are taken as they enter, but not as they|
return. The best are taken in the Propontis before the
breeding season. The other rhyades are captured more
frequently as they leave the Pontus, and are then in perfec-
tion. Those that swim near the shore are the fattest when
captured ; and the farther they are away, the more lean they
are ; and frequently, when the south wind blows, they swim
3ut in company with the coliae and mackerel, and are taken

B. VTII.] THE HISTORY OF AKIMALS. 313

lower down rather than at Byzantium. This is the nature
of their migrations.

CHAPTER XVI.

1. LAND animals have also the same disposition for con-
cealment. For in winter they all hasten to conceal them-
selves, and appear again when the season becomes warmer.
Animals conceal themselves to guard against the excesses
of temperature. In some the whole race is concealed ; in
others only a part of them. All the testacea conceal them-
selves, as those which are marine, the purpura, whelk, and
all that class ; but the state of concealment is more con-
spicuous in those which do not adhere to rocks ; for these
also conceal themselves, as the pectens. Some have an
operculum on their exterior, as the land snails ; and the
alteration of those that are not free is inconspicuous. They
do not all conceal themselves at the same period ; for the
snails are torpid during the winter, the purpura and whelk
for thirty days under the dog star, and the pectens at the
same period. Most of them conceal themselves in very
cold and very hot weather.

2. Almost all insects become torpid, except those which
dwell in the habitations of men, and those that perish and
do not survive for a year. They are torpid in the winter.
Some conceal themselves for a good while, others only in
the coldest days, as the bees, for these also conceal them-
selves. This is shown by their not touching the food which
is prepared for them. ; and if any of them creep out, they
appear transparent, and plainly have nothing in their sto-
mach. They remain at rest from the setting of the Pleiades
until the spring. Animals pass their torpid state in warm
places, and in the spots they are accustomed to inhabit.

CHAPTER XVII.

1. MANY sanguineous animals become torpid, as those which
are furnished with scales, the serpent, lizard, gecko, and
the river crocodile, during the four winter months in which
they eat nothing. Other serpents conceal themselves in the
earth, but the viper lies hidden among stones. Many fish
also become torpid, especially the hippurus and coracirius
during the winter ; for these alone are never taken but at

214 THE HISTOUY OF ANIMALS. [~B. Till

certain seasons, which never vary. Almost all the rest an
taken at all seasons. The lamprey, orphus, and conger con
ceal themselves. The rock fish conceal themselves in pairs
as the cichla, cottyphus, and perca, the male with the female
in which way also they prepare for their young.

2. The tunny conceals itself during winter in dee],
places, and they become fattest at this season. The seasor
of capturing them commences with the rising of Pleiades
and continues to the end of the setting of Arcturus. Al".
the rest of their time they remain quiet in concealment. A
few of these are taken during the period of their concealment
and so are some other hybernating creatures, if they are
disturbed by the warmth of their abode or the unusua
mildness of the season. For they come out a little from
their holes to feed, and also when the moon is full. Mosi
fish are better tasted during the period of concealment. The
primades bury themselves in the mud. This is shown by
their not being taken, or their seeming to have a great dea
of mud on their backs and their fins pressed down.

3. In spring, however, they begin to move and come to
the shore to copulate and deposit their ova. At this season
they are captured full of ova, and then also they appear to
be in season, but are not so good in autumn and winter
At the same season also the males appear to be full o
melt. When their ova are small they are taken with diffi-
culty ; but as they grow larger many are taken when they
are infested by the oestrus. Some fish bury themselves in
sand, others in mud, with only their mouths above the surface.
Fishes usually conceal themselves only in the winter. The
malacostraca, the rock fishes, the batus, and selache only in
the most severe weather. This is shown by the difficulty of
capturing them in cold weather.

4. Some fish, as the glaucus, conceal themselves in sum-
mer time ; for this fish hides itself for sixty days in the
summer time. The onus and the chrysophrys hide them-
selves. The reason for supposing that the onus hides itself
for a long while appears to be that it is captured at long
intervals ; and the influence of the stars upon them ; and
especially of the dog-star, appears to be the cause of their
hiding themselves in summer time, for the sea is then dis-
turbed. This is most conspicuous in the Bosphorus ; for

B. TUT.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 215

the mud is thrown up, and the fish are thus brought to the
surface ; and they say that, when the bottom is disturbed,
more fish are often taken in the same cast the second than
the first time ; and after much rain animals make their
appearance which before were either not seen at all or but
seldom.

CHAPTEE XVIII.

1. MANY kinds of birds also conceal themselves, and they
do not all, as some suppose, migrate to warmer climates ;
but those which are near the places of which they are
permanent inhabitants, as the kite and swallow, migrate
thither ; but those that are farther off from such places do
not migrate, but conceal themselves ; and many swallows
have been seen in hollow places almost stripped of feathers ;
and kites, when they first showed themselves, have come
from similar situations. Birds with crooked claws, and
those also with straight claws, conceal themselves indiscri-
minately ; for the stork, blackbird,1 turtle dove, and lark hide
themselves, and by general agreement the turtle dove most
of all, for no one is ever said to have seen one during the
winter. At the commencement of hybernation it is very fat,
and during that season it loses its feathers, though they
remain thick for a long while. Some of the doves conceal
themselves ; others do not, but migrate along with the swal-
lows. The thrush and the starling also conceal themselves,
and among birds with crooked claws the kite and, the owl are
not seen for a few days.

CHAPTEE XIX.

1. AMONG viviparous quadrupeds the porcupines and bears
hybernate. It is evident that the wild bears conceal them-
selves ; but there is some doubt whether it is on account of
the cold or from any other cause, for at this season both the
males and females are so fat that they cannot move easily.
The female also produces her young at this season, and hides
herself until the cubs are of an age to be led forth. This
she does in the spring, about three months after the solstice,
and she continues invisible for at least forty days. During
fourteen days of this period they say that she does not move
at all. For more than this period afterwards she remains

Korri»0o£, Turdus merula, Struck, blackbird, but probably more than
one kind of bird is included under the same name. Compare 9, 86, 2.

216 THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. JJB. VIII.

invisible, but moves about and is awake. A pregnant bear
has either never or very rarely been captured ; and it is
quite plain that they eat nothing during the whole of this
period ; for they never come out ; and if they are captured,
their stomach and entrails appear to be empty ; and it is
said that, because nothing is presented to it, the intestine
sometimes adheres to itself; and, therefore, at their first
emergence, they eat the arum, in order to open the entrail
and make a passage through it.

2. The dormouse hybernates in trees and is then very
fat, and the white Pontic mouse. (Some hybernating
animals cast their old age, as it is called. This is the outer
skin and the coverings at the period of birth.) It has al-
ready been observed, that among viviparous animals with
feet there is some doubt as to the cause of the hybernation
of bears ; but almost all animals with scales hybernate and
cast their old age ; that is, all that have a soft skin and no
shell, as the tortoise ; for both the tortoise and the emys
belong to the class of animals with scales ; but all such as
the gecko, lizard, and especially the serpents, cast their
skins ; for they do this both in the spring, when they first
emerge, and again in the autumn.

3. The viper also casts its skin both in the spring and
autumn, and is not, as some persons say, the only serpent
that does not cast its skin. "When serpents begin to cast
their skin, it is first of all separated from their eyes ; and to
those who do not know what is about to happen they appear
to be blind. After this it is separated from the head, for
first of all it appears entirely white. In a night and day
the whole of the old skin is separated from the commence-
ment at the head to the tail ; and when cast it is turned in-
side out, for the serpent emerges as the infant does from
the chorion.

4. Insects which cast their skins do it in the same way as
the silpha, empis, and the coleoptera, as the beetle. All
creatures cast it after birth ; for in viviparous animals the
chorion is separated, and in the vermiparous, as bees and
locusts, they emerge from a case. The grasshoppers, when
they cast their skins, sit upon olives and reeds. When the
case is ruptured, they emerge, and leave a little fluid behind
them, and after a short time they fly away and sing.

B. Till.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 217

5. Among marine creatures the carabi and astaci cast
their skins either in spring or autumn, after having depo-
sited their ova ; and carabi have been sometimes taken with
a soft thorax, because their shell was ruptured, while the
lower part, which was not ruptured, was hard. For the
process is not the same in them as in serpents. The carabi
remain in concealment for about five months. The crabs
also cast their old skin, certainly those which have soft
shells ; and they say that those which have hard shells do
the same, as the maia and graus. When they have cast
their shells, the new shells are first of all soft, and the
crabs are unable to walk. They do not cast their skins
once only, but frequently. I have now described when and
how animals conceal themselves, and what creatures cast
their skin, and when they do so.

CHAPTER XX.

1. ANIMALS are not all in good health at the same season,
nor in the same degrees of heat and cold. Their health and
diseases are different at different seasons in various classes,
and on the whole are not alike in all. Dry weather agrees
with birds, both in respect of their general health and the
rearing of their young, and especially with pigeons ; and wet
weather, with few exceptions, agrees with fish. On the con-
trary, showery weather generally disagrees with birds, and
dry weather with fish ; for, on the whole, abundance of drink
does not agree with birds.

2. For the birds with crooked claws, generally speaking,
as it was before remarked, do not drink. But Hesiod was
ignorant of this circumstance ; for in relating the siege
of Nineveh he represents the presiding eagle of the' augury
drinking. Other birds drink, but not much ; neither do any
other oviparous animals with spongy lungs. The sickness
of birds is manifest in their plumage ; for it is uneven, and
has not the same smoothness as when they are well.

3. The generality of fish, as it was observed, thrive the
most in rainy years ; for not only in such seasons do they
obtain a greater supply of food, but the wet weather agrees
with them as with the plants that grow on land ; for
potherbs, even if watered, do not grow so well as in wet
weather. The same is the case with the reeds that grow IB

218 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [

ponds ; for they never grow, as we may say, except in rainy
weather.

4. And this is the reason why so many fish migrate every
summer into the Pontus ; for the number of rivers which
flow into it render the water fresh, and also bring down a
supply of food, and many fish also ascend the rivers, and
flourish in the rivers and lakes, as the amia and mullet.
The cobii also become fat in the rivers ; and on the whole,
those places which have the largest lakes furnish the most
excellent fish.

5. Of all kinds of water, summer showers agree best with
fish ; and if the spring, summer, and autumn have been wet,
a fine winter. And to speak generally, if the season is
healthy for mankind, it will be the same for fish. They do
not thrive in cold places. Those which have a stone in their
head, as the chromis, labrax, scicena, and phagrus, suffer
most in the winter ; for the refrigeration of the stone causes
them to freeze and be driven on shore.

6. Abundant rain confers health on most fish ; but the
contrary is the case with the mullet and cephalus, which
some call marinus ; for if there is a great supply of rain
water, they soon become blind. The cephali are particu-
larly liable to this disease in the winter ; for their eyes
become white. When captured they are lean, and at last
perish altogether. They do not, however, appear to suffer
so much from the wet as from the cold ; for in other places,
and especially in the swamps in the neighbourhood of the
Argive .Nauplia, many are found blind in severe weather, and
many also are taken with white eyes.

7. The chrysophrys also suffers from the cold ; the arach-
nas from the heat, which makes it lean. Dry seasons agree
better with the coracinus than with any other fish, and for
this reason, because it is generally warm in dry weather.
Particular localities are favourable to different species, as
either the neighbourhood of the land, or the deep waters to
those which only frequent one of these localities, or parti-
cular places to those which frequent both. There are
especial places in which each of them thrive ; but, gene-
rally speaking, they prefer places full of sea weed; for
those which inhabit places with plenty of food are generally
found to be fatter ; for those that eat fuci obtain plenty of

B. Till.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 219

food, while those that are carnivorous find an abundant
supply of fish.

8. They are also affected by northern and southern aspects,
for the long fish thrive best in northern situations, and
in northern places in the summer time more long fish
than flat fish are taken in the same locality. The tunny
and xiphia suffer from the oestrus, at the rising of the dog-
star, for both these fish at this season have beneath their
fins a little worm which is called oestrus, which resembles a
scorpion, and is about the size of a spider ; they suffer so
much from this torment that the xiphias leaps out of the sea
as high as the dolphin, and in this manner frequently falls
upon ships.

9. The tunny delights in warm weather more than any
other fish, and they resort to the sand near the sea-shore for
the sake of the warmth, and there they float on the surface ;
the small fish are safe because they are overlooked, for large
fish pursue those of a moderate size. The greater-portion of

the ova and melt are destroyed by the heat, for

whatever they touch they entirely destroy.

10. The greatest number of fish are taken before sunrise
and after sunset, or just about sunrise and sunset, for the
casts made at this period are called seasonable. For this
reason the fishermen take up their nets at this time, for
the sight of the fish is then most readily deceived. During
the night they remain quiet, and at mid-day, when the
light is strong, they see very well.

11. Fish do not appear to be subject to any of those pesti-
lential diseases which so often occur among men and quad-
rupeds, as the horse and ox, and other animals, both domestic
and wild. They appear, however, to suffer from ill health,
and the fishermen consider that this is proved by the capture
of some lean, and apparently weak individuals, and others
that have lost their colour, among a number of fat ones of
the same kind. This is the nature of sea- fish.

12. No pestilential disease attacks river and pond fish,
though some of them are subject to peculiar diseases, as the
glanis, from its swimming near the surface, appears to be
star-struck by tlie dog-star, and it is stupefied by loud
thunder. The carp suffers in the same way, but not so
severely. The glanis, in shallow water, is often destroyed

220 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. VIII

by the dragon-serpent. In the ballerus and tilon a worm is
produced, under the influence of the dog-star, which makes
them rise to the surface and become weak, and when they
come to the surface they are killed by the heat; a violent dis-
ease attacks the chalcis, which is destroyed by a number of
lice, which are produced under its gills ; no other fish appear
to be subject to such a disease.

13. Fishes are poisoned with the plant called mullein, for
which reason some persons capture them by poisoning the
waters of rivers and ponds; and the' Phoenicians poison the
sea in the same way. There are two other plans which are
adopted for the capture of fish ; for since fish avoid the deep
parts of rivers in cold weather (for even otherwise the river
water is cold), they dig a ditch through the land to the river,
which they cover over with grass and stones so as to resemble
a cave, with one opening from the river, and when the frost
comes on they capture the fish with a basket. The other mode
of fishing is practised both in summer and winter. In the
middle of the stream they raise a structure with faggots and
stones, leaving one part open for a mouth ; in this a basket
is placed, with which they catch the fish, as they take away
the stones.

14. Rainy years agree with all the testacea except the pur-
pura ; this is a proof of it, if placed near the mouth of a
river, they take the fresh water, and die the same day. The
purpura will live about fifty clays after it has been taken.
They are nourished by each other, for a plant like a fucus
or moss grows upon their shells. They say that whatever is
cast to them for food is done for the sake of weight, that
they may weigh the more.

15. Dry weather is injurious to other testacea, for it
renders them fewer in quantity and inferior in quality, and the
pectens become more red. In the Pyrrha?an Euripus the pec-
tens perish, not only from the instrument with which the
fishermen scrape them together, but also from dry weather.
The other testacea thrive in wet weather, because it makes
the sea- water fresher. The cold of the Pontus and of the
rivers that flow into it renders bivalve shells rare. The uni-
valves, however, are frozen in cold weather. This is the
nature of aquatic animals.

B. Till.] THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. 221

CHAPTER XXI.

1. AMONG quadrupeds, swine suffer from three diseases, one
of these is called sore throat, in which the parts above the
jaws and the branchia become inflamed ; it may also occur in
other parts of the body, and frequently seizes upon the foot,
and sometimes the ear. The neighbouring parts then be-
come putrid, until it reaches the lungs, when the animal dies ;
the disease spreads rapidly, and the animal eats nothing from
the period of the commencement of the disease, be it where
it will. The swineherds have no other remedy but the
excision of the part before the disease has spread far.

2. There are two other diseases which are both called
craura. One of them consists in a pain and weight in the
head, with which many of them are afflicted ; the other is
an excessive alvine discharge. This appears to be incurable.
They relieve the former by the application of wine to the
nostrils, and washing them with wine. Recovery from this
disease is difficult, for it generally carries them off on the
third or fourth day.

3. They suffer particularly from sore throat, when the
summer bears abundantly, and they are fat. The fruit of
the mulberry is good for them, and abundant washings
with warm water, and scarification beneath the tongue.
If the flesh of swine is soft, it is full of small lumps
(chalazse) about the legs, neck, and shoulders ; for in these
parts the chalazse are most frequent. If there are but a few,
the flesh is sweet ; if many, it becomes very fluid and soft.

4. Those which have these chalazae are easily distinguished ;
for they exist in the greatest numbers under the tongue,
and if the hair is plucked from their mane it appears
bloody underneath. Those which have chalazse cannot keep
their hind legs still. They are not thus affected as long as
they suck. The grain called tipha, which also forms excel-
lent food, is the remedy for the chalazaB. Vetches and figs
are useful both fcr fattening and rearing pigs ; and on the
whole their food should not be all of one sort, but varied ;
for swine, like other animals, derive advantage from a
change in their food ; and they say that at the same time
their food ought to inflate them, and to cover them both
with flesh and fat. Acorns are good for their food, but

222 THE HISTORY OF AKIMALS. [B. VITI.

make their flesh, watery ; and if they eat too many while
pregnant, they produce abortions, as sheep also do ; for
these animals evidently suffer this from eating acorns.
The swine is the only creature that we know of which
has chalazse in its flesh.

CHAPTER XXII.

1. DOGS suffer from these diseases which have received these
names, lytta, cynanche, podagra. The lytta produces mad-
ness, and* they infect every creature which they bite, except
mankind, with the same disease. This disease is fatal to
dogs and to any other animal they may bite except man.
The cynanche also is fatal to dogs ; and there are compara-
tively few which recover from the podagra. Camels also are
seized with lytta. (The elephant does not appear to suffer
from any other infirmity except flatulency.)

2. Gregarious oxen suffer from two diseases, one called
podagra, the other craurus. The podagra affects their feet ;
but it is not fatal, nor do they lose their hoofs. They derive
benefit from their horns being smeared with warm pitch.
"When attacked with craurus, their breathing becomes warm
and thick. Fever in mankind is the same as craurus in cattle.
It is a sign of this disease, when they hang down their ears
and will not eat. It soon proves fatal, and when dissected,
their lungs appear putrid.

CHAPTER XXIII.

1. HORSES when grazing are free from all diseases except
podagra ; from this they suffer, and sometimes lose their
hoofs, which grow again as soon as they are lost, and the loss
of the hoof usually takes place as soon as the first recom-
mences its growth. It is a sign of the disease when the
right testicle throbs, or when a wrinkled hollow place appears
a little below the middle of the nose. Horses that are brought
up in a domestic state suffer from several other diseases ;
they are attacked with a disorder in their bowels, and it is
a sign of the disease when they drag their hind legs up to
their fore legs, and keep them under in such a way that they
almost strike together: if they go mad after having ab-
stained from food for several days, they are relieved by
bleeding and castration.1

2. The tetanus is another disease of horses, which is thug
1 The passage is altogether corrupt.

B.VIII.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 223

recognised; all the veins, and the head and neck are extended,
and their legs are stiff when they walk ; the horses also become
full of corrupt matter. They are also attacked by another
disease in which they are said to have the crithia j1 the soft-
ness of the roof of the mouth, and heated breath, are the
signs of this disease, which is incurable, unless it stays of
its own accord. Another disease is called nymphia,2 which
is relieved by the sound of a flute ; it causes them to hang
down their heads, and when anyone mounts they rush for-
ward until they run against something. The horse is always
dejected if afflicted with madness ; this is a sign of it, if
it lays down its ears upon its mane, and then draws them
forward, and pants and breathes hard.

3. These also are incurable if the heart is affected. It is
a sign of this disease if the animal suffers from relax-
ation. And if the bladder alters its position, difficulty in
making water is a sign of this disease ; it draws up the hoofs
and loins. It is also fatal for the horse to swallow the sta-
philinus, which is of the same size as the spondyla. The
bite of the shrew mouse is injurious to other animals also ;
it causes sores, which are more severe if the creature is preg-
nant when it bites, for the sores then break. If they are not
pregnant, the animal does not perish. The creature called
chalkis by some persons and zygnis by others, inflicts either
a fatal or very painful bite. It resembles a small lizard, and
is of the same colour as the serpent called the blind worm.

4. And, on the whole, those who understand horses say
that both these animals and sheep suffer from all the in-
firmities with whfch mankind is afflicted. The horse, and
every other beast of burden, is destroyed by the poison of
sandarach.3 It is dissolved in water and strained. The
pregnant mare casts her young with the smell of a lamp going
out. This also happens to some pregnant women. This is
the nature of the diseases of horses.

5. The hippomanes, as it: is called, is said to be produced
upon the foals ; the mares when they have bitten it off lick the
foal and cleanse it. The fables on this subject have been in-
vented by women and charmers. It is, however, agreed that
mares before parturition eject the substance called polion.

6. Horses recognise again the voices of any with which

1 Indigestion caused by eating barley when heated.

2 Phrensy. 3 Red sulphuret of arsenic.

22i THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. VIII

they may have fought. They delight in meadows and
marshes, and drink dirty water ; and if it is clean, they first
disturb it with their hoof, and then drink and wash them-
selves. And on the whole, the horse is an animal fond of
water, and still more fond of moisture ; wherefore, also,
the nature of the river-horse is thus constituted. In this
respect the ox is very different from the horse, for it will
not drink unless the water is clean, cold, and unmixed.

CHAPTER XXIV.

1. ASSES only suffer from one disease, which is called melis,
which first attacks the head of the animal, and causes a
thick and bloody phlegm to flow from the nostrils. If the
disease extends to the lungs, it is fatal ; but that which first
attacks the head is not so. This animal cannot bear cold,
for which reason there are no asses in the vicinity of the
Pontus and in Scythia.

CHAPTER XXV.

1. ELEPHANTS suffer from flatulent diseases, for which
reason they can neither evacuate their fluid or solid excre-
ments. If they eat earth they become weak, unless used
to such food. If it is accustomed to it, it does no harm.
Sometimes the elephant swallows stones. It also suffers
from diarrhoea. When attacked with this complaint, they are
cured by giving them warm water to drink, and hay dipped
in honey to eat ; and either of these remedies will stop the
disease. When fatigued for want of sleep, they are cured
by being rubbed on the shoulders with* salt and oil, and
warm water. When they suffer from pain in the shoulders,
they are relieved by the application of roasted swine's
flesh. Some elephants will drink oil, and some will not;
and if any iron weapon is struck into their body, the oil
which they drink assists in its expulsion; and to those
which will not drink it, they give wine of rice cooked with
oil. This, then, is the nature of quadrupeds.

CHAPTER XXVI.

1. INSECTS generally thrive when the year is of the same
kind as the season in which they were born, such as the
spring, moist and warm. Certain creatures are produced

B. VIII.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 225

in beehives, which destroy the combs, and a little spinning
worm, which destroys the wax. It is called clerus, or by
some persons pyraustes. This creature produces a spider-
like animal like itself, which causes sickness in the hive,
and another creature like the moth, which flies round the
candle. This produces a creature filled with a woolly sub-
stance. It is not killed by the bees, and is only driven out
by smoking it. A kind of caterpillar also, which is called
teredo, is produced in the hives. The bees do not drive it
away. They suffer most from diseases when the woods
produce flowers infected with rust, and in dry seasons. AlT]
insects die when plunged in oil, and most rapidly if their 1
head is oiled, and they are placed in the sun.

CHAPTEE XXVII.

1. ANIMALS also differ in their localities : for some are en-
tirely absent from some localities which exist in others,
though small and shortlived, and not thriving. And fre-
quently there will be a great difference even in adjoining
places, as the grasshopper is found in some parts of Milesia,
and is absent from those in the immediate vicinity. And in
Cephalenia a river divides the country, on one side of which
the grasshopper is found, and not on the other.

2. In Poroselene a road divides the country, on one side
of which the weasel is found, and not on the other. In
Bceotia there are many moles in the neighbourhood of
Orchomenus, but in the adjoining Lebadian district there
are none, nor if they are imported, are they willing to bar-
row. If hares are taken into Ithaca they will not live,
but are seen dead on the sea coast, turned in the direction
in which they were brought. In Sicily the hippomyrmex
is not found, and in Gyrene there were formerly no croak-
ing frogs.

3. In all Libya there is neither wild boar, nor stag, nor
wild goat. And in India, Ctesias, who is not worthy of
credit, says, there are neither domestic nor wild swine ; but
the exsanguineous and burrowing tribes are all large. In
the Pontus there are no malacia, nor all the kinds of tes-
tacea, except in a few places ; but in the Ked Sea all the
testacea are of a great size. In Syria there are sheep with
tails a cubit in width, and the ears of the goats are a spaa

Q

226 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [E. VIII.

and four fingers, and some of them bring their ears down
to the ground : and the oxen, like the camels, have a mane
upon the point of the shoulder. In Lycia the goats are
shorn as the sheep are in other places.

4. In Libya the horned rams are born at once with horns,
and not the males only, as Homer says, but all the rest also.
In the part of Scythia near the Pontus, the contrary is the
ease, for they are born without horns. And in Egypt some
of the cattle, as the oxen and sheep, are larger than in
Greece, and others are smaller, as the dogs, wolves, hares,
foxes, ravens, and hawks. Others are nearly of the same
size, as the crows and goats. This difference originates in
the food which is abundant for some, and scarce for others.
For the wolves, hawks, and carnivorous creatures food is
scarce, for there are but few small birds. For the dasypus
and others which are not carnivorous, neither the hard nor
soft fruits are of any long continuance.

5 The temperature is also very influential ; for in Illy-
ria, Thrace, and Epirus, the asses are small. In Scythia,
and Celtic countries, they do not occur at all, for in these
places the winter is severe. In Arabia the lizards are more
than a cubit long, and the mice are much larger than those
which inhabit our fields, their fore legs being a span long,
and their hind legs as long as from the first joint of the
finger ....

6. In Libya, the serpents, as it has been already remarked,
are very large. For some persons say that as they sailed
along the coast, they saw the bones of many oxen, and that
it was evident to them that they had been devoured by the
serpents. And as the ships passed on, the serpents attacked
the triremes, and some of them threw themselves upon one
of the triremes and overturned it. There are more lions in
Europe, and especially in the country between the Ache-
lous and the Nessus. In Asia there are leopards which
are not found in Europe.

7. On the whole, the wild animals of Asia are the fiercest,
those of Europe the boldest, and those of Libya the most
varied in form ; and it has passed into a proverb that Libya
is always producing something new. For the want of
water brings many heterogeneous animals together at the
drinking places, where they copulate and produce young, if

B. VIII.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 227

their periods of gestation happen to be the same, and their
size not very different. The desire of drinking makes them
gentle to each other, for they differ from the animals of other
countries, in wanting to drink more in winter than in sum-
mer ; for on account of the great want of water during the
summer they are habituated to do without water ; and if
the mice drink they die.

8. Other animals are produced by the intercourse of
heterogeneous creatures, as in Gyrene the wolves copulate
with the dogs, and produce young ; and the Laconian dogs
are bred between a dog and a fox. They say that the In-
dian dogs are derived from the tiger and the dog ; not di-
rectly, but from the third mixture of the breeds ; for they
say that the first race was very fierce. They take the dogs
and tie them up in the desert. Many of them are devoured,
if the wild animal does not happen to desire sexual inter-
course.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

1. DIFFERENT localities produce a variety of dispositions,
as mountainous and rough places, or smooth plains. They
are more fierce and robust in appearance in mountains, as the
swine of Athos ; for the males of those which inhabit the
plains cannot endure even the females of the other kind : and
different situations have great influence on the bite of wild
animals. All the scorpions about Pharus and other places
are not painful, but in Caria and other localities they are
frequent, and large, and fierce, and their sting is fatal to
either man or beast, even to sows, which are but little influ-
enced by the bite of other creatures, and black sows
are more easily affected than others. The swine die very
soon after being stung, if they come near the water.

2. The bite also of serpents varies much ; for in Libya
the asp is found, from which they form a septic poison,
which is incurable. In the plant silphium is found a small
serpent, for the bite of which a remedy has been discovered
in a small stone, which is taken out of the tomb of one of
the ancient kings : this they drink dipped in wine. In
some parts of Italy the bite of the gecko is found to be
fatal. If one poisonous animal eats another, as, if a
1 Probably assafcetida.

228 THE HISTORY OF ANIHALS. [B. VIIL

viper eats a scorpion, its bite is the most fatal of all.
The saliva of a man is hostile to most of them. There
is one small serpent, which some persons call hierus,
which is avoided even by large serpents. It is a cubit
long, and appears rough. "Whatsoever it bites imrne-
meoiately becomes putrid in a circle round the wound.
There is also a small serpent in India, the only one for
which there is no remedy.

CHAPTEB XXIX.

1. ANIMALS also differ in being in good condition or not
during gestation. The testacea, as the pectens and the ma-
lacostraca, as the carabi and such like, are best when preg-
nant ; for this word is also used of the testacea. For the
malacostraca have been observed both in the act of copula-
tion and oviposition ; but none of the testacea have ever
been seen so occupied. The malacia, such as the teuthis,
sepia, and polypus, are most excellent when pregnant ; and
almost all fish are good during the early part of the period ;
but as the time advances some are good and some not so.

2. The maenis thrives during gestation. The form of the
female is round, that of the male longer and broader. And
when the period of gestation commences in the females, the
males become black and variegated, and are not fit to eat.
Some persons call them tragi at this period. Those which
are called cottyphus and cichla also change their colour ;
and the caris also changes at this season and some birds,
which are black in spring and afterwards become white.

3. The phycis also changes its colour ; for it is white at
all other seasons, and variegated in the spring. This is the
only sea fish that, as they say, makes a nest in which
it deposits its ova. The ma3nis, as it was before ob-
served, and the smaris also change their colours, and from
being white in summer become black. This is particu-
larly conspicuous about the fins and gills. The coracinus
is best when pregnant, and so is the msenis. The cestreus,
labrax, and nearly all creatures that swim are inferior at this
season.

4. There are a few which are good, whether pregnant or
not, as the glaucus. Old fish also are inferior; and old
tunnies are not even fit for salting, for much of the flesh is

B. Till.] THE HISTOEY Or ANIMALS. 229

dissolved. The same thing also happens with other fish.
The older fish are distinguished by the size and hardness
of their scales ; an old tunny has been taken which weighed
fifteen talents, and the length of the tail was two cubits
and a span.

5. River and pond fish are most excellent, after depositing
their ova and semen, and recovering their flesh. Some of
them, however, are good while pregnant, as the saperdis ;
and others bad, as the glanis. In all the male is better than
the female ; but the female glanis is better than the male.
Those which they call female eels are better than the males.
They call them females, though they are not so, but only
differ in appearance.

230 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [3.

BOOK THE NINTH.

CHAPTER I.

1. THE dispositions of obscure and short-lived animals are
less easily observed than those of long-lived animals ; for
they appear to have a certain inclination towards each na-
tural affection of the soul, such as prudence and folly,
courage and cowardice, mildness and cruelty, and such other
habits. Some also, which have the sense of hearing, appear
to be capable of a certain degree of instruction and disci-
pline, both from one another and from mankind, for they
not only distinguish the difference of sounds but also of
signs.

