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ERICH  F.  SCrlMlQT 


ARMENIA 

TRAVELS  AND  STUDIES 


VOL.    II 


ARMENIA 

Travels  and  Studies 


BY 

H.    F.    B.    LYNCH 


Nature's  vast  frame,  the  web  of  human  things. 

Shelley,  Alastor. 

Who  can  foretell  our  future?  Spare  me  the  attempt. 
We  are  like  a  harvest  reaped  by  bad  husbandmen 
amidst  encircling  gloom  and  cloud. 

JOHX   K.VTHOLIKOS 

Ariiicniati  historian  of  the  Xtli  centmy 

Ch.  CLXXXVU. 


IN   TWO  VOLUMES 

with  197  illustrations,  reproduced  from  photographs  and  sketches 
by  the  author,  numerous  maps  and  plans,  a  bibliography 

And  a  Map  of 
Armenia  and  Adjacent  Countries 


VOL.    II 
THE  TURKISH   PROVINXES 


LONGMANS,    GREEN,    AND    CO. 

LONDON  :   39  P.VTERNOSTER  ROW- 
NEW  YORK  AND  BOMBAY 

I9OI 


All  rights  rese>~'ed 


THb.    LlliKAKl 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SANTA    BARBARA 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    I 

PAGE 

Descend  into  Turkish  Territory         .  .  .  .  i 

CHAPTER    n 
To  Lake  Van       .  .  .  .  .  .  .11 

CHAPTER    III 

Across  Lake  Van  .  .  .  .  •  .35 

CHAPTER    IV 

Van  ........  38 

CHAPTER    V 
From  Van  to  Bitlis       .  .  ■  .  .  .116 

CHAPTER    VI 
Bitlis        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .145 

CHAPTER    VII 

From  Bitlis  to  Mush — Mush    .  .  .  .  .160 

CHAPTER    VIII 
From  Mush  to  Erzerum  .  .  .  .  .174 

CHAPTER    IX 

Erzerum  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .198 

VOL.  II  a  2 


vi  Armenia 

CHAPTER    X 
Return  to  the  Border  Ranges — GaAarra,  6a\aTTa\  .  .         225 


CHAPTER    XVI 
Akhi.at      ..... 


PAGE 


CHAPTER    XI 
Revisit  Armenia  .....  237 

CHAPTER    Xn 
Across  the  Central  Tableland  to  Khinis     .  .  .         245 

CHAPTER    Xni 
From  Khinis  to  Tutakh  .  .  .  •  .254 

CHAPTER    XIV 
Down  the  Murad  to  Melazkert         .  .  •  •         264 

CHAPTER    XV 
From  Melazkert  to  Akhlat     .  .  .  .  ■         -76 


;8o 


CHAPTER    XVn 

Our  Sojourn  in  the  Crater  of  Nimrud        .  .  .         298 

CHAPTER    XVni 
Round  Nimrud  by  Lake  Nazik  .  .  •  .314 

CHAPTER    XIX 
Ascent  of  Sipan  .  ......         3-6 

CHAPTER    XX 
Back  to  the  Central  Tableland         ....         34° 

CHAPTER    XXI 
Our  Sojourn  on  Bingol  .  .  .  •  -3  59 


Contents  vii 

CHAPTER    XXII 

rA<;E 

Home  across  the  Border  Ranges        .  .  .  -379 

CHAPTER    XXIII 
Geographical      .......         383 

CHAPTER    XXIV 
Statistical  and  Political  .....         408 

APPENDIX    I 

National  Constitution  of  the  Armenians  in  the  Turkish 

Empire       .  .  .  .  .  .  .445 

APPENDIX    II 

CHEiNiiCAL  Constitution  of  some  Armenian  Lakes     .  .         468 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  .  .  .  .  .  .471 

INDEX      ........  497 


LIST   OF   PLATES 


Lake  Van  with  Sipan  from  Artemid 

Plain  of  Alashkert  from  the  Slopes  of  Aghri  Dagh 

Croup  of  Kurd  Hamidiyeh  Cavalry 

(Jroup  of  Karapapakh  Hamidiyeh  Cavalry 

The  Kuseh  Dagii  from  the  Plain  of  Alashkert 

VusuF  Bey  of  Koshk  ..... 

Kurd  of  Koshk  in  Gala  Dress     .... 

Sipan  from  the  Plain  of  Patnotz 

V.\N  FROM  the  Slopes  of  Mount  V.arag  . 

Van  :    In lERiOR  of  the  Mosque  of  Ulu  Jami 

Van  :   Frieze  in  Ulu  Jami  ..... 

Van  :   Cuneiform  Inscription  of  Meher  or  Choban  Kapusi 

Van  :   Mount  Varag  from  the  Heights  of  Toprak  Kala 

Akhtamar  :   Church  from  South-East    . 

Akhtamar  :   Church  from  North-West  . 

Church  at  Akhtamar  :   Sculptures  on  North  Wall  . 

Crater  of  Nimrud  as  seen  on  the  Road  from  Garzik  to  Bitlis 

Bitlis  from  Avel  Meidan   ..... 

Kerkur    Da(;h    from    the    South  :    Nimrud    Crater    in    the 

background      ...... 

Young  Kurd  Woman  at  Gotni,  Mush  Plain 

Well-to-do  Inhabitant  of  Khaskeui,  Mush  Plain 

Mon.astery  of  Surb  K.\r.a.pet  from  the  South  . 

Church  of  Surb  Karapet  from  South-West 

View  South  from  the  Terrace  .at  Surb  Karapet 

The  Two  Chapels  at  Surb  Karapet        ... 

The  Akh  Dagh  and  the  Plain  of  Khinis  from  the  South  . 

The  Central  Tableland,  Bingol  in  the  distance,  from  near 

Kui.Li      ........ 

Kargabazar,  across  the  Plain  of  Pasin,  from  the  southern 

-margin  of  the  central  tableland 

ErZERUM     from    THE     RoOF    OF    THE     BRITISH     CONSUL.ATE  :      THE 

Citadel  in  the  middle  distance  and  Eyerli  Dagh  in 

THE    background  ...... 


Frontispiece 
To  face  page  2 
Back  to  page     4 

5 

To  face  page    10 

16 

17 

19 

53 

Back  to  page    106 

,,  107 

To  face  page  112 

113 
Back  to  page    130 

131 

To  face  page  132 

142 

145 

161 
163 

,,  166 

Back  to  page    1 76 

177 

To  face  page   178 

180 

186 

191 
193 


208 


Aruicnia 


ErZERUM  :     ChIFTEH    MlXARElI  .... 

Looking  East-South-east  from  near   iiie  Kor  Pass    . 
Castle  of  Kalajik,  Upper  KiiARSiiur 
Monastery  of  Sumelas        ..... 
Tekman  and  the  Bingoi,  D.\gh  ifROM  near  Khedonun 
Khamur  from  the  Pass  heiween  Ali  Mur  and  Khinis 
Melazkert  from  the  North  :    Sipan  in  the  background 
Akhlat  :    Iki   Kube — (the    Kala,   ok   Ottoman   City,    i\   the 

p>ackground)     ...... 

Akhi.at:   Isolated  Tomu     ..... 

Akhlai  :   The  KHARAii-SiiEHR,  OR  Site  of   ihe  Ancient  City 
The  Nimkud  Crater  from  the  Promontory  of  Kizvag 
Sipan  :   View  from   the  Western   Summit  over  the  Summfi 

Region  ....... 

Hamidiyeh  Cavalry  at  Gumgum  .... 

Armenian    Village    of    Gundemir  :    Bingol    Cliffs    in    the 

background      ...... 

The  Bingol  Cliffs  with  the  Head  Waters  of  the  Bingol 

Su  from  the  Village  of  Chaghelik 
The  so-called  Crater  of  Bingol  from  about  the  centre  of 

the  Moraine  from  Kara  Kala 
View  from  the  \Ve.stern  Summit  of  Bingol  '^ 
Panorama  from  the  Hill  of  Gugoghlan       j 


To  fai 


'.pa;. 


211 
230 
236 

247 
252 
269 

285 
290 
292 
298 

334 
357 

359 
360 

369 
373 


ILLUSTRATIONS    IN    THE   TEXT 


Caravan  on  the  Black  Sea — Tabriz  Trade  Route 

Karakilisa  from  South-West 

Akantz  ...... 

Ruins  of  Arjlsh  fro.m  the  Noriii 
Ruins  of  Arjish  from  the  South 
Our  Boat  on  Lake  Van      .... 

Scene  on  the  Island  of  Ktutz 

Doorway  of  the  Church  at  Kiutz 

Bronze  Shield  from  Toprak  Kala 

Bronze  Fragment  from  Topkak  Kala  (British  Museum)^ 

Ornament  from  Toprak  Kala  {Bkitish  Museum)  j 

House  of  an  Armenian  Merchant  at  Van 

Interior  of  Haykavank  from   the  East 

The  Rock  and  Walled  City  of  \'an 

.Street  in  the  Walled  City 

The  Crag  of  Ak  Kopri       .... 

Monastery  of  Yedi  Kilisa  (Varag) 


10 
26 
28 
29 


34 
62 

63 

81 
102 
104 
105 
I II 
114 


Illustrations 


XI 


Interior  of  the  Church  at  Vehi  Killsa 

Van  on  the  Road  to  Bitlis 

Mountain  Range  along  South  Coast  of  Lake  Van 

Island  of  Akhtamar  .... 

Promontory  of   Surb  (on  the  left  the  back  of  the 

Crater  ;   in  the  distance  Nimrud) 
BiTLis :  Fortified  Monastery 
Tunnel  of  Semiramis  .... 

Looking  down  Valley  of  Bitlis  Chai     . 
Nimrud  Crater  from  the  Volcanic  Plateau    . 
Armenian  Village  of  Khaskeui,  Mush  Plain  . 
Terrace  of  Lava  resembling  Human  Fortifications 
Looking    down    the    Valley    of   the    Upper    Araxes 

Mejitli  ..... 
Erzerum  and  its  Plain  from  the  South 
Armenian  Youths      .... 
Armenian  Maidens    .... 
Five  Generations  of  an  Armenian  Family 
Range  North  of  Ashkala  . 
On  the  Banks  of  the  Chorokh  above  Baiburt 
Armenian  Cemetery  at  Varzahan 
Kurdish  Dancing  Boy  at  Gopal    . 
Piece  of  Seljuk  Pottery  from  Akhlat  . 
Tombstone  at  Akhlat 
The  Lake  in  the  Crater  of  Nimkud 
Village  of  Uran  Gazi  with  Sipan 
Grave  on  the  Summit  of  Khamur 


Sheikh  Ora 


l'.\GE 

"5 
ii6 
119 
130 

140 

155 
156 

157 
161 

165 
189 

192 
207 

215 
216 
221 
229 
232 
234 
254 
285 
291 
302 
332 
340 


LIST  OF   MAPS  AND   PLANS 


I 'LAN  oi'  Van  . 

BiTLis  AND  Environs  . 

Plan  of  thk  Ancient  Fortificaiions  of  Melazkert 

Plan  of  Akhlat        ... 

Interior  of  the  Nimrud  Crater  . 

NiMRUD  and  Surroundings 

Plan  of  the  Summit  Region  of  Sipan 

The  Bingol  Dagh  on  the  North 

The  Bingol  Dagh  on  the  South  . 


To  face  page    8i 

147 
271 
296 

305 
312 

336 
366 

378 


CHAPTER    I 

DESCEND    INTO    TURKISH    TERRITORY 

October  24. — The  track  which  we  were  following  winds  for 
some  distance  along  the  spine  of  the  range.  You  cross  and 
cross  again  from  the  one  to  the  other  watershed,  overlooking  now 
the  open  spaces  of  the  southern  landscape,  now  the  narrow  and 
encumbered  canon  of  the  Araxes  below  the  adjacent  cliffs  of 
the  tableland.  The  rocky  parapets  and  gloomy  valleys  appear  to 
extend  from  basin  to  basin,  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
chain.  West  of  the  crags  about  us,  and  isolated  from  them, 
rose  a  shapely  mass  with  black  but  snow-streaked  sides.  Dark- 
ness was  falling  when  we  descended  from  this  lofty  position  into 
one  of  the  valleys  of  the  southern  slopes.  In  its  recesses  we 
came  upon  a"  little  Kurdish  settlement,  which  seemed  to  promise 
shelter  during  the  night. 

Kurtler — Kurds  !  No  sooner  have  we  crossed  the  frontier 
than  we  find  ourselves  in  their  midst.  The  mountains  of 
Kurdistan  are  more  than  100  miles  distant;  yet  these  parasites 
fasten  upon  the  countryside.  Still  their  presence  is  appro- 
priate and  is  not  unwelcome,  so  long  as  they  are  confined  to 
alpine  solitudes  like  those  which  surround  the  village  of  Chat. 
Tufts  of  grass,  interspersed  with  an  endless  crop  of  stones,  were 
the  only  pasture  which  we  had  seen  for  some  time.  Yet  the 
shepherds  were  in  possession  of  a  considerable  stock  of  hay, 
against  the  approach  of  a  winter  season  which  can  scarcely  lack 
rigour  at  an  elevation  of  6700  feet  above  the  sea.  Their 
habitations  just  protrude  above  the  level  of  the  ground  ;  and, 
once  within  the  doorway,  you  proceed  through  narrow  passages 
into  the  very  bowels  of  the  earth.  In  the  darkness  you  stumble 
upon  the  forms  of  cattle  or  wake  a  ragged  child.  We  took  up 
VOL.  II  B 


2  Armenia 

our  quarters  in  one  of  the  largest  of  the  subterranean  chambers, 
lit  our  candles,  and  spread  our  carpet  on  the  bare  soil.  We 
were  surprised  to  discover  that  the  roof  of  the  apartment  was 
artificial — layers  of  mud  and  straw,  held  together  by  laths  of 
wood,  and  supported  by  huge  beams.  The  walls,  too,  were 
built  up  of  rough  stones,  plastered  together  ;  it  was  evident  that 
the  room  was  only  three-parts  buried,  and  that  it  communicated 
directly  with  the  outer  air.  In  fact  we  could  see  an  aperture,  the 
rude  counterpart  of  a  window,  above  the  opening  to  the  winding 
passage  through  which  we  had  come.  On  the  side  opposite  this 
only  entrance  a  square  hole  in  the  face  of  the  wall  nourished  a 
smouldering  fire.  The  smoke  wreathed  upwards  to  a  vent  in  the 
roof,  or  was  sucked  inwards  towards  the  tunnelled  approach. 

When  morning  broke  we  were  glad  to  issue  from  the  fetid 
atmosphere  of  this  human  burrow  into  the  pure  mountain  air. 
A  {^\N  gaunt  figures  were  standing  upon  the  higher  stages  of  the 
eminence  which  had  provided  a  suitable  site  for  these  under- 
ground operations,  and  which  rose  like  a  large  ant-hill  from  the 
waste  of  stone.  Women  squatted  before  the  doors  of  the 
straggling  tenements,  weaving  the  bright  rugs  for  which  their 
race  is  famed.  We  proceeded  down  the  glen,  along  the  banks 
of  a  little  stream.  It  finds  an  easy  exit  from  the  heart  of  the 
mountains,  threading  the  trough  of  one  of  the  meridional  valleys. 
After  riding  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  we  opened  out  the  southern 
landscape  from  some  high  ground  above  the  village  of  A  mat 
(Fig.  108). 

The  great  plain  of  Alashkert  was  outspread  before  us, 
bounded  on  the  further  side  by  the  snow-capped  mountains  of 
the  Ala  Dagh,  which  stretched  across  the  horizon  from  the  east. 
Just  before  us,  this  lofty  range  was  seen  to  recede  into  the  misty 
background,  the  outlines  bending  away  towards  south-west.  But 
the  barrier  was  resumed  at  no  considerable  interval  by  a  chain  of 
hills,  less  distant,  although  of  humbler  proportions,  called  Kilich 
Gedik,  or  the  sharp  sword.  We  could  just  descry  the  site  of 
Karakilisa,  backed  by  the  recess  of  the  Ala  Dagh.  We  knew 
that  the  Murad  must  be  flowing  through  that  nebulous  passage  in 
the  opposite  bulwark  of  the  plain.  The  surface  of  the  ground 
below  us  was  level  as  water  ;  the  expanse  was  greatest  in  the 
west.  In  that  direction  the  spurs  of  the  range  upon  which  we 
stood  plunged  by  a  succession  of  promontories  into  the  floor  of 
the  plain.      We  were  reminded  of  the  valley  of  the  Araxcs  in  the 


Descend  into  Turkish  Territory  3 

neighbourhood  of  Erivan.  Both  depressions  have  the  appear- 
ance of  inland  seas  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  the  one  on  the 
northern,  the  other  on  the  southern  side.  But  that  of  Alashkert 
is  much  more  elevated  (5500  feet),  and  less  sheltered  ;  you  miss 
the  presence  of  those  extensive  stretches  of  orchard  and  verdure 
which  soften  the  landscape  through  which  the  Araxes  flows.  The 
eye  wanders  out  over  dim,  ochreous  tracts,  broken  by  patches  of 
fallow,  and  seamed  by  white  rivulets.  Just  below  the  Armenian 
settlement  we  reached  the  margin  of  the  level  ground,  and 
cantered  along,  almost  on  a  compass  course.  We  saw  several 
insignificant  villages  ;  but  the  district  was  wild,  the  soil  for  the 
most  part  unreclaimed.  Flocks  of  duck  and  geese  took  wing  at 
our  approach  ;  cranes,  with  their  long  necks,  sailed  across  the 
sky.  In  the  course  of  an  hour  and  a  half  we  reached  the  street 
of  Karakilisa,  a  distance  from  Amat,  measured  direct,  of  9  miles. 
A  motley  crowd  collected  round  us  as  we  enquired  for  the 
government  quarters  ;  a  hundred  curious  faces  were  upturned 
towards  us,  and  our  ears  were  greeted  with  the  cry  of  Ferengi  ! 
Ferengi  !  passed  like  a  shuttlecock  from  mouth  to  mouth.  The 
little  town  was  full  of  stir  ;  new  shops  and  houses  were  in  course 
of  erection  ;  it  was  evident  that  trade  and  traffic  were  on  the 
increase.  We  had  almost  crossed  it  from  end  to  end,  when  we 
were  ushered  into  a  modest  building,  of  which  the  hall  or  outer 
chamber  was  thronged  with  people,  for  the  most  part  peasants  ; 
while  an  old  servitor  or  usher,  with  white  beard  and  a  flowing 
robe,  was  marshalling  the  rows  of  slippers  by  the  threshold  of  an 
inner  door.  At  our  approach  he  drew  aside  the  quilted  curtain 
which  screened  this  sanctuary,  and  turned  the  handle  and  bade 
us  pass  within.  The  low  divan,  which  on  three  sides  followed 
the  walls  of  the  apartment,  was  already  occupied  by  a  full 
complement  of  seated  figures  ;  they  appeared  to  be  engaged  in 
deliberation  when  we  broke  in  upon  their  seance.  A  little  man 
with  vivacious  eyes  was  directing  the  conversation  ;  he  sat  on  the 
only  chair  behind  a  table  covered  with  faded  baize.  Although 
we  could  scarcely  doubt  that  our  arrival  had  been  announced 
beforehand,  we  seemed  to  take  these  notables  by  surprise.  The 
little  man  rose  from  his  chair  ;  the  assembly  huddled  together  in 
order  to  give  us  place  on  the  divan.  Compliments  were  ex- 
changed ;  coffee  and  cigarettes  were  provided  ;  the  discussion  was 
adjourned  by  tacit  consent.  One  by  one,  after  satisfying  with- 
out displaying  their  curiosity,  the  councillors  stole  from  the  room. 


4  Armenia 

Meanwhile  the  figure  at  the  table — it  was  the  Kaimakaui, 
or  district  governor — had  examined  our  numerous  and  weighty- 
credentials,  and  had  directed  a  billet  to  be  provided  and  prepared. 
Our  effects,  which  arrived  later,  were  not  subjected  to  examination; 
no  excisemen  or  policemen  dogged  our  steps.  Such  officials  are 
almost  unknown  in  this  happy  country  !  so  we  reflected  with  a 
sense  of  immense  relief.  The  way  they  worry  the  people  in  the 
neighbouring  empire  passes  the  capacity  of  the  uninitiated  to 
realise.  The  Greek  poet  was  certainly  wrong  when  he  gave 
expression  to  the  sentiment  that  anarchy  is  the  greatest  of  human 
ills.  Here  we  were,  enlightened  observers,  exchanging  order  for 
disorder  with  rapturous  delight !  We  were  free  to  wander  as  we 
willed,  to  enjoy  a  British  liberty  without  so  much  as  the  restraint 
of  roads  and  walls.  Coming  from  Russia,  the  contrast  was 
indeed  startling  ;  independence  is  far  preferable  to  feeling 
reasonably  certain  that  you  will  not  be  knocked  on  the  head  by 
a  Kurd. 

The  Kaimakam  escorted  us  to  the  adjacent  barracks,  in 
which  a  whitewashed  room  had  been  made  ready  to  receive  us. 
It  belonged  to  the  quarters  of  the  superior  officer — with  the 
rank  of  Miralai — a  Turk  of  great  stature  and  broad  shoulders, 
to  whom  we  were  introduced.  He  wore  a  dark  blue  military 
tunic  of  European  pattern  and  material  ;  but  he  had  forgotten 
to  fasten  the  lower  buttons  of  this  imposing  garment,  as  well  as 
the  upper  ones  of  the  trousers  beneath.  His  mouth  and  ears 
and  nostrils  were  of  unusual  proportions  ;  the  expression  of  the 
face  was  kind,  and  denoted  a  childlike,  buoyant  nature — dc  bonne 
bete  humaiiie,  as  one  might  say.  In  him  we  found  an  agreeable 
and  a  sensible  companion.  He  bustled  about  the  place,  was 
accustomed  to  shave  each  Friday  ;  he  settled  every  difficulty 
with  eh,  ivallah !  accompanied  by  a  hearty  laugh.  From  time 
to  time  the  troops  were  visited  by  the  Liva,  or  commandant,  an 
aged  figure  with  a  beard  of  snow.  He  had  been  at  Plevna,  and 
had  made  the  campaign  of  Bulgaria  ;  but  nothing  remained  of 
him  now  but  a  worn-out  body,  made  doubly  infirm  by  an 
inveterate  habit  of  getting  drunk. 

The  peculiar  care  and  constant  plague  of  these  high  officials 
were  the  newly-enrolled  regiments  which,  under  the  name  of 
Hmnidiyeh,  flatter  the  vanity  but  sap  the  throne  of  the  reigning 
Sultan.  Am  I  guilty  of  indiscretion  when  I  say  that  the  pre- 
vailing opinion  of  them  in   official  circles   is  one  of  contempt,  not 


Fig.  109.    Group  of  Kurd  Hamidiyeh  Cavalry. 


Fig.  110.    Group  of  Karapapakh  Hamidiyeh  Cavalry. 


Descend  into  Tnrkisk  Territory  5 

unmixed  with  alarm?  Your  high-placed  Turk  will  quote  at 
their  expense  his  favourite  proverb,  tJie  fisJi  begins  to  stink  from 
the  head.  The  young  men  are  the  sons  of  their  fathers,  who  are 
Kurds  and  brigands  ;  the  example  of  the  fathers  is  transmitted 
to  the  sons.  Something  might  be  done,  if  the  process  were 
arrested — if  the  recruits  were  removed  from  their  homes.  When 
I  objected  that  the  Tsar's  Cossacks  presented  in  some  respects 
a  hopeful  analogy,  I  would  be  met  by  the  reply  that  the  Russian 
autocrat  employed  strong  measures,  the  like  of  which  the  Turkish 
Government  was  too  mild  to  enforce. 

Perhaps  my  reader  is  already  aware  that  the  Hamidiych  are 
irregular  cavalry,  who  owe  their  origin  to  the  endeavour  of  the 
Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  to  emulate  the  example  which  gave  to 
Russia  her  Cossack  troops.  They  are  recruited  for  the  most 
part  among  the  Kurdish  tribes  ;  the  name  of  yeomanry  expresses 
the  nature  of  their  military  service,  but  cannot  be  applied  to  the 
class  to  which  they  belong.  The  force  is  still  undergoing  the 
initial  process  of  organisation.  At  the  time  of  our  journey  it 
afforded  the  principal  topic  of  conversation.  Yiizbashis,  or 
sergeants,  of  the  regular  army  were  being  poured  into  the 
country,  and  distributed  among  the  villages,  to  instil  into  the 
shepherds  the  rudiments  of  drill.  Depots  of  arms  were  being 
established  in  convenient  centres  ;  and  it  was  the  intention  of 
the  authorities  to  keep  the  weapons  under  lock  and  key,  except 
when  they  should  be  required  for  the  annual  trainings  in  spring. 
Hundreds  and  thousands  of  suits  of  uniform  were  arriving  in  the 
principal  towns,  loaded  on  bullock  carts.  Each  regiment  had 
been  allowed  to  exercise  its  own  fancy  upon  the  choice  of  a 
distinctive  garb.  The  result  was  an  incongruous  mixture  of  the 
braids  and  gold  lace  of  Europe  with  the  Georgian  finery  of  a 
serried  row  of  silvered  cartridge  cases,  banded  across  the  breast 
of  a  skirted  coat.  How  proud  they  seemed,  and  how  insensible 
of  their  ridiculous  appearance  in  our  eyes — the  long-beaked 
Kurds,  the  swarthy  Karapapakhs,  masquerading  down  the  street 
of  Karakilisa  in  these  strange  creations  of  the  tailors  of  Pera  or 
Stambul  !  They  did  not  require  pressing  to  consent  to  be 
photographed — a  group  of  Kurds  (Fig.  T09),  a  group  of  Kara- 
papakhs (Fig.  I  10).  Some  of  the  principal  officers  of  either 
regiment  are  represented  in  my  illustrations  ;  and  I  would  beg 
my  reader  to  observe  the  seated  Kurd  in  the  Georgian  dress — 
it  is  Eyub   Pasha  with   his  son   and  nephew.      Behind   him  stands 


6  Armenia 

his  principal  henchman,  who,  although  a  Kurd,  has  seen  service 
with  regular  troops. 

In  the  caza,  or  administrative  subdivision,  of  Karakilisa  three 
regiments  of  Hamidiyeh  have  been  enrolled.  Two  are  recruited 
from  Kurds  of  the  Zilanli  tribe  ;  the  third  from  Karapapakhs. 
This  people — who  take  their  name  from  their  caps  of  black 
lambskin — are  found  on  either  side  of  the  Russo-Turkish  frontier, 
and  are  no  doubt  related  to  the  Tartars  of  Azerbaijan.  The 
Kaimakam  informed  me — but  I  question  whether  his  statement, 
even  if  true,  can  apply  to  more  than  a  small  number — that  the 
fathers  of  those  among  them  who  inhabit  this  district  were 
followers  of  the  famous  Shamyl.  According  to  his  account  they 
were  at  that  time  settled  in  Daghestan,  whence  they  removed  to 
their  present  seats.  He  added  that  their  villages  were  8  in 
number  in  this  caza  ;  that  their  regiment  had  a  strength  of 
800  men  ;  and  that  they  had  branded  no  less  than  650  horses 
with  the  military  mark.  Their  chief,  Ali  Bey,  is  a  man  of 
hideous  features,  whom  we  recognised  as  the  same  individual 
who  had  been  seated  in  the  place  of  honour,  when  we  broke 
in  upon  the  deliberations  of  the  Kaimakam.  I  now  learnt  the 
purport  of  their  lively  discussion  ;  it  had  been  a  question  of 
fixing  a  price  for  grain.  Months  ago  Ali  Bey  had  made  a 
contract  with  the  Kaimakam  to  supply  the  cereal  for  Government 
purposes  at  a  stated  price.  The  time  had  just  arrived  for 
delivering  it  into  the  granaries  ;  but  the  price  had  risen,  almost 
to  famine  rates.  In  the  drawer  of  the  green  baize  table  was 
securely  buried  the  precious  document,  behind  a  lock  of  which 
alone  the  Kaimakam  possessed  the  key.  How  great  was  the 
dismay  of  the  wretched  official  to  find  that  it  had  been  abstracted, 
and  to  recognise  that  the  robbery  might  cost  him  his  place ! 
His  dcspoiler  felt  quite  safe  behind  his  Hamidiyeh  uniform  and 
his  paper  figures  of  Soo  men-at-arms. 

But  the  Kaimakam  was  not  the  man  to  go  to  sleep  beneath 
an  injury  ;  he  possessed  both  energy  and  brains.  He  and  the 
Miralai  would  each  evening  repair  to  our  quarters,  and  discuss 
the  events  of  the  day  over  coffee  and  pipes.  On  one  occasion,  in 
company  with  the  Miralai,  we  had  awaited  to  a  late  hour  the 
arrival  of  the  Kaimakam.  When  at  last  he  made  his  appearance, 
his  clothes  were  covered  with  dust  and  he  was  wearing  his  long 
top-boots.  His  eyes  were  bright  with  excitement  as  he  narrated 
in  vivid  language  the  story  of  his  day's  work.      Kurds  from  Lake 


Descend  into  Turkish  Territory  7 

Baliik  had  made  a  foray  into  his  district,  and  had  plundered  the 
village  of  Mangasar,  inhabited  in  equal  numbers  b\'  Armenians 
and  Mussulmans.  He  had  proceeded  in  person  to  the  scene  of 
their  depredations,  and  at  the  head  of  his  motley  followers  had 
forced  them  to  retire  after  a  sanguinary  fight.  What  was  the 
origin  of  this  man  whose  animated  face  and  supple  character 
contrasted  strangely  with  the  wooden  figures  of  officers  and 
notables  who  attended  his  divan  ?  He  told  me  he  was  an 
Albanian  ;  he  was,  of  course,  a  Mohammedan  ;  but  his  whole 
appearance  stamped  him  a  Greek.  Compared  with  Kurds  like 
Eyub  Pasha,  with  their  resemblance  to  big  birds,  he  stood  on  the 
opposite  pole  of  human  development.  Although  in  point  of  years 
the  youngest  of  the  group,  he  led  them  all  by  the  nose.  A 
situation  had  scarcely  been  stated  when  he  had  already  discovered 
the  solution  ;  he  shared  the  feelings  as  well  as  the  thoughts  of  the 
individual  to  whom  he  was  lending  his  ear.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  he  was  far  the  superior  of  AH  Bey  in  the  successful  practice 
of  every  kind  of  deceit.  He  professed  himself  my  friend  ;  I  am 
sure  he  took  a  pleasure  in  abusing  the  confidence  which  I  was 
obliged  to  affect.  We  had  almost  exhausted  our  stock  of  money 
when  we  arrived  in  Karakilisa  ;  between  us  and  the  town  of  Van, 
where  we  might  hope  to  replenish  it,  lay  the  wildest  districts 
of  Asiatic  Turke)^  Semi-civilised  communications  are  entirely 
wanting  in  those  regions  ;  it  was  even  impossible  to  hire  a 
caravan.  It  was  necessary  to  purchase  horses  ;  three  days  were 
consumed  in  finding  the  animals  ;  having  selected  four,  at  an 
average  price  of  £6  apiece,  we  were  without  funds  to  defray  our 
expenses  in  the  town,  The  Kaimakam  might  no  doubt  have 
advanced  the  few  pounds  in  perfect  safety  ;  but  he  had  cast 
longing  eyes  upon  my  gun.  Alleging  that  he  had  already  spent 
the  last  instalment  of  his  allowance,  he  insisted  that  the  usurers, 
who  would  supply  him  with  the  money,  required  that  I  should 
leave  the  weapon  in  his  charge.  It  was  arranged  that,  the 
moment  the  debt  had  been  recovered,  he  would  despatch  the 
valuable  pledge  to  Erzerum.  No  sooner  had  we  reached  Van 
than  I  contrived  to  send  him  the  amount  by  way  of  Ba}'azid. 
Weeks  later,  upon  my  arrival  in  the  capital  of  his  provincial 
government,  the  gun  had  not  yet  come  to  hand.  The  ]''ali,  or 
Governor- General,  was  recently  dead  ;  no  successor  had  been 
appointed  ;  the  fact  that  I  was  an  Englishman  was  scarcely  worth 
recalling   to   the   petty  authorities,  daily   witnesses   of   the   feeble- 


8 


Armenia 


ness  of  the  British  Government,  and  full  of  contempt  for  the 
British  Power.  When  my  property  was  at  last  restored  to  me 
through  the  good  offices  of  Mr.  Graves,  the  whole  winter  and 
part  of  the  spring  had  gone  by.  The  Kaimakam  had  wreaked 
his  revenge  ;  the  weapon  came  in  broken  pieces,  and  the  barrels 
bore  the  marks  of  heavy  blows. 

I  was  unable  to  ascertain  with  any  accuracy  the  number  of 
the  inhabitants,  whether  of  the  district  or  of  the  town.  The 
Kaimakam,  although  extremely  communicative  on  other  sub- 
jects, professed  to  have  been  forbidden  to  make  them  known. 
According  to  the  most  recent  official  statistics,  the  caza  con- 
tains no  less  than  58  villages,  and  possesses  a  population  of  5  377 


Fig.  111.    Caravan  on  the  Black  Sea— Tabriz  Trade  Route. 

Mohammedans  and  1902  Armenians.  For  the  town  in  particular 
I  have  not  had  access  to  any  information  ;  but  I  should  judge 
that  the  residents  might  be  put  down  at  1500  to  2000,  of  whom 
the  Armenians  would  be  nearly  two-thirds.  With  the  exception 
of  the  shops,  the  houses  are  in  general  little  better  than  the  usual 
village  tenements,  half  buried  beneath  the  ground.  But  Karakilisa 
is  increasing  in  importance  day  by  day,  being  situated  on  the 
great  avenue  of  communication  between  Persia  and  the  Black 
Sea.  Strings  of  camels,  with  their  finery  of  coloured  tassels,  were 
continually  passing  at  a  stone's  throw  from  our  door  (Fig.  i  1 1). 
They  were  bearing  the  multitudinous  wares  of  Europe  for  distri- 
bution among  the  Eastern  bazars.  They  proceed  by  way  of 
Trcbizond,  Erzerum,  and  Bayazid  to  the  city  of  Tabriz.  The 
place  has  also  the  advantage  of  being  both  a  military  and  an 
administrative  centre  ;   there  is  always  something  going  on.      The 


Descend  into  Turkish  Territory  9 

fashionable  amusement  of  the  day  were  the  Hamidiyeh.  A 
luxurious  coffee-house  had  just  been  built  for  their  delectation  ; 
their  name  was  on  every  tongue. 

It  was  whispered  in  fear  and  terror  by  the  poor  Armenians. 
I  visited  their  bishop,  and  found  him  in  a  state  of  blank  despair. 
He  was  afraid  to  receive  me,  and  sent  me  excuses  —  which, 
however,  I  refused  to  accept.  After  some  parley  with  inter- 
mediaries he  made  his  appearance — a  stout  figure,  a  thick-lipped, 
common  face.  He  refused  to  listen  to  the  simple  questions  which 
I  addressed  to  him,  and  burst  out  into  abuse.  Europe,  and 
especially  England,  had  played  the  part  of  swindlers  towards  his 
miserable  race.  Their  hopes  had  been  incited  by  delusive 
professions,  which  had  only  served  to  alarm  the  Sultan  and  let 
loose  the  Kurds.  Nor  could  they  look  to  Russia,  the  arch- 
offender,  fanning  the  agitation  for  ends  of  her  own.  The  poor 
man  continued  in  this  strain  until  he  was  nearly  beside  himself ; 
I  was  obliged  to  leave  him  to  his  rage.  His  diocese  embraces 
the  districts  between  Zeidikan  and  Bayazid,  and  extends  south- 
wards to  the  borders  of  the  vilayet,  or  Government,  of  Van.  His 
church  at  Karakilisa  is  little  better  than  four  stone  walls.  An 
ignorant  priest  imparts  instruction  in  a  wretched  httle  building 
which  can  scarcely  be  dignified  by  the  name  of  school. 

One  afternoon  we  made  an  excursion  to  the  point  where  the 
Murad  changes  direction,  and  flows  through  the  gap  towards 
the  south.  Between  the  barracks  in  which  we  were  lodged, 
on  the  extreme  outskirts  of  Karakilisa,  and  the  river,  flowing 
placidly  over  the  plain,  there  extends  a  considerable  tract  of 
marshy  ground  and  low  covert,  the  home  of  plover  and  in- 
numerable water-birds.  We  crossed  a  stream  which,  coming 
from  Aghri  Dagh,  passes  just  beneath  the  barracks  to  join 
the  Murad  a  little  further  west  (Kor  Suj,  and  made  across 
the  marsh  in  the  direction  of  a  little  Armenian  village  which 
stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  principal  body  of  water,  almost 
due  south  of  the  town.  Just  below  this  settlement,  called 
Klip  Keran,  we  forded  the  Murad,  which  was  winding  at  the 
foot  of  a  gentle  eminence  of  the  southern  border  through  a 
pebbly  and  many-channelled  bed.  Either  shore  was  quite  a 
museum  of  living  wildfowl ;  in  especial  we  admired  a  beautiful 
species  of  golden  duck  of  which  the  wings  were  flaked  with 
white  bands.  Avoiding  the  swamp  on  the  opposite  margin, 
we    followed    this    bank    for    some   distance  ;    and    a    little    later 


lO 


Armenia 


crossed  back  to  the  northern  side.  About  a  mile  and  a  half 
below  Klip  Keran  the  river  describes  a  beautiful  curve,  and 
enters  the  spacious  passage  of  the  hills.  It  is  pushed  southwards 
by  rising  ground  at  the  base  of  the  Kilich  Gedik  barrier  ;  but 
the  higher  outlines  of  that  range,  as  well  as  those  of  the  snowy 
Ala  Dagh  in  the  east,  are  several  miles  removed  from  its  shores. 
It  flows  towards  grassy  hills,  among  which  you  lose  the  silver 
thread  which  the  eye  has  followed  as  far  as  a  village,  named 
Dombat.  The  breadth  of  the  Murad  at  the  bend,  where  its 
errant  waters  had  issued  from  the  marsh,  did  not  appear  to 
us    to    exceed    thirty   yards.      The   intense   stillness   of  the   scene 


Fig.  113.    Karakilisa  from  South-West. 

was  in  harmony  with  the  quiet  sunset  which  shed  radiance 
over  mountain,  river,  and  plain.  From  the  lofty  bulwark  of 
the  northern  chain,  beyond  the  lake-like  surface  of  the  steppe, 
rose  the  form  of  a  single  summit,  overtowering  its  neighbours — 
the  shapely  dome  of  the  Kuseh  Dagh  (Fig.  112).  The  fantastic 
profile  of  the  system  was  drawn  across  the  horizon  in  hues  of 
opal  to  the  far  east.  In  that  direction  we  could  clearly  see 
the  magnificent  bastions  of  Ararat,  mounting  the  sky  behind 
these  heights.  The  snowfields  were  flushed  with  a  delicate 
madder  ;  we  noticed  that  from  this  side  they  appear  to  gather 
to  a  single  peak,  the  eminence  upon  which  we  had  stood. 
We  remarked  the  convex  modelling  of  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
system  along  the  opposite  margin  of  the  plain.  A  shorter 
way  was  shown  us  for  the  return  to  Karakilisa  (Fig.  113),  which 
leaves  the  river  and  crosses  the  head  of  the  marsh. 


a, 


CHAPTER    II 

TO    LAKE    VAN 

The  principal  artery  of  traffic  in  Turkish  Armenia  crosses  the 
land  from  west  to  east.  It  follows  the  direction  of  a  series  of 
depressions  :  the  plains  of  Erzerum,  of  Pasin  and  of  Alashkert. 
It  consists  of  a  carriageable  track,  or  rough  road  of  unequal 
quality.  The  bulk  of  the  transit  trade  between  Europe  and 
northern  Persia  is  conveyed  on  the  backs  of  camels  along  this 
route.  The  wall  of  protective  duties  which  has  been  reared 
by  the  Russian  Government  compels  this  commerce  to  flow 
through  a  Turkish  port  and  to  adhere  to  Turkish  soil.  It 
has  been  stimulated  by  the  efforts  of  a  series  of  British  consuls, 
resident  at  Erzerum,  Robberies  have  been  punLshed  with 
great  severity  ;  and,  at  the  present  day,  the  traffic  is  seldom,  if 
ever,  interrupted,  although  it  passes  through  the  Kurd-inhabited 
districts  about  Bayazid,  and  the  lawless  border  of  the  Persian 
and  Turkish  empires. 

South  of  this  beaten  avenue  are  situated  regions  which,  in 
spite  of  the  researches  of  individual  travellers,  are  still  but 
imperfectly  known.  The  lake  of  Van  remains  a  centre  of 
agriculture  and  primitive  industry  ;  yet  it  lies  beyond  a  zone 
of  feebly  governed  country  which,  year  by  year,  is  becoming 
more  difficult  to  cross.  The  pest  of  Kurds  has  settled  firmly 
upon  these  richly  favoured  territories,  destroying  agriculture 
and  banishing  trade.  What  caravans  there  are  travel  in  large 
bodies,  and  every  man  is  armed  to  the  teeth.  Between  Erzerum 
and  the  town  of  Van  they  choose  between  two  routes  according 
to  the  season  of  the  year.  In  summer  they  cross  the  mountains 
behind  the  northern  capital,  and  proceed  by  the  plain  of  Khinis, 
crossing  the  Murad  at  Melazkert.  During  winter  they  make 
the    round    by    way   of   Pasin    and    Alashkert,    deviating    on    the 


1 2  Armenia 

confines  of  the  latter  district,  and  passing  the  river  at  Tutakh. 
The  approach  through  the  town  of  Mush  is  used  only  once 
a  year,  when  the  pilgrims  journey  from  Erzerum  to  the  cloister 
of  Surb  Karapet.  On  that  occasion  the  caravan,  according 
to  my  informants,  continues  its  course  as  far  as  Van.  By  the 
two  first  routes  it  is  usual  to  follow  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
lake,  which  is  reached  near  the  little  town  of  Akantz.^ 

VVe  set  out  from  Karakilisa  on  October  the  29th,  mounted 
on  our  newly-j^urchased  horses,  and  accompanied  by  a  .:aptich 
or  gendarme.  Our  objective  was  this  same  Akantz  ;  the 
principal  intermediate  stations  were  Tutakh  and  Patnotz.  I 
had  thought  it  possible  to  accomplish  the  ride  in  the  course 
of  two  days  ;  our  friends  laughed  at  the  idea.  I  decided 
therefore  to  start  in  the  afternoon,  with  the  hope  of  arriving 
on  the  evening  of  the  third  day.  At  a  quarter-past  three 
o'clock  we  were  making  our  way  along  the  marsh  to  the  point 
where  the  Murad  leaves  the  plain.  After  reaching  the  bend, 
we  proceeded  down  the  passage  which  receives  the  river,  towards 
Dombat  and  the  grassy  hills  which  I  have  already  mentioned. 
On  our  left  hand,  at  an  interval  of  about  500  yards  from  the 
left  bank,  rose  the  first  gentle  slopes  of  the  Ala  Dagh  system  ; 
this  high  land  was  answered  on  the  right  bank,  at  about  a 
similar  distance,  by  the  outworks  of  the  Kilich  Gedik.  The 
Murad  pursues  its  course  between  these  two  blocks  of  mountain, 
and,  a  little  lower  down,  forces  its  way  through  the  narrowing 
gap.  Near  Dombat  both  banks  are  of  considerable  elevation, 
and  the  ridges  appear  to  cross  the  direction  of  the  stream. 
Before  arriving  opposite  the  village  we  crossed  the  Sharian  Su, 
a  tributary  which  collects  the  drainage  of  the  western  portion 
of  the  plain,  and  which  appeared  to  us  to  have  a  volume  scarcely 
less  than  that  of  the  principal  branch. 

After  passing  Dombat — which  was  said  to  be  inhabited  by 
Kizilbashes — we  sank  to  a  valle}'  in  which  is  situated  the 
Kurdish  village  of  Zado,  and  ascended  the   ridge  on  its   opposite 

1   The    following  are  my  estimates  of  the   mileage  distances  along  oiiv    route    from 
Karakilisa  to  Akantz  :  — 


Karakilisa-Tulakh 
Tutakh-Koshk      . 
Koshk- Patnotz 
I'atnotz-Akantz    . 


Total 


Distances. 
23  miles 
II     ,, 
17     „ 

87  miles. 


To  Lake  Van  13 

side.  From  the  summit  we  commanded  a  prospect  towards 
Karakilisa,  and  were  impressed  by  the  serpentine  course  of  the 
river,  flowing  towards  us  in  a  pebbly  bed  which  it  threaded  by 
several  channels.  We  were  placed  at  a  height  of  some  250  feet 
above  its  waters.  On  a  hillside  further  south  we  could  now 
discern  our  evening  station,  the  little  village  of  Avdi.  It  was 
signalised  by  a  green  patch,  due  to  vegetable  gardens  ;  its 
surroundings  were  bleak  and  bare.  Arriving  at  half- past  five, 
we  selected  the  best  of  the  fifteen  tenements  as  quarters  for  the 
night.  We  were  surprised  to  find  a  sergeant  of  the  regular  army 
established  in  this  miserable  place.  He  had  come  to  recruit 
Kurds  for  the  Hamidiyeh,  and  bitterly  cursed  his  fate. 

Next  morning  we  were  anxious  to  reach  Tutakh  before 
mid-day  in  order  to  pass  the  night  at  Patnotz.  At  a  quarter  to 
eight  we  were  in  the  saddle  ;  it  had  rained  during  the  night,  and 
heavy  clouds  hung  over  the  hills.  As  we  rose  up  the  slope,  we 
caught  glimpses  of  the  mountains  which  bound  the  plain  of 
Alashkert  upon  the  north.  The  plain  itself  had  long  been  lost  ; 
we  were  at  some  distance  from  the  river  ;  we  looked  across  high 
hills,  which  engulfed  the  invisible  waters,  to  the  summits  of  the 
Ala  Dagh.  The  doubtful  track  commenced  to  wind  between 
grassy  slopes,  strewn  with  boulders — a  belt  of  country  well 
adapted  to  guerilla  warfare,  and  reputed  the  favourite  haunt  of 
Kurdish  robbers.  Horsemen  would  no  doubt  be  completely  at 
their  mercy  in  the  blind  recesses  of  these  irregular  valleys.  At  a 
quarter  to  nine  w^e  approached  the  Murad,  still  high  above  it ;  the 
hills  rose  from  either  bank.  In  another  half  hour  we  obtained 
our  first  view  of  the  cone  of  Sipan,  a  gleaming  object  in  the 
south.  Some  two  miles  further  the  landscape  opened,  and 
assumed  the  character  of  a  vast  steppe  of  broken  and  uneven 
ground.  Distant  ranges  encircled  the  expanse  with  dim  outlines  ; 
Sipan  alone  was  clearly  defined  against  the  sky.  From  the 
Kurdish  village  of  Koshk  we  obtained  a  fine  view  over  this 
country,  with  its  waving  surface  featured  by  shadows  from  the 
clouds.  We  had  got  behind  the  barrier  of  the  Kilich  Gedik  ; 
and  the  whole  segment  of  the  circle  from  north-west  to  south- 
west was  filled  by  comparatively  level  land.  We  observed 
a  prominent  shape  in  the  mountains  of  the  furthest  distance, 
which  we  identified  with  the  Khamur  Dagh.  Beyond  the 
Mussulman  village  of  Okhan,  the  river,  which  had  left  us,  took 
a    sharp    bend,    and    joined    our    course.       We    made    our    way 


14  Armenia 

along   it   at   a   rapid   trot  and  reached  Tutakh  a  little  after  eleven 
o'clock. 

The  little  township  does  not  possess  more  than  about  a 
hundred  houses  ;  yet  it  is  the  seat  of  a  Kaimakam  whose 
administrative  area  includes  Patnotz,  and  meets  the  boundary  of 
the  vilayet  of  Van.  It  stands  on  rising  ground,  at  some  little 
distance  from  the  bank  of  the  river,  facing  the  lofty  hills  which 
rise  on  the  opposite  shore,  and  push  the  Murad  towards  the  west. 
It  is  about  equidistant  from  Karakilisa  and  from  Patnotz,  a  ride 
of  some  twenty-three  miles  from  the  first,  and  of  twenty-eight 
miles  from  the  second.  The  inhabitants  are  for  the  greater  part 
Karapapakhs,  imported  into  the  district  after  the  last  Russo- 
Turkish  war.  They  can  now  boast  of  some  400  houses  in  the 
caza,  or  a  population  of  about  3000  souls.  Agriculturists  by  pro- 
fession, and  by  temperament  robbers,  they  appear  to  be  in  an 
extremely  prosperous  state.  Their  aged  chief  conversed  with  me, 
and  imparted  several  particulars  which  I  had  not  known  before. 
He  told  me  that  they  had  emigrated  from  the  province  of  Chaldir, 
being  dissatisfied  with  the  Russian  Government,  who  had  not 
treated  them  well  in  the  matter  of  lands.  The  Sultan  had 
received  them  back,  settled  them  in  these  fertile  regions,  and 
allotted  to  them  as  much  ground  as  they  required.  I  questioned 
him  with  some  care  about  the  original  seats  of  his  tribe  ;  he  was 
emphatic  that  they  had  always  lived  in  Chaldir.^  Taylor  tells  us 
that  they  became  possessed  of  the  villages  and  lands  in  that 
province,  and  in  the  neighbouring  province  of  Kars,  which  had 
been  abandoned  by  the  Armenians  who  followed  the  army  of 
Marshal  Paskevich  upon  his  evacuation  of  Turkish  territory  in 
1829.  According  to  the  chief,  their  original  possessions  in 
Transcaucasia  extended  from  Daghestan  to  Chaldir.  The  tribe 
.supplies  a  regiment  of  Hamidiyeh  for  this  caza  ;  the  head  men 
were  resplendent  in  their  new  uniforms,  of  which  they  seemed 
very  proud.  Both  here  and  at  Karakilisa  I  was  imprcsseci  by 
the  diversity  of  type  which  is  found  among  them.  Mingled  with 
physiognomies  of  purely  Tartar  or  Persian  character  were  faces 
which,  with  their  lighter  hair  and  fairer  complexion,  might  have 
belonged  to  a  group  of  Circassians.  With  the  exception  of  the 
shops,  singlc-storeyed  stone   buildings,  the   hou.ses   in   Tutakh  are 

1  At  the  time  of  Taylor's  journey  (1868)  there  were  some  13,500  Karapapakh.s  in 
the  mutcsarrijlik  of  Chaldir,  which  comprised  the  towns  of  Olti,  Ardahan  and  Ardanuch. 
The  mutcsarrijlik  of  Kars  counted  12,900  of  this  people,  and  that  of  Bayazid  2500 
(Archives  of  British  Consulate  at  Erzerum). 


To  Lake  Van  15 

the  usual  loose  agglomerations  of  earth  and  rough  stone.  The 
great  majority  of  the  population  in  the  caza  are  Kurds;  a  scatter- 
ing of  Armenians  are  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  their  rapacious 
Mussulman  neighbours. 

Our  baggage  animals,  which  had  started  from  Avdi  with  us, 
arrived  at  one  o'clock.  They  were  in  charge  of  a  second  zaptieh, 
to  whom  I  had  given  instructions  to  find  his  way  to  Akantz  as 
best  he  could.  A  little  before  two  we  were  again  in  the  saddle, 
making  for  the  adjacent  ford  across  the  Murad.  The  river  is 
fairly  broad  just  opposite  the  town,  having  a  width  at  this  season 
of  about  100  yards.  It  had  spread  beyond  its  average  dimen- 
sions in  this  region,  and  the  water  did  not  reach  higher  than  the 
horses'  knees.  We  admired  the  clear,  blue  current,  sweeping 
past  us — a  stream  neither  sluggish  nor  impetuous,  as  befits  the 
beginning  of  a  great  river.  From  the  opposite  bank  we  proceeded 
at  right  angles  to  its  direction,  up  the  side  of  the  line  of  high  hills. 
At  eighteen  minutes  after  two  we  had  wound  our  way  to  the 
summit  ;  w^e  stood  on  the  surface  of  rolling  downs.  A  little  later, 
when  I  thought  we  had  reached  the  highest  point  of  these  uplands, 
I  took  the  reading  of  my  aneroid.  We  had  reached  a  level  of 
5800  feet,  or  of  560  feet  above  Tutakh.  The  exhilarating  air, 
the  easy  ground,  the  magnificent  prospects  rendered  our  ride  most 
enjoyable.  Behind  us  was  the  outline  of  the  Kilich  Gedik,  run- 
ning from  east  to  west.  We  could  just  see  the  crest  of  the  Kuseh 
Dagh  beyond  it,  the  summit  of  the  dome.  Towards  the  south 
rose  the  irregular  mass  of  the  Khamur,  and  the  beautiful  landmark 
of  Sipan.  That  graceful  mountain  stood  disclosed  to  three- 
quarters  of  its  height.  Such  are  the  rewards  which  Armenia 
bestows  upon  the  traveller,  and  which  IMan  is  powerless  to 
destroy. 

That  insignificant  creature  lives  in  squalor  amid  scenes  of 
desolation  which  are  due  to  himself  alone.  The  soil  is  rich  and 
loamy  ;  but  it  is  little  cultivated,  and  lies  idle  beneath  a  covering 
of  rough  grass.  The  climate  is  more  propitious  than  that  of  the 
corresponding  highlands  in  the  more  northerly,  or  Russian  portion 
of  the  land.  The  rainfall  is  probably  less  ;  but  this  disadvantage 
may  be  balanced  by  the  earlier  maturing  of  the  crops.  We  rode 
for  an  hour  without  seeing  a  village,  with  the  heights  of  the  Ala 
Dagh  following  our  course  away  on  the  left.  The  first  settlement 
which  we  passed  was  Milan,  inhabited  by  Kurds,  which  we  were 
careful   to   avoid.      Those   of    their  number  whom   we   met    were 


1 6  Armenia 

armed  with  numerous  knives,  and  had  rifles  slung  across  their 
shoulders.  A  little  further  I  called  a  halt  on  the  requisition  of 
the  zaptieh  ;  he  was  very  anxious  that  the  plan  of  the  journey 
should  be  changed.  It  was  half-past  three  o'clock  ;  we  could  not 
reach  Patnotz  before  nightfall  ;  if  I  persisted  it  was  almost  certain 
we  should  be  attacked.  In  crossing  from  the  territory  of  the 
Sipkanli  tribe  to  that  of  the  Haideranli,  we  should  be  obliged  to 
run  the  gauntlet  of  the  armed  parties  which  scoured  the  frontier 
between  these  two  hostile  tribes.  He  pointed  to  a  dot  on  the 
grassy  plain  about  us  which  he  identified  with  the  village  of 
Koshk.  He  said  that  it  was  the  residence  of  the  chief  of  the 
Sipkanli,  who  from  his  official  relations  with  the  Turkish 
Government  would  be  obliged  to  shelter  us.  His  counsel  was  no 
doubt  sound  if  one  could  only  trust  his  estimate  of  our  distance 
from  Patnotz.  For  some  time  we  had  been  passing  between  two 
opposite  hill  ranges,  one  on  our  left  front,  the  other  on  our  right. 
On  our  point  of  course,  in  the  middle  distance,  these  outlines 
approached  one  another,  leaving  between  them  a  wide  gap.  The 
ridge  on  the  left,  a  spur  of  Ala  Dagh,  was  said  to  bear  the  name 
of  Gelarash  Dagh  ;  that  on  the  right  was  called  Kartevin  Dagh. 
It  would  be  no  short  ride  to  the  passage  between  the  two  ;  and 
this  gave  access,  according  to  the  zaptieh,  to  the  plain  in  which, 
upon  its  further  confines,  was  situated  Patnotz.  Satisfied  by  his 
explanations,  I  deferred  to  his  judgment,  and  directed  our  steps  a 
few  points  off  our  true  course,  towards  the  village  which  he  had 
indicated.  A  shower  of  soft  rain  was  falling  as  we  entered  Koshk 
at  four  o'clock. 

I  have  already  introduced  my  reader  to  a  Kurdish  village  ; 
the  description  of  one  may  be  applied  to  all.  But  Koshk  is 
distinguished  by  a  single  house  in  the  proper  sense,  a  two-storeyed 
building  of  stone.  It  is  the  abode  of  Yusuf  Bey,  chieftain  of  the 
Sipkanli,  whose  portrait  I  was  allowed  to  take  (Fig.  114).  His 
followers  gathered  round  us,  a  throng  of  Kurdish  warriors, 
prepared  at  any  moment  for  a  fight.  Besides  knives,  each  man 
carried  a  rifle  ;  a  band  of  cartridges  was  fastened  across  the 
breast.  I  examined  several  weapons  ;  all  bore  the  Russian 
marks  and  letters.  They  told  me  that  they  were  procured  from 
the  Russian  soldiers,  probably  Cossacks,  in  the  frontier  districts  of 
Kagyzman  and  Erivan.  When  a  little  later  I  questioned  the 
chief  about  this  traffic,  he  expressed  surprise  that  the  soldiers 
should  be  able  to  obtain  firearms  for  the  purpose  of  selling  them. 


Fig.  114.    YusuF  Bey  of  Koshk. 


Fig.  115.    Kurd  of  Koshk  in  Gala  Dress. 


To  Lake  Van  17 

After  some  palaver  we  were  ushered  into  his  presence  ;  he 
happened  to  be  engaged  in  prayer.  A  broad  divan  followed  the 
bare  walls  of  a  spacious  apartment,  and  rugs  were  spread  upon 
the  divan.  Several  tall,  lank  figures  stood  on  these  bright  carpets, 
with  stockings  on  their  feet.  They  faced  the  window  and  the 
light  ;  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  two  lines  was  placed  an 
individual  whom  we  easily  recognised  as  the  mollah  from  his 
humbler  stature,  stouter  person  and  ampler  robes.  Their  backs 
were  turned  towards  us  as  we  entered  ;  we  advanced  a  little,  but 
not  a  muscle  of  the  faces  moved.  Then  the  silence  was  broken 
by  a  deep,  gurgling  sound,  which  developed  into  the  expression 
of  a  series  of  labials,  half  a  chant,  half  a  spoken  prayer.  At 
certain  passages  the  figures  bowed  to  the  ground,  or  dropped  to 
a  seated  posture,  and  were  still.  To  us  it  seemed  an  ideal 
rendering  of  the  solemn  relation  between  man  and  the  universe. 

The  litany  completed,  our  hosts  at  once  turned  towards  us, 
with  a  sudden  change  of  countenance  which  took  us  by  surprise. 
Yusuf  Bey  extended  to  us  his  massive  but  almost  fleshless  hand  ; 
his  cavernous  cheeks  were  lit  by  a  smile.  He  and  his  brother  are 
men  of  more  than  ordinary  proportions,  and  both  are  true  t}'pes 
of  the  Kurd.  He  told  me  that  they  were  in  daily  expectation  of 
attack  from  Hoseyn  Pasha  of  Patnotz.  This  miscreant,  although 
under  the  ban  of  justice,  had  been  given  the  title  of  Pasha  by  the 
Turkish  Government,  partly  in  order  to  recruit  their  new  irregulars 
among  his  tribe,  and  partly  as  a  recompense  for  his  bribes.  He 
had  quite  recently  burnt  some  villages  of  the  Sipkanli,  and  had 
reduced  the  clan  to  poverty.  Judging  from  the  finery  which  was 
displayed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Koshk  (Fig.  115),  I  could  only 
accept  the  latter  part  of  this  statement  in  a  very  relative  sense. 
The  seats  of  the  Sipkanli  extend  to  the  territory  of  Bayazid  ;  they 
supply  three  regiments  to  the  Hamidiyeh.  After  partaking  of 
supper,  we  composed  ourselves  to  sleep  in  the  same  apartment 
into  which  we  had  been  introduced.  The  night  was  disturbed 
by  the  weird  cries  which  were  exchanged  at  frequent  intervals 
between  the  patrols  in  the  outskirts  and  the  guard  in  the  village. 

Among  the  forty  tenements  which  constituted  this  particular 
settlement  we  were  astonished  to  find  that  six  were  inhabited  by 
Armenians.  Imagine  the  condition  of  these  poor  people,  in 
the  very  jaws  of  their  enemy,  who  just  allows  them  to  exist  and 
no  more  !  The  Turkish  authorities,  a  long  way  distant,  would 
be  quite  powerless  to  assist  them,  even  if  they  had  the  desire. 
VOL.  II  c 


1 8  Armenia 

A  poor  stableman  told  us  beneath  his  breath  that  their  lot  was 
desperate,  and  that  some  of  his  countrymen  had  contrived  to 
escape  to  Russia. 

The  rawness  of  the  climate  in  the  plain  of  Alashkert  had 
disappeared  when  we  reached  Koshk.^  The  weather  became 
mild,  and  the  sun  shone  freely  from  a  sky  almost  devoid  of 
cloud.  When  next  morning  we  were  again  in  the  saddle  at 
twenty  minutes  after  seven,  the  mown  pastures  looked  green  and 
fresh  after  the  rain  of  the  preceding  evening,  and  it  was  a  delight 
to  breathe  the  crisp  air.  We  could  still  see  the  distant  dome  of 
the  Kuseh  Dagh  ;  the  ridge  on  our  left  hid  the  lower  slopes  of 
Sipan.  We  rode  towards  the  still  remote  promontory  of  that 
grassy  ridge,  and  the  gap  between  the  outlines  in  the  hills.  At 
a  little  after  eight  we  had  reached  the  passage  ;  it  appeared  to 
have  a  width  of  about  a  mile.  It  leads  from  the  undulating 
plains  about  Koshk  to  the  level  plain  of  Patnotz.  The  ground 
falls  away  by  a  succession  of  inequalities  to  a  spacious  area  of 
flat  alluvial  land.  Beyond  that  lake-like  surface  rises  the  fabric 
of  a  single  mountain,  the  broad  base,  the  vaulted  slopes,  the 
massive  crown.  Sipan  was  at  last  exposed  from  foot  to  summit, 
recalling  by  many  a  characteristic  the  majestic  Ararat."  There 
was  the  same  length  of  sweep,  the  same  symmetry  of  structure, 
the  same  rounded  central  form.  And  if  we  missed  the  gardens 
and  the  immense  expanse  of  the  campagna  of  Erivan,  this  open 
plain  seemed  to  repeat  the  surroundings  of  Ararat  on  a  scale 
exactly  suited  to  Sipan. 

Near  the  opening  we  passed  the  tiny  village  of  Burnu 
Bulakh,  inhabited  by  Kurds.  We  doubled  the  long  promontory  ; 
it  was  evident  it  had  been  pushing  us  away  from  our  true  course. 
Once  rounded,  we  pursued  a  south-easterly  direction,  keeping  to 
the  base  of  the  hills  to  which  it  belongs.  In  these  solitudes  a 
human  figure  is  an  unfamiliar  object  ;  great  was  our  surprise  to 
perceive  several  men  running  towards  us  from  a  recess  in  the 
range.  Stranger  still  was  the  discovery  that  they  did  not  bear 
arms  ;  we  collected  together,  and  awaited  their  approach. 
When  they  had  reached  speaking  distance,  they  unfolded  their 
story,  and  begged  for  protection  at  our  hands.      They  were  Turks 

1  Temperature  at  9  P.M.  53°  F.,  and  at  6.30  A.M.  41°.  None  of  my  readings  at 
Karakilisa  reached  as  high  as  the  tirst  of  these,  though  some  were  taken  in  the  middle 
of  the  day. 

'''  The  comparison  was  also  suggested  to  Koch,  as  lie  approached  Sipan  from  the 
side  of  Melazkert  [Keisc  im  poiitiscfuii  Gebirge,  p.  428). 


To  Lake  Van  19 

from  the  province  of  Kars  who  had  deserted  their  lands  and 
homes,  taking  with  them  all  their  portable  wealth.  They  said 
that  the  Russian  Government  treated  them  very  badly,  favouring 
the  Molokans,  and  annoying  the  members  of  their  religion  and 
race.  They  had  resolved  to  seek  new  seats  beneath  the  sceptre 
of  the  Sultan,  and  had  crossed  the  frontier  in  pursuit  of  this  end. 
Their  journey  had  until  yesterday  been  uneventful  ;  but  last 
evening,  as  they  were  approaching  the  territory  of  the  Haideranli, 
they  had  been  savagely  attacked.  The  Kurds  had  despoiled 
them  of  all  their  possessions,  and  had  been  induced  with  difficulty 
to  leave  them  the  clothes  in  which  they  stood.  Poor  fellows  ! 
honest,  sturdy  peasants,  returning  to  their  old  allegiance  and  to 
the  stronghold  of  Islam,  only  to  find  the  one  insulted  by  robbers 
and  the  other  a  gaping  ruin.  All  we  could  do  was  to  take  them 
to  the  prince  of  the  bandits,  in  the  hope  that  he  would  be  more 
prudent  than  his  wild  bands.  Inasmuch  as  they  were  without 
horses  it  was  impossible  that  they  should  accompany  us  to  the 
town  of  Akantz. 

Not  less  eloquent  an  illustration  of  the  decay  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  was  the  landscape  through  which  we  passed.  Mile  after 
mile,  the  eye  ranged  across  the  floor  of  the  alluvial  plain  to  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  great  volcano  which,  with  the  hills  circling 
towards  them,  compose  a  basin-like  area  of  vast  extent.  The 
fertile  soil  lies  idle,  as  though  the  waters  had  lately  receded  ;  in 
the  distance  some  goats  and  cattle  browsed  the  burnt  and  scanty 
grass.  Nature  alone  has  made  the  most  of  exceptional  oppor- 
tunities ;  and  Sipan,  with  this  plain  on  one  flank  and  the  lake  of 
Van  upon  the  other,  is  worthy  to  rank  among  the  most  beautiful 
objects  in  the  natural  world  (Fig.  i  16).  There  can  be  little  differ- 
ence between  the  level  of  the  expanse  on  either  side  ;  plain  and 
sea  have  an  elevation  of  about  5500  feet.  The  summit  of  the 
slowly -rising  fabric  which  divides  them  attains  an  altitude  of 
13,700  feet.  The  history  of  the  mountain  may  be  studied  to 
advantage  from  this,  the  northern  side.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  it  possessed  a  central  crater,  of  which  the  walls  have 
fallen  in  upon  the  north.  The  southern  rim  still  stands,  pre- 
senting an  almost  horizontal  outline  of  sharp  rock,  harbouring 
drifts   of  snow.'      The    processes   of  denudation    have   been   busy 

^  Upon  my  ascent  of  Sipan  during  my  second  journey  it  was  ascertained  that  the 
highest  ridge  of  rock,  as  seen  in  this  iUustration,  is  not  actually  the  southern  rim  of  the 
crater.  It  is  merely  the  side  of  the  flat-topped  mass  of  lava,  upon  which  is  situated  the 
eastern  summit.      The  western  summit  is  just  visible  in  this  illustration. 


20  Armenia 

with  the  slopes  of  this  ancient  cone,  and  have  broken  the  surface 
into  knife-like  ridges.  We  stood  for  half-an-hour  in  full  face  of 
the  pile.  After  crossing  two  little  rivulets  which  wandered  out 
from  the  hills  behind  us,  we  arrived  at  half-past  ten  in  Patnotz. 

We  found  it  nothing  better  than  a  wretched  Kurdish  village, 
with  some  one  hundred  huts  and  numerous  stacks  of  dried  manure. 
It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  range  which  we  had  been 
skirting,  and  which  had  gradually  been  circling  round  towards 
Sipan.  It  overlooks  the  plain  and  the  opposite  volcano.  About 
thirty  of  the  tenements  are  occupied  by  Armenian  families,  and 
there  is  a  row  of  shops  which  rise  proudly  from  the  ground.  On 
the  further  outskirts  a  large  stone  building  was  in  process  of  being 
erected  ;  the  Armenian  masons  were  busy  with  the  work.  It 
was  to  serve  as  a  school  and  for  other  purposes,  and  was  due  to 
the  policy  in  favour  with  the  Sultan,  of  educating  the  Kurds.  I 
understood  that  the  funds  were  provided  by  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment. W^e  rode  up  to  a  group  of  people  assembled  before  this 
palace,  and  enquired  for  the  chief.  Among  them  was  an  individual 
of  heavy  build  and  forbidding  features,  attired  in  a  long  coat  of 
military  pattern,  and  displaying  the  brass  ensign  of  the  Hamidiyeh 
on  the  sheepskin  cap  which  he  wore.  It  was  Hoseyn  Pasha,  lord 
of  the  Haideranli,  and  ruler  of  the  territory  of  Patnotz.  The 
irregular  mouth  and  nose,  and  the  dull,  sparkless  eyes  correspond 
with  the  reputation  which  he  bears.  But  discontent  as  well  as 
malice  was  written  upon  his  countenance  ;  and  the  situation 
explained  the  humour  of  the  man.  His  followers  would  no  doubt 
argue  that  he  was  assisting  at  his  own  destruction  ;  this  school 
was  the  visible  evidence  of  the  Ottoman  yoke.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  he  would  console  them  with  the  assurance  of  its  futility  ; 
and  I  am  certain  that  he  would  be  right.  Meanwhile  he  had 
appropriated  the  completed  apartments  as  a  residence  for  him- 
self. I  waited  for  him  to  invite  us  to  be  his  guests  in  his  new 
quarters  ;  but  he  beckoned  to  an  attendant  to  find  us  a  room 
in  one  of  the  huts.  So  I  dismounted,  and  myself  led  the  way 
into  the  schoolhouse,  obliging  him  cither  to  affront  or  follow  me. 
He  chose  the  latter  course.  Continuing  the  same  tactics,  I  bade 
him  take  a  seat  by  my  side  on  his  own  divan.  In  his  company 
was  a  fine  specimen  of  the  Kurdish  nation,  whose  mien  contrasted 
with  that  of  his  chief;  and  a  genial  Turk  who  had  travelled,  and 
was  at  once  a  man  of  the  world  and  a  parasite  of  the  lowest  type. 
This   gentleman  was   delighted    to    have    an   opportunity  of  con- 


To  Lake  Van  21 

versing  about  the  affairs  of  the  outside  world  ;  it  was  to  him  that 
I  addressed  the  conversation  until  the  sullen  temper  of  the  chief 
relaxed.  When  I  was  able  to  put  some  questions  in  return  for 
those  which  I  had  answered,  the  tongue  of  Hoseyn  Pasha  had 
commenced  to  flow.  He  told  me  he  was  the  titular  chief  of 
the  Hasananli  Kurds,  a  tribe  of  which  the  Haideranli,  Adamanli, 
and  Sipkanli  were  offshoots  or  species.  This  widely-spread  genus 
extended  to  the  Persian  frontier.  I  asked  him  why  his  people 
did  not  cultivate  the  plain,  and  augment  their  wealth  and  numbers. 
He  replied  that  in  the  absence  of  communications  and  markets 
they  were  not  encouraged  to  take  such  a  course.  We  lunched  off 
some  wretched  cheese,  inlaid  with  herbs  in  Kurdish  fashion  ;  and, 
after  commending  our  companions  to  his  sense  of  responsibility, 
took  leave  at  a  quarter-past  eleven  o'clock. 

I  am  sorry  that  I  am  not  able  to  present  a  better  description 
of  the  features  of  the  country  between  Patnotz  and  the  lake  of 
Van.  I  hope  that  some  future  traveller  will  be  able  to  ascend 
the  sides  of  the  hills  along  the  trough  of  which  we  rode  for  many 
miles.  I  should  advise  him  to  devote  at  least  three  days  to  the 
journey  between  Karakilisa  and  Akantz.  The  first  night  would 
be  spent  at  Tutakh,  the  second  at  Patnotz.  Hoseyn  Pasha  was 
astonished  to  hear  of  our  intention  to  push  on  to  our  destination 
by  a  single  stage.  But  the  zaptieh  knew  of  no  village  in  which 
we  might  safely  sojourn,  before  reaching  the  territory  of  Akantz. 
The  authority  of  the  Turkish  Government  is  little  better  than  a 
name  among  the  valleys  of  the  Ala  Dagh.  I  was  assured  that  I 
had  formed  a  wrong  conception  of  the  distance,  which,  measured 
direct  on  the  map  of  Kiepert,  amounts  to  no  more  than  twenty-one 
miles.  Arrived  at  Akantz,  I  computed  that  we  had  covered,  from 
station  to  station,  no  less  than  thirty-six  miles.  An  incident  which 
occurred  just  after  our  departure  contributed  to  hasten  our  steps. 
A  Kurd,  mounted  on  a  swift  Arab,  cantered  ahead  of  us  and  was 
soon  lost  to  sight.  The  zaptieh  was  certain  it  was  an  emissary  of 
the  chief,  whose  treachery  he  feared.  The  word  would  be  given  to 
the  bands  in  the  district  that  helpless  travellers  were  passing  their 
way.  I  think  it  more  probable  that  he  was  bearer  of  orders  not 
to  attack  us  on  any  account. 

From  Patnotz  we  proceeded  in  an  easterly  direction  towards 
the  ridge  which  bounds  the  plain  upon  the  east.  It  connects 
with  the  hills  which  we  had  so  long  been  skirting,  and  which 
hollow  inwards  beyond  the  village.      A  few  minutes  before  twelve 


22  Armenia 

we  were  on  the  summit  of  the  low  pass,  and  were  leaving  behind 
us  the  landscape  of  the  plain.  We  entered  a  broad  valley,  which, 
with  a  grassy  hill  range  on  either  side,  stretched  away  towards 
south-east.  The  range  on  our  right  concealed  from  view  the 
lower  slopes  of  Sipan,  and  was  distant  about  a  mile.  Its  eleva- 
tion above  the  valley  was  at  first  not  greater  than  from  lOO  to 
500  feet  ;  but,  as  we  proceeded,  it  rose  to  a  more  considerable 
altitude,  and,  at  the  same  time,  came  closer  up  to  the  track.  On 
our  left  hand  the  barrier  was  more  remote  and  loftier,  some  five 
miles  off,  and  some  1000  feet  above  our  heads.  The  heights 
were  streaked  with  snow  ;  according  to  our  informants,  they  belong 
to  the  system  of  the  Ala  Dagh.  We  rode  for  several  hours 
between  these  two  ridges,  the  ground  rising  as  we  advanced.  Here 
and  there  a  little  brook  threaded  the  waste  soil,  flowing  towards 
the  west.  At  one  o'clock  we  came  up  with  a  long  line  of 
bullock  carts,  travelling  from  Erzerum  to  Van.  We  counted  no 
less  than  seventy  of  these  primitive  vehicles,  crawling  over  the 
ground  with  creaking  wheels.  Several  horsemen  accompanied 
the  caravan,  their  persons  bristling  with  arms  of  every  kind.  The 
leader  was  a  Turk  of  quality  and  some  importance.  He  told  me 
that  the  journey  occupied  eight  days,  and  that  the  Murad  was 
crossed  at  Tutakh.  Each  of  the  drivers  was  said  to  be  in 
possession  of  weapons,  although  they  did  not  happen  to  be 
wearing  them  as  we  passed. 

Three-quarters  of  an  hour  later  we  crossed  a  nice  stream 
which,  according  to  the  zaptieh,  flows  into  the  lake.  The  trans- 
parent current  pursued  for  some  distance  a  roughly  parallel 
direction  to  the  south-easterly  course  upon  which  we  rode.  It 
left  us  to  diverge  southwards  towards  the  barrier  on  our  right  ; 
but  we  could  not  discover  at  what  point  it  pierced  the  hills.  A 
few  horses  were  grazing  upon  its  margin,  and  we  wondered  to 
whom  they  might  belong.  The  track  continued  to  approach  the 
immediate  foot  of  those  hills,  and  they  continued  to  increase  in 
height.  But  it  became  evident  that  the  average  elevation  of  the 
ground  had  risen,  for  we  were  on  a  level  with  the  higher  slopes 
of  the  opposite  range.  At  three  o'clock  we  reached  the  end  of 
the  long  valley,  which  narrows  towards  its  head.  The  hills  roll 
away  ;  you  stand  on  a  lofty  platform  which  commands  a  distant 
prospect  of  the  lake  of  Van. 

Dismounting  on  the  rough  soil,  we  stood  for  half-an-hour  in 
contemplation    of   the    scene.      All    our    horses    show^ed    signs    of 


To  Lake  Van  23 

fatigue  ;  that  of  the  dragoman  was  quite  exhausted,  and  his 
plump  rider  required  to  be  h'fted  from  the  saddle.  We  had 
covered,  according  to  estimate,  some  1 8  miles  from  Patnotz 
and  over  33  from  Koshk.  The  instruments  were  uncased, 
and  the  elevation  taken,  which  I  compute  in  round  numbers 
at  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lake.  Below  us  lay 
spacious  tracts  of  undulating  country — friable  soil,  modelled  into 
hummock  shapes.  We  could  follow  the  long  profile  of  the  hills 
on  our  left  hand,  dying  away  towards  the  still  remote  shore. 
The  waters  were  scarcely  visible  beyond  the  detail  of  the  middle 
distance — a  glimpse  of  blue  in  the  lap  of  the  expanse.  They 
represent  the  gulf-like  extremity  of  the  inland  sea,  of  which  the 
broad  face  is  hidden  from  these  slopes.  But  the  scale  and 
tendency  of  the  land  forms  prepared  us  for  such  a  presence, 
which  they  were  aptly  designed  to  usher  in.  We  stood  on  the 
edge  of  a  great  half-circle  ;  the  view  ranged  to  some  sharp 
summits,  belonging  to  a  ridge  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake, 
which  must  have  been  some  40  miles  away.  Our  zaptieh  knew 
it  under  the  name  of  Besh  Parmak,  or  the  mountain  of  the  five 
fingers.  The  arc  of  the  curve  was  composed  by  the  heights  in 
that  direction,  arresting  the  softness  of  the  vaulted  hills  and 
shelving  ground.  We  were  shovvm  a  long  bank  which  had  the 
appearance  of  a  mound,  and  was  distinguished  from  similar  shapes 
by  its  size.  It  lay  in  the  distant  trough  of  the  landscape,  and 
was  said  to  overlook  the  town  of  Akantz. 

I  placed  the  dragoman  on  my  own  horse,  and  was  obliged  to 
perpetrate  the  cruelty  of  riding  his  jaded  animal.  We  had  the 
benefit  of  the  incline  ;  but  the  nature  of  the  ground  was  against 
us,  necessitating  long  winds.  Deep  gullies  obstructed  our 
course  ;  or  we  were  turned  aside  by  rising  land.  If  I  have 
estimated  correctly,  we  were  separated  from  our  destination  by  a 
space  of  fifteen  miles.  We  took  to  the  saddle  at  half-past  three  ; 
we  did  not  arrive  until  past  seven  ;  and  we  must  have  covered 
some  eighteen  miles.  At  half-past  four  we  crossed  the  first 
running  water,  and  we  were  at  the  first  village  at  a  little  before 
five.  Karakilisa  (Black  Church)  is  well  named,  for  it  possesses 
a  little  church  of  black  stone,  with  group  of  gables  and  conical 
dome.  It  is  inhabited  by  Armenians,  and  has  an  air  of 
prosperity  ;  we  were  refreshed  by  the  rare  sight  ot  a  group  of 
trees.  The  next  settlement,  Hipsinek,  was  also  Armenian  ;  we 
had  emerged   from   the  wild   Kurdish   zone.      As  we  neared   the 


24  Armenia 

lower  levels,  the  deep  silence  of  the  evening  was  broken  by  a 
loud,  rumbling  sound.  It  was  a  river,  descending  from  the 
mountains,  and  flowing  in  a  stony  bed.  They  call  it  the  Buyuk 
Chai  or  Erishat  ;  we  crossed  it,  and  arrived,  soon  after,  at  a 
village  which  bears  the  last  of  these  names.  It  was  half-past  six 
o'clock  ;  the  light  was  uncertain  ;  we  were  near  water  and  on 
marshy  ground.  A  villager  was  hailed  ;  he  showed  us  the  way 
with  a  lantern  to  the  solid  land  beyond.  We  proceeded  at  a 
walking  pace  along  the  foot  of  a  dark  cliff  to  the  houses  of 
Akantz. 


CHAPTER    III 

ACROSS    LAKE    VAN 

The  Kaimakam  of  Akantz  was  in  the  company  of  his  notables 
when  we  entered  his  reception  room.  Along  the  walls  of  the 
bare  apartment  stretched  the  usual  cushioned  seat  ;  a  row  of 
figures,  serried  upon  it,  lined  two  sides.  It  was  with  difficulty 
that  place  was  made  for  us  beside  him  ;  and  several  minutes 
were  occupied  by  the  exchange  of  salutes,  each  man  bowing  and 
raising  the  hand  to  the  chin  and  forehead.  Coffee  and  warmth 
revived  the  drooping  person  of  the  dragoman  ;  such  was  his  com- 
mand both  of  the  Turkish  and  the  German  languages  that  it  cost 
him  little  effort  to  perform  his  task.  While  supper  and  a  lodging 
were  being  prepared  for  us,  I  was  able  to  discuss  plans  with  the 
Kaimakam.  He  promised  that  he  would  endeavour  to  procure  a 
trading  vessel  to  take  us  to  Van  on  the  following  day.  He 
engaged  to  despatch  our  horses  thither,  as  soon  as  they  should 
recover,  by  way  of  the  southern  shore  of  the  lake.  Unlike  his 
colleague  of  Karakilisa,  he  proved  faithful  to  his  word  ;  but  I 
regret  to  say  that  we  never  saw  the  dragoman's  horse  again. 
That  night  and  the  following  day  I  attended  him  myself;  but  he 
appears  to  have  died  a  few  days  after  we  left.^  It  was  arranged 
that  on  the  morrow  we  should  visit  the  ruins  of  Arjish.  I 
enquired  of  our  host  whether  he  knew  of  the  remains  of  a  city  on 
the  table  surface  of  the  cliff  above  Akantz.  He  confirmed  the 
information  which  is  given  by  Vital  Cuinet,  and  said  that  the 
place  was  known  to  the  learned  under  the  name  of  Kala-i-Zerin. 
The  people  call  it  Zernishan." 

1  Mignan  tells  us  that  he  purchased  a  gelding  at  Sulimanieh  which  carried  him 
from  Baghdad  to  Tiflis  across  Kurdistan  in  1 6  days,  a  distance  of  at  least  800  miles 
{Winter Journey,  etc.,  London,  1839).  I  have  heard  of  similar  feats  in  the  East,  but 
have  not  been  anxious  to  place  the  veracity  of  my  informants  to  the  test. 

"  La   Tiirquie  cfAsie,  Paris,   1892,  vol.  ii.  p.  710,  "Tout  pres  d' Akantz,  a  2  kilo- 


Armenia 


According  to  the  Kaimakam  there  are  no  less  than  500 
houses  in  Akantz  ;  but  I  am  incHned  to  consider  this  figure 
excessive.  A  number  among  them  are  well  built,  with  good 
walls  and  glass-paned  windows  ;  and  it  was  a  change  to  erect 
our  camp  beds  in  a  clean  and  airy  room.  The  population  is 
partly  Mussulman  and  partly  Armenian.  I  should  say  that  the 
former  have  the  preponderance,  although  not  in  the  proportion 
which  was  assigned  to  them  by  the  same  authority  of  four- 
fifths  of  the  whole.^  The  Armenians  possess  two  churches  and 
a  school,  administered  by  a  priest.  Several  regiments  of 
Hamidiyeh    have    their    headquarters    in    the    town.      They    are 


Fig.  117.    Akantz. 

recruited  among  the  Haideranli  and  Adamanli  Kurds.  Their 
enrolment  has  been  attended  by  the  usual  result — a  general 
relaxation  of  the  law.  Robberies  are  committed  under  the  eyes 
of  the  Kaimakam,  and  stealing  is  scarcely  considered  an  offence. 
While  our  effects  were  being  conveyed  to  the  lake  in  a  little  cart, 
a  clever  thief  made  away  with  the  yoke  of  the  oxen. 

The  morning  of  the  next  day  was  devoted  to  preparations, 
and  the  whole  afternoon  was  occupied  by  our  excursion  to  Arjish. 
The  site  bears  a  few  points  west  of  a  line  due  south  from  Akantz, 

metres  vers  Test,  se  trouve  una  montngne  qui  renferme  une  carriere  de  pierre  calcaire, 
de  3  kilometres  d'etendue,  large  d'environ  300  metres.  Le  sommet  de  cette  montagne 
se  termine  par  im  vaste  plateau  couvert  des  ruines  d'une  ville  antique  nommee  Zernak 
qui  fut  ties  florissante.  Les  rues  de  la  dite  ville  sont  larges  et  coupees  a  angle  droit ; 
on  retire  de  ses  edifices  de  belles  pierres  siliceuses  regulierement  taillees  dont  on  se 
sert  pour  les  nouvelles  constructions." 

'  Cuinet  [op.  cit.)  goes  quite  astray  in  his  statistics  both  of  the  caza  and  town.  He 
estimates  the  Mussulman  inhabitants  of  the  whole  caza  at  only  5129.  Akantz  and  the 
villages  between  it  and  the  lake  would  alone  contain  as  many  or  more. 


Across  Lake  Van  27 

at  a  distance  of  several  miles.  But  the  track  across  the  plain  is 
obstructed  by  channels  of  water  which  compel  you  to  deviate. 
Leaving  the  town  by  the  south  side,  we  paused  to  admire  the 
cluster  of  houses,  embowered  in  trees,  and  backed  by  the  high 
cliff  (Fig.  117).  A  continuation  of  the  same  ridge  rises  behind 
the  gardens  and  orchards,  which  are  about  a  mile  away,  upon 
the  east.  Between  us  and  the  lake  lay  a  broad  zone  of  alluvial 
land,  of  sandy  surface  broken  by  green  oases.  We  rode  through 
two  considerable  villages,  Hargin  and  Igmal.  They  are  almost 
buried  beneath  the  foliage  of  tall  poplars  and  forest  trees  which 
are  supported  by  a  network  of  irrigation.  The  last  of  these  two 
settlements  can  scarcely  be  less  distant  than  an  hour's  walk  from 
the  shore.  Beyond  them  the  ground  is  patched  with  cultivation, 
which  in  turn  gives  place  to  a  desert,  cut  by  dikes.  The  ruins 
adjoin  the  lake,  and  accentuate  the  loneliness  of  the  bleak  waste 
from  which  they  rise  (Fig.  i  18  from  the  north,  and  Fig.  i  19  from 
the  south). 

Little  is  left  above  ground  of  the  once  important  borough 
of  medicHEval  repute.  The  crumbling  walls  of  a  castle,  a  ruined 
chapel,  a  minaret  are  the  principal  monuments  still  erect.  The 
method  of  building  is  that  of  a  more  cultured  age.  A  recent  fire 
had  converted  the  brushwood  into  black  patches.  We  looked  across 
the  silvery  waters  to  the  opposite  shore  of  the  lake,  from  which  a 
range  of  hills  rise.  Behind  this  barrier  towers  a  rocky  ridge  of 
serrated  outline,  which,  commencing  at  a  point  about  east  of  the 
ruins,  extends  westwards  and  groups  together  with  the  magnificent 
chain  on  the  southern  margin  of  the  sea.  The  arm  beside  which 
we  stood  stretched  away  by  a  succession  of  promontories,  to 
spread  towards  those  distant  and  snowy  peaks  in  the  south. 

Arjish  played  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  the  Middle 
Ages  ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  ruins  are  those 
of  the  mediiEval  city.^  On  the  other  hand  it  is  quite  possible 
that  the  name  Arsissa,  under  which  Lake  Van  was  known  to 
Ptolemy,  may  be  connected  with  a  much  more  ancient  Arjish, 
which  may  well  have  stood  on  the  high  land  overlooking  the 
modern  town  of  Akantz.  I  regretted  at  the  time  of  my  visit, 
and  I  have  since  had  reason  to  deplore  more  keenly,  our  inability 

1  I  do  not  think  that  Vivien  de  Saint  Martin  is  justified  in  supposing  that  the  town 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  Georgians  in  A.D.  1209  was  situated  in  a  different  locality 
from  that  occupied  by  these  ruins  {N'oiiveaii  Diitioiinaire  de  Gt'ographie  Uiiiveiselle,  Paris, 
1879-95,  ^"^'  "^'Oi-'^  Ardjiz). 


2  8  Armenia 


Fig.  118.    Ruins  of  Arjish  from  the  North. 

to  protract  our  stay  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  to  examine  the 
site  of  the  so-called  Zernak,  or  Zerin,  or  Zernishan,  of  which  I 
have  already  spoken.  Its  situation  seems  to  correspond  with 
that  of  the  plateau  of  Karatash  or  Ilantash,  where  Schulz  informs 
us  that  he  discovered  traces  of  the  sites  of  numerous  buildings, 
and  at  the  foot  of  which,  on  the  north-east,  facing  the  plain,  he 
copied  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  character,  which,  according 
to  the  translation  of  Professor  Sayce,  record  the  planting  of 
vineyards  in  this  region  by  the  Vannic  king  Sarduris  III.,  who 
lived  in  the  eighth  century  before  Christ  [c.  735  B.C.).^  The 
inscriptions  are  found  upon  a  series  of  three  tablets,  hewn  in  the 
rock,  some  eight  feet  above  the  ground.  One  of  the  tablets  is 
without  any  characters."'  Close  by  is  the  cave  where  a  nest  of 
serpents  or  large  lizards  are  reputed  to  have  lodged  since  im- 
memorial times,  and  have  been  seen  by  modern  travellers.^  The 
place  is  described  as  being  situated  about  two  miles  east  of  Akantz 
near  the  road  to  Haidar  Bey.'*  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann,  who 
have  visited  Akantz  since  I  was  there,  were  brought  some  objects 
in  bronze,  of  which  one  represented  a  serpent,  and  another  con- 
tained cuneiform  characters.  They  were  found  by  the  natives 
among  the  ruins  of  this  Zernak.^      It  will   be  interesting  to  learn 

^  Schulz,  in  Journal  Asiatiqiie,  Paris,  1840,  series  3,  vol.  ix.  p.  322.  Sayce,  The 
Cimeifonn  Inscriptions  of  Van,  in  Journal  0/  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1882,  vol.  xiv. 
pp.  649  se(j.,  and  1888,  vol.  xx.  p]5.  3  and  19. 

^  According  to  Dr.  Belck  (  Verhandluni^en  der  Berliner  Gesellschaft  fiir  Anthropologie, 
etc.,   1895,  Heft  \'I.  p.  599)  the  third  tablet  can  never  have  possessed  an  inscription. 

•''  See  especially  Mliller-Simonis,  Du  Caiicase  an  Golfe  Pcrsicjiie,  Paris,  1892,  p.  393. 

■*   M tiller- Simonis,  of>.  cit.  pp.  292  and  555. 

''  \'crhandluu!:;en  der  B.  G.  fiir  Anthropoloi^ic,  1898,  Heft  \'I.  \>.  591.  These 
travellers  add  yet  another  name  to  the  supposed  ruins,  viz.  that  of  Sirnakar. 


Across  Lake  Van  29 


Fig.  119.     Ruins  of  Arjish  from  the  South. 

the  result  of  the  excavations  which  they  appear  to  contemplate. 
In  the  village  of  Hargin,  through  which  we  passed,  they  have 
found  a  large  stele,  with  a  cuneiform  inscription  of  Argistis  II. 
(714-r.  690  B.C.).  A  second  monument,  containing  records  of 
the  same  monarch,  has  been  discovered  by  them  in  the  same 
district.^  The  name  Arjish  agrees  so  nearly  with  that  of  this 
Vannic  king  that  one  is  tempted  to  suppose  that  it  is  derived 
from  it.  And  we  may  be  rewarded  by  the  bringing  to  light 
of  a  city  of  Argistis,  buried  upon  the  summit  of  that  salubrious 
plateau  of  which  the  cliff  backs  the  houses  of  Akantz. 

The  mediaeval  city  of  Arjish  was  sacked  by  the  Georgians 
in  A.H.  605,  or  A.D.  1208-9.  The  Arab  historian,  Ibn-Alathir, 
who  chronicles  this  event,  states  that  its  outcome  was  the  desertion 
of  the  place  by  the  inhabitants,  so  that  it  remained  in  the  ruinous 
condition  to  which  it  had  been  reduced.-  But  there  seems  to 
exist  evidence  to  show  that,  like  Ani,  Arjish  struggled  on  through 
the  centuries  during  which  barbarism  was  increasing  its  hold  upon 
the  land.^  It  w^as  known  to  Marco  Polo  (thirteenth  century)  as 
one  of  the  three  greatest  cities  of  Armenia  ;  and  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sixteenth  century  it  formed  one  of  the  seven 
fortresses  which  encircled  the  lakeof  Van."^  In  the  summer  of  1838 
it  was  still  peopled  ;   but   in  the  winter  of  that  year  the  waters  of 

1  Verhaiidhuigen  der  B.  G.  fiir  Aiithropologie,  1898,  Heft  VI.  p.  573. 

2  See  the  extract  from  Ibn-Alathir  in  Fragments  de  g^ographes  et  d'kisiorieiis  Arahes 
etPersaits  uu'dits,  by  Defremery,  in  Journal  Asiatiqtie,  Paris,  1849,  series  4,  vol.  xiii. 
p.  518. 

3  Saint  Martin,  M^titotres  siir  PArnuUiie,  vol.  i.  p.  136.  We  know  that  Ani  was 
a  fairly  populous  town  long  after  the  date  when  it  was  formerly  supposed  to  have  been 
deserted. 

*  Marco  Polo,  Yule's  translation,  London,  1874,  vol.  i.  p.  47;  and  "Merchant 
in  Persia"  in  Italian  Travels  in  Persia,  Hakluyt  Society,  London,  1873,  p.  160. 
The  other  six  castles  were  Tadvan,  Vostan,  Van,  Berkri,  Adeljivas  and  Akhlat. 


30 


Armenia 


the  lake  rose,  until  in  1 84 1  they  had  attained  an  increase  of 
some  10  to  12  feet.  The  foundations  of  the  houses  gave  way 
and  the  supply  of  fresh  water  failed.^  Arjish  was  evacuated  by 
its  reduced  population,  and  is  at  the  present  day  not  tenanted 
by  a  single  soul.  Marshes  extend  on  either  side  of  the  ruins  ; 
that  on  the  east  appeared  to  me  to  be  the  more  extensive. 

We  had  been  warned  not  to  linger  too  long  upon  the  site  ; 
the  district  is  inhabited  by  some  Kurds  of  ill  repute.  One  of 
them  had  been  sighted  making  off  to  apprise  his  friends  of  our 
presence.  Yet  darkness  had  fallen  before  we  were  clear  of  the 
intricate  dikes,  among  which  it  would  have  been  easy  for  an 
armed  man  or  two  to  cut  off  our  retreat.      The  villages  lay  before 


Fig.  120.    Our  Boat  on  Lake  Van. 

us — a  mass  of  gloom  in  the  dimly  lighted  scene.  We  were  glad 
to  pass  within  the  fringe  of  their  orchards  ;  and  a  little  later 
we  were  again  in  safety  at  Akantz.  Meanwhile  the  necessary 
preparations  had  been  completed,  and  we  were  informed  that  a 
vessel  would  be  ready  to  receive  us  after  we  had  partaken  of  a 
meal.  We  set  out  at  nine  o'clock  ;  yet  not  a  single  light 
flickered  among  the  houses  of  the  silent  town.  The  boats 
station  at  a  point  about  south-east  of  the  settlement,  along  the 
margin  of  the  sandy  shore.  It  was  after  ten  o'clock  by  the  time 
we  reached  the  lake  and  our  craft,  from  which  the  long  stage 
was  dropped  upon  the  sand  to  let  us  in  (Fig.  i  20).  The  vessel 
was  not  decked,  and  we  could  spread  our  carpets  within  the 
hollow  of  her  lofty  sides.      Scarcely  a   breath  of  air  was  stirring  ; 

'   Loftii.s,  who  visited  .\rjisii  in  1S52,  has  collected  ihe  fads  relative  to  the  inundation 
{Quarterly  Journal  of  Geological  Society,  London,   1S55,  vol.  xi.  p.  319). 


Across  Lake  Van  31 

but-  the  breeze  was  expected,  and  it  was  decided  to  await  its 
approach.      We  composed  ourselves  to  sleep  beneath  the  stars. 

At  midnight  we  set  sail.  When  I  awoke  at  half-past  seven, 
the  sky  was  blue  in  the  zenith  above  my  eyes.  Set  within  that 
field  of  brightness,  the  pale  crescent  of  the  moon  marked  the 
boundary  of  a  sheet  of  cirrus  cloud.  The  gauzy  tissues  deepened 
as  they  neared  the  horizon,  and  gathered  into  long  banks  of 
heavy  vapour,  suspended  about  the  summits  of  the  chain  of  inky 
mountains  which  borders  the  lake  upon  the  south.  In  that 
distant  and  gloomy  range  I  at  once  recognised  the  features  of 
the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  It  was  the  same  chain  that  I  had 
followed  for  weeks  upon  the  waters  of  the  Tigris,  threading  the 
vast  plains  between  Diarbekr  and  the  Persian  Gulf  Day  by 
day  those  steep  parapets,  sharp  peaks,  and  gleaming  snows  had 
accompanied  the  peaceful  voyage  of  my  little  raft. 

How  well  I  now  recalled  the  longing  I  had  then  experienced 
to  explore  the  famous  lake  on  their  further  side  !  What  a  thrill 
of  pleasure  I  now  felt  to  be  floating  upon  its  waters,  expanding 
towards  those  mountains  with  the  proportions  of  a  sea  !  The 
reflection  of  the  blue  vault  above  us  paled  and  whitened  as  the 
flood  approached  that  long  black  line.  Bank  upon  bank,  the 
clouds  were  serried  upon  the  peaks,  shot  by  the  lights  from  the 
snows.  Here  and  there  the  fretted  outline  of  a  pearly  bed  of 
vapour  was  drawn  across  the  background  of  dull  opal  in  the  region 
of  the  middle  slopes  ;  or  wreathing  forms,  like  smoke,  clinging  to 
the  sides  of  some  loftier  eminence,  broke  the  horizontal  layers. 

The  scene  behind  us  contrasted  the  softness  of  a  southern 
landscape  with  the  stern  grandeur  of  the  coast  above  our  prow. 
The  northern  shores  of  the  lake  were  bathed  in  light  ;  and  the 
hummock  convexities  of  the  Ala  Dagh,  streaked  with  snow 
towards  the  summits,  rose  against  a  sky  of  transparent  turquoise, 
and  sank  to  a  surface  of  more  solid  substance,  but  not  less  pure 
and  not  less  blue.  From  these  heights,  across  the  long  sheet 
of  azure  water  to  dazzling  snow  in  the  heaven  above  our  heads, 
the  fabric  of  Sipan  mounted  slowly  to  the  flat  rim  of  the  central 
crater,  and,  sweeping  past  us,  declined,  with  equal  majesty  of 
outline,  to  low  ground  in  the  west.  The  great  volcano  composes 
one  whole  side  of  the  lake,  and  faces  full  south.  I  observed 
that  the  snow-line  was  perceptibly  higher  than  on  the  occasion 
when  we  had  approached  the  mountain  from  the  north.  The 
western   limits  of  the   lake  were  vague,   and,   in   places,   invisible  ; 


32  Armejtia 

the  mass  of  Nimrud,  dim  and  cloud-streaked,  had  the  appearance 
of  a  long  island,  rising  on  the  horizon  between  the  sunny  slopes 
of  Sipan  and  the  nebulous  barrier  of  the  Kurdish  chain. 

It  is  this  contrast — no  chance  effect  of  light  and  atmosphere 
— between  the  more  northerly  and  the  more  southerly  coasts  of 
the  vast  basin  that  gives  to  the  lake  of  Van  its  own  peculiar 
character  and  a  beauty  quite  its  own.  On  the  one  hand,  length  of 
sweep  in  the  form,  and  brilliancy  of  tone  in  the  colouring — as  seen 
in  the  curves  of  the  bays,  in  the  profiles  of  the  mountains,  in  the 
texture  of  the  soil ;  on  the  other,  startling  steepness,  black  rocks  and 
deep  shadows — one  long  serration,  made  more  vivid  by  the  snows. 
Here  a  scene  which  recalls  the  luxuriance  of  the  bay  of  Naples  ; 
there  the  features,  the  austere  features,  of  a  Norwegian  fiord, 

A  fresh  north-easterly  breeze  filled  our  huge  lateen  sail  ;  in 
the  hollow  of  the  white  fold  were  painted  large  in  a  russet  brown 
the  emblems  of  a  crescent  and  a  star.  The  ship  was  heading 
for  a  low  promontory  which  showed  up  yellow  against  the  shades 
of  the  distance,  and  ended  in  a  little  island  rock.  That  cape 
conceals  the  site  of  the  city  of  Van,  as  you  approach  it  from  the 
east.  The  answering  horn  of  a  wide  bay  rose  from  the  waters 
in  our  wake  ;  we  were  skirting  the  eastern  shore  of  the  sea,  with 
its  gentle  hills  and  delicate  hues.  On  the  slopes  we  could  just 
discern  a  single  small  village,  the  only  sign  of  the  presence  of  man. 

On  we  glide,  and  are  soon  almost  abreast  of  the  promontory, 
opening  the  expanse  on  the  further  side.  The  line  of  the  shore 
curves  inwards,  and  describes  a  wide  half-circle,  meeting  the  base 
of  the  stupendous  barrier  in  the  south.  The  whole  long  range 
is  exposed  to  view,  from  foot  to  cloud-swept  summit,  from  the 
waters  in  the  west  to  beyond  the  waters  in  the  east.  The  eye 
is  arrested  by  a  strange  vision  in  the  middle  distance — a  bold, 
black  rock,  starting  from  a  bed  of  white  mist  on  the  surface  of 
the  sea.  We  learn  from  the  sailors  that  it  is  the  castled  rock  of 
Van.  When  the  mist  clears,  and  the  object  appears  in  its  true  pro- 
portions, it  becomes  a  speck  against  the  parapet  of  the  great  chain. 

We  approach  the  little  island  ;  I  decide  to  land  upon  it  ;  the 
water  shallows,  and  assumes  a  hue  of  pure  cobalt.  Then  the  bed 
of  soft  white  rock  shines  through  the  crystal  element,  and  the 
vessel  takes  the  ground.  One  steps  ashore  with  the  feelings  of  a 
Greek  manner,  come  from  afar  to  a  strange  land.  Gulls  circle 
round  us  or  rest  tamely  on  the  rocks  ;  surely  we  have  sailed 
across  the  bosom  of  the  high  seas. 


Across  Lake  Van  i^t^ 

Ktutz  is  the  name  of  this  enchanting  spot,  a  name  insulting 
to  a  Western  tongue  (Fig.  121).^  We  walked  across  a  narrow 
stretch  of  grass,  strewn  with  boulders,  in  the  direction  of  a  crag 
of  the  same  white  limestone,  weathered  yellow,^  by  which  the  cliff 
on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  islet  falls  away  before  reaching  the 
point.  Against  that  crumbling  surface  rose  the  conical  dome  of  an 
ancient  church,  surmounting  a  picturesque  group  of  gables,  and, 
below  these,  a  cluster  of  mud  walls.  Several  almond-trees,  of  great 
age,  spread   their  stippled    foliage  along   the  foot  and  up  the  side 


Fig.  121.    Scene  on  the  Island  of  Ktutz. 


of  the  cliff.  We  observed  for  the  first  time  one  of  the  primitive 
structures  which  the  people  use  for  drawing  water  from  their  wells.^ 
The  figure  of  a  priest  advanced  to  meet  us  ;  he  greeted  us 
kindly,  and  offered  to  escort  us  to  the  monastery.  The  finished 
masonry   of  the  dome,   the    careful   juxtaposition   of   black    with 

1  It  may  help  to  advance  the  study  of  the  changes  of  level  in  the  waters  of  Lake  Van 
if  I  record  that  at  the  time  of  our  visit  (November  2)  the  island  of  Ktutz  was  almost  a  pen- 
insula. The  monks  told  us  that  in  a  few  weeks'  time  the  long  neck  of  sand  which  almost 
joined  it  to  the  land  would  be  exposed  from  end  to  end.      In  spring  the  waters  cover  it. 

-  This  rock,  a  specimen  of  which  I  brought  home,  may  be  described  as  a  compact 
limestone,  largely  consisting  of  foraminifera  and  fragments  of  mollusca  and  other  inverte- 
brate organisms. 

^  The  long  pole  shown  in  the  picture  projecting  against  the  sky  serves  as  a  lever 
for  lifting  the  bucket. 

VOL.  II  D 


34 


Arinenia 


yellow  stone  in  the  roof,  evinced  the  culture  of  a  happier  age. 
The  church  consists  of  an  outer  nave  and  an  inner  sanctuary, 
from  which  the  former  is  separated  by  a  solid  wall.  As  at 
Khosha  Vank,  near  Ani,  this  outer  building  or  projiaos  is  of  larger 
dimensions   than  the   shrine   to  which  it   leads.^      It  has   probably 

been   added  at   a 

later  epoch.  The 
nave  is  accom- 
panied by  two 
broad  aisles.  The 
doorway  through 
which  you  enter 
the  inner  chapel 
is  richly  carved 
in  the  Arab  style 
(Fig.  122).  You 
look  from  with- 
out the  open  door 
across  deep 
shadows  to  the 
lofty  dais  of 
sculptured  stone 
which  supports 
the  high  altar  in 
the  apsp. 

The  inner 
chapel  must  date 
back  to  a  remote 
period,  in  spite 
of  the  ogival 
arches  of  the  two 
little  doorways  in 
the  apses  of  the 
influence  of  Arab 
pointed   arches  of 


Fig.  122.     Doorway  of  the  Church  at  Ktutz. 


narrow   side   aisles.      These   betray   the   direct 

architecture,   and   are   a    solecism    among    the 

which  the  rest   of  the  edifice  is   built  up.      It   is   disposed   in   the 

form  of  a  Greek  cross  ;    the  dome  rises  from  massive  piers.      The 

apse   on   the   north    contains   a   chamber   in  which  you  are  shown 

I  The  measurements  of  the  interior  .nre  as  follows  : — JVonaos,  length  36  feet  2  inches 
by  34  feet  4  inches.  Church  pro]ier,  length  to  head  of  apse,  40  feet  7  inches  (25  feet 
ID  inches  to  the  dais  supporting  the  altar,  and  14  feet  9  inches  from  the  dais  to  the  wall 
of  the  apse)  ;  breadth,  24  feet  8  inches. 


Across  Lake  Van  35 

the  grave  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  a  girdle  which  is  said  to  have 
belonged  to  the  Saint.  Frescos  after  the  taste  of  the  Persians 
cover  the  smaller  spaces — garlands  and  wreaths  of  bright  leaves. 
The  archways  are  painted  in  quiet  blues  and  reds ;  pictures  of 
saints  are  suspended  from  the  walls.  Elaborate  altar-pieces  adjoin 
the  entrance,  one  on  either  side  of  the  door.  The  iloor  is  carpeted 
with  rugs,  and  an  air  of  comfort  pervades  the  dimly-lit  shrine. 
This  twilight  serves  to  soften  the  gorgeous  decorations  which  the 
wear  of  time  has  assisted  to  subdue.  Neither  they  nor  the 
interior  which  they  adorn  are  of  striking  merit ;  yet  you  leave 
under  the  impression  of  a  composite  charm.  We,  as  Englishmen, 
were  much  interested  by  an  old  standard  clock  which,  to  our 
surprise,  bore  on  its  face  the  name  of  Isaac  Rogers,  London.  It 
ticked  away  in  the  heavy  quiet,  an  object  so  familiar  that  our 
guide  forgot  to  point  it  out.^ 

He  was  a  pleasant  individual,  quite  young,  extremely  ignorant 
and  without  ambition  to  learn.  He  was  called  the  monk  Peter, 
or  Petros  vardapct.  Eight  monks  were  on  the  foundation  of  the 
cloister  ;  of  these  only  four  were  in  residence  on  the  island.  We 
found  them  each  in  his  cell,  sharing  the  group  of  little  buildings 
which  cluster  at  the  foot  of  the  church.  All  appeared  to  be 
without  work  or  occupation  of  any  kind.  They  seemed  to  have 
passed  their  lives  upon  the  cushions  of  their  couches,  looking 
across  the  tremulous  shade  of  the  almond  trees  to  the  Italian  sea 
and  the  soaring  fabric  of  Sipan. 

It  was  half-past  twelve  when  we  put  off;  the  wind  had 
dropped,  and  scarcely  enabled  us  to  forge  ahead.  For  several 
hours  we  lay  becalmed  on  the  bosom  of  the  lake,  here  at  its 
widest,  in  full  face  of  the  murk)'  chain  on  the  horizon,  which  was 
reflected  in  hues  of  burnished  steel.  Banks  of  mist  shrouded  the 
landscape,  especialh'  in  the  west,  where  the  mass  of  Nimrud 
seemed  encircled  by  the  sea.  A  pest  of  little  midges  covered 
our  clothes  and  blackened  our  papers  ;  then  a  shower  fell,  and 
yet  another,  and  the\'  disappeared.  About  four  o'clock  a  nice 
breeze  freshened,  coming  from  the  shore  of  low  hills  upon  our 
left.  It  brought  with  it  rain  ;  but  a  little  later  the  sun  triumphed, 
and  burst  the  canopy  of  clouds  in  the  south  and  west.  A  double 
rainbow  of  great  brilliancy  rose  from  that  near  shore,  revealing 
the  site  of  a  little  village.      Our  head  was  pointed  to  the  rock  of 

'    The  reader  of  early  travels  in  the  East  will  be  familiar  with   the  figure  of  the 
European  watch  and  clock  maker,  to  whom  he  is  introduced  in  some  distant  city  of  Asia, 


36      ■  Armenia 

Van,  which,  at  this  distance,  shows  hke  an  island,  even  without 
the  assistance  of  mirage.  The  long  barrier  of  the  Kurdish  range 
declines  in  that  direction,  and  gives  way  to  a  less  steep  and  less 
gloomy  ridge  ;  but  that  outline  again  rises  on  the  further  side  of 
the  city,  to  culminate  in  a  lofty  parapet  of  saw-shaped  edge, 
Varag — such  is  the  name  of  this  mass — commands  the  bay  in 
which  Van  lies  from  behind  a  spacious  interval  of  garden  and 
field.  In  the  landscape  it  strikes  the  last  note  of  the  tumultuous 
theme  which  is  suggested  by  the  mountains  in  the  south — a  final 
trumpet  blast  by  which  the  procession  marches  onwards  to  the 
Persian  plains. 

In  the  opposite  quarter,  across  the  lake,  and  against  the 
declining  slope  of  Sipan  the  gardens  of  Adeljivas  might  just  be 
seen  in  shades  of  grey.  Those  of  Artemid  were  more  distinct — 
a  stretch  of  softness  and  verdure  along  the  summit  of  a  low 
cliff  of  yellow  substance  near  the  foot  of  the  black  range.  A 
fragment  of  rock  thrown  seawards  from  those  mountains  was 
identified  as  the  isle  of  Akhtamar.  But  the  site  of  Van  engrossed 
us,  surpassing  our  expectations,  high  as  these  were.  The  rock, 
which  had  appeared  at  a  distance  to  be  an  island,  projected 
almost  into  the  waters  from  a  background  of  plain  and  without 
visible  connection  on  any  side.  Battlements  crowned  its  horizontal 
outline  ;  while  at  its  foot  and  along  the  shore  luscious  foliage, 
touched  by  autumn,  covered  all  the  inequalities  of  the  ground. 
From  rock  and  garden,  and  from  the  vague  detail  of  the  middle 
distance  the  eye  was  led  upwards  to  the  stony  slopes  of  Varag  ; 
a  bed  of  cloud  lay  captive  upon  them  ;  but  the  jagged  parapet 
stood  out  from  a  clear  sk}-.  Here  and  there,  stray  fragments  of 
vapour,  flushed  by  the  evening,  floated  outwards  from  the  dense 
canopy  over  the  mountains  in  the  south.  The  veiled  snowfields 
of  the  range  were  revealed  in  fitful  glimpses  of  yellow,  unnatural 
light.  .  .  .  We  moored  our  vessel  by  the  side  of  a  cluster  of 
similar  craft  at  the  so-called  harbour,  and  took  the  direction  in 
which  the  town  was  said  to  lie.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  walled 
enclosure,  and  nestles  at  the  foot  of  the  rock.  Darkness  had 
fallen  as  we  passed  down  its  silent  streets,  made  more  gloomy  by 
the  shadows  from  the  cliff  The  bark  of  dogs,  the  sad  refrain  of 
an  Eastern  song  were  the  only  sounds  which  broke  the  stillness 
of  the  night.  Then  we  entered  a  broad  chaussee  which  stretches 
inland  to  the  suburb  of  gardens  which  usurps  the  importance  of 
the    fortified    town.      There    are    situated    the    Consulates    of  the 


Across  Lake  Van  t^j 

European  Powers,  and  the  residences  of  the  principal  citizens. 
Poplars  of  great  height  rose  from  the  irrigated  ground  on  either 
side  of  the  road.  Side  lanes  led  away  from  this  broad  avenue 
into  the  park  of  trees.  After  a  walk  which  seemed  interminable, 
and  which  occupied  no  less  than  three  hours,  we  arrived  at  the 
British  Consulate  at  half-past  nine  o'clock. 


CHAPTER    IV 

VAN 

Of  the  various  sites  which  one  might  select  upon  the  shores  of 
the  lake  of  Van,  none  would  present  as  great  advantages  for  a 
populous  and  self-contained  settlement  as  that  of  the  city  from 
which  it  derives  its  name.  The  great  range  along  the  southern 
coast  leaves  little  respite  of  even  land  between  the  waves  and 
the  parapet  of  rock.  The  opposite  margin  of  the  bosom  of  waters 
is  filled  with  the  fabrics  of  those  huge  volcanoes,  Nimrud  and 
Sipan.  Sipan,  indeed,  upon  nearer  acquaintance,  is  robbed  of 
some  of  his  apparent  extension  ;  and  the  low  outlines  on  the 
west  and  east  of  the  dome-shaped  mass  upon  the  horizon  will  be 
recognised  to  belong  to  a  belt  of  limestone  with  intrusive  igneous 
rocks  which  the  traveller  follows  all  the  wa}'  from  Akhlat  to 
Adeljivas,  and  upon  which  the  volcano  has  built  itself  up.  But 
those  hills,  which  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Van  seem  to  consti- 
tute the  train  of  Sipan,  are  at  once  rugged  and  approach  closely 
to  the  shore.  Arjish  alone  is  backed  by  a  zone  of  fairly  even 
and  fertile  country  ;  while,  as  regards  the  coast  between  Van  and 
the  mouth  of  the  LJcndimahi  Chai,  I  do  not  know  that  it  has  ever 
harboured  a  considerable  city.  On  the  other  hand,  the  alluvial  plain 
which  is  confined  by  Mount  Varag  upon  the  east,  and  which  may 
be  said  to  extend  from  a  headland  near  the  village  of  Kalajik  on 
the  north  to  the  high  ground  just  north  of  Artemid  upon  the 
south,  affords  a  considerable  area  of  rich  soil,  capable  under 
irrigation  of  producing  the  choicest  fruits  of  the  earth. 

Of  the  beauty  of  the  site  it  would  not  be  possible  to  speak 
too  highly  ;  Init  I  tremble  to  provoke  in  my  English  reader  a 
nausea  of  descriptive  writing.  The  Armenians  have  a  pro\-erb 
which  is  often  quoted  :  J^(t//  in  this  n'orld  and  panxdisc  in  the  next. 
The   comparison  might  be  justified  under  happier  human   circum- 


Va7i  39 

stances,  the  perversity  of  man  having  converted  this  heaven  into 
a  little  hell.  Its  aptness  may  be  recognised  during  the  course 
of  a  walk  in  the  neighbourhood,  or  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
rock  which  supports  the  citadel.  In  the  north  across  the  waters 
is  outspread  an  Italian  landscape — a  Vesuvius  or  an  Etna,  with 
their  sinuous  surroundings,  on  an  Asiatic  scale.  Nearer  at  hand 
and  fully  exposed,  the  long  barrier  of  the  Kurdish  mountains 
recalls  the  wildest  scenery  of  the  Norwegian  coast.  From  the 
city  herself  as  from  the  extremities  of  the  wide  basin,  the  short, 
sharp  ridge  of  Varag  is  seen  with  pleasure  to  the  eye,  lifted 
some  4500  feet  above  the  waters,  and,  at  evening,  reflecting  the 
sunset  in  the  most  varied  hues.  The  lake  is  not  sufficiently  large 
to  separate  these  various  objects  by  distances  which  preclude 
under  ordinary  conditions  the  simultaneous  enjoyment  of  the 
beauty  of  all  from  a  single  shore.  And  it  is  large  enough  to 
spread  at  their  feet  with  all  the  qualities  of  the  ocean — the  depth 
and  vastness  and  changing  surface  of  the  high  seas. 

I. — The  Lake  of  Van 

It  is  about  six  times  as  large  as  the  lake  of  Gene^•a, 
having  an  area  of  some  1300  square  miles.  Its  western  shore  is 
erroneously  laid  down  in  existing  maps  ;  and  this  necessitated 
a  particular  survey  of  that  region  during  my  second  journe}^  the 
result  of  which  has  been  to  invest  the  lake  with  a  shape  of 
greater  symmetry — a  central  body  with  two  arms,  one  on  the 
north-east,  the  other  on  the  south-west.  The  remainder  of  the 
outline  I  have  borrowed  from  the  best  available  sources,  adapting 
them  to  the  position  of  Van,  of  which  the  latitude  and  longitude 
are  approximately  known,  and  correcting  them  as  well  as  possible 
by  sketches,  and  readings  to  the  principal  points  from  the  summit 
of  Sipan.  If  my  reader  will  turn  to  the  map  which  accompanies 
this  work  he  will,  I  think,  be  able  to  transfer,  with  the  aid  of  a 
^Q\\  illustrations,  the  features  which  are  there  conventionally  de- 
lineated into  a  picture  visible  by  the  mind's  eye. 

How  strange  it  seems  that  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century  one  should  be  engaged  in  exploring  and  mapping  this 
fine  country,  one  of  the  fairest  and  most  favoured  of  the  Old 
World  !  How  should  we  be  able  to  explain,  still  less  to  justify, 
the  circumstance  to  some  visitor  from  another  planet?  It  lies 
about   in    the    centre    of   the   land    area    of  our  hemisphere  ;   the 


40  Armenia 

climate  is  bracing,  water  is  abundant,  the  sun  is  warm.  Yet  it 
is  so  little  known  to  the  more  civilised  peoples  that  their 
travellers  journey  thither  with  the  aid  of  a  compass  through 
districts  which  are  now  deserts,  but  which  are  well  capable  of 
supporting  the  races  that  are  highest  in  the  human  scale.  The 
case  would  appear  to  have  been  much  the  same  during  the  period 
of  the  expansion  of  Greek  culture  and  of  the  later  and  beneficent 
sway  of  Rome.  The  knowledge  displayed  of  these  regions  by 
representative  writers  like  Strabo,  Pliny  and  Ptolemy  is,  to  say 
the  best  of  it,  vague  and  fabulous.  Yet  Strabo,  the  contemporary 
of  Augustus,  w^s  a  native  of  Asia  Minor  ;  the  countrymen  of 
Pliny  had  carried  the  Roman  eagles  to  the  Araxes  ;  and  Ptolemy 
wrote  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian  whose  statue, 
commemorating  his  journey  through  the  interior,  looked  out  upon 
the  waves  above  Trebizond.  The  first  of  these  authorities 
plainl}'  confuses  the  position  of  Lake  Urmi  with  that  of  Lake 
Van  ;  but  he  is  well  acquainted  with  the  essential  characteristics 
of  both  sheets  of  water,  different  and  strongly  marked  as  these 
are.  The  former  is  described  as  largest  in  area,  and  second  in 
size  to  the  sea  of  Azof;  its  name  is  interpreted  to  signify  the 
deep  blue  (kvuv!}  kp^i-jvevOelcra).  The  water  is  salt  ;  and  there 
arc  salt  works  in  the  neighbourhood.^  The  peculiar  properties 
which  actually  distinguish  the  latter  exactl}'  tally  with  the 
language  of  Strabo,  who,  speaking  next  of  the  lake  Arsene  or 
Thopitis,  says  that  it  is  charged  with  nitre,  which  word  would  seem 
with  him  to  signify  carbonate  of  soda,"  and  that  it  washes  clothes 
as  though  thc}'  had  been  scoured.  He  adds  that  the  water  is 
undrinkable  and  supports  onh'  one  kind  of  nsh.  And  he  pro- 
ceeds to  relate  a  circumstance  which  is  repeated  and  embroidered 
by  Pliny,  and  which  is  so  curious  that  I  cannot  refrain  from  extract- 
ing the  whole  passage  from  the  work  of  the  last-named  writer.^ 

'  Strabo,  xi.  529.  This  account  exactly  corresponds  to  the  phenomena  presented 
by  Lake  Urmi,  and  it  is  impossible  to  apply  it  to  Lake  Van  as  Kilter  (Erdkiiitde,  ix.  p. 
784)  has  done.  It  is  quite  true  that  Strabo  has  already  six  chapters  back  mentioned 
and  described  the  former  under  the  name  of  Spauta,  which  is  quite  likely  a  misprint  for 
Kapauta,  a  corruption  of  the  Armenian  name  Kapf)tan,  which,  in  turn,  is  evidently 
derived  from  the  .Armenian  word  kapoyt,  signifying  blue  (Saint  Martin,  Mt'»toires,  i.  ]i.  59). 
In  that  passage  he  rightly  places  the  lake  in  the  Atropatian  Media  ;  while  in  chapter 
529  he  speaks  of  it  under  a  difterent  name,  that  of  Mantiane,  and  says  that  it  extends 
as  far  as  .\tropatia.  But  that  the  .MaiUiane,  as  described  by  Strabo,  is  not  our  Lake 
Wan,  and  that  the  latter  is  in  many  respects  most  faithfully  portrayed  by  him  under  the 
name  Thopitis  in  sentences  immediately  following,  there  can,  I  think,  be  little  doubt. 

-  Liddell  and  Scott,  stih  voce  virpov. 

'  I'liny,  Hisf.  Natiiralis,  vi.  ch.  31,  translated  by  Philemon  Holland,  London,  1635. 
I  have  myself  added  the  sentences  in  brackets. 


Van  4 1 

'■'■  Meet  also  and  convenient  it  is  to  say  somewhat  of  the  river  Ti}:;ris. 
It  begins  in  the  land  of  Armenia  the  greater,  issuing  out  of  a  great 
source  ;  and  evident  to  be  seen  in  the  very  plaine  (fonte  conspicuo  in  planitie). 
The  place  beareth  the  name  of  Elongosine  (or  Elegosine,  Elosine,  Elegos). 
The  river  it  selfe  so  long  as  it  runs  slow  and  softly  is  named  Diglito ;  but 
when  it  begins  once  to  carry  a  more  forcible  streame  it  is  called  Tigris,  for 
the  swiftnesse  thereof ;  which  iti  the  Median  language  betokens  a  shaft 
f^sagittaj.  //  runs  into  the  lake  Arethusa,  ~vhich  beareth  up  aflote  all  that 
is  cast  into  it,  suffering  nothing  to  sinke  ;  and  the  vapors  that  arise  out  of  it 
carry  the  sent  of  nitre.  In  this  lake  there  is  but  one  kind  of  fish,  and  that 
entreth  not  into  the  chanell  of  Tigris  as  it  passeth  through,  nor  more  than 
any  fishes  stvim  out  of  Tigris  into  the  water  of  the  lake.  In  his  course  and 
colour  both  he  is  unlike,  and  as  he  goes  may  be  discerned  from  the  other :  and 
being  once  past  the  lake,  and  incountreth  the  great  mountain  Taurus,  he 
loseth  himself  in  a  certain  cave  or  hole  in  the  ground,  and  so  runs  under  the 
hill,  untill  on  the  other  side  thereof  he  breaketh  forth  again,  and  appeares  in 
his  likenesse,  in  a  place  called  Zoroanda.  That  it  is  the  same  river  it  is 
evident  by  this,  that  he  carrieth  through  with  him,  and  showeth  in  Zoroanda, 
whatsoever  was  cast  into  him  before  he  hid  himselfe  in  the  cave  aforesaid. 
After  this  second  spring  and  rising  of  his  he  enters  into  another  lake,  and 
runneth  through  it  liketvise,  named  Ihospites  ;  and  once  again  takes  his  way 
under  the  earth  through  certain  blind  gutters,  and  25  7niles  beyond  he 
putteth  forth  his  head  about  NymphcEum.  Claudius  CcBsar  reporteth,  that 
in  the  country  Arrhene,  the  river  Tigris  runs  so  7ieere  the  river  Arsania, 
that  7i'hen  they  both  swell,  and  their  ivaters  are  out,  they  joyne  both  their 
streams  together,  yet  so,  as  the  water  is  not  mingled :  for  Arsanias  being 
the  lighter  of  the  ttvain,  swimmeth  and  floteth  over  the  other  for  the  space 
wel-neere  of  ^  miles  :  but  soon  after  they  part  asunder,  and  Arsania  turneth 
his  course  toivard  the  river  Euphrates,  into  which  he  entreth." 

We  need  not  discuss  in  this  place  the  phenomenon  last 
mentioned,  except  to  remark  that  the  story  may  well  have  been 
suggested  by  the  propinquity  of  the  sources  of  the  Diarbekr  branch 
of  the  Tigris  to  the  stream  of  the  Murad,  the  ancient  Arsanias. 
The  country  of  Arrhene  is  probably  the  same  as  that  better  known 
as  Arzanene,  which  is  comprised  within  the  present  vilayet  of 
Diarbekr.  Our  present  interest  in  the  passage  lies  in  the  state- 
ments relative  to  the  Tigris,  that  it  flows  through  two  lakes  called 
Arethusa  and  Thospites.  Strabo,  in  speaking  of  the  same  pheno- 
menon, attributes  it  to  one  lake  only,  namely  that  of  Arsene 
or  Thopitis.  The  river,  according  to  him,  rises  in  the  Niphates 
mountains,  by  which  name  he  seems  to  be  referring  to  the 
Nepat  of  Armenian  writers,  the  modern  Ala  Dagh.  After 
flowing  through  Lake  Thopitis  it  disappears  in  a  chasm  at  the 
corner   of  the  lake.      It   comes  to  light   again  in   the  province  of 


42  Armenia 

Chalonitis  ;  and,  although  later  on  he  attributes  that  province  to 
the  Zagros,  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  the  sense  which  his 
informants  wished  to  convey  was  that  it  came  to  light  in  the 
mountains  of  the  peripheral  region.  The  mention  of  two  lakes 
by  Pliny  need  not  perplex  us  over-much  ;  for  his  Arethusa  no 
doubt  denotes  the  Arjish  arm  of  Lake  Van,  and  his  Thospites 
the  principal  body  of  water  with  the  city  of  Van,  the  Dhuspas  of 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  upon  its  eastern  shore.  Ptolemy,  on 
the  other  hand,  entangles  the  subject  still  further  by  separating 
the  lakes  of  Areesa — no  doubt  the  Arethusa  of  Pliny — and 
Thospitis  by  four  degrees  of  longitude.  This  geographer  does 
not  give  us  any  indications  as  to  the  properties  of  the  lake  waters  ; 
but  he  tells  us  that  the  Tigris  is  partly  a  river  of  Armenia  and 
that  its  sources  constitute  Lake  Thospitis.  The  position  which 
he  assigns  to  the  town  of  Artemita — ^which  is  probably  the 
modern  Artemid — is  further  evidence  that  in  speaking  of  Lake 
Areesa  or  Arsissa  he  was  in  fact  referring  to  Lake  Van.  One 
cannot  help  concluding  that  his  Thospitis  with  the  town  of 
Thospia  was  actually  the  self-same  sheet  of  water.  The  dis- 
crepancy in  longitude  finds  a  parallel  in  the  degrees  assigned  by 
this  writer  to  Lakes  Sevan  and  Urmi.  They  are  really  upon  the 
same  degree.  Yet  Ptolemy,  under  the  names  of  Lychnitis  and 
Martianes,  assigns  to  them  the  difference  of  over  four  degrees. 

I  think  it  is  plain  that  the  names  Thopitis,  Thospites,  xA.rsene, 
Arethusa,  and  xAreesa  or  Arsissa,  are  all  applied  to  the  great 
basin  with  the  two  immemorial  cities,  Dhuspas — the  modern  Van 
— and  xArjish.  Moreover,  I  should  be  surprised  to  learn  that  any 
lake  exhibiting  the  same  properties  had  been  discovered  in  the 
belt  of  mountains  south  of  Lake  Van  in  which  the  present  sources 
of  the  Tigris  are  found.  Put  together,  the  scraps  of  information 
retailed  by  the  classical  geographers  go  to  show  that  in  their  days 
there  existed  a  widely  spread  belief  that  the  Tigris  drew  its 
waters  from  the  tableland  of  Armenia,  flowed  through  a  lake 
strongly  impregnated  with  soda,  and  disappeared  in  a  chasm  at 
its  further  and  narrow  extremity  {\xv^o^)  to  come  to  light  again 
on  the  further  side  of  the  barrier  of  Taurus  or,  in  other  words,  of 
the  parapet  of  mountains  which  arc  aligned  upon  the  south  coast 
of  Lake  Van.  The  mention  of  two  lakes  by  Pliny  and  Ptolemy 
may  point  to  a  former  isolation  of  the  Arjish  arm.  I  have  taken 
the  trouble  to  set  forth  these  accounts — though  not  with  all  the 
care    that    I    should    desire — because    they    have    an    important 


Van  43 

bearing  upon  the  subject  to  which  I  now  proceed — a  brief  notice 
of  some  of  the  peculiarities  which  distinguish  Lake  Van. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  cast  one's  look  a  little  further 
so  as  to  include  the  other  great  lakes.  That  of  Urmi  in  the 
Persian  frontier  province  of  Azerbaijan  has  an  area  of  1823 
square  miles.  Its  extreme  length  from  north  to  south  is  about 
80  miles,  and  its  breadth  from  east  to  west  24  miles.  It 
resembles  its  neighbour  on  the  west  in  constituting  an  isolated 
basin,  many  rivers  flowing  in  but  none  out.  On  the  other  hand 
its  insignificant  depth  invests  it  with  the  character  of  a  lagoon  ; 
the  average  being  probably  not  more  than  20  feet  and  the 
maximum  some  45  or  50  feet.  Evaporation  must  be  very  rapid 
over  such  a  sheet  of  water  ;  and  it  is  at  once  situated  further 
south  than  the  lake  of  Van  and  at  a  level  which  is  lower  by 
1500  feet  (Lake  Urmi,  4100  feet;  Lake  Van,  5637  feet). 
Abnormal  salinity  is  the  special  feature  about  the  waters  of  Lake 
Urmi  ;  and  extensive  beds  of  rock  salt  are  found  in  their  vicinity. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  they  are  six  times  as  salt  as  the 
ocean,  though  only  three-fifths  as  heavily  charged  with  saline 
matter  as  the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Viewed  from  a  height 
they  are  coloured  a  deep  azure,  a  characteristic  usual  with  salt 
lakes.  If  they  are  allowed  to  dry  upon  the  body  of  the  bather 
it  is  as  though  he  had  been  covered  with  flour,  and  neither  fish 
nor  molluscs  can  live  within  them.  The  shores  of  the  lake, 
which  are  in  general  low,  are  impregnated  with  salt  ;  and  the 
margin,  upon  which  are  found  fragments  of  fossil  coral  and  shell, 
shines  like  a  white  ribbon  by  the  side  of  the  blue.  Three  boats 
of  not  more  than  20  tons  burden  compose  the  entire  fleet  of  this 
inland  sea.^ 

Very  different  is  the  description  which  may  be  given  of  Lake 
Gokcheh  (the  blue)  or  Sevan- — the  Lychnitis  of  Ptolemy,  the 
lake  of  Gegham  or  of  Geghark  in  Armenian  literature.  It  is 
situated  at  a  level  of  6340  feet,  and  is  therefore  the  most 
elevated,  if  also  the  smallest,  of  the  three  great  sheets  of  water 
upon  the  surface  of  the  tableland.  It  lies  at  a  distance  of  about 
130  miles  north  of  the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Urmi,  and  close  to 

^  I  have  derived  these  particulars  not  from  personal  observation,  but  for  the  greater 
part  from  the  notices  of  Abich  (  Vergkichende  chemische  Untcrsuchungen  der  IVasser  des 
Caspischen  Meeres,  Ui'mia  itnd  Van-See's,  Mem.  Acad.  Sc.  St.  Petersburg,  1859,  Series  6 
math,  et  phys.  vol.  vii.  pp.  22  seq.)  ;  Loftus  {Quarterly  Journal  Geological  Soc.  London, 
1855,  vol.  xi.  pp.  306  seq.);  and  Mr.  R.  T.  GUnther  [Geographical Journal,  November 
1S99,  and  Proceedings  of  the  Koyal  Society,  October  1899). 


44  Armenia 

the  barrier  of  the  mountains  of  the  northern  peripheral  region. 
Its  waters  are  sweet  and  support  delicious  salmon  trout  ;  they 
are  said  to  attain  a  depth  of  360  feet,  or,  according  to  another 
observer,  of  425  feet.^  Gokcheh  is  in  fact  essentially  an  Alpine 
lake,  lying  restfully  in  the  lap  of  a  circle  of  mountains  of  which 
those  on  the  southern  shore  are  of  eruptive  volcanic  origin.  It 
has  an  outlet  on  the  west  to  the  river  Zanga,  and  a  portion  of 
its  waters  find  their  way  through  this  channel  to  the  Araxes. 
The  balance  of  opinion  inclines  to  the  view  that  this  connection 
is  of  artificial  origin  ;  and  when  the  lake  is  low,  especially  in 
autumn,  the  stream  will  be  almost  dry." 

But  both  Urmi  and  Gokcheh  sink  into  obscurity  when  compared 
to  the  lake  of  Van.  Almost  as  large  as  the  one  and  perhaps 
deeper  than  the  other,  it  at  once  combines  some  of  the  character- 
istics of  either  basin  and  adds  others  essentially  its  own.  Like 
Urmi  its  waters  are  heavily  charged,  though  with  soda  rather 
than  with  salt.  Its  great  elevation  and  its  juxtaposition  to  the 
mountains  of  the  peripheral  region  recall  corresponding  features 
in  Gokcheh.  But  like  a  book  which  may  borrow  much  from  the 
work  of  other  writers,  and  yet  produce  an  effect  on  the  reader 
which  is  wholly  new,  so  one  opens  the  landscape  of  Lake  Van 
with  that  particular  emotion  which  only  very  beautiful  and 
original  objects  can  produce.  With  the  wondrous  pieces  of 
natural  architecture  about  the  margins  of  this  inland  sea  my 
reader  will  become  perfectly  familiar  as  this  work  proceeds.  My 
present  object  is  to  fly  very  low  to  the  ground,  and  to  notice 
such  facts  as  appeal  to  the  mind  rather  than  to  the  eye.  The 
extreme  length  of  the  lake  would  seem  to  measure  78  miles, 
and  the  breadth  from  north  to  south  of  the  principal  body  about 
32  miles.  To  all  appearance  it  is  very  deep  except  at  the 
north-east  and  south-west  extremities  ;  but  no  systematic  sound- 
ings have  been  taken  to  my  knowledge,  though  it  would  be 
extremely  interesting  to  know  whether  indications  can  be  traced 
of  the  Arjish  arm  having  once  composed  a  separate  unit.  The 
principal  streams  enter  the  easterly  portion  of  the  basin  ;  they 
are  the  Erishat  or  Irshat  near  Akantz,  the  Bendimahi  Chai,  the 
Marmed  and  the  Khoshab.  Several  little  rivers  are  collected  in 
the  delta  below  the  old  Akhlat,  and  quite  a  nice  stream  cascades 

1  Brandt  and   Wagner  quoted   by   Sieger  {Die  Schwankiiiigen  dcr  hochannenischen 
Seen,  Vienna,  1888,  p.  22). 

2  Dr.    W.    Belck  in    Globus,    1894,   vol.    Ixv.   p.   302  ;    A.   Owerin  in   Pelermann's 
Mittheiliingcii ,  1858,  p.  471  ;   Professor  Hughes  in  Nat  tire,  l'"ebruary  1898. 


Van 


45 


into  the  lake  at  the  neighbouring  village  of  Karmuch,  which 
probably  collects  a  portion  of  the  drainage  of  the  plain  between 
Nimrud  and  Lake  Nazik.  No  issue  of  the  sea  has  yet  been 
discovered.  None  of  the  copious  springs  which  feed  the  Tigris 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  parapet  of  mountain,  quite  close  to 
the  flood  washing  its  northern  slopes,  has  yet  been  shown  to 
possess  any  of  the  strongly  marked  qualities  characteristic  of 
the  waters  of  Lake  Van.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
springs  is  situated  near  the  south-west  corner  of  the  lake,  at  Sach 
in  the  Giizel  Dere  or  beauteous  valley— a  valley  with  a  specially 
appropriate  name.^  It  has  been  examined  by  Major  Maunsell, 
who  describes  it  as  issuing  from  the  base  of  a  cliff  and  immedi- 
ately constituting  a  stream  50  yards  wide  and  18  inches  deep. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  this  source  of  the  Tigris  may  have  given 
colour  to  the  belief  of  the  ancients  that  the  river  flowed  through 
the  lake  and  found  an  exit  at  its  further  end  by  an  underground 
channel.  Another  scarcely  less  interesting  fountain  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood is  that  of  Norshen  at  the  head  of  the  plain  of  Mush. 
It  rises  in  a  circular  pool  with  a  diameter  of  105  feet,  from 
which  it  wells  over  into  a  stream  which  runs  to  the  Euphrates. 
The  natives  hold  that  it  is  in  connection  with  the  lake  in  the 
crater  of  Nimrud,  and  relate  how  a  shepherd,  whose  staff,  weighted 
with  a  small  parcel  of  coin,  had  sunk  below  the  surface  of  that 
deep  mere,  had  one  day  been  astonished  to  see  the  lost  object 
eddying  in  the  current  of  the  pool  of  Norshen.  Careful  scrutiny 
of  the  spring  during  my  second  journey  established  the  conviction 
that  it  affords  no  outlet  to  Lake  Van.  Moreover,  its  position  and 
the  delicious  flavour  of  its  water  point  to  its  being  derived  from 
the  limestones  of  the  range  on  the  south  of  the  plain. 

Analysis  of  the  waters  of  Lake  Van  has  furnished  results 
which  are  described  as  remarkable  by  the  eminent  chemist  to 
whom  I  submitted  the  sample  which  I  brought  home  with  me, 
and  which  I  obtained  by  swimming  out  from  the  rocky  shore  at 
Erkizan,  some  distance  east  of  the  abandoned  Ottoman  fortress 
of  Akhlat.  The  amount  of  suspended  matter  has  been  found  to 
be  very  trifling  ;  while  the  proportion  of  solids  in  solution,  princi- 
pally carbonates  of  potassium  and  sodium,  chlorides  and  sulphates, 
is  very  large  indeed.      It  is  estimated  that   the  alkalinity  is  equal 

1  The  traveller  journeying  along  the  Giizel  Dere  on  the  way  from  Van  to  Bitlis 
cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  by  the  insignificance  of  the  water-parting  between  the  small 
stream,  called  Sapor  Su,  tributary  to  Lake  Van,  and  the  brooks  which  find  their  way 
to  the  Tigris. 


46  Armenia 

to  rather  more  than  3-j;  ounces  of  ordinary  soda  crystal  dissolved 
in  a  gallon  of  water.  The  presence  of  a  little  silica  accompanies 
the  alkali.  The  account  given  by  Strabo  of  the  cleansing 
properties  of  the  lake  is  thus  confirmed  in  a  striking  manner. 
Indeed,  the  bather  issues  from  his  swim  as  though  his  limbs 
had  been  rubbed  with  soap — but  with  a  soap  of  extremely 
agreeable  quality,  leaving  a  velvety  feeling  upon  the  skin.  The 
great  buoyancy  of  the  waves  enhances  the  pleasure  of  such 
exercise,  and  they  are  at  once  pellucid  and  sparkling  under  the 
ruffle  of  the  breeze.  On  the  other  hand  they  are  most  un- 
pleasant to  the  taste.  The  colour  of  the  sheet  of  water  cannot 
be  given  in  a  single  word  ;  and  indeed  it  varies  with  extraordinary 
range  of  scale.  A  cobalt  of  great  brilliancy  is  perhaps  the  most 
normal  hue  ;  but  a  certain  milky  paleness  is  seldom  quite  absent, 
becoming  invested  at  morning  and  evening  with  an  infinite 
number  of  delicate  tints.^ 

Only  one  kind  of  fish  is  found  in  Lake  Van,  resembling  a 
large  bleak.  But,  often  as  I  have  bathed,  I  have  never  seen  one 
gliding  through  the  water,  or  surprised  a  shoal  while  following 
the  shore.  It  is  possible  that  they  adhere  to  the  estuaries  of  the 
rivers,  up  which  they  make  their  way  in  large  numbers  to  spawn 
during  the  season  of  spring  freshets.  It  is  then  that  they  are 
caught  in  great  quantities  by  means  of  barriers  placed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  streams  with  baskets  resting  against  one  side. 
The  fish  leap  the  barrier  and  fall  into  the  baskets,  after  which 
they  are  dried  and  salted.  Seagulls  and  cormorants  haunt  the 
lake,  but  are  not  very  numerous  ;  nor  have  I  observed  a  pelican, 
although  these  birds  are  conspicuous  on  the  adjacent  lake  of 
Nazik  together  with  many  varieties  of  smaller  waterfowl.  The 
main  body  of  the  sea  never  freezes  over  in  winter,  rigorous  as 
that  season  is  at  this  high  altitude. 

A  feature  which  has  occupied  considerable  attention,  especi- 
ally  among   German   writers,  is   the  fluctuation    in   level   of  these 

'  To  llie  analysis  of  my  sample  by  Mr.  William  Thorp  I  append  that  of  Dr.  Serda 
of  .Strasbourg  from  one  brought  by  M.  Mliller-.Simonis  from  Van  and  published  on 
p.  258  o{  Dit  Caiicase  an  Golfe  Persique,  Paris,  1892.  I  have  also  thought  it  well  to 
include  the  analysis  published  by  Mr.  Criinther  of  the  water  of  Lake  Urmi.  These  will 
be  found  in  the  appendix  to  this  volume. 

Small  lakes  impregnated  with  soda  have  lieen  found  along  the  south-east  foot  of  the 
Ararat  fabric  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Araxes.  From  sodas  so  derived  an  excellent  soap 
used  to  be  made  in  Alexandropol,  and,  for  all  I  know,  may  be  still  manufactured  there. 
The  same  practice  is  related  of  the  inhabitants  of  \'an.  See  Aliich's  article  [op.  cit. 
pp.  32  seq.),  and  Loftus  {op.  cit.  p.  320). 


Van  47 

Armenian  lakes.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  all  three 
subject  to  more  or  less  pronounced  periodical  changes  ;  and 
various  reasons  have  been  assigned.  Do  these  fluctuations 
arise  from  the  opening  or  closing  of  subterraneous  issues  or  from 
movements  of  the  earth's  crust  ?  Or  may  they  be  accounted  for 
by  ordinary  climatic  conditions,  such  as  the  fall  of  snow  and 
rain  and  the  consequent  variation  in  the  volume  of  the  rivers 
and  in  the  activity  of  springs  ?  The  economic  state  of  the 
country  and  the  extent  of  irrigated  land  within  the  watershed  has 
been  recognised  as  a  factor,  but  a  factor  of  insufficient  importance 
to  produce  the  recorded  results  during  the  period  reviewed.  In 
the  case  of  Lake  Van  we  are  precluded  from  attributing  these 
fluctuations  to  the  agency  of  subterraneous  issues.  Not  a  single 
one  of  such  has  yet  been  discovered.  Nor  am  I  aware  that  any 
such  outlets  to  Gokcheh  or  Urmi  have  been  noted  by  any 
traveller.  The  evidence  which  may  be  collected  in  the  case  of 
all  goes  to  show  that  the  islands  are  as  much  affected  as  the 
adjacent  shores.  It  may  therefore  seem  unlikely  that  the  changes 
arise  from  movements  at  the  bottom  of  the  lake  ;  for  these  would 
lift  or  depress  the  islands  to  some  extent.^  If  I  venture  to  join 
in  the  discussion  I  would  submit  the  suggestion  that  we  should  for 
convenience  group  the  phenomena  under  two  heads.  Temporary 
variations  should  be  distinguished  from  any  differences  of  a  more 
permanent  nature  the  existence  of  which  it  may  be  possible  to 
prove." 

It  cannot  be  expected  that  we  should  be  able  to  collect 
evidence  of  a  satisfactory  nature  in  respect  of  the  changes  which 
would  fall  within  the  first  category.  We  have  to  rely  upon  the 
statements  and  even  upon  the  inferences  which  may  be  derived 
from  the  writings  of  travellers.  Even  if  we  could  rest  contented 
with  the  accuracy  and  sufficiency  of  such  testimony  in  the  case 
of  lakes  which  are  so  much  affected  by  the  melting  of  the  winter 
snows,    it    would    not    establish,    except    in    a    very    approximate 

1  It  must,  however,  be  noted  that  certainly  in  the  case  of  Lake  \"an  no  islands  are 
found  far  from  the  shore.  The  last  rise  in  level  took  place  about  1895  ;  and  in  that 
year  there  was  an  earthquake  at  Adeljivas.  The  inhabitants  of  Uran  Gazi  on  the  slopes 
of  Sipan  assured  us  that  this  earthquake  produced  a  rise  in  level  of  the  Jil  Gol,  adjacent 
to  the  village. 

2  The  subject  is  fully  discussed  by  Abich  (op.  cit.)  and  by  Dr.  Sieger  (^Di'e  Schwan- 
kungen  der  hocharmeuischen  Seen  seit  1800,  Vienna,  1888,  and  Globus,  1894,  vol. 
Ixv.  pp.  73-75).  Notable  contributions  have  been  made  by  Loftus  {op.  cit.),  by  Strecker 
(Zeitsckrift  der  Gesell.  fiir  Erdkiinde,  Berlin,  1 869,  pp.  549  seq. )  and  by  Dr.  Belck 
(Globus,  vol.  Ixiv.  pp.  157  seq.  and  vol.  Ixv.  pp.  301  seq.;  Zeitsckrift  fiir  Ethiwlogie, 
Berlin,  1898,  p.  414). 


48  Armenia 

manner,  the  beginnings  and  ends  of  the  successive  phases.  Still, 
the  subject  is  so  interesting  that  it  is  worth  while  to  collate  the 
observations  of  which  record  may  be  found.  In  the  subjoined 
table  I  have  endeavoured  to  perform  this  task ;  and  it  has 
already  been  undertaken  with  great  diligence  by  Dr.  Sieger.  It 
will  be  seen  that  a  certain  correspondence  may  occasionally  be 
traced  in  the  periodical  fluctuations  which  have  affected  the  three 
sheets  of  water.^  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  evidence  in  this 
sense  is  that  which  is  furnished  by  the  almost  simultaneous  observa- 
tions for  I  898.  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann  for  Lake  Gokcheh, 
Mr.  Gijnther  for  Lake  Urmi,  and  my  companion,  Mr.  F.  Oswald, 
and  myself  for  Lake  Van,  all  bear  witness  to  a  rise  in  quite 
recent  years.  Our  own  investigations  were  made  during  the 
month  of  July  of  that  year,  and  were  confined  to  the  westerly 
inlets  of  the  lake.  A  prominent  feature  about  these  inlets  was 
the  tendency  of  the  streams  to  form  shallow  lagoons  behind  a 
narrow  barrier  of  alluvial  sand.  On  the  margin  or  even  in  the 
bed  of  such  lagoons  one  might  often  see  a  group  of  willows. 
Some  had  been  immersed  a  foot  or  two  by  the  rise  in  the  waters  ; 
and,  while  their  neighbours  on  dry  land  were  green  and  thriving, 
these  were  quite  dead.  The  most  notable  example  was  observed 
by  Oswald  within  the  little  broken-down  crater  on  the  southern 
shore  opposite  Akhlat.  It  receives  the  lake  within  its  enfolding 
arms.  •  We  have  called  it  Sheikh  Ora  after  a  little  village  of 
that  name  which  was  discovered  in  its  south-east  corner.  Oswald 
sailed  across  to  examine  this  interesting  spot  while  I  was  busily 
engaged  at  Akhlat.  Between  the  village  and  the  water  he  came 
across  a  small  grove  of  willows  upon  which  the  lake  had  gained. 
Those  above  the  water  line  were  evidently  flourishing  ;  but  those 
which  stood  in  the  lake  had  been  killed  and  their  bark  withered, 
so  that  many  of  the  stems  were  quite  gaunt  and  bare.  The 
average  diameter  of  the  trunks  of  the  dead  and  the  living  was  not 
appreciably  different.  It  was  therefore  not  a  question  of  an 
advance  of  the  lake  dating  back  very  many  years.  On  the  other 
hand  there  had  been  time  for  the  chemical  properties  of  the 
water  to  exercise  their  destructive  effect. 

The  same  phenomenon  of  a  rise  in  level  was  apparent  on  the 

^  It  will,  however,  be  observed  that  there  is  a  discrepancy  between  the  condition  of 
Lake  Gokcheh  and  that  of  Lake  Van  during  the  seventies  and  eighties.  The  testimony 
of  General  Schindler  and  of  Dr.  Rodler  is  in  favour  of  the  view  that  Lake  Urmi  was 
in  agreement  with  Lake  \'an  during  the  same  period  (Sieger,  Die  Schwaiikiingeu,  etc., 
p.  18). 


TABULAR  STATEMENT  OF  THE  EVIDENCE  OF  TRAVELLERS  IN   RESPECT  OF  THE 
FLUCTUATIONS  IN  LEVEL  OF  THE  THREE  GREAT  LAKES. 


Year. 


Lake  Van. 


Lake  Urini. 


Lake  Gokcheh. 


1847 


1852 


c.  1875 


Jaubert  attests  a  gradual  riSO 
in  the  waters,  threatening 
Arjish  and  the  suburbs  of 
Van  {l^'oyage  en  Arinenie, 
etc.,  p.  139). 


Brant  attests  a  relapse  which, 
according  to  the  natives,  has 
effected  a  gain  of  one  mile 
in  ten  years  to  the  plain  on 
which  Arjish  stands  (^Journal 
R.G.S.  1840,  X.  p.  403). 

Loftus  records  a  rise  on  native 
authority,  commencing  dur- 
ing the  winter.  In  twelve 
months,  viz.,  by  the  winter 
of  1839,  the  lake  is  said  to 
have  risen  nearly  6  feet.  In 
the  next  two  years,  viz.,  by 
1841,  it  is  said  to  have  risen 
altogether  10  to  12  feet, 
necessitating  the  evacuation 
of  Arjish  by  the  inhabitants, 
the  place  becoming  an  island 
{Quarterly  Journal  Geol. 
Soc.  1855,  p.  318). 

Hommaire  de  Hell  attests  a 
relapse  (  /  'oyagc  e>i  Tiirquie, 
etc.,  quoted  by  Sieger, 
Sch'vankungeii ,  p.  6). 

Layard  attests  a  rise  "during 
the  last  few  years."  Many 
villages  on  the  margin  are 
partly  submerged.  Iskele, 
the  port  of  Van,  is  still  in- 
habited ;  but  the  greater  part 
of  the  village  is  under  water 
(Nineiie/i  anil  Babylon,  p. 
408).  [Layard  was  perhaps 
only  witnessing  the  effects  of 
the  rise  which  commenced 
1838.) 

Loftus  attests  a  considerable 
relapse  during  recent  years, 
said  by  the  natives  to  have 
commenced  in  1850.  Arjish 
is  connected  by  a  passable 
isthmus  to  the  mainland  for 
eight  months  in  the  year 
{pp.  cit.  p.  318). 

Strecker  records  a  continuous 
rise  during  the  years  pre- 
ceding his  writing,  as  evi- 
denced by  Turkish  officials 
of  his  acquaintance  {Feter- 
inanns  Mitt.  1863,  pp.  259 
seq.) 

A  maximum  at  about  this 
period  may  be  inferred  from 
the  accounts  given  by  Bishop 
Poghos  of  Lim  to  Dr.  Belck 
{Globus,  vol.  Ixiv.  p.  157), 
and  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cole  of 
Bitlis  to  Dr.  Butyka  {Globus, 
vol.  Ixv.  p.  73).  From  this 
period  there  appears  to  have 
been  a  gradual  relapse  until 
1892,  and  possibly  later. 

Evidence  of  Oswald  and  my- 
self infers  a  rise  during  the 
last  few  years. 