2. And in all animals in which there is a distinction of
the sexes nature has given a similar disposition to the males
and to the females. This is most conspicuous in man, and
the larger animals, and in viviparous quadrupeds ; for the
disposition of the female is softer, and more tameable and
submissive, and more ingenious ; as the females of the Lace-
demonian dog are more gentle than the males. In the
Molossian race of dogs, those employed in hunting differ in
no respect from other dogs ; while those employed in fol-
lowing sheep are larger and more fierce in their attack on
wild beasts. A mixture of the Molossian and Lacedemonian
races is both braver and more capable of enduring fatigue.

3. The females of all animals are less violent in their
passions than the males, except the female bear and pardalis,
for the female of these appears more courageous than the
male. In other animals the females are more soft and insi-
dious, less simple, more petulant, and more active in the
care of their young. The disposition of the males is opposed
to this ; for they are more passionate and fierce, more straight-
forward, and less invidious. The vestiges of these disposi-
tions exist, as we may say, in all, but are more conspicuous
in those which have the strongest moral habits, and most of

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 231

all in mankind ; for the nature of the human subject is the
most complete, so that these habits appear more conspicuous
in mankind than in other animals.

4. Wherefore women are more compassionate and more
readily made to weep, more jealous and querulous, more
fond of railing, and more contentious. The female also is more
subject to depression of spirits and despair than the male.
She is also more shameless and false, more readily deceived,
and more mindful of injury, more watchful, more idle, and
on the whole less excitable than the male. On the contrary,
the male is more ready to help, and, as it has been said,
more brave than the female ; and even in the malacia, if the
sepia is struck with a trident, the male comes to help the
female, but the female makes her escape if the male is
struck.

CHAPTER IL

1. ANIMALS often fight with each other, particularly those
which inhabit the same places and eat the same food ; for
when food becomes scarce, congeners fight together. They
say that seals which occupy the same locality will fight, the
males with the males and the females with the females, until
one party is either killed or ejected by the other, and their
cubs also will fight in the same way. All animals also will
fight with carnivorous creatures, and these will fight with
other animals, for they feed upon living creatures ; for which
reason augurs observe the disputes and agreements of
animals, considering that their disputes betoken war, and
their agreements peace with each other.

2. When supplied with plenty of food, animals that are
naturally afraid of man and fierce appear to submit them-
selves to him, and to conduct themselves quietly towards
each other. The care which is taken of animals in Egypt
demonstrates this circumstance ; for even the fiercest crea-
tures live together, when they have food enough, and are
not in any want ; for they become tame from the supply of
their wants which they receive, as the crocodiles are tamed
by the priests by the care which is bestowed on their food.
The same thing may be observed in other countries and in
their different parts.

3. The eagle and the dragon are enemies, for the eagle
feeds on serpents. The ichneumon and the spider are also

232 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. \_B. IX.

enemies, for the ichneumon hunts the spider. Among birds
the pO3cilis and the lark and the wood-pecker and chloreus
are enemies, for they eat each others' eggs. The crow and
the owl also are enemies ; for at mid-day the crow, taking
advantage of the dim sight of the owl, secretly seizes and
devours its eggs, and the owl eats those of the crow during
the night ; and one of these is master during the day, the
other during the night. The owl and orchilus are enemies ;
for the latter eats the eggs of the owl. During the day
other birds fly round the owl, which is called " astonishing
it," and as they fly round it pluck off its feathers. For this
reason fowlers use it in hunting for all kinds of birds.

4. The presbys contends with the weasel and crow, for
they eat its eggs and young. The turtle and pyrallis are
foes, for their food and mode of life are the same. The
celeus and libyus, kite and raven are enemies ; for the
kite, from the superiority of its claws and flight, can
take from the raven anything it may have caught, so that
their food is the cause of their enmity also. Those that
obtain their food from the sea also are foes, as the brenthus,
larus, and harpa. The triorches is a foe to the toad and
the serpent ; for the triorches eats the others. The turtle
and chloreus are foes, for the chloreus kills the turtle, and
the crow kills the bird called typanus. The little owl and
all other birds with crooked claws eat the calaris, from
whence their enmity arises.

5. The gecko and the spider are enemies, for the gecko
eats spiders. The pipo is a foe to the heron, for it de-
vours the eggs and young of the heron. Enmity also exists
between the segithus and the ass; for the ass frequents thorny
places, that it may scratch its sores, and by this means, and
when it brays it overturns the eggs and young of the segithus,
for they fall out of the nest from fear of the noise, and the bird,
to revenge this injury, flies upon the ass and inflicts wounds.
The wolf is the enemy of the ass, bull, and fox ; for being a
carnivorous animal, it attacks both oxen, asses, and foxes.
The fox and circus are enemies for the same reason; for
the circus having crooked claws, and being carnivorous,
attacks and inflicts wounds with its claws.

6. The raven is an enemy to the bull and ass, for it flies
round them and strikes their eyes. The eagle and the heroa

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 233

are foes, for the eagle has crooked claws and attacks it,
and the other dies in defending itself. The sesalon is a foe
to the vulture, and the crex to the coleus, blackbird, and
chlorion, which some persons fabulously say derives its
origin from a funeral pile, for it destroys both themselves and
their young. The sitta and trochilus are foes to the eagle,
and the eagle, as well for this reason, as because it is carni-
vorous, is a foe to them all.

7. The anthus is the enemy of the horse, for it drives the
horse from its pasture, for the anthus also feeds on grass ;
it is dim-sighted and not quick ; it imitates the voice of the
horse, which it frightens by flying at it, and drives it from
its pasture ; if the horse can seize upon it, he will kill it. The
anthus lives near rivers and marshes ; it is of a fine colour,
and lives well. The ass attacks the colota, a creature which
lives in the manger, and prevents it from eating, by making
its way into its nostrils.

8. There are three kinds of heron, the black, the white
sort, and the one called asterias ; of these, the black rests
and copulates with difficulty, for it utters a cry, and, as they
say, bleeds from the eyes during coition, and the process of
parturition is severe and painful ; it attacks creatures which
injure it, as the eagle, for it seizes upon it, and the fox, for
this creature attacks it during the night, and the lark,
which steals its eggs.

9. The serpent is an enemy to the weasel and the hog,
for if the weasel and serpent live in the same house they
both require the same kind of food ; and swine eat serpents.
The sesalon is a foe to the fox, for it strikes and pecks it, and
destroys its young, for it has crooked claws. The raven and
the fox are friendly, for the raven also attacks the sesalon,
and so they help each other in the attack. The little owl
and the sesalon are mutual foes, for both have crooked claws.
The little owl and the swan attack the eagle, and the swan
often comes off victorious. Of all birds the swans are most
disposed to devour l each other.

10. Some animals are always ready to attack each other,
and others, as mankind, only at particular times. The ass
and the acanthis are foes, for the latter feeds entirely on
thorns, but the former only when they are tender. The an-

1 To fight with each other. — See Liddell and Scott's Lexicon, s. v

234 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [_E. IX.

thus, acanthis, and aegithus are foes, and it is said that the
blood of the an thus and segithus will not mix. The crow
and heron are friends, and so are the schoenion, lark,
lae'dus, and celeus, for the celeus lives by the side of rivers
and thickets, but the lae'dus lives among rocks and moun-
tains, and is fond of the place in which it lives. The
piphinx, harpa, and kite are friends ; the fox and the ser-
pent also, for both live in holes ; and the blackbird and the
turtle.

11. The lion and jackal are foes, for both are carnivo-
rous, and live on the same substances. Elephants also
fight fiercely with each other, and strike with their tusks ;
the conquered submits entirely, and cannot endure the voice
of the victor : and elephants diifer much in the courage
they exhibit. The Indians use both male and female ele-
phants in war, though the females are smaller and far less
courageous. The elephant can overthrow walls by striking
them with its large tusks ; it throws down palm trees by
striking them with its head, and afterwards putting its feet
upon them, stretches them on the ground.

12. Elephant-hunting is conducted in the following way :
men mount upon some tame courageous animals ; when they
have seized upon the wild animals they command the others
to beat them till they fail from fatigue. The elephant-driver
then leaps upon its back and directs it with a lance ; very
soon after this they become tame and obedient. When the
elephant- drivers mount upon them they all become obedient,
but when they have no driver, some are tame and others
not so, and they bind the fore legs of those that are
wild with chains, in order to keep them quiet. They hunt
both full-grown animals and young ones. Such is the
friendship and enmity of these wild animals originating in
the supply of food, and the mode of life.

CHAPTER III.

1. SOME fish are gregarious and friendly together, others
that are less gregarious are hostile. Some are gregarious while
they are pregnant, others during the season of parturition. On
the whole, the following are gregarious : the tunny, moenis,
cobius, box, saurus, coracinus, sinodon, trigla, muraena,
anthia,eleginus,atherinus,sarginus,belona, (mecon,) teuthus

B. IX. ] THE HISTOKY OF ANIMALS. 235

iulus, pelamis, scombrus, and colias. Some of these are both
gregarious, and live in pairs, for all the others pair together ;
and some are gregarious at particular seasons, as it has been
said, while they are pregnant, and others in the season of
depositing their ova.

2. The labrax and cestreus, though most hostile, will at
certain seasons congregate with each other, for not only do
congeners congregate together, but all those which feed
upon the same kind of food, where it is abundant. The
cestreus and the conger often survive after having been de-
prived of their tail up to the anus, for the cestreus is eaten
by the labrax, and the conger by the niuraena. The stronger
are hostile to the weaker, for the strong fish eat the others.
This much concerning marine creatures.

CHAPTER IV.

1. IT has been already observed, that the dispositions of
animals vary in cowardice, mildness, courage, gentleness,
intelligence, and folly. The disposition of sheep, as I have
said before, is foolish, and without sense ; they are the most
cowardly of all animals, and steal away into desert places
for no purpose, and in winter often escape from their fold.
When overtaken by a snow-storm, they will not get away,
unless the shepherd drives them, but will stay behind and
perish, unless the shepherds carry off the males, when the
rest will follow.

2. If a person takes any of the goats by the beard (which
is like hair), all the rest stand by as if infatuated, and look
at it. Sheep will sleep in colder places than goats, for sheep
are more quiet, and are ready to submit themselves to man-
kind. Groats do not bear the cold so well as sheep. Shep-
herds teach sheep to come together when they make a noise,
and if any of them is left behind and does not join the flock
when it thunders, it will cast its young, if pregnant ; where-
fore, when a noise is made, they will collect together in
their sheds according to their custom. (Bulls are destroyed
by wild beasts, if they wander away from their herd.) Sheep
and goats lie down to rest separately in their races,
and when the sun. begins to descend, the shepherds say that
the goats do not lie down with their faces to each other, but
they turn their backs upon each other.

236 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. II.

CHAPTEE Y.

1. Cows pasture in herds, and in companies, and if one of
them wanders to a distance, all the rest follow, so that the
herdsmen, if they do not find her, immediately examine all
the herds. Mares in herds, if one of them happens to die,
will bring up her foal among them, and the whole race of
horses appears to have warm natural affections, of which the
following is a proof : the barren mares will take away the
foals from their mothers, and treat them with affection,
though they soon die for want of milk.

i
CHAPTEE VI.

1. OF all wild quadrupeds, the deer appears to be one of the
most prudent in producing its young by the wayside (where
wild beasts do not come, for fear of men) ; as soon as the young
is born, the dam eats the chorion, and runs to the plant
called seselis, which she eats, and having so done, returns to her
kid. She then leads her kid to the station, to which it may
learn to retreat in case of danger ; this is usually a chasm
in a rock with a single entrance, which they say that it
stays and defends. When the male gets fat (which usually
happens in the autumn) he does not show himself, but gets
out of the way, for his fat makes him an easy prey. He
sheds his horns in difficult and scarcely accessible places,
from whence arises the proverb, " where the stag sheds its
horns," for they are afraid of being seen, as if they had lost
their means of defence. It is said that the left horn never
has been seen, for he conceals it as if it had some medicinal
power.

2. "When a year old they have no horns, but only a com-
mencement, as it were a sign of what is to be ; this is short,
and covered with thick down. When two years old, they
have straight horns, like sticks, for which reason they are
called pattalia (from TarraXo?, a stake). In the third year
their horns are divided. In the fourth year they become
rough. In this manner they are regularly developed till
they are six years old. After this age their horns are al-
ways the same, so that their age cannot be distinguished by
them. Old stags, however, are recognised by two- signs ;
Borne of them have no teeth at all, others only a few ; and

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 237

they never have the defensive part of the horn, that part
of the growing horn which bends forwards, with which they
defend themselves, this the old stags never possess, but all
the increase of their horns is upwards.

3. They cast their horns every year about the month of
April. "When they cast their horns they hide themselves
during the day, as it has been already observed. They con-
ceal themselves in thickets, to protect themselves from the
flies. During this period they feed (in the thickets) during
the night, until their horns are grown. They are produced
at first under the skin, and are covered with down. When
they grow they expose them to the sun, that the horn may
be matured and hardened. When they cease to give them
pain if rubbed against trees, they leave such places, for
they are confident in their means of defence. An Achamian
stag * has been taken with a considerable quantity of green
ivy growing on its horns as in green wood, for the horns
are tender when first produced.

4. "When the stags are bitten by the phalangium or any
such creature, they collect together a number of crabs and
eat them. It appears to be wholesome for mankind to
drink the same substance, but it is not pleasant. The
females, as soon as their young are born, eat the chorium,
and it is not possible to obtain it, for they seize upon it
before it can fall to the ground ; it appears to have some
medicinal properties. The females are captured by the
sound of the pipe and by singing, and they are charmed by
singing. When two persons go out to capture them, one
shows himself, and either plays upon a pipe, or sings, and
the other strikes behind, when the first gives him the
signal ; when the ears of the deer are erect, it hears quickly,
and cannot be deceived, as it may be if they hang down.

CHAPTER VII.

1. WHE^ bears are in flight, the v drive their cubs before them,
or take them up and carry them. When nearly overtaken,
they climb up into trees. When they first come from their
hiding place they eat the arum, as it has been already ob-
served, and gnaw the trees as if they were cutting teeth.
Many ether animals also prudently provide themselves with
1 A bracket, or two year old stag.

238 THE HISTOEY OF AKIMALS. [B. IZ,

remedies, for they say that the wild goats in Crete, when
struck with an arrow, seek out the dittany, for this plant
assists in working the arrow from their body.

2. And dogs, when they are ill, provide themselves with
an emetic from a certain kind of grass. The panther, when
it has eaten the poison called pardalianches,1 seeks for human
ordure, for this relieves it. This poison also will kill lions,
the hunters, therefore, suspend ordure in a vessel from the
trees, in order that the animal may not wander far from
them ; for the panther jumps at it and attempts to seize it,
and dies before it can reach it. They say that the panther
is aware that its peculiar scent is grateful to other wild
animals, and that it preys upon them in concealment, and
when deer approach near, it catches hinds.

3. The Egyptian ichneumons, when they see the serpent
called the asp, do not attack it until they have invited others

I to assist. They roll themselves in mud as a protection
I against its blows and wounds ; they first bathe in water and
| then roll themselves on the ground. When the crocodile
gapes, the trochilus flies into its mouth, to cleanse its teeth ;
in this process the trochilus procures food, and the other per-
ceives it, and does not injure it ; when the crocodile wishes the
trochilus to leave, it moves its neck that it may not bite the
bird. "When the tortoise has eaten a viper, it afterwards eats
origanum ; this has been observed. A person who had often
seen this done, and had observed that when the tortoise had
tasted the origanum it went back to the viper, gathered all
the origanum, and when this was done, the tortoise died.

4. The weasel eats the herb rue before it attacks a
serpent, for the smell of this herb is obnoxious to serpents.
When the draco has eaten much fruit, it sucks the juice of
the bitter lettuce ; it has been seen to do this. When dogs are
troubled with worms, they eat the green tops of corn. When
the pelargus or any other bird has been wounded in flight,
they feed upon marjoram, and many persons have seen the
locust 2 settle upon the neck of serpents with which it was
contending. The weasel also appears prudent in the way in
which it attacks birds, for it kills them in the same manner
as wolves kill sheep ; it will fight also with serpents, and
especially with those that hunt mice ; for the weasel pursues
the same animals.

1 Perhaps Aconite. 2 Spax lacerticida.— Schneider.

B. IX. J THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 239

5. Observations have been frequently made on the instinct
of the hedgehog, for when the north and south winds change,
those that dwell in the earth alter the position of the en-
trance of their burrows ; those which are kept in houses alter
their position from wall to wall, so that they say that in
Byzantium there was a person who obtained the character
of predicting the change of the weather, from observations
made on the hedgehog. Theictis is about the size of a small
Maltese dog ; in the thickness of its hair, its appearance,
its white belly, and the cunning of its disposition, it re-
sembles the weasel ; it is easily tamed ; it attacks hives of
bees, for it is very fond of honey ; it eats birds like cats ;
its penis, as it has been already observed, is bony, and ap-
pears to be a remedy for stranguary in the human subject ;
it is administered in shavings.

CHAPTER VIII.

1. MANY animals in their mode of life appear to imitate
mankind, and one may observe greater accuracy of intellect
in small than in large animals ; as the manufacture of its
dwelling by the swallow is remarkable among birds ; it has
the same method of combining chaff with mud, for it mixes
the mud with straw, and if mud is not to be found, it
dips in the water and rolls itself in the dust ; it uses straw
in making its nest as men use it, for it places the largest
at the bottom, and makes it commensurate with its own
bulk ; both the male and female labour in support of the
young. They feed each in turn, observing by some agree-
ment the one which was first fed that none may receive food
twice ; at first they turn the dung out of the nest, but as
the young birds increase in size, they teach them to turn
themselves, so as to eject their excrement out of the nest.

2. There are some observations which may be made on
pigeons, for they will not pair with many mates, nor do they
forsake their first companion, unless they become widowed.
The care and anxiety of the male at the time of parturition
are remarkable, for if the pain causes the hen to feel languid
when near the nest, he beats her and drives her in. When
the young are hatched, the parent provides salt earth, which
is injected into the open mouth of the young birds, as a pre-
paration for the reception of food. When it is time for
them to leave the nest, the male copulates with them all.

240 THE msTOiiY or AKIHALS. [B. ix»

3. In this manner they have usually a great affection for
each other. Some females will copulate with males that are
not their own mates. This bird is contentious, they fight
together, and attack each other's nests, though not fre-
quently, for although they are beaten wrhen at a distance,
they will fight to the last when near their nests ; it appears
to be characteristic of the pigeon, phaps, and turtle not
to lean back when they drink, unless they have had suffi-
cient. The turtle and phatta aways remain faithful to the
same male, and will not permit another to approach them,
and the male and female share the labour of incubation.
The male and female are not easily distinguished, except
by their internal structure.

4. The phatta is long-lived, they have been known to
live for twenty-five or thirty years, some even forty years ;
their claws grow when they become aged, and pigeon
breeders cut them off, and in no other respect are they in-
ferior when aged. The turtle and the pigeon, if they have
been blinded by those who use them as decoy birds, will live
eight years. The partridge lives fifteen years, the phaps and
the turtle always build in the same places.

5. On the whole, males also live longer than females, but in
these birds they say that the males die before the females ;
this conclusion is derived from the observation of those
which are brought up in houses for decoy birds. Some
persons say that cock-sparrows only live for one year, con-
sidering this as a proof, that early in the spring there are no
birds with black beneath the chin ; but they have it after-
wards, as if none of the former birds had survived. The
hen-sparrows have a longer life, for these are taken among
the young birds, and are easily known by the hard portion
about their bills. The turtle lives during the summer in
cold places, and during the winter in warm places. The finch
lives during the summer in warm places, and in cold places
during winter.

CHAPTER IX.

1. THE heavy birds do not make nests, for it does not agree
with their mode of flight, as the quail, partridge, and all
such birds ; but when they have made a hole in the smooth
ground (for they never produce their young in any other

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 241

place), they collect together some thorns and sticks for a
defence against the hawks and eagles, and there lay their
eggs and incubate. As soon as the young are hatched, they
lead them out, because their slow flight prevents them from
procuring food for them. The quail and partridge shelter
their young under their wings, like the domestic fowl.

2. They do not lay and incubate in the same place, lest
any one should discover the place while they sat there for a
long while ; and when any one in hunting falls upon the
nest, the partridge halts before him, as if she could be taken,
and draws him after her in the hopes of capture, until all
the young ones have had time to escape, and after she flies
back and recalls them to their nest. The partridge does
not lay less ,than ten eggs, and often sixteen. As it has been
already observed, it is a bird of an evil and cunning dispo-
sition. In the spring they separate with singing and fight-
ing into pairs with the females which each may happen to
take. The partridge being a bird of violent passions, it tries
to prevent the female from incubation by rolling and break-
ing the eggs, if it can find them. The female, opposing this
artifice by another, lays her eggs as she runs, and often,
from her desire of laying, she drops her eggs wherever
she may be, if the male is present ; and, that they may all
be preserved, she does not return to them. If she is ob-
served by men, she leads them away from her eggs as from
her young ones, and shows herself just before them until
they are drawn away from the nest.

3. When the hen has escaped for incubation, the cocks
crow and fight together. These are called widowers. The
vanquished in the combat follows his conqueror who alone
has intercourse with him ; and if any one is overcome by
a second, or by any chance one, the victor has secret inter-
course with him. This does not take place always, but only at
certain seasons of the year. The quail does the same, and
domestic fowls also ; for when a new one is offered in the
temples, where they are kept without the females, all in
turn are united with it. Tame partridges have sexual inter-
course with wild ones, and strike and insult them.

4. The leader of the wild partridges attacks the partridge
used in fowling, and goes out crowing as if he would fight.
When he is taken in the trap, the other goes out and crows

242 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [u. IX

in the same manner. If the partridge used for fowling is
cock, they behave in this way ; but if it is a female, and &ht
calls, the leader answers her call ; and all the rest rise ui
and beat him, and drive him away from the female, because
he attends to her instead of themselves. For this reasor
he often comes silently, that the others may not hear hie
voice and come out to fight him. And some experiencec
fowlers say that the male approaches the female in silence
that the other males may not hear him and compel him tc
fight them. The partridge not only calls, but also utters &
shrill cry and other sounds.

5. And it often happens, when the hen is sitting, that i;
she sees the male approaching the decoy bird, she will get
up from her nest and remain in his way, that he may have
intercourse with her, and not be drawn away by the deco\
bird. Partridges and quails have such violent sexual desires
that they will fall upon the fowlers and often perch upoi
their heads.

CHAPTER X.

1. THIS is the mode of the sexual intercourse of the par-
tridge, and the way in which they are caught, and the nature
of the rest of their crafty disposition. Quails, and partridges
and some other birds make their nest upon the ground, as
it has been already observed. Of such birds the lark, wood-
cock, and quail do not perch upon trees, but upon the ground
2. The woodpecker does not settle upon the ground, but
it strikes trees in order to drive out the worms and flies
which they contain, and it picks them up with its tongue as
they emerge. Its tongue is wide and large. It walks upon
the trees in any position, even beneath the branches, like the
gecko. It has claws stronger than those of the coloeus, which
provide for its safety in climbing trees ; for it fixes them in
the bark as it walks up the trees. There is one kind o1
woodpecker less than the blackbird, covered with sma^
red spots, and another kind larger than the blackbird, and
a third kind nearly as large as the domestic hen. It build
its nest upon trees, as it has been already observed, both on
olive and other trees ; and it feeds upon ants and worms
which live in trees. It hunts for worms so diligently that
they say it hollows out the trees so much as to throw them

B. IX.] THE HISTOEY OP ANIMALS. 243

down. A tame bird has been known to place an almond in
a crack in wood, to prepare it for the stroke of its bill, and
break it with three blows, in order to eat the kernel.

CHAPTER XI.

MANY prudent actions appear to be performed by cranes ;
for they travel great distances, and fly at a great elevation,
in order that they may see farther ; and if they see clouds
and wintry weather, they descend and rest themselves.
They have also a leader in front ; and in the rear are those
which give a signal by whistling, so that their voice may be
heard. When they settle on the ground, the rest sleep with
their head under the wing, first on one foot, then on the
other ; but the leader watches with his neck stretched out,
and when he sees anything he gives a signal by his cry.
The pelicans, which inhabit the rivers, swallow large smooth
shells with their drink, and when they have been digested
in the first part of their stomach, they vomit them up, in
order that they may pick out and eat their flesh when they
open their valves.

CHAPTEE XII.

1. THE habitations of wild birds are contrived with relation
to their mode of life and the preservation of their young.
Some of them are kind to their young and careful of them :
others are of a different disposition. Some manage well in
their mode of life : others do not. Some dwell in clefts, and
holes, and in rocks, as the birds called charadrius. This
bird is faulty both in its colours and its voice. It appears
during the night, and escapes in the day time.

2. The hawk also builds in precipitous places ; and al-
though it is carnivorous, it does not devour the heart of the
bird it has killed. Some have observed this with respect to
the quail and thrush, and others with other birds. There is
also a change in their mode of hunting their prey, for they
do not seize them in the same way in summer and in winter.
It is said that no one has ever seen the young or the nest of
the carrion vulture. Wherefore Herodorus, the father of
Brison the sophist, says that they come from some distant
elevated land, using this proof, that many of them ap-
pear suddenly, but where they come from is not intelligible

» 2

244 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. H '

to any one. The reason is this, they make their nest ill t
inaccessible rocks, and the bird is not an inhabitant of man^
countries. It produces one egg or two at the most.

3. Some birds dwell in mountains and in woods, as th(
hoopoe and brenthus. This bird has a good habit of life am
a good voice. The trochilus dwells in thickets and holes i •
It is taken with difficulty, for it is swift in flight, and it*
disposition is weak ; but its mode of life is good, and it
artful. It is also called presbys and basileus. Wherefore
also they say that it fights with the eagle.

CHAPTER XIII.

1. THERE are some which live near the sea, as the cinclus
In disposition this bird is cunning and difficult of capture,
and when taken easily tamed. It appears to be lame, foi
its hinder parts are weak. All birds with webbed feet live
near the sea, or near rivers and ponds, for their nature
teaches them to seek what is advantageous for them. Many
of those with divided feet live near waters and marshes, as
the anthus in the neighbourhood of rivers. Its colour is
beautiful, and its mode of life good. The diver lives near
the sea, and when it plunges into the sea it remains
as long a time as it would take a man to walk over a pleth-
rum of ground. This bird is less than a hawk.

2. The swan also is web-footed, and lives in ponds and
marshes. Its manner of life and disposition is good, and so
is its mode of rearing their young and its old age. If an
eagle attacks the swan, it defends itself and comes off victo-
rious, but will not commence the fight. Swans have the
power of song, especially when near the end of their life ;
for they then fly out to sea, and some persons, sailing near
the coast of Libya, have met many of them in the sea sing-
ing a mournful song, and have afterwards seen some ol
them die.

3. The cymindis is seldom seen, for it inhabits mountains.
It is black, and about the size of the hawk called pigeon
hawk. Its form is long and slight. (It shines with a
metallic lustre, wherefore also it is called chalcis.) The
lonians call it cymindis: wherefore Homer writes in the
Iliad, "the bird which the gods call chalcis, and mortals
cymindis." (Some persons say that the hybris is the same

B. IX.] THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 245

bird as the ptynx.) This bird does not show itself in tho
day-time because its sight is dim ; but it hunts its prey
during the night like the eagle. It fights so fiercely with
the eagle that both are often taken alive by the shepherds.
It lays two eggs, and builds in rocks and caverns. Cranes
fight so fiercely with each other that these also are taken
alive by the shepherds while they are fighting. The crane
lays two eggs.

CHAPTEE XIV.

] . THE jay changes its voice frequently, for it utters a
different one, as we may say, almost every day ; it lays about
nine eggs ; it makes its nest upon trees, of hair and wool ;
when the acorns fall, it conceals and stores them up. Many
persons have reported that the stork is fed by its young,
and some people say the merops also, and that they are fed
by the young, not only in their old age, but as soon as the
young birds are able to do so, and that the parents remain
within the nest ; in appearance, this bird is green beneath
the wings, and blue above, as the kingfisher, and its wings are
red at the extremity. It lays six or seven eggs in the autumn,
in muddy caverns, and digs as much as four cubits into the
ground.

2. The bird called chloris from being yellow beneath,
is of the size of the lark, and lays four or five eggs ; it
makes its nest of symphytum, which it pulls up by the root,
and lines it with straw, hair, and wool. The blackbird and
jay do the same, and line their nests with the same ma-
terials ; the nest of the acanthyllis is also artfully con-
structed, for it is folded together like a ball of flax, and has
a small entrance. And the natives of those places say that
there is a cinnamon bird, and that they bring the cinnamon
from the same places as the bird, and that it makes its nest
of it. It builds its nest in lofty trees and among their
branches, but the natives of the country tip their arrows
with lead, with which they destroy the nests, and then pick
out the cinnamon from the other material.

CHAPTEE XV.

1. THE halcyon is not much larger than a sparrow; its
colour is blue and green, and somewhat purple ; its whole

THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. TX,

.body is composed of these colours as well as the wings and
neck, nor is any part without every one of these colours.
Its bill is somewhat yellow, long, and slight ; this is its ex-
ternal form. Its nest resembles the marine balls which are
called halosachna},1 except in colour, for they are red ; in form
it resembles those sicyse (cucumbers) which have long necks ;
its size ia that of a very large sponge, for some are greater,
others less. They are covered up, and have a thick solid
part as well as the cavity ; it is not easily cut with a sharp
knife, but when struck or broken with the hand, it divides
readily like the halosachnae. The mouth is narrow, as it
were a small entrance, so that the sea-water cannot enter,
even if the sea is rough ; its cavity is like that of the sponge ;
the material of which the nest is composed is disputed, but
it appears to be principally composed of the spines of the
belone, for the bird itself lives on fish. It also ascends
rivers ; it does not produce more than five eggs ; it continues
to reproduce throughout the whole of its life, from the time
of being four months old.

CHAPTER XVI.

1. THE hoopoe generally makes its nest of human ordure.
It changes its appearance in summer and winter, like most
other wild birds. The titmouse, as they say, lays the
greatest number of eggs, some say that the bird called me-
lancoryphus lays the greatest number of eggs after the Libyan
sparrow, seventeen have been observed, but it will produce
more than twenty, and, as they say, it always lays a great
many. This bird also builds in trees, and lives upon worms.
It is characteristic of this bird and the nightingale not to
have any tip to their tongue. The eegithus has a good mode
of life, and is careful of its young, but is lame upon its feet.
The chlorion is a clever and diligent bird, but its flight is
difficult, and its colours bad.

2. The elea, like some other birds, has an excellent mode
of life, and dwells during the summer in groves and in the
shade, and during the winter in sunshine, perching upon the
reeds on the sides of marshes. It is a small bird, with a
good voice.

3. The bird called gnaphalus has a sweet voice, its colour^

1 Probably a Zoophyte, Alcyonia.

B. IX.1 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 247

are beautiful, its mode of life good, and its form elegant ;
it appears to be a foreign bird, for it is rarely found in
places where there are no houses.

4. The disposition of the crex is pugnacious, but it is in-
genious in providing for its own subsistence, though other-
wise an unfortunate bird. The sitta is pugnacious, but its
disposition is gentle and tractable, and its mode of life good.
It is said to be medicinal, for it is skilful in many things.
It produces many young, which it treats with kindness, and
obtains its food by striking trees.

5. The little owl feeds during the night, and is rarely visible
by day. It lives in rocks and caverns, for its food is of two
kinds ; and in disposition it is diligent and ingenious. There
is a small bird called certhius, which is bold in disposition,
and lives on trees and eats the thrips (timber worm). In
disposition it is diligent in search of food, and its voice is
brilliant. The disposition and hue of the acanthis is bad,
but it has a shrill voice.

CHAPTEE XVII.

1. AMONG the herons, as it was before observed, the black
heron copulates with difficulty, but it is an ingenious bird.
It carries its food about, and is skilful in procuring it. It
works during the day. Its colour, however, is bad, and its
stomach always fluid. Of the other two (for there are three
kinds of them), the white heron is beautifully coloured and
copulates without pain, and builds its nest and attends its
young carefully in trees. It inhabits marshes and lakes,
plains and meadows. The bittern, which is called ocnus
(the idle), is said in fables to have been originally a slave.
Its name indicates its very idle disposition.

2. The herons live in this manner. The bird called poyx
is peculiar, for it is its disposition to eat the eyes of other
creatures, and is therefore the enemy of the harpa, which
lives upon the same food.

CHAPTEE XVIII.

1. THEEE are two kinds of cottyphus. The one is black,
and is found everywhere ; the other is white. In size they
are alike, and their voice is very similar. The white one is
found in Cylleue, in Arcadia, and nowhere else. The laeus

248 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IX.

is similar to the black cottyphus, but is rather smaller. It
makes its house upon rocks and tiles. It has not a dark
beak, like the blackbird.

2. Of thrushes there are three forms. The one is called
misselthrush, for it lives upon nothing but miseltoe and resin.
It is as large as the citta ; the other is called fieldfare. The
voice of this bird is shrill ; its size is that of the blackbird.
There is another kind, which some persons call illas, which
is smaller than the others and less variegated.

3. There is a certain bird living on rocks, which is called
blue thrush. This bird generally inhabits Scyrus. It lives
upon the wing. It is less than the blackbird, but larger than
the finch. Its feet are black, and it climbs up upon rocks.
It is entirely blue. It has a smooth, long beak, but its legs
are short, and resemble those of the woodpecker.

CHAPTER XIX.

1. THE oriole is entirely of a yellowish green. This bird
is not visible in the winter. It is seen in the greatest num-
bers at the summer solstice, and takes its departure when
Arcturus rises. It is of the same size as the turtle. The
malacocraneus always perches upon the same place, and is
captured there. This is its appearance : its head is large,
and has the form of cartilage ; its size is smaller than the
thrush ; its beak is strong, small, and round ; its colour is
entirely cinereous ; its feet are strong, and its wings weak ;
it is generally captured by the owl.

2. There is another bird, called the pardalus, which is
generally gregarious, and a single bird is never seen. Its
colour is entirely cinereous. In size it resembles those
already mentioned. Its feet are strong, and its wings are
not weak. Its voice is frequent and not deep. The colly-
rion lives on the same food as the blackbird, and in size
much resembles those just named. It is generally taken in
the winter. These birds are visible all the year round, and
so are those which live in the neighbourhood of towns, the
raven and crow ; for these are always visible, and neither
migrate nor conceal themselves.

3. Of the jackdaw there are three kinds, one called cora-
cias, which is as large as the crow, and has a red beak ;
another is called lycius ; there is also a small one called

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 249

bomoloclius ; there is also another kind of jackdaw in Lydia
und Phrygia which is web-footed.

4. Of the lark there are two kinds. One dwells or».
the ground, and has a crest. The other is gregarious, and
not solitary. Its colour is similar, though it is a smaller
bird, and has no crest. It is used for food.

5. The ascalopas is generally taken in enclosed gardens.
It is of the size of the domestic fowl, it has a long beak,
and in colour resembles the attagen. It runs quickly, and
is very partial to the neighbourhood of mankind. The
starling is variegated, and is of the size of the blackbird.

6. There are two kinds of ibis in Egypt ; the white and
the black. The white live in all the rest of Egypt, but
are not found in Pelusium. The black occur in Pelusium,
but not in other parts of Egypt.

7. One kind of scops, called brown owl, is seen throughout
the year, but it is not eaten, for it is not fit for food. Others
occur sometimes in the autumn, when they appear for one,
or not more than two days. They are eatable, and are
highly esteemed. They differ in no respect from the brown
owl, except in fatness ; and they are silent, whereas the
other has a voice. No observations have ever been made
on their mode of generation, except that they appear when
the west wind blows. This is manifest.

CHAPTER XX.

1. THE cuckoo, as it has been already observed, makes no
nest, but lays its eggs in the nests of other birds, especially
in that of the phaps, and in those of the sparrow and
lark on the ground, and in the nest of the chloris in
trees. It lays one egg, upon which it does not sit, but
the bird in whose nest it lays both hatches the egg and
nurses the young bird ; and, as they say, when the young
cuckoo grows, it ejects the other young birds, which thus
perish.

2. Others say that the mother bird kills them, and feeds
the young cuckoo with them ; for the beauty of the young
cuckoo makes her despise her own offspring. People assert
that they have been eye-witnesses of most of these circum-
stances, but all are not equally agreed as to the mode in
which the other young birds perish. Some persons say

250 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [u. IT.

that the old cuckoo comes and devours the young of the
other bird. Others say that the great size of the young
cuckoo enables it to seize upon the food which is brought
to the nest, so that the rest perish from starvation. Others
say that the cuckoo, being the stronger bird, kills those that
are brought up with it.

3. The cuckoo appears to act prudently in thus depositing
her egg ; for it is conscious of its own timidity, and that
it cannot defend its young, and therefore places them under
the protection of another bird, in order that they may be pre-
served ; for this bird is very cowardly, and when it is pecked
by even small birds, it flies away from them.

CHAPTER XXI.

1 . THAT the swilt, which, some persons call cypsellus, resem-
bles the swallow, has been already observed, and it is not
easy to distinguish them apart, except that the legs of the
apos are covered with feathers. These birds rear their young
in small nests made of mud, which have a passage sufficient
for their admission. The nest is constructed in a narrow
place under rocks and caverns, so that it avoids both beasts
and men.

2. The goatsucker, as it is called, is a mountain bird,
larger than the blackbird, and less than the cuckoo. It lays
two, or not more than three eggs, and is slothful in its dis-
position. It flies against the goats and sucks them, whence
its name (aegothelas, the goat-sucker). They say that when
the udder has been sucked that it gives no more milk, and
that the goat becomes blind. This bird is not quick sighted
by day, but sees well at night.

3. The ravens in small districts, and where they have not
food enough, are found only in pairs ; and as soon as their
young birds are able to fly, the old birds first of all turn them
out of the nest, and then drive them from the place. The
raven lays four or five eggs. When the hired soldiers of
Medias perished in Pharsalus, Athens and the Peloponnesus
were deserted by the ravens, as if they had some means of
communication with each other.

CHAPTER XXII.

1. THERE are several kinds of eagles. One which is called
pygargus (hen-harrier), which is found in plains and groves.

B. IX.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS 251

and in the vicinity of towns. Some persons call it nebro-
phonus. It is a courageous bird, and flies to mountains, and
woods also. The other kinds rarely appear in plains and
groves. There is another kind of eagle called plangus, the
second in point of size and strength, which lives among
thickets, and valleys, and marshes. It is called nettophonus
and morphnus. Of this kind Homer speaks at the departure
of Priam.

2. There is another kind, which is black. It is smaller,
and stronger than the others. It inhabits mountains and
woods. It is called melanseetus, and lagophonus. This is
the only one that rears and educates its young. It is swift,
elegant, liberal, fearless, warlike, and of a good omen, for it
neither cries nor screams. There is another kind with spotted
wings. It has a white head, and is the largest of all eagles.
Its wings are short, and its rump very long, like the vulture ;
it is called oreipelargus, and hypseetus. It inhabits groves.
It has all the faults of the rest, and none of their good
qualities ; for it is taken and pursued by ravens and other
birds. It is a heavy bird, and its mode of life is bad. It
carries about dead creatures; it is always hungry, and
screams and cries.

3. There is another kind of eagle called sea eagle, which
has a long and thick neck, curved wings, and a wide rump.
It inhabits the sea and the coast. When they have seized
their prey, and cannot carry it away, they are borne down
into the sea. There is, again, another kind of eagle, called
true eagle. They say that these alone of all other birds are
true, for the other kinds are mixed and crossed with each
other, both eagles, hawks, and other smaller kinds. This
is the largest of all the eagles, greater than the phene ; one
and a half times as large as other eagles, and of a red colour :
it is seldom seen, like that called cymindis.

4. The time for the activity of the eagle, and for its flight,
is from dinner till the evening, for it sits aloft till the time
when the market-place begins to fill. "When eagles grow old,
their beaks become more and more curved, so that at last they
die of famine. The story goes, that the eagle was once a man,
and suffers this as a punishment for inhospitality to a guest.
Any superabundant food is put aside for their young in their
nests, for it is not easy for them to procure it every day, and
sometimes they have no place from whence to bring it.

252 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [B. IX.

5. If they find anyone attempting to take their nest, they
beat them with their wings, and tear them with their claws.
They do not make their nests in plains, but in high places,
especially in precipitous rocks, but never on trees. They
rear their young till they can fly, and then turn them out of
their nests, and drive them to a great distance ; for one pair
of eagles occupies a wide space of country, so that they will
suffer no others to live near them.

6. They do not hunt their prey near their nests, but at a
considerable distance ; and when they have hunted and
taken anything, they lay it down and do not take it away at
once, but carry it away when they have tried its wei'ght.
They do not capture hares at once, but let them escape to
the plain. They do not descend to the plain at once, but
with large though gradually decreasing circles. They
do this in order that they may not be ensnared. They
settle upon eminences, because they cannot rise easily from
the ground. They fly aloft, that they may see the greater
extent of country. For this cause men say that the eagle
is the only divine bird.

7. All birds with crooked claws avoid sitting upon rocks,
for its hardness is injurious to their claws. The eagle hunts
fawns, hares, and other animals which it is able to conquer.
It is a long-lived bird. This is plain from the long con-
tinuance of their nests in the same place.

8. In Scythia there is a kind of bird as large as a bustard,
which produces two young ones. It does nob sit upon its
eggs, but hides them in the skin of a hare or fox. It w^atches
them from a neighbouring tree all the while it is not en-
gaged in hunting its prey. And if anyone approaches them,
it fights and strikes with its wings, like the eagle.

CHAPTER XXIII.

1. THE owl and nycticorax, and the other birds which see
imperfectly by daylight, procure their food by hunting in
the night. They do not this all the night, but in twilight
and at early dawn. They hunt mice, and lizards, and
beetles, and such other small animals.

2. The bird called asprey produces many young, is of
a good habit of body, diligent in search of food, and gentle ;
and feeds both its own young and those of the eagle : for

B- IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 253

wnen the eagle turns out its young, the phene takes them
up and feeds them ; for the eagle ejects them ' before the
proper time, when they still require feeding, and are unable
to fly. The eagle appears to eject its young from the nest
from envy ; for it is an envious and hungry bird, and not quick
in seizing its prey. It captures large creatures when it can.
When its young have grown, it envies them, for they are
good for food, and tears them with its claws. The young
also fight in the nest for particular places, and for the food.
The parent then turns them out of the nest and strikes
them. When they are turned out they begin to scream,
and the phene comes and takes them up. The phene is
dim-sighted, and its eyes are imperfect.

3. The sea-eagle is very quick- sighted, and compels its
young to gaze on the sun before they are feathered. If any
one of them refuse, it is beaten and turned round : and the
one of them which first weeps when gazing on the sun is
killed, the other is reared. It lives near the sea side, and ob-
tains its food by pursuing marine birds, as it was before
remarked. It pursues and takes them one at a time, watching
them as they emerge from the sea. And if the bird, as it
rises, sees the eagle watching it, it dives again from fear, in
order that it may rise again in another place : but the eagle's
quick sight enables him to pursue the bird till it is either
suffocated, or taken on the wing ; but it never attacks them
in any numbers, for they drive it away by sprinkling it with
their wings.

4. The petrels are taken with foam, for they devour it.
They are therefore taken by sprinkling them. All the rest
of its flesh is good ; the rump alone smells of seaweed, and
they are fat.

CHAPTER XXIV.

1. THE buzzard is the strongest of the hawks ; next to this
the merlin. The circus is less strong; the asterias and
phassophonus, and pternis are different. The wide-winged
hawks are called hypotriorches, others are called perci and
spizia? ; others are the eleii and the phrynolochi ; these birds
live very easily, and fly near the ground.

2. Some persons say that there are no less than ten kinds
of hawks ; the'y differ from each other, for some of them

254 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. II.

kill the pigeon as it perches on the ground, and carry it
away, but do not touch it in flight ; others attack it as it
sits upon the trees, or in some such situation, but will not
touch it when upon the ground or in flight ; other kinds of
hawks will not strike the bird when perching upon the
ground or anywhere else, but will endeavour to attack it
when in flight.

3. They say that the pigeons can distinguish each of these
kinds, so that if they see one of those which attack them in
the air flying towards them, they remain sitting where
they are, but if it is one of those which strike them on the
ground, they do not remain still, but fly away.

4. In the city of Thrace, formerly called Cedropolis.
men are assisted by hawks in pursuing birds in the
marshes. They strike the reeds and wood with sticks
in order that the birds may fly up, and the hawks ap-
pearing above pursue them, the birds then fall to the
earth through fear, when the men strike them with their
sticks and take them, and divide the prey with the hawks,
for they throw away some of the birds, and the hawks
come and take them.

5. On the Palus Moeotis, they say that wolves are
accustomed to assist the fishermen in their calling, and if
they do not give them their share of the food, they destroy
the nets that are laid to dry on the ground. This, then, is
the nature of birds.

CHAPTER XXY.

1. MARINE animals also have many artful ways of pro-
curing their food, for the stories that are told of the batra-
chus, which is called the fisher, are true, and so are those of
the narce. For the batrachus has appendages above its
eyes, of the length of a hair, with a round extremity to
each like a bait ; it buries itself in the sand or mud, and
raises these appendages above the surface, and when the
small fish strike them, it draws them down, till it brings
the fish within reach of its mouth.

2. The narce stupefies any fish it may wish to master,
with the peculiar force which it has in its body, and then
takes and feeds upon them ; it lies concealed in sand and

B. IX.] THE HISTOKY OF ANIMALS 255

mud, and captures as they swim over it any fish that it can
take and stupefy; of this circumstance many persons have
been witnesses ; the trygon also hides itself, but not in the
same manner ; the following is a proof of their mode of
life, for they are often taken with the cestreus in their
stomach, which is the swiftest of fishes, and they are the
slowest ; and the batrachus, when nothing is left on the
hair-like appendages, is taken in an emaciated condition.
The narce also has plainly caused stupefaction in men.

3. The onus, batus, psetta, and rhine also bury themselves
in the sand, and when they have hidden themselves, the ap-
pendage which is in their mouth stands up, this the
fishermen call their staff, and the small fish approach it
as if it was the sea-weed, on which they usually live.
Wherever the anthias is found there are no obnoxious crea-
tures ; when this sign is observed, those who collect sponges
dive for them there, and call the anthias the sacred fish ;
this is only a coincidence, just as the pig and partridge
are never found where there are snails, for they eat them
all.

4. The marine-serpent, in colour and in the form of its
body, resembles the conger, but it is darker, and more power-
ful. If it is captured and allowed to escape, it buries itself
in the sand, which it pierces with its snout, for its snout
is sharper than that of a serpent. The creature called
scolopendra when it has swallowed the hook turns itself
inside out, till the hook is ejected, when it turns to its
original form. The scolopendra, like that which inhabits
the land, is attracted by the smell of cooked meat ; it does
not bite with the mouth, but stings with the contact of
the whole body, like the creatures called sea-nettles.

5. The fish called alopex, when one of them has swal-
lowed the hook, assist each other in this matter, as the
scolopendra also does, for they collect together round
the line and bite it off; in some places, where the water is
swift and deep, they are taken with many hooks in them.
The amia3 also collect together when they see any obnoxious
creature near them, and the largest swim round them in
a circle; when attacked, they defend themselves; they
have strong teeth, and the lamia and other creatures when
attacking them have been seen to be repulsed with wounds.

256 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IX.

6. Among river fish the male glanis is very careful of
his young fry, but the female goes away as soon as she has
deposited her ova, but the male continues to watch by the
greater number of the ova, paying them no more attention
than to drive away other fish, that they may not carry away
the ova; he is thus employed for forty or fifty days.
until the young fry are so far grown that they can es-
cape from other fish ; the fishermen know when it is guarding
its ova, for it drives away other fish, and as it jumps at them
it makes a noise and a murmur. It remains with such af-
fection beside its ova, that if they are deposited in deep
water, and the fishermen attempt to bring them into
shallow water, the fish will not forsake them ; but if
young it is easily taken with a hook, from its habit of seizing
upon any fish that may come in its way ; but if it is ex-
perienced, and has swallowed a hook before, it does not
leave its ova, but with its hard teeth it will bite and destroy
the hook.

7. All creatures with fins, and stationary animals, inhabit
either the places in which they \vere born, or similar lo-
calities, for their peculiar food is found in such places. The
carnivorous fish are the greatest wanderers ; all are carni-
vorous with a few exceptions, as the cestreus, salpa, trigla,
and chalcis. The mucous substance which the pholis emits
forms around it, and resembles a chamber. Of the apo-
dal testacea, the pecten is the most locomotive, for it flies
by means of its own valves ; the purpura and its congeners
advance very slowly.

8. All the fish except the cobius leave the Pyrrhic Euripus
during the winter on account of the cold, for the Euripus is
colder than the sea, and return again in the spring. In the
Euripus the scarus, the thrissa, all the thorny fish, the galus,
acanthia, carabus, polypus, bolitaena, and some others are
wanting, and of those that are produced in the Euripus, the
white cobius is not an inhabitant of the sea. Those fish
which have ova are in the highest season in the spring,
before they produce their ova ; those that are viviparous in
the autumn, and besides these the cestreus, trigla, and their
congeners. In the neighbourhood of Lesbos, both the ma-
rine fish and those of the Euripus produce their ova in
the Euripus; they copulate in the autumn, and deposit

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 257

their ova in the spring. The males and females of the se-
lachea also mix together, in numbers, in the autumn, for the
purpose of copulation ; but in the spring they separate
until they have produced their young ; at the period of
sexual intercourse, they are often taken united together.

9. The sepia is the most cunning of the malacia, and is
the only one which uses its ink for the purpose of conceal-
ment, when it is not alarmed. The polypus and teuthis
emit their ink only when alarmed. These creatures never
emit all their ink, and as soon as it is emitted it is secreted
again. But the sepia, as it has already been remarked,
makes use of its ink for the purposes of concealment, and
when it pretends to advance, it returns into its ink. With
its long extended tentacula it not only pursues small fish,
but frequently attacks the cestreus. The polypus is a foolish
creature, for it will approach a man's hand if brought near
it. It is an economical animal, for it collects all its prey in
the hole in which it dwells, and when the most useful part
has been consumed, it ejects the shells, the coverings of
the cancri, and conchylia, and the spines of the fish, it pur-
sues any fish that may come in its way, changing its colour
and imitating that of any neighbouring stone. It does the
same thing when alarmed.

10. Some persons say that the sepia has power to do the
same thing, and that it can imitate the colour of the place
it inhabits. The rhine is the only fish endowed with the
same power, for it can change its colours like the poly-
pus. The polypus rarely lives for two years, for it is by
nature subject to decay. This is a proof of it, that when
pressed, this animal always emits something, until at last it
consumes away. The females suffer so much from this in
the period of parturition, as to become foolish, and not per-
ceive any agitation of the waves, so that they are easily
taken by the hand of the diver ; they become like mucus,
and are not able to pursue their prey.

11. The males become hard and shining. This appears to
be a proof that they do not survive a year, that in the
summer and autumn, after the production of the young,
it is difficult to find a large polypus, though large ones
were abundant a short time before ; when they have pro-
duced their ova, they say that both sexes grow old and be-

258 T;HE HISTORY OE ANIMALS. [_B. Ix-

come so weak, that they are devoured by small fish, and
are easily dragged out of their holes, though before they
would have permitted nothing of the kind. They also say
that the small and young ones will not endure this, and that
they are stronger than the large ones. The sepia also only
lives one year ; the polypus is the only one of the malacia
that ever ventures upon dry land, it advances upon a rough
surface, but avoids smooth places. In other respects, it is
a strong animal, but its neck, if pressed, becomes very weak.
12. This is the nature of the malacia. They say that
.... form their rough shells round themselves like a hard
breastplate, which increases as they grow, and that they
can leave these, as if they were a hole or a habitation.
The nautilus is a polypus peculiar both in its nature and its
actions; for it sails upon the surface of the sea, rising
up from the depths of the waters. It is brought to the
surface with its shell inverted, in order that it may go out
more easily and navigate in an empty shell. When it
reaches the surface, it turns its shell over. There is a
membrane extended between two of its tentacula similar
to the web feet of birds, except that theirs is thick and that
of the nautilus thin and like a spider's web. This it uses
for a sail when the wind blows, and it extends two of its
tentacula for rudders. If alarmed, it fills its shell and sinks
in the sea. No one has made any accurate observation on the
production and growth of the shell. It appears not to ori-
ginate in sexual intercourse, but to be produced like that of
other conchylia, nor is it clear whether it can live when
taken out of its shell.

CHAPTER XXVI.

1. THE most laborious of all insects, if compared with the
rest, are the tribes of ants and bees, with the hornets, wasps,
and their other congeners. Some of the spiders are more
neat, graceful, and skilful than others in their mode of life.
Every one may see the diligence of the ant ; for it is on the
surface, and that they always travel in one direction, am
make a store and treasure-house of food, for they work evei
in the night when there is a full moon.

2. There are many kinds of spiders and phalangia. Of
the phalangia that bite there are two sorts. The one

B. IX J THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 259

sembles those called wolves. It is small, variegated, sharp,
and active in jumping. It is called psylla. The other is
larger. Its colour is black, and its fore-legs are long. Its
movements are slow, and it can scarcely walk. It is not
strong, nor capable of jumping. The other kinds, which the
dealers in medicine offer for sale, either do not bite at all, or
very slightly.

3. There is another kind of those called wolves. One
is small, and makes no web, and the larger sort makes a
coarse inferior web upon the ground or in hedges. It always
makes its weft over chinks in the soil, and with the origin of
the web in the interior it keeps guard until something falls
into the web and moves it, when it comes out. The va-
riegated kind makes a small inferior web among trees.

4. There is another third kind, which is very skilful and
graceful. It commences the process of weaving by extend-
ing its web to the extremities on all sides, and then it draws
a thread from the centre, and takes up the centre cor-
rectly. Upon these threads it weaves, as it were, the woof,
and then weaves them altogether. Its sleeping place and
store-room are situated at a distance. In seeking its prey
it watches in the middle of its web. When anything
falls into the web and the centre is moved, the spider sur-
rounds and encloses it in a web, until it is rendered power-
less, and then takes it up and carries it to her store. If
hungry, she sucks it, for this is their method of enjoyment ;
and if not hungry, hastens back for the pursuit of more
prey, and in the first place mends her broken web.

5. If anything in the meanwhile has fallen into the web,
she first goes to the centre, and from that point, as before,
falls upon her victim. If anyone destroys the web, she
begins spinning again at the rising or setting of the sun, for
it is at this time that her prey usually falls into the web.
The female both makes the web and pursues the prey. The
male only enjoys it with her.

6. There are two kinds of graceful spiders that spin a
thick web, one large and one small. The one with long legs
keeps watch suspended above its web, that the creatures
which fall into the web may not be frightened when taken,
and then it falls upon them from above, for its size prevents

3 2

2GO THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IX

it from being easily concealed. But the smaller kind con-
ceals itself in a small superior chamber of the web.

7. Spiders have the power of emitting their web as soon
as they are born, not from within their bodies, as if it were
an excrement, as Democritus says, but from the surface of
their body, like the bark of a tree, or like the ejected spines
of some animals, as the porcupine. They will attack and
surround with their web animals larger than themselves ; for
they will attack small lizards, and beginning at the mouth,
will emit the web until their mouth is covered, and then will
approach and bite them. This is the nature of these animals.

CHAPTER XXVII.

1. THERE is a tribe of insects which has not yet received
any name, although in form all the species resemble each
other. This tribe includes those that form wax, as the bee
and those which resemble it in shape. Of these there are
nine sorts, six of which are gregarious, the bee, the king bee,
the drone, which dwells among the bees, the annual wasp,
the hornet, and tenthredo. These are solitary, the small
siren, of a tawny colour, and another siren, which is large,
black, and variegated. The third, which is larger than these, -
is called bombylius. The ants pursue no prey, but only col-
lect that which is already found. The spiders do not make
anything, nor lay up a store, but only hunt down their prey.

2. Of the rest of the nine kinds already mentioned we
will treat hereafter. The bees do not hunt for prey, but
they both produce and lay up stores. The honey is their
food. This is plainly shown when the honey dealers attempt
to take the combs. "When they are fumigated and suffer-
ing from the effects of the smoke, they devour the honey
greedily, 'which they are not observed to do at other times ;
but they spare it and store it up for food. They have also
another kind of food, which is called cerinthus (bee bre^d),
which is of an inferior quality, and sweet like figs. They
carry this upon their legs as they do the wax.

3. There is great variety in their diligence and mode of
life. For when a clean hive is given them, they build their
combs, bringing the drops from flowers and trees, such as
the willow, the elm, and other glutinous trees. "With this
also they smear the floor of their hive, for fear of other crea-

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 261

tures. The honey dealers calls this substance commosis,
and they build up the entrance of their hive if it is too wide.
They first build cells for their own habitation, then those for
the kings and the drones. They always build cells for them-
selves, and royal cells when there are many young ; but they
only build cells for the drones when there is plenty of honey.

4. They make the royal cells near their own. These are
small. Those for the drones are placed next. These are of
a smaller size than those of the bees. They commence the
formation of their combs from the top of the hives, and carry
them down until several reach the floor of the hive. The cells,
whether for the honey or the grubs, are constructed with two
mouths ; for there are two cells built on each base, like a double
cup, one on the inside, the other on the outside. The cells at
the beginning of the comb, near the hives, are joined toge-
ther for as much as two or three rows in a circle, and are
short, and contain no honey. The cells which are formed
with the greatest quantity of wax contain the most honey. __,

5. They spread the substance called mitys at the en- \
trance of their hives, near the opening. This material is
black, as if it w^as the purification of the wax, and of a
harsh smell. \ It is considered a remedy for contusions
and suppuration's? Next to this the pissocerus is smeared
over the floor of the hive. This substance is less useful
than the mitys in the healing art.\ Some persons say that
the drones build cells for themselves, dividing both the hive
and the wax with the bees ; but they make no honey, but both
themselves and their young are supported by that of the bees.
The drones generally remain in the hives ; and if they fly out
they rise in the air with a great noise, wheeling about as if
they were exercising ; and when they have done this they
return to the hive and feast themselves on the honey.

6. The king bees never leave the hives, either for food or
an^ other purpose, except with the whole swarm ; and they
say that, if a swarm wanders to a distance, they will retrace
their steps and return until they find the king by his pecu-
liar scent. They say also that, when the king is unable to
fly, he is carried by the swarm ; and if he perishes, the whole
swarm dies with him. And if they continue for a time
to form cells, they place no honey in them, and then they
also perish.

262 THE HISTORY OP ANIMALS. [B. IX,

7. The bees collect the wax by climbing actively on the
flowers with their fore feet. They cleanse these upon the
middle pair of legs, and their middle legs again on the
curved part of their hind legs, and thus loaded they fly
away. They are evidently heavily loaded. During each
flight the bee does not settle upon flowers of different kinds,
but as it were from violet to violet, and touches no other
species till it returns to the hive. There they are unloaded,
and two or three bees follow every one on its return to the
hive. It is not easy to see what is taken, nor has their
manner of working it been ever observed, Their manner of
collecting wax upon the olive trees has been the subject of
observation; for the thickness of the leaves makes them
remain a long while in this tree.

8. After having done this they produce their young.
There is nothing to prevent there being grubs, and honey,
and drones in the same comb. As long as the king bee is
alive, they say that the drones are produced in a separate
place ; but when he is dead they are produced by the bees
in their own cells, and such drones are more passionate : for
this cause they are called stingers, not that they have any
sting, but that they would sting, if they had the power to
do so. The drone cells are larger. Sometimes the drone
cells are placed by themselves, but are generally combined
with those of bees, for which reason they cut them off.

9. There are several kinds of bees, as has been already
observed: two kinds of kings, the better sort of which is
red, and the other sort is black and variegated, and in size
double that of a good bee. The best kind is small, round,
and variegated ; the other is long, like the wild bee. There
is another called phor (the thief) ; it is black, and has a
broad abdomen. The drone is another sort : it is the largest
of them all, has no sting, and is stupid. The bees that are
produced from those that inhabit cultivated places are dif-
ferent from the natives of mountainous countries, for those
produced from wood bees are more hairy, smaller, less, more
diligent, and more violent. The best bees elaborate a smooth
comb, with a polished surface. The comb also is of one
form, as if entirely adapted for honey, or for grubs, or
drones ; and if it happens that all these are produced in the
aame comb, each form will be elaborated in order.

B. IX. j THE HISTOltT OF ANIMALS. 263

10. The long bees make their combs uneven, and the
covering swollen, like that of the wild bee. Their offspring,
also, and the rest of their productions, are not arranged in
any order, but according to chance. Among them there

are many bad kings, and many drones^, and thieves, as they ^—~~
are called; but little or no honeys' The bees sit upon the
combs, in order to bring them to maturity. If this is not
done, they say that the cells perish and become filled with
a web ; but if' afterwards they are able to continue sitting,
something like an abortion is produced : if they cannot sit,
the whole perishes. Maggots are formed in those cells that
perish, which acquire wings and fly away. If a comb falls
down, the bees set it up, and put props beneath it, in order
that they may be able to pass underneath ; for if they have no
path by which to approach the place where they sit, the cells
become covered with a web.

11. The thieves and the drones do not work, but only in-
jure the other bees, and when taken they are killed by the
useful bees. Many of their rulers are also frequently killed,
and especially the bad ones, in order that the swarm may
not be dispersed by their numbers. They are the more dis-
posed to kill them when the swarm is not fruitful, and no
casts are formed. At such times they destroy the royal
cells, if any have been prepared, for they are the leaders of
the swarm. They destroy also those of the drones, if honey
is scarce, or the swarm is short of honey. They fight boldly
for their honey with those that would take it from them,
and drive out any drones that may be in the hive, and are
often seen sitting upon the hives.