Itil2 

to 

1829 
1834 


1852 


1856 


Morier  attests  a  relapse. 
The  former  island  of 
Shahi  has  become  joined 
to  the  mainland  by  a 
swampy  isthmus  during 
the  last  two  or  three 
years  {Second  Journey, 
p.  287,  seg.). 

Progressive  relapse  of 
about  10  feet  during  this 
period  attested  by  Mon- 
teith  {J. R.G.S.  1833, 
vol.  iii.  p.  56). 

Relapse  attested  by  Eraser 
since  his  last  visit  in  1822 
{Travels  in  Kurdistan, 
pp.  47  seq.,  and  Narra- 
tive 0/  Khorassan,  p. 
321)- 

Autumn.  Rise  attested  in 
general  terms  by  Rawlin- 
son  {J .R.G.S.  1840,  vol. 
X.  p.  8)  and  more  pre- 
cisely in  1839,  by  Per- 
kins on  native  testimony 
{Residence  in  Persia, 
Andover,  1843,  p.  394). 
Rise  has  been  gradual. 


A  relapse  is  attested  by 
Perkins  to  Loftus  {Quar- 
terly Jour7ial  Geol.  Soc. 
1855,  p.  307)- 

Rise  may  be  deduced  from 
N.  von  Seidlitz  who 
seems  from  a  distance  to 
have  seen  Shahi,  an  is- 
land in  October  {Peter- 
7nanns  Milt.  1858,  pp. 
228,  230). 


Giinther  chronicles  a  rise 
during  the  last  two  years 
on  native  evidence 
(/  R.G.S.  November 
1899,  p.  510). 


1830 


1859 

to 
1879 


A  low  level,  perhaps 
a  minimum,  is  at- 
tested by  Monteith. 
The  canal  to  the 
Zanga  is  an  insignifi- 
cant runnel,  supply- 
ing the  river  with  the 
smallest  portion  of 
its  waters  (/.ye. a .S". 
1833,  vol.  iii.  p.  43). 

Lieut.  Owerin  of  the 
topographical  staff 
of  the  Caucasus, 
estimates  that  nearly 
Jth  of  the  waters  of 
the  lake  find  an 
egress  through  the 
canal  to  the  Zanga 
(Petermann's  Mitt. 
1858,  p.  471).  Other 
evidence  goes  to 
show  that  in  the 
forties  and  fifties 
the  lake  was  cer- 
tainly higher  than  in 
Monteith's  time. 

Relapse  during  this 
period  is  assigned  to 
the  lake  by  Brandt 
{Zoologisclier  An- 
zeiger,  ii.  523  seq.), 
from  whose  obser\a- 
tions   we   may  infer 

a  minimum  about 
1879.  Islands  had 
formed  ;  these  again 
had  become  a  penin- 
sula. The  canal  to 
the  Zanga  seems  to 
have  been  scarcely 
operative  at  all. 

Relapse  has  con- 
tinued. Trees  plant- 
ed thirty  years  ago 
on  the  margin  of  the 
water  at  the  island 
of  Sevan  are  now 
standing  some  50 
feet  away,  and  some 
7  to  10  feet  above 
the  lake  level.  (Belck 
in  Globus,  vol.  Ixv. 
p.  302). 

Rise  dating  back 
several  years  is  at- 
tested by  Belck  and 
Lehmann.  The  trees 
alluded  to  above  are 
now.  standing  in  the 
water  {Zeitsclirift 
fiir  Ethnologie,  1898 
p.  414). 


VOL.    II 


50  ArTfie^iia 

margin  of  the  large  lake  in  the  crater  on  Nimrud.  There  the 
brushwood,  representing  the  growth  of  many  years,  was  submerged ; 
and  much  had  already  perished  from  want  of  sustenance.  All 
the  evidence  points  to  the  fact  that  such  changes  are  of  a  tempor- 
ary nature,  and  that  a  period  of  increase  is  followed  by  one  of 
decline.  The  most  probable  explanation  is  that  they  are  due  to 
climatic  conditions,  which,  it  is  well  known,  are  variously  operative 
over  cycles  of  years.  In  the  absence  of  any  observatory  in  these 
countries  this  question  is  largely  a  matter  of  surmise  or,  at  best, 
of  inference.  The  existence  of  such  periodical  fluctuations  may 
be  regarded  as  having  been  established  ;  it  remains  to  consider 
the  changes  of  a  more  permanent  order. 

We  must  not  forget  that  at  a  period  relatively  recent  in 
geological  time  this  lake  of  Van  was  but  a  part  of  an  extensive 
inland  sea,  which  appears  gradually  to  have  become  divided  up 
into  a  series  of  basins.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  down  to 
quite  a  late  geological  epoch  no  such  barrier  had  been  constituted 
between  this  basin  and  that  of  the  plain  of  Mush,  which  immedi- 
ately adjoins  it  upon  the  west.  The  waters  have  left  their  mark 
upon  the  rocky  boundaries  of  that  plain  ;  and  to  their  action  I 
do  not  think  we  should  err  in  attributing  the  peculiar  appearance 
of  the  basal  slopes  of  the  Kerkiir  Dagh,  where  they  face  the  great 
depression  of  Mush.  To  the  same  period  perhaps  belong  several 
terraces  which  may  be  traced  upon  the  bush-grown  face  of  the 
southern  coast  of  Lake  Van  beween  Garzik  and  the  Giizel  Dere, 
The  highest  of  these  is  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous,  and  may 
be  situated  at  an  elevation  of  a  hundred  feet  or  more  above  the 
present  level.  Just  as  the  waters  of  the  plain  of  Mush  were 
drained  away  through  a  narrow  opening  in  the  mountains  which 
hem  it  in  upon  the  west,  so  it  is  quite  likely  that  a  similar  vent 
was  offered  by  the  gorge  which  cuts  through  the  parapet  of 
Taurus  in  the  direction  of  Bitlis,  and  at  the  present  day  affords 
an  easy  passage  to  the  caravans  from  the  plains  of  Armenia  into 
the  defiles  of  Kurdistan.  Loftus  chronicles  a  tradition  that  the 
waters  of  Lake  Van  cover  a  plain  that  was  once  studded  with 
villages  and  gardens.  The  streams  of  Arjish  and  the  Bendimahi 
Chai — and  presumably  the  Khoshab — are  said  to  have  met  and 
formed  one  large  river  about  midway  between  Arjish  and  Bitlis. 
His  informants  were  under  the  belief  that  it  had  issued  from  the 
plain  through  a  hole  in  the  earth  ;  and  that  when  this  passage 
had    been    closed    up   by   a    sudden    convulsion    the    present   lake 


Van  5 1 

formed.^  This  story  is  at  least  not  lacking  in  verisimilitude,  so 
far  as  the  existence  of  a  former  river  is  concerned.  This  river 
would  have  probably  flowed  to  the  Tigris,  of  which  it  would  have 
been  the  principal  branch.  The  cause  of  its  being  dammed  up 
was  perhaps  the  outpouring  of  lavas  from  Nimrud,  which  have 
formed  the  plateau  between  Tadvan  and  the  head  of  the  plain 
of  Mush — a  plateau  which  rises  to  a  height  of  680  feet  above 
the  lake,  and,  extending  across  from  Nimrud  to  the  face  of  Taurus 
in  the  south,  chokes  the  entrance  to  the  Bitlis  gorge.  It  is  this 
barrier  which  actually  maintains  the  lake  of  Van.  No  eruptions 
on  this  scale  are  recorded  during  the  historical  period  ;  and,  of 
course,  it  is  not  impossible  that  they  were  originally  submarine. 

These  phenomena,  which  are  partly  attested  by  the  ancient 
lake  terraces  and  in  part  suggested  by  the  general  structure  of 
the  country,  belong  to  an  epoch  which,  if  quite  modern  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  geologist,  probably  lies  beyond  the  range  of 
the  archaeologist  as  well  as  of  the  historian.  Much  the  same 
conditions  as  at  the  present  day  appear  to  have  prevailed  during 
the  historical  period — a  vast  sheet  of  water,  deep  and  translucent, 
dammed  up  by  the  volcanic  barrier  at  its  westerly  extremity.  I 
think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  permanent  tendency  of  this 
sheet  of  water  has  been  to  rise  in  level.  Moreover,  all  the  evidence 
is  to  the  effect  that  this  tendency  has  been  operative  in  the  case 
of  the  other  two  seas.  Dr.  Belck  has  recorded  that  in  the  year 
1890  during  the  month  of  July  he  came  across  a  little  lake  at 
the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Gokcheh,  separated  from  it  by  a  tongue 
of  land  scarcely  more  than  5  5  yards  broad,  and  connected  with 
it  by  a  stream  descending  from  the  mountains  and  piercing 
through  the  isthmus.  On  the  margin  of  this  shallow  lagoon,  near 
the  outflow  of  the  stream,  he  discovered  an  ancient  Armenian 
graveyard  of  which  the  stones  were  under  water.  When  he 
returned  in  August  of  the  following  year  they  were  only  just  dry. 
His  visit  coincided  with  the  latest  stage  of  a  period  of  decline  ; 
and  it  seems  certain  that  since  the  time  when  the  cemetery  was 
constituted  the  norm  about  which  the  fluctuations  oscillate  had 
risen  in  a  marked  degree.  The  same  traveller  draws  our  attention 
to  the  interesting  circumstance  that  the  three  last  lines  of  the 
cuneiform  inscription  of  Rusas  the  First  {c.  730-714  B.C.),  cut  in 
the  face  of  the  rock  overlooking  that  same  northern  lake,  have 
been   almost   completely  destroyed   by  the   erosion   of  the  waters, 

1   Loftus,  op.  cit.  p.  319. 


52  Annenia 

although  placed  just  above  their  level  in  i  89 1.  It  seems  incredible 
that  the  Vannic  king  should  have  engraved  his  memorial  in  a 
situation  where  it  would  be  exposed  to  the  periodical  floods.^ 
As  regards  Lake  Urmi  I  need  only  recall  the  important  discovery 
of  Mr.  Glinther  in  1898.  In  the  islands  of  that  sea  he  found 
many  species  of  living  animals  which  could  not  have  crossed  the 
stretch  of  salt  water,  amounting  to  a  distance  of  some  10  miles, 
that  at  present  separates  their  homes  from  the  shore.  In  his 
opinion  the  zoology  affords  conclusive  testimony  of  these  islands 
having  been  joined  to  the  mainland  at  no  very  distant  date. 
Upon  one  of  them  he  found  the  skeleton  of  a  wild  sheep.'^  The 
evidence  which  may  be  collected  upon  the  shores  of  Lake  Van  all 
points  in  the  same  direction  of  a  progressive  upward  tendency. 

Strecker  has  thrown  out  the  suggestion  that  this  process  may 
be  accountable  for  the  junction  of  the  Arjish  arm  to  the  main 
body  ;  and  that  we  may  therefore  attach  some  credence  to  the 
statements  of  Pliny  that  in  his  time  there  were  two  lakes.^  How- 
ever this  may  be,  we  are  not  dependent  upon  such  hypotheses, 
or  upon  the  stories  current  of  submerged  causeways  or  bridges. 
The  three  old  fortresses  of  Akhlat,  Adeljivas  and  Arjish  all  bear 
testimony  to  a  considerable  rise  in  the  level  of  the  lake  since  the 
days  when  they  were  built.  The  walls  of  the  first  two  on  the 
side  of  the  water  have  either  fallen  in  or  are  being  slowly  under- 
mined. Arjish  has  been  permanently  abandoned  by  its  inhabit- 
ants. Immemorial  villages,  like  that  of  Kizvag  between  Akhlat 
and  Tadvan,  are  being  menaced  by  the  latest  periodical  increase, 
which  seems  to  have  commenced  about  1895.  Nature  herself 
speaks  eloquently  in  the  same  sense.  An  ancient  walnut-tree 
which  stands  on  the  rocky  bank  of  the  lake  in  the  gardens  of 
Erkizan,  a  quarter  of  Akhlat,  had  already  been  deprived  of  a 
great  portion  of  its  foothold  when  we  encamped  beneath  its  boughs 
in  1898.  In  the  Sheikh  Ora  crater  a  giant  mulberry,  which  may 
have  been  some  500  years  old,  was  standing  with  half  its  roots 
in  the  water  and  was  already  doomed.  The  most  obvious  ex- 
planation of  this  gradual  rise  in  the  norm  of  the  lake  level  is 
furnished  by  a  cause,  which  must  be  constantly  operative,  namely 
the  increase  of  sediment  deposited  upon  the  bottom.  But 
whether  this  factor  by  itself  be  sufficient   to   have   produced  such 

1  Globus,  1894,  vol.  Ixv.  pp.  301  and  303. 

2  Geographical  Journal,  November  1899,  j).  513. 

3  Zeits.  Gescll.f.  I'.rdkuudc,  Berlin,   1869,  vol.  iv.  ji.  550. 


J 


jX^L.:,.,>^m>«tm^i^^^tst»^^^m^^Ss:!^M^^ 


P'an  53 

important  changes   is   a  question   upon  which    I   am   not  qualified 
to  pronounce  an  opinion/ 

II. — The  Ancient  Empire  of  Van 

Deep  in  the  curve  of  the  bay,  which  with  minor  indentations 
extends  from  the  promontory  and  island  of  Ktutz  to  Artemid, 
lies  the  isolated  rock  with  the  mediaeval  city  at  its  southern 
foot  and  the  long  line  of  gardens  stretching  eastwards  across 
the  plain  towards  the  slopes  of  Mount  Varag.  These  various 
features  are  disclosed  or  suggested  in  my  illustration  (Fig.  123), 
which  was  taken  from  those  distant  slopes.  But  before  I  invite 
my  reader  to  explore  the  ancient  township,  something  must  be 
said  upon  a  topic  which  here  fascinates  the  traveller's  interest 
equally  with  the  characteristics  of  the  strange  lake  beside  which 
he  sojourns.  I  have  already  on  several  occasions  remarked  upon 
the  insignificance  of  the  human  element  in  these  Armenian  land- 
scapes. At  Van  for  the  first  time  we  become  sensible  of  a 
different  impression,  derived,  not  indeed  from  the  peoples  who 
now  inhabit  the  country,  but  from  the  monuments  of  a  remote 
civilisation  which  abound  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  of  which 
the  spirit  is  wafted  towards  us  across  the  ages.  Here  the  massive 
substructures  of  an  aqueduct,  there  the  Cyclopean  masonry  of 
the  fragment  of  a  wall  tell  the  tale  of  man's  mastery  over  Nature, 
and  insensibly  conjure  the  vision  of  the  plains  crossed  by  great 
roads,  the  rivers  spanned  by  bridges,  the  fertilising  waters  brought 
from  afar.  Our  curiosity  is  enhanced  by  the  inscriptions  in  the 
cuneiform  character  which  are  deeply  incised  in  the  hard  stone 
of  the  various  works.  But  it  rises  to  the  degree  of  fervour  when 
we  survey  the  rock  of  Van,  clearly  recognised  as  the  very  navel 
of  this  old  polity.  Its  precipitous  sides  are  quite  a  library  of 
inscriptions,  carved  upon  their  face  in  spaces  polished  by  human 
hands.  Square-cut  shadows  disclose  the  entrances  of  chambers 
hewn  into  the  calcareous  mass  at  a  considerable  height  above 
the  level  of  the  plain.  And  something  in  the  spirit  of  the  works 
and  in  the  choice  of  situation  at  once  distinguishes  them  from 
the  rock  dwellings,  such  as  those  at  Vardzia  near  Akhalkalaki, 
with  which  we  have  become  familiar  during  the  course  of  our 
journey  south.      It  is  evident   that   in   their  original  purpose  they 

1  Indications  of  a  similar  rise  in  the  norm  of  the  level  of  Lake  Goljik  in  the  southern 
peripheral  region  have  been  noted  by  Prof.  Josef  Wiinsch  {Mitth.  der  K.  K.  geog. 
Gesellschaft,  Vienna,   1885,  vol.  xxviii.  pp.   15-17). 


54  Armenia 

were  only  a  feature  of  a  large  design  which  mocks  the  scale  of 
the  existing  fortifications. 

By  what  people  were  they  inscribed,  these  regular  lines  of 
elegant  characters  ;  and  who  were  the  kings  who  sojourned 
upon  this  delightful  platform,  which  seems  to  have  been  raised 
by  a  freak  of  Nature  in  the  midst  of  the  plain  with  its  westerly 
extremity  almost  reaching  into  the  lake  ?  Armenians,  Persians, 
Arabs,  Seljuks,  Tartars,  Turkomans,  Turks — all  have  come  and 
passed  or  stayed,  and  none  have  been  able  to  return  an  answer 
to  the  question  invited  by  the  writings  on  the  citadel.  They 
have  had  recourse  to  the  resources  of  Oriental  legend,  or  have 
been  content  with  the  explanation  that  these  inscriptions  are 
talismans,  sealing  treasures  long  since  buried  in  the  heart 
of  the  rock.  The  fame  of  the  place  is  widely  spread  over 
all  the  surrounding  country,  forming  as  it  does  the  kernel  of  a 
populous  city  on  the  confines  of  Armenia  and  Kurdistan.  It  has 
been  described  by  the  national  historian  of  the  Armenians  in 
terms  which  in  many  respects  portray  the  existing  features  in  a 
singularly  faithful  manner.  Moses  of  Khorene  attributes  the 
works  to  an  Assyrian  queen  Semiramis,  and  relates  on  the 
authority  of  Mar  Abas  Katina  and  from  Chaldaean  sources  the 
story  of  her  fruitless  passion  for  the  reigning  king  of  Armenia, 
Ara,  and  of  the  death  of  that  monarch  while  resisting  her  endeav- 
ours to  obtain  his  person  by  force.  The  queen  is  said  to  have 
accompanied  her  armies  to  the  northern  kingdom,  and  to  have 
founded  the  city  as  a  summer  residence  for  her  luxurious  court. 
The  tale  is  beset  by  incidents  which  reveal  its  fabulous  nature  ; 
and  the  historian  informs  us  that  several  such  legends  relating  to 
Semiramis  were  current  among  his  own  countrymen.^  At  the 
same  time  he  deplores  the  lack  of  culture  among  his  ancestors, 
to  which  he  ascribes  the  absence  of  native  annals.'^ 

It  has  been  reserved  for  our  own  age  to  penetrate  the 
mystery,  which,  indeed,  is  only  now  as  I  write  being  dispelled. 
Quite  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  while  the  future  excavators 
of  the  Assyrian  cities  were  either  unborn  or  were  still  in  their 
nurseries,  a  young  French  student,  Jean  Antoine  Saint  Martin, 
the  son  of  a  tradesman  in  Paris,  was  fired  by  the  account  of  the 
inscriptions  at  Van  contained  in  the  pages  of  Moses  of  KJwrene^ 

1  Moses  of  A'/toi-eite,  i.   i8.  -  I/u'd.  i.  3. 

^  See  the   memoir  of  Saint    I\Tartin   by  Brosset   prefixed    to   vol.   xiii.   of  Lebeau's 
Histoirc  dii  Bas-Eiiipire,  and  Saint  Martin's  article  in  \\\<t  Jour)ial  Asialique  for  1828. 


Vmi  55 

Mainly  through  his  efforts  the  French  Government- — always 
solicitous  of  the  interests  of  culture — were  induced  to  despatch 
a  mission  to  Armenia  in  1827,  engaging  the  services  of  a  young 
German  professor,  Friedrich  Eduard  Schulz.  The  first  report  of 
the  explorer  was  published  by  Saint  Martin  in  1828.^  By  a 
piece  of  misfortune,  happily  rare  in  the  annals  of  travel  in  these 
countries,  Schulz  was  murdered  by  the  Kurds  in  1829.  But  his 
papers  were  recovered  and  brought  to  Paris,  where  they  seem  to 
have  awaited  in  obscurity  the  awakening  of  interest  in  Oriental 
antiquities  which  was  consequent  upon  the  discoveries  of  Burnouf, 
of  Lassen,  and  of  Rawlinson.  An  instructive  memoir,  together 
with  copies  of  forty-two  inscriptions  at  Van  and  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, appeared  under  his  name  in  1 840  in  the  pages  of  the 
Journal  Asiatique.  Schulz's  copies  have  been  found  to  be  in  the 
main  remarkably  accurate,  although  he  had  not  the  smallest 
knowledge  of  the  language  in  which  they  were  composed.  Little 
by  little  the  contents  of  the  tablets  in  a  similar  character  which 
are  spread  over  Persia  yielded  up  the  secrets  which  they  had  so 
long  maintained  ;  and  the  excavations  in  Mesopotamia  furnished 
Orientalists  with  the  necessary  material  to  enable  them  to  under- 
stand the  languages  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  furnished  in 
such  profusion  by  the  buried  cities  of  the  plains.  But  with  the 
exception  of  the  great  tablet  in  three  columns  and  as  many 
tongues  which  is  such  a  conspicuous  object  on  the  southern  face 
of  the  rock  of  Van  (Schulz,  Nos.  IX.,  X.,  and  XL),  and  an  inscrip- 
tion on  a  stone  in  the  remains  of  a  wall  at  its  base  (Schulz,  No.  L), 
none  of  the  Vannic  records  agreed  with  the  syllabaries  already 
discovered,  or  could  be  translated  into  any  known  language. 
Schulz  had  indeed  perceived  that  the  first  of  these  monuments 
contained  the  names  and  titles  of  Xerxes,  son  of  Darius  ;  and 
when  Layard  visited  Van  and  took  new  copies  in  1850,  it  had 
come  to  be  recognised  that  this  tablet  of  Xerxes  resembled  other 
Achaemenian  inscriptions,  and  was  very  nearly  word  for  word 
the  same  as  those  of  this  Persian  monarch  at  Hamadan  and 
Persepolis.^  The  characters  upon  the  stone  in  the  wall  were 
exactly  the  same  as  those  of  Assyrian  writings  ;  and,  although 
the  inscription  had  not  been  satisfactorily  deciphered  when 
Layard's  book  was  published,  that  investigator  was  able  to  dis- 
cern that   the   language   also  was  x^ssyrian,  while  that  of  all  the 

^  Journal  Asiatique,  Paris,   1828,  vol.  ii.  series  2,  pp.  160-188. 
2  Layard,  Discoveries  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  London,  1853,  p.  394. 


56  Armenia 

remainder,  in  spite  of  the  similarity  in  character,  was  pecuHar  to 
Van,  and  baffled  decipherment.  In  the  meanwhile  other  equally 
perplexing  inscriptions  had  been  discovered  in  districts  of  the 
tableland  remote  from  the  city  of  Semiramis  ;  and  a  partially 
successful  endeavour  had  been  made  by  the  English  Orientalist 
Hincks  to  read  the  mysterious  texts.^  But  the  problem  remained 
unsolved  for  very  many  years,  while  the  stock  of  inscriptions 
collected  by  travellers  in  various  parts  of  Armenia  was  continually 
increasing.  A  great  step  forward  was  made  by  the  discovery  by 
M.  Stanislas  Guyard,  announced  in  1880,^  that  the  phrase  at  the 
conclusion  of  many  of  the  Vannic  texts  represented  the  impreca- 
tory formula  found  in  the  same  place  in  their  Assyrian  and 
Achsemenian  counterparts  ;  and  this  enabled  Professor  Sayce  of 
Oxford  to  proceed  rapidly  with  their  decipherment,  upon  which 
he  had  been  engaged  for  some  years.^  Mainly  as  the  result  of 
his  labours  we  are  now  enabled  to  gather  their  meaning,  and  to 
add  a  new  language  and  a  new  people  to  the  museum  of  the 
ancient  Oriental  world.  Since  he  has  written,  the  number  of 
known  Vannic  texts  has  been  doubled  by  the  German  scholars 
and  travellers,  Professor  Lehmann  and  Dr.  Belck.  They  have 
also,  in  a  series  of  most  instructive  articles,  called  up  the  vanished 
civilisation  from  the  grave,* 

We  now  know  who  built  Van  and  by  whom  these  tablets 
were  engraved  upon  the  face  of  the  citadel.  As  the  horizon 
opens  with  each  advance  in  our  acquisition  of  the  vocabulary 
and  with  each  addition  to  the  catalogues  of  texts,  we  are  intro- 
duced to  no  obscure  dynasty  which  slept  secure  behind  the 
mountains,  but  to  a  splendid  monarchy  w^hich  for  at  least  two 
centuries  rivalled  the  claims  of  Assyria  to  the  dominion  of  the 
ancient  world.  The  native  designation  of  the  imperial  people 
was  that  of  Khaldians  or  children  of  Khaldis,  just  as  the  Assyrians 
reflect  the  name  of  their  god,  Assur.      The  constitution   of  the 

'  "On  the  Inscriptions  of  Van,"  Journal  of  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1848,  vol.  ix. , 
two  papers  read  by  Dr.  Hincks  on  4th  December  1847,  and  4th  March  1848. 

"  JotiDial  Asiaticpie,  Paris,   1880,  vol.  xv.  series  7,  pp.  540-543. 

^  Professor  Sayce's  papers  are  contained  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society, 
vol.  xiv.  1882;  vol.  XX.  1888;  vol.  XXV.  1893;  ^ol-  ^^^''-  1894.  They  should  be 
referred  to  in  the  first  instance  by  the  student  who  wishes  to  penetrate  further  into 
the  subject. 

*  To  the  names  of  Belck,  Guyard,  Lehmann,  and  Sayce,  should  be  added  that  of 
Professor  D.  H.  Miiller  of  Vienna,  the  author  of  several  papers  on  the  suVjject,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  entitled  "  Die  Keilinschrift  von  Aschrut-Darga,  entdeckt  und 
beschrieben  von  Professor  J.  Wtinsch,  publicirt  und  erklart  von  Dr.  D.  H.  Miiller," 
Vienna,   1886. 


Van  5  7 

State  was  that  of  a  theocracy  in  which  Khaldis  occupied  the 
supreme  place.  The  company  of  the  remaining  deities  were 
spoken  of  as  his  ministers,  and  the  whole  land  appears  to  have 
borne  his  name.^  It  was  the  wrath  of  Khaldis  that  was  invoked 
against  whosoever  should  destroy  the  tablets ;  and  with  him 
were  coupled  in  a  kind  of  Trinity  the  god  of  the  air  and  the 
sun -god.  The  seat  of  Khaldis  was  the  city  of  Dhuspas,  the 
modern  Van  ;  and  all  conquests  were  made  by  the  king  in  his 
name.  Dhuspas  was  the  capital  of  the  territory  of  Biaina,  from 
which  the  king  derived  his  title.  We  can  readily  trace  through 
literature  the  corruption  of  the  word  Biaina  into  the  existing 
form,  Van  ;  it  figures  in  the  shape  of  Buana  in  the  writings  of 
Ptolemy  and  in  that  of  Iban  as  late  as  Cedrenus.'  In  the  course 
of  time  it  had  come  to  be  applied  to  the  city  ;  while  the  name 
of  the  city  was  transferred  to  the  province  in  which  it  was  placed, 
and  became  the  Dosp  or  Tosp  of  Armenian  writers."  The 
contemporaries  and  rivals  of  the  Vannic  monarchs,  the  rulers  of 
Assyria,  styled  the  northern  kingdom  Urardhu  or  Urarthu  ;  and 
this  is  the  same  name  that  appears  in  the  Bible  in  the  familiar  form 
of  Ararat.  They  make  no  mention  of  the  local  appellation  of 
Biaina  ;  although  it  seems  possible  that  the  district  called  Bitanu 
or  Bitani  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  may  be  connected  with 
the  latter  name.'*  On  the  other  hand  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  Turuspa  of  the  Assyrian  annals  is  the  Dhuspas  of  the 
monuments  of  Van. 

The  Khaldians  take  their  place  in  this  new  chapter  of  history 
at  least  as  early  as  the  latter  half  of  the  ninth  century  before 
Christ.      Their  language  was  neither  Semitic  nor  Indo-European  ; 

1  So  we  read  in  the  newly-acquired  text  of  the  stele  at  Topsana  (Sidikan),  near 
Rowanduz  :  — "  Urzana,  son  of  Shekikajana,  fled  to  Khaldia  ;  I,  Rusas  (i.e.  Rusas  I. 
of  Van)  marched  as  far  as  the  mountains  of  Assyria "  (Dr.  Belck  in  Zeitschrift  ficr 
Ethnologie,  Berlin,  1899,  p.  1 16).  [The  translation  of  this  passage  appears,  however, 
to  have  been  altered  by  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann.  See  Sitzitngsberichte  der  K.  K. 
Fretiss.  Akad.,  Berlin,  June  1900.  It  would  appear  natural  that  the  Khaldians  should 
have  called  their  land  after  their  god,  and  Dr.  Belck  [ioc.  cit.)  appears  to  entertain  no 
doubt  upon  the  point.  On  the  other  hand  Prof.  Sayce  informs  me  that  he  has  never 
found  the  name  Khaldia  in  the  Vannic  inscriptions  ;  and  that  in  Assyrian  Khaldia 
signifies  the  god  Khaldis.] 

^  Cedrenus,  Hist.   ii.  774. 

3  Saint  Martin,  Mimoires  stir  V Armenie,  vol.  i.  pp.  13 1  and  138.  Cp.  Moses  of 
Khorene,  iii.  35,  "inhabiting  Van  in  the  province  of  Dosp"  with  the  title  of  the  king 
in  the  inscriptions  "  king  of  Biaina  inhabiting  the  city  of  Dhuspas." 

*  Professor  Sayce  makes  the  suggestion  [Journal  of  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1882, 
vol.  xiv.  p.  394).  The  expression  Bitani  seems  to  have  been  loosely  used  ;  but  it 
appears  to  have  been  applied  to  the  peripheral  region  south  of  Lake  Van,  and  it  may 
survive  in  the  name  of  the  river  Bohtan. 


58  Annenia 

and  it  is  therefore  impossible  to  connect  them  either  with  the 
Assyrians,  who  were  Semites,  or  with  the  Armenians,  who  belong 
to  the  Indo-European  family.  They  ruled  over  the  tableland 
which  is  now  Armenia  before  the  Armenians  had  appeared  upon 
the  scene ;  and  it  was  the  movement  of  races  with  which  was 
connected  the  Armenian  immigration  that  seems  ultimately  to 
have  occasioned  their  dispersal  and  the  overthrow  of  their  power. 
Their  dominion  appears  to  have  been  due  in  no  small  degree 
to  the  happy  choice  of  Van  as  their  capital.  Assyrian  history 
ranges  beyond  the  probable  date  of  that  foundation,  to  a  period 
when  Urardhu  was  perhaps  an  obscure  province  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  modern  Rowanduz  in  Kurdistan.  The  Assyrian 
armies  in  their  marches  northwards  were  opposed  by  a  con- 
federacy of  petty  princes  whose  country  is  called  Nairi  in  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions.  That  loose  term  evidently  embraced  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  Armenian  tableland  ;  for  it  was  in 
the  plain  of  Melazkert  that  the  Assyrian  king,  Tiglath-Pileser  I. 
{c.  I  100  B.C.),^  overthrew  the  united  forces  of  the  kings  of  Nairi 
and  erected  a  memorial  tablet  which  has  been  preserved  to  the 
present  day.""^  In  a  restricted  sense  the  name  Nairi  was  applied 
by  the  Assyrians  to  the  province  about  the  middle  and  upper 
course  of  the  Great  Zab  ;  and  the  lakes  of  Van  and  Urmi, 
between  which  that  territory  was  situated,  were  both  known  as 
the  Upper  seas  or  seas  of  the  land  of  Nairi,  Lake  Van  being 
sometimes  distinguished  as  the  Upper  sea  of  the  West,  and  Lake 
Urmi  as  the  Eastern  or  even  as  the  Lower  sea.'^  The  kingdom 
of  Urardhu  is  for  the  first  time  mentioned  by  the  Assyrians  in  the 
reign  of  Ashur-nasir-pal  (885-860  B.C.)  ;  but  it  is  not  before  the 
ensuing  reign  of  Shalmaneser  II.  (860-825  B.C.)  that  we  have 
certain  evidence  of  an  Assyrian  army  marching  into  Armenia  to 
attack  the  territories  not  of  a  league  of  Nairi  princes  but  of  a 
monarch  of  Urardhu.  This  prince,  of  whom  no  records  have 
been   discovered   in   Armenia,   is  called   Arame.      His  capital,  of 

1  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann  adopt  a  later  date,  viz.  c.  looo  B.C.  See  Vcrhand- 
hin^eti  der  Berl.  Gesell.  fiir  Anthropoloi^ie,  1898,  p.  569. 

^  Recently  discovered  by  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann  (  Vcrhandlungen  der  Berl. 
Gesell.  fiir  Anthropologic,  1898,  p.  574). 

3  Great  confusion  has  been  caused  by  the  f;ict  that  the  Assyrians  had  no  distinctive 
names  for  the  two  great  lakes.  The  subject  is  elucidated  by  Schrader  (Die  Navien 
der  Mcere  in  den  assyrischeti  Inschriftcn,  Abh.  Berl.  Akad.  Wiss.,  1877,  Berlin,  1878, 
pp.  169  seq.  ;  Zeitschrift  fiir  Assyriologie,  1886,  pp.  81  seq.  ;  Sitzungsberichte  der  K. 
Pr.  Ak.  Wiss.  Berlin,  1890,  pp.  321  seq.)  and  by  Dr.  Belck  in  Verhandlimgen  (tit 
supra),  1894,  p.  4S5. 


Van  59 

which  the  site  is  at  present  unknown,  but  which  certainly  lay  to 
the  north  of  Lake  Van,  bears  the  name  of  Arzasku.  Arame  was 
signally  defeated  in  857  or  856  B.C.  and  abandoned  his  capital. 
His  cities  as  far  as  the  sources  of  the  Euphrates  (Murad  ?)  were 
taken  by  Shalmaneser  in  845  or  844  B.C.  When  next  we  hear 
of  a  king  of  Urardhu  we  are  able  to  recognise  in  his  name  the 
earliest  of  the  rulers  who  appear  in  the  Vannic  texts.  And  this 
monarch,  Sarduris  the  First,  the  contemporary  of  the  same 
Shalmaneser  and  his  antagonist  about  833  B.C.,  was  the  founder 
of  the  fortress  of  Van. 

No  better  position  for  a  stronghold  against  a  Power  operating 
from  the  lowlands  in  the  south  could  have  been  discovered  by 
the  builders  of  an  empire  on  the  Armenian  plains.  In  the  later 
phases  of  the  history  of  Armenia  the  movements  of  empires  and 
peoples  have  generally  proceeded  between  the  east  and  the  west. 
Against  such  currents  the  city  of  Van  composes  a  minor  obstacle, 
which  they  avoid  on  their  more  normal  and  northerly  course. 
Always  secure  with  a  fleet  on  the  lake  and  the  passes  of  Mount 
Varag  fortified,  the  true  military  value  of  the  place  only  advances 
into  first-rate  importance  when  the  centres  of  the  hostile  forces 
h'e  in  Mesopotamia.  It  is  screened  in  that  direction  by  perhaps 
the  most  impenetrable  section  of  the  entire  outer  or  Iranian  arc 
of  the  peripheral  mountains  which  support  the  tableland.^  More- 
over, the  circumstance  that  the  arc  has  snapped  and  sent  out 
a  splinter  into  the  districts  on  the  north,  represented  by  the 
mountains  in  which  the  Great  Zab  has  its  source,  and,  further 
north,  by  the  elevated  but  not  impassable  waterparting  between 
the  basin  of  Lake  Van  and  that  of  the  Araxes,  has  had  the  effect 
of  concealing  Van  within  the  fork  of  a  twofold  parapet  where  it 
reposes  with  its  back  against  the  complex  barrier  and  defies 
attack  from  the  south  or  south-east.  The  approach  from  the 
west  along  the  southern  shore  of  the  lake  is  interrupted  by  the 
spurs  of  the  great  range  ;  and  the  Assyrian  armies  were  compelled 
to  make  the  detour  by  the  plain  of  Melazkert,  gaining  the  plateau 
by  one  of  the  passes  north  of  Diarbekr  and  leaving  it  upon  their 
return  home  through  one  of  the  passages  east  of  Rowanduz  where 
the  sea  of  mountains  settles  down  to  a  regular  course.  Such  an 
immense  circuit  through  a  hostile  country  necessitated  resources 
on  a  vast  scale,  the  existence  of  which  among  the  Assyrians  fills 
the  mind  with  admiration  when  we  contemplate  the  squalor  of  the 
1  See  Vol.  I.  Ch.  XXI.  p.  423. 


6o  Armenia 

Oriental  empires  of  the  present  day.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  all  the  advantages  lay  on  the  side  of  their  northern  adver- 
saries, to  whom  was  offered  a  reasonable  chance  of  annihilating 
their  hosts,  or,  in  the  event  of  defeat,  the  secure  alternative  of 
shutting  themselves  up  in  their  capital  and  there  awaiting  the 
passing  over  of  the  storm.  These  considerations  serve  to  explain 
the  comparative  immunity  and  the  rapid  development  of  the 
empire  of  the  successors  of  Sarduris  the  First ;  at  a  time,  too, 
when  Assyria  was  governed  by  such  warlike  monarchs  as  Shamshi- 
Ramman  and  Ramman-nirari.^  It  was  reserved  for  Tiglath-Pileser 
the  Third  to  beard  the  lion  in  his  den,  and  to  appear  before  the 
walls  of  Van.  But  even  this  gigantic  figure  failed  to  capture  the 
citadel,  although  he  appears  to  have  destroyed  the  garden  town 
at  its  feet  (73  5  B.c.).^  The  ultimate  effects  of  his  campaign  may 
be  measured  by  the  fact  that  the  inveterate  and  sometimes 
successful  adversary  of  Sargon  (722-705  B.C.)*  was  the  Vannic 
king  Rusas  the  First.  And  the  northern  empire  is  still  a  force 
with  which  the  Assyrians  have  to  reckon  as  late  as  Ashur-bani- 
pal,  the  Sardanapalus  of  the  Greeks  (668-626  B.C.). 

So  far  as  our  knowledge  at  present  extends  we  may  regard 
Sarduris  the  First  as  the  initiator  of  a  remarkable  and  far-reaching 
revolution  among  the  peoples  of  the  tableland.  The  title  which 
this  monarch  bears,  that  of  king  of  Nairi,  as  compared  with  that 
of  his  successors,  kings  of  Biaina,^  connects  him  with  the  earlier 
period  of  the  confederacy  of  Nairi  princes  which  his  dynasty 
under  the  aegis  of  the  god  Khaldis  was  destined  to  supplant. 
His  son,  Ispuinis,  and  his  grandson  Menuas  at  once  extended  the 
empire  and  added  to  the  works  upon  the  citadel  of  Van  ;  and 
the  latter  was  the  principal  author  of  that  magnificient  canal 
which  to  the  present  day  under  the  fanciful  name  of  Shamiram-Su, 
or  river  of  Semiramis,  conducts  the  waters  of  the  Khoshab  to  the 
suburbs   of  Van."*      Menuas  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  the 

1   I  retain  the  former  spelling  of  the  names  of  Shamshi-Hadad  and  Iladad-nirari. 

'■^  An  admirable  account  of  the  operations  of  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  is  given  by  Professor 
Lehmann  in  the  Vcrhandltingen  der  Bcrl.  Gese/I.  ft'ii-  Aitthropohg^ie,  1S96,  pp.  321  seq. 
The  scheme  of  the  defences  of  the  Vannic  kings  is  al)ly  elucidated  by  Dr.  Belck  (Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  Assyrioloi^ie,  1 894,  vol.  ix.  p.  350,  note). 

■*  His  next  successor,  Ispuinis,  is  styled  king  of  Nairi  in  the  Kelishin  inscription  and 
king  of  Biaina  in  that  of  Ashrut  Darga.  The  succeeding  monarchs  are  kings  of  Biaina, 
inhabiting  the  city  of  Dhuspas  (Van). 

^  The  best  account  of  the  Shamiram-Su  or  canal  of  Menuas  is  that  given  by  Dr. 
Belck  [Zcitschrifl  fiir  Ethnologie,  1892,  pp.  137  u'q.).  I  am  under  the  impression  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  waters  of  the  canal  still  find  their  way  to  the  quarter  of  Van 
called  Shamiram. 


Van  6 1 

founder  of  the  garden  town  ;  although  at  that  time  it  is  probable 
that  it  was  situated  south  of  the  citadel  rather  than,  as  is  now 
the  case,  at  some  distance  to  the  east.^  During  the  reign  of  the 
successor  of  Menuas,  Argistis  the  First,  the  Vannic  dynasty  reached 
the  zenith  of  its  power.  The  kinglets  of  the  valley  of  the  Araxes 
had  been  dispossessed  of  their  fertile  territories,  and  the  great 
city  which  was  afterwards  known  as  Armavir  rose  from  the 
banks  of  the  river  in  honour  of  the  god  of  Van.  The  whole 
extent  of  the  Armenian  tableland,  such  as  it  is  described  in  the 
present  work,  with  the  possible  exception  of  some  of  the  most 
northerly  districts,  was  subject  to  the  rulers  residing  on  the  shore 
of  the  great  lake  ;  and  their  inscriptions  recording  conquests  are 
found  as  far  east  as  the  province  south  of  Lake  Urmi  and  as  far 
west  as  the  Euphrates  near  Malatia.  In  that  direction  they  came 
in  contact  with  the  Hittites  ;  while  their  neighbours  on  the  east 
were  none  other  than  the  Minni  of  Scripture,  residing  in  the 
more  southerly  portion  of  the  Urmi  basin  and  the  adjacent 
districts."'  The  inscriptions  on  the  rock  of  Van  enumerate  the 
feats  of  arms  of  Argistis  the  First  and  Sarduris  the  Second. 
No  records  have  yet  been  found  further  north  than  Lake  Gokcheh, 
Kanlija,  near  Alexandropol,  and  Hasan  Kala,  near  Erzerum. 
South  of  their  capital  the  wild  districts  of  Shatakh,  Norduz 
and  Mukus  have  been  scoured  by  travellers  in  quest  of  such 
monuments,  but  hitherto  without  result. 

With  one  exception  no  systematic  excavations  have  yet  been 
made  upon  any  of  the  sites  of  the  cities  and  strongholds  of  the 
Vannic  kings.  When  these  shall  have  been  undertaken  we  may 
expect  to  have  drawn  an  impressive  picture  of  the  attainments  of 
their  people  in  the  arts.  The  single  instance  of  such  efforts — and 
it  is  not  one  of  which  we  need  be  proud  '' — has  been   directed  to 

1  Perhaps  Dr.  Belck,  to  whose  penetration  this  discovery  is  due,  has  a  little 
exaggerated  his  point  when  he  assumes  the  necessity  of  an  interval  of  5  kilometres 
between  the  former  site  of  the  garden  town  and  the  rock  of  Van  {Zeitschrift  fiir 
Assyriologie,  1894,  p.  350).  It  would  seem,  rather,  that  the  present  quarter  of  Shamiram 
represents  a  portion  of  the  old  settlement  as  watered  by  the  Menuas  canal. 

^  "  Set  up  a  standard  in  the  land,  blow  the  trumpet  among  the  nations,  prepare  the 
nations  against  her  (sc.  Babylon),  call  together  against  her  the  kingdoms  of  Ararat, 
Minni  and  Ashchenaz  .  .  ."  (Jeremiah  li.  27).  The  latter  kingdom  seems  to  have 
been  situated  between  the  Medes  at  Hamadan  and  the  Minni. 

3  It  must  always  be  remembered  that  such  enterprises  are  due  with  us  to  the  energy 
of  individuals,  rarely  encouraged  and  inspired  by  our  learned  societies  or  assisted 
financially  by  our  Government.  I  trust,  however,  that  the  trustees  of  the  British 
Museum  will  awake  to  the  fact  that  excavations  of  the  most  comprehensive  order  can 
now  be  conducted  in  Armenia,  and  that  the  soil  is  practically  virgin.  With  the  assist- 
ance of  the  German   Embassy   at  Constantinople  Messrs.    Belck  and   Lehmann  were 


62 


Armenia 


the  low  limestone  hills  which  overlook  the  gardens  of  Van  upon 
the  north,  and  which  in  their  neighbourhood  bear  the  name  of 
Toprak  Kala.  In  or  about  the  years  1879  and  1880  operations 
were  conducted  upon  this  eminence  under  the  direction,  as  I  have 
gathered,  of  Captain  Clayton,  then  our  consul  at  Van,  and  of  Mr. 
Hormuzd  Rassam.^  Tunnels  were  opened  into  that  part  of  the 
site  which  disclosed  the  buried  remains  of  an  ancient  settlement, 
and  which  was  found   to  have   been  covered  with  buildings   com- 


Fic.  124.    Bronze  Shield  from  Toprak  Kala  (British  Museum). 

posed  for  the  most  part  of  sun-dried  bricks.  The  most  important 
result  of  the  enterprise  was  the  laying  bare  of  a  temple,  still 
containing  quite  a  number  of  bronze  shields  with  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  embossed  and  chased  with  ornamental  designs  and 
the  figures  of  animals.  Some  of  these  may  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum  and  others   in   the   Museum   at   Berlin.      They  represent 

enabled  not  only  to  dig  down  the  hill  of  Toprak  Kala  to  the  solid  rock,  but  also,  as 
it  would  appear,  to  transport  their  finds  to  Berlin. 

1  I  cannot  discover  that  any  report  of  these  excavations  has  ever  been  published. 
But,  since  writing  this  chapter,  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam's  book,  Asshitr  and  the  Land  of 
Nimrod  (New  York,  1897),  has  come  into  my  hands.  Mr.  Rassam's  excavations  on 
the  hill  of  Toprak  Kala  took  place  in  1880,  and  some  account  of  them  may  be  found  in 
his  work,  pp.  377-S. 


Van 


63 


Fig.  125. 


Bronze  Fragment  from  Toprak  Kala 
(British  Museum). 


votive  offerings  on  the  part  of  the  kings,  and  were  suspended 
upon  the  walls  in  the  manner  shown  by  an  existing  bas-relief  from 
the  palace  of  Sar- 
gon  at  Khorsabad. 
Indeed  that  sculp- 
ture portrays  the 
destruction  by  the 
Assyrians  of  the 
temple  of  Khaldis 
in  the  city  of  Mut- 
satsir,  not  very  far 
from  the  present 
town  of  Rowan- 
duz.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  edifice 
were  small,  only 
69  feet  by  44 
feet,  measured  at 
the  foundations. 
But  the  walls  were  built  of  great  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  and 
traces  of  a  pavement  in  a  kind  of  mosaic  were  found. 
The  doors  appear  to  have  been  of  bronze.  Outside 
the  entrance  stood  a  block  of  marble  which  was 
hollowed  out  and  was  probably  used  for  sacrifices.  At 
the  time  of  my  visit  little  was  to  be  seen  of  this  in- 
teresting structure,  for  the  vandal 
townspeople  had  removed  its 
masonry  for  building  purposes. 
Large  faced  blocks,  taken  thence 
and  perhaps  from  other  edifices, 
were  being  rolled  down  the  hillside. 
Only  a  fraction  of  the  objects  found 
was  brought  away  by  Messrs. 
Clayton  and  Rassam  ;  their  work- 
men abstracted  the  remainder,  from 
whose  hands  some  portions  have 
filtered  into  Europe.  Toprak  Kala 
has  quite  recently  (1898)  been  the  scene  of  further  excava- 
tions, this  time  on  the  part  of  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann. 
They  have  dug  out  the  substructures  of  the  temple  to  its 
foundations,  cleared  away  the    rubbish  which  obstructed   a   long 


Fig.  126.    Ornament  from 
Toprak  Kala  (British  Museum). 


64  Armenia 

subterraneous  passage,  debouching  into  a  large  chamber  which 
may  have  served  as  a  reservoir,  and  which  was  fed  by  an 
artificial  duct  deriving  its  water  from  a  neighbouring  spring  ;  and 
discovered  a  wine-cellar  containing  colossal  vats,  some  engraved 
with  Vannic  writing  and  one  with  a  Persian  cuneiform  inscription. 
We  also  owe  to  their  labours  the  discovery  not  far  from  the 
temple  of  a  space  which  seems  to  have  been  set  apart  to  receive 
the  bones  of  the  sacrificial  animals  and  of  the  human  beings, 
captives  of  war,  who  had  been  offered  up  to  the  god.  They  have 
acquired  numerous  objects,  of  silver  as  well  as  of  bronze  and  iron, 
including  weapons  and  ornaments  of  various  kinds.  But  the 
principal  service  which  they  have  rendered  is  the  identification  of 
Toprak  Kala  with  the  city  of  Rusas  mentioned  in  the  stele  near 
Keshish  Gol  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Varag.  The  inscription  on 
that  monument,  if  rightly  deciphered,  leaves  little  doubt  that  King 
Rusas,  probably  the  first  of  that  name,  made  use  of  that  little  lake 
as  a  partly  natural  and  partly  artificial  reservoir,  and  conducted 
its  waters  along  the  foot  of  the  Toprak  Kala  heights  to  the  region 
occupied  by  the  present  site  of  the  garden  town.  The  earliest 
ruler  mentioned  on  the  shields  is  Rusas  the  Second  ;  while  we 
know  from  their  contents  that  the  temple  was  built  or  restored 
by  Rusas  the  Third  in  honour  of  the  god  Khaldis.  All  the 
indications  favour  the  assumption  that  in  consequence  of  the  de- 
predations of  Tiglath-Pileser  the  Third  some  change  was  made  in 
the  disposition  of  the  city.  The  heights  of  Toprak  Kala  seem  in 
some  degree  to  have  usurped  the  importance  of  the  citadel,  and 
to  have  been  used  as  defences  for  the  extension  of  the  gardens 
in  that  direction.' 

The  culture  of  the  Vannic  kingdom  was  perhaps  borrowed 
from  the  Assyrians  and  was  certainly  derived  from  the  Meso- 
potamian  plains.  The  legend  of  the  passion  of  the  queen  of 
Assyria,  the  consort  of  the  eponymous  hero  Ninus,  for  an 
Armenian  king  who  suffers  death  at  her  hands  and  is  restored  to 
life,"  contains,  so  far  as  it  expresses   the   intercourse   of  the   pre- 

1  For  the  excavations  at  Toprak  Kala  the  various  writings  of  Messrs.  Belck  and 
Lehmann  should  be  c<.m?,w\\.&<S.{l'\'rhaii(ilitugcn  dcr  Berl.  Gescll.  fiir  Aiithropologie,  1895, 
pp.  612  scq.,  and  1898,  pp.  578  scq.  Cp.  aXso  Zeitsc/irift  fiir  Assyriologie,  1894,  pp.  356 
and  357,  note).  For  the  canal  and  the  city  of  Rusas  or  New  Dhuspas  see  their  remarks 
in  Zcitschrift  fiir  Ethnologic,  1892,  pp.  141  scq.;  Verh.  dcr  Berl.  Gescll.  fiir  Antli. 
1892,  pp.  z^"]"]  seq.;  1893,  pp.  220,  222,  223;  1898,  p.  576;  Zcitschrift  fiir  Assyr. 
1894,  pp.  349  scq.,  and  1 899,  p.   320. 

-  This  is  evidently  the  older  form  of  the  legend  of  .Semiramis  in  Armenia.  The 
Christian  liierarchy  softened  down  or  obliterated  the  coming  to  life  again  of  Ara. 


Van  65 

Armenian  peoples,  a  considerable  kernel  of  truth.  xAra  and 
Semiramis  are  none  other  than  Tannmuz  and  Istar,  the  Adonis 
and  the  Aphrodite  of  the  Hellenic  myth  ;  and  the  advent  from 
Assyria  of  the  voluptuous  queen  in  quest  of  a  beautiful  but 
reluctant  lover  may  be  connected  with  the  introduction  from 
abroad  of  the  worship  of  Istar.^  However  this  may  be,  it  is 
certain  that  the  earliest  inscriptions  found  at  Van  are  in  the 
Assyrian  language  and  character  ;  while  those  of  the  successors 
of  Sarduris  the  First,  although  composed  in  the  Vannic  tongue, 
show  but  slight  deviations  from  the  cuneiform  writing  as  practised 
at  Nineveh.  There  is  evidence  to  show  that  long  after  the 
disappearance  of  the  empire  of  the  Khaldians  Assyrian  influences 
lingered  on  in  the  land.  I  shall  have  occasion  to  remark  these 
traces  in  the  study  of  the  architecture  of  the  church  at  Akhtamar  ; 
and  they  compose  a  factor  which  should  never  be  quite  absent 
from  the  mind  when  examining  the  masterpieces  of  Armenian 
medieval  art.  The  Vannic  dynasty  are  not  the  symbol  of 
resistance  on  the  part  of  rude  mountaineers  to  the  approach  of 
civilisation  moving  up  from  its  immemorial  seats.  Far  rather  do 
they  represent  the  beneficent  spread  of  arts  and  letters  over  the 
Armenian  plains.  The  favourite  sites  of  their  cities  are  not  the 
recesses  of  the  mountains  of  the  tableland,  but  some  small  emi- 
nence from  a  wide  extent  of  level  and  fertile  ground,  as  typically 
embodied  by  the  rock  of  Van  and  the  mound  of  Armavir.  They 
are  builders  of  canals  to  irrigate  the  land,  of  roads  to  traverse 
even  the  scarcely  passable  ridges  of  the  peripheral  region,  of 
bridges  to  span  the  great  rivers.  If  we  are  still  in  the  dark  with 
respect  to  their  ethnic  affinities,  we  need  harbour  no  doubts  upon 
the  character  of  the  civilisation  which  they  contributed  to  diffuse. 
Like  Adonis  they  have  been  carried  down  the  stream  of 
time,  and  over  them  the  eddy  has  long  since  closed.  The  spade 
of  the  archcEologist  reveals  the  charred  remains  of  their  later 
stronghold  on  the  heights  of  Toprak  Kala  overlooking  the  gardens 
of  Van.  But  by  what  people  and  at  what  date  were  they  stricken 
to  the  ground,  and  their  temples  and  palaces  given  to  the  flames  ? 
It  is  the  disadvantage  of  a  histor}^  which  is  derived  from  inscrip- 
tions, that  issues  as  well  as  origins  must  remain  obscure.      I  am 

1  The  name  of  this  goddess  only  occurs  in  one  inscription,  viz.  Sayce,  No.  XXIV.  ; 
and  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  this  is  an  inscription  of  Menuas.  The  name  is 
written  ideographically  like  that  of  Istar  in  Assyrian  and  is  rendered  Saris  by  Professor 
Sayce.  It  is  noticeable  that  Sariduris  or  Sarduris  is  the  name  borne  by  three  of  the 
Vannic  kings. 

VOL.  II  F 


66  Armenia 

not  aware  that  any  certain  answer  can  be  given  to  the  first  part 
of  the  question,  and  the  date  of  the  supreme  catastrophe  which 
must  have  overtaken  the  city  can  only  be  approximately  fixed. 
The  Vannic  records  differ  in  one  important  respect  from  those  of 
Assyria  ;  they  do  not  contain  a  single  date.  The  chronology  is 
therefore  dependent  upon  the  mention  in  them  of  an  Assyrian 
monarch  or  by  the  Assyrians  of  a  contemporary  ruler  of  Urardhu. 
The  latest  inscriptions  hitherto  discovered  belonging  to  the 
northern  kingdom  are  those  of  Rusas  the  Third,  the  son  of 
Erimenas,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Ashur-bani-pal.  But  a 
successor  of  this  prince  is  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian  annals  as 
having  sent  an  embassy  to  Nineveh  about  644  B.C.  His  name 
is  the  familiar  one  of  Sarduris,  and  he  takes  his  place  as  the 
third  king  of  that  name.  It  would  appear  likely  that  at  the 
time  of  his  embassy  he  had  only  just  begun  to  reign  ;  and  we 
should  probably  be  justified  in  protracting  the  span  covered  by 
the  Vannic  dynasty  at  least  as  late  as  the  death  of  Ashur-bani- 
pal  {c.  626  B.C.).  This  date  brings  us  down  to  the  dawn  of 
Oriental  history  as  contained  in  the  works  of  Greek  writers. 
In  the  pages  of  Herodotus  the  Armenian  tableland  as  well  as 
Assyria  form  portions  of  the  great  empire  of  Darius  (5  2  1-486  B.C.) 
and  Xerxes  (485-465  B.C.),  which  had  succeeded  the  loose  rule 
of  the  Scythians.  And  this  new  era  has  left  behind  it  one  of 
the  most  impressive  of  the  monuments  upon  the  rock  of  Van. 
On  its  southern  face,  in  full  view  of  the  walled  town  at  its  base, 
is  inscribed  the  trilingual  record  of  the  Persian  conquest.  "  A 
great  god  is  Onnarjd,  who  is  the  greatest  of  gods,  ivJio  has  created 
this  earth,  who  has  created  that  heaveti,  who  has  created  mankind, 
who  has  given  happiness  to  man,  who  has  made  Xerxes  king,  sole 
king  of  many  kings,  sole  lord  of  many.  I  am  Xerxes  the  great 
king,  the  king  of  kings,  the  king  of  the  provinces  with  many 
languages,  the  king  of  this  great  earth  far  and  near,  son  of  king 
Darius  the  AcJicemenian.  Says  Xerxes  the  king:  Darius  the 
king,  my  father,  did  matiy  ivorks  through  the  protection  of  Ormazd, 
and  on  this  hill  he  commanded  to  make  his  tablet  and  an  image  ; 
yet  an  inscription  he  did  tiot  make.  Afterzvards  I  ordered  this 
inscription  to  be  written.  May  Ormazd,  along  zvith  all  the  gods, 
protect  me  and  my  kingdom  and  my  zvork} 

1  The  Ciiiuifonn  hiscriplions  of  I  'an.  Journal  of  Royal  Asialic  Soticty,  1 882,  vol.  xi\-. 
p.  678.  The  languages  arc  Babylonian,  Persian  and  "  I'rotomedic,"  placed  in  parallel 
columns. 


Van  67 

Years  before  this  noble  pronouncement  was  engraved  in  its 
imperishable  arrowheads  the  empire  of  Assyria  had  come  to  an 
end.  Nineveh  was  laid  desolate  in  606  B.C.  by  her  Babylonian 
subjects  assisted  by  the  hordes  of  the  Scythian  king.^  Within  a 
very  brief  period  of  the  history  of  these  countries  ethnic  changes 
on  a  vast  scale  had  taken  place.  New  nations  had  appeared 
upon  the  scene.  The  Cimmerian  nomads,  followed  closely  by 
the  wild  tribes  of  Scythia,  had  penetrated  southwards  from  the 
countries  on  the  north  of  Caucasus  and  swarmed  over  the  settled 
lands.  Ancient  kingdoms  tottered  and  fell  into  the  human  surge. 
It  is  just  at  this  period  that  we  come  to  hear  of  the  x-\rmenians. 
All  the  evidence  points  to  the  conclusion  that  they  entered  their 
historical  seats  from  the  west,^  as  a  branch  of  a  considerable 
immigration  of  Indo-European  peoples  crossing  the  straits  from 
Europe  into  Asia  Minor  and  perhaps  originally  coming  from  homes 
in  the  steppes  north  of  the  Black  Sea.  Just  as  their  kinsmen, 
invading  Europe,  drove  the  old  races  before  them,  such  as  the 
Etruscans,  the  Ligurians,  and  the  Basques,  so  the  Armenians  seem  to 
have  filled  the  void  which  may  have  been  created  by  the  ravages 
of  the  Scythians  and  to  have  supplanted  the  subjects  of  the  old 
Khaldian  dynasty  in  the  possession  of  the  plains  of  the  tableland. 

That  this  revolution  was  not  accomplished  until  at  least  as 
late  as  the  fifth  century  before  Christ  may  be  gathered  from  the 
pages  of  Herodotus.  The  Armenians  are  known  to  this  father  of 
historians  as  inhabiting  the  mountainous  country  about  the  sources 
of  the  Halys  and  those  of  the  Tigris,  extending  round  towards 
the  Mediterranean  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cilicia,  their  boundary 
on  this  side  being  the  Euphrates.^  On  the  other  hand  the 
Khaldians  or  Urardhians  have  not  already  disappeared,  although 
they  have  obviously  declined  to  a  subordinate  position.  They 
are    mentioned    under   the    name   of    x-\larodians,^    and    they    are 

1  Professor  Sayce  (Early  Israe/,  London,  1899,  pp.  238-239)  adopts  this  date  and 
considers  that  the  classical  writers  confounded  the  Scythians  with  the  Aledes.  A  priori 
this  view  would  seem  probable,  having  regard  to  the  natural  evolution  of  the  history  of 
the  times. 

^  According  to  Herodotus  (vii.  73)  the  Armenians  were  Phrygian  colonists  and  were 
armed  in  the  Phrygian  fashion.  The  view  of  the  ancients  seems  to  have  been  that  the 
Phrygians,  as  well  as  the  Asiatic  Thracians,  had  migrated  from  Europe  into  Asia  Minor. 

•'  Herodotus,  i.  72  and  194  ;  v.  49  and  52.  In  the  catalogue  of  the  satrapies  of  the 
empire  of  Darius  Armenia  is  joined  with  the  unknown  district  of  Pactyica  (iii.  93).  In 
the  Behistun  inscriptions  of  Darius,  the  Persian  and  Scythic  texts  everywhere  employ 
Armenia  for  the  more  ancient  Assyrian  title  Urardhu. 

*  For  the  certain  identification  of  the  Alarodians  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom 
of  Urardhu  or  Ararat,  see  Sir.  H.  Rawlinson's  essay  in  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  vol.  iv. 
p.  245. 


68  Armenia 

joined  with  the  Matienians  and  Saspeires  or  Sapeires  in  the 
eighteenth  satrapy  of  the  Persian  empire/  Herodotus  leaves  us 
in  the  dark  as  to  the  exact  localities  in  which  they  lived,  although 
he  indicates  that  the  seats  of  the  Saspeires  lay  to  the  south  of 
the  Kolchians,  who  inhabited  the  southern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Phasis."-^  He  informs  us  that 
Alarodians  and  Saspeires  were  both  armed  like  the  Kolchians, 
and  the  fact  that  the  satrapies  were  organised  with  a  view  to 
ethnic  affinities  suggests  the  possibility  that  the  two  names  first 
mentioned  had  come  to  be  applied  to  one  and  the  same  race. 
Other  considerations  seem  to  point  in  the  same  direction,  Down 
to  a  comparatively  recent  period  we  find  a  people  called  Chald- 
ians  (as  written  in  the  Greek  character)  or  Chaldaeans  occupying 
the  mountains  between  Trebizond  and  Batum.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  they  represented  the  remnants  of  the  Vannic 
people,  and  they  were  almost  certainly  the  same  as  the  Alarod- 
ians of  Herodotus  and  probably  the  same  as  the  Saspeires,  who 
have  perhaps  left  their  name  to  the  present  town  of  Ispir.^  When 
the  Armenians  had  expelled  the  ancient  inhabitants  from  the 
settled  country  we  know  from  a  most  interesting  chapter  in  the 
Cyropaedeia  of  Xenophon  that  the  latter  took  refuge  in  the 
mountains.  They  fortified  inaccessible  peaks  and  lived  by 
plunder,  raiding  down  upon  the  plains."*  Our  knowledge  of  the 
geography  may  at  this  point  assist  our  historical  investigations  ; 
and  we  may  be  reasonably  sure  that  we  shall  find  the  relics  of 
the  dispossessed  Khaldians  inhabiting  the  fastnesses  of  the  peri- 
pheral ranges  which  border  Armenia  upon  the  north  and  south. 

That  this  was  the  case  in  the  northern  region  is  proved  by 
the  long  survival  of  the  name  Chaldia  (  =  Khaldia)  among  those 
inhospitable  heights.  Professor  Lehmann  has  collected  with  a 
thoroughness  of  which  his  countrymen  alone  seem  capable,  a 
catalogue  of  passages  in  Greek  and  Byzantine  writers  making 
mention  either  of  the  Chaldian  people  or  of  the  province  to  which 
they  gave  their  name.'^    That  people  are  sometimes  called  Chaldeans 

'    Herodotus,  iii.  94,  and  cp.  vii.  79.  -  Ibid.  i.   104. 

^  Professor  Rawlinson  would  identify  the  Saspeires  with  the  Iberians  of  later  writers 
(Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  vol.  iv.  p.  233).  In  view  of  the  prevailing  opinion  that  the  old 
Vannic  language  has  some  affinity  with  modern  Georgian,  this  identification  is  most 
interesting.  Ispir  is  situated  on  the  threshold  of  the  northern  peripheral  region,  on  the 
river  Chorokh.  '  Xenophon,  Cyropicdcia,  bk.  iii.  chs.   i,  2  and  3. 

^  Zcitschrift  fiir  Elhnoloi^ie,  1892,  p.  131  ;  Vcrhandlungoi  der  Bcrl.  Gesell.  fiir 
Anthropologic,  1892,  p.  487,  1895,  pp.  578  scq.,  1896,  p.  320;  Zeitsclirift fiir  Assyriologie, 
1894,  pp.  82  seq.,  and  p.  358,  note  I. 


Van  69 

in  classical  authors.  But  that  this  was  an  error  seems  sufficiently 
proved  by  the  name  of  the  province — Chaldia  ;  by  the  survival 
side  by  side  of  the  variant  form — Chaldians,  and  by  the  practice 
of  Armenian  writers  to  distinguish  between  the  name  of  the  tribe 
on  their  northern  frontiers  and  that  of  the  Chaldaeans.  Chaldia 
with  the  capital  Trebizond  formed  one  of  the  military  themes  of 
the  Byzantine  empire  ;  and  I  should  like  to  add  yet  another 
reference  to  the  lists  of  Professor  Lehmann,  this  one  taken  from 
the  travels  of  the  Castilian  ambassador,  Don  Ruy  Gonzalez 
Clavigo,  in  the  year  1404.  Setting  out  from  Trebizond  on  his 
way  to  Erzinjan,  we  find  him  travelling  on  the  third  day  out 
through  the  snowy  mountains  of  the  province  of  Chaldia  to  the 
castle  of  Tzanich  which  stood  on  a  crag  ;  and  on  the  morrow,  in 
the  evening,  he  arrives  at  the  castle  of  the  duke  of  Chaldia,  where 
all  caravans  pay  toll.  The  territory  formed  a  part  of  the  empire 
of  the  Grand  Comneni  ;  and  the  name  has  survived  to  the  present 
day  as  that  of  a  diocese  of  the  Greek  Church  with  the  capital 
Giimiishkhaneh  on  the  road  from  Trebizond  to  Baiburt.^ 

It  is  not  so  easy  to  trace  the  remnants  of  this  ancient  people 
in  the  southern  zone  of  mountains.  Their  presence  there  is 
attested  by  the  march  of  Xenophon  with  the  relics  of  the  Ten 
Thousand.  A  body  of  Chaldaean  or,  more  properly,  of  Chaldian 
mercenaries  oppose  his  passage  of  the  Bohtan  branch  of  the 
Tigris.-  They  are  described  as  of  independent  spirit  and  warlike 
nature,  and,  like  the  Karduchi,  the  modern  Kurds,  as  still 
maintaining  their  political  freedom.  One  is  tempted  to  enquire 
whether  the  present  so-called  Chaldsean  or  Assyrian  Christians,  who 
are  spread  about  the  districts  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Julamerik 
watered  by  the  Great  Zab,  may  not  supply  the  necessary  and 
missing  link.  But  here  we  approach  a  thorny  and  difficult 
question,  upon  which  the  limitations  of  the  present  enquiry  forbid 
us  to  touch.^  It  will  be  better  capable  of  discussion  when  some 
unanimity  shall  have  been  attained  upon  the  origin  and  ethnic 
affinities  of  the  subjects  of  the  old  Vannic  kings.  The  Chaldean 
Christians  are  reputed  to  have  fled  into  the  mountains  from 
Mesopotamia  as  late  as  the  era  of  Timur.     Baghdad  and  then  Mosul 

1  Narrative  of  the  Embassy  of  Ruy  Gonzalez  de  Clavijo,  translated  by  C.  R.  Mark- 
ham,  Hakluyt  Society,  London,  1859. 

-  Xenophon,  Anabasis,  iv.  ch.  3,  v.  ch.  5,  vii.  ch.  8. 

^  The  remarks  of  Layard  {Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  London,  1849,  vol.  i.  p.  257) 
and  Badger  (The  Nestoriaus  and  their  Rituals,  London,  1852,  pp.  177  seq.)  serve  to 
iUustrate  the  complexity  of  this  question. 


70  Armenia 

would  seem  to  have  been  the  earlier  seats  of  their  patriarchate. 
The  name  Chaldsean  is  not  one  which  they  apply  to  themselves, 
although  they  believe  in  their  "  Assyrian  "  origin.  There  is  held 
by  some  scholars  to  be  the  widest  etymological  and  original  differ- 
ence between  the  name  of  the  people  who  were  called  after  the  god 
Khaldis  and  that  of  the  Babylonian  Chaldees  or  Chaldaeans.  But 
the  question  of  a  possible  racial  or  cultural  link  between  them 
cannot  at  present  be  regarded  as  already  negatived.^ 

Although  the  whole  subject  of  the  Vannic  kingdom  has 
scarcely  yet  arrived  beyond  its  infantile  stages,  the  knowledge 
already  attained  serves  to  throw  quite  a  flood  of  light  upon  the 
early  history  of  Armenia  and  of  the  Armenians.  In  a  former 
chapter-  I  had  occasion  to  remark  the  obscurity  of  Armenian 
chronicles  prior  to  the  advent  of  their  Arsakid  dynasty.  The 
people  known  as  Armenians  to  Darius  and  to  classical  writers 
have  always  been  accustomed  to  prefer  the  name  of  their  reputed 
progenitor,  Hayk,  the  son  of  Togarmah,  great-grandson  of  Japhet. 
They  call  themselves  the  Hayk  or  children  of  Hayk.  They 
believe  that  their  ancestor  emigrated  from  Babylon  in  a  north- 
westerly direction  and  ultimately  arrived  upon  the  shores  of  Lake 
Van.  They  style  the  line  of  their  primeval  kings  the  Haykian 
dynasty,  and  they  relate  in  a  fabulous  manner  the  early  struggles 
of  this  dynasty  with  the  Assyrian  Power.  Their  historians  admit 
that  for  this  period  they  are  destitute  of  native  annals,  and  they 
deplore  the  illiterateness  of  their  forefathers.  It  would  almost 
seem  as  if  they  had  presented  us  with  a  darkened  and  legendary 
account  of  the  history  of  their  predecessors,  possibly  mingled  with 
the  experiences  of  their  own  race.  That  the  people  of  the  Vannic 
kings  were  not  Armenians  is  proved  by  the  distinctive  character 
of  their  language.  That  their  empire  continued  to  exist  until  at 
least  as  late  as  the  latter  half  of  the  seventh  century  before  Christ 
is  a  fact  which  is  beyond  doubt.  Nothing  which  we  might  be 
inclined  to  attribute  to  the  Armenians  has  been  found  at  Toprak 
Kala.  On  the  other  hand,  wc  may  gather  from  Xenophon  that 
after  a  period  of  mutual  distrust  the  Armenians  intermarried  with 
the  Khaldians  whom  they  had  dispossessed.^  To  this  extent  they 
may  inherit    the  blood    of    that    ancient    people  which    gave  to 

'   Compare  the  remarks  of  Sir  II.  Kawlinson  (Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  iv.  p.  248)  and 
of  Professor  Lehmann  {V€rhandlitns,cn  dcr  Her!.  Gcscll.  fiir  Aiithropoloi^ic,  1S95,  p.  580). 
2  Vol.  I.  Ch.  XVI.  p.  286. 
^  Xenophon,  Cyropicdeia,  lik.  iii.  ch.  ii.  23. 


Van  7 1 

Armenia  a  degree   of  civilisation  which   in    many  respects   it   has 
not  been  privileged  since  to  enjoy. 

The  Armenians,  like  all  capable  and  conquering  races,  borrowed 
much  from  the  culture  and  attainments  of  the  older  inhabitants. 
Their  most  ancient  cities — Van,  Armavir,  and  perhaps  Melazkert 
,  and  Arjish — were  foundations  of  the  Vannic  kings.  The  city  of 
Hayk,  as  it  has  long  been  called,  in  the  Hayotz-dzor,  south-east  of 
Van,  has  disclosed  to  the  first  essays  of  the  modern  archaeologist 
the  familiar  features  of  a  Khaldian  settlement.^  But  Persian 
influences  left  upon  them  a  more  visible  impression  ;  and  their 
supreme  god  during  the  pre-Christian  era  was  not  the  Khaldis  of 
the  Vannic  texts  but  the  Ormazd  of  the  inscription  of  Xerxes, 
"  who  has  created  this  earth,  who  has  created  that  heaven,  zvho 
has  created  mankind^  ' 

Sequence  of  the  Vannic  Kingsi^ 

Aranie. — No  inscriptions.  Known  only  through  those  of  the  Assyrian 
king,  in  which  he  is  styled  king  of  Urardhu.  Attacked  in  860 
or  859   B.C.  by  Shalmaneser  II.  and  again  in  857  or  856  B.C.  in 

1  Ver/iandliingen  der  Berl.  Gesell.  ftir  Authropologie,  1898,  p.  591.  I  would 
especially  refer  my  reader  to  Dr.  Belck's  remarks  upon  this  subject  in  the  same  publica- 
tion,  1895,  P-  606. 

2  WTiile  this  chapter  is  going  through  the  press  some  further  articles  by  Drs.  Belck 
and  Lehmann  come  into  my  hands.  These  deal  with  their  recent  journeys  and  researches 
in  Armenia  (Sitziingsberichte  der  K.  P.  Ak.  Wiss.  Berlin,  1899,  pp.  116  seq.  and  pp. 
745  s^l-  '■>  the  same  publication  for  1900,  pp.  dif)  seq.). 

^  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann  commence  the  sequence  :  i.  Lutipris,  2.  Sarduris  I., 
3.  Aranie,  4.  Sarduris  II.,  thus  attributing  to  their  Sarduris  I.  the  inscriptions  which 
record  the  construction  of  the  walls  from  the  rock  of  Van  to  the  harbour.  They  suppose 
a  Sarduris  II.,  son  of  Arame,  as  the  antagonist  of  Shalmaneser  II.,  and  suggest  that 
Sarduris  I.  was  the  contemporary  of  Ashur-nasir-pal  II.  (885-860  B.C.)  (Zeitsckrift  fiir 
Assyriologie,  1897,  p.  201).  This  arrangement  throws  back  Lutipris  to  about  900  B.C. 
They  promise  us  an  essay  upon  the  subject  (see  Verhandhaigeii  der  Berliner  Gesellschafl 
fiir  Anthropologic,  1894,  p.  486;  Z.  Assyr.  1897,  PP-  200,  201,  202).  At  present  I 
do  not  feel  convinced  by  the  grounds  they  have  brought  forward.  No  inscriptions  of  this 
Sarduris  II.  have  been  discovered  ;  nor  does  any  mention  appear  to  be  made  of  works 
by  a  predecessor  of  the  same  name  or  by  Arame  in  the  inscriptions  near  the  Tabriz 
gate  at  Van  which  they  have  discovered  (see  under  Ispuinis  infra).  Of  Lutipris  no 
inscriptions  exist  ;  he  is  only  known  as  the  father  of  SarcUiris.  Pending  further  enquiry 
the  hypothesis  of  Professor  Sayce  seems  to  me  to  hold  the  field  :  "I  am  more  inclined 
to  conjecture  that  Sarduris  I.  was  the  leader  of  a  new  dynasty  ;  the  ill  success  of  Arrame 
in  his  wars  with  the  Assyrians  forming  the  occasion  for  his  overthrow  .  .  .  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  foreign  mode  of  writing  into  the  country  looks  like  one  of  those  innovations  which 
mark  the  rise  of  new  dynasties  in  the  East.  The  consolidation  of  the  power  of  Darius 
Hystaspis  was,  we  may  remember,  accompanied  by  the  introduction  of  the  cuneiform  alphabet 
of  Persia"  (f.R.A.S.  1882,  p.  406).  To  this  I  should  like  to  add  that  it  seems  conso- 
nant with  the  true  order  of.  events  that  not  until  after  the  defeat  of  Arame  was  the  site  of 
Van  most  happily  selected  as  a  sure  stronghold  against  Assyrian  attacks — a  choice  which 
was  largely  instrumental  in  producing  the  extraordinary  development  of  the  northern 
kingdom  under  Ispuinis,  Menuas,  and  Argistis. 


72  Armenia 

his  capital,  Arzasku  (site?).^  His  cities  as  far  as  the  sources  of 
the  Euphrates  were  taken  by  the  same  monarch  in  845  or  844  B.C. 

1.  Sarduris    I.  —  Son    of   Lutipris.      Three    inscriptions    {Zeitschrift  fiir 

Assyriologie,  1899,  p.  315)  on  massive  blocks  of  stone,  forming  part 
of  a  wall  which  extended  from  the  western  extremity  of  the  rock  of 
Van  roughly  in  a  northerly  direction  towards  the  harbour  across 
the  plain  (  Verhandbingen  der  Berlijier  Gesellschaft fiir  Atithropologie, 
etc.,  1897,  p.  305).  Appears  to  have  been  the  initiator  of  the 
fortifications  of  the  rock  of  Van.  Bore  the  title  :  '■'•king  of  the  world 
(Sar  KiTsati),  king  of  iVairi."  Attacked  about  833  B.C.  by  the 
general  of  Shalmaneser  II. ;  styled  king  of  Urardhu  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions. 

2.  Isptdnis.  —  His    son.       Several    inscriptions,    in    which    he    is    more 

commonly  associated  with  his  son  Menuas.  The  inscriptions  are 
found  as  far  apart  as  the  Kelishin  Pass  between  Rowanduz  and 
Ushnei,  the  hill  of  Ashrut-Darga,  east  of  the  village  of  Salekhane, 
east  of  Van  and  the  Van  region,  and  Patnotz,  north  of  Sipan.  His 
title  is  given  in  the  Vannic  text  of  the  Kelishin  stele  as  :  king  of 
JVairi,  king  of  Suras  {i.e.  of  northern  Syria  -),  inliabiting  the  city 
of  Dhuspas ;  and  in  the  inscription  of  Ashrut  Darga  as:  king  of 
Biaina,  inhabiting  the  city  of  Dliiispas.  Is  probably  the  Uspina 
from  whom  the  general  of  the  Assyrian  king  Shamshi-Ramman  III. 
(825-812  B.C.)  captured  11  forts  and  200  villages  during  his 
campaign  against  Nairi.  His  newly-discovered  inscription  near 
the  Tabriz  gate  at  Van  appears  to  ascribe  the  construction  of  the 
works  upon  the  citadel  to  himself,  his  father  Sarduris,  his  son 
Menuas  and  his  grandson  Inuspuas  {V.  Anth.  1898,  p.  575). 

3.  Menuas. — His  son,  associated  with  his  father  in  the  government,  and 

afterwards  with  his  own  son,  Inuspuas.  To  this  king  belong  the 
largest  number  of  the  inscriptions  yet  discovered,  ranging  from  the 
Kelishin  Pass  and  the  rock  of  Tashtepe,  near  the  southern  shore  of 
Lake  Urmi  (Sayce,  y.i?.^.-5.  vol.  xiv.  p.  386;  Belck,  Z.  Assyr. 
1899,  p.  313),  the  latter  of  which  commemorates  his  conquests  in 
the  kingdom  of  Minni  {V.  Anth.  1894,  p.  481)  in  the  east,  to  Palu 
on  the  Lower  Murad  in  the  west;  and  from  Van  and  the  Van 
regions  in  the  south  to  Hasan-Kala,  near  Erzerum,  in  the  north. 
Perhaps  his  most  important  conquest  was  that  of  a  great  portion 
of  the  valley  of  the  Araxes  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Ararat  system. 

1  May  Arzasku  have  been  situated  in  the  great  plain  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  Ararat 
system,  now  known  as  the  district  of  Alashkert  ?  The  inscription  of  Shahiianeser  runs  : 
"  From  Dayaeni  (which  Dr.  Belck  identifies  with  the  district  about  the  modern  Delibaba) 
I  struck  camp  and  approached  Arzasku,  the  capital  of  the  Urardhian  Arame.  The 
I'rardhian  Arame  was  filled  with  fear  .  .  .  and  deserted  his  city.  To  the  mountains 
Adduri  he  fled  up  ;  behind  him  I  followed  ;  a  great  battle  I  fought  in  the  mountains.  .  .  . 
Arame  was  compelled,  in  order  to  save  his  life,  to  take  refuge  in  an  inaccessible  mountain." 
Dr.  Belck  suggests  that  Adduri  may  have  been  the  name  applied  by  the  Khaldians  to 
Ararat  and  the  Ararat  system  ;  and  that  it  may  survive  in  the  modern  Akhury  or  Arguri 
(  r.  Anl/i.   1893.  p.  71). 

-    /'.  Antli.   1896,  pp.  323  and  325.      The  translation  is,  however,  open  to  question. 


Vail  73 

Menuas  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  original  garden  city 
of  Van,  which  probably  occupied  a  somewhat  different  position 
than  at  the  present  day,  and  extended  to  the  borders  of  the  lake, 
where  it  received  the  waters  of  the  canal  since  called  the  Shamiram 
Su,  coming  through  Artemid — a  work  on  a  great  scale,  which  we 
now  know  to  have  been  constructed  principally  by  this  monarch, 
and  which  provided  the  volume  of  irrigation  necessary  for  an 
extensive  settlement.  Records  his  conquests.  Extensively  re- 
stored Melazkert  (Z  Assyr.  1892,  p.  262  ;  V.  Anth.  1898,  pp.  569 
seq.)  and  founded  Arzwapert,  north-east  of  Arjish.  His  title  is  :  the 
great  king,  the  king  of  Biaina,  inhabiting  the  city  of  Dhuspas. 

4.  Argistis  I. — His    son.      Numerous    inscriptions    which    show  that   he 

extended  the  conquests  of  Menuas,  especially  towards  the  north. 
These  inscriptions  are  found  as  far  north  as  Kanlija,  near  Alex- 
andropol,  and  Sarikamish,  on  the  road  from  Kars  to  Erzerum,  by 
which  route  he  probably  advanced  or  retired  from  the  districts 
north  of  the  Ararat  system.  From  those  at  Van,  which  are  in  fact 
detailed  annals  of  his  conquests,  we  learn  that  he  met  and  overcame 
the  armies  of  Assyria  on  more  than  one  occasion  in  the  regions 
south-east  of  Lake  Urmi.  His  reign  represents  the  culminating 
point  of  Vannic  empire.  He  ascribes  to  himself  works  upon  the 
rock  and  in  the  city  of  Van  ;  and  he  was  the  founder  of  the  city  of 
Armavir  in  the  valley  of  the  Araxes  (K  A?ith.  1896,  p.  313).  He 
bore  the  title  of:  the  great  king,  the  king  of  Biaina,  inhabiting  the 
city  of  Dhuspas. 

5.  Sarduris  II. — His  son.      Numerous  inscriptions,  distributed  over  a  large 

area  of  country,  one  being  found  in  the  south-east  corner  of  Lake 
Gokcheh,  another  (discovered  by  us)  near  the  western  summit  of 
the  Bingol  Dagh,^  and  yet  another  as  far  west  as  the  Euphrates 
near  Malatia  in  Asia  Minor.  The  first  and  last  record  conquests 
in  those  countries.  Ascribes  to  himself  works  upon  the  rock  and 
in  the  city  of  Van,  and  gives  a  list  of  his  conquests,  including 
some  over  the  Assyrian  monarch  Ashur-nirari  11.,  754-745  B.C. 
{V.  Anth.  1898,  pp.  570-77).  But  these  successes  were  followed 
by  disasters  which  dealt  a  severe  blow  at  the  Vannic  kingdom. 
With  the  accession  of  Tiglath-Pileser  IH.  of  Assyria  (745-727  b.c.) 
a  new  area  is  initiated  in  the  relations  of  these  two  great  Powers 
of  the  day.  The  clash  seems  to  have  come  in  the  year  743  and 
in  connection  with  the  endeavour  of  Tiglath-Pileser  to  possess 
himself  of  the  strong  place  of  Arpad  between  the  present  towns  of 

1  The  inscription  is  contained  on  one  face  of  a  recumbent  stone  which  can  with 
difficulty  be  distinguished  from  the  boulders  lying  round.  The  stone  has  been  well 
shaped  and  dressed.  The  characters  have  been  much  mutilated  by  the  figure  of  a  cross 
which  has  been  incised  upon  the  face  of  the  stone.  The  first  line  evidently  contains  the 
name  of  Sarduris,  while  the  second  was  probably  occupied  by  that  of  Argistikhinis,  or 
the  son  of  Argistis.  In  line  7  a  conquest  is  recorded,  and  in  line  8  occurs  the 
name  of  Alusia.  Professor  Sayce  has  kindly  supplied  this  brief  account  of  the  contents, 
and  I  trust  that  he  will  publish  the  text. 


74  Arme7iia 

Aleppo  and  Killis,  the  key  of  northern  Syria,  a  country  over  which 
the  Vannic  kings  had  for  several  reigns  upheld  pretensions. 
Sarduris  headed  the  league  against  the  Assyrians  and  drew  off  the 
king  from  the  siege  of  Arpad.  He  was,  however,  signally  defeated 
"  near  Kistan  and  Khalpi,  districts  of  Kummukh  "  (Kommagene), 
and  pursued  as  far  as  "  the  bridge  over  the  Euphrates,  the 
boundary  of  his  kingdom."  Subsequently,  in  735  B.C.,  Tiglath- 
Pileser  carried  the  war  into  the  very  heart  of  the  Vannic  country, 
and  at  length  appeared  before  the  city  of  Van.  Sarduris  was 
obliged  to  shut  himself  up  in  the  impregnable  citadel,  while  his 
adversary  massacred  his  warriors  and  his  people  in  the  city  at  its 
feet,  and  erected  a  statue  of  himself  in  front  of  it.  He  then 
ravaged  the  territory  of  Sarduris  over  a  space  of  some  450  miles, 
meeting  with  no  opposition  anywhere.  (For  the  sequence  of  these 
events,  made  known  to  us  by  the  Assyrian  inscriptions,  see  V.  Anth. 
1896,  pp.  321  seq.,  and  Smith's  Assyria^  London,  S.P.C.K.  1897, 
pp.  83  seq.).  Sarduris  increased  the  importance  of  the  city  of 
Armavir,  and  ascribes  to  himself  works  upon  the  citadel  and  in 
the  city  of  Van.  Bore  the  title  :  king  of  kings ^  king  of  the  land  of 
Suras,  king  of  Biaina,  inJiabiting  the  city  of  Dhuspas.  Styled  king 
of  Urardhu  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions. 
6.  Ritsas  I. — His  son.  The  author  of  at  least  two  important  extant 
inscriptions,  that  of  Kolani-Girlan  (Alutshalu),  on  the  face  of  a 
rock  overlooking  Lake  Gokcheh,  and  that  of  Topsana  (Sidikan),  in 
the  district  of  Rowanduz  in  Kurdistan,  discovered  by  Rawlinson 
and  recently  examined  by  Dr.  Belck  (Zeitschrift  filr  Ethnologic, 
Berlin,  1899,  pp.  99-132).  The  first  records  conquests  and  the 
restoration  of  a  palace  ;  the  second,  which  has,  however,  not  yet 
been  published,  conveys  noteworthy  facts  bearing  upon  the 
relations  with  Assyria.  We  know  from  the  Assyrian  inscriptions 
that  the  Vannic  kingdom  was  by  no  means  crushed  by  the  campaign 
of  Tiglath-Pileser ;  for  the  son  of  Sarduris,  this  Rusas  the  First, 
displayed  great  activity  in  inciting  the  neighbouring  principalities 
against  the  successor  of  the  conqueror,  Sargon  (722-705  B.C.), 
among  which  may  be  specially  mentioned  the  kingdom  of  Minni, 
south-east  of  Lake  Urmi,  and  the  almost  impregnable  territory  of 
Mutsatsir  or  Ardinis  near  Rowanduz.  Sargon  tells  us  how,  in 
714  B.C.,  he  penetrated  into  Mutsatsir,  which  contained  a  temple  of 
the  god  Khaldis,  the  god  of  the  Vannic  kingdom  ;  how  its  king 
Urzana  fled,  and  how  he  plundered  and  burnt  the  city,  rifled  the 
temple  and  carried  off  the  statues  of  the  gods.  He  relates  that 
Ursa,  king  of  Urardhu  {i.e.  Rusas  L),  upon  hearing  of  this  disaster 
to  his  ally  and  of  the  carrying  off  of  the  god,  committed  suicide. 
The  contents  of  the  inscription  of  Topsana  throw  doubt  upon  this 
latter  statement.  They  are  to  the  effect  that  Rusas  restored 
Urzana  to  his  kingdom,  led  his  armies  as  far  as  "  the  mountains  of 
Assyria,"  and  restored  the  offerings  to  Khaldis  in  Mutsatsir. 

If,    as   seems   probable,  the  Rusas  of  the   shattered   stele   of 


Van  75 

Keshish  Gol  near  Van  be  this  first  king  of  that  name,  then  we 
must  ascribe  to  this  monarch  the  various  works  which  are  mentioned 
in  that  inscription  (Sayce,  No.  Ixxix.),  and  which,  as  Messrs.  Belck 
and   Lehmann   have   conclusively   shown,   should   be   referred   to 
Toprak  Kala,  an  eminence  from  the  plain  some  little  distance  east  of 
the  rock  of  Van  and  close  to  the  present  garden  town.     These  works 
appear  to  have  been  :  the  constitution  of  the  Keshish  Gol  into  a 
reservoir,  the  conduct  of  its  waters  to  the  Rusahina,  or  city  of 
Rusas,  as  distinct  from  Dhuspas  ;  the  laying  out  of  this  new  city, 
with    numerous    vineyards    and  gardens,   and   the  building  of  a 
palace  there.      Rusas  I.  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  author 
of  the  transference  of  the  site  of  the  garden  town  from  the  south 
to  the  east  of  the  rock  of  Van,   where  it  was  protected  by  the 
heights  of  Toprak  Kala.     The  necessary  irrigation  was  drawn  from 
the  Keshish  Gol  instead  of  or  in  addition  to  that  derived  from  the 
canal  of  Menuas.     The  change  was  probably  made  in  consequence 
of  the  destruction  by  Tiglath-Pileser  of  the  old  town,  although  he 
was  unable  to  effect  the  capture  of  the  citadel  or  rock  of  Van  (Z. 
Ethnologie,  1892,  pp.  141  seq. ;   V.  Anth.  1893,  p.  220;  Z  Assyr. 
1894,  pp.  349  seq.;  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Christmas  1894,  pp.  411 
seq.;    V.  Anth.  1898,  p.  576  ;  Z.  Assyr.  1899,  p.  320).      Rusas  I. 
is  styled  Ursa,  king  of  Urardhu,  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions.    Those 
of  the  Vannic  Monarchy,  hitherto  published,  do  not  furnish  a  title. 
Argistis  II. — His  son.      The  mention  of  this  ruler  in  a  Vannic  text 
was  discovered  by  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann  in  an  inscription 
on  a  shield  from  the  temple  at  Toprak  Kala,  now  in  the  British 
Museum   (Z.   Assyr.    1894,   pp.   82-99;    ^p.   Z   Assyr.    1892,   pp. 
263  seq.;    V.  Anth.  1895,  p.  595) ;  and  two  of  his  own  inscriptions 
have  recently  been  found  by  these  investigators  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Arjish  ( V.  Anth.  1898,  p.  573).      They  have  not  yet  been 
published.     This  prince  is  alluded  to  in  the  Assyrian  annals.      He 
appears  to  have  endeavoured  to  repeat  the  tactics  of  Sarduris  IH. 
against  Tiglath-Pileser  III.,  and  to  have  succeeded  in  inciting  the 
king  of  Kummukh  (Kommagene)  against  Sargon.      But  his  efforts 
only  resulted  in  the  subjugation  of  Kummukh   by  the  Assyrian 
monarch  in  708  B.C.  (Smith's  Assyria,  1897,  p.  116). 
Rusas  II. — His  son.      So  known  to  us  from   the    inscription   on   the 
shield  above  mentioned  (Z  Assyr.  1894,  pp.  82-99,  ^^^d  339  seq.; 
V.  Anth.  1895,  P-  596)-     'Two  new  inscriptions  of  this  king  have 
been  found  by  Dr.   Belck  at  Adeljivas  {V.  Anth.   1898,  p.   573), 
in  which  he  is  stated  to  have  conquered  the  Hittites  and  Moschians. 
He  is  also  mentioned  on  a  clay  tablet  discovered  by  Messrs.  Belck 
and  Lehmann  at  Toprak  Kala  (Van).      He  was  the  contemporary 
of  Esarhaddon  of  Assyria  (681-668  B.C.),  and  is  mentioned  in  an 
Assyrian   inscription  of  that  reign  (H.  Winckler,  AltorientaHsche 
Forschungen,   2nd   ser.   vol.    i.    1898,   p.   41  ;    and   see   Z    Assyr. 

1894,   p.    341)-  ,  .    ,j    r  T, 

,    Erimenas. — Known  only  from    an  inscription   on    a  shield  from   the 


76  Armenia 

temple  at  Toprak  Kala,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  as  being  the 
father  of  Rusas  III. 

10.  Rusas  III. — His  son.      Rebuilt  the  temple  of  Khaldis  on  Toprak  Kala 

(shield  inscriptions  in  the  British  Museum  published  by  Prof 
Sayce,  No.  lii.  \x\  J.R.A.S.  1882,  pp.  653  seq.  For  Tuprak  Kilissa 
read  Toprak  Kala,  Van,  and  cp.  Z.  Assyr.  1892,  p.  266;  Z.  Assyr. 
1894,  p.  97  and  pp.  339  seq.;  V.  A/it/i.  1895,  p.  595).  An 
inscription  of  this  king  has  been  found  at  Armavir  (Sayce,  Ixxxv.). 
Sent  an  embassy  to  Ashur-bani-pal  of  Assyria  about  655  B.C.  (Z. 
Assyr.  1894,  p.  342).  Bore  the  title:  f/ie  great  king,  inhabit- 
i7ig  the  city  of  DJuispas. 

11.  Sardnris  III. — Known  through  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  as  having 

sent  an  embassy  to  Ashur-bani-pal  about  644  b.c.  (Z.  Assyr. 
1894,  P-  342). 


III. — Van  towards  the  Close  of  the  Nineteenth 

Century 

With  the  single  exception  of  the  remains  of  a  mosque  en- 
riched with  traceries  and  Arabic  legends  in  a  style  worthy  of 
the  best  traditions  of  Saracenic  art,  there  remains  no  vestige  in 
Van  of  any  period  of  prosperity  and  splendour  subsequent  to  the 
era  of  the  pre-Armenian  kings.  It  is  true  that  the  whole  region 
is  subject  to  seismic  influences,  and  that  many  of  the  monuments 
of  later  ages  may  have  succumbed  through  this  cause.  There 
exists  a  tradition  that  the  isolation  of  the  rock  of  Van  itself 
is  due  to  an  earthquake  in  very  ancient  times,  resulting  in  its 
severance  from  the  heights  adjacent  on  the  east.  Several 
visitations  of  considerable  severity  have  probably  occurred  during 
the  historical  period;  thus  we  learn  that  in  the  year  1648  of 
the  Christian  era  one-half  of  the  wall  of  the  fortified  city,  as 
well  as  churches,  mosques  and  private  houses,  were  shattered  by 
successive  shocks  and  fell  to  the  ground.^  But  it  is  at  least 
doubtful  whether  posterity  has  been  deprived  of  many  treasures 
by  this  agency  or  by  the  scourge  of  such  a  destroyer  as  Timur. 
Van  must  have  occupied  a  subordinate  position  among  the 
capitals  of  the  Achcemenian  empire  ;  and  her  ancient  temples, 
together  with  the  structures  of  her  former  magnificence,  appear  to 
have  been  demolished  at  a  very  early  date.  A  restoration  is 
ascribed  to  an  xArmenian  king  of  the  Haykian  dynasty,  who  is 
said  to  have  lived  a  little  prior  to  the  Asiatic  conquests  of 
Alexander  the   Great.      But   the   very   fact   that   this  monarch   is 

1  Arakel,  ap.  Abich,  Gcoloi;.  Forsch.  in  dcii  kaitk.  f.aud.  N'ienna,   1882,  part  ii.  p.  440. 


Van  7  7 

named  Van,  and  is  related  to  have  rechristened  the  city  of 
Semiramis  after  himself,  invests  the  story  v/ith  a  fabulous  char- 
acter/ Greater  credit  may  be  attached  to  the  statement  of 
Moses  of  Khorene  that  the  place  was  rebuilt  by  the  first  ruler  of 
the  Armenian  line  of  the  Arsakid  or  Parthian  kings. "^  A  colony 
of  Jews,  with  the  high  priest  of  their  nation,  were  settled  in  Van 
by  one  of  his  successors,  the  contemporary  of  King  Mithridates 
of  Pontus  and  his  ally  against  the  Roman  Power.^  These  Jewish 
captives  appear  to  have  prospered  in  their  new  seats  ;  and  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  of  our  era  they  are  said  to 
have  numbered  18,000  families,  who  were  again  transported  into 
captivity,  this  time  into  Persia,  by  the  ruler  of  the  new  empire 
which  had  arisen  in  Asia,  the  Sasanian  king  Shapur.'*  Neither 
Arsakids  nor  Sasanians  appear  to  have  laid  much  store  by  the 
city  ;  and,  indeed,  the  centres  of  political  gravity  in  the  Asiatic 
world  had  undergone  a  marked  change  since  Assyrian  times. 
The  tableland  of  Persia  had  become  incorporated  into  the 
imperial  systems  of  Asia,  giving  ready  access  into  the  Armenian 
highlands.  Europe  had  already  appeared  upon  the  changing 
scene  of  Oriental  despotisms,  and  the  real  struggle  was  between 
the  East  and  the  West.  When  the  Mohammedan  empire  of  the 
caliphs  had  supplanted  that  of  the  Sasanian  fire-worshippers, 
Persia  and  Armenia  formed  parts  of  the  new  structure.  With  the 
decay  of  the  edifice  it  might  appear  that  a  fresh  era  had  dawned 
for  the  Christian  Armenians,  supported  on  the  west  by  their 
co-religionists  of  the  Byzantine  dominions,  and  capable  of  forti- 
fying Van  against  the  assaults  of  the  Arabs  operating  from 
Baghdad  and  the  lowlands  in  the  south.  In  such  circumstances 
was  born  the  Armenian  kingdom  of  Vaspurakan,  which  flourished 
for  awhile  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  of  which  this  city  was 
the  capital.  We  have  already  glanced  at  its  history  while 
pursuing  the  annals  of  its  contemporary  at  Ani,  and  have  had  to 
deplore  the  lack  of  cohesion  among  the  Armenians  at  that  period, 
which  precluded  them  from  playing  a  part  of  first-rate  importance 
in  the  world  movements  of  the  time.  We  have  seen  the  king-lets 
of  Van  bowing  the  head  to  the  Seljuk  invasion  and  creeping  for 
safety  into  the  bosom  of  the  Byzantine  empire.^  Perhaps  we 
have    not  overlooked    the   picturesque   interest    of  the   pact   they 

1  Saint  Martin,  Meinoires  sttr  PAniieiiie,  i.   138.  ^   Moses  of  Khorene,  ii.  8. 

3  Ibid.  ii.  19.  ■*   Faustus  of  Byzantium,  iv.  55. 

-  Vol.  I.  Ch.  XVIII.  pp.  357,  359. 


j^  A  rv  tenia 

concluded,  under  which  the  heirs  of  the  Romans  took  over  the 
city  of  Sarduris  and  Menuas  as  an  outpost  of  the  civilised  world. 
After  the  Byzantines  had  been  carried  away  by  the  storm  of 
barbarism  the  annals  of  Van,  in  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  follow 
them,  are  of  scarcely  more  than  local  interest.  The  place  must 
have  settled  down  to  that  long  spell  of  half-conscious  existence 
under  which  it  sleeps  and  heaves  and  moans  at  the  present  day. 
Its  garrison  of  Turkomans  offered  a  prolonged  resistance  to  the 
armies  of  Timur  ;  and,  if  the  citadel  was  indeed  virgin  after  the 
lapse  of  ages,  to  the  savage  Tartar  belongs  the  boast  of  having 
torn  her  defences  away.  When  Van  was  visited  by  a  European 
traveller  at  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
Persian  Shahs  of  the  Safavid  dynasty  were  in  nominal  ownership 
and  a  Kurdish  chieftain  in  real  possession  of  the  fortress.  This 
individual  went  so  far  as  to  coin  money  with  his  own  stamp  ; 
but  he  was  ejected  after  a  prolonged  siege  by  the  general  of  Shah 
Ismail  the  First  (a.D.  1502-24)  and  the  inhabitants  brought 
over  to  Persian  allegiance.^  In  the  year  1534  the  keys  of  the 
city  were  brought  to  the  vizier  of  the  Ottoman  sultan,  Suleyman 
the  First.-  The  Ottoman  Turks  thus  became  masters  of  a 
fortress  on  the  side  of  Persia  which  they  converted  into  one  of 
the  strongest  places  in  their  empire.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
it  is  said  to  have  fallen  to  Shah  Abbas  I.,^  but  it  was  recovered 
by  the  Turks.  Their  rule  has  perpetuated  the  abuses  of  the 
Kurds  ;  and  in  the  forties  of  the  nineteenth  century  Van  was 
again  in  the  tender  keeping  of  a  rebellious  chief  of  that  turbulent 
people.  Khan  Mahmud. 

In  spite  of  all  these  revolutions  the  Armenian  people  still 
maintain  themselves  in  large  numerical  preponderance  in  the 
city  and  neighbourhood  of  Van.  It  was  about  the  shores  of  this 
lake  that,  according  to  their  traditions,  their  ancestor,  Hayk, 
established  some  of  their  earliest  seats.  For  at  least  2500  years 
they  have  kept  their  hold  upon  them,  and  have  become  accustomed 
and  inured  to  see  the  empires  come  and  pass,  reaping  their 
harvest  of  tears  from  the  Armenian  peasantry.  Since  the 
impressions  which  I  am  about  to  record  were  committed  to  paper 
a  fresh  massacre  has  decimated  their  community.      And  now,  as 

1  Merchant  in   Persia  {Italian    'I'ravch  in  Persia,    Ilakluyt   Society,    1873,  PP-    179 
seq.).     The  Kurd  is  called  Zidibec. 

2  Von  Hammer,  Geschichie  des  Osiit.  Rciches,  iii.  145. 

^  Kitter,  Erdkiiude,  ix.  980.      But  the  date  he  gives,  viz.  1636,  will  not  suit  the 
chronology. 


Van  79 

I  put  them  together,  comes  a  piteous  appeal  from  the  American 
missionaries,  despairing  of  preserving  the  hves  of  the  famished 
survivors  who  have  lost  their  livelihood,  but  begging  for  help  on 
behalf  of  their  crowded  orphanages.  The  perspective  of  history- 
helps  to  correct  the  sentiment  of  blank  despondency  engendered 
by  the  contemporary  condition  of  the  Armenian  inhabitants. 
At  the  time  of  my  visit  they  numbered  two-thirds  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  town  and  gardens  of  Van.  This  proportion  has  no 
doubt  been  reduced  by  recent  events  ;  but  it  is  almost  equally 
certain  to  be  redressed.  The  fecundity  of  this  people  is  not 
less  remarkable  than  their  persistency  ;  and  their  presence  is 
needed  by  the  officials  who  exploit  the  land.  It  would  seem 
that  the  Armenian  inhabitants  of  Van  have  been  increasing 
during  the  present  century.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
proportion  which  their  numbers  bear  to  those  of  the  Mussulmans 
has  been  tending  to  become  greater.  Consul  Brant  records  that 
in  the  year  1838  Van  contained  not  less  than  7000  families,  of 
which  only  2000  are  ascribed  by  him  to  the  Armenians.^  This 
estimate  represents  a  population  of  about  35,000  souls,  of  whom 
25,000  would  be  Mussulmans  and  10,000  Armenians.  The 
total  agrees  approximately  with  the  most  reliable  statistics  which 
I  was  able  to  obtain.  At  the  time  of  my  visit  the  town,  including 
the  gardens,  was  believed  to  be  inhabited  by  30,000  people;  but  the 
Mussulmans  numbered  only  10,000  to  the  20,oooof  the  Armenians. 
I  received  the  impression  that  these  figures  were  correct  in  respect 
of  the  proportion  of  the  Armenian  and  the  Mussulman  element. 
In  the  aggregate  they  appeared  to  be  a  little  too  low.  If  we 
include  the  population  of  the  caza  or  neighbourhood  of  Van,  we 
shall  probably  not  err  much  in  arriving  at  a  total  of  at  least 
64,000,  made  up  of  47,000  Armenians  and  17,000  Mussulmans. 
Consul  Taylor  in  1868  reckoned  the  inhabitants  "of  Van  and 
the  neighbourhood,"  by  which  he  would  appear  to  mean  of  the 
town  and  caza,  at  17,000  Mussulmans  and  42,000  Christians. 
For  Christians  one  might  almost  write  Armenians.- 

1  Brant  mJou>-)ial  of  R.  Gcog.  Soc.  1841,  vol.  x. 

-  Taylor  in  archives  of  the  British  Consulate  at  Erzerum.  Report  of  March  18,  1869. 
The  estimates  of  Jaubert  in  1805  (  Voyage  en  Arrnhiie,  etc.  p.  138),  and  of  Layard  in  1850 
{Nineveh  and  Babylon,  p.  392),  appear  to  have  reference  to  the  walled  town  only.  The 
former  counts  15,000  to  20,000  souls,  the  majority  Armenian.  The  latter  says  that  Van 
may  contain  from  1 2,000  to  1 5,000  inhabitants.  Shiel's  figure  for  the  population,  including 
the  suburbs,  in  1836,  of  12,000  people,  "of  whom  2000  are  Armenians,"  is  plainly  in 
error  (J.K.G.S.  1838,  vol.  x.).  Vital  Cuinet  {La  Turqiiie  d''Asie,  Paris,  1892,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  654,  691),  whose  statistics  I  have  seldom  found  reliable,  includes  500  Jews  in  the 


8o  Armenia 

When  one  contemplates  the  vast  extent  of  the  garden 
suburbs  and  the  closely-packed  quarters  of  the  walled  town,  it 
is  difficult  to  believe  that  not  more  than  30,000  people  inhabit 
so  imposing  a  place.  Let  my  reader  refer  to  the  plan  which 
accompanies  this  chapter.  I  based  it  originally  on  one  published 
in  the  fine  book  of  M.  Muller-Simonis,^  and  I  filled  it  in  during 
my  daily  rides.  It  at  once  enables  me  to  dispense  with  a  tedious 
topographical  narrative,  and  serves  to  show  the  distribution  of 
Armenians  and  Mussulmans.  On  the  left  of  the  paper  is  repre- 
sented the  rock  of  Van  with  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  and  the 
city  or  fortified  town  at  its  southern  base.  On  the  right  extends 
the  hill  ridge  of  Toprak  Kala,  commencing  on  the  west  with  the 
bold  crag  of  Ak  Kopri,  and  making  a  bay  towards  the  gardens 
as  it  stretches  in  an  easterly  direction,  presenting  the  side  of  what 
is  actually  a  nearly  meridional  mass.  Between  the  two  lies  the 
plain — a  bower  of  leafy  gardens,  most  dense  along  a  line  drawn 
south  of  Ak  Kopri,  but  continuing  westwards  from  the  southerly 
outskirts  of  those  thickly-planted  quarters  to  the  district  of 
Shamiram  or  Semiramis,  south  of  the  citadel.  Mussulmans  and 
Armenians  are  distributed  over  the  area  of  these  suburbs,  and 
they  share  between  them  the  population  of  the  walled  town. 
Some  quarters  in  the  gardens  are  peopled  exclusively  by 
Armenians,  some  by  Mussulmans,  and  some  by  both  alike. 
The  names  which  I  have  placed  upon  the  plan  are  in  some  cases 
those  of  quarters,  and  in  others  of  blocks  of  houses  and  enclosures. 
The  citadel  or  rock  of  Van  is  occupied  by  the  garrison  alone,  and 
none  of  the  townsmen  are  permitted  to  ascend  that  delicious 
platform. 

The  tall  poplars  and  luxuriant  undergrowth  hide  the  houses 
of  the  suburbs  as  you  approach  Van  from  the  plain  in  the  south. 
But  penetrate  within  the  foliage  and  you  will  find  clusters  of 
habitations  which  grow  in  frequency  and  importance  as  the  central 
avenue    is    reached.       Along    that    well-trodden    thoroughfare — 

population  of  Van — the  remnant  of  the  colony  transported  thither  by  the  Arsakid  Tigranes. 
My  enquiries  in  several  quarters  elicited  replies  that  no  Jews  were  known  to  inhabit 
either  the  town  or  the  caza,  but  that  there  were  25  families  at  Bashkala. 

With  regard  to  any  special  elements  in  the  population  of  the  town  and  caza  of  Van 
I  was  informed  as  follows  : — -There  may  be  some  few  score  Circassians  ;  but  there  is  no 
regular  Circassian  settlement  here.  The  Armenians  are  practically  all  Gregorians.  Of 
Chaldi:^;an  Christians,  whether  adherents  of  their  old  faith  or  converts  to  Roman 
Catholicism,  only  a  few  stray  individuals  would  be  found  in  the  town  of  Van.  But  I 
was  informed  of  a  settlement  of  them — Nestorians — about  the  shores  of  Lake  Archag, 
north-east  of  Van.  ^  Dii  Caticase  an  Golf e  Per siqtie,  Paris,  1892,  p.   190. 


PLAN    OF    VAN 

BASED     UPON   A   PLAN    PUBLISHED 
BY    M,P.  MiJLLER-SlMONIS 

Scale-  'approximatcH:  19.000 


Explanation  : 
A    Cif<tdei  I  au/nf?' 
B    Mediipvni.  watled  a'ly,  contuutint] 

baxarx  and  business  quarters. 
C     Garden  town 

1    Tabrix  tfate 

*  Iskeir       - 

5  Ctutrr/i  oT Savkax'anii 

G  •         -   Xorashm 

T  Arakh 

8  -  Jlanka.sin-r 

ft  Place  otShach  F&ijhaii 

10  British  Consulate  <  our  residerttc  t 

11  Dominican  3/issicn 

IW/;/rtv  of  tftiarters  or  htock.s-  of 


Imildintjs  in  capitaLs. 


Van  8 1 

filled  at  morning  or  in  the  evening  by  a  stream  of  pedestrians 
and  riders,  wearing  the  fez  and  more  rarely  the  turban,  some  in 
flowing  Oriental  robes,  others  attired  in  European  dress  —  a 
number  of  stately  residences  abut  on  the  road  with  their  gardens 
around  them,  and  dissemble  the  squalor  which  for  the  most  part 
reigns  within.  Extremely  picturesque  are  some  of  these  lofty 
houses,  with  verandahs  disposed  in  various  and  fanciful  manners, 
as  may  be  seen  in  my  illustration  of  the  dwelling  of  a  wealthy 
Armenian  inside  the  precincts  of  the  walled  city  (Fig.  127).  The 
fact  that  a  large  number  of  the   inhabitants   of  the   garden   town 


Fig.  127,    House  of  an  Armenian  Merchant  at  Van. 

proceed  daily  to  their  different  places  of  business  in  the  city 
partly  accounts  for  the  paradoxical  smallness  of  the  population, 
which  ebbs  and  flows  between  the  two.  Here  in  the  gardens  are 
the  private  residences  of  the  Vali  or  Governor  of  Van  and  of 
the  principal  officials.  Most  of  the  rich  Armenian  merchants 
have  their  dwellings  among  these  quarters,  where  are  also  situated 
the  various  European  Consulates.  It  is  here  that  are  housed  the 
principal  schools,  and  are  located  the  most  considerable  of  the 
churches.  It  is  therefore  scarcely  correct  to  speak  of  the  garden 
town  as  a  suburb  ;  far  rather  does  it  bear  to  the  narrow  and 
crowded  streets  at  the  base  of  the  citadel  a  relation  analogous  to 
that  of  the  ]Vest  End  of  London  towards  the  City  and  the  Strand. 
Among  these  groves  we  spent  a  pleasant  and  fairly  restful 
VOL.  II  G 


82  Armenia 

fortnight,  housed  in  the  empty  apartments  of  the  British  Consulate 
near  the  cross-roads  of  Khach-poghan.  There,  in  the  great  room 
containing  the  safe,  and  the  scroll  enumerating  the  consular  fees 
payable  by  the  only  two  subjects  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty  who, 
besides  the  Consul,  are  resident  at  Van,  my  companions  erected 
their  camp  beds.  Mine  was  placed  in  a  little  chamber  on  the 
further  side  "of  the  spacious  landing,  which  was  open  to  the  air. 
Here  I  could  receive  visits  and  read  and  write.  My  windows, 
paned  with  glass,  looked  out  upon  a  sylvan  scene  of  fairy-like 
character.  All  this  verdure  is  produced  by  irrigation  ;  and  it  is 
the  peculiar  quality  of  such  artificial  sustenance  that  plants  and 
trees  preserve  the  perfection  which  in  northern  latitudes  can  only 
be  admired  in  a  conservatory.  The  storm  clouds,  dissolving  in 
rain,  do  not  disturb  this  southern  climate  and  play  havoc  with 
the  leaves.  Moss  and  mildew  are  unknown  beneath  this  dry, 
continental  atmosphere  and  the  rays  of  this  brilliant  sun.  The 
air  is  saturated  with  light,  streaming  from  a  heaven  which  is 
always  blue.  Into  the  liquid  canopy  start  the  needle  forms  of 
the  poplars,  forced  from  the  soaking  earth  with  wand-like  stems. 
Apples  and  peaches  and  pomegranates — all  the  hardier  fruits 
which  can  withstand  cold  winters — attain  a  beauty  of  form  and 
an  excellence  of  flavour  which  would  do  credit  to  better  gardeners. 
Here  at  Van  they  grow  much  as  they  please.  Melons  and 
cucumbers  find  just  the  conditions  under  which  they  thrive.  All 
this  pulsing  and  exuberance  extends  unchecked  through  the  long 
summer ;  and  when  the  autumn  is  at  length  at  hand,  towards 
the  end  of  October,  the  change  is  only  marked  by  the  gradual 
passing  over  of  shades  of  green  into  shades  of  gold.  The  leaves 
remain  on  their  branches  until  the  withered  stalks  can  hold  no 
longer  ;  but  of  violence  there  is  rarely  a  trace.  The  sky  becomes 
black  and  rumbles  ;  some  showers  fall,  and  Sipan  is  clothed  in 
white  to  his  lower  slopes.  But  the  passing  darkness  of  the  day 
only  enhances  the  goldness  of  a  foliage  which  awaits  the  first 
coming  of  the  snows.  Such  were  the  phases  of  the  year,  which, 
towards  the  middle  of  November,  were  silently  being  accomplished 
before  our  windows. 

These  cross-roads,  Khach-poghan,  are  situated  almost  in  the 
centre  of  the  most  thickly-populated  districts  of  the  garden  town. 
On  the  whole  it  is  a  painful  impression  which  one  receives  from 
daily  intercourse  with  one's  fellow-creatures  at  Van.  The  salient 
feature  of  the  situation  is  the  war  between  two  opposite  elements — 


Van  83 

the  one  of  restless  energy,  measured  almost  by  a  European  standard  ; 
the  other  passive,  suspicious,  fitfully  aflame.  Neither  is  endowed 
with  the  capacity  of  government ;  and  the  least  numerous  and 
least  capable  rule.  The  Armenian  subject  majority  spend  lives 
which  are  certainly  laborious  and  create  whatever  wealth  the 
city  possesses.  The  Mussulman  dominant  minority  grow  fat 
in  the  mostly  highly-paid  sinecures,  or  employ  the  most  keen- 
witted among  the  Christians  to  devise  ingenious  schemes  for 
robbing  the  public  or  the  public  funds.  Over  all  presides  an 
imported  official  of  little  ability  and  no  education  ;  and  a  few 
troops,  under  the  orders  of  an  independent  commander,  who  is 
a  centre  for  intrigue,  redress  the  balance  in  favour  of  the  least 
enlightened  and  most  corrupt. 

Things  are  in  the  habit  of  going  on  in  this  haphazard 
manner,  jolting  and  creaking  along.  But  within  the  last  decade 
or  two  a  new  spirit  has  been  born,  which  my  reader  knows  under 
the  name  of  the  Armenian  movement.  Here  at  Van,  no  less 
than  elsewhere,  it  has  been  a  clumsy  birth,  as  might  be  expected 
from  its  parentage.  It  springs  from  the  two  elements  above 
indicated,  and  flourishes  most  in  the  circumstances  described. 
In  its  ultimate  origin  it  is  at  once  a  product  of  economical 
conditions  and  a  reflection  of  the  spirit  of  the  times.  It  causes 
the  old  elements  to  ferment  beyond  recognition  and  to  assume 
the  most  incongruous  shapes. 

The  phenomenon  is  most  remarkable  in  the  case  of  the 
Turks.  One  may  remark,  by  way  of  parenthesis,  that  there  does 
not  appear  to  be  any  evidence  of  an  actual  settlement  of  Turks 
in  Van  or  the  neighbourhood.  Among  the  Mussulman  inhabitants 
of  the  town  about  six  families  or  clans,  comprising  each  on  the 
average  some  fifty  persons,  may  be  classed  as  of  Turkish  descent. 
Of  these  the  most  prominent  are  the  Timur  Oglu ;  then  the 
Jamusji  Oglu,  or  sons  of  the  buffalo  driver,  and  the  Topchi 
Oglu,  or  sons  of  the  artilleryman.  From  their  ranks  was  formed 
a  kind  of  oligarchy,  which  ruled  the  city  in  former  times,  and,  as 
was  natural,  developed  a  fine  taste  for  faction  and  had  its  counter- 
parts of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines.  The  passion  for  intrigue  has 
survived  among  them  longer  than  the  ability  to  indulge  it  in 
methods  of  their  own  choosing.  Their  power  has  been  much 
curtailed  by  the  progressive  centralisation  of  all  government  at 
Constantinople.  But  they  still  maintain  their  hold  upon  much 
of  the   machinery  of  the   administration,  filling  the   offices  which 


84  Armenia 

are  not  under  the  direct  patronage  of  the  imperial  authorities, 
such  as  the  presidencies  of  the  municipaHty,  the  administrative 
council,  and  the  judicial  courts.  With  the  exception  of  these 
families  there  are  very  few  real  Turks  in  Van  ;  and  in  the  country 
districts  the  Mussulman  population  are  probably  for  the  most 
part  of  Kurdish  origin.  They  speak  both  Turkish  and  Kurdish. 
The  more  peaceable  among  them,  who  are  accustomed  to  settled 
pursuits,  disown  the  name  of  Kurds  and  affect  that  of  Osmanli, 
or  Turks  of  the  ruling  race.  They  do  not  belong  to  any  Kurdish 
tribe.  Their  sympathies  are  on  the  whole  on  the  side  of  law 
and  order  ;  and  their  aversion  to  the  turbulence  of  the  tribal 
Kurds  counteracts  and  perhaps  outweighs  their  jealousy  of  their 
Christian  neighbours. 

An  enlightened  Government  would  seize  upon  these  points 
of  union  and  forge  from  them  strong  links  to  connect  society  in 
defence  of  common  interests  against  the  excesses  of  the  Kurds. 
Van  is  situated  upon  the  threshold  of  the  Kurdish  mountains, 
close  to  the  immemorial  strongholds  of  Kurdish  chieftains,  whence 
they  descend  with  their  motley  followers  into  the  plains.  No 
sooner  had  the  centralising  tendencies  in  the  Ottoman  Empire 
come  near  to  establishing  upon  a  permanent  basis  the  unquestioned 
supremacy  of  Ottoman  rule  in  these  remote  districts,  than  the 
Armenian  movement  commenced  to  make  itself  felt.  The  truth 
is  that  those  tendencies  were  of  impure  origin.  The  officials 
at  Constantinople  were  concerned  with  nothing  less  than  the 
extension  of  good  government.  But  they  were  clever  enough  to 
perceive  that  such  modern  inventions,  as,  for  instance,  the  telegraph, 
gave  them  the  means  of  controlling  for  their  own  purposes  distant 
territories  which  in  former  times  had  been  left  more  or  less  to 
themselves.  The  telegraph  substituted  the  authority  of  a  clique 
in  the  Palace  at  Constantinople  for  the  rough-and-ready  but  often 
honest  and,  on  the  whole,  well-meaning  methods  of  a  Turkish 
pasha  of  the  old  school.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  good  old 
pashas  would  have  brought  about  the  ruin  of  the  country,  which, 
indeed,  was  in  effect  ruined  long  before  they  appeared  on  the 
scene.  But  things  might  have  gone  on  longer  ;  their  rule  could 
not  have  cost  one  quarter  the  existing  misery  ;  and  the  travelled 
person  would  at  least  have  preferred  spending  his  life  in  their 
shadow  than  within  reach  of  the  wings  of  the  eagle  of  Russia 
and  the  quills  of  her  bureaucrats. 

From  one  cause  or  another  the  whole  character  of  Mussulman 


Van  85 

government  has  undergone  a  marked  change  within  recent 
years.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  recognise  in  the  ruling  circles 
of  such  a  city  as  Van  the  Turkey  of  our  fathers.  Fear  and 
suspicion  are  written  upon  every  face.  These  passions  are  trans- 
mitted to  the  rank  and  file  of  their  co-religionists;  the  air 
is  full  of  rumours  of  Armenian  plots.  In  the  old  days  there 
would  have  been  a  riot  and  quite  possibly  a  massacre ;  and 
everything  would  settle  down.  At  present  a  swarm  of  spies, 
under  the  direction  of  emissaries  from  the  Palace,  keep  the  old 
sores  open  and  daily  discover  new  opportunities  for  inflicting 
wounds.  All  the  vices  of  the  Russian  bureaucracy  have  been 
copied  by  willing  disciples  in  the  capital,  and  sent  down  to  the 
provinces  to  serve  as  a  model.  One  may  assert  without  ex- 
aggeration that  life  is  quite  intolerable  for  an  inhabitant  of  this 
paradise  of  Van. 

The  spies  smell  out  a  so-called  plot  and  denounce  its  authors 
to  the  Governor,  who,  poor  man,  is  tired  to  death  with  their 
reports.  If  he  fail  to  follow  it  up,  he  is  accused  at  Constantin- 
ople, and  runs  the  risk  of  losing  his  post.  If  he  interfere,  his 
action  may  quite  well  lead  to  bloodshed  at  a  time  when  his 
efforts  at  pacification  were  commencing  to  bear  fruit.  I  gathered 
that  a  certain  Vali  of  Bitlis  had  discovered  a  working  solution 
of  the  difficulty.  His  principle  was  to  go  one  better  than  the 
informers,  and  himself  to  organise  a  huge  plot  against  himself. 
When  this  sedition  had  been  quelled  by  his  soldiers  just  at  the 
time  that  suited  him  best,  his  zeal  would  be  rewarded  by  the 
despatch  of  a  decoration  from  the  Palace,  and  he  would  be  left  in 
peace  for  some  time. 

Of  course  the  power  of  the  Kurds  is  daily  on  the  increase  in 
such  circumstances  as  these.  The  Palace  leans  towards  them  ; 
their  petty  leaders  are  taken  to  the  capital  and  invested  with 
high  orders.  The  wretched  puppet  of  a  Governor  does  not  dare 
to  overawe  them,  as  even  his  slender  resources  would  well  enable 
him  to  do.  On  the  other  hand,  the  former  docile,  cringing  spirit 
of  the  Armenians  has  given  place  to  a  different  temper.  Partly 
they  are  goaded  by  the  spies  into  so-called  rebellion  ;  and,  in 
part,  they  have  been  aroused  to  a  consciousness  of  their  own  real 
miseries  by  the  persecution  of  the  most  respected  of  their  clerical 
leaders  and  by  the  spread  of  education. 

The  Armenian  movement  has  had  the  effect  of  resolving  their 
community  at  Van  into  two  distinct  parties.      The  one  is  animated 


86  Armenia 

by  the  spirit  of  the  present   Katholikos,   His   Holiness   Mekertich 
Khrimean.      The    memory    of    his    noble    life,    spent    so    largely 
among  them,  outlives   his   long  absence   from   their   midst.      The 
evidence  of  his  work  and  example   is   spread   over  the   city,  and 
may  readily  be   recognised  in  the  demeanour  of  those  who  have 
shared   his   thoughts   and   aims.      His   last   period  of  residence   in 
this,  his  native   place,  would   appear  to  have   come   to  an  end   in 
1885.      At    that  time  he  was  bishop  of  Van   as  well  as  abbot 
of   Varag.       His   labours   were    directed   to   the   education   of  his 
countrymen  ;    "  educate,    educate " — the    girls    no    less    than    the 
boys — may  be  said  to  have   been  his  watchword.      His  personal 
influence  and  the  power  of  the   pulpit,  when   occupied  by  such  a 
preacher,  were  thrown  into  the  endeavour  to  awake  those  dormant 
feelings  which  few  human  beings,  however  much  their  spirit  may 
have  been  broken,  are  entirely  without.     To  realise  their  manhood, 
and  what  they  owed  to  themselves  and  their  race  was  the  constant 
exhortation  which  ran  through  his  sermons  and  penetrated  to  the 
inmost    selves    of    his    flock.      Schools    sprang    up    in    abundance 
beneath  the  magic  of  his  individuality,  and  teachers  were  imbued 
with   that   enthusiasm  for  their  high   calling  without  which  their 
profession   savours   of  drudgery   and   tends  to   produce    a    similar 
impression  upon  their  pupils.      But  the  spirit  of  truth  is  too  often 
akin  to  the  spirit  of  revolution,  and  there  are  bonds  from  without 
as  well  as  from  within.      When   the  scales  fell  from  the  eyes  of 
this  downtrodden  people,  the  naked  ugliness  of  their  lot  as  helots 
was   revealed.      Their   native   energies   were   transferred   from   the 
domain    of   money -making    to    that    of  social    improvement    and 
political    emancipation.      The    craft    of    their    minds,   abnormally 
quickened  by  the  long  habit  of  oblique   methods,  exchanged   the 
sphere  of  commerce  for  that  of  politics.      What   wonder   if  they 
infused   their    politics    with    a    character    at    which   your  superior 
European  would  sometimes  frown  and  more  often  smile  ?     He  has 
been   trained  by  a  long  spell  of  comparatively  pure  government  ; 
while  the  Armenians  have  been  a  subject  race  for  over  nine  cen- 
turies, are  honeycombed  with  the  little  vices  inherent  in   such  a 
status,  and  are  quite  unused  and  as  yet  unfit  to  govern  themselves. 
So  the  old  Armenian   nature   underwent   and   is   still  experi- 
encing a  process  of  fermentation   and  change.      At  the  same  time 
it  threw  off  some   of  the  characteristics  which  had   been  hitherto 
among  the  most  pronounced.      Rashness  and  contempt  for  calcu- 
lation  took  the   place   of  the   old  qualities   of  servility  and  time- 


Van  87 

serving.  In  the  domain  of  the  community  these  discarded 
quah'ties  were  represented  by  individuals  and  by  a  party.  The 
watchword  of  this  party  has  been  submission  to  the  powers  that 
are,  and  the  soHd  argument  which  underlies  the  counsels  of  those 
who  inspire  it  is  based  upon  the  apparent  hopelessness  of  resist- 
ance and  the  tragic  failures  which  such  resistance  has  already 
involved.  But  the  sympathy  of  the  impartial  spectator  can 
scarcely  be  enlisted  on  their  side,  even  if  his  judgment  incline  to 
their  views.  They  are  not  the  new  Armenians,  chastened  by 
sorrow  and  sobered  by  reflection,  but,  for  the  most  part,  the  very 
dregs  of  the  old.  Their  leader  in  Van  is  the  bishop  of  Lim, 
commonly  known  as  Bishop  Poghos.  This  prelate  has  long  been 
resident  in  the  city.  His  talents  have  been  employed  to  counter- 
act the  influence  of  the  present  Katholikos  ;  and  he  has  stood  at 
the  head  of  his  opponents.  When  Khrimean  departed  from  his 
see  he  named  Bishop  Poghos  his  vckil  or  deputy,  it  would  seem 
in  the  hope  of  promoting  peace.  But  the  inhabitants  do  not 
appear  to  have  favoured  this  solution,  and  the  bishop  has  not  held 
the  office  for  the  last  several  years.  He  did  me  the  honour  of 
coming  to  see  me — a  man  of  great  bulk  of  body  and  in  advanced 
years.  His  features  are  of  the  blunt  order  characteristic  of  so 
many  Armenians  ;  and  one  might  doubt  whether  he  could  ever 
have  understood  the  personality  of  such  a  man  as  Khrimean. 

Such,  perhaps,  is  not  an  unfair  analysis  of  society  at  Van  and 
of  the  transformation  which  the  principal  elements  have  been 
undergoing.  Several  massacres  of  the  Armenians  have  done  less 
to  exasperate  them  than  the  importation  of  Russian  methods  into 
their  daily  life.  The  place  swarms  with  secret  police.  Should  a 
Mussulman  harbour  a  grudge  against  an  Armenian,  he  endeavours 
to  excite  the  suspicions  of  one  of  these  agents  ;  the  house  is 
entered  and  searched  from  roof  to  cellar.  Perhaps  some  harmless 
effusion  of  patriotic  sentiment  is  found  in  the  desk  of  a  son  of  the 
house,  a  student.  The  poem  is  seized  and  the  youth  thrown  into 
prison.  Arms  are  said  to  be  concealed,  and  a  pistol  may  be 
discovered.  The  whole  family  is  at  once  rendered  suspect. 
One  might  multiply  these  instances  almost  to  any  extent ;  but 
my  object  is  not  to  excite  resentment  against  the  Turkish 
authorities,  only  to  show  the  folly  of  their  procedure.  If  they 
would  only  return  to  their  old  traditions  and  try  to  govern  less, 
the  situation  would  be  immensely  improved. 

I  feel  sure  that   such  counsel  would  be  appreciated  and    even 


8S  Armenia 

tendered  by  the  Pasha  if  he  were  consulted  by  those  from  whom 
he  takes  his  orders.  But  it  would  have  been  in  doubtful  taste  to 
speak  one's  mind  out  to  him,  the  intercourse  between  us  having 
been  confined  to  the  courtesy  of  an  exchange  of  visits.  Nor  was 
he  the  man  to  enter  usefully  into  a  discussion  of  the  subject. 
He  had  come  to  Van  in  the  pursuit  of  his  profession  of  Governor 
some  twenty  months  ago.  A  Mussulman  Georgian  of  good 
family,  whose  ancestral  estates  lie  in  Russian  territory,  not  far 
from  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  he  could  probably  lay  better 
claim  to  a  preference  for  straight  over  crooked  dealing  than  to 
any  of  the  more  special  qualities  of  a  statesman.  The  Moham- 
medans who  emigrate  from  the  Russian  provinces  into  the 
dominions  of  the  Sultan  are  most  often  those  who  are  unable  to 
sustain  competition  with  stronger  elements,  given  fuller  economical 
play  under  Russian  rule.  The  Vali  of  Van,  notwithstanding  his 
name  and  a  certain  dignity  of  presence,  could  scarcely  hope  to 
occupy  a  position  of  equal  importance  in  the  empire  of  the  Tsar. 
I  found  in  him  a  man  of  little  or  no  education,  about  fifty  years 
of  age.  Tall  and  of  large  frame,  his  features  were  almost  hand- 
some, except,  perhaps,  the  mouth.  He  habitually  wore  a  smile 
upon  his  face.  There  he  would  sit  in  his  long,  bare  room  from 
morning  until  evening,  sipping  coffee  with  his  visitors  and  puffing 
cigarettes.  He  appeared  to  encounter  all  kinds  of  difficulties  in 
the  vicarious  management  of  his  property  in  Russia  ;  but  one 
could  not  doubt  that  the  comely  beard  would  grow  white  in  the 
Turkish  service,  and  the  groves  of  Kolchis  know  him  no  more. 

We  spoke  of  the  Kurds  and  of  the  redoubtable  Hamidiyeh 
regiments,  of  which,  he  assured  me,  no  less  than  twenty  had  been 
instituted  in  his  vilayet,  including  the  mountainous  region  of  Hak- 
kiari.  He  stated  that  their  horses  had  already  been  branded,  and 
that  the  prescribed  strength  of  each  regiment  was  from  600  to  700 
men.  Passing  from  this  magnificent  topic  to  the  sphere  of  prose 
and  of  reality,  he  lamented  the  want  of  communications  in  the 
country,  ascribing  most  of  the  troubles  of  the  time  to  this  cause. 
But  when  I  enquired  whether  it  would  be  permissible  to  organise 
a  service  of  transport  on  the  lake,  bringing  out  a  steamer  or  two 
and  the  necessary  craft,  he  replied,  as  I  expected,  that  one  must 
apply  at  Constantinople,  and  that  he  had  no  authority  to  sanction 
the  possession  even  of  a  pleasure  launch.  He  had  himself  em- 
barked upon  the  enterprise  of  constructing  a  road  to  Bitlis  along 
the  southern  shore  of  the  lake.      But   it  did   not  appear   to  have 


Van  89 

yet  got  further  than  the  village  of  Artemid,  less  than  a  half  day's 
stage.  The  Vali  called  my  attention  to  the  peculiar  hardness 
of  the  walls  in  Van,  although  built  of  nothing  better  than  mud. 
They  remain  intact  for  years  and  years.  He  also  sang  the  praises 
of  a  coal  mine,  a  short  way  distant,  which  he  hoped  would  be 
exploited  some  day. 

Commerce  and  industry  find  in  the  Armenian  population  of 
Van  a  soil  in  which  they  would  flourish  to  imposing  proportions 
under  better  circumstances.  The  city  is  not  situated  upon  any 
artery  of  through  traffic,  and  a  trade  with  the  Russian  provinces 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  exist.  The  imports  from  abroad  are 
carried  in  bullock  carts  or  on  the  backs  of  pack  horses  by  stages 
of  almost  endless  number.  Perhaps  the  bulk  of  them  are  derived 
from  the  port  of  Trebizond,  travelling  through  Erzerum.  From 
that  provincial  capital  there  are  two  main  tracks,  the  one,  which 
is  used  in  summer,  by  way  of  Tekman  or  the  plain  of  Pasin, 
passing  through  Kulli  and  Melazkert  ;  the  other,  frequented  in 
winter,  making  the  detour  along  the  plain  of  Alashkert  and  cross- 
ing the  Murad  at  Tutakh.  The  journey  from  that  township  is 
not  without  danger  as  far  as  Akantz  on  Lake  Van.  The  caravans 
are  accompanied  by  armed  men,  and  are  constantly  on  the  alert 
against  attack  by  bands  of  Kurds.  Communications  with  Persia 
are  conducted  principally  through  the  town  of  Kotur,  and,  more 
rarely,  through  Bashkala.  On  the  south  the  territory  of  Van 
is  separated  by  almost  impenetrable  mountains  from  the  lowlands 
of  Mesopotamia.  But  some  cotton  goods  find  their  way  up  from 
the  Mediterranean  and  through  Aleppo  and  Diarbekr  along  the 
passage  of  Bitlis  and  the  southern  shore  of  the  lake.  I  was 
informed  of  a  more  direct  route  which,  after  leaving  Bashkala, 
passes  by  way  of  Gever,  Shemzinar  (Shemdinan  ?)  and  Rowanduz 
to  Erbil  and  so  to  Baghdad.  But  it  was  represented  as  encoun- 
tering considerable  natural  difficulties  between  Shemzinar  and 
Rowanduz. 

Native  industries,  such  as  the  production  of  various  kinds  of 
textiles,  as  well  as  a  number  of  small  handicrafts,  are  necessarily 
confined  within  very  humble  limits,  owing  to  the  poverty  of  the 
country.  Wages  are  low,  and  the  price  of  bread  is  apt  to  become 
high  under  a  system  of  commercial  rings  which  involves  the 
Government  officials  in  the  artificial  production  of  a  famine.  At 
the  time  of  my  visit  wheat  stood  at  an  almost  prohibitive  figure  ; 
yet  large  quantities  of  the  cereal  were  reputed  to  be  stored,  and 


go  Armenia 

no  additional  supplies  were  encouraged  to  come  in.  Many  of 
my  readers  will  be  familiar  with  the  circular  wafers,  resembling 
pancakes,  which  take  the  place  of  our  loaves  of  bread  throughout 
the  East.  Never  very  palatable,  as  I  think,  they  are  really 
unwholesome,  besides  being  nasty,  in  the  paradise  of  Van.  They 
appeared  to  be  compounded  of  a  gritty  mud  with  an  admixture 
of  dough.  We  endeavoured  in  vain  to  procure  some  white  bread ; 
the  bakeries  were  said  to  be  forbidden  to  supply  such  a  luxury 
to  any  but  the  V^ali's  table.  The  wretched  bakers  are  a  class 
subject  to  constant  persecution  ;  the  officials  have  the  right  and 
even  the  duty  of  inspection  ;  and  this  is  tantamount  to  asserting 
that  the  bread  is  sure  to  be  bad  and  its  producers  at  their  wits' 
end  to  squeeze  from  the  staple  the  necessary  bribes. 

Corruption  has  wormed  its  way  into  every  department  of  the 
administration.  I  enquired  of  a  prominent  citizen,  who  impressed 
me  as  a  man  of  parts,  and  to  whose  house  I  was  obliged  to  wade 
through  mud  which  lay  ankle  deep  upon  the  central  avenue  of 
the  garden  town,  whether  a  municipality  were  an  institution 
unknown  to  Van.  He  replied  that,  on  the  contrary,  they  possessed 
an  elaborate  machinery  for  the  regulation  of  municipal  affairs. 
Were  Christians  excluded  from  the  body  ? — By  no  manner  of 
means.  —  Then  what  prevented  him  and  those  of  equal  calibre 
with  him  from  attending  to  such  important  affairs  ?  The  answer 
came  that  those  Armenians  who  served  upon  the  Board  were 
mere  robbers  or  abettors  of  robbery.  No  honest  man  with  a 
reputation  to  lose  could  consent  to  co-operate  ;  should  he  make 
the  endeavour  he  would  rapidly  be  edged  out.  Such  is  the 
manner  in  which  the  paper  reforms  which  tickle  Europe  are  in 
practice  transferred  to  the  category  of  grave  abuses. 

There  must  exist  a  trace  of  light  in  every  gloomy  picture  ; 
and  at  Van  the  ray  falls  upon  a  little  band  of  artisans  and 
craftsmen  as  well  as  upon  a  few  of  the  tradesmen  and  merchants. 
These  elect  are  without  exception  Armenians.  Our  money 
matters  were  adjusted  with  a  promptitude  and  a  spirit  of  honesty 
which  revealed  capacities  that  came  as  a  surprise  after  our 
experiences  in  Russian  territory.  Yet  there  is  here  no  bank  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  term.  We  were  in  want  of  warm  over- 
coats, and  gave  a  light  cape  as  a  model  ;  it  was  repeated  in  a 
thick  cloth  imported  from  European  Turkey  with  a  skill  which 
would  not  disgrace  a  West-End  tailor.  My  Van  coat  has  since 
that   day  been    my  constant   companion  ;   no   wet   has   ever   pene- 


Van  9 1 

trated  the  coarse  but  cunning  texture,  and  not  a  stitch  has  given 
way.  Work  in  metal  is  produced  with  a  sleight  of  hand  and 
sureness  of  eye  which  are  nothing  less  than  extraordinary.  The 
jewellers  bring  you  objects  which,  although  fanciful  rather  than 
artistic,  are  little  wonders  in  their  way.  And  from  the  back- 
ground of  such  brighter  memories  shine  the  eyes  of  the  great  Van 
cats — as  large  as  terriers,  with  magnificent  tails  and  long  fur, 
with  the  gait  and  fearlessness  of  dogs. 

If  you  could  only  forget  the  shadows  or  wipe  them  away  like 
a  picture-restorer,  there  would  not  be  absent  other  elements  of 
light  and  hope.  But  a  very  long  vision  would  be  necessary  for 
their  discernment,  and  senses  in  other  respects  keen.  For  one 
thing  —  in  spite  of  the  spies,  and  all  the  miserable  stories  of 
Armenian  brides  carried  off  by  Kurds  who  go  scot-free— a  larger 
atmosphere  seems  to  surround  the  immediate  political  environ- 
ment, disclosing  vistas  into  freedom.  There  is  none  of  that  feel- 
ing of  quite  irremovable  pressure,  which  in  the  Russian  provinces 
is  already  sealing  the  springs  of  human  activity  as  a  noxious 
climate  sits  upon  the  lungs.  Freaks  there  are,  and  wicked  freaks 
on  the  part  of  Government  ;  nor  does  there  exist  any  security 
for  life  and  property.  Officials  and  public  bodies  are  woefully 
ignorant  and  hopelessly  corrupt.  In  spite  of  these  real  miseries 
I  should  not  hesitate  to  consent  to  endure  them,  were  the  alterna- 
tive the  lot  of  an  Armenian  in  Russia.  But  this  is,  perhaps,  a 
purely  personal  impression  which  I  need  not  expect  my  readers 
to  share. 

Some  acquaintance  with  the  outside  world  is  derived  by  the 
citizens  as  a  result  of  the  immemorial  custom  among  the  male 
Armenian  inhabitants  of  migrating  for  a  number  of  years  to 
Constantinople  and  returning  home  when  they  have  amassed  a 
certain  competence.  Married  men  leave  their  families  behind. 
Visits  from  Europeans  are  naturally  few  and  far  between  ;  but 
two  or  three  political  consuls  are  generally  in  residence,  and  there 
is  a  fairly  numerous  American  Mission.  The  Americans  are 
under  the  protection  of  the  British  Consul  ;  and  it  is  pleasant  to 
recognise  these  two  elements  working  silently  and  unseen  together 
in  the  van  of  humanity  and  civilisation.  The  British  Consul 
deserves  a  special  measure  of  esteem  and  sympathy.  He  fights 
the  same  battles  as  the  devoted  missionaries  ;  but  he  has  no 
public,  however  much  limited,  to  applaud  his  efforts  and  stimulate 
him  with  their  enthusiasm  upon  his  return  home.      He  corresponds 


92  Armenia 

with  an  Ambassador  entirely  ignorant  of  the  local  conditions;  his 
reports  moulder  iii  the  pigeon-holes  of  an  impalpable  Foreign 
Office  ;  and  the  least  show  of  zeal  is  often  rewarded  by  one  of 
those  snubs  which  your  British  official,  and  especially  the  younger 
diplomatists,  have  a  natural  talent  for  inflicting.  The  quality 
lacking  to  the  average  Englishman  of  a  heart  permeating  manners 
is  possessed  in  a  marked  degree  by  the  Americans.  Their 
Mission  on  the  extreme  eastern  outskirts  of  the  garden  town  is 
an  oasis  of  human  kindliness  and  light  and  love.  It  was  presided 
over  by  Mr.  Greene,  assisted  by  Mr.  Allen  and  by  Dr.  Raynolds, 
who  was  on  leave  of  absence  at  the  time  of  our  visit.  The  lady 
workers  included  Dr.  Grace  Kimball,  with  a  large  medical  practice, 
and  Miss  Fraser,  a  young  and  charming  Canadian  lady,  who  was 
at  the  head  of  a  staff  of  Armenian  teachers  in  the  school  for 
girls  attached  to  the  institution.  In  their  society  it  was  my 
privilege  to  spend  several  pleasant  and  profitable  evenings,  making 
drafts  upon  the  varied  experiences  of  Dr.  Kimball,  and  realising 
what  a  blank  is  presented  by  social  life  in  Mussulman  countries, 
where  freedom  of  intercourse  with  women  would  be  regarded  as  a 
crime  and  where  cultured  women  in  the  true  sense  are  almost 
unknown. 

I  received  abundant  testimony  to  the  morality  of  Armenian 
women,  even  under  circumstances  which  may  be  regarded  as 
distinctly  unfair.  Although  husbands  leave  their  brides  behind 
when  they  migrate  to  Constantinople,  infidelity  is  uncommon. 
Were  it  otherwise,  the  fact  could  scarcely  escape  the  observation 
of  a  lady  practitioner.  It  often  happens  that  a  widow,  about  to 
marry  again,  will  bring  her  young  child  to  the  feet  of  the 
missionaries,  beseeching  them  to  bring  it  up  and  educate  it  in  her 
place,  as  their  monument — for  so  she  puts  it — before  God.  But 
it  never  occurs  that  they  are  offered  illegitimate  offspring.  For 
this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  they  are  disinclined  to  believe  the 
aspersions  which  are  usually  cast  by  the  authorities  upon  the 
character  of  Armenian  women  abducted  by  the  Kurds.  A  less 
bright  side  of  the  Armenian  character  was,  they  said,  their 
inveterate  treachery  towards  members  of  their  own  race.  In  this 
respect,  as  well  as  in  the  domain  of  personal  chastity,  there  appears 
to  exist  a  rough  analogy  between  the  Armenians  and  the  Celtic 
population  of  Ireland.  But  one  must  be  careful  not  to  press  the 
resemblance  too  closely,  the  two  peoples  being  fundamentally 
unlike. 


Van  93 

The  gruesome  stories,  which  we  find  it  difficult  to  credit  in 
Europe,  of  the  miseries  endured  by  the  inmates  of  Turkish  prisons 
were  abundantly  confirmed  upon  unimpeachable  evidence.  The 
most  ordinary  sanitary  precautions  are  neglected,  until  the  cells 
attain  an  unspeakable  condition.  Mussulmans  are  often  able  to 
obtain  certain  relaxations  in  the  rigidity  of  their  confinement. 
They  plead  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  worship  Allah  upon 
floors  which  are  in  this  state.  Perhaps  they  will  be  accorded 
permission  to  emerge  for  a  time  into  the  open  air.  Christians 
are  seldom  favoured  with  similar  indulgences  ;  and  it  often 
happens  that  an  unhappy  youth,  immured  upon  mere  suspicion, 
will  be  sent  home  in  a  dying  condition,  suffering  from  poisoning 
of  the  blood. 

The  American  Mission  at  Van  is  only  one  of  the  many 
establishments  which  have  been  spread  over  the  face  of  Asiatic 
Turkey  by  the  pious  enterprise  of  the  Protestant  inhabitants  of 
the  New  World.  It  is  an  established  etiquette  between  the 
various  Societies  of  the  same  faith,  although  not  necessarily  of  the 
same  nation,  to  avoid  overlapping  into  one  another's  spheres  ;  and 
from  an  early  date  in  the  present  century  the  Americans  entered 
this  field  and  made  it  their  own,  working  their  way  into  /\sia 
Minor  and  thence  into  Mesopotamia.  Their  Society  is  supported 
by  the  Congregational  Church  of  America  ;  and  this  particular 
Mission  was  founded  as  late  as  1871.  Their  activities  are 
practically  confined  to  the  Armenian  population  professing  the 
Gregorian  religion.  But  I  understand  that  the  making  of 
proselytes  is  no  special  or  paramount-  object  of  the  teaching 
which  they  dispense.  If,  perchance,  these  lines  should  reach  an 
American  public,  I  would  venture  to  entreat  the  supporters  of  the 
Mission  to  emphasise  rather  than  to  check  this  wholesome  spirit 
of  abnegation  among  the  devoted  men  and  women  who  serve 
their  interests  so  well.  The  Church  is  at  the  present  day  the 
only  stable  institution  which  the  Armenian  people  possess.  No 
Armenian  of  education — whether  priest  or  layman — doubts  that 
it  is  in  need  of  reform.  Reform  will  come  from  within  as  the 
result  of  the  growing  enlightenment  which  the  Church  herself  is 
engaged  in  propagating  under  extraordinary  difficulties  among 
her  scattered  communities.  To  wean  her  children  from  her, 
while  she  is  still  in  the  stress  of  a  noble  purpose,  would  be  to 
promote  that  cruel  spirit  which  lurks  in  all  religions  when  they 
are  assailed   in  their  instincts   of  maternity  from  without.      Such 


94 


Armenia 


an  endeavour  would  be  at  once  in  a  high  degree  impolitic,  and 
alien  to  the  highest  principles  of  Christianity — mutual  tolerance, 
humility,  love. 

The  circumstances  are  not  the  same  as  when  Luther  reared 
the  standard  of  rebellion  ;  nor  are  Americans  sons  of  the 
Armenian  Church.  Their  true  mission  is  to  compose  rather  than 
to  accentuate  the  internal  differences  which  the  strong  wine  of 
their  personality  can  scarcely  fail  to  elicit  among  the  congregations 
with  whom  they  are  brought  in  touch.  The  Armenians  are 
scarcely  less  Protestant  than  themselves  in  their  attitude  towards 
the  Church  of  Rome.  I  should  hesitate  to  expound  such 
arguments  in  a  manner  so  didactic  were  I  not  convinced  that 
they  are  recognised  in  their  full  force  by  the  thinking  minds  who 
influence  the  aims  of  the  Mission.  Throughout  the  extensive 
field  which  is  worked  from  this  centre  only  seventy-five  adults 
have  been  received  into  the  Protestant  Church.  But  the  standard 
of  wholesome  living  has  been  incalculably  raised  both  in  the 
material  and  in  the  moral  sphere.  The  sick  receive  skilled 
treatment ;  schools  are  opened  in  the  most  needy  villages  ;  the 
alms  of  Europe,  as  well  as  of  America,  are  distributed  among  the 
necessitous  poor.  The  effect  of  a  massacre  is  somewhat  softened 
by  the  institution  of  numerous  orphanages.  Such  are  some  of 
the  results  of  over  twenty  years  of  labour,  upon  which  the  Society 
may  look  back  with  unmixed  pride.  In  the  eyes  of  the  traveller 
they  are  likely  to  outvalue  the  long  roll  of  converts  which  some 
of  the  constituents  of  the  Mission  might  desire  to  possess.  There 
is  always  a  certain  element  of  selfishness  in  proselytism  which  is 
peculiarly  repugnant  to  the  ordinary  visitor  to  distant  lands. 

The  healthy  absence  or  subordination  of  such  an  element 
among  the  Americans  has  contributed  in  no  small  measure  to 
their  success.  The  missionaries  live  on  good  terms  with  the 
Armenian  clergy,  and  are  sometimes  invited  to  preach  in  their 
churches.  They  are  loud  in  their  praise  of  the  tolerance  of  the 
Armenian  hierarchy.  They  assured  me  that  no  attempt  is  made 
in  their  schools  to  convert  the  pupils  from  their  ancestral  religion. 
An  early  opportunity  was  afforded  me  of  visiting  these  schools. 
They  are  two  in  number,  one  in  the  gardens  and  the  other  in  the 
walled  city.  To  both  are  attached  companion  institutions  for 
girls.  The  school  in  the  gardens  was  attended  by  i  i  o  boys  and 
I  I  5  girls.  That  in  the  city  had  only  a  third  of  this  number. 
The  better-to-do  among  the  people  pay  a  small  yearly  fee,  ranging, 


Van  95 

according  to  the  standard  of  education  which  they  may  be  receiv- 
ing, from  15  to  60  piastres.^  The  highest  class  are  expected  to 
pay  the  last-named  sum.  Boys  enter  the  school  at  seven  years 
of  age,  and  some  remain  as  late  as  their  sixteenth  year  or  even 
into  their  eighteenth.  The  course  consists  of  primary,  inter- 
mediary and  high-school  classes  ;  and  to  each  class  it  would  be 
usual  to  devote  three  years.  The  curriculum  of  the  highest  class 
consists  of  English  and  French  among  foreign  languages,  algebra 
and  geometry  in  the  domain  of  mathematics,  and  physics  and 
physiology  in  that  of  natural  science.  History  is  taught  under 
certain  drawbacks.  I  saw  a  copy  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis  which 
had  been  abstracted  from  the  trunk  of  a  teacher,  and  in  which  the 
name  of  Armenia  had  been  erased  with  a  penknife  from  the  map  ! 

Indeed,  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  under  which  they 
labour  within  recent  years  consists  in  the  enforced  mimicry  of 
Russian  methods  by  the  little  Turkish  officials.  Their  books  are 
stopped  on  the  road  or  sent  back.  Restrictions  are  placed  upon 
the  choice  of  books  ;  and  both  Milton  and  Shakespeare  are 
suspect.  The  Bible  comes  through  ;  and  a  very  handsome  Bible 
it  is,  printed  by  the  Society  in  modern  /Armenian.  They  sell  it 
for  a  small  sum.  The  Armenian  clergy  prefer  the  old,  classical 
Bible,  which,  however,  few  of  their  flock  quite  understand.  The 
enterprise  of  the  missionaries  has  also  produced  a  Testament  in 
the  Kurdish  language,  which  they  dispense  to  those  Armenians 
living  in  the  recesses  of  the  peripheral  region  who  have  forgotten 
their  native  tongue. 

Mr.  Greene  was  of  opinion  that  the  sons  of  parents  who  possess 
some  education  are  not  inferior  in  natural  abilities  to  the  average 
x'\merican  boy.  In  the  English  class  I  listened  to  some  very  fair 
reading,  certainly  as  good  as  in  the  Russian  seminary  at  Erivan. 
Some  very  practical  theses  were  expounded  ;  why,  for  instance, 
should  one  sleep  in  a  bed  and  not  on  the  floor  ?  For  four 
reasons  :  a  floor  is  cold,  dirt  collects  upon  the  floor,  gases  hang  to 
the  floor,  damp  affects  the  floor.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  Armenian  schools  are  greatly  benefited  by  competition  with 
the  less  fashionable  American  institutions.  They  at  least  receive 
a  certain  stimulus  and  some  new  ideas.  This  is  notably  the  case 
in  respect  of  their  schools  for  girls,  which  owe  their  development 
to  the  x^merican  example. 

During  the  course  of  our  stay  in   Van   I  visited  every  school 

1  One  lira  or  Turkish  pound  contains  100  piastres  and  is  equal  to  iS  shillings. 


96 


Armenia 


both  in  the  city  and  the  garden  town.  In  no  better  and  surer 
way  IS  the  traveller  enabled  to  gauge  the  attainments  of  the 
community  among  whom  he  sojourns.  The  Armenians  possess 
no  less  than  eleven  such  institutions,  each  dispensing  both  primary 
and  secondary  education,  and  counting  as  many  as  2180  pupils  in 
all,  of  whom  about  800  are  girls.  The  majority,  namely  six,  are 
purely  ecclesiastical  foundations,  that  is  to  say,  they  are  attached 
to  the  churches  and  largely  supported  by  Church  funds.  But 
four  are  owned  and  managed  by  private  individuals,  attracting  to 
them  the  children  of  the  wealthier  parents.  The  single  remaining 
unit  is  contributed  by  a  school  for  girls  which  is  due  to  the 
munificence  of  a  wealthy  Russian  Armenian,  the  late  M.  Sanasarean. 
It  has  received  the  name  of  Sandukhtean.  In  numbers  it  is 
surpassed  by  the  Church  school  of  Hankusner,  which  has  a  roll 
of  250  maidens.  These  attend  in  the  private  residence  of  the 
present  Katholikos,  the  author  and  patron  of  the  college.  The 
four  private  schools  number  about  400  scholars,  of  whom  over 
100  are  of  the  female  sex.  All  these  schools,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Yisusean,  are  situated  among  the  gardens.  This 
last,  of  which  the  name  signifies  that  it  is  dedicated  to  Jesus,  is 
attached  to  the  ancient  churches  of  Tiramayr  and  Surb  Paulos 
in  the  walled  city  and  close  to  the  foot  of  the  rock.^ 

The  ecclesiastical  schools  are  housed  in  buildings  adjoining 
the  several  churches  to  which  they  are  attached.  But  they  do 
not  necessarily  bear  the  same  name  as  the  church.  Coming 
from  Russia,  it   is   curious  to  hear  the  loud  grumblings  which  are 


1   I  append  the  names  and  situations  of  the  Armenian  schools.      Private  schools  are 
marked  with  a  T'. 


No.  of 

No.  of 

Name  of  School. 

Male 

Female 

Where  situated. 

Pupils. 

Pupils. 

I.    Arakh 

150 

Arakh  quarter  of  the  gardens. 

2.    Norashen 

300 

Norashen  quarter  of  the  gardens. 

3.    Yisusean 

200 

100 

Walled  city. 

4.    Hankusner   . 

250 

Hankusner  quarter  of  the  gardens. 

5.    Sandukhtean 

... 

150 

Norashen           ,,          ,,           ,, 

6.    Khach-poghan 

155 

Central  avenue  of  gardens. 

7.    Lusavorchean  P. 

90 

30 

)>               ))              > ) 

8.    Haykavank  . 

^S 

15 

Haykavank  quarter. 

9.    Paragamean  P. 

50 

25 

Norashen  cjuarter  of  gardens. 

10.    Pusantean  P. 

75 

,,                ,,                ,, 

II.   Lukasean 

45 

10 

Norshen-Sufla  quarter  of  gardens. 

1375 

80s 

Vail  97 

called  forth  among  the  Armenians  by  their  obligation  to  pay  to 
Government  a  tax  of  two  per  cent  upon  their  incomes  towards 
the  expenses  of  education.  Government  pockets  the  money 
but  fails  to  provide  a  Christian  school.  In  Russia  they  do  not 
complain  of  the  imposition  of  the  corresponding  tax,  but  would 
be  eager  to  throw  away  at  least  double  the  amount  in  considera- 
tion of  being  permitted  to  retain  and  develop  their  own  unassisted 
schools.  What  the  Armenians  would  desire  above  all  things  both 
in  Russia  and  in  Turkey  is  the  refund  by  Government  under  certain 
conditions  of  the  tax  levied  upon  them  for  education.  Taking 
into  account  the  efficiency  of  their  schools,  the  purely  political 
nature  of  the  opposition  they  encounter,  and  all  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  case,  one  is  inclined  to  come  to  the  con- 
clusion that  both  Empires  would  be  well  advised  to  accede  to  the 
wishes  of  their  Armenian  subjects  upon  this  point.  At  least  those 
wishes  are  likely  to  enlist  the  sympathies  of  impartial  men. 

Except  for  the  protection  which  is  afforded  in  their  relations 
with  Government  by  the  close  connection  with  the  ecclesiastical 
organisation,  the  Armenian  schools  display  a  detachment  from 
hierarchical  influences  which  no  friend  of  true  education  can  fail 
to  admire.  The  teachers  are  almost  without  exception  laymen  ; 
and  knowledge  is  allowed  to  pursue  its  own  salvation.  Formerly 
there  existed  in  Van  an  institution  for  preparing  teachers  ;  but 
it  was  closed  by  Government  for  political  reasons  some  years  ago. 
Its  place  might  probably  be  taken  by  the  Sanasarean  college  at 
Erzerum  ;  yet  I  only  met  one  master  who  had  been  equipped  by 
that  wealthy  foundation,  and  the  fact  deserves  remark.  The  rest 
had  been  chosen  from  the  ranks  of  the  best-educated  citizens  ; 
and,  in  the  absence  of  any  other  but  a  commercial  career  for 
young  men  thus  qualified,  the  teaching  staff  attracts  a  fairly  high 
class.  No  limits  are  placed  by  Government  upon  the  standard 
of  instruction — the  sentence  sounds  strange  ;  and  one  requires  to 
have  come  from  Russia  to  appreciate  the  magnanimity  of  the 
concession.  But  Russian  methods  have  crept  in  within  recent 
years,  and  the  private  schools  have  already  been  regulated.  In 
all  schools  gymnastics  are  rigidly  prohibited,  on  the  ground  that 
the  boys  might  be  drilled  and  might  rebel !  Such  puerilities  are 
balanced  on  the  other  side  by  the  comparative  latitude  which  on 
the  whole  the  schools  enjoy. 

Text -books,  translated   or   compiled   from    European   sources, 
are   supplied   by  the   printing  presses  of  the   Mekhitarist   order  in 
VOL.  II  H 


98  Armenia 

Venice  and  Vienna.  I  enquired  why  the  Bible  had  not  been 
issued  in  modern  Armenian  by  the  organisers  of  the  Church 
schools.  The  reply  came  that  the  difference  between  the  ancient 
and  modern  tongues  was  not  so  great  as  between  Latin  and 
Italian  ;  and  that  it  was  desirable  that  Armenians  should  be 
familiar  with  their  best  literature,  written  in  the  same  classical 
speech.  The  curriculum  comprises,  besides  the  Armenian 
language,  religion  and  literature,  a  fairly  thorough  study  of  the 
Turkish  tongue,  both  written  and  spoken.  French  is  also  taught  ; 
and  two  of  the  masters  at  Yisusean  conversed  in  fluent  French. 
The  natural  science  course  includes  astronomy  and  physical 
geography  ;  while  mathematics,  anatomy,  geography  and  general 
history  figure  in  the  routine  of  one  or  other  of  the  grades. 
Leaving  out  of  account  the  primary  course,  most  of  the  schools 
have  a  higher  as  well  as  an  intermediary  grade.  Li  both  a 
pupil  remains  some  three  to  four  years.  He  might  complete  the 
course  in  about  his  sixteenth  year.  But  the  majority  are  much 
too  poor  to  be  able  to  remain  more  than  half  this  term  ;  and  in 
the  school  of  Arakh,  the  largest  in  Van,  I  counted  only  sixteen 
youths  attending  classes  in  the  highest  grade.  Only  five  were  in 
the  last  year.  About  one-half  were  competent  to  contribute  a 
small  payment,  the  highest  sum  being  a  couple  of  mejidiehs  or 
40  piastres  a  year. 

The  oldest  of  these  schools  are  Yisusean  and  Arakh,  both 
founded  nearly  fifty  years  ago.  The  latter  may  perhaps  serve 
as  a  typical  example  of  the  scholastic  institutions  attached  to 
the  churches.  Its  proper  name  is  the  somewhat  cacophonous 
one  of  Thargmanchatz,  or  the  school  of  the  translators — Sahak, 
Mesrop  and  their  companions.  It  is  situated  in  the  Arakh 
quarter  of  the  gardens  and  in  the  same  enclosure  with  the  church. 
You  are  shown  into  a  reception-room  of  moderate  proportions 
with  a  coarse  divan  at  one  end  and  a  few  chairs.  Upon  the 
walls  are  suspended  a  photograph  or  two,  displaying  the  features 
of  well  -  known  ecclesiastics.  A  single  priest  and  a  bevy  of 
lay  teachers  will  be  assembled  to  do  the  honours.  On  the 
occasion  of  our  visit  there  were  not  less  than  twenty  people 
present,  and  we  were  addressed  in  passable  English  by  one  of  the 
teachers  who  had  come  from  the  x^merican  school.  Coffee  was 
served  and  cigarettes.  No  matter  what  the  subject  of  conversa- 
tion might  happen  to  be,  a  certain  middle-aged  and  sour-faced 
individual   who  sat  in  a  corner   would    always  insist   upon  putting 


Vail  99 

in  his  say.  To  the  remonstrances  of  his  companions  he  would 
retort  with  much  vehemence  that  his  only  privilege  left  in  life 
was  freedom  of  speech.  In  that  cause  he  had  withered  in  prison, 
from  which  he  had  only  just  been  set  free,  and  to  which  he  was 
likely  soon  to  return.  Then  he  proceeded  to  heap  curses  upon 
the  Turks  and  their  government,  until  I  was  obliged  to  say  that 
one  of  us  two  must  leave  the  room.  As  a  guest  in  a  Turkish 
city,  it  would  ill  become  me  to  listen  to  treason  against  hospi- 
table and  considerate  hosts.  The  strange  thing  about  this 
incident  was  the  fact  that  these  teachers  should  be  willing  to 
harbour  such  a  suspicious  character.  He  did  not  belong  to  the 
school.  The  reputation  of  the  place  was  jeopardised  by  his 
presence.      What  children — so  one  reflected — these  people  are  ! 

The  younger  pupils  in  the  primary  class  will  be  collected  in 
one  vast  room,  seated  on  benches  or  on  the  floor.  They  are 
attired  in  nondescript  and  ragged  cotton  garments  ;  and  few 
even  of  the  older  scholars  are  possessed  of  suits  in  cloth.  A 
number  of  smaller  classrooms,  with  forms  and  blackboards,  are 
approached  from  a  long  passage.  Although  the  windows  are  all 
open,  an  unpleasant  odour  pervades  the  air  ;  this  is  a  character- 
istic which  we  deplored  to  our  cost  in  every  school  at  Van.  It 
was  evident  that  not  even  the  American  missionaries  had  yet 
succeeded  in  inculcating  personal  cleanliness.  Perhaps  some  of 
the  young  people  display  the  Jewish  type — a  relic  probably  of 
the  colony  settled  in  Van  by  the  Arsakid  king  and  said  to  have 
been  removed  into  Persia  by  Shapur.  These  are  by  far  the  most 
favoured.  The  vast  majority,  however,  have  the  less  pronounced 
and  more  irregular  features  common  among  the  youth  of  Europe. 
But  their  eyes  are  all  very  dark  and  very  bright,  shining  like  big 
beads.  They  look  extremely  intelligent.  The  little  girls  did 
not  impress  me  as  being  very  attractive  ;  though,  again,  among 
the  older  maidens  some  beautiful  Biblical  types  may  be  seen. 
These  betray  Semitic  blood.  The  teachers  in  the  girls'  schools 
were  all  very  plain — broad  as  galleons,  with  round  faces,  straight 
hair  and  crooked  eyes  ;  what  was  wanting  in  their  busts  seemed 
to  have  been  added  below  the  waist. 

Van,  at  the  time  of  our  visit,  was  the  proud  possessor  of  no 
less  a  dignitary  than  a  Director  of  Public  Instruction.  What- 
ever may  have  been  his  full  Turkish  title,  he  was  always  addressed 
by  the  less  ornate  style  of  Miidir.  By  origin  he  was  an  Albanian, 
by  religion  a    Mussulman  ;  he  spoke   French  well,  and   impressed 


lOO .  Armenia 

me  strongly  as  a  zealous  and  capable  man.  It  is  a  pity,  and 
indeed  a  shame,  that  such  material  is  not  employed  to  fill  the 
higher  administrative  posts.  Although  the  Turkish  schools  fell 
more  particularly  within  his  province,  to  him  was  assigned  the 
regulation  of  the  Armenian  private  schools.  They  were  con- 
strained to  submit  their  syllabus  for  his  approval,  and  also  their 
text -books.  Changes  or  additions  to  their  teaching  stafif  were 
subject  to  the  same  sanction.  I  am  not  quite  sure  that  these 
rules  did  not  equally  apply  to  the  Church  schools  ;  but,  however 
that  may  have  been,  they  were  in  practice  mildly  enforced.  The 
Turkish  scholastic  system,  as  it  is  operative  in  Van,  comprises 
three  grades.  There  is  first  the  primary  ;  then  the  secondary, 
which  is  termed  RiislidiyeJi ;  and  last  the  college  or  lycce,  called 
Idadiych.  Of  official  primary  schools  not  one  existed  prior  to  the 
arrival  of  the  Mudir,  only  a  few  months  before  ourselves.  The 
Mussulmans  were  in  the  habit  of  sending  their  children  to  small 
schools  attached  to  the  mosques.  This  practice  had  only  partially 
been  discontinued  since  the  institution  by  the  new  functionary  of 
six  primary  schools,  numbering  altogether  some  240  boys.  Of 
these  fresh  foundations  I  was  only  invited  to  visit  one.  Second- 
ary education  was  dispensed  in  three  institutions  of  the  Rushdiyeh 
class  to  about  350  students  in  all.  The  Mudir  was  in  hopes 
of  opening  an  Idadiyeh  during  the  following  summer  ;  and  it  was 
also  his  ambition  that  Christians  as  well  as  Mussulmans  should 
attend  the  course.  The  bringing  together  of  the  two  elements 
would  certainly  work  to  their  mutual  advantage  ;  and  the  ex- 
periment might  succeed  if  it  were  tried  on  social  and  educational 
grounds,  and  not  as  a  political  thrust  against  the  Armenian 
schools. 

Of  the  three  secondary  institutions  only  two  deserve  remark, 
the  third  being  apparently  in  an  inchoate  state.  Both  are  situated 
on  the  great  avenue  leading  from  the  walled  town  and  forming 
the  artery  of  the  gardens.  So  far  as  I  could  ascertain,  neither 
dated  more  than  a  few  years  back.  The  spacious  buildings  in 
which  they  are  housed,  the  fine  classrooms,  the  dress  of  the 
pupils — everything  contrasts  to  their  advantage  in  external 
matters  with  the  comparative  squalor  of  the  Armenian  schools. 
We  did  not  see  a  single  untidy  youth  ;  the  air  was  sweet,  the 
floors  scrupulously  clean.  Scholars  and  teachers,  with  the 
exception  of  a  mollah  or  two,  were  attired  in  a  distinctive  uniform. 
Such,  indeed,  was  the  case  in  both  institutions  ;   but  it  was  a  more 


Va7t  I  o  1 

noticeable  feature  in  the  more  numerously  attended  of  the  two, 
popularly  known  as  the  military  school.  The  Mudir  was  careful 
to  explain  that  it  was  not  in  fact  a  military  school  ;  that  it  so 
appeared  was  due  to  the  circumstance  that  they  had  been  unable 
to  obtain  good  civilian  teachers,  and  had  been  obliged  to  have 
recourse  to  the  military  academy  at  Constantinople.  I  was  the 
more  inclined  to  give  implicit  credit  to  this  statement  after  making 
the  acquaintance  of  the  staff  of  the  purely  civilian  school.  It  was 
evident,  however,  that  the  instructors  in  the  companion  establish- 
ment had  not  abandoned  any  of  their  military  methods.  They 
wore  their  uniforms,  and  all  their  pupils,  even  the  youngest,  had 
been  drilled.  Here  again  we  were  introduced  to  a  copy  of 
Russian  institutions  ;  and  we  might  almost  have  been  visiting  the 
Russian  High  School  at  Erivan.  The  curriculum  included  the 
French,  Persian  and  Arabic  languages.  The  boys  had  evidently 
learnt  by  rote,  but  had  learned  well.  They  could  draw  maps  of 
the  countries  of  Europe  on  the  blackboard.  One  of  their  number 
stood  up  and  answered  all  geographical  questions  with  an  accuracy 
which  no  German  boy  could  excel.  The  outline  of  England  was 
rapidly  sketched  in  from  memory  ;  and,  when  I  enquired  the 
situations  of  even  Greenwich  and  Gravesend,  they  were  each 
assigned  their  proper  place.  The  population  of  London  was 
correctly  given.  Most  of  the  faces  one  saw  around  one  were 
extremely  intelligent  ;  and  only  in  a  few  instances  were  those 
dull,  stupid  features  conspicuous  which  are  not  rare  among  the 
settled  Mussulman  population.  All,  without  exception,  were 
Mohammedans,  and  the  majority  the  sons  of  officials.  Unlike  the 
Armenian  boys,  most  of  whom  wear  a  shapeless  cap,  every  youth 
had  a  clean  fez  with  tassel  upon  his  head.  In  the  evening  they 
would  canter  off  on  richly  caparisoned  horses  ;  but,  to  sum  up 
the  relative  merits  of  the  Arrnenian  and  the  Turkish  schools, 
while  the  first  contemplate  Knowledge,  the  second  pursue  her 
image,  heedless  of  the  resentment  which  the  sensitive  goddess 
keeps  in  store. 

While  one  is  walking  through  the  gardens,  paying  visits  to 
the  various  schools,  the  attention  will  often  be  distracted  to  the 
very  interesting  churches,  of  a  type  which  I  have  not  seen  in  any 
other  x'\rmenian  town.  It  might  not  be  inappropriate  to  call  them 
log  churches,  although  the  outer  walls  are  built  of  stone.  The 
oldest  is  no  doubt  that  of  Haykavank,  situated  in  the  quarter 
of  the   same   name.      I  was  unable  to  ascertain   its   ag-e.      But   it 


I02 


Ainnenia 


represents  a  transition  form  from  the  usual  stone  edifice  to  the  style 
of  the  other  four  churches  in  the  gardens,  in  which  the  columns  of 
the  nave,  the  roofs  and  the  interior  fittings  are  exclusively  of  wood. 
The  exteriors  of  all  are  featureless  and  plain.  In  Haykavank  the 
nave  is  separated  from  the  aisles  by  four  stone  piers  as  well  as  by 

sixteen  wooden 
shafts,  eight  on  each 
side.  The  face  of 
the  dais  supporting 
the  altar  is  also  of 
stone.  Light  is 
thrown  upon  the 
interior  through 
three  box  -  shaped 
structures  in  the 
roof,  each  contain- 
ing four  windows 
(Fig.  128).  The 
shafts  are  in  every 
church  mere  trunks 
of  trees  with  the 
bark  lopped  off 
them  ;  and  at  the 
west  end,  seen  in 
the  background  of 
my  illustration,  will 
always  be  situated 
a  wooden  gallery 
for  the  women.  The 
floors  are  carpeted. 
The  most  attractive 
of  the  five  is  Norashen,  remarkable  for  its  two  octagonal  domes 
in  wood.  The  largest  is  Arakh,  with  a  length  inside  of  i  3  5  feet 
and  a  breadth  of  a  little  over  56  feet.  It  appears  to  have  been 
built  as  late  as  1884  on  the  site  of  a  smaller  edifice.  Nor  is 
Norashen  said  to  have  been  constructed  more  than  about  fifty 
years  ago.  It  is  remarkable  that  of  these  five  churches  of  the 
gardens  ^ — the  remainder  are  known  respectively  as  Hankusner 
and  Yakob — all,  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  are  dedicated  to 
the  Virgin.  The  same  may  be  said  of  two  out  of  six  in  the 
walled  town.     The  fact  would  seem  to  point  to  something  approach- 


FiG.  128.     Interior  of  Haykavank  from  the  East. 


Van  103 

ing  a  cult  of  the  Virgin,  though   plainly  not   for   the   reason   for 
which,  according  to  Voltaire,  she  was  worshipped  in  old  F'rance. 

One  may  be  disposed  to  linger  awhile  in  two  of  these  churches 
— Haykavank  and  Hankusner.  The  first  is  filled  with  the  musty 
memories  of  the  dark  ages,  and  the  second  with  the  vivid  mag- 
netism of  a  personality  which  has  not  yet  been  removed  from 
our  midst.  The  ancient  stone  crosses  inlaid  into  the  dais  of 
Haykavank,  the  painted  reliefs  of  angels  in  the  screen  of  the  altar, 
and  a  most  barbarous  carved  panel  of  the  Last  Supper  are  so 
many  survivals  of  pure  mediaevalism.  The  dingy  logs  and  the 
rickety  boxes  in  the  roof,  through  the  little  windows  of  which  the 
sweet  light  falls,  are  in  harmony  with  the  stiff  figures,  overlaid 
with  gaudy  but  faded  colours,  which  turn  towards  one  from  the 
shrine.  From  an  adjoining  apartment  comes  the  sound  of  a  chant 
by  the  choir  at  practice — a  graceless  music,  sung  through  the 
nose.  During  a  respite  from  this  discord  you  hear  the  tick  of  an 
old  standard  clock  ;  and,  moving  towards  it,  read  the  name  of  its 
English  maker  years  ago  —  Markwick  Markham  of  the  city  of 
London.  It  has  a  companion  of  its  own  kind  in  this  same  church. 
Here  they  have  stood  and  ticked  in  company  for,  I  wonder,  how 
many  )-ears  !  The  colleague  is  by  Michael  Paieff  of  Vienna,  and 
has  a  song  chime,  so  sweet  and  clear  and  pure.  .  .  .  Hankusner, 
on  the  other  hand,  if  devoid  of  any  antiquities,  is  associated  with 
a  name  which  should  always  be  honoured  in  Armenian  history, 
and  with  a  spirit  which  calls  to  the  Church  to  throw  off  her 
mediaeval  fetters  and  look  into  the  light  of  the  day.  It  was  in 
that  humble  structure  across  the  river,  beneath  the  cliff  of  Toprak 
Kala,  that  Mekertich  Khrimean  was  for  many  years  accustomed 
to  address  his  countrymen,  standing  upon  the  low  dais  by  the 
altar  beneath  the  roof  of  logs.  His  humble  residence  is  situated 
on  the  Van  side  of  the  stream.  You  knock,  and  a  man  in  the 
garb  of  a  peasant  steps  forth  and  holds  your  reins  as  you  dismount. 
Yet  he  is  the  nephew  of  the  supreme  pontiff  of  the  Armenians. 
He  informs  you  that  this  was  the  house  in  which  the  Hayrik  was 
born.  It  is  now  tenanted  by  the  girls'  school.  The  rooms  are 
neatly  maintained,  but  their  walls  of  mud  are  neither  plastered 
nor  papered.  That  which  used  to  serve  as  his  sleeping  apartment 
contains  a  couple  of  wooden  divans,  used  as  seats  by  day  and 
couches  by  night.  Two  pictures,  one  in  oil  and  the  other  a  crayon, 
portray  the  familiar  face  in  youth  as  well  as  in  age.  What  a 
handsome   type,   with    the   magnificent    features   and    silky   black 


I04 


Armenia 


beard  !  The  remaining  frames,  most,  no  doubt,  due  to  the  piety 
of  his  relations,  display  by  the  side  of  Armenian  texts  the  title 
page  of  a  journal  upon  which  figures  in  all  his  splendour  the  eagle 
of  Vaspurakan. 

It  is  quite  a  ride  from  the  heart  of  the  gardens  to  the  walled 
city.  The  central  avenue  leads  through  great  open  spaces  some 
time  before  the  gate  in  the  east  wall  is  reached.  On  the  left 
hand,  across  the  fields,  lie  the  less  dense  plantations  of  the  quarter 
of  Shamiram.  The  main  entrance  adjoins  the  rock  which  sup- 
ports   the  battlements  of  the  citadel,  and   is  called   the  gate  of 


Fig.  129.    The  Rock  and  Walled  City  of  Van. 

Tabriz.  Extremely  picturesque  is  the  appearance  from  this  side 
of  the  precipitous  ridge,  with  the  long  serration  of  the  mediaeval 
wall  sharply  outlined  against  the  sky,  and  the  ponderous  towers 
crowning  the  hump  of  the  mass  (Fig.  129).  It  forms  the 
northern  side  of  the  irregular  parallelogram  which  is  described 
by  the  walls  of  the  city  at  its  southern  base.  The  area  thus 
enclosed  is  of  very  moderate  size,  and  the  central  and  southern 
quarters  seem  pressed  for  room.  These  constitute  the  busy 
portion  of  the  town,  containing  the  bazars  and  the  mosques. 
The  former  are,  as  usual  in  the  East,  thronged  with  motley 
figures  ;    and    quite   a   crowd    collected    as    I    set    up    the    camera 


Van 


105 


inside  a  booth  upon  which  were  spread  out  a  variety  of  cheap 
comestibles  (Fig.  130).  The  mosques,  of  which  there  are  three 
besides  smaller  places  of  prayer,  are  not,  I  think,  worthy  of 
remark.  Only  two,  Kaia  Chellaby  and  Khusrevieh,  are  at  present 
frequented  by  the  faithful.  The  third,  Topchi  Oglu,  in  the  more 
northerly  quarter,  is  now  no  longer  used.  Its  minaret  may  be 
seen  on  the  right  side 
of  my  illustration  de- 
picting the  house  of  a 
rich  Armenian  in  this 
district  (Fig.  i  27).  In 
addition,  there  is  at 
least  one  mosque  in 
the  garden  suburb, 
known  as  the  Hafizieh. 
Khusrevieh  deserves 
attention  for  its  cunei- 
form slab,  built  into  the 
pavement  upon  the 
threshold  of  the  build- 
ing. It  was  swimming 
in  mud  when  we  el- 
bowed our  way  towards 
it  through  a  Friday's 
assembly  of  not  too 
friendly  bystanders.  I 
had  been  informed  of 
the  existence  of  a 
not  discover  its  where- 


FiG.  130.    Street  in  the 
Walled  City. 

second    tablet,   but    could 
abouts.^ 


But  there  exists  in  the  city  a  ruined  mosque  which  mocks 
these  Turkish  edifices  and  is  really  a  noteworthy  example  of 
Arab  art.  It  is  strange  that  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
mentioned  by  any  traveller.  The  Ulu  Jami,  or  great  mosque,  is 
situated  in  the  western  quarter,  under  the  precipice  of  the  citadel 
rock,  which  is  here  at  its  highest,  and  of  which  the  sheer  escarp- 
ments tower  into  the  sky.  The  rareness  and  humility  of  the 
adjoining  houses  permit  the  view  to  wander  from  the  remains  of 
this  beautiful  building  along  the  face  of  the  upstanding  limestone 

1  The  text  of  the  slab  in  this  mosque  (which  he  calls  the  Kurshun  mosque)  has  been 
copied  and  published  by  Dr.  Belck  in  \he  Zeitschrift  fiir  Assyrioloi:;it',  1892,  vol.  vii.  pp. 
257  seq.  See  also  Vcrhandlnngen  der  Berl.  Gesell.  fiir  Aiithropologie,  1898,  pp.  570, 
575  (Sayce,  No.  \Xyj)^.,  Journal  R. A. S.  1894,  p.  707). 


io6  Armenia 

to  the  great  tablet  with  the  inscription  of  Xerxes  some  Httle 
distance  east  of  where  you  stand.  Two  great  periods  of  world 
history  are  embodied  in  these  two  monuments  ;  and,  as  we  gazed 
upon  them,  the  rock  and  tablet  were  bathed  in  the  yellow  light  of 
evening,  while  the  mosque  was  in  shade.  No  one  could  tell  us  by 
whom  it  had  been  constructed,  nor  when  it  fell  into  decay.  The 
pigeons  build  their  nests  in  the  crannies  of  the  kiln-burnt  bricks 
of  which  it  is  composed.  In  the  centre  rises  a  pillar,  seen  on  the 
left  of  my  illustration  ;  the  angles  are  filled  with  the  stalactite 
architecture  dear  to  the  Arabs  (Fig.  131).  The  clay  traceries  upon 
the  walls  are  as  hard  as  stone  and  as  delicate  as  ivory  (Fig.   132). 

The  Armenian  churches  are  in  general  situated  in  the  close 
vicinity  of  the  overhanging  parapet  from  which  the  works  of  the 
citadel  frown.  Although  for  the  most  part  of  considerable 
antiquity,  none  has  any  claim  to  architectural  pretensions,  such 
as  one  might  expect  in  the  capital  of  the  mediaeval  kingdom  of 
Vaspurakan.  Indeed  in  their  original  form  they  are  small  and 
quite  plain  stone  chapels  ;  and  the  church  proper  has  probably 
been  added  at  a  much  later  period,  being  furnished  with  the  log 
pillars  and  plank  boxes  in  the  roof  characteristic  of  the  churches 
in  the  gardens.  Access  to  the  chapel  is  gained  through  an 
opening  in  the  dais  at  the  east  end  of  the  church.  The  entrance 
will  usually  be  closed  by  a  door  with  double  folds.  In  some 
churches  or  on  some  occasions  this  door  will  be  thrown  open 
when  service  is  being  held.  The  priest  will  then  stand  with  his 
back  to  the  congregation  upon  the  step  on  the  threshold  of  the 
chapel.  On  the  other  hand,  I  have  also  attended  when  one 
would  scarcely  divine  the  existence  of  such  an  inner  sanctuary. 
The  priest  performed  his  functions  upon  the  dais  of  the  church 
before  an  altar  of  the  usual  gaudy  order.  It  is  therefore  evident 
that  the  uses  of  the  larger  building  oscillate  between  those  of  a 
mere  pronaos  and  a  church  in  the  proper  sense. 

These  edifices  are  six  in  number  :  Surb  Tiramayr  (the  mother 
of  the  Master,  i.e.  Jesus  Christ),  Surb  Vardan,  Surb  Paulos, 
Surb  Neshan  or  the  token,  so  called  from  a  relic  of  the  Cross, 
Surb  Sahak,  Surb  Tsiranavor.  The  last  is  of  almost  tiny  pro- 
portions, and  is  named  after  the  Virgin  with  the  purple  robes. 
A  seventh  chapel,  close  to  Surb  Paulos,  bears  the  name  of 
Surb  Petros,  or  St.  Peter,  but  was  severely  shaken  by  an  earth- 
quake a  few  years  ago,  and  has  been  partially  destroyed  to 
prevent  it  collapsing.      High  mud   walls,  such   as  may  be  seen  on 


Fig.  131,    Van  :   Interior  of  the  Mosque  of  Ulu  Jami. 


Fig.  132.    Van  ;   Frieze  in  Ulu  Jami. 


Van  107 

the  left  of  the  photograph  of  the  house  in  Van  (Fig.  127),  enclose 
the  courts  in  which  the  churches  are  built.  You  enter  through 
a  low  door  of  great  weight  after  hammering  with  a  ponderous 
knocker.  The  most  interesting  of  all  is  certainly  Surb  Paulos  ; 
and  the  teachers  in  Yisusean,  who  accompanied  me  on  my  visit, 
were  inclined  to  ascribe  it  to  the  times  of  St.  Thaddeus.  I  see 
no  reason  to  doubt  that  certain  parts  of  the  chapel  date  back  to 
an  epoch  before  the  advent  of  St.  Gregory,  when  Christianity 
must  have  flourished  in  Vaspurakan.  Surb  Paulos  seems  to 
have  served  as  a  model  to  the  other  churches  ;  and  the  chapel 
is  approached  through  the  usual  pronaos  or  church  proper.  The 
inside  dimensions  of  the  chapel  are  57  feet  by  27^  feet;  and  the 
thickness  of  the  stone  wall  on  the  west  side,  where  it  is  capable 
of  being  measured,  is  not  less  than  7  feet.  Of  rectangular  shape, 
the  disposition  of  the  interior  is  not  abnormal.  You  have  an 
apse  on  the  east  side,  preceded  by  a  dais  or  raised  stage  in 
stone  ;  and  the  roof  centres  in  a  conical  dome  of  great  depth  and 
admirable  masonry,  in  which  a  row  of  loophole  apertures  admit  a 
scanty  light.  The  dome  is  supported  by  piers  adhering  to  the 
walls.  There  is  not  a  trace  of  plaster  or  ornament  in  the  place  ; 
and  the  dark  hue  of  the  naked  stone  enhances  the  gloom.  We 
observed  three  blocks  which  had  been  built  into  the  walls  and 
were  inscribed  with  cuneiform  characters.  But  they  appeared  to 
have  been  hewn  without  any  regard  to  the  inscriptions,  which 
must  have  suffered  considerable  mutilation.  Better  treatment 
had  evidently  befallen  a  large  inscribed  slab  which  had  been 
used  as  a  lintel  or  upper  stone,  roofing  a  niche  in  a  recess  of  the 
south  wall.  The  arrowhead  writing  was  well  preserved.  In  this 
same  wall  we  admired  a  most  beautiful  Armenian  cross,  carved  in 
bold  relief  upon  a  stone  panel  5  feet  high  and  4  feet  broad.  We 
seemed  to  be  able  to  read  a  date — 409  of  the  Armenian  era  or 
A.D.  960.  My  reader  is  already  familiar  with  these  crosses  (Fig. 
59,  Vol.  I.  p.  271)  ;  but  I  regret  that  the  light  in  the  sanctuary 
was  much  too  dim  to  enable  me  to  photograph  the  most  artistic 
specimen  of  this  form  of  ornament  which  I  remember  to  have 
seen.^ 

1  For  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  in  Surb  Paulos  (Boghos)  see  Schulz's  Memoir,  pp.  298- 
99  ;  Layard,  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  p.  400  (I  do  not  know  why  he  calls  it  the  church  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul);  Verhandliingen  der  Berl.  Gesell.  ficr  Anthropologic,  1898,  pp.  570 
and  573,  and  Zeitschrift  fiir  Assyriologie,  1899,  p.  320.  They  are  being  subjected  to 
fresh  examination  by  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann  (Sayce,  Nos.  XXXI.  and  XXXII.). 
In  addition  to  these  I  noticed  a  mutilated  inscription  on  a  stone  in  the  doorway  of  Surb 
Vardan  (sec  Verh.  Anthrop.  189S,  p.  572),  and   two  inscribed   slabs  in  the   apse  of  the 


io8  Armenia 

The  citadel  crowns  the  summit  of  the  isolated  ridge  which 
forms  the  northern  side  of  the  fortified  town.  This  is  the  famous 
rock  of  Van  (Fig.  129).  It  rises  to  the  height  of  about  300  feet 
from  level  land  on  all  sides.  The  ridge  is  narrow  in  proportion 
to  its  length,  and  has  a  direction  a  few  points  north  of  an  east- 
west  line.  In  shape  it  has  been  compared  to  the  back  of  a  camel, 
the  citadel  occupying  the  hump.  The  sides  of  the  mass,  which  is 
composed  of  a  limestone  so  hard  that  it  resists  a  knife,  are  most 
precipitous  on  the  south.  They  are  most  amenable  at  the  western 
and  eastern  extremities.  The  remains  of  an  ancient  wall  with 
inscriptions  of  Sarduris  the  First  may  be  discovered  at  the  western 
end.  The  wall  was  probably  protracted  to  the  lake  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  present  harbour.  There  are  no  houses  on 
the  north  side.  The  ground  in  that  direction  is  waste  or  disposed 
for  pasture  ;  and  a  little  marsh  adjoins  in  one  part  the  base  of  the 
rock.  We  tried  our  best,  but  in  vain,  to  obtain  permission  to  visit 
the  citadel.  The  Pasha  was  powerless  and  the  Commandant 
obdurate.  The  majority  of  modern  travellers  have  met  with  the 
same  refusal,  due,  no  doubt,  to  a  desire  to  hide  the  nakedness  of 
the  place.  The  blandishments  of  Schulz,  as  well,  perhaps,  as  the 
hopes  he  held  out  of  discovering  treasure,  were  successful  in 
effecting  a  temporary  breach  in  the  tradition  of  official  obstinacy. 
He  was  admitted  within  the  gate  of  the  inmost  fortress,  to  find  it 
occupied  by  a  garrison  of  two  living  creatures — an  old  janissary 
and  a  tame  bear.  Later  visitors,  more  privileged  than  ourselves, 
tell  of  a  few  obsolete  cannon.  The  disappointment  which  is 
engendered  by  the  attitude  of  the  authorities  may  be  appreciated 
by  the  fact  that  the  caves  of  Khorkhor  and  other  antiquities  are 
included  within  the  fortified  area.  I  have  endeavoured  in  the 
accompanying  note  ^  to  offer  some  description  of  them,  largely  at 

ruined  Surb  Petros,  one  in  fair  preservation  (Sayce,  No.  XLVIIL).  I  was  unable  to  pene- 
trate into  the  chapel  of  Surb  Sahak,  into  the  walls  of  which  similar  fragments  of  the 
stelai  of  the  Vannic  kings  have  been  inserted  (Sayce,  Nos.  XLV.  and  XLVL). 

1  The  most  detailed,  as  well  as  the  most  lucid  and  impressive,  account  of  the  Gurab, 
or  rock  of  Van,  is  still  that  of  Schulz  [Joiirrial  Asiatique,  1840,  vol.  ix.  ser.  iii.  pp.  264 
seq.).  But  the  remarks  of  Layard  {Nineveh  and  Babylon,  pp.  395  seq.,  with  woodcuts  of 
the  rock  chambers),  Tozer  (Turkish  Armenia,  London,  188 1,  pp.  347  seq.)  and  Miiller- 
Simonis  [Du  Caiccase  an  Golfe  Persiqtie,  Paris,  1892,  pp.  246  seq.)  may  be  consulted. 
The  only  entrance  to  the  citadel  is  by  a  path  which  is  conducted  up  the  western 
declivities  of  ihc  rock  from  a  point  closely  adjacent  to  the  gate  called  Iskele  in  the  north- 
west angle  of  the  fortitied  town.  In  Schulz's  time  this  path  ascended  in  a  north-easterly 
direction  between  a  double  row  of  modern  walls,  composed  for  the  most  part  of  mud. 
After  following  these  walls  for  some  little  distance  it  arrived  in  front  of  a  solid  wooden 
door,  studded  with  large  nails  and  strengthened  by  bars  of  iron.  This  gate  afforded 
access  to  the  Castle,  and  was  never  opened  except  by  an  express  order  from  the  Pasha. 


Van  I 09 

second   hand.      The   general   impression  which  we  may  receive  is 
that  the  ancient  works  upon  the  ridge  behe  the  hopes  excited  by 

The  castle  enclosure  was  flanked  by  walls  of  greater  height  and  solidity  than  those 
without  ;  it  contained  a  number  of  modern  buildings,  such  as  barracks,  a  small  mosque, 
and  a  powder  magazine.  Mr.  Tozer  was  shown  a  very  deep  naphtha  well  in  this 
neighbourhood,  running  down  vertically  into  the  rock.  The  oil,  which  he  describes  as  a 
brown,  half  liquid  mixture,  could  be  reached  by  means  of  a  pole.  The  house  of  the 
commandant  and  the  prison  are  situated  within  the  enclosure,  where  may  be  seen  a 
number  of  old  bronze  cannons,  curiously  ornamented  and  quite  obsolete.  Schulz 
describes  the  antiquities  upon  this  portion  of  the  rock  as  consisting  of  two  groups  of 
cave  chambers.  I.  The  southern  front  of  a  mass  of  rock  which  immediately  adjoins 
the  most  elevated  part  of  the  whole  formation — that  part  which  lower  down  displays  the 
tablet  of  Xerxes,  and  which  is  crowned  by  the  powder  magazine — has  been  hewn  down 
in  a  vertical  direction  for  a  space  of  about  60  feet.  Nearly  in  the  centre  is  situated  an 
open  doorway,  surmounted  by  a  smaller  aperture  to  admit  light.  Both  openings  have 
been  damaged  by  human  hands,  evidently  with  intention  ;  and  no  trace  of  any  ornaments 
or  inscriptions  remains.  The  doorway  conducts  into  a  vaulted  cave  chamber,  some  45 
feet  long  and  25  feet  high.  The  rock  has  been  less  carefully  worked  than  in  the  case  of 
the  caves  of  Khorkhor.  Nearly  in  front  of  the  entrance,  a  second  doorway  in  the 
opposite  wall  gives  access  to  a  smaller  apartment,  20  feet  long  and  10  feet  broad,  called 
the  Neft  Koiou  or  spring  of  naphtha,  the  fumes  of  which  fill  the  room.  At  the  time  of 
Schulz's  visit  this  inner  chamber  was  nearly  filled  up  by  a  structure  in  kiln-burnt  bricks 
and  veiy  hard  mortar,  of  which  the  purpose  was  not  apparent.  2.  Quite  close  to  the 
Neft  Koiou,  in  the  block  of  limestone,  adjoining  it  on  the  left  hand,  which  rises  from  the 
tablet  of  Xerxes  to  the  powder  magazine,  may  be  seen  a  hole  of  irregular  shape  and  some 
3  feet  in  diameter,  through  which  one  crawls  into  a  group  of  five  rock  chambers,  of  which 
the  largest  is  30  feet  long  and  20  feet  broad.  The  walls  of  these  caves  are  rudely 
fashioned,  without  ornament  or  niches.      In  one  of  them  Schulz  found  human  bones. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  and  certainly  the  most  famous  series  of  such  excavations 
upon  the  rock  of  Van  are  known  by  the  name  of  the  caveS  of  Khorkhor.  They  are 
situated  in  the  steep  south-west  side  of  the  mass,  overlooking  a  garden  which  in  Schulz's 
time  belonged  to  the  Pasha,  but  which  is  now  in  a  desolate  and  weed-grown  condition. 
The  garden  bears  the  same  name  as  the  caves — a  name  of  which  the  etymology  is  neither 
Armenian  nor  Turkish,  and  which,  according  to  Professor  Sayce,  may  perhaps  be  taken 
back  to  the  word  Kharkhar,  signifying  to  excavate,  found  in  Vannic  texts  (J.R.A.S. 
1882,  p.  572).  The  chambers  are  visited  from  the  same  side  as  the  citadel,  and  at  first 
by  the  same  path.  The  remains  of  steps  and  of  even  spaces,  hewn  out  of  the  rock, 
suggest  that  one  of  the  principal  approaches  to  the  platform  in  antiquity  was  taken  by 
this  way.  But,  after  following  this  avenue  for  some  little  distance,  you  turn  to  the  right, 
leave  the  stairs,  and  clamber  along  the  side  of  the  rock,  until  you  emerge  through  a 
fissure  upon  the  southern  face  and  see  the  garden  at  your  feet.  From  here  a  staircase  of 
twenty  steps,  almost  obliterated  in  some  places,  slopes  along  the  face  of  a  mass  of  precipitous 
crags,  in  which  is  placed  the  entrance  to  the  chambers.  The  limestone  has  been  carefully 
flattened  and  polished,  and  is  covered  with  inscriptions  outside.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  stair  is  seen  a  little  grotto,  containing  a  seat  which  commands  fine  views  over  town 
and  plain.  On  the  right  of  the  grotto  is  a  long  inscription  in  three  columns,  separated 
from  one  another  by  vertical  lines.  It  has  suffered  not  a  little  from  the  impact  of  cannon 
balls  ;  but  is  still  in  a  fairly  legible  condition.  It  records  the  conquests  of  Argistis  I. 
(Sayce,  Nos.  XXXVU.  XXXVIII.  XXXIX.).  The  continuation  of  this  record  is  found 
a  little  further  on,  at  the  end  of  the  stair,  and  after  turning  an  angle  of  the  rock.  It  is 
incised  upon  the  outer  face  of  the  polished  limestone  about  the  doorway  to  the  caves 
(Sayce,  Nos.  XL.-XLIV.  ;  see  also  Hyvernat's  memoir  in  Miiller-Simonis,  op.  cit.  p.  531). 
This  aperture,  some  6  feet  by  5  feet  in  dimensions,  leads  into  a  chamber  32  feet  long,  19  feet 
broad,  and  lOj  feet  high,  which  again  communicates  with  four  lesser  rooms.  The  walls 
are  hewn  out  with  extraordinary  care,  and  ten  niches  or  oblong  recesses,  3  feet  high  and  2 
feet  broad,  are  distributed  over  the  sides  of  the  principal  apartment  about  3^  feet  above  the 
ground.      Incisions  with  holes  in  the  centre  are  placed  in  the  spaces  between  each  pair 


iio  Armenia 

the  account  contained  in  the  pages  of  Moses  of  Khorene.  They 
do  not  amount  to  much  more  than  a  few  groups  of  chambers 
excavated  in  the  rock.  The  purpose  which  these  caves  served 
was  almost  certainly  that  of  tombs  ;  though  they  may  also  have 
been  used  as  refuges  in  time  of  war.  It  must,  however,  be 
remembered  that  all  the  ancient  structures  upon  the  rock  have 
long  since  been  destroyed.  The  same  fate  has  befallen  even  the 
staircases.  Some  of  the  recesses  appear  to  have  been  destined  to 
receive  bas-reliefs  ;  and  if  such  may  have  been  the  case,  these 
images  have  been  demolished.  Yet  enough  remains,  especially 
the  elegant   characters  of  the   many  inscriptions,  to  fill   the  mind 

of  niches,  and  may  have  held  metal  lamps.  The  floor  has  been  excavated  in  two  places 
into  squares  a  few  inches  deep.  The  smaller  rooms  are  furnished  with  recesses  similar 
to  those  described.  One  of  them  adjoins  a  space  resembling  the  head  of  a  pit  or  shaft, 
which,  however,  has  been  completely  filled  in  with  rubble.  It  probably  represents  a 
subterraneous  communication  with  a  spring  which  gashes  from  the  foot  of  the  rock  in  the 
garden  below. 

The  remaining  excavations  and  inscriptions  are  disposed  as  follows  over  the 

circumference  of  the  ridge  : — i.  East  of  the  Khorkhor,  but  on  the  same  south  face,  and 
approached  from  the  side  of  the  gate  of  Tabriz,  you  easily  recognise  a  partly  natural  and 
partly  artificial  platform,  fairly  high  up  on  the  rock.  A  spacious  doorway  connects  this 
ledge  with  a  cave  of  which  the  dimensions,  according  to  my  own  measurements,  are  3 1 
feet  by  21  feet.  This  chamber  communicates  with  three  smaller  grottos,  one  approached 
by  a  door  in  the  wall  opposite  the  entrance,  and  the  other  two  by  similar  apertures  in  the 
adjacent  walls.  The  three  subsidiary  rooms  are  long  and  narrow.  The  one  opposite 
the  entrance  contains  a  dais  and  steps  at  its  narrow  west  end ;  and  that  on  the  left  hand 
is  furnished  with  recesses  at  each  extremity.  Lower  down  on  the  side  of  the  rock  one 
observes  a  small  aperture  to  which  it  is  possible  to  gain  access.  It  only  measures  some 
4  feet  by  3  feet.  In  the  stone  above  has  been  hewn  a  long  but  shallow  recess,  about  3  feet 
in  width.  One  wonders  whether  it  may  have  been  destined  to  receive  a  coffin.  The 
hole  gives  access  to  a  chamber  23  feet  7  inches  in  length  and  14  feet  in  breadth.  Three 
sides  are  furnished  with  recesses  2  feet  6  inches  in  depth,  placed  3  feet  4  inches  from  the 
"^round.  2.  Inscription  on  the  rock  near  the  gate  of  Taijriz,  much  effaced,  but  copied 
and  deciphered  by  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann.  It  contains  the  names  of  the  kings 
Menuas  and  Ispuinis,  together  with  those  of  the  father  of  Ispuinis,  Sarduris,  and  his 
grandson  Inuspuas  {Verhatidlnngen  der  Berl.  Gesell.  filr  Anthropologie,  1898,  pp.  571, 
575).  The  same  travellers  mention  the  discovery  by  them  of  three  new  inscriptions  on 
the  ridge,  which  appear,  however,  to  be  of  minor  importance  {ibid.  p.  571).  3.  On  the 
northern  face  of  the  rock,  not  far  from  the  Tabriz  gate  and  below  the  line  of  fortifications, 
are  situated  two  artificial  recesses  at  an  interval  of  about  twenty  paces.  That  on  the 
right  contains  a  long  inscription  upon  the  wall  which  is  on  your  left  as  you  stand  within 
the  recess  ;  it  records  conquests  by  Sarduris  II.  (Sayce,  No.  XLIX.).  This  grotto  bears 
the  name  of  Kha/.ane-Kapusi  or  gate  of  treasure.  4.  On  the  same  side,  a  short  distance 
further  west,  and  upon  a  surface  which  has  been  hewn  down  vertically  and  flattened,  are 
seen  three  tablets  incised  into  the  rock,  one  of  them  being  on  a  level  with  the  base  of  the 
rido-e.  Each  member  of  the  group  contains  an  inscription  ;  and  the  three  inscriptions 
have  one  and  the  same  text.  It  is  of  Menuas,  and  a])pears  to  commemorate  a  restoration 
of  the  tablets  by  that  monarch  (Sayce,  No.  XX.).  5.  On  the  same  side,  near  the  summit, 
and  almost  directly  above  the  grotto  Khazane  Kapusi  (Hyvernat  ap.  Miiller-Simonis,  op. 
tit.  p.  548),  is  a  large  cave,  at  present  comprised  within  the  fortifications,  and  inaccessible 
from  below.  On  the  right  of  the  entrance  is  an  inscription  of  King  Menuas,  purporting 
that  a  series  of  chambers  were  constructed  by  him  as  tombs  in  this  place  (Sayce,  No. 
XXL). 


Van 


III 


with  admiration  of  that  old  race  and  vanished  culture.  They  were 
certainly  not  lacking  in  the  instincts  of  imagination  ;  and,  year  by 
year,  they  must  have  taken  pleasure  in  gazing  out  upon  the 
landscape  from  the  grottos  constructed  to  receive  them  when  they 
died.  \  people  of  Cyclopean  walls,  embossed  shields  and  chariots, 
they  would  almost 
seem  to  have  be- 
longed to  the  race 
of  giants,  preceding 
the  evolution  of  fox- 
like man. 

I  must  not  close 
this  chapter  and  dis- 
miss the  memories 
of  the  paradise  of 
Van  without  be- 
stowing some  little 
space  upon  the 
surroundings  of  the 
city,  which  abun- 
dantly justify  the 
Armenian  proverb. 
The  governing  fea- 
ture of  the  nearer 
landscape  is  the 
lofty  parapet  of 
Mount  Varag,  dis- 
tant from  the  citadel 
some  eight  miles 
in  an  easterly  direc- 
tion and  nearly  ten 
miles  from  the  margin  of  the  lake.  The  plain  rises  gradually 
beyond  the  limits  of  field  and  garden  to  meet  and  mingle  with 
those  slopes.  Spurs  connect  the  mountain  with  the  irregular  hill 
mass  on  the  north  of  the  suburbs,  which  in  its  totality  appears  to 
be  known  under  the  name  of  Zemzem  Dagh.  Like  Varag  itself, 
these  hills  are  composed  of  a  hard  limestone  ;  and  their  south- 
westerly extremity  is  signalised  by  a  very  bold,  detached  crag, 
standing  forth  like  a  sentinel  (Fig.  133,  and  see  the  plan).  This 
portion  of  the  mass  is  known  as  Ak  Kopri,  which  means  in 
Turkish  "  the   white   bridge."      That   is  the  name  of  a  straggling 


Fig.  133.    The  Crag  of  Ak  Kopri. 


112  Armenia 

quarter,  inhabited  by  Mussulmans,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Httle 
river  and  close  to  the  crag/ 

The  stream  itself  is  also  called  Ak  Kopri  ;  and,  coming  from 
Van  gardens,  we  crossed  it  by  a  little  bridge.  Standing  close  to 
the  crag,  which  we  reached  after  a  short  ride,  the  view  ranged 
widely  in  all  directions  except  that  of  the  cliffs  at  our  back. 
Looking  west  and  south  we  had  the  great  plain  before  us,  bounded 
only  at  an  interval  of  many  miles  by  low  hills  circling  from 
Varag  into  the  lake  in  front  of  the  distant  barrier  of  the  Kurdish 
mountains.  Turning  round,  we  commanded  a  view  of  uncultivated 
flats,  extending  several  miles  to  another  line  of  bare  hills  ending 
on  the  west  in  a  crag,  called  Kalajik.  The  only  trace  of  verdure 
in  that  landscape  were  the  gardens  of  the  village  of  Shahbagh. 
But  the  outlines  of  the  promontories,  the  blue  lake,  the  distant 
fabrics  of  Nimrud  and  Sipan,  composed  into  a  picture  it  would 
be  difficult  to  forget. 

The  level  ground  in  the  direction  of  Kalajik  forms  the  first  of 
two  extensions  of  the  plain  of  Van,  properly  called.  Retracing 
our  steps  for  a  short  distance,  we  soon  turned  off  in  an  easterly 
direction,  and  rounded  the  bluff  of  Ak  Kopri.  We  found  ourselves 
in  the  bay  of  cliffs  which  faces  Van  gardens  ;  and  we  were  soon 
standing  in  front  of  the  great  cuneiform  inscription,  which  contains 
such  an  interesting  list  of  the  gods  worshipped  by  the  Vannic 
people,  and  of  the  sacrifices  which  were  appointed  for  each  god.^ 
The  tablet  is  hewn  into  the  rocky  slope  of  the  cliff,  about  50 
feet  above  the  level  and  cultivated  ground  (Fig.  134).  Some  10 
feet  below  it  is  a  shallow  cave.  Three  successive  jambs  recess 
inwards  to  the  face  of  the  tablet  from  that  of  the  rock,  which  has 
been  flattened  on  either  side.  The  depth  of  the  recess  is  4 
feet  2  inches.  The  dimensions  of  the  tablet  or  polished  surface 
containing  the  inscription  are  a  breadth  of  6  feet  5  inches  and  a 
height  of  about  1 7  feet  6  inches.  From  a  distance  the  recessed  slab 
has  all  the  appearance  of  a  door  giving  access  to  a  grotto  behind. 

1  The  Armenian  gentleman  in  whose  company  I  visited  the  locaHty  regarded  Ak 
Kopri  as  a  Turkish  misnomer  for  Ak  Karapi,  a  word  which  he  derived  from  Kar,  a 
stone,  and  Ap,  narrow  way  in  Armenian.  The  word  would  signify  the  narrows  of  the 
white  crag,  or  the  narrow  way  separating  the  crag  from  the  hill.  That  is  a  sample  of 
Armenian  etymologies.      Another  derivation  is  from  Ak  Kirpi,  the  white  hedgehog. 

-  Sayce,  No.  V.  It  is  an  inscrijition  of  Ispuinis  and  Menuas,  and  is  known  locally 
as  Meher  Kapusi  (the  gate  of  Meher,  derivation  unknown)  or  Chohan  Kapusi  (the 
shepherd's  gate;  so  called  from  a  shepherd  to  whom  the  "Open  Sesame"  of  the 
treasure-house,  which  the  slab  is  supposed  to  seal,  is  said  to  have  been  revealed  in  sleep. 
He  entered  ;  but  forgot  the  talisman,  and  never  returned). 


Pig.  134.    Yan:  Cuneiform  Inscription  of  Meher  or  Choban  Kapusi. 


> 


Uu 


Va7t  1 1 3 

After  continuing  our  direction  for  no  great  space  we  mounted 
to  the  summit  of  the  cliff.  It  may  be  some  200  feet  high. 
But  the  flat  top  rises  at  its  southerly  extremity  to  a  level  of 
about  double  that  altitude  above  the  gardens  of  Van.  These 
are  the  heights  of  Toprak  Kala.  From  a  cleft  in  the  mass  we 
opened  out  the  upper  valley  of  the  Ak  Kopri  Su,  the  second 
of  the  extensions  of  the  plain  of  Van  of  which  I  have  spoken 
(Fig.  135).  The  mountain  in  the  background  of  my  photograph 
is  Varag. 

The  monastery  of  Yedi  Kilisa,  situated  on  the  slopes  of  that 
mountain,  is  the  most  frequented  of  the  numerous  cloisters  in 
the  neighbourhood  ;  and  thither  we  made  our  way  on  a  fine 
November  day.  The  first  snowstorm  of  the  coming  winter  had 
raged  during  the  night  ;  and  the  snow  was  lying  in  spite  of  a 
brilliant  sun.  A  ride  of  some  seven  miles  along  the  windings 
of  the  track  brought  us  to  the  door  of  the  enclosure.  We  had 
passed  over  rising  ground,  in  places  furrowed  by  the  plough,  but, 
except  for  the  oasis  of  the  village  and  monastery  of  Shushantz, 
entirely  devoid  of  trees.  A  mere  fleck  upon  the  white  canopy 
of  the  hills  on  our  right  hand  had  been  named  to  us  as  the 
cloister  of  Surb  Khach.  Our  Armenian  friends  in  Van  were  fond 
of  speaking  of  these  foundations  as  centres  of  light  and  learning 
in  the  older  and  happier  times.  They  have  been  scattered  with 
a  liberal  hand  over  this  magnificent  landscape  ;  yet  how  they 
have  fallen  from  their  estate  !  Two  poor  monks,  who  lived  on 
gritty  bread  and  salted  cheese  inlaid  with  herbs,  received  us  at 
the  gate.  One  was  the  abbot,  or  rather  the  deputy  of  the  abbot ; 
for  that  office  is  still  held  by  the  present  Katholikos,  the  Hayrik 
or  Little  Father  of  the  Armenians.  Daniel  Vardapet — for  so 
he  was  addressed — is  a  type  of  the  better- educated  priest.  A 
delicate  man  some  fifty  years  of  age,  his  features  were  those  of 
a  Casaubon.  I  am  afraid  his  attainments  would  not  compare 
with  those  of  that  scholar  ;  yet  he  had  the  suavity  and  the  speech 
of  a  cultivated  man.  His  assistant  was  a  monk  of  the  peasant 
class.  Some  fifteen  youths  were  housed  in  the  cloister — the 
remnant  of  the  school  founded  there  years  ago  by  Khrimean.  A 
cloud  of  unusual  gloom  enveloped  the  destinies  of  the  ancient 
place  ;  and  one  might  doubt  whether  the  gentle  Daniel  had  ever 
experienced  so  many  calamities  during  the  thirty-five  years  which 
he  had  passed  within  these  walls.  The  most  severely  felt  of  all 
the  blows  which  the  Turkish  Government  had  been  raining  upon 
VOL.  II  I 


114 


Armenia 


them  was  the  loss  of  their  printing  press.  Some  short  while  back 
the  officials  appeared  and  walked  off  with  the  precious  instru- 
ment, of  which  the  voice  had  been  mute  for  many  years.  They 
erected  it  in  Van,  and,  having  kidnapped  an  Armenian  compositor, 
used  it  to  publish  an  official  gazette.  In  company  with  the 
Mudir  I  had  happened  to  pass  the  building  where  it  was  lodged  ; 
and  my  companion  remarked  to  me  that  he  was  looking  for- 
ward to  obtaining  some  money  for  his  schools  with  the  proceeds 
of  the  sale  of  the  paper.^ 


Fig.  136.    Monastery  of  Yedi  Kilisa  (Varag), 

The  site  of  the  monastery  is  a  dip  or  pass  upon  the  outline 
of  gentle  hills  which  stretch  from  the  more  southerly  slopes  of 
the  mountain  to  confine  the  plain  upon  the  south  (Fig.  136). 
From  its  windows  only  a  vista  of  the  lake  is  obtained.  The 
church  consists  of  a  larger  pronaos  with  the  usual  conical  dome, 
communicating  on  the  east  by  a  richly  moulded  and  spacious 
doorway  with  a  chapel  or  sanctuary."  The  interior  of  this  chapel 
recalls  features  in  St.  Ripsime  at  Edgmiatsin.  It  has  four 
apses  or  recesses,  one   on   each  wall,  separated  from   one  another 

1  Since  I  have  mentioned  the  name  of  Daniel  Vardapet  it  is  only  just  that  I  should 
add  that  he  stated  to  me  that  the  press  had  been  hired. 

^  The  inside  dimensions  of  this  chapel  are  :  extreme  length  from  recess  to  recess, 
38  feet  7  inches,  and  extreme  breadth,  30  feet. 


Van 


115 


by  deep  niches.  The  whole  is  surmounted  by  a  conical  dome 
(Fig.  137).  In  the  floor  of  the  pronaos  are  seen  three  stone 
slabs  with  inscrip- 
tions. They  cover 
the  remains  of  King 
Senekerim,  of  the 
Armenian  mediaeval 
dynasty,  his  queen 
Khoshkhosh  and  the 
Katholikos  Petros. 
The  frame  of  an 
altar  erected  upon 
the  site  of  these  slabs 
has  been  stripped  of 
all  its  ornaments. 
This  act  appears  to 
have  been  commited 
by  the  Hayrik,  and 
out  of  anger  against 
Senekerim.^  The  mild 
features  of  Daniel 
Vardapet  contracted 
as  '  we  spoke  of  that 
monarch  ;  and  he 
assured  me  with  some 
vehemence  that  he 
would  dig  out  his 
bones  and  cast  them 
on  the  rocks  were  it 
not  for  his  title  of  king  of  Armenia.  The  chapel  of  Yedi 
Kilisa  is  most  interesting  to  the  student  of  architecture,  and  is 
no  doubt  a  work  of  considerable  antiquity.  A  ruined  chapel 
on  the  south  of  the  building  contains  a  much-effaced  inscription 
to  the  effect  that  it  was  constructed  by  the  lady  Khoshkhosh, 
daughter  of  Gagik  and  queen  of  Senekerim.^ 

1   See  Vol.  I.  Ch.  XVI.  p.  237. 

-  The  statement  of  Layard  {Nineveh  and  Babylon,  p.  409)  that  the  church  is  a 
modern  edifice  is  scarcely  correct,  and  is  quite  erroneous  if  it  be  taken  to  include  the 
inner  sanctuary  or  chapel. 


Fig.  137, 


Interior  of  the  Church  at  Yedi 
Kilisa. 


Fig.  138.    Van  on  the  Road  to  Bitlis. 


CHAPTER    V 


FROM    VAN    TO    BITLIS 


The  journey  from  Van  to  Bitlis  may  be  performed  in  four  days  ; 
it  is  a  ride  of  about  a  hundred  miles.  But  no  traveller  will 
desire  to  omit  a  visit  to  the  isle  of  Akhtamar,  which  will  occupy 
another  day.  Nor  is  it  well  to  press  in  haste  through  a  country 
of  such  manifold  interest,  and  along  a  coast  which  for  beauty  of 
feature  and  grandeur  of  surroundings  can  scarcely  have  an  equal 
in  the  world.  It  was  at  Van  that,  for  the  first  time  since  setting 
foot  upon  Armenian  soil,  we  had  been  introduced  to  a  civilisation 
in  any  sense  comparable  to  the  scale  and  dignity  of  the  landscapes 
through  which  we  passed  ;  and,  although  the  monuments  of  that 
vanished  culture  belong  to  a  remote  antiquity,  they  are  well 
calculated  to  divert  our  minds  from  the  contemplation  of  the 
works  of  Nature,  or  at  least  to  recall  us  to  a  sense  of  the  power 
of  man.  The  spirit  of  that  race  of  iron  which  held  in  check  the 
Assyrians  still  lingers  over  the  scene  of  their  exploits.  You 
leave  the  ancient  city  with  an  added  element  of  interest  in  a 
country  which  was  the  home  of  so  great  a  people,  and  which  still 
retains  the  memorial   of  their  sway.      But   that   country  was   also 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  1 1 7 

the  centre  of  a  mediaeval  kingdom,  the  contemporary  and  some- 
times the  rival  of  the  dynasty  which  has  left  us  Ani  as  an  example 
of  their  craft  and  taste  ;  and,  such  is  the  concern  of  the  modern 
Armenian  in  the  history  of  his  nation,  that  long  before  you  will 
reach  Van  you  will  be  familiar  with  the  name  and  arms  of  the 
kingdom  of  Vaspurakan/  It  was  therefore  with  curiosity  that 
we  set  out  upon  our  journey,  and  with  regret  that  we  were  obliged 
by  the  season  to  narrow  the  sphere  of  our  wanderings  to  the 
regular  stages  of  our  prescribed  route  to  Erzerum.' 

At  a  little  before  noon  on  the  1 6th  of  November  we  mounted 
our  horses  in  the  court  of  the  American  Mission,  whither  we  had 
proceeded  to  take  leave  of  our  friends.  We  passed  by  the  church 
of  Arakh,  and  emerged  from  the  zone  of  gardens  upon  the  surface 
of  the  bare  plain.  The  usual  stoppages  in  connection  with  the 
baggage,  which  seldom  fails  to  begin  by  slipping  from  the  horse's 
back  to  beneath  his  girth,  enabled  us  to  fill  our  eyes  with  the 
vision  of  the  bay  and  beauteous  city  which  we  might  never 
contemplate  again  (Fig.  i  38).      We  had  purchased  two  new  horses, 

1  For  the  history  of  the  medinsval  kings  of  Vaspurakan  who  flourished  in  the  tenth 
centuiy,  I  would  refer  my  reader  to  Vol.  I.  Ch.  XVIII.  of  the  present  work,  to  the  second 
volume  of  Chamchean  {History  of  Armenia,  translated  by  Avdall,  Calcutta,  1827,  pp.  65 
seq.),  and  to  Saint  Martin's  translation  of  the  history  of  John  Katholikos,  who  was  an 
eye-witness  of  the  events  which  he  records  during  this  period,  and  one  of  the  principal 
actors  in  them  (Paris,  1 84 1.  See  the  index,  sub  voce  Gagig).  The  vivid  narrative  of 
the  last  of  these  writers  transports  us  into  that  distant  age.  The  eagle  which  was  the 
emblem  of  the  princes  of  the  Artsruni  dynasty  appears  to  have  been  connected  with 
the  ancient  prerogative  of  their  family  to  be  the  bearers  of  the  golden  eagle  before  the 
king  (see  Saint  Martin,  Memoires  siir  PAniienie,  vol.  i.  p.  424).  I  have  already  related 
how  the  present  ruler  of  the  Armenian  Church  has  taken  revenge  upon  the  last  of  the 
kings  of  this  dynasty  for  his  cowardly  cession  of  his  dominions  to  the  Byzantine  emperor 
(see  Vol.  I.  Ch.  XVI.  p.  237). 

2  The  following  are  the  intermediate  distances  along  the  track  according  to  my 
estimates: — Van  to  Artemid,  8  miles;  Artemid  to  Vostan,  15  miles;  Vostan  to 
Akhavank  (Iskele),  8  miles;  Akhavank  (Iskele)  to  Enzakh,  13^  miles;  Enzakh  to 
Kindirantz,  17  miles;  Kindirantz  to  Garzik,  9  miles;  Garzik  to  Sach,  16  miles;  Sach 
to  Bitlis,  1 1  miles — Total,  97i  miles. 

As  far  as  the  promontory  of  Surb  the  path  either  leads  over  little  plains  interposed 
between  the  lake  and  the  mountains,  or  crosses  the  rocky  spurs  which  descend  from  the 
range  into  the  waters,  forming  promontories.  Of  these  spurs  the  most  formidable  is 
that  which  is  scaled  beyond  Enzakh  (Pass,  7600  feet)  ;  but  the  descents  to  the  plains  of 
Kindirantz  and  Surb  are  both  long  and  arduous.  Beyond  Surb  the  track  for  the  first 
time  follows  along  the  base  of  an  almost  vertical  parapet  of  mountain,  rising  immediately 
from  the  water's  edge.  This  romantic  course  is  pursued  for  some  distance  west  of 
Garzik  ;  when  the  lake  is  left  behind,  the  Giizel  Dere  is  entered,  and  you  pass  almost 
imperceptibly  from  the  basin  of  Lake  Van  into  that  of  the  Tigris.  It  now  only  remains 
to  cross  from  the  Giizel  Dere  into  the  valley  of  Bitlis,  which  is  done  by  way  of  the  Bor 
Pass,  7490  feet. 

On  the  whole  the  route  along  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Van  is  by  no  means  an 
easy  one.  The  principal  difficulties  to  an  engineer  occur  between  Enzakh  and  the 
Giizel  Dere. 


1 1 8  Armenia 

one  for  the  dragoman  and  the  other  to  carry  our  effects.  You 
require  a  good  animal  for  the  last  of  these  purposes,  who  will  trot 
along  by  himself.  But  throughout  our  journey  we  experienced 
the  greatest  difficulty  in  obtaining  serviceable  beasts  at  any  price. 
Even  at  Van  my  choice  was  narrowed  by  the  various  ailments  of 
the  other  candidates  to  a  sturdy  four-year-old  who  had  not  known 
work.  This  youngster,  an  iron  grey,  was  no  sooner  set  at  large 
than  he  set  off  at  full  gallop  across  the  plain.  His  career  was  cut 
short  by  the  rapid  overthrow  of  his  load,  which  dragged  him 
panting  to  the  ground.  But  we  trained  him  to  perfection  before 
reaching  the  northern  capital,  and  I  sold  him  at  a  profit  in 
Trebizond.  Worse  fortune  attended  our  second  purchase,  that  of 
a  seasoned  horse  of  milk-white  hue.  I  noticed  that  he  was 
limping  about  an  hour  out  of  Van  ;  and,  to  my  surprise,  when  I 
came  to  examine  him  closer,  he  proved  to  be  an  ingenious 
substitute  for  the  one  I  had  bought.  The  colour  was  the  same, 
and  also  the  appearance  ;  but  not  the  points  which  had  influenced 
my  selection,  although  they  would  not  appeal  to  the  dragoman's 
eye.  The  knave  of  an  Armenian  who  had  concluded  the  sale 
with  me  had  abstracted  his  former  property  from  my  stable,  and 
had  put  in  his  place  this  unsound  hack.  1  sent  him  back  in 
charge  of  the  zaptieh  with  a  letter  to  Mr.  Devey  ;  but  I  do  not 
knov/  whether  our  Consul  ever  recovered  my  stolen  steed.  He  most 
kindly  sent  me  on  a  fine  horse  of  his  own,  which  reached  us  safely 
at  Vostan.  Such  are  the  tricks  of  these  subtle  Armenians,  whom 
long  centuries  of  oppression  have  ingrained  with  every  kind  of 
turpitude.  As  we  rode  along  this  shore,  one  regretted  God's 
covenant,  that  He  \\ould  be  patient  with  the  hopeless  race  of  man. 
To  overwhelm  them  in  these  waters  and  people  afresh  the  scene 
of  their  crimes,  would,  it  seemed  to  us,  be  the  kindest  and  wisest 
plan. 

The  weather  was  delightful — a  climate  mild  as  spring,  made 
fresh  by  the  expanse  of  sea.  The  rays  of  a  hot  sun  flashed 
through  a  crystal-clear  atmosphere,  which  disclosed  wide  prospects 
over  lake  and  land.  P'ragments  of  white  cloud  floated  above 
the  outline  of  the  Kurdish  mountains,  less  gloomy  beneath  the 
newly-fallen  snows  (Fig.  139).  In  the  west,  Nimrud  was  faithful 
to  its  appearance  of  an  island,  separated  by  a  strait  from  the 
train  of  Sipan.  But  to-day  we  could  see  the  walls  of  the  vast 
crater — a  caldron  of  which  the  rim  appeared  commensurate  with 
the  area   of  the   island,  risinij  in   a  robe   of  white   from  the  waves. 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  1 1 9 

We  were  pointing  towards  the  high  land  in  the  direction  of 
Artemid,  the  southern  Hmit  of  the  spacious  plain  of  Van.  When 
near  the  village,  we  struck  a  road  which  the  Pasha  was  building, 
with  the  avowed  intention  of  extending  it  to  Bitlis.  Workmen 
were  busy  upon  it,  and  there  was  quite  a  stream  of  little  bullock 
carts,  conveying  stones  and  soil.  It  follows  the  margin  of  the 
lake,  and  the  drive  along  it  to  Artemid  will  be  a  treat  such 
as  few  cities  can  bestow.  The  castled  rock,  backed  by  the 
fabric  of  the  great  volcano  beyond  the  distant  headland  of  the 
ba}-  ;   the   noble    lake,    intensely   blue,   expanding    to    the    distant 


Fig.  139.    Mountain  Range  along  South  Coast  of  Lake  Van. 

Nimrud,  yet  plashing  tamely  with  tiny  wavelets  on  the  sand — 
these  are  answered  in  the  opposite  direction,  across  the  poplars 
which  hide  the  village,  by  the  precipitous  walls,  sharp  edges 
and  deep  shadows,  characteristic  of  the  stupendous  barrier  in 
the  south.  Although  the  distance  between  Van  and  Artemid 
does  not  exceed  eight  miles,  it  was  after  two  before  we  arrived. 
We  mounted  the  side  of  the  hill  ridge  which  meets  the  lake  at 
this  point  in  a  bold  and  high  cliff.  Gardens  decline  along  the 
easier  levels  towards  the  invisible  margin  of  the  shore.  You 
look  across  the  foliage  to  the  fabric  of  Sipan,  no  longer  covered 
by  the  horn  of  the  bay  (Frontispiece). 

Artemid  !  the  Greek  name,  and  the  memorials  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  that  early  civilisation  which  is  revealed  by  the 
inscriptions  of  Van,  suggest,  no   less   than   the   striking   site,   the 


I20  ArTnenia 

possibility  of  further  discoveries,  when  the  place  shall  have  been 
thoroughly  explored.^  A  hasty  examination  would  have  been 
of  small  service,  and  we  were  anxious  to  reach  Vostan.  So  we 
rode,  without  halting,  through  the  straggling  settlement,  and  did 
not  draw  rein  until  we  had  reached  a  point  some  two  miles 
beyond  it,  where  it  was  decided  to  rest  our  horses  and  take  lunch. 
We  were  still  crossing  the  barrier  of  hills  which  support  the 
gardens  of  Artemid  ;  our  situation  was  elevated,  and  the  view 
superb.  We  were  able  to  follow  on  the  horizon  the  outline  of 
the  Ala  Dagh,  although  those  mountains  were  over  sixty  miles 
away.      They  were  loftiest  on   a  bearing  a  few  degrees  east   of 

1  The  compiler  of  the  index  to  Ritter's  Erdkiiude  confuses  this  Artemid  with  the 
' kprejxira.  i]  iv  rrj  Bal3v\u)vla  of  Strabo  xi.  5 1 9,  which,  according  to  Ritter  (ix.  508), 
is  probably  identical  with  the  Artemita  in  Apolloniatis  of  Isidorus  Charax  [Mansioiics 
Parthica,  c.  2  in  Geographi  Gnrci  jMiiwres,  Paris,  1882),  and  is  to  be  sought  in 
the  district  watered  by  the  river  Diyala,  which  joins  the  Tigris  near  Baghdad.  An 
Armenian  Artemita  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  (c.  13,  section  21,  and  c.  8,  section  13, 
edit.  Nobbe,  Leipzic,  1843). 

Schulz  tells  us  that  the  present  village  was  in  his  time  sometimes  called  Atramit 
(he  himself  writes  it  Artamit)  "par  une  transposition  de  lettres  qui  rappelle  un  nom  fort 
significatif  dans  I'ancienne  mythologie  orientale  "  {Journal  Asiatiqiie,  1840,  ser.  3,  vol. 
ix.  p.  310)-  The  same  traveller  was  rewarded  for  his  researches  in  the  vicinity  by  some 
interesting  finds. 

In  a  little  valley  about  ij  miles  west  of  the  village  (une  demi  lieue),  and  about  a 
hundred  paces  from  the  lake  (environ  une  centaine  de  pas  au  dessus  du  lac),  among  a 
quantity  of  blocks  of  stone,  fallen  from  the  hill  above,  he  discovered  a  cuneiform 
inscription,  engraved  upon  one  of  these  blocks.  Professor  Sayce  translates  this 
inscription  as  follows  : — "  Belonging  to  Menuas  of  the  mother  Taririas,  this  monument 
the  place  of  the  son  of  Taririas  she  has  called"  {The  ciincifovDi  inscriptions  of  Van, 
Journal  R.  Asiatic  Society^  London,  1882,  vol.  xiv.  p.  529).  Dr.  Belck,  on  the  other 
hand,  would  render  it  : — "This  abode,  which  belongs  to  Tarias,  daughter  of  Menuas, 
is  called  the  palace  of  Tarias  "  (  Verhandhmgen  der  Berliner  Gesellschaft  fiir  Anthro- 
pologic, 1895,  p.  608). 

At  a  little  distance  from  this  block  Schulz  found  another  inscription,  which,  owing 
to  exposure  to  damp,  was  scarcely  distinguishable.  He  describes  it  as  being  engraved 
on  a  large  stone  on  the  left  hand  of  an  ancient  aqueduct,  built  up  of  several  layers  of 
massive  stones,  several  five  or  six  square  feet  in  height.  They  are  irregular  in  shape 
and  not  connected  by  cement ;  but  are  held  together  by  their  own  weight.  The 
conduit  which  they  enclose  is  square  in  form,  and  of  sufficient  height  and  breadth  to 
enable  one  to  stand  up  inside  it.  Schulz  endeavoured  to  penetrate  within  it,  but  was 
unable  to  proceed  further  than  some  twenty  paces,  the  passage  being  obstructed  by  a 
large  block  which  had  fallen  in  from  the  colossal  wall  (Schulz,  op.  cit.  p.  313). 

The  hillside  above  this  little  valley  separates  it,  he  goes  on  to  say,  from  a  kind  of 
upper  terrace,  over  which  runs  the  way  from  Van  to  Vostan,  among  masses  of  rock, 
detached  from  the  adjacent  heights.  Between  these  rocks  flows  the  Shamiram  Su, 
an  artificial  channel  which  has  its  source  some  nine  leagues  south  of  Van,  and  which, 
after  passing  through  the  gardens  of  Artemid,  has  been  conducted  to  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  city,  where  it  debouches  into  the  lake.  So  far  as  Schulz  was 
able  to  follow  its  course,  it  was  nowhere  embanked  by  masonry  {ibid.  p.  313).  It 
was  on  this  terrace,  at  a  distance  of  ij  miles  (une  demi  lieue)  from  Artemid  in  a 
south-westerly  direction,  immediately  by  the  side  of  this  Shamiram  Su,  and  on  the 
road  between  Van  and  Vostan,  that  he  discovered  the  important  inscription  which 
reads    according    to    Professor    Sayce: — "To    the    children    of   Khaldis    the    gracious 


Fro7n  Va7i  to  Bit/is  1 2 1 

north  ;  and  in  that  direction  there  was  a  fine  peak,  overtopping 
the  neighbouring  summits  which  fretted  the  edge  of  the  long 
wall  of  snow-clad  heights.  A  little  further  west  we  could  see 
those  heights  receding  towards  the  south,  to  the  passage  of  the 
Murad.  In  the  ridges  which  bordered  the  gap  we  well  recognised 
the  outworks  which  the  river  pierces  between  Karakilisa  and 
Tutakh — the  same  ridges  which,  from  our  standpoint  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Ararat  system,  had  composed  a  distant  parapet,  so 
faintly  seen  that  we  questioned  the  impression,  between  the  two 
blocks  of  mountain  on  the  southerly  margin  of  the  plain  of 
Alashkert.^      The   landscape   south   of  Ala   Dagh   was   now   out- 

Menuas,  the  son  of  Ispuinis,  this  memorial  has  selected.  Of  Menuas  the  memorial 
he  has  named  it.  To  the  children  of  Khaldis,  the  multitudinous,  belonging  to 
Menuas,  the  king  powerful,  the  king  of  multitudes,  king  of  the  land  of  Biainas, 
inhabiting  the  city  of  Dhuspas.  Menuas  says — whoever  this  tablet  carries  away, 
whoever  removes  the  name,  whoever  with  earth  destroys,  whoever  undoes  this 
memorial ;  may  Khaldis,  the  air  god,  the  sun  god,  the  gods  him  in  public,  the  name  of 
him,  the  family  of  him,  the  land  of  him,  to  fire  and  water  consign  "  (Sayce,  op.  cit.  pp. 
527-2S).  Messrs.  Belck  and  Lehmann  render  the  word  translated  by  Prof.  Sayce  as 
memorial  :  canal,  aqueduct.  The  rock  upon  which  the  inscription  was  found  is  known 
under  the  name  of  Kiziltash  from  its  reddish  hue. 

In  the  village  of  Artemid  itself  Schulz  saw  the  remains  of  the  wall  of  an  ancient 
edifice  on  the  summit  of  the  cliff.  According  to  Armenian  tradition  it  was  formerly  a 
residence  of  the  Armenian  kings.  Below  it  he  found  an  ancient  conduit  (Schulz,  ibid. 
p.  311).  I  have  summarised  Schulz's  account  afresh  because  Ritter's  summary  of  it 
(Erdkiuide,  x.  294)  misled  me. 

The  inscription  on  the  Kiziltash  has  been  photographed  by  M.  Miiller-Simonis, 
and  reproduced  in  his  book  (Dii  Caiicase  an  Golfe  Pcrsiqite,  Paris,  1892,  p.  252). 
Professor  Sayce  conjectures  that  these  inscriptions  served  to  commemorate  the  com- 
pletion of  the  works  connected  with  the  Shamiram  Su,  and  even  goes  so  far  as  to 
suggest  that  the  monuments  erected  by  Queen  Taririas  may  have  given  rise  to  the 
traditions  about  a  great  queen  which  in  the  course  of  time  became  transferred  to  the 
mythical  Semiramis  {op.  cit.  p    529). 

Dr.  Belck  has  within  recent  years  found  four  more  inscriptions  in  or  near 
Artemid  which  have  been  translated  by  Sayce  {Journal  R.  Asiatic  Soc.  1893,  pp.  8  seq.). 
Two  are  without  importance  ;  the  remaining  two  are  in  the  sense  of  the  inscription  on 
the  Kiziltash,  and  are  therefore  canal  inscriptions. 

Among  the  notices  of  Artemid  contained  in  the  works  of  travellers,  a  few  useful 
remarks  may  be  gleaned.  Shiel  {Journey  in  i8j6)  tells  us  that  in  his  time  it  was  a 
large  Armenian  village  of  about  350  houses.  Brant  (1838)  speaks  of  it  as  populous, 
and  alludes  to  the  quantity  of  fruit  which  was  grown  there.  He  approached  it  from 
the  side  of  Vostan  and  the  Anguil  Su,  after  crossing  which  he  came  upon  the  Shamiram 
Su,  which  he  describes  as  an  open  canal,  supported  by  a  wall  in  some  places.  Schulz 
was  impressed  by  the  squalor  of  the  houses  ;  according  to  him  it  was  peopled  half  by 
Armenians  and  half  by  Mussulmans  ;  the  latter  dwelt  below  the  cliff",  on  the  border  of 
the  lake  (Schulz,  op.  cit.  p.  310).  Ussher  (before  1865)  calls  it  an  Armenian  village, 
and  adds — "  The  flat  summit  of  the  rocky  hill,  on  the  slope  of  which  the  village  stood, 
was  surrounded  by  an  ancient  wall,  built  of  huge  stones  laid  one  upon  another  without 
mortar  or  cement  of  any  kind,  and  resembling  somewhat  in  appearance  Cyclopean 
remains"  {From  London  to  Persepolis,  London,  1865,  p.  324).  Miiller-Simonis  {op. 
cit.  p.  270)  speaks  of  the  "  grandes  substructions  du  caractere  le  plus  ancien  "  which 
support  the  Shamiram  Su  at  a  certain  point  three-quarters  of  an  hour  on  the  further  side 
of  Artemid,  coming  from  Van.  ^  See  Fig.  108,  p.  2. 


122 


Armenia 


spread  before  us  ;  it  was  indeed  an  instructive  view.  Whatever 
eminences  broke  the  expanse  were  comparatively  humble ;  a 
zone  of  plains  or  vast  steppes  would  appear  to  be  interposed 
between  that  barrier  and  the  lake  of  Van.  Recalling  the  pro- 
spects about  Tutakh,  we  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  those 
steppes  are  continued  towards  the  west ;  and  subsequent  travel 
established  the  fact  that  they  extend  from  the  foot  of  the  plateau 
of  Bingol  Dagh  towards  the  longitude  of  Bayazid  in  the  east. 
The  only  object  which  arrested  the  eye  in  the  direction  of  Ala 
Dagh  was  a  high  hill  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  arm  of  the 
lake,  with  a  village  and  gardens  at  its  base.  It  was  said  to  be 
the  village  of  Alur.  Ararat  was  not  visible  ;  but  for  the  first 
time  we  discerned  land  between  Sipan  and  the  crater  of  Nimrud. 
The  two   mountains  appeared  to   be  joined  by  some  low  hills. 

Proceeding  at  four  o'clock,  we  commenced  to  descend  after 
half  an  hour  from  the  range  of  hills  which  we  had  now  crossed. 
In  the  plain  before  us,  bordering  the  lake,  we  could  see  a  winding 
river  which  our  zaptieh  knew  under  the  name  of  Anguil  Su,  but 
which,  I  believe,  is  more  correctly  spelt  Enghil  Su  (Brant's  Anjel 
Su).  It  comes  from  the  territory  of  Mahmudia,  where  it  is  called 
the  Khoshab.^  But  we  had  not  yet  reached  the  floor  of  the 
valley  before  we  were  confronted  by  a  swift  stream  which, 
fortunately  for  us,  happened  to  be  spanned  by  a  bridge.  It  was 
the  famous  Shamiram  Su,  flowing  towards  Artemid  along  the 
slopes  of  the  hills.  I  was  informed  that  it  has  its  source  in  some 
springs  about  two  hours  distant,  near  the  village  of  Upper 
Mechinkert,  and  that  a  portion  of  its  waters  find  their  way  into 
the  Anguil  Su  at  the  neighbouring  settlement  of  Lower  Mechinkert. 
After  irrigating  the  orchards  of  Artemid,  it  pursues  its  course  to 
the  gardens  of  Van,  in  which  it  is  said  to  become  absorbed." 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  an  artificial  conduit  ;  left  to 
itself  it  would  join  the  lake  at  the  foot  of  this  plain.  My 
informant  attributed  to  Semiramis  the  conducting  of  it  as  far  as 
Artemid.  We  remarked  the  exceptional  pureness  of  the  current. 
Soon  after  crossing  it,  we  reached  the  right  bank  of  the  Anguil 
Su  at  a  convenient  bridge.  The  basin  proper  of  the  river  may 
have  a  width  of  some  two  miles,  and   it   is  a  distance  of  three  or 

^  For  Mahmudia  and  a  striking  photograph  of  the  castle  there,  see  Binder  i^Au 
Kurdistan,  Paris,  1887,  pp.   123  seq.). 

^  The  course  of  the  Shamiram  Su  has  been  followed  and  described  by  Dr.  Belck 
(Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethiioloi^n'e,  Berlin,  1892,  pp.  137  seq.).  It  is  carried  across  the  Anguil 
Su  or  Khoshab  by  means  of  a  conduit,  made  of  wood,  which  spans  the  stream. 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  123 

four  miles  from  the  bridge  to  the  lake.  Looking  up  the  valley, 
we  could  follow  the  outline  of  the  Kurdish  mountains  as  they 
circled  round  towards  Varag  ;  that  ridge  itself  was  concealed  by 
the  hills  behind  Artemid  ;  but,  although  the  range  beyond  had 
diminished  in  height  after  leaving  the  lake,  it  was  still  the  same 
range  of  bold  parapets  and  snowy  peaks.  The  most  elevated 
portion  lay  in  the  direction  of  Akhtamar,  where  there  was  a  lofty 
mass,  known  as  Mount  Ardos. 

The  stream,  which  had  a  greenish  hue,  was  not  more  than 
some  thirty  feet  wide  ;  a  number  of  rivulets,  driving  flour-mills, 
come  in  on  the  left  bank.  We  had  left  that  bank  before  opening 
out  the  village  of  Anguil  or  Enghil  ;  it  lies  below  the  bridge, 
on  the  further  side  of  the  river,  and  consists  of  some  sixty  or 
seventy  neat  houses,  inhabited  by  Armenians  and  a  {&\v  Kurds. 
On  the  same  shore,  about  a  mile  lower  down,  is  situated  the 
village  of  Mesgeldek.  Some  high  ground  separated  us  from  the 
plain  of  Vostan  ;  but  it  dies  away  before  reaching  the  lake. 
Gaining  the  summit  of  this  moderate  eminence,  we  looked  across 
some  flats  and  marshes  to  a  hillside  which  projects  from  the  foot 
of  the  mountains,  and  forms  a  promontory  of  the  shore.  The 
foliage  which  softened  the  lower  slopes  of  the  headland  belonged 
to  the  gardens  of  Vostan.  We  followed  the  bay  of  higher  land, 
and  reached  the  village  of  Atanon  after  over  an  hour's  ride  from 
the  Enghil  Su.  Just  beyond  this  Armenian  settlement  the  zone 
of  orchards  commences  ;  in  the  plain  below  a  swift  stream  flows. 
An  isolated  house  on  its  right  bank  was  indicated  to  us  as  the 
residence  of  the  Kaimakam  of  Vostan.  We  reached  this  edifice 
at  ten  minutes  before  seven,  having  covered  a  distance  from 
Artemid  of  about  fifteen  miles.  In  the  place  of  the  official,  who 
happened  to  be  absent,  we  were  received  with  great  kindness  by 
his  brother.  We  were  invited  to  pass  the  night  in  the  room  of 
audience  ;  and  quilted  coverlets,  filled  with  cotton,  were  spread 
on  takJits  or  wooden  couches,  after  the  manner  of  the  East. 
After  supper  and  conversation  we  enveloped  ourselves  in  them, 
and  were  not  long  in  falling  asleep. 

When  morning  came  I  commenced  to  explore  and  realise  our 
surroundings.  Vostan  is  no  town,  nor  even  a  village,  but  is  a 
district  or  zone  of  gardens  at  the  foot  of  the  Kurdish  mountains 
about  the  spurs  of  Mount  Ardos.  On  the  east  it  extends  to  the 
village  of  Atanon,  and  on  the  west  to  the  promontory.  The 
orchards   keep   to   the   high   land   about   the   base   of    the   range  ; 


124  Armenia 

between  them  and  the  lake  there  is  an  extensive  strip  of  alluvial 
soil  which,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  our  quarters,  had  a  width  of 
about  two  miles.  I  was  assured  on  all  sides  that  there  were  four 
or  five  hundred  houses  within  the  limits  of  the  district  of  Vostan  ; 
but  people  get  confused  when  dealing  with  an  area  of  this 
description,  and  with  the  dispersed  units  of  which  such  a  settle- 
ment is  composed.  I  doubt  whether  there  could  be  found  more 
than  half  that  number.  The  Armenian  families  have  emigrated  ; 
their  room,  but  not  their  place,  has  been  filled  up,  at  least  in  part, 
by  Kurds.  As  a  natural  consequence,  it  is  impossible  to  obtain 
the  bare  necessaries  of  a  little  corn,  or  a  shoe  for  a  horse.  A 
small  church  still  remains,  a  memorial  of  better  times,  which  is 
said  to  have  existed  for  many  centuries.  We  could  see  its  plain 
four  walls  and  small  conical  dome  to  the  east  of  the  Kaimakam's 
house.      We  were  told  that  it  is  still  attended  by  a  priest. 

It  is  only  on  the  neighbouring  slope  of  the  bold  promontory 
that  Vostan  can  be  said  to  assume  a  concrete  existence  ;  and, 
even  there,  the  group  of  buildings  which  feature  the  hillside  are 
but  the  remains  of  the  ancient  town.  You  see  the  relics  of  an 
old  castle,  the  ruins  of  a  church,  and  a  mosque  where  the  faithful 
still  pray.  On  the  margin  of  the  lake,  below  the  headland,  a 
little  mausoleum  of  yellow  stone  still  rises  above  the  grassy  soil. 
I  set  out  on  foot  to  visit  the  site,  in  the  company  of  the  doctor  of 
law  for  the  caza  of  Kavach.  My  companion — a  man  of  middle 
age  and  intelligent  face — bore  the  name  of  Mustapha  Remzi 
Efifendi,  and  was  known  as  the  Hakim.  After  jumping  many 
ditches,  which  often  compelled  us  to  deviate,  we  arrived  at  the 
mausoleum  standing  among  the  debris  of  an  ancient  cemetery,  on 
rising  ground,  at  an  interval  of  a  few  hundred  yards  from  the 
peaceful  waters  of  the  lake.  It  is  indeed  a  charming  monument, 
of  highly-finished  masonry,  fresh  and  clean  as  on  the  day  when  it 
was  completed.  In  shape  it  is  dodecagonal,  and  it  has  an  inside 
diameter  of  i  5  feet  8  inches.  The  surface  of  the  roof  of  stone — 
in  form  a  cone  with  twelve  sides — is  relieved  by  a  moulding  of 
geometrical  pattern  ;  a  sculptured  frieze  and  a  long  inscription  in 
Arabic  character  runs  round  the  walls,  just  below  the  roof  A 
familiar  feature  are  the  niches  with  stalactite  vaulting  ;  a  small 
doorway,  surmounted  by  a  moulding  in  this  character,  gives  access 
to  the  interior  from  the  side  of  the  lake.  The  Hakim  read  to  me 
an  Arabic  inscription  which  is  placed  above  this  entrance  ;  it  was 
translated    for    me    in    the    following    sense.      "  This    mausoleum 


Fi'oni  Van  to  Bit  lis  125 

belongs  to  the  daughter  of  the  ruler  here  in  Vostan,  Sheikh 
Ibrahim."  According  to  my  companion,  the  name  of  the  lady 
was  Halimeh.  I  doubt  whether  her  remains  still  repose  within 
the  enclosure  of  this  jewel  which  is  her  tomb.  The  door  is  gone, 
and  the  vault  yawns  as  though  it  were  unoccupied,  except  by 
a  heap  of  rubbish  and  debris.  One  admires  the  taste  of  the 
architect,  who  refrained  from  decorating  the  interior  and  left 
intact  the  restful  influence  of  the  spaces  of  wall. 

From  this  cemetery  we  proceeded  up  the  face  of  the  hillside 
which  juts  out  from  south  to  north  and  meets  the  lake.  The 
remains  of  the  castle  are  situated  upon  the  summit  ;  the  mosque 
and  the  ruins  of  the  church  lie  beneath  it,  upon  the  middle  slopes. 
The  castle  has  no  pretensions  to  architectural  merit,  and  very 
little  is  left  of  the  church.  Some  stones  engraved  with  crosses  in 
the  old  Armenian  fashion  could  still  be  seen  in  the  masonry  of  the 
last  of  these  buildings,  a  mere  chapel  rather  than  a  church.  But 
the  mosque  is  an  edifice  of  respectable  proportions,  having  inside 
dimensions  of  65  feet  7  inches  by  64  feet  4  inches.  From  the 
outside  it  is  nothing  more  than  four  walls  of  hewn  stone, 
surmounted  by  a  dome  of  clay.  But  when  you  enter  the  spacious 
chamber  the  eye  is  pleased  by  the  vaulted  ceilings,  and  by  the 
double  series  of  open  arches  which  support  the  roof.  These 
arches  are  three  in  number  in  each  series,  and  between  each  there 
is  a  space  of  wall  veil.  In  this  manner  one  may  say  that  there 
are  a  nave  and  two  aisles  ;  but  these  aisles  are  of  greatest  length  in 
the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  altar,  which  faces  the  entrance 
door.  In  fact  the  arrangement  is  that  usual  in  a  Christian  church, 
except  for  the  position  of  the  altar.  The  ceilings  are  built  of  plain 
kiln-burnt  bricks,  and  neither  they  nor  the  walls  are  decorated  in 
any  way.  A  fine  feature  is  the  dome,  in  the  aisle  furthest  from 
the  door.  The  incjubair,  or  pulpit,  on  the  right  of  the  altar  is  a 
richly-wrought  structure  of  wood.  An  inscription  records  that  it 
was  the  gift  of  Khosrov  Pasha,  and  that  the  donor  restored  the 
mosque  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  850  (A.D.  1446),  I  have  almost 
forgotten  to  mention  that  between  this  mosque  and  the  castle  is 
placed  a  little  building  with  three  windows,  said  to  be  the  tomb 
of  Sheikh  Ibrahim. 

Who  was  Sheikh  Ibrahim,  who  was  Khosrov  Pasha  ?  The 
answers  which  I  received  to  these  questions  did  not  go  far  to 
dispel  my  ignorance.  The  Hakim  called  them  Arabs,  and 
connected  them   with  the  caliphate  ;  yet  he  admitted  that  they 


126  Armenia 

were  a  branch  ot  the  family  which  reigned  in  Konieh,  that  is  to 
say,  of  the  dynasty  of  Seljuk  Turks.  To  Sheikh  Ibrahim  he 
attributed  the  foundation  of  both  mosque  and  church,  with  the 
intention  of  inducing  his  Moslem  and  his  Christian  subjects  to 
tolerate  and  respect  each  other's  creed.  He  added  that  the  last 
of  this  line  of  rulers  was  one  Izzeddin  Shir  Bey. 

We  returned  to  the  house  of  the  Kaimakam,  where  I  joined 
the  remainder  of  my  party.  All  were  in  the  saddle  by  ten 
minutes  to  four  o'clock.  We  mounted  the  slope  of  the  hill 
which  forms  the  promontory,  and  which  we  found  to  be  a  spur 
of  Mount  Ardos.  It  is  crossed  at  a  point  behind,  or  on  the  south 
of  the  castle  ;  the  ascent  is  steep  and  the  decline  none  too  short. 
Nearing  the  strip  of  shore  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  barrier,  we 
were  impressed  by  the  outcrops  of  red  granitic  rock  and  green 
serpentine,  the  beds  lying  side  by  side.  At  half-past  four  we 
gained  the  level,  and  proceeded  at  the  foot  of  some  hills  which  are 
interposed  between  the  range  and  the  shore.  These  recede  after 
some  distance,  and  circle  away  from  the  lake,  leaving  a  spacious 
bay  of  low  and,  in  places,  marshy  ground.  On  the  further  horn 
of  the  shore  we  were  shown  a  group  of  trees  and  slowly-rising 
wreaths  of  smoke.  It  was  Akhavank,  known  to  the  Turks  as 
Iskele  (the  port),  the  residence  on  the  mainland  of  the  Katholikos 
of  Akhtamar.  Although  the  sand  on  the  border  of  the  water  was 
rather  powdery,  we  found  it  better  than  the  broken  ground  inland. 
It  was  pleasant  too  to  ride  by  the  side  of  the  crystal  water,  and 
look  down  into  the  blue  depths.  Several  little  villages  could  be 
seen  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  ;  they  appeared  more  clearly  from  the 
lake  next  day.  We  reached  Akhavank  at  ten  minutes  to  six,  and 
I  estimate  the  distance  from  Vostan  at  about  eight  miles. 

A  two-storeyed  white-faced  house,  an  upper  room,  built  out, 
like  a  verandah,  with  large  windows  overlooking  the  lake  ;  stables 
and  appurtenances  of  various  application- — -the  whole  relieved 
against  a  background  of  poplars  and  fruit  trees — such  is 
Akhavank,  the  residence  of  His  Holiness  the  Katholikos  Khachatur 
(given  to  the  cross)  of  Akhtamar.  The  house  was  full  of  people, 
and  the  stables  of  horses  ;  it  so  happened  that  the  Kaimakam  of 
Vostan  was  on  a  visit,  accompanied  by  a  numerous  retinue.  The 
interior  of  the  building  was  bare  and  uncomfortable,  rooms  and 
passages  alike.  Full  decadence  was  written  large  on  the  squalid 
furniture  and  cheerless  walls.  I  was  ushered  into  a  long  apart- 
ment, facing   the  bay,  and   composing   one   side  of  the   first   floor. 


From  Van  to  Bitlis  127 

A  fetid  smell  of  garlic,  and  the  want  of  ventilation,  almost  over- 
powered me.  At  the  further  end  of  the  room,  on  a  Kurdish  rug, 
spread  on  the  floor  at  the  foot  of  the  divan,  sat  or  squatted  a  fat 
priest,  attired  in  a  black  robe  edged  with  sable,  and  wearing  the 
usual  black  silk  cowl  of  conical  form,  to  which  a  cross  of  dim  rose 
diamonds  was  attached.  His  back  rested  on  quite  a  little  nest  of 
cushions  ;  a  few  papers  and  a  little  bag  lay  at  his  side.  On  the 
adjacent  couch  beside  the  wall  were  seated  several  persons  of 
various  types  of  physiognomy  and  styles  of  dress. 

I  saluted,  and  received  the  salute  of  the  figure  on  the  floor  ; 
it  was  the  Katholikos  of  Akhtamar.  He  spoke  of  his  advanced 
age  and  growing  infirmities  ;  he  was  seventy-four  years  old,  and 
had  been  possessed  of  his  dignity  for  no  less  than  thirty  years. 
His  tomb  was  already  built  ;  nothing  remained  but  to  spend  the 
interval  and  descend  into  the  grave.  This  touching  sentiment  is 
often  used  as  a  becoming  pretext  for  idleness  by  better  people 
than  Khachatur.  But,  as  he  spoke,  the  tongue  lolled  heavily  from 
side  to  side,  and  the  voice  seemed  to  struggle  with  an  advanced 
asthmatic  affection.  In  reply  to  my  enquiry  why  he  did  not 
reside  in  the  island,  I  received  the  answer  that  at  Akhavank  he 
was  in  a  better  position  to  receive  his  guests  and  satisfy  their 
wants.  It  is,  no  doubt,  a  paying  business  to  keep  such  a 
monastery,  provided  always  that  you  manage  it  well.  You  must 
personally  superintend  the  arrangements  for  the  picnic,  or  others 
of  lesser  station  will  abstract  your  clients.  You  must  be  careful 
to  keep  well  with  the  Government  officials,  or  pilgrims  will  be 
afraid  to  come. 

So  the  Katholikos  of  Akhtamar  discards  his  pomp,  is  seen 
and  eats  with  his  guests  in  the  same  room  round  the  same  tray. 
On  this  occasion  he  was  the  centre  of  what  was  certainly  a  curious 
party,  assembled  against  the  evening  meal.  Servants  entered 
with  a  circular  platter  on  which  were  arrayed  the  various  viands, 
and  placed  it  before  His  Holiness.  Requested  to  seat  myself  on 
the  right  of  our  host,  I  endeavoured,  as  best  I  might,  to  fold  my 
legs  beneath  my  body  on  a  carpet  by  his  side.  Opposite  me  sat 
a  Kurd,  an  old  man  who  was  still  a  giant,  with  bony  hands  more 
than  proportionate  to  his  size.  From  his  sunken  cheeks  projected 
the  beak  of  a  vulture  between  small  and  deeply-caverned  eyes. 
One  of  the  pupils  had  almost  entirely  disappeared,  leaving  a  patch 
of  red  within  the  hollow  of  the  contracted  eyelid,  from  which  a 
mucous  fluid  was  discharged  over  the  parchment  skin.     Of  such  a 


128  Armenia 

face  smiling  could  scarcely  be  expected  ;  my  neighbour  remained 
grave,  taking  his  fill  of  each  dish,  and  fixing  me  with  his  single 
eye.  On  my  right  was  the  Kaimakam,  a  little  man  of  no 
particular  characteristics,  wearing  a  fez  and  European  dress. 
Although  a  Georgian  and  a  relation  of  the  Pasha  of  Van,  you 
would  take  him  for  a  Turk.  Towards  myself  he  was  profuse  of 
compliments  and  attentions,  expressing  his  regret  that  he  had  not 
been  present  in  Vostan  to  receive  us,  and  blaming  the  British 
Consul  for  not  having  written  to  announce  our  stay.  An  officer 
of  zaptiehs  whom  I  had  brought  from  Vostan  with  me — a  mad 
fellow  who  had  lathered  his  pony  by  the  wildest  manoeuvres  as 
we  rode  along  the  sands — and  some  of  the  principal  attendants 
of  the  Turkish  official,  completed  the  company  who  were  privileged 
to  share  the  meal  of  the  Katholikos  and  sit  at  his  pewter  tray. 

But  on  that  tray  my  eyes  discerned  with  ill-concealed  fright 
a  spectre  invisible  to  my  fellow-guests.  The  shade  of  Hunger 
floated  over  the  messes  of  meat  and  unpalatable  vegetables, 
swimming  in  oil  or  ghee.^  I  could  not  eat  the  gritty  pancake 
bread,  or  the  salt  cheese  inlaid  with  pieces  of  green  straw.  Nor 
was  I  able  with  success  to  emulate  the  politeness  of  Julius  Caesar  ; 
a  sickness  came  over  me  when  I  tried.  The  old  priest  was  at 
liberty  to  dip  his  fingers  into  my  dishes  and  pick  the  choicest 
bits.  I  could  scarcely  swallow  a  few  morsels  ;  but  >my  host  was 
much  too  stupid  to  see  through  the  excuses  which  I  made. 

I  felt  that  the  cross  might  have  joy  of  Khachatur,  and  left  his 
presence  when  the  dishes  had  been  removed.  On  my  guard 
against  the  prejudice  of  a  bad  dinner,  I  reflected  that  at  Varag 
the  pangs  had  been  the  same  ;  yet  what  pleasant  recollections 
remained  of  that  visit  and  of  the  companionship  of  the  quiet 
Daniel  Vardapet !  I  sought  out  the  steward  of  His  Holiness,  and 
of  him  enquired  for  a  sleeping-place.  Zado  was  the  name  of  this 
personage  ;  he  was  an  Armenian,  but  looked  like  a  Kurd.  He 
was  the  most  influential  of  the  clerical  officials,  and  certainly 
smelt  the  worst.  With  him  came  Avo,  the  trustiest  of  his 
henchmen,  proud  of  his  antecedents  as  crossing- sweeper  in 
Stambul.  We  were  by  them  desired  to  spread  our  blankets  in 
the  draughty  antechamber  ;  but  I  made  them  surrender  a  large, 
unoccupied  room.  We  were  astonished  to  find  within  it  a  stack 
of  cane -seated  chairs,  and  puzzled  our  heads  to  discover  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  used.      Zado  informed  us  that  they 

'   Clarified  fat  or  butter,  which  is  generally  used  for  cooking  purposes  in  the  East. 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  129 

were  arrayed  on  great  occasions  ;  but  nobody  was  aware  that 
they  were  objects  of  necessity  to  a  European  or  even  that  they 
had  come  from  Europe  to  these  wilds. 

Dawn  had  not  yet  broken  when  the  boatmen  we  had  ordered 
entered  our  apartment,  and  summoned  us  to  avail  ourselves  of 
the  breeze.  In  spite  of  our  entreaties  over  night,  the  tea  and 
eggs  were  not  forthcoming  ;  hungry  we  went  on  board  the  little 
bark.  The  sun  rose  above  the  horizon  before  we  put  off — a 
bright  and  joyous  morning,  the  colours  starting  from  land  and  sea, 
and  the  still  waters  of  the  lake  becoming  every  moment  more 
transparent  and  more  blue.  x\  light  air,  moving  from  the  shore, 
just  ruffled  their  even  surface.  The  plank  was  drawn  inwards, 
the  broad  square-sail  set,  and  we  glided  easily  away. 

The  crag  of  Akhtamar  lay  before  us  ;  behind  us  the  sinuous 
shore  at  the  foot  of  the  parapet  of  the  Kurdish  range.  Who 
would  expect  that  these  crystal  depths  should  contain  such 
nauseous  elements,  like  a  beautiful  but  poisonous  flower  ?  The 
water  of  Lake  Van  is  charged  with  chemical  matter,  and  is  briny 
and  putrid  to  the  taste.  You  remark  the  absence  of  fish,  and 
recall  the  contrast  of  the  teeming  inlets  of  a  Lake  Geneva  or  a 
Lake  Lucerne.  Nor  are  the  coasts  alive  with  boats  and  the 
expanse  with  white-winged  vessels  ;  you  rarely  find  a  shallop 
within  the  numerous  creeks,  although  at  times  you  may  discover 
quite  a  fleet  of  lateen-sailed  craft  crossing  the  broad  sheet  of  sea. 
They  are  manned  almost  exclusively  by  Armenian  sailors  ;  and 
when  I  asked  the  eldest  among  our  crew  whether  there  were  any 
of  different  nationality,  he  said  that  with  the  exception  of  about 
five  Kurds,  only  Armenians  pursued  this  calling.  They  are 
simple,  hardy  fellows,  easy  to  get  on  with  ;  they  conduct  a  small 
coasting  trade.  Those  who  had  taken  us  from  Arjish  were  at 
Akhavank  when  we  arrived,  and  were  full  of  joy,  kissing  our 
hands,  to  see  us  again.  I  had  asked  them  to  convey  us  to 
Akhtamar  ;  but  they  told  me  it  was  impossible,  as  their  ship  was 
loading  and,  besides,  it  was  not  their  turn. 

The  island  is  distant  about  two  miles  from  the  nearest  shore 
and  more  from  Akhavank.  At  its  westerly  extremity  a  bold  cliff 
of  hard  grey  limestone  rises  to  a  height  of  about  eighty  feet  above 
the  waters,  in  face  of  the  monastic  buildings  on  the  mainland. 
From  this  crag  the  ground  declines  towards  the  east,  and  affords 
a  level  site  for  the  church  and  cloister.  The  bight,  where  the 
vessels  moor,  is  situated  on  the  southern  coast,  not  far  from  the 
VOL.  II  K 


i^o 


Armenia 


bluff  on  the  west  (Fig.  i  40).     Within  the  space  of  an  hour  we  were 
nearing  the  inlet,  and,  a  little  later,  stepped  ashore. 

Besides  the  cliff  and  the  tiny  bay  there  is  not  much  of 
Akhtamar  ;  yet  the  little  church  looks  small,  even  among  such 
surroundings,  the  work  of  a  jeweller  rather  than  of  an  architect. 
In  our  company  were  two  young  clerics,  deputed  by  His  Holiness 
to  escort  us,  the  one  a  priest  of  the  peasant  type  and  with  the 
ignorance  of  a  peasant,  the  other  a  deacon  who  had  been  educated 
at  Constantinople  and  who  affected  to  despise  his  colleagues  and 
superiors.      In  spite  of  his  pale  face,  this  second  Khachatur  (given 


Fig.  140.    Island  of  Akhtamar. 

to  the  cross)  was  not  less  stupid  or  less  indolent  than  the  rest. 
Two  more  priests  were  in  residence  upon  the  island  ;  but  neither 
belonged  to  a  higher  social  or  intellectual  grade.  None  among 
them  knew  more  about  the  place  and  its  history  than  a  few  stereo- 
typed words,  learnt  by  heart.  Press  them  further,  and  they 
would  burst  into  an  inane  giggle,  the  vardapet  of  Akhavank 
giving  the  cue. 

How  one  regretted  the  society  of  the  well-read  monks  of 
Edgmiatsin,  from  which  community  and  spiritual  government 
this  monastery  became  dissociated  during  the  religious  quarrels  of 
the  twelfth  centur}-.^      We  walked  to  the  cloister  on  the  south  side 

'  I  would  refer  my  reader  for  further  information  concerning  the  origin  of  the 
patriarch  etc.  of  Akhtamar  to  Ritter  {Erdkitude,  vol.  x.  p.  261),  and  to  the  authorities 
there  cited. 


Fig.  141.    Akhtamar:  Church  from  South-East. 


Fig.  142.    Akhtamar:  Church  from  North-West. 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  1 3 1 

of  the  church  ;  the  low  mud  wall  joins  the  outer  wall  of  the 
narthex  on  the  west,  and  is  produced  so  as  to  form  a  court. 
There  is  nothing  interesting  in  the  residence  of  the  monks  or  in 
the  apartments  of  the  Katholikos.  But  the  edifice  which  they  face 
is  indeed  a  remarkable  monument  and,  so  far  as  my  experience 
extends,  unique.  Its  dimensions  are  not  large  :  a  length  of  48 
feet  6  inches  and  a  breadth  of  38  feet  (interior  measurements). 
The  characteristics  which  impress  the  eye,  accustomed  to  the 
beauties  of  Armenian  architecture,  are  the  height  of  the  compo- 
sition with  its  lofty  walls  and  central  tower,  and  the  elaborate 
mural  decorations.  As  usual,  the  effect  is  marred  by  the  additions 
of  a  later  age.  On  the  south  side  a  belfry  and  portico,  giving 
entrance  to  the  interior,  are  due  to  the  misplaced  piety  of  a 
katholikos  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  and  the  same  personage 
contributed  the  spacious  narthex  or  pronaos  which  adjoins  the 
church  upon  the  west.^  The  eye  is  obliged  to  remove  these  later 
excrescences  before  it  is  enabled  to  seize  the  merits  of  the  design. 
My  reader  will  recognise  the  first  of  these  features  in  the  illustra- 
tion taken  from  the  south-east  (Fig.  141).  The  companion  picture 
from  the  north-west  corner  exhibits  the  low  narthex  coming 
forward  beyond  the  side  of  the  church  (Fig.  142). 

A  work  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  tenth  century  is  disclosed  in 
all  the  freshness  of  its  original  appearance."  Some  of  the  figures 
which  project  from  the  walls  have  sufifered  partial  fracture  ;  but 
the  rich  friezes  are  almost  intact.  Beginning  at  the  base,  we  have 
first  a  broad  space  of  plain  masonry,  enhancing  the  value  of  the 
sculptures  above,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  band  of  deeply 
chiselled  stone.  This  band,  like  the  friezes,  is  both  continuous 
round  the  building  and  in  emphasised  relief.  It  consists  of  a 
spiral  geometrical  pattern,  representing  the  vine.  Life-size  human 
figures,  interspersed  with  the  forms  of  animals,  compose  a 
series  of  pictures  rather  than  a  procession,  and  rest  upon  the 
moulding  just  described.      They  are   also  in   relief,  and   stare  out 

^  An  inscription  over  the  door  of  the  narthex  is  to  the  effect  that  it  was  constructed 
by  Thomas,  Katholikos  of  Akhtamar,  in  the  year  of  the  Armenian  era,  121 2  (a.d. 
1762). 

-  In  the  geography  ascribed  to  Vardan,  a  work  of  the  thirteenth  century  (translated 
by  Saint  Martin,  Menioires  siir  l\-irnienie,  vol.  ii.  p.  429),  it  is  said  of  Akhtamar  :  "  On  y 
trouve  I'admirable  monastere  de  la  croix  bati  par  Kagig,  roi  des  Ardzrouniens." 
According  to  Chamchean,  quoted  by  Saint  Martin  \op.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  140),  the  monastery 
was  founded  in  a.d.  653  by  a  prince  of  the  Reshtuni  family,  named  Theodore. 

We  are  informed  by  Thomas  Artsruni  (ninth  century)  that  King  Gagik  brought  the 
stone  for  building  this  church  all  the  way  from  the  province  of  Aghznikh,  extending  to 
the  Tigris  and  now  comprised  within  the  vilayet  of  Diarbekr. 


I  •;2 


Armenia 


at  the  visitor  with  all  the  naivete  of  the  early  Middle  Ages. 
Subjects  from  Bible  history  succeed  one  another,  varied  by  the 
gaunt  figures  of  Christian  saints.  Here  you  remark  the  colossal 
figure  of  Goliath,  armed  with  club  and  shield  (Fig.  141)  ;  there  it 
is  Adam  and  Eve,  standing  naked  beside  the  tree  of  life,  and,  a 
little  further,  the  serpent  tempting  Eve  (Figs.  142  and  143).  The 
treatment  of  the  human  form  is  primitive  and  almost  barbarous, 
recalling  the  Romanesque.  One  is  impressed  with  the  combina- 
tion of  naturalism,  nay  of  realism,  subdued,  and  at  times  checked 
by  hieratic  convention.  These  sculptures  pass  over  into  a  restful 
region  of  unworked  stone,  and  are  succeeded  by  a  row  of  heads,  the 
heads  of  animals  and  birds,  jutting  out  at  irregular  intervals  from  the 
face  of  the  building.  Above  them,  again,  you  admire  the  freedom 
and  extraordinary  intricacy  of  the  most  elaborate  of  the  friezes. 
Hunters  and  wild  animals  and  strange  birds  are  represented, 
woven  together  by  branches  of  vine  with  clusters  of  grapes. 
Higher  still  another  band  is  drawn  along  the  eaves  of  the  roofs, 
except  on  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  apse.  Rampant 
animals  are  the  principal  subject  ;  but  on  the  north  side  of  the 
western  arm  you  observe  a  row  of  human  heads.  A  somewhat 
similar  frieze  is  seen  below  the  roofing  of  the  central  tower  or 
dome. 

It  may  perhaps  be  found  that  this  exterior  discloses  elements 

which,  blended  together,  are  of  high  importance  to  the  study  of 

art.      The    form    of  the    church,    the   geometrical    ornaments  are 

Byzantine  in  character  ;  on  the   other   hand,   of  all   the   churches 

which  we  visited  during  our  wanderings  none  other  was  decorated 

with  bas-reliefs  of  human  figures  after  the  manner  of  this  edifice. 

Such  treatment  would  be  repugnant  to  the  chaster  spirit  of  the 

architects  of  Ani,  and  may  denote  that  the  standard  of  culture  in 

the   southern   principality   was  not   so  high   as-  in   Shirak.      The 

friezes  partake  of  the  nature  of  those  with  which  we  are  already 

familiar  ;  but  they  are  more  daring  and  much  more  freely  drawn. 

They  may  constitute  an   important  link  between   the  art  of  the 

ancient  Assyrians  and  the  art  of  the  Arabs  and  the  Byzantines, 

Layard,  who  visited  Akhtamar,  has  most  pertinently  drawn   our 

attention  to  the  resemblance  between  the  principal  frieze  and  the 

embossed   designs  on   some  bronze  dishes  which  were  discovered 

at  Nimrud   (banks  of  the  Tigris)  ;   but  he  has  not  noticed   that 

the    bulls'    heads    which    adorned    the  ends  of   the    arms  of  the 

king's   throne  at  Nimrud  are  almost  exactly  reproduced  in  some 


Fig,  143.    Church  at  Akhtamar;  Sculptures  on  North  Wall. 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  133 

of    the    stone    ornaments    which    project    from    the    face    of    this 
church/ 

I  have  said  that  a  narthex  of  later  origin  adjoins  the  building 
upon  the  west  ;  it  was  from  that  side  that  we  entered  the  interior. 
The  facade  of  this  narthex  is  as  bald  and  plain  as  its  inner  walls 
and  the  rude  flagstones  of  the  floor.  The  ceiling  is  low  ;  in  the 
centre  a  shallow  vaulting  rests  upon  four  arches  and  piers.  It  has 
a  length  of  32  feet  i  i  inches,  and  a  breadth,  from  north  to  south, 
of  36  feet  5  inches.  It  does  not  contain  an  altar,  and  the  only 
object  which  you  remark  within  it  is  a  large  block  of  stone.  Our 
companions  informed  me  that  it  is  placed  over  the  grave  of 
one  Abdul  Miseh,  a  king,  as  they  supposed,  of  the  Artsruni 
dynasty.  If  this  block  be  the  same  as  that  upon  which  Layard 
saw  some  cuneiform  characters,  their  Abdul  Miseh  may  be  a 
corruption  of  the  name  of  the  great  king  Menuas,  revealed  by  the 
researches  of  Western  scholars." 

Four  steps  lead  up  from  the  narthex  to  the  little,  undecorated 
doorway  by  which  we  entered  the  principal  building.  The 
interior  may  perhaps  be  described  as  consisting  of  four  apses,  the 
whole  surmounted  by  the  lofty  dome.  A  feature  are  the  deep 
recesses,  narrow  at  the  entrance,  which  are  placed  one  on  either 
side  of  each  apse,  and  are  seen  from  the  outside  between  the  arms 
of  the  cruciform  figure.  The  apses  on  the  west  and  east  are 
deeper  than  those  on  the  north  and  south  ;  the  most  southerly 
contains  a  gallery  of  which  the  face  is  adorned  with  images,  two 
heads  of  bulls  and  two  of  rams,  the  head  of  an  elephant  and  of  a 
tiger,  carved  in  full  relief  out  of  the  stone.  In  this  gallery  we  were 
informed  that  King  Gagik  had  been  wont  to  pray.  The  walls 
had  been  adorned  b\^  rich  frescos  ;  but  little  of  these  remained. 
The  apse  on  the  north  communicates  with  a  vaulted  chamber  and 
a  little  chapel,  where  is  preserved  the  holy  oil. 

A  cemetery  surrounds  the  church,  from  the  south-east  corner  to 
the  north  side.  Issuing  by  the  portico  on  the  south,  we  stopped 
to  remark  an  ambitious  tomb  of  which  the  stone  was  fresh  from 
the  chiseller's  tool.  On  the  sides  of  the  recumbent  portion 
were  represented  the  figures  of  apostles  —  a  frieze  which  had 
probably  been  copied  from  some  rude  work  of  the   Middle  Ages, 

1  Layard,  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  London,  1853,  PP-  '99  ^'^'^  4^4-  ^  would  ask 
my  reader  to  compare  the  illustration  of  the  bronze  bull's  head  with  the  head  in  my 
photograph  (Fig.  141)  on  the  right  hand  or  north  of  the  furthest  recess  of  the  apse. 

2  But  the  stone  which  Layard  saw  in  the  portico  has  probably  been  removed  to  the 
library. 


134  Armenia 

and  which  was  coloured  in  gaudy  reds  and  greens  and  blues. 
Upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  slab  was  engraved  a  long  in- 
scription, and  beneath  the  inscription  the  grand  emblem  of  the 
double-headed  eagle,  with  cross  and  mitre,  the  eagle  of  Vasp- 
urakan.  The  headstone  was  adorned  with  the  portrait  of  a 
katholikos,  wearing  the  cross  of  diamonds  on  his  cowl.  The 
features  were  those  of  our  host  ;  it  was  the  tomb  of  Khachatur, 
into  which  he  had  told  us  that  he  was  preparing  to  step.  The 
legend  set  forth  that  the  grave  had  been  dedicated  on  Sep- 
tember 12,  1893.  Following  this  announcement,  came  a  farewell 
message  from  His  Holiness,  conceived  in  the  following  terms  : — 

/  approach  thee,  O  fair  grave,  ivith  a  greeting ;  my  secrets  to  tell  I  have 
710  tongue,  because  they  were  lost  before  I  came  to  speak  with  thee.  The 
generations  of  my  people  1  grieve  to  relinquish ;  I  Khachatur,  given  to  the 
Cross,  7t'ill  obey  the  Cross  (es  Khachatur  i  Khachis  kupakchini).  When  I 
come  to  thee,  all  the  manifold  memories  will  have  vanished.  IVhatever  I 
may  leave  behind  me — the  holy  oils,  the  library,  the  cowl,  the  stole,  the  staff- — 
/  leave  them  to  serve  as  a  memory  of  me  for  my  successors.  Lastly  I  approach 
my  people  and  ent^-eat  them  to  be  loyal  to  Siiltan  Hatnid,  the  illustrious, 
because  during  my  tvhole  life  I  have  found  help  from  him  and  from  his  high 
officers.  My  soul  will  be  protected  by  the  weekly  prayer  of  my  pupils  ;  pray 
for  me  weekly  for  a  while  and  forget  me  not. 

On  the  east  of  the  building  there  is  a  little  chapel,  now  in 
ruins.  I  was  informed  by  the  Katholikos  that  it  is  even  older 
than  the  church.  Returning  to  the  monastic  quarters,  we  asked 
to  be  shown  the  library,  and  were  ushered  into  a  small,  white- 
washed room.  Five  little  shelves,  occupying  a  single  side  of  the 
apartment,  hold  all  the  manuscripts  and  books  which  the  monks 
possess.  Neither  the  vardapet  nor  the  deacon  was  conversant 
with  their  contents  ;  but  the  manuscripts,  so  far  as  we  were  able  to 
examine  them,  were  all  concerned  with  Biblical  subjects.  Two 
stones,  engraved  with  cuneiform  inscriptions,  are  kept  in  this 
room.^  The  treasure  was  carried  off  by  the  Kurds  years  ago  ;  - 
but  our  companions  were  able  to  produce  several  mitres  and  some 
rich  embroideries,  of  which  one  piece,  worked  with  the  device  of 
the  double-headed  eagle,  appeared  to  be  of  considerable  age. 

After  a  last  look  at  the  remarkable  church,  with  its  many 
faces  of  fresh  pink  sandstone,  mottled   by  the  subtle  reliefs  with 

^  Of  these  one  was  circular  in  form.  If  it  be  tlie  same  as  Sayce's  No.  XXIX.  (op. 
cit.  vol.  xiv.  p.  537)  it  is  an  inscription  of  Menuas  recording  a  visit  to  the  island. 

-  Ussher  [op.  cit.  p.  332)  tells  us  that  the  Kurds  had  carried  off  many  manuscripts 
which  they  destroyed  from  sheer  wantonness,  using  the  covers  to  make  soles  for  their 
boots. 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  135 

light  and  shade,  our  Httle  party  retraced  its  steps  to  the  peaceful 
harbour,  and  embarked  on  the  homeward  voyage.  The  breeze 
had  veered  for  our  convenience  to  the  opposite  direction,  and 
wafted  us  towards  the  mainland.  We  passed  close  to  the  bold 
crag,  and  to  the  tiny  islet  which,  crowned  by  the  remains  of  a 
fort  and  a  diminutive  chapel,  juts  out  from  the  south-westerly 
extremity  of  the  sea-girt  cliffs.  Before  us  lay  the  horn  of  the 
ba}'  on  the  west  of  Akhavank,  and  in  the  foreground,  a  second 
islet,  the  rock  of  Arter,  which,  like  its  fellow,  supports  a  little 
shrine.  Sipan  was  seen  in  all  his  majesty,  sweeping  across  the 
horizon,  until  the  outline  of  the  base  was  covered  by  the  outline 
of  the  promontory.  From  that  headland  three  little  barks  were 
stealing  towards  us,  specks  of  white  on  the  expanse  of  blue.  In 
the  south  the  snows  of  Ardos  streamed  with  sunlight  above  hori- 
zontal layers  of  cloud.  I  could  hear  the  heavy  breathing  of  my 
fellow-passengers  ;   the  water  eddied  softly  in  our  wake. 

In  the  space  of  about  an  hour  the  plank  was  again  lowered 
and  the  stern  allowed  to  graze  the  sand.  The  Kaimakam  and 
his  retinue  were  assembled  on  the  shore — the  high  officers  men- 
tioned in  the  message  on  the  tomb.  I  received  their  greetings 
and  good  wishes,  and,  promising  to  rejoin  them,  passed  with  the 
dragoman  to  the  apartment  of  the  Katholikos.  I  found  His 
Holiness  seated  on  the  same  rug  at  the  foot  of  the  divan,  in  the 
same  posture  and  attired  in  the  same  ceremonious  dress  as  when 
he  had  received  us  the  preceding  day.  The  same  cowl  with  the 
diamond  cross  enveloped  the  forehead,  which,  judging  from  the 
thick  lips,  flat  nose  and  little  eyes,  was  better  hidden  than  revealed. 
He  beckoned  his  people  to  withdraw  ;  we  were  alone  with  the 
Patriarch  ;  Turkish  contempt  still  shrinks  from  converting  the 
chamber  of  a  Christian  prelate  into  a  permanent  lodging  for  a 
Kaimakam.  So  our  host  was  free  to  answer  the  questions  which 
I  addressed  to  him  without  fear  of  being  reported  by  malevolent 
tongues.  He  informed  me  that  his  patriarchate  was  quite  inde- 
pendent, both  of  Edgmiatsin  and  of  Constantinople.  But  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  consulting  with  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  respect  of  such  Church  matters  in  which  collaboration  was 
mutually  useful.  Artemid  is  the  easterly  limit  of  his  spiritual 
kingdom,  and  is  included  within  its  area.  On  the  west  it  com- 
prises a  portion  of  Garchigan,  but  does  not  extend  as  far  as 
Kindirantz.  On  the  south,  the  cazas  of  Mukus  and  Shatakh  are 
either  its  boundaries  or  contribute  constituent  districts. 


136  Ai'iJieiiia 

The  practice  of  their  religion  he  assured  me  was  quite  free, 
emphatically  he  repeated,  "  quite  free."  The  political  troubles 
which  convulsed  the  country  were  caused  by  scamps  {chapkinef) 
on  the  side  of  the  Armenians,  and  by  bad  Kaimakams.  I 
questioned  him  closely  as  to  whether,  when  he  was  young,  the 
Armenian  population  was  not  much  more  numerous  along  this 
shore.  He  answered  that  the  country  on  the  south  was  at  that 
time  inhabited  by  them  in  far  greater  numbers  than  now  ;  but 
there  was  no  perceptible  difference  along  the  coast.  He  admitted, 
however,  that  during  his  youth  there  were  Armenians  residing  at 
Vostan. 

At  this  point  in  the  conversation  my  host  pronounced  the 
name  of  Zado  ;  and  forthwith  divine  fragrance  announced  the 
presence  of  the  major-domo,  attentive  to  the  faintest  call. 
Obedient  to  his  master's  behests,  he  proceeded  to  unlock  a  large 
wooden  box,  and  to  lay  out  upon  the  floor  a  number  of  tawdry 
State  Orders  and  Firmans  of  investiture.  Es  Khachatur  i  Khachis 
ku-pakchim  !  Some  of  these  objects  the  Katholikos  regarded  with 
especial  reverence,  devoutly  pressing  them  to  his  lips.  Religion 
has  become  a  trade  with  such  as  this  prelate,  and  they  themselves 
hotel-keepers  and  show-mongers.  Each  pilgrim  leaves  the  equiva- 
lent of  double  what  he  costs.  Placing  a  suitable  present  in  the 
hands  of  his  Holiness,  which  he  accepted  after  many  protestations, 
I  took  leave  of  Khachatur  for  ever. 

Resuming  our  journey  at  four  o'clock,  we  crossed  the  high 
land  on  the  west  of  Akhavank,  and  again  descended  to  a  strip  of 
plain,  bordering  the  shore.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  deep 
inlet,  which  was  now  disclosed  to  its  furthest  recesses,  lay  the 
arm  of  the  long  promontory  which  encloses  the  landscape  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Akhtamar.  About  halfway  in,  along  that 
coast,  we  saw  a  considerable  village,  said  to  be  an  Armenian 
settlement,  called  Mirabet.^  Further  inland,  at  the  head  of  the 
gulf,  is  situated  the  Armenian  village  of  Norkeui  ;  while  on  the 
rising  ground,  at  the  extremity  of  the  plain,  a  little  to  the  east  of 

^  I  will  not  attempt  to  explain  or  reconcile  with  one  another  the  maps  of  Kiepert, 
Cuinet,  and  Glascott  {Journal  R.G.S.  1840,  vol.  x.),  and  the  surveys  of  Hommaire  de 
Hell  {Extrait  dii  Voyage  en  Tiij-quie,  etc.,  Paris,  1859)  and  others.  Such  is  the 
ignorance  of  one's  guides  that  one  cannot  do  more  than  question  them  closely  as  to 
the  names  of  villages  and  put  down  the  information  without  much  confidence  in  its 
exactness.  What  is  true  of  the  names  of  villages  is  also  true  of  mountains.  That  portion 
of  the  range  which  lies  on  the  west  of  Mount  Ardos  is  named  Karkar  in  Kiepert's  map  ; 
a  friend  of  mine  who  had  travelled  in  the  country  knew  it  under  the  name  of  Varkar. 
I  was  not  made  acquainted  with  either  of  these  names. 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  137 

Norkeui,  the  Kurdish  hamlet  of -Sarik  receives  the  torrent  of  a 
long  cascade,  descending  precipitous  cliffs.  We  turned  our  backs 
to  the  lake  and  passed  between  the  two  last-named  settlements, 
towards  an  opening  of  the  hills  on  the  opposite  shore.  A  stream 
or  little  river  issues  from  the  cleft  and  flows  towards  Norkeui,  A 
single  telegraph  wire,  taken  across  the  plain,  followed  us  on  our 
left  hand.  At  half-past  five  we  were  in  the  fork,  entering  a  long 
and  stony  valley,  with  a  main  direction  from  south-east  to  north- 
west. It  is  well  watered,  and  what  soil  there  is  has  been  rendered 
productive  by  artificial  channels.  The  swirling  current  swept  past 
us  at  the  foot  of  a  sparse  grove  of  golden-leaved  forest  trees. 
The  vista  backwards  was  closed  by  the  broad-shouldered  Ardos, 
with  gleaming  snows  and  precipitous  sides.  Our  destination  was 
Enzakh,  an  Armenian  hamlet  of  some  dozen  burrows,  in  a  lofty 
situation  at  the  head  of  this  valley.  It  was  nearly  seven  when 
we  arrived,  having  covered  a  distance  of  some  thirteen  miles, 
and  attained  an  elevation  of  about  6900  feet. 

When  we  issued  from  our  fetid  quarters  on  the  following 
morning  (November  19),  a  frost  lay  on  the  ground.  At 
nine  o'clock  we  were  in  the  saddle,  proceeding  in  a  westerly 
direction  in  order  to  cross  the  wall  of  the  valley.  It  is  lofty,  and 
is  scaled  by  a  precipitous  path.  Before  taking  the  main  ascent, 
we  passed  by  a  lonely  chapel,  surrounded  by  a  stone  enclosure. 
It  is  known  to  the  Armenians  under  the  name  of  Surb  Yakob 
(or  Agop),  and  to  the  Kurds  under  that  of  Gubudgokh.  The 
interior  consists  of  a  dome,  resting  on  four  arches,  and  a  deep 
apse.  The  priest  was  not  forthcoming,  having  left  his  eyrie  to 
purchase  bread.  It  was  nearly  ten  o'clock  when  we  reached  the 
summit  of  the  ridge  at  an  altitude  of  about  7600  feet. 

Although  the  ground  was  flecked  with  snow  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  where  we  stood,  the  sun  had  already  warmed 
the  mountain  air.  We  halted  for  half-an-hour  in  order  to  realise 
our  position.  We  had  come  a  little  south  of  a  westerly  course 
from  Enzakh.  Our  ridge  appeared  to  be  a  spur  from  the 
barrier  in  the  south  ;  but  it  increased  in  height  as  it  approached 
the  invisible  lake.  The  mass  of  rock  in  that  direction  was 
called  by  our  guides  Ak  Kul  ;  they  knew  nothing  of  Kiepert's 
Mount  Gubudgokh.  These  heights  compose  the  promontory  on 
the  west  of  Akhtamar,  and,  in  a  country  of  railways,  would  no 
doubt  be  pierced  by  a  tunnel.  In  the  east  we  could  discern  the 
summit    of   Varag ;     a    succession    of    ridges     lined     the     west. 


138  Armenia 

pursuing  an  almost  meridional  direction,  the  most  distant 
covered  with  snow.  Continuing  our  march  at  the  back  of  Ak 
Kul,  I  counted  no  less  than  six  of  these  parapets,  without 
including  those  of  lesser  significance.  They  appeared  to  be 
inclined  a  few  points  towards  the  east.  I  hammered  off  a 
fragment  of  the  characteristic  strata,  a  mica-schist,  weathered  a 
pale  reddish  hue. 

For  over  an  hour  we  were  involved  in  this  sea  of  mountains, 
our  course  being  clearly  indicated  by  a  line  of  telegraph  posts, 
dipping  and  rising  to  the  troughs  and  up  the  crests.  But  at  a 
quarter  before  twelve  we  emerged  from  this  wild  and  uninhabited 
district,  and  again  overlooked  the  lake.  We  were  approaching 
the  easterly  end  of  the  beautiful  bay  of  Baghmesheh  (garden  of 
oak),  and  were  about  to  follow  the  upper  slopes  of  the  lofty  block 
of  hills  which  confine  the  narrow  respite  of  the  shore.  Our 
present  position  w'as  about  two  miles  distant  from  the  calm 
water,  and  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  its  level.  We 
rode  for  half- an -hour  along  these  slopes,  through  a  bush  of 
oak  which  nowhere  attains  the  proportions  of  trees.  A  few 
boats  were  moored  against  the  sand,  and  we  could  descry  a 
few  huts.  Zenith  and  sea  were  intensely  blue  ;  but  grey 
vapours  came  floating  towards  us,  concealing  all  but  the  shining 
summit  of  Sipan.  From  the  further  extremity  of  the  bay  we 
again  saw  the  'isle  of  Akhtamar,  and,  behind  it,  dimly  perceived, 
the  rock  of  Van. 

It  cost  us  little  effort  to  ascend  from  our  track  on  the  hill- 
side to  the  summit  of  the  ridge  which  forms  a  headland  on  the 
west.  The  view  from  that  eminence  in  a  westerly  direction 
recalled  none  of  the  landscapes  through  which  we  had  passed. 
At  our  feet  lay  a  plain  of  perfectly  level  surface,  enclosed  on  all 
sides  by  hills.  On  the  side  of  the  lake  a  line  of  heights  shut  out 
this  plain  from  the  shore,  resembling  a  huge  dam.  After  a 
descent  of  half-an-hour  we  reached  the  floor  of  the  formation, 
which  is  a  little  more  elevated  than  the  surface  of  the  lake. 
Under  this  eastern  wall  lies  the  Armenian  hamlet  of  Goli,  while, 
on  an  opposite  slope,  at  the  head  of  the  valley  into  which  the 
plain  narrows,  is  situated  the  village  of  Kindirantz.  We  rode  for 
half-an-hour  from  the  first  to  the  last  of  these  settlements,  deviat- 
ing south  of  our  direct  course.  I  was  anxious  to  visit  in  his 
capital  the  Kaimakam  of  Garchigan,  For  Kindirantz  is  no  less 
a  place  than    the   seat   of  government   for   that   caza,  although   it 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  139 

cannot  boast  of  more  than  thirty  houses.^  We  arrived  before  two 
o'clock,  having  completed  a  distance  of  some  seventeen  miles 
from  Enzakh. 

The  Kaimakam  was  at  his  post  and  delighted  to  receive  us. 
We  found  in  him  an  official  who  did  honour  to  his  country,  active 
and  strenuous  in  spite  of  his  white  hair.  He  had  built  himself  a 
house  with  solid  walls  of  masonry,  a  rare  luxury  in  these  wilds. 
It  had  of  course  been  erected  by  Armenian  workmen  ;  but  he 
complained  of  the  backwardness  and  laziness  of  the  Armenians 
inhabiting  his  administrative  district.  He  told  me  that  it  com- 
prised no  less  than  seventy-six  villages,  of  which  only  twelve  were 
peopled  by  that  race.  But  I  noted  that  of  the  five  settlements 
in  the  plain  of  Kindirantz,  three,  including  his  place  of  residence, 
were  Armenian.  The  largest  village  in  his  caza  was,  he  said, 
Kordikran,  inhabited  by  Kurds.  But  it  was  not  so  well  situated 
for  purposes,  of  administration  as  Kindirantz.  The  Kurds  in  his 
district  were  all  settled  on  the  land,  and  formed  the  large 
majority  of  the  population.  They  sent  recruits  to  the  Nizam  or 
regular  army.  He  assured  me  that  since  his  arrival  in  the 
country  complete  security  for  life  and  property  prevailed.  I  have 
no  reason  to  doubt  his  word. 

Kindirantz  must  be  five  or  six  miles  distant  from  the  lake, 
and  the  plain  may  have  a  length  from  north  to  south  of  five 
miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  about  two  miles.  A  nice 
stream  descends  from  the  hills  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  little 
town.  In  connection  with  this  plain  I  may  mention  a  natural 
phenomenon  which  repeats  itself  every  year.  When  the  snows 
melt  in  spring  and  the  torrents  rush  down  from  the  mountains,  the 
plain  becomes  completely  submerged.  The  line  of  heights  on 
the  side  of  the  lake  prevent  the  egress  of  the  waters,  which 
attain  in  places  a  depth  of  about  ten  feet.  The  flood  ultimately 
escapes  through  three  principal  subterraneous  passages,  besides 
several  minor  outlets.  The  water  rushes  through  these  natural 
tunnels  in  the  dam  formed  by  the  cliffs,  but  it  takes  a  considerable 
time  for  it  all  to  disappear.  When  the  land  is  again  revealed,  the 
peasants  sow  their  crops,  which,  in  some  years,  yield  an  excellent 
harvest.  But  it  often  happens  that  the}^  are  withered  by  the 
fierce   sun   of    summer,    which    has    already    commenced    by    the 

^  Cuinet  places  the  population  of  Kindirantz  at  4064  souls,  which  is  absurd.  Nor 
are  there  any  Jews  in  the  place.  His  statistics  for  the  caza  include  600  gypsies  and 
some  Yezidis  ;  but  the  Kaimakam  assured  me  that  100  was  a  better  figure  for  the 
gypsies,  while  he  was  not  aware  of  the  presence  of  any  Yezidis. 


140 


Armenia 


time  that  the  lake  has  run  out.  To  this  cause  the  Kaimakam 
attributed  the  poverty  of  the  neighbouring  villages.  I  have  no 
doubt  that  the  little  stream,  if  properly  utilised,  would  go  far 
towards  irrigating  their  lands  ;  and  if  a  proper  tunnel  were  cut, 
and  reservoirs  constructed,  the  soil  might  be  made  as  fertile  as 
any  in  the  world. 

We  proceeded  on  our  journey  at  four  o'clock,  accompanied  by 
the  Kaimakam,  who  rode  a  fiery  grey  horse.  His  saddle  rested 
on  a  light  blue  cloth,  bordered  with  a  yellow  fringe  ;  the  trappings 
and    bridle   were   adorned   with   yellow   tassels.      He  himself  was 


Fig.  144.    Promontory  of  Surb. 

(Oil  the  left  the  back  of  the  Sheikh  Ora  Crater  ;  in  the  distance  Nimriid.) 

attired  in  the  civil  dress  of  Europe,  and  wore  the  fez.  He  could 
not  control  his  steed,  although  a  good  horseman  ;  the  youngster 
who  carried  our  baggage  became  enlivened  by  the  example,  and 
set  off  at  a  canter  with  his  load.  The  Kaimakam  galloped  after 
him  ;  but  our  colt  was  in  condition,  and  showed  him  his  heels 
until  he  was  arrested  at  an  adjacent  village.  This  escapade  cost 
us  time,  and  it  was  nearly  half-past  five  before  we  had  scaled 
the  heights  on  the  west  of  the  plain.  At  our  feet  lay  the  lake, 
about  two  miles  away.  It  is  the  peculiar  favour  of  this  fascinating 
seaboard  that,  often  hidden,  it  is  always  new  and  always  fair. 
Not  a  patch  of  ragged  coast  disturbs  the  impression  of  ideal 
beauty,   resuming    and    blending   the    choicest    features    of  other 


From  Van  to  Bit  lis  141 

shores.  Our  landscape  of  this  evening  embraced  the  westerly- 
extremities  of  the  white,  unruffled  expanse  (Fig.  144).  The 
sun  was  declining  beyond  the  colossal  crater  of  Nimrud,  a  true 
caldron  rising  from  the  lake  on  the  opposite  margin.  Deep 
shadows  clothed  the  promontories  between  our  standpoint  and 
the  mountain,  among  which  a  bold  headland,  seen  on  the  left 
of  my  illustration,  jutted  out  in  the  form  of  a  peninsula.  It  was 
named  to  us  after  a  neighbouring  village,  the  cape  of  Vanik. 
During  my  second  journey  it  was  found  to  conceal  a  small  crater. 
In  the  foreground  we  overlooked  the  soft  foliage  of  the  village 
of  Surb,  with  fertile  fields  and  a  little  bay  of  U-shaped  curve. 
It  caught  the  light  from  the  western  sky,,  and  reflected  the  tender 
tints  on  the  very  threshold  of  the  pale  water  and  gloomy  rocks. 
I  was  informed  that  it  is  inhabited  by  Armenians  and  Moslems. 
We  left  it  on  our  right  hand  as  we  descended  by  a  precipitous 
path. 

West  of  Surb  the  mountains  descend  to  the  immediate  border 
of  the  lake,  and  the  track  is  taken  at  no  great  height  above  the 
water  along  their  steep  and  rocky  sides.  It  follows  every  bend  in 
the  outline  of  the  shore.  This  characteristic  was  new  to  us,  a 
crowning  variety  of  the  manifold  features  which  rendered  memor- 
able our  journey  along  the  coast.  As  we  advanced  along  this 
path  we  opened  out  the  majestic  Sipan,  seen  from  foot  to  summit 
in  the  failing  light.  Night  was  closing  when  we  arrived  at  a 
recess  in  the  barrier,  harbouring  some  fine  chestnut  trees.  There 
is  situated  the  village  of  Garzik,  with  thirty  small  tenements,  of 
which  twenty  are  inhabited  by  Armenians  and  ten  by  Kurds. 
The  Kaimakam  had  sent  forward  a  horseman,  and  our  arrival 
was  expected  ;  a  stable  of  unusual  loftiness  had  been  prepared. 
Hay  had  been  laid  on  crates,  and  rugs  spread  upon  this  primitive 
mattress,  destined  to  be  our  bed.  Our  horses  rested  near  us, 
my  colt  and  the  Kaimakam's  show -horse  munching  peacefully 
side  by  side.  Our  kind  friend  of  Kindirantz  related  stories  to 
us,  while  we  watched  the  smoke  wreathing  upwards  to  the  central 
aperture  in  the  roof  of  logs. 

One  of  these  stories  was  suggested  by  a  question  which  I 
put  to  him,  whether  monogamy  was  strictly  practised  by  the 
Christians.  He  told  me — and  his  statement  was  confirmed  from 
Christian  sources — that  the  possession  of  several  wives  was  not 
an  infrequent  occurrence  among  them,  in  spite  of  the  ban  of  the 
Church.      Not  that  the  priests  were  a  model  of  chastity  according 


142 


Armenia 


to  his  experience,  which  agreed  with  the  conclusion  arrived  at 
by  a  bishop  of  RumeHa,  his  friend  and  countryman.  That 
prelate  had  told  him  that  four  wives  were  allotted  to  a  Moham- 
medan, one  to  a  Christian  and  all  to  a  bishop.  I  asked  whether 
the  Armenians  intermarried  with  the  Kurds  in  a  village  of  mixed 
population  like  Garzik.  His  answer,  which  was  in  the  negative, 
explains  the  stories  of  abduction  which  make  such  a  show  in 
our  Blue-books.  A  Kurd  sees  a  pretty  Armenian  girl  of  his  own 
village,  and,  as  often  as  not,  a  mutual  passion  arises  between  them. 
The  lady  is  not  always  an  unwilling  victim,  as  our  Armenian 
friends  would  lead  us  to  suppose. 

We  slept  soundly  in  spite  of  the  fleas  which  made  a  meal 
upon  us,  and  were  again  in  the  saddle  at  a  quarter  before  eight. 
After  taking  leave  of  the  Kaimakam,  who  returned  to  Kindirantz, 
we  continued  our  journey  along  the  path  on  the  mountain-side. 
For  three-quarters  of  an  hour  we  made  our  way  beneath  the 
precipices,  until  we  again  emerged  upon  a  strip  of  plain.  Vanik 
it  is  called,  after  an  Armenian  village  ;  it  has  a  depth  of  about 
a  mile.  We  crossed  it  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  entered  a 
natural  passage  between  a  promontory  of  the  lake  and  the  main 
range.  This  passage  became  a  valley  of  bleak  and  rugged 
aspect,  and  we  did  not  see  the  lake  again.  At  half- past  nine 
we  left  the  telegraph  wires,  which  we  had  been  following  for  some 
distance ;  they  stretched  away  on  our  right  hand.  They  are 
taken  by  Elmali  to  Tadvan  and  Bitlis  by  a  more  northerly  and 
less  direct  course.  The  prospect  opened  towards  the  north  ;  we 
were  in  face  of  the  mass  of  Nimrud,  no  longer  separated  by  an 
arm  of  the  sea  (Fig.  145).  A  little  later  we  arrived  upon  the 
banks  of  a  stream  which  flowed  along  with  us  for  some  way. 
We  crossed  it  by  a  ford  near  an  ancient  bridge  of  hewn  stone 
which  had  been  allowed  to  fall  into  ruin.  Pursuing  a  westerly 
course,  we  passed  through  a  considerable  village,  inhabited  by 
settled  Kurds.  It  is  called  Gotok,  and  is  distinguished  by  some 
caves,  adjoining  the  track,  with  artificial  niches  and  chambers. 
It  contains  no  less  than  seventy  tenements,  and  is  included  within 
the  limits  of  the  vilayet  of  Bitlis.  It  seems  a  prosperous  place. 
Our  stream,  which  they  named  Sapor,  now  flowed  off  upon  our 
right  towards  Lake  Van.  We  ourselves  took  an  almost  south- 
westerly direction,  while  our  rugged  valley  became  more  spacious 
and  more  fair.  It  assumed  the  form  of  a  strip  of  plain,  between 
opposite   ridges,  stretching  away  to   snow-clad   mountains   in   the 


From  Van  to  Bit  Its  143 

south.  It  is  known  as  the  Guzel  Dere,  or  beautiful  valley  ;  we 
thought  it  deserved  the  name.  We  met  and  saluted  a  shepherd 
at  the  head  of  his  flock  ;  as  usual  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Bitlis,  he  was  armed  with  a  rifle.  At  half-past  eleven  we  entered 
a  side  valley,  almost  at  right  angles,  on  a  course  a  little  north  of 
west.  We  could  see  our  track,  climbing  the  side  of  a  lofty  ridge 
of  mountain  at  the  head  of  this  opening.  The  Guzel  Dere  was 
lost  to  view,  extending  towards  the  spine  of  the  chain.  A  ride 
of  a  quarter  of  an  hour  brought  us  to  the  Armenian  village  of 
Sach,  situated  at  the  upper  end  of  this  side  valley.  It  is 
composed  of  fifty  houses  and  possesses  a  church  ;  but  its  in- 
habitants are  extremely  poor.  They  subsist  on  cakes  of  millet 
seed,  and  have  little  corn  or  barley,  although  the  soil  in  these 
valleys  is  extremely  rich.  When  I  upbraided  them  with  their 
indolence,  I  received  the  answer  that  labour  was  useless  so  long 
as  the  peasant  was  not  permitted  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  toil. 

We  halted  in  this  village  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  and 
then  commenced  the  ascent  of  the  ridge.  The  pass  has  an 
elevation  of  about  1900  feet  above  Lake  Van  ;  and  one  can 
readily  appreciate  the  reasons  which  have  influenced  traffic  to 
prefer  the  easier  if  somewhat  lengthier  route  by  way  of  Elmali. 
The  actual  scaling  of  the  parapet  occupied  half-an-hour  ;  patches 
of  snow  clung  to  the  rocks  about  the  summit.  It  is  called  the 
Pass  of  Bor,  from  an  Armenian  village  in  the  opposite  valley. 
We  reached  that  settlement  at  three  o'clock  ;  it  lies  in  the  water- 
shed of  the  Tigris,  to  which  a  stream  flowed  from  the  further  side 
of  the  ridge  we  had  crossed,  a  tributary  of  the  Bitlis  Chai.  The 
people  of  Bor  appeared  to  us  to  be  on  the  verge  of  starvation  ; 
the  women  had  for  the  most  part  been  reduced  to  mere  skeletons. 
It  is  a  place  of  some  size,  and  I  afterwards  heard  of  some 
interesting  tombstones  w^hich  were  said  to  belong  to  this  town- 
ship. This  upper  portion  of  the  valley  has  a  breadth  of  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile,  and  expands  as  you  proceed.  We  pursued  a 
westerly  course,  and  arrived  at  the  junction  with  the  road  from 
Tadvan.  The  telegraph  wires  are  carried  across  the  heights  on 
the  north  of  the  valley,  which  at  this  point  are  insignificant.  We 
stopped  to  visit  an  ancient  khan,  built  of  hewn  stone  and  of 
considerable  size.  Beside  it  is  a  new  bridge,  also  of  finished 
masonry,  recalling  the  grand  old  days.  I  was  informed  that  it 
liad  been  constructed  by  the  present  Vali  of  Bitlis,  though,  heaven 
knows  !   he  has  no  excuse  for  such  lavishness.      The  stream  which 


144  Armenia 

it  crosses  and  which  flows  in  a  deep  gorge  is  spanned  by  a  less 
presumptuous  structure  which  might  suffice  for  all  ordinary  needs. 
Further  evidence  of  this  childish  but  truly  Oriental  habit  of 
embellishing  your  capital  while  your  kingdom  is  quaking  about 
you  was  furnished  by  a  metalled  road  which  commences  at  this 
point  and  puts  the  traveller  in  a  good  mood.  After  passing  a 
second  bridge,  traversing  the  chasm  of  a  torrent  which  came 
towards  us  on  our  right  hand,  we  turned  with  the  valley  to  a 
south-westerly  direction,  which  was  maintained  for  about  i-|- 
miles.  We  then  defiled  into  the  deep  recesses  of  the  net- 
work of  valleys  in  which  repose  the  castle  and  town  of  Bitlis.  It 
was  after  four  o'clock,  and  I  estimate  the  distance  from  Garzik 
at  27  miles.  Between  Kindirantz  and  that  village  we  covered 
about  9  miles,  which  gives  a  total  of  just  under  100  miles  from 
Van. 