12. The small bees fight eagerly with the long kind, and
endeavour to drive them from their hives : and if they pre-
vail, it seems to be a sign of a very strong swarm ; but if the
others conquer, when left alone, they are idle, and do nothing
that comes to good, but perish in the course of the autumn.
"Whenever the useful bees kill any of them, they endeavour
to do so outside of the hive ; and if any of them die in the
hive, they carry them out. Those which are called thieves
injure their own combs, and if they can do it in secret,
they will enter those of other bees, but if discovered they
are killed. It is, however, difficult to enter un perceived,
for there are guards placed at each entrance ; and if one con-

264 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IX.

trives to enter unnoticed, he is unable to fly from repletion,
and is rolled out before the whole swarm ; so that it is diffi-
__cuit-to escape, j

13. The kings themselves are never seen out of the hives,
except with a young swarm, and in young swarms all the
rest appear to be collected round him. When a' swarm
is about to separate, a peculiar and singular noise is made
for some days, and for two or three days beforehand a few
bees are seen flying round the hive ; and if the king is
among them he is not seen, for it is not easy to see him. And
when they are collected, all the rest fly away and separate
themselves with their respective kings : and if a few of them
happen to be near at hand, they join themselves with one of
the numerous swarms. And if the king that they have left
follows them, they kill him. This is the manner of their
leaving the hive, and of swarming.

14. They all have their proper work to perform. Some
bring flowers, others wrater, and others polish and erect the
cells. Water is brought when they are rearing their young.
None of them ever settle upon flesh, nor will they eat any-
thing seasoned. They have no particular time for com-
mencing work, but when they are properly supplied, and
in good health, they are particularly diligent during the
summer. When the day is fine they work without ceasing,
and as soon as the young bees are three days old, they set
to work, if properly fed. And when the swarm settles
some depart for food, and afterwards return. In healthy
swarms the progeny of the bees only cease from reproduction1
for about forty days after the winter solstice. As soon as
the young bees are grown, they offer them food, and smear
the cells with it, and as soon as they are strong enough, the
young bees rupture the covering of the cell, and so escape.

15. The good kinds of bees destroy any creatures that are
produced in their hives and destroy the combs ; but the other
kinds from their inferiority overlook the destruction of their
work. When the dealers in honey take the combs, they
leave the bees some food for the winter. Jf sufficient is left,
the swarm is preserved ; but if not, they either die in the
winter, or, if the weather continues fine, desert the hive.

1 This should probably be read " the bees only ceaso from their work
for forty days during the winter solstice."

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 265

They eat honey both in summer and in winter. They also
lay up another kind of food, which is as hard as wax, which
some persons call sandarache.

16. Wasps are very injurious to them, and so is the bird
called titmouse, and the swallow, and merops. The frogs
also in marshes destroy them when they come for water, for
which reason bee-fanciers destroy the frogs in those marshes
where the bees come for water. They also destroy wasps'
nests, and the nest of the swallow and merops, if near the
swarms of bees. They avoid no animal, except those of
their own kind. They fight among themselves, and with
the wasps. "When at a distance from their hives they will
neither injure each other, nor any other creature j but when
near at home they will destroy everything that they can
conquer.. .._

//17. When they have stung anything they perish, for they
cannot withdraw their sting from the wound without tear-
ing their own entrails ; but they are frequently saved, if the
person stung will take care to press the sting from the
wound : but when its sting is lost, the bee must perish.
Thoy will kill even large animals with their stings, and a
horse has been known to perish, if attacked by bees. The
rulers are the least cruel and stinging. /

18. If any bees die in the hive, they carry them out ; and
in other respects the bee is a very clean creature. For this
reason they also eject their excrement when in flight, for
the smell is bad. It has been already observed that they
dislike bad smells and the scent of unguents, and that they
sting persons who use such things. They also die from
other causes, as when the rulers in the hive are in great
numbers, and each leads out a portion of the swarm. The
toad also destroys bees, for it blows into the entrance of
the hive, and watches for and destroys them as they fly out.
The bees cannot inflict any injury upon it, but their keepers
destroy it.

19. Some bee-keepers say that the kind of bee which
makes an inferior and rough comb is the young of the others,
and that it is the result of imperfect skill. They are young
when a year old ; young bees do not sting so severely as old
bees ; for this reason the swarms are carried to the apiaries,
for they are those of young bees. When honey is short

out ai

^~— **m

rmpnf

266 THE HISTORY OF AJfTMALS. [B. II

they eject the drones, and put figs and other sweet things near
them. The elder bees work in the hives, and become hairy
from remaining within. The younger ones go out in the fields,
and are smoother: and they kill the drones when they have no
longer any room for them, for they are placed in a recess of
the hive. When a swarm has been weak, strange bees have
been known to come and fight with them, and take away their
honey ; and when the bee-keeper killed them the others came
outj-nehlefended themselves, and would not injure the man.

~ . Other diseases, and especially one called clems, fre-
quently attack strong swarms. In this disease small worms
are produced on the floor of the hive, and as these increase,
the whole swarm is held, as it were, in a spider's web, and
the combs decay. There is another disease, which is like a
wildness in the bees, and causes a strong smell in the hives.
The bees should be fed on thyme, the whi-te sort is better than
the red. In close weather they should have a cool place,
and a warm one in the winter. They suffer the most when
they work with materials affected with the rust.
"""151. When the wind is high, they carry a stone with them
for a balance. If a river is at hand they never drink any-
where else, first of all laying down their weight. If no
river is near, they drink in some other place, and then
vomit up their honey, and again set to work. There are
two seasons for making honey, the spring and autumn.
That formed in the spring is sweeter, whiter, and, on
the whole, better than that formed in autumn. The
best honey is made from the new wax and young flowers.
The red honey is inferior, on account of the wax ; for, like
wine, it is injured by the vessel which contains it ; this
honey therefore should be dried up. When the thyme is
in flower, and the comb is full of honey, it does not become
inspissated. The gold-coloured honey is also good. The
white honey is not formed of pure thyme, but is good for the
eyes, and for wounds. Weak honey always floats on the sur-
face, and ought to be separated. The pure honey is beneath.

22. When the woods are in flower the bees form wax ; at
this season, therefore, the wax ought to be taken from the
hive, for they immediately make more. These are the plants
from which they collect it, atractyllis, melilot, asphodel,
myrtle, phleos, agnus, broom. When they can procure

B. II.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 267

thyme, they mix water with it before they smear the cells.
All the bees emit their excrements either on the wing, as it
has been said before, or into a single cell. The small bees,
it has been already remarked, are more industrious than the
large ones, so that their wings become worn at the edges,
and their colour black and burnt, but the bright and shiny
bees are idle, like women.

23. Bees also appear to have pleasure in noises, so that
they say that they collect them, into their hives by striking
earthen vessels and making noises. But it is very doubtful
whether they hear or not, and if they hear, whether they
collect together from pleasure or from fear. The bees drive
out all that are idle or wasteful. They divide the work, as
it has been already said ; some work at the honey, others at
the grubs, and others at the bee bread; some, again, form the
comb, others carry water to the cells, and mix it with the
honey, while others go to work. Early in the morning they
are silent, until one bee arouses them by humming two or
three times, when they all fly to their work ; when they
return again there is some disturbance at first, which gradu-
ally becomes less, until one of them flies round with a
humming noise, as if warning them to sleep, when on a
sudden they all become silent.

24. It is a sign that the swarm is strong when there is
much noise and movement, as they leave and return to the
hive, for they are then busy with the grubs. They are most
hungry when they begin to work after winter. They are
more idle if the person who takes the honey leaves much be-
hind, but it is necessary that a quantity should be left pro-
portionable to the strength of the swarm, for they work less
actively if too little is left ; they become more idle if the
hive is large, for they despair of their labour. The hive is
deprived of a measure or a measure and a half of honey ; if
it is strong, two or two measures and a half. Some few will
afford three measures.

25. Sheep and wasps, as it was said above, are hostile to
bees. The bee fanciers, therefore, catch the wasps in pans, in
which they place pieces of flesh ; when many have fallen in,
they put on a lid and put them in the fire. It is good
for the bees to have a few drones among them, for it makes
them more industrious. Bees discern the approach of cold

268 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. IX.

weather and of rain ; this is plain, for they will not leave
the hive, but even if the day is fine are occupied in the hive.
By this the bee keepers know that they expect severe
weather.

26. When they are suspended upon each other in the hive,
it is a sign that the swarm is about to leave ; and when the bee
keepers see this, they sprinkle them with sweet wine. They
usually plant about the hive the achras, beans, poa medica,
syria, ochrus, myrtle, poppy, herypllus, almond. Some
bee keepers recognize their own bees in the fields by sprink-
ling them with flour. "When the spring is late or dry, and
when rust is about, the bees are less diligent about their
young. This, then, is the nature of bees,

CHAPTER XXVIII.

1 . THERE are two kinds of wasps, of which the wild sort are
rare ; they are found in mountains, and do not build their
nest in the ground, but on oak trees ; in form they are larger,
longer, and darker than the other sort ; they are variegated,
all of them have stings, and are strong, and their sting is
more painful than that of the other sorts, for their sting is
larger in proportion to their size. These live for two
years, and in winter are observed to fly out of trees, when
they are cut down ; during winter they live in holes. Their
place of concealment is in trees ; some of them are mother
wasps, and some workers, as in those which are more do-
mestic; the nature of the workers and the mother wasps
will be explained when we come to speak of the more
domestic kind.

2. For there are two kinds of the domestic wasps,
the rulers, which they call mother wasps, and the
workers; the rulers are larger and more gentle, and the
workers do not survive the year, but all of them die, on the
arrival of winter. This is plain, for at the beginning of
winter the workers become stupid, and about the solstice
are seen no more ; but the rulers, which are called mother
wasps, are seen during the whole of the winter, and bury
themselves in the earth; for in ploughing and digging
during the winter, the mother wasps have been frequently
observed, but no one has ever seen a worker.

3. The following is the manner of their reproduction :

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 2G9

when the rulers have found a place properly situated, at
the beginning of summer, they form their combs and bui]d
the wasps nests, as they are called ; these are small, with four
holes, or thereabouts ; in these working wasps are produced,
and not mother wasps. "When these are grown, they after-
wards build larger nests, and again larger still, as ' the
swarm increases, so at the end of autumn the nests are very
numerous and large, and in these the mother wasps no
longer produce workers but mothers. These larger maggots
are produced on the top of the upper part of the nest, in
four or rather more adjoining cells, very like those of the
rulers in their combs. When the working wasps are pro-
duced in the combs, the rulers no longer labour, but the
workers bring them food ; this is evident, from the rulers
never flying away from the workers, but remaining quietly
within.

4. Whether the rulers of the previous year, when they
have produced new rulers, die at the same time as the young
wasps, or whether they survive a longer period, no one has
ever observed, nor has anyone ever observed the old age of
the mother wasps, or of the wild wasps, or any other of their
affections. The mother wasp is broad and heavy, and thicker,
and larger than the working wasp, and her weight prevents
her from being very active in night, neither can she fly far,
but always sits in the wasps' nests, and fashions and arranges
the internal parts.

5. There are generally mother wasps in the nests, but
there is some doubt whether they have stings or not ; they
seem, however, like the rulers among the bees, to have
stings, though they never put them out nor sting ; some
wasps, like the drones, are without stings, others have a sting.
Those that are without stings are smaller, and not so angry,
neither do they defend themselves ; those which are fur-
nished with a sting are larger, and strong ; some call these
the males, and those which have no sting the females. To-
wards winter many of those that have stings appear to lose
them, though we have never met with eye-witnesses of this
circumstance.

6. Wasps are more abundant in dry seasons and rough
places ; they are produced beneath the earth, they make their
Combs of collected materials and of earth, eac-L springing

270 THE HISTOftY OF ANIMALS. [B. IX

from one origin, as if from a root. They procure their food
from some flowers and fruits, but generally, they are car-
nivorous. Some persons have observed them in the act of
sexual intercourse, but whether one or both had stings or
not, was not seen. Some wild wasps also have been seen in
the act of intercourse, one of them had a sting, whether the
other had was not observed. Their offspring does not seem
to be produced from this intercourse, but is always larger
than the offspring of the wasp should be.

7. If a person takes hold of the legs of a wasp, and per-
mits it to buzz with its wings, those that have no stings will
fly towards him, which those with stings will, not do, and
some persons consider this to be a sign that the one are males,
the other females. Some are taken in caverns during the
winter with stings, and others without them. Some of them
make small nests and few in number ; others make many
large nests. Many of those called mother wasps are taken
at the turn of the season in the neighbourhood of elms, for
they collect the sticky and glutinous matter. There are a
great many mother wasps, when wasps have been abundant
during the previous year, and the weather rainy. They are
captured in the neighbourhood of precipitous places and
straight fissures in the earth, and all appear to have stings.
This, then, is the nature of wasps.

CHAPTER XXIX.

1. THE wild bees do not live by gathering honey from flowers
like the bees, but are entirely carnivorous, for which reason
they frequent the neighbourhood of dung ; for they pursue
large flies, and when they have taken them they tear off the
head and fly away, carrying the rest of the body with them.
They will also eat sweet fruit. This, then, is the nature of
their food. They have rulers, like the bees and wasps ; and
in proportion to the size of the wild bee these rulers are
larger than those of the bees and wasps. Their rulers also
keep in the nest, like those of the wasps.

2. The wild bees make their nest under the soil, which they
remove like the ants. They never swarm like bees, neither
do wasps ; but the young ones always remain with them, and
as the nest increases they carry out the heap of earth. The
nests become large ; and from a flourishing nest three or

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 271

four baskets of comb have been taken. They do not lay up
any food like bees, but conceal themselves during the winter.
The greater number of them die, but it is not known whe-
ther all of them perish. There js never more than one ruler
in the nest as in the swarm of bees, or they wrould divide
the nest.

3. When some of the wild bees wander from the nest, they
turn aside to some material and form another nest, such as
are often seen on the surface of the soil, and in this they
work themselves out a ruler ; and when he is grown he goes
out and leads them with him to take possession of a nest, in
which they may dwell. No one has ever made any observa-
tion on the mode of sexual intercourse in the wild bee, nor on
the origin of their offspring. Among bees the drones and
kings have no stings, and some of the wasps also are without
stings, as it has been remarked already; but all the wild bees
appear to have stings, but more accurate inquiry should be
instituted as to the rulers, whether they have stings or not.

CHAPTER XXX.

THE humble bees produce their young under stones on the
surface of the ground in two or a few more cells. The com-
mencement of a kind of inferior honey is found in them. The
tenthredo is like the wild bee, but it is variegated, and as
broad as the bee. It is a dainty creature, and the only
one which resorts to kitchens, and enjoys fish and such like
things. It deposits its young under the earth like the
wasps. It is a very productive creature, and its nest is
much larger and longer than that of the wasp. This is the
nature of the work and economy of bees, wasps, and their
congeners.

CHAPTER XXXI.

1. IT has been already observed that we can distinguish a
difference in the dispositions of animals, especially in the
courage and cowardice, and then in their mildness and fierce-
ness, even in wild animals. The lion in his manner of feed-
ing is very cruel ; but when he is not hungry, and is full fed,
his disposition is gentle. He is not either jealous or suspi-
cious. He is fond of playing with and affectionate towards
those animals which have been brought up with him, and to

272 THE HISTOHY OF ANIMALS. [B. IX

which he has become accustomed. "When hunted, he haa
never been seen to retreat or be alarmed ; and if compelled
to yield to the numbers of his hunters, he retreats slowly
and leisurely, and turns himself round at short inter-
vals. If overtaken in a thicket, he flies rapidly till he
reaches the open plain, and then again he withdraws slowly.
If compelled by numbers to retreat openly on the plain
ground, he runs at full stretch, and does not leap. His
manner of running is continuous, like that of a dog at full
stretch. When pursuing his prey, he throws himself upon
it when he comes within reach.

2. It is, however, true, as they say, that the lion is afraid
of the fire, as Homer also writes, " The burning faggots
which he fears when urged against him ;" and that he ob-
serves the person who strikes him and attacks him ; and if
a person aims a blow at him without hitting him, the lion, if
he can rush upon and seize him, does not do him any injury,
nor tear him with his claws, but shakes and frightens him,
and then leaves him. They are more disposed to enter
towns and attack mankind when they grow old ; for old age
renders them unable to hunt, from the disease which attacks
their teeth. They live many years ; and a lame lion has
been captured which had many of its teeth broken, which
some persons considered as a sign that it had lived many
years. For this could not have happened except by the
lapse of time.

3. There are two kinds of lions. One of these has a round
body and more curly hair, and is a more cowardly animal.
The other is of a longer form, has straight hair, and is more
courageous. Sometimes, when retreating, they stretch out
their tails like dogs ; and a lion has been at times observed,
when about to attack a hog, to retreat when that animal
erected its bristles. The lion is weak if struck in the belly,
but will bear many blows on other parts of the body, and
its head is very strong. If they bite or tear anything,
a large quantity of yellow serum flows from the wound,
which can never be stopped by bandages or sponges. The
mode of healing is the same as in the bite of a dog.

4. The jackal is an animal attached to mankind. It does
not injure men, nor is it much afraid of them, but it will
fight with the dog and the lion. They are not, therefore,

B. IX.] THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 273

found in the same locality. The small jackal is the best.
Some persons say that there are two, others that there are
three sorts ; but, like some fish, birds, and quadrupeds, the
jackal changes at differer t seasons, and has a different colour
in summer and in winter . In summer it is smooth ; in win-
ter, rough.

CHAPTEB XXXII.

1. THE bonassus is found in Paeonia, in Mount Messapius,
which forms the boundary between Pa3onia and Ma?dia.
The Paeonians call it monapus. It is as large as a bull, and
more heavily built ; for it is not a long animal, and its skin,
when stretched out, will cover a couch for seven persons to
recline upon. In form it resembles a bull, but it has a
mane as far as the point of the shoulder like the horse, but
its hair is softer than that of the horse, and shorter. The
colour of its hair is red. The hair is deep and thick as far
down as the eyes, and in colour between ash-coloured and
red, not like that of roan horses, but darker. Its hair below
is like wool. They are never either very black or very red.

2. Their voice is like that of the ox. Their horns are
crooked and bent together, of no use for defence, a span long
or a little more, so thick that each of them would hold half

measure or a little more. The black part of their horn is
good and smooth. The fore lock is so placed between the
eyes that the creature can look sideways better than for-
wards. Like the ox, it has no upper teeth in front, neither

lave any horned animals. Its legs are rough and its hoofs
cloven. Its tail is small in proportion to its size, like that of

;he ox, and it tears up the ground and digs with its hoof

ike the bull. The skin upon its sides is strong. Its flesh

s excellent food, and for this it is hunted.

3. When wounded it retreats, and stays when it can pro-
ceed no farther. It defends itself by kicking and ejecting
ts dung, which it can do to the distance of four fathoms
rom itself. It uses this means of defence easily and fre-
quently. Its dung is so caustic as to burn the hair from
iogs. The dung is only caustic when the creature is dis-
turbed and alarmed. It is not so when undisturbed. This

the form and nature of this creature. At the season of
parturition they collect together in numbers in the rnoun-

T

274 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. II.

tains, and make a circle of their dung round the place, as it
were a fortification, for this animal ejects a large quantity
of this excrement.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

OF all wild animals the elephant is the most tame and
gentle; for many of them are capable of instruction and
intelligence, and they have been taught to worship the king.
It is a very sensitive creature, and abounding in intellect.
The male never again touches a female that he has once
impregnated. Some persons say that the elephant will live
for two hundred years, others an hundred and twenty, and
the female lives nearly as long as the male. They arrive at
perfection when sixty years old. They bear winter and cold
weather very badly. It is an animal that lives in the neigh-
bourhood of rivers, though not in them. It can also walk
through rivers, and will advance as long as it can keep its
proboscis above the surface ; for it blows and breathes
through this organ, but it cannot swim on account of the
weight of its body.

CHAPTER XXXIY.

CAMELS refuse to have sexual intercourse with their dams,
even when forced ; for once a camel driver, who was in
want of a male camel, veiled the dam and introduced her
young to her. "When the covering fell off in the act of
copulation, he finished what he was about, and soon after-
wards bit the camel driver to death. It is said also that the
king of Scythia had an excellent mare, which always pro-
duced good colts. He wished to have a colt out of the mare
by the best of these horses, and introduced him for copula-
tion, but he would not do it. When she was covered up,
however, he performed the act unwittingly. As soon as the
form of the mare was shown after copulation, and the horse
saw what was done, he ran away and threw himself down a
precipice.

CHAPTER XXXV.

1. AMONG marine animals there are many instances re- ••
ported of the mild, gentle disposition of the dolphin, and of
its love of its children, and its affection, in the neighbourhood

P, fX.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 275

of Tarentum, Caria, and other places. It is said that when
a dolphin was captured and wounded on the coast of Caria,
so great a number came up to the harbour, that the fishermen
let him go, when they all went away together. And one
large dolphin, it is said, always follows the young ones, to
take care of them ; and sometimes a herd of large and small
dolphins has been seen together, and two of these having left
appeared soon after, supporting and carrying on their back
a small dead dolphin, that was ready to sink, as if in pity
for it, that it might not be devoured by any other wild
creature.

2. Some incredible things are also told of their swiftness,
for it appears to be the swiftest of all animals, whether
marine or terrestrial. They will leap over the sails of large
ships. This is especially the case when they pursue a fish
for the sake of food ; for their hunger will make them pur-
sue their prey into the depths of the sea, if it retreats to
the bottom. And when they have to return from a great
depth, they hold their breath, as if they were reckoning
the distance, and then they gather themselves up, and
dart forward like an arrow, desirous of shortening their
distance from a breathing-place. And if they meet with
a ship they will throw themselves over its sails. Divers
also do the same thing when they have sunk themselves
into deep water, for they also gather up their strength
in order to rise to the surface. The males and females live
in pairs with each other. There is some doubt as to the
reason why they cast themselves on the land, for they
isay that sometimes they appear to do this without any
cause.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

As the actions of all animals agree with their dispositions,
[30 also their dispositions will change with their actions, and
>me of their parts also. This takes place among birds ; for
i hens, when they have conquered the cock, desire to copu-
llate with others, and their crest and rump become elevated,
(so that it is difficult to say whether they are hens or not.
j[n some, also, small spurs are found ; and some males, after
(the death of the female, have been seen to take the same care
?f the young as the female would have done, leading them

T 2

276 T1LE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [~B. IX.

about and feeding them, and neither crowing, nor desiring
sexual intercourse. And some male birds have been seen to
be so effeminate from their birth, that they neither crowed,
nor desired sexual intercourse, and would submit themselves
to any males that desired them.

3. Many birds at particular seasons change both their
colour and their voice, as the blackbird, \vhich becomes
russet instead of black, and assumes another voice, for it
sings in the summer time, but in winter it chatters and
screams violently. The thrush also alters its colour, for in
winter it is grey, and in summer is variegated on the neck ;
Jmt its voice does not alter. The nightingale sings unceas-
ingly for fifteen days and nights, when the mountains
become thick with leaves. As the summer advances it
utters another voice, not quick and varied, but simple ; its
colour also is altered, and in Italy it is called by another
name at this season of the year. It only shews itself for a
short time, for it lies concealed.

3. The erithacus, and the bird called pho3nicurus, are
changed one into the other. The erithacus is a winter bird,
the pkoenicurus a summer bird ; they differ in nothing but
the colour. The sycalis and melancoryphus are the same, for
these also are interchanged. The sycalis is found in the
autumn, and the melancoryphus immediately after the end
of the autumn. They also differ from each other in nothing
but their colour and voice, and to prove that it is the same
bird, each kind has been seen immediately after the change
took place ; and when the change was not quite complete,
there was nothing characteristic of either form. Nor is it
absurd to suppose that these birds change their voices or
their colours, for the dove utters no sound in the winter,
unless it may be on a fine day in a severe winter, when it
will utter its sound to the astonishment of those that know
its habits ; and as soon as spring commences, it begins to
utter its voice : and, on the whole, birds make the greatest
number and variety of voices at the season of coition.

4. The cuckoo also changes its colour, and its voice is not
distinct, when it is about to leave us. It goes away about
the time when the dog- star rises, it having been with us
from the commencement of spring to that time. The
cenanthe, as it is called, disappears when Sirius rises, and

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 277

comes again when it sets, for sometimes it retreats before
the cold, and sometimes before the heat. The hoopoe also
changes its colour and its forms, as ^iEschylus writes. " He
had variegated this hoopoe, the witness of its own evils, and
has displayed the bold bird that dwells in the rock in
all armour. In the early spring it shakes the feathers
of the white hawk; for it has two forms, that of the
young bird and of itself, from one origin. And when the
young corn of the harvest begins to grow, it is clothed in
spotted feathers ; and it always hates this place of Pal-
lene, and inhabits deserted forests and mountains. "

5. Some birds dust themselves, and others bathe. Some
neither dust nor bathe. Those that do not fly, but live on
the ground, dust themselves, as the domestic fowl, partridge,
grouse, lark, and pheasant. Those birds which have
straight claws, and live near rivers, marshes, and the sea,
bathe themselves. Some, like the pigeon and sparrow, both
dust and bathe. Most of those with crooked claws do nei-
ther the one nor the other. This is their nature in these
matters. The act of breaking wind backwards is peculiar
to some birds, as the turtle. Such birds make a strong
motion with their rumps when they utter their voice.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

1. ANIMALS not only change their forms and dispositions at
particular ages and seasons, but also when castrated. All
animals that have testicles may be castrated. Birds and
oviparous quadrupeds have internal testicles near their loins.
In viviparous animals with feet, they are generally external,
though sometimes internal ; in all they are situated at the
extremity of the abdomen. Birds are castrated near the
rump, the part with which they touch the female in copu-
lation, for if they are burnt in that part two or three times
with irons after they are full grown, the comb turns yellow,
and they cease to crow, and no longer desire sexual inter-
course. If they are not full grown, these parts never reach
perfection.

2. The same is the case with the human subject, for if a
boy is castrated, the hair that is produced after birth never
appears, nor does his voice change, but continues sharp ;
but if a full grown man is castrated, all the hair produced

278 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B EL

after birth falls off except that on the pubes, this becomes
weaker, but still remains. The hair produced at birth does
not fall off, for the eunuch never becomes bald. The voice
also of castrated animals changes to that of the female. Other
animals, if not castrated when young, are destroyed by the
operation ; with, the boar it makes no difference. All ani-
mals, if castrated when young, become larger and more
graceful than those not castrated ; but if already grown,
they never become any larger.

8. If stags are castrated before they are old enough to
have horns, these never appear ; but if castrated after they
have horns, their size never varies, nor are they subject to
their annual change. Calves are castrated at a year old, if
not they become bad and inferior. The steer is castrated in
this manner : they lay down the animal and cut the scrotum,
and press out the testicles ; they next contract the root
of the testicle as much as possible, and fill up the wound
with hair in order that the discharge may escape, and if it
inflames, they cauterize and sprinkle the scrotum. If adult
bulls are castrated, they are still apparently capable of
sexual intercourse.

4. The capria of the sow is also cut out, so that they
should not desire coition, but fatten rapidly. They are cut
after fasting two days. They hang them up by the hind
legs and make an incision in the lower part of the belly,
where the testicles of the male are generally found ; the
capria is there formed upon the matrix, from which they cut
off a portion, and sew up the wound again.

5. The female camels also are cut when they wish to take
them to war, that they may not become pregnant. Some of
those in the upper parts of Asia possess as many as three
thousand. Such camels, when they run, are far more swift
than the Nisaean horses, from the length of their stretch.
And on the whole, castrated animals are longer-bodied than
those not castrated.

6. All animals that ruminate, derive as much use and
pleasure from rumination' as from eating. Animals that
have not cutting-teeth in both jaws ruminate, as the ox,
sheep, and goat. No observations have been made on wild
animals except those which occasionally associate with men,
as the stag, though this animal ruminates. They all lie down

B. IX.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 279

to ruminate, and do so most in the winter ; those which are
brought up in shelter ruminate for nearly seven months.
Those that live in herds, ruminate for a shorter period, for
they live out of doors. Some animals with cutting teeth in
both jaws, ruminate, as the Pontic mice and the fish, which,
from this process, is called meryx. Animals with long legs
have loose bellies, and those with broad chests vomit more
easily than others, in quadrupeds, birds, and the generality
of mankind.

280 THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. [fi. X,

BOOK THE TENTH.

(ERRONEOUSLY ASCRIBED TO ARISTOTL2.)
CHAPTER I.

IF men and women, after they have reached a certain age,
do not have children after cohabition, the fault sometimes
rests with both, and sometimes in only one of them. And
first, it is requisite to examine the uterus of the female, that
if the fault lies there it may be relieved by proper treatment.
If the fault is not there, attention must be paid to some other
cause of sterility. We may conclude that this organ is in
a healthy state, when, like the other parts of the body, it
performs its functions without pain, and is free from fatigue
after the function is performed. Just as the eye is in a
healthy state if it suffers no pain in seeing, and is not dis-
ordered with the exercise of its function, or unable to per-
form it again, so the uterus is healthy which suffers no
pain, and is well able to perform its functions, whatever
they may be, and after they are performed is not impotent,
but is free from fatigue.

2. The uterus is said to be disordered, when, even if it
performs its functions properly and without pain, it does
not hinder its function by any part of itself.1 As there
is nothing to prevent an eye from seeing accurately, although
all its parts are not perfect, or if there happens to be a
tumour in it ; so the uterus may have received no injury
in this respect, if it is properly situated in the right place.
In the first place, then, the healthy uterus will not be situ-
ated in this place or in that, but will always be in a similar
position ; but it is not difficult to decide whether it is not
placed at too great a distance without suffering and pain, or
whether it is devoid of sensation when touched. That these
parts ought to be properly placed is evident from the follow-
ing considerations, for if the uterus is not near, it will not
be able to imbibe the semen, for the place from which it

1 A corrupt passage.

B. X.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 281

ought to receive it will be at too great a distance. If the
uterus is near, and not able to retire further, it will be use-
less, for it will be always touched so as to refuse to open ;
but it ought to do this, and to be obedient to its function.
These things ought to be thus ordered, and if they are not,
the case requires attention.

3. The catamenia also should proceed correctly, that is, if
the general health is good, they should last for their proper
time, and not come irregularly, for wher. the catamenia are
right, the uterus will open properly, and receive the fluids
of the body whenever they are secreted ; but when they
make their appearance too often, or not often enough, or
irregularly, while the rest of the body does not sympathise
with them, and the general health is good, we must look to
the uterus for the cause of their irregularity. The dul-
ness of the uterus prevents its being opened at the proper
time, so that it receives but a small portion, or rather the
uterus imbibes the fluid from some inflammation of the
parts. So that it shows that it requires attention, like the
eyes, the bladder, the stomach, and other parts. For all the
parts, when inflamed, imbibe the fluid which is secreted into
each place, but not such a fluid, or in so great quantities.

4. In like manner, if the uterus secretes more than it
ought to do, it exhibits an inflammatory tendency, if the
secretion is regular but too abundant ; but if the secretion
is irregular, or more putrid than it should be in healthy
subjects, the disease is then quite manifest, for it is neces-
sary that some pain should show that all is not well. In a
healthy subject, at the commencement, and the cessation of
menstruation, the secretion appears white and putrid. All
those subjects in whom the secretion is more putrid than in
healthy persons, or is irregular, or too abundant, or deficient,
should receive attention, for this it is that prevents child-
bearing. But in those subjects who are only irregular, and
unequal in the periods of the secretion, the disease is not
the preventive of child-bearing, though it shows that the
habit of the uterus is changeable, and does not always re-
main the same. And this affection is sufficient to prevent
those persons from conception who are otherwise well dis-
posed towards it. It is, however, hardly a disease, but an
affection which may be restored without medical treatment,
unless it is affected by some previous fault.