CHAPTER    VI 

BITLIS 

Not  far  south  of  the  Hne  of  junction  of  the  volcanic  plateau  west 
of  Lake  Van  with  the  first  outworks  of  the  main  Taurus  range, 
where  the  level  spaces  of  the  elevated  tableland  of  Armenia  break 
away  to  the  crest  and  trough  of  Kurdistan,  there,  within  the 
threshold  of  the  chain  but  at  the  very  head  of  the  mountainous 
country,  lies  the  picturesque  town  of  Bitlis.  Coming  from  the 
north,  the  traveller  is  impressed  by  a  change  of  scene  which  is  at 
once  sudden  and  complete.  In  place  of  the  great  plains,  divided 
by  irregular  mountain  masses  of  eruptive  volcanic  origin,  he  is 
introduced  to  the  regular  sequence  of  ridge  upon  ridge  and  valley 
after  valley,  which  are  in  fact  the  steps,  or  succession  of  mountain 
terraces  with  stratified  formation,  leading  down  to  the  burning 
lowlands  of  Mesopotamia.  The  clouds  no  longer  float  in  tranquil, 
feathery  beds,  but  sail  across  the  sky,  grazing  the  peaks.  The 
rivers  hiss  in  the  gorges  and  are  white  with  foam  instead  of 
winding  with  sluggish  current  over  the  flats.  The  glare  of  the 
open  and  treeless  landscape  is  succeeded  by  the  gloom  of  over- 
hanging parapets  ;  and,  while  the  margin  of  the  streams  will  be 
overgrown  by  willows  and  poplars,  the  forest  trees,  among  which 
the  walnut  and  the  elm  are  conspicuous,  flourish  upon  each  oasis 
of  deeper  soil.  Even  the  Kurdish  shepherds  have  failed  to  destroy 
a  vegetation  favoured  by  moisture  and  shade. 

It  is  a  place  of  beginning  and  ending,  of  ways  radiating  out- 
wards, of  ways  closing  in.  South  of  the  town  the  valleys  collect 
together ;  slope  approaches  slope,  increasing  in  acclivity  and  hold- 
ing the  united  waters  as  in  a  vice.  About  the  site  itself  the 
walls  of  mountain  recede,  forming  an  amphitheatre  of  command- 
ing heights  upon  the  north.  Passages  thread  their  way  within 
the  folds  of  that  landscape,  following  side  valleys  of  which  the 
VOL.  II  L 


146  Armenia 

pleasant  spaces  caress  the  eye  until  they  are  lost  to  view  in  a  turn 
of  the  fold.  The  sense  of  imprisonment,  which  soon  outweighs 
the  romance  of  a  sojourn  among  the  mountains,  is  a  feeling 
foreign  to  the  genius  of  these  surroundings.  Far  rather  is  one 
diverted  by  the  variety  of  the  expanses  which  preclude  the  palling 
of  this  essentially  alpine  scene. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  the  comparative  openness  of  such  a  situation, 
you  do  not  see  Bitlis  until  you  are  well  within  her  precincts.  The 
body  of  the  town — the  mediaeval  castle,  the  minarets  and  the 
bazars — lies  in  the  trough  of  a  deep  gorge.  The  river  which 
threads  the  valley  is  composed  by  the  union  of  two  main  streams, 
the  one  coming  from  the  north  through  a  direct  passage  from  the 
plains  of  the  tableland,  the  other  from  the  east,  the  direction  of  the 
Giizel  Dere  and  the  road  to  Van.  The  waters  meet  at  some  little 
distance  above  the  settlement,  to  bury  themselves  on  a  south- 
westerly course  in  a  ravine  or  canon  with  a  depth  of  about  lOO  feet. 
From  either  side  of  the  ravine  rise  the  slopes  of  the  mountains, 
leaving  no  great  interval  of  level  ground.  The  road  is  taken 
along  the  right  bank  upon  the  summit  of  the  cliff ;  and  after 
a  few  winds  reaches  the  commencement  of  the  houses.  They 
cluster  on  the  cliffs  on  both  sides  of  the  stream  and  mount  the 
first  acclivities  of  the  mountain  walls.  Of  a  sudden  the  valley  opens 
and  the  river  changes  direction,  settling  down  to  a  southerly  course. 
Two  side  valleys  with  confluent  streams  enlarge  the  views.  Tier 
upon  tier  the  flat-roofed  dwellings  are  terraced  up  the  slopes,  and 
are  seen  extending  into  the  recesses  of  the  hills.  It  will  be  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  where  you  reached  the  first  buildings  ;  and 
still  the  castle  and  the  bazars  are  hidden  from  sight.  It  is  not 
until  that  venerable  pile  is  already  passed  that  the  banks  of  the 
river  flatten.  It  grazes  the  eastern  side  of  the  platform  of  rock 
supporting  the  battlements,  and  is  soon  joined  by  the  tributary 
to  the  right  bank.  These  are  the  most  densely-built  quarters. 
Stone  bridges  with  a  single  span  of  arched  masonry  present  the 
most  charming  prospects  up  the  labyrinth  of  houses  to  the  castled 
rock  of  which  the  figure  is  that  of  a  wedge  with  the  broad  side 
facing  south.  The  water  bubbles  over  the  boulders  in  its  bed, 
which  is  not  more  than  thirty  or  forty  feet  wide.  From  its 
margin  rise  the  slender  stems  of  willows  or  poplars.  A  little 
lower  down  the  second  tributary  rustles  in,  this  one  to  the  left  bank. 
But  the  river  soon  resumes  its  burrowing  and  boring  tendency, 
and  compels   the   houses   again   to   take   refuge   up   the   slopes  on 


BITLIS    AND    ENVIRONS 

Scale:  1  Mile   =  llnclx 
OY    1  :  63.360 

o  '^  ^  -  ?  Miles 


Kxz\\         tas-lle 


€wa^    MejT^a^atv  * 


T'  --"Sirja^^^  :-!-''jiiagt-fe^^-*;c^^'!>ai^'»itete%-te''*->--te-^^^^^^^ 


Engraved    and   |iriiited    by 


Warner*  DeTjes  ,  Leipzig 


PuMislied   byLoiiginan.s.Greeiv&C?  .London 


Bit  lis  147 

either  side.  The  expanse  narrows  and  assumes  the  form  of  a 
single  trough  in  the  mountains,  threaded  by  a  thin  line  of  foam. 
The  most  comprehensive  view  of  the  city  may  be  obtained  from 
these  southern  limits,  just  before  the  entrance  of  the  affluent  from 
the  east.  It  forms  the  subject  of  my  illustration,  which  was  taken 
from  a  position  in  the  Avel  Meidan  (Fig.  146) — the  quarter  in 
which  is  situated  the  American  Mission,  and  where,  since  the  date 
of  my  visit,  has  been  established  the  British  consulate,  the  pioneer 
of  the  political  and  commercial  intercourse  of  the  states  of  the 
West  with  this  remote  Oriental  town. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  portray  the  principal  features  in  the 
topography  of  Bitlis  on  the  little  plan — hastily  executed  upon  the 
spot — which  accompanies  this  chapter.^  The  old  castle  in  the 
well  of  the  expanse,  towards  which  the  valleys  converge,  suggests 
the  appearance,  when  seen  from  a  standpoint  on  one  of  the 
adjacent  heights,  of  a  gigantic  starfish.  The  long  feelers  of  the 
creature,  represented  by  the  valleys  covered  with  houses,  straddle 
somewhat  about  its  slender  body.  Abundance  of  water  and 
the  shade  of  trees  favour  the  place  as  a  residence  ;  but  these 
advantages  are  balanced  by  the  heats  which  prevail  in  summer 
and  by  the  quantities  of  snow  which  collect  in  winter.  The 
southern  aspect  of  the  site  makes  it  a  trap  for  the  fiery  sun  ; 
while  its  elevation  of  5200  feet  above  sea-level  enables  the  snow 
to  lie  during  the  winter  months,  when  it  accumulates  to  a  great 
depth,  as  in  a  natural  reservoir.  On  the  other  hand  the  houses 
are  the  best  built  in  this  part  of  Asia,  and  their  solid  walls  are 
almost  proof  against  extremes  of  temperature.  It  is  quite  s 
pleasure  to  observe  their  substantial  masonry  after  the  habitual 
rubble  or  plastered  mud  of  Eastern  dwellings.  Here  at  Bitlis 
they  are  composed  of  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  broken  by  a  layer  or 
two  of  thick  beams,  to  equalise  the  shock  in  case  of  earthquake. 
The  walls  are  double,  and  the  stone  is  faced  on  the  side  of  the 
interior  as  well  as  upon  that  of  the  garden  or  the  street.  A  layer 
of  mud  and  rubble  is  sandwiched  between  the  two  walls.  Very 
little  mortar  is  used  to  bind  the  blocks  together,  which  consist  of 
a  yellow  lava  weathering  to  a  warm  grey.  This  lava  is  found  in 
abundance  in  the  troughs  of  the  valleys,  having  presumably 
flooded  down  them  from  the  volcanic  plateau  on  the  north.  A 
quarry  of  white  marble  in   the   western   valley,   some   three   miles 

1  It  does  not  pretend  to  be  more  than  a  very  rough  sketch  plan.      It  indicates  the 
various  niahallas  or  quarters. 


148  Armenia 

distant,  supplies  ornamental  material.  Window  glass  is  brought 
from  Europe  and  extensively  employed.  There  are  only  wanting 
our  open  fireplaces  and  groups  of  stone  chimneys  to  complete  the 
resemblance  to  an  English  west-country  town.  In  Bitlis  the 
rooms  are  warmed  most  usually  by  braziers  and  more  rarely  by 
European  stoves. 

The  importance  of  the  situation  can  readily  be  appreciated 
when  we  reflect  upon  the  geographical  conditions.  The  entire 
section  of  the  Tauric  barrier  between  the  Great  Zab  on  the  east 
and  this  valley  of  the  Bitlis  Su  upon  the  west  is  composed  of  quite 
a  network  of  lofty  mountains,  extremely  difficult  to  cross.  To 
these  natural  obstacles,  which  have  played  an  important  part  in 
the  history  of  these  countries,  are  added  dangers  to  traffic  arising 
out  of  the  lawlessness  of  regions  which  it  has  never  been  easy 
to  police.  Bitlis  commands  the  approach  to  the  first  important 
natural  passage  between  the  districts  about  Lake  Van  and  the 
Mesopotamian  plains.  The  avenue  of  communication  is  taken 
down  the  valley  of  the  Bitlis  Su,  and,  crossing  thence  into  that  of 
the  Keser  Su,  to  the  town  of  Sert,  a  distance  of  about  forty  miles. 
Although  this  route  has  not  as  yet  been  rendered  passable  to 
wheeled  traffic,  it  is  well  adapted  to  caravans.  At  Sert  you  are 
already  upon  the  fringe  of  the  lowlands  and  in  a  different  climate. 
On  your  one  hand  lies  Diarbekr,  with  its  ready  access  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  on  the  other  Mosul,  upon  the  navigable  waterway 
of  the  Tigris,  whence  in  any  other  country  but  Asiatic  Turkey  a 
service  of  first-rate  steamers  would  afford  quick  access  to  the 
Persian  Gulf  West  of  Bitlis  there  are  several  passages,  the 
routes  converging  upon  Diarbekr ;  but  they  are  for  the  most  part 
less  accessible  to  the  great  plains  of  the  tableland.  It  is  therefore 
towards  this  avenue  that  the  traffic  is  directed  between  widely 
distant  centres  of  the  plateau  country  and  Aleppo  or  Baghdad. 

It  is  not  so  very  long  ago  that  this  door  between  highlands 
and  lowlands  was  in  the  keeping  of  a  line  of  Kurdish  princes. 
The  Merchant  in  Persia,  who  travelled  in  the  early  portion  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  describes  Bitlis  as  a  town  of  no  great  size,  ruled 
by  a  Kurd  in  only  nominal  allegiance  to  the  Shah  of  Persia,  and 
named  in  the  peculiar  jargon  of  these  early  adventurers  Sarasbec. 
The  castle,  with  its  spacious  area,  high  walls,  turrets  and  towers, 
was  occupied  by  this  petty  feudal  sovereign.^      A  century  later  the 

^   Merchant  in  Persia,  in  Italian  Travels  in  Persia,  Hakluyt  Society,  London,  1873, 

V-  157. 


Bit  lis  149 

Bey  of  BitHs  impressed  Tavernier  with,  his  show  of  power  ;  he 
could  place  in  the  field  no  less  than  20,000  to  25,000  horsemen 
besides  a  quantity  of  good  infantry.  He  resided  •  in  the  castle, 
approached  by  three  successive  drawbridges ;  and  his  private 
apartments  were  situated  in  the  last  and  smallest  of  three  courts 
through  which  the  visitor  made  his  way  on  foot  to  audience.  The 
Bey  acknowledged  neither  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  nor  the  Shah  of 
Persia,  and  was  courted  by  both  on  account  of  the  strategical 
value  of  his  city,  barring  the  communications  between  Aleppo  and 
Tabriz.^  When  the  Jesuits  founded  a  mission  in  Bitlis  in  the 
year  1685  they  were  kindly  received  by  the  ruling  Bey.  But 
that  prince  was  in  nominal  subjection  to  the  Sultan,  each  succes- 
sive ruler  paying  to  the  Porte  a  small  present  as  a  matter  of  form 
upon  the  occasion  of  his  accession."-  In  the  eighteenth  century 
the  padre  Maurizio  Garzoni,  who  sojourned  for  eighteen  years 
among  the  Kurds  in  the  interests  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome, 
speaks  of  the  dynasty  of  Bitlis  as  one  of  the  five  considerable 
principalities  which  divided  between  them  the  Kurdistan  of  his 
day.  The  remainder  were  respectively  located  at  Jezireh,  Amadia, 
Julamerik  and  Sulimanieh.-^  The  last  of  this  old  order  of  princes 
at  Bitlis  was  a  man  of  many-sided  and  remarkable  character, 
whose  romantic  history  one  peruses  with  breathless  excitement  in 
the  dry  reports  and  correspondence  of  Consul  Brant,  the  eye  and 
ear  of  the  famous  Stratford  Canning.  His  name  was  Sherif  Bey; 
and  he  built  a  fortified  palace  on  the  heights  which  confine  the 
valley  on  the  east.  The  site  of  his  residence  I  have  indicated  on 
the  plan,  although  it  has  long  ago  been  razed  to  the  ground. 
After  a  life  of  chequered  fortune  and  fox-like  resistance  to  the 
Turkish  power  he  was  finally  overwhelmed  by  the  operations  of 
Reshid  Pasha  and  taken  a  prisoner  to  Constantinople  in  1 849. 
It  appears  to  have  been  this  prince  who  first  deserted  the  ancient 
castle,  which  has  now  fallen  into  complete  ruin.  Since  his  over- 
throw Bitlis  has  been  governed  by  a  Turkish  pasha,  and  it  forms 
the  capital  of  a  vilayet  bearing  its  name. 

The  derivation  of  that   name  does   not   appear  to   be   known, 
although  it  was  prevalent  in   the  time  of  the   i\rab   geographers,-^ 

1  Tavernier,  edition  of  Paris,  1679,  vol.  i.  book  iii.  p.  303. 

-  Fleurian,  Estat  p7-esent  de  FAnndnie,  Paris,  1694. 

•^  Grammatica  e  vocahulario  della  lingua  Kiirda  composti  dal  P.  Maurizio  Garzoni, 
Roma,  1787.      See  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  vol.  ix.  pp.  628,  630. 

*  Abulfeda  quotes  Ibn  Hauqual  and  Azizi  to  the  effect  that  Bitlis  was  a  small  and 
prosperous  town  seven  parasangs  distant  from  Akhlat.  He  adds  that  in  his  time  it  was 
surrounded  by  a  semi-ruinous  wall. 


150  Armenia 

The  place  seems  to  have  borne  the  earlier  appellation  of  Baghesh, 
and  to  have  belonged  to  the  Armenian  province  of  Beznuni.^ 
Local  tradition  ascribes  the  origin  of  the  castle  to  the  campaigns 
of  Alexander — a  persistent  belief  which  has  no  foundation  upon 
any  known  facts.  A  laughable  story  is  gravely  related  in  this 
connection.  The  King  of  Macedon  was  impressed  by  the 
advantages  of  the  site  as  he  journeyed  past  it  at  the  head  of  his 
army.  Detaching  one  of  his  generals  who  was  called  Lais,  or 
Lis,  he  ordered  him  to  erect  a  stronghold  at  the  junction  of  the 
two  streams  and  to  endeavour  to  complete  it  against  the  return  of 
the  royal  forces.  The  general  executed  these  commands  to  the 
very  letter  ;  and  when  the  King  retraced  his  steps  to  the  valley 
which  had  excited  his  admiration,  he  found  it  defended  against 
his  entry  by  a  formidable  fortress.  After  in  vain  employing  all 
the  arts  known  to  the  besiegers  of  his  day,  he  contrived  to 
possess  himself  of  the  person  of  his  revolted  subject.  When  that 
rebel  was  introduced  to  the  royal  presence,  he  defended  his 
action  against  the  vehement  reproaches  of  his  master  in  the 
following  brief  speech.  "  My  lord  ordered  me  to  build  him  a 
strong  castle,  the  strongest  which  should  yet  have  been  con- 
structed. How  could  I  better  convince  my  lord  of  the  obedience 
of  his  servant  than  by  successfully  resisting  in  that  castle  the 
greatest  warrior  of  the  world  ?  "  Alexander  was  pleased  by  the 
words,  but  playfully  observed  in  the  Persian  language  that  Lis 
was  a  very  naughty  man,  bad  Lis.  The  epithet  adhered  to  the 
name  of  the  general  and  survives  in  that  of  the  town  to  the 
present  day.      This  is  a  good  example  of  an  Oriental  yarn. 

The  connection  of  Bitlis  with  Alexander  is  probably 
apocryphal  ;  but  the  number  of  Greek  coins  that  are  dug  up  and 
offered  for  sale  to  the  traveller  argue  the  extension  of  the  later 
Hellenic  culture  into  the  recesses  of  this  distant  valley.  During 
my  stay  at  Akhlat  in  the  course  of  my  second  journey  several  of 
these  pieces  in  silver,  derived  from  Bitlis  and  the  neighbourhood, 
were  brought  into  my  tent.  One  of  them,  a  coin  of  Antiochus 
the  Sixth  of  Syria,  lies  before  me  as  I  write.  Greek  inscriptions, 
perhaps  of  the  Roman  period,  are  said  to  be  forthcoming  in  the 
vicinity.  But  such  hearsay  should  be  received  with  considerable 
caution  ;  and  the  same  remark  will  apply  to  the  statement  made 
to  Shiel  by  an  aged  native  that  there  had  existed  an  inscription  on 
the  wall  of  the  castle  ascribing  its  foundation  to  a  date  300  years 

^   Saint  Martin,  M^nwircs  sur  P Armi!iiic,  vol.  i.  p.   103. 


Bit  lis  1 5 1 

before  the  prophet  Mohammed.^  The  Arabic  writings  seen  on 
the  ruins,  but  unfortunately  not  copied  or  translated  by  modern 
travellers,  have  most  likely,  almost  without  exception,  disappeared. 
The  population  of  the  town  appears  to  have  increased  during 
the  present  century.  In  1814  it  was  believed  to  consist  of  not 
more  than  i  2,000  souls,  one-half  Mussulman,  and  the  remainder 
Armenian."  Brant  computed  the  number  of  families  in  1838 
at  3000,  or  from  15,000  to  18,000  souls.  •  Of  these,  two-thirds 
were  Mussulman,  and  one-third  Armenian,  besides  50  families 
belonging  to  the  Jacobite  persuasion.^  In  1868  Consul  Taylor 
speaks  of  4000  families,  of  which  1500  were  Christian,  that  is 
to  say  Armenian.'*  At  the  time  of  my  visit  the  population  of 
the  town  probably  amounted  to  close  on  30,000  souls,  10,000 
Armenians,  300  Syrians  or  Jacobites,  and  the  rest  Mussulman 
Kurd.  The  official  figures  for  the  town  and  caza,  comprising 
Tadvan  and  the  head  of  Mush  plain,  showed  a  total  of  just  over 
44,000  inhabitants,  including  about  15,500  Armenians.  If  we 
would  equalise  the  number  of  the  females  to  that  of  the  males, 
1 5  per  cent  must  be  added  to  these  figures.'^  Bitlis  owes  its 
somewhat  flourishing  state  mainly  to  its  position  as  a  provincial 
centre  ;  but  it  does  a  trade  in  gall-nuts  and  gum,  collected  in  the 
surrounding  country,  as  well  as  in  loupes  or  whorls  found  on  the 
trunks  of  the  walnut  trees  and  exported  to  France  for  veneering 
purposes.  The  nuts  of  these  trees  furnish  an  oil  which  is  also 
marketable,  and  madder  root  is  found  in  the  district  and  used  for 
dyeing  purposes.  From  the  leaves  of  the  oak  and  other  trees, 
the  villagers  in  the  neighbourhood  collect  manna  —  an  old-world 
practice  still  in  vogue  in  Kurdistan. 

I  would  now  invite  my  reader  to  accompany  me  in  a  ride  through  the 
town.  Our  starting-point  will  be  a  fine  house  on  the  heights  of  Bash 
Mahalla,  immediately  adjoining  the  road  from  Van.  A  stone  bridge 
crosses  the  road  from  the  precincts  of  the  mansion  to  the  dwelling  of  the 
ladies  of  the  family,  surrounded  by  a  pleasant  garden.  The  best  rooms 
of  the  salamlik  or  larger  residence  had  been  placed  at  our  disposal  by  one 
of   the   notables   of  Bitlis,    by   name   Shemseddin    Bey.     Adjoining   this 

1   Shiel  m  /oiintal  R.G.S.   183S,  vol.  viii.  p.  J  t,. 

^  Macdonald  Kinneir,  Journey  through  Asia  jMiiior,  Ar/neiiia,  and  Kurdistan, 
London,  1818,  pp.  393  scq. 

^  Brant  mJ.K.G.S.  vol.  x.  pp.  379  seq. 

-*   Archives  of  British  Consulate  at  Erzerum. 

'■'  In  detail  the  figures  are:  Mussulmans,  27,673;  Gregorian  Armenians,  15,317; 
Armenian  Catholics,  130  ;  Armenian  Protestants,  647  ;  Syrians,  342.  Males  and  females 
are  given  separately  in  the  rough  census  on  which  these  statistics  repose  ;  and,  owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  access  to  the  women,  the  latter  are  always  in  an  apparent  minority. 


152  Ar7nenia 

quarter  are  the  open  spaces  of  the  Gok  Meidan,  where  you  may  admire 
an  old  medresseh,  now  used  as  a  miUtary  store — a  fine  square  building  in 
hewn  stone  with  four  turrets  at  the  corners,  and  a  rich  fagade  in  the  Arab 
style  on  the  south  side.  The  place  is  overgrown  with  weeds.  Ancient 
elm  trees  spread  their  shade  over  the  ruins  of  a  mosque  not  many  feet 
away.  Adjacent  is  a  cemetery  with  numerous  headstones  and  two 
considerable  mausolea.  In  this  same  district,  not  far  from  the  residence 
of  the  Pasha,  is  situated  the  small  mosque  called  Meidan  Jamisi.  A 
mollah  dispenses  instruction  to  some  twenty  little  boys  in  a  small  den  of  a 
room  close  by.  Descending  the  cliff-side  to  the  main  valley  by  a  paved 
way,  we  pass  the  little  mosque  of  Dort  Sanduk,  and  the  Armenian  church 
of  Karmirak.  The  latter,  although  presided  over  by  the  bishop  of  Bitlis, 
is  an  unpretentious  building  of  four  plain  stone  walls,  with  two  rows  of 
three  stone  pillars  in  the  interior  and  crowned  by  a  small  dome.  The 
bishop — poor  fellow — will  probably  be  in  prison ;  that  was  his  residence 
on  the  occasion  of  our  sojourn.  Attached  to  the  church  is  a  school  with 
four  teachers  and  over  a  hundred  pupils,  who  certainlji  impressed  us  as 
better-to-do  than  at  Van.      Quite  a  number  were  wearing  cloth  clothes. 

The  prison,  full  of  Armenians,  frowns  out  from  the  edge  of  the  cliff. 
We  make  our  way  down  the  trough  of  the  valley  and  past  the  castle.  It 
is  nothing  better  than  a  shell,  the  inner  structures  having  fallen  in  or 
yielded  their  masonry  to  serve  as  material  for  other  buildings.  On  an 
eminence,  overlooking  the  pile,  is  placed  the  Turkish  High  School  or 
Rushdiyeh,  with  seventy  scholars  and  four  instructors.  Our  visit  was  ex- 
pected, but  no  preparations  could  conceal  the  squalor  and  general  decrepi- 
tude of  the  institution.  Most  of  the  pupils  were  quite  small  boys.  Where 
was  the  Mudir  or  Director  of  Public  Instruction  ?  It  transpired  that  he 
too,  although  a  Mussulman,  was  in  prison.  He  had  been  complaining  to 
Constantinople  that  the  military  authorities  had  turned  him  out  of  the 
building  destined  to  serve  as  a  High  School,  and  had  converted  it  into  a 
store.     The  officers  retaliated  by  locking  him  up.^ 

The  Syrian  church  is  situated  in  the  same  quarter — that  of  Kizil 
Mejid,  or  the  red  Mejid.  Mejid  is  said  to  be  a  proper  name.  A  plain 
little  whitewashed  chapel  nestles  under  the  cliff,  and  here  the  service  is 
read  in  the  Syriac  language,  and  a  Syriac  Bible  lies  upon  the  desk.  Not 
that  any  of  the  congregation  understand  that  tongue ;  they  speak 
Armenian  and  are  familiar  with  Turkish.  The  Bible  is  expounded  to 
them  in  Armenian,  which  may  be  said  to  be  their  native  tongue.  When 
we  reflect  that  the  services  of  the  early  Armenian  Church  were  celebrated 
in  the  Syriac  or  the  Greek  languages,  this  transformation  in  the  old  order 
of  things  is  not  without  interest.  The  attendant  priest,  a  charming  man 
who  had  come  from  Diarbekr,  seemed  half  aware  of  the  irony  of  the 
situation.  He  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  Armenians  had  usurped  the 
Syrian  religion  and  then  set  up  a  separate  Church.     But  the  differences 

'  Vital  Cuinet  [La  Tiirquie  (TAsie,  Paris,  1892)  gravely  asserts  that  there  exist' 283 
scholastic  establishments  in  the  vilayet  of  Bitlis,  with  309  teachers  and  18,858  pupils  of 
either  sex  ! 


Bit  lis  1 5  3 

between  the  Churches  amounts  to  little  more  than  a  divergence  in  the 
preparation  of  the  consecrated  bread.  The  Syrians  use  leavened  bread. 
There  was  sadness  in  his  voice  when  he  related  the  fortunes  of  the 
Jacobite  community.  In  old  days  he  maintained  that  they  had  been 
much  more  numerous ;  and  he  believed  that  the  principal  mosque  in 
Bitlis  had  originally  been  a  Syrian  church.  Some  had  emigrated  ;  the 
greater  number  had  become  Armenians.  A  Jacobite  marries  an  Armenian 
wife  whom  he  leaves  a  widow;  the  woman  brings  up  the  children  in  the 
Armenian  faith.  I  enquired  why  the  faithful  remnant  spoke  Armenian  to 
the  exclusion  of  any  Syrian  dialect.  He  replied,  "  Because  this  earth  is 
Hayasdan  (Armenia).'  He  added  that  there  were  some  1500  Syrians  in 
the  sanjak  of  Sert,  mostly  in  the  districts  of  Sert  and  Shirvan.  Their 
spiritual  ruler  is  the  patriarch  of  Mardin. 

The  Armenian  Catholics  are  a  mere  handful  among  the  inhabitants  of 
Bitlis.  amounting  to  not  more  than  fifteen  families,  of  which  only  three  or 
four  represent  the  converts  of  the  former  Jesuit  Mission,  founded  here  in 
1685.  The  remainder  have  becom#  Catholics  during  quite  recent  years. 
Persecution  and  schism  have  dealt  hard  blows  at  the  Catholic  community. 
In  1838  they  did  not  number  more  than  fifty  citizens,  and  their  priest  had 
been  taken  a  prisoner  by  the  Gregorian  Armenians  and  cruelly  beaten  at 
the  monastery  of  Surb  Karapet  above  Mush  plain. ^  In  the  eighties  that 
well-informed  and  genial  ecclesiastic.  Father  Rhetore  of  Van,  speaks  of 
them  as  the  most  neglected  and  disorganised  body  in  Bitlis,  which  had 
dwindled  during  the  Kupelianist  movement  and  from  other  causes  from 
thirty  to  nine  families.-  The  advent  of  an  energetic  pastor,  who  had 
studied  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  Beyrut,  has  infused  new  life  into  the  flock. 
He  speaks  French  fluently,  has  travelled  widely,  and  is  an  accomplished 
man.  A  school  has  been  recently  opened.  The  Catholics  of  Bitlis  have 
had  good  reason  to  resent  their  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  Gregorians  ; 
but  their  spiritual  leader  displayed  an  antipathy  towards  the  Armenians  of 
the  national  persuasion  in  which  religious  hatred  had  overcome  the  bonds 
of  race. 

Very  different  is  the  attitude  of  the  American  Protestant  missionaries, 
whose  flourishing  establishment  is  situated  in  the  Avel  IMeidan  within  the 
angle  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  stream  from  the  eastern  valley  with 
the  main  Bitlis  river.  If  their  conversions  excite  the  jealousy  of  the 
Gregorian  hierarchy,  their  proselytes  display  no  tendency  to  divest  them- 
selves of  their  nationality,  but,  on  the  contrary,  remain  Armenians  to  the 
core.  This  fact  does  not  increase  the  goodwill  of  the  Turkish  official 
classes  towards  the  Americans.  Founded  in  1858,  their  Mission  en- 
countered the  same  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Armenian  clergy  as  had 
formerly  been  experienced  by  the  Catholics.  It  was  not  until  after  the  lapse 
of  seven  years  that  a  nucleus  of  five  professed  Protestants  was  formed :  and, 
once  a  start  had  been  made,  progress  was  rapid.  Of  late  years  the  labours 
of  the  missionaries  have  been  wisely  directed  to  the  extension  of  their 

1   Bore,  Corr.  et  Meiiioires,  Paris,   1S4O,  vol.  i.  pp.  39S,  399. 
2  Rhetore,  Lcs  Missions  Catholiqiies,  Paris  and  Lyons,  1881,  pp.  565-567. 


154  Armenia 

schools  rather  than  to  the  propagation  of  Protestant  doctrine.  Debarred 
from  working  among  the  Mussulmans,  they  have  supplied  the  Armenians 
with  priceless  advantages  in  the  shape  of  a  college  in  the  provincial 
capital,  and  no  less  than  fifteen  schools  in  the  smaller  towns  and  villages 
comprised  within  the  limits  of  the  vilayet.  About  one- half  of  the 
attendants  are  and  remain  Gregorian.  The  college  dispenses  three  grades 
of  education  :  the  High  School,  the  intermediate  and  the  primary  grades. 
At  the  time  of  our  visit  twenty  scholars  were  included  in  the  first  of  these 
categories,  fifty  in  the  second,  and  about  sixty  in  the  third.  There  were 
fifteen  boarders  living  on  the  premises.  The  teachers  numbered  four, 
besides  the  missionaries,  the  principal  teacher  having  graduated  at  the 
important  American  institution  in  Kharput.  Some  eighty  girls,  some  of 
them  boarders,  were  receiving  instruction.  Of  these  the  residents  were  in 
most  cases  inhabitants  of  Bitlis,  parents  preferring  that  their  daughters 
should  avoid  passing  to  and  fro  in  the  streets.  The  majority  pay  for 
their  maintenance  in  kind.  They  impressed  me  as  being  very  neat  and 
clean.  The  Mission  was  under  thf  direction  of  Messrs.  G.  C.  Knapp, 
R.  M.  Cole,  and  George  Knapp — all  zealous,  experienced,  and  amiable 
men.  Their  Board  have  constructed  a  large  church  in  the  quarter,  the 
community  supplying  a  small  portion  of  the  funds.  There  are  about 
loo  professed  Protestants  in  Bitlis,  and  about  three  times  this  number 
of  attendants  at  service.  The  Protestants  of  the  whole  vilayet  may  be 
counted  at  1200,  including  those  who  have  made  no  public  profession. 

The  valley  which  stretches  eastwards  from  the  quarter  of  the  mission- 
aries is  only  sparsely  built  over.  The  houses  belong  to  the  Avekh 
ward.  Fields  of  cabbage  occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  the  level 
area,  which  is  dotted  over  by  poplars  and  other  trees.  At  a  distance  of 
about  two  miles  from  the  confluence  of  the  stream  is  situated  among 
lonely  surroundings  the  x\rmenian  monastery  of  Astvatsatsin  and  an  ad- 
jacent church  which  belongs  to  the  Jacobite  community.  The  buildings  of 
the  cloister  have  fallen  into  ruin,  and  are  tenanted  by  a  single  priest  wear- 
ing the  dress  of  a  peasant  and  not  distinguishable  in  other  respects  from  the 
lowest  of  the  peasant  class.  When  we  alighted  at  the  entrance,  a  figure 
stepped  forth  to  hold  our  horses,  whose  full,  round  face,  large  eyes  and 
sturdy  limbs,  clad  in  loose  trousers,  impressed  us  as  belonging  to  a  good- 
looking  youth.  But  the  shirt,  happening  to  open,  displayed  the  bosom 
of  a  maiden.  The  church  was  so  little  lighted,  one  could  scarcely 
discern  the  architecture  ;  but  one  may  say  in  general  of  the  monastic 
churches  on  the  outskirts  of  Bitlis  that  they  are  well-built  stone  structures, 
with  four  plain  walls  on  the  exterior,  unbroken  by  any  projection  on  the 
side  of  the  apse.  The  interiors  display  features  typical  of  Armenian 
architecture — the  lofty  dome,  supported  upon  arches  rising  from  detached 
pillars,  and  the  stone  dais  at  the  eastern  end  in  front  of  the  apse  upon 
which  the  altar  is  reared.  Their  peculiarity  is  a  partiality  for  Arab 
stalactite  ornament,  as  seen  in  the  capitals  of  the  pillars  and  in  the  altar 
pieces.  The  most  remarkal)le  is  Surb  Joannes,  belonging  to  the 
monastery  of  Amelort  in  the  western  valley,  or  Koms  Mahalla.  Other 
examples   are  Astvatsatsin,   in   the  village  of  Koms  at   the  head  of  that 


Bitlis 


155 


valley,  and  the  church  of  the  fortified  cloister  of  this  same  name  among 
the  hills  bordering  the  main  stream  upon  the  east.  A  track  from  Van  and 
the  Giizel  Dere,  leaving  the  village  of  Bor  on  the  north,  comes  in  over  the 
hills  at  the  extremity  of  the  eastern  valley. 

Issuing  again  from  this  minor  trough  and  regaining  the  principal 
artery,  we  may  extend  our  ride  to  the  fortress  enclosure  of  the  monastery 
last  mentioned — a  curious  receptacle  for  a  sanctuary  dedicated  to  the 
mother  of  Christ  (Fig.  147).  In  spite  of  its  massive  walls,  it  was  rifled  by 
Kurds  during  the  last  Russo-Turkish  war ;  and  you  may  still  see  the 
imprints  of  the  large  stones  which  they  hurled  at  the  door  communicating 


Fig,  147. 


SiTLis:    Fortified  Monastery. 


with  the  treasury  adjoining  the  apse  of  the  church.  The  ignorant 
peasant  who  was  priest  in  charge  informed  us  that  the  cloister  had  been 
in  possession  of  charms  wherewith  to  raise  the  dead  to  life ;  with  these, 
too,  the  marauders  had  made  off.  A  sheep  was  bleating  in  the  yard  ; 
his  fat  tail  had  been  bitten  off  by  a  wolf,  while  he  grazed  upon  the  sward 
outside.  .  Wolves  enter  the  streets  of  the  town  during  winter  and  have 
been  known  to  carry  away  the  dogs. 

Returning  by  the  right  bank  of  the  Bitlis  river,  we  may  thread  our 
way  through  the  crowded  bazars.  They  are  nothing  better  than  roofed 
passages,  narrow  and  low.  An  old  Khan  with  a  fine  doorway  in  the 
Arab  style,  adorned  with  the  figures  of  two  snarling  lions,  varies  the 
monotony  of  the  shabby  booths.  The  Arab  facade  with  inlays  of  marble 
of  the  Sherifieh.  mosque  adjoins  the  masonry  of  the  bridge  over  the 
western  confluent.      We  were  unable  to  penetrate  within  the  walls  of  the 


156 


Armenia 


principal  mosque,  at  the  foot  of  the  castle  ;  but  it  did  not  appear  to  offer 
interesting  features.  There  is  a  persistent  tradition  that  several  of  the 
mosques  in  Bitlis  were  formerly  Christian  churches.  A  question  of  still 
greater  interest,  but  which  I  regret  I  have  failed  to  elucidate,  attaches  to 
the  age  of  the  various  edifices.  One  cannot  help  remarking  a  strong 
family  resemblance  between  them,  all  being  markedly  under  the  influence 
of  the  Arab  style.  They  are  evidently  the  outcome  of  a  period  or  periods 
of  building  activity,  which  I  have  been  unable  to  locate  in  the  history  of 
the  city. 

Not   the    least   interesting   among    the   experiences   of   a   sojourn    at 


Fig.  148.    Tunnel  of  Semiramis. 

Bitlis  will  be  the  excursion  to  the  so-called  tunnel  of  Semiramis.  You 
follow  the  course  of  the  river  for  a  distance  of  some  four  miles  below  the 
castle  along  the  avenue  of  communication  with  Sert.  A  metalled  road 
has  been  constructed  for  some  portion  of  the  way,  representing  the 
abortive  attempts  to  connect  the  two  centres  by  a  carriageable  chaussee. 
It  breaks  off  within  li  miles  of  the  tunnel,  to  be  succeeded  by  sporadic 
patches  of  levelled  inclines.  These  fitful  reminders  of  the  puny  civilisa- 
tion of  the  present  day  struggle  forward  for  no  great  space  into  the 
alpine  scene.  Limestones  on  the  heights  above,  dark  lavas  in  the 
trough  below  accompany  your  course.  Mineral  springs  well  up  in 
abundance  along  the  path.  The  tunnel  is  an  artificial  work,  attributed 
to  the  Assyrian  queen,  which  pierces  a  wall  of  rock  blocking  the  narrow 
valley  and  completely  cutting  off  the  path  (Fig.  148).  The  barrier  has 
been  formed  by  deposits  of  lime  and  other  ingredients  left  by  a  spring 


Bitlis 


157 


bubbling  in  a  basin  some  150  feet  above  the  track  and  over  300  feet 
above  tlie  right  bank  of  the  river.  The  water  in  the  pool  is  clear  as 
crystal  to  the  eye,  but  it  tastes  strongly  of  iron.  Iron  rust  reddens 
portions  of  the  surface  of  the  rock,  and  is  conspicuous  on  the  huge 
boulders  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  detached  by  the  hissing  torrent  from 
the  base  of  the  parapet.  The  tunnel  has  a  depth  of  22  feet  and  a  height 
of  about  18  feet.  It  seemed  to  constitute  the  only  egress  from  the 
gorge.  The  view  from  this  standpoint,  looking  down  the  passage  of 
the  mountains,  is  in  the  sternest  vein  of  alpine  landscapes  (Fig.  149). 


Fig.  149.    Looking  down  Valley  of  Bitlis  Chai. 

Bitlis,  like  Van,  was  in  the  throes  of  a  Reign  of  Terror  when 
we  were  guests  within  her  precincts.  The  storm  was  then 
brewing  which  was  to  burst  in  the  Sasun  massacre,  the  fore- 
runner of  the  whole  series  of  butcheries.  The  town  was  full  of 
tales  relating  to  a  notorious  Armenian  conspirator,  who  not  many- 
months  ago  had  been  captured  in  the  Sasun  region,  some  said 
by  treachery  and  others  at  the  hands  of  a  Kurd  disguised  as  an 
Armenian.  His  name  is  Damadean,  and  he  was  lodged  in  the 
jail  at  the  time  of  our  visit.  Sasun  is  comprised  within  a  section 
of  the  same  zone  of  mountains  as  those  which  rise  about  the  site 
of  Bitlis.  In  other  words,  it  is  a  district  of  the  southern  peripheral 
ranges  of  the  Armenian  tableland,  and  it  lies  to  the  south  of  the 
plain  and  town  of  Mush.      The  Armenians  who  inhabit  it  are  on 


158  Annenia 

terms  of  subjection  to  the  Kurdish  chiefs,  to  whom  they  pay  sums 
fixed  by  custom  for  protection  against  other  Kurdish  tribes. 
Each  chief  has  his  own  Armenian  dependants,  who  are  in  posses- 
sion of  arms.  Being  a  race  of  mountaineers  they  are  noted  for 
their  courage  and  stubbornness  ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  Armenian  political  agitators,  such  as  Damadean,  fixed  upon 
them  as  suitable  material  for  a  conflagration.  The  object  of  these 
men  is  to  keep  the  Armenian  cause  alive  by  lighting  a  flame  here 
and  there  and  calling :  Fire  !  The  cry  is  taken  up  in  the 
European  press  ;  and  when  people  run  to  look  there  are  sure  to 
be  some  Turkish  officials  drawn  into  the  trap  and  committing 
abominations.  On  this  occasion  the  scene  of  the  trouble  had 
been  the  village  of  Talori  or  Talvorik — the  same  village  which 
played  a  part  in  the  later  tragedies.  Its  inhabitants  earn  a  live- 
lihood by  the  primitive  exploitation  of  mines  of  iron,  and  there 
is  sufficient  wood  in  the  neighbourhood  for  smelting  purposes. 
Damadean  had  for  some  time  been  busy  in  the  district,  and  he  had 
endeavoured  to  effect  a  coalition  between  Kurds  and  Armenians 
to  resist  the  levy  of  taxes  for  Government.  At  the  same  time  the 
Vali  of  Bitlis,  Tahsin  Pasha,  happened  to  be  on  bad  terms  with 
the  authorities  at  Constantinople,  It  was  said  in  Bitlis  that  he 
was  delighted  to  be  afforded  an  opportunity  of  recovering  favour 
by  suppressing  a  so-called  rebellion.  The  result  of  these  opposite 
tendencies  was  a  little  piece  of  warfare,  in  which  Turkish  troops, 
accompanied  by  the  Vali  in  person,  appeared  before  Talori. 
Taxes  were  demanded  and  refused.  The  villagers,  who  had  fled 
to  a  strong  place  in  the  vicinity — where  they  had  already 
successfully  resisted  two  tribes  of  Kurds  friendly  to  the  Govern- 
ment— stated  to  the  official  envoy  with  much  reason  that  they 
could  not  afford  to  pay  a  double  set  of  taxes,  one  to  Government 
and  the  other  to  Kurds.  If  they  yielded  to  the  present  demand, 
was  it  likely  that  the  chiefs  would  forego  payment  when  the 
Turkish  force  had  turned  their  backs  upon  Sasun  ?  The  Vali 
appears  so  far  to  have  acted  with  good  sense,  that  he  avoided 
bloodshed.  He  recovered  the  cattle  which  had  been  carried  off 
by  his  Kurdish  allies  and  liquidated  his  claims  from  the  proceeds 
of  their  sale.  His  services  were  rewarded  by  a  decoration  from 
Constantinople  ;  and  he  was  able  to  pose  as  the  restorer  of  the 
authority  of  Government,  the  ringleader  being  in  his  hands. 
These  events  occurred  in  the  month  of  June. 

Damadean    is   a   good    type    of  the   Armenian   revolutionary 


Bit  lis  159 

He  received  a  sound  education  in  the  school  of  the  Mekhitarists 
at  Venice,  and  he  is  said  to  speak  both  the  French  and  the 
Enghsh  languages.  Some  ten  years  before  our  visit  he  came  to 
Mush  as  a  teacher  in  one  of  the  Armenian  schools.  The  real 
miseries  attendant  upon  the  social  and  political  lot  of  his  country- 
men are  nowhere  more  eloquent  than  in  that  remote  town.  They 
spoke  to  the  soul  of  an  Armenian  who  had  tasted  the  liberties 
of  Europe  without  succumbing  to  the  vices  on  the  surface  of 
European  life.  The  actions  of  such  a  neophyte  are  in  so  far 
misguided  that  they  operate  upon  much  too  low  a  plane.  They 
produce  disturbance  rather  than  wholesome  change.  The 
despairing  usher  shook  off  the  dust  of  Mush  from  his  feet  ;  and, 
when  he  returned  after  a  protracted  absence  to  pursue  his  old 
vocation,  the  profession  was  only  a  cloak  to  the  designs  he  had 
matured  in  Constantinople  as  a  petty  conspirator  and  correspondent 
of  European  newspapers.  When  his  plans  were  sufficiently  ripe, 
he  exchanged  the  dress  of  his  office  for  that  of  a  peasant  in 
Sasun  ;  and  the  disguise  enabled  him  to  pass  to  and  fro  between 
the  town  and  the  adjacent  mountains  in  the  capacity  of  a  seller 
of  firewood.  Disposing  of  his  logs  in  the  houses  of  the  principal 
officials,  he  had  ready  access  to  their  confidential  servants.  No 
move  was  made  of  which  he  had  not  been  apprised.  His  career 
was  cut  short  in  the  doubtful  manner  already  indicated  ;  but  it 
was  not  calculated  to  accomplish  abiding  results. 


CHAPTER    VII 

FROM    BITLIS    TO    MUSH MUSH 

At  twenty  minutes  past  eight  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  25  th  of 
November  we  set  out  for  the  neighbouring  town  of  Mush.  It  is  the 
capital  of  a  sanjak,  or  larger  administrative  division,  belonging  to 
the  vilayet  of  Bitlis.  It  is  situated  on  the  further  side  of  the  wall 
of  mountains  which  divide  the  watersheds  of  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates,  and  at  a  distance  by  road  from  the  provincial  capital 
of  rather  over  fifty  miles.  You  retrace  your  steps  towards  the 
valley  of  Bor  and  the  telegraph  wires,  in  order  to  cross  by  an  easy 
and  almost  imperceptible  ascent  to  the  volcanic  plateau  on  the 
western  side  of  Lake  Van.  The  lavas  from  Nimrud,  and  perhaps 
from  lesser  volcanic  fissures  near  the  base  of  the  Kerkiir  Dagh,  have 
levelled  the  inequalities  of  the  ground  in  this  direction,  and  have 
risen,  as  it  were,  to  the  rim  of  the  basin  in  which  the  tributaries 
of  the  Tigris  have  their  source.  Indeed,  as  you  diverge  from  the 
valley  on  a  northerly  course  through  a  side  valley  or  opening  in 
the  hills,  you  skirt  the  margin  of  a  shallow  stream,  an  affluent  of 
the  Bitlis  Chai,  which  has  its  origin  on  the  very  lip  of  the  volcanic 
plateau.  We  made  our  way  up  the  current  babbling  over  the 
rocks,  through  a  bleak  but  comparatively  open  scene.  On  our 
risfht  was  an  ancient  khan  in  a  ruinous  condition,  of  lesser  dimen- 
sions  than  the  one  on  the  road  from  Van  to  Bitlis  which  we  had 
already  passed.  In  its  neighbourhood  the  track  bifurcates,  one 
branch  maintaining  a  northerly  direction,  and  the  other  inclining 
a  little  eastwards  in  the  direction  of  Tadvan.  Sipan  now  came 
in  view  on  our  right  front,  seen  from  the  summit  to  the  middle 
slopes  above  the  outline  of  the  plateau.  A  little  later,  we  stood 
upon  the  actual  floor  of  this  table  surface,  at  an  elevation  of  800 
feet  above  the  higher  quarters  of  the  town  of  Bitlis. 

It  was  ten  o'clock.      I  called  a  halt,  and  took  a  photograph  of 


Q 


From  Bit  lis  to  Mttsk — Mush  1 6 1 

the  Kerkiir  Dagh,  which  rose  in  front  of  us,  hiding  Nimrud  (Fig. 
150).  You  just  obtain  a  peep  of  the  crater  of  the  giant  volcano 
on  the  west  of  that  bold  elevation.  We  could  not  discover  traces 
of  a  crater  on  Kerkiir,  which  appeared  to  compose  an  isolated 
mass.  The  level  ground  upon  which  we  stood  extended  in  both 
directions,  towards  the  west  and  towards  the  east  ;  but  the  con- 
figuration of  this  high  land  was  such  as  to  conceal  completely  the 
waters  of  Lake  Van.  We  now  commenced  a  more  westerly  course, 
and  in   another  hour  had   passed   the   Kerkiir   Dagh   and   were  in 


Fig.  151.     Nimrud  Crater  from  the  Volcanic  Plateau. 

full  face  of  Nimrud  (Fig.  151).  The  heights  of  the  Kerkiir  are 
seen  on  the  extreme  right  of  my  illustration,  descending  by  bold 
bastions  to  the  steppe.  After  a  second  halt  we  arrived  upon  the 
edge  of  the  plateau,  where  it  overhangs  the  great  plain  of  Mush. 
We  had  been  walking  or  trotting  along  for  a  space  of  nearly  an 
hour,  excluding  stoppages,  from  the  point  at  which  my  first  photo- 
graph was  taken. 

The  prospect  from  this  position  was  at  once  far-reaching  and 
instructive.  On  our  right  hand,  a  few  miles  off,  rose  the  caldron 
of  Nimrud  from  the  table  surface  upon  which  we  stood.  Behind 
us  there  was  nothing  but  the  undulating  steppe.  Our  barometers 
were  now  sensible  of  a  slight  decline  in  elevation^ — a  decline  of 
about  350  feet.  We  were  placed  at  a  level  of  5500  feet; 
abruptly  before  our  eyes  the  ground  fell  away  to  the  head  of 
the  plain,  1000  feet  below.  The  appearance  of  the  plain  of 
Mush  recalled  our  view  from  the  slopes  of  Aghri  Dagh  over  the 
VOL.  II  M 


1 62  Armenia 

district  of  Alashkert.  Both  depressions  are  in  fact  the  beds  of 
former  lakes,  to  which  the  mountains  descend  in  bold  promontories. 
On  that  occasion  we  were  overlooking  the  breadth  of  an  even 
area  ;  to-day  we  were  commanding  the  length.  And  what  a 
curious  commencement  of  the  plain  that  feeds  the  Euphrates,  this 
colossal  dam,  looo  feet  in  height  and  several  miles  across!  The 
boundaries  of  the  depression  are,  on  the  north,  the  train  of  Nimrud, 
which  extends  for  a  short  distance  towards  the  west.  Further  on, 
the  line  is  continued  by  a  range  of  lofty  hills,  which,  as  we  looked, 
extended  across  the  horizon,  their  summits  topped  with  snow. 
The  Kurdish  chain  contributes  the  southern  and  continuous 
barrier.  Our  course  was  indicated  by  a  distant  headland  of  that 
southern  border,  bearing  about  west-north-west. 

The  descent  to  the  plain  occupied  nearly  an  hour,  and  it  was 
one  o'clock  before  we  were  again  on  level  ground.  The  first 
steps  of  the  declivity  led  us  past  a  little  village,  and  along  a  torrent 
which  contributes  its  waters  to  the  Euphrates.  The  name  of 
Morkh  is  applied  both  to  the  hamlet  and  to  the  stream.  Looking 
backward,  we  observed  a  little  conical  crater  on  the  flank  of 
Nimrud,  resembling  a  boil,  and  facing  the  Kerkiir.  Eruptive 
volcanic  stones  were  strewn  upon  our  path.  Lower  down  we 
threaded  our  way  through  some  low  bush  of  oak.  When  we 
reached  the  head  of  the  plain,  a  hill  mass  of  no  great  height,  and 
evidently  of  volcanic  origin,  rose  between  us  and  the  descending 
train  of  Nimrud.  We  could  see  the  trees  of  the  Kurdish  village 
of  Norshen,  beneath  the  mountains  of  the  southern  border,  and 
scarcely  more  than  half-a-mile  away. 

In  less  than  half-an-hour  we  arrived  at  a  handsome  mauso- 
leum, standing  in  the  midst  of  an  ancient  cemetery,  and  now 
fallen  into  a  ruinous  state.  It  was  circular  in  shape.  I  was  not 
aware  at  the  time  of  the  existence  in  this  neighbourhood  of  the 
spring  of  which  Mr.  Ainsworth  speaks.^  But  at  Erzerum  I  learnt 
that  I  had  passed  by  it,-  and  was  made  acquainted  with  an 
interesting  theory  of  its  origin.  It  is  said  that  a  shepherd, 
pasturing  his  flocks  on  the  slopes  of  Nimrud,  happened  to  lose 

1  The  Sources  of  the  Euphrates,  \r\.  Journal  R.G.S.  1895,  pp.  173  seq.  Mr. 
Ainsworth  conjectures  that  the  water  of  this  well,  which  he  describes  as  a  crater  fountain 
having  a  basin  220  feet  in  circumference,  comes  from  Lake  Van.  I  should  doubt  it. 
The  same  careful  observer  is  not  quite  right  in  speaking  of  it  as  "  the  source  "  of  the 
Kara  Su.  It  is  no  doubt  one  of  the  sources,  but  the  Morkh  Su,  already  mentioned,  is 
the  first  of  these  westward-flowing  streams.  For  further  particulars  in  regard  to  the 
pool  of  Norshen  see  Chap.  XVIII.  p.  317  of  the  present  volume. 


Fig.  152,    Young  Kurd  Woman  at  Gotni,  Mush  Plain. 


From  Bit  lis  to  Mzish — Mush  163 

his  staff,  which  was  weighted  with  a  purse,  in  the  waters  that 
collect  in  the  caldron  of  that  great  volcanic  mass.  A  little 
later  the  same  staff  was  found  on  the  bank  of  the  stream  which 
issues  from  this  well.  Such  an  occurrence  is  not  improbable  on 
a  priori  grounds.  It  is  only  necessary  to  recall  the  connection 
generally  accepted  as  subsisting  between  the  pool  on  the  summit 
of  the  Little  Ararat  and  the  Sirdar's  well  in  the  valley  at  its  feet. 
While  in  Erzerum  I  was  also  given  a  copy  of  the  Arabic  inscrip- 
tion on  the  mausoleum  just  described.  It  records  that  it  is  the 
tomb  of  a  certain  emir,  Karanlai  Agha,  who  died  in  the  year  of 
the  Hegira  689,  or  of  our  era  1290.^^ 

Our  mid-day  stage  was  the  Kurdish  village  of  Gotni,  which 
we  reached  at  two  o'clock.  It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
southern  border  range.  With  the  greatest  difficulty  we  obtained 
some  hay  for  the  horses  and  a  little  milk  for  ourselves.  My 
Swiss  had  gone  in  pursuit  of  the  grey  colt  with  the  baggage  and 
provisions,  and  had  ended  by  losing  his  way.  He  did  not 
appear  before  we  were  all  very  anxious  about  him  ;  but  the 
Dutch  cheese  and  white  loaves,  a  present  from  the  missionaries, 
were  not  less  relished  because  they  arrived  after  our  scanty  meal. 
This  was  the  first  village  inhabited  by  Mohammedans  in  which 
I  was  allowed  to  photograph  the  women.  I  obtained  this  favour 
by  dint  of  considerable  cajolery  and  judicious  presents  to  the 
elders  and  to  the  ladies  themselves.  But  my  success  cost  me 
dear  during  the  subsequent  journey,  and  was  one  of  the  causes 
of  our  bad  treatment  at  Mush.  One  of  my  models  was  a  damsel 
of  no  little  beauty — a  full-blooded,  strapping  girl.  It  was  evident 
that  she  was  the  belle  of  the  whole  settlement,  and  she  was 
certainly  an  exception  and  a  contrast  to  the  lank  creatures  who 
were  her  comrades  (Fig.  i  52)."  The  zaptiehs  spoke  of  the  women 
of  Gotni  as  little  addicted  to  prudery,  and,  indeed,  as  amiable 
sinners.  They  told  me  that  in  exchange  for  a  mirror  or  kerchief, 
purchased  for  ten  paras  in  the  bazars,  they  were  in  the  habit 
of  receiving  the   supreme  favours   of  these   fair  ones  ;   and,   once 

1  I  am  indebted  to  the  excellent  Yusuf,  dragoman  of  the  British  Consulate  at  Erzerum 
and  my  friend  from  childhood,  for  a  copy  and  translation  of  this  inscription  :  "  In  the 
name  of  God,  the  merciful  and  most  compassionate,  this  is  the  tomb  of  the  great  emir, 
Melik-ul-Umara,  Karanlai  Agha,  who  was  taken  from  this  place  of  corruption  to  the  place 
of  mercy  and  immortality,  a  Moslem,  believer  in  one  God,  on  the  5th  day  of  Ramazan 
in  the  year  689." 

2  My  photograph  of  the  belle  of  Gotni  displays  such  a  lack  of  good  features  that  I 
must  refrain  from  reproducing  it  for  fear  of  belying  my  impression.  In  its  place  I  offer 
a  picture  of  one  of  the  best -looking  of  her  less  flourishing  comrades. 


164  Armenia 

contracted,  the  alliance  could  always  be  resumed.  A  feature  of 
the  bargain,  upon  which  they  did  not  fail  to  lay  emphasis,  was 
that  their  companion  provided  them  with  food  during  their  stay. 

Proceeding  at  four  o'clock,  we  arrived  in  half-an-hour  at  the 
promontory  which  had  been  our  point  of  course.  We  were 
obliged  to  cross  the  neck  of  this  rocky  cape,  in  order  to  avoid 
a  marsh.  Nor  was  the  surface  of  the  plain  less  boggy  to  which 
we  descended — such  is  the  neglect  or  inability  on  the  part  of  the 
natives  to  profit  by  the  natural  advantages  so  lavishly  bestowed. 
We  were  obliged  to  hug  the  headlands  of  the  southern  barrier 
for  some  considerable  time.  When  at  last  we  struck  into  the 
open  plain  on  a  more  north-westerly  course,  the  village  which 
was  our  goal  proved  to  be  completely  destitute  both  of  barley 
and  of  hay.  We  were  therefore  escorted  by  a  peasant  to  a 
neighbouring  settlement,  in  the  recesses  of  the  spurs.  It  consisted 
of  some  thirty  miserable  tenements,  of  which  ten  belonged  to 
Armenian  families  and  twenty  to  Kurds.  No  grain  was  possessed 
by  this  village,  but,  after  much  wrangling,  a  little  barley  was 
produced.  This  sufficed  to  feed  the  horses,  and  we  decided  to 
spend  the  night  there  ;   the  name  of  the  place  was  Zirket. 

But  which  of  these  underground  hovels  was  the  least  re- 
pugnant as  a  lodging  for  the  night  ?  The  first  I  entered 
displayed  the  flicker  of  a  fire  of  dried  manure,  and  was  almost 
filled  by  the  dim  forms  of  cattle.  But  I  could  hear  a  human 
cough  and  the  wheezing  of  sick  people  ;  and,  as  I  advanced,  I 
stumbled  upon  a  prostrate  figure.  It  was  muffled  in  a  ragged 
shawl,  and  I  could  not  see  the  features  ;  when  I  touched  it  on 
the  bare  feet  it  did  not  move.  No  better  fortune  attended  a 
visit  to  a  neighbouring  hut  ;  it  was  more  lofty,  but  it  was 
tenanted  by  a  huddled  group  of  women,  one  of  whom  was  unable 
to  move  from  the  ground.  Returning  to  my  first  choice,  I 
ordered  the  cattle  to  be  ejected,  and  the  sleeper  to  be  taken  to  an 
adjacent  stable.  We  slept  beside  our  horses  and  were  attacked 
in  force  during  the  night  by  a  formidable  army  of  minute 
enemies. 

The  ride  to  Mush  on  the  following  day  occupied  four-and- 
a-half  marching  hours.  Our  average  course  was  a  little  north  of 
west.  The  plain  in  the  neighbourhood  of  our  station  was  some 
five  to  six  miles  broad,  and  villages  became  both  larger  and  more 
frequent.  The  same  line  of  high  hills  still  composed  the  northern 
barrier,   and  the   Kurdish  mountains   that  on  the   south.      Ice   lay 


From  Bitlis  to  Mush — Mush 


i6  = 


upon  the  puddles  during  the  early  morning,  but  was  soon  melted 
by  the  sun.  The  marshes  continued  but  were  less  obstructive  ; 
they  afford  food  to  large  flocks  of  wild  geese.  The  villages  in 
the  plain  appeared  to  be  for  the  most  part  Armenian,  but  some 
Armenian  villages  are  in  part  inhabited  by  Kurds.^  We  halted 
for  a  meal  in  one  of  the  largest  of  these,  the  Armenian  settlement 
of  Khaskeui  (Fig.  153).  It  is  a  typical  Armenian  dwelling-place, 
resembling  a  series  of  ant-hills  ;  but  my  illustration  does  not 
comprise  the  knot  of  venerable  trees  which  adjoin  it,  an  unwonted 


Fig.  153.    Armenian  Village  of  Khaskeui,  Mush  Plain. 


landmark  in  the  expanse.  In  Khaskeui  there  are  no  less  than 
300  houses  and  2  churches,  besides  ruins  of  more  ancient 
sanctuaries.  But  the  school  had  been  closed  by  order  of 
Government,  and  only  one  per  cent  of  the  peasants  could  read  or 
write.  I  found  the  priest  an  ignorant  man  ; — poor  fellow,  he  had 
been   lately  imprisoned  on  a  summons  for  withholding  taxes.      If 

1  It  would  probably  be  safe  to  .say  that  the  Armenian  element  predominates  in  the 
plain  proper,  and  the  Kurdish  element  in  the  villages  bordering  upon  the  plain  along 
the  southern  border  range.  Writing  in  1838,  Consul  Brant  reported  as  follows  :  "In 
the  whole  plain  of  Mush  there  are  not  any  Mohammedan  peasants  intermingled  with 
the  Armenians  :  a  fact  which  would  clearly  point  out  this  country  as  belonging  rather 
to  Armenia  than  to  Kurdistan  ;  indeed  the  tent-dwelling  Kurds  are  evidently  intruders, 
and  the  stationary  Kurds,  it  cannot  be  doubted,  belonged  originally  to  the  nomad  race  " 
{J.R.G.S.  1840,  vol.  X.  p.  347). 


1 66  Armenia 

only  Armenian  patriots  would  see  to  the  reform  of  the  rural  clergy, 
what  an  inestimable  harvest  the  race  would  reap  !  The  inhabit- 
ants of  this  village  were  a  good  example  of  Armenian  peasantry 
— such  broad  shoulders,  and  massive  hips  !  They  were  fairly 
well-to-do,  some  in  easy  circumstances  (Fig.  154).  One  is  im- 
pressed by  their  resolute  look. 

Khaskeui  has  an  open  site  on  the  floor  of  the  spacious  plain, 
while  Mush  nestles  under  the  wall  of  the  southern  range.  Our 
course  was  again  directed  to  one  of  the  headlands  of  the  barrier, 
bearing  about  west-north-west  Proceeding  at  a  rapid  trot,  we 
reached  our  landmark  in  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  and,  after 
doubling  it,  turned  due  west.  We  were  riding  across  the  fork  of 
one  of  the  deepest  and  most  spacious  of  the  valleys  formed  by  the 
spurs  descending  from  the  chain.  High  up  on  the  hillside  above 
the  head  of  this  opening  we  admired  the  position  of  the  famous 
cloister  of  Arakelotz  Vank — a  walled  enclosure  surmounted  by 
a  conical  dome.^  The  windows  of  that  eyrie  must  command  an 
immense  prospect,  for  the  chain  of  hills  had  declined  to  less 
significant  proportions  on  the  opposite  margin  of  the  plain.  We 
ourselves  could  see  the  shining  summit  of  Sipan  above  their  long 
outline.  They  almost  die  away  at  a  point  about  due  north  of 
this  position,  but  are  soon  succeeded  by  a  still  more  lofty  and 
snow-capped  range.  The  valley  is  dotted  with  several  villages, 
and  crives  issue  to  a  stream  called  the  Arakh.  Where  we  crossed 
it,  the  water  was  trickling  over  a  stony  bed  which  must  have  been 
nearly  a  quarter- mile  broad.  As  we  closed  the  view  of  this 
valley,  we  passed  the  large  Armenian  village  of  Tirkavank,  on  the 
side  of  the  hill. 

But  this  recess  was  no  sooner  passed  than  it  was  succeeded 
by  another  inlet  of  this  coast  of  hills,  backed  by  snow-clad  heights. 
Scarcely  less  spacious  and  not  less  fair  than  the  valley  of  the 
/\rakh,  that  of  the  Garni  Chai  is  enclosed  by  two  protecting 
promontories,  opening  towards  the  expanse  of  plain.  At  the 
head  of  the  western  arm,  a  rocky  spur  projects  into  the  bay  at  an 
angle  from  the  promontory.  Increasing  in  height  as  it  proceeds, 
it  takes  the  appearance  of  a  rounded  hill,  rising  isolated  from  the 
floor  of  the  valley.  Screened  by  the  headlands  from  the  winds, 
yet  in  full   possession  of  the   plain,  it   is   indeed   an  enviable   site. 

^  I  refer  the  reader  with  some  hesitation  to  Cuinet's  account  of  this  monastery  {La 
Titrquie  d\4sie,  Paris,  1892,  vol.  ii.  p.  584,  vilayet  de  Bitlis).  See  also  Saint  Martin, 
Miiiioires  sicr  PArnu'iiie,  vol.  ii.  pp.  431,  467- 


Fig.  154.    Well-to-do  inhabitant  of  Khaskeui,  Mush  Plain. 


From  Bit  lis  to  Mush — Mush  167 

The  hill  is  encircled  by  tiers  of  houses — horizontal  lines  of  flat 
mud  roofs — -which  lead  up  the  eye,  like  steps,  to  the  vaulted 
summit.  In  former  times  a  castle  rose  from  that  proud  eminence 
— probably  a  work  of  the  Armenian  Middle  Ages.  It  has  been 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  simple  houses  usurp  the  space  once 
embellished  by  the  city's  crown.  We  were  soon  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  town  of  Mush. 

It  was  evident  that  our  arrival  had  been  expected.  Groups 
of  people  were  collected  in  the  street  up  which  we  passed,  and 
were  occupying  posts  of  vantage  along  the  route.  I  have  little 
doubt  that  their  interest  in  us  was  due  to  the  attitude  of  the 
authorities  towards  our  visit,  rather  than  to  curiosity  on  the  part  of 
such  semi-animate  individuals  to  see  a  European  enter  their  town. 
The  presence  of  the  chief  of  the  police,  attired  in  a  new  greatcoat, 
from  the  brass  buttons  of  which  flashed  the  device  of  the  crescent, 
was  alone  sufficient  to  attract  a  crowd.  He  stood  in  front  of  his 
office,  facing  the  main  street,  and  saluted  us  gravely  as  we  wound 
up  the  steep  ascent  over  an  irregular  pavement  towards  the 
central  bazar.  In  the  foreground  of  the  picture  before  our  eyes 
rose  a  massive  minaret  with  a  spacious  gallery  ;  and  we  admired 
the  rambling  design,  composed  of  the  admixture  of  yellow  and 
brown  blocks  of  stone,  which  varied  the  surface  of  the  circular 
column  of  masonry.  It  belongs  to  the  mosque  of  Aladdin  Bey. 
The  humble  houses  straggle  down  the  side  valleys,  from  which 
the  stalk-like  trunks  of  poplars  rise.  Looking  backwards,  the 
eye  rests  upon  the  green  of  tobacco  fields  in  the  main  valley  ; 
and  we  noticed  that  the  large  leaves  had  already  been  gathered, 
leaving  the  stems  of  the  plant  almost  bare.  The  gaunt  sticks 
were  preparing  to  wither  under  the  first  severe  frost.  Little 
foliage  remained  upon  the  trees  in  the  gardens,  and  the  poplars 
were  already  stripped  of  leaves. 

The  dwellings  are  constructed  of  rubble -stone,  faced  with 
mud.  Some  are  whitewashed  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  greater 
number  lapses  of  the  mud  coating  reveal  the  rudeness  of  the 
structure  behind.  The  flagstones  in  the  bazar  were  swimming  in 
filth  of  every  description  as  we  picked  our  way  through  the 
accumulation  of  heterogeneous  objects — bullock  carts,  piles  of 
straw,  the  skins  of  slaughtered  animals  with  the  entrails  gathered 
up  within  the  skin.  The  bazar  of  Mush  is  a  mere  aggregate  of 
miserable  open  booths,  clustering  about  the  base  of  the  minaret. 
The  richest  merchant — an  Armenian — owned  a  stall  which  was 


1 68  Armenia 

not  much  larger  than  that  of  a  costermonger.  In  this  booth  we 
observed  the  figure  of  a  general  in  blazing  uniform,  squatted  on 
the  boards  and  gossiping  with  the  shopman.  It  was  none  other 
than  the  Commandant  of  the  troops.  The  place  was  crammed 
with  sightseers,  clad  in  red  and  blue  cottons  ;  their  loose  shirts, 
open  to  the  waist,  revealed  the  breasts  of  the  men  and  the 
bosoms  of  the  women,  in  whom  bad  diet,  unwholesome  tenements, 
and  ceaseless  toil  had  destroyed  the  graces  natural  to  their  sex. 
It  was  painful  to  see  such  a  collection  of  miserable  human 
beings  ;  and  the  lank  features  and  dishevelled  locks  of  the  old 
women  haunted  us  for  many  a  day.  From  the  bazar  we  were 
escorted  to  the  government  house,  in  order  to  be  received  by  the 
Aliitesarrif  ox  chief  civil  official  of  the  sanjak  of  Mush. 

A  wooden  staircase,  reeking  with  filth  and  scattered  with  the 
debris  of  the  tumble-down  edifice,  gave  access  to  the  first  floor. 
A  vagrant,  nondescript  crowd  thronged  the  stairs  and  landing, 
from  which  a  thick  curtain,  drawn  aside,  allowed  us  to  pass  into 
an  inner  apartment.  Seated  on  the  divan  before  us  were  several 
figures,  to  one  of  which — a  fat  old  man  with  a  fez  and  a  shabby 
European  coat — we  were  introduced  as  being  the  Mutesarrif. 
His  coarse  features,  abnormally  large  ears,  and  the  heavy  lobes 
of  the  wrinkled  under-lids  of  his  dull  eyes,  prepossessed  us  against 
him  at  first  sight.  His  stomach  had  become  distended  with 
continual  sitting,  and  the  scanty  hair  upon  his  head  was  quite 
white.  A  smart  young  man,  wearing  a  fez,  was  seated  upon  his 
left  hand,  and  a  mollah  with  a  white  turban  and  dark  robes  upon 
his  right.  The  first  was  his  secretary  ;  and  the  second — a  thin- 
featured,  little  man,  who  never  moved  a  muscle  during  the  whole 
interview — was  no  less  a  dignitary  than  the  Mufti  of  Mush.  On 
either  side  of  this  central  group  were  serried  the  other  notables, 
members  of  the  Mejlis. 

Even  the  Mutesarrif  himself  appeared  afraid  to  utter  a  word. 
No  topic  of  conversation  would  unloose  their  tongues.  Why  had 
we  come?  What  untowardness  would  result  from  our  visit? — 
that  was  the  question  buried  in  those  gloomy  souls.  I  elicited 
the  interesting  fact  that  not  one  of  them  had  ever  heard  of  the 
code  of  Napoleon.  When  I  mildly  remarked  that  it  was  said  to 
be  the  civil  law  of  Turkey,  the  Mutesarrif  broke  in  with  the 
observation  that  he  now  remembered  to  have  been  told  that  there 
was  such  a  code. 

Bystanders  eyed  us  curiously  as  we  issued  from  this  visit,  and 


From  Bit  lis  to  Mush — Mush  169 

I  quite  expected  to  be  escorted  to  the  jail.  We  were  agreeably 
surprised  to  be  conducted  to  the  best  house  in  the  place — stand- 
ing by  itself  in  a  sunny  situation  overlooking  the  valley  on  the 
east.  I  expressed  a  desire  to  go  to  the  bath.  The  answer  was 
that  in  a  couple  of  hours  it  would  be  at  our  disposal.  When  we 
arrived,  there  was  not  a  single  soul  within  the  building  except 
a  couple  of  attendants.  Incense  had  been  burnt  in  the  really 
spacious  and  comfortable  chambers,  which  were  newly  swept  and 
fragrant  and  clean.  We  were  ministered  to  by  an  Armenian  boy 
of  unusual  comeliness — the  curves  about  his  sash  made  it  difficult 
to  distinguish  him  from  a  girl.  When  we  stepped  forth  into  the 
night  we  were  awaited  by  a  muffled  policeman,  who  took  us  home 
and  joined  in  the  circle  of  our  visitors  until  we  retired  to  rest. 

The  chief  commissary  of  police  with  the  new  coat  and  the 
brass  buttons  —  office  and  uniform  modelled  on  a  Russian 
pattern — had  a  busy  time  during  our  stay.  Happily  he  was  by 
nature  an  agreeable  man  ;  but  he  was  fresh  from  Constantinople. 
His  poor  brain  had  been  crammed  with  all  those  irksome  regulations 
which  have  been  spread  over  the  Russian  Empire  and  a  great 
part  of  Europe,  presumably  from  a  Prussian  source.  An  English- 
man, it  is  true,  should  perhaps  endure  them  with  complacency  ; 
for  does  he  not  owe  his  wealth  and  his  colonies  to  the  prevalence 
of  this  cancer  among  his  neighbours,  and  to  his  own  complete 
freedom  from  the  disease  ?  Passports  were  examined  at  Mush 
for  the  first  time  since  our  arrival  in  Turkey — a  country  in  which 
the  traditionally  liberal  treatment  of  travellers  is  gradually  giving 
place  to  measures  of  exclusion.  My  letters  of  introduction  were 
read  with  mingled  feelings — disappointment  that  they  rendered 
necessary  very  special  and  delicate  treatment,  and  relief  that  they 
clearly  placed  the  responsibility  for  our  visit  upon  officials  in  a 
high  place. 

We  were  rarely  left  alone — not  even  in  our  own  apartment  ; 
for  we  slept  and  ate  in  the  principal  room  of  the  residence  allotted 
us,  from  which  it  was  impossible  to  exclude  the  master  of  the 
house  and  his  companions  ;  and  the  presence  of  a  single  visitor 
was  always  accompanied  by  the  entrance  of  the  commissary  or  his 
adjutant.  One  of  the  two  was  never  absent  from  our  side.  The 
anxiety  of  such  a  novel  charge  sat  heavily  upon  both  of  them  ; 
both  looked  quite  worn  out  by  the  time  we  were  ready  to  depart. 

Early  on  the  morning  following  our  arrival  we  were  quite 
ready  to  sally  forth  ;   but  the  lesser  official  was  already  astir,  and 


I/O 


Armenia 


besought  us  to  postpone  our  walk  until  he  should  have  apprised 
his  chief.  The  commissary  was  not  long  in  coming,  his  toilette 
half  completed  ;  and  no  sooner  had  he  saluted  us  than  his  sleepy 
eyes  fell  on  the  camera  case,  and  he  enquired  what  it  might 
contain.  A  camera  !  had  we  received  an  u-adeJi  from  the  Sultan 
to  take  photographs  of  what  we  saw  ?  All  photography  was  for- 
bidden unless  such  a  permit  were  forthcoming.  So  we  abandoned 
the  camera  with  good  grace. 

Well,  whither  shall  we  direct  our  steps  ?  Let  it  be  to  the 
Rushdiyeh — the  Turkish  official  school.  We  are  informed  that 
the  building  is  under  repair.  It  is  actually  in  a  ruinous  condition, 
and  no  such  institution  really  exists.  Then  to  the  remains  of  the 
old  castle. — There  is  no  such  thing  as  an  old  castle. — Well,  to 
the  site  upon  which  it  stood.  The  climb  through  the  town  is 
really  quite  worth  while.  The  view  from  the  summit  of  the  hill 
is  extremely  pleasing — the  bold  walls  of  the  valley  expanding  to 
the  level  plain,  the  mountainous  background  soaring  upwards  and 
white  with  snow,  and  in  the  folds  of  this  expanse  the  little  hill  of 
Mush — a  mere  button  upon  which  you  stand.  The  neck  which 
connects  this  eminence  with  the  arm  of  the  main  valley  is  dotted 
over  with  the  headstones  of  deserted  graveyards,  seeming  from  a 
distance  like  bleaching  bones.  You  look  down  into  the  glen 
between  the  two  elevations  through  which  trickles  the  Garni  Chai. 
In  its  lap  lies  a  white  edifice  which  is  indicated  as  the  barrack, 
and  towards  its  head  you  admire  the  form  of  a  second  minaret, 
resembling  its  companion  in  the  bazar.  The  summit  of  the  hill  is 
flat  ;  and,  although  the  houses  rise  up  to  the  margin,  the  platform 
itself  is  still  bare.  The  debris  of  the  old  castle  are  strewn  upon 
the  grass,  but  not  one  stone  remains  upon  another.  Most  have 
been  taken  away  as  building  material. 

Let  us  proceed  to  the  school  of  the  Armenian  Catholics. — Yes, 
certainly,  if  such  be  our  desire. — We  wind  down  the  town  towards 
the  valley  on  the  east,  and  arrive  before  the  enclosure  of  a  newly- 
erected  church.  That  is  the  Catholic  Church  ; — but  where  is  the 
school?  It  is  situated  just  opposite; — oh!  but  it  is  closed. — • 
Certainly,  the  school  is  closed. — The  church  at  least  is  open  ;  let 
us  pass  in. — Certainly,  and  we  enter  the  building.  The  first  to 
enter  is  the  commissary,  followed  by  four  policemen  in  military 
dress.  The  bleak  walls  of  the  brand-new  edifice  echo  the  clank  of 
their  boots.  A  single  figure  is  present — the  black-robed  figure  of 
a  priest ;  and  it  crouches  on  the  high  altar,  visibly  trembling,  such 


From  Bit  lis  to  Mush — Miish  171 

as  we  may  imagine  some  male  Hypatia  of  olden  times.  While  I 
greet  the  priest  from  the  doorway,  a  soldier  walks  across,  and 
dares  the  wretched  creature  to  address  a  word  to  us.  On  our 
part  there  is  nothing  to  be  done  but  to  keep  our  tempers. 

A  very  interesting  church  ! — Now  let  us  visit  the  remaining 
churches.  That  building  close  by  is  the  principal  church  of  the 
Gregorian  Armenians  ;  it  is  withal  a  very  poor  place.  The  door 
is  open ;  we  have  been  expected ;  not  a  soul  is  present.  Pursuing 
our  way,  we  meet  an  Armenian  priest — a  young,  broad-shouldered, 
open-faced  man.  He  seems  inclined  to  speak,  so  we  ask  him 
how  many  churches  there  may  be  in  Mush.  He  answers,  seven  ; 
but  the  commissary  had  said  four.  A  soldier  addresses  him  in 
Kurdish  ;  the  poor  fellow  turns  pale,  and  remarks  that  he  was 
mistaken  in  saying  seven  ;  there  cannot  be  more  than  four.  I 
turn  to  the  commissary  and  ask  him  to  take  us  to  the  teacher  in 
the  school  of  the  United  Armenians — a  philanthropic  institution 
with  some  schools  in  the  provinces  and  headquarters  in  the  capital. 
The  reply  comes  that  he  is  absent  from  town.  The  school  is 
enjoying  a  holiday.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  have  all 
received  orders  to  close  their  schools  ;  but  it  is  not  probable  that 
many  schools  remain  in  such  a  place.  The  Protestants  have 
closed  theirs. 

Such  are  a  few  of  our  experiences  during  our  short  sojourn  at 
Mush.  We  were  not  merely  shadowed  by  the  police,  but  prevented 
from  enjoying  any  of  the  profit  and  pleasure  which  a  traveller 
seeks  in  return  for  all  his  trouble  and  expense.  To  protest  to  the 
Mutesarrif  would  have  been  worse  than  useless  ;  and  the  policy  of 
the  British  Foreign  Office  is  so  weak  in  these  countries  that  we 
lose  the  advantages  of  our  Consular  system.  When  I  called  upon 
the  chief  official  to  take  farewell,  I  congratulated  him  upon  the 
possession  of  such  an  energetic  commissary,  and  begged  that  he 
would  recommend  him  in  the  despatch  which  no  doubt  he  was 
preparing  for  a  suitable  reward.  His  efforts  had,  indeed,  been 
completely  successful  ;  we  had  scarcely  communicated  with  a 
single  soul  in  Mush.  I  thanked  him  for  the  politeness  with  which 
our  seclusion  had  been  effected  ;  and  the  old  man  rose,  and 
accompanied  me  to  the  door.  .  .  .  W^hat  iniquities  had  they  been 
committing  and  were  desirous  of  screening  ?  Terror,  the  most 
abject  terror,  was  in  the  air.  We  drank  it  in  from  the  very  atmo- 
sphere about  us — a  consuming  passion,  like  that  of  jealousy — a 
haunting,   exhausting  spectre,  which   sits   like   a  blight   upon  life. 


1/2  Armenia 

Such  a  settled  state  of  terror  is  one  of  the  most  awful  of  human 
phenomena.  The  air  holds  ghosts,  all  joy  is  dead  ;  the  sun  is 
black,  the  mouth  parched,  the  mind  rent  and  in  tatters. 

Mush  is  the  most  mis-governed  town  in  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
Ever  since  the  inauguration  of  closer  relations  between  Europe 
and  these  countries,  the  testimony  of  the  few  Europeans  who  have 
realised  and  noted  such  facts  bears  out  this  judgment  almost  to  the 
letter.  It  is  less  easy  to  assign  any  definite  cause.  The  disease 
has  become  chronic  ;  and  its  symptoms  are  so  familiar  that  the 
inhabitants  have  grown  callous  to  their  condition.  It  is  only 
Damadeans,  and  such  imported  members  of  the  community,  that 
such  deeply-rooted  evils  impress. 

The  Mussulman  majority  are  probably  almost  all  of  Kurdish 
origin  ;  and  since  the  enrolment  of  the  Hamidiyeh  irregular  cavalry 
they  openly  profess  the  name  of  Kurd.  The  slopes  of  the  hills 
around  Mush  are  covered  with  vineyards  and  gardens  ;  and  in  each 
garden  there  is  a  small,  two-storeyed  house,  resembling  from  a  dis- 
tance a  scattering  of  bathing-machines.  The  Mussulmans  retire 
to  these  gardens  during  summer,  and  superintend  their  cultivation. 
The  whole  winter  through  they  sit  idle  in  Mush.  There  they 
consume  a  great  quantity  of  tobacco  ;  and  all  this  tobacco  is  con- 
traband. It  is  their  custom  to  buy  their  wives,  the  best-looking 
and  best-born  women  sometimes  fetching  not  less  than  a  hun- 
dred pounds.  All  are  obstinate  in  their  belief  that  it  was  the 
Prussians  who  enabled  the  Russians  to  conquer  Turkey  in  the  last 
war.  Their  hope  is  that  this  assistance  will  not  be  forthcoming  in 
the  future,  and  they  are  therefore  confident  of  success  in  the  con- 
flict which  they  foresee.  And  they  pit  their  Hamidiyeh  against 
the  Cossacks. 

The  Armenian  minority  are  artisans,  smiths,  makers  of 
everything  that  is  manufactured  in  Mush.  They  are  carpenters, 
plasterers,  builders.  All  the  keepers  of  booths  which  we  passed  in 
the  bazar  plainly  belonged  to  this  race,  I  am  unable  to  supply 
any  reliable  statistics  for  the  town  itself;  but  my  impression 
was  that  the  population  was  certainly  less  than  20,000  souls.  In 
the  cloister  of  Surb  Karapet  it  was  believed  that  Mush  contained 
nearly  7000  houses,  of  which  5000  were  occupied  by  Mussulman 
and  1 800  by  Armenian  families.  Although  this  estimate  is 
certainly  too  high,  it  would  appear  that  the  population  has  been 
increasing.  In  1838  Consul  Brant  speaks  of  700  Mussulman 
families  and  500  Armenian,  which  would  give  a  total  of  not  more 


From  Bit  lis  to  Mitsh — iMusk  173 

than  some  6000  or  7000  souls/  Thirty  years  later,  Consul 
Taylor,  who  also  visited  the  place,  computed  the  inhabitants  of 
Mush  and  the  vicinity,  not  including  the  plain,  as  numbering 
I  3,000  souls,  6000  Armenians  and  the  rest  Mussulmans.-  In  the 
plain  of  Mush  the  Armenians  are  in  a  large  majority,  the  official 
figures  for  the  caza  allowing  them  a  total  of  35,300,  as  against 
21,250  Mussulmans.  Some  2500  of  their  number  are  Catholics 
and  about  500  Protestants.^ 

The  origin  of  the  name  of  Mush  is  wrapped  in  obscurity.* 
It  formed  the  capital  of  the  old  Armenian  province  of  Taron 
under  the  rule  of  the  princely  family  of  the  Mamikoneans.° 
At  the  present  day  it  contains  two  considerable  mosques  with 
minarets,  four  churches  of  the  Gregorian  Armenians  and  one  of 
the  Catholics.  The  Gregorian  churches  are  named  Surb  Marineh, 
Surb  Kirakos,  Surb  Avetaranotz,  and  Surb  Stephanos.  None  are 
of  any  size  or  of  much  interest.  There  are  three  fine  khans  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  bazar.  Our  host  informed  us  that  not  less 
than  thirty-six  Hamidiyeh  regiments  had  been  enrolled  in  the 
sanjak  ;  but  he  added  that  none  had  yet  been  constituted  in  the 
sanjaks  of  Bitlis,  Sert  and  Genj.  These  four  sanjaks  compose 
the  vilayet  of  Bitlis.  The  first  portion  of  his  statement  was 
almost  certainly  false,  even  on  a  nominal  basis. 

1  Brant  \n  Journal  R.G.S.  1840,  vol.  x.  p.  351.  Koch  in  the  forties  estimated  the 
population  at  1000  Mohammedan  and  415  Armenian  families,  or  a  total  of  about  8000 
souls  {Reise  im  pontischen  Gebirge,  etc.,  Weimar,  1846,  p.  405). 

2  Archives  of  the  British  Consulate  at  Erzerum. 

^  For  the  Catholics  of  Mush  and  Mush  plain,  see  Bore  {Correspondance  et  Aldmoires, 
Paris,  1840,  vol.  i.  p.  398),  and  Smith  and  Dwight  {Missionary  Researches  in  Armenia, 
London,  1834,  p.  429).  They  have  evidently  increased  in  numbers  since  the  time  of 
these  writers. 

*  The  subject  is  discussed  by  Ritter,  Erdkiinde,  vol.  x.  p.  816. 

®  Saint  Martin,  Meinoircs  snr  rAri/ic^nie,  vol.  i.  p.   102. 


CHAPTER    VIII 


FROM    MUSH    TO    ERZERUM 


In  travelling  from  Mush  to  Erzerum,  you  cross,  the  block  of  the 
Armenian  highlands  from  their  southern  margin  almost  to  their 
northern  verge.  Should  the  season  be  that  of  summer,  it  is 
possible  to  perform  the  passage  on  a  course  nearly  as  straight  as 
a  bee-line.  For  the  mountains  which  face  the  traveller  from  the 
depressions  of  this  region  are,  for  the  most  part,  but  the  sides  of 
a  higher  table  surface  over  which  he  may  ride  for  miles  without 
drawing  rein.  But  this  higher  surface  is  much  too  elevated  to 
render  the  journey  pleasant,  or  even  safe,  at  the  commencement 
or  during  the  progress  of  an  Armenian  winter.  It  is  more 
prudent  to  adhere  to  the  great  plains  at  a  lower  level,  through 
which  the  tributaries  to  the  Murad  wind  their  way  ;  and  from 
these  to  cross  to  the  deeply-eroded  bed  of  the  Upper  Araxes, 
which  affords  a  luxurious  approach  to  the  northern  districts. 
This  route  once  adopted,  two  deviations  are  suggested  which  will 
not  lengthen  the  journey  by  many  miles.  The  first  is  a  visit  to 
the  ancient  cloister  of  Surb  Karapet  (John  the  Baptist),  on  the 
northern  border  range  of  Mush  plain  ;  the  second,  a  short  sojourn 
in  the  ancient  burgh  of  Hasan  Kala,  not  far  from  Erzerum.  The 
northern  capital  will  be  reached  by  convenient  stages  in  six 
travelling  days,  the  distance  covered  being  about  i6o  miles.^ 


;  total  is  distributed,  acco 

rding  to  my  estimates,  as  follows  : — 

Mush-Surb  Karapet 

25     miles 

Surb  Karapet-Gumgum 

28^      ,, 

Gumgum-Khinis 

24"      „ 

Khinis-Kulli 

23h      » 

Kulli-Mejitli 

13 

Mejitli-IJasan  Kala 

22i        „ 

Hasan  Kala-Erzcriini 

23 

Total     .             159^  miles 

From  Altisk  to  Erzeruin  175 

It  was  the  29th  of  November,  just  after  half-past  nine  in  the 
morning,  when  our  party  of  four  Europeans  and  four  Turkish 
soldiers  defiled  into  the  plain  from  the  hill  of  Mush.  The 
iron-grey  colt  was  being  led  by  one  of  our  new  companions,  the 
more  docile  that  he  anticipated  release.  Were  we  prisoners  and 
these  our  jailers  ?  I  asked  the  question  of  the  principal  man, 
who  was  a  sergeant  with  the  name  of  Mevlud  Chaoush.  A  black 
shawl,  reaching  to  the  shoulders,  was  wound  about  his  head  as  a 
protection  from  the  weather.  His  irregular  and  forbidding  features 
never  broke  into  a  smile,  nor  did  his  lips  move  except  to  utter 
a  command.  We  passed  several  deserted  burying  fields,  with 
fallen  headstones,  and  forded  the  Garni  Chai,  a  mere  torrent  in  a 
wide  bed.  More  than  half-an-hour  had  passed  before  we  doubled 
the  western  promontory,  and  struck  our  true  course  across  the 
plain. 

We  skirted  or  could  see  several  hamlets — dots  in  the  expanse, 
which  had  the  appearance,  usual  in  this  country,  of  a  sea.  No 
hedges  or  artificial  boundaries  parcel  the  ground  ;  no  leafy  trees 
blend  in  the  distance  to  a  soft,  grey  mass.  The  harvest  had  been 
gathered,  and  you  could  scarcely  tell  the  difference  between  the 
cultivated  and  the  unreclaimed  soil.  Marshes,  instead  of  a  net- 
work of  irrigation  channels,  received  the  waters  babbling  down 
from  the  southern  range.  After  several  halts,  rendered  necessary 
by  the  freaks  and  misfortunes  of  the  baggage  horse,  we  reached 
at  half-past  twelve  the  considerable  Armenian  village  of  Sheikh 
Alan,  near  the  ford  of  the  Murad.  About  a  mile  beyond  the 
village  we  approached  the  margin  of  the  noble  river  which  we 
had  followed  from  Karakilisa  to  Tutakh. 

It  appeared  to  be  flowing  in  two  channels  through  a  bed 
having  a  width  of  200  yards  or  more.  After  fording  the  first  of 
these  branches,  which  was  about  30  yards  across,,  we  made  our 
way  over  a  beach  to  the  second  branch.  It  was  some  100  yards 
in  breadth,  the  water  reaching  to  the  horses'  knees.  When  we 
had  gained  the  opposite  bank,  which  was  firm  and  well-defined, 
we  prepared  to  say  good-bye  to  the  Murad.  What  was  our 
surprise  to  meet  a  third  and  magnificent  river,  sweeping  towards 
us  in  an  independent  bed  !  It  was  buffeting  its  high  left  bank, 
at  the  extremity  of  a  beautiful  curve,  and  the  flood  was  much  too 
deep  to  venture  in.  So  we  followed  the  current  until  the  bluff 
sent  it  swirling  to  the  opposite  margin,  diffused  over  a  wider  space. 
Even  at    this   point    the   passage  was   not   without    risk  ;   but    an 


1 76  Armenia 

experienced  villager  piloted  us  safely  to  the  further  side.  From 
bank  to  bank  was  a  distance  of  about  80  yards,  and  the  wavelets 
wetted  our  horses'  flanks.  The  confluence  of  the  Kara  Su,  the 
stream  which  collects  the  drainage  of  the  plain  of  Mush,  is 
situated  some  little  distance  above  the  ford.^ 

Following  with  the  eye  the  course  of  the  river,  we  searched 
in  vain  for  a  gap  in  the  mountains  among  which  it  disappeared. 
These  describe  a  bold  half-circle  at  the  western  extremity  of  the 
plain,  not  many  miles  from  where  we  stood.  The  heights  on  the 
north  join  hands  with  the  heights  upon  the  south,  and  appear  to 
prevent  all  issue  from  the  plain.  From  the  ford  we  proceeded 
in  a  north-westerly  direction  to  the  village  of  Ziaret.  It  is  an 
Armenian  settlement  with  150  tenements,  and  possesses  a  church 
but  no  school.  The  kiaya'^-  or  head  of  the  village,  was  quite  a 
civilised  individual  ;  and  such  was  his  politeness  that  he  sent  his 
own  son  with  me,  to  wait  on  me  during  my  sojourn  at  Surb 
Karapet.  He  informed  me — the  usual  story — that  there  had 
been  a  teacher  in  the  village,  but  that  last  year  he  had  left 
(euphemism),  and  his  place  had  not  since  been  filled. 

After  a  stay  in  this  settlement  of  an  hour  and  three-quarters, 
we  continued  our  journey  at  a  quarter  before  four.  Our  course 
was  about  the  same,  and  we  reached  the  foot  of  the  northern 
barrier  at  half- past  four  o'clock.  Although  the  level  of  the 
ground  had  risen,  the  ascent  to  the  monastery  occupied  over  an 
hour.  It  is  situated  among  the  uppermost  recesses  of  the  wall  of 
mountain,  at  an  elevation  of  about  6400  feet,  or  of  2200  feet 
above  the  trough  of  the  plain. ^  We  wound  our  way  up  a  cleft  in 
the  face  of  the  rock,  through  a  bush  of  low  oak.  The  temperature 
fell,  and  we  became  enveloped  in  banks  of  cloud.  A  drizzling 
rain  turned  to  snow  before  we  reached  the  cloister,  and  next 
morning  the  adjacent  slopes  were  cloaked  in  white.  The  monks 
informed  us  that  it  was  the  first  fall  of  snow  which  they  had 
experienced  during  the  course  of  this  brilliant  autumn. 

1  I  should  like  to  refer  my  reader  to  Mr.  Ainsworth's  valuable  book  (Travels  and 
Researches  in  Asia  Minor,  etc.,  London,  1842,  vol.  ii.  p.  383)  for  a  description  of  the 
twfo  interesting  old  bridges  which  he  found,  one  spanning  the  Murad,  some  distance  east 
of  our  ford,  and  the  other  a  former  bed  of  the  Kara  Su.  See  also  Koch,  Keise  im 
pontischen  Gebirge,  etc.,  Weimar,   1846,  pp.  410,  411. 

2  The  head  man  in  a  Christian  village  is  called  kiaya,  and  in  a  Moslem  village 
mukhtar.  He  is  responsible  to  Government.  There  is  no  official  chief  of  agglomera- 
tions of  villages,  like  the  Russian  Pristav. 

'■'  The  accepted  average  elevation  of  the  plain  of  Mush  appears  to  be  4200  feet. 
The  readings  of  my  barometers  agree  fairly  well  with  this  figure. 


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hic.  155.    Church  of  Sure  Karapet  from  South- West. 


From  Alusk  to  ErzcTuin  177 

A  walled  enclosure,  like  that  of  a  fortress,  a  massive  door  on 
grating  hinges — such  is  your  first  impression  of  this  lonely  fane 
(Fig.  155).  My  illustration  shows  the  long  line  of  monastic 
buildings  on  the  south  ;  the  gateway  is  on  the  west.  You  enter 
a  spacious  court,  and  face  a  handsome  belfry  and  porch,  the 
facade  inlaid  with  slabs  of  white  marble  with  bas-reliefs  (Fig.  i  56). 
We  were  conducted  to  a  long  chamber,  with  walls  of  prodigious 
thickness,  recalling  our  Norman  refectories.  It  was  nearly  six 
o'clock  ;  the  monks  received  us  without  surprise,  and  had  probably 
been  forewarned  by  the  Mutesarrif  When  I  asked  for  a  separate 
room,  it  was  pleaded  that  none  was  vacant  ;  and  the  preparations 
of  Mevlud  to  sleep  by  our  side  in  the  long  chamber  convinced  me 
that  resistance  would  as  yet  be  vain.  With  the  best  humour  we 
joined  in  a  meal  of  extreme  frugalit)',  which  was  spread  upon 
trays  and  partaken  of  by  all  the  monks.  Of  these  there  were  six 
in  residence  and  six  absent,  one  being  confined  in  a  Turkish 
prison.  Four  deacons  were  also  of  the  company  ;  but  conversa- 
tion was  difficult  in  the  presence  of  the  silent  Mevlud.  Our  hosts 
were  superior  people,  judged  by  the  standards  in  this  country  ; 
and  after  supper,  over  the  glow  of  a  number  of  braziers,  we 
were  drawn  together  by  common  sympathies.  In  particular  I 
was  attracted  to  a  well-read  monk  of  quiet  demeanour,  whose 
personality  and  name  I  hesitate  to  disclose. 

The  morning  broke  serene  and  clear;  a  brilliant  sun  embraced 
the  landscape  which  from  the  terrace  outside  the  walls,  where  is 
situated  a  little  cemetery,  was  outspread  at  our  feet  (Fig.  157). 
The  eye  sank  to  the  floor  of  the  plain  or  was  lifted  to  the 
summits  of  the  mountains,  which  were  seen  in  all  the  variety  of 
their  many  forms  and  myriad  facets  above  beds  of  vapour, 
clinging  captive  to  the  middle  slopes.  This  sea  of  clouds  con- 
cealed the  river  where  it  issues  from  the  expanse  to  be  buried 
in  the  amphitheatre  of  heights.  But  my  companion,  the  mild- 
tempercd  monk,  told  me  they  could  sometimes  hear  from  this 
terrace  the  hissing  of  the  waters  as  they  enter  the  passage.  They 
call  the  place  Gurgur,  a  name  imitative  of  the  sound  which,  when 
the  air  is  heavy  with  cloud  towards  the  end  of  winter,  is  loud  and 
long-maintained.  Then  they  say  that  spring  is  near  at  hand. 
He  added  that  the  ruins  of  an  Armenian  fortress  may  still  be  seen 
within  the  gorge.      Its  ancient  name  was  Ha}'kaberd. 

I  must  regret  the  loss  of  a  great  portion  of  my  notes,  made 
during  the  course  of  this  day.  The  monastery  is  one  of  the 
VOL.  II  N 


lyS  Ar7nenia 

■oldest  in  .Armenia,  and  was  certainly  founded  by  the  Illuminator 
himself.  He  came  hither  after  his  famous  conversion  of  King 
Tiridates,  when  many  of  the  princes  of  the  land  had  espoused  his 
religion  and  his  sacred  cause.  But  that  cause  and  religion  had 
become  divested  of  their  peaceful  character  ;  and  it  was  rather 
with  torch  and  sword  than  with  the  lamp  of  the  teacher  and  the 
staff  of  the  missionary  that  the  Christian  saint  appeared  on  the 
threshold  of  this  beauteous  plain.  He  had  been  apprised  of  the 
existence  of  two  heathen  temples,  standing  on  the  spot  where  now 
the  cloister  .stands.  They  were  an  object  of  especial  reverence 
by  a  colony  of  Hindu  refugees,  long  since  established  under  the 
sceptre  of  the  Armenian  kings.  They  worshipped  two  idols, 
which  were  made  of  brass,  with  colossal  proportions,  and  were 
known  in  the  country  under  the  names  of  Demeter  and  Kisane. 
These  interesting  figures,  with  the  ancient  cult  which  they  re- 
presented, were  doomed  to  destruction  at  the  hands  of  the 
Christians.  The  attendant  priests  raised  the  alarm  among  their 
lay  brethren,  and  St.  Gregory  and  his  friends  were  obliged  to 
reckon  with  a  hostile  force.  But  the  Hindu  warriors  with  their 
Armenian  allies  were  defeated  in  two  battles,  and  their  sanctuaries 
were  razed  to  the  ground.  A  Christian  church  was  erected  upon 
the  site  which  they  had  occupied  ;  and  the  body  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  translated  from  Cassarca,  took  the  place  of  Demeter  and 
Kisane,  These  events  are  related  by  the  Syrian  Zenobius,  an 
eye-witness  and  a  lieutenant  of  the  Saint.  I  had  perused  his 
narrative  overnight  in  the  pages  of  Ritter,  and  I  was  anxious  to 
know  whether  it  were  known  to  my  companion.  I  found  him 
conversant  with  every  particular  of  the  story,  and  he  expressed 
his  conviction  that  these  heathens  were  Hindus.  He  was  equally 
certain  that  the  gypsies,  who  may  still  be  met  with  in  the  country, 
were  descendants  of  this  colony.  He  told  me  that  their  language 
was  known  as  Sanskrit  among  the  Armenians.^  He  led  me 
within  the  enclosure,  and  showed  me  a  little  chapel  situated  upon 
the  west  of  the  church.  In  that  chapel  he  assured  me  that  St. 
Gregory  had  said  his  first  mass,  and  it  stood  on  the  site  of  the 
temple  of  Kisane.  That  of  Demeter  had  been,  he  said,  the 
larger  of  the  two  shrines." 

'  I  have  already  mentioned  the  presence  of  gypsies  in  the  caza  of  Garchigan.  I  did 
not  meet  willi  any  during  my  first  journey. 

-  See  the  account  of  Zenobius  of  Glak  as  given  in  the  pages  of  Ritter  [Erd/citiide, 
vol.    X.    pp.    553  seg.  and  703),  and  of  Langiois  {Collection  des  historiens  dc  PAniidnie, 


From  Mush  to  Erzcrum  i  79 

What  portion,  if  any,  of  the  present  edifice  is  the  work  of 
that  remote  age,  I  am  unable  to  pronounce.  My  impression 
is  that  earthquakes  are  held  to  have  destroyed  the  original 
structure.  The  two  chapels  on  the  east,  with  their  polygonal 
towers  and  conical  roofs,  are  probably  the  earliest  in  date  of  the 
existing  buildings.  I  reproduce  them  on  a  larger  scale,  my 
picture  having  been  taken  from  the  gallery  of  the  monastic 
buildings  on  the  south  (Fig.  158).  The  body  of  the  church 
immediately  adjoins  them  ;  it  is  spacious,  but  not  remarkable 
for  architectural  beaut}'  or  richness  of  ornament.  It  is  in  the 
character  of  a  large  conventicle,  and  the  roof  is  flat.  Slabs, 
inlaid  in  the  floor,  cover  the  graves  of  princes  and  warriors,  of 
whom  we  read  in  the  pages  of  Armenian  historians.  The  bloody 
wars  against  the  Sasanians  are  recalled  by  the  tombs  of  Mushegh, 
of  Vahan  the  Wolf  and  of  Sembat.  The  grave  of  Vahan  is 
denoted  by  a  slab  of  black  stone,  before  the  entrance  to  the  more 
southerly  of  the  two  chapels.  That  of  Sembat  is  said  to  be 
situated  near  the  threshold  of  the  companion  sanctuary,  which 
is  dedicated  to  St.  Stephen.  Near  the  wall  on  the  south  repose 
the  remains  of  Vahan  Kamsarakan.^  Slabs  are  wanting  in  the 
case  of  the  two  graves  last  mentioned.  Inscriptions  are  found,  I 
believe,  on  some.  The  porch  and  belfr}'  on  the  west  are  of  no 
great  antiquit}',  as  the  reader  can  see  for  himself. 

What  with  the  Kurds  and  the  suspicions  of  the  Turkish 
Government  this  once  flourishing  monastery  has  been  stripped  of 
much  of  its  glamour  ;  indeed  the  monks  are  little  better  than 
prisoners  of  State.  The  new  buildings  on  the  west,  erected  by 
Bishop  Mampre,  have  never  }-et  been  used.  They  were  destined 
to  receive  the  printing  press,  and  the  relics  of  the  library.  But 
the  printing  press — the  wings  of  knowledge,  said  my  companion 
— was  placed  under  the  ban  of  Government  as  early  as  in  1874. 
The  library   was   pillaged   by  Kurds   during   the  first   half  of  the 

Paris,  1S67,  vol.  i.  pp.  344  scq.).  Zenobius  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first  bishop  of 
this  monastery. 

I  must  add  that  the  work  purporting  to  have  been  written  by  Zenobius  and  called 
History  of  Taron,  from  which  Ritter  quotes  and  which  is  translated  in  Langlois — and 
which  the  monks  of  Surb  Karapet  prize  so  highly — is  regarded  by  modern  scholars  as  a 
collection  of  legends  made  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  centuries,  and  valueless  as  a  historical 
document  (see  Gelzer,  Die  Anfiinge  der  an/ic/iischen  Kirche,  in  ]\'rha)idlniigeii  der  koiiig. 
Sachs.  Gesellschaft  der  Wiss.  zti  Leipzig,  phil.-hist.  Klasse,  1895,  P-  123).  A  much 
more  trustworthy  account  of  the  doings  of  St.  Gregory  in  this  neighbourhood  is  that  given 
in  the  Agathangelus  treatise.      I  have  summarised  it  in  Vol.  I.  Ch.  XVI.  pp.  295,  296. 

1  For  some  account  of  the  doings  of  all  these  worthies  see  the  history  of  John 
Mamikonean  (translated  in  Langlois,  op.  cit.  vol.  i.  pp.  361  scq.'). 


i8o  Arnienia 

present  century,  and  its  contents  burnt  or  littered  about  the 
courts.  Nor  is  it  possible  for  the  community  to  pursue  their 
studies,  since  any  book  which  deals  with  the  history  of  their 
nation  is  confiscated  by  the  authorities.  I  think  I  have  alread}' 
mentioned  that  the  same  officials  seize  and  burn  our  Milton  and 
our  Shakespeare.  And  yet  the  ambassadors  of  Europe  dally  on 
the  Bosphorus,  powerless  to  redress  these  wrongs  and  avenge  these 
insults.  It  is  because  in  Russia  they  practise  similar  iniquities, 
and  because  Europe  stoops  to  sit  at  Russia's  feet.  Upon  such 
matters  we  conversed  when  the  air  was  a  little  clearer,  after  a 
fierce  encounter  between  Mevlud  and  myself.  That  sinister 
personage  had  presumed  to  accompany  me  to  my  host's  room  ; 
but  I  peremptorily  ordered  him  out.  1  told  him  that  if  he 
ventured  to  invade  the  privacy  of  a  priest's  apartment  I  would 
undertake  to  have  both  the  Mutesarrif  and  himself  dismissed. 

We  left  the  cloister — which  is  generall\'  known  under  the 
name  of  Changalli,  from  its  bells,  heard  in  the  plains  from  afar  ^ — 
on  the  morning  of  the  first  day  of  December,  a  little  before  noon. 
Snow  lay  thickly  upon  the  ground  ;  but  the  thermometer  at 
eleven  o'clock  stood  at  four  degrees  (Fahrenheit)  above  freezing 
point.  The  atmosphere  was  free  of  vapour,  and  a  kind  sun 
shone.  We  made  our  way  to  the  heights  behind  the  monastery, 
and  kept  zigzagging  up  and  along  them  for  over  two  hours. 
When  the  process  had  been  completed  after  a  tedious  ride  to  the 
pass,  during  which  the  horses  would  often  flounder  in  the  snow, 
we  had  not  ascended  to  a  difference  of  level  of  more  than  1500 
feet,  nor  had  we  progressed  more  than  3^  miles.  The  better 
course,  I  feel  sure,  would  have  been  to  proceed  in  an  easterly 
direction  along  the  level  terrace  or  open  valley  in  which  the 
cloister  stands,  leaving  the  neighbouring  hamlet  of  Pazu  just  on 
our  right  hand.  We  could  then  have  climbed  the  parapet  which 
shelters  these  lofty  uplands  ;  or  we  might  have  scaled  it  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  Changalli.  The  black  chaoush  and  his  three 
myrmidons  were  indifferent  guides." 

Because  the  pass  is  no  pass  in  the  ordinary  sense  ;   it  is  merely 

'  The  older  names  are  Glak  Vank  (fiom  its  first  abbot),  and  Innaknean  A'ank 
(nine  sources). 

^  The  moment  that  I  placed  my  route  on  my  map,  I  discovered  that  not  the  chaoush 
but  my  compass  had  misled  me.  The  direction,  as  plotted,  was  quite  wrong,  as  also 
were  the  shoots  to  known  landmarks.  Happily  I  was  able  to  fix  the  position  of 
Dodan  with  some  confidence  during  my  second  journey ;  and  the  route  has  been 
adjusted  accordingly.  It  is  evident  that  the  rocks  of  the  plateau  behind  Surb  Karapet 
must  be  heavily  charged  with  magnetite. 


Fig.  158.    The  Two  Chapels  at  Surb  Karapet 


From  Mttsli  to  Erzcrum  i8i 

the  edge  of  a  tableland.  Mile  after  mile  towards  the  north 
stretched  the  undulating  snow-field,  swept  by  the  winds,  pierced 
by  spinous  blades  of  grass.  We  stood  at  an  elevation  of  nearly 
Sooo  feet.  Below  us,  infinitely  deep,  lay  the  magnificent  plain 
of  Mush,  bounded  on  the  further  side  by  the  barrier  of  the 
Kurdish  mountains,  crossing  the  landscape  from  the  invisible  waters 
of  Lake  Van.  In  one  continuous  wall  they  swept  across  the 
horizon,  serrated,  sharply  chiselled  above  the  deep  valleys  opening 
transverse  to  the  line  of  the  wall.  Taurus  they  call  the  range, 
adopting  a  nomenclature  which  the  West  must  have  borrowed 
from  the  East.  Taurus  was  very  high  where  the  Murad  dives 
into  the  mountains  ;  nor  did  the  peaks  appear  less  lofty  on  its 
right  bank.  We  saw  them  circling  towards  the  river  from  behind 
the  plateau  upon  which  we  stood  ;  but  I  was  unable  to  trace  the 
origin  of  this  northern  chain.  It  formed  a  marked  exception  to 
the  outlines  north  of  Taurus,  which  were  vaulted  or  horizontal. 
Nimrud  was  seen  to  join  the  two  contrasting  landscapes,  placed 
across  the  head  of  the  plain.  The  neighbouring  Kerklir  looked 
more  rounded  than  when  we  had  first  observed  it,  while,  north  of 
the  Nimrud  caldron,  the  swelling  contours  of  the  Sipan  fabric 
were  doubly  soft  in  a  robe  of  recent  snow. 

This  was  our  last  complete  prospect  over  that  great  depression 
which  is  know'n  as  the  plain  of  Mush.^  We  proceeded  at  half- 
past  two,  and  rode  at  a  trot  over  the  plateau,  first  on  a  northerly 
and  then  on  a  north-easterly  course.  The  rock  appeared  to  be  of 
an  eruptive  volcanic  description.  By  half-past  four  we  arrived 
upon  the  opposite  margin,  where  the  ground  abruptly  sank  to  a 
wide  trough  of  broken  country,  with  a  small  plain,  level  as  water, 
at  its  western  end.  We  ascertained  that  this  fresh  depression  had 
an  elevation  of  about  5000  feet,  or  a  difference  in  height  of  3000 
feet  from  the  pass  at  which  we  measured  that  of  the  plateau. 
On  the  further  side  rose  a  cliff  of  such  gigantic  proportions  that, 
when  we  reached  the  middle  slopes  of  the  descent  into  the  hollow, 
it  reminded  me  of  the  landscape  in  the  narrows  of  the  Araxes, 
with  those  cliffs  raised  to  double  their  size.  From  a  distance  we 
had  wondered  at  the  strange  appearance  of  this  flat-edged  mass, 
which  seemed  to  embrace  us  in  a  wide  segment  with  precipitous 
sides.      A  nearer  view  disclosed  the  direction  it  was  pursuing,  and 

1  From  Norshen  in  the  east  to  the  passage  out  of  the  Murad  at  Giirgur  is  a  distance 
of  about  forty-five  miles.  Brant,  adopting  different  results,  and  possibly  different  measure- 
ments, ascribes  to  the  plain  of  Mush  a  length  of  "  nearly  forty  miles"  [J.R.G.S.  1S40, 
vol.  X.  p.  352). 


1 82  Ar})wnia 

enabled  us  to  trace,  although  in  a  most  imperfect  manner,  its 
connection  with  the  orography  of  the  eastern  districts.  That 
direction  was  approximately  latitudinal,  but  inclined  a  little 
towards  the  south.  The  further  east  the  mass  proceeded,  the 
more  it  lost  its  cliff-like  character,  the  nearer  it  approached  to 
the  characteristics  of  a  mountain  range.  In  this  form  it  was 
protracted  to  dimly  visible  limits,  joining  the  distant  outlines 
of  Sipan. 

I  had  read  many  accounts  of  the  famous  Bingol  Dagh,  the 
parent  mountain  of  the  Araxes  and  of  the  principal  tributaries  of 
the  Euphrates,  and,  in  some  sense,  the  roof  of  Western  Asia. 
None  had  prepared  me  for  the  vision  before  our  eyes.  The  actual 
walls  of  the  crater  were  not,  I  imagine,  visible  ;  but  those  cliffs 
had  no  doubt  been  covered  by  deep  beds  of  lava  which  had  added 
to  their  height.  The  greatest  eminence  on  the  extinct  volcano  is 
that  of  Demir-Kala,  which  must  be  situated  not  far  from  the  edge 
of  the  cliff  It  has  an  elevation  of  10,770  feet.^  But  the 
mountain  proper  is  but  a  wart  on  the  face  of  the  lofty  tableland 
from  which  it  rises,  and  which  it  has  contributed  to  shape.  I 
tried  to  examine  the  relation  of  this  tableland  to  the  plateau 
which  we  had  crossed,  but  was  prevented  by  the  lie  of  the  land 
upon  the  west. 

While  descending  into  the  plain,  we  passed  through  a  Kurdish 
village  of  some  size,  called  Randuli.  We  now  opened  out  the 
whole  extent  of  the  even  surface — a  floor  at  the  foot  of  towering 
cliffs.  The  plain  may  have  a  length,  from  west  to  east,  of  about 
three  miles  and  a  breadth  of  two  miles  or  less.  Water  serpents 
through  it  in  all  directions,  to  collect  in  a  little  river  which  our 
people  knew  under  the  name  of  Dodan  Chai,  but  which  is 
apparently  more  generall}'  known  as  the  Bingol  Su.-  Four 
villages  of  some  importance  are  situated  in  the  plain — Baskan, 
Gundemir,  Diyadin  and  Dodan.  The  last-mentioned  is  placed  at 
its  eastern  extremity  and  close  to  the  river  which  bears  its  name. 
All  four  are  inhabited  by  Armenians.  Having  gained  the  level, 
we  forded  the  stream  above  the  village,  and  at  six  o'clock  rode 
through  Dodan.  Night  was  falling  ;  we  followed  a  track  which 
had  been  made  by  the  bullock-carts,  at  some  little  distance  from 
the  left  bank  of  the  river.      We  were  skirting  on  an  easterly  course 

'   This  altitude  was  ascertained,  and  tlie  natural  features,  described  with  so  much  hesi- 
tation in  the  present  chapter,  were  elucidated  during  the  second  journey  (see  Ch.  XXI.). 
-  Brant,  op.  cit.  pp.  347  scij. 


From  Miish  to  Erzcriun  i8 


o 


the  base  of  the  northern  heights,  along  the  trough  of  irregular 
surface  which  we  had  overlooked.  The  soil  was  deep  and  black, 
covered  in  places  by  a  crop  of  stones.  It  seemed  as  if  the  valley 
were  choked  by  the  shapes  of  hills.  We  were  over  two  hours  in 
reaching  Gumgum. 

The  village  or  little  town — for  it  is  the  ca[)ital  of  a  caza,  the 
caza  of  Varto,  belonging  to  the  sanjak  of  Mush — is  situated  in 
the  long  valley  of  which  I  have  been  speaking,  between  the 
Bingol  and  the  block  of  mountain  on  the  north  of  Mush.  A 
small  river  flows  below  it  at  some  little  distance,  which  joins  the 
Bingol  Su  some  two  or  three  miles  south  of  the  town.  The 
united  waters  issue  into  the  Murad  or  Eastern  Euphrates  about 
eight  miles  south-east  of  Gumgum.  The  direct  road  to  Mush 
is  taken  along  the  Murad,  which,  after  the  confluence,  finds  a 
passage  through  the  hills.  It  reaches  the  plain  at  the  village  of 
Sikava. 

We  were  received  by  the  Kaimakam,  who  lodged  us  in  his 
room  of  audience,  a  chamber  of  which  the  stone  walls  were  daubed 
with  whitewash,  while  the  massive  logs  of  the  ceiling  were  left 
bare.  A  single  window,  with  panes  of  greased  paper,  difiused  a 
dim  light  by  day.  A  little  lamp  revealed  the  burly  figure  of  our 
host,  seated  on  the  divan.  Beside  him,  but  in  shadow,  we  might 
just  discern  a  face  and  features  which  were  recognised  as  familiar 
to  us.  We  identified  this  pleasant  countenance  and  chiselled 
lineaments  with  those  of  the  silent  chess-player  at  Mush.  It  was 
in  fact  the  Hakim  Effendi,  learned  in  the  law  ;  though  for  what 
purpose  he  had  travelled  to  these  unruly  wilds  we  were  unable  to 
ascertain.  He  had  brought  his  law  books  with  him  in  a  kluirjiii, 
or  little  saddle-bag,  which  was  placed  by  his  side  on  the  couch. 
So  he  travels  from  place  to  place,  the  name  and  shadow  of  a 
dispensation  which  he  has  not  the  power  to  enforce.  Even  under 
the  eyes  of  the  Kaimakam  cases  of  theft,  and  even  of  robbery,  are 
of  daily  occurrence  and  go  for  the  most  part  unredressed.  Enter- 
ing the  stable  allotted  to  our  horses,  I  was  m.et  by  an  Armenian 
woman,  a  poor  old  hag  with  bare  feet  and  in  rags.  She  moaned 
and  wrung  her  hands,  explaining,  in  answer  to  my  enquiry,  that 
her  cows  had  been  displaced  to  make  room  for  us.  She  would 
never  see  them  again — and,  in  fact,  next  morning  I  was  grieved 
to  learn  that  two  had  been  stolen. 

The  town  occupies  a  fairly  high  site  in  the  valley,  having  an 
elevation  of  about  4800  feet.      A  few  houses,  in  the   more  proper 


184  Armenia 

sense  of  the  word,  serve  to  magnify  the  appearance  of  the  place. 
But  the  tenements  are  for  the  most  part  the  usual  ant-hill 
burrows  ;  and  I  do  not  think  that  in  all  there  can  be  more  than 
eighty  dwellings,  of  which  ten  may  be  inhabited  by  Armenians. 
The  Kurds  have  a  large  preponderance  in  the  caza  ;  they  are,  for 
the  most  part,  of  the  Jibranli  tribe.  This  tribe  furnishes  three 
regiments  of  Hamidiyeh  cavalry,  recruited  in  Varto.  The  tribes- 
men spend  the  summer  on  the  pastures  of  the  Bingbl  Dagh,  and 
the  winter  in  villages  of  their  own  in  the  plains.  They  travel  as 
far  as  Diarbekr,  and  even  Aleppo,  taking  their  vast  flocks  to  those 
markets.  Or  they  sell  the  sheep  to  middlemen  who  travel  from 
all  parts  of  Turkey,  and  establish  their  headquarters  in  Khinis. 

During  the  night  it  froze  hard  ;  but  on  the  following  morning 
the  air  was  warmed  by  a  brilliant  sun,  shining  in  a  clear  sky. 
The  thermometer  stood  at  2)7'  before  we  again  set  out.  Leaving 
at  a  little  after  eleven,  we  proceeded  on  an  easterly  course, 
towards  the  heights  which  rise  behind  Gumgum.  I  was  unable  to 
ascertain  the  exact  connection  of  these  hills  with  the  block  of  the 
Bingol  ;  but,  whereas  we  could  still  perceive  that  distant  outline  in 
the  west,  it  was  lost  to  view  as  it  came  towards  us,  stretching 
east.  The  northern  barrier  was  now  composed  by  the  hill  range 
already  mentioned,  which,  at  this  point,  appeared  to  be  inclined 
towards  south-east.  After  crossing  a  considerable  stream,  flowing 
down  to  the  trough  of  the  valley,  we  commenced  at  twelve  o'clock 
the  ascent  of  these  hills. 

Looking  backward,  one  was  impressed  by  the  uneven  char- 
acter of  the  ground  from  which  we  rose.  The  valley  is  choked 
with  hills,  especially  on  the  south-east,  and  it  may  have  a  width 
of  about  eight  miles.  The  soil  is  covered  with  tufted  grass,  which 
must  afford  fine  pasture  in  spring  and  early  summer.  The 
southern  border  consists  of  the  mass  of  mountain  which  we  had 
crossed  from  Changalli  ;  but  it  had  sensibly  declined  and  w^as  still 
declining  in  height.  Beyond  its  sheet  of  snow  the  peaks  of 
Taurus  commenced  to  be  visible  ;  and  when  we  reached  the  pass, 
before  one  o'clock,  we  could  see  the  broad  ribbon  of  the  Murad 
lying  in  the  plain  of  Mush.  The  river  had  passed  the  gap  in  the 
barrier  on  the  north  of  that  plain,  which,  it  was  evident,  becomes 
much  lower  at  the  point  where  the  passage  is  effected,  the  outlines 
sinking  towards  either  bank. 

We  were  standing  in  snow,  at  an  elevation  of  6600  feet.  On 
our  left  front   rose  the  cliffs  of  the    Bingol   plateau,   that   mighty 


From  Mush  to  Erzeriun  185 

presence  which  for  awhile  had  been  concealed.  They  were  still 
stretching  from  west  to  east,  but  were  seen  to  turn  towards 
north-east,  in  the  direction  of  where  we  knew  Khinis  to  lie.  The 
eye  pursued  their  long  perspective  into  the  distance,  where,  at  a 
point  about  north-north-east,  they  broke  away  into  a  range  of 
mountains,  the  range  which  bounds  the  plain  of  Khinis  on  the 
north.  I  was  still  unable  to  define  the  relation  of  the  heights 
upon  which  we  were  placed  to  the  mass  from  which  they  appeared 
to  come  ;  but  they  must  contribute  to  compose  the  long  line  of 
heights  which  we  had  seen  extending  from  the  Bingol  towards 
Sipan. 

How  great  a  part  has  been  performed  by  the  action  of  water 
in  shaping  the  relief  of  this  land  may  be  realised  by  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  perfectly  flat  depressions  between  the  masses  of 
higher  ground.  Thousands  of  feet  below  those  levels  lie  these 
sheltered  spaces,  rendered  fertile  by  winding  streams.  Such  was 
the  nature  of  the  little  plain  to  which  we  descended,  appearing 
land-locked  on  every  side.  It  is  known  as  the  Bashkent  ova, 
or  plain  of  Bashkent,  from  a  Kurdish  hamlet  through  which  we 
presently  passed.^  Jt  is  situated  at  the  comparatively  lofty 
level  of  about  6000  feet.  On  the  east  it  is  enclosed  by  that 
irregular  lump  of  mountain  which  we  had  first  seen  on  the 
furthest  horizon  from  before  Tutakh.  Khamur  it  is  called.  The 
ridge  was  some  miles  distant  ;  but  its  outworks,  a  succession  of 
sand-like  convexities,  rose  from  the  margin  of  the  plain.  The 
western  limit  were  the  cliffs  of  Bingol,  frowning  above  the  ova, 
and  sending  out  a  spur  towards  the  Khamur  on  its  northern 
verge.  Towards  that  spur  we  made  our  way  across  the  plain, 
on  a  north-easterly  course.  The  flat  surface  has  a  length  of 
about  3^  miles,  and  is  covered  with  marshes  or  rank  weeds. 
Besides  Bashkent  we  could  only  see  a  single  other  hamlet,  said 
to  be  inhabited  by  Kizilbash  Kurds.  We  reached  the  summit  of 
the  rounded  and  opposite  heights  at  half-past  two  o'clock.  They 
may  be  described  as  flanking  outworks  of  the  Bingol  plateau, 
and  they  have  an  elevation  of  about  6550  feet.  A  little  later, 
while  still  following  along  the  side  of  these  slopes,  we  came  to  a 
halt  and  partook  of  a  scanty  meal. 

At  a  quarter-past  three  we  were  again  in  the  saddle.  Our 
course  remained  easterly,  at  about  the  same  level ;   and  at  half-past 

1   But  I  must   reconl  the  fact   that  the  people  of  Bashkent,  wlien  asked   the  name  of 
their  plain,  replied,  Khinis  oz'a. 


1 86  Armenia 

three  we  were  on  the  top  of  one  of  those  bulging  spurs  which 
project  from  the  side  of  the  cHffs.  The  horizontal  edge  of  the 
lofty  tableland  was  now  just  above  us  ;  and,  inasmuch  as  we 
were  now  able  to  pursue  a  north -north -easterly  direction,  it  is 
evident  that  the  mass  must  recede  towards  the  north.  Indeed 
it  is  probable  that  it  describes  a  curve,  concave  to  the  plain  of 
Khinis  ;  we  seemed  to  get  behind  the  cliffs.  On  our  right  hand 
we  were  followed  by  the  deformed  shape  of  Khamur,  now  many 
miles  away.  The  horizon  was  fretted  b\'  the  long  outline  of  the 
Akh  Dagh — a  fine,  bold  range  with  connections  circling  towards 
Khamur. 

In  a  short  time  this  mountain  landscape  was  seen  in  fuller 
significance  ;  a  vast  expanse  of  level  depression  was  opened  out. 
The  black  chaoush  and  his  three  myrmidons  had  taken  their 
departure  at  Gumgum  ;  and  I  was  able  to  unpack  the  camera. 
I  directed  the  lens  to  north-east,  towards  the  plain  and  the 
distant  Akh  Dagh  (Fig.  159);  and  next  to  south-east,  upon  the 
Khamur.^  We  reached  the  level  at  about  five  o'clock,  after 
crossing  a  spur  of  the  plateau,  strewn  with  volcanic  stones. 
Khinis  was  seen,  a  speck  in  the  lap  of  the-  plain,  towards  which 
we  rode  at  a  rapid  trot.  At  a  quarter  to  six  we  arrived  upon 
the  deeply-eroded  banks  of  the  river  of  Khinis,  which  we  forded 
and  entered  the  town. 

By  directions  of  the  Kaimakam  we  were  lodged  in  his  own 
office  ;  he  made  his  appearance  early  on  the  following  day.  A 
burly  old  man,  with  a  head  of  great  size  and  a  massive  fore- 
head, with  huge  dimensions  below  the  waist.  This  habit  of  body, 
which  seemed  to  aggravate  an  advanced  asthmatic  affection,  was 
due  to  continued  sitting  rather  than  to  intemperance  of  diet. 
Our  conversation  was  soon  directed  to  the  condition  of  the 
country  —  a  subject  upon  which  he  held  strong  views.  The 
people  of  his  caza  were,  he  said,  almost  without  exception,  liars, 
rogues  and  thieves.  The  Government  did  what  it  could  ;  but 
the  officials  were  not  competent,  being  ignorant  men  like  his 
humble  self  Schools  ?  There  was  supposed  to  be  a  Rushdi}'eh  in 
Khinis,  but  it  was  a  Rushdiyeh  only  in  name.  As  for  the  Kurds, 
they  were  the  plague  of  his  existence  ;  you  reaped  them  where 
you  had  not  sown.  Five  houses  -  here,  there  fifty  people — im- 
possible to   count  or   to    bring   to   count.      If  you   wished   to   get 

1   I  have  not  reproduced  my  photograph  of  Kliamur,  for  a  view  of  whicli  I  may  refer 
my  reader  to  Ch.  XII.  Fig.   177,  p.  252. 


Front  Mitsh  to  Erzcrtnn  187 

anything  out  of  them,  }'ou  must  borrow  a  stick  from  a  bear- 
tamer  and  beat  them  about  the  head. 

He  proceeded  to  inform  me  that  the  town  was  the  principal 
centre  of  the  trade  in  sheep,  fattened  upon  the  pastures  of  the 
Bingol  Dagh.  ^Merchants  come  from  the  great  cities,  notably 
from  Damascus,  and  make  their  arrangements  in  Erzerum. 
They  bring  their  own  shepherds,  whom  they  send  to  Khinis 
when  their  agents  there  have  concluded  the  purchase  and  received 
the  flocks.  It  is  at  about  the  present  season  —  that  of  early 
winter^that  the  trade  is  at  its  height.  The  sheep  are  driven 
across  the  mountains  to  Diarbekr,  whence  they  are  despatched 
through  the  plains  to  the  Syrian  centre.  My  host  added  that 
it  was  no  very  easy  matter  to  get  them  safely  through  the  snow 
to  the  head  of  the  Mesopotamian  plains.  To  me  it  seems  a  most 
remarkable  feat. 

I  asked  the  Kaimakam  whether  he  could  tell  me  the  number 
of  the  inhabitants  ;  and,  forthwith,  he  most  kindly  consulted  his 
registers.  According  to  his  figures  there  are  387  houses  in 
Khinis,  besides  numerous  shops.  Of  the  dwellings  250  are 
inhabited  by  Mohammedans  and  137  by  Armenians.  The 
former  are  censused  at  1350  and  the  latter  at  586.  But  there 
is  a  large  discrepancy  between  males  and  females  in  the  case  of 
both  denominations  in  favour  of  the  males.  He  was  of  opinion 
that  the  figures  for  the  Armenians  were  too  low  ;  they  evade  the 
census  in  order  to  avoid  the  militar}-  tax.  Small  and  large,  he 
put  the  total  of  villages  in  his  caza  at  287.  It  forms  part  of  the 
vilayet  of  Erzerum,  and  its  borders  march  with  those  of  the  caza 
of  Erzerum.^ 

He  knew  of  no  Yezidis  within  the  limits  of  his  district  ;  but 
g}'psies  wander  through  it  in  summer.  Of  Kizilbash  Kurds  he 
believ'ed  there  to  be  about  fifteen  villages.  The  principal  tribes 
in  the  neighbourhood  are  the  Haideranli  and  Zirkanli,  besides 
about  eight  villages  of  Jibranli  Kurds.  Four  battalions  of 
Hamidiyeh  are  said  to  be  enrolled  in  the  caza. 

I  am  sensible  of  the  defective  standpoint  of  my  photograph 
of  Khinis,  taken,  to  avoid  suspicions,  before  entering  the  town.^ 
But  it  clearly  shows  the  mingling  rivers,  with  their  cavernous  beds, 
sunk   into   the   volcanic  soil.      It  shows   the  castle — of  which   the 

1  In  Consul  Brant's  time  (1838)  Khinis  belonged  to  the  pashalik  of  Mush,  and  was 
supposed  to  contain  no  more  than  130  houses.  It  is  described  as  "a  most  wretched 
town"  [op.  cit.  p.  345). 

-  I  have  decided,  after  all,  not  to  reproduce  this  photograph. 


1 88  Armenia 

ruins  display  a  face  of  hewn  stone  upon  a  structure  of  agglomerate 
rubble — and,  in  the  background,  behind  the  picturesque  disorder 
of  the  clambering  township,  the  distant  terrace  of  the  Bingdl 
plateau.  At  eleven  o'clock  on  the  3rd  of  December  we  were 
winding  our  way  in  the  shadowed  gorges,  about  to  issue  upon  the 
plain  on  the  north. 

The  day  was  fine,  with  a  warm  sun  and  a  blue  sky  ;  the  air 
was  fresh  and  strong.  Before  us,  and  on  every  side,  stretched  the 
undulating  surface,  of  rich  and  friable  brown  loam.  It  is  subjected 
to  primitive  methods  of  cultivation  ;  but  at  this  season  it  was 
difficult  to  trace  the  hand  of  man.  We  saw  no  villages  ;  what 
there  are  must  be  hidden  in  laps  of  the  ground  ;  and  Nature,  a 
kind  and  bountiful  Nature,  is  allowed  to  revolve  her  seasons 
almost  in  vain.  Bright  streams  come  bubbling  down  from  the 
distant  framework  of  mountains,  and  wind  on  a  south-easterly 
course  to  the  far  Murad.  We  passed  no  less  than  three  of  these 
tributaries  to  the  river  of  Khinis.  The  first  was  flowing  between 
high  banks  of  volcanic  rock,  and  sheltered  a  beautiful  church  in 
the  old  Armenian  style,  called  Kilisa  Deresi,  or  the  church  in 
the  valley.  Around  this  monument  were  grouped  the  tall  head- 
stones of  a  disused  cemetery,  some  engraved  with  the  elaborate 
crosses  which  were  so  dear  to  the  ancestors  of  the  unhappy  people, 
now  the  bondsmen  of  parasite  Kurds.  Even  as  we  stood  in 
admiration  of  this  charming  building,  an  active  Kurd  in  a  showy 
dress  stepped  into  the  path.  He  vaulted  upon  the  back  of  a 
graceful  chestnut  Arab,  which  was  being  led  to  and  fro.  We  saw 
him  cantering  off  to  the  neighbouring  Armenian  village,  and  we 
wondered  upon  what  errand  he  was  bent.  At  a  quarter-past  one 
we  commenced  to  ascend  to  a  passage  of  the  hills  which  confine 
the  plain  upon  the  north. 

In  the  space  of  half-an-hour  we  had  reached  an  elevation  of  over 
6000  feet.  We  stopped  for  some  little  time  to  fully  realise  the 
scene  which  we  were  now  about  to  leave  behind.  The  terraces  of 
the  Bingol  plateau  had  been  following  our  steps  at  some  distance 
on  our  left  hand.  We  had  come  in  a  northerly  direction  from 
Khinis  ;  and  the  heights  we  were  preparing  to  cross  were  an 
immediate  spur  from  that  table  surface,  linking  it  to  the  long  range 
on  the  north  of  the  plain.  Both  that  spur,  or  connecting  ridge, 
and  the  range  which  it  joined,  tended  to  incline  south-west  from  a 
latitudinal  course.  The  plateau  itself  was  now  close  up  ;  indeed 
it  rose  immediately  above  us,  on   the  west  of  our  winding   track. 


From  Mush  to  Erzerum 


189 


It  is  therefore  plain  that  it  must  have  pursued  a  north-north- 
easterly direction,  since  it  had  formed  a  distant  background  to  the 
town.  I  turned  the  camera  upon  the  flanking  ridge  (Fig.  160), 
and  then  mounted  to  an  adjacent  eminence,  almost  on  a  level 
with  the  surface  of  the  plateau.  My  illustration  shows  a  formation 
characteristic  of  the  edge  of  the  terraces,  great  blocks  of  stone 
welded  together  as  if 
by  a  human  hand. 
The  surface  is  flat  and 
is  covered  with  rough 
grass,  of  which  the 
higher  stalks  pierced 
the  covering  of  recent 
snow. 

So  little  interest 
is  taken  b}'  the  people 
in  their  surroundings 
that  even  the  Kaima- 
kam  was  unable  to 
tell  me  the  name  of 
this  adjacent  range, 
which  forms  a  loft\' 
barrier  to  the  plain. 
He  was  of  opinion 
that  it  was  called  the 
Akh  Dagh  (white 
mountain)  or  Tekman 
Dagh  ;  to  some  it 
was  known  as  the  Kozli  Dagh.  I  prefer  to  retain  the  name 
which  I  heard  the  most  often,  that  of  Akh  Dagh.  East  of  these 
linking  hills  it  assumes  lofty  proportions  ;  but  it  appears  to  die 
away  in  the  remote  south-east. 

In  the  south,  far  away,  rose  the  mass  of  Khamur,  with  hill 
ranges  circling  round  the  plain.  Above  those  humble  outlines 
was  revealed  the  whole  fabric  of  Sipan,  some  sevent}'  miles  distant 
from  where  we  stood.  Such  is  the  extension  of  these  vast  depres- 
sions ;  you  cannot  define  their  limit  ;  they  render  easy  the  traffic 
of  peace  or  the  passage  of  war.  And  we  may  reconstruct  in  fancy 
the  remote  period,  when  many  of  these  bold  landmarks  were 
wreathed  in  smoke  and  reflected  fires,  and  thundered  with  the 
energy  of  the  Globe. 


Fig.  160.    Terrace  of  Lava  resembling 
Human  Fortifications. 


190  Armenia 

Proceeding  at  two  o'clock,  we  reached  the  pass  in  twenty 
minutes  ;  it  is  just  under  7000  feet.  We  were  now  in  the  basin 
of  the  Upper  Araxes,  approaching  the  districts  on  the  north. 
The  passage  into  a  new  sphere  could  scarcely  have  been  accentu- 
ated with  more  emphasis  than  on  this  day.  We  dived  into  a 
dense  fog  ;  the  cold  was  intense  ;  and,  whereas  not  a  single  flake 
had  hitherto  lain  on  the  track,  it  was  now  all  strewn  with  snow. 
Nor  was  the  change  of  a  merely  local  application  ;  it  was  the 
commencement  of  a  new  order  of  things. 

We  rode  on  a  northerly  course  through  beds  of  vapour  over 
lofty  uplands  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  6000  feet.  The  track 
had  been  worn  by  traffic,  tracing  upon  the  snow-fields  winding 
furrows  of  rich  brown  soil.  A  Kurdish  village  was  passed,  where 
our  zaptiehs  changed  with  others  ;  and,  a  little  later,  we  overlooked 
a  considerable  depression  of  the  surface — the  wide  valley  of  a 
river  it  appeared  to  be.  It  was  clothed  with  snow  and  wreathed 
with  mist.  We  descended  into  this  valley,  said  to  belong  to  the 
district  of  Tekman,  and  crossed  the  river,  called  the  Bingol  or 
Pasin  Su.  It  was  flowing  due  north,  and  had  a  breadth  of  about 
I  5  yards.  On  the  opposite  margin  of  the  depression  is  placed 
the  Kurdish  village  of  KuUi,  where  we  arrived  at  a  quarter-past 
four.  It  is  situated  at  a  level  of  about  6000  feet  ;  and,  whereas 
at  Khinis  (5540  feet)  we  had  enjoyed  a  temperature  of  32°  at 
10  P.M.,  the  thermometer  now  registered  at  7  P.jM.  no  less  than 
7^  of  frost  (Fahrenheit). 

The  settlement  consists  of  about  fifty  tenements,  of  which 
six  or  seven  belong  to  the  Zirkanli  tribe  and  the  remainder  to 
sedentary  Kurds.^  These  latter  are  liable  to  service  in  the  regular 
army.  A  single  house  is  conspicuous  among  the  huts  of  mud 
and  stone  ;  it  is  used  as  a  receptacle  for  travellers.  We  found  it 
in  the  occupation  of  a  detachment  of  Turkish  soldiers,  on  their 
way  from  Melazkert  to  Erzinjan.  Horses  and  men  alike  were 
quartered  in  the  building  ;   but,  after  some  parley,  room  was  found 

'  It  is  interesting  to  compare  Brant's  account  of  Kulli  in  183S.  Mis  words  are  : — 
"  It  formerly  contained  a  great  many  Armenian  families.  I  was  told  that  200  emigrated 
to  Georgia,  and  only  about  15  Mohammedan  families  now  reside  among  extensive  ruins" 
{op.  cit.  p.  344).  In  1893  the  transformation  has  been  completed,  and  Kulli  has  become 
a  Kurdish  village.  The  successive  steps  of  the  process,  which  is  of  general  application, 
may  be  defined  as  follows  : 

1.  Emigration  or  disappearance  of  Armenians  (friends  of  Turkey  make  excuses). 

2.  Lapse  into  barbarism  :  enrolment  of  Hamidiyeh  (friends  of  Turkey  exult). 

3.  Standing  nuisance  at  the  doors  of  Russia  (a  heavy  calm). 

4.  Russian  conquest  (Turkey  disappears,  her  friends  having  preceded  her). 


I  %J,. 


4^^ 


^^^^>  ■  :;:^ 


o 


H 


From  Jllusk  to  Erzcrum  '  191 

for  us.  We  joined  in  the  circle  of  officers  collected  round  the  open 
fireplace,  in  which  cakes  of  tezck  glowed.  Among  other  things  I 
learnt  that  four  regiments  of  Hamidiyeh  are  enrolled  in  the  caza  of 
Melazkert.      They  are  furnished  by  the  Hasananli  tribe. 

Next  morning  before  eight  we  continued  our  journey,  the 
temperature  registering  14'  of  frost.  Mist  still  hung  over  the 
valley  ;  but  we  soon  were  raised  above  it,  again  ascending  to  the 
table  surface  which  borders  the  depression  on  either  side.  Full 
sunlight  streamed  upon  the  undulating  snow-field,  and  was  re- 
flected in  tin)'  rays  from  a  thousand  little  crystals,  placed,  like 
diamonds,  on  the  heads  of  encrusted  flowers.  It  was,  indeed, 
over  the  face  of  an  immense  block  of  elevated  country  that  our 
course  was  directed  for  some  little  time.  Here  and  there,  especi- 
ally in  the  north,  it  appeared  to  be  broken  by  chains  of  mountain; 
but  the  closer  you  approached  such  an  apparent  barrier,  the  more 
it  assumed  the  familiar  features — the  flat  edges,  and  the  fanciful 
castles  with  their  Cyclopean  walls.  At  half-past  nine  we  obtained 
a  view  of  the  Bingol  Dagh  itself,  in  the  furthest  horizon  of  the 
south  (Fig.  161).      We  stood  at  a  level  of  7130  feet. 

At  ten  o'clock  we  turned  off  eastwards  to  the  bed  of  mist 
suspended  above  the  river,  which  lies  in  a  deep  trough.  Following 
for  awhile  along  the  sides  of  the  lofty  cliffs  which  confine  it,  we 
admired  the  play  of  the  vapours,  wreathing  like  jets  of  steam. 
From  the  edge  of  the  cliffs  on  either  bank,  the  table  surface  of 
the  higher  levels  was  seen  to  stretch  east  and  west,  and  back  to 
the  peaks  of  the  Akh  Dagh — a  sheet  of  snow,  only  broken  by 
the  gorge.  The  Bingol  Su  was  pursuing  a  north-north-easterly 
direction,  which  became  more  northerly  as  we  progressed.  The 
fog  lifted  and  disappeared  ;  we  descended  into  the  bottom  of  the 
gulf,  which  opened  on  either  side  the  further  we  rode.  At  a 
quarter  to  twelve  we  arrived  in  the  Kurdish  hamlet  of  Mejitli, 
where  we  decided  to  make  our  mid-day  halt.  We  had  come  a 
distance  of  about  i  3  miles  from  Kulli.  The  river,  which  had  a 
breadth  of  about  20  or  30  yards,  was  flowing  some  50  feet  below 
the  village,  with  a  rapid  current,  flashing  over  the  rocks.  The 
site  of  the  village  is  a  little  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  stream 
having  an  elevation  of  about  5800  feet. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  the  valley  of  the  Bingol  Su,  or 
Upper  Araxes,  offers  an  easy  approach  to  the  districts  on  the 
north.  The  river  pierces  a  wintry  region  of  the  table  surface,  and 
traffic  is  carried   along   its   bed.      But   some    2\   miles   below   the 


192  '  Armenia 

village  of  Mejitli  it  enters  a  deep  and  impassable  gorge.  You 
mount  to  the  summit  of  the  lofty  precipices  which  overtower  its 
serpentine  course.  Again  in  the  saddle  at  half-past  one,  we 
reached  this  commanding  eminence  at  a  quarter-past  two.  Nor 
did  we  descend  afresh  into  the  trough  of  the  stream,  which  pro- 
ceeded to  thread  a  chaos  of  mountains  in  the  east. 

The  view  from  any  point  was  one  of  savage  beauty  (Fig.  162). 
By  slow  degrees  the  flat  surface  of  the  elevated  plateau  was 
becoming  riven  and   broken  up.      You  could  still  discern  the  level 


Fig.  162.    Looking  down  the  Valley  of  the  Upper  Araxes 

FROM   BELOW    MEJITLL 

snow-fields,  burying  the  stream  in  the  south,  and  coming  towards 
you  on  either  bank.  But  the  cloak  of  winter  had  not  yet  hidden 
the  yellow  grass  on  the  adjacent  slopes  ;  while  in  the  east  the 
scene  was  changing  to  a  wild  landscape  of  hill  and  mountain, 
upon  which  the  snow  had  not  yet  effected  a  hold.  A  few  miles 
further  these  features  inci"^eased  in  definition.  The  layers  of  lava 
gave  place  to  hard  limestones,  forming  peaks  which  had  weathered 
a  soft  white.  Masses  of  rock,  of  a  hue  which  was  green  as  the 
rust  of  copper,  or  red  like  that  of  iron,  were  exposed  on  the  sides 
of  the  hills.  From  a  foreground  of  tufted  herbage,  sown  with 
yellow  immortelles,  we  looked  across  this  troubled  region  in  which 
the   river  wound   its   wav — a  ribbon  of  changing  colours,  skirting 


o     , 


u 


From  AIus/i  to  Erzeriun  193 

the  foot  of  sweeping  hillsides  or  confined  in  narrow  clefts  of 
stupendous  depth.  In  the  far  east  we  caught  a  glimpse  of  the 
snowy  dome  of  the  Kuseh  Dagh,  which  overlooks  the  plain  of 
Alashkert. 

At  four  o'clock  the  track  diverged,  and  led  us  over  the 
undulating  plateau  which  still  continued,  but  with  less  regularity, 
in  the  west.  A  short  turn  towards  north-west  brought  us  almost 
to  the  threshold  of  the  broad  depression  of  Pasin.  The  ground 
fell  away  by  a  succession  of  convexities  to  a  level  surface,  deeply 
seated  at  our  feet  (Fig.  163).  But  far  in  the  north,  on  its 
opposite  margin,  again  appeared  the  cliffs  of  a  plateau,  exalted 
thousands  of  feet  above  the  plain.  It  represents  the  extreme 
extension  of  the  tablelands  of  Armenia,  to  be  succeeded  by  the 
peripheral  ranges  in  the  north.  It  w-as  carried  west  and  east, 
across  the  horizon.  In  this  neighbourhood  it  is  known  as 
Kargabazar. 

We  descended  into  one  of  the  long  valleys  by  which  the 
heights  we  were  leaving  meet  the  plain.  If  Erzerum  be  the  next 
objective,  you  cross  to  its  western  side  and  proceed  by  way  of 
Ertev.  Our  own  point  was  Hasan  Kala,  a  more  northerly  course, 
leading  through  the  village  of  Ketivan.  That  considerable 
Mohammedan  settlement  is  situated  at  the  end  of  the  valley, 
whence  you  issue  upon  the  spacious  expanse.  We  rode  at  a 
rapid  trot  from  this  southern  verge  of  the  plain  to  the  opposite 
margin,  upon  which  is  placed  the  castle  and  town.  It  formed  a 
welcome  landmark,  which  we  reached  in  just  an  hour,  arriving 
beneath  the  dusk  at  half-past  six. 

The  town,  which  has  a  population  of  several  thousands,  clusters 
at  the  foot  of  a  long  ridge  of  volcanic  rock  which  projects  from 
the  towering  background  of  mountain  into  the  floor  of  the  plain. 
The  southerly  extremity  of  that  precipitous  ridge  is  crowned  by 
lines  of  battlements,  a  work  ascribed  to  the  Genoese.^  But  the 
present  masters  of  the  country  have  neglected  the  fortifications, 
and  have  fallen  back  upon  Erzerum.  Pasin  lies  at  the  mercy  of 
their  good  neighbours,  the  Russians,  who  already  hold  its  doors. 
After  fording  the  river  of  Upper  Pasin,  the  Kala  Su,  as  it  is  called 
— -a  sluggish  stream,  flowing  in  a  divided  channel  —  we  passed 
through    a    feudal    gateway    within    a    wall   which    was    in    ruins, 

^  See  Ritter  [Erdkimde,  vol.  x.  pp.  390  si-q.),  and  Brant  (op.  cit.  p.  341).  Hamilton 
(Researches  in  Asia  Minor,  etc.,  London,  1842,  vol.  i.  p.  185)  throws  doubt  upon  the 
popular  belief  that  this  and  similar  castles  were  built  by  the  Genoese  ;  but  I  know  not 
upon  what  foundation  he  may  have  based  his  scepticism. 

VOL.  II  b 


194  Armenia 

and  groped  our  way  through  irregular  lanes  heaped  with  filth. 
Quarters  were  at  last  discovered  in  a  new  and  well-kept  coffee- 
house— a  room  of  some  size,  with  a  wooden  stage  or  dais  erected 
around  the  bare  walls.  Upon  this  stage,  behind  the  half-screen 
of  an  open  balustrade,  a  number  of  loungers  in  various  dress,  some 
wearing  the  turban,  others  the  fez,  others  again  the  Persian  lamb- 
skin cap,^  were  gathered  in  groups,  sipping  coffee  from  delicious 
little  cups,  and  drawing  the  fragrant  fumes  of  the  Persian  tobacco 
from  hubble-bubble  or  kaleon.  In  a  further  corner,  away  from 
the  light,  one  could  not  mistake  some  tall,  lean  figures,  and 
features  of  big  birds  of  prey ;  we  were  indeed  in  the  presence  of 
some  officers  of  Hamidiyeh,  conspicuous  by  the  brass  ensigns  on 
their  lambskin  caps.  They  were  spreading  their  coverlets  for  the 
night,  or  were  turned  towards  the  wall,  bowing  the  head  and  then 
the  body  in  prayer. 

We  slept  in  an  inner  room  of  this  clean  little  tavern,  and 
resumed  our  journey  at  eleven  o'clock  on  the  following  day.  The 
streets  were  alive  with  people,  a  motley  band  of  human  beings — 
for  Hasan  Kala,  with  its  warm  baths  and  numerous  khans  and 
shops,  lies  on  the  main  road  to  Tabriz.  It  is  lifted  a  little  above 
the  face  of  the  plain  and  has  an  elevation  of  about  5600  feet. 
You  look  back  upon  its  crumbling  walls  with  a  certain  sympathy 
for  its  fallen  greatness,  and  wonder  whether  it  will  again  rise,  like 
Kars,  from  its  fallen  station  under  a  further  advance  of  the 
Russian  Empire  towards  the  Mediterranean.  Behind  this  deserted 
fortress — which,  nevertheless,  I  was  forbidden  to  photograph — we 
admired  the  huge  bulwark  of  the  mountain  barrier,  mocking  the 
works  of  man.  There  was  the  same  flat  edge,  which  had  so  often 
excited  our  wonder,  to  those  formidable  cliffs.  East  and  west,  in 
a  long  and  horizontal  outline,  they  were  drawn  beyond  the  range 
of  sight.  The  corresponding  features  on  the  south  of  the  plain 
were  less  emphasised,  the  long  valleys  softening  the  abruptness  of 
the  higher  ground. 

Pasin — the  reader  may  remember — is  one  of  the  principal 
links  of  the  chain  of  depressions  which  connect  the  extremities  of 
western  Asia,  and  facilitate  intercourse  between  east  and  west. 
From  the  narrows  of  Khorasan  to  the  fantastic  parapet  of  the  Deveh 
Boyun,  it  has  a  length  of  no  less  than  forty-four  miles.  Our  way 
to  Erzerum  led  us  along  this  spacious  avenue,  and,  after  crossing 
the  humble  barrier  which  I  have  just  mentioned,  debouched  upon 
^  Which,  by  the  way,  is,  I  believe,  made  in  Eiitflaiidowi  of  cloth.      Qiioiisqite  tandem ! 


From  Musk  to  Erzeriuu  195 

the  city  on  the  opposite  side.  We  were  able  to  ride  at  leisure, 
along  a  course  direct  as  an  arrow,  free  to  observe  the  stream  of 
traffic  on  the  highway. 

An  element  of  special  interest  were  a  number  of  bullock-carts, 
laden  pell-mell  with  heaps  of  Hamidiyeh  uniforms,  destined  for  the 
rank  and  file.  They  slowly  made  their  way  towards  Hasan  Kala, 
groaning  and  creaking  as  they  went.  Long  strings  of  Bactrian 
camels — huge,  large-humped,  shaggy  animals — -defiled  with  a 
lulling  symmetry  of  movement  and  measured,  noiseless  tread. 
By  their  side  walked  the  drivers,  Tartars  with  skins  of  parchment, 
their  features  scarcely  visible  beneath  their  sheepskin  caps.  Of 
wayfarers  there  were  many,  and  of  the  most  divergent  types. 
Some  were  mounted  on  little  hacks,  here  and  there  a  whole  family 
— turbaned  Mussulmans,  astride  of  their  overhanging  mattresses, 
to  which  were  attached  a  jangling  cluster  of  cooking  pots.  A  led 
horse  would  be  encumbered  by  a  still  more  formless  bundle,  which, 
as  you  approached,  displayed  a  pair  of  human  feet.  Brawny 
Armenian  peasants,  a  scattering  of  thick-set  Lazes,  a  Kurdish 
horseman  or  two  swelled  the  throng. 

There  are  several  large  villages  in  the  plain  of  Pasin  ;  but  to 
what  race  or  mixture  of  races  do  the  Mohammedan  inhabitants 
belong  }  I  was  impressed  by  the  difference  in  the  physiognomy 
of  these  people,  which  was  quite  unlike  the  type  prevailing  among 
settled  Kurds.  The  question  of  the  racial  composition  of  the  non- 
Kurdish  element,  inhabiting  the  districts  on  the  north,  remains  a 
subject  for  further  research.  The  Armenians  are  in  a  decided 
minority  in  Pasin.^ 

A  broad  chaussee  with  flanking  ditches  is  carried  along  the 
plain,  almost  in  a  straight  line.  But  many  of  the  culverts  have 
fallen  in,  forcing  vehicles  off  the  road  into  the  soft  soil  on  either 
side.  Still  our  horses  liked  the  change,  wearied  by  their  long 
journey  and  much  clambering  over  rocks.  The  ground  was  free 
of  snow,  even  on  this  fifth  day  of  December,  and  the  air  was 
comparatively  mild.^  The  further  we  proceeded,  the  more  the 
expanse  narrowed   and  the   perspective   of  the   two   long  barriers 

1  I  will  again  cite  Brant's  account,  written  in  1S38  : — "The  greater  portion  of  the 
Armenian  peasantry  emigrated  into  Georgia  when  the  Russian  army  evacuated  Turkey, 
after  the  peace  of  Adrianople  ;  in  consequence  of  which  emigration,  the  population  "of 
the  villages  has  been  much  diminished,  and  there  is  a  great  deal  of  ground  uncultivated 
for  want  of  hands"  {op.  cit.  p.  341). 

-  The  season  was,  it  is  true,  rather  exceptional.  But  it  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  all 
these  great  plains — Mush,  Khinis,  Pasin — were  without  snow  at  this  advanced  date. 
Already  in  March  the  snow  begins  to  melt. 


1 96  Armenia 

closed.  From  afar  we  fixed  our  eyes  on  what  appeared  to  be  an 
artificial  earthwork,  thrown  across  the  narrow  head  of  the  plain. 
At  half-past  one  we  were  at  the  foot  of  this  apparent  fortification, 
with  broken  ground  on  either  hand.  The  muzzles  of  cannon  were 
turned  towards  us  from  the  flat  top  of  the  colossal  mound,  and 
from  two  hills  which  rose  on  the  south  of  the  road.  Indeed  we 
seemed  to  face  a  completely  impregnable  position,  impossible  to 
circumvent.  And  from  a  distance  one  would  think  that  the 
meeting  walls  of  mountain  were  joined  together  by  a  transverse 
dam. 

Approaching  closer,  the  road  is  seen  to  find  a  passage  between 
the  hills  on  the  south  and  the  adjacent  flat-topped  mass.  The 
width  of  this  passage  may  be  about  half-a-mile.  Once  within 
the  answering  horns  you  cross  a  spacious  amphitheatre,  in  which 
the  secret  of  the  formation  is  revealed.  The  two  hills  belong  to 
the  southern  wall  of  mountain,  but  so  also  does  the  mound.  And 
a  line  of  heights  circle  inwards  from  behind  the  two  hills,  to 
protract  the  circle  outwards  to  the  horn  of  the  mound.  Hills  and 
mound  are  left  behind  before  those  heights  are  breasted  ;  or,  to 
continue  the  figure,  you  scale  the  tiers  of  the  amphitheatre  at  the 
point  most  remote  from  the  narrow  opening  on  its  eastern  side. 

Such  is  the  position  which,  due  not  to  man,  but  to  a  freak  of 
Nature,  arrests  the  flow  of  traffic  or  the  tide  of  battle.  The 
linking  heights  —  the  opposite  curve  of  the  circle- — are  widely 
known  through  the  literature  of  travel  and  of  Asiatic  warfare  as 
the  Deveh  Boyun,  or  the  camel's  neck.  The  humps  and  head 
are  represented,  the  first  by  the  two  hills,  and  the  second  by  the 
mound.  The  pass,  to  which  the  road  climbs,  is  situated  on  the 
neck  of  the  camel ;  but  a  second  ridge  must  be  surmounted, 
which  is  a  little  higher,  and  has  an  elevation  of  about  6850  feet. 

From  the  Deveh  Boyun  to  Erzerum  must  be  a  distance  of 
several  miles,  since,  although  we  rode  at  a  rapid  trot,  we  did  not 
reach  the  city  in  less  than  fifty  minutes.  Two  facts,  which  were 
unexpected,  became  clear  as  we  proceeded.  In  the  first  place, 
the  position  is  by  no  means  so  strong  as  it  might  appear,  even  to 
a  near  view,  from  the  eastern  side.  There  is  at  least  one,  and 
there  are  probably  more  than  one  passage  between  the  mound 
and  the  northern  wall  of  the  plain.  This  circumstance,  and  the 
peculiar  character  of  the  ground  on  the  west  of  the  barrier,  which 
is  broken  up  into  precipitous  heights,  are  in  favour  of  the  attack, 
in  so  far   as   they  necessitate   the   employment   of  a  considerable 


Fro7n  Ahish  to  Erzeruni  197 

defensive  force.  The  second  surprise  was  perhaps  more  personal  ; 
I  had  formed  the  conception  of  a  transverse  parapet  leading 
immediately  into  the  plain  of  Erzerum.  But  the  parapet  is 
succeeded  by  the  broken  ground  of  which  I  have  spoken,  and  of 
which  the  heights  are  crowned  with  batteries.  The  road  is  taken 
along  the  face  and  among  the  recesses  of  the  southern  barrier  ; 
and  you  are  already  above  the  picturesque  site  of  the  famous 
fortress  before  you  overlook  the  full  expanse  of  the  level  land. 
We  arrived  within  the  enclosure  of  the  circumvallation  at  a  few 
minutes  before  three.' 

1  Branl  estimates  the  distance  between  Hasan  Kala  and  Erzemm  at  only  eighteen 
miles  {op.  cit.  p.  341).  If  he  is  speaking  of  the  distance  by  road  he  makes,  I  think,  a 
considerable  error.      My  own  estimate  is  twenty-three  miles. 


CHAPTER    IX 

ERZERUM 

We  rode  through  empty  spaces,  Httered  with  ruin  and  refuse, 
haunted  by  miserable  and  filthy  dogs,  to  a  street  of  some  width, 
bordered  by  substantial  stone  houses,  down  the  incline  of  which 
we  checked  the  pace  of  our  mounts.  It  leads  to  the  north- 
eastern quarter  of  the  city — a  quarter  which  is  numerously  in- 
habited by  Christians,  and  where  are  situated  the  Consulates  of 
the  European  Powers,  notably  those  of  Great  Britain,  France  and 
Russia.  The  British  Consulate  is  housed  in  a  small  but  comfort- 
able residence  at  the  northerly  extremity  of  the  street.  There 
we  were  received  with  emotion  by  the  principal  dragoman — an 
Armenian  with  a  handsome,  frank  and  engaging  face,  whose  curly 
black  hair  had  become  tinged  with  grey.  I  had  not  seen  the 
excellent  Yusuf  for  many  a  long  year,  not  since  the  time  when 
he  used  to  delight  the  fancy  of  childhood  with  dainty  boxes,  or 
the  figures  of  various  animals,  which  he  would  fashion  with 
exquisite  skill  in  a  kind  of  silver  wire — an  art  practised  by  the 
silversmiths  of  the  East.  What  tales  he  would  tell  us  in  England 
of  this  distant  Erzerum  !  We  used,  as  children,  to  try  and  realise 
the  features  of  the  scenes  of  which  he  spoke — the  great  Mesopo- 
tamian  deserts,  the  encampments  of  the  Arabs,  the  khans  on  the 
roads  to  the  highlands  in  which  the  traveller  rested,  the  mountains 
and  the  snow-clad  plains.  Alas  !  for  the  powers  of  description  ; 
how  different  it  all  looked,  when  after  many  years  these  various 
landscapes  were  successively  unfolded  before  the  eyes  !  Yet  they 
spoke  to  the  very  soul  of  the  child  grown  to  manhood,  perhaps 
reviving  hidden  germs  in  the  lengthy  process  of  heredity,  or 
recalling  those  early  efforts  to  make  pictures  of  them,  or  appealing 
in  virtue  of  none  of  these  causes,  but  by  the  magnetic  power 
inherent    in    themselves.      And    here   at    last  was   Erzerum,  with 


Erzerum  1 99 

Yusuf  standing  before  the  door  and  running  forward  with  open 
arms  !  My  reader  will,  I  feel,  pardon  this  little  personal  digres- 
sion, embodying,  as  it  does,  one  of  my  most  permanent  memories 
of  the  northern  capital. 

Another  link  of  a  not  less  personal  nature  must  be  mentioned 
in  order  to  explain  the  length  of  the  sojourn  which  the  present 
writer  made  in  Erzerum.  It  extended  from  the  commencement 
of  the  really  cold  weather  to  the  approach  of  spring.  Wesson  and 
Rudolph  were  committed  to  the  kind  offices  of  the  Russian  Consul, 
M.  Maximoff,  who  furnished  them  with  the  necessary  facilities  for 
returning  home  through  Russian  territory  by  way  of  Sarikamish 
and  Batum.  The  Swiss  had  been  experiencing  the  discomforts  of 
home-sickness  ;  and  the  resourceful  Wesson,  who  would  make  a 
most  excellent  campaigner,  was  obliged  for  private  reasons  to 
abandon  a  nomad  life  and  resume  his  habits  as  a  Londoner.  It 
was  my  intention  to  work  up  my  material  in  Erzerum,  and  to 
devote  a  fortnight  or  more  to  this  end.  Our  Consul,  Mr.  R.  W. 
Graves,  most  kindly  placed  two  rooms  at  my  disposal,  and  insisted 
upon  my  being  his  guest.  A  friendship  sprang  up  between  us, 
born  of  similar  age  and  many  common  tastes  ;  and,  speaking  for 
myself,  I  may  say  that  our  solitude  a  deux  in  this  corner  of  Asia 
formed  one  of  the  most  agreeable  experiences  of  my  life.  I  do 
not  remember  having  spent  a  single  dull  hour.  His  conversation, 
charm  of  manner  and  kindliness  of  disposition  were  a  resource 
which  was  never  wanting  to  revive  one's  intelligence  after  long 
hours  devoted  to  writing  and  to  books.  I  was  so  happy  and  he 
so  hospitable  that  the  weeks  had  become  months  before  all  the 
excuses  which  waved  away  the  round  of  duties  in  England  had 
one  by  one  become  exhausted,  and  I  tore  myself  from  his  side. 

This  lengthy  stay,  followed  as  it  was  by  two  subsequent  visits, 
has  made  me  feel  quite  at  home  with  the  subject  of  this  chapter. 
And  the  fact  that  I  have  approached  Erzerum  from  the  three 
directions  in  which  it  is  most  accessible,  from  the  east,  from  the 
west  and  from  the  south,  enables  me  to  speak,  in  so  far  as  a 
civilian  traveller  may  judge  such  a  question,  of  the  strategical 
importance  of  a  city  which  is  probably  destined  to  play  a  leading 
part  in  any  future  struggle  between  the  Russian  and  the  Ottoman 
Empires.  For  an  Englishman  this  side  of  the  subject  has  a 
special  interest  ;  since  the  possession  by  Russia  of  this  strong 
place  would  mean  her  control  of  the  head  waters  of  the  Euphrates, 
which    issues    in    the    Persian    Gulf.      It   is   a   maxim  of   peculiar 


200  Ar7nenia 

appropriateness  to  such  a  country  as  Asia  that  he  who  is  master 
of  the  sources  of  a  river  is  master  of  the  lands  through  which  it 
flows.  On  the  other  hand,  such  an  event  would  closely  affect  all 
Europe  ;  for  there  would  then  exist  no  important  barrier  between 
the  Asiatic  provinces  of  Russia  and  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus. 
Indeed  Erzerum  resumes  in  herself  the  importance  of  Turkish 
Armenia  as  a  factor  in  the  world  movements  of  the  near  future. 
Mistress  of  this  spot  of  ground,  Russia  is  mistress  of  these  vast 
provinces.  It  is  plainly  the  duty  of  a  writer  who  has  enjoyed  the 
advantages  which  I  have  mentioned,  not  indeed  to  pander  to  the 
feeling  of  blind  animosity  against  Russia,  but  to  place  his  readers 
in  possession  of  the  essential  facts,  in  the  hope  that  at  least  they 
may  not  be  taken  unawares  by  any  advance  of  the  northern  empire 
in  this  direction. 

Our  large  map  will,  I  hope,  make  clear  and  preclude  the 
necessity  of  minutely  describing  the  topography  of  the  site  with 
its  surroundings  far  and  near.  What  the  basin  of  Lake  Van 
and  the  plain  of  Mush  are  to  the  southern  districts  of  Turkish 
Armenia,  that  are  the  plains  of  Pasin  and  Erzerum  to  those  on 
the  north.  They  represent  depressions  of  the  surface  of  the  table- 
land and  constitute  arteries  of  communication  between  east  and 
west.  The  northerly  is  separated  from  the  southern  string  of 
depressions  by  a  block  of  elevated  plateau  country,  which  is  most 
compact  and  continuous  on  a  line  between  Mush  and  Erzerum, 
and  more  broken  into  irregular  lines  of  heights  with  intervening 
plains  between  the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Van  and  Pasin.  An 
invader  coming  from  the  east  and  desirous  of  forcing  his  way 
westwards  will  find  all  his  roads  converging  on  either  one  or 
other  of  the  two  strings  of  depressions.  The  block  of  lofty  table- 
land, seared  by  the  action  of  ice  and  water,  and  covered  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  with  snow,  causes  them  to  be  deflected 
as  by  an  impassable  obstacle,  though  it  is  in  fact  by  no  means 
impervious  to  an  army  during  summer,  when  the  principal 
difficulty  would  be  the  absence  of  supplies.  The  geographical 
position  of  Russia  is  decisively  in  favour  of  an  advance  by 
the  most  northerly  of  the  two  main  avenues.  She  might 
detach  a  column  to  move  upon  BitHs  ;  but  the  objective  of  this 
force  would  be  the  lowlands  of  Mesopotamia  rather  than  Asia 
Minor  west  of  the  Euphrates.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
weight  of  her  onset  would  be  thrown  into  the  northerly  channel  ; 
and    Pasin    would    fall    without   a    blow    beinsr   struck.      At   that 


Erzeruni  201 

moment  she  would  be  confronted  by  the  defences  of  the  Deveh 
Boyun  —  an  impregnable  barrier  if  only  held  by  a  sufficient 
force. 

We  have  seen  at  the  close  of  the  last  chapter  that  the  Deveh 
Boyun  consists  of  a  composite  ridge,  thrown  across  a  narrow 
portion  of  the  northerly  depression,  and  dividing  it  into  two.  It 
is  due  to  an  outbreak  of  lava — a  hard  trachyte  —  which  has 
pursued  a  direction  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  general  structure 
of  the  country,  its  elevation  being  nearly  meridional.  Similar 
outbreaks  are  readily  recognisable  in  the  northern  border  heights 
of  the  plain  of  Pasin  ;  but  those  ridges  are  of  little  geographical 
importance,  losing  themselves  on  the  confines  of  the  plain.  On 
the  other  hand  the  Deveh  Boyun,  the  most  westerly  of  the  series, 
determines  the  drainage  of  the  great  basin.  From  its  eastern 
slopes  the  waters  flow  to  the  Araxes,  and  from  those  on  the 
west  to  the  Euphrates.  On  the  one  hand  lies  Pasin,  and  on  the 
other  the  plain  of  Erzerum.  The  height  of  the  pass  over  the 
parapet  is  not  more  than  some  500  to  800  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  adjacent  plains.  But  the  ridge  is  defended  by  a  line  of 
modern  forts  ;  and,  if  these  were  captured,  the  invading  army 
would  find  itself  enclosed  within  a  space  which,  while  it  can 
scarcely  exceed  a  width  of  about  four  miles,  can  be  swept  by  the 
fire  from  hei"-hts  on  the  north  and  heights  on  the  south.  These 
positions,  which  have  all  been  fortified  since  the  last  Russo- 
Turkish  war,  rest  against  the  slopes  of  the  parallel  walls  of 
mountain,  confining  the  depression  on  either  side. 

There  does  exist,  I  believe,  a  narrow  passage  through  an 
irregular  valley  between  the  Deveh  Boyun  main  ridge  and  the 
northern  wall.  But  this  approach  by  the  flank  is  commanded  by 
some  of  the  forts  already  mentioned.  Nor  would  the  fate  of 
Erzerum  be  necessarily  determined  if  both  the  ridge  and  the 
works  which  protect  it  had  been  occupied  by  the  enemy  after  a 
series  of  frontal  attacks  and  great  loss  of  life.  There  would 
remain  the  defences  of  the  Top  Dagh,  a  hill  mass,  or,  as  they 
would  say  in  South  Africa,  a  series  of  kopjes,  separated  from  the 
Deveh  Boyun  by  the  valley  of  a  small  tributary  to  the  Euphrates 
derived  from  the  wall  of  mountain  on  the  south.  The  Top 
Dagh  bristles  with  forts,  of  which  the  most  conspicuous  are  Forts 
Mejidieh  and  Azizieh.  It  immediately  abuts  on  the  enceinte  of 
the  city  which  it  screens  from  attack  from  the  east.  The  city 
lies  with   its   head   upon   the   talus   or   accumulated   rubble   which 


202  Armenia 

fans  out  from  the  heights  on  the  south.  Its  feet  touch  the  floor 
of  the  plain. 

Under  modern  conditions  Erzerum  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant strategical  position  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  country  described  in  this  work.  The  heights  confining  the 
plain  on  the  south  are  in  fact  the  edge  of  the  great  block  of 
tableland  interposed  between  the  plain  of  Mush  and  the  northern 
capital.  Although  the  ground  mass  of  that  lofty  stage  is 
composed  of  stratified  and  old  igneous  rocks,  yet  more  recent 
eruptive  volcanic  action  has  played  an  important  part  in  its 
configuration.  To  this  agency  are  due  the  bold  mountains  along 
its  northern  edge  which  constitute  such  a  noble  background  to 
the  town.  The  most  conspicuous  peak  is  that  of  the  Eyerli 
Dagh,  or  saddle  mountain,  so  called  from  the  shape  of  its 
summit.  The  loftiest  is  situated  a  few  miles  further  east,  and 
stands  a  little  back  from  the  line  of  heights.  It  has  an  elevation 
of  10,690  feet  above  the  sea,  or  of  4500  feet  above  the  city. 
It  bears  the  same  name  as  that  of  the  steep  ascent  to  the  plateau, 
and  is  known  as  the  Palandoken,  or  saddle  shifter.  Between 
these  two  commanding  peaks  is  placed  a  cirque  or  huge  basin 
from  which  the  detritus  is  emptied  into  the  plain.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  peaks  are  only  the  upstanding  sides  of  a  huge 
broken-down  crater  represented  by  the  cirque.  It  seems  more 
probable,  however,  that  this  great  hollow  is  due  to  erosive 
agencies,  and  it  may  originally  have  been  commenced  by  glacial 
action. 

Standing  on  the  roof  of  your  house  in  Erzerum,  you  can 
scarcely  conceive  the  approach  of  an  invader  by  a  turning  move- 
ment across  those  heights.  It  is,  indeed,  no  easy  matter  to 
discover  any  natural  passage  ;  but  there  are  in  fact  four.  The 
most  easterly  is  Aghsi  AcJiik  (his  mouth  is  open — though  I  can- 
not agree  that  such  is  the  case.)  It  leads  over  to  some  villages 
in  Tekman.  Further  west  is  the  valley  called  Abdurrahman 
Gazi  after  a  holy  man,  reputed  to  have  been  the  standard-bearer 
of  the  prophet,  whose  tomb  is  a  favourite  resort  in  summer. 
Next  comes  the  Palandoken,  grazing  the  peak  upon  its  western 
slopes  after  finding  a  way  along  the  eastern  declivities  of  the 
cirque.  The  fourth  and  most  westerly  is  that  of  Kirk  De'irvien, 
or  the  forty  mills.  Of  these  the  only  approach  of  any  importance 
is  that  of  Palandoken.  It  constitute?  the  summer  route  to  the 
districts  on  the  south.      The  pass,  just  west  of  the  peak,  has  an 


Erzerwn  203 

elevation  of  9780  feet,  and  is  commanded  on  either  side  by  two 
modern  forts.  A  metalled  road,  constructed  during  recent  years, 
at  once  connects  these  important  outposts  with  the  city  and 
affords  tolerable  gradients  to  caravans.  As  you  examine  the 
ground  in  this  direction  you  observe  a  fortified  hill  on  the  south- 
west of  the  enceinte  ;   it  is  called  the  Keremitlu  Dagh. 

The  wall  on  the  north  of  the  plain  is  scarcely  less  im- 
penetrable, though  Nature  has  cloven  it  almost  through  by  the 
defile  known  as  the  Gurgi  Boghaz,  or  Georgian  gates,  down  which 
flows  the  infant  stream  of  the  Euphrates  and  is  carried  the  road 
from  Olti.  But  the  portion  of  the  Russian  possessions  from  which 
it  leads  are  mountainous  and  poor  in  supplies,  and  the  narrows 
are  blocked  on  the  Turkish  side  by  modern  fortifications.  In  a 
geographical  and  geological  sense  this  northern  barrier  corresponds 
to  that  on  the  south  of  the  depression.  A  plateau-like  character 
is  not  one  of  its  least  pronounced  features — a  feature  which  is 
presented  with  startling  fidelity  in  the  outline  on  the  north  of  the 
plain  of  Pasin,  where  the  heights  are  called  Kargabazar  (Fig.  163, 
p.  193).  West  of  the  Gurgi  Boghaz  they  are  broken  into  peaks, 
of  which  the  most  symmetrical  is  the  beautiful  cone  of  Sheikhjik 
— a  constant  source  of  admiration  to  an  inhabitant  of  Erzerum. 
It  consists  of  a  mass  of  trachyte  which  has  welled  up  from  the 
middle  of  a  crater.^  As  these  heights  extend  westwards  they 
have  been  less  subjected  to  eruptive  disturbances  ;  and  the  fine 
landmarks  of  the  Akhbaba  Dagh,  the  Jejen  Dagh  and  the  Kop 
Dagh  are  composed  of  non-volcanic  rocks.  But  these  eminences 
serve  to  accentuate  the  prevailing  flatness  of  the  outline,  which 
remains  the  outline  of  a  block  of  tableland.  Of  little  comparative 
width,  this  mass  declines  upon  the  north  to  the  valley  of  the 
Chorokh. 

Erzerum,  it  will  have  been  seen,  is  almost  as  difficult  to  get 
round  as  it  should  be  impossible  to  take  by  direct  assault  from 
the  east.  If  only  Turkey  were  a  naval  power,  able  to  cope  with 
her  adversary  by  sea,  it  would  be  a  long  time  before  this  bulwark 
of  her  Asiatic  empire  could  be  broken  down  by  a  Russian  attack. 
Herein  lies  the  value  to  Turkey  of  help  from  a  first-rate  naval 
Power  and  the  hopelessness  of  her  position  should  it  not  be 
forthcoming.      With    her    fleet    in    undisputed    possession    of   the 

^  The  cone  of  Sheikhjik  was  visited  by  Dr.  Wagner  in  the  forties  and  has  been 
described  by  him  at  some  length  (Reise  fiach  Fersieii,  Leipzig,  1S52,  vol.  i.  pp.  231 
seq). 


204  Armenia 

Black  Sea,  Russia  might  laugh  at  the  irresistible  defences  of 
Erzerum.  It  would  only  be  necessary  to  hold  the  garrison  by 
an  advance  on  the  side  of  Pasin  ;  and  the  real  attack,  if  it  were 
ever  made,  would  come  from  the  west,  the  vulnerable  side, 
delivered  by  a  column  which  should  have  been  landed  at  the 
port  of  Trebizond,  and  which  there  would  be  nothing  to  prevent 
marching  to  Erzerum  along  the  chaussee.  Sevastopol  and  Odessa 
rather  than  Kars  and  Erivan  are  the  storm  centres  from  which 
will  be  let  loose  the  forces  that  will  sweep  the  Ottoman  Empire 
out  of  Asia,  when  we  shall  be  confronted  with  a  brand-new  set  of 
barriers,  precluding  for  the  second  time  in  history  the  entrance  of 
commerce  and  enlightenment  into  these  magnificent  territories. 
In  taking  leave  of  this  part  of  the  subject,  I  must  not  omit  to 
mention  the  route  which  a  Russian  army  might  be  expected  to 
follow  in  its  progress  westwards  after  the  fall  of  Erzerum.  As 
far  as  Erzinjan  the  course  of  the  Euphrates  would  in  general  be 
followed,  when  the  northern  border  heights  would  be  crossed  and 
the  entry  to  Asia  Minor  effected  by  way  of  Karahisar.  There 
are  no  difficulties  to  traffic  along  this  avenue.  On  the  other 
hand,  an  advance  from  Mush,  the  side  of  the  southern  depression, 
could  only  be  undertaken  by  mountain  paths  above  the  course  of 
the  Murad,  which  have  never  been  touched  by  an  engineer.  It  is 
therefore  probable  that  the  tide  of  war  would  be  diverted  for 
some  time  to  the  lowlands,  when  it  might  threaten  the  south- 
eastern districts  of  Asia  Minor  from  the  side  of  Diarbekr. 

On  three  occasions,  all  during  the  course  of  the  present 
century,  Erzerum  has  been  at  the  mercy  of  Russian  armies.  In 
1829  it  was  actually  taken  by  Marshal  Paskevich,  whose  troops 
penetrated  as  far  north  as  Gumushkhaneh  and  to  within  eighteen 
miles  of  Trebizond.'  Recovered  by  Turkey  at  the  ensuing  peace, 
it  was  threatened  by  a  similar  fate  after  the  fall  of  Kars  in 
November  1855.  It  was  only  saved  by  the  Russian  reverses  in 
other  quarters  and  by  the  early  termination  of  the  war  (Treaty  of 
Paris,  March  1856).  In  1877  the  Russians  forced  the  Deveh 
Boyun  barrier,  which  in  those  days  was  unprovided  with  proper 
defences  ;  but  they  met  with  a  serious  repulse  in  an  attempt  to 
storm  the  forts  on  the  eastern  flank  of  the  enceinte.  The 
investment  was  not  completed  until  the  month  of  January  1878  ; 
and,  although  the  place  was  held  by  their  armies  as  a  material 
guarantee   during   the   negotiations   for  peace,  it   was   retained  by 

^   Smith  and  D wight,  Missionary  KeseaJ-ches  in  Armenia,  London,  1834,  p.  62. 


Erzeruui  205 

the  Sultan  under  the  terms  of  the  treaties  of  San  Stefano  (March 
1878)  and  Berlin  (July  1878).  Since  the  conclusion  of  that 
campaign  the  advantages  of  the  position  have  for  the  first  time 
been  turned  to  proper  account  ;  and,  if  in  the  future  the  system  of 
forts  should  be  found  provided  with  the  most  modern  ordnance 
and  held  by  a  sufficient  garrison,  Erzerum  may  still  earn  the 
glory  of  owing  her  preservation  to  the  sword  rather  than  to  the 
pen. 

But  not  only  is  this  fortress  the  key  to  Turkish  Armenia  ; 
it  also  defends  the  most  important  of  her  trade  routes.  The 
principal  avenue  of  the  commerce  between  Europe  and  northern 
Persia  passes  through  Erzerum.  This  traffic,  which  is  conducted 
by  means  of  numerous  strings  of  camels,  was  originally  founded 
by  the  Genoese.  Its  flourishing  condition  long  after  the  disappear- 
ance of  these  great  merchants  is  attested  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.^  As  early  as  the 
year  1690  we  hear  of  a  British  commercial  agent  residing  in 
the  city.-  In  those  days  even  a  portion  of  the  trade  with  India 
found  its  way  through  Erzerum.  After  the  initiation  of  a 
service  of  steamers  on  the  Black  Sea  in  the  year  1836,  the  land 
routes  between  the  provincial  capital  and  Constantinople  or  the 
Mediterranean  ports  gradually  fell  into  disuse.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  trade  itself  received  a  great  impulse,  and  has  continued 
to  increase  year  by  year  to  the  present  day.  In  place  of  the 
almost  endless  stages  of  land  carriage  through  Asia  Minor, 
European  steamers  discharge  their  goods  at  the  port  of  Trebizond, 
whence  they  are  conveyed  on  the  backs  of  camels  through 
Erzerum  and  along  a  series  of  plains  to  the  Persian  city  of  Tabriz. 
In  the  year  1842  it  was  ascertained  that  the  number  of  packages 
disembarked  at  Trebizond  in  transit  for  Persia  was  about  32,000. 
In    1898    this   trade   had   increased   to    over    5000   tons;   and   in 

1  The  Jesuit  father,  Thomas  Charles  Fleurian  (Estat  prdsent  de  HArinhiie,  Paris, 
1694,  8vo,  p.  81),  speaks  of  Erzerum  as  ''  capitale  de  la  haute  Armenie  sous  la  domination 
du  Grand  Seigneur  .  .  .  une  fort  grande  ville  .  .  .  fort  peuplee  et  fort  riche  ;  c'est  le 
centre  du  commerce  de  tous  ces  pais-la.  Les  caravanes  qui  vont  de  Perse  a  Alep,  ou 
a  Smirne,  ou  a  Constantinople  ;  ou  celles  qui  viennent  de  ces  memes  endroits  en  Perse 
passent  toutes  a  Erzerom." 

-  Tournefort,  Voyage  an  LcvaJit,  Paris,  17 17,  vol.  ii.  p.  279,  and  cp.  Schillinger, 
Persianische  tind  Ost-Indianische  Reise,  Niirnberg,  1707,  Svo,  p.  81.  It  is  a  relief  to 
read  the  warm  sentiments  of  Tournefort  towards  Mr.  Prescot  (such  was  the  name  of  the 
British  agent)  in  contrast  to  the  verjuice  with  which  our  contemporary  French  travellers 
think  it  their  duty  to  steep  their  pens  when  speaking  of  English  enterprise  or  its  agents 
in  distant  lands.  The  contrast  enables  us  to  measure  the  difference  between  the  France 
of  Louis  XIV.  and  that  of  the  Presidents. 


2o6  Ar^nenia 

a  normal  year  the  value  of  the  imports  into  Persia  is  about 
^600,000.  About  two -thirds  of  this  trade  belongs  to  Great 
Britain.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  trunk  railway  which  already 
exists  in  Asia  Minor  will  be  extended  to  Erzerum,  where  it  should 
be  joined  by  a  branch  line  from  Rizeh  or  Trebizond.  From 
Erzerum  it  could  be  continued  without  the  intervention  of  any 
natural  obstacle  through  Bayazid  to  Tabriz  ;  and  from  Tabriz  it 
would  proceed  through  Teheran  and  Ispahan  until  it  effected  a 
junction  with  the  Indian  railways.  The  capital  to  construct  this 
railway  should  be  subscribed  in  Europe  generally  ;  and  a  certain 
percentage  of  interest  should  be  guaranteed  on  the  revenues  of 
Turkish  Armenia  as  a  provincial  unit,  as  well  as  on  the  revenues 
of  Persia. 

The  population  of  Erzerum,  especially  the  Armenian  element, 
has  undergone  a  remarkable  oscillation  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  1827  it  appears  to  have  numbered  as  many  as 
130,000  souls. ^  Another  but  lower  estimate  gives  a  total  at  that 
period  of  16,378  families,  or  from  80,000  to  100,000  souls.  Of 
these  3950  families,  or  from  19,000  to  24,000  people,  were 
Armenians  of  the  national  religion."  The  Russian  occupation  of 
the  city  in  1829  was  followed  in  1830  by  a  general  emigration  of 
the  Armenian  inhabitants,  who  followed  the  Russian  armies  upon 
its  evacuation.  Those  were  the  days  when  Russia  was  assisted  to 
her  conquests  by  Armenians  and  hailed  by  them  as  a  deliverer. 
Numbers  of  their  countrymen — it  is  said  by  Armenians  not  less 
than  40,000 — had  already  emigrated  into  the  Russian  provinces 
from  the  frontier  districts  of  Persia  in  the  train  of  the  Russian 
army  when  it  retired  from  Tabriz  at  the  peace  of  Turkomanchai 
(1828).^  What  with  the  exodus  of  Armenians  both  from  the  city 
and  the  plain — which  before  those  times  was  probably  inhabited 
by  an  Armenian  majority — and  the  various  calamities  of  a  dis- 
astrous war,  the  population  of  Erzerum  had  declined  to  a  total 
of  not  more  than  15,000  souls  in  1835.'*  Only  120  Armenian 
families  are  said  to  have  remained   behind.'      At   the   time  of  my 

1   V>t7LXi\\n  Joitr>ial  K.G.S.  1836,  p.  201. 

-  Smith  and  Uwight  in  op.  cit.  p.  64.  There  were  also  645  famihes  of  Armenian 
Catholics  and  50  of  Greeks.     The  remainder  were  Mussulmans. 

^  C.  F.  Neumann,  Geschichtc  dcr  Ucbersiedliing  von  40,000  Arnieniern  welche  itn 
Jahre  1828  aits  der  Pcrsischoi  Provinz  Adebaidschan  nacli  Ritssland  anivanderten  (from 
Russian  of  S.  Glinka),  Leipzig,  1834,  Svo. 

■*  Brant,  loc.  cit.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  not  less  than  60,000  Armenians, 
headed  by  their  bishop,  accompanied  the  retirement  of  Paskevich's  army. 

■'  Smith  and  Dwight,  op.  cit.  p.  441. 


E7'zertim 


207 


first  visit  the  inhabitants  numbered  about  40,000,  exclusive  of 
a  garrison  of  5000  or  6000  men.  The  official  figures  assigned 
some  10,500  to  the  Armenians,  26,500  to  the  Mussulmans,  1400 
to  the  Persians  and  strangers,  and  about  500  to  the  Greeks.  Of 
the  Armenians  some  500  succumbed  in  the  great  massacre  of 
1898.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  town  has  been  returning 
to  its  former  condition  ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  with 
the  most   moderate  instalment  of  tolerable  government  the  older 


F-,iSf^?&: 


Fig.  164.    Erzerum  and  its  Plain  from  the  South. 

figures  would  be  soon  surpassed.  I  was  informed  by  the  Persian 
Consul  that  some  30,000  to  40,000  head  of  camel  were  yearly 
counted  as  having  passed  through  the  city.  The  money  spent  by 
their  owners  for  provisions  and  sundries  in  Erzerum  amounts  to 
about  i^T90,ooo  or,  in  sterling,  iJ^8 1,000  a  year.  Such  is  the 
value  to  the  city  of  the  Persian  trade. 

The  aspect  of  Erzerum,  when  seen  from  without,  is  sombre 
and  unattractive.  This  impression  is  principally  due  to  the  colour 
of  the  stone  of  which  it  is  built  and  to  the  scarcity  of  trees.  I 
am  tempted  to  offer  my  reader  two  illustrations  of  the  place,  the 
one  taken  from  the    higher  ground  on  the  south,  and  displaying 


2o8  Aruienia 

the  features  of  the  great  plain  with  the  city  in  the  foreground  and 
in  the  distance  the  lofty  outline  of  the  northern  heights  (Fig.  164)  ; 
the  other  looking  south-west  from  the  roof  of  the  British  Consulate, 
with  the  castle  in  relief  against  the  slopes  of  the  Eyerli  Dagh  on 
the  right  of  the  picture  (Fig.  165).  This  view  does  not  comprise 
the  peak  of  Palandoken,  situated  a  little  further  to  the  left.  The 
eminence  in  the  centre  is  a  nameless  mass,  intermediate  between 
the  two  greater  mountains  and  screening  the  cirque  from  the 
plain.  A  curious  feature  in  the  landscape  of  the  city,  when  seen 
from  very  near,  are  the  chimneys,  which  look  like  rows  of  dove- 
cots. The  smoke  escapes  at  the  sides.  It  is  strange  that  the 
inhabitants  display  so  little  love  of  verdure,  for  the  sun  is  always 
brilliant  and  productive  of  glaring  lights,  while  during  two  or 
three  months  of  the  year  its  rays  are  fierce.  The  few  gardens  that 
there  are  grow  quantities  of  lilac,  of  a  perfection  of  bloom  and 
colouring  and  perfume  which  surpasses  any  examples  I  have  seen 
elsewhere.  Abundance  of  delicious  water  flows  down  from  the 
heights  on  the  north  ;  and  under  happier  circumstances  the  slopes 
and  the  plain  outside  the  city  would  be  dotted  with  dwellings 
embowered  in  trees.  At  the  present  day,  when  once  you  have 
passed  outside  the  enceinte,  you  feel  like  a  ship  which  has  taken 
to  the  open  sea.  Not  a  hedgerow,  no  oasis  of  foliage  diversifies 
and  softens  the  naked  and  vast  expanse.  You  steer  your  course 
whither  you  will.  For  at  least  five  months  in  the  year  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow — an  unbroken  sheet  spread  over 
mountain  and  plain.  Little  specks  in  the  landscape  are  recognised 
as  villages  ;  and  now  and  again  a  gliding  object — it  might  be  a 
boat  on  the  ocean — moves  swiftly  towards  the  city  and,  approach- 
ing nearer,  is  seen  to  be  a  sledge.  The  climate  of  Erzerum  has 
been  compared  to  that  of  St.  Petersburg,  but  the  comparison  is 
most  unhappy  and  in  many  respects  fallacious.  Sun  and  sky 
belong  essentially  to  the  South.  It  is  only  the  great  altitude  of 
over  6000  feet  above  sea-level  that  produces  the  rigour  of  winter 
and  the  crispness  of  the  summer  nights.  My  daily  observations 
of  temperature  during  the  months  of  December  and  January 
supply  the  following  results.  In  December  the  highest  reading 
at  9  A.M.  was  37°  Fahrenheit,  or  5"  above  freezing-point  ;  and 
the  lowest  at  the  same  time  of  the  day  was  8°,  or  24"  of 
frost.  During  January  the  maximum  at  10  A.M.  was  30° 
Fahrenheit,  and  the  minimum  at  the  same  hour  was  1 8^° 
centigrade,  or   3°    below   zero   of   Fahrenheit.       Double  windows 


u  d 

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Erzeruin  209 

and  German  stoves  are  necessaries  in  such  a  climate  ;  and,  as  you 
take  your  ride  of  an  afternoon  and  gallop  over  the  powdery  snow, 
it  is  necessary  to  protect  the  ears  against  frost-bite.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  not^easy  to  realise  the  severity  of  the  weather,  so 
brilliant  are  the  rays  of  the  sun.  And  the  warmth  of  walking 
exercise  completes  the  illusion  of  a  snowfall  in  summer,  while 
your  spaniel  ranges  widely  over  the  endless  white  surface,  intent 
upon  his  forbidden  pursuit  of  the  larks. 

The  charm  of  the  place — and  it  has  a  charm  which  must 
appeal  to  all  sensitive  minds — consists  in  the  grandiose  scale  of 
the  surroundings — the  sculpturesque  beauties  of  the  parallel  lines 
of  mountain  which  meet  in  the  perspective  of  the  west ;  the  subtle 
effects  of  light  and  tint,  which  are  those  of  some  summit  in  the 
mountains  transferred  to  the  habitable  earth.  The  setting  of 
the  sun  and  the  rising  of  the  moon  reflect  the  originality  of  such 
conditions.  The  plain  itself  must  be  close  upon  6000  feet  high  ; 
it  has  a  length,  from  west  to  east,  of  eighteen  miles,  and  it  is 
not  less  than  some  ten  miles  across.^  In  its  trough  lies  the 
infant  stream  of  the  Western  Euphrates,  which,  rising  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Dumlii  Dagh,"'  a  mountain  of  the  northern  border, 
is  for  some  little  distance  lost  in  a  zone  of  marshes,  almost 
opposite  the  city  but  not  less  than  about  five  miles  away.  These 
marshes  are  quite  an  aviary  of  all  kinds  of  wildfowl,  which, 
besides  supplying  eggs  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring 
villages,  afford  most  excellent  opportunities  to  the  sportsman. 

The  enceinte,  or  circumvallation  of  Erzerum  was  constructed 
during  the  period  between  the  war  of  1855  ^^^  that  of  1877. 
It  consists  of  a  rampart  or  ramparts  of  earth  with  ditches,  and 
resembles  the  enceinte  of  Paris.  Cannons  are  mounted  upon  it 
at  intervals.  It  embraces  an  area  of  about  three  square  miles, 
and  is  furnished  wath  four  principal  gates.  That  on  the  west  is 
called  the  gate  of  Erzinjan,  and  the  one  on  the  east  the  gate  of 
Tabriz.  The  gates  on  the  north  and  south-west  are  named 
respectively  the  Olti  and  Kharput  gates.  Each  gate  is  guarded 
by    sentries.      The   space    enclosed    within    this    rampart    is    only 

^  The  plain  of  Erzerum  may  be  said  to  commence  on  the  west  at  the  village  of 
Titgir. 

2  The  excursion  to  the  DiimlU  Dagh  is  a  favourite  one  in  summer.  The  sources  of 
the  Kara  Su,  or  Western  Euphrates,  have  been  visited  and  described  by  Wagner  {Reise 
nach  Persiett,  Leipzig,  1852,  vol.  i.  pp.  237  seq.)  and  by  Strecker  {Zeitschrift  fi'ir 
Erdkiinde,  Berlin,  1869,  pp.  159  seq.).  For  a  catalogue  of  the  various  species  of  birds 
found  in  the  marshes  of  the  Kara  Su  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Erzerum  see  Curzon, 
Armenia,  London,   1854,  chap.  x.  pp.   143  seq. 

VOL.  II  P 


2IO  Armenia 

partially  covered  by  buildings,  the  town  occupying  not  more  than 
about  a  square  mile  of  ground.  Down  to  comparatively  recent 
times  Erzerum  consisted  of  a  citadel  and  walled  city,  with  suburbs 
lying  outside  the  walls.  These  walls,  which  dated  back  to  the 
Byzantine  period,  were  double  and  defended  by  sixty-two  towers. 
They  were  further  protected  by  a  moat.  Their  circumference 
appears  to  have  been  not  less  than  three  or  four  miles,  and  no 
Christian  was  allowed  to  reside  within  them.  They  were  provided 
with  four  gates,  bearing  the  same  names  as  those  in  the  present 
enceinte.  Texier,  who  visited  Erzerum  in  1839,  records  that 
Greek  characters  were  to  be  seen  upon  the  gates,  and  crosses 
incised  in  the  stones  of  the  walls.  Both  features  were  evidently 
of  Byzantine  origin.  His  authoritative  testimony  is  supported 
by  at  least  two  of  his  predecessors,  Hamilton  (1836)  and  Poser 
(162 1 ).  The  last-mentioned  traveller  describes  a  marble  bas- 
relief  and  Greek  inscription  which  he  saw  upon  one  of  the  gates. 
I  have  little  doubt  that  this  bas-relief  is  the  same  of  which  Yusuf 
spoke  to  me  as  having  been  copied  by  Consul  Taylor  in  the 
sixties  and  taken  to  the  British  Museum.  The  document  is, 
however,  not  forthcoming  in  our  national  treasure-house,  and  the 
original  has  disappeared.  Only  in  the  central  and  more  southerly 
quarters  of  Erzerum  did  I  observe  a  few  remnants  of  the  old 
walls.  The  citadel  is  still  in  existence,  crowning  the  highest 
ground  in  the  city,  and  it  still  contains  the  famous  old  tower. 
It  seems  to  have  served  as  a  watch-tower,  and  was  provided 
with  a  clock  which  the  Russians  carried  away  in  1830.  In 
old  days  the  captain  of  the  Janissaries  resided  in  the  citadel  ; 
and  the  only  occasion  upon  which  a  pasha  of  Erzerum  would 
enter  that  sanctuary  was  if  he  came  to  have  his  head  cut  off.^ 

Not  many  ancient  buildings  remain  in  the  city,  which  has 
not  seldom  been  visited  by  severe  earthquakes.  One  of  the 
most  violent  occurred  in  the  month  of  June  1859,  destroying  or 
seriously  damaging  4500  houses,  overturning  several  portions  of 

^  For  the  citadel  and  old  walls  of  Erzerum  the  following  works  may  be  consulted  : — 
Reyse  von  Coustantiiiopel,  etc.,  by  the  Hoch  Edelgeborener  Herr  Heinrich  von  Poser 
und  Gross -Nedlitz,  Jena,  1675,  4°  ;  Tournefort,  Voyage  au  Levant,  Paris,  1717, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  260  seq.;  Moiier,  J^onrney  through  Persia,  Armenia,  etc.,- London,  1812, 
pp.  J^IO  seq.;  Macdonald  ¥Jmx\€\x,  Journey  through  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  etc.,  London, 
18 18,  pp.  366  seq.;  Hamilton,  /Researches  in  Asia  Minor,  Poiitus  and  Armenia, 
London,  1842,  vol.  i.  pp.  178  seq.;  Texier,  Description  de  rArnit'nie,  Paris,  1842, 
part  i.  pp.  68  seq.;  Koch,  Reise  im  pontischen  Gebirge  und  tiirkischen  Annenien, 
Weimar,  1846,  pp.  274  seq.,  and  Curzon  and  Wagner  /;/  operihus  citatis.  Koch  informs 
us  of  a  Cufic  inscription  on  the  watch-tower  in  the  citadel  which  was  copied  by  his 
companion,  Dr  Rosen.      He  adds  that  it  would  be  published  in  due  course. 


Fig.  166.    Lrzerum:  Chifteh  IVIinareh. 


Erzerum  211 

the  old  walls  and  levelling  nine  minarets  with  the  ground.^  The 
most  pretentious  edifice  is  the  old  medresseh  or  college,  called 
Chifteh  Minareh  or  the  double  minaret  (Fig.  166).  My  illustra- Chifteh 
tion  is  from  a  photograph  taken  many  years  ago,  before  the  '  '"^'"*^  • 
caps  of  both  minarets  had  fallen  away.  I  was  unable  to  obtain 
permission  to  enter  the  edifice,  which  was  being  used  as  a  military 
store.  It  has  been  described  at  some  length  by  more  than  one 
of  my  predecessors,  and  it  is,  I  believe,  an  architectural  solecism." 
The  facade  of  hewn  stone  with  elaborate  traceries  contrasts  with 
the  brickwork  of  the  pair  of  circular  towers  which  rise  from  stone 
piers  on  either  side.  The  circumference  of  each  tower  is  diversified 
by  eighteen  small  shafts,  morticed  into  the  main  mass.  The 
space  between  each  pair  of  shafts  is  filled  by  a  triangular  mould- 
ing, of  which  the  edge  or  narrow  side  faces  outwards.  Shafts  and 
moulding  are  built  of  reddish  kiln-burnt  bricks,  inlaid  with  small 
blue  bricks.  At  the  base  of  either  pier  is  a  large  panel,  framing 
an  elaborate  ornament  in  sculptured  stone.  Between  the  upper- 
most sprays  of  a  bunch  of  foliage  or  feathers  rests  the  device  of 
a  double-headed  eagle.  The  stalks  or  quills  of  the  garland  rest 
in  the  hollow  of  a  small  semicircle,  which  is  supported  by  the 
interlaced  forms  of  two  dragons.  The  question  is  suggested 
whether  this  double-headed  eagle  be  the  well-known  emblem  of 
the  Roman  empire  over  East  and  West.  But  we  know  that  the 
emblem  was  adopted  by  the  Seljuk  dynasty  of  the  Ortukids  and 
by  their  successors  the  Ayubids  ;  ^  and,  indeed,  if  one  were  left  to 
one's  own  judgment,  one  might  well  suppose  that  this  was  a 
monument  of  the  Seljuk  period.  On  the  other  hand,  a  Cufic 
inscription,  communicated  to  Professor  Koch  in  the  forties  by  the 
dragoman  of  the  British  Consulate,  is  to  the  effect  that  this 
building  and  an  adjacent  mosque  were  founded  by  a  nameless 
benefactor  during  the  caliphate  of  Malek  Khan  and  in  the  year 
of  the  Hegira  351  (A.D.  962).  The  inscription  is  described  as 
consisting  of  two  portions,  one  on  either  tower.'*      Personally   I 

1  Dalyell  \n  Journal  K.G.S.  1863,  p.  235  ;  Dove,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Erdkiindc,  Berlin, 
1859,  p.  67.  The  older  travellers  mention  the  circumstance  that  the  houses  in  Erzerum 
were  constructed  of  wood.      Now  they  are  all  built  of  stone. 

2  I  would  refer  my  reader  to  the  accounts  of  Hamilton,  Texier,  Curzon,  Koch  and 
Tozer. 

2  The  Merchant  in  Persia,  who  travelled  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
noticed  the  emblem  of  an  eagle  with  two  heads  and  two  crowns  on  the  buildings  of 
Diarbekr,  once  the  capital  of  the  Ortukids,  and  mistook  it  for  the  imperial  arms.  See 
the  translation  of  his  work  by  Charles  Grey  {Italian  Travels  in  Persia,  Hakluyt  Society, 
London,   1873). 

*   Koch,  Rcisc  im  pontischcn  Gebirge,  etc.,  Weimar,  1846,  p.  2S4. 


212 


Armenia 


Ulu  Jami. 


Relics  of  the 
old  walls. 


Holy  well. 


could  not  discover  any  trace  of  Cufic  writing,  nor,  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  has  such  been  observed  upon  this  monument  by  any  of 
my  predecessors.  Adjoining  the  building  on  the  south  side  is  a 
circular  tomb  in  hewn  stone,  resembling  the  mausolea  at  Akhlat, 
which  are  works  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Tradition  ascribes 
the  tomb  to  a  Sultan  of  Persia.^ 

The  large  mosque  of  Ulu  Jami  is  not  more  than  a  few  steps 
distant  from  the  entrance  to  Chifteh  Minareh.  It  has  rather  a 
vast  interior  with  several  vaulted  aisles  ;  but  it  is  devoid  of 
architectural  pretensions.  I  was  shown  an  ancient  paper  be- 
longing to  this  mosque,  in  which  it  was  stated  that  it  had  been 
built  by  the  Head  of  the  Government  and  Religion,  Mohammed 
el-Fateh,  in  A.H.  575  or  A.D.  i  179. 

The  most  pleasing  situation  in  the  city  is  that  which  is 
presented  by  the  disposition  of  the  buildings  as  you  make  your 
way  southwards  up  an  irregular  ravine  or  gully,  down  which 
trickles  a  little  stream.  On  your  right  hand  the  high  ground  is 
crowned  by  the  bastions  of  the  citadel  ;  while  to  your  front,  on 
the  same  heights  a  little  south  of  these  grim  walls,  rise  the 
slender  towers  of  Chifteh  Minareh.  The  slopes  on  the  east  are 
much  gentler,  and  are  covered  with  houses,  terraced  up  the 
incline.  Here  and  there  you  may  discern  a  pile  of  stones,  or  a 
block  of  masonry  abutting  on  a  house.  These  fragments  are  the 
relics  of  the  old  walls,  which  formerly  separated  the  great 
mosque,  the  Chifteh  Minareh  and  the  citadel  from  the  suburbs 
with  which  these  buildings  are  now  continuous.  One  may  turn 
aside  among  the  houses  to  visit  a  holy  well,  which  is  frequented 
by  both  Mussulmans  and  Armenians.  The  former  assert  that  it 
is  situated  on  the  spot  where  the  successor  of  Sheikh  Abdul 
Kader  of  Baghdad  is  said  to  have  met  his  death.  The  latter 
attribute  its  origin  to  a  miracle,  by  which  the  water  welled  up 
from  the  ground  upon  which  was  shed  the  blood  of  two  of  their 
martyrs,  the  brothers  Isaac  and  Joseph.  They  met  their  fate  in 
A.D.  796.^  The  spring  rises  from  the  mud  floor  of  a  humble  little 
house,  and  is  quite  tepid  to  the  touch. 


1  Hamilton  was  informed  by  his  guide  that  the  Chifteh  Minareh  itself  was  built  by  a 
Sultan  of  Iran  "  570  years  ago."  That  was  in  1836.  The  same  traveller  speaks  of  a 
building  in  Erzerum  somewhat  resembling  Chifteh  Minareh  but  with  one  minaret  only. 
It  seems  to  be  the  same  as  that  described  by  Texier  under  the  name  of  Mourgo-Serai. 
I  was  assured  that  no  such  edifice  exists  at  the  present  day. 

-  Samuel  of  Ani  in  Migne,  Patrologicc  cursiis  coniplctus,  series  Gra:ca,  Paris,  1857, 
vol.  xix.  p.  706. 


Erzerum  213 

I  need  not  detain  my  reader  with  any  description  of  the 
churches,  because  Erzerum  has  always  differed  from  other  Churches. 
Armenian  centres  in  not  possessing  any  remarkable  Armenian 
temples.  The  early  travellers  speak  of  two  insignificant  chapels, 
and  one  of  these  still  remains.  During  the  forties  the  Armenian 
inhabitants  set  about  building  a  more  spacious  edifice ;  and 
Curzon  tells  an  interesting  story  in  connection  with  the  enterprise, 
which  may  explain  the  origin  of  the  number  of  old  sculptured 
stones  which  are  such  a  feature  in  the  walls  of  many  an  Armenian 
church.  The  priests,  he  says,  urged  their  flock  to  bring  in  the 
tombstones  of  their  ancestors  ;  and  the  response  was  so  warm 
that  there  was  quite  a  rush  of  able-bodied  Armenians,  carrying 
tombstones  from  the  graves  of  their  families  on  their  backs. 
Many  were  unable  to  obtain  a  place  in  the  walls  or  windows  for 
their  contribution  to  the  structure  of  the  house  of  God.^  I  do 
not  know  whether  the  edifice  of  which  this  traveller  speaks  is  the 
same  as  the  present  cathedral.  In  addition  to  the  little  chapel  of 
which  I  have  spoken,  this  is  the  only  church  of  the  Gregorian 
community  of  Erzerum.  The  city  is  the  centre  of  one  of  their 
dioceses  and  was  inhabited  by  a  bishop  at  the  time  of  my  stay. 
Monsignor  Shishmanean  —  such  was  the  name  and  title  under 
which  I  was  introduced  to  this  prelate — received  me  with  some 
show  of  state,  being  attended  by  all  the  members  of  his  lay 
council.      He  conversed  quite  fluently  in  the  French  language. 

The  popular  basis  of  the  Armenian  Church  is  one  of  its  most 
remarkable  features,  and,  with  the  rapid  spread  of  education 
which  is  now  in  process  among  the  community,  ought  before 
long  to  be  productive  of  far-reaching  reforms.  This  lay  council 
consists  of  notables  chosen  by  the  people  ;  and,  in  a  vacancy  of 
the  see,  the  patriarch  at  Constantinople  submits  to  them  the  names 
of  candidates  among  whom  to  choose  a  successor  to  their  late 
bishop.  In  Erzerum  this  lay  body  is  an  operative  factor  in  the 
life  of  the  community  ;  but  I  doubt  whether  its  counterpart  could 
be  discovered  in  such  centres  as  Bitlis  or  Mush.  It  exercises  con- 
siderable influence  in  the  government  of  the  Sanasarean  school,  Sanasarean 
to  a  brief  account  of  which  I  now  proceed. 

The  origin  of  this  institution — designed  to  dispense  a  higher  standard 
of  education  than  that  which  obtains  in  other  Armenian  schools  in 
Turkish  Armenia — goes  back  to  18S1.  In  that  year  Mr.  Madatean,  one 
of   the   three   existing   Directors,    visited   the    provincial    centres   at    the 

1  See  also  Vol.  I.  Ch.  XVI.  p.  261. 


2  14  Armenia 

invitation  of  a  wealthy  Armenian  gentleman,  the  late  Mr.  Sanasarean.  He 
returned  to  Erzerum  with  several  pupils,  chosen  among  the  poorer  class. 
In  1883  the  school  entered  upon  its  present  premises,  which  have  been 
considerably  enlarged  since.  .Its  patron,  Mr.  Sanasarean,  died  in  1890, 
bequeathing  a  sum  of  about  ^30,000  to  his  foundation  and  directing  his 
executors  to  draw  up  a  constitution.  This  charge  has  now  been  fulfilled. 
Two  councils  have  been  appointed — one  at  Constantinople  under  the 
presidency  of  the  patriarch,  and  the  other  at  Erzerum  under  that  of  the 
bishop.  Thus  the  college  is  under  the  protection  of  the  Church ;  and  it 
is  with  the  patriarch  or  the  bishop  that  Government  deals.  Three 
Directors  were  chosen  to  preside  over  the  teaching  staff,  and  to  dispense 
instruction  themselves.  The  council  of  Erzerum  consists  of  this 
triumvirate,  who  hold  office  for  life,  and  of  three  notables,  one  of  whom 
vacates  his  charge  every  year.  It  has  also  been  provided  that,  upon  the 
decease  of  any  member  of  the  triumvirate,  his  colleagues  shall  take  his 
place  until  the  number  shall  have  been  reduced  to  one,  so  that  eventually 
there  may  be  only  a  single  Director.  Of  the  two  councils  that  al 
Constantinople  is  supreme.  They  administer  the  revenues,  which  have 
been  increased  since  the  death  of  the  founder  by  the  receipt  of  at  least 
one  substantial  legacy.  The  institution  has  been  launched  with  every 
promise  of  success,  although  it  seems  likely  to  be  destined  to  undergo 
vicissitudes  before  attaining  a  full  measure  of  usefulness. 

The  Sanasarean  college  is  essentially  a  boarding  college,  and  day 
pupils  are  not  encouraged.  It  has  a  roll  of  not  more  than  about  eighty 
inmates,  of  whom  nearly  half  are  the  sons  of  parents  in  narrow  circum- 
stances, and  pay  nothing  for  maintenance.  About  fifteen  youths  are 
natives  of  Erzerum,  and  the  rest  are  derived  from  the  provinces.  A  few 
will  have  journeyed  hither  all  the  way  from  Constantinople.  It  is  expected 
of  the  gratuitous  scholars  that  they  shall  all  become  teachers  in  the  various 
Armenian  schools  throughout  Turkey.  Of  the  sixty  members  who  had 
already  completed  the  course  at  the  time  of  my  visit  one-half  had  adopted 
the  scholastic  profession.  I  went  carefully  over  the  school,  and  was 
delighted  with  the  arrangements.  The  dormitories  are  large  and  kept 
scrupulously  clean,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  classrooms.  There 
are  a  hospital  attached  and  a  playground.  The  technical  school  is  well 
provided  with  lathes  and  all  kinds  of  implements,  and  some  excellent 
work  is  forthcoming  from  the  young  handicraftsmen.  Boys  enter  the 
college  in  about  their  tenth  year,  and  leave  at  the  age  of  seventeen  or 
eighteen. 

The  course  comprises  a  preparatory  class  and  six  higher  classes.  The 
subjects  taught  are  in  the  first  place  the  Armenian  and  the  Turkish 
languages,  the  former  comprising  both  the  ancient  and  the  modern  speech. 
Of  foreign  tongues  French  and  German  are  included,  but  neither  Latin 
nor  Greek.  The  history  of  the  Armenian  Church  and  nation  is  imparted 
under  great  difficulties  and  without  the  aid  of  books.  These  would  be 
confiscated  by  the  Censor.  In  mathematics  the  curriculum  provides  for 
algebra  and  geometry ;  and  in  natural  science  for  geography,  geology, 
botany,  zoology,  astronomy,  anatomy,  chemistry,  and  physics.     Commercial 


Erzerum 


215 


book-keeping  can  also  be  learnt.  Music  is  studied  and  practised  with 
much  appreciation,  and  there  are  several  tolerable  performers  on  the 
violin.  The  prospectus  of  studies  must  by.  law  be  submitted  to  Govern- 
ment ;  but  the  Mudir  or  local  director  of  public  instruction  confines  his 
energies  to  an  occasional  and  friendly  visit.'  Most  of  the  text- books  are 
German.  The  teaching  staff  numbers-  twelve  members,  including  the 
Directors  ;  the  French  master  had  recently  arrived  from  France.  It  is 
desired  that  the  teachers  should  have  passed  through  this  school,  and 
then  have   rnmpletcd   their  studies  in   Europe.      A  certain   portion   of  the 


Fig.  167.    Armenian  Youths. 

funds  have  been  set  aside  to  meet  the  expenses  of  one  or  two  students 
during  their  residence  abroad.  Two  have  already  proceeded  to  St. 
Petersburg,  and  two  more  are  about  to  leave  for  Reichenberg  in  Bohemia 
in  order  to  study  in  a  technical  school. 

I  offer  my  reader  a  group  of  the  scholars  of  this  institution,  with  a 
picture  of  the  founder  in  their  midst  (Fig.  167).  The  faces  are  full  of 
character  and  determination.  Nor  should  I  wish  to  omit  a  similar 
group  of  the  comely  maidens  of  Armenia,  taken  at  Edgmiatsin  and  showing 
the  national  dress  (Fig.  168).  I  received  the  impression  that  there  was 
something  wanting  to  the  vitality  of  the  school,  that  the  pupils  were  not 
using  their  talents  to  the  best  advantage.  For  instance,  when  I  asked 
them  for  the  result  of  x^y  x  x-y,  they  were  obliged  to  make  the  sum 


2l6 


Arinenia 


and  could  not  supply  the  result  off-hand.  Personally  the  Directors  are 
charming  men,  neither  self-assertive  nor  obsequious.  All  three  have 
studied  in  Germany ;  but  not  one  of  them  has  taken  his  doctor's  degree. 
They  told  me  that  they  had  in  this  obeyed  the  expressed  desire  of  their 
patron,  M.  Sanasarean.  But,  although  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they 
made  excellent  use  of  their  opportunities,  it  is  most  pernicious  to  the 
interests  of  the  school  that  their  example  should  be  made  a  precedent. 
By  what  means  can  the  Council  ensure  that  the  young  men  sent  abroad 
to  study  have  really  penetrated  into  the  inner  circle  of  European  scholar- 
ship ?     Only  by  requiring  that  they  should  not  return  without  obtaining 


Fig.  168.    Armenian  Maidens. 

its  badge.  It  also  seemed  to  me  strange  that  the  pupils  passed  from 
class  to  class  by  length  of  residence  rather  than  by  merit.  Other 
drawbacks,  the  first  of  which  might  be  easily  remedied,  were  the 
absence  of  sports  and  games  as  a  prominent  feature  of  school  life,  the 
want  of  touch  with  the  Armenian  schools  in  the  Russian  provinces,  and 
the  unreality  of  the  diplomas  granted  by  the  institution,  which  have  not 
as  yet  become  the  key  to  a  variety  of  careers.  The  fact,  too,  that  the 
minds  of  the  Directors  have  been  filled  with  the  ]]edagogic  lore  of 
Germany  militates  against  success.  That  so-called  science  betrays  the 
weaknesses  of  the  powerful  German  intellect.  In  Germany  its  pedantic 
influence  is  counteracted  by  military  service;  but  this  wholesome  cor- 
rective is  wanting  to  the  Armenian  youth  of  Erzerum. 

In   addition   to    the    Sanasarean    college,  the   Gregorian    community 
possess  no   less    than    six   ordinary   schools.      Of  these   the   principal   is 


Erzerum  2 1 7 

attached  to  the  cathedral  and  is  named  Artsenean.  It  is  attended  by 
about  200  day  scholars,  and  corresponds  to  an  Armenian  school  of  two 
classes  in  Russia.  The  school  for  girls,  called  Ripsimean,  appeared  to  be 
well  administered;  it  has  a  roll  of  350  maidens.  The  Armenian  Armenian 
Catholics  of  Erzerum  province  number  several  thousands  of  souls  ;  and  the  Catholics 
city  is  the  seat  of  one  of  their  bishops.  Their  school,  which  is  conducted 
by  four  French  priests,  is  considered  one  of  the  best  in  the  town.  It  is 
attended  by  over  100  pupils,  of  whom  nearly  one-third  are  Gregorians. 
A  little  boy  of  three  did  the  honours  of  his  class,  when  I  availed  myself 
of  the  kind  invitation  of  "Cao.  freres.  He  addressed  me  in  the  following 
speech,  delivered  with  the  most  graceful  gestures  : — "  Monsieur  !  Soyez 
le  bienvenu  ;  que  le  ciel  vous  protege,  cher  Monsieur  !  " 

The  American  missionaries  have  a  large  establishment  with  schools  American 
in  Erzerum.  Their  mission  was  founded  in  1839.  It  was  presided  over  ™^^'°"^"^^- 
during  my  residence  by  the  Rev.  W.  N.  Chambers,  a  man  in  the  prime 
of  life  with  fine  physique  and  a  face  of  great  beauty,  which  corresponds 
to  the  nobility  and  sweetness  of  his  character.  His  wife  and  worthy 
companion — one  of  the  most  charming  and  refined  of  women — was 
perpetually  busy  with  her  girls'  school.  One  reflected  upon  the  value 
to  the  womanhood  of  the  Armenian  race  of  such  an  example  as  hers. 
In  taking  leave  of  the  American  missions,  it  is  pleasant  to  dwell  upon 
this  memory,  which,  indeed,  illustrates  the  kind  of  benefits  which  they 
confer  upon  the  country  better  than  all  the  figures  in  their  reports.  They 
raise  the  standard  of  life,  and  diffuse  an  atmosphere  of  wholesome 
living.  I  ought  to  add  that  their  missions  are  conducted  by  quite 
exceptional  men  and  women^ — of  a  type  and  perhaps  of  a  class  far  higher 
than  one  would  expect.  One  admires  in  them  a  broad  tolerance  and 
entire  absence  of  all  cant.  One  says  farewell  from  the  depth  of  the 
heart. 

Education  is  provided  for  the  Mussulman  population  by  a  single  but 
well-appointed  institution.  It  combines  the  courses  of  a  Rushdiyeh,  or  Rushdiyeh. 
High  School,  with  that  of  an  Idadiyeh  or  lycee.  It  is  housed  in  a  spacious  idadiyeh. 
new  building  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  I  found  it  occupied  by 
130  pupils,  of  whom  45  were  boarders.  Youths  enter  the  school  between 
their  eleventh  and  fifteenth  years,  and  stay  seven  years.  Of  this  period 
three  years  are  spent  in  the  lower  and  four  in  the  higher  course.  There 
are  about  eight  teachers.  The  majority  of  the  scholars  were  attired  in 
a  quasi-military  uniform  ;  the  rest  were  in  civil  dress.  All  looked  in 
excellent  health.  The  dormitories  were  provided  with  brass  bedsteads  ; 
and  I  noticed  that  the  linen  was  scrupulously  clean.  Shining  napkins 
were  spread  out  upon  the  table  of  the  dining-room,  which  was  lined  with 
a  row  of  chairs  and  provided  with  crockery.  Adjoining  the  school  is  a 
small  hospital.  The  course  comprises  the  same  subjects  as  those  in  the 
curricula  of  the  Van  schools  ;  and,  although  this  school  professes  to  dispense 
a  much  higher  standard,  it  is  in  fact  less  advanced  than  the  so-called  military 
school  at  Van.  This  is  the  only  Idadiyeh  in  Turkish  Armenia  ;  and  the 
admirable  official  who  acts  as  coadjutor  to  an  invisible  Director  of  Public 
Instruction  informed  me  that  in  the  year  preceding  my  visit  a  Govern- 


2i8  Armenia 

ment  order  had  been  issued,  to  the  effect  that  all  candidates  for  sub- 
ordinate posts  in  the  civil  service  should  be  required  to  produce  a 
diploma  from  an  Idadiyeh.  I  learnt  on  the  same  authority  that  there 
existed  a  Rushdiyeh  in  each  caza  of  the  vilayet  of  Erzerum  with  the 
exception  of  the  caza  of  Terjan. 

We  found  Erzerum  in  a  condition  verging  upon  famine. 
During  my  residence  several  people  died  of  inanition,  and  the 
poorer  classes  were  only  just  alive.  I  was  informed  that  there 
was  no  lack  of  grain  in  the  place  ;  but  it  was  all  in  the  hands  of 
merchants,  and  they  refused  to  sell  except  at  famine  prices.  A 
short  harvest  in  1892  had  been  followed  by  insufficient  sowing, 
owing  to  the  consumption  of  the  seed  for  food.  Grain  was  said 
to  be  lying  at  Trebizond  on  Government  account ;  but  the  officials 
pleaded  that  they  were  unable  to  obtain  transport.  Some  of  them, 
if  not  all,  were  no  doubt  confederates  of  the  Corn  Ring.  The 
same  state  of  things  was  prevalent  at  Van  ;  and  throughout  our 
journey  we  had  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  barley  for  our  horses, 
even  when  offering  exorbitant  prices.  One  may  present  some 
conception  of  the  acuteness  of  the  sufferings  of  the  townspeople 
by  recording  some  particulars  of  prices  and  wages.  Wheat  was 
selling  at  50  piasters  a  kilc,  or  about  2\  piasters  an  oke  (2|-  lbs.). 
The  price  of  bread  was  2  piasters  an  oke.  A  healthy  man  requires 
at  least  three-quarters  of  an  oke  of  bread  a  day,  in  addition  to  his 
ration  of  sheep's  tail  or  meat  sausage,  of  which  the  working  classes 
lay  in  a  provision  in  the  autumn.  The  wages  of  a  carpenter  or 
skilled  labourer  are  in  good  times  8  piasters  a  day.  But  hundreds 
of  workmen  were  seeking  employment  at  i  ?,  piasters,  and  the  best 
paid  among  the  makers  of  cigarettes  for  the  regie  were  receiving 
a  daily  wage  of  2  piasters.  Rice  at  Erzerum  is  quite  a  luxury, 
and  potatoes  are  so  little  grown  that  they  may  be  left  out  of 
account.  How  was  a  man  to  pay  for  his  lodging,  provide  food  for 
his  family  and  himself,  and  obtain  tezek,  or  cow-dung  cakes,  for  his 
fire  upon  the  current  wages  ?  I  was  shown  the  kind  of  bread 
upon  which  the  majority  were  living  ;  it  looked  like  a  thin  pan- 
cake, and  its  staple  consisted  of  a  black  grain  or  seed.  But  the 
principal  ingredient  was  mud  and  chopped  straw.  The  cruelty 
of  the  situation  was  accentuated  by  the  fact  that  all  kinds  of 
comestibles  were  spread  out  upon  the  booths  of  the  bazar.  One 
regretted  the  absence  of  the  glass  windows  of  our  shops.  Here 
the  temptation  might  be  touched  as  well  as  seen.  There  is  no 
poor-law,  and  no  poor-houses.      People  starve  in  the  Streets.      A 


Erzerum  2 1 9 

Mussulman  girl  of  great  beauty  came  to  our  house,  and  begged 
piteously  for  food,  showing  her  face.  We  endeavoured  to  obtain 
for  her  a  place  as  servant  in  the  residence  of  some  Turkish  ladies. 
But  it  was  well  known  that  there  was  many  a  brute  in  Erzerum 
who,  like  the  Spectre  of  Hunger  in  the  pregnant  lines  of  Alfred 
de  Musset,  demanded  kisses  as  the  price  of  a  piece  of  bread. 

The  economical  condition  of  the  surrounding  country  is  woeful 
in  the  extreme.  The  great  plains  from  Pasin  to  Lake  Van  were 
being  raided  by  bands  of  Kurds.  I  shall  describe  in  a  future 
chapter  how  this  predatory  people  came  to  be  established  in  the 
agricultural  centres.  Erzerum  was  full  of  accounts  of  their  open 
attacks  upon  the  industrious  peasantry  ;  and  even  the  Mussulmans, 
as,  for  instance,  at  Hasan  Kala  in  Pasin,  were  petitioning  Govern- 
ment for  protection.  It  is  true  they  did  not  dare  to  call  their 
assailants  to  book  as  Kurds,  but  described  them  merely  as 
brigands.  It  was  well  known  that  these  bands  were  led  by 
officers  in  Hamidiyeh  regiments — tenekelis,  or  tin-plate  men,  as 
they  are  called  by  the  populace,  from  the  brass  badges  they  wear 
in  their  caps.  The  frightened  officials,  obliged  to  report  such 
occurrences,  take  refuge  behind  the  amusing  euphemism  of 
such  a  phrase  as  "  brigands,  disguised  as  soldiers."  The  scourge 
had  almost  exhausted  the  Armenian  population,  and  was  now 
commencing  to  sit  heavy  upon  the  Mussulmans.  The  Armenians 
were  emigrating  as  fast  as  they  could.  The  Russian  Consul 
informed  me  that  he  had  been  obliged  to  issue  no  less  than  3500 
passports  to  Armenians  during  the  current  year.  The  Russians 
did  not  want  them  ;  but  what  were  they  to  do  ?  I  learnt  from 
another  source  that  in  the  caza  of  Khinis  alone  looo  Armenians 
had  left  their  homes,  the  majority  in  abject  poverty,  and  had  taken 
refuge  across  the  frontier. 

With  a  famine  in  the  provincial  capital  and  the  adjacent 
territory  stripped  by  marauders,  the  inhabitants  of  any  other 
country  would  have  risen  in  revolt  against  the  Government.  But 
the  population  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  spite  of  religious  differences, 
are  the  most  easily  governed  in  the  world.  All  the  talk  about 
Mussulmans  and  Christians  flying  at  each  other's  throat  is  talk, 
and  moreover  very  idle  talk.  During  my  subsequent  visits  to 
Erzerum  it  was  admitted  to  me  by  Turkish  officials  that  the 
massacres  of  1898  were  perpetrated  in  these  districts  by  bands  of 
imported  ruffians.  The  still  unavenged  guilt  of  these  abominable 
orgies   does   not   lie   upon   the   Mussulman    population.      Only  on 


2  20  Anneiiia 

one  occasion  during  my  residence  did  the  famished  townspeople 
of  the  doininant  reHgion  come  near  to  measures  of  insubordination. 
They  sent  their  women — a  method  of  petition  which  is  neither 
usual  nor  lightly  to  be  dismissed  —  in  a  body  to  Government 
House.  Thence  the  petitioners  proceeded  to  the  residence  of 
an  official  of  the  Treasury  at  Constantinople,  who  had  been 
despatched  to  Erzerum  to  make  enquiries  into  the  scarcity.  The 
indignant  matrons  assailed  his  ears  with  the  pertinent  question  : 
neye  geldin,  whereto  didst  thou  come  ?  Dissatisfied  with  the 
answer  they  received,  they  smashed  the  windows  of  the  function- 
ary ;  but  nothing  came  of  the  demonstration. 

All  through  that  anxious  time  the  civil  government  was  in 
abeyance  ;  and  nothing  was  set  up  in  its  place.  The  Vali  was 
recently  dead  ;  his  successor  had  not  been  chosen  ;  the  deputy 
Governor  was  at  once  a  puppet  and  an  imbecile.  An  honest  man 
with  a  few  policemen  at  his  back  could  restore  not  only  order  but 
prosperity.  There  is  only  one  essential  of  any  importance  :  to 
reorganise  the  territorial  boundaries  of  the  provinces,  select  good 
governors  and  invest  them  with  extensive  powers.  If  my  reader 
be  inclined  to  smile  at  the  choice  of  my  epithet  when  applied  to 
a  Turkish  official,  I  can  only  say  that  I  much  regret  my  inability 
to  introduce  him  personally  to  the  present  holder  of  the  office  of 
Vali  of  Erzerum.  I  was  privileged  to  make  the  acquaintance  of 
Raouf  Pasha  on  the  occasion  of  my  second  visit.  His  career 
through  a  long  life  has  been  one  of  much  distinction  ;  he  is 
honest,  just,  capable,  humane.  If  such  a  man  could  only  be 
freed  from  the  leading-strings  of  the  capital,  he  would  go  far 
towards  a  happy  settlement  of  the  Armenian  question,  and  of 
the  still  more  important  question,  the  continuance  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire. 

The  Armenian  inhabitants  of  the  provincial  capital  are  under- 
going a  state  of  transition  from  their  ancestral  customs  to  the  less 
straitened  manners  of  the  West.  But  these  customs  die  a  hard 
death,  and  the  emancipated  Armenian  who  has  studied  in  Europe 
must  feel  their  fetters  upon  his  return  to  his  native  land.  Let  us 
suppose  that  he  wishes  to  marry  ;  he  must  have  recourse  to  his 
mother,  or,  if  she  be  dead,  to  a  female  relation.  A  bride  is  chosen 
for  him,  whom,  as  likely  as  not,  he  does  not  see  until  the  marriage 
ceremony  has  been  performed.  If  the  parents  of  the  bridegroom 
be  still  alive,  the  newly-married  couple  reside  with  them  ;  and  it 
is   the   custom   that,  while   sons   and   daughters   are   permitted   to 


Erzertun 


221 


speak  to  their  parents,  a  similar  license  is  not  usually  accorded 
to  the  sons'  wives.  Thus  a  maiden  quits  a  home  where  freedom 
of  intercourse  and  speech  is  allowed  her  to  enter  one  where  she 
is  not  permitted  to  open  her  mouth.  A  son  may  not  smoke  in 
the  presence  of  his  father  ;  and  great  are  the  agonies  endured  jb}' 
the  younger  generation  in  this  respect  alone.  The  earnings  of 
the  sons  are  handed  over  to  the  father,  who  rules  the  family  quite 
in  the  patriarchal  style. 

A  single   family  comprises   a  very  large   number  of  members. 


Fig.  169.     Five  Generations  of  an  Armenian  Family. 

all  living  in  the  same  house.  In  one  house  in  which  I  visited 
there  were  not  less  than  thirty.  I  photographed  a  group  of  five 
generations  in  this  family,  each  person  being  in  direct  lineal 
descent.  The  infant  is  the  son  of  the  pretty  young  lady  on  the 
left  of  the  picture,  and  it  reposes  on  the  lap  of  her  great-grand- 
mother (Fig.  169). 

To  Erzerum  belongs  an  antiquity  which,  if  not  remote,  is  at 
least  respectable  ;  and  her  history,  or  rather  the  glimpses  which 
we  obtain  of  that  history,  illustrate  the  time-honoured  struggle 
between  East  and  West.  Founded  during  the  reign  of  the 
second  Theodosius  (a.d.  408-450),  at  the  instance  of  one  of  the 


222 


Armenia 


greatest  of  the  early  Armenian  patriarchs,  and  upon  the  site  of  a 
village  which  dated  from  ancient  times,^  the  new  city  received  the 
name  of  Theodosiopolis,  and  was  designed  to  constitute  an  outer 
bulwark  to  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  East.  In  the  description 
of  this  event  which  we  receive  from  Moses  of  Khorene  the 
traveller  recognises  the  familiar  surroundings  of  the  present  town. 
The  emissary  of  the  emperor  had  journeyed  over  an  extensive 
tract  of  country  in  search  of  a  suitable  site.  His  choice  at  length 
fell  upon  a  position  in  the  province  of  Karin,  at  the  foot  of 
a  mountain  in  which  several  rivulets  had  their  origin.  At  no 
great  distance  were  situated  the  sources  of  the  Euphrates,  which, 
collecting  into  a  sluggish  stream,  formed  a  large  marsh,  supporting 
abundance  of  wildfowl,  on  the  eggs  of  which  the  inhabitants 
lived.  The  province  lay  in  the  centre  of  the  country.  Upon 
this  site  were  laid  the  foundations  of  a  fortified  city,  defended 
by  moat  and  walls  and  towers.  Baths  of  solid  masonry  were 
erected  in  the  vicinity  over  the  hot  springs  which  welled  from  the 
ground." 

Seized  in  the  year.  502  by  the  Sasanian  king  of  Persia  at  the 
inception  of  his  war  with  Rome,  this  remote  stronghold  was 
shortly  afterwards  recovered  by  the  Emperor  Anastasius  and 
restored  to  its  former  fame.^  The  fortifications  were  enlarged 
and  increased  by  Justinian  ;  ^  but  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  century 
it  again  fell  into  Persian  hands.^  I  do  not  know  that  we  are 
able  to  follow  its  fortunes  during  the  campaigns  of  Heraclius,  who 
is  said  to  have  assembled  there  a  council  of  Armenian  bishops 
(a.d.  629?).''  In  the  year  647  Theodosiopolis  became  the  prize 
of  the  Arabs  ;  and  more  than  a  century  elapsed  before  it  was  re- 
gained by  the  Caesars  under  Constantine  the  Fifth  (755).'^  That 
monarch  razed  the  walls,  reduced  the  inhabitants  to  slavery,  and 
transported  a   great   number  of  Armenians  of  the   Paulician   sect 

1  Procopius,  de  bell.  Pcrs.  lib.  i.  c.  lo.  The  student  must  be  careful  to  distinguish 
this  Theodosiopolis  from  the  fortress  of  the  same  name  on  the  Khabur.  The  letter  of 
the  emperor  to  the  patriarch  Isaac  is  given  by  Moses  of  Khorene,  lib.  iii.  c.  57. 

2  Moses  of  Khorene,  lib.  iii.  c.  59.  Thousands  of  eggs  are  still  collected  in  these 
marshes  during  spring  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  plain  of  Erzerum.  The  hot  springs 
mentioned  are  evidently  those  of  Ilija,  a  good  hour's  drive  to  the  west  of  Erzerum. 

•^  Noldeke,  article  "Persia"  in  Eiicy.  Brit.  9th  edit.  vol.  xviii.  p.  611  ;  Procopius, 
de  Edificiis,  iii.  c.  5. 

*  Procopius  in  Uk.  cit.  In  the  time  of  Justinian  the  frontier  of  Roman  Armenia 
skirted  the  Persian  frontier  from  the  city  of  Amida  (Diarbekr)  as  far  as  Theodosiopolis 
{ibid.  iii.  c.   i ). 

'•'  Indgidgean,  ap.  Neumann,  quoted  by  Ritter,  Erd/ciaidc,  vol.  x.  p.  759. 

"  Issavcrdens,  Armenia  and  the  Armenians,  Venice,  1878,  p.  109. 

"^  Indgidgean  in  op.  cit. 


Erzermn  223 

to  Constantinople  and  to  Thrace.^  Shortly  after  this  event  it 
appears  to  have  been  rebuilt  by  the  Mussulmans  ;  and  it  played 
an  important  part  during  the  wars  of  Leo  (886-91  i)  and  his  son 
Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (911-959)  with  the  Arabs  in  the 
neighbouring  province  of  Pasin."  But  the  waves  of  Mussulman 
conquest  were  closing  in  upon  the  Eastern  Empire.  About  the 
commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century  we  find  the  place  in  the 
possession  of  a  prince  who  bears  the  Turkish  name  of  Toghrul  Ben 
Kilijarslan.  From  his  hands  it  passed  into  the  dominions  of  the 
Sultan  of  Iconium.^  The  Seljuk  Sultan  was  known  as  the  lord 
of  Erzerum,  just  as  his  Ottoman  successors  bore  the  title  of  lords  of 
Kars.'*  The  rule  of  the  Seljuks  was  followed  by  that  of  their 
Tartar  conquerors.  In  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century 
Erzerum  was  in  the  keeping  of  the  Turkomans,  from  whom  it  was 
wrested  by  the  Ottomans  under  Mohammed  11.^ 

The  name  Erzerum  dates  from  Mussulman  tim.es,  but  its 
exact  derivation  is  obscure.  It  may  either  signify  the  land  (Ard 
in  Arabic,  Arz  in  Turkish)  of  Rum,  or  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;  or 
it  may  be  compounded  of  this  last  name  and  of  the  name  of  an 
unfortified  town  in  the  vicinity  which  was  known  as  Artze  or 
Artsn.  It  is  quite  probable  that  this  town  was  at  an  early  date 
called  Artze  of  Rum  to  distinguish  it  from  another  Artze  in  the 
south  of  Armenia  which  lay  within  the  Persian  sphere.''  Local 
tradition  places  the  site  of  the  first  of  these  Artzes  close  to  the 
present  city  and  on  or  near  the  banks  of  the  Kara  Su.  We 
know  that  the  place  was  sacked  by  the  Turks  in  the  middle  of 
the  eleventh  century  ; '  and  according  to  Saint  Martin  the  sur- 
vivors  took   refuge  within   the  walls   of  Theodosiopolis,   to  which 

1  Cedrenus,  edit.  Bekker,  p.  463  ;  see  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  liv. 

2  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus,  de  Adm.  Imp.  c.  45. 

^  Von  Hammer,  Gcschichte  des  Osm.  Reiches,  vol.  i.  p.  25. 

*  Kyriakos,  ap.  Ritter,  Erdkimde,  vol.  x.  p.  760. 

^   Travels  of  Evliya,  translated  by  Von  Hammer,  London,  1850,  vol.  ii.  p.   108. 

•^  Abulfeda,  Annales,  edit.  Reiske,  iv.  p.  367.  For  a  plan  and  account  of  the  ruins 
of  the  southern  Arzen  see  Taylor  in  J.R.G.S.  vol.  xxxv.  pp.  26  seij.  Evliya  speaks 
of  four  towns  bearing  the  name  of  Erzen,  viz.  Erzen  in  INIesopotamia,  Erzen  Akhlat, 
Erzen  Rum,  commonly  called  Erzerum,  and  Erzenjan  (Von  Hammer's  translation,  ii. 
202).  The  word  Erzen  or  Arzen  is  discussed  by  Bore,  Corr.  et  Ale/noires,  Paris,  1 840,  vol.  i. 
pp.  184  K'^.  'iir&cker  (Zeifschrift  fiir  Erdkimde,  Berlin,  1869,  pp.  152,  153)  seeks  to 
identify  our  Artze  or  Artsn  with  the  site  of  the  modern  village  of  Karars  near  the  right 
bank  of  the  Kara  Su  or  Euphrates,  north-west  of  Erzerum. 

^  Cedrenus,  pp.  772,  773.  He  speaks  of  Artze  as  a  kw^uottoXis  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Theodosiopolis  which  is  described  as  a  strong  fortress.  A  vivid  contemporary  and 
native  account  of  the  sack  of  Artze  is  furnished  by  the  Armenian  historian,  Aristakes  of 
Lastivert.  See  Prudhomme's  translation  in  the  Revtie  de  l' Orient,  Paris,  1863,  vol. 
xvii.  pp.   275  seq. 


2  24  Armenia 

they  transferred  the  name  of  their  own  populous  town.^  However 
this  may  be,  the  ancient  Armenian  name  of  Karin  is  still  applied 
to  the  present  city."  The  monuments  of  the  Eastern  Empire 
have  been  seen  in  Erzerum  by  modern  travellers  ;  and  the  chain 
of  history  has  not  been  broken  in  a  manner  to  disparage  the 
identity  of  the  Roman  fortress  with  this  key  to  the  Asiatic 
dominions  of  the  Ottoman  Turks. 

1  Saint  Martin,  Mi'inoircs  sur  P Anneiiic,  vol.  i.  p.  68  ;  Tournefort,  Voyage  dii 
Levant,  Paris,  17 17,  vol.  ii.  p.  276. 

^  Erzerum  is  also  known  to  Armenian  writers  under  the  name  of  Karnoy  Kaghak 
(Kalak)  or  town  of  Karin,  from  which  the  name  of  Kalikala,  used  by  Arabic  authors,  is 
probably  derived. 

D'Anville  is  certainly  in  error  when  he  seeks  to  identify  Theodosiopolis  with  Hasan 
Kala  in  Pasin. 


CHxAPTER    X 

RETURN    TO    THE    BORDER    RANGES — SaXarra,    ddXarral 

From  Erzerum  to  the  Black  Sea,  at  the  nearest  point,  near  Rizeh, 
is  a  distance  as  the  crow  flies  of  88  miles,  or,  measured  to 
Trebizond,  of  i  14  miles.  Yet  the  distance  by  the  main  road  to 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Grand-Comneni  is  little  less  than  200 
miles/  This  large  discrepancy  is  due  to  the  great  height  of  the 
block  of  mountain  on  the  north  of  the  plain  of  Erzerum,  and, 
more  especially,  to  the  essential  character  of  the  sea  of  troughs 
and  ridges,  interposed  between  the  town  of  Baiburt  and  the  coast. 
The  Turkish  Government  have  built  a  magnificent  cJiaiissce  across 
this   country,   constructed   in    the   seventies   by    French   engineers. 

1  Since  writing  this  description,  General  Sir  Charles  Wilson's  most  admirable  Hand- 
book for  Asia  Minor  (London,  Murray,  1S95)  ^^s  come  into  my  hands.  He  gives 
the  dis'tance  between  Erzerum  and  Trebizond,  ineastired  in  miles  along  the  cliaussee,  at 
I99j  niiles.  Another  account  makes  the  total  196^  miles.  I  enquired  in  official  circles 
at  Erzerum  whether  there  were  extant  any  exact  record  of  the  distance  ;  a  search  was 
made  in  the  archives  with  a  negative  result.  A  certain  proportion  of  the  milestones  aie 
still  erect ;  but  many  have  disappeared,  the  course  of  the  road  has  been  changed  in 
places,  and  the  milestones  have  been  replaced,  probably  in  an  arbitrary  manner.  My 
own  record,  which  is  based  on  careful  estimates  of  pace  and  time,  is  as  follows: — Erzerum 
— Ashkala,  33  miles  ;  Ashkala — Pirnakapan,  10  miles ;  Pirnakapan — Southern  Kop  Khan, 
2  miles  ;  Southern  Kop  Khan — Kop  Pass,  5^  miles  ;  Kop  Pass — Northern  Kop  Khan, 
5g^  miles  ;  Northern  Kop  Khan — Maden  Khan,  6^  miles;  ]^Iaden  Khan — Baiburt,  io| 
miles  ;  Baiburt  (bridge) — \'arzahan,  6  miles  ;  Varzahan — Osluk  Khan,  6  miles  ;  Osluk 
Khan — Khadrak,  8  miles;  Khadrak — Vavuk  Pass,  4^  miles  ;  Vavuk  Pass — Alurad  Khan, 
lo^-  miles  ;  Murad  Khan— Lower  GUmtishkhaneh,  i6j  miles  ;  Lower  Gumlishkhaneh — 
Ardasa,  16^  miles  ;  Ardasa — Southern  Zigana  hamlet,  9^  miles  ;  Southern  Zigana  village 
— Zigana  Pass,  4^^  miles  ;  Zigana  Pass — Upper  Hamsi  Iveui,  lo-J  miles  ;  Upper  Hamsi 
Keui — Jevizlik,  15^  miles  ;  Jeviziik — Trebizond,  20  miles.  Total,  199J  miles.  A 
carriage  (victoria)  can  be  obtained  in  Trebizond.  Such  a  vehicle,  drawn  by  two  horses, 
together  with. a  cart  for  the  luggage  with  a  team  of  three,  costs  for  the  whole  journey 
£1^  :  I  OS.  But,  if  I  may  offer  a  recommendation  to  the  traveller,  it  is  to  render  himself 
independent  of  the  chaussee  by  purchasing  horses  and  riding.  Large  deductions  from 
the  mileage  may  be  made  in  this  way,  and  the  jolting  avoided  which  is  inseparable  from 
a  metalled  road  kept  in  bad  repair.  Indeed  wheeled  traffic  is  as  yet  quite  an  anomaly 
both  in  Turkey  and  in  Persia.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  buy  good 
horses  in  TreVjizond,  although  they  may  be  readily  purchased  in  Erzerum. 

VOL.  H  Q 


2  26  Arm  Cilia 

But  whatever  its  value  in  time  of  war,  it  has  failed  to  revolu- 
tionise the  methods  of  transport  in  vogue  from  immemorial  time. 
Vehicular  traffic  is  conducted  between  the  termini  in  summer,  and 
in  winter  the  journey  is  feasible  on  a  sledge.  But  the  camel,  the 
mule,  and  the  packhorse  are  still  the  principal  means  of  carriage, 
and  the  caravan  has  not  yet  fallen  into  disuse.  With  horses 
which  were  short  of  work  after  their  long  rest  in  Erzerum  we 
reached  Trebizond  during  the  height  of  winter  in  six  days. 

At  this  season  of  the  year  the  traveller  is  warned  to  beware 
of  the  blizzards  which  render  formidable  the  crossing  of  the  Kop 
Pass.  The  name  of  that  pass  is  pronounced  with  a  certain 
degree  of  terror  in  the  bazars  and  coffee-houses  of  Erzerum. 
Each  winter  brings  its  catalogue  of  disasters  to  man  and  beast, 
buried  in  the  driving  snow  on  those  bleak  heights.  Nor  is  it 
easy  to  perform  the  passage  in  a  single  day  from  Erzerum, 
waiting  in  the  city  for  a  favourable  occasion.  The  Kop  is 
situated  about  forty  miles  west  of  the  provincial  capital  ;  and 
the  barrier  upon  which  it  is  placed — the  wall  on  the  north  of 
Erzerum — can  scarcely  be  surmounted  at  a  more  adjacent  point 
while  it  is  covered  by  the  snows.  For  it  is  only  the  continual 
plying  of  caravans  across  a  pass  which,  in  this  latitude  and  at 
so  great  an  elevation  above  the  sea,  renders  it  practicable  all  the 
year  round.  Caravans  have  chosen  the  Kop,  and  there  is 
nothing  left  to  the  traveller  but  to  acquiesce  in  their  choice.  It 
was  therefore  decided  to  make  our  first  day's  stage  at  the  village 
of  Ashkala,  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  a  stage  of  over  thirty 
miles,  and  thence,  on  the  following  day,  should  the  weather  be 
favourable,  to  take  the  ascent  of  the  range. 

We  set  out  at  eleven  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  6th  of 
February — a  dim  winter's  day,  when  the  sun  was  struggling  with 
the  grey  mists  spread  over  the  face  of  land  and  sky.  The 
thermometer  registered  no  less  than  20""  of  frost  (Fahrenheit)  ; 
plain  and  mountain  were  completely  covered  with  deep  snow. 
Even  the  road  scarcely  revealed  a  patch  of  brown  soil,  and  was 
distinguishable  only  by  the  parallel  dints  of  the  ditches  in  the 
foreground  of  the  white  expanse.  But  the  city  was  conspicuous 
on  the  lowest  slope  of  the  southern  barrier,  where  the  vaulted 
summits  and  bold  convexities  of  that  lofty  wall  of  mountain 
sweep  into  the  lake-like  plain.  There  it  lay,  a  sombre  mass, 
from  which  projected  into  the  murky  atmosphere  the  outline  of 
a  tower,  the  needle  forms  of  minarets.      On   its  either  flank,  in  a 


Return  to  the  Border  Ranges — ^oKarra,  OdXaTra  !    227 

wide  half-circle,  the  chain  of  heights  advanced  into  the  open, 
more  elevated  and  less  contracted  towards  the  north-east, 
declining  but  more  adjacent  on  the  west.  In  both  directions,  the 
opposite  horns  of  this  bay  of  snow-clad  eminences  appeared  to 
touch  the  answering  parapet  in  the  north — west  and  east  in  a 
long,  straight  line,  fretted  b}'  the  shapes  of  cones  and  humps, 
stretched  the  barrier  of  that  still  distant  range.  The  point  of 
apparent  intersection  between  the  two  outlines  are,  in  fact,  the 
open  doors  of  the  plain.  In  the  north-east  it  is  the  inlet  which 
leads  towards  Olti,  known  as  the  Gurgi  Boghaz  :  in  the  west  the 
valley  which  receives  the  Kara  Su. 

Our  course  was  directed  towards  Ilija,  a  village  of  above- 
ground  houses  at  the  foot  of  the  western  promontory,  near  some 
hot  springs.  The  summer  road  to  Erzinjan  diverges  towards 
the  west  shortly  after  you  have  left  Erzerum.  It  is  taken  across 
the  horn  of  heights,  up  a  partial  opening,  which,  however,  was 
barely  visible.  The  view  across  the  plain  and  along  the  summits 
of  the  northern  barrier  extends  from  the  Deveh  Boyun  and  the 
distant  heights  of  Kargabazar  to  the  Kop  mountain  in  the  west. 
Several  individual  heights  may  be  distinguished  from  their 
fellows  :  Sheikhjik,  a  beautiful  cone,  north-west  of  Erzerum  ; 
then  Akhbaba,  a  cockscombed  outline,  and  next  Jejen,  a  sym- 
metrical peak.  The  flat-topped,  broad-shouldered  mass,  which 
closes  the  series,  is  the  Kop,  beneath  whose  shadow  lies  the 
pass. 

In  the  village  of  Gez — a  cluster  of  houses,  partly  Moham- 
medan and  partly  xA.rmenian — we  made  a  stay  of  twent}-  minutes, 
and  said  farewell  to  some  of  our  friends,  who  had  dri\en  out  to 
meet  us  in  a  sledge.  Sleighing  is  much  in  favour  during  the 
winter,  both  among  rich  and  poor.  Little  black  specks  come 
gliding  over  the  snow-field  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town. 
Taking  shape,  they  are  seen  to  consist  sometimes  of  a  lean  hack 
drawing  a  couple  of  longitudinal  logs,  placed  upon  skates  ;  or  a 
graceful  car,  drawn  by  a  pair  of  high-stepping  horses,  brushes 
past  you  at  a  rapid  trot.  Near  Ilija  we  crossed  a  stream  of 
warm  water,  which  proceeded  to  follow  us  on  our  right  hand  ; 
and  at  three  o'clock  we  had  reached  the  spot  near  the  extremity 
of  the  promontory  where  the  Kara  Su  might  be  expected  to 
enter  the  narrows. 

But  the  river  was  quite  invisible,  buried  beneath  the  canopy 
which    stretched    to    the    opposite    mountains    without    a    break. 


2  28  Armeiiia 

After  doubling  the  horn,  which  was  low,  and  was  succeeded  by 
gentle  eminences,  we  made  our  way  down  the  valley,  between 
these  hills  and  the  northern  barrier,  through  a  dreary  landscape 
upon  which  the  mist  hung.  A  fine  fox  with  a  sweeping  brush 
made  off  across  the  snow,  and  found  it  difficult  to  escape  from 
sight.  I  viewed  him  away  with  a  shout  which  surprised  our 
followers,  giving  vent  to  a  whole  season's  abstinence.  At  four 
o'clock  we  passed  the  lonely  station  of  Yeni  Khan  ;  and,  an  hour 
later,  a  road  branched  off  across  the  hills,  leading  to  Erzinjan. 
In  another  half-hour  we  crossed  the  mouth  of  a  large  side  valley 
through  which  was  hissing  a  considerable  stream.  It  comes 
from  the  mountains  on  the  north,  and  is  called  the  Serchemeh 
Chai  ;  the  combined  waters  below  the  junction  with  the  Kara  Su 
are  generally  known  as  the  Frat  or  Euphrates.^  We  were 
surprised  to  observe  the  manner  in  which  the  connection  was 
effected  between  this  ice-free  torrent  and  the  buried  Kara  Su. 
Descending  to  the  trough  of  the  valley,  the  rapid  current  was 
introduced  into  the  same  bed  in  which  the  companion  river  slept; 
nor  did  it  dip  beneath  the  canopy,  but  hurried  along  by  the  side 
of  its  partner,  fretting  the  edge  of  the  ice.  When  we  crossed,  a 
little  later,  by  a  substantial  bridge  to  the  right  bank,  the  united 
ice  and  flowing  water  had  a  width  of  fifty  paces.  The  valley 
had  narrowed  and  become  almost  Alpine  in  appearance  since  the 
bifurcation  of  the  roads.  In  such  surroundings  is  situated  the 
picturesque  village  of  Kagdarich,  just  above  the  bridge,  on  the 
right  bank. 

Again  the  hills  opened  after  our  passage  of  the  river,  and, 
nearing  Ashkala,  composed  a  plain.  We  reached  our  destination 
at  a  quarter  to  seven,  beneath  the  shadows  of  night.  It  is  a 
Mohammedan  village  of  some  size,  with  a  few  Armenian  houses  ; 
the  houses  are  above  ground.  The  valley  must  have  in  places  a 
width  of  six  or  seven  miles.  Its  character  became  apparent  as  we 
rose  above  it  on  the  following  morning,  after  crossing  an  affluent 
to  the  Frat,  called  the  Kara  Hasan  Su,  which  was  almost  concealed 
by  a  crust  of  ice.  Like  the  plain  of  Erzerum,  it  has  probably  been 
covered  with  a  sheet  of  water  during  no  very  remote  geological 
period.  The  floor  of  the  valley  presents,  in  fact,  an  almost  level 
surface;  but  a  special  feature  in  this  second  lake-like  extension  of 

'  According  to  Strecker  {Zcil.  Enik.  Berlin,  1869,  vol.  iv.  p.  147)  the  Serchemeh 
Chai  has  a  shorter  course  and  brings  less  water  than  the  Kara  Su.  I  should  consider 
diat  of  these  two  uppermost  constituents  of  the  Frat,  the  former  has  the  greater  average 
volume. 


Return  to  the  Border  Ranges — ^aXaTra,  dcLkarra  !     229 

the  Euphrates  basin  is  a  bold  mass  of  rock  which  protrudes  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  village,  isolated  from  the  heights  upon 
the  north.  The  close  resemblance  of  this  hill  to  some  of  the 
spurs  from  those  heights  suggested  the  conception  of  a  remote  age 
when  this  valley  was  in  its  infancy,  and  the  mountains  which  now 
rise  on  its  opposite  margins  were  integral  parts  of  a  single  block 
of  elevated  land.  The  further  we  advanced  towards  the  west,  the 
more  the  plain  narrowed  ;  we  were  pursuing  a  diagonal  course 
along  the  lower  slopes  of  the  northern  barrier,  and  we  could  see 
the  river  at  some  distance,  partly  ice -encrusted,  and  partly 
threading  the  snow  in  several  tiny  channels.^ 

February  7. — We   had   left   Ashkala  (5520   feet)  at   half-past 


Fig.  170. 

eight,  with  the  promise  of  a  perfect  day  ;  for  the  vapours  had 
become  collected  into  shining  masses,  and  the  sun  was  mounting 
into  a  clear,  blue  sky.  Just  before  losing  the  landscape  of  the 
plain,  I  stopped  to  take  a  photograph  of  the  summit-formation  of 
a  spur  from  the  northern  range  (Fig.  i  70).  I  was  struck  by  the 
resemblance  of  the  flat  edge  of  this  eminence  to  the  outworks 
of  the  Bingol  plateau.  A  little  later  we  entered  a  side  valley 
through  which  flowed  a  small  and  partially  ice-bound  stream. 
Proceeding  up  it  a  short  distance  on  a  northerly  course,  we  arrived 
at  eleven  o'clock  in  the  pretty  alpine  village  of  Pirnakapan. 
Beyond  this  Mussulman  hamlet,  which  is  graced  by  a  grove  of 
willow  trees,  the  valley  becomes  a  gorge.  So  steep  are  the  crags 
which  overhang  it  that  in  many  places  they  were  free  from  snow. 
We  were  now  at  a  level  of  about  6000  feet,  and,  as  it  were,  about 
to  take  the  ascent.      The   rocks  of  this   region   are   highly  folded, 

1  The  basin  of  Ashkala  has  been  treated  in  its  geological  aspects  by  Abich  in  his 
usually  masterly  manner  {Geologische  Forschungen  in  den  kaitkasischen  Ldndern,  Vienna, 
1882,  pt.  ii.  sect.   I,  pp.    \00  scq.y. 


230  Armenia 

and  consist  of  serpentines  and  limestones  weathered  to  various 
hues.  Two  partridges  were  seated  fearlessly  on  one  of  the  ledges 
a  few  yards  from  where  we  rode.  The  actual  climb  begins  a  little 
further  on,  where  the  scene  opens  and  you  stand  at  the  bottom 
of  the  towering  wall.  There  is  situated  among  the  snows  the 
Southern  Kop  Khan,  from  which  the  start  is  made.  You  see  the 
cJiaussce  winding  in  a  long  series  of  spirals  to  a  lofty  gallery  of  the 
range.  It  covers  a  distance  between  Pirnakapan  and  the  pass  of 
about  J^  miles. 

To  that  gallery,  which  is  nearly  as  elevated  as  the  pass,  we 
proceeded  to  follow  a  much  shorter  track.  In  half-an-hour  we 
had  gained  the  position  after  a  valiant  escalade,  and  the  camera 
was  at  once  brought  to  bear.  But  our  enemy  was,  alas  !  the  sun, 
an  inexpugnable  adversary,  shedding  his  rays  from  just  the 
quarter  which  we  wished  to  embrace.  Regretting  the  absence  of 
the  resourceful  Wesson,  I  was  obliged  to  turn  the  instrument 
towards  the  east-south-east.  In  that  direction  we  commanded 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Euphrates  (Fig.  171);  but  we  were  robbed 
of  a  picture  of  the  important  landscape  in  the  south. 

It  was  a  little  after  noon  ;  the  mountains  streamed  with  light, 
and  only  above  the  deeply-seated  river  valley  a  heavy  mass  of 
vapour  hung.  All  the  summits  which  are  seen  on  this  side  of 
that  vapour  belong  to  the  block  of  mountain  on  the  north.  The 
conical  peak  on  the  left  of  the  illustration  is  the  beautiful  Jejen 
Dagh.  Beyond  the  mist,  the  distant  heights  are  those  of  the 
southern  border  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Erzerum. 

In  another  half-hour  we  had  reached  about  the  highest  point 
upon  the  undulating  snow-fields  of  the  summit  region.  The  Kop 
itself,  the  mountain  which  gives  its  name  to  the  pass,  is  a  flat- 
topped  mass,  rising  with  steep  slopes  on  the  right  of  the  road. 
The  pass  has  an  elevation  of  8048  feet.  So  brilliant  was  the  sun 
that  we  were  enabled  to  linger,  and  to  attempt  to  realise  the 
panorama  of  the  south. 

The  traveller  who  should  approach  Armenia  by  this  well- 
beaten  avenue  might  fail  to  discover  the  characteristics  of  a  great 
tableland  in  the  configuration  of  that  extensive  portion  of  her 
area  which  is  outspread  from  this  pass.  It  is  true  that  the  range 
he  crosses  resembles  a  large  block  of  hard  material  rather  than  a 
chain  of  mountains  in  the  more  usual  sense.  But  the  outline  of 
this  mass  is  broken  into  peaks  of  every  shape  ;  and  the  opposite 
ranges  display  the  same  features,  the  whole  combining  to  produce 


Return  to  the  Border  Rans^es — ^aXarra,  OaXaTra  !    231 


<i 


the  impression  of  a  troubled  sea.  How  different  was  this  land- 
scape from  that  which  I  had  overlooked  from  the  pass  of  Zikar 
on  the  north  !  Yet  the  explanation  of  this  diversity  does  not,  I 
think,  belie  the  conception  which  a  wide  experience  had  inculcated 
in  my  mind — the  conception,  namely,  of  a  vast  mass  of  elevated 
country  of  which  a  prevailing  characteristic  is  the  flatness  of  its 
surface.  For  in  this  landscape  the  levelling  influence  of  the  lavas 
are  almost  absent,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  operation  of  the 
various  processes  of  denudation  have  been  conducted  on  a  colossal 
scale  and  with  conspicuous  results.  The  ancient  sedimentary 
deposits  have  been  worn  by  their  action  into  peaks  of  considerable 
relative  height,  while  the  plains  with  their  lake-like  beds  have,  as 
it  were,  usurped  the  character  of  the  mountains  by  which  they  are 
overhung.  Reserving  for  further  study  the  country  between  Frat 
and  Murad  on  the  west  of  Erzerum  and  Mush,  I  need  only 
remark  that  its  present  aspect  from  the  standpoint  of  this  pass 
was  somewhat  foreign  from  the  idea  of  prevailing  flatness  which 
similar  prospects  had  invited  me  to  form. 

Two,  and  only  two,  distinct  chains  of  heights  were  visible  in 
the  south.  The  first,  which  was  apparently  the  lower,  was  that 
on  the  south  of  Erzerum,  the  Palandoken  and  the  continuing 
eminences  toward  the  west.  Behind  this  outline  rose  a  second 
and  also  horizontal  series,  which  were  identified  by  my  informant, 
a  zaptieh  who  lives  on  the  mountain,  as  the  range  on  the  north  of 
the  Murad  or  Eastern  Euphrates,  known  to  him  under  the  same 
name  as  that  of  the  district  of  Terjan.  Between  these  two  chains 
lay  a  mass  of  vapour,  suspended  above  the  river  which  joins  the 
Western  Euphrates  below  the  town  of  Mamakhatun.  A  third 
and  further  range,  that  of  the  Kurdish  Mountains,  beyond  the 
Murad,  was  not,  and,  according  to  the  same  authority,  could  not 
be  descried  from  this  pass.^ 

Proceeding  on  our  northward  journey  at  ten  minutes  before 
two,  we  entered,  a  little  later,  a  break  in  the  mass.  In  the 
hollow  flowed  a  torrent,  partially  encrusted  with  ice,  the  first  of 
the   streams    which    find    their  way   to    the    Black    Sea.      As    we 

1  Alacdonald  Kinneir  (Journey  through  Asia  Minor,  etc.,  London,  l8l8,  p.  358) 
seems  to  have  mistaken  tliis  Terjan  range  for  that  on  the  south  of  the  Murad.  He  is 
respectfully  followed  by  the  laborious  Ritter  {Erdkundc,  vol.  x.  p.  743)-  l^"'  that 
erudite  geographer,  to  whom  we  owe  so  much,  should  have  been  more  careful  to  qualify 
the  statement  (p.  741)  that  the  range  which  is  crossed  by  the  Kop  Pass  constitutes  the 
"  Nordbegrenzung  des  armenischen  I'lateaulandes. "  A  few  months'  personal  travel 
would  have  stood  him  in  good  stead  after  all  his  minute  analysis  of  the  works  of 
travellers. 


2^2 


Armenia 


advanced,  this  shallow  opening  became  a  deep  gorge,  leading, 
almost  directh%  towards  the  north.  The  road  was  taken  by  easy 
gradients  down  this  convenient  valley,  and,  after  a  course  of  over 
five  miles  from  the  culminating  point  of  the  pass,  reached  the 
shelter  known  as  the  Northern  Kop  Khan.  Here  we  rested  for 
an  hour  and  a  half,  continuing  our  ride  at  half-past  four  o'clock. 
We  kept  the  torrent  on  our  left,  still  adhering  to  the  gorge,  which 
displayed  a  fine  view  backward  to  the  top  of  the  mountain  mass. 
A  wall  of  stupendous  height  crowned  its  uppermost  end,  and 
displayed  the  familiar  flat  edge.  The  strata,  of  a  marmorised 
limestone,   which    overhung   the   glen   were   much    contorted,   like 


Fig,  172.    On  the  Banks  of  the  Chorokh  above  Baiburt. 

the  grain  of  a  knot  in  a  tree.  After  crossing  a  stream,  in  part 
icebound,  which  we  recognised  as  the  Chorokh,  we  arrived  at  a 
quarter-past  si.x  at  the  little  settlement  of  Maden  Khan  (5455  feet) 
near  Halwa  Maden,  distant  some  6|-  miles  from  our  last  halting- 
place,  or  about  29  miles  by  the  road  from  Ashkala. 

I  do  not  propose  to  follow  in  detail  the  further  stages  of  our 
journey  to  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  But  I  have  not  yet 
taken  my  reader  to  the  extreme  geographical  limits  of  the 
country  which  in  the  present  work  I  am  endeavouring  to  describe. 
From  Maden  Khan  it  was  still  a  ride  of  one  and  a  half  days  to 
the  pass  where  you  bid  farewell  to  the  Armenian  plains.  This 
northerly  extension  of  the  highlands  of  Armenia  is  watered  by 
the  Upper  Chorokh. 

February  8. — Leaving  the  cluster  of  wayside  hospices  in 
which  we   had   passed   the   night,   our   course   was   directed   west- 


Return  to  the  Border  Ranges — ^uXarra,  6aXaTTa\    233 

wards  down  the  stream.  On  either  bank  rose  hills  of  marble 
with  no  great  relative  elevation,  covered,  like  the  valley,  with  deep 
snow.  The  current  sometimes  flowed  in  an  open  channel,  and  as 
often  plunged  beneath  a  continuous  crust  of  ice.  Not  a  single 
tree,  nor  even  a  bush,  was  visible  in  the  landscape.  A  little 
further  down  the  hills  opened,  and  gave  place  to  a  stretch  of 
plain  (Fig.  172).  At  the  western  end  of  this  expanse  they  again 
circled  inwards,  and  the  valley  took  an  abrupt  turn  towards  the 
east.  At  the  mouth  of  this  passage  is  situated  the  castle  and 
town  of  Baiburt,  barring  the  approach  to  these  uppermost  reaches 
of  the  Chorokh. 

But  on  the  west  of  this  picturesque  and  ruinous  fortress  the 
heights  which  deflect  the  river  to  its  long  course  toward  the  east 
command  the  stronghold  and  detract  from  its  value  in  modern 
war.  Indeed  they  constitute  an  undulating  upland  or  plateau, 
framed  by  the  convex  shapes  of  distant  hills.  At  about  its 
highest  point  this  plateau  has  an  elevation  of  some  5620  feet. 
Leaving  the  town,  we  made  our  way  across  this  upland  in  a 
direction  of  west  to  west-north-west  ;  and,  in  a  little  over  an  hour, 
overlooked  one  of  the  flat  depressions  which  have  already  been  so 
often  described.  Upon  its  snow-clad  surface  was  placed  an  Armenian 
village  with  three  fine  buildings,  now  in  ruins,  a  relic  of  the  old 
times.  What  an  eloquent  memorial  those  shapely  forms  and 
that  finished  masonry  still  preserved  to  a  cultured  and  beneficent 
race  !  Varzahan  was  the  name  of  the  village  ;  but  we  had  again 
been  placed  under  surveillance,  and  it  was  impossible  to  perpetuate 
the  image  of  these  decaying  remains.^ 

The  ova  or  plain  of  Varzahan,  to  which  we  descended,  is, 
in  some  sense,  a  westerly  extension  of  that  portion  of  the  valley 
of  the  Chorokh  which  lies  below  the  town  of  Baiburt.  Yet  it 
was  separated  by  a  range  of  hills  from  the  trough  in  the  surround- 
ing outlines  through  which  we  knew  that  the  river  must  flow. 
These  hills  circle  southwards  from  the  latitudinal  chain  of  distant 
heights  which  confine  this  ova  and  the  Chorokh  valley  alike.  A 
passage  is  no  doubt  found  by  the  streams  which  collect  in  the 
plain  and  find  their  way  to  the  Chorokh.  We  were  reminded  by 
its  appearance  of  the  plain  of  Erzerum,  of  which  many  of  the 
features  were  reproduced  on  a  smaller  scale.      It  seemed   to  strike 

^  But  one  of  them  has  already  been  drawn  by  Layard  (A'/ncvck  and  Babylon,  p.  7); 
and  I  here  reproduce  a  photograph  taken  during  our  second  journey,  which  shows  some 
interesting  examples  of  old  Armenian  tombstones  with  rams'  heads  in  the  cemetery  of 
Varzahan  (Fig.   173). 


234 


Anne  Ilia 


the  last  note  of  the  distinctive  theme  to  which  we  had  been 
Hstening  for  so  many  long  months.  The  plain  has  an  elevation 
of  about  5300  feet,  and   it  is  possible  to   scale  the   heights  on    its 

northern  border 
and,  in  summer, 
to  pursue  the 
journey  to  Tre- 
bizond/  But  in 
winter  you  are 
taken  up  an 
opening  at  its 
westerly  extrem- 
ity which  we  may 
call,  after  a  con- 
siderable village 
which  lies  within 
it,  the  valley  of 
Balakhor.  This 
\alley  conducts 
you  in  a  westerly 
direction,  to  the 
ridge  or  ridges 
which  form    the 

water-parting  on  the  south  of  the  Ljxus,  and  on  the  west  and  east 
of  the  Kharshut  and  Chorokh. 

It  was  towards  those  dividing  heights  that  we  set  out  on 
the  9th  of  February  from  the  lonely  station  of  Khadrak  in  the 
valley  of  Balakhor.  The  stream  which  waters  this  valley  and 
finds  its  way  to  the  plain  of  Varzahan  was  buried  beneath  a 
continuous  canopy  of  snow.  The  heights  on  either  side  were  of 
insignificant  elevation,  relative  to  the  general  level  of  the  ground. 
In  half  an  hour  a  way  diverged,  well  beaten  by  traffic,  leading  to 
Kelkid  and  Erzinjan.  It  branched  off  on  the  left  hand  ;  we 
were  at  the  head  of  the  valley,  surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre  of 
hills.  Our  course  was  directed  to  the  wall  upon  our  right  ;  and 
in  another  ten  minutes  we  had  gained  the  eminence.  We  were 
standing  not  exactly  on  a  ridge,  but  on  the  face  of  an  upland, 
over  which  the  winds  sweep  in  stormy  weather  with  considerable 
force.  Yet  another  half- hour  brought  us  to  an  elevation  of 
6468  feet,  the  saddle  of  the  Vavuk  Pass.      We  had  arrived  upon 

1   Yqx  the  stages  see  Ch.  XI.  p.  240.      The  route  is  sliown  on  my  map. 


Fig.  173.    Armenian  Cemetery  at  Varzahan. 


Return  to  the  Border  Ranges — ^oKarTa,  ddXarral    235 

the  boundary  line  between  two  vilayets,  of  Erzerum  and  of 
Trebizond. 

I  was  informed  that  quite  recently  a  Tartar  horseman  had 
met  his  death  while  carrying  the  post  across  this  pass.  He  was 
overtaken  and  overwhelmed  by  a  ti/^e  or  blizzard  before  he  could 
reach  the  shelter  of  the  valleys  on  either  side.  Indeed  the  loss  of 
life  to  beasts  of  burden  is  considerable  along  this  road.  No  more 
eloquent  evidence  could  be  furnished  of  the  want  of  humanity  in 
the  natives  than  the  callous  indifference  to  the  sufferings  of  dumb 
animals  which  day  by  day  is  displayed  upon  these  passes.  Such 
a  habit  of  cruelty  at  once  argues  a  lapse  into  barbarism,  and 
explains  the  perpetration  of  the  nameless  horrors  which  so  often 
shock  the  conscience  of  the  West.  We  kept  passing  strings  of 
heavily-laden  quadrupeds,  which  with  their  dull  eyes,  drooping 
heads,  and  fleshless  bodies,  covered  with  sores,  had  lost  the 
distinctive  qualities  of  the  horse.  None  of  them  had  any  thighs 
to  enable  them  to  breast  the  ascents,  and  most  were  incurabh' 
lame.  Their  hocks  were  bent  with  curbs  or  swollen  by  spavins  ; 
one  poor  beast  was  dragging  his  hind  legs  behind  him,  and 
another  had  one  of  his  forelegs  bent  almost  double.  Neither — it 
could  not  be  doubted — were  destined  to  reach  Trebizond.  So 
they  crawl  over  the  ground,  from  year's  end  to  year's  end,  until 
they  close  their  miserable  existence  by  sinking  exhausted  on  a 
pass.  Even  at  the  moment  of  liberation  they  are  doomed  to  a 
prolonged  agony  ;  and,  having  been  martyred  all  their  life  by  the 
barbarity  of  the  human  animal,  they  become  victims  of  his 
perverse  humanity  in  their  death.  You  will  see  them  prone  upon 
the  road,  where  their  drivers  have  abandoned  them  to  kick  out 
their  life  in  the  snow.  Religious  scruples  prevent  these  misguided 
monsters  from  giving  them  the  despatch.  We  were  sickened  on 
one  occasion  by  the  spectacle  of  a  wretched  horse  which,  with 
glazed  eyes,  continued  to  paw  in  a  convulsive  manner  a  space  of 
ground  which  in  his  agony  he  had  cleared  of  ice.  At  the  end  of 
my  revolver  I  compelled  one  of  the  drivers  to  sever  his  jugular 
vein. 

From  such  scenes  the  traveller  turns  to  the  contemplation  of 
Nature,  not  only  with  a  sense  of  relief,  but  under  an  added 
consciousness  of  her  sublimity,  the  high  exponent  of  the  harmony 
of  things.  The  pass  of  Vavuk  divides  two  landscapes  of  exactly 
opposite  nature,  and  leads  over  into  a  new  climate  and  a  new 
world.      The   opposite  wall  of  rock   is   dotted   with   low   fir   trees, 


236  Ai'menia 

which,  as  you  proceed,  increase  in  height  and  shade.  The 
opposite  valley  to  which  you  descend  is  already  warm  by  com- 
parison with  the  bleak  highlands  from  which  you  have  come.  By 
the  time  the  river  is  approached,  the  winding  reaches  of  the  Kharshut, 
free,  even  at  this  season,  of  ice,  great  rolling  masses  of  cloud  are 
sailing  over  the  mountains,  distilling  into  mingled  snow  and  rain. 
Even  at  this  distance  the  senses  recognise  the  sea.  All  the 
characteristics  of  the  border  ranges,  aligned  in  a  deep  belt  upon 
the  coast,  are  displayed  during  the  successive  stages  of  a  ride 
of  two  and  a  half  days.  If  the  forests  are  less  luxuriant  than 
on  the  side  of  the  Rion,  the  view  in  places  recalls,  even  during 
this  season,  those  tree-clad  parapets.  Valleys  of  immense  depth 
are  overtowered  by  rocky  precipices  ;  it  is  essentially  a  land  of 
crest  and  trough.  And  just  as  the  scene  contrasts  with  the 
Armenian  landscapes,  so  the  people  and  the  types  are  new.  The 
familiar  features  of  the  Greek  take  the  place  of  the  Armenians, 
and  the  ear  is  greeted  by  the  language  of  the  Greeks.^  Yet 
another  pass  must  be  traversed,  the  wintry  pass  of  Zigana  (6640 
feet),  and  from  its  further  slopes  expands  a  vista  of  the  distant 
sea.  The  thermometer  has  risen  to  62°  by  the  time  the  sea- 
board is  reached.  And  there,  at  Trebizond,  the  roses  blossom  in 
the  gardens  while  the  Armenian  rivers  are  buried  beneath  the  ice. 

1  Not  that  all  the  people  one  meets  of  distinctively  Greek  type  are  Christians. 
Especially  in  the  valleys  most  remote  from  the  coast,  as  in  that  of  the  Kharshut,  the 
inhabitants  of  Greek  race  have  largely  been  converted  to  Mohammedanism,  or  have 
become  Mohammedan  for  prudential  or  worldly  motives.  So  complete  has  been  the 
transformation  in  some  places,  that,  when  I  asked  my  host  at  Besh  Kilisa — a  man  whose 
physiognomy  showed  him  to  be  a  typical  Greek — to  what  nationality  he  belonged,  he 
replied  "Osmanli."  A  section  of  the  inhabitants  of  Hamsi  Keui— a  village  south  of 
the  Zigana — represent  a  transitional  stage.  Their  children  are  baptized,  but  a  mollah 
recites  prayers  over  them.  They  bear  a  Mohammedan  and  a  Christian  name,  as,  for 
instance,  that  of  Ahmed  Apostolos.  When  they  die  the  papa  and  the  mollah  dispute 
the  corpse.  They  have  neither  church  nor  mosque.  When  they  meet  a  Greek  they  bid 
him  kallispera,  and,  when  a  Mohammedan,  incrhaba. 


o 


CHAPTER    XI 

REVISIT    ARMENIA 

Four  years  had  elapsed  since  the  close  of  my  last  journey. 
Armenia  had  in  the  meanwhile  been  the  scene  of  tragedies  which 
had  touched  the  conscience  of  the  West.  Petty  disturbances 
among  the  mountaineers  in  the  wild  fastnesses  of  Sasun,  south 
of  Mush,  were  magnified  by  the  provincial  authorities  into  the 
appearance  of  a  revolution,  and  were  suppressed  with  savage 
cruelty.  The  example  of  a  single  massacre  was  not  sufficient  to 
overawe  the  Armenians  ;  the  Palace  had  tasted  blood,  and  their 
special  agents  throughout  the  provinces  were  eager  for  the  work 
anci  its  rewards.  Against  the  counsels  of  their  best  officials  and 
the  entreaties  of  Turkey's  truest  friends,  the  Palace  organised 
a  series  of  butcheries  on  a  great  scale.  The  events  in  Sasun 
were  followed  by  similar  atrocities  not  only  in  the  towns  and 
villages  inhabited  by  Armenians  but  also  in  the  capital  itself. 
Europe,  deeply  pledged  to  secure  good  government  among  the 
Armenians,  was  unwilling  to  embark  on  a  policy  of  decisive 
action,  paralysed  by  the  mutual  jealousies  of  the  principal  Powers. 
During  those  dark  times  the  country  had  been  closed  to  travellers  ; 
and  it  was  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  I  was  at  length 
enabled  to  complete  the  studies  which  had  been  interrupted  on 
the  former  occasion  by  the  rigour  of  winter. 

June  7,  1898. — On  a  day  of  early  summer,  when  the  air  was 
fresh  and  the  sun  warm,  my  friend  Oswald  and  myself  set  out 
from  Trebizond,  to  perform  the  journey  which  forms  the  subject 
of  the  last  chapter  in  the  reverse  sense.  I  have  already  described 
the  stages  from  Erzerum  to  the  Vavuk  Pass  ;  but  it  may  be 
desirable  to  notice  briefly  the  intermediate  section  between  the 
sea  and  that  natural  threshold  of  the  Armenian  tableland.  For 
a  distance  of  over   a  mile   the  cJiaussce  follows   the  coast   beneath 


238  Armenia 

the  shadow  of  that  table-topped  mass  of  dark  porphyritic  lava 
which  is  known  as  Boz  Tepe.  The  view  ranges  over  the  con- 
siderable delta  of  the  Pyxitis — a  strip  of  sand  and  pebbles 
projecting  far  into  the  sea,  which  is  discoloured  for  some  distance 
by  the  suspended  sediment.  But  the  large  prospects  are  at  once 
lost  as  you  enter  the  river  valley  and  proceed  at  right  angles  to 
your  former  course.  The  stream  is  swirling  along,  divided  into 
several  channels,  and  overhung  at  a  respectable  interval  by  tall 
cliffs.  In  places  the  outlines  open  and  disclose  a  country  of 
rolling  hills,  as  where  the  large  and  white-faced  monastery  of 
Aiana  is  seen  high-seated  in  a  charming  landscape  on  the  right 
bank.  It  is  indeed  an  admirable  approach  to  the  recesses  of  the 
Pontic  chain,  this  valley  of  Deirmen.  It  leads  with  much  of  the 
straightncss  and  space  of  a  church's  nave  through  the  lofty  and 
intricate  outworks  of  the  range  almost  to  its  spine  at  the  Zigana 
Pass. 

Before  we  had  completed  ten  miles  the  wooded  heights  on 
either  hand  were  dotted  with  the  dark  forms  of  the  first  spruce 
firs.  The  valley  narrows  ;  the  walls  grow  steeper,  and  tower  to  a 
greater  altitude  ;  but  you  never  lose  the  expanse  of  sky.  If  the 
scene  recalls  Tyrol  you  are  not  conscious  of  confinement ;  there  is 
none  of  the  chill  and  darkness  of  an  Alpine  glen.  The  character 
of  the  landscape  is  influenced  by  the  alternation  of  tuffs  with 
lavas ;  the  latter  become  much  darker  and  more  compact.  To  the 
tuffs  are  largely  due  the  softer  spaces  of  field  and  garden  ;  while 
the  lava,  which  has  cooled  into  a  roughly  columnar  structure, 
produces  parapets  of  immense  height  and  precipitous  crags.  A 
little  below  the  town  of  Jevizlik  we  stood  in  wonder  at  the  foot 
of  a  cliff  composed  of  a  rock  of  this  description.  It  fills  the  angle 
between  the  main  stream  and  a  tributary  to  the  left  bank,  and  it 
must  be  at  least  1500  feet  high.  The  columns  of  lava  suggested 
the  appearance  of  an  organ  of  colossal  proportions.  And  what  a 
romantic  feature,  the  bold  perspective  of  the  side  valley,  the 
cultivation  carried  upwards  by  almost  impossible  gradients,  the 
vivid  green  of  the  young  corn  contrasting  with  patches  of  fallow 
land,  coloured  a  light  purplish-brown  !  Along  the  summits  of 
the  wide  amphitheatre  of  ridges  the  forest  rises  against  the  field 
of  the  sky. 

Jevizlik,  the  first  station,  is  reached  at  about  the  twentieth 
mile  ;  it  is  situated  just  below  the  confluence  of  a  considerable 
stream  which  comes  in  on  the  right  bank.      A  rough  road  diverges 


Revisit  Armenia  239 

from  the  diaussce  at  this  point,  and  follows  the  course  of  the 
tributary.  It  leads  to  the  famous  monastery  of  Sumelas,  a  ride 
or  sharp  walk  of  three  and  a  half  hours.  We  passed  bands  of 
pilgrims  on  their  way  to  this  resort— whole  families,  an  entire 
village  packed  up  and  piled  upon  horses,  the  women  astride  with 
their  babes  beside  them,  the  men  on  foot.  The  monastery  is 
built  on  a  ledge  of  an  almost  perpendicular  wall  of  mountain,  at 
a  height  of  4450  feet  above  sea-level,  and  of  800  feet  above  the 
torrent  which  hisses  at  the  base  of  the  rock.  It  is  placed  almost 
at  the  head  of  the  beautiful  valley  of  Meiriman — a  valley  which, 
indeed,  is  narrower  than  that  of  the  Pyxitis,  but  which  combines 
in  its  various  stages  all  the  features,  of  this  fair  land.  Orchards 
and  stretches  of  forest  trees  clothe  the  easier  gradients  at  the 
mouth  of  the  opening — a  large  circle  of  heights  soaring  up  into 
the  heaven  above  purple  slopes,  where  the  soil  is  exposed  by  the 
plough.  Clusters  of  wooden  chalets  overlook  the  winding  river, 
and  each  bolder  eminence  is  crowned  by  a  white,  stone  chapel. 
As  the  valley  becomes  a  glen — the  term  is  ill  adapted  to  express 
the  scale  upon  which  Nature  has  worked — the  vegetation  increases 
in  luxuriance  and  changes  in  character,  until  the  scene  assumes 
that  strange  and  almost  supernatural  appearance  which  has  found 
such  just  expression  in  the  weirdness  of  the  Kolchian  myths. 
The  foliage,  which  almost  obscures  the  light  of  the  brightest  day, 
is  composed  of  alder,  lime,  walnut  and  elm,  of  beech  and  Spanish 
chestnut,  of  ash  and,  on  the  higher  slopes,  of  tall  firs.  Trees  of 
holly,  of  azalea  and  of  rhododendron  suppl}-  an  undergrowth 
which  at  this  season  is  ablaze  with  bloom.  In  the  autumn  the 
pink,  poisonous  crocus  {coldiicwii)  springs  from  the  rocks,  of  double 
the  length  and  size  of  the  ordinary  flower.  Fungus  with  crimson 
stools  start  from  the  silver  lichen,  which  diffuses  an  unearthly  light. 
Long  streamers  of  grey-green  lichen  float  on  the  lower  branches, 
from  which  a  profusion  of  creepers  are  festooned.  Here  and  there 
the  thicket  opens  to  an  expanse  of  lawn.  The  forest  is  fed  by 
the  clouds  collected  in  this  caldron  of  Nature  ;  and  from  the 
month  of  May  to  that  of  October  the  windows  of  the  monastery 
are  seldom  greeted  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  (Fig.  175). 

The  traveller  to  Erzerum  who  is  in  search  of  romantic  scenery 
could  not  do  better  than  follow  this  valley  of  Meiriman.  It  is  the 
route  which  I  selected  upon  our  return  from  this  second  journey  ; 
but  it  is  not  practicable  during  the  winter  months.  A  steep 
ascent  from   the  head   of  the   glen   leads  to  a  country   of  grassy 


240  Armenia 

uplands,  rising  gradually  to  the  pass  of  the  Kazikly  Dagh.  This 
pass  is  the  more  easterly  counterpart  of  the  Zigana,  but  exceeds 
it  in  height  by  more  than  looo  feet  (8290  as  against  6640  feet). 
The  barrier  on  the  north  of  the  plain  of  Baiburt  is  crossed  at  the 
Kitowa  Dagh  by  a  pass  of  8040  feet  (as  against  the  6470  feet  of 
the  Vavuk  Pass).  Beyond  the  Kazikly  Dagh  there  is  a  fair  track 
which  is  used  by  caravans  in  "summer  ;  but  between  that  point 
and  Trebizond  they  pursue  a  shorter  route.  This  approach  to 
the  plains  of  Armenia  is  almost  in  a  direct  line,  avoiding  the  long 
detour  by  Gumushkhaneh.  The  journey  from  the  cloister  of 
Sumelas  to  Baiburt  may  be  performed  in  two  days.^ 

On  the  present  occasion  we  were  constrained  by  perverse 
orders  from  Constantinople  to  follow  the  chaussee.  The  tributary, 
which  we  crossed  at  Jevizlik  by  a  bridge  of  several  arches, 
appeared  to  bring  almost  an  equal  volume  of  water  as  the  river 
which  it  feeds.  The  upper  stages  of  the  main  valley  are  pictur- 
esque in  character,  with  none  of  the  gloom  and  savagery  of  the 
vale  of  Meiriman.  The  slopes  on  either  side  terrace  upwards  into 
the  haze  of  the  sky  ;  and  for  some  miles  above  Jevizlik  they  are 
alive  with  settlements.  At  mid-height  you  admire  the  frequent 
clusters  of  the  villages  ;  the  churches  are  built  on  projecting 
pinnacles  of  rock,  and  consist  of  a  group  of  gables  surmounted  by 
a  dome  and  approached  through  a  belfry  with  two  storeys  of  open 
arches.  A  white-faced  monastery  is  seen  high  up  on  the  opposite 
or  left  bank  of  the  river  ;  it  fills  a  niche  or  natural  recess  in  a 
vertical  wall  of  rock,  and  its  roofs  are  overhung  by  the  roof  of  the 
cave.  The  stream  is  spanned  at  frequent  intervals  by  little  stone 
bridges  with  single  arches,  the  arches  highly  curved  and  the 
roadway  rising  to  the  centre  of  the  bridge.  In  one  place  the  way 
which  led  up  the  cliff-side  to  a  village  was  flanked  at  its  upper  end 
by  a  strong  tower  from  which  the  inmates  could  resist  attack  from 
below.  Above  this  inhabited  zone,  at  the  foot  of  the  firs,  near 
the  crests  of  the  ridges,  sparse  hamlets  or  isolated  chalets  are  just 
discerned  in  the  vague  detail  of  the  uppermost  slopes.  A  report 
of  guns,  sounding  distant,  comes  from  one  of  those  eyries  where 

1  The  following  are  tlie  stages  : — Jevizlik — Sumelas,  loi  miles  ;  Sumelas  across  the 
Kazikly  Dagh  to  Tashkopri,  1 1  miles  ;  Tashkiipri  via  Tshorak  Khan  and  across  the 
Kitowa  Dagh  to  Mezere  Khan,  i8j  miles  ;  Mezere  Khan  to  Baiburt,  177?  miles.  From 
Baiburt  the  summer  road  to  Erzerum  7'iA  the  Khosabpunar  Pass  may  be  taken,  the  stages 
being: — Baiburt — Maden  Khan,  10^  miles;  INIaden  Khan  to  Khosabpunar  village  on 
the  south  side  of  the  pass  (S600  feet),  28  miles  ;  Khosabpunar  village  via  Maimansur  to 
Erzerum,  29  miles.  Total  distance  from  Trebizond  by  this  route,  145  miles,  as  against 
the  199  miles  of  the  chams^e.     See  Ch.  X.  p.  225. 


Revisit  Armenia  241 

they  are  celebrating  a  marriage  feast.  In  the  fields,  with  their 
strange  gradients,  men  and  women  are  at  work,  the  men  lithe  of 
limb,  the  women  square-set,  with  skirts  to  below  the  knee  and  thick 
stockings  on  their  legs.  It  is  a  dreamy  southern  scene,  in  one 
hand  beauty,  in  the  other  squalor  ;  and  it  repeats  on  a  large  scale 
the  characteristics  of  those  transverse  cuttings  which  extend  from 
the  coast  to  the  highlands  of  Asia  Minor  and  are  inhabited  by  a 
population  of  Greek  race. 

The  chaussce  follows  the  right  bank,  at  some  height  above 
the  stream,  in  full  possession  of  the  views  on  either  hand.  The 
valley  maintains  its  width  ;  but  the  nature  of  the  landscape 
changes  ;  cultivation  ceases,  and  the  forest  descends  to  the  road. 
Thickets  of  rhododendron  are  seen  for  the  first  time — the  tree-like 
bushes  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  England  and  the  large 
flowers.  The  brakes  were  a  mass  of  bloom  ;  a  little  higher  we 
met  the  azaleas  ;  the  yellow  azalea  and  the  pale  mauve  petals  of 
the  rhododendron  were  in  the  splendour  of  their  latest  blossoming. 
In  the  lush  forest  we  noticed  the  beech  tree,  the  walnut,  and  the 
maple,  the  hazel,  the  oak  and  the  elm  ;  the  elders  were  in  full 
flower,  and  the  cherry  trees  were  conspicuous  for  their  number 
and  size.  The  more  open  spaces  were  covered  with  masses  of 
forget-me-nots  ;  calices  of  hellebore,  withered  yellow,  rested  on 
the  rank  grass  ;  and  yellow  mullein,  filling  the  air  with  its  subtle 
perfume,  rose  from  among  the  rocks.  Little  waterfalls  leapt 
through  the  deep  shade  of  narrow  clearings  ;  we  were  nearing 
the  head  of  the  valley.  A  bed  of  sandstone,  holding  the 
moisture  like  a  sponge,  interrupts  the  lava  beds.  The  ridges 
circle  inwards  ;  the  valley  becomes  an  amphitheatre,  and  its 
stately  character  is  preserved  to  the  last. 

Upon  a  terrace  of  this  amphitheatre  the  little  settlement  of 
Lower  Hamsi  Keui  commands  the  long  perspective  towards  the 
north.  It  is  distant  some  fourteen  miles  from  Jevizlik  and 
thirty-four  from  Trebizond.  We  made  our  stage  at  the  Upper 
Hamsi  Keui,  over  a  mile  beyond  the  Lower,  by  a  continuous 
ascent.  It  is  situated  above  one  of  the  two  larger  side  valleys 
which  converge  towards  the  hamlet  first  named.  It  is  from  here 
that  you  commence  the  first  portion  of  the  climb  to  the  Zigana 
Dagh,  through  forest  glades  in  which  the  spruce  firs  alternate 
with  the  beech  woods,  and  which  are  carpeted  with  an  under- 
growth of  rhododendron  and  azalea  and  tall  palm-leaved  bracken. 
As  we  rose  on  the  following  morning  above  our  surroundings  we 
VOL.  II  R 


242 


Armenia 


looked  in  vain  for  the  vista  of  sea,  the  horizon  being  veiled  in 
mist.  Our  ears  were  greeted  by  the  song  of  nightingales,  and 
by  the  clear  call-notes  of  the  cuckoo  ;  while  the  plashing  of 
innumerable  streamlets  and  waterfalls  mingled  to  a  background 
of  tremulous  sound.  Flocks  of  sheep  were  passed  on  their  way 
to  their  summer  pastures,  and  we  could  hear  their  liquid  bells 
from  afar.  They  were  accompanied  by  shepherds  with  dogs  not 
much  smaller  than  mastiffs,  which  had  long  white  hair  and  tails 
like  a  fox's  brush.  The  side  valley  is  left  behind,  and  then  a 
second  and  still  smaller  valley  ;  until  the  forest  ceases  and  you 
enter  the  region  of  dreary  heights.  But  the  azalea  still  continues, 
mounting  the  ridge  like  our  English  gorse  and  not  less  riotous  of 
flower.  Patches  of  snow  remain  unmelted  even  at  this  season. 
At  the  saddle  of  the  pass  we  had  covered  about  10  miles  and 
risen  nearly  2600  feet  (Upper  Hamsi  Keui,  4060  feet  ;  Zigana 
Pass,  6640  feet). 

The  slopes  are  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  30  and  the 
rock  is  much  decomposed.  Time  was  wanting  for  a  careful 
examination  ;  but  Oswald  favoured  the  conclusion  that  it  is  hard 
and  holocrystalline,  similar  in  character  to  that  of  the  Kitowa 
Dagh  further  east.  The  descent  is  long  and  gradual  from  the 
pass  to  the  valley  of  the  Kharshut,  which  eats  its  way  through 
wild  mountains  to  the  Black  Sea.  The  road  is  carried  along  the 
heights,  on  the  east  of  a  basin  of  ridges,  by  a  succession  of  terraces. 
In  winter,  when  the  snow  spreads  a  carpet  at  the  foot  of  the  fir 
trees,  the  view  is  at  once  inspiring  and  superb.  But  in  summer 
the  long  stretches  of  barren  yellow  talus — a  trachyte,  decomposed 
and  weathered  a  staring  yellow,  fatigue  the  eye  and  repel  the 
sense.  There  is  a  certain  contrast  in  the  vegetation  of  the 
southern  slopes.  The  luscious  forest  has  disappeared,  and  so 
have  the  rhododendra. ;  but  the  azalea  and  the  spruce  firs  still 
clothe  the  walls  facing  the  Pontic  winds.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Scotch  fir  takes  the  place  of  its  slenderer  rival  on  the  parapets 
which  are  less  exposed  to  the  moisture.  At  the  foot  of  the  main 
descent  are  placed  at  intervals  three  hamlets  with  numerous 
caravanserais.  The  first  is  Maden  ;  the  other  two  are  known 
respectively  as  the  Upper  and  the  Lower  Zigana  (4330  feet).  The 
distance  from  the  pass  to  the  Lower  Zigana  may  be  about  4^  to 
5  miles.  Thence  it  is  another  j\  miles  to  the  bridge  over  the 
Kharshut  (3100  feet).  The  landscape,  of  immense  extent  and  of 
the  most  savage  character,  is  framed  in  the  south  by  the  serrated 


Revisit  Armenia  243 

outline  of  the  Giaour  Dagh,  veined  with  snow  and  capped  by  cloud. 
Between  the  pass  and  the  hamlets  we  noticed  huge  volcanic  dikes 
seaming  the  hillsides  with  bold  causeways  of  finely  crystalline  rock. 

The  little  town  of  Ardasa  on  the  banks  of  the  Kharshut 
affords  shelter  for  the  night.  It  is  placed  at  a  distance  of  about 
2  miles  above  the  bridge,  and  of  about  24^-  miles  from  the  Upper 
Hamsi  Keui.  The  straggling  settlement  is  overtowered  by  a  cliff 
some  thousand  feet  in  height,  perhaps  a  limestone  and  coloured 
a  rusty  brown.  On  the  summit  are  seen  the  fragments  of  a 
mediaeval  castle.  Between  Ardasa  and  the  pass  of  Vavuk  we 
followed  next  day  the  winding  river,  tracking  it  up  almost  to  its 
source.  The  valley  is  fairly  open,  with  a  number  of  side  valleys  ; 
but  the  scene  is  desolate  and  bare.  Not  a  remnant  of  the  azalea 
enlivens  the  landscape  ;  the  vegetation  adheres  to  the  margin  of 
the  water  —  fruit  trees  and  willows,  the  large  mauve  flowers  of  the 
field-iris,  hawthorn  in  bloom,  the  yellow  blossoms  of  the  barberry. 
There  is  a  certain  air  of  comfort  in  the  pretty  wooden  houses 
with  their  gables  and  wooden  roofs,  shining  white.  But  this  note 
is  often  and  quickly  lost  in  the  sounding  discords  of  a  chaotic 
Nature — the  shales  and  limestones  compressed  into  almost  im- 
possible contortions  and  baked  and  uplifted  by  huge  bosses  of 
igneous  rock.  Beyond  such  a  devil's  gorge,  which  is  overhung 
by  a  robber's  eyrie,  is  situated  the  considerable  town  of  Giimush- 
khaneh,  famous  for  its  silver  mines,  now  no  longer  worked.  You 
leave  it  on  your  right  and  pass  through  a  lower  suburb,  at  a 
distance  from  Ardasa  of  about  16^  miles. 

Another  i  o  miles  brings  you  to  the  large  village  of  Tekke  ; 
and  about  2  miles  further  a  bridge  crosses  the  Kharshut.  It 
takes  a  road  which  here  diverges  to  follow  a  tributary  to  the 
left  bank,  and  which  leads  across  the  Giaour  Dagh  to  Erzinjan. 
We  sl,ept  at  Murad  Khan,  a  comfortable  shelter,  having  made 
a  stage  of  about  33  miles  (alt.  4430  feet).  On  the  morning 
of  the  loth  of  June  we  again  pursued  the  river,  now  become 
shallow,  and  were  soon  passing  beneath  the  castled  crag  of  Kalajik, 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  journey  to  Erzerum  (Ch.  X.,  Fig.  i  74, 
taken  in  winter).  The  size  of  the  ruin  and  the  scale  of  the 
outworks,  which  defend  each  ledge  of  the  limestone  precipice,  far 
surpass  the  similar  fastnesses  in  this  wild  valley.  At  7  miles 
we  left  the  stream  to  ascend  by  easy  gradients  the  gentle  slopes 
of  the  Vavuk  Pass  (6468  feet).  At  the  saddle  we  had  covered  a 
distance  of  rather  over  10  miles. 


244  Armenia 

We  stood  on  the  threshold  of  the  Armenian  tableland,' beneath 
a  new  climate  and  in  face  of  a  new  scene.  The  contrast  impressed 
Oswald,  who  saw  it  for  the  first  time,  and  who  at  once  seized  the 
special  features  of  this  new  world.  We  had  crossed  the  zone  of 
sparse  fir  trees  ;  the  summit  is  completely  barren  ;  the  plain 
before  us,  as  well  as  the  rounded  outlines  of  the  opposite  hills, 
devoid  of  vegetation  of  any  kind.  Only  by  the  margin  of  a 
slowly-flowing  river  beneath  us  beds  of  buttercups  marked  out  in 
patches  its  idle  course.  Limestones  and  shales  are  the  material 
of  this  and  the  further  eminences  ;  it  is  a  country  of  soft,  swelling 
downs  on  a  large  scale.  The  clouds  stand  arrested  on  the 
higher  summits  of  this  barrier  ;  the  sky  beyond  is  pellucid,  the 
air  bracing,  the  tints  warm.  As  we  made  our  way  beneath  the 
night  to  our  distant  goal  beyond  Baiburt  the  evening  star  was 
shining  with  the  brilliance  of  a  beacon,  and  my  friend  mistook 
the  milky  way  for  a  luminous  cloud.  When  we  arrived  in 
Erzerum  (6168  feet)  on  the  14th  of  June  the  lilac  filled  the 
gardens  with  its  heavy  scent.  It  was  commencing  to  blossom 
in  our  native  country  before  we  left  its  shores  behind. 


CHAPTER    XII 

ACROSS    THE    CENTRAL    TABLELAND    TO    KHINLS 

The  site  of  Erzerum  is  already  familiar  to  my  reader  ;  he  sees 
her  towers  and  minarets  on  the  southern  margin  of  a  lake-Hke 
plain,  and  raised  on  the  dais  of  a  fan  of  detritus  from  the  southern 
line  of  heights.  He  knows  the  large  surroundings  of  that  city  of 
inspiring  prospects  :  the  long  and  regular  line  of  the  block  of 
mountains  in  the  north,  with  their  Sheikhjik,  their  Akhbaba,  Jejen 
and  Kop  ;  the  vague  and  gloomy  passage  of  the  Gurgi  Boghaz 
through  those  mountains  ;  and  in  the  east  the  transverse  parapet 
which  interrupts  the  issue  eastwards,  that  freak  of  Nature,  the 
Deveh  Boyun.  The  southern  barrier,  which  rises  in  the  peak  of 
Palandoken  to  a  height  of  4500  feet  above  the  town,  would 
appear  to  constitute  an  impassable  obstacle  to  traffic  ;  and  in  fact 
precludes  it  during  the  winter  months.  Yet  there  are  several 
natural  openings  in  the  steep  slopes  of  that  barrier,  leading  to  the 
uplands  of  Tekman  on  its  further  side.  Of  these  the  principal 
passage  is  that  of  Palandoken,  crossing  the  so-called  crater  of  the 
Palandoken — Eyerli  Dagh. 

June  20. — Our  course  was  directed  up  the  fan  of  detritus  to  this 
Palandoken  Pass.^  Our  little  horses,  full  of  corn,  curveted  along 
the  path  through  the  dreary  waste  of  water-worn  stones.  Erzerum 
was  soon  behind  us,  lost  already  in  the  expanse.  What  a  contrast 
between  these  cities  of  Asia  and  those  of  Europe  with  their 
suburbs  and  villas  !  These  repose  upon  their  plains  like  a  ship 
upon  the  ocean,  which  you  speak,  and   all   is   soon   again   blank. 

1  The  following  are  my  estimates  of  the  mileage  distances  along  our  route  to  Khinis  : 
Erzerum — Palandoken  Pass,  7j  miles  ;  Palandoken  Pass — Madrak,  8  miles  ;  Madrak 
— Khedonun,  ii^  miles;  Khedonun — Kherbesor,  8|  miles;  Kherbesor — Ali  Mur,  7 
miles  ;  Ali  Mur — Khinis,  i8  miles.  Total,  60^  miles.  Such  estimates  throughout  this 
work  are  based  on  pace  and  on  time  occupied  ;  and  the  results  have  been  checked  by  the 
positions  fixed  by  cross  bearings. 


246  Armenia 

In  half- an -hour  from  the  enceinte  we  gained  a  metalled  road, 
which  follows  the  course  of  a  torrent  of  some  size.  It  leads  to 
two  modern  forts,  planted  high  on  the  southern  slope,  on  either 
side  of  the  pass.  The  pass  itself  is  placed  beneath  the  peak  of 
Palandoken,  upon  its  western  flank.  The  road  goes  winding  up 
the  gorge,  and  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  so-called  crater, 
crossing  and  re-crossing  the  torrent  by  a  number  of  bridges. 

A  nameless  and  minor  mountain  of  symmetrical  proportions 
and  vaulted  form  rises  on  the  northern  margin  of  the  cirque. 
We  passed  between  it  and  the  slopes  of  Palandoken,  supported 
by  the  outworks  of  the  larger  mass.  Patches  of  snow  lay  on  the 
grass  at  this  increased  altitude,  their  melting  remnants  fringed  by 
bright  fieldflowers.  On  the  banks  were  Pulsatillas,  with  their 
drooping  bells  and  scent  of  wine;  buttercups  and  marsh  marigolds 
in  the  beds  of  the  runnels  ;  forget-me-nots  in  profusion  on  every 
side.  Still  the  scene  was  bleak  in  character ;  and  the  sailing 
cumulus  clouds  sent  their  shadows  over  a  surface  which  has  been 
worn  by  ice  and  snow  and  water,  and  seems  alien  even  to  the 
hardiest  plants.  Such  was  the  appearance  of  the  irregular  caldron 
on  our  right  hand — a  yawning  hollow  sapping  the  bases  of  the 
adjacent  peaks.  Closed  on  the  south,  it  sends  its  drainage 
through  deep  valleys  to  the  plain.  The  white  face  of  a  limestone 
rock  interrupts  the  more  grassy  spaces,  and  is  varied  by  the 
darker  serpentines.  The  soaring  heights  around  the  cirque  are 
of  eruptive  volcanic  origin,  and  display  the  lava  flows.  After  a 
sharp  ascent,  the  cJianssce  reaches  the  standing  southern  wall  of 
this  caldron,  and  is  taken,  in  a  fine  gallery,  for  some  distance 
along  its  northern  slope.  Its  cliff-like  outline  extends  from  the 
heights  of  Palandoken  to  those  of  Eyerli  in  the  west.  A  turn  of 
the  road  conducts  us  to  the  pass  (9780  feet). 