282 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. |_B. X.

•5. If the regularity and quantity of the discharge is subject
to alteration, without any corresponding change in the rest of
ihe body, which is sometimes in a more fluid, at other times in
a more dry state, the uterus is not in fault, though it ought
to follow the habit of the rest of the body, and receive and
secrete in proportion. If the b?)dy is in a good state of
health, but undergoing a change, when this takes place,
and there is no need of medical treatment ; but if the secre-
tion is too small from disease, and the secretion is taken
through some other source, the body suffers : and if the dis-
charge is too great, from all the secretions of the body being
turned in one direction, this does not point to disease of the
uterus, but of the whole body. Whenever the catainenia
coincide with the general habit of the body, it is evident that
the fault does not lie with the uterus, which would perform
its functions properly if the general health were correct.

6. Sometimes the uterus is weak, and sometimes strong ;
sometimes too fluid, and sometimes too dry; and the dis-
charge coincides with the state of the body, it is abundant
when that is full, deficient when it is less full. If the body
is full of fluid, the discharge is watery ; if the body is dry,
it is more sanguineous ; it begins with being white, like milk,
and is without smell. Some are dark-coloured, and when
about to cease they become white, at the last secretion. The
white discharge has not the smell of putrid matter, but is
more harsh and disagreeable, nor has it the smell of pus ; and
when this is the condition of the symptoms, there is no wear-
ing away, but the body becomes heated. In all that are in this
state, the uterus is in a healthy condition for child-bearing.

CHAPTEB. II.

WE must, then, first of all inquire whether all these parti-
culars are well ordered ; and, next, we must learn the posi-
tion of the body of the uterus ; for it ought to be straight ;
and if it is not so, the seminal fluid can never reach it. And
it is evident that women project their semen forwards, from
what happens when they have lascivious dreams ; for this
part of them then requires attention, being moistened as
though they had sexual intercourse, for they also project into
the place where the semen of the male is emitted, and not into
the uterus ; and when projected to this place, the semen is

B. X.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 283

drawn into the uterus by inhalation, as the mucus is drawn
into the nose. For this reason they become pregnant in
every position ; for the seminal fluid both in men and women
is always projected forwards ; but if it were projected into
the female she would not always conceive after copulation.

2. But if the uterus is not straight, but inclined to the
hips, the loins, or the hypogastric region, it is impossible to
conceive, for the before-mentioned reason, that the uterus
cannot take up the seminal fluid. If this deformity is great,
either naturally or from disease, the disorder is incurable.
If there is a rupture, either by nature or arising from the
disease, which contracts the parts with inflammation, the
disorder will take a different turn from this. But in order
that women may become pregnant, it is necessary, as it was
said, that the mouth of the uterus should be straight and,
moreover, should be well opened. By this I mean that when the
menstrual discharge commences, the os uteri should, on con-
tact, appear softer than before, though not distinctly expanded.
But if this is the case, let the first appearance be white.

3. But when the appearances are more the colour of
flesh, the uterus will be evidently relaxed without pain
when it is touched, and the os uteri is neither dull nor dif-
ferent from itself; and when the discharge ceases, let the
aperture be very open and dry, but not hard, for a day and
a half or two days ; for this shows that the uterus is in a
healthy state, and fit to perform its functions. If the os
uteri is not immediately relaxed, but appears soft, it shows
that both the uterus and the rest of the body are relaxed,
and the uterus does not prevent, but first discharges the
secretion from the os uteri. And when the rest of the body
has discharged a great deal, and the os uteri becomes re-
laxed, it is a sign of a healthy condition.

4. And when the appearances cease to take place directly,
the uterus shows that, if there is any difficulty, it will be-
come empty and dry, and wanting in moisture, and there will
be no remains in the passage. "When the uterus, therefore,
is capable of contraction, it shows that it is in a proper state
for receiving whatever is brought to it, when it is in this
state without pain, and indeed is insensate ; and it is good
that the os uteri should not be in any other condition.
This shows that there is no reason why it should not close

284 THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. [E. 3L

at tlie proper time. This is the manner of considering the
os uteri, whether it is in a healthy condition or not.

CHAPTER III.

THESE ought to be the symptoms of the uterus itself after
purification. First of all, that the woman should dream of
sexual intercourse, and project her seminal fluid readily, as
if a man were lying with her ; and if this symptom occur
frequently, it is better. And when she has arisen, some-
times she should require the same treatment as if she
had been with a man, sometimes she should be dry ; but this
dryness should not be immediate ; but after awaking she
should be fluid, sooner or later, about as much as half a
short day. The humidity should be of the same kind as if
she had been with a man. For all this shows that the uterus
is in a fit state to receive what is given it, and that the
cotyledons are drawn up and will retain what they have
received, and be unwilling to part with it.

2. A flatulent state of the uterus is also a good sign,
when it enlarges and discharges the wind as the bowels do
without pain, and when it becomes larger and smaller with-
out any symptom of disease ; for these symptoms show that
the uterus is not in want of what is necessary nor slug-
gish, either naturally or from disease, but that it will be
able to find room by growth, for anything that it may re-
ceive, for it has the power of dilation. When this is not
the case, the uterus is too thick, or some natural defect or
disease has rendered it insensible. For this cause it cannot
nourish, but it will destroy the embryo, if the symptoms
are violent, while the embryo is small ; if they are less so,
when it is larger; if the uterus is slightly affected, the
offspring will be inferior, as if it had been fed in an inferior
vessel.

3. Upon contact, the right and left side will be found to
be alike, and all the other parts in the same way ; and in
the act of copulation moisture will be produced, not fre-
quently nor in great abundance. This affection is, as it
were, a perspiration of the place, like the saliva, which is
frequently produced both in the use of food and in speaking.
Tears also are shed from the eyes, when we look upon bril-
liant objects, and under cold or greater heat, of which these

B. X.] THE HISTOBY OF ANIMALS. 285

parts also partake, when they happen to be moist. So the
uterus becomes moist when employed, when it is of a more
moist disposition. Those that are in the best health suffer
from this affection, for which reason women always require
more or less attention, as also the mouth requires saliva.
In some this moisture is so abundant that they cannot
imbibe the seminal fluid of the man in a state of purity,
on account of its admixture with this uterine mois-
ture.

4. Besides these affections, the following also is to be con-
sidered, whether, when they dream of sexual intercourse, their
general health is good or not, as whether they are weak, and
whether they are so always, or only sometimes, and whether
they are not sometimes strong, and whether they are dry at
first and moist afterwards ; for this ought to be the condition
of a woman capable of child-bearing ; for relaxation shows
that the body has been profuse of the seminal fluid, and
that it can perform its functions ; but when the uterus is
hard, it is a sign of debility. If a woman has this affection
without any disease, it shows that the emission takes place
naturally and as it ought to do. For if it were not so, there
would be disease and prostration oi strength. Sometimes,
when the uterus is dry and afterwards becomes moist, it is
a sign that the whole body receives and makes away with
the seminal fluid, and that both the uterus and the body are
strong; for it has been already observed that the uterus
absorbs the semen which is placed upon it by the process of
inhalation, for it is not emitted into it but upon the same
place as that of the man. All that takes by inhalation is
accompanied with force, so that it is plain that the body of
such a person must have the power of retraction.

5. It sometimes happens that women who have lascivious
dreams, or men of strong passions, are robust not from strength
but from health. This takes place when a large quantity of
seminal fluid has been collected near the place from whence
they emit it. If this makes its escape, they are in no ways
debilitated ; for they are not relaxed by the loss of a
portion, if sufficient remains behind, or if that which was
emitted was useless, nor if it was emitted easily, as if they
parted with superfluous matter. For which reason such
persons are not robust from strength but from dullness. But

286 THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. [B. X.

when any part is emitted which is necessary for the body,
they become debilitated.

6. If a person is in good health, and of a proper age, the
seminal fluid is rapidly formed This takes place in those
that have not done growing and in those that are grown.
Women rarely know when they are first pregnant; for
they do not think that they have conceived unless they
perceive that the semen has been emitted, suspecting that
it ought to be emitted at the same time both by the fe-
male and the male ; and it escapes their notice, more es-
pecially when they think that they are unable to conceive,
unless they have become dry, and that which they have
received has disappeared entirely ; but it sometimes hap-
pens that both the male and the female emit more than
could possibly disappear, and more than enough for concep-
tion. "When sufficient has been drawn in and much left
out, they become pregnant without knowing it.

7. That it is possible that this should take place, and that
the affection does not arise from the whole of the seminal fluid,
we may learn from those animals which produce many young
ones from a single act of intercourse, or from the case of
twins produced by a single act. It is evident that they are
not produced from the whole semen, but each place receives
some portion of it, but the larger portion is left behind ; and
if many young are produced from a single act of intercourse,
which appears to be the case with swine and with twins, it
is evident that the semen cannot come from every part of
the body, but it is divided out to each form. It is possible,
therefore, that it may be separated from every part of the
body, and that the whole may be divided among many, so
that it is not possible that all should have every part. The
female also projects her semen into the os uteri, where the
man also emits his, when he approaches her. ."From thence
she imbibes with inhalation as if it were with the mouth or
nostrils ; for whatever is not joined to the members is either
hollow above and united by a symphysis, or is sucked in from
this place by the act of inhalation. For which reason they
take care that it should be dry, as if this had happened before.

8. The path along which it passes is thus formed in
women. There is a tube enclosed in the body like the penis
of the male. The inhalation takes place through this by a

B. I.] THE HISTOET OF ANIMALS. 287

small passage above the passage for the urine. "When, there-
fore, they desire sexual intercourse, this part is not in the
same condition as it was before. A falling down takes place
from this passage, and the fore part of the uterus becomes
much larger than the part where it falls into this passage.
This resembles the nostrils ; for, as the nostrils have a pas-
sage into the pharynx and into the external air, so this tube
has a very small and narrow passage, like a passage out for the
wind. That to the fore part of the uterus is wide and broad,
as the nostrils are to the external air between the mouth
and the pharynx. So women have a larger passage to the
fore part of the uterus, and wider than the external passage.

9. Whatever conjecture is formed concerning these affec-
tions, it makes to the same conclusion, that the woman
also emits a seminal fluid. The same things arise from the
same cause, for to some it seems to be the cause of disease
or of death ; and these consider the end at the beginning
as it ought to be considered ; for to some women these are
important causes, to some of no importance ; and of these
causes some are and some are not of consequence. They
divide also in proportion the consequences which may result
from them. To some it happens to pass through all these
affections ; to those who have many, through many of them :
others through few ; and others, again, who have none,
through none of them.

10. There are some persons who suffer from the affection
called inflation. This ought not to be. The affection is of
this kind. In copulation they neither evidently emit semen,
nor do they become pregnant. "Wherefore they are said to
be inflated. The excessive dryness of the uterus is the cause
of this complaint ; and when it has drawn the fluid into itself,
it ejects it again. This becomes dried up, and having become
small falls out, without any notice being taken of the circum-
stance on account of its size. When the uterus is violently
affected in this way, and becomes very dry, and ejects it
very soon, it is plain that pregnancy cannot take place. If
this does not take place very soon, impregnation appears for
a time to have taken place until it is ejected. The same
thing also takes place at times in those who have conceived
properly ; if a long time has elapsed, the uterus becomes
elevated, so that it plainly appears as if impregnation had

28& THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. X.

taken place until it falls out. Then all becomes as it was
at first. They refer this affliction to a divine origin. It is
curable, unless it is natural, or the disease has gone a great
way. It is a sign that this disease is not present, when
women appear neither to have emitted sernen, nor to have
conceived after sexual intercourse.

CHAPTER IV.

1. PREGNANCY is prevented also by spasm intheuterus. This
complaint attacks the uterus when it is either distended with
inflammation, or in the act of parturition. When any large
quantity of matter suddenly enters it, and the os uteri is
not open, spasm then arises from distension. It is a sign of
the absence of spasm, if the uterus does not appear to reach
inflammation in its functions : whereas, if spasm were pre-
sent, there would be some signs of inflammation. Again, a
swelling at the mouth of the uterus, if it is much drawn out,
will prevent conception. It is a sign that this is not the
case, when the uterus appears to open and close properly
after the discharge of the catamenia, or the use of the male.
2. In some, also, the os uteri is closed, either from the period
of birth, or in consequence of disease. Sometimes this is
curable, and sometimes not so. It is not, however, diffi-
cult to ascertain the state of the case, for it is not possible
either to receive or to emit anything in a proper manner.
If it appears to have received and rejected the seminal fluid
of the male, it is an evidence of the presence of the disease.
But those who have no impediment in the way of concep-
tion, but are, as it has been said, as they ought to be, unless
the man is impotent, or they are not able to have children
together, being unable to emit their semen at the same
time, and differ very much, such persons will have no chil-
dren.

CHAPTER V.

IN order to understand of sterility in the male, we must
take other symptoms. These will appear very easy, if he
copulates with other women, and impregnates them. When
the sexes do not appear to concur with each other, although
all the before-mentioned circumstances are present, they do
not nave children together. For it is evident that this is the

B. X.] ¥HE IIISTOEY OF ANIMALS. 289

only reason of sterility : for if the woman contributes to
the semen and generation, it is evident that both the sexes
should be concurrent : for if the man is quick, and the
woman slow, in the emission of the semen (and many women
are comparatively slow), this will prevent conception; for
which cause they do not produce children by sexual union
with each other. They do so, however, when they happen to
be concurrent with each other ; for if the woman is desirous,
and prepared for the intercourse, and is inclined for it, but
the man is suffering previous pain, and of a cold disposition,
it is then also necessary that they should be concurrent.

CHAPTER VI.

IT is quite plain when animals desire sexual intercourse ; for
the female pursues the male, as hens pursue the cock and
place themselves beneath him, if the male is not desirous.
Other animals also do the same. But if all animals appear to
have these affections with respect to sexual intercourse, it is
plain that the causes must be the same throughout. This
bird, however, has not only the desire of receiving, but also
of emitting semen. This is a proof of it. If the male is
not present, she will emit the semen into herself, and be-
come pregnant, and produce barren eggs, as if she desired
both to emit semen, and when she had done so, soon ceased,
just as when the male was present. Others also do the
same, for a person has attempted to rear some singing lo-
custs, which he had taken in a young state. When grown,
they became pregnant spontaneously.

2. From these considerations it is plain that every female
contributes to the semen, if this appears to take place in any
one class of animals, for the barren animal differs in no re-
spect from the other, except that it does not produce
an animal, and this because it was formed by the union of
both sexes. For this reason all the seminal fluid of the
male does not appear to be productive, but some parts are
barren, when not properly compounded from both sexes.
And when women have lascivious dreams, the same affec-
tions of weakness and debility often occur, as if they had
been lying with a male. It is plain, therefore, that if they
appear to have emitted a seminal fluid in their dream, they
will then conjecture that after their dream the same place

TI

290 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [B. X.

will become moist, and they will be obliged to bestow the
same attention upon themselves as if they had had sexual
intercourse. So that it is evident that there must be an
^mission of semen from both if it is to be productive.

3. But the uterus does not emit its semen into itself, but
on the outside, into the place where that of the male also is
received, and then draws it into itself. For some females
produce spontaneously, as the bird produces barren eggs,
and other females do not so, as the horses and sheep ;
either because the bird projects her semen into the uterus,
and the place upon which that of the male is emitted is not
external ; for which reason, if he does not copulate properly
with the female, it is poured out upon the ground. But
in quadrupeds there is another place for the reception of
the semen, both of the male and female, which in other
animals it is combined with other fluids of the body,
and is not collected in the uterus, because it does not
enter it. But in birds, the uterus receives and matures
the seminal fluid, and forms a body similar in other respects
though not a living creature. It is necessary, therefore,
the living creature should be derived from both sexes.

CHAPTER VII.

WE must enquire whether women speak the truth, when
they say that after a lascivious dream they find themselves
dry ; for it is plain that the uterus draws upwards. And
if so, why do not females become pregnant spontaneously,
since the male seminal fluid is drawn in, mixed with their
own ? And why do not she goats draw that part of it
which extends outwards ? for this affection takes place
in some that have been pregnant many years ; for they pro-
duce what is called myle (an amorphous mass of flesh), a
circumstance which has also happened to a certain woman;
for having had sexual intercourse, and to all appearance
conceived, the size of the uterus increased, and everything
at first went on regularly : but when the time of partu-
rition arrived, she produced nothing, nor did the enlarge-
ment become any smaller : but after three or four years, a
dysentery occurred, which placed her life in danger, when
she produced a large mass of flesh, which they call myle.
The affection continues in some to old age, even to the 'day
of their death.

B. X.] THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS. 291

2. Does tbis affection arise from a warm habit of body,
rhen the uterus is warm and dry, and for this reason capable
f drawing into itself in such a manner that it is taken up
jid kept in it ? For, in persons so affected, if the seminal
.uid of both sexes is not united, but, like the barren egg, is
;aken up by one sex, then the myle is produced, which
s not living creature, for it does not originate in both sexes,

nor is it lifeless, for it is taken to have life like the barren egg.

~t remains, however, a long while, on account of the dispo-
ition of the uterus, and because the bird, which has pro-
iuced many eggs in herself, when the uterus is stimulated
>y these, goes and lays them : and when the first is pro-
Luce d, the last will also come forth in proper time : for there
nothing to prevent it, but the body being productive as
oon as it is full, causes the uterus to be no longer retentive.
3ut in viviparous animals, on account of the change of
brce, as the foetus increases, and the diversity of food is re-
[uired, the uterus causes parturition from a kind of innara-
nation.

3. But the flesh, because it is not alive, always requires
;he same kind of food, for it does not cause any weight
n the uterus, nor any inflammation. So that the affec-
;ion would continue, in some cases, throughout life, un-
ess some fortunate debility should take place, as in the

woman who was attacked with dysentery. But does this
affection arise from warmth, as it was said, or rather from a
luid state, because there is a fulness as it closes, either
>ecause the uterus is neither cold enough to reject it, nor
warm enough to bring it to maturity ? "Wherefore, the
disease lasts a long while, like those things which remain
long while before they are matured ; but those that are
about to come to maturity have an end, and that quickly.
Such uteri, being very high up, cause a long delay. And,
again, not being alive, it does not cause any pain by its
movements, for the movement of the ligament which the
Living foetus produces, causes pain. And the hardness of
the substance is the effect of imperfect production, for it
is so hard that it cannot be cut by the stroke of an axe.
All ripe and mature things become soft, but imperfectly
digested things are immature and hard.

4. Wherefore, many physicians, deceived by the resem-

u 2

292 THE HISTOET OF AFIMALS. [_B. X

blance, say that women are suffering from myle, if
only see the abdomen elevated without dropsy, and a ces
sation of the catamenia, when the disease has lasted foi
a long while. But this is not the case, for the myle i
a rare disease. Sometimes there will be collections of cold
and moist excrements and fluids, and sometimes of thicl
ones in this part of the abdomen, if either the nature or th
habit is of this kind. For these things afford neithei
pain nor heat, on account of their cold nature ; but if thev
increase, more or less, they bring no other disease aftei
them, but remain quiet, like some maimed thing.

5. The cessation of the catamenia takes place on account oi
the excrementitious matter of the body being directed to this
point, as when women are nursing ; for they occur either not
at all, or only in small quantities. A collection of matter
from the flesh sometimes takes place between the uterus
and the stomach, which has the character of the myle,
but is not it. But it is not difficult to know the differ-
ence, by touching the uterus ; for if it is correctly placed,
and not enlarged, it is evident that the disease is not there ;
but if it is the same as when with child, it will be warm,
and cold, and dry, because all the fluids are turned inwards ;
and the os uteri will be in the same condition as when they
are pregnant ; but if the enlargement is of any other kind,
it will be cold, and not dry when touched, and the os uteri
will always be the same.

APPENDIX.

ESSAY ON THE LITERARY AND PECUNIARY RESOURCES
WHICH ARISTOTLE EITHER USED, OR IS SAID TO HAVE
USED IN THE EXAMINATION AND COMPOSITION OF HIS
HISTORY OF ANIMALS.

Translated from the Latin of Schneider.

ARISTOTLE had very likely more authorities, whom he has
followed, or converted to his own purposes, than those whose
names he has given. These are, however, a few, whom he
has named, as Alcmaeon of Crotona; Dionysius of Apol-
lonia ; Herodorus of Heracleum in Pontus, the father of
Bryson the sophist ; Ctesias of Cnidos ; Herodotus of Ha-
licarnassus ; Syennesis of Cyprus ; Poly bus ; Democritus
of Abdera ; Anaxagoras of Clazomene ; Empedocles of Si-
cily ; and if there are any more which do not just now occur
to my memory, they are accurately enumerated in the in-
dex, with the names of the places to which they belonged.
I have said that it is probable, that Aristotle has derived in-
formation from more authorities than he has named ; and
a reason for this conjecture is found in a passage which he
extracts, almost verbatim, from Herodotus, on the Nilotic
crocodile (Euterpe, 68). This I have shewn in a note on
the passage, book v. ch. 27, 2. And there are many places,
both in his natural history and his other works on animals,
where our philosopher refers to the ancient fables of men
who were transformed into the nature and forms of various
animals. The oldest author of such fables is Boeus (or
Boeo, in the feminine gender, as some have conjectured).
From this book Antoninus Literalis has extracted many
chapters in Greek. JSficander of Colophon, and others,
followed the example of Boeus. Among Latin writers,
the Metamorphoses of Ovid have always commanded at-
tention. All who have read the work of Antoninus, and

29-1 APPENDIX.

the Metamorphoses of Ovid, will easily perceive how much
information on the nature and habits of animals our philo-
sopher could have derived from the very character of the
books which had come down from the remotest antiquity
to the time of Aristotle (compare note 9, 17, 1), especially
if they bear in mind that the ancient teachers of physics
always compared the habits of animals with those of man,
and conjectured the causes and reasons of their actions,
from similar impulses in man. This may be seen in the
fables of JEsop, for they contain the first elements of the
doctrines of the ancients on physics and morals. We might
also offer a surmise on Eudoxus, and Scylax, and others,
who wrote "Travels Round the Earth," in which they
described the animals of different countries ; for our philo-
sopher appeals to the testimony of both these authors,
in his work on Meteorics, and elsewhere. There is more
doubt whether Aristotle used, or could have used, the nu-
merous notices of animals, of the interior of Asia and
India, which the companions of Alexander, in his Asiatic
and Indian expeditions, brought back to Greece ; which
Theophrastus, the pupil of Aristotle, and his successor in
the schools, is found to have used so well in his History of
Plants. For this I consider to be .proved, that the written
notices of the companions of Alexander were published after
the death of the king, though we have no proof of the exact
year in which they were made public. Indeed I have never
found any evidence in the History of Animals which could ,
lead us to suppose that Aristotle was acquainted with the
animals of the interior of Asia and India, by information !
derived -from the companions of Alexander ; nor have I
been able to find the slightest information from which I can
form a conjecture as to either the place or time when this j
history was written : but, in order that others may institute
a more rigorous inquiry into the date and place of its
authorship, if any such have escaped my notice, I will
place before my readers that portion of the Aristotelian
chronology which relates to this work, from the disputation
of St. Croix, a learned French author (Examen Critique
des Historiens d' Alexander le Grand, p. 603, second edi-
tion). Aristotle, therefore, at the invitation of Philip,
King of Macedon, undertook the education of his son, Alex-

APPENDIX. 295

ander, when he was thirteen years of age, in the second
year of the 109th Olympiad, when Phythodotus was Archon
of Athens. Aristotle returned to Athens in the second year
of the lllth Olympiad, in the Archonship of Evsenetus.
He taught at Athens for thirteen years, from whence he
fled to Chalcis, and there he died, in the third year of the
114th Olympiad, during the Archonship of Philocles.

There is, indeed, a passage in Pliny, (book x. ch. 64, sect.
84, on the fecundity of mice,) where he says, that among
other things Aristotle has spoken in his History of Animals
(vi. 29) of the gravid foetus of the Persian mice ; but the
Greek exemplar contains no authority from which Pliny
could have derived the words which he has added : " More
wonderful than all is the foetus of the mice, which we cannot
unhesitatingly receive, though derived from the authority of
Aristotle, and the soldiers of Alexander the Great." In
this and in two other places he calls those soldiers whom
others are in the habit of calling the companions of Alexander
the Great. But there is also a passage in the Meteorics of
Aristotle (iii. 1), where he mentions as a recent event the
destruction of the temple of Ephesus, by the incendiary
Herostratus, on the day of Alexander's birth, in these words :
" As it has just now happened in the burning of the temple
of Ephesus." This book, therefore, appears to have been
written at the commencement of the 106th Olympiad, and
with it the History of Animals is very closely connected, as
I have shown in my treatise on the order of the books of
Physics ; so that we may suppose that they were written in
nearly the same Olympiad, if we regard only the series of the
works; and no interruption occurred with which we are
unacquainted. On the other hand, in the Meteorics (iii. 5),
he speaks of a lunar rainbow, and says that it is rarely seen,
and then adds, " that it has occurred but twice in more than
fifty years." If we reckon these fifty years from the birth
of Aristotle, in the first year of the 99th Olympiad, that
book will fall in the third or fourth year of the lllth Olym-
piad ; and from this calculation it would follow that this
book was also written in Athens, but that the first date is
to be taken in a wider sense.

From all this, we may easily perceive that at this day we
are entirely ignorant of the sources of information collected

296 APPENDIX.

either from ancient or contemporary writers, to which our
philosopher had access in composing and completing a work
of such multiplied and varied information. Even if we as-
sume that they were as large as the mind of Aristotle was
great, acute, and transparent, still, for a work so various
and extensive, spread o\er seas, rireis, earth, and heaven,
even that mind would require some assistance from other
sources to which it might apply in constructing and building
up a system of general instruction from the materials col-
lected in different places about various animals, and from the
observations used in describing and arranging them together
in orders, classes, genera, and species. The following were the
sources Aristotle used, according to the narrative of an uncer-
tain author quoted by Pliny (viii. 16, 17) — " King Alexander
the Great," he says, " was possessed with the desire of know-
ing the natures of animals, and therefore delegated the work
to Aristotle, a man of very great learning. Some thousands
of men in the whole region of Asia and Greece obeyed his
commands, all, namely, who obtained their livelihood by
hunting, hawking, or fishing, or who had in their care mena-
geries, herds, beehives, fishponds, or aviaries ; so that nothing
in nature might be unknown to him ; and from his examin-
ation of these, he compiled those fifty celebrated volumes,
which I have collected into one, together with those animals
with which he was unacquainted, and I hope that they will be
consulted by good scholars." In all this there is nothing
contradictory to the mind and liberality of Alexander, or the
confidence or strength of his empire. But some may prefer
the story published by ^Elian, in his various history (iv.
19), who, I know not on what authority, transfers the nar-
rative to Philip, the father of Alexander — "Having sup-
plied abundance of riches to Aristotle, he was the means of
many other undertakings, and especially of his knowledge of
living creatures ; and the son of Nichomachus completed
his history by the liberal assistance of Philip ; who also
honoured Plato and Theophrastus." If this be true, it evi-
dently refers to those seven or eight years in which Aris-
totle was in Macedonia presiding over the education of
Alexander, the son of Philip.

These abundant supplies for the studies of Aristotle are
not at all inconsistent, either with the liberality of Philip,

APPENDIX. 297

or his love for his son and his son's tutor, nor do they sur-
pass credibility. The gold mines of Philippi supplied the
munificence and liberality of Philip. But there are difficul-
ties in the narrative which make us question the credibility
of the author of this munificence. For instance, the
names of Plato and Theophrastus are mentioned ; but the
name of Theophrastus could not be so great and illustrious,
even if it were known to the Greeks at all, as to have at-
tracted the liberality of Philip, before the death of his master
Aristotle, whom also he succeeded in the School at Athens.
I should, therefore, rather imagine that ^Elian, who was
more diligent in the accuracy of his Attic diction than his
historical fidelity, has committed some error in the name of
Philip, or in those of Plato and Theophrastus, whom he has
appended to his narrative.

The narrative of Athenseus, (ix. 398,) derived from the
report of an unknown author, is very different ; he calls
the History of Animals a very expensive work, and then,
adds — " There is a report that Aristotle received 800 talents
from Alexander, for writing the History of Animals" —
a sum of money which Perigonius, in his Notes on ^Elian,
estimates at 1,440,000 caroli. To this narrative, or, as
it may be more justly termed, rumour, is opposed the
opinion of lo. Henr. Schulzius, in his History of Medicine
(Leipsic, 1738, p. 358). "When I consider this matter
aright, it appears to me that the whole story is very doubt-
ful, and, for the most part, fabulous. And it can easily
be proved, that the whole revenue of Macedon, if Alexander
had paid it all to Aristotle for several years, would not
have amounted to this sum. It is impossible, therefore,
that he could have paid so much to Aristotle before the
conquest of Asia ; and after his expedition had been suc-
cessfully accomplished, his affection was alienated from
Aristotle, and, in order to annoy him, he liberally en-
riched other philosophers, who had done nothing to deserve
his patronage. Their labours, therefore, are in vain, who
demand justice of our excellent Aristotle, even in his grave,
because he did not use such an immense sum of money in
the composition of a more veracious history.

" I am certainly of opinion that a great deal has been made,
as usual, of a very little matter, namely, that if Aristotle

298 APPENDIX.

derived any assistance in that kingdom, all the materials
were provided for him while Philip was alive, and before
Alexander's expedition was undertaken, or in the first years
of the expedition. But afterwards, when Alexander had
set out, Aristotle returned to Athens, and was engaged in
teaching : nor could he have derived any advantage from
the resources which Pliny mentions, and the multitude of
persons who were instructed to place themselves under his
command, for he was not only occupied with other pursuits,
but would have been in danger of being destroyed by the
fury of the Athenians, on the plea that he was attempting
innovations, if he had even ventured to dissect animals,
not to say men."

In a note he adds these observations : — " Aristobulus5 no
unworthy companion of Alexander in his expedition, bears
testimony, according to Plutarch, that the whole military
chest did not contain seventy talents of coin. Eor the pre-
paration of so arduous an undertaking, however, the same
person says, that two hundred talents ought to have been
taken for mutual exchange. I remember also to have read in
Eustathius's commentary on Homer, a very learned disqui-
sition on the scarcity of money amongst the Macedonians, at
the time of Alexander's expedition ; but I cannot lay my
hands upon the passage."

I must confess that I am not influenced by this anno-
tation, nor does the whole of this controversy appear to me
to have been properly conducted. Eor the greatest doubt
prevails as to the number of talents which Alexander is said
to have paid to Aristotle, to help him in his task ; and the
report only rests on the authority of a writer who lived
centuries after the death of Alexander. To refute this
is useless labour, both because its origin is obscure, and
also because a sum of money set down in figures might
be easily corrupted by transcribers. But the testimony of
Aristobulus will give little or no assistance to the opinion
of the learned, if we adopt that which is most probable,
namely, that Philip, or his son Alexander, gave large sums
of money to Aristotle, to enable him to pursue his studies
in Natural History, while he lived in Macedon, and was
employed in the education of Alexander. The question
about the date when Aristotle arranged and published

APPENDIX. 299

the materials and notes he had collected is quite distinct,
and I do not think that it can be precisely ascertained at
the present time. The conjecture I have hazarded (light
enough, I must confess) does not sa.y much in favour of the
story of abundant treasures supplied by Philip, or Alex-
ander, to our philosopher, for the composition of his Na-
tural History. But these persons form a very poor esti-
mate of the study and labour bestowed by Aristotle upon
the History of Animals, who imagine that our philosopher
had only access to such books as now remain, forgetting
those of which time has robbed us.

Most of all we must regret his Zw/xa, which appears to
have given a more accurate description of animals, and his
avarofuxa, which further contained notices of their internal
structure, and was illustrated by drawings to which he often
refers in his Natural History, as well as in his works on the
parts and the generation of animals. It will scarcely be
possible to fix with any accuracy on the number of books he
employed, after the great carelessness of librarians, and the
many facilities for error in copyists, arising from the method
of notation by letters. Antigonus Carystius, in his sixty-
sixth chapter, increases the number of volumes given by
Pliny, for he writes seventy ; and if the titles of the books,
as they are given by Diogenes Laertius and Athenaeus, are
compared with those published, the number of books re-
lating to Animal History to which he may have had access
are readily estimated, even should every book of every work
be reckoned as a separate book, and the list compared with
the number given by Pliny.

In the memory of our fathers and grandfathers (for, alas !
at the present time few trouble themselves with the works
of the ancients) there were many who blamed Aristotle for
these works, both for his manner of treating the subjects and
his narratives of the lives and habits of animals, and vexed
them with questions and disputations.

These objections will be better answered, when we
come to those passages of the History. It may, however,
be of some general avail to put a stop to these objections,
which were urged against his manner of teaching ; and I
hope to be able to point out some peculiar sources from
which Aristotle appears to have derived the more difficult

300 APPENDIX.

parts of his History, and those which were obnoxious to
dispute.

Amongst other foolish and trifling questions with which
some Grammarian, in the Deipnosophistas of Athenaeus, (viii.
p. 352,) has endeavoured not only to impugn, hut even de-
stroy our philosopher's credibility, is the following : — " I do
not much admire the diligence of Aristotle, though others
praise him so highly. At what time, I should like to know,
or from what Proteus or Nereus ascending from the deep.
to give him information, did he learn what the fishes were
doing there, and in what manner they slept and took their
food ; for he writes things of this kind, which are only ' the
miracles of fools,' as the comic poet says."

I will not follow the rest of his argument, which relates
to terrestrial and winged animals ; for the aquatic, and espe-
cially the marine creatures, seem to offer the greatest oppor-
tunity for questioning the fidelity of his narrative. In the
first place, then, we may observe, that of all mankind the
Greeks were amongst the greatest eaters of fish, at least
after the heroic and Homeric ages ; for Homer is never
found to mention fish at the suppers and festivals of his
heroes. So that I should not wonder if the frequent and
repeated industry and observation of fishermen, following
their labours both in rivers and seas, to adorn the tables of
their fellow citizens, supplied ample and varied information
to learned men who were engaged in the investigation of
natural objects. By the same means they might learn
from hunters the haunts and dispositions of wild beasts,
and those of domesticated animals from husbandmen.
The whole life and labour of such men was devoted to the
uses, advantages, and food of man ; and their observations
would be particularly directed to those animals which could
assist in sharing the labours of mankind, or whose flesh or
other parts were required for food or medicine. Their par-
turition and its proper time, the number of their young, the
manner of bringing them up, their nutriment, the pastures
and food of the parents, and the proper time for hunting them,
were observed with the greatest accuracy. And if any
diseases arising from the weather, their food, or their drink
impended over them, and threatened their production or the
life of the wild cattle, or if a peculiar or common enemy

APPENDIX. 301

laid in wait for the nfe of one or all, it could not easily
escape their observation ; and from these circumstances we
may manifestly derive the origin of those fables and narra-
tives in which the opinions of animals are compared with
the life and manner of human beings, such as the simple
minds of hunters, fishers, and rustics could comprehend.
In these books of natural history we find traces of many
stories of this kind which it is unnecessary here to point
out.

In the aquatic and marine orders of animals there is, be-
sides these sources of information, the diligent investigation
instituted by certain writers throughout the seas and rivers
of Greece, at a time when every useful fish, and marine and
river animals of this class, mollusca, shell fish, and worms
formed part of their food. The time and manner of their
coition, parturition, pregnancy, and life, the nature of their
food, places and manner of taking fish, the times in which
they were not accessible, the faults and diseases of aquatic
animals, were minutely described. The twentieth chapter
of the eighth book of our History is on this subject, where
the food and diseases of aquatic animals are described, and
particular notice is taken of their use as food, besides the
observations on the manners of quadrupeds.

It is very evident that the life of one man would hardly
suffice for the observation of all these facts even in a single
class of animals ; but, as I have said, there were writers
before the time of Aristotle who provided for the tastes and
tables of these fish-eating Greeks a most exquisite apparatus
from the rivers and seas of Greece, especially in Sicily, which
has been remarkable for its wealth ever since the reigns of
Gelo and Hiero, and had surpassed the rest of Greece not
only in its knowledge of nature, but in the art of poetry.

There is a passage in Plato's " Gorgias," (sect. 156, p. 246,
ed. Heind.) where mention is made of " Mitha3cus, the author
of a work on Sicilian cookery, and Sarambus, the publican.
One furnished the best of food, the other the best of wine."
That the art of choosing and preparing food for the table
was treated of in this book we may conclude from the use
of the word o^o-sWa, which the Greeks especially used to
signify the kinds of fish used for food. A passage from
this book on the manner of cooking the fish called tenia is

802 APPENDIX.

quoted by Athenseus, who makes the title of this book
o-^aarvrijibv, vii. p. 282, and xii. p. 506.

We cannot accurately ascertain the age of Mitha&cus. The
most ancient author of such a book that we can call to mind
is Epicharmus, a Sicilian poet and physician, from whose
fragments, collected by Athenseus, we may certainly con-
clude he was acquainted with the nature of aquatic animals.

To this class we may, in the first place, refer those pas-
sages which are extracted from the drama called the Mar-
riage of Hebe, or the Muses, and not only teach us the
nature of fishes, but also the manner of procuring and cook-
ing them. A learned writer in the " Literary Ephemeris" of
Jena, 1810, (Nos. 156, 157,) attempted to collect all these
and reduce them to order. There remain, however, many
more passages which the conjectures of the most learned
could hardly amend or explain, from the corruption of the
text by librarians and the variety of Sicilian names. And
before the time of Epicharmus, Ananius, an Iambic poet,
nearly contemporary with Hipponactus, an Ionian poet, com-
posed, among other poems, a similar work on cooking fish,
as we learn from a passage extracted by Athenaeus, (vii. p.
282.) After Epicharmus there was Terpsion, a Sicilian, who
was the first to write a gastrology, in which he taught his
disciples from what kind of food they ought to abstain. He
is mentioned by Clearchus Solensis, a disciple of Aristotle,
in his work de Paraemiis, in " Athenaeus," (viii. p. 337.)

Clearchus also mentions Archestratus, the Sicilian, the
pupil of Terpsion, who, after having travelled through the
whole of Greece, wrote a work in heroic verse on the nature
of fishes, those especially which were fit for the table, and
on the manner of cooking and preparing them. We learn
that his book was called 'Hdvffafaia, not only from the testi-
mony of Athenseus, but from an imitation by Ennius. For
Ennius, who died A.TJ.C. 584, one hundred and fifty-two
years after the death of Aristotle, translated and in part
imitated the poem of Archestratus, and called his work
" Carmina Hedypathetica," as Apulegius tells us in his
"Apologia." We have good reason for supposing that
Archestratus was either contemporary with Aristotle, or a
little older. For Archestratus mentions Diodorus Aspen-
dius, the Pythagorean, as his contemporary, to whom Timseus,

APPENDIX. 303

the historian, tells us that the Epistle of Stratonicus was
written (" Athenaeus," iv. p. 136). Therefore Archestratus,
Diodorus, Aspendius, and Stratonicus, an eminent harpist,
were contemporaries, and so they were with Aristotle and
Demosthenes ; and this conjecture is confirmed by many
passages in Athenseus, where Stratonicus is reported to have
been alive with those persons whom Demosthenes mentions
tn his orations. Aristotle, therefore, may have used this
work of Archestratus in that part of his Natural History
which treats of the nature of fishes.1

^The writings of physicians who prescribed the food,
both of sick and well, have handed down similar and much
more extensive observations on the animals and fishes which
were brought to the tables of the Greeks. Of this kind
Athenseus has given many passages from Dorio, and Di-
philus of Siphnus. Oribasius has made a long extract from
the work of Xenocrates, on the aquatic animals used in
food, which I purpose some day to publish with Xenocrates,
if my life should be spared long enough.

1 To the end of this Essay are appended fragments of Archestratus,
on the fishes of Sicily, amounting to 270 lines of heroic verse, together
with notes, by the author of the Essay.

804

INDEX.

Vitex agnus castus,"a tree
like a willow, the branches of
which the matrons strewed on their
beds at the Thesmophoria, 266.

Adpun'iKai dXiKTOpidt^, a small
kind of domestic fowl, 138.

Aeitncwift, a kind of owl. Stryx
aluco, Strackt 249. Brown Owl.
There is also another migratory
kind mentioned, 249, which does
not hoot.

'A«'poi//, the Bosotian name of the
Merops, M. apiaster, 138.

Afrog, or attro£, Eagle, hence the
Latin avis, 9, 61 ; its eggs and
young, 146 ; two species, the Py-
gargus halisetus, and the black
eagle, Aquila anataria or Falco nae-
vius, ib.; several species, 201, 250 ;
used in augury, 2 17 ; eats serpents,
231 ; food and manners, 251 ; true
eagles, Falco chrysaetos, ib. ; the
sagle kills the heron, 233 ; it fights
with the vulture and the swan, ib. ;
a kind of eagle in Scythia, 252.
*A/;5wv, nightingale, Sylvia luscinia,
its song, 95, 96 ; reproduction,
108 ; its tongue, 246 ; changes
its song and colour, 276.

A9s pi j/j;, Atherina presbyter, Spratt's
Lycia, or A. vera, in modern
Greek atherno, 159 ; its reproduc-
tion, 160, 234.

A.iyiOa\o£, Parus, Tit or Titmouse,

eats worms, 202 : three species,
ib. ; lays many eggs, 246 ; an
enemy to bees, 265 ; o-7rt£tr?j£,
parus major, Struck, opeivoe,
Parus ater, Struck, or P. caudatus.
k\d-£i<jTOQ, Parus cceruleus.

oe, Bunting, Einberiza, St>ack,
or hedge sparrow or Parus cceru-
leus, dislikes the ass, builds in
hedges, 232 ; hostile to the anthus
and acanthis, 233; its food and
young, 246.

Aiyo0;/Aae, goat sucker, Caprimul-
gus EuropaBus, 250.

'Aiyoicf'^aXof, Stryx otus, Struck,
39.

Ai'yuTTtof, the Vulture, it is hostile
to the JEsalon (small hawk), 9,
23 ; and fights with the eagle, ib.

AiywTrro^, Egypt, the Egyptians
hatch eggs in manure, 139 ; two
kinds of Egyptian mice, one with
stiff hair (Hierax, or Aulacodus
Swinderianus), another with long
hind legs (Jerboa, or Cavia), 178 ;
the care of animals among the
Egyptians, 231 ; a large kind of
oxen in Egypt, 226 ; asp and ich-
neumon, 238 ; white and black
ibis, 242.

Ai'ywXiof, a night bird of prey,
Stryx passerina, Strack. or S.
flammea. Camus. La chouette,
little owl, 201 ; kills the calaria,

INDEX.

232 ; its habit and mode of life,
247 ; in p. 139 this bird is called
atrwXiog.

Ai'«r6f, a cartilaginous fish, one of
the class selache, .Raia aquila, 104.

AiOioiria, ^Ethiopia, winged ser-
pents in ^Ethiopia, probably Dra-
co volans, 9 ; ^Ethiopian sheep,
165.

Al9io^, ^Ethiopian, teeth, 60 ; se-
men, 72, 188.

AW via, a large waterbird, Larus
parasiticus, or L. Marinus, Strack,
or L. argentatus, 2 ; its reproduc-
tion, 108 ; food, 203.

AiAot-pog, cat, Felis cattus, copula-
tion, 103 ; its young, food, and
mode of life, 177 ; kills birds, 239.

At/zoppotc, or aTTOp'p'aif, a kind of
shell fish, perhaps Murex, 85, 86.

Ai£, goat, male and female, Ibex or
wild goat, Spratt's Lycia, Caper
hircus, Struck, 13, 27, 28, 31,
66 ; the she goats of (Eta, 70 ;
the he goat in Lemnos, ib. ; it is
mentioned with the chimera or
domestic goat in 71 ; dreams, 97 ;
infested with ticks, 134; dis-
charges of the female, 1!63, 164;
festation, 165 ; food, drink, &c.,
07 ; the wild goat, 225 ; Syrian
Caper hircus Mambricus and Ly-
cian goat, C. Angorensis, ib. ;
Egyptian, 226 ; its mode of life,
235 ; wild goats in Crete, 238 ; ru-
mination, 278.

Al'£, a water bird, probably Tantalus
arquatus, Strack, Scolopax Galli-
nago, 208.

Air*ct\u)v, a small hawk, perhaps
sparrow-hawk or merlin, Falco
JEsalon, 253.

, see AiywXio£.

Medusa, and probably
also some species of Actinia, 2, 3 ;
fixed and locomotive kinds, 87,
88 : small and edible species,
others large and hard, 88 ; a fleshy
kind, 195 ; a large kind, its food,
mouth, and anus, l'J8.

, a kind of shark, Squalus
Acanthias, Strack, 256.

'AifavBiQ, thistle finch or gold finch,
Fringilla carduelis, or Fringilla
cannabina, Strack, or F. spinus,
brown linnet, 202 ; hates the ass,
lives on worms, 233 ; a foe to the
anthus and asgitbus, 234 ; its food,
colour, song, 247.

'Aicav6u\\ie, Parus pendulinus, or
caudatus, Strack, 202 ; its nest,
245.

"Atcapi, mite, Dermestes fatidicus, or
perhaps Bostrichus, Strack, 135.

'A/rpff, locust, Tetigonia, Strack,
Acridium, 89, 95; its birth, 123;
reproduction, 132 ; changes its
skin, 216; it is said to contend
with serpents, 238 : the Spex la-
certicida corresponds with this
description, Schneider.

'Aici>\o£, the acorn of the evergreen
oak, used for fattening pigs, 206.

'AXeicroptf, the domestic hen, Pha-
sianus gallus, different kinds, 111,
138 ; sometimes produces soft
eggs, 139 ; chickens, 140, 141 ;
barren eggs, and times of laying,
ib.; growth of the chick in the
egg, 142 ; twin eggs, 144 ; the hen
sometimes takes the form of the
cock, 215; rolls in the dust, 277.

'AXtKTpvwv, domestic fowl, male,
also used of the class, 5 ; his comb,
36 ; crop, 45 ; appendages to in-
testines, ib. ; crowing, 96 ; man-
ner of coition, 102 ; appearances
like ova when cut open, 139; tes-
ticles, 148 ; habits in temples,
241 ; sometimes they assume the
form and habits of hens, 275 ;
method of castration, 277.

'AXtcrurof, sea-eagle, different from
the osprey, perhaps Aquila albi-
cilla or Falco haliretus, 203, 251,
253.

'A\Kvwv, Alcedo, kingfisher, or per-
haps Turdus arundinaceus, repro-
duction, 107, 108 ; two species
described, 203 ; materials and form

306

INDEX.

of its nest, 246. It is doubtful
whether either of the species is
our kingfisher. Schneider.

AXoadxnt probably a species of
Zoophyte Alcyonia, 246.

AXw7rjj£, fox, Canis vulpes, 6, 29 ;
it breeds with the Laconian dogs,
227 ; attacks the heron, 233 ; is
friendly with the crow, ib. ; a
troglodyte, ib.

AXwTrqg, Vampire, Vespertilio cani-
nus, Strack, V. dinops or Sciurus
volans, 9 ; reproduction, 177 ; it
hunts mice, 178.

AXwTrifl;, a cartilaginous fish, re-
production, 149 ; represents a
class, 151 ; Egyptian species, 226 ;
stratagems, 255.

Aftt'a, a kind of tunny, mackerel,
Scomber, Strack, 4, 40, 91 ; its
rapid growth, 160, 199, 200; lives
in bays, 211; and enters rivers,
218 ; its teeth and mode of de-
fence, 255.

'AjJivydaXri, Amygdala communis,
almond tree, 268 ; almonds, 242.

'Av0iac, a migratory sea fish, also
called avXwTriag, Scomber ala
longa, 159 ; gregarious, 234 ; also
called sacred, 255.

"AvQag, yellow bunting, Emberiza
citrinella, Strack, Motacilla ba-
rula, 202; feeds in meadows,
imitates the neighing of the
horse, 233 ; hostile to the acanthis
and sBgithus, ib. ; it lives by the
side of rivers, 244.

'Ai'flpm'Jj, wild bee, Apis terrestris,
or Vespa crabro, 88 ; the larvse,
124 ; reproduction, 130 ; a diligent
insect, 258 ; makes honey, 260 ;
its manners and habits, 270.

"ATTIOC, the pear tree, 126.

'ATrXuffietf, a dark-coloured sponge,
119.

'Arrogate, various reading for
aijuop'p'ou;, Murex, or Natica.

"ATI-GUI;, swift, Hirundo apus, 4;
also called KV^I\\O£, 271.

» spider, 5, 85, 135 ; its

web, reproduction, 123, 131, 132
is driven away by its young, 131
it sucks its prey, 213 ; is eaten bj
the lizard, 232 ; four kinds, 258
259. Vu\\a, Salticus scenicus—
The smaller kind Dolomedes mi'
rabilis — the larger Lycosa ruri-
cola, another Dolomedes fimbria-
tus.

*Ap»croc, bear, Ursus Arctus, 25
27, 29, 42 ; coition, 102 ; at thii
time it becomes fierce, 161 ; perio(
of gestation, imperfect young
175 ; mode of drinking, 205 ; by
bernation, 215 ; eats the arum
ib ; the females courageous, 230
its habits, 237.

"Apjcroe, a crustacean, perhaps Can
cer spinosissimus, Strack, Scyllari
arctus, reproduction, 121 ; itstooi
and manner of seizing it, 205.
"ApTTt), a bird of prey, falcon, live
near the sea, and attacks the gul
and brenthus, 232 ; the piphui
and ictinus are friendly to it, 234
its mode of life, attacks the eye
of its prey, 247.

'Apxa^oe, a fish, see 'K^dpva^.

'A<neaXaj3wrj7£, lizard, Lacert
Gecko, Stellio veterum, 160; i
lives in holes, 213 ; changes it
skin, 216; its bite poisonous i
some parts of Italy, 227 ; it ea
spiders, 232 ; it can walk in a
inverted position, 242.

'AtricaAa^og, probably some kind (
owl, Stryx ulula, 45.

'AfKaXwTrac, Scolopax gallinag<
snipe, Strack, (Schneider disaj
proves of this identification), t
phseopus, 249. See <ricoXo7ra£.

'AaKcipiCf f, ascaris, intestinal worr
124.

'A.ffKaplg, the larva of the emp
^gnat), 125.

'AffTraXal, mole, Talpa ^vulgar:
lives in holes, 5 ; its eyes, 1
90; there are many in Bceoti
none in Lebadin, 225.

Coluber aspis, asp, frc

I2TDEX.

307

which, a poison is made in Lybia,
227 ; in Egypt it is attacked by

BaXcrypof, a fresh- water fish, Cobitis

the ichneumon, 238. barbus, 98.

lobster, Cancer Gamma- j Ba'Xavof, Balanus, Cirripede, acorn
rus, and Astacus, 138; compared ] shell, 94, 117,
with the spiny lobster, 77, 78, i BdXavoQ, acorn, 221.
79; a small fresh-water species,) BaXX«pog, a fresh-water fish, Cy-

prinus blicca, 156, 219 ; j3a\epoc.
(3a\lvog, /3apti/og, are various

Astacus fluviatilis, crayfish, 86 ;
its reproduction, 106, 121 ;
changes its shell, 217-

'A<rra<2>if, a raisin used for feeding

cattle, 206.
'AffTipiac, a cartilaginous fish, 109, j

151. Squalus asterias.
'Atrrepiac, a hawk, 109, 151, 253. |
j, Ardea stellaris, bittern,

233.
'A<rr>)p, star-fish, Uraster rubens,

118.
'A<r06foXoc, a plant, asphodel, A.

ramosus, 260.
'ArpajcnAXIf, a plant of the thistle

tribe, Carthamus creticus.
'Arraytjv, grouse, Tetrao bonasia,

or T. attagcn, 249 ; it lives on

the ground, 276.
'Arrf'Xajtfoc, a kind of locust,

Gryllus, 123 ; reproduction and

death, 133.

iciQ, the same as dvOiag, 159.
the young tunny, 160.
'AQaKrj, plant, a kind of vetch,

208.

"Aypog, fish spawn, 157.
'A<pvrj. anchovy or sardine, Melanu-

rus juvenculus, 157, its origin, ib.;

other kinds, ib. ; in modern Greek

a variety of large
stag with a strong mane, Strack;
a brocket, or two-year old stag,
from his single-pointed horns,
Liddett and Scott, 39, 237.
^api/ae, a sea fish, Anarrhicas
rufus, 200 ; does not bear heat,
218.

^j'raf, the male grasshopper,
Cicada Orni, 89.
yoaj, a kind of wild pear, Pyrus
communis, 206, 268.

readings.

Ba(Ti\ti<£, also called trochilus, and
presbys, lives in holes, 244 ; has a
bright crest, 202 ; probably Regu-
lus Cristatus, golden-crested wren,
or Sylvia troglodytes.

Bari£, a bird that frequents bushes,
Sylvia rubicola, eats worms, 202 ;
mentioned with finch and sparrow.

Baric, a fish, the prickly roach,
Lwdell and Scott, 149, 152.

Baroy, ray, Raia batos, not the skate,
which is perhaps leiobatos, 8, 37 ;
its manner of coition, 104 ; it does
not receive its young into itself,
150, 151 ; it lives in holes, 214 ;
its manner of taking its prey, 255.

Barpa^oc, frog, Eana escuieuta and
R. temporaria, 3, 39, 87 ; croaks,
96 ; the female larger than the
male, 100; coition, 103; tadpole,
154; its united spawn, 155;
spoken of as a class, 196; no
croaking frogs in Cyrene, 225 ;
marsh frogs are foes to bees, 261.

Borpa^of, a cartilaginous fish,
Lophius piscatorius and L. barbii-
tus, 8, 37, 38, 40 ; among the se-
lache, 104 ; oviparous, 148, 150; it
produces many young, 159.

BeXovj;, fish, Syngnathus acus, 40 ;
its reproduction, 109, 154, 160 ;
gregarious, 224 ; the Halcyon
builds its nest with the bones of
this fish.

BoXtratva,cephalopoQ,Eledonemos-
chites, Leach, 76; also called
6£oXig ; it does not exist in the
Euripus, 256.

a, Apis cementaria, or also
Megachile muraria, and Bombus

308

INDEX.

terrestris, forms an angular cell I
of mud, 131.

Boju/3wXio£, larva of silk worm, 124;
the humble bee, 260, 271.

Bo|«/3i;£, silkworm.

B6i>a<T(TO£, Antelope bonassus, or
Bos Urus, Bison, 26, 28; its
country, form, habits, hunting,
273.

Boo-Kag, Anas boscas, or A. Crecca,
203.

BoffTpv^OQ, insect, Lampyris noc-
tiluca, Strack, 125.

Boi'SaXic, Antilope Gnou, 58.

, Bos taurus, Ox, 5, 27, 28, 29,
30, 41, 62 ; milk, 69 ; dreams, 97 ;
lowing of the bull, 100, 112;
coition, 103 ; tormented with lice,
135; sexual desires, 161, 162;
discharges and urine of the cow,
163; reproductive powers of bull,
168 ; the castrated animal is taught
to lead the herd, ib. ; teeth, milk,
and habits, ib. ; veins in the em-
bryo, 190 ; mode of drinking,
205 ; care of the ox, 206 ; red
cattle of Epirus, 207; diseases,
219, 222; the ox drinks pure
water, 224 ; Egyptian oxen, 226 ;
habits, 236; wild oxen, B. Bu-
balus, 26 ; one species of ox has
a bone in its heart, 39 ; oxen in
Phrygia which can move their
horns, 61 ; small oxen in Phasis,
71 ; oxen in Epirus, ib. ; in Tor-
tona, 72 ; the cow brings forth at
a year old, 113; Syrian oxen,
226 ; castration of the young,
278 ; rumination, ib.
Of, a cartilaginous fish, Raia cor-
nuta, 104, 152.

Bps'rOoe, a sea-bird, Anas tadorna,
hostile to the larus and harpa,
232 ; makes its nest in hills and
woody places, 244.

Bpwac, a large owl, Stryx bubo,
201.

Bpwov, algae, both fresh-water and
marine, 155, 200, 220.

, an echinite, Scutella, 102.

, Corvus monedula, 238
Bwif, a gregarious fish, Sparus
boops, 234 ; contracted from
B6a£, from the sound it makes.

, a kind of smooth shell-fish,
mya pictorum, 82.
XsoQ, a cartilaginous fish, Squalus
galeus and charachias, Strack, or
Gadus lota, 8, 44, 49, 108, 149,
151; uterus and ova, 150 ; re-
ceives its young into itself, ib. :
not found in the Pyrrhrcan
Euripus, 256.

ri, fish of the shark kind, 37.
40, 41 ; placed under the selaclie.
104, 149 ; the males have appen-
dages, 104 ; the uterus, 149 ; ga-
lei and galeodes, 151.

FaX ijj, weasel, martin, polecat, Mus-
tela Faro, M. Errainea, M. vul-
garis, 20 ; the wild kind hunt.
mice, 178; hostile to the crow
232 ; it attacks serpents, 233 ; ii
Poroselene, 225 ; it fights witl
serpents, especially with thos<
called myotherze, 238 ; its forn
compared with the ictis, 239 ; eat
birds' eggs, 232 ; mode of attack
ing its prey, 238.

VtpavoQ, crane, Ardeagrus, 2, 4, 64
coition, 102; migrations of th
male bird, 209 ; they migrat
after the quails, ib. ; the fable o ,
the stone they are said to carrj
210 ; gregarious, ib. ; migratiom
leaders, prudence, 243 ; they figl
with each other, the number (
their eggs, 245.

Ft j/a/o£, the offspring of a mule wit
a mare or she ass, 11 ; see Wvof.

rXavif, a fresh-water fish, Siluri
glanis, Strack, 9, 38, 40, 2H
conjoined spawn, 155 : two sp<
cies, the greater and the smalU
the male watches the spawn, ib
size of the ova, 156 ; diseases, 21
unfit to eat when in spawn, tl

'

INDEX.

309

female better than the male, 229 ;
the male watches the young,
breaks the hook with its teeth,
256.

, Hyaena striata, 204.
, a fish of a grey colour,
Gobius Gozo. Stracfc, 44 ; marine,
211 ; it lives in holes during the
summer, 214; when good for food,
228.
r\avK(t>SeiQ, birds of the owl kind,

36:

rXafsg, owl, 39, 45; has crooked
claws, 201 ; how it may be taken,
210; lives in holes, 215; hostile
to the crow and orchilus, 232 ; is
pecked by smaller birds, used in
hawking, ib. ; the time for taking
the owl, 252.

rXwrrtf, a bird, Rallus crex, Strack,
Scolopax glottis, see Kvy^pa/ioc
and oprvyo/jTjrpa, its tongue and
migrations, 210.

IVa^oXoe, probably some Indian
bird, its form and food, Ampelis
garrulus, 246.

Tvfiffioi a'frot, true eagles, Aquila
Chrysaetos, 251.

foyypof, conger, Muraen a conger, 8,
37, 38, 40, 41, 61, its ova and
fat, 160? it is destroyed by the
spiny lobster, but destroys the po-
lypus, 198; its food, 199; black
and white kinds, 211; lives in
holes, 213 ; it is attacked by the
mursena, 235 ; compared with the
sea serpent, 255.

Tjoavg, a crustacean, Dromia lanosa,
217.

FfcTrai'eroc, or i/Trrwroc, Vulturbar-
batus, see 6p«i7rtXapyo£, 251.

Ti'pivog, tadpole, J54.

Tv$, vulture, Vultur cinereus, or V.
fulvus, eggs and nest, 145, 243 ;
its food, two kinds of vulture, 201.

Aa<r«r/XXoc, a fish,sciaena umbra, 199.
&O.OVITOUQ, hare, Lepus timidus,

and L. cuniculus, 5, 29, 49, 58,
64, 71 ; coition, 102 ; snperfeta-
tion, 108 ; reproduction, 176, 186 ;
in Ithaca, 225 ; smaller in Egypt,
226; another species near Lake
Bolba, 41.

i£, dolphin, Delphinus delphis.
7. 13, 29, 37, 40, 46, 47, 59, 69,
91, 92, 93, 95 ; its sleep, 98 ; the
fish called QOtipa follows the dol-

?hiu, 135; reproduction, 104,
52 ; it breathes air, 196 : food,
200 ; throws itself on its back to
take its prey, ib. ; dolphin in the
Pontus, 212 ; gentle habits, 274 ;
its speed, it sometimes throws it-
self on the shore, 275.
fcrojui/ov, plant, dittany, 238; ori-
ganum Dictamraum, Lin.
ag, Antelope dorcas, 26.
wv, a sea fish, Trachinus draco,
lives near the shore, 211.

Apa/cwi/, a species of serpent in fresh
water, attacks the glanis, 219 ; is
hostile to the eagle, 231 ; sucks
the juice of the herb picris, 238.

ApsTraiHe, perhaps the sand martin,
Hirundo riparia, 4.

Apo/iddef, migratory fish, perhaps
some species of tunny, 4, 155.

Api;oKoXa7rrj7e> woodpecker, 202;
three kinds, Picus varius, P. viri-
dis, P. martius, 242 ; habits, ib.

, the parent of the
Apua, Clupea encrasicolus, Strack.
157.

yx«Xu£, eel, Muraena anguilla, 8,
37, 40, 41, 61, 66, 93 ; is neither
male nor female, 99 ; the so-called
male and female are different spe-
cies, 97; migrates to the sea to
spawn, 156; its origin, 158; de-
scription and habits, 200, 201 ;
those called female are better for
food, 229.

Xat'af ai'6o£, the flower of the
olive, 127, 133, 216, 242.

310

I2TDEX.

, stag, Cervus Elaphus. 5,
26, 27, 28; those called Achainie,
39, 237 ; blood, 58, 67 ; horns,
60, 236, 237; the female, 100;
coition, 103, 174; voice, 112;
habits, 236, 237; the castrated
animal, 278 ; rumination, ib.

'EXea, Emberiza arundinacea, or
Turdus arundinaceus, Struck, or
E. schcenilus, 246.

EXeyTi/of, a migratory fish, 234.

'E\tS(!)vr), Eledone cirhosa, Leach,
(Owen, in Cyclopaedia of Ana-
tomy), 76.