It  was  three  o'clock  ;  but  the  snow  lay  in  sheets  over  the 
hollows,  and  the  temperature  was  only  46°  Fahrenheit.  Grey 
clouds  veiled  the  sky  in  the  northern  landscape,  and  were 
collected  in  inky  masses  about  the  snowy  peaks  of  the  Chorokh 
region.  The  view  in  that  direction,  and  along  the  two  parallel 
lines  of  heights  which  border  the  course  of  the  Frat,  impressed  us 
in  a  double  sense.  On  the  one  hand  it  was  the  great  height  of 
the  summits  in  the  north,  which  now  showed  up  behind  th'e  cone 
of  Sheikhjik  ;  we  concluded  that  they  must  belong  to  the  group 
of  mountains  in  which  the  Chorokh  has  its  source.  The  other 
fact  which  appeared   plain   was  the  rising  and   massing  of  both 


Across  the  Central  Tableland  to  Khinis  247 

lines  of  heights  in  the  far  west.  Following  the  chain  upon 
which  we  stood  across  the  slopes  of  the  Eyerli  Dagh,  or  pursuing 
the  outline  of  the  opposite  barrier  across  the  plain,  the  long  per- 
spective westwards  met  in  shining  masses  of  mountain,  covered 
with  snow  and  with  precipitous  sides.  In  the  case  of  the 
opposite  barrier,  Kop  and  Jejen  and  Akhbaba  were  dwarfed  and 
humbled  by  those  Georgian  heights  upon  the  one  side,  and,  on 
the  other,  by  those  giants  in  the  west. 

A  soldier,  muffled  in  an  overcoat,  descends  upon  us  from  the 
nearest  fort,  and  bids  us  to  desist  from  our  investigations. — The 
tripod  had  been  erected  :  and  they  could  see  us  taking  bearings, 
which  in  this  country,  devoid  of  maps,  is  regarded  as  spying. 
But  the  bearings  had  been  taken,  and  we  were  not  loth  to  leave. 
The  road  becomes  a  track  as  you  descend  the  southern  slopes  ; 
we  might  say  farewell  to  roads  for  many  weeks. 

Tekman  lies  before  us — a  vast  plateau,  a  continuous  basin, 
stretching  towards  the  foot  of  a  gently  vaulted  opposite  mountain 
with  long  horizontal  outline  and  shield-shaped  slopes.  It  is  the 
outline  of  the  Bingol  Dagh  ;  such  its  appearance  at  this  distance  ; 
it  is  thirty-two  miles  away  as  the  crow  flies.  It  constitutes 
the  opposite  rim  of  the  basin,  the  counterpart  of  these  heights  in 
the  north.  Snow  is  lying  in  large  quantities  even  upon  its  lower 
contours,  a  fact  explained  by  their  northern  aspect  and  rounded 
shape  (Fig.  176).^  The  southern  declivities  of  the  barrier  upon 
which  we  are  standing  are  only  flecked  with  snow.  Bingol  is 
little  more  than  the  culmination  upon  the  horizon  of  the  long 
outline  of  the  tableland  —  a  snow-clad  ridge  of  little  relative 
height.  In  places  hard,  black  rock  shows  through  the  shining 
canopy,  just  below  the  crest  of  the  ridge.  In  the  east  the 
highest  point  is  but  an  eminence  of  the  cliff-like  parapet  ;  but  in 
the  west  there  is  a  low  vaulting  which  resembles  a  peak.  In 
front  of  this  western  summit  rises  a  mass  of  dark  rock. 

No  intervening  forms  obstruct  the  view  over  the  basin  to  that 

long,   low,   east-west  ridge.      Nor  further  round,  towards  the  east, 

is   the  landscape   interrupted,  except  at   an  immense  interval   and 

by  imposing   shapes.      At   a  distance  of  fifty-two  miles,  a   second 

shield-shaped    giant    is    less   conspicuous    because    only   streaked 

with  snow.      It  is  Khamur,  a  volcanic  mass  beyond  the  plain   of 

'  The  illustration  was  taken  from  a  hill  near  Khedonun,  almost  in  the  centre  of  the 
basin-like  area.  But  the  appearance  both  of  basin  and  of  mountain  are  substantially 
the  same  from  the  Palandoken  Pass.  I  may  refer  my  reader  to  the  similar  landscape 
taken  in  winter  (Ch.  \"III.  Fig.   i6i). 


248  Armenia 

Khinis — a  plain  concealed  by  these  higher  levels,  but  indicated 
in  places  by  a  sharp  edge,  where  the  plateau  breaks  abruptly  to 
the  floor  of  the  plain.  As  the  train  of  Khamur  declines,  a  very 
lofty  and  pronounced  mountain  towers  up  into  the  sky.  None 
of  our  attendants  know  its  name  ;  but  it  is  the  Akh  Dagh,  seen 
in  profile,  the  boundary  of  the  Khinis  region  on  the  north.  It  is 
forty  miles  distant  ;  such  are  the  limits  in  that  direction  ;  while  in 
the  west  the  eye  is  arrested  by  outlines  from  the  adjacent  heights. 
We  cannot  see  Sipan  for  haze. 

A  better  standpoint  than  that  of  the  pass  from  which  to 
realise  this  region  is  afforded  by  the  brow  of  a  hill  a  few  miles 
west  of  the  village  of  Madrak,  to  which  we  mounted  on  the 
following  day.  What  a  bleak  and  lonely  scene  !  A  country  of 
rolling  dowais  extends  on  every  side,  framed  by  the  distant  land- 
marks just  described.  Yet  the  prevailing  hue  is  not  that  of 
grass,  even  at  this  season  ;  but  of  naked  limestone,  weathered  a 
pale  ochre,  or  of  serpentine,  dull-green  or  bluish-grey.  Both 
rocks  compose  hills  of  a  gentl\'  rounded  character ;  the  lime- 
stones are  most  often  capped  by  slabby  lavas,  which  resist  the 
crumbling  and  contribute  to  the  horizontal  appearance  of  all 
higher  forms.  The  few  clouds  which  have  scaled  the  barrier  of 
the  Palandoken  send  liquid  shadows  over  the  undulating  expanse. 
Of  cultivation  there  is  little — in  places  a  patch  of  light  reddish- 
brown  ;  the  stones  are  thickly  strewn  upon  the  fallows.  The 
sparse  hamlets,  built  of  mud  and  stone,  are  lost  in  the  folds  of 
the  hills. 

We  were  disappointed  with  the  flora.  We  saw  whole  beds  of 
white  anemones  ;  vigorous  fennel  and  slender  ferns  filled  the 
crevices  between  the  rocks.  The  long  grass  was  coloured  by 
the  ubiquitous  forget-me-nots  ;  magenta  primulas  flourish  in  the 
frequent  little  marshes,  and  masses  of  buttercups  along  the 
margins  of  the  streams.  Such  flowers,  although  common  and 
humble,  filled  the  air  with  perfume  ;  and  few  countries  in  the 
world  are  endowed  with  such  strong,  sweet  air.  The  earlier 
hour  and  the  clearer  day  enlarged  the  scope  of  our  vision  ;  and 
the  snow-robed  Sipan,  a  second  Ararat,  was  a  ghostly  presence 
in  the  south-east.  We  strove  to  identify  the  outlines  on  the 
extreme  horizon  of  the  half  circle ;  but  several  even  of  the 
larger  masses  were  not  marked  on  any  map.  In  the  west  the 
general  level  of  the  country  was  higher,  and  with  less  distinctive 
forms.      In  that  direction  the  opposite   heights,  of  Bingol  and  of 


Across  the  Central  Tableland  to  Khinis  249 

Palandoken — the  rims  of  the  basin — appeared  in  perspective 
ahnost  to  meet.  And  over  the  edge  of  the  Bingol  series  you 
could  see  the  mountains  on  the  north  of  the  Murad,  emerging  in 
the  far  south-west.  Looking  backwards  to  the  northern  barrier, 
we  saw  the  white  face  of  the  limestone  emerging  in  patches  from 
the  rough  grass  on  its  slopes.  It  is  little  more  than  the  elevated 
and  broken  rim  of  the  plateau  country  over  which  we  were  making 
our  way.  The  Akh  Dagh  showed  up  boldly  on  the  limits  of  the 
shallow  synclinal  described  by  these  wintry,  waterworn  uplands. 
Deeply  eroded  in  that  direction,  they  present  a  flat  and  more 
uniform  surface  as  they  stretch,  mile  upon  mile,  with  gently 
shelving  contours,  to  the  opposite  slopes  of  Bingol. 

What  track  will  you  follow,  or. what  course  will  you  shape 
towards  Khinis  and  its  fertile  plain  ?  The  natives  take  a  route 
by  Tashkesen  and  Chaurma,  and  descend  to  the  plain  over  the 
Akhviran  Pass.  They  travel  in  armed  caravans.  We  had  passed 
such  a  cavalcade  on  the  road  from  Palandoken,  at  the  head  of 
which,  surrounded  by  attendants,  armed  to  the  teeth,  rode  a 
woman,  muffled  and  veiled.  But  a  portion  of  this  route  I  had 
already  followed  during  my  former  journey  ;  and  I  was  anxious 
to  penetrate  into  the  little -known  region  in  the  direction  of 
Bingol.  The  Kurdish  village  of  Madrak  is  situated  on  the  further 
side  of  an  affluent  of  the  Araxes,  at  a  distance  of  some  eight 
miles  from  the  Palandoken  Pass.  Although  it  lies  in  a  hollow, 
near  a  marsh,  abounding  in  snipe,  it  is  about  looo  feet  higher 
than  Erzerum  (7061  feet).  Our  zaptieh  professed  to  know  a 
track  which  led  in  the  desired  direction,  and  which  should  take 
us  by  a  direct  route  to  Khinis.  Starting  at  three  o'clock,  after  a 
morning  of  storm  and  rain,  we  followed  a  path  which  conducted 
us  in  a  southerly  direction  across  the  downs.  A  single  hamlet 
was  passed  by,  and  after  a  ride  of  over  an  hour  we  overlooked  a 
spacious  valley  and  a  considerable  stream.  On  its  left  bank  is 
placed  the  considerable  Kurdish  village  of  Duzyurt  ;  the  gay 
dresses  of  the  inhabitants  brightened  the  scene.  We  forded  the 
stream,  which  must  join  the  one  on  the  north  of  Madrak  ;  the 
water  was  pellucid,  but  barely  reached  to  our  horses'  knees. 
Regaining  the  uplands  on  its  further  side  we  enjoyed  a  larger 
prospect ;  the  whole  of  Bingol  was  exposed  to  view  as  well  as 
some  of  the  outlines  in  the  east.  Forget-me-nots  shed  a  shimmer 
of  blue  through  the  grass  which,  as  usual  in  this  region,  was 
thickly  strewn  with   stones.      At   half-past  five  we   were   high   up 


250  Armenia 

and  in  face  of  a  second  river  valley ;  some  rude  buildings  were 
collected  on  the  down.  We  followed  the  course  of  this  valley 
some  little  distance  towards  the  east,  and  pitched  our  tents  near 
the  hamlet  of  Khedonun  {6'j  i  3  feet). 

A  band  of  armed  Kurds,  richly  attired,  were  watering  their 
horses,  or  strolling  idly  along  the  banks  of  a  little  stream.  The 
hamlet  is  situated  on  its  left  bank.  The  inhabitants  of  this  region 
are  at  the  present  day  exclusively  Kurds  ;  but  I  was  informed 
that,  as  regards  the  district  of  Tekman  in  general,  they  are  of 
comparatively  recent  importation.  The  Armenian  inhabitants 
left  en  masse  with  the  armies  of  Paskevich,  and  the  Kurds 
occupied  their  vacant  villages.  The  Kurds  of  Khedonun  were 
said  to  belong  to  the  Jibranli  tribe  —  a  tribe  which  is  strong 
in  the  caza  of  Varto.  But  among  the  Kurdish  population  some 
have  been  brought  from  the  distant  vilayet  of  Diarbekr,  at  the 
head  of  the  Mesopotamian  plains.  These  belong  to  the  Zireki. 
Our  people  fraternised  with  the  horsemen  ;  they  composed  the 
escort  of  a  bridegroom  who  had  come  to  the  village  from  a  neigh- 
bouring hamlet  in  quest  of  a  bride.  The  wedding  was  to  take 
place  on  the  following  day. 

Although  settled  on  the  land,  these  Kurds  are  distinctly  tribal, 
and  glory  in  the  fact  of  being  Kurds.  Indeed  throughout  the 
country  which  I  crossed  during  my  second  journey,  if  I  asked 
people  whether  their  village  were  "  Osmanli,"  I  received  the 
emphatic  answer,  "  Kurd."  Khedonun  may  serve  as  a  sample  of 
the  settlements  of  this  district.  It  seemed  fairly  well-to-do.  The 
wealth  of  the  villagers  consists  of  their  flocks  and  herds,  upon  the 
produce  of  which  they  subsist.  During  winter  they  stable  them 
in  the  group  of  buildings  which  we  had  passed,  and  last  winter  a 
pack  of  wolves  destroyed  their  flock.  They  said  that  bears 
abounded  in  the  neighbourhood.  They  sow  a  little  wheat,  and 
plant  some  onions  and  cabbage  ;  they  profess  to  have  tried 
potatoes,  but  it  was  a  failure,  owing  to  the  late  frosts.  Indeed 
the  night  was  very  cold,  not  much  above  freezing  ;  and  even  at 
ten  o'clock  on  the  following  morning  the  shade  temperature  was 
only  62,  although  from  sunrise  the  day  had  been  warmed  by  a 
brilliant  sun.  The  wedding  was  extremely  picturesque.  The 
procession,  all  on  horseback,  made  a  circuit  of  the  countryside  in 
the  lap  of  which  the  hamlet  lies.  The  bride  was  robed  in  a  red 
shawl,  and  sat  astride  of  a  milk-white  horse.  A  veil  of  yellow 
silk,  which  floated   in   the   breeze,  completely   concealed   her   face. 


Across  the  Central  Tableland  to  Khmis  251 

On  either  side  rode  two  women,  veiled  and  dressed  in  white. 
The  horsemen,  in  gala  attire,  followed  or  flanked  the  ladies  ;  all 
proceeded  at  a  walk.  But  from  time  to  time  this  irksome  restraint 
was  broken  through  by  an  explosion  of  wildness  ;  and  a  shouting 
warrior,  mad  with  excitement,  would  dash  forward  at  full  gallop, 
brandishing  his  rifle  like  a  stick. 

The  Araxes,  or  Egri  Chai,  as  it  is  called  in  the  district,  flows 
at  a  little  distance  south  of  the  hamlet  and  receives  the  runnel 
which  skirts  Khedonun.  That  it  was  the  Araxes  appeared  plain 
from  the  volume  of  water  which  it  brought,  from  the  direction  from 
which  it  was  flowing,  and  from  our  subsequent  research.  Mount- 
ing to  an  eminence  south  of  the  village,  we  observed  some  lofty 
mountains  on  the  sky-line  in  the  west.  The  boldest  peak  among 
them  lay  almost  above  the  course  of  the  river,  as  it  meandered 
towards  the  east.  One  of  the  Kurds  knew  that  peak  by  the  name 
of  Sheikhjik.  The  relation  of  these  mountains  to  the  plateau 
country  we  were  enabled  to  ascertain  at  a  later  date.  Looking 
up  the  valley  we  could  see  that  it  was  carved  out  of  calcareous 
deposits,  overlaid  by  flows  of  lava  or  tuff.  These  deposits,  which 
are  without  doubt  lacustrine  in  character,  extend  for  some  miles 
towards  Bingol. 

June  23. — After  fording  the  Aras  we  made  our  way  for  some 
considerable  distance  up  the  fairly  broad  valley  of  another  little 
river,  which  was  already  close  to  its  confluence.  The  valley 
favoured  our  course,  having  an  almost  meridional  direction  ;  the 
river  was  coming  straight  down  from  Bingol.  The  peculiar  charm 
of  this  region  is  the  number  of  delicious  streams  which  furrow  the 
breezy  downs.  With  their  grassy  valleys  and  blue  surface  they 
refresh  and  please  the  eye,  and  in  part  atone  for  the  absence  of 
trees.  The  sides  of  the  valley  were  seen  to  consist  of  a  very 
white  lacustrine  limestone  ;  these  rocks  were  varied  a  few  miles 
further,  and  at  length  almost  superseded,  by  sheets  of  dark  brown 
tuff.  Among  such  surroundings  is  situated  the  considerable 
Kurdish  village  of  Kalaji,  backed  by  a  low  cliff  of  rectangular 
blocks  of  tuff,  and  overlooking  the  stream  from  its  left  bank. 
At  this  point  we  crossed  the  river  and  regained  the  uplands  ;  our 
landmarks  were  again  in  view.  The  snowy  peak  which  we  called 
Sheikhjik  lay  on  our  right,  above  high  outlines  of  these  undulating 
downs.  Behind  us  stretched  the  outline  of  the  Palandoken 
heights  ;  while  before  us  rose  the  western  and  more  pronounced 
eminence  of  the  long   ridge  of  Bingol.      Our  guide   was   making 


2S2 


Armenia 


for  a  village  at  the  foot  of  Bingol  which  bears  the  name  of 
Kherbesor. 

Hitherto  we  had  been  pursuing  an  almost  southerly  course  ; 
it  was  time  that  we  should  be  turning  towards  the  east.  This 
wide  curve  is  dictated  by  a  block  of  limestone  hills,  which  inter- 
poses a  sea  of  peaks,  with  little  relative  height,  between  Khedonun 
and  the  plain  of  Khinis.  We  had  now  reached  the  base  of  the 
platform  which  supports  Bingol  ;  it  breaks  off  just  on  the  south 
of  the  village  of  Kherbesor  in  a  line  of  cliffs,  which  concealed  the 
eastern  summit.  We  were  in  the  district  of  Shushar  ;  our  further 
progress  was  directed  up  a  wide  valley  between  those  cliffs  and 
the  block  of  hills  with  the  rounded  peaks.  The  cliffs  appeared  to 
consist  of  a  dark  lava,  overlying  calcareous  lake  deposits,  which 
again  overlay  the  tuffs  of  the  plain  of  Kherbesor.  At  a  distance 
of  some  five  miles,  Vv^e  crossed  a  col  (7340  feet)  over  a  ridge  of 
limestone,  joining  the  block  of  hills  to  the  uppermost  extremity  of 
the  cliffs.  Thence  we  descended  to  a  spacious  and  roughly- 
circular  valley,  a  kind  of  caldron  among  the  bleak  heights.  It 
sends  its  drainage  to  the  Araxes  in  a  stream  which  skirts  the 
eastern  outworks  of  the  block  of  limestone  hills.  The  hamlet  of 
All  Mur,  which  nestles  in  the  lap  of  this  hollo\\',  has  an  elevation 
of  7180  feet.  It  belongs  to  the  district  of  Khinis.  It  takes  its 
name  from  a  grey-beard  who  became  our  guide  on  the  following 
day,  and  who  was  the  founder  of  the  settlement.  Ali  Mur  and 
his  people  are  Kizilbash  Kurds.  He  told  me  that  they  had 
found  on  this  site  the  relics  of  a  village  known  as  Kharaba,  and 
a  cemetery  which  he  believed  was  Mussulman. 

Next  morning  we  made  our  way  in  a  south-easterly  direction 
up  the  amphitheatral  heights.  In  less  than  an  hour  we  arrived 
at  the  col  (7490  feet),  a  ridge  of  limestone  hardened  to  marble, 
just  outside  the  limits  of  the  lavas  of  Bingol.  This  pass  lies  some 
miles  south-west  of  that  of  Akhviran,  and,  like  that  pass,  leads 
down  from  the  plateau  country  to  the  lower  levels  of  the  plain  of 
Khinis.  Our  immediate  surroundings  were  lofty  downs  from 
which  rose  the  ridge  of  Bingol,  both  summits  being  fully  exposed. 
Beyond  a  vast  trough,  in  which  the  plain  of  Khinis  lay,  the  mass 
of  Khamur  loomed  large  (Fig.  177).  In  the  south-east  soared  the 
snowy  shape  of  Sipan,  infinitely  high. 

As  we  descended  we  overlooked  two  deeply-eroded  canons, 
that  on  our  right  hand  being  much  the  more  pronounced.  The 
stream  which  flows  within  it  is  known  as  the  Bingol  Su  ;   a  smaller 


Across  the  Cenh^al  Tableland  to  Kliinis  253 

affluent  was  coming  down  the  minor  canon.  All  these  waters  find 
their  way  round  the  Khamur  elevation  by  a  long  course  to  the 
Murad.  The  face  of  the  canon  of  the  Bingol  Su  displayed  lavas 
and  tuffs  to  a  depth  of  about  1 00  feet  ;  these  were  seen  to  overlie 
the  limestone,  and  it  was  evident  that  they  had  come  from  Bingol. 
Similar  terraces  capped  the  cliffs  of  the  minor  stream.  The  ride 
over  the  tongue  of  high  land  which  separates  the  canons  was  not 
only  remarkable  for  the  wide  prospects  which  opened  before  us, 
but  also  for  the  refreshing  change  to  a  little  vegetation  and  to 
a  kinder  climate.  Little  oak  trees  clothe  tHe  slopes,  and  an 
abundance  of  wild  roses  ;  these  and  purple  peonies  were  in  full 
bloom.  When  we  reached  the  bed  of  the  smaller  river  and,  after 
fording  it,  followed  the  Bingol  Su,  the  pleasantness  of  our  first 
impression  was  increased.  The  valley  had  become  wide,  but  with 
high  cliffs  on  either  side  ;  that  on  the  right  showed  a  face  of  lava, 
capped  by  tuff.  These  tuffs  in  the  Bingol  region  resemble  blocks 
of  masonry,  and  have  the  horizontal  outline  of  a  wall.  The 
heights  on  the  left  bank  were  of  marble.  The  river  winds  like  a 
snake  through  a  fairly  wide  meadow,  in  which  the  grass  was 
vividly  green.  Tall  willows  spread  their  shade  over  the  crystal- 
clear  water  ;  and  our  English  fieldflowers,  the  poppy  being  most 
conspicuous,  coloured  the  luscious  undergrowth.  Grave  storks 
were  busy  in  the  marshy  places  ;  the  song  of  nightingales  was 
heard  in  the  groves.  The  limbs  relaxed  beneath  this  summer  ; 
we  were  loth  to  leave  the  sweet  valley  after  a  ride  within  it  of 
three-quarters  of  an  hour.  The  river  enters  a  gorge  before  issuing 
into  the  plain  ;  our  path  took  us  up  the  heights  above  its  right 
bank.  For  some  time  we  enjoyed  fine  views  over  the  level 
country  in  the  east,  and  then  descended  to  the  bed  of  a  tributary. 
Here  I  greeted  and  Oswald  admired  the  lonely  "  church  in  the 
valley."  ^  /\  little  later  we  arrived  on  the  edge  of  the  canon  in 
which  reposes  the  town  of  Khinis  (5550  feet). 

1  See  Ch.  \III.  p.   iS8. 


Fig.  178.     Kurdish  DanciiNG  Bt 


CHAPTER    XIII 


FROM    KHINIS    TO    TUTAKH 


We  pitched  our  tents  upon  the  plain,  above  the  caiion,  on  soil 
consisting  of  a  deposit  of  lacustrine  sands  and  gravels,  overlying 
the  lavas  and  tuffs  from  Bingol.  Far  and  wide,  in  an  immense 
half  circle,  stretched  the  even,  treeless  surface — a  surface  scarcely 
less  blank  or  less  receptive  of  the  hues  of  the  sky  than  the  waters 
which  once  rippled  there.  In  the  opposite  direction  rose  the 
shield-shaped  mass  of  Bingol  ;  we  stood  at  the  foot  of  the  several 
terraces  of  lava  which  mount  like  steps  from  the  plain  to  the 
upper  platform,  whence  volcanic  emissions  on  a  large  scale  have 
poured  towards  the  lower  levels.  Following  the  outline  north- 
wards, on  the  confines  of  the  plain,  its  general  character  is  that  of 
a  long  bank,  with  scarcely  perceptible  declivity  ;  until,  about  in 
the  region  of  the  pass  over  which  we  had  journeyed,  it  again  rises 
and  becomes  almost  horizontal,  curving  over  into  the  precipitous 
marbles  of  the  Akh  Dagh,  which  oppose  a  barrier  of  commanding 
proportions  in  the  north.  The  flat  edge  of  the  Tekman  high- 
lands  is  due  to   a  capping   of  lava,  from  which  the   Akh  Dagh 


From  Kliinis  to  Tutakh  255 

.limestones  are  free.  In  the  recess  of  the  curve,  and  in  front  of 
the  horizontal  outline  stands  a  hill  of  marble  with  a  gently  rounded 
summit.  The  eye  returns  to  the  series  of  gloomy  terraces  lead- 
ing upwards  to  the  eastern  summit  of  Bingol.  Deep  canons  sear 
the  lower  slopes. 

Khinis  was  little  changed  since  I  had  last  stood  in  its  gloomy 
valley ;  but  I  noticed  a  larger  sprinkling  of  Kurds  with  the 
vulture  features,  and  a  greater  display  of  the  Hamidiyeh  ensign  in 
their  lambskin  caps.  They  appeared  to  have  nothing  to  do  ;  but 
the  Armenian  craftsmen  were,  as  usual,  busy  at  work  in  their 
booths.  The  old,  outspoken  Kaimakam  was  dead.  I  could 
scarcely  conceal  my  feelings  when  I  was  introduced  to  his  successor, 
who,  on  his  part,  was  at  some  pains  to  dissemble  his  want  of  ease. 
It  was  my  old  acquaintance,  the  Kaimakam  of  Karakilisa  ;  but  I 
refrained  from  alluding  to  the  adventure  about  the  gun,  I  was 
lost  in  astonishment  at  the  change  in  his  appearance.  Four 
years  ago  he  was  a  supple  young  man,  full  of  spirits,  proud  of  his 
wit,  and  spending  his  leisure  in  hunting  Kurds.  He  had  become 
middle-aged,  almost  old.  His  eyes  had  lost  their  lustre  and  his 
figure  its  shape.  He  rolled  on  the  divan  as  he  spoke.  I 
enquired  after  Ali  Bey,  the  rascally  Karapapakh  ;  the  reply  came 
that  he  too  was  dead.  He  had  pined  away — such  was  his  phrase 
— under  Government  surveillance.  The  resourceful  character  of 
my  old  host  was  the  one  quality  which  appeared  to  remain  to 
him.  My  cook  had  mutinied  that  morning,  and  could  not  be 
found  anywhere  ;  but  he  soon  succeeded  in  tracking  him  out. 
He  seemed  to  regret  the  society  of  the  stupid  miralais,  the 
delighted  gallery  to  which  he  used  to  play.  A  single  companion 
of  this  description  was  vouchsafed  to  him  at  Khinis — an  officer 
of  the  regular  army  stationed  in  the  town  to  drill  the  Kurdish 
yeomanry.  I  enquired  of  this  individual  whether  I  could  be 
shown  a  regiment  exercising.  He  replied  that  they  were  called 
out  only  during  April.  Had  they  trained  last  April  ?  The 
answer  was  in  the  negative,  but  it  was  hoped  they  would  do  so 
next  year.      They  were  very  brave  men. 

My  present  object  was  to  follow  the  course  of  the  Murad  from 
Tutakh  to  Melazkert.^  By  shaping  a  direct  course  to  the  former 
of    these    places,    we    might    become    involved     in    an    intricate, 

1  The  following  were  our  stages  to  Tutakh: — Khinis — Dedeveren,  17  miles; 
Dedeveren — Gunduz,  8  miles  ;  Gunduz — Gopal,  9.  miles  ;  Gopal — Rashan,  8j  miles  ; 
Rashan — Alkhes,  23^  miles,  several  of  which  might  have  been  saved  ;  Alkhes — Tutakh, 
I  Si  miles.      Total,  84^  miles. 


256  Armenia 

mountainous  country  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  we  should  avoid 
the  beds  of  the  rivers,  and  become  better  acquainted  with  the 
configuration  of  the  land.  Leaving  Khinis  soon  after  noon  on 
the  26th  of  June,  we  gained  the  valley  of  the  Bingol  Su  ;  and,  as 
far  as  the  large  Armenian  village  of  Chevermeh,  followed  its 
tortuous  channel.  Low  cliffs,  composed  of  lacustrine  deposits, 
border  the  meadows  through  which  it  flows  on  either  hand. 
Chevermeh,  where  we  forded  the  stream,  has  some  150  ant-hill 
houses  ;  it  is  surrounded  by  a  pleasant  oasis  of  willow  trees,  which 
cluster  at  the  confluence  of  the  Teghtap  Su.  A  few  small  fields 
of  potato  and  of  vegetable  marrow  indicated  a  rather  higher 
standard  of  life.  A  hedge  of  pink  wild  roses  was  a  pleasure  to 
see.  Several  very  young  girls,  almost  naked,  were  playing  in  the 
shade  by  the  water,  and  we  were  surprised  to  observe  the  fairness 
of  their  hair.  Some  of  the  villagers  are  Protestants,  devoted 
disciples  of  Mr.  Chambers,  the  head  of  the  American  Mission  at 
Erzerum.  They  are  indebted  to  him  for  relief  during  the  past 
years  of  bad  harvests  ;  but  they  professed  themselves  confident  of 
an  excellent  harvest  during  the  present  year.  The  missionaries 
have  established  a  school  and  orphanage  in  their  midst.  The 
village  reflects  the  greatest  credit  upon  the  Americans,  the  people 
being  well  spoken  and  polite.  They  have  their  share,  too,  of 
material  prosperity  ;  and  we  had  seldom  seen  such  herds  of  cattle 
and  droves  of  horses. 

Having  gained  the  heights  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  we 
struck  obliquely  across  the  plain,  in  the  direction  of  the  Akh 
Dagh,  which  shone  in  the  softening  glow.  It  is  well  named  tJie 
ivJiite  mountain,  being  composed  of  hard  calcareous  rock,  which 
scarcely  supports  a  trace  of  vegetation.  Seen  from  in  front,  it 
forms  a  chain  many  miles  in  length,  inclined,  roughly  speaking, 
towards  south-east.  It  has  been  carved  out  into  valleys  of  great 
depth,  from  which  rise  a  succession  of  bold  peaks.  This  portion 
of  the  plain  of  Khinis  is  little  cultivated,  and  in  a  most  hap- 
hazard manner.  There  is,  however,  an  abundance  of  water,  and, 
if  stony,  the  soil  is  fairly  fertile.  From,  time  to  time  we  were 
compelled  to  turn  aside  from  a  patch  of  corn  which  already  was  in 
ear.  The  large  Armenian  village  of  Kozli  was  seen  reposing  on 
the  basal  slope  of  the  Akh  Dagh.  Another  Armenian  settlement, 
that  of  Yeni  Keui,  lay  directly  upon  our  course.  The  day  was 
drawing  to  a  close  as  we  approached  Dedeveren,  a  Kurdish  village 
where  we  decided  to  camp.      Wc  had   been   travelling  through  a 


From  K/iiuis  to  T2Uakk  257 

country  which  was  typically  Armenian — a  spacious  plain,  quite 
treeless,  but  clothed  with  warm  and  delicate  hues,  and  framed  in 
the  distance  by  mountains  of  great  individuality.  In  one  direction 
itwas  Bingol  ;  in  another  Khamur  ;  while  Sipan  stood  so  high  that 
he  could  be  seen  from  the  river  valley,  always  a  ghostly  presence 
in  the  sky.  We  pitched  our  tents  a  little  distance  west  of  the 
village,  and  looked  across  its  stacks  of  tezek  and  wreathing  smoke 
to  the  dim  white  form  of  Sipan.  It  is  characteristic  of  Kurds 
that  they  never  approach  one  another  if  they  have  anything  to 
communicate.  They  remain  at  a  distance  and  shout.  Such 
clamour  is  at  its  height  towards  evening,  when  the  flocks  and  herds 
are  brought  in  from  the  pastures.  Groups  of  gaily-dressed  people 
had  gathered  round  us  ;  a  little  boy,  stepping  forward,  makes  an 
offering  of  a  snow-white  rabbit.  The  setting  sun  sheds  a  glow  of 
orange  and  amber  above  the  horizontal  outline  of  Bingol.  A 
single  group  of  clouds,  torn  into  tatters,  as  by  a  storm,  repose 
motionless  against  the  lights  of  the  western  sky.  As  those  lights 
wane  a  crescent  moon  has  risen  above  the  white  mountam,  and  a 
little  dew  falls.  Soon  the  watchman  sends  his  long-sustained  cry 
into  the  night,  arousing  the  bark  and  howling  of  the  dogs. 

Next  morning  we  proceeded  towards  the  extremity  of  the 
Akh  Dagh,  where  it  sinks  into  the  plain.  After  passing  a  copious 
spring,  welling  up  in  a  little  basin  (the  source  of  the  Akher  Gol 
Su),  we  reached  the  Armenian  hamlet  of  Gunduz.  Our  path  had 
led  us  over  ground  which  was  fairly  high,  and  was  composed  of 
travertine.  A  new  mountain  had  come  to  view  behind  the 
Khamur  heights.  Although  of  imposing  size,  it  is  not  placed 
upon  maps  ;  and  none  of  our  people  knew  its  name.  It  was  the 
bold  and  isolated  Bilejan.  From  Gunduz  we  made  an  excursion 
to  the  banks  of  the  Bingol  Su,  at  the  large  Armenian  village  of 
Karachoban.  The  stream  was  winding  at  the  base  of  the 
Khamur  heights,  through  a  river-valley  about  a  mile  in  width. 
The  fact  that  these  heights  are  not  the  train  of  a  volcano,  as  their 
appearance  might  suggest,  had  already  been  divined  as  we  made 
our  way  at  a  distance  ;  it  was  now  established  beyond  doubt. 
They  were  seen  to  consist  of  lacustrine  deposits ;  higher  up, 
patches  of  white  limestone  emerged  from  the  scanty  bush.  The 
lavas  of  Khamur  rose  at  once  above  and  behind  them,  towering 
up  in  terraces.  The  block  of  mountain  had  become  low ;  the 
river  pierces  its  extremities  about  two  miles  below  the  village. 
There  it  assumes  its  natural  course,  so  long  interrupted,  and 
VOL.  II  s 


258  Armenia 

meanders  idly  to  the  Murad.  The  Khamur  heights  are  crossed 
by  a  track  which  we  could  see  from  the  plain  of  Khinis  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Dedeveren.  A  portion  or  the  whole  of  that 
section  of  the  block  is  known  as  Zirnek  Dagh. 

While  we  were  returning  to  Gunduz  a  party  of  four  horsemen 
were  seen  galloping  towards  us  from  Karachoban.  They  proved 
to  be  an  officer  of  zaptiehs  and  three  men.  We  had  received  a 
summons,  when  in  the  village,  to  visit  the  officer;  but  had  excused 
ourselves  from  want  of  time.  It  was  a  forbidding  picture,  these 
zaptiehs  living  at  free  quarters  in  an  Armenian  village.  The 
fierce  and  almost  black  face  of  the  officer  fawned  obsequiously 
upon  us  when  he  had  learnt  who  we  were. 

From  Gunduz  we  made  our  way  over  some  grassy  heights 
which  continue  the  outline  of  the  Akh  Dagh.  They  are  composed 
of  intrusive  rock,  mainly  basic  in  character.  The  marble  of  the 
Akh  Dagh,  dipping  to  the  south-east,  is  interrupted  by  them  ;  and 
the  range,  as  such,  is  brought  to  an  end.  The  pass  across  them 
is  low  (6265  feet),  but  it  commands  fine  prospects  over  the 
country  beyond  the  plain  of  Khinis.  A  portion  of  the  Akh  Dagh 
comes  to  view,  seen  on  its  reverse  side.  Two  bold  ridges  were 
observed,  plunging  in  an  east-north-east  direction,  down  from  the 
summit  region  to  a  little  river.  It  became  clear  that  the  axis  of  the 
range,  as  seen  from  the  plain  of  Khinis,  does  not  correspond  with 
its  axis  of  elevation.  In  fact  the  Akh  Dagh  appears  to  consist 
of  a  number  of  ridges,  ranged  in  echelon  towards  east-north-east. 
A  sprinkling  of  snow  rested  on  the  north-eastern  slopes,  from 
which  those  on  the  south-west  were  entirely  free.  Sipan  was 
exposed  from  foot  to  summit,  answered  further  west  by  another 
almost  insular  mass,  the  sombre  rock  and  jagged  outline  of 
Bilejan.  Vast  tracts  of  plain  were  outspread  at  our  feet — without 
a  tree,  with  only  a  few  rare  patches  of  cultivation,  the  soil,  where 
exposed  by  the  plough,  being  coloured  a  rich  brown.  The  air 
which  we  were  breathing  was  strong  and  invigorating,  while  the 
sun,  even  near  five  o'clock,  was  warm.  Motionless  grey  clouds 
were  suspended  over  the  Akh  Dagh  ;  towards  evening  they 
increased  in  gloom  ;  it  lightened,  and  a  few  drops  of  rain  fell. 
Such  is  the  counterpart  upon  the  tableland  of  the  storms  of  the 
Pontic  region.  A  village  lay  below  us  at  the  beginnings  of  the 
tracts  of  plain  ;  it  was  the  Armenian  village  of  Gopal,  in  which  we 
were  to  pass  the  night  (5643  feet). 

One   often   wonders,   while   encamping    in   such   a   village    as 


From  Khinis  to  Tiitakh  259 

Gopal  how  the  burden  of  life  can  be  sustained  by  its  inhabitants. 
Their  property,  their  hves,  and  the  chastity  of  their  women  are  at 
stake  from  day  to  day.  They  exist  under  a  perpetual  Reign  of 
Terror  ;  and  Fear,  the  most  degrading,  the  most  exhausting  of 
human  passions,  is  their  companion  from  hour  to  hour.  Con- 
spicuous in  this  village  were  a  band  of  Hasananli  Kurds,  parasites, 
no  doubt,  on  the  industrious  Armenians.  A  Kurdish  agha,  in  a 
gay  dress  which  displayed  some  beautiful  embroidered  silk,  visited 
us  in  our  tent.  We  admired  the  sheath  of  his  dagger,  which  was 
finely  chased.  Between  these  Kurds  and  the  petty  officials  and 
the  hungry  zaptiehs,  the  Armenian  cultivator  hovers  on  the 
margin  between  life  and  death.  From  time  to  time  a  revolution 
is  invented  by  an  ambitious  functionary,  and  the  village  becomes 
the  scene  of  bloodcurdling  deeds. 

Gopal  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  two  little  streams  which 
collect  the  drainage  of  the  mountainous  country  on  the  east  of  the 
Akh  Dagh,  and  issue  upon  the  plain  near  the  village.  The  spot 
is  indicated  on  Kiepert's  map  by  the  site  of  a  place  named 
Karakeupru  ;  but  we  were  assured  that  no  such  village  exists  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  that  Gopal  had  never  borne  this  name. 
Further  doubts  as  to  the  topography  of  the  map  decided  us  on  an 
excursion  to  the  point  where  the  streams,  which  unite  at  Gopal, 
discharge  into  the  Bingol  Su.  Our  guide  conducted  us  across 
the  plain,  which  has  here  the  character  of  downs,  through  which 
the  river  flows  in  a  deeply-eroded  bed.  Gopal  itself  rests  on  a 
wide  flat  of  alluvial  land  ;  and  the  level  of  the  plain  on  the  south 
and  east  is  appreciably  higher  than  that  of  the  plain  of  Khinis. 
It  has,  indeed,  been  flooded  with  sheets  of  lava,  which  have 
probably  issued  from  several  points  of  emission  at  the  base  of  the 
hills  which  confine  it  on  the  north.  These  lavas  appear  to  have 
flowed  towards  the  south-east  ;  in  places  they  are  overlaid  by 
calcareous  marls.  Spaces  of  grass  occur  which  are  almost  free 
from  stone,  and  over  which  it  is  a  pleasure  to  canter.  On  the 
horizon  rise  Sipan  and  Bilejan.  In  the  middle  distance  we 
remarked  a  bold  escarpment  of  limestone  which  we  had  noticed 
at  Karachoban.  It  forms  one  side  of  the  gorge  through  which 
the  Bingol  Su  issues  from  the  plain  of  Khinis.  The  beds  were 
seen  to  be  dipping  almost  directly  towards  Sipan  ;  and  they  are 
probably  continued  across  the  river  into  the  Khamur  heights. 
After  a  ride  of  over  an  hour,  we  arrived  at  the  tongue  of  high 
land  filling  the  fork   between   the  two   rivers.      Deep   below  us,  at 


2  6o  Armenia 

the  foot  of  the  cliffs,  which  are  here  composed  of  Hmestone, 
meandered  the  meeting  streams.  In  one  direction  we  looked  up 
the  gorge  of  the  Bingol  Su  ;  in  another  towards  the  face  of  the 
cHff  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Gopal  Su,  which  must  be  several 
hundred  feet  high.  The  village  of  Murian,  on  its  right  bank,  a 
little  above  the  confluence,  was  a  mere  speck  in  the  bed  of  the 
river  at  our  feet.  But  we  could  see  its  inhabitants  running  in  all 
directions,  the  size  of  ants,  and  like  ants  which  have  been  disturbed. 
Horsemen  came  spurring  up  the  steep  side  of  the  precipice,  of 
which  we  occupied  the  neck.  Our  position  was  so  strong  that  we 
had  full  leisure  for  our  occupations,  myself  with  the  mapping, 
Oswald  with  the  rocks.  Krimizi  Tuzla  is  neither  at  nor  near  this 
confluence,  as  the  map  of  Kiepert  shows.  The  joint  waters  flow 
off  towards  Bayaz  Tuzla,  which,  however,  was  invisible.  The  eye 
follows  their  winding  reaches  for  some  distance  as  they  cut  their 
way  through  a  succession  of  low,  white  hills.  Murian  belongs  to 
the  vilayet  of  Bitlis,  and  Gopal  to  that  of  Erzerum. 

In  the  meantime  the  horsemen  had  formed  in  line  on  the 
level  ground  north  of  our  position.  They  proved  to  be  a  band 
of  Kurds  in  the  employ  of  a  Kaimakam  who  resides  in  [this 
remote  village.  That  official  stepped  forward  and  saluted  us 
with  deference  ;  at  his  side  rode  a  sergeant  of  the  regular  army, 
commissioned  to  drill  the  Kurds.  These  are  members  of  the 
great  Hasananli  tribe.  The  Kaimakam  escorted  us  for  a  part  of 
the  way  to  Gopal,  over  the  spacious  downs.  I  employed  my 
brief  experience  with  yeomanry  in  England  in  the  endeavour  to 
put  his  retinue  through  some  simple  exercises.  The  sergeant 
translated  the  words  of  command.  But  it  was  impossible  to  keep 
them  in  line  for  any  time.  They  would  burst  forward,  each 
trooper  vying  with  his  neighbour,  and  careering  over  the  plain, 
the  rifle  brandished  like  a  spear.  The  more  I  saw  of  Kurds  the 
deeper  grew  my  impression  that  they  would  be  completely 
worthless  in  time  of  war. 

On  the  outskirts  of  Gopal  were  encamped  some  gypsies,  who 
■subsist  by  making  sieves.^  It  was  late  in  the  afternoon  of  the  28th 
of  June  before  we  left  the  village,  and  mounted  the  cliff  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  stream.  For  several  miles  we  rode  in  a  north-easterly 
direction  across  the  upland  plain.  These  levels  extend  from  the 
ridges  of  the  Akh  Dagh,  in  the  west,  to  a  barrier  of  marble  heights 
ivhich  rose  on  our  point  of  course,  and  appeared  to  be  continued 

>  See  Ch.  VIII.  p.  178. 


From  Khinis  to  Tutakh  261 

southwards  in  a  roughly  south-east  line.  The  prospect  over  the 
region  in  the  direction  of  Lake  Van  disclosed  an  immense  area  of 
comparatively  even  country,  limited  only  by  the  insular  masses  of 
Sipan  and  Bilejan.  These  masses  were  in  some  sense  linked  by 
the  long  outline  of  a  range  of  hills,  which,  in  fact,  compose  the 
southern  edge  of  the  Murad  basin,  and  beyond  which  repose  the 
waters  of  the  great  lake.  Khamur  was  boldly  defined  in  the 
south-west. 

I  feel  that  I  shall  exhaust  the  patience  of  my  reader  if  I 
follow  in  detail  the  remainder  of  our  journey  to  Tutakh.  I  have 
brought  him  along  the  outskirts  of  the  important  plain  of  Khinis 
to  the  region  about  Lake  Van.  In  case  he  may  be  a  traveller, 
desirous  of  guidance  over  the  wild  country  which  separates  Gopal 
from  Tutakh,  I  would  offer  the  suggestion  that  he  should  shape  a 
direct  course  by  his  compass  ;  I  doubt  that  he  would  be  obliged 
to  deviate  often  or  for  very  far.  Such  advice  would  have  saved 
ourselves  from  getting  lost  in  the  intricate  districts  to  the  north 
of  such  a  direct  line.  Nobody  knew  the  way  ;  there  are  few 
villages  ;  and,  although  the  inhabitants  appeared  to  belong 
exclusively  to  the  Hasananli,  each  village  was  at  feud  with  its 
immediate  neighbours,  and  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  guides. 
Moreover  the  division  of  the  day  into  tedious  units  of  hours  is  a 
process  which  in  that  region  is  unfamiliar  and  scarcely  known. 
During  the  summer  the  few  inhabitants  are  scattered  in  the 
yailas ;  the  remnant  in  the  village  is  largely  composed  of  old 
men  and  women,  besides  the  children,  male  and  female,  whose 
naked  stomachs  are  distended  by  the  quantities  of  gritty  bread 
they  are  obliged  to  consume.  Such  scenes  of  abject  poverty  are 
rarely  tempered  by  a  brighter  vision — the  vision  of  youth,  mature 
and  unimpaired.  The  few  young  women  and  girls,  who  have  not 
followed  the  flocks  and  herds,  will  be  busy  at  their  weaving  of 
material  for  the  black  tents,  stretching  the  long  strands  of  goat- 
hair  twine,  and  adding  the  woof  to  the  web.  Their  loose  cotton 
trousers  display  the  slimness  of  their  limbs  ;  and  it  is  a  pleasure 
to  watch  the  rhythm  of  their  bodies,  seated  by  the  side  of  their 
task  with  knees  apart. 

But  neither  Oswald  nor  myself  regretted  our  wanderings. 
By  adhering  to  the  higher  levels  we  obtained  a  picture  of  structural 
features,  which  not  only  confirmed  the  studies  we  had  pursued 
together,  but  also  contributed  several  interesting  facts.  It  is  in 
this  region  that  the  ereat  lines  of  elevation  and  mountain-making 


262  Armenia 

describe  that  beautiful  curve  which  attains  its  greatest  orographical 
significance  in  the  mountains  which  border  the  highlands  of 
Armenia  and  Persia  on  the  north  and  on  the  south.  In  the 
south  it  is  the  line  of  the  Armenian  Taurus  arching  over  into 
that  of  the  Zagros  chain  ;  while  in  the  north  the  wider  span  of  the 
alps  of  Pontus  and  the  Chorokh  region  is  deflected  into  the  border 
range  of  Russian  Armenia  and  into  the  mountains  of  Khorasan,^ 
Within  the  area  of  the  Armenian  tableland  this  curve  may  be 
clearly  traced  ;  for  instance,  it  is  conspicuous  in  the  trend  of  the 
mountains  from  Palandoken  to  Kilich  Gedik,  and  in  that  of  the 
Aghri  Dagh  further  north.  Even  in  the  country  over  which  we 
were  travelling,  some  distance  south  of  the  former  of  these 
barriers,  and  of  comparatively  even  nature,  the  strike  of  the 
stratified  rocks  displayed  the  change  in  direction  ;  while  the 
sheets  of  lava,  which  overlay  them,  were  evidently  due  to  zones 
of  weakness,  where  the  stress  of  bending  over  had  been  attended 
with  fracture,  and  the  apex  of  the  arc  had  given  way.  Speaking 
generally,  the  rocks  consisted  of  older  limestone,  hardened  into 
marble,  and  varied  by  igneous  material,  crystalline  in  character 
and  of  intrusive  origin.  Upon  this  foundation  rested  layers  of 
later  limestone;  while  over  all  were  outspread  the  lavas,  sometimes 
covering  the  entire  series,  at  others  swathing  the  base  of  marble 
eminences.  These  lavas  had  welled  up  from  fissures,  for  the 
most  part  on  the  north  of  our  track  ;  they  had  flowed  towards 
the  south,  in  the  direction  of  the  still  distant  Murad,  often 
following  the  trough  of  the  river  valleys,  and  sometimes  altering 
the  course  of  the  drainage.  The  change  of  strike  in  the  stratified 
rocks  was  observed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  village  of  Alkhes. 
There  the  axis  of  the  limestone  folds  was  almost  latitudinal  ; 
and,  as  we  neared  Tutakh,  it  assumed  a  direction  of  east-south- 
east. This  was  also  the  direction  of  the  several  valleys  between 
Alkhes  and  the  Murad. 

In  many  respects  the  region  resembles  Tekman  ;  the  higher 
levels  over  which  we  passed  have  an  elevation  of  from  6000  to 
7500  feet.  But  the  lavas  have  played  a  greater  part  in  its 
configuration  ;  and  the  streams,  which  were  mere  runnels,  have 
eaten  to  an  immense  depth  and  flow  in  meridional  valleys.  Thus 
we  were  always  either  picking  our  way  over  a  sheet  of  lava, 
crumbled  into  boulders  and  yellow  with  fennel,  or  descending 
hundreds    of   feet    into    a   deep   valley   through   which    trickled   a 

'    The  suljject  is  discussed,  Vol.  I.  Ch.  XXI.  pp.  422  scq. 


From  KJiinis  to  Tutakh  263 

rivulet.  We  crossed  only  one  considerable  stream — the  Kersuk 
or  Kersik.  It  was  winding  through  a  gorge  composed  of 
limestone  overlying  serpentine,  and  was  changing  its  course  from 
south-east  towards  the  south.  At  the  bend,  on  the  left  bank,  at 
some  height  above  the  river,  is  situated  the  picturesque  village  of 
Alkhes.  The  channel  had  a  breadth  of  only  a  few  paces  ;  but 
the  water  reached  to  our  horses'  girths. 

The  district  about  Alkhes,  and  for  some  distance  west  and 
east,  is  known  by  the  name  of  Elmali  Dere,  or  the  vale  of  apple 
trees.  These  pleasant  trees,  with  their  grey-green  foliage,  are 
found  in  abundance  in  the  valley  and  side  valleys  of  the  Kersik. 
But  the  dreary  fennel  is  almost  the  only  plant  on  the  higher 
levels  ;  nor  can  the  eye,  far  and  wide,  thence  discern  the  shape  of 
a  tree.  In  the  north  the  mournful  landscape  is  framed  by  the 
mountains  which  bend  south-eastwards  into  the  Kilich  Gedik. 
At  Alkhes  they  were  known  under  the  name  of  Khalias  Dagh  ; 
at  Tutakh,  where  our  informants  were  better  educated,  under  that 
of  Mergemir.  Towards  the  south,  upon  the  limits  of  a  wide 
semicircle,  rose  the  snow-clad  and  still  distant  summits  of  the 
Ala  Dagh,  rose  Sipan  and  Bilejan.  An  unknown  mountain,  o'f 
relatively  humble  proportions,  concealed  the  western  slopes  of  the 
giant  of  Lake  Van  ;  it  proved  to  be  Kartevin,  a  volcanic  and 
insular  mass,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Murad. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

DOWN    THE    AIURAD    TO    MELAZKERT  ^ 

The  perfume  of  a  hayfield,  in  which  the  mowers  were  busy, 
greeted  our  approach  to  the  town  of  Tutakh.  It  came  as  a 
refreshing  change  after  the  dreary  lava -sheets  overgrown  with 
fennel,  and  the  stony  paths,  down  and  up,  across  the  valleys. 
Great  rivers  impress  their  dignity  upon  their  surroundings  ;  and, 
although  we  failed  to  discover  the  Murad  until  we  were  close 
upon  it,  the  larger  folds  of  the  down-like  country,  and  the 
growing  sense  of  space,  appeared  to  indicate  that  we  were 
already  near  our  goal.  Twenty  minutes  before  our  arrival  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  settlement,  the  white  waters  were  seen  winding 
far  below  us,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills.  In  the  bare  brown 
mountains  from  which  they  had  issued,  curving  towards  them 
from  the  outlines  in  the  north,  we  recognised  the  distant  horn  of 
the  crescent  to  which  they  had  pointed  at  Alkhes  as  the  heights 
overlooking  Tutakh. 

Those  brown  slopes  indeed  belonged  to  the  barrier  which  the 
Murad  pierces  upon  its  egress  from  the  plain  of  Alashkert.  No 
trace  of  stratified  rock  could  be  detected  upon  them  ;  nor  was 
Oswald,  on  the  following  day,  when  he  examined  a  section  of  the 
bank  of  the  river,  successful  in  finding  among  the  pebbles, 
embedded  in  the  side  of  the  cliff,  any  examples  which  were  not 
derived  from  an  eruptive  origin.  The  face  of  the  plain  itself, 
through  which  the  river  wanders  towards  the  basin  of  Melazkert, 
has  been  flooded  with  sheets  of  lava,  which  have  probably  flowed 
in  a  southerly  direction,  and  which  extend  at  least  as  far  as  the 
right  bank.  Along  the  opposite  margin  rise  grassy  heights, 
volcanic  in  character,  and  placed  like  an  outer  buttress  in  front  of 

^  The  stages  are  as  follows  : — Tutakh — Gargalik,  12^  miles  ;  Gaigalik — Melazkert, 
24I  miles.      Total,  37^  miles. 


Dozvn  the  Mttrad  to  Melazkei't  265 

the  ridges  of  the  Ala  Dagh.  These  are  succeeded  by  the  lavas 
of  the  Kartevin.  Just  below  Tutakh  the  Murad  enters  a  low- 
gorge  ;  but  the  remainder  of  its  course  is  spent  in  a  wide,  alluvial 
bed,  at  the  foot  of  rounded  eminences  on  either  shore.  Almost 
exactly  at  the  point  where  the  troubled  ridges  of  the  Kartevin 
Dagh  commence  to  sink  into  the  plain  of  Melazkert,  the  heights 
on  the  right  bank  roll  away.  And,  a  little  lower  down,  the  river 
reaches  the  trough  of  the  basin,  which  is  about  450  feet  lower 
than  the  level  of  Lake  Van.^  There  it  changes  direction  with 
almost  startling  abruptness,  and  flows  off  westwards  through  an 
expanse  of  even  ground. 

The  country  upon  the  right  bank  of  the  Murad,  over  an  area 
which  is  roughly  limited  by  the  town  of  Tutakh  on  the  north, 
and  by  the  villages  of  Dignuk  and  Murian  (on  the  Gopal  Su) 
upon  the  south  and  west,  would  appear  to  present  features  which 
do  not  widely  differ  from  those  of  the  higher  region  we  had  just 
crossed.  As  we  overlooked  a  portion  of  that  area  from  some 
of  the  loftier  eminences  which  border  the  left  bank,  we  were 
confronted  by  the  familiar  shapes  of  grassy,  treeless  downs  ;  of 
terraces  of  lava  or  tuff  sloping  towards  the  river,  of  valleys  deeply 
cut  in  the  barren  soil.  The  single  river  which  effects  a  confluence 
through  that  region  is  the  Kersik  ;  it  enters  the  Murad  at  the 
foot  of  lofty  cliffs.  But  the  flowering  yellow  fennel  was  either 
absent  or  less  conspicuous  ;  and  its  place  was  taken  by  a  purple 
vetch,  of  restful  hue  and  delicate  petals,  climbing  the  hillsides, 
like  a  heather,  yet  more  intense. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  this  impression  of  the  country, 
formed  during  our  journey  along  the  river,  with  the  conception  of 
its  character  already  present  in  our  minds  before  we  had  reached 
Tutakh.  It  was  while  descending  from  the  upland  plain  above 
the  left  bank  of  the  Kersik,  as  far  north  as  the  village  of  Alkhes, 
that  we  had  for  the  first  time  obtained  a  prospect  from  a  com- 
paratively low  level  over  the  expanse  in  the  direction  of  Sipan. 
We  stood  nearly  at  the  bottom  of  a  wide  valley  through  which 
trickled  a  little  stream.  Yet  the  view  towards  that  landmark  was 
almost  uninterrupted  ;  we  appeared,  indeed,  to  be  crossing  a  gulf- 
like extension  of  the  great  plain  from  which  the  mountain  soars. 
As  often  as  we   became   involved   in   the   intricate   down   country, 

1  The  calculation  is  based  on  the  difference  between  the  level  of  the  lake  (5637  feet) 
and  that  of  the  Murad  at  the  old  bridge  of  Melazkert  (5174  feet).  Both  levels  were 
taken  with  the  boiling-point  apparatus. 


266  Armenia 

while  pursuing  our  easterly  course  to  Tutakh,  so,  not  less  often, 
we  emerged  upon  similar  openings,  where  the  downs  seemed  to 
tongue  into  the  plain.  The  Kartevin  Dagh  was  the  only  eminence 
which  in  part  screened  the  volcano  ;  but  it  did  not  extend  beyond 
a  portion  of  its  westerly  slopes. 

A  fierce  sun  had  already  browned  the  scanty  herbage  of 
the  hillsides,  and  at  noon  the  thermometer  registered  85° 
in  the  shade.  We  were  constrained  to  abandon  our  tent,  and 
to  seek  the  shelter  of  a  stone  building,  one  of  the  few  above- 
ground  edifices  in  Tutakh,  A  spacious  room  was  placed  at  our 
disposal  by  the  authorities,  with  thick  walls  and  a  lofty  ceiling, 
constructed  of  logs.  A  carpet  of  thick  felt  and  the  gay  trappings 
of  the  divan  added  an  appearance  of  comfort  to  a  sense  of  cool- 
ness. But  the  carpet  was  overlying  a  layer  of  filthy  hay,  and  the 
divan  was  nothing  better  than  a  stage  of  mud  and  straw.  The 
place  was  indeed  a  hotbed  for  noxious  insects  ;  legions  of  fleas 
continued  and  intensified  the  torments  which  had  been  interrupted 
at  the  approach  of  night  by  swarms  of  flies.  Our  visitors  in  the 
apartment — one  might  almost  say  our  companions — were  an 
officer  of  police,  a  most  intelligent  individual,  and  the  Colonel  of 
the  Karapapakh  Hamidiyeh.  The  former  informed  us  among  other 
matters  that  the  post  to  Erzerum  is  always  carried  by  way  of 
Karakilisa.  Caravans  proceed  in  summer  across  the  Kilich  Gedik 
to  Zeidikan,  and  so  by  Pasin  to  Erzerum.  Between  Tutakh  and 
Melazkert  one  has  the  choice  of  two  ways  ;  one  may  follow  either 
the  left  or  the  right  bank.  But  the  fords  lower  down  are  said  to 
be  less  reliable,  and  we  were  recommended  to  proceed  by  the  left 
bank.  The  colonel  of  Karapapakhs  was  attired  in  a  Circassian 
dress  and  spoke  Russian  fluently.  He  told  me  that  his  people 
had  emigrated  from  Zarishat  (in  the  Kars-Kagyzman  district) 
after  the  last  Russo-Turkish  war.  Their  earlier  seats  had  been 
in  Daghestan.  By  remote  origin  he  asserted  that  they  were 
pure  Turks.  They  contribute  altogether  three  regiments  to  the 
Hamidiyeh,  of  which  two  are  furnished  by  Tutakh  and  by  Kara- 
kilisa, and  the  third  by  the  tribesmen  of  Sivas. 

July  2.  —  The  Murad  opposite  Tutakh  had  a  width  of  a 
hundred  yards  ;  but  it  was  not  deeper  than  two  and  a  half  feet. 
After  crossing  the  ford  we  proceeded  along  the  left  bank,  some- 
times winding  over  the  westerly  slopes  of  the  grassy  eminences 
which  screen  the  Ala  Dagh,  at  others  following  the  alluvial  flat  in 
the  bed  of  the  river.      Lavas,  tuffs,  and  dark  volcanic  sands  were 


Down  the  Murad  to  Melazkert  267 

conspicuous  on  the  heights  and  in  the  valleys.  Oswald  observed 
the  frequent  introduction  of  a  conglomerate,  consisting  of  well- 
rounded  pebbles  or  blocks  of  lava,  interbedded  with  volcanic  sands. 
It  may  denote  that  the  lake,  which  filled  the  basin  of  Melazkert, 
extended  at  one  time  to  this  region.  A  new  landmark  rose  in 
the  north — the  magnificent  dome  of  the  Kuseh  Dagh  ;  while, 
among  our  old  companions,  Khamur  could  still  be  seen,  and  we 
were  in  full  view  of  Sipan  and  Bilejan.  But  neither  the  dreary 
downs  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river — our  only  prospect  of  any 
extent — nor  the  bed  of  the  river  itself,  with  its  pebble-strewn 
flats  of  alluvium,  afforded  any  refreshment  to  the  eye.  No  restful 
groves  cast  shadows  across  the  sheen  of  the  water,  where,  here 
and  there,  a  flock  was  browsing  on  the  scanty  herbage,  or  a  herd 
of  buffaloes  wallowed  in  the  oozy  mud.  I  was  reminded  of  the 
bed  of  the  Tigris  below  the  town  of  Diarbekr  ;  and,  indeed,  the 
Murad  flows  through  these  plains  of  Armenia  with  much  the 
same  appearance  as  that  of  its  companion  at  the  head  of  the 
Mesopotamian  plains.  It  is  a  slowly-flowing  river  ;  ^  and  it  might, 
I  suppose,  be  made  navigable  from  Tutakh  as  far  as  Karaogli. 
Locks  would  be  required  ;  but  the  lower  region  is  so  fertile  that, 
with  better  government,  such  works  might  prove  remunerative. 

We  passed  through  several  villages  ;  but  they  are,  for  the  most 
part,  mere  hamlets.  One  of  the  largest  was  Gargalik.  With  the 
exception  of  Bai'ndir,  a  Karapapakh  settlement,  they  are  inhabited 
by  Sipkanli  and  Hasananli  Kurds.  We  did  not  meet  a  caravan  ; 
there  were  few  wayfarers  ;  but  from  time  to  time  an  ill-miened 
Kurd,  armed  with  a  muzzle-loader,  rode  by,  taking  stock  of  us 
as  he  passed.  At  Gargalik,  where  there  is  a  ford  between  two 
villages  of  this  name,  we  were  ushered  into  the  largest  of  the  ant- 
hill tenements.  A  burly  figure,  richly  dressed,  could  just  be 
discerned  in  the  dim  light,  suffused  over  the  cavernous  chamber 
from  an  aperture  in  the  roof.  The  figure  was  seated  on  the  little 
dais  which,  in  such  dwellings,  divides  the  chamber  from  the  stable, 
and  from  which  rise  the  wooden  pillars  that  support  the  roof  A 
strong  odour  from  the  horses  and  cattle,  almost  beside  him, 
vitiated  the  air.  We  waited  for  some  little  time  while  the  devotee 
bowed  and  muttered,  or,  with  head  upraised  and  lifted  voice, 
uttered  the  climax  of  his  profession  of  faith.  Then,  after  a  brief 
silence,  he  approached  us,  and  received  our  hands,  and  welcomed 
us    to    his    abode.      It    was  AH    Bey,   son    of   the    defunct   Yusuf 

'   The  fall  between  Tutakh  and  Melazkert  can  only  amount  to  about  lOO  feet. 


268  Armenia 

Pasha,  and  chief  of  all  Sipkanli  Kurds.^  It  was  evident  that  he 
had  been  apprised  of  our  approach,  for  he  displayed  three 
imperial  decorations  on  his  breast.  And  he  showed  us  a  cigar- 
ette-case, of  gold  encrusted  with  jewels,  the  gift  of  the  Sultan, 
accompanied  by  an  autograph  letter.  As  far  as  the  Kartevin  the 
inhabitants  are  Sipkanli  ;  lower  down  the  villages  are  peopled  by 
Hasananli  Kurds. 

A  heavy  shower — which  was  a  rare  occurrence — and  the 
approach  of  night  decided  us,  when  we  were  opposite  the  village 
of  Hasuna,  to  take  shelter  there  and  encamp.  It  is  inhabited  by 
Hasananli,  who  described  themselves  as  raya,  or  cultivators,  and 
it  is  surrounded  by  patches  of  cereals.  Each  head  of  a  family 
owns  his  patch  and  his  animals.  The  men  stand  about  and  loiter 
in  the  grove  of  willows  ;  the  women  work  incessantly  from  morn 
till  night.  On  the  following  day  we  mounted  to  one  of  the  peaks 
of  the  Kartevin  Dagh,  which  rises  immediately  above  the  village. 
The  purple  vetch,  and  a  shower  of  tiny  blossoms  from  the  white 
gypsophila,  varied  the  monotony  of  the  arid  slopes  with  their 
boulders  of  lava.  Flowering  flax,  the  vivid  green  of  wheat, 
already  in  ear,  softened  the  base  of  the  ridge  up  which  we  climbed. 
Nearing  the  summit,  we  came  upon  the  yellow  immortelles  ;  a 
little  apple  tree,  bush-high,  rose  from  the  crevices  in  the  crags  of 
the  peak.  This  crest  had  an  elevation  of  7580  feet  above  the 
sea,  or  of  2400  feet  above  the  village.  But  the  ridges  on  the 
north  attain  a  greater  height,  perhaps  of  several  hundred  feet. 
The  Kartevin  Dagh  appeared  to  us  to  be  a  radial  mass,  with  a 
number  of  bold  ridges  and  deep  valleys.  It  is  entirely  of  eruptive 
volcanic  origin. 

The  basin  of  Melazkert,  with  the  plain  at  the  foot  of  Sipan 
in  the  direction  of  Patnotz,  was  unfolded,  mile  after  mile,  at  our 
feet.  From  the  parapet  upon  which  we  stood  a  sharp  ridge, 
with  precipitous  sides,  plunged  at  right  angles  into  the  level 
expanse.  At  its  extremity  lies  the  village  of  Karakaya,  on  the 
right  bank  of  a  little  river,  which  loops  along  the  plain,  coming 
from  Patnotz.  We  see  it  joining  the  Murad  ;  and  we  see  the 
bend  of  the  Murad,  which,  after  receiving  this,  the  second  of  its 
considerable  affluents  below  Tutakh,  turns  westwards,  and  is  soon 
lost  to  view.  A  dark  speck,  almost  in  the  foreground,  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  larger  river,  is  recognised  as  Melazkert.      The 

1  This  Yusuf  Pasha  is  not  the  same  as  the  Vusuf  liey  who  received  me  at  Kiishk 
(see  Ch.  II.  p.  16). 


Dozvn  the  Miirad  to  Melazkert  269 

plain  of  Patnotz  is  continuous  with  the  plains  of  the  Murad,  and 
both  were  covered  by  a  single  lake  in  no  remote  geological  period 
— a  lake  extending  into  the  plain  of  Khinis.  The  appearance  of 
the  expanse  is  not  untrue  to  its  origin  ;  and  it  would  seem  as  if 
the  waters  had  but  recently  receded  from  these  gently-shelving 
and  boulder-strewn  tracts.  Around  them  rise  the  great  volcanoes  : 
Sipan,  seen  from  base  to  summit,  and  still  robed  in  a  mantle  of 
snow  ;  Bilejan,  the  black  mountain,  with  here  and  there  a  fleck 
of  snow,  with  the  outline  of  the  Nimrud  crater  emerging  behind  ; 
Khamur,  above  the  region  towards  w^hich  the  river  is  flowing  ; 
behind  Khamur  the  snow-field  of  Bingol.  We  observe  the  low, 
white  hills  which  join  the  outlines  of  the  two  first-named  masses, 
and  which  screen  the  lake  of  Van.  The  marble  peaks  of  the  Akh 
Dagh  rise  with  startling  boldness  ;  and,  further  round,  we  follow 
the  outline  of  the  Mergemir.  In  that  direction  the  fields  of  lava 
with  their  yellow  fennel  are  conspicuous  features  in  the  scene. 
The  circle  is  completed  by  the  ridges  of  the  Ala  Dagh,  capped 
with  shining  snow.  And,  turning  again  towards  the  south,  we 
admire  a  small  blue  lake,  reposing  at  the  feet  of  Bilejan.  The 
snows  of  Taurus  just  emerge  beyond  Nimrud. 

After  regaining  our  encampment,  we  resumed  our  journey  in 
the  late  afternoon.  Almost  opposite  the  village,  the  heights  on 
the  right  bank  recede,  and  describe  a  line  of  cliffs  at  right  angles 
to  their  former  course.  The  country  opens  to  the  plain  ;  but  the 
site  of  Melazkert  was  hidden  by  an  escarpment  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Patnotz  river,  where  a  bed  of  lake-deposits  falls  away  to 
the  alluvial  flats.  The  track  is  seen  winding  over  the  crest  of  the 
bank,  made  conspicuous  by  the  white  soil.  The  evening  was  far 
advanced  as  we  approached  this  high  ground  from  the  floor  of 
fine  sand,  overgrown  by  bush  and  clusters  of  iris,  which  fills  the 
area  between  the  two  rivers.  The  affluent,  which  we  forded,  was 
perhaps  not  wider  than  fifteen  yards  ;  but  the  water  was  almost 
uniform  in  depth,  and  reached  to  our  horses'  knees.  Mounting  the 
little  ridge,  we  made  our  way  over  powdery  soil,  and  soon  over- 
looked the  dark  mass  of  Melazkert.  The  light  was  failing  as  we 
passed  through  the  broken  lines  of  ancient  walls,  near  some 
barracks  alive  with  bugle-cries. 

We  were  ushered  into  the  principal  room  of  a  single-storeyed 
stone  building,  through  a  dark  passage,  in  which  we  groped  our 
way.  The  light  of  candles  fell  upon  the  cushions  of  a  broad 
divan,  and  upon  the  hale  complexion  of  an  old  man  with  snov/- 


2  70 


Armenia 


white  hair.  He  came  towards  us  with  outstretched  hands,  while 
the  chief  of  our  escort  introduced  us  to  the  Kaimakam  of  Melazkert. 
His  zaptiehs,  to  the  number  of  six,  had  already  accompanied  us 
for  some  distance  ;  we  had  met  them  ranged  in  line  and  presenting 
arms.  Our  host  informed  us  that  he  was  seventy-five  years  of 
age,  and  that  a  new  front  tooth  was  coming  in  place  of  one  he 
had  lost.  He  was  a  native  of  Bitlis.  His  sorrow  was  sincere 
that  he  could  not  lodge  us  ;  the  town  did  not  possess  a  suitable 
house.  He  therefore  begged  us  to  erect  our  tents  in  the  ancient 
citadel,  where  there  was  a  fine  site  for  a  camp.  We  were  soon 
proceeding  thither,  over  ground  which  sloped  upwards  to  a  ruinous 
cross-wall.  The  jet  of  a  fountain  shone  in  the  twilight  from  a 
recess  beside  the  entrance,  whence  we  mounted  to  a  spacious 
platform,  backed  by  a  tower  and  encircled  by  walls.  Tower  and 
walls  alike  were  massively  built. 

The  moon  rose  above  the  tower,  which  screened  the  ghost-like 
Sipan,  from  a  richly  mottled  bed  of  cloud.  It  was  a  full  moon, 
casting  the  parapets  into  darkness,  and  whitening  the  roofs  of 
the  houses  at  our  feet.  A  little  later,  as  we  were  preparing  for 
sleep,  the  pale  gold  surface  of  the  orb  displayed  but  a  tiny  crescent 
of  light.  It  was  the  shadow  of  our  globe  which  was  passing 
across  the  moon  ;  but  the  vision  was  rapidly  lost  in  the  bed  of 
cloud. 

It  had  scarcely  become  day  when  the  deep  voice  of  the 
venerable  Kaimakam  was  heard  beside  our  tent.  He  had  come 
to  enquire  after  our  needs  ;  and  he  promised  to  endeavour  to 
obtain  a  turkey  from  one  of  the  Circassian  villages  in  the  plain. 
But  when  I  asked  whether  he  were  acquainted  with  some  educated 
person,  capable  of  indicating  to  us  the  various  objects  of  interest, 
and  perhaps  of  connecting  them  with  the  history  of  the  town,  his 
face  became  a  blank,  and  he  was  emphatic  in  declaring  that,  by 
Allah  !  no  such  individual  existed  in  Melazkert.  But  was  there 
no  school,  no  Armenian  teacher  ?  I  pressed  him,  but  he  spoke 
the  truth  when  he  answered  in  the  negative.  He  added  :  "  All 
the  people  here  are  very  little  people,  occupied  by  the  pressing 
needs  of  daily  life.  They  have  already  forgotten  what  happened 
forty  years  ago,  and  they  will  remember  your  visit  for  forty  years. 
Beyond  these  limits  they  have  no  knowledge  whatever." 

The  Kaimakam  was  right  ;  Melazkert  is  a  heap  of  ruins,  from 
which  some  pygmies  have  collected  the  stones  and  built  tenements. 
A    squadron    of   cavalry,    quartered    in    the    town,    may    lend    a 


M    ELAZKERT 

II  V  V,  l.vmii    .uul  V  Osu-.' 


Dozvn  the  Murad  to  Melazkert  2  7 1 

semblance  of  life  ;   but  it  is  a  deceptive   semblance,  for  the  place 
is  dead. 

We  descended  from  the  citadel  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  town, 
resolved  to  conduct  a  careful  search.  Let  me  enumerate  in  order, 
proceeding  from  east  to  west,  the  ancient  edifices  that  still  remain.  All 
are  built  of  the  same  black,  basaltic  lava  which  forms  the  material  of  the 
towers  and  walls  ;  but,  as  this  lava  is  highly  scoriaceous  in  character,  the 
stone  cannot  be  properly  dressed.  The  architect  has  therefore  had 
recourse  to  a  more  suitable  agent  for  the  enrichments  of  his  design ;  a 
calcareous  rock  has  been  brought  from  a  distance  and  inserted  in  the 
dark  v/alls.  In  such  calcareous  stone  is  carved  the  honeycomb  ornament 
which  fills  the  apex  of  the  arch  in  two  niches  on  the  southern  front  of  a 
spacious  but  deserted  khan.  It  is  a  building  in  the  fine  old  style,  with  a 
lofty  and  vaulted  roof;  a  square  aperture  in  the  centre  of  the  roof  admits 
light  and  air.  Adjoining  the  khan  upon  the  west  are  placed  the  remains 
of  the  most  interesting  monument,  the  church  of  Erek  Khoran  Astvatsatsin. 

Its  name,  the  three  altars,  is  evidently  derived  from  the  three  apses 
which  are  a  feature  in  the  design.  Yet  most  old  Armenian  churches  are 
built  upon  this  pattern,  if  the  name  apse  may  be  extended  to  the  lateral 
chapels.  In  the  present  case  these  chapels  are  almost  as  large  as  the  apse 
proper.  The  nave  is  separated  from  the  broad  aisles  by  two  rows  of  three 
pillars  apiece ;  from  the  pillars  spring  pointed  arches,  which  appear  to 
have  supported  a  vaulted  roof.  But  the  roof  has  fallen  in  ;  we  could  find 
no  trace  of  a  dome  or  tower  ;  and  the  pillars  on  the  north  side  were  strewn 
in  pieces  on  the  floor.  The  basal  stones  of  two  of  the  columns  are 
octagonal,  and  were  probably  taken  from  some  edifice  of  earlier  date. 

The  interior  has  been  faced  with  calcareous  stone,  admitting  of  fine 
chiselling.  A  frieze  of  honeycomb  pattern,  and  two  niches  with  the  same 
ornament  have  been  introduced  into  the  apse.  The  floor  of  the  apse  is, 
as  usual,  raised  above  the  floor  of  the  nave,  and  the  face  of  the  dais,  so 
formed,  is  enriched  with  a  relief  of  little  arches,  composed  of  mouldings 
with  geometrical  designs.  In  the  centre  of  each  arched  space  is  the  figure 
of  a  cross.  Carved  mouldings  also  adorn  the  font,  adjoining  the  more 
northerly  of  the  two  chapels.  The  exterior,  which  displays  the  usual 
black  lava,  is  without  any  interesting  feature. 

■It  was  evident  that  the  walls  had  once  been  covered  with  frescos  ; 
traces  of  this  form  of  decoration  were  found  on  the  capitals,  and  a  few  of 
the  larger  subjects  might  still  be  recognised.  In  the  apse  is  portrayed  the 
figure  of  Christ  receiving  baptism  from  St.  John.  The  faces  of  the  walls 
dividing  the  apse  from  the  lateral  chapels  are  devoted  to  secular  subjects. 
On  the  one  we  discovered  the  head,  and  part  of  the  figure  of  a  king, 
wearing  a  gold  crown.  His  left  hand  rested  on  the  richly-chased  scabbard 
of  his  sword ;  his  right  supported  a  sceptre  with  a  globe.  The  fresco  on 
the  other  face  was  almost  obliterated  ;  but  a  crown  and  a  portion  of  a 
head,  probably  that  of  a  queen,  were  conspicuous  among  the  faded  colours. 
Both  heads  rested  on  golden  halos.  One  can  scarcely  doubt  that  these 
portraits  are  those  of  the  founders  of  this  church,  which  was  evidently  the 


2/2 


Armenia 


royal  chapel.  I  copied  with  difficulty  the  following  almost  illegible 
inscription,  placed  by  the  side  of  the  king  : —  H80:i0b&O  .  Sr*10 
Such  is  all  that  remains  of  this  pleasing  piece  of  architecture  ;  the  interior 
has  an  extreme  length  of  sixty-five  feet  and  a  breadth  of  a  little  over  forty 
feet. 

An  almost  similar  edifice  is  that  which  is  named  Surb  Sargis  ;  it  may 
have  been  the  general  town  church  (length  of  interior,  sixty-six  feet;  breadth, 
thirty-nine  feet).  It  is  situated  in  the  portion  of  the  fortress  furthest 
removed  from  the  citadel,  and  not  far  from  the  south  wall.  It  is  still 
employed  as  a  place  of  worship,  but  is  maintained  in  a  filthy  state.  The 
two  rows  of  three  pillars  are  still  standing ;  and  one  of  the  pillars  is 
composed  of  a  slab-shaped  monolith,  engraved  with  an  elaborate  Armenian 
cross.  It  is  evident  that  it  was  imported  from  some  other  place.  The 
present  roof  is  a  rude  structure  of  logs,  quite  flat,  and  concealing  the 
features  of  the  former  design.  The  altar-piece  in  the  apse  appeared  to  us 
to  be  the  old  one ;  but  its  effect  was  spoilt  by  daubs  of  staring  colour. 
An  altar  of  primitive  pattern,  composed  of  a  slab  of  stone,  resting 
horizontally  upon  a  stone  column,  was  standing  in  the  southern  side 
chapel.  A  little  sacristy  adjoins  the  similar  chapel  on  the  north, 
projecting  from  the  outer  wall  of  the  church.  Abutting  on  the  western 
front  of  this  sacristy,  and  extending  along  the  remainder  of  this  outer  wall, 
is  placed  a  small  and  independent  chapel,  which  repeats  the  same  design. 
It  is  known  under  the  name  of  Arab  Kilisa,  or  church  of  the  Arabs  ; 
by  which  term  I  presume  that  the  Nestorian  Christians  are  denoted.  It 
is  now  a  mere  ruin. 

A  building  of  later  date  than  these  churches,  but  no  doubt  the 
outcome  of  a  period  of  comparative  prosperity,  is  the  mosque  which  is 
placed  just  beneath  the  citadel,  and  which  reminds  one  of  similar 
structures  in  Bitlis.  A  nave  and  two  aisles,  with  two  pillars  apiece ;  a 
low  central  dome,  pointed  arches  and  vaulted  ceilings  —  such  are  the 
features  of  a  design  which  is  evidently,  to  a  large  extent,  a  copy  by 
Mohammedans  of  the  Christian  architecture.  The  interior,  as  well  as  the 
pointed  arch  over  the  entrance,  is  built  of  blocks  of  pink  and  black 
volcanic  stone ;  the  outer  walls  are  of  faced  lava.  The  recess  of  the  altar 
is  inlaid  with  white  marble.  Adjoining  the  mosque  is  a  medresseh  or 
college.     The  mosque  is  well  kept  up. 

We  spent  nearly  two  whole  days  in  Melazkert,  visiting  the 
remains  of  the  former  splendour  of  the  place  and  occupied  by 
drawing  out  the  plan  which  accompanies  this  chapter.  We 
estimated  the  length  of  the  city  at  750  yards,  and  its  breadth 
at  500  yards.  The  former  measurement  was  taken  from  the 
tower  in  the  citadel  to  a  tower  in  the  walls  at  the  opposite 
extremity.  Both  the  site,  and  the  character  and  disposition 
of  the  fortifications  remind  one  strongly  of  Trebizond  ;  and  it 
would    be    a    matter  of  ereat    interest    to    determine  the    nature 


Down  the  Mjirad  to  Melazkert  273 

of  the  connection  to  which  the  similarity  of  design  may  have 
been  due.  Melazkert  is  built  upon  a  flow  of  lava,  a  feature 
of  little  importance  in  the  general  configuration  of  the  plain  ; 
but  this  lava  sheet  descends  to  the  alluvial  flats  about  the 
Murad  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  site  of  Trebizond  shelves 
to  the  sea.  Like  the  city  by  the  Euxine,  the  Armenian  fortress 
is  flanked  on  two  sides  by  ravines  ;  these  ravines  are  indeed 
flatter  than  those  of  its  counterpart ;  but  the  platform  which 
supports  the  citadel  and  palace  is  100  feet  higher  than  the 
trough  of  the  ravine  on  the  north.  There  are  similar  little 
streams  trickling  along  in  either  hollow  ;  and  a  similar  double 
line  of  walls,  with  towers  at  intervals,  encircles  the  area  of  the 
fortified  town.  Suburbs  there  may  have  been  ;  but  they  have 
long  since  disappeared  ;  the  cemeteries  are  placed  outside  the 
walls.  The  solid  octagonal  tower  at  the  extreme  south-east  end 
of  the  citadel  may  quite  probably  have  served  as  the  model  for 
the  tower  of  John  the  Fourth,  at  Trebizond.  Indeed,  could  we 
see  this  site  under  the  luxuriance  of  the  Kolchian  foliage,  the 
resemblance  would  at  once  appeal  to  the  eye.  The  only  trees  at 
Melazkert  are  a  few  willows  ;  but  springs  of  cold,  clear  water  well 
up  from  the  ground. 

So  far  as  we  could  judge  from  a  hasty  examination,  the  Murad 
may  at  one  time  have  flowed  quite  near  the  walls ;  but  the 
bridge  of  the  mediaeval  city  is  at  least  two  miles  west  of  the 
town.  The  road  is  taken  over  low  and  marshy  ground,  and 
crosses  a  side  torrent  of  considerable  volume,  when  quite  near  the 
bridge.  This  torrent  is  said  to  be  derived  from  springs  in  the 
plain  ;  it  eats  its  way  through  a  lava  stream.  The  gorge  is 
spanned  by  the  single  pointed  arch  of  an  ancient  bridge — a 
structure  so  massive  that  it  has  resisted  destruction,  and  still 
rears  intact  its  elegant  facing  of  pink  and  black  volcanic  stone. 
Worse  fortune  has  attended  the  noble  structure  which  once 
joined  the  banks  of  the  Murad.  Of  its  thirteen  or  more  piers 
only  four  are  standing ;  some  have  rolled  over  and  compose 
masses  that  defy  the  stream.  On  those  that  remain  you  admire 
the  exquisite  masonry,  and  the  skilful  variation  of  black  with  pink 
stone.  The  arches  are  much  pointed,  and  are  close  together ; 
the  bridge  describes  a  curve  down  stream.  On  the  opposite 
margin  we  remarked  the  foundations  of  an  ancient  road,  under- 
lying the  grass  on  the  hillside.  At  the  present  day  a  road  does 
not  exist  in  the  country,  and  the  river  is  crossed  by  fords. 
VOL.  II  T 


2/4  Armenia 

Indeed  the  city  presents  a  strangely  pathetic  spectacle  of 
fallen  greatness,  of  a  culture  which  has  disappeared  —  more 
touching  by  the  contrast  with  the  blank  of  the  present,  by  the 
sufficiency  and  eloquence  of  the  monuments  that  remain.  We 
are  by  them  enabled  to  reconstruct  the  splendour  of  the  citadel, 
which  was  perhaps  the  palace  ;  the  stateliness  of  the  double  walls 
with  their  picturesque  towers  ;  the  frescos  of  the  churches,  the 
magnificent  bridge,  the  broad,  paved  road.  An  Armenian  genius 
produced  these  works,  and  a  Turk  destroyed  them.  Now  only 
some  forty  Armenian  families  grovel  among  the  ruins  of  a  past 
which  they  ignore.  A  few  small  shops,  some  kept  by  Armenians, 
a  few  by  Kurds,  dispense  Manchester  cottons  and  some  of  the 
necessaries  of  life.  There  is  not  a  house  that  is  not  built  out  of 
the  remains  of  the  old  town.  The  little  windows  are  screened 
with  paper  or  bits  of  calico.  The  Kaimakam  cannot  tell  you  the 
number  of  the  inhabitants.  His  clerk  is  ill,  and  he  himself  has 
no  idea  of  the  number  ;  yet  they  are  not  so  very  many  to  count. 
It  is  possible  that  he  is  dissembling  ;  yet  he  is  very  ignorant  ;  he 
laughs  at  our  notion  of  climbing  Sipan.  He  says  that,  years 
ago,  during  the  course  of  an  exceptional  season,  when  the  summit 
had  become  almost  free  of  snow,  one  man  was  said  to  have 
reached  the  top.  One  can  see  that  it  is  the  snow  which  appeals 
to  their  doubts  and  raises  their  fears.  What  life  you  see  around 
you  is  feeble  and  squalid — wicked,  even,  in  a  small  way.  And  it 
seems  as  if  the  storks,  which  lend  sanctity  to  the  decaying  towers, 
were  the  incarnation  of  the  grave,  sad  thoughts  that  rise  in  the 
mind. 

The  history  of  Melazkert,  such  as  we  see  the  city  in  these 
ruins,  appears  to  be  little  better  than  unknown.  We  turn  in  vain 
to  the  pages  of  Saint  Martin  or  of  Ritter  even  for  a  few  cardinal 
facts.  If  the  story  of  the  empire  of  the  Grand  Comneni,  as 
unravelled  by  the  labours  of  Fallmerayer,  still  remains  in  the 
vivid  language  of  its  illustrious  exponent  a  phantom  picture, 
lacking  the  reality  of  life,  then  the  mediaeval  kingdom  of  the 
Armenian  kings  who  reigned  in  Melazkert  may  be  described  as 
but  the  shadow  of  a  shade.  Their  capital  occupied  the  site  of 
one  of  the  oldest  of  Armenian  cities,  and  derived  its  name  from 
Manavaz,   the   son  of  the  mythical   Hayk.^      It  was  possessed  by 

1  The  original  name  is  Manazkcrl,  wliich  the  Turks  have  corrupted  into  Mela/kert. 
In  the  older  name  there  perhaps  lurks  that  of  Menuas,  the  Vannic  king,  who  reigned 
in  the  ninth  century  before  Christ  (see  Ch.  IV.  p.  71). 


Down  the  Aliwad  to  Me/azkert  275 

princes  of  this  name  during  the  Arsakid  period,  tracing  their 
descent  to  the  progenitor  of  the  Armenian  race.^  Melazkert  was 
known  to  the  Byzantines  as  an  independent  city  ;  but,  Hke  Ani, 
it  fell  during  the  eleventh  century  to  the  arms  of  Alp  Arslan. 
The  same  century  witnessed  the  defeat  of  the  Byzantine  Caesar 
by  the  Seljuk  conqueror  in  the  neighbourhood  of  its  walls.  The 
fate  of  Ani  appears  to  have  been  repeated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Murad,  for  the  city  can  never  have  recovered  under  its  Moham- 
medan rulers.  At  the  present  day  the  Armenians,  to  whom 
it  owed  prosperity,  have  been  almost  driven  away  from  the 
neighbourhood.  At  Hasuna  we  observed  one  of  their  deserted 
graveyards  ;  and  again  another  between  that  village  and  the 
town.  These  and  the  crumbling  towers  and  churches  of  the 
ancient  fortress  are  the  melancholy  landmarks  of  the  progressive 
ruin  of  the  Armenian  inhabitants." 

1  Saint  Martin,  Mt' moires  siir  I  Aniu'uie,  vol.  i.  p.  251. 

2  I  have  transcribed  my  impressions,  as  written  on  the  spot.  But  it  is  possible  that 
the  present  aspect  of  the  walls  as  well  as  the  bridge  may  be  due  to  the  Mohammedan 
rulers  of  Melazkert.  The  great  tower  in  the  citadel  may  well  be  later  than  the 
eleventh  century.  Still  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  work  was  carried  out  by 
Armenians,  and  in  harmony  with  the  original  plan. 

Unfortunately  almost  all  the  inscriptions  have  disappeared.  We  observed  a  slab  of 
calcareous  stone  inserted  in  the  north  wall,  and  engraved  with  an  Arabic  inscription, 
but  it  was  much  obliterated.  A  slab  of  the  same  material,  and  in  the  same  condition, 
containing  an  inscription,  probably  in  the  Syriac  character,  is  built  into  the  Kaimakam's 
house.  We  were  told  that  a  number  of  inscriptions  had  been  abstracted  by  the  son-in- 
law  of  Raouf  Pasha,  Vali  of  Erzerum. 

Outside  the  citadel,  lying  upon  the  ground,  we  examined  a  well-preserved  cuneiform 
inscription,  engraved  upon  two  sides  of  a  block  of  granitic  rock,  unlike  any  stone  found 
here.  I  was  under  the  impression  that  it  had  already  been  discovered  and  translated  ; 
so  we  did  not  take  a  copy.  I  now  find  that  we  should  have  done  well  to  copy  it. 
Scheil  {Reaieil  de  travaux  relatifs  a  la  philologie  et  a  P arch^ologie  egypt.  et  assyr.,  Paris, 
1896,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  75-77)  describes  and  translates  an  inscription  which,  he  says,  was 
recently  discovered  at  Melazkert  by  the  district  engineer,  but  he  does  not  mention  the 
exact  locality.      It  is  an  inscription  of  Menuas,  recording  a  restoration. 

Within  the  citadel,  near  our  encampment,  one  of  those  large  stones  which  have 
been  elsewhere  described,  incised  with  the  elaborate  traceries  of  an  Armenian  cross,  was 
seen  among  the  debris.  It  was  in  excellent  preservation,  having  only  recently  been 
dug  out  in  situ. 


CHAPTER    XV 

FROM    MELAZKERT    TO    AKHLAT 

In  one  of  the  ancient  towers  of  the  wall  on  the  west  was  residing 
a  Kurdish  chief,  surrounded  by  a  posse  of  his  followers.  Perhaps 
he  was  in  some  sense  a  hostage  to  the  Government,  or  perhaps 
he  was  acting  in  a  representative  capacity  towards  the  five 
regiments  of  Hamidiyeh,  each  with  500  men,  which,  he  assured 
me,  were  furnished  by  his  tribe.  His  name  is  Riza  Bey,  and  he 
is  the  brother  of  Fethulla  Bey,  chief  of  all  Hasananli.  His 
brother  resides  in  the  village  of  Dignuk,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Murad  near  Melazkert.  Riza  Bey  came  to  visit  us  in  the  citadel 
and  I  returned  his  visit  in  the  tower.  His  window  commanded  a 
fine  prospect  over  the  alluvial  plain  in  the  direction  of  the  Murad 
— all  the  detail,  of  crumbling  cemetery,  of  willow-grown  hollow, 
of  channelled  flats,  framed  by  the  deep  embrasure.  My  host  was 
seated  on  a  divan,  covered  with  a  beautiful  Kurdish  kilim ;  he 
was  readily  distinguished  by  his  ferocious  black  moustache.  He 
gave  evasive  answers  to  my  questions  about  the  annual  trainings  ; 
one  hears  so  very  much,  and  one  sees  so  very  little  of  this 
formidable  Hamidiyeh  !  Melazkert  is  a  kind  of  headquarters  for 
the  force  ;  and  I  feel  sure  that,  if  even  one  regiment  were  in 
actual  existence,  it  would  have  been  paraded  for  our  benefit. 

Late  in  the  afternoon  of  the  5th  of  July  we  forded  the  stream 
in  the  southern  ravine,  and,  after  crossing  an  extensive  and  very 
ruinous  cemetery,  made  our  way  over  the  plain  of  lava  which 
stretches  without  interruption  to  the  base  of  the  still  distant  Sipan. 
Our  course  was  directed  to  a  village  on  its  southern  confines,  at 
the  foot  of  those  heights  which  have  already  been  mentioned  as 
extending  between  Sipan  and  Bilejan.  You  may  canter  the 
whole  way,  for  the  ground  is  fairly  even,  although  broken  here 
and    there    by   mounds    of   black    boulders,   which   may   represent 


From  Melazkert  to  Akhlat  277 

either  minor  outbreaks  of  volcanic  matter,  or  the  sites  of  steam 
vents  through  the  sheet  of  cooHng  lava.  In  places  there  is  a 
thin  covering  of  marly  deposits  ;  and,  where  these  occur,  the  soil 
becomes  fertile.  But  it  is  little  cultivated — only  in  patches,  and 
in  a  very  primitive  fashion.  The  village  proved  to  be  Circassian ; 
its  name  was  Kara  Ali  ;  a  second  Circassian  settlement,  called 
Yaralmish,  was  its  close  neighbour  upon  the  east.  Our  track 
commenced  to  ascend,  immediately  beyond  Kara  Ali,  up  the  face 
of  the  opposite  heights.  The  nature  of  these  hills  was  at  once 
apparent  from  the  character  of  their  forms  and  from  the  change 
in  vegetation.  We  rode  over  the  slopes  of  downs,  resting  the  eye 
on  fresh  pastures,  and  with  the  song  of  the  lark  in  our  ears.  The 
purple  vetch  was  resplendent  on  the  cliff-sides.  Here  and  there 
a  white  patch  disclosed  the  calcareous  nature  of  the  underlying 
rock.  The  village  of  Demian  {raya  Hasananli,  alt,  6690  feet)  is 
situated  below  the  crest  of  the  ridge,  in  full  view  of  the  plain. 
There  we  decided  to  encamp  for  the  night,^ 

July  6. — What  a  landscape  to  wake  up  to  !  The  side  of  our 
tent  towards  the  plain  had  been  left  open  during  the  night.  We 
overlooked  such  an  immense  expanse  of  earth — nude,  or  veiled  in 
transparent  mists,  and  quite  unconscious  of  the  presence  of  man  ! 
Even  we,  who  were  already  accustomed  to  such  visions,  had 
never  yet  seen  the  like.  Reach  upon  reach,  in  large  surroundings, 
we  traced  the  course  of  the  Murad,  flowing  towards  us  from 
Tutakh  ;  loop  upon  loop,  we  followed  its  waters  into  the  dimness 
of  the  west,  flowing  away  through  the  plain.  The  contrasts  in 
the  lighting  were  less  impressive  this  morning  ;  but  last  evening 
the  river  was  thrown  into  pronouncement,  and  lay  like  a  parti- 
coloured riband  in  the  expanse.  From  vivid  whites  and  tender 
greys  it  became  a  sheen  of  gold  under  the  red  blaze  of  the  setting 
sun. 

The  pass,  or  crest  of  the  ridge  (6870  feet),  is  close  behind 
Demian,  Among  our  landmarks,  besides  Sipan,  the  Akh  Dagh 
was  most  conspicuous,  and,  although  probably  less  lofty,  because 
quite  free  from  snow,  dwarfed  the  intermediate  mass  of  Khamur. 
The  dome  of  the  Kuseh  Dagh  was  the  bold  feature  of  the  scene 
in  the  north  ;  while  Kartevin  rose  like  an  island  in  the  plain  at 
our  feet.  This  pass  is  but  the  edge  of  a  deep  block  of  hill 
country,  interposed  between  the  plain  and  the  lake  of  Van,      The 

^  Our  stages  were  : — Melazkert — Demian,    lo  miles  ;   Demian — Akhlat  (Erkizan), 
2O5  miles. 


278  Armenia 

hio-hest  level  which  we  attained,  during  our  passage  across  it, 
belonged  to  the  ridge  on  the  north  of  the  village  of  Khanik,  and 
was  a  level  of  7690  feet.  That  ridge  was  composed  of  Eocene 
limestone,  perhaps  a  travertine,  while  the  ridge  behind  Demian 
displayed  the  familiar  fossils  of  the  widely-distributed  lacustrine 
rocks.  Coralline  limestones  of  Eocene  epoch,  much  altered  and 
hardened,  perhaps  by  the  action  of  hot  springs,  constitute  the 
backbone  of  the  mass  ;  while  on  its  southern  side  the  lacustrine 
series  is  represented  by  the  purplish-brown  sandstones  of  the  hills 
behind  Akhlat.  Sipan  has  burst  through  the  zone  of  limestone 
hills,  probably  about  in  the  central  region  ;  the  volcano  has  been 
built  up  upon  their  debris,  and  overtowers  their  almost  uniform 
levels.  Yet  the  stratified  rocks  are  little  diversified  by  volcanic 
outpourings :  and  only  once,  namely  just  upon  our  departure 
from  the  valley  of  Khanik,  did  we  ride  over  such  material,  a  dark 
volcanic  tuff.  It  is  indeed  surprising,  the  limited  extension  of 
the  flows  of  lava  even  from  such  a  giant  as  Sipan.  When  we 
looked  across  to  the  mountain  from  the  lofty  down  behind 
Demian,  the  block  of  hills  appeared  to  compose  an  outer  sheath 
to  the  volcano,  recessing  inwards  around  its  contours.  And  the 
plain  or  pedestal  of  lava  at  the  foot  of  Sipan  was  seen  tonguing 
into  the  recess  at  our  feet.  Through  that  valley  was  winding  a 
little  stream,  which  would  probably  become  lost  in  the  plain. 
We  descended  into  the  valley,  which  supports  several  Kurdish 
villages,  and  rose  up  the  opposite  side.  From  this  ridge  to  the 
o-uardhouse  on  the  southern  side  of  the  block  is  the  wildest 
portion  of  this  bleak  zone.  We  passed  only  one  village,  the 
Circassian  settlement  of  Khanik,  during  our  progress  from  the 
ridge  to  Akhlat.  The  axis  or  strike  of  the  limestones  is  in 
an  east-north-east  direction  ;  they  are  carved  out  into  deep  and 
irregular  valleys. 

Extraordinary  precautions  had  been  taken  for  our  safety 
during  the  passage  of  this  region.  Our  escort  from  Melazkert 
consisted  of  eight  zaptiehs,  and  of  the  head  man  of  the  village  of 
Akhviran,  a  notable  of  high  rank  in  the  Hamidiyeh,  who  had  been 
commissioned  by  Riza  Bey  to  accompany  us.  At  Khanik  we 
were  met  by  no  less  than  fifteen  zaptiehs  ;  and  this  little  force 
skirmished  up  the  heights  adjoining  our  track,  to  protect  us  from 
an  ambuscade.  Arrived  at  the  guardhouse  (7560  feet)  we  were 
saluted  by  a  detachment  of  regular  cavalry,  mounted  on  snow- 
white  horses.      As  we  rode  down  this  line  of  troops,  an  individual 


Froui  Melazkert  to  Akhlat  279 

in  civil  dress  stepped  forward  and  took  our  hands.  It  was  the 
Kaimakam  of  Akhlat.  His  servants  had  prepared  tea  in  the 
solitary  little  building  which  rises  like  a  beacon  from  the  wilds. 

Our  further  progress  was  a  procession.  We  were  sorry  to 
lose  the  cavalry,  who  were  under  orders  to  return  to  the  guard- 
house. They  manoeuvred  in  admirable  fashion  ;  and  the  motley 
zaptiehs,  careering  in  all  directions,  were  a  poor  substitute  to  the 
eye.  The  Kaimakam  rode  by  our  side.  But  this  little  touch  of 
humanity  was  quickly  lost  and  soon  forgotten  in  the  emotions 
which  were  inspired  by  the  unfolding  scene.  The  landscape  of 
Lake  Van,  overtake  it  where  you  may,  can  scarcely  fail,  with  a 
traveller  susceptible  of  such  impressions,  to  bring  tears  to  the  eyes. 
And  there  it  lies,  deep  down  below  us,  streaming  with  sunlight, 
intensely  blue  and  intensely  pale.  How  startling  is  the  change 
from  these  rounded  forms  about  us — from  the  dome  of  Sipan, 
wreathed  in  cloud,  from  the  unbroken  circle  of  the  Nimrud  crater, 
islands  of  mountain  in  an  expanse  of  plain  and  hill — to  the  jagged 
and  snow-capped  parapet  of  the  Kurdish  mountains,  reflected 
into  the  mirror  of  waters  on  the  opposite  shore !  But  this  evening 
we  miss  the  gloom  which  is  wont  to  envelop  those  mountains  ; 
the  clouds  are  suspended  high  above  the  outline  of  peaks  ;  and 
the  face  of  the  wall  is  tinted  a  delicate  yellow,  relieved  by 
shadows  of  a  pale  violet  hue.  The  shadows  mark  the  relief  of 
the  almost  vertical  escarpments,  and  have  the  appearance  of  a 
long  succession  of  pointed  spears.  Among  the  landmarks  along 
those  shores  we  recognise  Mount  x^rdos,  broad-shouldered  above 
a  headland  in  the  east  ;  a  blue  shadow  in  the  lake,  slightly  raised 
above  its  surface,  may  denote  the  isle  of  Akhtamar.  The  long 
promontory  of  Zigag  juts  out  from  the  Nimrud  crater  towards  the 
beautiful  bay  of  Surb,  on  the  opposite  shore. 

Almost  at  our  feet  we  see  the  top  of  a  leafy  tree,  then 
another,  and  then  a  long  grove.  And  immediately  we  enter  the 
deep  shade  of  the  gardens  which  fringe  the  southern  margin  of 
the  sea  (5637  feet). 


CHAPTER    XVI 


AKHLAT 


July  15. — We  have  spent  eight  days  at  Akhlat.  They  have 
been  days  which  we  shall  always  remember  with  delight.  Our 
surroundings,  our  occupations,  the  little  comforts  of  our  daily  life, 
have  been  all  that  we  could  desire. 

We  are  encamped  in  an  orchard  by  the  side  of  the  lake.  The 
water  plashes  against  rocks,  at  the  foot  of  a  well-defined  bank, 
some  twenty  yards  from  our  tent.  We  look  across  a  floor  of 
green,  dappled  with  shade  and  sunshine,  through  the  varied 
intervals  of  the  grove  of  fruit  trees,  beneath  the  perfect  foliage,  to. 
a  field  of  light,  with  changing  colour  and  ever-changing  appear- 
ance, whence  a  freshness  is  wafted  towards  us  across  the  flowering 
grass.  Such  oases  are  not,  indeed,  infrequent  in  Asia,  where  they 
derive  enhancement  not  only  from  the  contrast  which  they  offer 
to  the  general  treelessness  of  the  land,  but  also  from  their 
special  climate — the  soil  cooled  by  irrigation,  and  the  leaves 
developed  to  a  perfection  with  which  we  are  unfamiliar  in  the 
West.  Luscious  clover,  white  and  red,  purple  vetch  with  a 
delicate  perfume,  the  long,  trailing  stalks  and  pale  mauve  flowers 
of  chicory,  luxuriate  on  the  damp  soil.  The  cherries  were  small 
and  yellow  when  we  arrived  ;  now  they  hang  in  bright  red 
clusters  before  our  tent.  An  old  walnut  tree  protrudes  its  gnarled 
branches  and  thick  foliage  over  the  water  on  the  margin  of  the 
grove  ;  and  two  rollers,  which  have  built  their  nest  in  an  in- 
accessible crevice  of  the  trunk,  flit  to  and  fro,  in  search  of  food  for 
their  young.  The  hues  of  the  lake  are  repeated  on  their  breasts  ; 
while  on  their  backs  and  in  their  wings  this  azure  blue  is  subdued 
and  softened  by  rich  browns,  resembling  the  branches  where  they 
repose.^ 

1   Coracias  garrtiliis,  belonging  to  a  family  closely  allied  to  the  kingfishers  and  bee- 
eaters.      But  what  hideous  names  have  been  given  to  this  beautiful  bird  ! 


Akhlat  281 

Our  little  horses  are  picketed  in  the  deep  trench  which  divides 
the  orchard  from  the  sterile  ground  on  the  north  and  east.  They 
forget  the  road  beneath  the  shade  of  flowering  olives,  of  which  the 
strong  scent  reaches  to  our  tent.  The  cook,  who  has  so  often 
mutinied  and  repented,  is  now  all  alacrity  and  zeal.  Our  luxuries 
have  been  a  turkey,  some  French  beans  of  exquisite  flavour,  and 
little  cakes  of  bread,  in  which  our  cook  excels.  The  cherries  are 
of  the  wild  species — for  the  people  are  too  lazy  to  graft ;  but, 
when  stewed,  they  afford  a  delicious  dish.  No  steamer  disturbs 
our  repose  ;  no  discordant  note  is  uttered  from  morn  to  eventide. 
We  are  self-sufficient,  mobile,  always  at  home.  The  world  is  our 
house,  and  we  move  easily  from  room  to  room.  It  never  rains  ; 
the  moisture  is  controlled  by  man,  who  directs  it  whither  it  pleases 
him  and  for  as  long.  The  air  is  so  dry  that,  with  very  little 
care,  all  danger  of  malaria  can  be  kept  at  bay. 

But  the  old  imam,  who  owns  and  appears  to  live  in  this 
garden,  turned  the  water  one  early  morning  into  the  channels. 
He  must  have  known  that  it  would  deluge  our  tent.  He  might 
have  warned  us  to  surround  it  with  a  shallow  trench.  I  took 
revenge  by  cutting  a  trench  to  the  lake.  The  wizened  old  thing 
did  not  display  the  smallest  resentment.  They  say  he  is  mad. 
He  sits  in  the  garden  all  day  long,  smoking  cigarettes  of  his  own 
manufacture,  muttering  to  himself,  his  eyes  fixed  upon  the  lake. 
When  night  arrives  he  goes  to  sleep  in  the  grass.  He  has  never 
worked  ;  but  nobody  works.  The  idea  of  work  is  not  repugnant  ; 
it  is  simply  an  idea  which  they  do  not  possess. 

Man  is  here  a  shadow — a  mournful  presence.  And  the  women 
appear  conscious  of  some  immense  and  inexpiable  sin.  The 
children  are  seldom  gay  ;  you  never  hear  laughter.  Their  poor 
little  naked  bodies  are  burnt  brown  by  the  sun,  and  their 
stomachs  are  distended  by  indifferent  food. 

Each  morning  we  bathe  in  the  lake.  The  water  is  delicious 
to  the  skin,  bracing  and  at  the  same  time  soft.  A  certain  soapi- 
ness  in  its  composition  produces  a  cleansing  effect  ;  yet  to  the 
eye  it  is  transparent  as  crystal.  Swimming  out  into  deep  water, 
the  thermometer  registered  68°,  or  exactly  the  temperature  of  the 
shade  at  6.30  A.M.  The  rocky  shore  shelves  down  with  a  measure 
of  abruptness,  so  that  in  breezy  weather  the  waves  do  not  break 
until  they  reach  the  ledge.  The  bather  is  soon  across  this  fringe 
of  surf. 

And  the  colouring  of  the  water !      Riding  early  to   the   ruins. 


282  Armenia 

or  returning  towards  sunset  to  our  camp,  it  is  always  a  new  effect, 
or  a  fresh  and  startling  combination,  differing  from  anything  either 
of  us  have  seen  elsewhere.  When  the  surface  of  the  expanse  is 
ruffled,  the  restless,  sparkling  water  is  at  once  intensely  green  and 
intensely  blue  ;  an  aquamarine  so  vivid  that  it  must  be  over- 
powering, an  ultramarine  so  deep  that  it  may  not  yield.  Twilight 
lasts  but  a  little  time;  yet  the  brief  space  is  many  times  multiplied 
by  the  number  and  variety  of  dissolving  tints.  The  landscape  of 
sea  and  mountain  is  overtaken  by  complete  stillness.  The  lake 
becomes  the  colour  of  an  iridescent  opal,  green,  blue,  and  pearly 
white.  The  mountains  are  lightly  tinged  with  delicate  yellows 
and  warm  greys,  faintly  shaded  in  the  recesses  of  the  chain  of 
peaks. 

The  latest  aspect  of  the  scene  is  at  once  the  richest  and  the 
most  mysterious.  All  blue  has  passed  from  the  sky  and  from 
the  face  of  the  sea,  except  here  and  there,  under  a  lingering  breath 
of  wind.  A  dull  golden  tint  is  spread  over  the  waters,  cloaking 
the  underlying  green.  In  the  distance,  towards  Van,  great 
shadows  of  indigo  lie  on  the  lake,  and  envelop  Varag  to  half 
height.  From  these  emerges  the  crested  ridge,  a  pink  madder. 
Varag  rests  against  a  background  of  vague  clouds,  purplish-blue, 
the  only  touch  of  redness  in  the  landscape.  .  .  .  Such  effects  are 
no  doubt  enhanced  by  the  sublimity  of  the  surroundings — the 
wide  sea,  the  Kurdish  mountains,  Sipan,  Nimrud  ;  but  they  may 
derive  a  special  quality  from  the  character  of  the  water  and  from 
the  great  elevation  of  the  lake  (5600  feet).  Its  pallor,  combined 
with  its  blueness,  is  perhaps  the  particular  characteristic  which 
becomes  imprinted  upon  the  mind. 

Our  only  regular  visitor  is  the  Kaimakam — Mohammed  Fuad 
Bey — a  Circassian  of  middle  stature  and  in  middle  age.  A  frock 
coat,  of  black  cloth  and  European  pattern,  displays  the  litheness 
of  his  figure.  His  face  is  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  the 
small  eyes.  He  is  the  hero  of  a  recent  adventure  with  the  Kurds. 
The  other  day  some  Hasananli  carried  off  from  an  Armenian 
village  a  considerable  body  of  cattle.  The  Kaimakam  despatched 
after  them  a  contingent  of  regular  soldiers,  with  instructions  to 
pursue  a  prescribed  route.  He  himself  followed,  accompanied  by 
a  single  zaptieh.  The  soldiers  appear  to  have  lost  their  way  ; 
and  the  Kaimakam  was  alone  when  he  fell  in  with  the  marauding 
band.  He  rode  straight  up  to  them,  pointed  to  the  cattle,  and 
ordered  them   in   the  name  of  the  Government  to  give  them  up. 


AkJilat  283 

He  added  that  his  own  honour  was  at  stake.      The  Kurds  of  course 
refused,  seeing   one    unarmed  man  and  a  zaptieh  opposed  to  their 
own  numbers   and   arms.      Whereupon   the  Kaimakam  proceeded 
to  drive  off  the  cattle,  calHng  to  his  attendant,  who,  however,  was 
too  much  terrified  to  be  of  use.      The  Kurds  at  once  opened  fire. 
One  bullet  entered  the  open  overcoat  of  the  official,  and  came  out 
through  the  opposite  flap.      Another  pierced  the  frock  coat  which 
he  habitually  wears.      His  horse  was  shot  in  two  places,  but  was 
not  disabled.      This   occurred   before   the  Kaimakam   could   draw 
his   pocket  revolver,  which   he  at  once  aimed  at  the  nearest  Kurd. 
The  man  fell  ;  his  companions  gathered  round   him,  and  almost 
immediately    made    off,    carrying    the    body    with    them.      They 
appear  to   have  regarded  the  Kaimakam's  as  a  charmed  life,  and 
to  have  explained   to  themselves  his  courage  in  this  way.      The 
cattle  were  quickly  driven  home  and  restored  to  the  Armenians. 
This    exploit   is    the    principal    topic  of  conversation    at    Akhlat. 
The  Kaimakam   has   received    neither   thanks    nor    reward.      The 
loss  of  his  horse,  which  died  shortly  after  from  its  injuries,  has  not 
yet  been  repaired.      The  Palace  no  doubt  deplores  the  loss  to  the 
Empire  of  a  Hamidiyeh  brave. 

I  was  anxious  to  visit  Akhlat  during  the  course  of  my  first 
journey  ;  but  the  lateness  of  the  season  compelled  me  to  push  on. 
The  project  so  long  deferred  is  at  length  realised.  The  con- 
ception of  the  place  which  was  present  in  my  mind,  before  we 
commenced  to  investigate  the  ruins,  may  be  expressed  in  a  few 
words.  A  number  of  beautiful  mausolea,  illustrating  the  best 
traditions  of  Mohammedan  art  in  a  manner  by  far  surpassing 
the  similar  buildings  we  had  seen  elsewhere — a  ruined  city  with 
mosques  and  minarets  standing  on  the  margin  of  the  lake,  and 
backed  by  the  remains  of  a  still  older  city,  which  perhaps  dated 
from  the  period  of  the  caliphs — such  was  the  idea,  so  full  of 
promise,  which  I  had  gathered  from  the  oral  accounts  of  travellers 
or  formed  from  conversation  in  the  country.  Not  much  more  is 
to  be  gleaned  from  books.^  Writing  now  that  we  have  completed 
our  plan  of  the  place,  examined  the  monuments,  and  copied  the 
inscriptions,  I   propose,  in  the  first  place,  to  submit  a  few  general 

1  The  credit  of  whatever  information  we  already  possess  is  due,  among  modern 
travellers,  almost  exclusively  to  Englishmen.  I  may  cite  Brant  {Journal  R.G.S.  1840, 
vol.  X.  pp.  406  seq.),  Layard  {Discoveries  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  London, 
1853,  pp.  24  seq.),  and  Tozer  {Turkish  Armenia,  London,  188 1,  pp.  315  m-)-  The 
last  of  these  writers  does  not  appear  to  have  read  Layard's  account,  which  would 
have  saved  him  some  lengthy  speculations.  Ritter  {Erdkunde,  vol.  x.  p.  326)  may  also 
be  consulted. 


284  Armenia 

remarks,  and  then  to  resume  the  experiences  of  our  several 
excursions,  blending  them  into  one. 

Akhlat  is  the  name  of  a  district,  comprising  a  number  of  oases, 
on  the  northern  shore  of  the  extensive  bay  which  is  bounded  on 
its  southern  side  by  the  long  promontory  of  Zigag.  This  district 
is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  five  distinct  quarters. 
The  first  is  Erkizan,  the  seat  of  government  for  district  and  caza, 
where  the  Kaimakam  resides  and  where  we  are  encamped.  The 
second  is  Iki  Kube,  or  the  two  mausolea — so  called  from  a  pair  of 
tombs  which  stand  close  together  in  the  desert,  some  distance 
west  of  Erkizan.  This  district  comprises  the  walled  city  on  the 
shore,  as  well  as  the  village  of  Kulaxis,  situated  in  a  ravine,  a 
good  walk  in  a  northerly  direction  from  the  two  tombs.  The 
third  quarter  embraces  the  area  of  the  older  city,  and  is  called 
indifferently  Kharaba  and  Takht-i-Suleyman.  The  remaining  two 
are  outlying,  Tunus,  on  the  east  of  Erkizan,  at  an  interval  of 
about  half-a-mile  ;  and  Kirklar,  in  the  opposite  direction,  west 
of  the  quarter  of  Kharaba  and  the  ravine  in  which  the  older  city 
lies.  The  population  of  the  entire  district  cannot  much  exceed 
6000  souls,  of  whom  the  majority  inhabit  the  quarter  of  Kharaba 
or  the  gardens  of  Erkizan.  Of  this  number  only  200  would 
appear  to  be  Armenians,  residing  about  the  ravine  of  the  older 
city. 

The  block  of  limestone  hills  which  we  crossed  from  Melazkert 
extend  from  Adeljivas  along  the  shore.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  Akhlat  they  recess  away  towards  Lake  Nazik,  leaving  an 
extensive  margin  of  fairly  level  land.  But  the  coast  itself,  between 
Erkizan  and  the  delta  of  the  streams  below  the  older  city,  has 
the  character  of  rounded  cliffs,  shelving  to  the  lake.  The  soil  is 
composed  of  purplish  sandstones  and  conglomerates,  which,  as 
you  approach  the  older  city,  are  overlaid  with  lava  and  pumice. 
Both  the  sandstones  and  the  pumice  tend  to  arid,  dusty  ground  ; 
while  the  yellow  pumice  reflects  an  overpowering  glare.  Yet  this 
ground,  when  thoroughly  watered,  becomes  extremely  fertile ;  and 
it  is  characteristic  of  Akhlat  that  the  oases  are  the  most  luxuriant, 
and  the  intermediate  spaces  the  most  sterile  of  all  these  shores. 
Thus  Erkizan  is  a  deep  belt  of  shady  orchards,  while  the  walled 
city  is  surrounded  by  powdery  waste.  Groves  of  aged  walnut 
trees  clothe  the  ground  on  either  side  of  the  ravine  of  Takht-i- 
Suleyman  ;  but,  if  you  ride  from  the  walled  city  towards  Kulaxis, 
the  light  streams,  and  the  dust  rises  in  clouds.      In  such  a  waste 


Akhlat 


^85 


Fig.  1£ 


the  number  of  rivulets  is  surprising  ;   and  they  flow  with  a  vigour 
which  is  not  less  strange. 

It  is  probable  that  the  more  ancient  city  was  surrounded  by 
suburbs.  The  mausolea  are  spread  over  a  considerable  area  ;  and, 
even  in  Erkizan,  the  houses  are  built  up  with  the  faced  stones 
which  are  characteristic  of  the 
ancient  masonry.  In  this 
quarter  we  remark,  beside  the 
base  of  a  tomb,  a  capital,  en- 
riched with  an  Arab  ornament, 
and  a  large  stone,  elaborately 
chiselled.  Both  these  objects 
are  observed  at  random,  lying 
unheeded  on  the  ground.  The 
Government  house  is  a  solid 
stone  building ;  the  graceful 
pointed  arch  which  we  notice 
over  a  doorway  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  influence  of 
the  monuments  is  still  alive. 
Adjoining  it  is  placed  the 
prison.  There  are  two  or  three  shops,  with  deep  verandahs  over 
the  shop,  the  whole  surmounted  by  the  roof.  The  dwellings  are 
widely  scattered  ;  and,  if  window  glass  were  universal,  they  would 
present  an  appearance  both  of  solidity  and  of  comfort.  Little 
lanes  intersect  the  gardens  ;  the  murmur  of  water  and  the  scent 
of  the  flowering  olives  fill  the  air  with  sweetness  and  pleasant 
sounds. 

Such  are  some  of  the  notes  one  makes  when  on  a  day  of 
midsummer  we  wend  our  way  on  horseback  through  the  straggling 
settlement  of  Erkizan  with  the  purpose  of  exploring  the  ancient 
sites.  As  we  pass  the  prison,  an  old  Armenian  protrudes  his 
head  from  one  of  the  windows,  and  begs  us  to  intercede  on  his 
behalf.  On  the  outskirts  of  the  oasis  we  are  met  by  the 
Kaimakam,  mounted  on  a  white  mare,  with  black  and  yellow 
trappings,  and  with  a  two -months -old  foal  at  foot.  In  his 
company,  and  in  that  of  a  green-turbaned  khoja,  whom  he  employs 
as  writer,  we  pass  an  old  mulberry  tree  on  the  fringe  of  the  fertile 
zone,  and  enter  the  waste  on  a  westerly  course. 

A  ride  of  twenty  minutes,  walking  our  horses,  brings  us  to  the  iki 
kube,  or  two  tombs  (Fig.  i8i  and  see  the  plan,  Nos.  i  and  2).      They  are 


Piece  of  Seljuk  Pottery 
FROM  Akhlat. 


286  Armenia 

separated  by  an  interval  of  about  ten  yards.  Let  me  describe,  once  for 
all,  the  design  of  such  edifices,  known  in  the  country  by  the  name  of 
kutnbet.  A  circular,  or  drum-shaped  structure  rests  on  a  deep  pedestal, 
which  slopes  outwards  to  a  square  base.  But  the  four  angles  of  the 
pedestal  are  cut  away  in  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  the  point  of  the  wedge  resting 
on  the  base.  The  whole  is  surmounted  by  a  conical  roof  On  the  level 
of  the  ground,  an  arched  aperture  gives  access  to  a  chamber,  built  in  the 
hollow  of  the  base.  In  this  chamber,  or  beneath  its  floor,  was  presumably 
placed  a  coffin  :  but  the  catafalques,  if  such  existed,  have  disappeared. 
The  ground,  too,  has  buried  the  base  in  most  cases,  so  that  you  can  only 
just  crawl  through  the  top  of  the  arched  aperture.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  floor  of  the  circular  structure,  resting  on  the  pedestal,  is  high  above  the 
ground ;  and,  in  the  absence  of  any  stairs,  you  are  obliged  to  clamber  up 
the  face  of  the  pedestal,  making  use  of  little  crevices  in  the  stones.  Four 
open  doorways,  placed  at  regular  intervals  in  the  circumference,  at  once 
serve  as  entrances  to  the  upper  chamber,  and  as  windows,  through  which 
the  landscape  expands  on  every  side. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  prospective  occupant  of  the  tomb,  or  the  pious 
visitors  to  this  place  of  burial,  would  sit  and  rest  within  this  cool,  circular 
chamber,  beneath  the  lofty  roof,  enjoying  the  views  of  the  country  around. 
They  would,  however,  have  needed  a  ladder  to  reach  the  entrances.  The 
interiors  are  quite  plain;  in  one  instance  (No.  i)  we  observed  traces  of 
plaster  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  there  is  neither  ornament  nor  covering  of  the  surface 
of  the  masonry,  in  which  one  admires  the  even  joints  of  the  blocks  of 
faced  stone.  The  material  of  these  tombs  is  stone  throughout — a  pink 
volcanic  stone.  All  the  resources  of  the  decorative  sculptor  are  lavished 
upon  the  exterior,  especially  about  the  doorways,  the  four  niches  in  the 
intervening  spaces,  and  the  cornice  beneath  the  roof  In  some  cases 
raised  stone  mouldings  enrich  the  surface  of  the  roof  Sometimes  a  frieze 
is  carried  beneath  the  cornice,  the  most  effective  being  hewn  out  of  white 
marble.^  They  are  inscribed  with  sentences  from  the  Koran.  The 
beautiful  Arabic  letters  vary  the  effect  of  the  elaborate  geometrical  patterns 
in  the  decorated  spaces  of  the  walls  beneath.  The  personal  inscriptions 
are  usually  found  over  the  doorways  ;  and,  in  some  instances,  are  engraved 
upon  white  marble  slabs.  The  two  tombs  which  we  are  now  visiting  both 
possess  such  inscriptions;  the  khoja  copied  them;  they  are  in  Arabic  prose. 
Those  on  the  first  tomb  (No.  i)  record  that  it  is  the  burial-place  of  a  great 
Emir,  by  name  Nughatay  Agha,  and  of  the  lady,  wife  to  Nughatay.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  given  as  a.h.  678,  or  a.d.  1279.  The  second  tomb 
is  described  as  that  of  Hasan  Timur  Agha,  son  of  this  Nughatay,  who  died 
in  A.H.  680  or  A.u.  1281.- 

Quite  close  to  the  //'/  kuhe,  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  is  situated 

^  The  white  stone  which  may  be  seen  inserted  in  the  masonry  of  some  of  the  tombs 
at  Akhlat  is  not  a  true  marble,  but  a  compact  limestone,  easy  to  chisel.  It  must  have 
been  brought  from  a  distance,  perhaps  from  the  opposite  shore  of  the  lake,  as  we  met  with 
no  such  stone  in  situ  during  our  wanderings. 

'^  I  am  indebted  to  my  friend,  Mr.  E.  Denison  Ross,  for  careful  translations  of  these 
and  the  following  inscriptions. 


Akhlat  287 

a  third  tomb,  which  is  still  erect  (No.  3).  It  is  less  richly  decorated  than 
the  preceding,  and  is  without  any  commemorative  inscription.  Making 
westwards,  we  at  once  enter  one  of  the  shadiest  of  the  oases,  passing  a 
fourth  mausoleum  within  its  fringe  (No.  4).  A  much  less  tasteful  structure 
than  the  others,  it  is  also  of  different  design.  Within  the  chamber  are 
ordinary  graves,  with  marble  headstones;  the  inscriptions  on  the  headstones, 
and  on  a  marble  slab  in  the  wall  outside,  indicate  that  it  was  the  burial- 
place  of  some  Kurdish  princes  of  Modkan  in  the  first  quarter  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Almost  opposite  this  tomb,  which  is  without  archi- 
tectural merit,  a  most  curious  edifice,  quite  ruinous,  is  observed  upon 
some  waste  land  (No.  4^).  Built  into  a  pile  of  massive  masonry  are  some 
slabs  or  blocks  of  stone,  of  Cyclopean  character.  The  largest  has  the 
appearance  of  a  lintel ;  it  is  twelve  and  a  half  feet  long  and  three  in 
thickness.  The  recess  behind  the  slabs,  upon  which  it  rests  transversely, 
is  blocked  up  by  a  wall.  A  portion  of  a  grinding  stone  is  seen  lying  on 
the  ground,  perhaps  belonging  to  a  linseed  press. 

The  oasis  belongs  to  the  quarter  of  Iki  Kube,  and  the  gardens  contain 
a  number  of  modern  dwellings.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  size  and  leafiness 
of  the  walnut  trees.  The  remains  of  several  ancient  edifices  rise  from 
among  the  foliage,  or  are  strewn  upon  the  grass.  The  most  notable  is  a 
square  building  of  some  size,  with  an  octagonal  and  conical  roof  (No.  5). 
The  walls  are  featured  by  square  windows ;  but  the  architecture  is  plain 
and  without  ornament,  and  the  appearance  is  stumpy  and  without  grace. 
Perhaps  it  was  a  tomb  like  the  rest.  A  smaller  mausoleum  of  similar 
design  is  seen  by  the  wayside  (No.  6).  It  is  almost  buried  beneath  the 
ground.  Before  we  leave  the  oasis,  to  visit  the  walled  city  on  the  shore,  we 
are  shown  a  subterraneous  and  vaulted  chamber,  now  used  as  a  store  for  hay. 

We  now  change  direction  and  cross  a  zone  of  desert  between  the  oasis 
and  the  walled  city.  AMien  close  to  the  north-western  tower,  we  pause  to 
admire  the  site,  which  commands  the  whole  expanse  of  the  lake.  The 
view  is  only  bounded  by  the  distant  ridge  of  Varag,  which  rises  behind 
Van.  The  walls  describe  the  figure  of  a  parallelogram,  of  which  the  two 
long  sides  have  a  length  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  descend  in  a 
south-easterly  direction  to  the  margin  of  the  lake.  The  breadth  of  the 
figure,  along  the  shore,  is  about  half  its  length.  The  slope,  although 
gradual,  is  not  inconsiderable  ;  the  north-western  tower  is  130  feet  higher 
than  the  level  of  the  lake.  The  wall  on  the  south  overlooks  a  shallow 
ravine,  through  which  trickles  a  little  stream. 

The  character  of  the  walls  may  be  described  as  a  single  rampart,  with 
hollow  towers  at  intervals,  some  round,  and  others  pentagonal.  The 
rampart  has  a  thickness  of  about  six  feet,  and  consists  of  a  pile  of  stone, 
faced  with  hewn  and  jointed  blocks  after  the  manner  of  the  old  Armenian 
masonry.  But  the  greater  part  of  this  facing  has  fallen  away  or  been 
stripped  off,  displaying  the  raggedness  of  the  pile  within.  We  could  find 
no  evidence  of  breaches  having  been  made  in  the  enclosure ;  nor  were 
there  any  visible  traces  of  its  having  undergone  a  siege.  The  wall  along 
the  shore  has  long  since  disappeared ;  ^  and  the  lake  has  encroached 
^  Brant  {op.  cit.  p.  407)  attests  its  existence  at  the  time  of  his  visit. 


288  Armenia 

upon  its  rocky  bank.  About  halfway  down  the  more  southerly  wall 
is  situated  the  inner  walled  enclosure  of  the  palace  or  citadel. 
This  inner  fortress  comprises  an  area  which  is  roughly  rectangular,  and 
which  is  of  no  great  extent.  It  is  flanked  along  the  three  inner 
sides  by  a  rampart  and  towers,  but  the  city  wall  is  at  the  same  time  the 
wall  of  the  citadel  along  the  fourth  or  outer  side.  The  site  is  signalised  by  a 
slight  projection  of  the  fortification,  and  by  the  greater  propinquity  of  the 
towers  to  each  other.  From  the  tower  at  the  north-eastern  angle  of  the 
citadel  a  cross  wall  is  carried  down  to  the  sea.  The  upper  portion  of  the 
principal  enclosure,  as  well  as  the  space  within  the  citadel,  is  now  com- 
pletely bare.  Nothing  but  the  foundations  of  houses  and  buildings  can  be 
discovered  within  that  area.  The  few  modern  houses  are  collected  in  the 
south-east  corner,  and  have  been  built  from  the  material  of  the  old  fortress. 
Their  inhabitants  resemble  phantoms  rather  than  human  beings  ;  but  the 
orchards,  which  are  confined  to  this  lower  part  of  the  enclosure,  enhance 
the  picturesqueness  of  the  old  kala,  sloping  down  the  hillside  to  the  blue 
water. 

Three  gateways,  from  which  the  gates  have  disappeared,  give  entrance 
to  the  enceinte,  two  in  the  rampart  on  the  north,  and  one  in  that  upon 
the  south.  The  upper  gate  in  the  north  rampart  is  in  a  ruinous  condition, 
the  plinths  having  been  broken  away.  The  lower  entrance  is  situated 
about  opposite  to  that  in  the  south  wall ;  a  road  extends  between  the  two 
through  the  cross  wall.  Both  these  gateways  are  surmounted  by  inscribed 
slabs.  The  legend  over  the  first  is  written  in  Persian  verse,  and  recounts 
that  the  fortress  was  built  by  order  of  Sultan  Selim.  The  date  is  given  in 
a  chronogram  as  a.h.  976  or  a.d.  1568.  The  inscription  upon  the 
second  is  in  Turkish  verse,  but  the  chronogram  is  obscure.  It  sets  forth 
that  the  kala  was  built  or  restored  by  Sultan  Suleyman  the  Second  (a.d. 
1 687-1 691).  The  citadel  is  entered  by  a  handsome  gateway,  facing 
towards  the  sea.  This  entrance  consists  of  a  pretentious  piece  of 
architecture,  flanked  on  either  side  by  a  tower.  The  doorway  leads  into 
a  vaulted  chamber,  where  the  passage  into  the  citadel  is  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  outer  door.  The  inscription  above  this  entrance  is  in 
Arabic  prose,  the  characters  being  relieved  by  a  ground  of  enamel  in 
various  colours.  It  is  to  the  effect  that  the  fortress  was  built  by  Sultan 
Suleyman,  son  of  Sultan  Selim.  Suleyman  is  styled,  in  the  pompous 
language  of  the  East,  the  Alexander  of  his  time.  It  would  therefore 
appear  that  the  citadel  is  due  to  Suleyman  the  First,  surnamed  the  Great, 
who  came  to  the  throne  in  a.d.  1520;  and  that  other  portions  of  the 
fortifications  were  undertaken  under  subsequent  Sultans,  notably  Selim  II. 
and  Suleyman  II. 

The  only  buildings  of  any  importance  within  the  enceinte  are  two 
mosques,  which  are  rapidly  falling  into  ruin.  The  largest  (No.  18)  is 
placed  just  opposite  the  gateway  of  the  citadel,  and  is  of  charming 
proportions  and  design.  The  entrance  is  approached  through  a  spacious 
portico,  which  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  wall.  The  piers  or 
columns,  which  must  have  supj^orted  the  roof  of  this  structure,  in  the 
form  of  a  fac^ade,  are  no  longer  in  their  place.     But  one  still  admires  the 


Akhlat  289 

vaulted  and  groined  ceilings,  the  vaulting  being  done  in  brick.  And 
through  the  openings  in  the  side  walls,  with  their  ogee  arches,  pleasant 
prospects  are  obtained.  The  face  of  the  main  wall,  against  which  the 
portico  rests,  is  decorated  in  a  simple  and  efficacious  manner  by  means  of 
an  alternation  of  bands  of  white  marble  with  bands  made  up  with  blocks 
of  black  and  of  pink  lava.  The  main  doorway,  which  gives  access  through 
this  wall  into  the  mosque,  is  surmounted  by  a  pointed  arch.  A  slab  of 
white  marble  over  the  door  is  inscribed  with  a  legend  in  Persian  verse. 
It  relates  that  the  mosque  was  erected  by  Sikandar  or  Iskandar  Pasha  ; 
a  chronogram  gives  the  date  of  a.h.  976  or  a.d.  1568.  On  either  side  of 
the  doorway,  as  well  as  above  it,  openings  with  ogee  arches  admit  light 
into  the  interior.  In  front  of,  but  contiguous  with,  the  portico  on  its 
south-west  side,  a  massive  circular  minaret  rises  into  the  sky.  It  is  seen, 
like  a  landmark,  from  afar.  It  does  not  taper  perceptibly ;  but  the 
honeycomb  cornice  which  supports  the  balcony  is  surmounted  by  a 
second  tower  of  smaller  diameter.  The  cupola  has  fallen  from  this 
uppermost  shaft.  A  band  of  white  limestone,  and  two  bands  of  black 
lava  encircle  the  even  masonry  of  pink  lava.  A  heart-shaped  stone,  high 
up,  is  engraved  with  Arabic  characters,  setting  forth  the  name  of  the 
founder,  Sikandar  Pasha,  and  giving  the  date  as  a.h.  978  or  a.d.  1570. 

The  interior  of  the  mosque  is  of  extremely  pleasing  design — a  circle 
described  by  eight  pointed  arches,  springing  from  a  square  ground  plan. 
Four  of  these  form  recesses  at  the  angles  of  the  square ;  the  remainder 
rest  against  the  walls.  The  members  of  the  arches  are  built  of  stone ; 
but  the  walls  are  lined  and  the  vaultings  constructed  with  narrow  bricks. 
The  dome  rests  on  the  points  of  the  arches,  encompassing  the  interior 
with  its  beautiful  curves.  From  the  outside  it  is  octagonal  in  shape.  In 
the  south  wall  are  three  apertures  which  serve  as  windows ;  two  are  of 
fair  size.  The  dimensions  are  a  square  of  42  feet  6  inches.  The  altar 
is  built  of  white  marble,  and  the  masonry  throughout  the  building  is 
carefully  faced  and  joined. 

The  second  mosque,  situated  just  outside  the  cross  wall,  is  smaller, 
but  of  similar  design.  The  portico  is  still  perfect,  the  cups  of  the  three 
ceilings  being  supported  by  pointed  arches,  resting  on  two  columns  with 
uncarved  capitals.  But  this  mosque  is  built  throughout  of  stone,  marbles 
of  various  hues  being  introduced.  A  legend  in  Persian  verse  above  the 
doorway  is  to  the  effect  that  it  was  constructed  by  the  Kazi^  Mahnmd,  in 
A.H.  996  or  a.d.  1587. 

Such  is  the  kala  or  Ottoman  fortress,  and  what  it  contains.  The 
architecture,  although  careful,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  mosques,  pleasing, 
displays  a  distinct  decline  in  the  arts.  The  admirable  traceries  in  stone 
of  the  so-called  Seljuk  buildings  are  nowhere  to  be  found.  Persian 
influences  make  themselves  felt. 

We  proceed  from  the  kala  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  on  a  course 
about  parallel  to  the  outline  of  the  shore.  The  high  ground,  shelving  to 
the  water,  is  barren  and  stony.  At  a  distance  of  nearly  a  mile  we  arrive 
at  an  isolated  tomb,  of  which  the  site  is  a  little  headland  of  the  coast, 
commanding  the  inner  curves  of  the  bay  of  Akhlat.  It  is  the  most 
VOL.  II  U 


290  Armenia 

beautiful  of  all  the  mausolea,  in  fact  the  only  object  of  excelling  beauty 
at  Akhlat  (No.  7,  Fig.  182).  It  stands  as  a  surpassing  monument  of  Arab 
architecture,  engrafted  upon  the  Armenian  style.  Its  masonry  is  fresh  as 
upon  the  day  when  it  was  completed,  six  centuries  ago.  But  the  ruins  of 
a  companion  building,  which  stood  not  far  behind  it,  and  which  collapsed, 
according  to  my  informant,  about  two  years  back,  are  ominous  of  a 
dissolution  which  is  perhaps  nearer  than  we  might  expect.  I  have 
therefore  reproduced  its  features  in  a  careful  photograph,  and  have 
endeavoured  to  invest  them  with  the  hues  of  reality.  I  do  not  know  that 
I  need  add  much  to  the  general  description  already  given  of  similar 
edifices.  But  in  this  tomb  all  the  merits  of  the  style  are  seen  to 
culminate  ; — in  none  do  the  proportions  attain  such  exactitude,  or  the 
ornament  such  a  combination  of  extraordinary  elaboration  with  the 
simplicity  and  stateliness  of  the  highest  art.  Tradition  relates  that  these 
companion  tombs  are  the  burial-places  of  two  brothers,  and  the  work  of  a 
single  architect.  For  the  elder  brother  was  designed  the  structure  which 
has  now  fallen,  and  which  is  said  to  have  been  greatly  inferior  to  that 
which  stands.  This  individual  lived  to  see  the  more  finished  monument 
erected,  and  to  brood  over  the  invidious  contrast  between  his  own  and 
his  brother's  tomb.  His  anger  was  visited  upon  the  daring  architect,  who 
was  condemned  to  lose  his  right  hand.  The  story  sounds  plausible,  for 
there  exists  no  personal  inscription  upon  the  beautiful  tomb.  We  ignore 
the  name  of  the  personage  for  whom  it  was  built.  On  the  other  hand 
the  fallen  structure  possessed  such  an  inscription,  which  our  khoja  had 
fortunately  copied  before  it  succumbed.  It  commemorates  the  great 
afid  noble  Emb',  Shadi  Ag/ia,  son  of  the  great  Emir,  Sai/ghiir  Agha,  son  of 
Khaghan  Agha.  The  date  is  a.h.  672  or  a.d.  1273.  The  language  is 
Arabic  prose. 

Although  the  appearance  of  the  kumbet  does  not  suggest  size,  the 
dimensions  are  about  the  largest  of  all  these  tombs.  The  upper  and 
circular  chamber  has  a  diameter  of  22  feet ;  and  each  side  of  the  square 
base  which  supports  the  structure  is  close  upon  30  feet  long.  Although 
the  floor  of  the  lower  chamber  is  partially  silted  up,  it  has  a  height  of 
16  feet.  Beneath  the  deep  cornice  runs  a  frieze  of  white  marble,  with  an 
inscription  from  the  Koran.  The  body  of  the  building  is  composed  of 
the  usual  pink  volcanic  lava.  The  interior  displays  no  trace  of  plaster, 
nor  is  it  ornamented  in  any  way. 

Between  the  isolated  tomb  and  the  ravine  of  the  ancient  city,  the 
ground  is  covered  by  the  headstones  of  an  extensive  cemetery,  a  kind  of 
Kensal  Green  or  Pere  Lachaise.  But  our  European  pattern  of  marble 
slabs,  with  thin  incisions,  are  pale  and  paltry  when  compared  with  these. 
The  fact  that  a  majority  of  these  headstones  are  still  erect  attests  their 
extraordinary  solidity.  In  all,  or  almost  all,  cases  they  have  the  form  of 
a  pilaster,  surmounted  by  a  honeycomb  frieze.  The  silhouettes  of  these 
friezes  are  extremely  picturesque  against  the  lights  of  the  sky.  The  stone 
has  weathered  brown  and  carries  a  little  lichen.  The  head  of  the  dead 
man  is  placed  towards  Mecca,  turned  upon  his  right  shoulder.  The 
headstone  faces  the  feet  and  the  rising  sun.      The  face  bears  the  inscrip- 


riu.  1^:^,    Akhlai  :    IsuLATtL.  Tomb. 


Akhlat 


291 


tion  in  Arabic  character ;  on  the  reverse  the  ornament,  which  forms  the 
subject  of  the  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  183),  is  an  almost  universal 
feature.  Some  of  these  graves  are  of  the  same  date  as  the  kumbets,  or 
even  earlier,  while  some  are  rather  later.  They  represent  a  comparatively 
high  standard  of  civilisation,  in  which  the  arts  were 
cherished  and  extensively  practised. 

Continuing  our  course  along  the  shore,  but  still 
high  above  the  lake,  we  come  to  the  point  where  the 
headland  breaks  away  to  the  alluvial  flats  of  an 
extensive  delta.  This  delta  constitutes  the  inner 
recess  of  the  bay,  screening  a  lagoon  of  some  size. 
It  is  formed  by  the  deposits  of  two  streams,  which 
meet  close  to  us,  and  of  which  the  more  easterly 
flows  from  the  ravine  of  the  ancient  city.  Yet  a 
third  stream  enters  the  shallows  some  distance 
further  west.  The  strip  of  alluvium  in  front  of  the 
lagoon  extends  from  this  headland  to  the  opposite 
curve  of  the  bay.  It  is  probable  that  the  gradual 
rise  in  level  of  the  lake  has  caused  these  little 
streams  to  deposit  a  quantity  of  sediment  out  of  pro- 
portion to  their  volume.  So  narrow  is  the  strip  of 
soil,  that  a  peasant  is  digging  a  trench  across  it 
with  nothing  but  his  hands.  He  is  wanting  to  •.''-'■ 
let  out  the  surplus  water  from  the  lagoon.  Several 
tall  willows  are  growing  within  the  delta,  to 
which  we  immediately  descend.  From  a  bush  at  our  side  a  young 
cormorant  takes  wing,  and  falls  clumsily  into  the  lake  below.  Reversino- 
our  direction,  we  ride  up  the  principal  valley,  at  first  over  the  soft  sand. 
Again  commence  the  orchards,  and  again  the  air  is  scented  by  the  flower- 
ing olive  trees.  The  valley  becomes  a  glen,  and  the  bed  of  powdery 
silt  gives  place  to  slabs  of  rock.  The  stream  cascades  beside  us,  from 
one  ledge  to  another,  beneath  the  shade  of  walnuts,  willows,  and  poplars. 
Some  little  children  are  bathing  in  the  deeply-shadowed  water;  a  tiny 
calf  stands  on  the  shore.  And  a  little  further,  behind  the  sparkle  and 
effervescence  of  a  waterfall,  the  site  of  the  city  comes  to  view. 
Beyond  the  single  pointed  arch  and  little  battlements  of  a  stone  bridge, 
you  see  the  sharp  end  of  a  wedge-shaped  platform,  rising  above  the  detail 
of  the  luxuriant  valley  like  the  prow  of  a  gigantic  ship.  It  cleaves  the 
valley  into  two  (Fig.  184). 

The  situation  of  old  Akhlat  resembles  that  of  Bitlis ;  but  it  is  Bitlis 
shorn  of  its  castle,  and  without  the  lofty  mountains  towering  above  it  on 
every  side.  It  is  nothing  more  than  a  valley,  cut  by  water  deep  into  the 
lava,  with  a  long  spit  of  columnar  lava  rising  up  from  the  valley  floor. 
The  direction  of  this  valley  is  roughly  north  and  south.  Of  its  two 
branches,  that  on  the  east  of  the  citadel  is  wider  but  less  deep ;  while 
that  on  the  west  is  narrower  but  more  profoundly  carved.  These  side 
ravines  unite  at  both  ends  of  the  citadel ;  although  on  the  north  the 
junction  is  less  obvious.      There  is  no  stream  in  the  eastern  ravine.     The 


Fig.  183. 


292 


A^niienia 


platform,  which  supported  the  citadel,  is  both  highest  and  most  broad 
towards  its  northerly  end.  Its  greatest  width  is  about  100  yards,  and  its 
length,  from  end  to  end,  less  than  500  yards.  Its  height  above  the 
stream  is  some  200  feet.  The  top  of  the  platform  is  flat ;  all  buildings  have 
been  razed ;  the  tread  sinks  in  the  powdery  soil.  It  is  crossed  by  two 
depressions,  which  must  have  always  been  a  source  of  weakness.  The 
almost  demolished  remains  of  immensely  thick  walls  still  rise  in  some 
places  from  the  upper  sides. 

The  ascent  to  the  platform  is  from  the  valley  on  the  east ;  on  our  way 
we  pass  a  line  of  miserable  shops  and  a  cluster  of  houses,  built  of  stone. 
Caves  in  the  side  of  the  basaltic  lava  have  probably  been  utilised  in  the 
construction  of  these  tenements.  The  inhabitants  have  an  emaciated  and 
sickly  appearance,  being  in  fact  extremely  poor.  A  track  leads  up  the 
cliff  to  the  head  of  the  platform,  whence  a  fine  view  over  the  adjacent 
ravines  is  obtained.  That  on  the  east  is  almost  treeless,  but  the  higher 
levels  of  the  western  ravine  are  thickly  clothed  with  trees.  The  verdure 
descends  the  clefts  in  that  opposite  parapet,  which  towers  above  the 
citadel.  Stone  houses  nesde  among  the  foliage.  It  is  surprising  how 
little  remains  of  the  ancient  city.  On  the  slope  of  the  eastern  valley, 
which  is,  comparatively,  a  low  gradient,  a  portion  of  the  wall  of  some 
considerable  edifice  is  still  erect,  and  fairly  well  preserved.  It  is  an 
extremely  lofty  wall,  being  flanked  by  buttresses  ;  the  masonry  is  of  jointed 
and  faced  stone.  Below  it  are  observed  some  remnants  of  a  vaulted 
edifice,  possibly  a  bath.  Beyond  the  fragment  of  a  wall,  and  on  the 
surface  of  the  high  ground,  rises  a  ruinous  round  tower.  In  that  direction 
we  notice  traces  of  a  rampart. 

In  the  opposite  quarter,  beyond  the  western  ravine,  the  standing 
portion  of  a  ruinous  kumbet  emerges  from  the  trees  on  the  summit  of  the 
cliff,  and  forms  a  landmark  from  afar  (No.  9).  It  is  the  tomb  of  the 
"  lord  of  Emirs  " — so  runs  the  inscription — Hasan  Agha,  son  of  Mahviud. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  given  as  a.h.  672  or  a.d.  1273.  0>^  the  same 
summit  the  bases  of  two  large  and  similar  buildings  may  be  discovered 
among  the  orchards. 

Descending  from  the  platform,  we  endeavour  to  trace  the  line  of  the 
walls,  which  enclosed  a  considerable  area  on  the  east  of  the  citadel,  and 
were  brought  down  into  the  ravine.  The  result  of  our  labours  is  shown 
on  the  plan.  The  round  tower,  already  mentioned,  which  has  an  inside 
diameter  of  fifteen  paces,  evidently  stood  at  one  of  the  angles  of  the  line 
of  walls. 

Tust  outside,  and  on  the  east  of  this  line  of  fortifications  is  situated  a 
little  mosque,  in  pink  volcanic  stone,  and  by  its  side  a  tomb  (No.  8). 
This  kumbet  differs  in  style  from  all  its  fellows,  the  circular  structure, 
which  is  supported  by  the  usual  form  of  pedestal,  being  open  upon  the 
side  that  faces  away  from  the  wall  of  the  mosque.  On  that  side  the 
conical  roof  rests  on  ten  short  columns,  with  honeycomb  capitals.  These 
columns  rise  from  the  lower  portion  of  the  drum,  which  is  richly  decorated. 
Above  them,  and  below  the  roof,  runs  a  frieze  with  an  inscription.  In 
the  side  opposite  the  wall  of  the  mosque  is  an  aperture  or  entrance,  set 


Aklilat  293 

within  a  recess  with  honeycomb  ornament.  The  interior  of  the  tomb  has 
a  diameter  of  fifteen  and  a  half  feet.^  The  inscription,  which  is  the 
longest  of  all  these  personal  records,  and,  indeed,  usurps  the  position 
which  in  the  remaining  mausolea  is  reserved  for  verses  from  the  Koran, 
may  be  briefly  summarised  as  follows.  It  is  in  Arabic  prose.  "  This 
tomb  preserves  the  remai/is  of  the  g?-eat  and  laudable  king,  honoured  among 
the  sultans  of  the  world  for  his  valour  in  war,  and  for  his  zeal  ifi  the  pro- 
pagation of  the  Faith — -Mubariz-ud-Din,  Bayindar  Bey,  son  of  the  late 
Rustem  Bey.  Under  the  auspices  of  his  royal  banner  were  vindicated  the 
rights  of  sovereignty  and  the  ordering  of  government.  During  his  life  he 
triumphed  over  his  enemies  with  the  aid  of  his  victorious  armies.  He  died  in 
A.H.  886  (a.d.  148 1 ).  Here  also  was  buried  Zen  Alohammed,  his  son,  zvho 
died  in  a.h.  894."  The  inscription  upon  the  mosque  refers  to  the  same 
personage,  as  having  erected  it.  But  Bayindar  is  styled  ^^  the  ransomed 
emperor"  and  "  the  master  of  the  stvord  and  of  the  pen,  the  author  of  the  book 
Majmu-ul-Makarim. " 

Having  visited  these  meagre  relics  on  either  cliff  of  the  volcanic  valley, 
we  descend  to  the  western  ravine.  The  stream  is  flowing  beneath  the 
deep  shade  of  trees,  and  prattling  over  ledges  of  rock.  This  portion  of 
the  ravine  is  termed  Takht-i-Suleyman,  or  Solomon's  throne,  from  the 
appearance  of  the  lofty  platform  which  it  skirts.  Just  north  of  the  citadel 
the  valley  narrows,  and  becomes  a  deep  gorge.  We  make  our  way  along 
the  side  of  the  cleft.  It  was  once  spanned  by  the  single  arch  of  a  stone 
bridge.  A  little  distance  further,  the  stream  from  Kulaxis  joins  our  stream, 
coming  in  on  the  left  bank  through  a  ravine  and  by  a  cascade.  Pursuing 
our  course  up  the  glen,  for  the  space  of  half-an-hour  from  the  confluence, 
we  reach  the  Armenian  village  of  Madavantz. 

Madavantz  is  a  semi-troglodyte  village,  which  reminds  one  of  Vardzia 
(Vol.  I.  Fig.  18,  p.  80).  The  dwellings  are  only  partially  built  out  from 
caves  in  the  face  of  the  lava.  The  place  seems  as  old  as  the  hills. 
The  valley  has  become  extremely  narrow,  and  the  cliffs  rise  with  consider- 
able steepness  on  either  bank  of  the  little  stream.  The  village  of  caves 
overhangs  the  right  bank.  On  the  left  bank  is  a  little  church,  of  which 
the  interior  chapel  and  altar  are  sunk  into  the  rock.  The  main  body  is 
built  out,  and  is  supported  on  stone  columns.  The  priest  informs  us 
that  the  chapel  was  built  by  the  Apostle  Thaddeus,  who  also  preached  at 
Madavantz.  However  this  may  be,  it  evidently  dates  from  a  hoary 
antiquity,  and  it  is  by  far  the  most  ancient  building  in  the  whole  district.- 
It  is  dedicated  to  the  Mother  of  God — Astvatsatsin. 

Let  me  review,  for  the  sake  of  the  reader  who  may  not  have 
leisure  to  pursue  the  excursions  which  are  embodied  in  the  above 
description,  the  results  and  impressions  of  our  visit  to  these  ruins. 
There  are  two  distinct  sites  of  cities  which  once  were  prosperous, 

^  Woodcuts  of  this  tomb  are  given  by  Layard  {op.  cit.  p.  24)  and  by  Mullei-Simonis 
{op.  cit.  p.  313). 

-   Madavantz  belongs  to  the  caza  but  not  to  the  casaba,  or  home  district,  of  Akhlat. 


294  Armenia 

but  which  now  harbour  a  mere  handful  of  miserable  human 
beings.  There  is  the  walled  fortress  on  the  shore,  a  work  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  built  by  order  of  Ottoman  Sultans.  It  is 
usually  termed  the  kala,  or  fortress  ;  while  the  more  ancient 
site  in  the  ravine  north-west  of  this  kala  is  generally  alluded 
to  as  the  kJiarab-sheJir,  or  ruined  city.  In  the  case  of  the 
Ottoman  stronghold  the  walls  and  two  mosques,  one  with  a 
fine  minaret,  are  still  erect.  But  it  is  rather  the  happy 
choice  of  situation  that  impresses  the  traveller,  than  any  special 
merit  in  the  architecture.  If  Akhlat  should  ever  recover  her 
former  position,  let  us  hope  that  the  new  city  will  grow  around 
this  site.  At  the  present  day,  even  the  seat  of  administration 
for  the  district  has  been  removed  from  the  kala  to  the  suburb  of 
Erkizan. 