'EXeioe, dormouse, Myoxus Avella-
narius ; or perhaps squirrel,
Sciurus vulgaris, lives in holes in
trees, 216.

"EXt iot, a kind of hawk, 253 ; pro-
bably an incorrect reading.

'EX tog, an owl, Stryx Aluco, StracJc,
see 'AeiWo^/, 201.

'EX<tyae, Elephas Indicus, 5, 14, 24,

. 26, 28, 29, 13, 40,43,46, 61,72;
voice, 96 ; reproduction, 103, 115,
161, 173 ; food, 207 ; life and dis-
eases, 222, 224; strength, 234;
capture, ib. ; habits, docility, 274.

"EXXo^/, a fish with four simple
branchia, sword fish or sturgeon,
Liddell and Scott, Centriscus scolo-
pax, Struck, Accipenser stellatus,
37 5 f\o\l/, 40.

"EX/ut/f, worms, especially intestinal
worms, taenia and lumbricus, some
exist in sponges, 119 ; origin, 123;
three kinds, flat worms, round
worms, ascarides, 124 ; worms in
snow, Podura nivalis, 126 ; some
insect larvae are described as
worms, 135 ; small worms in eels,
158 ; worms in dogs, Tsenia sev-
rata, 238.

'E/z7rt£, gnat, larger than KW»/W^,
Tabanus, or Phryganea, Struck,
3, 9, 206.

'E/xi>£, Testudo coriacea, fresh-
water tortoise, Emys lutraria, 39 ;
reproduction, 136; habits, 194,
216.

or er«Xic, probably sea
bream, Sparus, Struck, Sparus
Rayi, 163.

"Evrtpa yrJG, the decomposing mat-
ter in which eels have their origin,
158.

"EvTOfia, insects, as a class, 3, 10,
73, 123.

EvvSpie, otter, Lutra vulgaris, 2;
its food, '205.

'E7nXtti£or vTTcXaig, Sylvia curruca,
Struck, or perhaps hedge sparrow,
202.

*ETTO\!/, hoopoe, Upupa Epops, 1 ;
its nest, 138 ; lives in woods and
mountains, 244 ; changes its co-
lour, 246, 276.

'Ep((3ivQo£, a plant, leguminous
seeds, Ervum sativum, 221.

'EpiOaKrj, bee bread, 267.

'EpiOpaKos, Sylvia erithracus, or
S. Phoenicurus, Struck, Redstart,
202 ; in its summer plumage
called Phoenicurus, 276.

'Epivebg, wild fig tree, 136.

EjOTrwXXof, Thymus serpyllum,
wild thyme, 261.

'EpvOplvog, a red kind of mullet,
Perca marina, Sparus Erythrymus,
Struck, Perca scriba, all have roes,
there are no males, 99, 153, 211

'EpioSibg, heron, Ardea major, 203;
a foe to the woodpecker, 212;
three kinds, o Trt'XXoe, the black,
Ardea cinerea, 6 Xti/Trof, the
white, A. egretta, 6 darrjpiag, A,
stellaris, 233, 247; a friend of
the crow, 323.

EuXttt, maggots in flesh.

*E<i>f)fjiipov, ephemera, insect, 10,
126.

'E^f vr)i£, probably Goby or Blenny,
Forbes in Sprutt's Lycia, not the
Remora. which was unknown to
the ancients. Echeneis remora,
Struck, 38.

"Ex^a, viper, Coluber vivipara, C.
verus, 10 ; hides under stones, 213.

'E^tvo/xj^rpa, Echinus Esculeutus,
Forbes in Spratt's Lycia, 86.

IFDEX.

311

*F,Y7i/oc,sea urchin, Echinus lividus;
another species, with hard spines,
is Cidaris hystrix, also a long
species, Amphidetus Mediterra-
neus, Forbes, 10, 11 ; eatahle
kinds, 86 ; small species, E. saxati-
lis ; white species at Torone, E.
decadactylus, ib., 87, 94 ; at what
season they are full of ova, 110.

'Eylvog, hedgehog, Erinaceus Eu-
ropaeus, 10, 46, 61, 81 ; coition,
102 ; changes the entrance of its
hole when the wind changes, 239.

*Eytf, a serpent, Coluber vivipara.
ViperaReedii, viviparous, 49 ; re-
production, 137; how captured,
'204 ; changes its skin, 216 ;
becomes more poisonous by eating
scorpions, 227.

*Ei//j?r6f, a small fish, Atherina
Hepsetus, Strack, 156.

Zvy<m'cr, a shark, Squalus Zygaena,

Strack, 40.

ZvyriQ, a lizard, see xa^K'G, 223.
Zwdapicr, several small animals, 135.

1. Tinea pellionella.

2. T. sarcitella.

3. Psorus pulsatorius.

4. T. graminella.

Zwov, several unnamed animals.

1. A small crustacean in shell
fish, perhaps Pinnotheres, 86.

2. marine creatures like small
pieces of wood, Veretillum,89.

3. marine creatures like shields,
Alcyonium, 89.

4. marine creatures like
didoiov dvdpoc, Pennatula,
89.

5. winged creatures produced
from maggots in pulse,
Bruchus, 126.

H

mule, offspring of horse
and wild ass, the female larger
and more long lived, 99, 1 70 ; the

so-called mules of Syria, Equus

hemionus, 11, 172, 177.
"HTrarof, a fish so called from its

colour, Theutis hepatus," Strack,

Stromatos fiatola, 44.
'HTTIO\O£, moth, Tinea mellonella,

225.
'HpafcXfonirof (tap/ct'vog, Keracleo-

tic crab, has a long tail, 77, 81.

, a shoot of a plant, especially

the olive, 208.
I Qrjpia, animals larger than flies in

fire, 126 ; animals which destroy

honey-combs, 225 ; an animal like

a moth, ib.

0tc, black shore weed, fucus, 211.
QpavTriq, a small bird like a gold-
finch, Fricgilla Carduelis, or F.

Cannabina, 20*2.
©ptVaa, a fish with prickly scales,

256.
Opt;//, timber worm, 207.

thyme, Thymus vulgaris,

266.

, the female tunny, 108, 109 ;

aged, 160 ; food, 200 ; migration,

211 ; gregarious, 234.

, tunny fish, Scomber Thyn-

nus, 4, 38 ;" sleeps, 98 ; swims* in.

shoals, 108 ; male and female, ib.;

reproduction, 109, 135; life, 149;

they appear to be a year older

than the pelamys, 160 ;*food, 199;

migrates after the scombri, 209 ;

when best for food, 211; migra-
tions, 212; how concealed, 214;

delights in warmth, 219 ; old fish.

unfit for salting, their weight, 228.
g, jackal or ounce, Felis onza, or

perhaps Canis aureus, Strack, 42 ;

habits, 177 ; hates the lion, 234 ;

carnivorous, ib. ; several kinds,

272.

j8tc, Tantalus Ibis, Strack, two
species, white, Tantalus sacer, and!
black, T. faicintllus, 249.

312

INDEX.

, hawk, 9, 39, 40 ; incubation,
146; like the cuckoo, 146, 147;
the young good to eat, 147 ; a
kind -which builds in rocks, ib. ;
three species, 201 ; enumeration
of species, 253 ; the Egyptian
hawk, 226 ; its nest, 243 ; does
not eat the heart of birds, ib.

'Ihag or it(00£,a kind of serpent, 228.

'licrlvoQ, kite, Falco milvius, 39,
40 ; incubation, 146 ; food, 201 ;
drink, 203; migration, 215; a
foe to the raven, 232.

"Ifcne, weasel or ferret, Mustela furo,
29 ; habits, 239.

'IXAay, a kind of thrush, gregarious,
Turdus iliaceus, Strack, 248 ; this
identification is very doubtful,
Schneider.

'I£o/3o|0og, a kind of thrush, Turdus
viscivorus, Strack, 248.

'I£og, miseltoe, 248.

"Ivvog, hinnus, the offspring of a
horse and she ass, 163.

'IovX«c, a red fish, Labrus lulis,
Strack, 234.

*Iov\og, lulus, scolopendra, centi-
pede, 73.

iTTTrapdiov, giraffe, Giraffa cameleo-
pardalis, 26.

iTTTTcXa^og, perhaps the Nilghau,
Antilope picta, 26.

clTnrti)£, a crustacean, Ocyopode
cursor, 77.

iTTTTo/iup/i?}?, a large kind of ant,
Formica Herculanea, %225.

"ITCTTOQ, horse, Equus Caballus, 13,
26, 27, 29, 39, 62, 66, 69, 70 ;
dreams, 97; neighing, 112; re-
production, age, life, 113, 161,
169 ; food and drink, 205, 207 ;
small horses in the country of the
Pygmies, 209 ; diseases, 219, 222,
223 ; story of a Scythian horse,
274.

"iTTTrog o TroTdfiioQ, river horse,
Hippopotamus amphibius, 32,
196 ; in Egypt, 32.

"ImrovpOQ, fish. Coryphsena hippu-
rus, 109; hides in holes, 213.

ta, willow, 155.

, wryneck, Jynx torquilla, 35.
xvfi'fiwv, Ichneumon, Viverra
Ichneumon, 177 ; attacks the asp
in Egypt, 238.

xvtvpwv, Ichneumon ^insect)
Sphex, hunts spiders, 124, 232.

, reed, Acorus calamus, and
perb aps also some of the larger
grasses, 122, 155 ; its flower, 127 ;
used to support vine, 133, 155,
216 ; flourishes in rainy weather,
217.

KaXaptg or /eoAapie, a bird preyed
on by the little owL Motacilla
alba L., Schneider, 232. Fringilla
petronia.

KaXicipif, Tringa, Sandpiper, Sco-
lopax calidris, 203.

KaXAiwi'v/ioc;, fish, Uranoscopus,
Strack, U. Scaber, 40 ; lives near
the shore.

KaXXvvTpov, a shrub from the
flowers of which the bees are said
to procure their young, 127; per-
haps Cerinthe, L., Strack, honey-
suckle.

KdfirjXoQ, Camel, Camelus Bactria-
nus and C. Dromedarius, 25, 27,
29, 30, 70; reproduction, 103,
114, 161, 173; endurance of
thirst, 207 ; life, ib.; diseases, 222 ;
purity, 274 ; castration of females,
278.

Ka/t7T77, caterpillar, 124.

'Kav9apig, several kinds of beetles,
88; a kind of fly, 106; origin,
126.

, beetle, Scarabseus pilula-
rius, Schneider, Cantharis lytta, 9 ;
origin, 125 ; changes its skin, 216.
dvQapoq, a sea-fish, lives near the
shore, Sparus Cantharus, 211.
aTrpoy, boar, '29; coition, age, 112,
114 ; castration, 277.
nVjooe, a fish said to make a
grunting noise. Cottus caiu-

INDEX.

313

phractus, or Squalus centrina, 37 ;
in the Achelous, 95.

Kapafiotidij, crustaceans, 79, 85,
228.

dpapoQ, insect, stag-beetle, Ce-
rambyx, Struck, 89, 125.

Kapetjtfof, Palinurus vulgaris, Spiny
lobster, 7, 9, 10; as a class, 73,
77 ; male and female, 78 ; de-
scribed, 79, 80, 84, 93; sleep,
97 ; reproduction, 120 ; where
produced, 121 -, change their shell,
ib.', kills other fish, is killed by
the polypus, 198; habitation,
pursuit, 129 ; hides itself and
changes its shell, 217.

Kapt^tov 7rii/vo0uXa£, a small
crustacean, Pinnotheres veterum,
Bell's Crustaceans, 117.

Kap/£, shrimp or prawn, Crangon,
Palcemon, 77 ; different kinds, ib.\
reproduction, 106, 121 ; changes
its colour in winter, 228.

KapKivtov, hermit crab, Pagurus
Bernhardi, L., Bell, and probably
other species, 85 ; in Strombi and
Neritas, ib., 118 ; also a species in
Pinnae distinguished from icapi-
S tor, 117.

Kap/cifoe, crab, of various, species.
Cancer, Carcinus, &c., 4, 10, 73,
77 ; several species, 77; fluviatile,
Telphura fluviatilis, ib. ; number
of feet, ib ; short-tailed ib. ; de-
scription, 80, 81, 85; reproduc-
tion, 106 ; white crabs in various
shells, 117; change of shell, 121;
rock crabs, 198 ; black crabs, hard
shelled crabs, 217.

Kd(TTmp, beaver, Castor Fiber, 205.

KuiAtov, some kind of sea-weed,
200.

Karap'pa/crqc, diver, Pelecanus bas-
sanus, L., Schneider, 45 ; mode
of taking its prey, 244.

Kty^pif, Falco tinnunoulus, Schnei-
der, 45 ; lays many eggs, 138 ; red
eggs, 139 ; mode of drinking, 203.

EeXeoj, large green woodpecker,
Pious viridis, 202, 232, 233.

, petrel, Procellaria pelagica,
203, 253.

pOioc, creeper, Certhia familiaris,
247.

. Populus tremula, osier, 205.

Kttrrpaioi, mullets as a class, 109,
159.

K«orph'£, mullet. Mugil. In the
lake Silpha, 37, 44, 92 ; it sleeps,
98; capture, 87; birth, 108;
enumeration of species, 109, 153,
157 ; enters rivers to spawn, 156,
159; food, 199, 228; habits,
200; near the shore, 211 ; asso-
ciates with the labrax, 235 ; the
swiftest of fishes, 256 ; in season
in the autumn, ib.

Ke0a\o£, grey mullet. Spratt's
Lycia, Mugil cephalus, 109, 153 ;
reproduction, 159 ; food, 199 ; in-
jured by cold, 218.

K»7j3og, monkey, Simia mora or
diona, Strack, 32. S. Cynologus.

Kjjpie, KvpiQ, or Kipp'iQ, a sea-fish,
•228.

Kr/puAoc, a sea-bird, mentioned with
the Halcyon, 203. Tringa varia-
bilis.

KijwZ, whelk, Buccinum, its mecon,
80, 81, 82, 85; appears in the
early spring, 110; nidulary cap-
sules, 115, 116; the small whelk,
118; hides itself, 213.

, whale, as a class, 10, 39 ;
whales, 69 ; other whales, 152.
rjTuSr], Cetacea, 7, 13, 104, 196;
turn on their back to seize their
prey, 200.

v, drone, 260.

KiyicXoc, probably Tringa Cinclus,
Linn. Dunlin, 244. Cinclus
aquaticus.

Ki'0apo£, a kind of turbot, Trigla
lyra, 44.

Ktvi/ajuw/iov, a spice, cinnamon, 245.

Ktw dfjiufjiov opviov, cinnamon bird,
245; Herodotus, Book 3, c. 111.

Kipicot,1, perhaps Falco nisus, Liddett
and Scott, 232, 253. Falco pygur-
gus.

314,

INDEX.

Kiorafif, Ivy. Hedera Helix, 130.

K<rra or Kiffffa, Jay, Corvus glanda-
rius, captured by the JEgolius and
Eleus, 201 ; changes its note, 245 ;
its nest, ib.

'Kix\rj, Thrush, Turdus labrus and
T. merula, nest, 138; hides, 215 ;
changes its colour in winter, 276;
three kinds, 244.

KiyXr/, a sea-fish, 37; near the land,
211; in pairs, 213; changes its
colour, 228.

KXiJpot;, also called TrvpavoTriz, an
insect injurious to beehives, Ga-
leria cerella and G. mellonella,
226, 266.

Kvidrj, sea-nettle, probably an acti-
nia, 118, 255.

Ki/tTroXoyof, a species of wood-
pecker, Picus varius, or minor,
202.

~K.vi-fy or fficvii//, an insect, Formica
flava, Strack, finds honey by the
sense of smell, 93 ; eaten by the
woodpecker, 93, 202, 242.

KoyX*;, a bivalve shell, Mya picto-
rum, 82 ; several species, ib. ; a
kind of crustacean is found in
them, 85; origin, 117, 118;
large smooth shell in rivers, 243.

Koyici>Xiov, a small bivalve shell,
198, 199.

Kolrof or Korrof, a fresh -water fish.
Trout, Salmo Fario, Strack, 92.

KoKjcaXiov, Helix, land snail, 81.

KOICKW£, cuckoo, Cuculus Canorus,
93, 138 ; habits, form, and eggs,
146 ; eatable, 147 ; lays in the
nests of other birds, 249 ; changes
its note when about to migrate,
276.

KoXfdf, also tXeot;, and
woodpecker, 233.

KoX/ctg, a kind of tunny, Scomber
colias, in the Propontis, 211 ;
when taken, 212 ; gregarious, 234.
KoXtoe, Corvus monedula or Picus
viridis, 36 ; in p. 242 colceus
should probably be colitis.

', Ampelis garrula, L.

Schneider. Lanius garrula or ex-
cubitor, 248.

KoXoio£, Pelecanus graculus, four
species, 248.

KoAocf/yrq, cucumber, Cucumis
Sativus, 124, 208.

KoXu/z/Sic, a sea-bird, diver, Colym-
bis, 3, 203.

Kovtc, knits, 134.

KovijZa, plant, Inula Conyza, or I.
pulicaria, flea bane, 93.

KopaKiag, probably the Cornish.
Chough Pyrrocorax Graculus, 248.

Ko/oa/clj/og, sturgeon, Accipenser
huso, Strack, Sparus Chromis,
109, 159, 160,213, 218,228, 234.

Kopaicoeidutis ytvog, the crow tribe,
5.

K6pa£, raven and rook, Corvus
Corax and frugilegus, 40, 45, 64 ;
eggs, incubation, young, 146 ;
Egyptian raven, 226; hostile to
the hawk, 232 ; pecks the ass and
bull, ib. ; friend of the fox, 233 ;
frequent in towns, 248 ; nest and
habits, 250.

Kopa£, a water-bird, Pelecanus
Carbo, Struck, 203.

KopSv\T) or OKOpdvXij, the young
tunny fish, 160.

Kop^wXog, water-newt, Triton aqua-
ticus, 3, 9, 197. Siren Proteus.

K6pig,cimex,bug,C.lectularius,134.

KopvSa\b£, lark, Alauda arvcnsis
cristata, 277.

Kopvdbs, lark, Alauda cristata, A.
arborea, A. arvensis, (though
Schneider thinks this identification
doubtful), its nest, 146, 249;
hybernates, 215; hostile to the
poecilis, 232; is said to eat the
eggs of the eagle, 233 ; friendly
to the schcenilus, 234 ; perches on
the ground, 242, 245 ; two kinds,
249.

Kof)wj>7/, Corvus corone, 45 ; feeds
its young after they are fledged,
146 ; incubation, 147 ; lives near
the sea, 203; Egyptian, 226; foe
to the owl, presbys, and typanua,

INDEX.

315

232 ; friend of the heron, 234 ;
always to be seen, 248.

Korivog, the wild olive tree, Eleag-
nus angusti folia, used as food tor
sheep (accidentally omitted in the
translation), 208.

Korrog, see KOirof. Coitus Gobio,
92.

Korrw0oc, blackbird, Turdus me-
rula, Struck, but apparently not
always, Turdus merula, and T.
saxatilis, hybernate, 215 ; changes
its colour, 228 ; nest, 245 ; two
kinds, black and white, 247 ;
changes its plumage and voice in
the winter, 276.

Korn.0og, a sea-bird, 110, 214.

KOTTV<POQ, a fish, 228. Labrus
Merula.

Ko^Xtag, snail, Helix, several
kinds, 73, 81; land-snails, 83;
when full of ova, 110; die when
the shell is taken off, 136 ; form
an operculum when they hyber-
nate, 213; eaten by swine and
partridges, 255.

Ko^Xoc, Fresh- water univalve shells,
Limneea, Planorbis, 81,83,84,86.

Kpayywv, prawn, Cancer digitalis
(Squilla mantis), Strack, Penseus
sulcatus, 77.

Kpa/u/3»;, cabbage or colewort,
Brassica, 124, 126.

Kpa/*/3t£, caterpillars of the cabbage
butterfly, Papilio Danais Brassier,
125.

Kpa'ffrif, green fodder for horses,
207.

Kpt£, Trigna pugnax, hostile to the
celeus, 233 ; its habits, 247.

KptQrj, barley, 206.

Kpioc, Ovis aries, ram, breeding
season, 114, 161, 199.

KpoKofoiXoe, the Land crocodile,
Lacerta stellio, Monitor terrestris,
25, 34 ; both kinds mentioned, 43,
46; reproduction, 137; brought
up in Egypt, 231 ; Herodotus,
Book 4, c. 192.

.of, the Egyptian croco-

dile. Crocodilus Niloticus, 3,

14; in Egypt, 33, 59; reproduc-

tion, 137 ; hybernates, 72.
Kporwr, Ricinus, tick, or dog-louse,

Hippobosca ovina, 135; Acarus

ricinus, 125.
Kr«ie, Pecten, 82, 84, A large kind,

which has one valve flat, Pecten

maximus, 84, 94, 95 ; origin, 117 ;

small crustaceans in them, ib. ;

hybernate, 213 ; redpectens, 220 ;

leap, 256.

Ki>a/iot, beans, Vicia faba, 72, 206.
Kvavoc, Turdus Cyaneus, blue

thrush, 248.
KvyxP"/^ or K^xpa/iog, Corn-

crake, Rallus Crex, Struck, pro-

bably a species of ortolan, Liudett

and Scott. Leads the flight of the

quails, 210.
KVKVOS, swan, Cycnus olor, 4, 45 ;l

food, 203; gregarious, 211 ;

fights with the eagle, 233 ; habits,

244 ; when dying they go towards

the sea, ib.
KyXAapoff or ff/ciXXapoc, hermit

crab, Pagurus, 85.
ILvfitvSi^ the Ionic narre of the

XaX/ctV, Stryx Nisoria, 244, 251.
KwaicdvOrj, perhaps the dog-rose,

worms in it, 126. Rosa canina.
KwvoKs^aXoc, dog-headed ape,

Simia Cynocephalus, 32. S. Porca-

rriG, dog-ticks, Ricinus
canis, 135.

wTrpTj/oc,1, carp, Cyprinus Carpio,
38 ; inhabits rivers, 91 ; produc-
tion and growth of young, 155,
156 ; star-struck, 219.
VT-KTOC, a shrub, Cytisus, Medicago
arborea, 71 •

), a kind of shrimp or prawn,
77. Palaemon Squilla or Crangon
vulgaris, also Pagurus.
v^/eXXof, a kind of swallow, mar-
tin ? Hirundo urbica, makes its
nest of mud in rocks and caverns,
250.
vtaVj dog, Canis familiaris. 6,

1 Accidentally omitted in a list of birds in the translation.

816

INDEX.

26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 42, 58;
large dog of Epirus, 71 ; dreams,
97 ; reproduction, barking, &c.,
103, 107, 112, 113, 114, 161,
163 ; Laconian dogs, their habits,
166, 167; when dogs eat grass,
204, 238; diseases, 222; Egyp-
tian dogs, 226 ; Cyrenian dogs,
half-bred, with wolves, Laconian
with foxes, Indian with tigers,
227; the Molossian shepherd dog,
230 ; intestinal worms in dogs,
238.

Ki>wv, a cartilaginous fish, Sqnalus
carcharias, Struck, S. galeus, 104,
151.

Kw/3idf, gudgeon, Gobio, 44 ; ova,
153, 155 ; poor ones cast on shore,
157 ; food, 200 ; live near the
land. 211 ; fatten in rivers, 218 ;
gregarious, 197 ; in winter does
not leave the Pyrrhic Euripus, 256.

KwXtoirjjg, an animal inhabiting the
stables of the ass, a lizard accord-
ing to some, Scaliger thinks a
beetle, 232, Mus minutus.

Kwvwi//, a species of gnat, smaller
than the empis, Conops calci-
trans, Stracky Culex pipiens or
C. calcitrans, 89, 94 ; springs
from a worm in vinegar, Mosillus
cellarius, 126.

fipaK, perhaps Perca Labrax,
Basse, 8, 92 ; sleeps, 98 ; repro-
duction, 108, 109, 153, 159 ; food,
199, 200 ; has a stone in its head,
218 ; unfit to eat when in spawn,
228 ; at times associated with
cestreus, 244.

aywoe, hare, Lepus timidus, the
Egyptian, 226.

atSoQ, the name of a bird living
in rocks and mountains, perhaps
it should be Xa'ioc, 234.

, a species of thrush, Turdus
torquatus, 234, 247.

a, a species of shark, Squalua
centrina, or carachias, 104, 255.
/nTruptf or TruyoXa/zTTtf, glow-
worm, Lainpyris notiluca, see

poe, gull or ' cormorant, Larus

canus and marinus, Sterna, 45 ;

colour, 203 ; a white kind, ib. ;

hostile to the brenthus and harpa,

232.

Aara£, beaver, Castor fiber, 3, 205.
Adxava, potherbs, 217.
AetopaTog, skate, Kaia Batis, 40,

151.

c;, limpet, Patella, 82, 84, 85,

86, 117.

jriSwToi, scaly fishes, see TrXwroi.
icg, white heron, Platalea

leucerodia, 203.
AfiiKT], probably the unopened

flower-bud of the grape, or Populus

alba, 121.

AtviecQ, Ardea argentata, 233.
AeW, Lion, Felis Leo, 6, 24, 25,

26, 28 ; lioness, 29, 30, 32, 42,

59, 61, 69 ; reproduction, 102,

161, 176; existing in one district

of Europe, 226; Syrian Lions,

176 ; mane and teeth, ib. ; food,

205 ; habits, 271, 272 ; two kinds

described, 272.
At/3avwri£, Eosmarinus officinalis,

Rosemary, 183.
Ai/3uo£, a bird, enemy of the wood-

pecker, 232.
Atyv6£, Lygians who are said to

have seven ribs, 16.
Ai/iv6<rrp«a, oysters, Ostrea edulis,

82, 117 ; small crustaceans in

them, ib.
AoicaXoe, a species of heron, Ciconia

dubia, 45.
Aofyovpa, animals with hairy tails,

borse, ass, &c., 11, 16, 19, 30.
Auy£, Lynx, Felis Lynx, 28, 29,

102.
A?''Kio£, a kind of Jackdaw or

chough, Corvus monedula, C.

pyrrocorax, 248.
AVKOV, wolf, Canis lupus, 6f 29;

IFDEX.

317

reproduction, 103, 161, 177; eats
grass and earth, 204 ; Egyptian,
226 ; attacks the ass, bull, and fox,
232 ; near the lake Maeotis, 254.

Aw/cog, a kind of spider, Aranea ta-
rantula, Struck, 259.

Avpa, a fish, Trigla Lyra, 95.

M

MnTa, a crustacean, Maia Squinado,
77,81,217.

Matvie, sprat or sardine, Sparus
mcena, fiaividia, 157, 158, 159 ;
when the males are called tragi,
228 ; gregarious, 234.

MoXaKta, the class of cephalopod
mollusks, one species which occu-
pies a shell is probably Caraarina
mediterranea, Spratt's Lycia, 8,
10, 19, 73,87; reproduction, 105,
110, 121, 154; why they imbibe
water, 196; carnivorous, 198,
199 ; best for food when they
have ova, 228.

MaX«Ko/cpavev£, perhaps Loxia
pyrrhula, Schneider, 248.

MaAaKoVrpaica, crustaceans, 10, 73,
77 ; reproduction, 106, 120 ; im-
bibe water, 196 ; omnivorous, 198;
best for food when they have ova,
228.
iVof, a sea-fish, 159, 218.

, a fabulous animal, 30.
probably blackcap,
Parus ater, or Muscicarpa atrica-
pilla, 202; food, eggs, nest and
tongue, 246 ; in the autumn called
Sycalis, 276.

M«Xavaitro£, called also lagopho-
nos, an eagle, Aquila melanaetus,
Falco fulvus, 251.

MsXavovpof, a sea- fish, Sparus me-
lanurus, 199.

MeX«aypc£, Guinea fowl, Meleagris
Numidica, 139.

MAiXturog, plant, Melilotus ofiici-
nalis, 266.

MAirra, bee, Apismellifica, 3, 5, 7,
8, 9, 64, 88, 89, 93, 95; they

sleep, 98 ; larva are called nyro-
pliae, 124; reproduction, 127;
drones, chiefs, also called mothers
and kings, 28 ; three kinds of bet s,
ib. ; life, 130 ; white bees in
plants, and other kinds, ib. ; food,
208; hybernate, 213; change
their skins, 216; diseases, 225;
industry, 258; habits, 260.

Me/i/3pde, an inferior kind of an-
chovy, Clupea sardina, 158.

Mc'poj//, bee- eater, Merops Apiaster,
L. or Congener, L. 138, 245, 265.
/}, a plant, medick grass,
Medicago sativa, 71, 207, 268.
, a gregarious fish, 234.
, plant, poppy, 268.

, cockchafer, Melolon-
thus aurata, 9, 88, 89, 125.

, a fish like the Scarus, said
to ruminate, Scarus Cretensis, 279.

MtXroe, vermilion, 139.

Mirw£, a substance used by bees to
cover crevices in their hives, 261.

M6p/ii«po£, a sea-fish, Sparus rnor-
myrus, 159.

Mop^vof, another name of the plan-
gus, Fulco nsevius, 251.

MvyaXiJ, shrew mouse, Sorex
araneus, 223.

Muia, house fly, Musca domestioa,
9, 83, 89; reproduction, 106,
108, 126 ; omnivorous, 208.

Mv£wv, a sea fish, perhaps some
kind of mullet, 109, 159.

MvoOijpai o0£t£, serpents that hunt
mice, attacked by the weasel, 238.
sea-lamprey, Muraena
helena, Strack, 8, 37, 40, 61;
reproduction, 103, 109 ; food,
199 ; near the shore, 211 ; hyber-
nates, 213 ; seizes the conger by
the tail, 235.

Mvpivos or Maplvof, a sea-fish,
218.

MvpfjnjZ, ant, Formica, 4; winged
and wingless, 73, 93, 108 ; repro-
duction, 131 ; industry, 258, 260.

Mvppivn, myrtle, Myrtus communis,
266, 268.

818

INDEX.

tf, mouse, Mus nmsculus. The
Egyptian kind is probably Hierax,
those said to walk on two feet are
the Jerboa. The Pontic kind
said to ruminate. Mus Citillus,
Schneider, 5, 50 ; reproduction,
178 ; Persian, Egyptian, and
many other kinds, ib, ; manner of
drinking, 205 ; white mice in
Pontus, 216 ; Arabian mice, 226 ;
Lybian, ib. ; the Pontic mouse
is said to ruminate, 278.
De, a bivalve mollusk, perhaps Mi-
tylus, 82.

uori/ejjroff, a whale, Balsena mys-
ticetus, 64. Balaenopterus mus-
culus or Boops.

uwi//, horse-fly or gad-fly, Taba-
nus Csecutiens. T. pluvialis, 9, 83,
89; origin, 126; death, 127 j
sucks blood, 208.

H

N'ipicj/, torpedo, Raia Torpedo, 37,
10, 104 ; reproduction and young,
109, 150, 151 ; habits, 275.

NauriXof, cephalopod, the species
adhering to its shell is probably
the Nautilus Pompilius, another
species Argonauta Argo, Owen in
Cyclopaedia of Anatomy, 76, 258.

Nt/3piai -yaXtoi, dog-fish, Squalus
catulus, 149.

N«/3po£, fawn, 71.

N£/3po0di/og, a name of the pygargus,
251.

Kf/c^aXoc, the larva of the silk-
worm, Bombyx, 124.

Nj?ptrj;£, different littoral trochi,
Trochus, Nerita, Haliotis, 85,
86, 94, 117, 118.

Nijrra, duck, Anas Boschas, 45,
203.

Nj/rro^ovoe or Mop^vog, 251 ; a
name of the plangus.

yiffffatot ITTTTOI, Niseean horses, 278.

\yicr«pi£, bat, Vespertiiio, 4, 9, 50.

Ne»icriKopa£, Ardea Nycticorax.
Manibu, 45, 201, 210, 252.

, sword-fish, Xiphias gladius,
38, 40, 219.

uXo00dpo£, insects in wood, Phry-
ganea, Tinea graminella, 136.

"OloXtc, a cephalopod mollusk, the
same as bolitaena, 76.
dvQr), the flower of the vine, 121.

QivdvOrj, probably the name of some
dark-coloured bird, 276.
vaQ, a wild pigeon, Columba mi-
gratoria, Struck, C. cenas, 111,
138, 203.

tg, sheep, Ovis aries, 72 ; different
kinds, 208.

ffrpof, gad fly, Tabanus corvinus,
3, 9, 83, 89 ; origin, 125 ; a blood
sucker, 208 ; the marine species
probably refers to certain parasites
on fish, Lernsea brachialis, Pha-
laugium balsenarum, 135, 208,
212,219.

OZ<rrpof, a bird, perhaps Motacilla
sibilatrix, or Trochilus, 202.

probably an alga

Spongodium, Spratt's Lycia, Ho-

lothuria or Salpa, 4.
Oi/og, ass, Equus Asinus, 27, 31,

39, 68, 70 ; not infested with lice

or ticks, 135 ; reproduction, 1 1 3,

163, 171; food and drink, 207;

diseases, 224 ; a foe to the ^Egi-

thus, 232; eats thorns, 233.
"OvoQ 6 ayptoc, the wild ass, 178 ;

in Epirus, 71; the Indian ass, per-

haps Rhinoceros, 28.
"Ovoc, fish, perhaps Raia squatina,

Struck, Gadus mustela, 214, 255.
"Ovog, woodlouse, Oniscus asellus,

135.
'QpuvoQ, a species of titmouse,

Parus Ater, 202.
'OpftTrsXapyoe, Grypaetus Barbatus,

Struck, 251.
'Oocvf, mule, 5, 11, 27, 31, 39,

females and reproduction, 163,
172, 173; food and drink, 207.

ISDEX.

31D

, plant, Origanum, 238.

'OoKUf, a large kind of tunny,
Scomber ala Tonga, 109.

"Opj'i£, domestic fowl, see aXt/croptf
and aXtKTpvwv.

*0po/3o£, tares, Orobus, Ervum er-
vilia, 71, 191.

'Opo<T7ri£oe, mountain finch, Frin-
gilla montifringilla, Strack, 202.

'Qpaoddicvr], an insect that eats the
buds of plants, Curysomela olera-
cea, 126.

'Opri/yo/*r/rpa, perhaps Land rail,
Rallus Crex, 210.

*0pri;£, quail, CoturnixVulgaris, 40,
45 ; nest, 146, 240 ; migration,
210 ; does not perch on trees, 242.

*Opv£, Nilghau, Antilope picta, or
Antilope Oryx, 27.

, a sea fish, perhaps Scorpsena
orcus, Spratt's Lijcia, 109, 199,
211, 214.

'OpYiXof, a bird, Charadrius minor,
2,32.

'Otrrpaico^fpjLia, testaceous mollusca,
8, 10, 13, 73, 81 ; reproduction,
110, 115, 117; compared with
plants, 195 ; hybernate, 213 ; best
for food when they have ova, 228,

"0<rrptoi/, oyster, 3, 10, 117; diffe-
rent kinds, 73 ; origin, 117 ; have
an anus, 198; rd 6crrptw<fy, tes-
tacea, 228.

"Oorpfjov, the shell used by paint-
ers, 118.

, Otis houbara, 139.
QaicdTTiov, sea ear, perhaps
Haliotis, 84.

'0<j>idiov, a small serpent, found in
the plant silphium, 227 ; a small
serpent, Coluber ammodytes, or C.
JEsculapii, Struck, ib. ; an Indian
serpent, whose bite is fatal, ib.

"0</>«c, serpent, 5 ; winged serpent in
^Ethiopia, perhaps Draco volans,
9 ; a horned serpent in Egypt,
Coluber cerastes, 28; water-ser-
pents, Coluber natrix, 10, 35, 38,
43, 44, 46, 49, 60 ; marine ser-
pents, Muraena ophis, or Ammo-

dytes tobianus, Struck, 38, 255 ;
there are many kinds. Their hiss-
ing, 96 ; the female larger, 100 ;
reproduction, 103, 137 ; change
their skin, 121,216; omnivorous,
204; hybernate, 213; a large
kind in Lybia, Boa constrictor,
226 ; the blind serpent, Anguis
fragilis, 223.

;, Labrus Anthia, 109.

n

, probably the common
hermit-crab, Pagurus Bernhardi,
77.

IIai'0»}p, panther, Felis Panthera,
177.

, 34 ; perhaps the spots on
the Leopard's skin : an unknown
animal, L. and S. Lex.
p^aXtay%t g, a plant poisonous to
the Leopard, perhaps aconite,
Doronicum pardalianches, or aco-
nitum Napellus, 238.
pdaXis, Leopard, Felis Leopar-
dus, 5, 27, 29, 30 ; Asiatic, 226 ;
the female more bold than the
male, 230 ; hunts by scent, 238.
pSaXog, a bird, perhaps Sturnus
Vulgaris, Starling. TringaSqua-
ratola, Strack, 248.

, see tTTTrapdiov, Giraffe,
oc, stork, Ardea Ciconia,
203, 215 ; when wounded applies
origanum to its wounds, 238 ;
said to be fed by its young, 245.
, a kind of dove, distinct
from Trepiorepcr, 111; migratory,
210.

XtKai/, Pelecan, Pelecanus ono-
crotalus, migrates from the Stry-
mon, 209 ; gregarious, 210 ; eats
shell-fish, 243.

, black heron, Ardea cinerea,
233, 247.

, partridge, Perdix cinerea,
and rufa, Tetrao Perdix and
Graecus, 5, 45, 47, 96 ; repro-
duction, 106, 139, 140, 141,148;

320

IKDEX.

nest, incubation, habits, 138, 240.
241, 242; life, 145, 240; eats
snails, 255 ; dusts itself, 277.

IlfpioTf pd, House-dove, Columba, 4,
5, 39, 45 ; differs from TrtXtidg.
Ill; reproduction, ib., 138, 139.
140, 141, 144, 145; food, 202; not
migratory, 210 ; babits, 239, 240 ;
those used for lures are blinded,
'240 ; wash and dust themselves,
277.

n^pcffroadij the class of pigeon-like
birds, 111, 144, 202.

IIsWj;, perch, Perca fluviatilis, 38,
44, 155, 214.

nipKj'oVrepog, dusky eagle, Vultur
percnopterus or Gypaietos barba-
tus, or Falco barbatus, 251.

He'pKof, grey hawk, Falco subbuteo,
253.

rif'p vrjs or irrtpvie, a kind of hawk.

UtvKrj, pine tree, 126.

nfjyavov, rue, Ruta graveolens, 238.

n^\a/iic, a tunny fish of a year old,
Scomber Thynnus, 4 ; reproduc-
tion, 108; where found, 10'J ; the
tunny a year older than the pela-
mys, 157, 160; migrate to the
Pontus, 211 ; gregarious, 235.

n/?j'6Xo4/, a kind of duck, Anas
Penelope, 203.

nqvtov, some species of larva,
Phalsense geometrae, 124.

niOrjKOtidrj, the ape tribe, 26.

Ui6t)KOQ, ape, Simia Sylvanus, 32.

IltJeptf, a bitter herb, endive, Chico-
rium intybus, or Helniinthia
Echionella, 238.

Tlivva, the genus Pinna, 82, 117,
118, 195.

or irivvorfjorjc, and
small crustaceans
living in shells and sponges, Pin-
notheres veterum, 117.

ni7ro£, TriTrpa, TTITTW, woodpecker,
Picus viridis, major, minor, 202,
232, 248.

n«T<Tojci/po£, bees' wax, 261.

nitiijZ, or 7rtd»iy£, Alauda trivialis,
234.

H\ayyoc, a species of eagle, Aquila
albicilla, 251.

n\6fj,og or 0X<tyio£, mullein, Verbas-
cum thapsus, fatal to fish, 220.

ITXwroi, certain fish, as the cestreus
and labrax, 153, 256,228, 273;
also of birds, 35.

Hvtvfiwir, a marine animal of low
organization, 118.

flcJa MjjciKj} and 2<;/oia, Medicago
sativa, and lupulina, 268.

riot/ctXtt,-, perhaps 1' ringilla Carduelis
or (Enanthe, 232.

noXvTTow^. Octopus, Spratt's Lycia,
Sepia octopodia, a small variegated
kind, has not been determined,
Owen, 9, 73, 74, 76 ; several
kinds, 73, 258; reproduction, 105,
110. 121; destroys the lobster,
198; is destroyed by the conger,
ib. ; food, 199 ; when good for
food, 228; ink, 75, 257; changes
its colour, ib. ; grows lean, ib. ;
goes upon shore, 258.

Hopfyvpa, Murex trunculus, Spratt's
Lycia, and probably some other
shells, 81, 83, 85, 86, 89, 94;
time of appearance, 110, 115, 116,
117; several kinds, 116, 117; said
to obtain the purple from Algee,
155 ; carnivorous, 2UO ; hyber-
nutes, 213, 220, 256.

Tloptbvpiojv, a bird with a long neck,
Fulica porphyrion, S track, 45,
206.

Tlpdffiov, a species of alga, perhaps
Caulerpa prolifera, Spratt s Lyeia,
199.

)n<ro/coupt£, a grub which destroys
leeks. Clerus apiarius, 126.
»'<7/3ue, the same as Trochilus,
wren, 232, 244=
)T]fj.d8te, a kind of tunny, 214.
HffTig, perhaps the saw -fish, Squa-
lus pristis, Strack, 152.

Ilp6/3arov, sheep, Ovis aries, 27, 29 ;
black lambs, 64, 66, 67 ; in Epirus,
71, 72; voice of the ram, 96;
dreams, 97; reproduction, 112,
113, 163, 164, 165; sheep-ticks,

INDEX.

321

134; food, 208; acorns injurious

to sheep, 222; diseases, 223;

Syrian sheep, 225 ; Egyptian, 226;

habits, 235 ; hostile to bees, 261 ;

ruminate, 279.

, roe deer, Cervus Capriolus,

39, 58, 67.

IlrfXsa, elm, Ulmus campestris, 206.
nrepvit;, a species of hawk, 253.
llrt>y£, or TTU>V%, a water-bird, 244,
n6yapyo£, a kind of eagle, perhaps

Circus Cyaueus, hen harrier, 146,

250 ; also a water-bird, perhaps

Tringa Ocrophus, L. Schneider,

203, 244.
riyyoAa/u.7rtg, glow-worm, Lampyris

noctiluca, 73, 125.
UvpaXiQ, a bird, enemy of the turtle

dove, 232.
nwpautrrjjg, a moth, Tinea mello-

nella, Struck, 225.
UuppovXaQ, a red bird, Loxia pyr-

rula, or enucleator, 202.
n«'>i>Z, a bird living in marshes,

Ardea purpurea, 247.

j.

g, cabbage or radish, 124.

'Prjrivr), resin, 248.

'Pi vr], a species of shark, Squalus
Squatina, Strack, 49 ; reproduc-
tion, 103, 108, 109, 150, 151;
mode of taking its prey, 255;
changes its colour, 257.

Pti/o/3ar/jc, Raia rhinobatus, a car-
tilaginous fish, 151.

'PvdStg, fish that swim in shoals, 93,
109, 159, 211, 212.

2a0e'pi°r> a kind of otter or beaver,
Lutra Luteola, Strack, 205.

'S.aXandvSpa, salamander, Lacerta
Salamandra, 126,

2a'\7r»/, the genus Scomber, Strack^
Sparus Salpa, 92 ; reproduction,
108, 109, 159 ; food, 201 ; lives
in bays of the sea, 211 ; is not car-
nivorous, 256.

n, red sulphuret of arsenic,
223 ; bee bread, 264.

2a?rf ipiov, aairripiov, or rrarvpwv,
a plant, probably an orchid, Sa-
tyrian, 205.

Scnrtpdit;, a fresh-water fish, per-
haps Accipenser hugo, 229.

, the sardiue, migratory,
Tetragonus niger, 231.

Sparus sargus, Strack, a
sea-fish, 108, 109, 159, 200.

2aTi>piov, Sorex moschatus, 205.

2awpa, Lizard, generic name, 5, 8,
25, 34, 35, 36, 39, 43, 44 ; re-
production, 103, 137; life, 204;
hybernates, 213; change of
skin, 216 ; Arabian lizards, 225,
252.

2awpog, Salmo Saurus, marine, 234.

2«pJ?v, a kind of wild bee or wasp,
Megachile muraria, 260.

SAaxJ?, the class of cartilaginous
fishes, 7, 8, 14, 37, 38, 59, 60, 66 ;
description of the class, 46, 48 ;
sleep, 98 ; kinds, 99, 104 ; repro-
duction, 103, 149, 160; carnivo-
rous, 199 ; marine, 211; hyber-
nate, 214 ; male and female, 257.

2f \aKOf ideiQ, cartilaginous fishes, 44,
95, 104, 214.

2£<TfXif, an umbelliferous planf,
Seseli tortuosum, 236.

2//7rta, Sepia officinalis, Spratt's
Lycia, cuttle-fish, 7, 9, 10, 73,74,
75, 80, 83, 93 ; reproduction, 105,
110, 120, 123, 125, 154; food,
199 ; the male protects the fema>
when wounded, 231 ; emission *•
the ink, 257 ; said to change its
colour, ib.

2?}£, various kinds of moths in
clothes, in beehives, in books. 135.

2iW?7, a kind of long gourd, 246.

2iKi/og, gourd or cucumber, Cucur-
bita lagenaria, 206.

2tX0?j, a stinking insect, Blatta
orientalis, or Lepisma, Strack,
216.

, a plant, perhaps Assafoetida,
Laserpitium,or Thapsus Silpldum,
227.

IXDEX.

, or avvodw, a carnivorous
fish, Tetraodon hispidus, or raola,
or Sparus dentex, Strack, T.
lineatus, 199, 200, 211, 234.

2trrq, a kind of woodpecker, or per-
haps Sitta Europoea, creeper, 233,
247.

'S.iTTaKT] or ^ITTUKT}J parrot, Psitta-
cus erithacus.

2<c<ipoc, a sea-fish, supposed by the
aucients to ruminate, Scarus ore-
tius, Spratt's Lycia, S. cretensis,
Strack, 37 ; has not sharp teeth,
38, 44; food, 199; appears toru-
nate, 200, 256, 278.

2ta«u/a. a sea-fish, Sciaena nigra,
Strack, S. cirrhosa, 218.

2<a'XX»7, Scilla maritinia, 133.

2*;oXo7r<i£, perhaps the woodcock,
Scolopax rusticola, 242.

2*coX67T£»'$pa, Scolopendra morsi-
tans, Centipede, 8 ; the marine
kinds Nereis or Aphrodite, A. acu-
leata, 38, 88, 255.

2/fo/i/3piac, (7«6/i|6po£, fish allied to
the tunny, mackerel, Scomber
sarda, 109, 160, 210, 212, 235.

StcopdvXr) or /cop^w'X/;, the young
tunny, 160.

2.vop7rtO£, Scorpio Europaeus, 89,
131, 135, 227.

2/cop7T('o£, a sea-fish, Cottus Scor-
pius, Strack, 44, 108, 211.

2*:op7rtg,a sea-fish, Scorpaena porcus,
109.

2vop7Tiw$fc, a small creature in
books, Phalangium Cancroides,
89, 135.

2ici;Xtoj', dog-fish, Squalus Stellaris,
S. canicula, 149, 151.

2<--u'XXapo£ or KuXXapot,', a kind of
hermit-crab, 85.

2v<uXr?i«oi>, a worm that eats wood,
136; a small intestinal worm in
fish, 159 ; an insect in honey-
combs, 266.

2/cu>/\»j£, worm, especially the earth-
worm, 8, 123.

2/con//, the screech-owl, Strix Scops,
Strix Otus, 201, 249.

2/zaptc, a poor sea-fish, Sparm

Sinai-is, 228.
3/iv£oy, see JK/^OII/. 'S/j-voaiva, see

nvpaiva. 2ifivpog, sue /ii/pog.
2 raooc, a sea-fish, Spar us Maiua,

Strack, 44.
2Tdproj/, a shrub, broom, Genista,

Stipa tenacissiuia, 266.
27rurayo^, Spatangus, sea-eug, S6.
27rt^a, finch, Friugilla, 35; eats

worms, 202 ; habitation, 240.
27ri£tac;, sparrow-hawk, FalcoXisus,

201, 253.
Srrist'rjje, a kind of titmouse, Pu-

rus ater or major, 202.
STroyyot;, sponge, Spougia officina-

lis, 3; growth, 118; three kinds,

ib. ; very like a plant, 195 ; pores

in sponges, 246.
^TTovSv^tj or afyovdvXr], probably a

kind of beetle, living in the roots

of plants, Carabus, 107, 223, 252.
2ra0w\iK>e, an insect like tiie

Sphondyle, Staphvlinus muriiiu>.

223.
2rpo/ij(3oe, Turbinated shells, Helix,

Turbo, &c., 13, 85, 86, 118.
2rpo/i/3w#»;, univalve mollusks, So,

86 ; on land and marine, 84 ; have

an operculurn, 117.
2rpovtf6c, sparrow, Fringilla domes-

tica, 40, 45, 64, 102 ; eats worms,

202 ; the hens are said to live

longer, 240 ; compared with the

Halcyon, 245 ; washes and dusts

itself, 277 ; in Lybia, ostrich,

Struthiocamelus, 246.
2rpov6oQ, a flat fish, Pleuronectes

passer, 40.
2rvpa£, the gum storax, Storax

ollicinalis, 93.
2u«:aXi£, fig-pecker, Italian becca-

fico, the mehmcoryphus in its

summer plumage, Motacilla Atri-

capilla, or Parus ater, Strack)

Sylvia fidecula, 202, 278.
2u/ca^tvov, the fruit of the mulberry

tree, 221.
2wKa, figs, used for feeding swine,

INDEX.

323

126.

a caterpillar in figs,

a plant, Symphytun

officinale, comfrey, or gypsophila

arundinacea, 245.
2uj'aypie, a fish, Sparus dentex, 37,

40.
2i>p«z Troa, a plant loved by bees,

268.
2Dg, swine, Sus scropba, no wild

swine in Libya, 225 ; tbe domestic

pig eats snails, 255.
20cupat QaKdrnai, a species of zoo-

phyte, perhaps Alcyonia, 246.

»]£, wasp, Vespa vulgaris, V. tec-

torum, V. crabro, generic name, 3,

4, 88, 89; larva, 124; a kind

called ichneumon, Ammophila

sabulosa, 127, 130; a diligent

insect, 258 ; the annual wasp, 260 ;

hostile to bees, 265, 267; two

species, 268.
20i>p«iva, a gregarious sea-fish,

Esox sphyraena, 234.
2%olviK\o<; or (T^ou't'wv, a water-

bird, Emberiza Schceniclus L.

Schneider, 203, 234.

, Sylvia arundinacea, 234.
, Solen, Soleneuntus trigilla-

tus, Spratt's Lycia, 82, 94, 117,

118, 195.

laivia, a long thin fish, probably
Cepola tamia, Strack, 37.

TrXareiat, flat entozoa, 238.

e, bull, Bos taurus, 48, 67, 68,
168; horns, 100; fierce in the
breeding season, 161 ; bulls fight
together, 163.

Tawg, peacock, Pavo cristatus, 6 ;
barren eggs, reproduction, 140,
148.

Tf vOprjSiov. a kind of bee or wasp,
Apis terrestris, Strack, makes
honey, 260 ; reproduction, 271.

leprfSuv, a caterpillar in bee-hives,
226.

S, a species of grouse, Tetrao
tetrix, or Otis tetrix, Strack, 138,
139.

T«rT»yo/irjrpa, tbe edible larva of
the locust or grasshopper, 134.

TtTTiyoviov, a small kind of grass-
hopper, 90, 133.

Te'rn£, grasshopper, Cicada orni,
90 ; several kinds, 95 ; origin, 123,
reproduction, 133 ; Cecropis Spu-
marius, 134; changes its skin,
216; not found in Milesia and
Cephalenia, 225.

uOif, Loligo vulgaris, Owen, 9, 10,
74, 75; reproduction, 105, 123;
food, 177 ; its ink, 257.

, Loligo media, 10, 74, 75,
123; perhaps incorrectly in 234
as the name of a gregarious fish.
yflva, Ascidian mollusks, Ascidia
phlusa, Strack, 82, 87,94, 117;
fleshy nature of their body, 195.

, Tiger, Felis tigris, the In-
dian dogs are said to be crossed
with the tiger, 227.

, a fresh- water fish, Cyprinus
brama, 156, 220.

^ai, grass or straw used as food
for swine, Secale, 221.

, the he-goat, voice, 96, 161,
175.

, tbe male of the fish majnis,
Sparus Maina, Struck, 228.

TptyX?;, Red mullet, Spratt's Lycia,
Mullus surculentus, Strack, 44,
108; suffers from parasites, 135;
season of reproduction, 159; gre-
garious, ib., 234 ; can bury itself,
200 ; lives near the land, '211 ; in
estuaries, ib. ; not carnivorous,
256 ; in season in the autumn,
257.

Tpiopx*7C> Buzzard, Buteo vulgaris,
201, eats toads and serpents, 232 ;
the first genus of the hawks, 253.
, Fieldfare or thrush, Turdus
trichias, Strack, T. pilaris, 248.

fish, or spawn, Clupea Sprattus,
108, 158, 212.

324

INDEX.

, Sylvia trocbilus, Struck,
also called Presbys, and Basileus,
perhaps th.e wren, Sylvia troglo-
dytes, S. regulus, 203, 233 ; also
a bird living by the sea, chara-
drius Egyptiacus, 203 ; picks the
teeth of the crocodile, 238 ; hates
the eagle, 232.

Tpuyyag, perhaps Tringa ochro-
podes, Schneider, T. vauellus, 203,
244,

Tpuyywv, Turtle dove, Columba
turtur, the smallest of the dove
-tribe, 111; young and eggs, 138,
145, 240; food, 202; migrates,
210; hybernates, 215 ; an enemy
to the pyrallis, but killed by the
chloreus, 232; friendly with the
cottyphus, 234 ; life, 240 ; habita-
tion, ib ; perhaps Psophila crepi-
tans, or Rallus crex, 277.

Tpvy</Jf, a sea-fish, B,aia pastinaca,
8, 104, 149, 211; method of
taking its prey, 255.

Tptryoiv, some oviparous quadruped,
103.

Tiipavi/oe, golden-crested wren,
Motacilla Regulus, 202.

Tvq>\ivr]Q, blind worm, Lacerta
Apus, Schneider, 154, 223.

"Yati/a, Hysena Striata, 176; also

called y\dvoQ, 204.
'Y/3pi£, a night bird of prey, 244.
"Yfyof, a water-serpent, Coluber

natrix, 3, 44.
"YTraitrof, a kind of eagle, also

written yuTrcritroe, 252.
"YTrtpa, a kind of caterpillar, Geo-

metra, 124.
'YTToXate, hedge sparrow, Sylvia

horteusis or curruca, 147, 202,

249.

> buzzard, 253, see

66 ; heats, 69 ; voice, 96 ; sow, is
without tusks, 100 ; reproduction,
107, 112, 114, 135, 162, 163;
domestic swine, 164 ; /utra\'o«pa,
173 ; they dig up the runs of mice,
178; eat roots, 206; how fat-
tened, ib. ; diseases, 221 ; swine
in Mount Athos, 227 ; killed by
scorpions, ib. ; devour serpents,
233 ; gelding of sows, 278.

"Yf cfypeof, the wild boar, 5, 26,
161, 174.

"Yo-rpi£, porcupine, Hystrix cristata,
138; compared with the bear,
175 ; hybernates, 215 ; throws
out its quills, 260.

"Ye, swine, Sus scropha, 26; with
single tDof in Poeonia, 27, 29:
boar, 31 ; 32 ; swine, 35, 42, 46,

, a kind of hawk, Falcc
palumbarius, 201.

<£aypoe, a sea-fish, Sparus pagrus,
211, 218.

<t>rtXayytoi', a kind of spider, Pha-
langium, Aranea Tarantula, 1 00,
107, 121,123; reproduction, 132;
patient of hunger, 204; hostile to
the ichneumon, 232; several kinds
described, 258, 259.

$dAay£, a spider, 231.

4>aXoiva, whale, Physeter Chacal-
otus, Struck, P. macrocephalus, 8,
69, 152; respiration, 196.

<J»aXapi£, coot, Fulica atra, 203.

4>aX?7pt;c>} a0vj7,some kind of spawn,
158.

$o«Tiavoc, pheasant, Phasianus Col-
chicus, 134, 139, 277.

<bavao<f>6i>og, a hawk, probably the
same as 0a/3ori»Xo£» 253.

•fca'rra, a kind of pigeon, Columba
palumbus, 45, 47 ; the largest
of the pigeon kind, 111; repro-
duction and eggs, 138, 144, J45,
147, 202; migrates, 210; some-
times hybernates, 215 ; likes
drought, 217; mode of drinking,
240, habits, ib. ; does not coo in
winter, 276.

*ai//, a kind of doye, Columba livis,

INDEX.

325

the male and female incubate by

turns, 147, 202, 240 ; nest, 249.
), perhaps the osprey, Vultur

ossifragus, Buffon, nurses the

young of the eagle, 146 ; its food

and shape, 201, 251.
*0a'|0, louse, Pediculus capitis and

P. pubis, KOVIQ, nit, 120, 134 ;

in birds, ib. • in fish, Lernea, 97,

135; in the fish chalcis, 220.
*0«ipa, a fish that follows the dol-

phin, Centronotus, 135.
#\fw£, a water plant, Poterium

spinosum, 266.
<f>oii'OKoupo£, redstart, Sylvia Pho»-

nicurus, 276 ; in winter called

, a river fish, Cyprinus phox-

inus, Struck, 153, 155.
$pvvrj, toad, Bufo vulgaris, 39, 87 ;

eaten by the buzzard, 232 ; inju-

rious to bees, 265.
*piivoXdxo£, a kind of hawk, per-

haps the buzzard, 253.
QVKIOV, fucus, sea- weed, 122, 125,

154, 199, 200, 255.
$yirt£, a fish living on sea-weed,

Gobius niger, 154; food, 200;

changes its colour, and is the only

fish that makes nests, 228.
*»'/coe, fucus, 154, 158, 218, 220.
*w/caivct, porpoise, Delphinus Pho-

caBna, 152, 212.
?, seal, Phoca vitulina, P. mo-

nacbus, 4, 7, 14, 22, 25, 26, 30,

39, 44, 69; reproduction and

habits, 103, 152, 153, 196 ; food,

205 ; fight together, 231.
wXt£, a fish enclosing itself in

mucus, 256 ; Blennius pholis,

Struck.
wp, a kind of bee, the thief, 259.

XaXa£d, Hydatids in swine, 221.
\a\Ktvq, a fish, Dory, Zeus Faber,
Strack, 95.

tf, a lizard, with a bright stripe

on its back, Lacerta chalcides,
223.

XaX/ctf, a bird, the same as KW/UV-
SIQ, Stryx flammea, Strack, 244.

Xa/\/cif, a fish, perhaps Mugil au-
ratus, Spratt's Lycia^ Clupea
picta, 108, 155, 156, 256.

XaXictrtg XiOoQ, lime stone, 126.

Xdvvr), or ^avn, a fish with a wi !e
mouth, Perca cabrilla, 99, 153;
food, 199; marine, 211.

Xapafynof, lapwing or curlew,
Charadrius cedicnemus, Schneider,
203. 243.

y«Wo>V, swallow, Hirundo urbica
and rustica, 4, 40, 45, 64; re-
production and nests, 111, 138,
145, 239 ; eat animal food, 202 ;
migration, 215 ; kill bees, 265.

X.t\idh)v, flying fish, 95 ; Exocetus
volitans.

Xe^jOOTTff, leguminous plants, 205.

Xs'Awv, or x«XXwi/, a fisa ij]je tjle
cestreus, 109, 159, 199.

XeXwi/i/, the river tortoise, Testudo
orbicularis and Europaea, 34, 39,
41, 42, 46, 65, 84, 87, 96 ; repro-
duction, 103, 104, 123; marine,
Chelonia cephalo, 196; lives on
shell-fish and sea-weed, 198 ; does
not change its skin, 216, 238.

Xrjur), a large bivalve shell, Chama,
117.

X»}j/, goose, Anser domesticus and
Anas segetum, 6, 27, 45, 47 ; gos-
ling, 140, 141 ; incubation, 146,
147 ; different kinds, 203, 210.

X»ji>aXa>7rr/£, an Egyptian goose,
Anas tadorna, Strack, 140, 203.

Xt'/natpa, probably the she goat, 72.

XX wpivc, perhaps the same as x^w-
pio)V, a foe to the woodpecker, and
kills the turtle dove, Falco lana-
rius, 232.

XXwpfg, Motacilla fitis, or Loxia
chloris, Strack, eats worms, 202
shape, eggs, nest, 245, 249.

X\(upi(uv, perhaps oriole, Oriolus
galbula, Strack, attacks the black-
bird, 233, 248.

326

Xoipo7rt0»/icoc, ape, Simia rostrata,
S. porcaria, 34.

Xpfu^, a fish joined with labrax, 92.

Xp6/tu£, a sea-fish, Sciaena nigra, 92,
94, 108, 218.

Xpyrro/ir/rpie, a bird (thistle finch),
Fringilla serinus, 202.

XpvcroQpvQ, Sparus aurata L., 8,
44 ; sleeps, 98 ; reproduction,
109, 160 ; food, 200 ; near the
shore, 211 ; in estuaries, ib. ; hy-
hernates, 21<* ; impatient of cold,
218.

Xv/iivfog, the same as ^aXictc, 244.

Xuroi, fish that swim in shoals, 109.

starling, Sturnus vulgaris,
215, 249.
¥i}v, gall insect, Cynips psenes, 136.

Vr)Tra, a flat fish, Pleuronectet
lingua and Rhombus, and max-
ima, 99, 109, 255.

^irra/oj?, Parrot, Psittacus erithacus,
211.

•*"i»X\a, flea, Pulex irritans, 134 ; a
kind of spider, Salticus scenicus,
259.

M^XXoc, parasites on fish, Talitrus
locusta, 97.

, butterfly, Papilio, 89, 102,
123.

Q

, bustard, Otis tarda, 45, 102 ;
incubation, 147, 252.

, horned owl, Strix otus, 210,
252.

? a kin(1 °^ pulse, useful to
bees, Pisuni satbum, 268.

THE END.

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