Of  the  older  city  in  the  ravine  scarcely  a  remnant  remains, 
although  it  is  still  possible  to  trace  the  foundations  of  the  walls. 
On  the  other  hand,  several  of  the  mausolea  are  still  erect,  and  are 
distributed  over  a  considerable  space  of  ground.  These,  and 
extensive  graveyards,  are  the  monuments  of  that  ancient  city 
which  have  been  spared  by  the  ravages  of  war  and  the  lapse  of 
time.  Among  the  tombs,  there  is  one  of  particular  excellence, 
reproduced  in  my  illustration  (Fig.  182).  It  would  do  honour  to 
any  school  of  architecture.  It  is  one  of  the  fine  things  in  the 
world.  A  glance  at  the  illustrations  of  the  circular  chapels  of  Ani 
(Vol.  I.  Ch.  XVIII.  Figs.  85,  86,  88),  and  at  some  of  the  elaborate 
stone  traceries  of  the  Armenian  style  {ibid.  Figs.  73  and  Jj)  will 
throw  light  upon  the  source  of  the  inspiration  which  produced  it, 
or  contributed  thereto  in  the  greatest  degree.  This  and  the 
several  similar  tombs  at  Akhlat  are  all  works  of  the  latter  portion 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  A  later  and  less  pleasing  development 
is  the  tomb  of  Prince '.  Bayindar,  erected  at  an  interval  of  two 
centuries. 

But  who  was  Bayindar,  and  who  the  persons  with  the 
cacophonous  names  to  whose  memory  these  mausolea  were  built  ? 
The  East,  which  ever  opposes  the  type  to  the  individual,  leaves 
so  little  for  busy  History  to  explore.  At  a  time  when  Dante 
was  composing  the  Divine  Comedy^  and  when  the  Italian  cities 
were  commencing  to  throb  with  a  new  life  of  which  every  impulse 
is  reflected  both  in  literature  and  in  art,  architects,  whose  names 
soon  perished,  were  erecting  these  monuments  to  princes  of  whom 
the  names  alone  remain.      What  little  may  be  gleaned  from  the- 


Akhlat  295 

sources  at  my  disposal  of  the  history  of  Akhlat,  may  be  summar- 
ised in  the  following  short  account. 

The  place  is  first  known  under  the  name  of  Khlath,  and  as 
an  important  Armenian  town.  Literature  thus  confirms  the 
surmise  which  is  readily  suggested  by  the  little  chapel  in  the 
gorge  at  Madavantz.  Indeed,  one  feels  that  this  village  of  caves 
is  perhaps  the  oldest  of  these  ancient  sites,  like  the  crypt  upon 
which  in  Europe  has  risen  the  edifice  of  some  Gothic  cathedral, 
but  which  once  served  as  a  Druids'  shrine.  The  shrine  still 
remains  ;  but  the  churches  and  monasteries  have  disappeared 
which,  even  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  were 
flourishing  at  Akhlat.^  But  the  city  does  not  appear  to  have 
again  come  into  Armenian  possession  after  its  conquest  by  the 
Arabs  during  the  era  of  the  caliphs.  Its  close  vicinity  to  the 
Kurdish  mountains  and  to  the  passage  of  Bitlis  explains  the 
long  sequence  of  Mussulman  rule. 

The  Byzantine  Empire,  however,  was  successful  in  wresting  it 
from  the  Mohammedans,  but  only  for  a  short  time.  It  paid 
tribute  to  Leo  VI.,  a  successor  of  the  Caesars  (A.D.  886-911); 
and  it  was  annexed  to  the  Empire  under  Basil  the  Second  (in 
993).  But  it  fell  to  the  Seljuk  Turks  in  the  eleventh  century, 
from  whose  hands  it  passed  into  those  of  the  Merwanids,  a  line  of 
Kurdish  princes  which  had  arisen  from  the  debris  of  the  caliphate, 
and  whom  the  Seljuks  had  dispossessed  of  their  seats  about 
Diarbekr.^  The  rule  of  these  Kurds  appears  to  have  been  so 
harsh  that  they  w^ere  driven  out  by  the  inhabitants  ;  a  warrior 
of  Turkish  descent,  who  had  been  the  slave  of  the  Seljuk 
governor  of  Maraud  in  Azerbaijan,  was  called  in  as  their  Prince. 
This  individual,  by  name  Sokman,  founded  a  so-called  Seljuk 
dynasty,  which,  under  the  pompous  title  of  Shahs  of  Armenia, 
reigned  at  Akhlat  for  upwards  of  a  hundred  years  (i  100-1207).'^ 
They  were  succeeded  by  the  Ayubids,  descendants  of  the 
renowned  Saladin,  and  of  Kurdish  extraction.  The  great  siege 
of  Akhlat  by  the  Sultan  of  Kharizme  (Khwarazm)  falls  within  this 
period.  The  event  still  forms  the  centre  of  the  slight  historical 
knowledge  which    is   possessed   by   the    least    uneducated   of  the 

1  Geography,  attributed  to  Vardan  ap.  Saint  ^lartin,  JA'aioires  sur  PAniiJnh',  vol.  ii. 
p.  429.  One  of  these  monasteries  contained  the  leather  girdle  of  St.  Gregory,  and 
another  was  consecrated  Ijy  the  saint  himself. 

2  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus,  de  Adiii.  Imp.  c.  44,  in  vol.  iii.  p.  196  of  the  Bonn 
edition.  .         ^   Lane- Poole,  Mohammedan  Dynasties,  London,   1894,  p.   118. 

*  Deguignes,  Hist,  des  I/iiiis,  Paris,  1756,  vol.  i.  p.  253  ;   Lane-Poole,  op.  fit.  p.  170. 


296  Aj'mcnia 

present  inhabitants.  They  attribute  to  it  the  present  condition  of 
the  walls.  After  two  attempts  which  were  unsuccessful,  the  sultan 
made  desperate  efforts  to  reduce  this  strong  place.  Twenty  siege 
machines  were  brought  against  it  from  the  side  of  the  sea  ;  and, 
so  complete  was  the  investiture,  that  the  besieged  were  compelled 
to  kill  their  dogs  for  food.  It  was  at  last  taken  by  storm  (in 
A.D.  1229).  But  the  triumph  of  Jelal-ud-Din  was  not  of  long 
duration  ;  his  successes  aroused  the  alarm  of  the  Seljuk  sultan  of 
Iconium  ;  and  the  bloody  battle  of  Akhlat  at  once  decided  the 
fate  of  his  prize  and  sounded  the  death-knell  of  the  Kharizmian 
empire. 

The  overthrow  of  that  empire  by  the  Mongols  afforded  a 
passage  to  these  savage  hordes  towards  the  south.  They  became 
masters  of  the  city  in  1245.  We  are  informed  that  they  made  it 
over  to  a  Georgian  princess,  who  had  married  a  son  of  one  of  the 
Shahs  of  Armenia.^  To  this  period  are  due  the  mausolea  which 
we  still  admire,  and  some  of  which  appear  to  have  been  erected 
to  princes  of  Mongol  origin.  My  authorities  throw  no  light  upon 
the  point.  I  am  not  aware  that  Nughatay,  or  Hasan  Agha,  or 
the  son  of  Saughur  are  known  to  history.  They  preserve  equal 
silence  upon  the  period  which  produced  the  tomb  of  Bayindar, 
master  of  the  szvord  and  of  the  pen.  But  we  can  scarcely  doubt 
that  he  was  a  chieftain  of  the  Turkoman  horde  of  the  White 
Sheep  into  whose  possession  the  greater  part  of  the  country  had 
passed  during  the  progress  of  the  fifteenth  century."^  Akhlat  was 
incorporated  in  the  Ottoman  dominions  under  Sultan  Suleyman 
the  First  in  A.D.  1533-1534.^ 

That  the  place  continued  to  prosper  after  the  catastrophe  of 
the  great  siege  by  the  Sultan  of  Kharizme  is  attested  not  only 
by  the  monuments  which  have  been  described,  but  also  by  the 
evidence  of  books.  It  was  known  to  Abulfeda  at  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth   century  as   a   flourishing   town,  which   he   compares   to 

1   Saint  Martin,  quoting  Chamchean,  Hiit.  vol.  iii.  p.  221. 

-  Layard  {op.  at.  p.  26)  mentions  a  local  tradition  that  all  these  tombs  were  built  by 
Sultans  of  the  Ak-Kuyunli  (White  Sheep)  and  Kara-Kuyunli  (Black  Sheep)  Turkomans. 
The  inscriptions  show  that  this  cannot  be  the  case.  The  Venetian  traveller  Barbaro, 
who  visited  the  country  during  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century,  found  it  in  the 
possession  of  the  horde  of  the  Black  Sheep.  They  were  driven  out  by  the  rival  horde 
of  the  White  Sheep  under  Uzun  Hasan  (1466-1478). 

Layard  speaks  of  Bayindar  as  a  known  sultan  of  the  White  Sheep  horde,  I  know 
not  upon  what  authority. 

^  Von  Hammer,  Geschichte  dcs  osmanischen  Keiches,  vol.  iii.  p.  143.  Akhlat 
ajipears  to  have  contained  the  tombs  of  some  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Ottoman  ruling 
House  {ibid,  note  to  p.   144  on  ]).  676). 


PLAN     OF     AKHLAT 

\  out  on  the  spot    by  H.F.E.  Lynch  and  Y.  Oswald  in  18£ 
Scale    672  Yards  -  1   Inch 
or   1 :  24-.192 


■yards 


..<^' 


•"^   O  asts  ■".:■' "-i  ,\ 


io, 


fUll"^ 


THE     K ALA 

Dr  Ottoman    fortress    of  Akhlat 
Scale  224  Yards  - 1  Inch. 

^y  Tajfls 


AkJilat  297 

Damascus.  A  century  later,  it  is  described  by  Bakoui  as  one  of 
the  principal  cities  of  Armenia.  Its  decline  appears  to  date  from 
the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century,  though  the  district 
no  doubt  derived  a  certain  glamour  from  the  erection  of  the 
fortress  on  the  shore.^ 

^  The  Merchant  in  Persia  {Travels  of  Italians  in  Persia,  Ilakluyt  Society,  London, 
i873>  P-  160),  who  visited  Armenia  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
describes  it  as  follows  : — "This  Calata  {sic)  was  anciently  a  large  city,  as  can  be  seen 
by  the  buildings,  but  is  now  reduced  to  a  small  fortress." 


CHAPTER    XVII 

OUR    SOJOURN    IN    THE    CRATER    OF    NIMRUD 

July  1 6. — It  was  half-past  two  in  the  afternoon  before  our  prepara- 
tions could  be  completed,  the  pack-horses  having  already  started 
with  their  loads.  Our  orchard  looked  untidy,  in  spite  of  the  care 
which  had  been  taken  to  preserve  its  freshness  from  the  usual 
litter  of  a  camp.  Still  the  old  imam  was  profuse  of  gratitude,  his 
wizened  face  relaxing  into  a  smile  which  vexed  his  muscles  to 
produce.  Good-bye  to  our  delicious  home,  and  to  our  two  blue- 
breasted  friends  !  Their  loves  have  already  ripened,  and  their 
young  will  soon  be  fledged.  Journeys  many,  and  various  homes, 
and  different  fates  await  us — fragments  all  of  universal  matter 
and  soul.  But  when  we  sink  at  last  upon  the  lap  of  Nature,  may 
her  bosom  reward  the  constancy  of  her  own  devoted  lover  with 
the  perfume  of  the  memory  of  this  home  ! 

Our  course  was  directed  past  the  iki  kube  and  across  the 
ravine  towards  Nimrud.  Not  a  ripple  awoke  the  vivid  greens  and 
azures  of  the  lake  upon  the  pallor  of  the  surface  of  pale  turquoise. 
The  light  was  already  mellowing  as  we  approached  the  tomb  upon 
the  headland,  throwing  the  proportions  into  relief  with  delicate 
shadows,  and  enhancing  the  natural  tints  of  the  pink  volcanic 
stone  against  the  background  of  restful  blue.  Before  us,  upon  the 
horizon,  the  grassy  circle  of  the  gigantic  crater  filled  the  landscape 
of  the  west  (Fig.  185,  and  plan). 

Descending  into  the  delta,  we  forded  the  two  streams  and 
rose  up  the  opposite  cliff  side.  The  more  westerly  of  the  pair 
approaches  the  alluvial  flat  by  a  fine  cascade  over  a  ledge  of  lava. 
These  lavas  are  seen  to  have  followed  the  course  of  the  valley,  as 
it  expands  before  you  towards  the  north-west.  A  similar  feature 
was  observed   in  the   ravine  of  Madavantz.      It   proves  that   these 


Oitr  Sojourn  in  the  Crater  of  Ninirnd  299 

valleys   are  older   than   the  lava,  which  must   have   poured  down 
them  in  a  very  liquid  condition. 

From  the  high  land,  over  which  we  were  again  making,  and 
which  is  here  covered  with  pumice  sand,  we  obtained  a  view  of 
Bilejan.  But  our  attention  was  soon  diverted  by  the  picturesque 
situation  of  a  large  village  on  our  left  hand.  A  rapid  if  only 
momentary  change  in  our  surroundings  had  taken  us  by  surprise. 
It  is  due  to  a  bed  of  dark,  glassy  lava,  perhaps  an  ancient  flow 
from  Nimrud,  or  from  a  fissure  about  its  base.  A  deep  stream, 
which  is  crossed  by  a  bridge,  eats  its  way  through  the  hard  rock, 
and  descends  by  several  waterfalls  to  a  lagoon  within  the  bay. 
The  village  is  placed  at  some  little  distance  from  the  shore  of  the 
lake,  upon  a  platform  of  lava  on  the  right  bank  of  the  stream.  It 
possesses  two  small  churches,  which  are  evidently  very  old.  On 
the  outskirts,  which  we  crossed,  was  a  small  field,  planted  with 
marrows,  an  unusual  luxury  in  this  neighbourhood.  The  in- 
habitants are  all,  I  believe,  Armenians. 

But  Karmuch  and  its  black  valley,  with  the  willows  and  the 
waterfalls,  were  but  an  incident — and  the  last  incident — in  the 
scene.  An  almost  uniform  plain,  of  very  shallow  gradient, 
stretched  from  all  sides  towards  the  crater  in  the  west.  Covered 
at  first  by  pumice,  a  brown  lava  comes  to  the  surface,  and  extends 
to  the  actual  wall  of  the  circular  mass.  Dry  watercourses  seam 
the  entire  region,  which,  however,  is  so  even  in  its  general 
character,  that  it  would  almost  seem  to  have  once  been  covered, 
up  to  the  base  of  the  crater,  by  the  waters  of  the  lake.  At  first 
the  soil  is  barren,  supporting  only  some  burnt  herbage  ;  in  such 
surroundings  we  sank  to  the  trough  of  an  extensive  depression,  in 
which  is  situated  a  deserted  cemetery  of  some  size.  But  when 
the  lava  is  reached  the  vegetation  commences,  and  continues 
to  the  foot  of  the  higher  seams.  The  spangled  blossoms  of 
atraphaxis,  which  I  had  not  seen  since  my  first  journey,  were 
conspicuous,  but  only  here  and  there.  The  prevailing  flower  was 
a  large  forget-me-not,  almost  the  size  of  a  little  bush  ;  and,  later 
on,  a  wild  pea,  pink  and  white.  The  higher  we  rose  the  more 
frequent  became  patches  of  standing  corn,  though  by  whom 
planted  it  was  difficult  to  conceive.  Our  people  said  they  belonged 
to  a  distant  Armenian  village  at  the  foot  of  the  crater,  called 
Seghurt  or  Teghurt.  The  soil,  where  exposed  by  the  plough,  was 
a  rich  brown.  Small  blocks  of  obsidian,  coal-black  in  hue,  were 
scattered  over  the  o-rass.      Now  and  again  a  tortoise  waddled  over 


300  Amncnia 

the  sand.  So  we  rode  for  a  distance  of  many  miles,  until  the  wall 
of  the  crater  rose  like  a  rampart  above  our  heads.  We  had 
reached  an  elevation  of  6880  feet,  or  of  over  1000  feet  above  the 
level  of  Lake  Van. 

After  a  short  halt,  we  led  our  horses  up  the  slope,  which 
has  a  gradient  of  \2\  It  was  covered  with  grass,  and  whole 
beds  of  wild  pea.  These  sides  of  the  crater  are  seamed  with 
deep  gullies,  which  display  in  section  the  lava-flows.  The 
dark  green  obsidian  of  the  uppermost  beds  was  glittering  in  the 
sun.  A  direct  ascent  of  twenty  minutes  brought  us  to  the 
surface  of  a  natural  terrace,  at  a  height  of  7900  feet.  We  were 
surprised  to  find  a  well-used  track,  making  use  of  this  terrace  to 
reach  the  summit  of  the  circular  wall.  Less  astonishment  was 
aroused  by  the  presence  there  of  a  troop  of  cavalry  ;  they  had 
come  to  meet  us  from  their  camp  within  the  crater.  For  more 
than  a  week,  both  cavalry  and  infantry  had  been  patrolling  this 
strange  place,  in  anticipation  of  our  visit.  It  is  indeed  probable 
that,  without  these  extraordinary  precautions,  we  should  have 
found  it  impossible  to  carry  on  our  work.  That  we  were  able 
to  go  where  we  pleased,  whether  in  or  around  the  crater,  we  owe 
to  the  kindness  of  the  local  authorities,  and,  in  particular,  to  the 
late  Vali  of  Bitlis.  Our  excellent  friend,  the  Kaimakam  of 
Akhlat,  personally  accompanied  us,  and  remained  with  us  during 
our  stay. 

The  view  from  this  terrace  over  the  landscape  of  the  east  is 
one  of  the  most  inspiring  that  could  be  conceived.  The  western 
inlets  of  Lake  Van,  with  their  long  promontories  and  varied 
outline — with  the  precipitous  barrier  of  the  Kurdish  mountains 
rising  along  the  one  shore,  and  from  the  other  the  fabric  of  Sipan 
— are  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  portion  of  the  inland  sea.  They 
scarcely  figure  upon  existing  maps.  Certainly  when  you  rise 
above  them,  and  the  expanse  of  the  water  is  spread  beneath  you, 
and  Sipan  emerges  free  of  all  lesser  heights — while  as  yet  their 
essential  detail  has  not  been  lost  by  distance,  but  the  vast 
prospects,  which  they  lack,  have  been  regained — these  western 
inlets  arc  the  pride  of  the  scenery  of  Lake  Van.  The  setting 
sun  sheds  a  mellow  light  upon  the  great  volcano,  robed  in  snow, 
upon  the  white  summits  of  the  Kurdish  range,  upon  the  dim 
outline  of  Varag.  Around  the  field  of  pale  water  are  shed  a 
thousand  delicate  hues,  over  peak  and  dome,  and  buried  garden 
and  arable.      We  can  still  sec  the  lonely  tomb  upon  the  headland. 


Our  Sojourn  in  the  Crater  of  Niinrud  301 

On  the  opposite  coast  we  see  Surb,  fairest  of  little  bays  ;  the 
steep  cliffs  behind  Garzik  ;  the  arms  of  the  Sheikh  Ora  crater, 
almost  encircling  the  lake  admitted  to  its  inmost  core. 

Such  is  the  landscape — so  full  of  light  and  most  ethereal 
colour — that  has  dazzled  the  eye  during  the  ascent  of  the  rampart. 
We  ride  on,  along  the  terrace,  with  the  uppermost  slope  on  our 
right  hand.  It  has  a  gradient  of  about  \f\  and  is  largely 
covered  up  with  white  pumice  sand.  The  track  worms  its 
way  to  a  fork  in  the  outline,  which  we  reach  in  about  ten 
minutes.  It  is  just  after  six  o'clock.  The  ground  falls  away, 
and  a  scene  expands  before  us  which  Mother  Earth,  rejDentant  of 
her  orgies,  has  acted  wisely  in  surrounding  with  a  wall. 

The  whole  circumference  of  the  gigantic  circle  towers  around 
us,  the  vaulted  slopes  of  the  outer  sides  breaking  down  with 
precipitous  cliffs,  which,  in  some  places,  attain  a  height  of  over 
2000  feet  above  the  rubble  at  their  base.  The  impression  of 
height  and  steepness  is  accentuated  by  the  lighting — the  sun 
setting  behind  the  crater.  The  same  circumstance  increases  the 
weirdness  of  the  vast  spaces  of  the  interior,  with  their  multitude 
of  chaotic  forms.  Flatness  is  the  prevailing  characteristic  of  the 
bottom  of  the  basin — but  the  surface  has  been  blown  out  by 
subterranean  explosions,  or  sunk  into  deep  pits,  or  flooded  with 
viscous  lavas,  oozing  up,  and  cooling  into  comb-shaped  crags. 
Here  it  is  a  shapeless  hill  covered  with  white  volcanic  dust ;  there 
a  lava  stream,  resembling  rocks  from,  which  the  tide  has  receded, 
that  compels  a  large  circuit  from  point  to  point.  The  coarse 
herbage  has  already  been  burnt  by  the  sun,  and  its  hues  assimilated 
to  the  volcanic  sand.  These  ragged  yellows  intermingle  with  the 
sombre  lavas  ;  and  the  only  touch  of  beauty  in  this  hell  of  Nature 
is  a  little  piece  of  blue  at  its  furthest  side.  It  is  just  a  glimpse 
that  we  obtain  of  the  principal  lake. 

But  what  is  the  meaning  of  these  many  paths  which  scam  the 
interior,  arguing  a  considerable  traffic  to  and  fro.  Are  there 
villages  in  the  crater  ?  We  have  never  heard  of  any  ;  we  are 
assured  that  none  exist.  Not  a  fire,  no  light  is  anywhere  visible  ; 
but  the  tracks  are  broad,  and  have  all  the  appearance  of  being 
regularly  used.  We  feel  surprise  and  express  it  to  the  Kaimakam. 
He  answers  naively  that  Kurds  come  here  now  and  then. 

After  a  short  halt,  the  whole  party  defiles  down  the  narrow 
path — zaptiehs,  cavalry,  a  detachment  of  infantry.  Looking 
backwards,    it    is    a    long,    thin    line    from    base    to    summit,    the 


?02 


Armenia 


number  of  horses  making  an  imposing  array.  Arrived  at  the 
foot  of  the  wall,  we  skirt  the  cliff  for  some  distance  in  a  north- 
westerly direction.  It  is  our  object  to  find  some  shade  for  our 
camp.  But  in  this  search  we  become  involved  in  some  deep 
ravines,  covered  with  groves  of  aspen  and  birch.  Juniper  conceals 
the  hollows  in  the  rocky  surface,  and  adds  to  our  difficulties  in 
the  failing  light.  None  of  the  trees  are  of  sufficient  height  for 
our  purpose  ;  and  the  Kaimakam  entreats  us  to  avoid  these 
wooded  ravines,  which  are,  he  says,  the  favourite  haunt  of  bears. 
They  descend  to  the  shore  of  the  warm  lake.      At  last  we  espy  a 


Fig.  186.    The  Lake  in  the  Crater  of  Nimrud. 

clearing,  a  kind  of  platform,  free  of  brushwood,  yet  close  to  the 
aspen  groves.  It  overlooks,  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  it, 
the  mirror  of  a  fresh-water  lake.  The  peaceful  water  fills  the 
whole  western  segment  of  the  crater.  Great,  black  masses  in  the 
heights  about  us  intensify  the  darkness  ;  they  are  composed  of 
obsidian,  pure,  and  black  as  jet.  On  a  tiny  promontory  of  the 
opposite  shore  a  shepherd's  fire  starts  from  the  shadows.  Failing 
shade,  it  is  just  the  site  for  an  encampment,  and  here  we  erect 
our  tents  (Fig.  i86). 

The  morning  breaks  serene  and  clear ;  we  have  slept,  as 
usual,  with  our  tent  open  upon  one  side.  It  has  been  chilly 
during  the  night  ;  but  the  temperature  rises  with  great  rapidity 
as  the  sun  mounts  above  the  rim  of  the  crater.  A  charming 
landscape    is    framed    within    the    opening   of  the   green    canvas, 


Otir  Soj02irn  in  the  Crater  of  Nimrud 


o^j 


receiving  the  mellow  light  from  behind.  Beyond  the  foreground 
of  quivering  aspens  and  white-stemmed,  tremulous  birches,  the 
eye  rests  upon  the  transparent  surface  of  the  lake.  The  opposite 
segment  of  the  circle  of  cliffs  is  mirrored  in  the  water  with  all 
the  wealth  of  detail  which  they  possess.  Where  these  images 
cease,  the  surface  is  blue,  like  any  other  lake  in  the  recesses  of 
the  mountains.  We  miss  the  changing  effects  and  splendour  of 
colour,  characteristic  of  the  lake  of  Van. 

We  descend  through  the  groves  to  the  margin  of  the  water, 
to  take  our  morning's  bathe.  The  declivity  is  pretty  steep,  and 
there  is  a  difference  of  level  of  300  feet  between  our  camp  and 
the  lake.  The  wood  is  still  cool  and  fresh.  Tall  stalks  of 
flowering  yellow  mullein  rise  within  it ;  and  the  prevailing  green- 
ness is  relieved  by  patches  of  pink  from  the  rosebay  willow-herb, 
or  of  pale  salmon  from  clusters  of  poppies.  It  seems  quite  a 
nursery  for  a  variety  of  insects,  this  crater  of  Ximrud.  Last 
evening,  as  we  arrived,  the  bushes  were  dotted  with  sleeping 
butterflies,  reminding  us  of  the  appearance  of  those  shreds  of 
coloured  cotton  which  are  affixed  by  devout  pilgrims  to  the  shrubs 
round  their  sacred  place.  This  morning  the  air  is  all  hum  and 
bright  wings  ;  we  notice  the  swallow-tail  in  abundance,  the 
marbled  white,  some  clouded  yellows,  a  multitude  of  fritillaries, 
a  few  tortoiseshells. 

The  water  is  pure  as  crystal  ;  but  it  feels  cold,  having  a 
temperature  of  64°  Fahrenheit.  To  the  taste  it  scarcely  differs 
from  ordinary  water,  although  we  thought  it  was  at  once  more 
pleasant  and  more  bracing  to  the  skin.  It  is  evidently  increasing 
in  level.  Many  of  the  trees  along  its  margin  are  submerged. 
We  saw  no  fish,  only  some  small  leeches  and  fresh -water 
shrimps. 

If  only  one  had  a  boat,  and  could  take  soundings,  and  could 
cross  to  the  opposite  shore !  It  is  probably  very  deep.  The 
walls  of  the  crater  are  so  precipitous,  that  one  cannot  walk  along 
their  base.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  reach  their  summit,  except  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  great  circle,  in  which  we  occupy  a  fairly 
central  position.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  make  a  very  long 
detour  when  we  wish  to  visit  any  point  on  the  west  of  the 
crater. 

From  our  platform  we  see  the  worn  tracks  in  all  directions. 
Yet  not  a  single  Kurdish  tent,  no  shepherd,  no  wayfarer  can  we 
descry  in  the  wide  landscape  of  the  volcanic  basin.      We  observe 


304  Armenia 

paved  holes  in  the  ground,  where  it  is  evident  that  bread  has 
recently  been  baked.  There  are  stone  enclosures  for  penning 
cattle.  More  and  more  clearly  we  realise  that  the  crater  must 
be  inhabited,  and  that  this  floating  population  have  decamped  at 
the  approach  of  the  soldiers.  They  will  return  the  moment  their 
backs  are  turned.  Indeed  the  place  has  the  worst  reputation  as  a 
harbour  of  lawlessness  ;  and  the  Turkish  Government  might  well 
have  disclaimed  responsibility  for  our  safety  in  a  spot  so  remote 
and  wild.      They  deserve  our  gratitude  for  what  they  have  done. 

Have  all  quarry  left  the  haunts  of  the  great  hunter,  whose 
name  is  attached  to  one  of  the  most  remarkable  among  the 
mountains  of  the  world  ?  One  of  our  party  is  prepared  to  swear 
that  he  saw  two  bears  in  the  dusk  of  evening  ;  they  trotted  away 
at  his  approach.  And  indeed,  one  night,  I  myself  was  awakened 
by  something  rummaging  between  the  outer  and  the  inner  roofs 
of  our  tent.  There  are  no  dogs  here  ;  was  it  a  bear  ?  I  rose, 
but  could  discover  nothing — only  the  fact  that  our  sentries  were 
in  a  dead  sleep.  At  nightfall  our  escort  light  extensive  bonfires, 
and  sing  the  wailing  love-songs  of  the  East.  At  intervals  the 
bugle  sounds  ;  then  there  rises  a  loud  cheer.  The  bugle,  the 
cheers,  the  leaping  flames,  the  tremulous  chantings — even  our 
watchmen  are  not  proof  against  the  contrast  with  such  excitement 
of  the  heavy  stillness  of  the  midnight  hours.  And  perhaps  the 
bears  have  joined  the  brigands  in  taking  to  flight. 

For  eight  whole  days  we  remained  upon  the  mountain,  busily 
employed  in  examining  the  crater  and  its  surroundings,  and  in 
making  a  careful  plan.  We  had  been  joined  by  Captain  Elliot 
and  Mr.  Monahan,  Her  Majesty's  Consuls  respectively  at  Van 
and  Bitlis.  Captain  Elliot  was  desirous  of  making  use  of  this 
favourable  occasion  in  order  to  study  Nimrud.  He  gave  us  most 
valuable  assistance  in  measuring  the  crater  ;  and  while  he  and 
Oswald  were  engaged  with  our  telemeter  within  the  basin,  I  was 
reading  with  the  prismatic  compass  from  one  point  to  another 
along  the  summit  of  the  cliffs.  By  the  time  their  labours  were 
completed,  I  had  prepared  a  drawing  of  the  interior,  as  well  as  of 
some  of  the  features  of  the  crater  walls.^ 

1  The  accuracy  of  the  results  obtained  with  our  .Steward  telemeter  was  well  tested 
on  Nimrud  by  these  cross-readings  from  salient  points  along  the  edge  of  the  crater. 
The  principal  credit,  however,  for  the  excellent  measurements,  taken  under  great  diffi- 
culties, owing  to  the  uneven  surface  of  the  ground,  is  due  to  Captain  Elliot,  who  was 
ably  seconded  by  Mr.  Oswald. 


INTERIOR      OF    THE      NIMRUD     CRATER 

asui-id  and   m;ii'lu-il    l.y   H.FH    l.yiu-U    and    Y   It^wixiii    in   .luly   ib 

Sralo    I  Mile    -    1  Inch    or    I :  G3.3G0 


I     av/' ">■"''"'■/>' 


Otiv  Sojourn  in  the  Crater  of  Niviriui  305 

In  delicious  air,  under  a  warm  sun,  yet  always  tempered  by 
a  cool  breeze,  my  portion  of  the  task  was  a  pure  pleasure.  On 
the  other  hand,  my  companions  looked  fatigued  in  the  evening. 
When  my  turn  came  for  work  inside  the  crater,  I  readily  under- 
stood the  cause.  From  noon  to  three  o'clock  the  conditions  were 
most  exhausting.  The  sun  flamed  above  our  heads,  and  the 
rock  reverberated  under  our  feet.  Refreshment  came  when  the 
wind  rose,  but  it  was  in  the  nature  of  a  strong  draught.  On  one 
occasion  I  let  fall  a  lighted  match  by  accident  ;  it  set  fire  to  a 
whole  side  of  the  central  hill.  Our  people  and  the  soldiers  cut 
down  branches  and  made  arbours  ;  but,  even  so,  they  suffered 
during  the  heat  of  the  day.  Our  cook  implored  me  to  move 
camp,  and  not  deprive  his  wife  and  children  of  their  sole  support. 
If  only  the  floating  population  of  the  place  would  allow  the  little 
trees  to  grow  into  wood  !  But  they  need  firing  more  than  shade. 
The  shade  temperature  was  never  excessive — some  80°  to  85°. 
And  the  nights  were  cool,  necessitating  a  double  blanket.  When 
we  arrived,  there  still  remained  a  patch  or  two  of  last  winter's 
snow  within  the  wide  area  of  the  interior. 

The  commanding  position,  the  imposing  dimensions,  the 
remarkable  preservation  of  the  Nimrud  crater  cannot  fail  to 
arouse  the  curiosity  of  the  traveller,  as  he  sees  it  from  afar  or 
passes  it  by.  In  summer  it  is  a  circle  of  grassy  cliffs  with  a 
vaulted  outline ;  during  winter  and  autumn,  when  the  higher 
levels  are  early  robed  in  snow,  it  is  a  startling  presence  against 
the  sky  (see  Fig.  145,  p.  142).  From  any  point  you  command  but 
a  small  portion  of  the  vast  circumference,  which,  measured  upon 
our  plan,  amounts  to  14^  miles.  Of  unequal  height,  the  edge  of 
the  basin  is  most  elevated  upon  the  north,  where  at  two  points  it 
attains  an  altitude  of  nearly  10,000  feet.  It  is  lowest  upon  the 
east  and  west  ;  in  either  quarter  the  outline  dips  to  a  level  of 
8100  feet.  But  the  circle  is  nowhere  broken;  the  rim  of  the 
caldron  remains  intact,  although  worn  down  and,  in  places, 
chipped.  With  two  great  depressions  on  either  side,  the  lake 
of  Van  (5600  feet)  and  the  plain  of  Mush  (4200  feet),  such  a 
presence  fills  the  landscape  and  engrosses  the  eye. 

Nor  is  the  imagination  disappointed  when  the  interior  of  the 
crater  is  seen  for  the  first  time.  I  have  already  described  the 
impression  which  that  view  produced  upon  us,  entering  it  from 
the  east.  The  lake  fills  almost  the  whole  of  the  western  half  of 
its  area,  at  a  level  of  7656  feet.  The  remaining  portion  consists 
VOL,  II  X 


o 


06  Armenia 


of  older  lava  streams,  covered  with  pumice,  and  of  some  more 
recent,  which  bristle  with  sharp  crags.  The  eastern  shore  of  the 
lake  is  deeply  indented,  and  the  volcanic  matter  has  cooled  in 
the  form  of  high  banks.  The  figure  described  by  the  walls  of 
the  crater  is  almost  exactly  circular,  the  diameter  being  greatest 
along  an  east-north-east  line,  or  between  the  fork,  where  we  first 
entered  the  basin,  and  the  passage  in  on  the  west  (c  and 
m  on  plan).  The  distance  between  these  points  is  nearly 
5  miles  (8500  yards).  Nimrud  is  therefore  one  of  the  largest 
perfect  craters  in  the  world.^  The  period  during  which  it 
seethed  with  a  lake  of  molten  matter,  which  overflowed  into  the 
lower  levels  on  every  side,  must  date  far  beyond  the  limits  of 
history.  At  the  present  day  not  a  wreath  of  smoke  ascends  from 
the  volcano  ;  though  at  times  a  little  landslip  sends  the  fine  sand 
into  the  air,  with  much  the  same  appearance  as  a  cloud. 

But  the  student  of  volcanic  phenomena  could  not  select  a 
better  example  of  the  successive  stages  of  eruptive  activity.  In 
an  earlier  stage  we  must  suppose  the  walls  of  the  crater  some- 
what higher,  and  the  area  considerably  narrower  which  they 
enclosed.  The  earliest  lavas,  in  the  case  of  Nimrud,  were  of  an 
acid  and  viscous  description  (rhyolitic  augite-andesites)  ;  and,  as 
often  as  they  rose  above  the  lip  of  the  caldron,  they  did  not 
flow  very  far.  But  the  later  basaltic  lavas  had  a  larger 
extension  ;  and  to  them  is  due,  in  no  small  measure,  the  plateau 
on  the  east  of  Tadvan,  which  acts  as  a  dam  to  the  lake  of  Van. 
The  molten  lava  surged  against  the  precipices  which  confined  it, 
and  gradually  wore  them  back.  The  work  of  enlargement  was 
advanced  by  violent  explosions,  which  were  principally  directed 
against  the  western  and  eastern  sides  of  the  volcanic  basin.  The 
uppermost  and  steepest  portions  of  the  wall  were,  on  these  two 
sides,  completely  blown  away.  This  epoch  in  the  life  of  the 
volcano,  the  storm  and  stress  of  a  tumultuous  youth,  was  followed 
by  the  gradual  subsidence  of  its  energies.  The  streams  of  lava 
were  confined  to  the  interior  of  the  crater,  and  the  deeper 
portion  came  to  be  covered  with  a  lake.      It  was  perhaps  at  this 

1  Among  craters  similar  in  character  to  Nimrud  the  best  comparison  would  seem  to 
be  afforded  by  the  Crater  Lake  of  Oregon  (Cascade  range).  The  average  diameter  of 
this  crater  is  a  little  more  than  5^  miles,  and  while  the  inner  slopes  around  the  lake  are 
precipitous,  those  facing  outwards  to  the  platform  upon  which  the  crater  is  reared  are 
gentle.  The  highest  point  is  8200  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  lake  has  a  depth  of  2000 
feet  (see  J.  S.  Diller,  American  Joiinial  of  Science,  1897,  p.  165).  The  well-known 
craters  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  are  much  smaller  than  Nimrud,  the  largest,  Kilauea, 
having  a  maximum  diameter  of  2^  miles. 


Our  Sojourn  in  the  Crater  of  Ninirud  ^O"] 

period  that  were  produced  the  little  craters  which  figure  on  the 
outer  slopes  of  the  principal  caldron,  roughly  along  meridional 
lines.  Such  minor  points  of  emission  were  also  formed  within 
that  caldron,  and  from  them  proceeded  some  of  the  older  flows 
which  cover  its  floor.  Explosions  again  occurred  ;  but  their 
effects  were  only  local.  They  blew  away  portions  of  the  little 
craters,  and  sent  up  showers  of  dust,  which,  falling  to  the  ground, 
cloaked  the  surface  of  the  lava  streams.  The  latest  and 
moribund  stage  is  represented  by  those  bosses  of  lava  which  form 
such  a  conspicuous  feature.  The  viscous  matter  welled  up  along 
old  lines  of  weakness,  and  from  the  chimneys  of  the  little  craters. 
One  of  these  bosses  divides  a  small  warm  lake  from  the  main 
sheet  of  water  ;  others  form  little  peninsulas  in  the  principal  lake 
(C,  D,  E).  They  have  all  the  appearance  of  being  fairly  recent, 
and  they  are  not  yet  overgrown  with  wood.  Finally  one  may 
mention  some  extensive  flows  of  cinder,  about  the  base  of  the 
little  crater  on  the  outside  of  the  mountain,  on  the  north  of  the 
circle  of  cliffs.      They  might  have  issued  a  few  months  ago. 

To  these  various  manifestations  of  the  expiring  forces  of  the 
volcano  is  due  the  present  weird  and  troubled  aspect  of  the 
interior,  which  formed  the  basis  of  our  first  impression.  The 
little  wood  is  confined  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lake  ;  the 
remaining  portion  is  barren  and  rugged.  A  high  hill,  covered 
with  pumice,  and  about  in  the  centre  of  this  region,  affords  an 
admirable  standpoint  from  which  to  survey  the  whole  (L  on 
plan).  The  little  lakes  which  figure  on  the  plan  are  due  to  the 
melting  snows.  I  doubt  whether  you  would  find  a  spring  of 
good,  fresh  water  ;  we  all  drank  the  water  of  the  lake.  The  warm 
lake  is  situated  beneath  the  escarpment  of  the  wall  on  the  north, 
and  is  almost  contiguous  with  the  principal  sheet  of  water  (A). 
Its  level  is  about  the  same.  But  it  differs  from  the  other 
lagoons  in  respect  of  its  colour,  which,  owing  to  the  abundance 
of  vegetation  in  its  vicinity,  is  a  yellow -green,  resembling  an 
English  village  pool.  It  is  said  to  possess  healing  properties  ; 
but  this  I  should  be  inclined  to  doubt.  Oswald,  who  waded 
about  with  unflagging  curiosity,  hunted  out  the  several  emissions 
of  bubbles.  Their  intermittent  nature  reminded  us  of  similar 
phenomena  in  the  shallows  of  Lake  Van.  Perhaps  the  gas  is 
merely  due  to  decaying  vegetable  matter  upon  the  bottom,  and 
the  temperature  principally  to  the  powerful  effect  of  the  sun's 
rays.      The  water  in  this  lake,  as  in  the  big  one,  is  rising  in  level, 


o 


08  Armenia 


a  fact  which  is  probably  due  to  the  increased  action  of  mineral 
springs.      It  is  flat  and  mawkish  to  the  taste. 

I  should  say  that  it  might  be  possible  to  ride  round  the  edge 
of  the  crater  within  a  space  of  seven  or  eight  hours.  But  the 
outline  is  so  uneven,  and  the  ground  in  places  so  difficult,  that,  at 
the  best,  it  would  prove  a  very  hard  day's  work.  We  devoted 
considerable  portions  of  several  days  to  making  the  circuit,  re- 
visiting certain  of  the  most  important  points.  The  ride  is  so 
remarkable,  that  I  propose  to  follow  it  in  some  detail.  The 
changing  scenes  which  you  overlook  from  a  moderate  height,  from 
choice  positions,  among  immediate  surroundings  of  the  grandest 
order,  are  nothing  less  than  the  geography  of  this  part  of  Asia, 
outspread  before  you  beyond  the  skill  of  maps. 

The  large  feature,  the  leading  motive  of  the  immense  land- 
scape is  the  likeness,  and  yet  the  contrast,  between  the  two  great 
depressions  on  the  west  and  east  of  the  lofty  stage  upon  which 
you  stand.  Both  are  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  long  barrier 
of  the  Kurdish  mountains  ;  both  oppose  to  that  deep  belt  of 
serried  ridges  expanses  of  perfectly  even  surface.  But,  while  the 
one  dazzles  the  eye  with  its  splendour  of  outline  and  brilliance  of 
colouring,  the  other  is  always  dim,  grey,  vague,  and  unseizable. 
Neither  view  is  ever  lost  for  very  long.  Even  while  you  are  in 
possession  of  the  long  perspective  of  the  plain  of  Mush,  stretching 
to  the  horizon  with  a  wealth  of  subdued  detail,  like  the  nave  of 
some  great  cathedral  in  the  West,  between  the  crags  in  the 
opposite  quarter,  through  some  fork  in  the  outline,  the  blue  lake, 
the  point  of  a  promontory,  a  glimpse  of  Sipan  may  still  be  seen. 

Let  us  start  from  the  point  at  which  we  entered  the  crater,  from  a 
level  of  8150  feet  (c  on  plan).  It  will  be  early  in  the  morning,  when 
the  sky  is  flaked  with  cloud — beds  of  vapour,  grey  and  white,  scarcely 
concealing  the  field  of  blue,  and  unmoved  by  a  breath  of  wind.  Proceed- 
ing northwards  along  the  wall  of  the  crater,  we  rapidly  ascend.  Our 
horses'  hoofs  sink  in  the  powdery  pumice  sand,  which  is  held  together  in 
places  by  bushes  of  flowering  spircea,  and  by  tufts  of  grass,  among  which  a 
small  species  of  campanula  hangs  its  pretty  little  violet  bells.  The  pumice 
tells  the  story  of  the  violent  explosions  to  which  the  present  aspect  of  the 
crater  is  due.  They  have  enlarged  the  circumference  of  the  walls  of  the 
basin  ;  and  their  effect  is  clearly  visible  from  the  interior  as  one  looks  to 
the  side  of  the  wall  up  the  edge  of  which  we  now  ride.  Whereas  the  beds 
of  lava  on  the  north  and  south  walls,  which  are  the  most  lofty,  are  seen  in 
section  as  perfectly  horizontal  sheets,  on  this  north-eastern  wall,  as  well  as 
upon  the  face  of  the  corresponding  cliff  on  the  west,  they  have  a  down- 
ward slope.      It  is  obvious  that  all  the  layers  at  the  time  of  emission  must 


Our  Sojoitrn  in  the  Crater  of  Ninirud.  309 

have  been  horizontal  around  the  original  crater  rim ;  and  the  pronounced 
obliquity  of  the  beds  on  the  western  and  eastern  sides  is  due  to  their  being 
exposed  by  explosive  agency  at  a  point  where  they  had  commenced  to 
descend  to  the  surrounding  plains.  The  underlying  lava  is  of  the  usual 
description,  a  rhyolitic  andesite  with  a  thin  selvage,  or  upper  surface,  of 
obsidian,  which  shines  like  jet  in  the  sun.  The  basaltic  lavas,  with  their 
cloak  of  pumice,  ease  the  gradient  of  the  slope  towards  the  plain  in  the 
direction  of  Akhlat ;  but  the  explosion  has  produced  a  steepness  up  which 
the  horses  are  obliged  to  zigzag,  in  making  north,  along  the  edge  of  the 
cliff.  A  turn  outwards  discloses  the  harmony  of  the  landscape  of  Lake 
Van ;  a  turn  inwards  the  mystery  of  the  scene  within  the  crater.  The 
higher  we  rise,  the  more  abruptly  the  outer  slope  of  the  wall  sinks  to  the 
plains  about  its  base.  The  pumice  disappears  ;  the  lava  gets  the  upper 
hand.  After  a  climb  of  some  duration,  we  reach  the  summit  of  the  wall 
on  the  north,  at  a  point  which  is  almost  immediately  above  the  hot  lake 
(b).  Our  elevation  is  now  9750  feet;  and  this  lofty  level  is  continued, 
with  little  intermission,  for  some  distance  towards  the  west. 

The  greatest  eminence  of  the  cliff  stands  back  from  the  lip  of  the 
crater,  say  at  an  interval  of  80  yards  from  the  point  described.  Here, 
among  huge  blocks  of  reddish-brown  rock,  I  take  the  boiling-point.  The 
mean  of  this  reading  with  another,  registered  on  a  subsequent  day,  gives  a 
result  of  9900  feet.  We  are  therefore  standing  on  the  highest  pinnacle 
of  the  whole  circumference.  Pinnacle  and  slope  are  free  of  snow  ;  but 
snow  would  lie  at  this  season  were  it  not  for  the  steepness  of  the  slope  of 
lava.  The  lava  does  not  appear  to  have  extended  much  beyond  the  foot 
of  the  immensely  lofty  crater  wall.  Beyond  some  broad-shouldered 
bastions,  we  look  down  into  the  plain  south  of  Lake  Nazik ;  we  range  the 
shores  of  that  lonely  lagoon.  Not  a  tree  can  be  discerned  in  that  wide 
landscape  ;  no  strip  of  verdure  fringes  the  margin  of  the  blue  water ; 
scarcely  a  patch  of  cultivation  features  the  plain.  The  block  of  limestone 
hills  between  us  and  the  dome  of  Sipan,  forming  the  coast  of  Lake  Van, 
recess  away  behind  Akhlat  towards  Lake  Nazik ;  and,  from  this  height, 
one  might  suppose  that  the  level  of  the  plain  below  us  were  continued  to 
the  borders  of  the  inland  sea.  The  conspicuous  mountain,  besides  Sipan, 
is  the  rugged  mass  of  Bilejan,  rising  to  a  sharp-edged  ridge.  The  outlines 
in  the  north,  Khamur  and  Bingol,  remained  misty  during  the  whole  of  our 
stay.  But  the  delicate  bedding  of  cloud,  which  may  collect  towards 
morning,  soon  gives  way,  as  the  day  advances,  to  a  sky  of  the  purest  blue. 

West  of  this  position,  the  rim  of  the  crater  flattens,  although  its 
immediate  edge  is  much  broken,  apparently  by  earthquakes,  the  fissures 
in  the  surface  of  rock  necessitating  detours  outward,  towards  the  lower 
levels.  We  are  approaching  the  little  crater  on  the  outside  of  Nimrud, 
of  which  mention  has  already  been  made.  The  wall  still  maintains  its 
considerable  altitude,  the  height  of  an  eminence  of  huge  boulders,  by 
which  we  pass,  being  again  9750  feet.  The  little  crater  is  situated  at 
some  distance  north  of  the  main  basin,  but  before  the  ground  falls  away 
to  the  plain.  Indeed  we  are  now  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  extensive 
flows  of  basaltic  lava  which  are  such  a  feature  on  the  north-west  side  of 


310  Armenia 

the  great  crater.  Such  is  the  insignificance  of  the  object  for  which  we  are 
making,  that  it  might  well  pass  unobserved  from  the  edge  of  the  cliff. 
But  the  curiosity  is  aroused  by  a  long,  low  ridge,  like  a  volcanic  dike, 
which,  commencing  almost  at  that  edge,  is  produced  at  right  angles,  in 
the  direction  of  the  plain.  Realising  the  feature,  one  observes  that  the 
field  of  lava  on  the  margin  of  the  cliff  is  raised  up  into  a  saddle  along  a 
meridional  line.  A  little  further  northwards,  and  at  a  lower  level,  pasty 
rhyolitic  lavas  have  oozed  up  from  long,  narrow  fissures  along  the  eastern 
base  of  the  ridge.  At  its  extreme  end  there  is  a  mass  of  the  same  lava ; 
and  at  that  point  the  ground  breaks  away  towards  the  lower  region. 

Slanting  off  from  the  edge  of  the  cliff  in  a  north -north- westerly 
direction,  we  reach  the  eastern  base  of  the  low  ridge.  It  is  flanked  on 
this  side  by  deep  fissures  in  the  surface  of  the  ground — gloomy  chasms, 
partially  filled  with  perpetual  snow.  Towards  their  upper  or  southernmost 
end  there  is  a  small  circular  pit,  from  which  protrudes  a  boss  of  rhyolitic 
lava.  A  little  lower  down  the  several  fissures  combine,  and  form  a  long 
trough.  This  trough  has  been  partially  filled  with  a  mass  of  lava,  which 
stands  up  with  rugged  crags.  From  the  base  of  this  lava  an  extensive 
flow  of  cinders  blackens  the  ground  for  a  considerable  distance  towards 
north-east.  The  trough  or  principal  fissure  again  splits  up  into  minor 
cracks,  as  it  reaches  the  elevated  platform  of  the  terminal  crater. 

In  a  manner  exactly  similar  to  the  upwelling  of  lava  within  the  fissure, 
the  little  crater  has  been  filled  up  with  the  same  pasty  matter.  This 
forms  the  mass  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  meridional  ridge.  The  walls 
of  the  basin  are  beautifully  modelled,  the  shape  being  preserved  by  a 
pavement  of  basaltic  lava.  The  pool  of  rhyolitic  lava  is,  of  course,  a 
much  later  feature.  Like  the  same  phenomena  in  the  interior  of  the 
great  crater,  which  are  all  due  to  the  expiring  forces  of  Nimrud,  the 
appearance  of  the  mass  is  that  of  a  boss.  One  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed 
with  the  contrast  which  is  presented  between  the  smooth  and  rounded 
sides  of  this  almost  circular  basin,  and  the  monstrous  pile  which  has  arisen 
in  their  midst. 

We  cross  to  the  further  or  western  side  of  the  terminal  crater, 
observing  that  its  walls  are  fractured  by  the  lava  on  the  north  and  south. 
We  descend  to  another  flow  of  cinders.  Hard  by  is  a  little  Kurdish  yaila, 
at  the  foot  of  an  extensive  patch  of  snow.  We  enquire  whether  they  can 
tell  us  when  these  cinders  were  emitted  ;  for  they  might  have  issued  a 
year  ago.  They  answer  that  they  have  always  known  them  there. 
Leaving  the  hollows,  we  regain  the  neighbourhood  of  the  cliff,  which  is 
bordered,  in  this  quarter,  by  a  broad  field  of  basaltic  lava. 

We  make  our  way  over  this  field,  in  a  south-south-westerly  direction, 
towards  an  eminence  of  the  crater  wall  on  its  westerly  side.  A  conical 
hump  rises  from  the  lava  at  no  great  distance  from  the  edge  of  the 
caldron,  and  forms  a  conspicuous  landmark,  as  well  from  the  interior 
as  from  the  summit  of  the  cliffs  (o).  The  field  is  extremely  even,  being 
composed  of  a  pavement  which  suggests  the  appearance  of  a  military  road, 
fallen  into  disuse.  This  characteristic  is,  of  course,  due  to  the  columnar 
lava.       In    places    this    even    surface    is    overlaid    with    cindery    blocks. 


Oitr  Sojourn  in  the  Crater  of  Ninirud  3 1 1 

Patches  of  grass  occur,  from  which  the  snow  has  just  melted  ;  these  will 
be  browsed  by  a  dark  flock  with  their  Kurdish  shepherd.  At  first  the 
direction  of  flow  which  was  followed  by  the  lava  is  towards  the  region  we 
are  leaving  behind  :  but  a  little  further  on  it  inclines  towards  the  plain  of 
Mush.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  conical  eminence  we  come  across 
some  blocks  of  obsidian,  which  are  probably  due  to  the  last  violent 
explosion. 

From  the  summit  of  our  landmark  all  these  features  become  clear  ; 
we  overlook  these  extensive  fields  of  basalt.  Judging  from  the  manner  in 
which  they  have  flowed,  it  would,  at  least,  appear  probable  that  at  one 
time  in  the  history  of  the  volcano  the  wall  was  extremely  high  on  the  side 
of  the  plain  of  Mush.  Indeed  one  is  surprised  at  the  limited  amount  of 
matter  which  has  been  outpoured  in  the  direction  of  that  great  depression. 
The  conclusion  is  suggested  that  the  explosion  which  produced  the  lake 
blew  away  the  upper  portion  of  the  wall  on  the  west.  This  conical 
eminence  marks  an  independent  point  of  emission,  which  vomited  lava 
after  the  wall  had  been  thus  reduced.  The  flows  are  seen  to  have 
branched  out  in  all  directions,  even  towards  the  present  edge  of  the  crater. 

This  eminence  is  the  second  conspicuous  pinnacle  of  the  circle,  as 
seen  from  immense  distances  in  the  northerly  regions.  We  can  see  the 
two  summits  of  the  Bingol  rampart,  while  Bilejan  is  fully  exposed.  The 
long  perspective  of  the  plain  of  Mush  is  outspread  before  us,  flanked  on 
the  south  side  by  the  base  of  the  Kurdish  mountains,  and,  on  the  other, 
by  a  line  of  heights  which  recall  the  appearance  of  the  block  of  limestones 
between  the  plain  of  Melazkert  and  the  lake  of  Van.  To  that  broad  belt 
of  heights  the  lavas  descend  with  precipitous  escarpments,  and  also  to  the 
plain.  The  dim  surface  of  the  level  ground  is  seamed  with  rivulets, 
which,  towards  evening,  flash  in  the  light.  Sheets  of  light  in  the  distance 
represent  the  course  of  the  Murad,  after  it  has  entered  the  plain.  The 
head  of  the  depression  is  remarkable  for  a  pronounced  terrace  along  the 
foot  of  the  heights,  perhaps  denoting  the  level  of  a  former  lake.'^ 

From  this  pinnacle,  which  has  an  altitude  of  9676  feet,  we  arrive,  by 
a  rapid  descent,  at  the  fork  in  the  outline  which  corresponds  to  the  dip 
in  the  opposite  wall  on  the  east,  whence  we  started  on  our  ride.  The 
elevation  of  this  fork  is  almost  exactly  the  same,  8140  feet.  We  are  here 
on  the  longest  axis  of  the  circular  ellipse  (c-m).  A  path  enters  the 
crater  from  the  direction  of  the  plain  of  Mush,  and  debouches  on  to  a 
little  promontory  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs,  the  only  projection  from  their 
abrupt  sides.  The  promontory,  which  is  covered  with  scrub,  is  probably 
due  to  a  local  flow  of  lava ;  a  few  little  islands  are  placed  at  its  extremity. 
It  would  not  be  possible  to  make  use  of  this  entrance  to  reach  the  high 
ground  on  the  east  of  the  lake,  owing  to  the  steepness  of  the  walls  on 
either  side  and  the  absence  of  any  beach.  The  outline  again  rises  on  the 
south  of  this  passage,  although  the  outward  slope  is  fairly  well  rounded. 
But  after  crossing  some  bold  cliffs,  over  ground  flooded  with  tuff", 
you  sink  for  the  second  time  to  a  considerable  hollow  (i-k,  alt.  8700 
feet).  This  depression  on  the  south-western  side  of  the  crater  wall  is 
1  Or  it  may  merely  represent  the  terminal  walls  of  lava  streams. 


3 1 2  Ar7nenia 

remarkable  for  a  somewhat  singular  phenomenon.  From  the  edge  of  the 
crater  you  overlook  a  grassy  terrace,  some  one  hundred  feet  down  the 
cliff-side.  The  slope  of  this  step-like  prominence  is  inclined  upwards 
from  the  face  of  the  cliff,  so  that  the  edge  of  the  terrace  is  not  much 
lower  than  the  edge  of  the  crater.  It  is  probable  that  it  represents  a 
piece  of  the  crater  wall  which  has  slipped  down  into  the  lake.  Along 
the  middle  of  the  terrace  runs  a  ridge  of  lava,  about  parallel  to  the  cliff. 
We  have  already  passed  several  of  such  dikes. 

Rising  gradually,  we  soon  leave  the  terrace  behind  us,  and  our 
attention  is  directed  to  the  interesting  features  on  the  outside.  Below  us, 
from  the  eastern  margin  of  the  plain  of  Mush,  rises  a  volcanic  mass  of 
imposing  proportions,  almost  flat  and  slightly  hollow  at  the  top.  A 
number  of  little  conical  summits  emerge  from  the  platform,  and  the 
mountain  is  thickly  covered  with  brush.  The  slopes  on  all  sides,  except 
towards  Nimrud,  appear  extremely  abrupt.  It  is  separated  by  a  little 
upland  plain  from  the  sides  of  the  crater ;  and  it  is  clear  that  the  mass 
has  acted  like  a  dam  to  the  flows  of  molten  matter.  It  has  turned  them 
in  the  direction  of  Tadvan,  as  well  as  towards  the  plain  of  Mush.  My 
people  confirmed  the  name  under  which  I  have  already  made  it  known 
(Ch.  VIL  Fig.  150).      It  is  called  the  Kerkiir  Dagh. 

I  have  also  alluded  in  a  former  place  {ibid}j  to  the  little  parasite  cone, 
high  up  on  the  outer  wall  of  the  crater  on  the  south.  Passing  it  now 
from  above,  it  looms  much  larger  ;  and  it  is  succeeded,  lower  down,  by 
quite  a  series  of  volcanic  vents.  These  are  all  in  the  same  line  with  the 
more  pronounced  feature,  and  roughly  in  the  same  line  with  the  dike  and 
crater  on  the  north  of  Nimrud.  Rising  always  higher,  we  make  our  way 
with  some  caution  along  an  edge  which  has  become  knife-like  in  character. 
Indeed  it  is  in  places  not  more  than  8  or  10  feet  wide.  On  our  left 
hand  descend  the  vertical  walls  of  the  crater ;  on  our  right  a  slope  of  about 
30^  seems  scarcely  less  precipitous  to  the  eye.  The  lavas  descend  with 
bold  bastions  towards  Tadvan.  The  highest  point  on  this  side  of  the 
crater  is  on  this  edge  ;  it  has  an  elevation  of  9430  feet. 

The  view  embraces  the  wild  ridges  of  the  Kurdish  mountains  on  the 
south,  capped  with  snow  on  their  topmost  peaks.  Trees  in  a  hollow  and 
a  winding  road  among  the  recesses  of  that  barrier  are  recognised  as  mark- 
ing the  site  of  Bitlis.  Below  us  lies  the  wooded  platform  of  the  Kerkiir 
Dagh  ;  the  plateau  of  lava,  between  the  plain  of  Mush  and  the  shores  of 
the  great  lake,  appears  to  shelve  with  gentle  gradients  towards  those 
waters.  We  discern  the  verdure  about  the  village  of  Tadvan.  In  the 
north  we  may  descry  both  summits  of  the  Bingol  ridge ;  while  the  dome 
of  the  Kuseh  Dagh  is  a  bold,  vague  presence  in  the  sky.  From  this  lofty 
portion  of  the  crater  wall  the  descent  is  rapid  and  continuous  to  the  beds 
of  pumice  which  cloak  it  up  on  the  east.  We  again  overlook  the 
beautiful  inlets  of  Lake  Van.  We  avail  ourselves  of  a  track  which  leads 
from  Tadvan  into  the  caldron  (e),  in  order  to  reach  our  camp.  The 
outline  of  the  circle  of  cliffs  again  rises  a  little  between  this  point  and  the 
track  from  Akhlat. 


RROUNDINGS 

and   r.  Oswald  in  Julv   i«l)8 


■■%f:: 


iJ"- 


L,    A    K    IE 


Debes   ,   J^eipzjg 


NIMRUD    AND    SURROUNDINGS 

mapped    liy   H  f  li    Lynch    and    F  Oswald    in   .July   IhiiH 


my 


Our  Sojourn  in  the  Crater  of  Ninirud 


jM 


I  have  taken  my  reader  a  long  ride,  round  the  vast  circum- 
ference of  the  crater — an  excursion  which,  when  presented  in  the 
form  of  a  narrative,  may  be  too  tedious  for  his  taste.  Let  me 
therefore  endeavour  to  present  in  a  summary  manner  some  of  the 
conclusions  which  were  engendered  in  our  minds.  Faithful  to  the 
laws  of  eruptive  volcanic  agency,  this  huge  crater  has  arisen  on 
the  margin  of  a  great  depression  of  the  surface  of  the  tableland. 
In  spite  of  the  considerable  difference  in  their  present  elevation, 
the  lake  of  Van  and  the  plain  of  Mush  may  be  regarded  as  parts 
of  a  single  basin.  Indeed  it  is  mainly  due  to  the  emissions  of 
lava  from  Nimrud  that  the  lake  is  now  separated  from  the  plain. 
The  region  on  the  north  of  the  crater  is  considerably  higher, 
though  in  closer  connection  with  the  lake  than  with  the  plain. 
Nature  has  produced  this  manifestation  of  violence  in  the  stress 
of  her  effort  to  complete  a  harmonious  design.  The  curving  over 
of  the  great  lines  of  mountain-making  has  resulted  in  this  ex- 
plosion of  forces,  usually  under  control.  But  as  we  make  our 
way  in  silence  beneath  the  stillness  of  the  night,  threading  the 
chaos  of  tumultuous  forms  on  the  floor  of  the  crater,  we  may  yet 
reflect  upon  the  relative  insignificance  of  such  violent  action,  even 
in  a  country  where  it  has  operated  on  so  great  a  scale.  The 
stratified  rocks  are  seldom  wholly  absent  in  the  landscapes,  as 
they  are  wanting  to  the  savage  landscape  of  the  Nimrud  caldron  ; 
and,  when  you  think  you  are  admiring  the  long  train  of  a  volcano, 
a  closer  inspection  reveals  slowly-built,  sedimentary  mountains, 
upon  which  the  volcano  has  been  reared.  Nature  has  preferred 
regularity  of  achievement,  a  quality  reflected  by  the  moral  sense 
of  Man.i 

1  A  single  paragraph  in  an  article  by  Major  Clayton,  R.A. ,  entitled  "  The  Mountains 
of  Kurdistan"  [Alpine  Journal,  Aug.  1887),  is  the  only  account  known  to  me  of  the 
interior  of  the  Nimrud  crater.  Brant  confines  himself  to  the  following  grotesque 
description  (Journal  R.G.S.  1840,  vol.  x.  p.  378): — "The  Nimrud  range  {sic)  runs 
nearly  north  and  south,  but  at  its  southern  extremity  is  terminated  by  a  cross  range  {sic), 
called  the  Kerku  Tagh,  running  east  and  west. " 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

ROUND    NIMRUD    BY    LAKE    NAZIK 

July  25. — A  sharp  ride  of  an  hour  and  a  half  brought  us  down 
from  the  crater  to  the  village  of  Tadvan.  The  descent  is  more 
continuous  than  on  the  side  of  Akhlat ;  the  outer  slopes  of  the 
mountain  are  seared  with  deep  gullies.  Crossing  the  orchards  of 
the  straggling  settlement,  we  pitched  our  tents  on  the  west  of  the 
village,  upon  the  margin  of  a  field  of  late-sown  wheat.  A  line 
of  well-grown  willows,  fringing  the  bank  of  a  tiny  stream, 
promised  shade  during  the  later  hours  of  the  day,  when  the  sun 
should  be  at  our  backs.  That  welcome  shade  was  indeed 
commencing  to  subdue  the  brilliance  of  the  young  corn  while  the 
canvas  was  being  stretched.  We  looked  out  over  the  green  field 
across  the  waters  to  the  smiling  landscape  of  the  opposite  shore. 
The  curve  of  the  little  harbour  of  Tadvan  was  turned  towards  us, 
backed  by  a  lofty  boss  of  rock.  Quite  a  number  of  picturesque 
craft  were  lying  within  it  ;  but  only  one,  so  far  as  I  know,  was 
laden.  She  was  carrying  wood  and  charcoal  from  the  Bitlis 
district.  The  rest  were  doing  nothing,  many  of  the  men  having 
families  here.  All  this  time  I  had  seen  but  a  single  sail  upon 
the  lake,  besides  that  of  Captain  Elliot's  boat.  But  sea-gulls 
there  are,  to  give  life  to  the  waters,  with  their  beautiful  white 
wings. 

Tadvan  was  in  a  state  of  commotion,  or  what  passes  as  such, 
in  a  country  where  all  spirit  has  been  gradually  extinguished 
among  the  population  of  Armenian  race.  Although  this  village 
is  Armenian,  they  did  not  hesitate  to  betray  to  the  authorities 
four  of  their  countrymen,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  their  midst. 
These  individuals  appear  to  have  been  under  the  ban  of  the  law, 
and,  indeed,  were  alluded  to  as  briga)ids.  One  never  hears  talk 
of  Kurdish  brigands  ;  though  I  have  never  met  a  Kurd  who  was 


Round  Ninirud  by  Lake  Nazik  315 

not  more  or  less  a  brigand,  nor  an  Armenian  who  either  justified 
or  deserved  the  name.  The  notorious  AH  Bey,  police  officer  at 
Bitlis,  hurried  to  the  scene.  He  surrounded  the  hut  which 
harboured  the  men  ;  fire  was  opened  upon  them,  which  they 
returned,  and  a  zaptieh  was  shot.  A  villager,  who  tried  to 
mediate,  was  killed.  Then  Ali  Bey  collected  straw,  and  set  light 
to  it,  and  literally  burnt  them  out.  I  was  told  that  all  four 
succumbed.  All  this  happened  a  day  or  two  ago.  I  informed 
the  Kaimakam  that  I  should  like  to  kick  the  official  if  he  would 
be  so  obliging  as  to  come  my  way.  When  one  is  kindly  treated 
by  the  authorities,  one  endeavours  to  avoid  getting  very  angry, 
except  before  their  face. 

We  spent  several  days  in  the  neighbourhood,  making  ex- 
cursions, and  mapping  in  these  unmapped  shores  of  Lake  Van. 
The  Kaimakam  was  obliged  to  leave  us  and  return  to  Akhlat  ; 
we  were  sorry  to  part,  having  become  mutually  attached.  The 
Armenian  villages  of  this  district  are  evidently  very  old,  and 
have  probably  existed  from  the  dawn  of  history.  One  of  the 
most  flourishing  is  Kizvag,  which  occupies  a  situation  of  ideal 
quality  as  a  home  of  Man.  It  is  placed  on  the  southern  horn  of 
a  beautiful  little  bay,  sheltered  on  the  north  by  a  bold  promontory, 
from  which  rises  a  knife-like  ridge.  This  ridge  is  composed  of  a 
lava  which  has  welled  up  along  a  latitudinal  fissure.  One  rides 
there  over  layers  of  lava  and  pumice,  some  of  which  show  traces 
of  having  been  deposited  in  water.  The  corn  was  already  golden 
in  the  fields,  very  tall  in  the  stalk  and  heavy  in  the  ear.  We 
had  never  seen  finer  crops.  Vines  flourish  along  the  base  of  the 
promontory  ;  but  a  vineyard  is  a  rare  occurrence  in  these  scenes. 
The  air  was  always  radiant  and  invigorating,  in  spite  of  the  heat 
of  the  sun.  Kizvag  is  a  considerable  place  ;  but  the  houses  are 
the  usual  ant-hills.  The  dress  of  the  people  is  gay.  The  women 
wear  the  embroidered  aprons  which  are  such  a  striking  feature 
of  their  national  dress  ;  but  the  designs  were  finer  than  any  we 
had  seen.  I  endeavoured  to  purchase  a  few  ;  but  all  the  new 
ones  were  vastly  inferior  ;  it  was  only  the  old  ones,  now  torn  and 
faded,  that  showed  any  taste.  It  is  the  same  in  Persia,  and 
Central  Asia — everywhere  in  the  East.  It  is  a  fact  for  which 
one  may  discover  explanations  ;  but  none  appear  altogether 
adequate. 

The  lower  slopes  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  lake  are  well 
wooded,    and     this     pleasing     landscape     circles    round     towards 


3i6  Armenia 

Tadvan.  The  wood  is  due  to  the  character  of  the  rock,  a  mica- 
schist,  yielding  a  fertile  soil.  But  higher  up  on  the  face  of  the 
range  the  hard  marbles  come  to  view,  and,  while  their  surface  is 
well  adapted  to  take  the  hues  of  the  sky,  it  is  inimical  to  all 
vegetation.  About  a  hundred  feet  above  the  water,  you  perceive 
a  well-marked  terrace,  denoting  a  former  level  of  the  lake.  I 
have  already  remarked  that  the  level  is  again  rising  ;  and  the 
same  occurrence,  which  was  presented  in  so  striking  a  manner  at 
Arjish  (Ch.  III.  p.  30),  is  already  threatening  the  village  of  Kizvag. 
The  hill  of  Tadvan,  at  the  promontory,  is  not  volcanic,  being 
composed  of  marble  and  mica -schist.  It  is  less  lofty  and 
extensive  than  that  of  Kizvag  ;  the  summit  is  crowned  by  the 
substructures  of  a  ruined  fort.  This  fort  was  erect  and  proud  at 
the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century.^  Nothing  remains 
at  the  present  day  but  a  deep  pit,  which  was  perhaps  a  reservoir 
for  water.  The  inhabitants  of  Tadvan  are  in  a  deplorable  con- 
dition, the  women  in  rags,  the  children  mostly  naked.  It  was 
pitiable  to  see  the  women  stretching  out  their  arms  towards  us, 
imploring  us  to  give  them  food.      We  distributed  a  little  money. 

From  Tadvan  we  directed  our  course  towards  the  head  of 
Mush  plain  across  the  volcanic  plateau  west  of  Lake  Van."  Our 
track  conducted  us  past  a  projecting  outwork  of  the  opposite 
range,  well  wooded  and  consisting  of  mica-schist.  The  extremity 
towards  Nimrud  is  faced  with  lava.  You  mount  gradually  above 
the  fertile  surroundings  of  the  lake  to  arid  and,  therefore,  sterile 
ground.  A  few  patches  of  burnt  grass,  some  beautiful  holly- 
hocks, with  very  large  white  flowers,  are  about  the  only  vegetation 
which  it  supports.  On  the  right  hand  rises  the  Kerkiir  Dagh, 
covered  with  flourishing  brushwood,  and,  behind  Kerkiir,  the 
immense  mass  of  the  Nimrud  crater.  In  the  opposite  direction 
the  barrier  of  the  Kurdish  mountains  is  less  bold  and  imposing 
than  at  other  points.  This  is  partly,  no  doubt,  due  to  the 
flooding  against  them  of  volcanic  matter.  The  plateau  attains 
its  highest  level  at  about  a  third  of  the  whole  distance  from  the 
point  where  we  gained  its  surface  to  the  head  of  Mush  plain. 
The  altitude  by  boiling-point  was  6320  feet,  or  680  feet  above 
Lake  Van. 

We  were  impressed  by  the  fact  that  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Kerkiir  the  ground  slopes  towards  that  upstanding 

^  Merchant    in    Persia,    Travels  of  Italians  in    Persia,    Ilakluyt    Society,    London, 
1873,  p.  159.  ■'  The  name  Rava  is  sometimes  applied  to  this  plateau. 


Round  Nimrud  by  Lake  Nazik  3 1 7 

mass.  And  the  broad  valley,  which  we  knew  must  contain  the 
beginnings  of  the  Bitlis  Chai,  was  screened  by  a  somewhat  higher 
level  of  the  field  of  lava.  It  may  be  that  this  is  due  to  the  lavas 
having  swept  round  Kerkiir,  leaving  a  slight  depression  at  its 
southern  foot.  Oswald  rode  off  to  investigate  the  material  of  the 
Kerkiir,  and  found  it  to  consist  of  a  mass  of  trachyte.  The  slopes 
are  covered  almost  to  the  summit  with  talus,  and  it  is  evidently 
a  very  old  volcanic  boss. 

The  plateau  descends  to  the  plain  by  two  lower  terraces,  the 
descent  being  fairly  gradual  in  each  case.  The  Kerkiir  is  also 
screened  by  a  bastion-shaped  terrace  of  talus  which  sinks  into  the 
plain.  I  have  already  described  this  stage  of  our  journey  (Ch.  VII. 
p.  162)  ;  and  I  shall  only  pause  to  give  some  account  of  our  visit 
to  the  pool  of  Norshen,  which  I  had  omitted  to  examine  during 
my  first  journey. 

About  fifty  yards  west  of  the  tomb  of  Karanlai  Agha  lies  an 
almost  circular  pool.  It  is  slightly  embanked  for  the  purposes 
of  irrigation,  and,  in  places,  on  its  margin  there  are  distinct 
vestiges  of  masonry.  It  is  thirty-five  yards  in  diameter  ;  and,  in 
the  centre,  did  not  appear  to  be  much  more  than  five  feet  deep. 
But  our  guide  from  the  village  believed  it  to  be  deeper,  adding 
that  it  had  recently  drowned  a  bullock,  which  had  ventured  too 
far  in.  There  is  no  trace  of  this  pool  having  arisen  in  a  crater, 
although  the  material,  through  which  the  spring  wells  up,  is  a 
tuff.  The  water  is  crystal-clear,  and  is  furnished  in  abundance, 
giving  rise  to  a  little  river.  It  is  extremely  pleasant  to  the  taste, 
like  water  which  has  come  from  the  chalk.  It  is  cold  too  ;  for  at 
7  P.M.,  while  the  temperature  of  the  air  was  80°  Fahrenheit, 
that  of  the  water  was  only  51°.  The  villagers  believe  that  it  is 
derived  from  the  lake  on  Nimrud.  It  is  much  more  likely  to  be 
in  connection  with  the  springs  of  the  chain  on  the  south.  The 
tomb  exactly  recalled  those  of  the  same  period  at  Akhlat ;  indeed 
it  is  of  the  same  date.  The  upper  portion  has  fallen  into  ruin. 
In  the  adjacent  cemetery  there  are  the  same  headstones  with 
the  honeycomb  friezes  which  we  admired  about  the  site  in  the 
ravine  at  Akhlat.  A  stork  was  standing  on  the  topmost  pinnacle 
of  the  crumbling  edifice,  of  which  the  outline  was  clearly  defined 
on  the  western  sky.  The  great  plain  was  veiled  in  haze,  due  to 
the  intense  heat.  Beyond  the  headlands  and  little  promontories, 
the  sun — a  red  orb — sank  behind  delicate  beds  of  perfectly 
settled  cloud. 


3i8  Armenia 

The  situation  of  the  pool  of  Norshen  is  well  adapted  to  serve 
as  a  standard  of  the  elevation  of  the  head  of  Mush  plain.  Tested 
by  boiling-point,  the  level  is  4630  feet,  which  represents  a  decline 
of  1000  feet  from  that  of  Lake  Van.  This  difference  in  level  is 
mainly  responsible  for  a  distinct  change  of  climate  ;  the  plain  of 
Mush  is  quite  a  furnace  in  July.  Norshen  itself,  although  high- 
seated  above  the  floor  of  the  depression,  must  be  one  of  the 
hottest  places  in  the  plain.  It  is  screened  by  the  volcanic  plateau 
and  by  the  outworks  of  the  great  range,  under  the  wall  of  which 
it  lies.  The  level  ground  at  its  foot  has  been  flooded  with  lava  ; 
and  the  pavement,  thus  formed,  glows  in  the  sun.  There  are  a 
few  shady  trees  on  the  outskirts  of  the  village,  but  we  were 
obliged  to  erect  our  tents  in  the  open,  for  want  of  a  suitable 
place  among  those  groves.  In  the  morning  the  heat  became 
unbearable  under  canvas.  The  inhabitants  are  a  surly,  un- 
mannerly set  of  people,  all  of  Kurdish  extraction.  The  news 
of  the  death  of  the  Vali  of  Bitlis  had  already  reached  them  ; 
and  they  were  evidently  quite  out  of  hand.  Our  zaptiehs  —  an 
abominable  lot,  sent  from  Bitlis  by  the  deceased  Governor — came 
near  to  exciting  a  serious  affray.  It  did  not  promise  well  for  the 
success  of  an  excursion  into  the  wildest  districts,  that  those 
blackguard  Kurds  at  Bitlis  had  poisoned  the  Vali,  and  that  our 
escort  seemed  as  much  pleased  by  the  removal  of  the  least 
vestige  of  discipline  as  the  unruly  people  through  whose  country 
we  were  about  to  pass. 

July  30. — Starting  at  eleven  o'clock,  we  made  our  way  across 
the  plain  towards  the  lofty  block  of  heights  by  which  it  is 
confined  upon  the  north.  We  could  already  see  our  track, 
showing  white  among  the  brushwood  towards  the  summit  of  that 
long  barrier.  Even  at  its  upper  end,  the  plain  of  Mush  is 
of  considerable  breadth,  the  distance,  measured  direct,  between 
Norshen  and  the  foot  of  that  parapet  being  about  eight  miles. 
Two  gently  vaulted  hills,  standing  close  together,  are  conspicuous 
features  in  the  plain.  We  reached  the  base  of  the  largest  and 
most  easterly  of  the  two  in  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 
Oswald  rode  off  at  the  canter  to  examine  its  composition,  while 
we  continued  our  course.  He  found  it  to  consist  of  a  cindery 
lava,  the  flows  radiating  outwards,  especially  towards  north-east. 
It  has  therefore  been  an  independent  centre  of  emission.  The 
ground  which  we  had  been  crossing  is  not  cultivated,  from  want 
of  streams,  and   the  slabby  lava  was  aflame  with  sun.      Pushing 


Round  Nimrud  by  Lake  Nazik  319 

our  horses,  we  distanced  the  hill  and  were  approaching  the 
opposite  confines  of  the  plain,  when  I  called  a  halt  in  the  hamlet 
of  Gol  Bashi,  the  first  that  we  had  seen.  It  takes  its  name  from 
a  delightful  spring  that  wells  up  in  the  village,  with  a  temperature 
of  only  55'.  Inasmuch  as  the  stream  was  dry  which  passes 
Morkh  and  Norshen,  this  pool  is  perhaps  entitled  to  be  regarded 
as  the  source  of  the  Kara  Su,  owing  to  the  permanence  of  the 
water  which  it  supplies.  Another  such  source  is  the  pool  beside 
the  tomb. 

A  little  river  collects  below  Gol  Bashi,  fed  by  this  and  by 
other  springs.  The  plain  is  perfectly  flat  in  that  direction,  and 
was  green  with  cultivation.  The  adjacent  farms  belong  to  a  bey 
in  Bitlis,  who  has  built  a  good  stone  house  for  his  steward  in  the 
hamlet.  Proceeding  on  our  course,  and  when  near  the  foot  of 
the  wall  before  us,  we  rose  gradually  over  the  surface  of  a  flow  of 
lava.  The  flow  skirts  the  base  of  the  opposite  parapet  for  some 
distance  towards  the  west.  At  the  same  time  it  radiates  into  the 
plain.  It  is  strewn  with  blocks  and  small  fragments  of  jet-black 
obsidian,  which  have  come  from  the  cliffs  above.  High  up  on 
the  terrace,  thus  formed,  is  a  grove  of  lofty  oak-trees,  by  the  side 
of  water  running  down  from  the  face  of  the  cliff.  A  small 
Kurdish  hamlet  nestles  beneath  them,  and  an  ancient  cemetery, 
buried  in  foliage.  Cattle  and  a  flock  of  sheep  were  resting  in  the 
shade,  the  sheep  panting,  and  the  bullocks  lolling  their  tongues. 
Black  goats,  alert  and  elastic  with  life,  browsed  the  lower  shoots 
of  the  oaks.  The  ascent  of  the  wall  begins  at  this  hamlet  of 
Karnirash,  and  took  us  over  half-an-hour  to  complete. 

The  face  of  the  parapet  was  seen  to  be  the  side  of  a  stream 
or  streams  of  rhyolitic  lava  with  the  usual  obsidian.  They  are 
overlaid,  towards  the  summit,  with  a  pavement  of  basaltic  lava. 
These  lavas  have  probably  proceeded  from  Nimrud  ;  but  at  a 
time  when  the  crater  was  in  its  infancy,  and  when  its  walls  had 
not  yet  reached  their  ultimate  height.  For  those  walls  towered 
high  and  abruptly  above  us,  nor  did  we  think  that  these  lavas 
could  have  welled  over  from  that  lofty  rim.  How  far  west  the 
emissions  may  extend  it  was  impossible  to  determine  exactly  ; 
but  the  appearance  of  the  block  in  that  direction,  when  we 
reached  the  summit,  seemed  to  disclose,  at  no  great  interval,  the 
stratified  rocks.  The  upper  slopes  of  the  barrier  are  abundantly 
wooded,  though  only  with  dwarf  oak.  We  were  astonished  at 
the   great    size   and    beauty   of   the    hollyhock    petals,    large    as 


320  Armenia 

clematis  on  our  English  garden  walls.  The  hollyhock  is  the 
flower  of  the  surroundings  of  Nimrud,  as  the  yellow  mullein  is 
the  flower  of  Bingol,  It  flourishes  on  the'  plateau  of  tuff  to 
which  this  pass  leads  over,  blossoming  white  and,  much  more 
rarely,  a  purple  pink.  The  pass  has  an  elevation  of  6950  feet  or 
of  2300  feet  above  the  plain. 

We  soon  lost  the  little  wood  as  we  proceeded  over  the  plain 
of  tuff  in  a  north-north-easterly  direction.  Nothing  but  the  bare 
pavement,  and  here  and  there  a  patch  of  burnt  herbage  ;  and 
only  those  large  white  flowers  to  refresh  the  eye.  On  our  right 
hand  the  vast  crater,  steeply  contoured  down  towards  us  ;  before 
us  Bilejan,  again  exposed.  But  the  stifling  atmosphere  of  the 
trough  behind  us  had  given  place  to  pleasant  breezes,  and  we 
rode  along  gaily  over  the  even  ground.  All  of  a  sudden  I  hear 
shouts  in  the  direction  in  which  we  are  going  ;  and,  coming  up, 
observe  a  group  of  men  in  fierce  altercation  by  the  side  of  a 
small  drove  of  cattle.  They  prove  to  be  one  of  our  escort  and 
another  zaptieh,  unknown  to  me  ;  the  rest  are  peasants,  on  foot. 
Our  man  is  threatening  a  peasant,  bending  over  on  his  horse  ;  his 
comrade  has  blood  on  his  face.  The  fellow  pays  not  the  slightest 
heed  to  my  peremptory  orders  ;  so  I  send  for  the  zabet  or  officer 
of  the  company,  in  whom,  however,  owing  to  his  fussiness  and 
manifest  cowardice,  I  have  not  the  slightest  confidence.  The 
zabet,  with  his  extravagant  verbiage,  does  nothing  better  than 
inflame  the  matter  ;  and  the  wretched  wayfarer  is  on  the  point  of 
being  murdered  when  I  seize  his  assailant  and  pull  him  off.  The 
would-be  murderer  then  faces  round,  and,  as  we  are  both  on 
horseback,  extricates  himself  and  turns  on  me.  In  an  instant  he 
levels  his  rifle  at  my  chest,  and  brings  it  to  the  cock.  Happily 
for  me,  my  companions  all  ride  up  at  the  same  moment,  and 
force  his  arm  up  from  behind.  None  of  us  can  learn  the  cause  of 
the  dispute.  I  take  the  man  on  with  the  greatest  reluctance, 
fearing  he  may  do  worse  harm  if  allowed  to  rove. 

For  some  short  time  we  had  been  skirting  the  immediate 
outworks  of  the  Nimrud  mass  ;  a  new  feature  was  introduced 
when  these  turned  off  to  the  east-north-east,  and  gave  us  space  in 
the  direction  we  were  pursuing.  Before  us  lay  a  wide  depression 
of  the  surface,  the  levels  about  us  tonguing  into  that  lower 
ground.  The  heights  on  the  further  side  were  of  no  great 
relative  elevation,  but  they  screened  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
pile  of  Bilejan,  and  they  completely  concealed  Lake  Nazik.      We 


Round  Niinriid  by  Lake  Nazik  321 

could  see,  at  this  distance,  our  track  winding  across  them  ;  they 
were  evidently  of  volcanic  origin.  Sipan  now  came  in  view ; 
and  those  heights  stretched  across  the  horizon  towards  the  heights 
on  the  west  of  Sipan.  The  depression  did  not  appear  to  have 
much  westerly  extension  ;  but  it  was  continued,  mile  after  mile, 
towards  the  east.  I  can  scarcely  doubt  that  the  drainage  which 
collects  within  it  finds  its  way  into  Lake  Van. 

We  forded  a  nice  stream  of  crystal-clear  water,  flowing  into 
the  plain,  along  the  base  of  Nimrud.  At  this  point  we  passed 
an  extensive  cemetery.  Perhaps  there  was  a  village  in  the  im- 
mediate neighbourhood  ;  but  we  saw  no  habitations  as  we  rode 
across  the  plain.  The  trough  of  the  shallow  basin  is  followed 
by  the  course  of  a  rivulet,  which,  at  this  season,  had  run  dry. 
According  to  a  single  reading  of  the  aneroid,  it  has  an  elevation 
of  6460  feet.  The  ground  consists  of  a  decomposed  lava  ;  nor 
did  we  observe  lacustrine  deposits,  though  one  cannot  doubt  that 
this  plain  was  once  the  bottom  of  a  shallow  lake. 

It  was  six  o'clock  before  we  reached  the  opposite  heights, 
and  commenced  to  mount  the  side  of  a  ridge  covered  with  a 
pavement  of  lava.  But  from  the  summit  of  this  low  vaulting  we 
overlooked  a  second  ridge,  with  a  grassy  valley  of  some  breadth 
at  our  feet.  Not  a  glimpse  as  yet  of  the  lake.  After  fording 
the  stream  in  this  hollow,  which  was  flowing  towards  the  plain, 
we  rode  through  the  Armenian  village  of  Mezik,  situated  at  the 
base  of  the  second  and  principal  ridge.  A  short  ascent  brought 
us  to  the  slope  on  the  further  side,  whence,  at  last,  the  long- 
hidden  waters  came  to  view.  We  had  struck  the  lake  close  to 
its  south-western  extremity,  towards  which  we  lost  no  time  in 
directing  our  course.  At  this  upper  end  there  is  a  marsh  and 
a  considerable  stretch  of  alluvial  soil,  which,  however,  does  not 
extend  to  the  east  of  the  beginnings  of  the  lake.  It  was  a 
tedious  ride  over  stony  slopes  to  the  floor  of  these  meadows  ;  but 
still  no  village  was  in  sight.  Mistrusting  our  escort,  but  without 
a  guide,  I  hesitated  for  a  moment  whether  to  follow  thdm  up  the 
valley  towards  the  west.  But  one  of  them  was  so  positive  he 
knew  well  where  the  village  lay,  that  I  resolved  to  try  him  for  a 
certain  time.  He  proved  to  be  in  the  right ;  but  the  light  was 
already  failing  when  we  entered  the  Kurdish  settlement  of  Nazik. 

It   is  situated  out  of  view  of  the  lake,  on  the  right  bank  of  a 
pleasant   stream,    which    feeds    the    marsh    along    which    we   had 
passed.      The  ridge,  against  which  it  lies,  is  the  same  that  we  had 
VOL.  II  Y 


322  Ar7nenia 

crossed,  and  the  same  that  we  had  seen  from  afar.  It  had  first 
attracted  our  attention  as  we  descended  into  the  great  depression, 
having  a  bold  conical  peak,  a  little  west  of  the  village.  The 
people  received  us  with  marked  coolness  ;  and  no  sooner  had  we 
commenced  to  erect  our  tents  by  the  side  of  the  stream  than 
they  offered  objections,  and  bade  us  remove  to  some  other  place. 
They  said  that  our  tent  would  face  that  of  a  great  bey  on  the 
opposite  margin  of  the  water.  I  answered  that  I  should  place 
ours  in  such  a  way  as  to  respect  decency  ;  but  that,  if  it  were  a 
question  of  either  party  moving,  it  would  better  become  the  bey 
than  us,  who  were  his  guests.  This  speech  had  a  good  effect  ; 
but  supplies  were  not  forthcoming,  and,  as  usual,  I  summoned  the 
mukhtar  (head  of  the  village).  After  much  delay  they  bring  me 
a  lean  greybeard,  with  sunken  cheeks,  beak  nose,  long  yellow 
teeth  and  a  cavernous  voice.  He  laughs  grimly  when  I  address 
him  as  mukhtar.  It  is  evident  that  these  people  hate  the 
Turks. 

July  31. — In  the  early  morning  our  entire  escort  appear 
before  the  tent,  headed  by  the  zabet,  whom  I  admit.  He 
complains  that  the  villagers  refuse,  for  love  or  money,  to  supply 
food  for  themselves  and  horses.  At  the  same  time  the  five  or 
six  privates  approach,  and  make  use  of  threatening  language  to- 
wards me.  Realising  how  the  matter  stands,  I  endeavour  to 
persuade  the  officer  to  get  out  of  the  place  as  quickly  as  possible 
with  his  men.  He  urges  that  we  shall  then  be  at  the  mercy  of 
these  Kurds  ;  I  retort  that  I  prefer  it  so  than  to  be  at  his.  He 
answers  with  some  reason  that  to  desert  us  might  cost  him  his 
post ;  but  I  reply  that  he  may  regard  himself  as  already  cashiered 
should  he  dare  to  disobey  my  deliberate  orders.  A  compromise 
is  at  length  arrived  at,  under  which  he  undertakes  to  dismiss  his 
men,  provided  I  will  allow  him  to  remain.  He  also  begs  that  he 
may  send  the  man  who  attempted  my  life  back  to  the  head- 
quarters at  Bitlis.  But  this  last  proposal  I  refuse  to  entertain. 
After  much  palaver,  they  are  all  induced  to  take  themselves  off, 
with  instructions  to  await  us  on  the  shore  of  the  lake.  The 
villagers,  seeing  them  gone,  and  ashamed  to  abuse  our  confidence, 
at  once  adopt  a  much  more  friendly  tone.  The  Bey  of  Nazik, 
a  young  man,  brings  his  little  brother  with  him,  and  converses 
with  us  in  our  tent.  On  the  opposite  bank,  beyond  the  willows, 
lies  the  encampment  of  the  older  bey,  who  does  not  appear  to 
belong  to  the  village.      His  two  large  tents,  of  black  goat-hair, 


Round  Nimrud  by  Lake  Nazik  323 

are  open  on  this  side.  The  coarse  canvas,  with  several  supports 
and  considerable  span,  descends  within  a  few  feet  of  the  ground. 
At  the  bottom,  a  screen  of  reeds  at  once  provides  shade  and  a 
pleasant  draught  of  air.  Similar  screens  divide  the  interior  into 
compartments  ;  in  the  centre  sits  the  bey,  an  oldish  man,  who 
never  smiles,  by  the  side  of  a  cradled  baby  which  rarely  remits 
its  cries.  A  young  woman,  who  may  be  his  wife,  or  one  among 
them,  is  engaged  in  swinging  to  and  fro  a  large  vessel  of  earthen- 
ware, which  they  use  for  making  cheese. 

It  was  eleven  o'clock  before  we  again  reached  the  corner  of 
the  lake.  There  we  took  the  boiling-point.  We  found  that  the 
elevation  was  6406  feet,  or  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
depression  which  we  had  crossed  on  the  previous  day.  The 
water  tasted  like  very  flat  lake  water.  Proceeding  along  the 
southern  shore  for  some  distance,  we  kept  the  ridge,  over  which 
we  had  ridden  last  evening,  close  up  on  our  right  hand.  It  had 
grown  considerably  lower  and  was  dying  away.  It  consists  of 
a  stream  of  lava  from  the  little  peak  which  has  already  been 
mentioned.  Further  eastwards,  the  line  of  low  heights  is 
continued  by  what  appears  to  be  an  independent,  latitudinal 
volcanic  ridge.  The  lake  widens  rapidly  from  the  little  bay  at 
its  westerly  extremity,  and  describes,  so  far  as  we  could  judge 
from  a  hasty  survey,  a  triangular  figure  of  which  the  base  is  on 
the  south,  and  the  apex  in  an  inlet  of  the  northern  coast.  Its 
greatest  length  is  from  west  to  east.  The  opposite  shore 
appeared  to  consist  of  a  block  of  heights  in  connection  with 
those  west  of  Sipan,  and  of  streams  of  lava,  descending  from 
Bilejan.  The  wide  stretch  of  sand  along  the  shore  may  perhaps 
be  regarded  as  an  indication  of  a  somewhat  higher  normal  level 
during  recent  times.  From  a  boss  of  dark  lava,  forming  a 
promontory,  we  obtained  a  far-reaching  view.  We  could  see  but 
a  single  village  on  the  lake  ;  and  that  settlement  clustered  on  the 
extreme  point  of  a  little  cape,  just  east  of  the  one  upon  which  we 
stood.  It  was  Jezirok,  partly  Kurd  and  partly  Armenian,  the 
only  village,  as  we  afterwards  learnt,  which  is  placed  immediately 
upon  these  shores.  About  half-a-mile  away,  we  overlooked  an 
islet,  white  with  the  droppings  of  waterfowl.  Indeed  it  is  a 
nursery  for  many  varieties  of  this  description,  and  was  alive  with 
wings  and  sharp  cries.  Pelicans  abound  on  Lake  Nazik, 
swimming,  singly,  like  swans,  over  the  mirror  of  waters,  or 
sweeping   above   our  heads   with   rapid,  shooting   flight,   in    move- 


324  Armenia 

ments  perfectly  combined.  There  must  be  fish  in  plenty  beneath 
that  blue  surface,  which  lends  a  touch  of  beauty  to  the  dreary, 
yellow  landscape,  and  derives  enhancement  from  the  distant 
snows  of  Sipan. 

We  now  left  the  lake,  and  gained  the  further  slope  of  the 
low  ridge  on  the  south,  whence  the  view  extends  over  the  broad 
depression  at  the  foot  of  Nimrud.  Here  we  remained  for  some 
considerable  time.  While  I  was  engaged  in  mapping,  Oswald 
made  one  of  his  beautiful  drawings  of  the  wondrous  landscape 
before  our  eyes.  The  northern  buttresses  of  the  great  crater 
towered  up  from  the  opposite  margin  of  the  level  ground  at  our 
feet.  We  could  plainly  see  the  volcanic  dike  leaving  the  rim  of 
the  caldron,  and  bursting  the  northern  wall  of  the  little  terminal 
crater.  Turning  towards  the  east,  the  heights  on  that  side  of 
the  lake  displayed  a  number  of  conical  forms.  But  the  outline 
appeared  unbroken,  as  it  extended  towards  Sipan.  Between  it 
and  the  Nimrud  outliers  we  obtained  a  distant  glimpse  of  the 
waters  of  Lake  Van. 

Our  course  was  directed  towards  that  vista,  over  the  bare 
surface  of  the  plain,  which  widens  considerably  ;  it  is  completely 
covered  over  with  brown  lava.  It  might  be  made  a  granary  ;  yet 
it  is  now  but  little  cultivated  ;  and  rarely  were  we  deflected  by  a 
patch  of  standing  corn  from  a  course  almost  as  straight  as  a  bee-line. 
Lake  Nazik  was  never  in  sight,  although  its  waters  find  an  outlet 
into  the  great  lake.^  We  saw  only  a  single  village,  at  some 
distance  on  our  left  hand.  Low  hills  confine  the  plain  upon  the 
east,  but  a  dip  in  the  outline  disclosed  a  deep  ravine.  The  cleft, 
which  was  now  dry,  would  give  issue  to  the  water  collecting  in  the 
depression,  which  we  now  left  behind. 

Soon  after  crossing  these  heights,  we  entered  the  barren  high- 
lands on  the  north  of  Akhlat.  The  lava,  which  is  thickly  covered 
with  pumice  sand,  shelves  away  towards  Lake  Van.  A  little  river 
Vv'hich  we  forded,  coming  from  the  direction  of  Lake  Nazik,  must 
be  the  same  that  cascades  into  the  delta  below  the  site  of  the  old 
city,  and  is  perhaps  derived  from  the  lake.  Its  water  had  exactly 
the  same  flat  taste.  On  our  right,  in  the  direction  of  Nimrud,  we 
observed  a  broken-down  crater,  which  has  sent  its  principal  flows  to 

1  The  Kaimakam  of  Akhlat,  who  knows  the  district  well,  assured  us  that  there  was 
a  permanent  outlet.  Layard,  on  the  other  hand,  speaks  of  an  intermittent  one  {Dis- 
coveries in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  London,  1853,  p.  21).  I  regret  that  I  am 
unable  to  express  certainty  on  the  point.  In  the  case  of  Lake  Bulama,  however,  I  am 
able  to  vouch  for  the  fact  that  its  waters  find  tlicir  way  to  the  Murad. 


Round  Niinrud  by  Lake  Nazik  325 

Lake  Van.  A  little  further  on  we  descended  into  the  ravine  of 
Akhlat,  and  crossed  the  stream  within  the  hollow  ;  and  not  long 
after  we  were  again  in  our  shady  orchard,  and  in  the  society  of 
the  Kaimakam.  The  old  imam  was  there,  squatting  among  some 
beanstalks,  taking  foretastes  of  paradise.  His  mad  son  was  not 
long  in  coming,  nor  his  scold  of  a  daughter-in-law  ;  while  in  the 
morning  the  pretty  little  girls  made  their  appearance,  slipping 
gracefully  on  their  errands  through  the  bush.  But  our  home  was 
no  longer  there  ;  we  felt  as  emigrants  feel  when  their  voyage  is 
already  prepared.  I  handed  over  my  rascal  zaptieh  to  the 
Kaimakam,  who  consigned  him  to  the  prison.  The  rest  of  the 
crew,  with  their  zabet,  I  dismissed.  After  resting  a  single  day, 
we  set  out  for  Adeljivas,  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Van.  The  ride 
was  shorter  than  we  expected,  for  the  position  of  Akhlat  is  wrongly 
placed  upon  the  best  existing  maps.^ 

^  The  following  are  the  approximate  distances  along  the  route  described  in  this 
chapter: — Tadvan  to  Norshen,  I2|  miles;  Norshen  to  Nazik,  23^  miles;  Akhlat  to 
Adeljivas,  15  miles. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

ASCENT    OF    SIPAN 

August  2.  —  Walking  our  horses  all  the  way,  we  reached 
Adeljivas  in  four  hours,  excluding  stoppages.  The  track  follows 
the  shore  of  the  lake  the  whole  distance,  and  you  never  lose  the 
expanse  of  waters.  In  fact,  it  is  the  base  of  the  block  of  lime- 
stones on  the  west  of  Sipan  that  you  are  skirting  throughout  the 
ride  ;  although  at  first,  and  for  some  distance,  the  stratified  rocks 
are  superseded  by  intrusive  material  of  igneous  origin.  These 
sombre  heights  are  flanked  by  low  foothills  of  purple  conglomerate, 
which  have  been  thrown  into  a  succession  of  shallow  folds,  with 
an  axis  parallel  to  the  shore.  But  as  you  approach  Adeljivas  the 
igneous  rocks  give  way,  and  the  conglomerate  thins  out  and  dis- 
appears. The  limestone  meets  the  waters,  which  it  tinges  with 
its  own  white  hue.  Hardened  almost  to  the  state  of  marble,  it  is 
in  places  full  of  corals.  The  scene  becomes  remarkable  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  town,  where  cliffs  of  this  description  and  of 
great  elevation  descend  abruptly  into  the  depths  above  which  you 
ride.^  Where  these  recede  and  leave  the  shore,  giving  place  to  a 
wide  alluvial  strip  at  the  foot  of  Sipan,  long  concealed,  is  situated 
Adeljivas.  The  castle  clings  to  the  cliff;  the  gardens  clothe  the 
alluvial  soil.  In  other  respects  our  journey  was  not,  perhaps,  note- 
worthy. Besides  Tunus,  we  passed  only  a  couple  of  hamlets  the 
whole  way.  Such  oases  of  verdure — for  the  walnuts  are  especially 
fine — were  much  more  rare  than  one  would  expect.  But  the 
district  is  unsafe  ;  and  it  was  patrolled  by  soldiers  before  we 
passed.  This  precaution  was  perhaps  due  to  the  presence  by  our 
side  of  the  Kaimakam  of  Akhlat.  His  colleague  of  Adeljivas 
came  out  to  meet  us,  near  the  border  of  his  administrative  district. 

'   Oswald  took  several  careful  observations  of  the  dip  of  these  limestones.     The  norm 
was  50'  south  hy  east. 


Ascent  of  Sipan  327 

The  promontories  along  this  shore  do  not  protrude  far  ;  but  they 
are  bold,  and  with  several  prongs  or  bluffs.  They  offer  no  diffi- 
culties to  the  road.  Lagoons  have  been  forming  on  a  large  scale 
within  the  bays,  due  probably  to  the  rise  in  level  of  the  lake. 

Passing  through  the  enclosure  of  the  ruinous  walled  city,  which 
recalled  the  Kala  or  Ottoman  fortress  at  Akhlat,  we  encamped 
among  the  gardens  of  the  more  modern  quarter.^  The  trees  are 
well  grown,  and  provided  us  with  deep  shade.  At  least  one  con- 
siderable stream  descends  from  the  interior  ;  the  oasis  is  of  some 
extent.  Early  next  day  we  made  our  way  in  the  lightest  of 
clothing  from  our  tents  in  the  heart  of  the  orchards  to  the  margin 
of  the  shore.  It  was  some  little  distance,  but  the  walk  was  all  that 
we  could  wish.  The  morning  is  the  time  to  enjoy  the  picturesque- 
ness  of  any  Eastern  town.  There  will  be  shadows  to  give  relief 
to  the  scene,  and  light  sufficient  to  bring  out  the  colours.  The 
deep  white  dust  upon  the  lanes  has  not  yet  been  disturbed. 
Draughts  of  freshness  from  the  groves  and  gardens  keep  the  air 
sweet  and  cool.  Such  a  straggling  lane  or  two,  between  low  walls 
of  mud  and  stone,  took  us  past  an  old  mulberry  tree  studded  with 
red  fruit,  and  a  fountain  gushing  forth  by  the  side  of  the  way. 
So  we  came  to  a  little  valley,  opening  out  towards  the  lake,  and 
harbouring  a  swift  and  shallow  rivulet,  black  with  the  shadows  of 
an  avenue  of  willows.  A  mass  of  foliage,  on  either  side  of  the 
adjacent  meadows,  screened  the  pleasant  place  from  fortress  and 
suburb,  except  for  a  glimpse  of  the  citadel  in  the  west. 

We  stripped  on  a  narrow  margin  of  pebble -strewn  shore, 
regretting  our  purple  rocks  at  Akhlat.  The  water  is  shallow  for 
some  distance  out ;  but,  in  spite  of  the  embouchures  of  the 
irrigation  channels,  it  was  most  intensely  blue.  We  swam  forth, 
enjoying  the  buoyancy  of  the  waves,  with  the  distant  barrier  of 
the  Kurdish  mountains  before  our  eyes.  Their  bare  escarpments 
towered  up  to  their  crown  of  snow.  In  the  reverse  direction  the 
landscape  was  already  flooded  with  light,  and  the  foliage  merged 
into  the  general  brilliancy  of  tone.  A  conspicuous  object  was 
the  ruinous  citadel,  proudly  placed  against  the   cliffs — the  single 

1  The  best  account  of  Adeljivas  is  that  of  Tozer  {Turkish  Armenia,  London,  i88l, 
P-  335)-  The  width  of  the  enclosure  is  given  by  him  as  250  yards,  on  the  side  of  the 
shore.  The  parallel  lines  of  walls  descend  into  the  water.  Within  the  enclosure  "one 
ancient  mosque  with  a  minaret  remains,  and  also  part  of  anotlier  considerable  building. 
The  mosque,  which  is  now  used  as  a  storehouse  for  corn,  appears  to  be  of  the  same  date 
as  those  in  the  castle  of  Akhlat  ;  it  is  massively  built  of  stone,  with  but  little  ornament, 
and  its  arches  are  pointed  and  slightly  ogived."  Miiller-Simonis  has  a  nice  woodcut 
{Dit  Caiicase  an  Golfe  Persiqiie,  Paris,  1892,  p.  301). 


328  Armenia 

witness  in  the  scene  to  a  period  of  human  masterfuhiess  in  direct 
contrast  to  the  actual  insignificance  of  the  human  element  in 
this  fair  and  richly-gifted  land. 

When  we  returned  there  were  two  wooden  couches  with 
leather  seats,  and  a  couple  of  chairs,  of  similar  pattern  and  equal 
shabbiness,  arrayed  upon  the  sward.  These  unusual  objects  had 
been  unearthed  for  our  benefit.  They  were  not  long  in  finding 
occupants  among  the  personages  of  importance  who  were  desirous 
of  paying  us  the  honour  of  a  visit.  The  Commandant  of  the 
garrison  came,  accompanied  by  his  aide-de-camp  ;  they  were 
followed  by  the  burly  mufti,  and  by  several  notables  ;  last  of  all 
came  the  two  Kaimakams.  It  was  a  medley  of  striped  military 
trousers  and  gold  lace,  of  flowing  cloaks  and  white  turbans,  of 
black  frock-coats  and  the  tasselled  fez.  Each  had  a  word  to 
say  upon  the  details  of  the  expedition  ;  each  could  help  if  one 
would  only  give  them  time.  My  great  regret  was  that  time 
failed  me  to  receive  their  suggestions  ;  there  were  indeed  so 
many  things  which  must  be  done.  First  I  had  to  feed  and 
water  my  horses,  for  the  forage  had  not  arrived  in  the  early 
morning.  When  it  came,  the  several  owners  were  at  variance, 
one  with  another  ;  and  I  was  obliged  to  seize  it  by  force.  Then 
there  were  my  people,  who  would  surely  go  without  their 
breakfast  rather  than  take  the  trouble  to  procure  victuals.  These 
I  had  provided  with  great  difficulty  overnight  ;  but  the  cook 
had  experienced  trouble  with  his  fire.  Such  everyday  concerns 
were  augmented  on  this  occasion  by  several  affairs  of  much 
greater  consequence.  It  was  necessary  to  engage  at  least  ten 
porters  ;  when  these  had  been  got  together  with  infinite  difficulty, 
there  was  no  possibility  of  arriving  at  terms  and  a  price.  By 
the  time  the  Kaimakam  appeared,  the  orchard  was  alive  with 
people,  all  intent  on  delaying  the  conclusion  of  their  several 
bargains  for  the  mere  love  of  talk.  That  official  was  of  great 
assistance,  because  he  fixed  the  price  himself,  and  ordered  each 
man  to  conclude  his  business  on  those  terms. 

But  there  was  one  matter  which  called  for  very  delicate 
treatment,  and  of  which  the  ultimate  issue  was  not  so  clear.  It 
was  most  important  that  our  escort,  during  the  journey  through 
the  wild  districts  interposed  between  Sipan  and  Bingol,  should 
be  composed  of  men  who  might  be  trusted  at  least  so  far  as  not  to 
involve  us  in  unnecessary  brawls.  They  must  obey  my  orders  to 
the  letter  ;   but  my  authority  could  only  exist  by  delegation  from 


Ascent  of  Sipan  329 

a  higher  authority  ;  and  it  was  essential  that  they  should  both 
respect  and  fear  this  source.  Now  the  Kaimakam  of  Akhlat 
alone  inspired  me  with  confidence  that  his  men  would  think 
twice  before  daring  to  play  the  fool.  But  Adeljivas  belonged  to 
the  vilayet  of  Van  ;  and  his  colleague  would  certainly  insist  in 
sending  his  own  zaptiehs  at  least  as  far  as  the  borders  of  that  of 
Bitlis.  And  at  what  point  in  that  bleak  region  could  one  hope 
to  pick  up  the  others?  Fortune  came  to  my  aid  in  arriving  at  a 
settlement.  It  so  happened  that  the  Vali  of  Van  had  not  been 
informed  of  our  intention  to  enter  his  province.  Indeed  the 
ascent  of  Sipan  had  not  formed  part  of  our  original  programme. 
Now  the  Vali  was  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  a  possible  visit  on 
our  part  to  his  capital.  Adeljivas  was  so  very  near  ;  we  should 
be  across  in  no  time.  And  Van  was  in  a  state  of  unrest.  His 
subordinate  had  telegraphed  overnight  that  we  had  arrived,  and 
might  return  after  our  excursion  to  Sipan.  This  it  was  in  the 
interest  of  the  Vali  to  prevent.  A  message  came  that  very 
morning,  conveying  greetings  from  his  Excellency,  but  enquir- 
ing whether  we  were  furnished  with  a  permission  to  travel, 
or  even  with  a  tezkere,  or  travelling  pass.  Of  course  he  well 
knew  that  no  such  documents  were  in  our  possession,  since  the 
whole  question  of  the  right  of  the  Palace  to  prevent  Englishmen 
from  travelling  had  been  raised  in  connection  with  our  persons. 
The  incident  brought  the  very  wind  into  our  sails  which  we  had 
been  courting  on  every  side.  We  had  not  the  least  intention  of 
going  to  Van.  But  the  Kaimakam  of  Adeljivas  would  now  be 
anxious  to  be  rid  of  us  for  good  and  all.  When  therefore  I 
placed  before  him  the  two  alternatives,  of  returning  and  perhaps 
proceeding  to  reason  with  his  Excellency  in  the  capital  ;  or  of 
pushing  on  direct  from  Sipan  and  leaving  his  territory  as  fast  as 
possible — the  latter  course  was  at  once  and  joyfully  approved. 
And  when  I  made  it  a  condition  that  the  men  of  the  Kaimakam 
of  Akhlat  should  be  allowed  to  meet  us  at  the  base  of  the 
mountain  upon  our  descent,  this  proposal  was  also  accepted 
without  demur. 

It  was  noon  by  the  time  these  various  matters  had  been 
decided  —  not  a  bad  piece  of  work  under  the  circumstances. 
There  only  remained  the  last  and  saddest  of  our  duties  —  to 
say  good-bye  to  the  energetic  and  admirable  official  who  had 
accompanied  us  thus  far  on  our  road.  What  a  contrast  between 
this  Circassian,  lithe  of  figure  and  nimble  of  mind,  and  his  heavy, 


330  Armenia 

thick-skulled  colleague  of  Adeljivas  !  In  the  latter  I  had 
recognised  the  former  Kaimakam  of  Vostan — him  whom  I  had 
met  at  Akhavank.  What  memories  arose  of  Khachatur  and  his 
famous  dinner  !  I  learnt  that  he  had  already  descended  to  his 
tomb.  .  .  .  Nothing  could  be  more  pathetic  than  the  spectacle  of 
an  honest  man,  endeavouring  to  cope,  not  only  with  the  inherent 
difficulties  of  his  post,  but  also  with  the  tricks  of  such  rascals  in 
high  places  as  you  see  on  every  side.  Such  is  the  lot  of  the 
Kaimakam  of  Akhlat.  It  touched  us  to  the  quick.  It  is  quite 
as  sad  as  the  sufferings  of  the  Armenians.  In  the  Turkish 
service  there  still  remain  a  number  of  excellent  officials — men 
well  capable  of  dealing  with  the  Armenian  question  in  a  manner 
conformable  at  once  to  humanity  and  to  their  country's  good. 
But  they  are  flouted,  and  set  aside.  Some  retire,  others  are 
constrained  to  effect  a  shabby  compromise  ;  while  the  younger 
or  less  steadfast  become  rapidly  demoralised,  and  end  as  badly  as 
they  commenced  well. 

Two  villages  had  been  mentioned  as  both  presenting  a  good 
base  from  which  to  climb  Sipan.  One  was  Norshunjik,  and  the 
other  Uran  Gazi.  The  first  is  situated  on  the  south-western  side 
of  the  mountain,  and  the  second  rather  more  round  towards  the 
west.  Uran  Gazi  —  a  Circassian  settlement — was,  after  some 
debate,  selected,  owing  chiefly  to  the  reputation  and  resources  of 
its  head  men.  It  may  be  reached  in  about  two  hours  from 
Adeljivas.  Riding  in  a  northerly  direction,  we  pursued  a  winding 
track  which  became  involved  in  the  recesses  of  the  hills.  We 
must  have  been  close  to  the  break-off  of  the  plateau  of  limestone 
on  the  west  of  Sipan  ;  but  the  view  towards  the  east  was  never 
open.  The  limestone  was  all  about  us,  white  and  barren  as 
usual,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  verdant  scene  we  had  left 
behind.  So  high  did  the  escarpments  tower,  that  although  we 
continued  to  rise  at  a  considerable  gradient  for  a  space  of  about 
an  hour,  it  was  only  towards  the  latter  portion  of  the  ascent  that 
we  obtained  a  view  of  the  summit  region  of  the  great  volcano. 
But  the  vista  towards  the  lake  was  of  striking  beauty,  with  the 
ruinous  castle  standing  up  against  the  blue.  Deep  below  us  on 
our  left  hand  we  admired  the  site  of  a  walled  monasteiy,  high- 
seated  in  a  broad  valley.  There  was  more  traffic  along  this 
track  than  one  might  have  expected  ;  we  kept  meeting  laden 
donkeys  and  a  number  of  wayfarers.  The  adjacent  slopes  were, 
in  places,  strewn  with  blocks  of  lava. 


Ascent  of  Sipan  331 

When  we  reached  the  pass,  we  were  standing  on  the  edge  of 
an  undulating  plateau,  and  were  still  within  the  zone  of  the  lime- 
stones. A  slight  descent  from  this  point  brought  us  almost 
immediately  to  a  shallow  but  very  extensive  depression.  It  had, 
in  fact,  the  appearance  of  a  vast  plain,  somewhat  of  an  oval,  with 
an  axis  roughly  from  east  to  west.  In  the  latter  direction  we 
could  see  the  plain  tonguing  into  the  limestones,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  almost  latitudinal  limestone  ridges  sinking  into  the 
plain.  But  these  were  dwarfed  in  the  east  by  the  flows  of  lava 
from  Sipan,  of  which  the  huge  frame  was  now  fully  exposed.  In 
particular  a  bold  stream  plunged  down  from  the  summit  region, 
ending  in  dark,  precipitous  sides.  About  in  the  centre  of  the 
depression  lay  a  little  lake,  fringed  by  marshes,  and  bordered  by  a 
deep  belt  of  what  appeared  to  be  a  white  efflorescence  adhering 
to  its  shores.  It  was  the  Jil  Gol  (lake  of  rushes),  once  of  consider- 
ably greater  extent.  A  village,  just  a  speck  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  bold  ridge  of  lava,  was  identified  as  Uran  Gazi. 
Behind  us  the  limestones  stood  up  like  a  wall,  screening  the  lake 
of  Van. 

Except  for  the  marshes,  there  was  not  a  trace  of  verdure  in  a 
landscape  devoid  of  trees  or  even  of  bush.  Far  and  wide,  the 
surface  of  the  plain  was  broken  only  by  mounds  or  gullies — the 
mounds  heaped  up  with  blocks  of  black  lava,  the  gullies  doubly 
darkened  by  the  same  material.  ^  Indeed  the  whole  depression 
has  been  covered  with  lava,  probably  to  some  considerable  depth. 
Its  elevation  above  sea-level  is  not  much  less  than  7700  feet.^ 
These  lavas,  which  must  have  been  of  a  liquid  nature,  may  have 
been,  in  part,  emitted  from  the  volcano  during  its  infancy,  but 
have  largely  issued  from  fissures  in  the  plain.  Flooding  into  the 
limestones,  they  compose  such  a  lofty  pedestal  that  the  volcano 
somewhat  loses  height.  The  climber  is  not  ungrateful  for  their 
help. 

In  another  three-quarters  of  an  hour  we  reached  Uran  Gazi, 
and  were  received  by  two  Circassian  notables,  resident  in  the 
village,  Murad  Effendi  and  Shakir  Effendi.  I  think  I  have 
already  observed  upon  the  superiority  of  the  Circassian  villages  to 
those  of  their  neighbours,  Armenians  or  Kurds.  The  bread  they 
make  is  eatable  ;  fair  cheese  can  be  obtained  ;  the  tenements  are 
much  more  solidly  built.  Great  stacks  of  hay  had  already  been 
collected  against  the  winter.  The  Circassian  skirted  coat  and  the 
'  This  is  the  height  of  the  village  of  Uran  Gazi. 


Armenia 


Circassian  cap  are  still  worn  ;  and,  indeed,  this  people  cling  to 
all  the  customs  of  their  native  country,  from  which  the  Russians 
have  compelled  them  to  wander  out.  Of  our  two  hosts,  Murad 
was  in  the  prime  of  life  ;  while  Shakir,  although  advanced  in 
years  and  with  snow-white  hair,  still  retained  his  vigour  and 
vivacity.  It  is  the  vivacity  of  the  Circassians  which  is  so 
impressive  in  the  moral  sphere,  just  as  in  the  physical  sphere  it  is 
the  brilliance  of  their  eyes.  Murad  Effendi  buckled  to,  with  the 
result  that   in  an  hour   and  a  half  all  was   prepared    for  the   start. 


Fig.  187.    Village  of  Uran  Gazi  with  Sipan. 

Tezek  fuel  for  the  fire,  and  hay  for  the  horses,  and  for  ourselves  a 
lamb  and  several  chickens — such  were  the  burdens  which  were 
ready  for  the  shoulders  of  the  porters,  four  of  whom  had  already 
arrived. 

The  position  of  the  village,  at  the  extremity  of  the  bold  ridge 
of  lava  (Fig.  187),  may  be  taken  as  representing  the  furthest 
westerly  extension  of  the  flows  of  lava  from  the  volcano,  as  we 
see  it  now.  The  ridge  itself  has  an  axis  of  about  west-south- 
west. At  four  o'clock  we  made  our  way  along  its  southern  margin, 
up  the  broad  valley  by  which  it  is  .separated  from  similar  outliers 
on  the  south.  The  caterjis,  with  the  packs,  followed  this  valley 
to    its    head  ;   but   our   guides,    whether    from'  knowledge    of   the 


A  sec  n  t  of  Sip  an  ■i>'h}) 

ground  or  from  mere  impatience,  were  not  long  before  they  led  us 
right  up  the  wall  of  the  ridge.  Dismounting,  we  dragged  our 
horses  over  the  rocky  surface,  at  considerable  peril  to  their  legs. 
The  summit  was,  however,  almost  perfectly  flat  ;  and,  although 
the  upward  slope  and  the  craggy  nature  of  the  ground  rendered 
progress  rather  arduous  and  slow,  the  breadth  of  the  ridge  enabled 
us  to  pick  a  wa)\  In  this  manner  we  struggled  on  for  about  an 
hour,  when,  at  six  o'clock,  I  called  a  halt.  The  caterjis  were  not 
in  sight,  and,  when  last  we  had  espied  them,  they  were  still  in 
the  trough  of  the  valley.  There  they  would  have  remained,  with 
our  tents  and  baggage,  knowing  well  that  we  must  come  to  them. 
I  sent  an  officer  with  instructions  to  bring  them  up  by  force  ; 
and,  after  waiting  until  night,  we  were  at  length  rejoiced  by  their 
arrival,  and  encamped  on  a  stretch  of  sward  below  a  large  patch 
of  snow.      Our  elevation  was  10,300  feet. 

August  4. — The  ascent  of  Sipan  offers  no  difficulties  whatever 
at  this  season,  and  is,  indeed,  a  delightful  excursion.  There  is 
the  joy  of  awaking  to  a  landscape  so  inspiring — such  a  wide 
segment  of  a  circle,  almost  without  limits  on  the  horizon,  framed 
by  the  heights  descending  upon  either  side.  From  the  rocky 
island  of  the  Kartevin  to  the  western  slopes  of  the  Nimrud  crater, 
an  immense  region  is  outspread  at  our  feet.  Flatness  of  outline 
is  the  almost  universal  characteristic  ;  and  the  marble  peaks  of 
the  Akh  Dagh,  conspicuous  even  at  this  distance,  are  at  once  an 
exception  and  a  solecism.  Further  west,  the  \\&\\  extends  to  the 
even  ridge  of  the  Bingol  Dagh,  flecked  about  the  centre  with 
snow.  Nearer  masses  of  imposing  aspect  are  Bilejan  and  Khamur ; 
an  unknown  mountain,  which,  later  in  our  journey,  we  came  to 
know  as  Kolibaba,  rising  with  lesser  proportions  between  the  two. 
But  the  plains  outdo  the  mountains,  resembling  a  wide  sea — 
although  surely  no  sea  can  be  surrounded  by  such  commanding 
objects.  The  treeless,  yellow  surface  commences  deep  below  us, 
and  stretches  without  a  break  to  the  Kartevin.  Low  ridges  come 
edging  towards  it  from  the  block  of  limestones,  which,  in  the 
west,  appears  to  encircle  the  lake  of  Xazik,  and  to  divide  it  from 
that  of  Gop.  The  outline  of  the  block  grows  in  height  towards 
Lake  Van. 

It  was  t^^■o  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  before  we  were  ready  to 
start  upwards,  turning  our  backs  upon  this  scene,  and  on  foot. 
The  ten  porters  carry  our  flying  tent  and  our  wraps,  besides  a 
little  tezek  fuel  for  our  camp  fire,  and  four  long  poles  for  taking 


00 


^  Armenia 


measurements.  They  perform  their  work  in  an  admirable  manner, 
never  grumbHng  and  never  stopping  to  talk.  Their  features 
betray  their  Armenian  origin,  although  they  are  Mussulmans. 
The  westerly  eminence  of  the  summit  region  towers  high  above 
us  ;  but  there  is  no  beach  of  boulders  to  impede  our  progress, 
like  upon  Ararat,  and  no  causeways  to  circumvent.  The  tops 
of  the  streams  of  lava  are  always  fairly  level,  although  they  are 
rocky  at  the  sides.  They  consist  of  a  basic  augite-andesite,  with 
conchoidal  fractures,  which  grows  more  glassy  as  you  approach 
the  higher  region.  Stretches  of  grass  are  not  infrequent,  watered 
by  the  melted  snow.  Little  runnels  descend  the  slope  with  a 
pleasant,  gurgling  sound,  but  cease  to  flow  when  the  sun  goes 
down.  In  three-quarters  of  an  hour  we  open  out  Lake  Van,  the 
ridges  collecting  towards  the  summit  circle.  The  gradient  of  the 
slope  is  now  33-^°,  the  highest  registered  on  this  side  of  Sipan. 
We  are  above  and  among  large  patches  of  snow.  But  the  going 
is  very  easy,  the  ground  being  covered  with  turf  and  flowers.  It 
is  quite  a  little  garden  of  forget-me-nots  and  pink  daisies  and 
buttercups  and  campanulas.  These  raise  their  heads  above  an 
undergrowth  of  pearl -wort.  There  is  no  juniper  or  yellow 
immortelle  to  be  seen.  Soon  after  four  o'clock  this  flowery  slope 
gives  way,  and  we  enter  the  summit  region,  with  the  westerly 
eminence  on  our  left  hand.  Before  us  lies  a  deep  and  irregular 
basin  filled  up  with  masses  of  snow. 

Such  perhaps  is  the  most  concise  description  of  the  strange 
scene  about  us  and  at  our  feet  (Fig.  188).  My  illustration  was 
taken  on  the  following  day  from  the  top  of  the  westerly  eminence, 
or  western  summit  of  Sipan.  Our  position  now  is  on  the  slope 
of  that  lofty  eminence,  on  the  upper  margin  of  a  field  of  snow, 
which  is  not  visible  in  the  picture,  but  which  descends  to  the  little 
lake  in  the  foreground.  The  lake  is  known  as  Kirklar  Gol,- or 
lake  of  the  forty  Mussulman  saints,  and  is  probably  due  to  the 
dissolving  of  the  snowy  sheets  which  hem  it  in  on  either  shore. 
The  slope  on  the  opposite,  or  southern  side  of  the  basin  is  very 
steep  where  it  sinks  to  the  pool  ;  and  it  sometimes  happens  that 
the  snow  falls  headlong  and  in  a  mass  into  the  blue  water. 
West  of  the  lake,  and  especially  beneath  the  western  summit, 
the  edge  of  the  basin  is  low  ;  indeed  we  have  entered  into  the 
summit  region  by  a  natural  passage  or  partial  cleft. 

Adhering  to  the  skirts  of  this  western  summit,  or  taking  refuge 
upon   the   snow  from   the  deep  rubble  on  its  uppermost  slope,  we 


Ascent  of  Sip  an  335 

proceed  in  a  north-north-easterly  direction  towards  the  northern 
side  of  the  basin.  A  new  flower  chngs  to  the  powdery  surface 
above  the  snow — sweet-scented  arabis.  The  bold  bluff  of  the  peak 
above  us  joins  on  to  a  pronounced  ridge,  corresponding  to  the 
ridge  on  the  right  of  the  illustration,  of  which,  indeed,  it  forms 
the  counterpart  on  the  north.  We  now  open  out  a  most  remark- 
able object — a  round  and  very  lofty  mass,  built  up,  it  would 
appear,  of  rubble,  and  of  such  dimensions  that  not  only  does  it 
fill  the  basin  on  its  eastern  side,  but  even  destroys  and  supersedes 
the  peripheral  figure.  It  looks  as  if  it  were  flat  upon  the  summit, 
from  which  rise  a  number  of  little  conical  peaks,  like  cairns.  Its 
sides  are  so  steep  that  they  are  nearly  free  of  snow.  We  exclaim, 
"  There  is  Kerkiir,  piled  upon  Sipan  !  "  The  only  feature  which 
we  miss  is  the  oak  scrub.  The  mass  is  well  shown  in  the  photo- 
graph, but  not  the  second  little  lake  which  nestles  in  a  lap  of 
snow  at  its  foot.  This  pool  is  separated  from  the  first  by  a  low 
saddle  in  the  hollow  of  the  basin,  of  which  it  collects  the  waters 
on  the  east. 

The  ridge  upon  which  we  stand  narrows  and  becomes  knife- 
like,  as  it  bends  towards  the  northern  extremity  of  the  upstanding 
mass.  It  provides  the  scantiest  strip  of  bare  but  level  rock 
between  sheets  of-  snow  on  either  side.  On  the  north  it  is  a 
cornice  of  snow  above  the  plains,  thousands  of  feet  down.  In 
that  direction  there  would  appear  to  be  a  tremendous  abyss. 
Xor  is  the  slope  towards  the  basin  of  tolerable  gradient  ;  it  is  so 
steep  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  descend  to  the  second  of  the 
lakes  without  making  a  considerable  circuit.  Still  this  ridge 
appears  to  offer  a  convenient  site  for  our  encampment,  owing  to 
its  central  position.  There  are  a  few  piles  of  rocks,  nearly  as 
high  as  a  man,  which  will  prevent  us  being  swept  into  the  depths 
on  either  side,  in  case  a  storm  should  arise.  The  only  danger 
would  be  a  sudden  drift  of  snow.  I  give  orders  to  erect  the  tent 
against  one  of  these  little  screens  ;  and,  accompanied  by  a 
Circassian,  Oswald  and  I  continue  our  march  towards  the  lofty 
platform  on  the  east. 

Our  slender  parapet  ends  in  its  steep  and  talus-strewn  side, 
which  we  commence  to  scale.  We  step  from  block  to  block,  the 
boulders  consisting  of  a  light  brown  lava,  which  has  broken  up 
with  sharp  angles.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  mass  is  the 
latest  result  of  eruptive  action  upon  the  summit  of  Sipan.  The 
whole  or  nearly  the  whole  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  crater  was 


336  Arm  cm  a 


blown  away,  and  this  cone  raised  upon  its  ruins.  It  is  almost 
circular  in  shape.  The  level  parts  of  the  platform,  upon  which 
we  emerge  from  the  rocky  slopes,  are  covered  with  snow  and  ice  ; 
but  the  cairns,  of  which  there  are  too  many  to  count,  protrude 
from  the  white  canopy  with  little  beaches  of  brown  rock.  It  is 
hard  to  tell  at  a  first  glance  which  is  the  highest  of  these  piles. 
Our  Circassian  conducts  us  to  one  among  them  on  the  north  of 
the  mass,  which,  indeed,  is  the  most  elevated  of  all.  When  we 
have  clambered  to  the  summit,  we  are  amazed  to  find  a  screen, 
rudely  erected  from  the  boulders  by  a  human  hand.  It  provides 
us  with  just  the  shelter  which  we  shall  require  for  our  observations 
upon  the  following  day.  We  have  reached  an  altitude  of  13,700 
feet.^ 

The  sun  is  setting  ;  so  the  tripod  is  rapidly  erected,  and  the 
bearings  of  the  principal  mountains  registered  with  the  utmost 
care.  Happily  the  sky  is  almost  free  of  cloud.  Ararat  soars  into 
space,  a  magnificent  object,  both  peaks  of  the  greater  mountain, 
although  almost  merged  by  the  perspective,  being  distinguishable 
by  the  naked  eye.  The  bold  snow  bastion  on  the  west  is  seen  to 
the  fullest  advantage.  But  the  Little  Ararat  is  almost  hidden  by 
nearer  outlines  ;  and  only  the  summit  of  that  graceful  cone  is 
exposed.  If  the  mountain  of  the  Ark  be  without  equal,  or  even 
rival,  in  a  landscape  which  in  all  directions  is  sublime,  it  possesses 
at  least  a  neighbour  with  many  attributes  in  common — -the  Kuseh 
Dagh,  beyond  the  plain  of  Alashkert.  That  giant  overtops  the 
land  forms,  almost  from  the  very  base — a  truly  inspirhig  sight. 
It  is  so  essentially  a  great  mountain,  towering  up  to  a  symmetrical, 
but  deeply  vaulted  dome. 

Night  is  falling  as  we  descend  to  our  little  tent  upon  the 
ridge  at  an  elevation  of  13,000  feet.  But  our  poor  porters  and 
the  several  zaptiehs  who  have,  quite  unnecessarily,  scrambled  up 
— how  shall  we  protect  them  against  the  rigour  of  the  night  ? 
They  prefer  to  remain  with  us  ;  so  we  wrap  them  up  in  the 
stout  red  cloth  which  we  have  by  us  for  our  measuring  poles. 
They  cower  over  the  smouldering  fire   against  the  screen.      But 

'  It  would  require  a  series  of  very  careful  observations  to  determine  whether  this 
eminence — which  I  shall  call  the  eastern  summit — or  the  western  summit  of  Sipan  be  the 
higher.  By  boiling-point  we  obtained  the  following  results  : — Eastern  summit  (4th 
August),  13,590  feet;  western  summit  (5th  August),  13,714  feet.  But  these  readings 
were  taken  on  different  days.  On  the  other  hand,  the  aneroid  registered  : — Eastern 
summit  (4th  August),  13,650  feet  ;  eastern  summit  (5th  August),  13,790  feet;  western 
summit  (5th  August),  13,754  feet.  At  present  the  question  must  be  left  open — and 
indeed  it  is  not  of  much  im[)()rtance. 


PLAN    OFTHE 

SUMMIT    REGION    OF   SIPAN 

incasiircd    and    drawn  oiil   by 
H.F.  R.  Lyiuli  and   t'.O.sw-ad  in  August  1898 

Scale     1  Milo    =  2   luclios 
or    l:  31.680 


Mile 


Explanation: 


J^-ffix/Ziesf  point  on  tJic  miind , 

Von-lfh'r  -  s-titrwti-  mass  cornposi'nff 
the    eastern    summit    f  point  from 
\Hii£lL    the  reoAings  to  Ararat,  etc 
irci-e    tttJuen.  J  AUiticcLe    13.  TOO  feet 

B.C.D.E.  Sini7la.r  cxiirn-Tike  eminences 
distr-ibuted    over  t7ie  surface    of 
(7iis   mass. 


\^.  Western  sununtt.  Alt .  13.7 oo   feet 
'K.'L.  Conspicuous    eminences    OJi 
the  sou  tliern     rim    of  the  Itasin- 

F.  Xarrow  ridge    coniposinc/  tJie 
northern     rim.    of  t7ie    basin 

G.  Our  camp    upon    tJiis  ridge, 
AZtiticde  13.o:>5   feet 

1    Kir7t7ar  Gi)l.smali  lahc   ISnuiUlahB 


xl.d  1., 


Published     by  Lon'^jmaus  ,  Green  &  C°,Lioncloi\ 


Ascent  of  Sipan  2)?)1 

the   temperature   scarcely  sinks   as   low   as   freezing- point   in    the 
sheltered  places,  and  at  dawn  the  lake  below  us  is  free  of  ice. 

August  5. — Neither  my  companion  nor  myself  are  able  to 
sleep,  although  we  are  quite  fresh  for  our  work  next  day.  The 
same  experience  befell  our  party  upon  Ararat  ;  at  these  high 
altitudes  one  does  not  seem  to  require  sleep.  We  are  up  before 
the  sun  ;  but  the  light  is  already  sufficient  to  disclose  the  great 
world,  silent  at  our  feet.  Not  a  vestige  of  cloud  is  clinging  to  our 
mountain  ;  and,  as  the  sun  rises,  all  the  outlines  in  the  distance 
are  well  defined.  To  Oswald  is  apportioned  the  task  of  taking 
measurements,  and  he  starts  off  over  the  snow-fields  with  his 
telemeter  and  his  poles.  I  mount  to  the  summit  of  the  platform 
on  the  east,  which  is  reached  at  half-past  six.  There  I  erect  my 
instruments  in  the  same  cairn  which  we  visited  yesterday,  and 
which  may  be  called  the  eastern  summit.  The  pools  on  the  way 
arc  thinly  crusted  with  ice. 

With  what  joy  I  look  out  from  the  well  upon  the  cairn,  and 
am  greeted  with  the  sight  of  Ararat  in  all  his  majesty,  without  a 
particle  of  cloud  !  Every  minute  the  outline  grows  in  distinctness, 
and  each  familiar  feature  becomes  clear.  How  radiant  the  fabric 
looks — such  a  bright  presence  in  the  sky,  above  the  summits  of 
the  Ala  Dagh  !  Those  mountains  pass  insensibly  into  the  out- 
lines on  the  east — the  horizontal  heights  of  the  Persian  tableland. 
Westwards  it  is  a  series  of  plains.  The  plain  of  Patnotz,  deep 
below  us,  joins  the  plain  of  Melazkert  ;  that  expanse  is  continued 
into  the  region  of  Bulanik,  threaded  by  the  silver  channel  of  the 
Murad.  Kartevin  and  Bilejan  rise  like  islands  from  this  sea-like 
surface,  in  which  are  lapped  the  blue  waters  of  Lakes  Nazik  and 
Gop.  In  the  north  the  undulations  of  the  plateau  country  are 
continued  up  to  the  barrier  of  the  Mergemir — Kilich-Gedik  ;  but 
that  outline  is  so  low  that  you  almost  see  the  plain  beyond  it, 
supporting  the  base  of  the  Kuseh  Dagh.  Further  west  the  plains 
are  bounded  by  much  bolder  masses  —  Khamur  with  Bingol 
showing  up  behind.  The  peak  of  Palandoken  is  just  perceived. 
But  the  Nimrud  crater  is  a  conspicuous  object — not  the  least 
remarkable  feature  in  the  scene.  How  vast  it  all  looks  ! — stray 
clouds  throwing  liquid  shadows,  and  earth  reflecting  the  glow  of 
morning  in  vague,  mysterious  lights  and  hues. 

In  the  opposite  direction  the  contrast  exceeds   expectation — 
for  one   is  standing   in  the   border  region   on  the   outskirts   of  the 
plateau,  and  near  the  serried  ranges  which  confine  it  on  the  south. 
VOL.  II  z 


IT^S  Armenia 

Never  have  I  seen  those  ranges  look  so  steep  and  savage,  the 
seams  rising  Hke  spear-points  from  the  water's  edge.  Nowhere  is 
their  outline  more  broken  into  peaks,  more  exactly  the  opposite 
of  the  outlines  on  the  north.  And  the  contrast  is  enhanced  by 
the  sea  to  which  they  descend — the  dream-like  presence  of  the 
sweet  sea  of  Van.  Pleasant  verdure  softens  the  landscape  of  the 
nearer  shores,  with  their  sinuous  inlets,  already  deepening  to  an 
intense  blue. 

I  remain  about  three  hours  upon  this  summit,  and  then 
proceed  to  the  highest  eminence  on  the  eastern  margin  of  the 
circular  figure,  in  order  to  overlook  the  eastern  arm  of  Lake  Van. 
On  my  way  there  a  strange  incident  occurs.  My  Circassian  has 
told  me  that  there  exists  a  ziaret,  or  place  of  pilgrimage,  in 
the  vicinity  of  this  cairn.  Curious,  and  half  doubtful,  I  ask  him 
to  show  me  the  spot,  which  he  says  is  close  by.  What  is  my 
amazement  w^hen,  opening  out  a  slight  hollow  of  the  snowy 
surface,  we  see  before  us  a  group  of  Mohammedan  women, 
standing  upon  the  ice  with  bare  feet  and  ankles,  and  prostrating 
themselves  before  a  pair  of  stag's  horns  !  Indeed  the  antlers  are 
so  thickly  covered  with  little  bits  of  rag  that  it  is  impossible  to 
say  for  certain  to  what  species  of  animal  they  belonged.  Stranger 
still  is  the  fact  that  a  band  of  women — I  count  twelve — should 
have  risked  their  lives  in  this  way.  Tantuni  religio  !  .  .  .  And 
yet  the  Kaimakam  of  Melazkert  is  quite  unshaken  in  his  belief 
that  only  one  man,  and  he  in  exceptional  circumstances,  has  ever 
trodden  the  sacred  summit  of  Sipan  !  ^ 

After  spending  nearly  another  three  hours  upon  the  eastern 
eminence,  during  which  I  draw  in  the  portion  of  the  lake  which 
lies  before  me,  because  I  recognise  several  errors  in  the  existing 
map,  I  return  to  our  camp  upon  the  ridge.  Oswald  has  just 
completed  his  arduous  work  upon  the  snow  ;  and  the  combination 
of  our  labours  produces  the  following  results,  which  must  be  taken 
as  approximate.  The  long  axis  of  the  figure  described  by  the 
summit  region  is  but  little  inclined  from  an  east-west  line.  The 
centre  of  the  circular  mass,  to  which  the  eastern  summit  belongs, 
is  a  little  north  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  western  summit  in 
an  easterly  direction.  The  ultimate  points  of  this  axis  are, 
on  the  west,  the  western  summit,  and  on  the  east,  the  emi- 
nence upon  which  I  last  stood.      The   distance   between   the   two 

1   Such  ziarets  exist  upon  almost  all  the  iirominent  mountains,  great  or  small,  in  this 
part  of  Armenia.      The  custom  no  doubt  comes  down  from  an  epoch  of  Nature-worship. 


Ascent  of  Sipan  339 

is   one   and  a  quarter    miles.      The  breadth   of  the   basin   is  just 
under  a  mile. 

The  Circassians  and  the  porters  dance  with  delight  when  the 
order  is  given  to  take  down  the  tent.  They  appear  to  have  made 
up  their  minds  that  we  shall  keep  them  shivering  for  another 
night.  All  give  utterance  to  devout  and  repeated  AlJiamdilallaJis, 
thanks  be  to  God !  Our  last  duty  is  to  scale  the  western  summit, 
and  to  become  familiar  with  the  scene  which  it  commands. 
We  overlook  the  small  circular  lake  of  the  Aiger  Gol,  on  the 
southern  slopes  of  Sipan.  It  perhaps  fills  the  basin  of  a  parasitic 
crater.  The  elevation  of  this  peak  is  about  the  same  as  that  of 
the  eastern  summit,  namely  13,700  feet.  On  our  way  down  we 
recognise  the  traces  of  a  bear  ;  and  we  reach  our  standing  camp 
without  further  incident  at  about  five  o'clock.  It  has  been  a  very 
full  and  delightful  day.^ 

1  It  will  be  recognised  from  the  above  description  that  the  summit  of  Sipan  is  much 
more  basin-like  than  that  of  Ararat.  Sipan  probably  possessed  a  crater  in  the  proper 
sense.      That  of  Ararat  is  so  much  worn  down  that  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  exist. 

Sipan  appears  to  have  been  built  up  by  successive  lava  streams,  which  became  more 
and  more  viscous,  until  that  finally  emitted  had  no  power  to  flow  at  all,  and  merely 
welled  up,  forming  the  circular  mass  on  the  east.  The  lava  composing  that  mass  is 
spongy  and  glassy,  a  glassy  mica-andesite.  The  narrow  ridge,  upon  which  we  camped, 
and  which  may  represent  the  northern  rim  of  the  old  crater,  consists  of  a  slabby  rhyolite 
with  impure  obsidian  ;  it  is  covered  up  with  cindery  slag.  The  western  summit  and 
surrounding  rock  is  made  up  of  a  lava  somewhat  similar  to  that  on  Nimrud — a  dull  im- 
pure obsidian  with  ill-developed  spherulites  ;  the  flow  structure  is  well  marked.  Tuffs 
were  nowhere  to  be  seen.  But  a  bastion  on  the  northern  side  of  the  mountain  was 
cloaked  with  grey  pumice  sand. 

The  ascent  of  the  mountain  is  described  by  Brant  [J.K.G.S.  1840,  vol.  x.  pp.  409 
seq.)  and  by  Tozer  {Turkish  Armenia,  pp.  327  seq.).  But  they  both  largely  under- 
estimate the  height.  They  appear  to  have  been  misled  by  the  fact  that  the  highest  points 
are  free  from  snow  in  midsummer  ;  but  the  sunmiit  region  in  general  is  a  mass  of  snow 
even  at  that  season.  On  Ararat  such  piles  of  rock,  on  which  the  snow  has  been  unable 
to  obtain  a  footing,  are  found  quite  near  the  summit,  which  is  nearly  17,000  feet  high. 


Fig.  189.    Grave  on  the  Summit  of  Khamur. 

CHAPTER    XX 

BACK    TO    THE    CENTRAL    TABLELAND 

We  were  received  with  the  greatest  kindness  by  Shakir  Effendi 
upon  our  return  to  Uran  Gazi.  The  vigorous  old  man  came  to 
sit  with  us  in  our  tent,  and  gave  us  some  account  both  of  himself 
and  of  his  people.  It  appears  that  he  has  held  the  office  of 
Kaimakam  of  Adeljivas,  and  that  he  occupied  that  dignity  for  four 
years.  He  is  the  Reis  or  supreme  chief  of  all  the  Circassians  in 
these  districts  ;  and  he  gave  me  a  list,  which  should  prove  of  some 
interest,  of  their  villages/  He  added  that  the  population  was  in- 
creasing. The  founders  of  the  settlement,  of  whom  Shakir  was 
one,  came  to  these  seats  after  the  last  Russo-Turkish  war.  They 
were  emigrants  from  the  district  of  Kars,  a  home  which  they  had 
adopted   after  the  Russians  came   into   possession   of  their   native 

^  The  list  i.s  divided  into  cazas  and  villages  : — Adeljivas  caza  —  I,  Uran  (lazi  ; 
2,  Kogus.  Van  caza — 3,  Shikhare  ;  4,  Shikhuna  ;  5,  Azikare  ;  6,  I'akis.  Akhlat  caza 
— 7,  Kholik  ;  8,  Agjavireh  ;  9,  Yogurtyemes  ;  10,  Develik  ;  II,  Khanik.  Melazkert 
caza — 12,  Serdut ;  13,  Varelmish  ;  14,  Kara  AH;  15,  Simu.  Biilanik  caza — 16, 
Gopo.  Khinis  caza — 17,  Lekbudagh.  I'arlo  caza — 18,  Charbahur  ;  19,  Charbahur 
Tepe  ;  20,  Akhpoghan  ;  21,  Zirnek  ;  22,  Budag  ;  23,  Shekan  ;  24,  Aineh.  In  addi- 
tion to  these — I  will  not  vouch  for  the  spelling — there  were,  he  said,  to  be  found 
Circassians  on  the  side  of  Erzerum. 


Back  to  the  Central  Tableland  341 

mountains.  When  the  Russians  captured  Kars  they  received 
notice  to  quit,  or,  as  Shakir  put  it,  they  were  told  to  get  out 
{Aideh  !).  They  took  ship,  and  landed  upon  the  shores  of  the 
Black  Sea  within  Turkish  territory.  But  no  arrangements  had 
been  made  to  settle  them  anew.  They  were  starving  and  being 
decimated  by  sickness,  when  the  Queen  of  England  came  to  their 
aid.  Her  Majesty  told  the  Turks  that  they  must  either  find  the 
land  without  delay  or  she  herself  would  provide  land  within  her 
dominions.  This  speech  spurred  the  Turks  on.  In  this  way 
they  became  established  in  Uran  Gazi.  This  kind  action  on  the 
part  of  our  Queen  would  always  live  in  their  memory.  They  are 
on  good  terms  with  the  Turks,  but  they  are  preparing  to  move  on 
again.      That  inexorable  Russian  advance  ! 

As  for  the  Kurds,  they  regard  them  as  scarcely  human  beings 
and  do  not  fear  them  at  all.  But  they  are  held  in  great  awe  by 
the  Kurds.  Unlike  the  wretched  Armenians,  they  are  allowed  to 
carry  arms,  which  they  know  how  to  use  with  effect.  And  you 
hear  the  laughter  of  children  in  their  villages. 

While  I  was  engaged  in  writing,  the  indefatigable  Oswald 
scoured  the  plain  in  all  directions.  He  found  the  limestones  on 
its  margin  highly  marmorised,  full  of  corals  ;  they  must  belong  to 
the  Eocene  period.  The  efflorescence  on  the  border  of  the  Jil 
Gol  is  not  in  fact  an  incrustation,  but  is  due  to  a  bleached  felting 
of  confervcB.  Rushes  abound,  but  they  had  already  been  cut. 
The  waters  find  an  egress  through  two  funnel-shaped  basins,  near  a 
large  crack  in  a  boss  of  lava.  They  disappear  beneath  the  ground 
in  little  whirlpools,  and  are  believed  to  come  to  the  surface  at 
Adeljivas.  Shakir  assured  us  that,  if  anything,  the  lake  is  now 
on  the  increase  ;  it  has  been  increasing  since  the  earthquake 
which  was  so  destructive  at  Adeljivas  about  five  years  ago.  This 
earthquake  did  little  damage  at  Uran  Gazi.  Although  the 
village  is  now  about  a  mile  distant  from  the  lake,  good  water 
may  be  found  at  any  point  in  the  vicinity  by  digging  a  short 
distance  down. 

August  8. — Nimrud  and  Sipan  having  now  yielded  up  their 
secrets,  it  was  our  next  object  to  explore  Bingol.  But,  on  the 
way,  we  were  anxious  to  follow  the  course  of  the  Murad,  the 
reaches  of  that  river  between  Gop  and  Charbahur  being  practi- 
cally unknown.  We  were  also  desirous  of  climbing  Khamur. 
Our  first  day's  stage  was  to  be  the  village  of  Gop.'^      W^e  there- 

'   The    intermediate    distances   along    the    route  described    in  this   chapter    were   as 


342  Armenia 

fore  crossed  the  plain  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  the  way 
being  indicated  by  a  Circassian  guide.  After  riding  about  three 
miles  we  reached  the  foot  of  some  low  hills,  confining  the  plain 
on  that  side.  Against  their  first  slopes  lay  a  Kurdish  hamlet — 
Karaghun.  Issuing  into  a  valley,  we  rose  above  it  to  the  crest 
of  the  hills,  which,  as  we  expected,  were  down-like  in  character. 
For  some  little  distance  our  way  led  over  these  downs. 

But  I  need  not  tire  my  reader  by  taking  him  over  old 
ground  ;  he  will  readily  recognise  that  our  surroundings  were 
much  the  same  in  character  as  during  our  journey  across  this 
region  from  Melazkert.  For  the  second  time  we  were  crossing 
the  block  of  stratified  rocks  on  the  west  of  Sipan  ;  but  on  this 
occasion  we  were  already  within  their  northerly  and  less  elevated 
zone,  and  we  might,  no  doubt,  have  descended  to  the  plain,  and 
followed  along  their  base.  We  struck  our  former  route  above 
the  village  of  Demian,  after  passing  through  the  same  valley  to 
which  we  had  then  come  down  at  Akhviran,  and  which  we  now 
entered  above  the  large  Kurdish  village  of  Shebu.  It  is  an  inlet 
of  the  great  plain  at  the  foot  of  Sipan.  But  our  guide  preferred 
to  take  us  along  the  slope  of  the  mass,  all  the  way  from  Demian 
to  the  village  of  Leter.  For  that  is  the  direction  which  these 
heights  pursue. 

I  have  little  doubt  that  these  stratified  rocks  come  up  again 
on  the  east  of  Sipan,  and  the  view  from  the  eastern  summit 
disclosed  in  that  direction  very  similar  block-like  heights.  They 
probably  sink  beneath  the  volcanic  system  of  the  Ala  Dagh.  In 
this  northern  zone  the  downs  consist  of  lacustrine  deposits, 
sandstone,  and  a  limestone  full  of  the  little  shells  known  as 
viytihis}  The  sandstone  underlies  this  inytihis  limestone, 
indicating,  as  Oswald  observed,  that  the  great  lake,  which  once 
covered  this  region,  grew  deeper  before  the  latest  earth -move- 
ments set  in.  Throughout  the  ride  from  Demian  to  Leter,  a 
distance  of  5^  miles,  we  overlooked  the  flat  region  which  is  due 
to  the  action  of  those  former  waters,  and  through  which  the 
Murad  flows.  But  a  gale  of  wind  was  in  our  face  ;  the  plain  was 
shrouded  in  haze — a  treeless  and  little-inhabited  district,  which 
might,  no  doubt,  be  made  fertile  and  prosperous. 

Leter,  a  large  village,  partly  Kurd  and  in  part  Armenian,  is 

f(jlIovvs  : — Uran  Gazi  viA  Leter  and  Lake  Bulania  to  Clop,  32  miles  ;   Gop  to  Charbahur, 
deviating   to  the  confluence  of  the    Bingtil    Su   (Khinis)   with    the    Murad,    52|    miles  ; 
Charbahur  to  Gumgum,  6|  miles;   Gunigum  to  Gundemir,  9^^  miles.     Total,   ioo|  miles. 
'   Mytiliis  (Congeria)  polytnorphiis. 


Back  to  the  Central  Tableland 


vj^O 


situated  on  the  confines  of  the  plain.  It  is  built  upon  lava,  black 
and  slabby  in  character,  which  has  broken  through  the  lacustrine 
deposits.  Similar  bosses,  resembling  those  near  Uran  Gazi,  but 
larger,  rise  up  from  the  level  expanse  beyond.  The  direction  in 
which  the  inhabitants  pointed  towards  the  village  of  Gop  was 
plainly  not  that  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name.  We  had  already 
obtained  a  glimpse  of  its  waters,  lying  almost  west  of  where  we 
now  stood.  Anxious  to  visit  the  lake,  we  shaped  a  course  which 
we  thought  would  find  it  beyond  a  screen  of  low  hills.  The 
plain  in  that  direction  was  very  rudely  cultivated,  white  holly- 
hocks and  a  large  mauve  thistle  crowding  out  the  ragged  corn. 
At  about  6\  miles  from  Leter  we  passed  through  the  first  village 
we  had  since  seen,  the  large  Armenian  settlement  of  Kekeli. 
And  in  another  ten  minutes  we  stood  on  the  summit  of  the 
eminence  which  had  concealed  the  lake  for  so  long. 

It  was  nothing  more  than  a  low  hill,  an  isolated  mass  of  lava 
rising  up  from  the  plain.  It  was  crowned  by  a  little  chapel,  put 
together  with  stone  and  mud,  and  provided  with  a  wicker  door. 
Looking  through,  we  discovered  a  large  stone,  engraved  with  a 
cross,  which  was,  no  doubt,  the  object  or  symbol  of  worship. 
Before  it,  three  little  lamps  reposed  on  a  horizontal  slab.  From 
this  standpoint  we  overlooked  the  extent  of  the  waters,  of  which 
the  nearest  shore  was  still  some  two  miles  off.  The  lake  is 
bordered  by  level  ground  upon  the  east  and  south,  and  by 
considerable  heights  on  the  west  and  north.  On  the  west  it  is 
Bilejan,  sending  outwards  radial  buttresses  with  deep  valleys  from 
a  central,  meridional  ridge  ;  lesser  heights  in  connection  with  the 
mountain,  and  of  volcanic  origin,  descend  to  the  waters  along  the 
northern  shore.  A  slight  depression  separates  this  series  from 
Bilejan,  and  they,  in  turn,  sink  somewhat  steeply  into  the  plain. 
At  that  point,  and  at  their  foot,  lies  the  large  village  of  Sheikh 
Yakub,  beside  which  flows  the  stream  giving  issue  to  the  lake. 

In  the  opposite  direction,  beyond  the  plain  on  its  southern 
confines,  it  is  overlooked  by  an  extension  of  the  heights  on  the 
west  of  Sipan,  which  are  continued  up -to  the  mass  of  Bilejan. 
It  would  appear  that  volcanic  action  has  been  busy  throughout 
this  region  ;  and  we  thought  we  saw  a  grassy  crater  among  those 
heights.  Beyond  the  outline  of  the  barrier  emerges  a  little 
conical  peak,  which  we  recognised  as  the  cone  on  the  west  of 
Nazik.  Bilejan  itself  does  not  look  as  if  it  ever  could  have 
possessed   a  crater,  and   it   is   probably  due  to  upwellings  of  lava 


344  Arincnia 

along  a  meridional  fissure.  The  highest  points  along  the  central 
ridge  may  have  an  elevation  of  some  9000  feet. 

A  brisk  breeze  was  blowing  as  we  made  our  way  to  the  brink 
of  the  water,  churning  up  its  muddy  depths.  Indeed  this  lake  is 
thickly  charged  with  dark  sedimentary  matter — a  characteristic 
which  has  given  rise  to  a  name  under  which  some  know  it,  Lake 
Bulama,  or  the  muddy  lake.'  Another  and  not  more  savoury 
feature  is  its  odour,  which  is  fetid  and  nauseating.  An 
abundance  of  fresh-water  mussels  were  strewn  on  the  shore,  and 
several  pelicans  were  floating  on  the  waves.  In  shape  the  lake 
appeared  to  be  almost  circular.  Its  elevation,  as  one  would 
expect,  is  much  less  than  that  of  Nazik,  being  only  5550  feet. 
In  point  of  verdure  its  surroundings  are  quite  as  mournful  as 
those  of  its  neighbour,  while  the  lake  itself  does  little  to  relieve 
their  monotony. 

From  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  this  unattractive  sheet 
of  water  we  followed  the  course  of  the  foul  stream  by  which  it  is 
drained.  It  took  us  to  the  foot  of  the  heights  already  mentioned, 
and  through  the  village  of  Sheikh  Yakub.  It  is  a  very  large 
Armenian  village,  which  has  probably  been  prosperous,  but  which 
is  now  in  a  state  of  extreme  destitution.  All  the  inhabitants 
were  in  rags.  Boys  up  to  the  age  of  puberty  were  quite  naked, 
and  girls  to  their  fifth  or  sixth  year.  The  village  was  full  of 
soldiers,  who  were  standing  on  the  roofs.  I  summoned  their 
officer,  and  enquired  what  their  business  might  be.  He  answered 
that  Ibrahim  Pasha,  adjutant  of  Kurd  Hamidiyeh,  was  about  to 
visit  the  place.  In  Gop  I  ascertained  that  the  object  of  his  visit 
was  to  restore  some  property  which  had  been  carried  off  by 
Kurds.  Such  at  least  was  the  explanation  which  I  received.  It 
was  certainly  not  a  bad  idea  to  quarter  all  these  troops  upon 
starving  people  ;  they  would  think  twice  before  claiming  redress 
a  second  time.      But  I  suspect  that  it  was  a  rather  clumsy  lie. 

Gop  is  situated  in  the  plain,  some  miles  distant  from  the 
lake,  at  the  foot  of  the  extreme  slopes  of  the  heights  which 
border  the  northerly  shore  (alt.  5150  feet).  Although  the 
place  is  the  capital  of  the  caza  of  Bulanik,  it  is  a  large  village 
rather  than  a  town.  The  Kaimakam  informed  me  that  there 
were  400  houses,  all  but  50  inhabited  by  Armenians.  The 
district  of  Bulanik  comprises  some  of  the  most  fertile  land  in  all 

'    Layard  (Discoveries  in  tlic  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  Lontlon,  1853,  p.  20) 
speaks  of  it  under  the  nnnie  tjf  the  Lake  of  Sliailu. 


Back  to  the  Central  Tableland  345 

Armenia,  and  is  of  considerable  area.  Towards  the  east  it 
includes  a  large  portion  of  the  plain  of  the  Murad  below  the 
town  of  Melazkert  ;  while,  on  the  west,  it  reaches  across  the  mass 
of  Bilejan  and  its  outliers  to  a  second  extensive  stretch  of  fairly 
level  ground.  That  region  slopes  away  from  the  northern  border 
heights  of  Mush  plain  to  the  Murad  and  the  opposite  heights  of 
Khamur  ;  it  sends  a  tributary  to  the  left  bank  of  the  great  river, 
and  one  of  its  principal  and  central  villages  is  that  of  Liz.  The 
fecundity  of  the  soil  is  probably  due  to  a  happy  combination  of 
calcareous  marls  with  the  detritus  of  eruptive  rocks.  The  grain 
which  it  produces  is  of  excellent  quality,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  fields  will  be  full  of  thistles.  The  peasants  are  miserably 
poor.  The  Kaimakam  explained  that  their  rags,  and  squalor 
were  matter  of  custom  [tabiat)  ;  and,  in  fact,  they  had  plenty  of 
money,  hoarded  away.  It  is  possible  that  such  an  hypothesis 
may  indeed  govern  some  of  his  actions  ;  but  I  doubt  whether  he 
put  it  forward  in  good  faith.  The  main  cause  of  their  destitution 
is  plainly  the  want  of  security,  coupled  with  the  impossibility  of 
exporting  their  crops.  But  usury  is  also  a  factor  of  considerable 
importance,  the  husbandman  having  generally  borrowed  to  buy 
his  seed  at  rates  which  rob  him  of  most  of  the  earnings  of  his 
toil. 

From  Gop  we  made  a  second  excursion  to  the  lake,  riding  to 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  volcanic  eminences  which 
rise  from  its  northern  margin.  It  is  a  distance  of  about  four 
miles.  The  ascent  commences  on  the  outskirts  of  the  village  ; 
but  it  is  at  first  very  gradual,  the  slope  consisting  of  marly  clays. 
These  beds  were  full  of  inytilus  in  perfect  preservation,  and  were 
seen  to  have  been  overlaid  with  tuffs.  About  halfway,  we  came 
to  the  walled  monastery  of  Surb  Daniel,  containing  the  relics  of 
a  saint  of  that  name.  The  ancient  chapel  has  been  restored. 
Over  the  altar  was  conspicuous  a  picture  of  the  Virgin  and  Child, 
The  one  or  two  resident  priests  were  sunk  in  abject  ignorance, 
but  they  were  in  possession  of  some  good  farm  buildings  within 
their  enclosure.  We  remained  for  some  time  upon  the  peak 
which  we  had  selected,  and  from  which  we  obtained  a  fine  view 
of  the  lake  and  its  surroundings.  While  I  was  mapping,  Oswald 
sketched.  We  could  see  two  villages  on  the  level  ground  south 
of  the  lake — Khashlu  and  Piran.  In  the  plain  towards  the 
Murad  several  settlements  were  visible  upon  a  line  between  Leter 
and  Gop, 


346  Armenia 

August  10. — It  was  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  a  fine 
summer's  day  when  we  resumed  our  journey,  and  set  out  in  a 
north-westerly  direction  across  this  spacious  plain.  Travelling  at 
this  season  is  most  agreeable  in  Armenia  ;  it  scarcely  ever  rains, 
yet  one  is  never  overpowered  by  the  heat  of  the  brilliant  sun. 
Pleasant  breezes  float  across  the  expanse.  The  harvest  was 
being  gathered  in.  Our  landmarks  were  in  full  view — Sipan, 
Khamur,  Bilejan.  A  little  river  meanders  through  the  deep  soil, 
on  a  course  towards  the  Murad.  It  receives  the  waters  which 
irrigate  the  village  of  Gop,  and,  among  them,  those  of  the  stream 
from  the  lake.  It  has  its  origin  some  distance  east  of  Gop.  It 
is  called  the  Kor  Su.  At  first  our  track  took  us  about  parallel 
with  its  banks ;  then  we  crossed  it  at  the  large  Armenian  village 
of  Yungali.  Anxious  to  visit  the  point  of  confluence  of  the 
Bingol  Su  with  the  Murad,  we  now  diverged  towards  the  north. 
The  nature  of  the  ground  compelled  us  to  cross  the  latter  river  a 
little  above  the  junction.  It  was  flowing  in  a  very  broad,  alluvial 
bed.  In  width  it  may  have  been  about  a  hundred  yards  ;  nor  in 
any  place  did  the  water  reach  much  above  our  horses'  knees. 
Except  for  the  great  islands  of  mountain  about  us,  we  might  have 
been  standing  upon  the  Mesopotamian  plains.  Our  approach 
disturbed  a  group  of  large  eagles,  so  heavy  that  they  were 
obliged  to  run  before  taking  wing.  The  Bingol  Su  came  in 
through  a  deep  channel,  which  washed  the  girths  of  our  horses. 
It  did  not  seem  to  be  more  than  forty  yards  wide.  But,  although 
sluggish,  it  must  bring  a  very  considerable  volume  of  water  ;  for 
its  contribution  extended  to  about  half  the  width  of  the  joint 
river,  being  clearly  distinguished  by  the  quantity  of  sediment 
which  it  sustained.  From  this  confluence  we  followed  the  course 
of  the  Murad,  riding  over  the  plain  on  the  right  bank,  with  the 
stream.  A  flock  of  wild  geese  were  resting  in  the  pebbly  bed, 
nor  did  the  shapely  birds  move  as  we  passed  them  by.  One  of 
our  escort  was  successful  in  securing  a  fine  specimen  with  a  bullet, 
which  provided  us  with  an  excellent  meal  next  day. 

But  the  features  of  the  landscape  soon  underwent  a  change  ; 
for  the  river  was  approaching  the  foot  of  the  Khamur  heights. 
At  first  it  was  low  hills,  consisting  of  lake  deposits,  which  we 
skirted  on  our  right  hand.  But  near  the  Armenian  village  of 
Karaogli  a  bold  ridge  comes  into  prominence,  and  it  extends  all 
the  way  to  Shakhberat.  It  is  of  eruptive  volcanic  origin.  It  is 
an  important   member  of  the  scries  of  heights  of  which  Khamur 


Back  to  the  Central  Tableland  347 

forms  the  dominant  mass.  East  of  Khamur  that  series  rises  to 
a  considerable  elevation  before  declining  to  the  valley  of  the 
Bingol  Su.  The  highest  ridge,  as  seen  from  this  district,  lies 
some  distance  towards  the  north,  and  is  called  the  Zirnek  Dagh. 
On  the  other  hand,  this  volcanic  parapet  comes  right  up  to  the 
river,  which  follows  along  its  base.  At  the  same  time  hills 
started  up  from  the  plain  upon  the  left  bank.  It  was  evident 
that  they  were  volcanic  and  in  connection  with  Bilejan,  of  which 
we  were  opening  out  the  more  westerly  and  less  deeply  carved 
side. 

These  features  transformed  the  scene  with  startling  rapidity  ; 
the  idle  river  was  no  longer  able  to  flow  where  it  pleased. 
Some  two  miles  below  Karaogli  it  enters  a  deep  gorge,  and 
throughout  its  course  to  the  plain  of  Mush  it  is,  with  little 
intermission,  confined  in  a  narrow  bed.  Except  during  the 
passage  of  the  block  of  heights  on  the  north  of  that  plain,  the 
Murad  performs  no  considerable  feat.  It  follows  the  general 
trend  of  the  lines  of  elevation,  and  one  would  expect  its  course 
to  be  fairly  tranquil  through  this  region.  But  the  lavas  tease  the 
river  ;  they  have  welled  up  along  fissures,  and  have  converted  the 
wide  valley  into  as  inhospitable  a  district  as  any  through  which 
it  passes  on  its  long  journey  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Our  mid-day  halt  was  spent  beneath  the  shade  of  a  grove  of 
willows,  on  the  margin  of  some  fields  of  hemp  and  cabbage, 
which  softened  the  site  of  Karaogli.  But,  the  village  left  behind, 
we  soon  entered  the  narrows,  the  track  being  taken  along  the 
cliff-side,  at  some  considerable  height  above  the  hissing,  silvery 
water.  The  Murad  pierces  a  mass  of  lava  belonging  to  the 
ridge  on  its  right  bank.  It  seemed  a  wayward  thing  to  do  ;  for 
the  ground  is  lower  just  south  of  the  gorge,  and  appeared  to 
invite  the  river.  While  still  within  the  cleft,  it  was  spanned 
by  a  wooden  bridge  resting  on  several  piers  of  solid  masonry. 
This  is  probably  the  first  bridge  over  the  Murad  below  Tutakh. 
Issuing  from  the  cliffs,  the  tortuous  reaches  opened  out  into  an 
easier  country,  and  a  wider  prospect  was  unfolded  on  either  side. 
For  the  first  time  we  obtained  a  view  over  the  plain  on  the  west 
of  Bilejan,  bordered  on  the  south  by  the  still  distant  heights,  on 
this  side  of  the  depression  of  Mush.  But  the  volcanic  hills  on 
the  left  bank  were  not  long  without  a  successor  ;  the  outline  was 
taken  up  by  a  second  block  of  similar  origin  ;  and  the  scene 
aeain   became    restricted    to   the   immediate   surroundings   of  the 


348  Armenia 

river,  which  were  stony  and  bare  and  bleak.  We  passed  only  a 
single  Kurdish  hamlet  during  our  ride  to  the  cirque  or  caldron  of 
Shakhberat.  There  the  river  makes  an  S-shaped  bend  through 
a  fairly  wide  valley,  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  volcanic  heights. 
The  ridge  and  peak  of  Kolibaba  is  seen  to  full  advantage,  con- 
fining the  valley  on  the  west.  Two  little  Kurdish  villages, 
Arenjik  and  Shakhberat,  lie  on  the  slopes  and  in  the  lap  of  this 
spacious  cirque. 

August  II. — ^The  level  of  the  Murad  at  Shakhberat  was 
tested  by  two  readings  of  the  boiling-point  apparatus  on 
successive  days.  It  was  found  to  be  4900  feet.  The  village 
commands  a  view  of  the  summit  of  Khamur,  the  highest  point  of 
the  amphitheatre  in  which  the  hamlet  is  placed.  But  that  lofty 
ridge  is  in  part  screened  by  the  slopes  of  Kolibaba,  and  by  the 
parapet  which  has  skirted  the  right  bank  of  the  river  all  the 
way  from  Karaogli.  That  parapet  joins  the  mass  about  opposite 
the  summit  ;  and  it  is  only  at  the  head  of  the  valley  between 
Khamur  and  Kolibaba  that  the  outline  and  slopes  of  the 
principal  ridge  are  fully  exposed.  The  shortest  way  to  the 
summit,  but  certainly  the  steepest,  would  lead  up  that  valley  by 
a  fairly  direct  course.  But  our  guide  preferred  to  take  us  by  a 
more  easterly  approach,  up  the  face  of  the  parapet.  He  was  a 
very  pleasant  fellow,  a  khoja  or  village  priest  ;  and  he  looked  well 
with  his  clean  white  cottons,  astride  upon  his  mare.  But  the 
notion  that  we  really  intended  to  mount  to  the  actual  peak  was 
repugnant  to  his  good  sense.  Climbing  Khamur  meant  to  him 
proceeding  to  an  adjacent  eminence  and  thence  contemplating 
the  airy  heights  above  your  head.  Such  a  spot  was  provided 
under  circumstances  of  luxury  by  the  site  of  a  hamlet  high  up  on 
the  ridge.  A  rustling  stream  flows  through  it,  which  has  been 
dammed  and  made  into  a  lake  ;  and  round  the  pool  trees  have 
been  planted  to  shade  the  flocks.  It  was  indeed  a  charming 
foreground  to  the  immense  landscape  which  already  extended  to 
Nimrud.  But  the  khoja  s  dallying  was  soon  cut  short  ;  the  track 
ceased  at  this  village,  which  bore  the  unworthy  name  of  Ganibuk. 
He  was  forced  to  lead  us  across  a  beach  of  large  boulders,  and 
through  some  thickets  of  oak  scrub.  The  ascent  became  pro- 
nounced, and,  when  at  length  the  flat  top  was  reached,  the  main 
mass  was  still  distant,  and  looked  very  high. 

The  composition  of  the  ridge,  which  wc  had  now  surmounted, 
is    at    once    interesting    and    typical    of    the    whole    region.      It 


Back  to  the  Central  Tableland  349 

consists  of  a  series  of  deep  beds  of  lake  deposits,  separated  one 
from  the  other  by  bands  of  lava.  At  first  the  lava  was  seen  to 
be  basaltic  in  character  and  compact  ;  but  towards  the  summit  it 
became  scoriaceous.  The  fact  would  seem  to  indicate  that, 
while  the  earlier  issues  were  submarine,  the  latest  flows  were  out- 
poured when  the  land  had  risen  above  the  water,  and  the  present 
configuration  was  being  attained.  The  platform  upon  which  we 
stood  was  composed  of  a  sheet  of  lava,  and  so  was  the  summit  of 
the  opposite  ridge  of  Khamur.  But  as  we  rode  into  the  shallow 
trough  which  separates  the  two  eminences,  the  greyish-white 
marls  again  came  to  view.  We  could  see  them  on  the  escarp- 
ments of  both  ridges,  which,  further  east,  became  gradually 
separated  by  a  deep  latitudinal  valley.  We  could  observe  the 
soft  material  where  it  was  baked  into  a  yellow  porcelain  by 
contact  with  the  cap  of  lava  on  the  Khamur  ridge.  Far  and 
wide,  towards  east  and  south,  the  landscape  wore  the  same  hues 
and  appearance  ;  the  same  character  appeared  to  belong  to  the 
heights  on  the  north  of  ]\Iush  plain.  Descending  into  the 
depression  and  rising  again  on  its  further  side,  we  reached  the 
actual  peak  or  highest  part  of  the  Khamur  ridge  after  a  zigzag 
climb  up  a  slope  overgrown  with  fennel.  We  had  attained  an 
altitude  of  9850  feet. 

Although  the  outline  of  Khamur  assumes  a  somewhat  pointed 
shape  when  seen  from  the  south,  as  from  the  cirque  of  Shakhberat, 
yet  the  summit  is  nothing  more  than  a  fairly  flat  and  narrow 
platform,  which  slopes  away  with  some  abruptness  on  the  north 
and  south.  The  lava  upon  this  platform  is  slabby  in  character 
and  may  be  described  as  an  augite-andesite.  There  is  no 
crater  on  the  summit  and  one  cannot  speak  of  Khamur  as  a 
volcano  in  the  proper  sense.  In  fact  it  is  a  considerable  block  of 
elevated  land,  in  the  western  portion  of  which  volcanic  action 
has  played  a  great  part.  The  foundation  of  the  block  is  probably 
composed  of  Eocene  limestone,  which  has  been  overlaid  by  later 
lake  deposits.  This  limestone  comes  to  view  in  a  remarkable 
manner  as  you  survey  the  eastern  half  of  the  mass.  The  ridge 
upon  which  you  stand  extends  for  a  mile  or  two  in  that  direction, 
and  presently  sinks  to  a  somewhat  narrow  upland  valley.  This 
depression  can  be  clearly  seen  from  the  adjacent  region,  whence 
it  has  the  appearance  of  a  notch  in  the  outline  of  the  mountain. 
Its  eastern  slope  leads  over  into  a  very  broad  block  of  mountain, 
of  w^hich   the   central   region   is  hollow   and   basin -like   in   shape, 


350  Armenia 

and  the  outer  sides  steep  and  high.  They  are  perhaps  steepest 
and  most  lofty  on  the  south.  It  is  in  fact  one  grand  synclinal, 
described  by  beds  of  hard  limestone,  which,  from  a  distance, 
o-roups  with  Khamur  in  a  single  mass.  The  axis  of  the  mass  in 
that  direction  is  about  east-north-east. 

The  prospect  towards  the  west  is  not  of  lesser  interest,  and 
is  certainly  even  more  strange.  Time  was  wanting  to  examine 
this  extraordinary  region,  which,  indeed,  it  would  require  several 
days  to  explore.  The  ridge  of  Khamur  is  joined  on  to  the 
northern  portion  of  another  great  block  of  elevated  land.  The 
eastern  wall  of  this  plateau  projects  some  distance  towards  the 
south,  almost  up  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Murad.  But  the  deep 
valley,  which  is  formed  by  this  projection  and  by  the  ridge  of 
Khamur,  is  filled  up  by  the  lofty  pile  of  Kolibaba — a  peninsular 
mountain,  only  connected  beyond  a  considerable  depression  with 
the  slopes  of  the  main  ridge.  It  is  plainly  of  eruptive  volcanic 
origin,  and  it  is  somewhat  circular  in  form.  Its  sides  are  strewn 
with  talus  and  clothed  with  oak  scrub.  Our  guide  and  the 
people  of  the  district  knew  it  under  the  name  which  I  have 
given,  and  which  they  averred  to  have  been  that  of  a  holy  man 
who  had  been  buried  there.  Though  who  this  prophet  might 
have  been,  or  what  he  wrought,  or  when  he  lived,  not  a  soul 
among  them  knew.  Throughout  this  district,  as  far  as  Bingol, 
the  tops  of  mountains  will  be  often  crowned  by  the  rude  enclosure 
of  some  sage's  grave.  Such  a  monument  was  a  conspicuous 
object  on  the  very  peak  of  Khamur  ;  and  with  its  headstone,  a 
huge  slab  grimly  resembling  a  human  bone,  might  have- been 
disposed  to  receive  a  giant's  remains  (Fig.  189). 

But  to  return  to  the  scene  before  us — this  adjacent  plateau 
on  the  west  extends  all  the  way  to  Bingol.  Indeed  it  is 
connected  with  the  southern  margin  of  the  Bingol  pedestal  by  a 
bold  saddle,  due  to  a  flow  of  lava.  This  feature  was,  of  course, 
scarcely  visible  from  Khamur  ;  but  the  continuation  of  the 
Khamur  ridge  might  be  traced  throughout  the  region,  being 
distinguished  by  a  succession  of  bold  bosses,  rising  along  its 
northern  margin.  These  peaks  are  especially  pronounced  at 
their  inception,  and  appeared  to  rise  almost  immediately  from 
the  northern  shore  of  a  large  lake  which  was  irregular  in  form. 
Near  its  south-east  corner  lay  a  second,  much  smaller  and 
circular  lake.  Neither  figure  on  any  map  which  I  have  seen. 
They  are  evidently  rather  deep,  for  their  colour  is  an  intense  blue. 


Back  to  the  Central  Tableland  351 

Such  are  some  of  the  characteristics  of  this  curious  region,  which 
may  be  included  among  the  Khamur  heights.  It  rises  above 
the  Murad  with  cHff-hke  sides,  which  scarcely  decline  at  all  to 
the  elevated  level  of  these  lonely  azure  lakes.  , 

The  view  from  the  summit  of  Khamur  may  be  divined  b}- 
my  reader ;  nor  need  I  attempt  to  describe  it  in  any  detail. 
It  embraces  Palanddken  and  Bingol  on  the  north  ;  Nimrud, 
Bilejan  and  Sipan  on  the  south.  On  one  side  lies  the  plain  of 
Khinis,  bordered  by  the  peaks  and  ridges  of  the  Akh  Dagh, 
which  are  seen  to  their  fullest  advantage.  On  another  it  is  the 
basin  of  the  Murad,  with  Sipan  rising  in  all  his  majesty  from  an 
expanse  of  level  and  cultivated  ground.  In  yet  another  }-ou 
overlook  the  plain  and  village  of  Liz  and  the  course  of  a  winding 
river.  From  no  standpoint  does  the  character  of  the  country,  as 
a  succession  of  sea -like  plains,  become  imprinted  with  greater 
clearness  on  the  mind.  Nor  is  any  district  in  the  nearer  Asia 
better  adapted  to  become  the  granary  of  a  prosperous  and  highly 
civilised  land.  We  descended  in  failing  light  by  the  valley  on 
the  side  of  Kolibaba,  and  reached  our  camp  with  some  difficulty 
in  three  hours. 

August  12. — On  the  following  morning  we  set  out  to  follow 
the  Murad,  as  far  as  its  egress  from  this  region  through  the 
heights  which  border  the  depression  of  Mush.  Much  the  same 
features  were  continued  throughout  the  stage.  The  cirque  of 
Shakhberat  is  enclosed  upon  the  west  by  a  stream  of  lava  from 
Kolibaba.  This  emission  has  flowed  in  an  almost  meridional 
direction,  and  has  forced  the  river  to  bend  away  to  the  south. 
After  passing  through  the  Armenian  village  of  Akrag,  which  is 
placed  on  a  higher  level  of  the  basin-like  area,  we  breasted  the 
bold  ridge  which  has  been  formed  by  this  lava,  and  crossed  it 
just  south  of  a  little  parasitic  cone,  emerging  from  the  side  of 
the  mountain.  Some  low  oaks  flourish  among  the  boulders  ; 
the  rock  is  a  glassy  augite-andesite.  The  ridge  leads  over  into  a 
little  plain,  bordered  upon  the  north  by  the  wall  of  the  Khamur 
plateau,  and  with  a  high  rim  upon  the  side  of  the  river,  which 
cannot  be  seen.  The  plain  has  evidently  been  covered  by  a  lake 
in  fairly  recent  times.  A  crack  in  the  rim  of  the  basin  displays 
the  channel  through  which  it  was  drained.  On  the  side  of 
Kolibaba  an  old  beach  line  was  visible,  some  fifty  feet  above  the 
level  of  this  plain.  The  soil  consists  of  a  black  clay  which  is 
not  cultivated,  but  which  must  be  very  rich.      It  took  us  nearly 


252  Annenia 

an  hour  to  cross  to  the  opposite  side,  where  it  is  confined  by  an 
outwork  of  the  Khamur  heights. 

Our  further  journey,  which  occupied  the  better  part  of  a  whole 
long  day,  need  not  be  followed  step  by  step.  We  had  arrived  at 
a  spot  where  the  dominant  lineaments  of  the  landscape  had 
already  become  pronounced.  These  prevailed  with  little  variety 
all  the  way.  On  the  right  bank,  at  an  interval  of  two  to  three 
miles  or  more,  rose  the  wall  of  the  Khamur  plateau.  The  further 
west  we  proceeded  the  more  irregular  it  became,  the  less  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  massive  spurs  which  it  put  out.  These 
outworks  descend  into  the  river  valley,  which  is  flooded  and 
choked  by  the  lavas.  Both  in  the  valley  and  on  these  slopes  the 
lavas  have  the  upper  hand  ;  but  the  grey  lacustrine  marls  are 
seldom  absent  or  for  long.  They  provide  favoured  stretches, 
covered  with  luscious  herbage,  where  a  little  stream  may  trickle 
down  from  the  barren  heights.  Still  the  scene  remains  wild, 
bleak  rather  than  of  impressive  ruggedness  ;  there  is  space 
along  the  margin  of  the  river,  which  flows  in  a  deep  canon 
through  the  sombre  eruptive  rock.  Some  stunted  oak  springs 
from  the  crevices  among  the  boulders,  but  it  rather  enhances  than 
relieves  the  mournful  aspect  of  the  surroundings. 

On  the  left  bank  a  new  feature  came  into  prominence  :  a  long 
and  fairly  lofty  ridge,  with  perfectly  horizontal  outline,  many 
miles  away  on  the  south.  But  the  slope  of  this  broad  mass  was 
continuous  to  the  brink  of  the  river,  where  it  was  broken  by  the 
stream  into  cliffs.  Its  gentle  gradient  and  almost  level  surface 
somewhat  softened  the  rigour  of  the  landscape.  It  was  seen  to 
ccwisist  of  a  sheet  of  lava,  which  had  covered  up  the  marls,  and 
which  must  have  issued  in  a  very  liquid  condition.  The  heights 
upon  which  it  is  built  are  the  northern  border  heights  of  Mush 
plain  ;  and  this  block  of  heights  approaches  closer  and  closer  to 
the  Murad,  as  it  eats  its  way  through  the  district  on  a  westerly 
course.  Such  was  the  character  of  the  country  beyond  the 
winding,  hissing  river  throughout  the  whole  stage.  Villages  there 
were  none,  and  hamlets  few.  A  single  oasis  of  any  importance 
was  observed  high-seated  upon  the  slope  in  the  south,  near  the 
break  in  the  outline  where  the  Murad  pierces  through  the  block. 
We  should  have  been  pleased  to  spend  the  night  in  that  extensive 
and  leafy  grove,  which  belongs  to  a  village  called  Ali  Gedik. 
But  we  were  assured  that  the  river  was  not  passable,  and  we 
were    obliged    to    push    on    to    Charbahur.       After    following    a 


Back  to  the  Central  Tableland  353 

romantic  gorge  where  the  Murad  has  again  been  wayward,  and 
has  preferred  to  saw  a  passage  through  a  towering  parapet  of 
lava  rather  than  to  follow  easier  ground  upon  the  south,  we  rode 
for  some  distance  along  a  wide  stretch  of  alluvial  soil  in  which 
the  river  at  length  reposes  from  its  arduous  labours.  The 
Circassian  village  of  Charbahur  is  placed  at  some  distance  from 
the  waters,  on  the  northern  margin  of  the  broad  strip  of  willow- 
grown  land.^ 

Charbahur  is  backed  by  a  barren  slope  of  the  Khamur  heights, 
and  is  screened  from  all  freshness  on  the  side  of  the  north.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  exposed  to  the  sultry  southern  breezes,  which 
find  their  way  through  the  passage  of  the  Murad,  acting  like  a 
funnel  to  the  furnace  of  Mush  plain.  There  were  said  to  be 
some  sixty  houses  in  the  village  ;  but  I  should  say  that  there 
were  more.  Some  of  the  tenements  are  well  built,  resembling 
neat  cottages  ;  but  unfortunately  they  swarm  with  fleas.  The 
standard  of  living  is  far  higher  than  among  the  Armenians  ;  but 
one  feels  that  there  is  little  or  nothing  in  the  race.  Our  im- 
pression of  the  Circassians  did  not  improve  upon  longer  acquaint- 
ance ;  although  they  are  by  no  means  the  worthless  and  predatory 
people  which  they  are  sometimes  represented  to  be.  Their 
conspicuous  characteristic  is  an  inordinate  love  of  swagger  ;  and 
their  handsome  figures  encourage  the  tendency  of  their  disposition. 
One  afternoon,  as  we  were  busy  at  work,  a  bugle  sounded  ;  and 
immediately  a  band  of  horsemen  galloped  into  the  village.  One 
by  one  they  passed  our  tent  at  the  utmost  speed  of  their  horses, 
jumping  to  the  ground  and  vaulting  back  into  the  saddle,  while 
still  at  full  pace.  Those  Cossack  manoeuvres  heralded  the 
approach  of  their  chief,  Suleyman  Pasha,  who,  it  appeared,  was 
riding  over  from  the  neighbouring  capital  of  the  caza  in  order  to 
honour  us  with  a  visit.  When  he  arrived  the  place  became  full 
of  irregular  troops,  with  w^iom  were  combined  a  small  detachment 
of  regular  cavalry.  Dismounting  from  a  well-bred  horse,  he  came 
towards  us  with  hands  outstretched,  tall  and  supple,  with  a 
rhythm  of  movement  which  at  once  revealed  his  Circassian  blood. 
His  large  and  animated  eyes,  the  thin,  aquiline  nose,  the  high 
forehead  and  the  black  hair,  waving  on  brow  and  chin,  were  set 
off  by  the  contrast  of  a  very  correct   uniform — a  deep-blue   tunic 

'  The  distances  are  as  follows :— Gop  to  Karaogli  (including  one  considerable 
deviation),  I2|  miles;  Karaogli  to  Shakhberat,  lo  miles;  Shakhberat  to  Charbahur, 
30  miles.      Total,  52|  miles. 

VOL.  II  2  A 


354 


Armenia 


with  a  pale  crimson  collar.  The  voice  suited  the  man  ;  it  was 
resonant  and  was  meant  to  be  so,  and  his  words  were  accompanied 
by  a  profusion  of  gestures.  He  was  followed  by  two  valuable 
English  pointers,  which,  however,  he  did  not  treat  with  proper 
respect.  To  him  the  world  was  a  gallery  ;  yet  he  lacked  the 
mind  of  the  actor  ;  and,  while  his  principal  occupation  was  the 
giving  of  orders,  his  directions  were  not  less  empty  than  his 
words.  But  these  defects  were  in  the  nature  of  inherited  failings ; 
personally  he  was  extremely  kind,  and,  I  believe,  a  staunch  friend. 
He  spoke  with  gratitude,  which  was  sincere,  of  the  service  which 
had  been  rendered  to  his  countrymen  by  England  and  England's 
Queen.  It  has  sunk  deeply  into  the  hearts  of  Circassians.  At 
home  we  are  too  much  imbued  with  excellent  business  principles; 
and  few  of  us  realise  the  value  in  politics  of  sentimental  considera- 
tions, especially  when  we  are  dealing  with  the  untrained  peoples 
whose  destiny  happens  to  link  with  ours. 

The  most  interesting  occupants  of  such  a  village  are,  no 
doubt,  the  girls  and  young  women.  They  retain  their  fair  com- 
plexion even  in  this  climate,  as  well  as  their  roundness  of  face  and 
form.  Several  among  them  would  come  to  the  margin  of  an 
adjacent  stream,  in  order  to  wash  their  grain.  Their  bare  feet 
were  as  shapely  as  their  hands.  From  Charbahur  we  made  an 
excursion  to  the  passage  of  the  Murad,  riding  first  to  the  con- 
fluence of  the  important  stream  which  collects  the  drainage  of  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  Bingol  plateau.  A  ridge  from  the  Khamur 
heights  extends  across  the  wide  valley,  choking  it  up  and  checking 
the  drainage  of  its  considerable  extension  towards  the  west.  The 
stream  cuts  through  this  obstacle  a  little  west  of  Charbahur, 
issuing  into  the  alluvial  plain  at  the  Circassian  village  of  Charbahur 
Tepe.  It  joins  the  Murad  at  the  egress  of  the  river  from  the 
valley.  It  comes  in  beneath  the  shade  of  willows  and  silver 
poplars.  It  brings  a  large  addition  to  the  waters  of  the  Murad, 
and  is  by  far  its  most  important  tributary  since  it  received  the 
Bingol  Su.  Unhappily  this  affluent  bears  the  same  name  as  that 
river  ;  but  I  need  not  fear  that  my  reader  will  confuse  the  two. 
This  Bingol  Su  had  a  width  of  about  30  yards  ;  its  depth  was 
fairly  uniform,  and  it  reached  above  our  horses'  knees. ^  The 
Murad  now  becomes  a  stately  river,  recalling,  both  by  its  volume 
and    the    manner   in    which   it   flows,   the   course   of    the   Danube 

1   A  horse's  knee  would   represent  a  depth  (jf  i    foot   5   inches,  and  a  horse's  girth 
2  feet  9  inches. 


Back  to  the  Central  Tableland  355 

in  Upper  Austria,  We  forded  it  at  a  point  some  3  miles  down 
the  passage,  where  it  was  over  100  yards  wide  and  reached 
above  our  horses'  girths.  It  had  descended  to  a  level  of  4570 
feet. 

The  cutting  through  the  broad  block  of  mountain  which  is 
interposed  between  the  plain  of  Mush  and  the  long  valley  through 
which  the  river  has  been  flowing  for  so  many  miles — a  valley 
which  is  continued  as  far  west  as  the  little  plain  of  Dodan — is 
perhaps  too  broad  to  be  described  as  a  gorge.  Yet  the  heights 
on  either  side  descend  to  the  margin  of  the  Murad,  which  has 
turned  at  right  angles  to  its  former  course.  It  pursues  this 
southerly  direction  until  it  has  gained  the  floor  of  the  Mush 
depression.  From  the  ford  we  mounted  the  slopes  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  valley,  and,  after  a  sharp  climb,  reached  the  summit 
of  the  block.  Our  position  was  a  little  south  of  that  pleasant 
grove  which  has  been  mentioned,  belonging  to  the  village  of  AH 
Gedik.  We  stood  on  a  sheet  of  lava  ;  but  the  limestone  was  all 
about  us,  on  the  face  of  the  cliff,  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  where  it 
formed  long  ridges,  fretting  the  current  into  rapids.  It  was 
seen  to  contain  fossils  of  the  cretaceous  period,  and  its  strike 
or  axis  of  elevation  was  towards  east-north-east.  The  heights 
on  the  opposite  bank  appeared  to  be  of  similar  nature.  The 
view  extended  over  the  plain  of  Mush.  Mush  itself  was  seen 
nestling  in  a  recess  of  the  border  range.  We  could  see  the 
village  of  Sikava,  well  in  the  plain,  and  the  almost  imperceptible 
break  in  the  wall  of  mountain  where  the  Murad  issues  from  the 
plain.  In  the  north,  the  line  of  cliffs  belonging  to  the  Bingol 
plateau  dominated  the  scene.  Bingol  itself  was  either  hidden 
behind  their  lofty  edge,  or  could  not  be  distinguished  from  the 
mass.  We  returned  to  Charbahur  not  along  the  valley,  but  down 
the  gentle  southern  slope  of  these  heights.  Its  even  nature  is  due 
to  a  flow  of  basaltic  lava.  We  found  the  Murad  above  the 
junction  with  the  Bingol  Su  to  be  flowing  in  two  separate 
channels,  which  we  forded  and  so  returned  to  our  camp. 

August  15. — To  reach  Gumgum  and  the  westerly  extension 
of  the  long  valley,  it  is  necessary  to  cross  the  ridge  from  the 
Khamur  heights  which  I  have  mentioned ;  such  was  our  purpose 
and  our  next  task.  We  found  it  to  consist  of  grey  lacustrine 
clays  and  marls  with  interbedded  lavas.  A  thick  layer  of  tuff 
occurs  high  up  on  the  ridge  ;  and  the  summit  of  the  whole 
formation   displays  a  cap  of  basaltic   lava,  sloping   northwards   in 


356  Armenia 

the  direction  of  Gumgum.  The  parapet  lessens  in  height  as  it 
stretches  obHquely  into  the  valley  towards  the  block  on  its 
southern  verge  ;  yet  even  at  the  lofty  col,  over  which  our  track 
lay,  it  was  less  elevated  than  the  corresponding  ridge  which  joins 
the  Khamur  heights  to  the  Bingol  plateau,  and  which  is 
surmounted  by  the  road  from  Gumgum  to  Khinis.  As  we 
descended,  a  pleasant  stretch  of  fairly  even  ground  lay  beneath 
us,  in  the  lap  of  which  we  could  see  the  capital  of  the  caza.  It 
was  watered  by  several  streams,  which  issue  from  the  slopes  of 
the  wide  amphitheatre  described  by  the  Khamur  heights  and 
the  bold  outline  of  the  Bingol  cliffs.  One  river  alone  was  seen 
to  proceed  from  the  very  heart  of  the  Bingol  system,  coming  into 
the  plain  through  a  tremendous  chasm  in  the  cliffs.  Above  that 
abyss  we  obtained  a  glimpse  of  the  western  summit  of  Bingol. 
Further  west  the  great  valley  was  choked  up  with  minor  heights, 
rising  up  from  its  floor.  On  the  south  it  is  bounded  by  the 
commanding  block  of  mountain  which  continues,  across  the 
passage  of  the  Murad,  the  long  wall  of  the  northern  border  of 
Mush  plain.  Limestones,  buff  and  white,  could  be  seen  high  up 
on  that  flat-topped  mass,  with  the  same  axis  of  elevation  as  those 
further  east.  The  scene  was  bleak,  without  a  tree  and  scarcely  a 
bush. 

Gumgum  had  evidently  blossomed  since  my  last  visit,  for 
it  possessed  at  least  two  stone  houses  above  ground,  besides 
several  little  shops.  We  found  it  in  a  state  of  extraordinary 
commotion,  owing  to  the  presence  of  Suleyman  Pasha.  A  troop 
of  regular  cavalry,  mounted  on  white  horses,  had  met  us  on  the 
road.  They  had  been  sent  as  a  guard  of  honour  to  escort  us 
into  the  place.  The  scene  before  the  Governm.ent  building  was 
extremely  picturesque  ;  and  what  was  our  astonishment  when  we 
beheld,  among  the  medley  of  Circassian  cavalry,  a  ragged  band 
of  horsemen  whom  we  at  once  identified  as  Kurds,  and  in  whom 
wc  recognised  the  much-talked-of  Hamidiyeh  !  Here  indeed  was 
food  for  the  note-book  and  the  camera  !  On  the  steps  of  the 
building  stood  the  Kaimakam,  not  my  friend  of  the  first  journey  ; 
and  beside  him  the  Hakim  in  a  black  robe.  Behind  these  were 
gathered  the  notables,  and  among  them  a  giant  who  enhanced  the 
imposing  nature  of  the  show.  When  we  had  received  and 
returned  the  greetings  of  this  distinguished  company,  we  were 
ushered  into  the  presence  of  the  Pasha,  seated  in  an  inner  room. 
He  overwhelmed  us  with  every  token  of  kindness  ;  and,  when  the 


Back  to  the  Central  Tableland  357 

Kai'makam  read  me  a  telegram  relating  to  a  supply  of  money,  he 
waved  him  aside  with  a  gesture  of  magnificent  contempt,  and 
drew  from  his  pocket  a  reel  of  gold  which  he  begged  me  accept. 
A  little  speech,  modelled  on  his  own,  seemed  to  allay  the  sting  of 
my  refusal  ;  but  he  insisted  upon  our  taking  with  us  to  our  camp 
on  Bingol  a  detachment  of  cavalry.  This  offer  was  gratefully 
accepted.  Orders  were  at  once  given  to  prepare  a  repast.  The 
servants  left  the  presence  with  a  deep  obeisance  ;  but,  alas  !  it 
transpired,  after  a  considerable  interval,  that  there  were  no  viands 
in  the  house  and  none  to  be  found.  All  this  time  the  audience 
chamber  was  filled  full  of  as  strange  a  company  as  it  had  ever 
been  our  privilege  to  see.  Suleyman  Pasha  appeared  to  hold  a 
roving  commission  in  connection  with  the  Hamidiyeh.  But  the 
men  of  his  own  race,  settlers  in  the  country,  had  come  in  from  all 
directions  to  do  honour  to  a  countryman  in  his  high  position, 
and  to  a  nobleman  in  whose  veins  their  bluest  blood  flowed. 
The  Circassians  furnish  recruits  to  the  regular  army,  differing  in 
this  respect  from  the  tribal  Kurds.  But,  jealous  of  their  ancestral 
customs,  they  maintain  the  irregular  cavalry,  of  which  a  strong 
contingent  was  gathered  together  in  Gumgum,  The  principal 
men,  one  by  one,  were  introduced  into  the  apartment  ;  each 
bowed  low  and  kissed  the  Pasha's  hand.  To  each  was  assigned 
a  seat  on  the  divan.  Most  had  passed  the  middle  age  ;  their 
wizened  and  wrinkled  faces  harmonised  with  the  drab  hues  of  the 
Cossack  dress.  The  Pasha  was  resplendent  in  his  blue  and 
crimson  uniform  ;  several  swords,  in  richly  engraved  and  valuable 
scabbards,  rested  by  his  side.  Near  him  sat  a  grave  and  gloomy 
personage  in  European  uniform.  His  cruel  face  displayed  the 
true  Tartar  lineaments  and  expression  ;  yet  he  was  a  Kurd,  and  the 
colonel  of  one  of  the  four  Hamidiyeh  regiments  recruited  among 
the  Jibranli  tribe.  The  Pasha  treated  him  with  great  courtesy, 
if  with  a  little  condescension  ;  but,  although  he  received  the  many 
orders  which  were  addressed  to  him  with  military  obedience,  his 
manner  scarcely  concealed  the  irritation  which  they  produced. 
There  was  mischief  in  the  man's  face.  He  is  seen  on  the  left  of 
my  illustration  (Fig.  190);  his  bugler,  a  young  Kurd,  richly 
attired,  is  placed  on  his  left  hand.  Behind  him  are  some  of  his 
horsemen,  of  which  in  all  there  were  mustered  a  hundred,  after 
extraordinary  exertions  on  the  part  of  the  Pasha.  Yet  the 
nominal  strength  of  the  regiment  is  six  hundred.  The  whole 
force — regulars  and  irregulars,  Kurds  and  Circassians — were  drawn 


358  Arme7tia 

up   in  a   half-circle  for  our   benefit.      The   regulars  were,  as  usual, 
a  fine  body  of  men  ;  of  the  rest  the  very  refuse  were  the  Kurds. 

We  did  not  regret  to  leave  a  scene  which  was  pathetic  as 
well  as  humorous,  and  to  set  forth  on  an  expedition  to  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  those  works  of  Nature  with  which  Asia — past 
mistress  of  violent  contrasts — appears  to  mock  the  contemporary 
littleness  of  her  sons.  We  had  experienced  the  greatest  difficulties 
in  obtaining  supplies  ;  for  the  wretched  shopmen,  alarmed  at  the 
inundation  of  undisciplined  soldiery,  had  absconded  after  barring 
up  their  humble  booths.  The  promise  of  some  cavalry  had 
proved  empty  ;  none  came  or  intended  coming.  We  had  said 
good-bye  to  our  excellent  escort  from  Akhlat,  of  whom  the  officer, 
a  handsome  man  with  charming  manners,  had  suffered  in  health 
owing  to  the  hardships  of  the  journey.  But  we  had  been  met  by 
our  tried  and  trusted  zabet  from  Erzerum ;  and  to  him  was  attached 
a  fellow-officer  from  Gumgum  with  several  men.  We  might  have 
proceeded  on  a  fairly  direct  course  to  our  mountain,  which  indeed 
is  situated  almost  north  of  the  little  town.  But  I  .was  anxious 
to  retrace  my  former  journey  as  far  as  Dodan,  in  order  to  com- 
plete my  rough  survey  of  this  interesting  region,  interrupted 
on  that  occasion  by  failing  light.  Our  course  was  therefore 
directed  up  the  long  valley,  with  the  outline  of  the  stupendous 
Bingol  cliffs  on  the  one  side,  and,  on  the  other,  that  of  the  border 
heights  of  Mush  plain.  At  the  hamlet  of  Alagoz  we  forded  the 
stream  which  comes  down  through  the  great  chasm,  and  which, 
perhaps,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  we  may  call  the  Gumgum  Su. 
It  unites  at  this  point  with  the  combined  streams  which  water 
the  plain,  and  the  joint  river  flows  off  through  a  gorge  in  some 
minor  heights  to  effect  a  confluence  with  the  Bingol  Su.  I  have 
already  mentioned  that  the  valley  is  choked  up  with  insignificant 
hills  ;  on  its  southern  margin  flows  the  river  last  named.  Eruptive 
volcanic  action  has  played  a  great  part  in  its  configuration  ;  and 
the  axis  of  the  masses  of  lava  which  rise  up  from  its  floor  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  plain  of  Mush.  These  eruptive 
hills  arc  varied  by  heights  composed  of  limestone,  or  of  marls 
and  clays,  interbedded  with  lava  and  tuff.  After  a  long  ride 
through  this  wild  scene  we  at  length  emerged  upon  the  plain  of 
Dodan,  level  as  the  lake  which  it  must  have  supported  in  fairly 
recent  times.  Dodan  lay  beneath  us  ;  but  we  pushed  on  to 
a  further  village,  the  picturesque  and  pleasant  settlement  of 
Gundcmir. 


CHAPTER    XXI 

OUR    SOJOURN    ON    BINGOL 

GUNDEMIR  is  an  Armenian  village  of  considerable  size,  better 
built  than  is  usually  the  case  (Fig.  191).  It  possesses  an  ancient 
church,  and  the  houses  cluster  round  it,  rising  up  the  slope  of  a 
little  eminence  from  the  plain.  The  place  is  evidently  as  old  as 
the  hills.  Several  groves  of  lofty  poplars  spring  from  the  surface 
of  the  level  ground,  which  extends  in  all  directions  except  on 
the  north.  One  will  enclose  a  field  of  cabbage,  another  fringes 
a  tobacco  plantation,  with  the  large  and  luscious  leaves.  Most 
of  the  male  inhabitants  were  absent  in  their  yaila ;  the  women 
were  busy  threshing  this  season's  corn.  The  head  man  was 
present,  one  Avedis  Effendi  ;  and  he  supplied  all  our  wants  with 
the  utmost  zeal.  We  were  glad  to  be  back  in  an  Armenian 
village,  after  our  experience  of  the  Circassians  at  Charbahur. 

From  our  encampment  on  the  margin  of  such  a  grove  of 
shady  trees  we  could  study  at  leisure  the  features  of  the  plain. 
I  have  already  noticed  its  appearance  and  extraordinary  sur- 
roundings (Ch.  VIII.  p.  182)  ;  and  this  second  visit  enabled  me  to 
answer  some  of  the  questions  which  were  suggested,  but  could 
not  be  resolved,  on  the  former  occasion.  While  the  ova  is 
immediately  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  block  of  heights  which 
we  know  as  the  northern  border  heights  of  Mush  plain,  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  whole  wide  valley — the  towering  Bingol 
cliffs — are  distant  several  miles  from  the  confines  of  this  lake-like 
depression,  in  which  that  valley  comes  to  an  end  upon  the  west. 
The  intermediate  zone  is  filled  up  by  hill  ridges,  of  which  the 
axis  is  the  same  as  that  recorded  in  the  last  chapter,  when  we 
were  journeying  along  the  valley  from  Gumgum.  It  is  an  axis 
similar  to  that  of  the  plain  of  Mush.  It  is  evidently  a  line  of 
volcanic   elevation,   being   almost   at   right   angles   to   that   of  the 


360  Armenia 

stratified  rocks.  Of  these  ridges — with  their  beaches  of  lava  and 
sprinkHng  of  oak  scrub — two  descend  and  die  out  into  the  plain. 
The  more  easterly  leaves  our  village  close  upon  the  right  hand, 
skirts  Dodan,  and  ends  in  a  series  of  little  cones,  which  push  the 
river  to  the  very  foot  of  the  barrier  on  the  south.  Its  neighbour 
on  the  west  composes  the  heights  on  the  north  of  the  plain.  It 
comes  down  from  the  uppermost  slopes  of  the  Bingol  plateau, 
and  determines  the  drainage  of  the  Bingol  Su.  It  appears  to  be 
connected  on  the  south-west  with  the  sheets  of  lava  which  have 
built  up  the  westerly  and  plateau-like  boundary  of  the  plain — a 
barrier  which  has  been  eaten  into  by  a  deep  canon  through  which 
a  stream  descends  into  the  plain.  The  name  of  that  affluent  to 
the  Bingol  Su  we  learnt  to  be  the  Sherefeddin  Su  ;  it  enters  the 
ova  at  the  village  of  Baskan.  The  Bingol  Su  approaches  the 
plain  on  a  meridional  course,  bounded  on  either  side  by  the  two 
ridges  above  mentioned,  and  watering  the  orchards  of  Gundemir. 
It  has  almost  crossed  the  ova  when  it  is  joined  by  its  affluent ; 
it  then  turns  eastwards  and  settles  down  to  a  course  towards  the 
Murad. 

August  16. — It  was  afternoon  before  we  were  ready  to  start 
on  our  journey  towards  the  still  distant  outline  of  the  Bingol 
cliffs.  After  fording  the  river,  we  made  our  way  up  its  right 
bank,  along  the  pebbly  alluvial  bed,  which  had  a  width  of  about 
a  quarter-mile.  In  half-an-hour  we  crossed  an  outlier  from  the 
ridge  on  the  west,  leaving  the  river  on  our  right  to  flow  through 
a  gorge  between  this  ridge  and  that  upon  the  east.  Emerging 
on  the  further  side,  we  stood  in  an  extensive  depression  with 
nothing  between  us  and  the  base  of  the  cliffs  (Fig.  192).  On 
our  left  hand,  the  ridge  on  the  west  was  seen  extending  in  a 
north-westerly  direction  to  the  very  face  of  the  opposite  parapet ; 
a  conical  eminence,  consisting  of  lava  built  up  on  lacustrine 
deposits,  was  a  conspicuous  feature  upon  the  mass.  Its  com- 
panion on  the  east  had  the  appearance  of  being  more  isolated  ; 
and  the  prospect  in  that  direction  was  far-reaching  over  the 
undulating  basin  of  the  Bingol  Su.  At  the  Kurdish  hamlet  of 
Chaghelik  we  again  crossed  the  river,  and  struck  a  fairly  direct 
course  for  the  cliffs.  The  belt  of  detritus  and  broken  ground 
which  extends  along  their  base  is  of  considerable  depth.  All  the 
way  we  were  riding  over  lava,  tending  to  decompose  into  brown 
sand.  Our  track  was  indicated  on  the  face  of  the  barrier  by  a 
very  white  appearance,  due,  as  we  found,  to  the  dust  of  a  pink 


i> 


o 


H 


Our  Sojourn  on  Bingbl  3^^ 

lava.  Layers  of  lava  and  tuff  were  seen  in  section  along  that 
face.  The  actual  ascent  occupied  nearly  an  hour  ;  and  it  was 
growing  dark  as  we  opened  out  the  surface  of  the  plateau.  We 
had  attained  an  elevation  of  some  8500  feet,  or  of  3500  feet 
above  Gundemir.  Let  my  reader  picture  to  himself  the  cliffs  of 
Dover  raised  to  seven  times  their  present  height. 

The  air  was  heavy  with  perfume  ;  yellow  mullein,  ablaze  with 
flower,  rose  in  profusion  from  the  even  sheet  of  lava.  Far  and 
wide  it  spread  before  us,  sometimes  rising  to  a  barren  knoll,  as 
often  sinking  to  a  grassy  hollow.  \\\  such  a  faint  depression,  by 
the  side  of  a  tiny  runnel,  we  fixed  our  encampment  for  the  night. 
The  shadows  hung  about  us  ;  but  the  western  sky  was  shot  with 
fire  above  a  sea  of  ridges,  billowing  towards  us,  and  buried  in  the 
depths  of  the  landscape  before  ever  they  could  attain  our  airy 
platform.  The  phenomenon  was  new  ;  nor  were  we  able  to 
grasp  its  whole  significance  until  we  had  become  familiar  with 
the  relations  of  this  uniform  tableland  to  that  country  of  ridge 
and  trough  in  the  west. 

The  solitude  of  the  place,  and  its  remoteness  from  any 
human  settlement  disposed  us  to  receive  to  the  full  the  spirit  of 
our  surroundings  ;  nor  was  the  mood  disturbed  throughout  our 
stay  on  Bingol.  So  plastic  is  the  nature  of  man  that  one  must 
regret  his  confinement  in  cities,  and  his  exclusion — which  is 
sometimes  life-long  —  from  communion  with  the  natural  world. 
Such  communion  is  at  once  a  spiritual  and  a  mental  exercise  ; 
and  the  greater  grows  our  knowledge  of  the  phenomena  around 
us,  the  more  complete  becomes  the  fusion  of  soul  wath  soul. 
The  Hebrews  copied  from  Asia  her  vastness  and  her  essential 
harmony,  and  translated  them  into  their  religion  and  laws  ;  the 
inspiration  has  grown  feeble  during  its  passage  through  the  ages  ; 
but  the  source  is  still  open  from  which  it  sprang.  One  feels  that 
its  ultimate  origin  must  be  placed  in  this  country  ;  and  that  the 
fables,  which  are  woven  around  the  infancy  of  our  race,  resemble 
the  mists  which  hang  to  the  surface  of  some  stately  river,  but 
have  been  distilled  from  the  solid  waters  which  they  veil.  The 
natural  setting  of  those  legends  are  a  Bingol  and  an  Ararat — the 
one  the  parent  mountain  of  the  fertilising  streams,  the  other  the 
greatest  and  most  imposing  manifestation  of  natural  agencies 
working  to  a  sublime  end.  And  Europe,  with  her  turmoil  of 
intellect  and  clash  of  religious  opinions,  has  need  of  the  parent 
forces   from   which   she    drew   her   civilisation,  and   of   which   the 


362  Armenia 

spirit  speaks  to  the  spirit  of  the  humblest  of  her  sons  in  the 
same  accents  and  with  the  same  high  purpose  as  of  yore. 

We  debated  on  the  following  morning  in  which  direction  we 
should  proceed.  Where  should  we  find  a  yaila  from  which  to 
draw  our  supplies  during  our  sojourn  upon  the  mountain  ?  We 
were  as  yet  a  long  way  west  of  the  so-called  crater,  and  we  were 
led  to  hope  that  we  might  find  such  a  Kurdish  encampment  just 
below  and  on  the  south  of  its  main  wall.  We  therefore  set  out 
in  a  north-easterly  direction  over  the  undulating  surface  of  the 
plateau.  The  smoothness  of  the  ground,  over  which  we  rode  for 
many  miles,  is  characteristic  of  this  extensive  and  remarkable 
tableland,  and  is  due  to  the  slabby  nature  of  the  sheets  of  lava, 
which  must  have  issued  in  a  very  liquid  state.^  In  this  region 
they  are  seen  to  have  flowed  towards  south  and  west.  They 
support  an  abundance  of  yellow  mullein  which  grows  to  a  great 
height.  The  flowers  of  this  beautiful  plant  are  as  delicate  as 
their  perfume  ;  and  we  did  not  regret  that  on  Bingol  they  take 
the  place  of  the  monotonous  fennel.  The  mullein  is  the  flower 
of  the  surroundings  of  Bingol,  just  as  atrapJiaxis  spangles  the 
base  of  the  Ararat  fabric,  and  spiraea  and  giant  forget-me-not  haunt 
Nimrud.  But  violets  we  had  not  yet  seen  ;  and  here  they  grew 
in  plenty,  on  the  margin  of  each  patch  of  melting  snow.  Their 
perfume  was  like  that  of  our  garden  description  ;  and,  while  the 
upper  petals  were  mauve,  those  below  paled  off  into  white.  The 
little  hollows  of  the  ground  were  moist  and  grassy,  having 
collected  a  little  clay.  Over  such  a  scene  without  limits  a  few 
white  clouds  were  floating,  borne  by  delicious  breezes  across  the 
field  of  intense  blue. 

After  riding  for  over  an  hour  without  any  landmark  we 
reached  the  summit  of  a  meridional  vaulting  of  the  table  surface, 
due  perhaps  to  the  emission  of  lavas  from  a  fissure.  From  this 
point  we  could  see  the  western  summit  of  the  so-called  crater 
bearing  about  east-north-east.  It  looked  a  mere  hill,  like  any 
other  of  the  irregular  eminences.  The  trough  below  us,  on  the 
east,  was  seen  by  Oswald  to  slope  southwards,  and  to  become 
trenched  by  the  course  of  a  southward-flowing  stream.  This 
rivulet  would  therefore  be  the  head  branch  of  the  Bingol  Su. 
Beyond  this  valley  we  mounted  a  second  meridional  ridge, 
coming   towards    us   from    the   western    summit.      The   view   now 

'   The  lava  may  be  described  as  a  fine-grained  augite-andesite,  grey  in  colour  with 
distinct  augite  crystals.      It  is  slightly  scoriaceous  superficially. 


Our  Sojourn  on  Bingo  I  363 

extended  along  the  entire  wall  of  the  crater,  seen  on  its  southern 
and  rounded  side.  Its  basin  and  steep  cliffs  have  a  frontage 
towards  the  north,  and  were,  therefore,  hidden  from  sight.  A 
bleak  scene  lay  before  us  in  the  hollow,  framed  on  one  side  by 
the  ridge  upon  which  we  were  standing,  and  on  the  other  by  the 
long  perspective  of  the  wall  on  the  north,  stretching,  like  a  huge 
rampart,  towards  the  east.  Into  that  hollow  we  made  our  way 
in  an  east-south-easterly  direction,  in  search  of  the  vaunted  yaila. 
After  riding  over  stony  and  difficult  ground  for  over  an  hour,  I 
called  a  halt,  deciding  to  abandon  the  quest.  We  could  see  that 
we  had  reached  a  point  about  south  of  the  eastern  summit,  for 
the  outline  of  the  rampart  was  already  preparing  to  decline.  To 
proceed  further  would  be  to  occupy  an  unsuitable  position  for 
the  purpose  of  exploring  the  mountain.  Our  tents  were  erected 
a  little  north  of  the  head  of  the  chasm  through  which  flows  the 
Gumgum  river.  Two  zaptiehs  were  at  once  despatched  with 
orders  to  carry  on  the  search,  and  to  bring  back  with  them 
whatever  food  they  could  find.  They  discovered  the  yaila  at 
some  distance  in  an  easterly  direction,  but  still  within  reach  of 
our  camp.  The  Kurds  supplied  us  with  milk  and  mutton  ;  but 
for  flour  and  corn  we  were  obliged  to  send  to  Gumgum,  and  for 
charcoal  all  the  way  to  Khinis. 

We  remained  in  this  camp  for  six  days,  finding  it  to  be 
an  excellent  situation.  From  early  morning  until  evening  we 
pursued  our  work  upon  the  mountain,  visiting  the  basins  on  the 
further  side  of  the  rampart,  taking  measurements  and  ascertaining 
altitudes  (see  the  two  plans  accompanying  this  chapter).  It  may 
be  best  to  resume  our  results  in  a  single  picture,  embracing 
first  the  mountain,  next  the  immediate  surroundings,  and  last 
the  features  of  the  landscape  which  it  overlooks.^ 

The  Bingol  Dagh  consists  in  the  main  of  a  narrow  and 
almost  latitudinal   ridge,  with   an   axis  which   is   inclined   towards 

^  Existing  literature  on  the  subject  is  not  satisfactory.  I  may  cite  the  following  : 
— Koch,  Reise  im  pontischen  Gebirge,  etc.,  Weimar,  1846,  pp.  365  scq.,  and  p.  333  ; 
Der  Kankasiis,  Landschafts-  und  Leheus-Bilder,  bv  the  same  author,  published  posthum- 
ously, Berlin,  1882.  See  the  chapter  entitled  "Der  Berg  der  tausend  Seen."  P.  de 
Tchihatchef  (1858),  Asie  Mineitre,  part  iv. ,  Geology,  Paris,  1867,  vol.  i.  pp.  279- 
2S5  ;  Kotschy,  Reise  von  Trapezunt,  etc.,  in  Petermann's  Mittheilungen,  i860  ; 
Strecker,  Bciti-iige  ziir  Geographie  von  Hoch-Armenien,  in  Zeitschrift  der  Gesellschaft 
fur  Erdkunde  zu  Berlin,  1869,  pp.  5125-^(7.  ;  Radde  in  Petermann,  1877,  pp.  41 1  seq. 
Of  these,  Radde's  article  is  the  most  reliable,  and  is,  indeed,  a  valuable  contribution,  so 
far  as  it  goes.  Abich  has  endeavoured  to  make  the  best  of  these  accounts.  See 
Geologische  Forschiingen  in  den  kaiikasischen  Ldiideni,  \'ienna,  1882,  part  ii.  sec.  I, 
p.  77,  and  pp.  87  seq. 


364  Armenia 

west-north-west  and  east-south-east.  The  Httle  relative  elevation 
of  this  rampart  above  the  plateau,  which  supports  it  as  a  pedestal 
or  base,  is  the  cause  of  the  insignificant  appearance  of  the 
mountain,  which,  in  winter,  is  almost  concealed  or  merged  into 
its  surroundings  by  the  continuous  sheet  of  snow  (Fig.  161, 
p.  191,  and  Fig.  176,  p.  247).  The  fact  that  it  is  highest  at  its 
eastern  and  western  extremities,  and  that  from  those  peaks  horn- 
shaped  eminences  project  towards  the  north,  with  a  curvature  convex 
to  the  inner  area,  and  with  a  rapidly  decreasing  elevation — this  fact, 
together  with  the  abruptness  of  the  face  of  the  ridge  on  the  side 
of  the  north,  give  it  the  semblance  of  the  standing  southern  wall 
of  a  huge  broken-down  crater  when  seen  from  a  distance  on  that 
side.  A  nearer  view  from  the  same  side  destroys  the  unity  of 
this  conception  ;  the  crateral  area  is  broken  into  two.  It  is  seen 
to  consist  of  a  somewhat  smaller  basin  upon  the  east,  and  of  one 
rather  larger  on  the  west.  The  two  basins,  which  are  both 
perfectly  open  towards  the  north,  are  divided  by  a  meridional 
ridge,  which  is  joined  to  the  main  rampart  at  a  third  eminence, 
intermediate  between  the  western  and  eastern  summits,  and 
resembling  them  in  character,  although  not  so  high.  This 
medial  ridge,  like  the  two  horns,  dies  rapidly  away  into  the 
plateau.  From  the  extremity  of  the  western  horn,  which  opens 
out  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  to  the  recess  of  the  bay  formed 
by  its  companion  on  the  east  is  a  distance  of  about  ^\ 
miles.  While  the  western  and  eastern  summits — the  highest 
points  on  the  entire  ridge — attain  an  altitude  of  10,750  feet,  the 
level  ground  just  north  of  the  main  slope  of  the  detrital  fan  has 
an  elevation  of  9000  feet.  On  the  other  hand,  the  line  of  cliffs 
on  the  south  of  the  rampart  by  which  the  plateau  breaks  away  to 
the  valley  of  Gumgum  are  over  9000  feet  high  along  their  edge. 
These  measurements  may  serve  to  define  in  figures  some  of  the 
characteristics  which  I  have  endeavoured  to  describe. 

Before  pursuing  a  more  intimate  and  detailed  study,  it  may 
be  well  to  fix  in  our  mind  some  of  the  leading  positions,  and  to 
assign  to  them  convenient  names.  Our  predecessors  have  given 
three  such  names  to  the  principal  eminences.  The  western 
summit  is  called  by  them  Bingol  Kala  (the  Bingol  castle),  that 
on  the  east  Dcmir  or  Timur  Kala  (the  iron  castle  or  the  castle 
of  Timur),  and  the  intermediate  hump,  which  is  joined  to  the 
meridional  ridge,  Kara  Kala  (the  black  castle).  I  took  some  pains 
to  ascertain  whether  these  names  were   known   to  the  Kurds,  for 


Our  Sojourn  on  Bingo  I  365 

none  of  my  escort  had  ever  heard  of  them.  The  yaila  from 
which  we  drew  supplies  was  the  most  considerable  in  the  district, 
and  belonged  to  one  Mahmud  Bey.  This  Kurdish  chieftain  was 
absent  from  his  encampment,  scared  by  the  presence  of  Suleyman 
Pasha,  with  his  demands  for  Hamidiyeh,  in  the  close  neighbour- 
hood of  his  lair.  But  his  son  came  to  our  camp,  and  one  of 
his  near  relations,  a  middle-aged  and  unusually  intelligent  man. 
He  said  that  they  knew  the  mountain  under  the  name  of 
Bingol  Koch,  or,  translated,  the  Bingol  caldron.  They  had  no 
particular  designation  of  the  highest  parts.  When  I  mentioned 
the  three  castles  he  reflected  a  little,  and  then  answered  that  the 
western  eminence  was  known  in  old  times  as  Bingol  Kala  ;  but 
with  the  other  names  he  was  quite  unfamiliar.  I  see  no  reason 
on  that  account  to  reject  these  designations.  Kara  Kala  is  well 
adapted  to  express  the  prevailing  sombreness  of  that  peak  with 
its  dark  and  broken  ridge.  Demir  Kala  may  serve  to  remind 
us  of  what  is  probably  a  historical  fact,  that  the  Great  Timur, 
or  Cold  Steel,  marshalled  his  armies  among  these  congenial 
surroundings,  and  here  celebrated  his  victories  with  women  and 
wine  and  song.  The  statement,  however,  of  one  traveller  that 
the  eastern  summit  consists  of  several  storeys  of  walls,  put 
together  by  a  human  hand,  must  be  regarded  as  fabulous.  He 
vouches  for  the  fact,  and  adds  that,  according  to  what  he  learnt, 
an  iron  door  had  been  removed  from  the  castle  and  taken  to  Khinis 
some  forty  years  previous  to  his  visit.^  He  supposes  the  fortress 
to  have  been  erected  by  Timur.  The  manner  in  which  the  lavas 
have  cooled  upon  the  rampart  suggests  the  appearance  of  such 
a  human  structure  at  certain  points.  But  the  feature  is  most 
noticeable  just  west  of  Kara  Kala,  where  the  outline  assumes  the 
shape  of  two  round  towers. 

To  these  names  I  should  like  to  add  one  other,  for  which  I 
have  no  authority.  Just  below  the  western  summit  a  bold,  talus- 
strewn  ridge  extends  from  the  face  of  the  cliff  in  a  northerly 
direction,  rising  as  it  proceeds  into  a  tumbling  mass  of  lava,  and 
ending  in  a  conical  eminence  of  the  same  material.  Indeed  it  con- 
stitutes an  inner  wall  of  the  western  basin.  It  may  not  be  inappro- 
priate to  call  this  rampart  Aghri  Kala,  the  rough  or  rugged  castle. 

The  only  eminence  along  the  main  ridge  of  a  pointed  and 
peak-like    character    is    the    western     summit,    or    Bingol     Kala 

1  Strecker,  op.  cit.   p.  516.      This  writer  calls  the  western  summit  Toprak  Kala,  or 
the  earth  castle. 


o 


66  Armenia 


(10,757  feet).  Its  effect  is  heightened  by  the  rapid  decHne  and 
termination  of  the  parapet  just  west  of  this  position,  as  well  as  by 
the  increasing  flatness  of  the  ridge  as  it  extends  towards  the  east 
after  a  gentle  descent.  At  the  time  of  our  visit  this  summit  was 
completely  free  of  snow.  On  the  north  it  breaks  away  with 
great  abruptness  to  the  basin  ;  but  on  the  south  it  slopes  off  into 
that  vaulted  meridional  ridge  which  has  been  already  mentioned 
during  our  passage  across  it  to  our  camp.  The  western  summit 
can  be  reached  with  great  ease  from  the  south  or  south-east,  or 
along  the  edge  of  the  main  rampart.  The  average  gradient  will 
not  be  more  than  15".  It  is  strewn  with  talus,  like  all  these 
slopes  ;  the  actual  summit  is  fairly  level,  and  is  partially  covered 
with  blocks  of  lava.  Following  the  top  of  the  rampart  eastwards 
from  Bingol  Kala,  its  general  character  is  the  first  feature  which 
seizes  the  eye.  On  the  south  it  presents  an  evenly -vaulted 
slope,  which  is  continued  in  an  east -south -easterly  direction, 
almost  in  a  straight  line.  On  the  north  it  is  hollowed  out  in  the 
form  of  a  cirque,  which,  bounded  on  the  west  by  Aghri  Kala,  and 
by  Kara  Kala  on  the  east,  has  the  appearance  of  a  crater  with 
three  standing  sides.  The  particular  feature  of  the  rampart  in 
the  direction  of  Kara  Kala  and  beyond  that  eminence  is  the 
breadth  of  the  platform  which  it  presents.  At  no  other  part  is  it 
so  easy  to  ride  along  it,  as  well  as  to  scale  it  from  the  south. 
The  northerly  slope  of  the  shallow  vaulting  is  always  covered  by 
a  sheet  of  snow,  which  descends  into  the  cirque.  The  passage 
from  the  south  into  the  western  basin  lies  west  of  Kara  Kala, 
and  is  not  difficult  for  unloaded  animals.  Indeed  it  is  the  only 
pass  across  the  Bingol  rampart,  which,  further  east,  increases  in 
the  steepness  of  its  northern  face. 

Kara  Kala  projects  from  the  parapet  some  little  distance 
towards  the  north,  at  the  head  of  its  meridional  ridge.  But  this 
feature  is  not  observable  from  the  southern  side  of  the  mountain, 
where  the  rampart  is  seen  to  pursue  its  long,  straight  course. 
The  gradient  of  the  southern  slope  increases  as  you  approach 
Demir  Kala,  but  does  not  exceed  23''.  The  platform  along  the 
summit  gradually  narrows,  until  in  Demir  Kala  it  becomes  an 
upstanding  mass  of  blocks  of  lava  which  must  be  climbed, 
stepping  from  block  to  block.  The  lava,  which  east  of  Kara 
Kala  has  shown  traces  of  obsidian,  is  somewhat  scoriaceous  and 
in  places  weathers  a  brick  rcd.^  The  summit  is  flat  and  fairly 
1  A  fairly  compact  augite-andesite. 


PLAN     OF    THE     BINGOL     DAGH,    OR    MOUNTAIN    OF    THE    THOUSAND    POOLS 

(ALSO       CALLED     THE     BINGOL     kOCM.      OR       CALDRON     OF    A     THOUSAND      POOLS] 

ON    THE    NORTH 

mpasiired  and  drawn  out   li.y  H   F.  B   I.yncli   and   F.Oswald  m  Au^usl    IBaK 

Scale     1    Mile-   1  Incli   or    1:63360 


I'ublislipd  bv  l-oneuiatis.  Cicoi.  A  C?.   I.ondo 


Ojir  Sojoicrn  on  Bingo  I  367 

free  of  boulders,  which,  however,  are  piled  in  a  beach  further  east. 
The  level  at  Demir  Kala  (10,770  feet)  is  fairly  well  maintained 
for  some  distance,  and  produces  the  bold  effect  of  the  horn  on 
the  east.  But  the  cliff,  after  turning  northwards,  soon  comes  to 
an  end,  being  separated  from  the  bank-like  continuation  of  the 
horn  by  a  narrow  but  passable  cleft.  This  long,  meridional  bank 
composes  the  eastern  wall  of  the  eastern  cirque,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  medial  ridge  from  Kara  Kala.  The  character 
of  the  rampart  in  this  eastern  basin  is  much  the  same  as  in  the 
western  cirque,  although  more  uniform  in  point  of  height.  From 
the  south  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  straight  and  gently  vaulted 
bank  ;  from  the  north,  that  of  a  curved  outline  with  steep  cliffs. 

Just  as  Bingol  Kala  is  joined  on  the  south  to  a  meridional 
ridge,  so  is  Demir  Kala  in  connection  with  another  such  outside 
parapet,  which  continues  the  main  rampart  in  a  south-easterly 
direction,  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  cirque.  This  parapet  is 
beautifully  vaulted  on  the  south-west,  where  it  determines  the 
drainage  of  the  Gumgum  Su.  But  on  the  north-east  it  breaks 
away  to  the  grassy  ground  outside  the  basin  with  piles  of 
boulders  which  are  somewhat  difficult  to  cross.  Indeed  it  was 
always  a  most  laborious  matter  to  reach  the  eastern  cirque  from 
our  camp.  If  we  took  the  pass  between  the  western  summit  and 
Kara  Kala,  there  was  the  medial  ridge,  with  its  beach -like 
terraces,  to  surmount.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  made  our  way 
up  the  south-western  face  of  the  outer  parapet,  we  encountered 
the  difficult  descent  on  the  north-eastern  side,  and,  when  this  feat 
had  been  accomplished,  we  were  obliged  to  ride  a  long  way  north 
before  it  became  possible  to  cross  the  bank  which  confines  the 
basin  on  the  east.  For  a  man  on  foot  it  is  feasible  to  descend 
the  cliffs  of  the  main  rampart  at  several  points,  and  a  horse  may 
scramble  through  the  cleft  formed  by  the  break-off  on  the  north 
of  the  wall  of  the  eastern  cirque.  But  such  an  attempt  is  not 
less  dangerous  than  the  endeavour  to  lead  an  animal  up  the 
snow-slope  in  that  cirque.  It  seems  an  easy  matter;  for  the 
snow  extends  from  the  floor  of  the  basin  to  the  edge  of  the  cliff, 
which  at  the  time  of  our  visit  was  free  from  snow.  But  it  nearly 
cost  us  the  lives  of  a  zaptieh  and  several  horses.  When  the 
gradient  was  at  its  steepest  the  snow  gave  way,  and  the  manner 
in  which  one  horse  by  a  series  of  plunges  reached  the  summit  was 
a  remarkable  example  of  the  power  of  nervous  energy. 

It   is   plain   from  this   description   that   the  conception  of  the 


368  Armenia 

mountain,  as  seen  from  the  north,  is  likely  to  be  considerably 
enlarged  and  modified  by  a  visit  to  its  southern  side.  Instead  of 
a  single  ridge  we  have  a  series  of  ramparts,  which  describe  a 
figure  somewhat  resembling  an  H.  The  transverse  bar  of  the 
letter  represents  the  main  parapet  with  the  three  summits,  Bingol 
Kala,  Kara  Kala  and  Demir  Kala.  The  two  uprights  will 
correspond  with  the  horns  of  the  basin  on  the  north,  and  with  the 
connecting  ramparts  on  the  south.  A  medial  projection  should 
be  added  to  the  transverse  bar,  in  order  to  include  the  meridional 
ridge  from  Kara  Kala.  Finally  the  upright  corresponding  with 
the  northern  horn  on  the  west  should  be  split  into  two  short 
arms.      Of  these  the  inner  arm  will  represent  Aghri  Kala. 

At  the  risk  of  becoming  tedious,  I  have  thought  it  well  to 
insist  on  these  features,  in  order  that  our  statement  may  enable 
the  practised  reader  to  judge  for  himself  whether  Bingol  ought  to 
be  regarded  as  a  volcanic  crater  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word. 
Before  adducing  additional  facts,  which  may  point  to  a  negative 
conclusion,  I  should  like  to  mention  the  explanation  which 
appeared  to  us  on  the  whole  more  probable  of  the  phenomena 
with  which  we  are  dealing.  It  is  evident  that  the  latest  emissions 
of  lava  were  much  more  acid  and  viscous  than  those  which  pro- 
duced the  plateau  surface  of  the  surroundings  of  Bingol,  If  we 
assume  that  all  these  lavas  issued  from  fissures  rather  than  from 
a  crater,  then  the  formation  of  such  ramparts  in  the  final  stages 
may  be  readily  explained.  The  molten  matter,  welling  up  from 
its  original  vents,  became  too  viscous  to  flow  far.  It  massed  in 
the  form  of  vaulted  ridges  along  the  axis  of  the  parent  fissures, 
or  in  their  neighbourhood.  I  have  already  noticed  the  rounded 
nature  of  these  various  ramparts  when  seen  from  the  south,  as 
from  the  standpoint  of  our  second  camp.  The  transverse  parapet 
with  the  principal  summits  has  the  appearance  of  a  long,  straight 
bank,  flanked  at  its  extremities  by  two  similar  banks,  which 
project  towards  the  south  like  wings.  Look  where  you  will,  the 
slopes  are  gentle,  and  strewn  with  fragments  of  lava,  which  in 
some  places  have  the  appearance  of  loose  tiles.  Within  the 
figure,  thus  formed,  rise  the  head  waters  of  the  Gumgum  Su, 
collecting,  with  a  network  of  streams,  both  from  the  west  and 
from  the  east.  They  combine  at  the  head  of  the  great  chasm,  to 
flow  through  its  shadowed  depths  towards  the  plain. 

It  is  true  that  this  vaulted   and   bank-like   appearance   of  the 
ramparts  is  not   characteristic   of  any  of  the   slopes   towards   the 


Oiir  Sojourn  on  Bingol  369 

north.  Indeed  the  exact  contrary  is  the  case.  But  at  this  stage 
of  the  enquiry  we  are  introduced  to  a  feature  which  is  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  of  all  these  phenomena,  and  which  it  is 
surprising  that  none  of  our  predecessors  should  have  observed. 
When  I  descended  for  the  first  time  into  the  western  cirque, 
Oswald,  who  had  been  engaged  there  in  taking  measurements  with 
the  telemeter,  pointed  out  to  me  evident  traces  of  the  action  of  ice. 
Quite  close  to  the  cliff  on  the  south  the  bosses  of  lava  within 
the  basin  have  been  worn  by  a  glacier  moving  towards  the  north. 
Smooth  on  top,  and  with  an  almost  flat  surface  upon  the  south, 
they  are  rough  and  precipitous  on  their  northern  sides.  The 
rock  is  very  distinctly  striated,  the  striae  pointing  in  a  northerly 
direction.  The  feature  continues  and  gains  in  definition  as  you 
follow  down  the  cirque.  Between  the  bosses  the  ground  is 
covered  with  turf  and  oozes  with  water,  which  collects  in  pools  or 
little  tarns.  Blue  gentians  are  found  in  abundance  within  these 
peaty  hollows,  while  the  violets  scent  the  air  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  snow.  Some  distance  further,  when  you  are  already  outside 
the  limits  of  the  cirque,  and  have  reached  a  level  of  about  9000 
feet,  the  moraines  commence  to  form.  We  visited  this  district 
from  the  west,  and  made  our  way  in  an  easterly  direction  across 
the  moraines.  They  were  seen  to  consist  of  a  medial  and  two 
lateral  moraines,  of  which  that  in  the  centre  proceeds  from  the 
extremity  of  the  meridional  ridge  from  Kara  Kala,  and  must 
have  separated  two  glaciers,  issuing  one  from  either  cirque  (Fig. 
193).  The  lateral  moraine  upon  the  west  seemed  about  in  a  line 
with  Aghri  Kala  ;  but  a  branch  of  the  glacier  must  have  flowed 
towards  north-west,  for  the  extremity  of  that  ridge  has  been  cut 
down  by  the  stream  of  ice.  This  moraine  is  so  pronounced  that 
it  is  difficult  to  realise  that  there  are  now  no  longer  glaciers  on 
Bingol.  On  both  sides  it  is  bounded  by  a  lofty  embankment  of 
blocks  of  rock,  embedded  in  soil.  The  summit,  which  is  broad, 
bristles  with  upstanding  boulders,  and  in  the  hollows  there  are  a 
number  of  lakes  and  pools.  A  stretch  of  level  and  grassy  ground 
is  interposed  between  this  rampart  and  the  medial  moraine,  which 
shows  a  similar  embankment  on  its  western  side.  A  little  river, 
collecting  the  drainage  of  the  western  cirque,  flows  in  the  trough 
of  this  grassy  depression.  The  lateral  moraine  upon  the  east  is 
in  fact  that  great  fan -shaped  bank,  which  extends  northwards 
from  the  horn  of  the  eastern  cirque.  Again  in  this  basin  a 
branch  of  the  glacier  has  diverged,  and  broken  its  way  through 
VOL.  II  2  B 


370  ArTnenia 

the  cleft  in  its  eastern  wall.  The  floor  of  the  cirque  is  much 
more  grassy  than  that  of  its  neighbour  on  the  west,  but  the 
masses  of  rock  are  striated  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  principal  reservoir  for  the  ice  and  snow  has  been  the 
broad  platform  between  Kara  Kala  and  the  western  summit. 
Thence  have  issued  towards  the  north  extensive  fields  of  moving 
ice,  while  the  melted  snow  has  poured  into  the  hollow  on  the 
south  of  the  platform  and  has  carved  down  the  great  chasm. 
We  could  not  trace  the  action  of  ice  upon  the  rocks  in  that 
direction.  I  do  not  know  whether  we  should  be  justified  in 
dating  the  disappearance  of  these  glaciers  as  far  back  as  the 
glacial  epoch.  Striking  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  glacial 
period  in  these  countries  has  been  collected  by  a  modern 
traveller  in  the  highlands  with  their  marginal  region  on  the  side 
of  the  Black  Sea.^ 

We  are  therefore  justified  in  assuming  that  the  abruptness  of 
the  ramparts  on  the  north,  as  well  as  the  carving  out  of  the  main 
ridge  into  cirques,  is  largely  due  to  the  erosive  action  of  ice. 
Leaving  this  subject,  I  would  ask  my  reader  to  follow  us  in  an 
excursion  to  the  interesting  region  on  the  south  of  the  mountain. 
For  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  characteristic  about  Bingol  is 
the  great  plateau  which  it  has  contributed  to  form  ;  and  the 
features  of  that  plateau  which  engrave  themselves  most  deeply 
into  the  memory  are  the  towering  cliffs  with  the  chasm  on  the 
south. 

As  we  surveyed  the  scene  from  our  encampment — in  which 
there  was  not  a  trace  of  snow — the  eye  was  taken  naturally  to 
two  particular  points.  One  was  a  graceful  cone,  just  at  the  head 
of  the  great  chasm  ;  the  other  consisted  of  a  pile  of  lava  on  the 
eastern  side  of  this  gorge,  and  some  little  distance  from  its 
margin.  It  appeared  to  emerge  from  the  plateau  at  about  its 
highest  level.  It  is  indicated  by  the  letter  x  on  the  plan.  To 
reach  it  we  were  obliged  in  the  first  instance  to  cross  the  intricate 
ridges  and  troughs  through  which  the  streams  find  their  way  into 
the  chasm.  But  beyond  this  troublesome  zone  stretched  the 
undulating  table  surface,  strewn  with  stones  or  covered  with  coarse 
grass.  When  we  arrived  at  our  landmark  we  found  the  pile  to 
be  loftier  than  we  expected  ;  indeed  its  summit  is  the  best  stand- 
point from  which   to  overlook  the  country  on   the  south   and  east 

'   W.  Gifford    Palgrave,  \n  Nature,  vol.  v.   1S71-72,  p.  444;   and  vol.  vi.   1872,  pp. 
536  seq. 


Our  Sojourn  on  Bingol  371 

of  Bingol.  The  blocks  of  which  it  is  composed  are  derived  from 
a  lava  which  may  be  described  as  a  basalt.  They  are  full  of 
magnetite,  affecting  the  compass.  This  basalt  is  part  of  a  stream 
of  the  same  lava,  which  is  traceable  to  the  upstanding  crags  of  the 
pile  X,  as  a  probable  point  of  emission.  Towards  the  west  the 
flow  does  not  appear  to  have  extended  for  a  great  distance  ;  but 
in  the  direction  of  south-east  it  has  travelled  further,  and  has 
produced  important  results.  It  connects  the  Bingol  and  Khamur 
plateaus,  being  traceable  as  far  as  the  foot  of  a  conical  eminence 
on  the  latter  mass.  The  lava  from  the  south-east  rampart  of 
Bingol  has  also  flowed  in  that  direction,  while  towards  the  peak 
X  it  has  described  a  curve  of  exquisite  symmetry. 

The  view  embraces  that  strange  plateau  on  the  west  of  the 
Khamur  ridge  and  the  blue  lakes  which  it  supports.  The  slope 
of  its  crinkled  surface  is  tow^ards  the  plain  of  Khinis,  at  its 
south-western  or  upper  end.  So  far  as  we  could  judge,  the  mass 
consists  in  the  main  of  limestone,  capped  by  lava  in  the  south. 
Descending  from  this  eyrie  I  rode  to  the  edge  of  the  cliff,  in 
order  to  ascertain  its  height.  I  stood  at  a  level  of  9240  feet, 
while  that  of  Gumgum,  a  speck  in  the  plain  which  stretched 
from  the  base  of  the  cliff,  is  about  4800  feet.  On  either  side, 
towards  the  chasm  or  towards  the  floor  of  the  plain,  the  ground 
was  falling  away  with  stupendous  precipices.  In  the  trough  of 
the  abyss  lay  the  Gumgum  river,  resembling  several  fine  threads 
of  silver. 

Our  return  journey  led  us  past  the  yaila  of  Mahmud  beneath 
the  wall  of  the  south-east  rampart.  It  occupied  an  ideal  position, 
in  a  spacious  meadow,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  principal  branch 
of  the  Gumgum  river.  The  chief's  tent  faced  towards  us  on  the 
opposite  margin,  as  we  rode  along  the  left  bank  of  the  stream. 
The  goat-hair  canvas,  spread  with  many  supports  over  a  wide 
area,  divided  up  into  compartments  by  screens  of  osier,  had  the 
appearance  of  a  roof  with  many  gables.  In  the  shadowed  recesses 
one  observed  a  medley  of  luxurious  cushions  and  of  household 
utensils  of  every  kind.  Women,  gaily  dressed,  and  unveiled, 
although  very  bashful,  mingled  with  the  group  of  men,  collected 
to  see  us  pass.  The  chief's  son,  a  mere  youth  who  had  just 
returned  from  six  years'  residence  in  a  school  at  Galata  (Constan- 
tinople), was  pacing  to  and  fro  in  a  remote  part  of  the  meadow, 
a  picture  of  the  out-of-place.  Round  the  tent  of  the  chief,  in  a 
wide  and  respectful  circle,  were  ranged  the  much  ruder  tenements 


372  Armenia 

of  the  tribesmen — mere  pens  of  boulders  with  a  strip  of  canvas 
overhead.  The  older  women  had  the  weird  and  witch -like 
expression  which  one  sees  in  the  faces  of  the  Highland  women 
in  the  background  of  a  novel  by  Walter  Scott. 

Underlying  the  lava,  and  at  the  head  of  the  great  chasm,  is 
placed  a  bed  of  tuff.  It  forms  the  biilk  of  the  beautiful  cone 
already  mentioned,  which  has  been  preserved  and  invested  with 
its  peculiar  symmetry  by  a  capping  of  hard  lava.  In  the  hollows 
about  its  base  yellow  mullein  grows  in  profusion,  and  campanula 
witli  its  bell -shaped  flowers.  Making  our  way  over  the  col 
which  joins  the  cone  to  the  plateau  of  our  encampment,  we 
proceeded  to  lead  our  horses  up  the  slope.  But  nothing  would 
induce  our  zaptieh  to  take  his  animal  with  him  ;  he  declared  that 
such  an  act  would  be  impious  on  the  part  of  a  believer,  for  we 
were  treading  sacred  ground.  Indeed,  when  we  reached  the 
summit,  we  found  an  enclosure  of  stones,  protecting  a  human 
grave.  It  was  evidently  a  place  of  pilgrimage  for  the  district. 
Our  attendant  prostrated  himself  on  the  ground  outside  the 
boundary  and  took  from  within  it  a  handful  of  dust, .  which  he 
preserved.  I  asked  him  to  whom  he  might  be  paying  so  much 
honour.  He  replied  that  it  was  the  grave  of  Goshkar  Baba,  or 
father  shoemaker.  The  holy  man  had  in  fact  been  shoemaker  to 
the  Prophet,  and  had  therefore  been  buried  here  centuries  ago. 
When  I  enquired  whether  he  had  ever  done  anything  great 
during  his  lifetime  besides  making  shoes,  he  answered,  "  Bashkar 
yok " — "  No,  he  did  nothing  else."  From  this  eminence  we 
could  see  the  basalt  on  the  face  of  the  cliff  below  x,  overlying 
streams  of  lava  which  were  relatively  shallow,  and  were  inclined 
some  6'  to  south -south -west.  The  layers  on  the  western  side 
of  the  chasm  are  also  thin,  and  slope  in  the  same  direction,  with 
a  gradient  which  slightly  increases  as  they  approach  the  edge  of 
the  cliff. 

It  remains  to  notice  some  of  the  features  of  the  panorama 
which  expands  from  the  summits  of  Bingol.  The  view  comprises 
Palandoken,  the  Akh  Dagh,  the  plain  of  Khinis  ;  Khamur,  with 
Kolibaba ;  Sipan,  Bilejan,  Nimrud.  The  patience  even  of  an 
assiduous  reader  would  be  exhausted  by  the  attempt  to  draw  its 
full  meaning  from  this  varied  scene.  We  may  confine  ourselves 
with  more  advantage  to  a  particular  segment  of  the  circle,  taking 
our  standpoint  on  the  western  summit,  Bingol  Kala  (Fig.  194). 
I  may  mention   that  one  day,  while  we  were  making  our  way  in 


Kumk  Hasan  Da^K 

Outliive       of       Kker  Ve  s   o   r      clnfl% 

itatj^  or  serpentine 


lEW         FROM       WESTERN        SUMMIT       OF       BINGOL 

^SK.tclvei   \y   HJBXTnck.Angua  1898) 


B  INGOL    KAl.  A 


Fig.  19J 


L«v,.i     -teiTK.      ot     tt     kill     of     G  gogUan    yoregrounoi)      MtigkA.Su  fimwii lower  a«vin ili 

_         L  O    I 

(Slutctti  ly   HIRLjnch    on  file  2.^  August  i 


P,  .,_  '  as  kitflu.Su.tnlmtaiTto  Eastern  EqJuatrti 

ANORAMA  PROM        THE    __H  I.L  L,  OF  G     U    G   0   G    H    L  A   It  Mafiliii  Tillage 


i 


a 


Our  Sojourn  on  Bingol  2)1 2i 

that  direction  from  our  camp  on  the  south  of  the  rampart,  Oswald 
discovered,  just  behind  the  actual  peak,  a  large  slone  with 
a  cuneiform  inscription.  It  was  lying  on  the  ground,  only- 
distinguishable  by  an  eye  like  his  from  the  adjacent  blocks  of 
lava.  Over  the  almost  obliterated  characters  had  been  incised 
the  figure  of  a  cross,  with  a  circle  at  its  upper  end.  This  stone 
may  have  served  to  define  a  boundary,  both  in  the  times  of  the 
Vannic  and  of  the  Armenian  Kings.^ 

The  scene  which  forms  the  subject  of  my  outline  sketch 
extends  from  east-north-east  round  to  west.  The  foreground 
includes  the  westerly  horn  of  the  main  rampart,  with  Aghri  Kala, 
seen  in  perspective,  projecting  into  the  cirque,  and,  just  beyond 
that  ridge,  a  bank  of  detritus,  probably  due  to  the  action  of  the 
glacier.  The  little  lakes  on  the  right  of  the  picture  belong  to 
the  western  cirque,  and  are  seen  to  send  streams  which  tend  to 
meet  in  the  distance,  and  which  flow  at  the  bottom  of  canons 
into  the  plain  of  Khinis.  Both  this  series  and  the  pools  in  the 
eastern  cirque  drain  into  the  eastern  Bingol  Su.  They  are  in 
fact  the  highest  sources  of  the  Murad  or  Eastern  Euphrates,  and 
their  waters  find  their  way  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  Looking  further 
into  the  landscape,  we  see  the  back  of  that  long  line  of  cliffs  on 
the  further  side  of  which  lies  the  village  of  Kherbesor  (see  p.  252). 
It  is  an  important  barrier  in  a  geographical  sense,  for  it  con- 
stitutes the  parting  between  the  head-waters  of  the  Murad  and 
the  streams  which  find  their  way  to  the  Araxes.  The  outline 
rising  on  the  north  of  these  cliffs  belongs  to  a  group  of  limestone 
hills,  which  extend  to  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  plain  of 
Khinis,  and  to  the  pass  of  Akhviran  (a,  a).  In  the  background 
the  bold  profile  which  looms  upon  the  horizon  represents  the 
extension  of  the  Palandoken  heights. 

The    peak    of    Palandoken    is    a    well-defined    feature  ;    and 

equally  prominent  is  the  break-off  in  a  cliff-like  form  of  the  high 

ground  west  of  the  village  of  Madrak.      The  outline  of  that  high 

ground   is   continued  for  a  long   distance  westwards  (/?,  d),  until  it 

declines    behind   the    ridges    in    the   west.      Between    Bingol    and 

that  outline,  which  we  may  call  the  Madrak  line  of  heights,  the 

land   forms   are   insignificant    and   vague.      It   is   that   country  of 

rolling  downs  at  a  great  elevation  over  which  we  journeyed  from 

'  Strecker  (o/>.  cit.  p.  515)  states  that  he  found  a  stone  three  feet  long  and  two  feet 
broad,  inscribed  with  cuneiform  characters,  lying  on  the  ground  in  a  depression  east  of 
Kara  Kala.  It  was  surrounded  by  the  gravestones  of  a  little  cemetery.  For  an  account 
of  the  inscription  on  our  stone  see  Ch.  IV.  p.  73. 


3  74  Armenia 

Madrak  to  Kherbesor.  I  would  ask  my  reader  to  observe  how 
the  ridges  in  the  west  die  out  into  that  extensive  block  of 
water-worn  plateau.  Let  him  follow  the  outline  (c)  from  a 
somewhat  pyramidal  summit  on  the  east  of  Sheikhjik  ;  or  let 
him  notice,  both  in  this  drawing  and  in  the  one  which  I  shall 
presently  offer,  the  direction  of  the  Sheikhjik  ridge  («),  and  its 
tendency  to  extend  into  the  watershed  of  the  Araxes.  West  of 
Sheikhjik  he  sees  quite  a  sea  of  ridges  ;  but  in  the  middle 
distance  all  the  forms  are  flat  and  the  surface  even — the  surface 
of  the  Bingol  plateau. 

Bingol  !  the  thousand  tarns — one  grasps  the  significance  of 
that  poetical  name  at  this  season  of  the  year.  The  feature  is 
largely  due  to  the  peaty  soil  which  has  been  deposited  by  the 
action  of  glaciers  in  ancient  times.  The  lakes  and  pools  which 
collect  the  meltings  of  the  deep  canopy  of  snow  would  be  almost 
impossible  to  count.  In  the  foreground,  between  Aghri  Kala 
and  the  horn  of  the  western  cirque,  lies  such  a  conspicuous  flash 
of  blue  water.  I  am  inclined  to  regard  this  particular  pool  as 
the  source  of  the  Araxes  ;  for  although  it  be  possible  that  one  or 
other  of  the  streams  which  rise  outside  the  rampart  may  have  a 
slightly  longer  course,  this  source  is  probably  the  most  elevated 
of  all.  But  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  features  in  the  middle 
distance  is  the  outline,  as  seen  from  behind,  of  the  plateau  itself 
{e,  e).  Its  equality  of  surface  is  due  to  the  liquid  nature  of  the 
lava — a  grey,  basaltic  augite-andesite — and  not  to  flows  of  tuff. 
In  the  west  it  must  fall  away  to  a  river  valley,  separating  it  from 
the  sea  of  ridges  in  that  quarter  which  we  noticed  from  our  first 
encampment  on  Bingol.  The  outline  in  that  direction  is  in  some 
places  the  edge  of  a  cliff;  but  at  others  it  assumes  a  vaulted  form. 
I  shall  presently  show  that  this  latter  shape  is  due  to  rounded 
hills  of  serpentine,  which  have  acted  as  a  dam  to  the  lavas. 
A  hill  of  the  same  form  is  seen  much  further  east,  quite  close  to 
the  western  cirque.  Although  we  did  not  examine  this  particular 
eminence,  it  is  probable  that  it  consists  of  the  same  old  rock, 
representing  the  former  configuration  of  the  land.  The  Bingol 
plateau  merges  insensibly  into  the  highlands  of  Tekman,  and  the 
collective  figure  may  be  known  for  geographical  purposes  as  the 
Central  Tableland. 

But  that  long  break-off  upon  the  west  to  a  river  valley — with 
the  wild  ranges,  a  solecism  in  the  landscape,  towering  up  upon 
its  further  side — is  such  a  strange  and  fascinating  characteristic 


Ou7''  Sojourn  on  Bing'dl  375 

that,  even  apart  from  its  great  geographical  significance,  it  merits 
careful  study  upon  the  spot.  Let  me  therefore  take  my  reader 
a  distance  of  many  miles  and  place  him  upon  the  summit  of  a 
lofty  hill  at  the  head  of  that  valley,  just  west  of  the  village  of 
Gugoghlan.  The  position  is  clearly  indicated  in  my  sketch  from 
Bingol  Kala,  and  forms  the  standpoint  of  my  second  sketch 
(Fig.  195).  The  hill  itself  is  built  up  of  limestone — probably 
Eocene — overlying  serpentine,  and  capped  by  recent  lava.  On 
the  left  of  the  picture  you  see  in  perspective  the  Bingol  rampart, 
with  Bingol  Kala  rising  boldly  at  its  western  end.  You  observe 
the  serpentine  hills  damming  up  the  lavas  in  two  separate  zones. 
The  break-off  of  the  Bingol  plateau  is  now  exposed  in  face, 
and  a  conspicuous  feature  are  the  cliffs  which  it  forms  {e).  The 
head  waters  of  the  Araxes  are  fanning  towards  us  in  pronounced 
caiions,  deflected  at  first  by  the  one  zone  of  serpentines,  and  a 
little  further  by  the  second  zone.  But  it  is  the  general  level  of 
the  plateau  surface  which  in  fact  determines  their  new  direction, 
and  prevents  them  flowing  into  the  basin  of  the  Euphrates. 
And  this  level  is  due  to  the  massing  of  the  lavas  against  the 
bases  of  the  serpentine  hills. 

Deep  down  in  the  valley  below  you  meanders  the  Merghuk 
Su,  on  its  way  to  the  Murad.  It  soon  winds  away  from  its 
almost  southern  course,  to  thread  the  ranges,  which  already 
commence  to  rise  from  its  right  bank,  with  a  direction  which 
will  probably  average  south-west.  What  a  contrast  between  these 
ridges  and  the  plateau  on  the  east !  They  have  the  appearance 
of  stepping  up  to  its  very  margin,  for  their  axis  is  about  west- 
south-west  and  east-north-east.  Tier  upon  tier  they  rise,  one 
behind  another,  extending  into  the  far  horizon  on  the  south-west. 
Their  eastern  limit,  as  seen  in  the  perspective  of  the  drawing,  is 
the  bold  mass,  like  a  sentinel,  of  Sheikhjik.  But  north  of  that 
mountain  you  observe  the  gentler  outlines  {b  and  c)  which  were 
so  prominent  in  the  last  sketch.  The  abrupt  ending  of  the 
outline  b — the  Madrak  line  of  heights — figures  as  boldly  in  this 
landscape  as  in  that  from  the  summit  of  Bingol.  And  the  way 
in  which  both  outlines  die  away  into  the  block  of  the  tableland 
is  not  less  clearly  and  unmistakably  defined. 

I  might  write  many  pages  were  I  to  pursue  this  subject 
further  ;  I  must  content  myself  with  a  statement  in  a  very 
summary  form  of  the  conclusions  at  which  I  arrived.  In  the 
first  place  it  is  misleading,  and   indeed  it  is  incorrect,  to  speak  of 


3/6  Armenia 

a  meridional  line  of  elevation  with  orographical  significance  as 
connecting  Palandoken  with  Bingol.  It  is  strange  that  such  a 
practised  observer  as  the  great  Abich  should  have  fallen  into 
such  a  grave  error/  The  lessons  which  may  be  derived  from  the 
landscape  of  this  important  region  may,  in  this  connection,  be 
grouped  under  two  heads. 

In  the  first  place  the  fundamental  line  of  elevation  is  that 
almost  latitudinal  line  with  which  we  are  so  familiar,  and  which 
may  be  specified  as  a  west-south-west — east -north -east  line. 
The  lie  of  the  country  is  determined  in  the  principal  degree  by  the 
strike  of  the  stratified  rocks.  Between  Bingol  and  Palandoken  the 
ridges  in  the  west  tend  to  die  out  into  a  single  block  of  elevated 
land.  Further  east  this  central  tableland  becomes  split  up,  and 
gives  rise  to  mountains  rising  on  the  margin  of  lake-like  plains. 
Such  mountains  are  represented  in  a  striking  manner  by  the  Akh 
Dagh  ;  and  we  have  already  observed  the  commencement  of  this 
transition  in  the  outline  a,  as  seen  from  Bingol  Kala.  But  the 
country  on  the  east  still  maintains  its  essentially  plateau-like 
character ;  while  the  region  on  the  west  and  south-west  of 
Sheikhjik  and  the  hill  of  Gugoghlan  is  continued  in  all  its 
wildness  between  the  two  branches  of  the  Euphrates,  into  the 
districts  of  Kighi  and  Terjan.  The  great  height  of  the  ridges 
points  to  the  conclusion  that,  in  addition  to  the  activity  of 
denuding  agencies,  they  owe  their  characteristics  to  a  more 
pronounced  or  less  impeded  operation  of  the  forces  which  have 
determined  the  elevation  of  the  country  as  a  whole. 

In  the  next  place  it  appears  plain  that,  although  volcanic 
action  has  no  doubt  been  a  factor  of  considerable  importance  in 
producing  the  level  surface  of  the  districts  on  the  north,  south, 
and  east,  the  tendency  to  a  strongly  pronounced  plateau  country 
is  independent  of  such  action.  A  striking  example  of  this 
tendency  on  a  very  large  scale  may  be  derived  from  the  manner 
in  which  the  outlines  north  of  Gugoghlan  mass  together  and  die 
out  into  the  region  of  Tekman.  Throughout  this  country,  as 
elsewhere  in  Armenia,  the  lava  streams  have  played  an  important 
part,  and  have  done  more  than  any  actual  lines  of  volcanic 
mountain-making  to  determine  the  drainage  of  the  land. 

A  little  incident  of  our  stay  on  Bingol  may  deserve  to  be 
recorded,  if  only  because  it  furnished  us  with  an   opportunity  of 

^   See  Gcologische  Forschungcn  in  den  kaiikasischen  Ldndern,  Vienna,  1882,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  7,  85,  and  89. 


Oitr  SojotLYu  on  Bingol  2)77 

admiring  the  vast  extent  and  strange  brilliance  of  the  heaven 
above  us  during  a  whole  summer's  night.  On  the  last  day  of 
our  visit  we  gave  orders  to  our  people  to  move  our  encampment 
across  the  rampart  into  the  western  cirque.  Oswald  and  I, 
accompanied  by  two  or  three  zaptiehs,  proceeded  to  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  principal  ridge,  and  remained  there,  mapping 
and  drawing,  until  near  sunset.  Before  it  commenced  to  grow 
dark  we  descended  into  the  eastern  cirque  ;  but  the  light  had 
already  faded  before  we  could  surmount  the  ridge  from  Kara 
Kala,  and  we  became  involved  among  its  crags  and  stones.  For 
nearly  an  hour  we  groped  our  way,  leading  our  horses,  and 
coming  near  to  breaking  their  legs.  When  we  obtained  a  view 
over  the  snow-sheet  and  the  tumbled  bosses  in  the  western 
cirque,  we  searched  in  vain  for  any  sign  of  our  camp-fire.  By 
the  light  of  a  crescent  moon  we  proceeded  to  the  margin  of  the 
snow  at  the  foot  of  the  cliff  on  the  north  of  the  basin.  Even 
from  this  eminence  we  could  not  discover  any  sign.  We  then 
rode  down  the  cirque,  towards  the  open  country ;  still  not  a 
trace  of  our  people.  The  zaptiehs  endeavoured  to  discharge  their 
rifles  ;  and  one  man  accomplished  the  feat  after  several  misfires. 
We  ourselves  filled  the  air  with  the  reports  of  our  revolvers  ;  but 
no  answering  signal  came.  We  were  surprised  at  the  absence  of 
any  Kurdish  encampment  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mountain. 
There  was  not  a  glimmer  of  the  lights  of  a  yaila  near  or  far. 
Was  the  tale  of  the  frequency  of  such  summer-quarters  on  Bingol 
a  fable,  or  had  the  Kurds  been  scared  away  by  the  dread  of 
Suleyman  Pasha,  who  might  require  them  to  make  some  show  for 
his  paper  regiments  ?  Or  had  we  courted  an  attack  by  dividing 
our  forces,  and  were  our  servants  and  our  papers  and  our  baggage 
at  the  mercy  of  thieves  ? 

It  was  clearly  not  to  much  purpose  debating  such  questions  ; 
we  had  no  alternative  but  to  pass  the  night  where  we  stood. 
Both  were  clothed  in  the  thinnest  of  garments  ;  but  our  zaptiehs 
lent  us  their  overcoats,  of  such  material  as  they  were.  We 
established  ourselves  within  a  circle  of  loose  boulders,  which  had 
probably  been  reared  by  shepherds  as  a  pen.  The  wind  came 
sighing  down  from  the  snowfield  in  the  cirque,  and  blew  through 
the  apertures  of  the  low  wall.  Our  poor  horses  shivered  and 
starved.  Oswald  and  I  attempted  sleep  under  the  partial  cover 
of  a  small  camp  table  which  we  had  with  us  for  our  mapping. 
It  was  to  no  purpose,  for  our  limbs  became  numb.      Meanwhile 


Tf^S  Arme7iia 

the  moon  had  vanished  ;  but  the  heaven  was  still  alight  ;  one 
could  scarcely  see  the  stars  to  greater  advantage  than  from  the 
open  flats  of  such  a  lofty  platform.  These  last  nights  we  had 
been  observing  the  advances  of  Jupiter  to  Venus — a  stately  and 
not  too  intimate  intercourse,  as  becomes  gods  and  stars.  Venus, 
the  most  engrossing  of  all  the  dwellers  in  the  firmament,  a  true 
motJier  of  the  inhabitants  of  heaven,  had  been  receiving  the  some- 
what distant  approaches  of  Jupiter,  and  the  wooer  had  almost 
mingled  with  his  bride.  To-night  they  had  travelled  apart — 
we  reflected  upon  the  mournful  omen,  with  something  of  the 
impertinence  of  the  astrologers  of  old  who  presumed  to  connect 
the  operations  of  the  celestial  bodies  with  the  puny  fate  of  a 
kingdom  or  a  king.  Pacing  to  and  fro,  we  realised  the  paradox 
of  perfect  discomfort  and  keen  pleasure.  One  of  our  zaptiehs 
appeared  to  encompass  the  same  result  by  surrendering  his  senses 
to  quite  an  orgy  of  ecstatic  prayer.  When  at  last  the  suffused 
splendour  of  the  Milky  Way  became  pale,  and  the  first  flush  of 
dawn  was  thrown  over  the  dim  land  forms,  we  emerged  from  our 
flimsy  harbour  and  rode  towards  the  west.  A  little  later  horse- 
men were  seen,  coming  towards  us  at  a  dangerous  speed  over  the 
sheet  of  snow  and  the  rocky  ground  in  the  south.  They  proved 
to  be  our  escort,  wild  with  excitement,  and  quite  speechless  when 
they  arrived.  It  is  strange  that  none  of  the  natives  have  the 
smallest  conception  of  locality  ;  they  had  encamped  miles  away 
from  the  appointed  place.  They  had  been  riding  all  night  in 
quest  of  their  charge,  and  had  by  fortune,  as  a  last  chance, 
extended  their  search  to  the  scarcely  ambiguous  position  of  our 
prescribed  tryst. 


iH      ON     THE     SOUTH 

GS     ON     THAT     SIDE 

ncl\    ;iud   F.  Os^rald    in  August     1898 


.s  ,  Green  A-  V°,  London 


Warner  s,  Debes  ,  Leipzig 


THE     BINGOL     DAGH     ON     THE     SOUTH 

WITH     SURROUNDINGS     ON     THAT     SIDE 
ured    aiul     iii;ipi.^.l    tiy  11  V  11    L\^^.■h    .nxd    V   ll^^;;il,l    u,    Aii>_Mi.;i     1 


CHAPTER    XXII 

HOME    ACROSS    THE    BORDER    RANGES 

August  24. — We  found  our  camp  a  long  distance  south  of  the 
western  summit,  and,  after  a  short  sleep,  resumed  our  journey. 
We  simply  followed  a  compass  course  to  the  head  of  that  river 
valley  along  which  the  Bingol  plateau  breaks  off  on  the  side  of 
the  west.  The  general  flow  of  the  lava  over  which  we  rode  was 
towards  north-west.  We  crossed  the  first  zone  of  serpentine  hills 
through  a  deep  valley  with  heights  on  either  side.  Beyond  the 
passage  we  issued  upon  a  lower  plain  of  lava,  where  the  stream 
of  molten  matter  had  been  diverted  by  the  serpentines,  and  had 
circled  round  them,  flooding  down  into  the  plain.  In  the  section 
displayed  by  a  river  cliff  within  the  limits  of  this  region  we 
observed  a  bed  of  columnar  lava  some  twenty  feet  in  thickness, 
overlying  lavas  to  a  depth  of  some  eighty  feet.  Near  this  point  we 
reached  the  first  village,  the  Kurdish  settlement  of  Bastok.  It  is 
placed  upon  one  of  the  head  streams  of  the  Aras,  which  we  forded, 
and,  not  long  after,  arrived  on  the  banks  of  the  main  channel  at 
the  Kurdish  hamlet  of  Shekan.  The  Aras  had  already  become 
a  little  river,  and  was  known  to  the  villagers  under  that  name. 
We  crossed  it,  leaving  it  to  flow  off  into  an  alluvial  plain,  along 
the  marginal  heights  of  which  we  rode.  This  is  the  first  plain  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  word  through  which  the  Araxes  winds. 
It  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  about  7000  feet,  and  may  be 
called,  from  a  village  on  its  northern  confines,  the  plain  of 
Altun. 

We  discovered  a  Kurdish  village  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the 
hill  which  had  been  our  landmark  and  point  of  course.  It  bears 
the  name  of  Gugoghlan.  It  fronts  the  plain  of  the  Aras,  which, 
on  the  north  of  the  hill,  is  only  separated  by  a  low  lip  of  ground 
from  the  basin  of  the  Murad.      Such  is  the  habit  of  these  water- 


380  Aimienia 

partings.  I  remained  for  two  days  in  this  village,  drawing  and 
mapping  on  the  hill.  Oswald  preceded  me  to  Erzerum.  Our 
journey  thither  led  us  across  the  central  tableland,  a  little  west  of 
the  route  pursued  during  our  outward  march.  I  have  already 
dealt  with  the  general  characteristics  of  the  region,  and  shall  only 
add  a  short  account  of  any  fresh  features. 

Gugoghlan  already  belongs  to  the  district  of  Shushar,  while 
the  villages  on  the  further  side  of  the  Sheikhjik  mountain  are 
included  in  that  of  Kighi.  The  western  and  north-western  sides 
of  the  Altun  plain  have  been  flooded  by  a  lava  which  appears 
to  have  issued  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Sheikhjik  and  also 
from  the  heights  upon  its  northern  margin.  Our  way  to  Erzerum 
took  us  over  this  sheet  of  lava.  In  a  depression  between  two 
such  flows  we  passed  an  extensive  yaila,  belonging  to  Zireki 
Kurds — a  tribe  of  which  the  main  body  live  about  Diarbekr,  and 
of  whom  these  people  are  a  colony.  North  of  the  yaila  we 
commenced  the  ascent  of  that  latitudinal  wall  of  mountain  which 
at  once  forms  the  limit  of  the  plain  of  Altun,  and  sends  the 
Araxes  off  towards  the  east. 

It  consists  of  lava  overlying  lacustrine  deposits,  and  the 
summit  is  perfectly  flat.  You  may  ride  in  any  direction  until 
you  are  stopped  by  a  river  valley,  which  will  be  deeply  cut  and 
bordered  by  commanding  heights.  I  had  for  guide  an  old  and 
almost  toothless  Kurd,  whom  I  had  instructed,  with  some  mis- 
givings as  to  his  knowledge,  to  lead  a  course  as  straight  as  possible 
to  Erzerum.  The  usual  route  from  Gugoghlan  would  be  by  way 
of  Madrak,  keeping  to  lower  levels  but  rather  longer. 

But  at  this  season  of  the  year  when  elevation  is  of  no 
consequence,  the  snow  having  long  since  disappeared,  it  is  just 
as  well  to  follow  the  most  direct  line,  and  keep  as  high  as  possible 
and  near  the  water-parting.  From  one  side  of  the  flat  vaulting 
the  streams  will  flow  westwards,  and  from  the  other  towards  the 
east.  We  crossed  no  less  than  six  tributaries  of  the  Araxes. 
Of  these  the  first  three  converged  rather  closely  together,  and 
they  probably  compose  the  stream  upon  which  is  situated  the 
village  of  Khedonun.  Their  valley  or  valleys  have  lofty  parapets 
which  required  to  be  turned.  I  observed  that  the  lavas  upon  the 
hillsides  had  in  some  places  cooled  in  a  columnar  fashion.  The 
direction  of  the  first  and  most  imposing  of  these  valleys  was 
towards  south-south-east.  North  of  the  series  the  country  again 
became    flat,    and    the    views    far-reaching;     we    were     in    fact 


Home  across  the  Border  Ranges  381 

approaching  the  spine  of  the  whole  block  of  heights.  Two  new 
branches  were  crossed,  both  flowing  into  a  wide  depression  which 
we  overlooked  in  all  its  extent.  They  were  separated  by  a 
considerable  stretch  of  very  elevated  land.  Their  situation  points 
to  the  conclusion  that  they  take  their  waters  to  the  stream  which 
skirts  the  village  of  Duzyurt.  Making  our  way  from  one  to  the 
other,  we  rode  at  the  foot  of  outcrops  of  lava  upon  our  left  hand. 
Some  were  circular  in  form.  Blue  gentians  are  found  in  the 
grassy  places,  and  the  more  northerly  of  the  two  streams  is  placed 
at  a  level  of  no  less  than  9400  feet.  The  highest  point  along 
our  route  lay  some  little  distance  further  north,  and  may  have 
been  some  200  feet  more  elevated.  It  may  be  called  the  pass 
over  this  plateau  region.  The  block  of  heights  is  separated  from 
those  of  Palandoken  by  a  depression,  which  is  crossed  by  a 
saddle-shaped  neck  of  land.  On  one  side  of  this  vaulting  water 
flows  to  the  Euphrates,  and  on  the  other  to  the  Araxes.  The 
affluent  to  the  Araxes  is  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Madrak  river. 
We  forded  it  near  the  head  of  the  trough. 

We  did  not  pass  a  single  village,  not  even  a  yaila,  during  our 
ride  from  the  encampment  of  Zireki  Kurds  to  the  Palandoken 
ridge.  The  surface  of  the  plateau  consists  of  a  slabby  lava, 
which  probably  overlies  the  limestone  with  no  great  depth.  The 
lavas  appear  to  have  issued  from  approximately  east-west  fissures 
at  a  time  when  the  country  had  been  already  carved  out  into  the 
main  features  of  its  present  contour.  Especially  remarkable,  as 
we  neared  the  Palandoken  line  of  heights,  was  the  whiteness  of 
their  face  where  the  rock  was  exposed.  The  limestone,  which 
perhaps  constitutes  the  bulk  of  that  block,  is  probably  of  Eocene 
age.  We  struck  a  course  up  the  slope  of  those  heights  a  little 
west  of  the  more  westerly  of  the  two  forts  ;  and  we  issued  into 
the  so-called  crater  of  Palandoken-Eyerli  Dagh,  w^here  we  en- 
camped by  the  margin  of  the  first  northward-flowing  stream. 

On  the  following  morning  I  made  the  ascent  of  the  peak  of 
Palandoken.  The  result  of  my  test  of  boiling-point  on  this  single 
occasion  gives  it  a  height  of  10,690  feet.  It  is  therefore  about 
at  the  same  level  as  the  highest  points  on  the  Bingol  ramparts 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  whole  wide  basin.  Like  its  close 
neighbour  on  the  west,  the  equally  bold  Eyerli  Dagh,  it  is  of 
eruptive  volcanic  origin.  But  the  cirque  between  the  two  has 
probably  never  been  a  crater ;  it  seems  more  likely  that  its 
peculiar  form    is   mainly  due   to   the   erosive   action  of  snow   and 


382  Armenia 

ice.  We  had  not  time  to  make  any  careful  examination  of  the 
wide  area  which  the  cirque  covers.  But  this  view  was  suggested 
by  all  the  phenomena  which  came  under  our  notice/  The  basin 
has  been  cleared  out  by  two  gorges,  and  the  matter  is  deposited 
on  the  wide  detrital  fan  which  extends  some  distance  into  the 
plain  of  Erzerum.  A  patch  or  two  of  snow  were  still  visible  in 
the  hollows  ;  but  the  peak  and  steep,  boulder-strewn  sides  of 
Palandoken  were  completely  free  of  snow. 

From  Erzerum  to  the  coast  we  took  a  fairly  direct  route, 
travelling  by  the  pass  of  the  Jejen  Dagh  (8600  feet)  to  fjaiburt, 
and  thence  by  the  passes  of  the  Kitowa  (8040  feet)  and  Kazikly 
(8290  feet)  Daghs  to  the  monastery  of  Sumelas."  But  the  great 
height  of  the  passes  and  the  general  ruggedness  of  the  country 
are  against  the  prospects  of  this  route  as  a  possible  avenue  of 
constant  communication  between  Trebizond  and  the  Armenian 
fortress.  A  future  railway  will  probably  follow  the  devious  course 
of  the  existing  cJimissce  by  way  of  Giimushkhaneh,  or  will  strike 
a  direct  course  for  the  seaboard,  issuing  at  the  port  of  Rizeh.^ 
But  to  the  traveller  who  is  in  search  of  romantic  scenery  one 
may  confidently  recommend  the  summer  road  which  we  adopted. 
The  passage  of  the  first  barrier  will  afford  him  a  near  view  of  the 
beautiful  peak  of  the  Jejen  ;  while  the  later  journey  lies  among 
the  summits  of  the  Pontic  alps  and  among  some  of  their  wildest 
glens.  The  last  stage  will  introduce  him  to  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  valleys  in  this  or  any  other  land.  He  should 
endeavour  to  arrange  his  visit  during  his  return  homewards,  when 
the  features  of  the  tableland,  with  their  majesty  of  form  but 
bareness  of  surface,  are  freshly  graven  upon  the  mind.  The 
contrast  to  that  landscape  which  he  will  find  in  the  Vale  of 
Meiriman  is  at  once  sudden  and  complete.  Vegetation  of  be- 
wildering beauty  takes  the  place  of  grandeur  of  outline  ;  and  only 
the  impressive  scale  upon  which  Nature  has  moulded  her  work 
in  Asia  remains  constant  to  the  end. 

1  Both  Oswald  and  myself  had  read  Abich's  account  of  this  so-called  crater.  He 
appears  to  regard  it  as  a  volcanic  crater  in  the  strict  sense.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
his  drawing  is  very  much  exaggerated  {Geo/o,ifisc/ic  ForschtDigen  in  den  kaiikasischen 
Ldudcrn,  Vienna,   1882,  II.  Tiieil,  pp.  73  ct  seq.). 

■^  For  the  stages  see  Ch.  XI.  p.  240. 

^  An  account  of  this  route  which  I  have  before  me  gives  the  distance  between  Rizeh 
and  Erzerum  as  only  119  miles.  It  leaves  Ispir  (in  the  Chorokh  valley)  a  little  to  the 
east. 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

GEOGRAPHICAL 

My  purpose  in  the  present  chapter  is  to  collect  the  threads  of 
that  part  of  the  narrative  which  was  occupied  with  the  natural 
features,  and  to  endeavour  to  weave  them  together  into  a 
composite  but  single  fabric,  capable  of  being  appreciated  as  a 
whole.  In  the  pursuit  of  this  object  I  shall  postulate  familiarity 
on  the  part  of  my  reader  with  the  contents  of  the  companion 
chapter  dealing  with  the  same  subject  which  belongs  to  my  first 
volume ;  and  it  is  not  without  misgiving  that  I  compare  the 
scantiness  of  my  present  material  with  the  multitude  of  facts 
with  which  the  researches  of  Herrmann  Abich  have  enriched  our 
knowledge  of  the  Russian  provinces.  I  am  dependent  almost 
entirely  upon  the  gleanings  of  my  own  journeys  and  of  those 
accomplished  by  my  friends  within  quite  recent  years  ;  and  it 
has  been  impossible  to  commence  the  writing  of  this  chapter 
before  the  completion  of  the  map  embodying  these  results. 
What  it  may,  perhaps,  be  hoped  without  excessive  presumption 
is  that  the  framework,  at  least,  of  our  subject,  the  geography  of 
South-Western  or  Turkish  Armenia,  can  now  be  established  with 
some  degree  of  certainty ;  and  that  succeeding  travellers  may 
be  enabled  to  recognise  at  a  glance  the  more  imperfect  parts 
instead  of  losing  themselves  in  the  almost  unknown  or  falsely 
known.^ 

No    better     standpoint    could    be     selected    from    which     to 

^  I  must  not  omit  to  record  the  assistance  which  I  have  received  from  the  map  of 
H.  Kiepert,  Provinces  Asiatiques  de  r Empire  Ottoman.  The  sheets  which  cover  the 
Armenian  country  embody  the  results  of  my  predecessors,  which  have  been  compiled 
with  great  judgment.  I  have  also  had  access  to  two  Russian  maps  embracing  portions 
of  the  country,  (i)  scale  lo  versts  =  one  inch,  1889,  (2)  scale  20versts  =  one  inch,  1899. 
But  the  map  of  Kiepert  with  all  its  merit  is  necessarily  sketchy  ;  and  the  last  Russian 
map  is  flagrantly  incorrect. 


384  Armenia 

commence  a  survey  of  the  geography  than  the  spine  of  that  range 
whence  we  descended  into  Turkish  territory  during  our  journey 
southwards  from  Kagyzman  (Vol.  I,  Ch.  XX.  p.  409,  and  Ch. 
XXI.  p.  436).  It  carries  the  present  frontier  between  the  Russian 
and  Turkish  Empires,  and  in  fact  divides  the  area  of  Armenia 
into  two  parts.  In  a  political  sense  it  forms  a  boundary  of 
considerable  significance,  shutting  off  Russia  from  the  waters 
which  issue  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  More  than  once  have  her 
victorious  armies  flooded  across  this  barrier,  and  not  less  often 
have  they  been  compelled  by  the  provisions  of  the  ensuing 
peace  to  withdraw  to  its  further  side.  The  length  of  the  range, 
its  ruggedness  and  the  relative  height  of  the  passes,  compared 
with  the  plains  on  either  flank,  are  features  which  must  have 
operated  throughout  history  to  invest  it  with  an  importance 
unrivalled  by  the  other  systems  which  furrow  the  surface  of 
the  Armenian  tableland.  From  the  Kuseh  Dagh  (11,262  feet) 
in  the  west  to  Little  Ararat  (12,840  feet)  in  the  east  is  a  distance 
of  nearly  lOO  miles;  and  throughout  that  space  the  chain 
is  made  up  of  such  lofty  peaks  as  the  Ashakh  Dagh  (10,723 
feet),  Perli  Dagh  (10,647  feet),  Sulakha  Dagh  (9644  feet)  and 
Khama  Dagh  (11,018  feet).  The  passes  reach  from  7000  to 
8500  feet  ;  while  the  level  of  the  plain  of  the  Araxes  does  not 
exceed  3000  feet,  nor  that  of  the  plain  of  Alashkert  5500  feet. 
In  appearance  the  barrier  as  a  whole  resembles  the  mountains  of 
the  peripheral  regions  ;  there  are  the  same  deep  valleys,  jagged 
outline,  precipitous  slopes.  It  seems  some  daring  invasion  of 
those  mountains  into  the  plateau  country  ;  and  the  semblance 
is  accentuated  by  the  beds  of  marl  along  its  northerly  base  into 
which  the  long  transverse  parapets  plunge  (Vol.  I.  Fig.  106,  p. 
419).  Highly  crystalline  rocks,  such  as  diabase,  and  even  syenite, 
of  which  the  spine  of  the  more  westerly  portion  is  probably  com- 
posed, have  played  the  principal  part  in  its  configuration,  where 
recent  eruptive  action  has  not  built  up  a  sequence  of  volcanic 
fabrics,  such  as  Kuseh  Dagh,  Perli  Dagh,  the  peaks  about  Lake 
Ballik,  the  Great  and  the  Little  Ararat. 

This  range,  to  which  collectively  we  may  apply  the  name  of 
Aghri  Dagh  or  Ararat  system,  constitutes  the  principal  inter- 
mediate line  of  elevation  between  the  northern  and  the  southern 
zones  of  peripheral  mountains.  It  has  been  subjected  to  intense 
folding  pressure,  and  during  the  process  of  bending  over  from  an 
east-north-easterly  to  a  south-easterly  direction  a  partial  fracture 


Geographical  385 

of  tlie  arc  it  describes  has  taken  place.  From  the  western  shore 
of  Lake  BaUik,  an  upland  sheet  of  water  lying  at  a  le\el  of  7389 
feet,  we  are,  perhaps,  justified  ill  tracing  the  extension  of  one 
branch  of  the  system  along  the  water-parting  between  the  INIurad 
and  the  Araxes  south-east  to  the  Tendurek  Dagh,  and  through 
that  volcano  into  the  line  of  hills  which  divides  the  basin  of  Lake 
Van  from  the  streams  which  find  their  way  into  the  Araxes. 
Thence  the  elevation  may  be  followed  into  the  southern  peripheral 
region,  forming,  as  it  were,  a  splinter  from  the  chain  of  Zagros- 
which  has  struggled  upwards  through  the  plateau  country  to  its 
very  heart.  The  prevalence  of  crystalline  rocks,  which  have  been 
classed  by  Loftus  as  granite,  has  been  attested  along  the  inner 
edge  of  Zagros  all  the  way  from  near  Khorremabad  in  Persia 
past  Hamadan  to  the  sources  of  the  Great  Zab  ;  and  they  extend 
from  the  western  borders  of  Lake  Urmi  at  least  as  far  as  the 
district  of  Bayazid.  ^  It  seems  probable  that  they  are  in  con- 
nection with  the  granite  rocks  of  the  Aghri  Dagh,  where  they 
are  found  to  the  west  of  the  Perli  Dagh  along  the  axis  of  this 
northern  intermediate  system." 

The  more  northerly  and  principal  branch  in  an  orographical 
sense  would  appear  to  consist  almost  exclusively  of  recent  volcanic 
mountains,  stretching  from  Perli  Dagh  in  an  east-south-easterly 
direction  to  the  Pambukh  Dagh,  west  of  Great  Ararat.  In  this 
neighbourhood  the  line  is  taken  up  by  the  fabric  of  Ararat, 
raising  the  barrier  by  slow  stages  to  nearly  1 7,000  feet,  and 
having  an  axis  from  north-west  to  south-east.^  The  sequence 
comes  to  an  end  in  the  Little  Ararat,  whose  slopes  descend  on 
three  sides  to  fairly  level  plains.  An  interesting  feature  about 
the  range  in  its  more  westerly  portion  are  the  outbreaks  of 
andesitic  lava  along  its  base  upon  the  north.  These  eruptions 
appear  to  have  culminated  in  the  peak  of  Takjaltu  (8409  feet) 
near  Kulpi,  which  forms  a  landmark  to  the  districts  on  that  side. 
Thence  the  fissure  which  gave  issue  to  the  andesite  may  be 
traced  westwards,  keeping  parallel  to  the  chain.  The  eruptions 
liave  disturbed  the  sedimentary  rocks,  and  their  incidence  can 
be  certainly  attributed  to  the  Miocene  period.^      Further  east  the 

1   See   the  map  of  Loftus  in    Quarterly  Journal  of  the   Geological  Soeiety,    vol.    xi. 
London,  1855,  p.  247. 

-  See  the  map  of  Abich  in  Geologische  Forschuugeu   in  den  kaukasisc/ien  LanJern, 
Vienna,  1882,  Atlas,  Karte  L  ;  and  part  ii.  p.   141. 

^  A    fine    view  of  the   range  at   this   point    is   displayed  by  Abich,   op.    cit.,    Atlas 
table  iii.  *  Abich,  op.  cit.  part  ii.  p.   155. 

VOL.  II  2   C 


386  Armenia 

upwellings  of  lava  along  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  have  all 
the  appearance  of  having  been  discharged  into  a  sheet  of  water 
spread  over  the  surface  of  the  Ararat  region.^ 

West  of  the  Kuseh  Dagh,  the  bell -shaped  mountain,  this 
intermediate  line  of  elevation  may  be  plainly  followed  upon  the 
map  along  the  southern  confines  of  the  plain  of  Pasin  through 
the  limestones  which  the  Araxes  threads  in  a  landscape  of  savage 
grandeur  before  its  entry  upon  the  level  expanse.  From  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  the  heights  are  continued  for  many  a  mile,  until 
they  are  distinguished  by  the  Palandoken-Eyerli  Dagh  volcanic 
system  (10,694  feet)  just  south  of  Erzerum.  A  slight  inclination 
southwards  through  the  Karakaya  Dagh  into  the  volcanic  Keupek 
Dagh,  and  further  south  into  the  Khach  Dagh,  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  province  of  Terjan,  takes  the  line  with  clear 
definition  through  the  Girdim  Dagh  and  the  Baghir  Dagh  into 
the  lofty  and  extensive  barrier  of  the  Merjan-Muzur  Dagh  (about 
12,000  feet),  facing  the  plains  about  Erzinjan.  The  progress 
of  the  elevation  across  the  Euphrates  through  Asia  Minor  to  the 
Mediterranean  appears  to  be  indicated  on  the  map  of  Kiepert 
by  the  Sarichichek  Dagh,  west  of  Egin,  whence  it  is  probably 
protracted  between  the  Taurus  and  the  Anti- Taurus  chains. 
The  Anti-Taurus  would  appear  to  be  represented  in  Armenia  by 
the  system  which  enters  the  country  in  the  Chardaklu  Dagh 
(long.  39,  lat.  39.55),  and  extends  in  the  form  of  an  elevated 
block  of  tableland  through  the  Sipikor  Dagh,  Dadian  Dagh 
(i  1,000  feet),  Kop  Dagh  into  the  Dlimlii  Dagh,  north  of  Erzerum, 
and  the  Chorokh  region. 

The  importance  of  the  orographical  system  which  we  have 
now  traced  from  Ararat  to  Muzur  Dagh,  and  from  Lake  Ballik  to 
the  Zagros  range,  may  be  appreciated  in  a  geographical  sense  by 
one  or  two  reflections.  In  the  first  place  it  provides  the  natural 
frontier  between  the  country  about  Lake  Van  and  the  Persian 
province  of  Azerbaijan.  This  frontier  may  probably  be  regarded 
as  the  natural  eastern  boundary  of  Armenia  during  its  course 
from  behind  Bayazid  to  the  Avrin  Dagh,  overlooking  the  valley 
of  the  river  of  Kotur.  At  the  present  day  it  forms  the  Turko- 
Persian  border  ;  while  the  more  northerly  branch,  which  effects  a 
junction  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Ballik,  divides  the  Russian 
and  Turkish  Empires.  xA.s  the  most  pronounced  constituent  of  the 
Asiatic  structural  design  within   the  limits   of  the   tableland,   the 

'   Ahich,  op.  cil.  iJ.ul  ii.  p.   i6o. 


Geographical  387 

system  carries  over  the  Tauric  lines  of  elevation  into  those  which 
have  determined  the  configuration  of  the  Iranian  highlands.  It 
encompasses  this  result  in  a  most  impressive  manner,  standing  up 
from  the  plateau  region  with  precipitous  slopes  on  either  side  and 
suggesting  to  the  mind  the  conception  of  a  backbone  to  the 
country  as  a  whole.  It  is  at  this  point  that  in  the  Shatin  or 
Aghri  Dagh  it  effects  the  bend  over  into  Persia,  but  not  without 
partial  fracture  and  consequent  dislocation.  At  the  same  time 
we  should  be  mistaken  in  attributing  to  the  system  functions 
analogous  to  those  of  the  mountains  of  the  peripheral  regions. 
Even  the  Aghri  Dagh  is  deprived  of  many  of  the  qualities 
essential  to  a  barrier  by  its  narrowness  and  by  the  extension  of 
the  open  plains  on  either  flank.  The  border  between  the  Lake 
Van  basin  and  Azerbaijan  consists  of  a  line  of  hills  rather  than 
of  mountains  in  the  proper  sense.  The  extension  of  the  elevation 
along  the  southern  confines  of  the  plains  of  Pasin  and  of  Erzerum 
takes  the  form  of  the  lofty  rim  of  the  central  region  of  the 
tableland,  and  not  of  a  mountain  range.  That  term  might, 
perhaps,  be  applied  to  the  cretaceous  heights  of  the  Merjan- 
Muzur  Dagh  ;  but  these  again  are  probably  due  to  the  resistance 
of  the  Dersim  block,  the  plateau-like  country  which  they  limit 
upon  the  north. 

I  have  already  traced  the  course  of  the  mountains  of  the 
northern  peripheral  region,  the  effective  barrier  between  Armenia 
and  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  throughout  their  prolongation 
upon  the  confines  of  the  tableland,  and  have  drawn  the  natural 
frontier  inwards  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ispir  across  the  valley 
of  the  Chorokh  to  the  northern  border  heights  of  the  plain  of 
Erzerum  (Vol.  I.  Ch.  XXI.  p.  431).  The  analogous  zone  upon 
the  south  is  composed  by  the  main  chain  of  Taurus,  separating 
the  highlands  from  the  low-lying  plains  of  Mesopotamia  and 
buttressing  them  up  on  that  side.  This  chain  appears  to  have 
succeeded  in  accomplishing  the  curve  into  the  Iranian  direction 
without  undergoing  fracture  to  any  material  extent.  The 
symmetry  of  the  arc  described  as  seen  from  the  plains  about 
Diarbekr  has  already  enlisted  our  admiration  {ibid.  p.  424).  The 
spine  of  the  range  may  be  followed  along  the  southern  shore  of 
Lake  Goljik  to  the  Palu  Dagh,  east  of  the  town  of  Palu.  Thence 
it  is  taken  along  the  plain  of  Chabakchur  and  the  left  bank  of 
the  Murad  to  the  confines  of  the  plain  of  Mush.  Conspicuous 
with  sharp  peaks  which  are  seldom   free  from   snow,  it   stretches 


388  Arinenia 

past  the  depression  of  Mush  into  the  landscape  of  Lake  Van, 
where  it  recalls  the  sombreness  of  the  Norwegian  coast.  Through 
the  Karkar  Dagh  (long.  42.47),  and,  further  east,  through  the 
Bashit  Dagh,  west  of  Bashkala,  it  makes  steps  southwards  to  the 
threshold  of  the  basin  of  the  Great  Zab  ;  and  the  elevation  may 
be  traced  on  the  further  side  of  the  river  in  the  peaks  of  the  Jelu 
Dagh,  said  to  attain  a  height  of  between   13,000  and   14,000  feet.^ 

An  impressive  feature  of  this  Taurus  range,  and  one  which 
ought  not  to  escape  the  attention  whether  of  geographers  or  of 
political  students,  is  the  manner  in  which  it  appears  to  have  sunk 
down  along  its  southern  edge  between  the  39th  and  42nd  degrees 
of  longitude.  In  places  the  girdle  of  mountains  becomes  so 
narrow  that  its  effectiveness  as  a  barrier  is  much  impaired.  From 
the  town  of  Arghana,  which  must  lie  almost  at  the  southern  foot 
of  the  chain,  it  is  a  direct  distance  of  not  more  than  28  miles  to 
the  confines  of  the  plains  about  Kharput.  These  may  be  attained 
from  Diarbekr.  on  the  lowlands  without  encountering  a  greater 
altitude  than  less  than  5000  feet.  The  position  of  the  town  of 
Haini  (2800  feet)  appears  to  correspond  to  that  of  Arghana  ;  and 
thence  the  Murad  may  be  reached  in  22  miles  direct  by  a  pass  of 
only  4200  feet.  In  such  a  climate  heights  like  these  are  quite 
insignificant,  and  they  would  not  offer  at  any  season  an  obstacle 
of  much  importance  to  an  army  operating  from  the  lowlands  in  the 
direction  of  the  Armenian  plains.  This  sinking-down  of  Taurus 
has  been  accompanied,  as  indeed  one  might  expect,  by  volcanic 
action  on  a  considerable  scale.  The  Karaja  Dagh,  which  lies  to 
the  south-west  of  Diarbekr,  is  not  a  mountain  of  much  relative 
height.  You  may  ride  at  a  trot  across  its  long-drawn  undulations, 
admiring  the  sea-like  expanse  of  the  plains  around.  Yet  it 
represents  an  extensive  outpouring  of  lavas  in  recent  geological 
times.  It  would  appear  to  be  in  connection  with  some  of  the 
greatest  of  Armenian  volcanoes,  and  with  a  string  of  depressions 
extending  across  the  plateau.  The  line  may  be  easily  recognised 
through  Nimrud  and  Sipan  to  Tendurek  and  Ararat. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Dersim  block,  lying  to  the  south 
of  the  Merjan-Muzur  Dagh,  which  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily 
explored,  the  remaining  lines  of  elevation  within  the  limits  of  the 
tableland  are  probably  for  the  most  part  derived  from  the  Taurus 
system.  In  this  connection  it  is  most  interesting  to  take  due  note 
of  the  phenomenon  that,  side  by  side  with  the  results  of  the  later 
'   K.  Clayton,  The  Moitntains  of  Kurdistan,  in  the  Alpine  Joiirtml,  1887. 


Geographical  389 

earth  movements  which  have  most  largely  determined  the  existing 
configuration  of  the  land,  an  older  movement  may  be  discerned 
with  a  wide  extension  in  Turkish  Armenia,  rearing  mountains 
along  a  south-west — north-east  line.  We  ourselves  remarked 
this  phenomenon  on  an  impressive  scale  in  the  Akh  Dagh,  an 
elevation  of  highly  marmorised  limestone,  which  may  well  be  older 
even  than  the  Cretaceous  period.  It  rises  up  on  the  north  of  the 
plain  of  Khinis  (Ch.  VIII.  p.  186,  Fig.  i  59),  which  it  confines  in  an 
east-south-easterly  direction.  Though  we  were  unable  to  test  the 
strike  of  the  stratification,  the  appearance  of  the  ridges  of  which 
it  is  composed  almost  demanded  the  conclusion  that  they  were 
originally  members  of  a  series  of  heights  with  a  north-easterly 
course.  Even  as  far  east  as  the  region  to  the  south-west  of  Lake 
Van,  where  the  Taurus  is  pursuing  a  general  trend  towards  east- 
south-east,  the  strike  of  the  older  rocks  was  ascertained  to  be 
north-east.  A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  the  heights 
which  confine  the  course  of  the  Gunek  Su  pursue  a  north-easterly 
direction.  Those  on  the  right  bank,  extending  to  the  basin  of 
the  Kighi  or  Peri  Su,  may  be  clearly  traced  into  the  Taurus  on 
the  west  of  Palu,  to  be  represented  further  south  by  the  Chembek 
Dagh  and  Mastikan  Dagh,  constituents  of  Taurus  to  the  south- 
west of  Kharput.  In  the  opposite  direction  the  line  may  not 
unreasonably  be  regarded  as  extending  beneath  the  volcanic 
accumulations  of  the  Bingol  Dagh  through  the  Akh  Dagh  into 
the  hills  confining  the  plain  of  Alashkert  upon  the  south,  known 
as  the  Mergemir  or  Khalias  Dagh.  The  younger  movements 
may  find  expression  in  the  present  trend  of  the  two  last-named 
systems,  and,  further  south,  in  the  Kbshmiir  Dagh,  Shaitan  Dagh 
and  Javresh  Dagh,  mountains  through  which  the  Kighi  Su  breaks 
in  a  narrow  defile  after  leaving  the  Khindris  Ova  or  plain.  These 
last  extend  with  impressive  orographical  distinction  to  the  south- 
western edge  of  the  Bingol  plateau. 

The  Koshmlir  Dagh  effects  a  junction  with  the  mountains  of 
the  Dersim  ;  and  it  would  almost  seem  as  if  that  region  had 
refused  to  submit  to  the  folding  pressure,  causing  the  earth  weaves 
to  work  round  it  and,  like  the  plateau  of  Azerbaijan,  on  the 
east  of  Armenia,  favouring  fracture  rather  than  subordination  in 
any  complete  sense  to  the  general  structural  laws.^  Yet  I  cannot 
doubt  that  the  Dersim  should  be  included  within  the  limits  of  the 

1  For  some  account  of  the  geology  of  Azerbaijan  see  C.  Grewingk,  Die  geognostischen 
tnid  orographischcn   I'erhaltnisse  dcs  ndrdlicheti  Pcrsiens,  St.  Petersburg,  1853- 


390  Armenia 

country  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  present  enquiry.  The 
name  appears  to  be  applied  more  strictly  to  the  mountainous 
region  lying  to  the  east  of  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Muzur  Su, 
between  that  river  and  the  town  of  Kighi  Kasaba.  But  it  may 
be  used  to  embrace  also  the  country  to  the  south  of  the  Merjan- 
Muzur  Dagh,  as  far  west  as  the  great  bend  of  the  Western 
Euphrates  and  up  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Murad  on  the  south. 
Separated  from  the  important  Turkish  military  station  at  Erzinjan 
by  a  range  of  mountains  covered  with  snow  during  six  months  in 
the  year,  it  slopes  gradually  towards  the  river  on  its  southern 
confines,  well  wooded  in  many  parts,  abounding  in  minerals,  but 
broken  and  rugged  especially  in  the  northern  and  eastern  districts. 
The  original  home  of  an  Armenian  population,  who  probably 
entered  their  historical  seats  from  the  west,  it  is  dotted  over  with 
the  ruins  of  Armenian  churches,  monasteries  and  villages,  and  is 
mainly  but  sparsely  inhabited  by  Kizilbash  Kurds. ^  The  natural 
boundary  between  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor  is  the  course  of  the 
Western  Euphrates  between  the  town  of  Kemakh,  the  burial-place 
of  the  Armenian  Arsakid  kings,  and  its  passage  through  Taurus 
below  Keban-Maden.  North  of  the  Euphrates  the  line  may  be 
drawn  in  a  more  or  less  arbitrary  manner  from  above  Egin  to  the 
mountains  of  the  northern  peripheral  region. 

The  boundary  of  Taurus  is  clearly  defined  from  one  end  of 
Armenia  to  the  other,  describing  a  symmetrical  curve  along  the 
threshold  of  the  Armenian  highlands,  and  affording  a  number  of 
standpoints  whence  the  contrast  may  be  appreciated  between  the 
plateau  country  and  the  peripheral  mountains.  A  string  of  great 
plains  extend  on  its  inner  or  northern  side,  but  plains  quite 
different  in  character  from  the  lowlands  about  Diarbekr,  and  framed 
in  a  landscape  never  wanting  in  the  long-drawn  outlines  of  the 
loftier  levels.  The  plain  of  Kharput,  with  an  altitude  of  something 
over  3000  feet,  commences  the  series  on  the  west.  It  is  reached 
from  the  west  and  the  south  by  a  number  of  easy  approaches, 
the  Tauric  barrier  being  readily  surmountable  in  this  neigh- 
bourhood. The  town  is  built  upon  a  hill,  not  far  south  of 
the    Murad,  on   the  northern   confines   of  the  plain  ;   and   the   old 

'  The  best  account  of  this  country  is  that  of  J.  G.  Taylor,y^./v.  6'..^?.  vol.  xxxviii.  1868. 
I  may  also  refer  my  reader  to  two  articles  by  Dr.  Butyka  {Milt,  der  K.  K.  geographischcn 
GescUschaft  in  IVicn,  vol.  xxxv.  1892,  pp.  99-126  and  1 94-2 10),  who  has  collected  the 
scanty  notices  of  his  predecessors  and  added  his  own  experiences.  I  have  made  use  of 
some  unpublished  material  in  the  preparation  of  this  part  of  my  map ;  but  it  is  far  from 
sa  isfactory. 


Gcograph  ical  391 

castle  overlooks  the  expanse  at  a  difference  in  level  of  about 
1000  feet.  Various  estimates  assign  a  population  of  from  13,000 
to  25,000  souls  to  this  ancient  Armenian  borough  ;  and,  although 
the  Armenians  are  in  great  minority  in  the  city,  they  have  a  large 
preponderance  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  region. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  not  less  than  from  130  to  150  villages 
are  situated  in  the  vicinity.  The  vine  flourishes  and  is  cultivated 
at  this  moderate  elevation  ;  and  the  dwellings  are  for  the  most 
part  constructed  of  mud  and  brick  with  two  storeys,  in  striking 
contrast  to  the  unhealthy  underground  burrows  in  which  the 
peasantry  cheat  the  rigour  of  an  Armenian  winter  over  the  greater 
portion  of  the  area  of  the  tableland.  Fear  and  plum  trees  grace 
the  outskirts  of  the  settlements,  and  the  mulberry  grows  in  such 
profusion  that  the  silk  crop  is  often  of  considerable  value. 
Kharput  has  become  a  centre  of  American  missionary  effort — on 
the  whole  a  salutary  and  civilising  influence  in  these  lands.  Their 
educational  activities  are  represented  by  a  well-equipped  institu- 
tion founded  in  1876  and  bearing  the  name  of  Armenia  College. 
Thither  flock  the  Armenian  youth  from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
to  grow  up  beneath  the  example  of  the  most  progressive  of 
Western  peoples.  Within  recent  years  the  value  of  that  example 
has  somewhat  diminished  in  their  eyes,  owing  to  the  impunity 
with  which  the  organisers  of  Palace  policy  in  Constantinople 
have  applied  the  torch  to  the  property  of  American  citizens  and 
the  ban  of  the  censor  to  the  loftiest  creations  of  Western  literature. 
These  are  little  misunderstandings  which  will  disappear. 

A  fairly  level  country  extends  from  the  territory  of  Kharput 
eastwards  to  the  confines  of  Palu.  The  Murad  wanders  in  many 
channels  over  the  expanse,  approached  at  an  interval  which  is 
always  diminishing  by  the  Tauric  barrier.  The  river  is  forded 
to  the  right  bank  before  the  castled  rock  is  reached,  past  which 
it  flows  in  a  single  stream.  It  washes  on  three  sides  the  steep 
declivities  of  the  platform  upon  which  the  town  is  built.  Palu  is 
described  to  me  as  a  thriving  borough  with  about  2000  houses, 
which  gives  a  population  of  from  10,000  to  12,000  souls.  Six 
hundred  are  said  to  belong  to  Armenian  families  and  the  re- 
mainder to  Kurdish  people.  A  bridge  with  eight  arches  and  a 
length  of  190  yards  connects  the  place,  just  to  the  east  of  the 
loop  described  by  the  river,  with  the  opposite  or  left  bank.  On 
the  north  extends  a  plain  in  connection  with  that  of  Kharput 
and    productive     of    abundant     crops.      Rock     chambers    and    a 


392  Armenia 

cuneiform  inscription  of  the  Vannic  king,  Menuas,  recording  his 
conquests  and  emblazoned  with  the  name  of  Khaldis,  his  supreme 
god,  remind  the  traveller  that  he  is  already  approaching  the  centres 
of  that  old  civilisation  which  existed  before  the  Armenians,  and 
was  perhaps  the  highest  that  these  lands  have  known.^ 

From  Palu  a  fair  track  leads  through  Temran  into  the 
Khindris  plain,  and  thence  to  Erzerum.  The  passage  of  the 
Shaitan  Dagh  into  the  plain  may  be  effected  at  different  points, 
but  the  pass  to  Lichig  has  an  elevation  of  over  8000  feet.  The 
Government  are  proposing  to  carry  their  new  carriage  -  road 
between  Kharput  and  Erzerum  through  the  gorge  of  the  Kighi 
Su.  Two  routes  are  offered  between  Palu  and  the  next  great 
plain  at  the  foot  of  Taurus,  comprised  within  the  territory  of 
Chabakchur.  The  upper  route  proceeds  through  Khoshmat  to 
Chevelik  in  the  valley  of  the  Gunek  Su,  crossing  a  mountainous 
region  and  attaining  elevations  of  6000  to  7000  feet  above  the 
sea."'  The  lower  follows  the  gorge  of  the  Murad  and  is  more 
in  use  during  winter,  but  it  is  described  in  no  very  favourable 
terms.  The  narrows  commence  just  east  of  Palu  and  extend  to 
Chabakchur.  A  waterfall  brings  to  an  end  the  navigation  of  the 
river,  which  is  conducted  with  no  small  difficulties  by  means  of 
rafts.  When  at  length  the  plain  is  reached  communications 
become  better  ;  and  the  valley  of  the  Gunek  Su  affords  an  easy 
approach  to  Erzerum,  though  one  which  would  not  be  agreeable 
during  winter.  Between  Chabakchur  and  the  plain  of  Mush  the 
Murad  is  again  confined  in  a  gorge,  and  its  course  is  still  requiring 
to  be  explored.  A  mule  track  is  forthcoming,  which  keeps 
close  to  the  river,  passing  through  the  district  of  Genj,  I  am 
informed  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  convert  into  a  good  road. 
The  more  usual  route  is  by  Menaskut,  entering  the  plain  below 
Surb  Karapet  after  traversing  a  mountainous  but  well -wooded 
country. 

One  may  say  in  general  terms  of  the  extensive  region  we  are 
now  leaving  that  the  pleasant  plains  along  its  southern  margin 
are  by  no  means  the  dominant  feature.  The  territory  lying 
between  the  two  great  rivers,  the  Western  and  the  Eastern 
Euphrates,  which  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Merjan-Muzur 
Dagh  with  its  continuation  eastwards  in  the  Baghir  Dagh,  Girdim 

'  See  the  inscription  and  translation  Ijy  Professor  Sayce  in  the  Journal  of  the  Koyal 
Asiatic  Society,  vol.  .\iv.   1882,  No.  XXXIII.  p.  558. 

^  Tozer,  Turkish  Ar)ttenia  and  Eastern  Asia  Minor,  Lonilon,   1S81,  pj).    256  seq. 


Geographical  393 

Dagh  and  Khach  Dagh  ;  and  on  the  east  by  the  westerly  edge  of 
the  Bingol  plateau  and  the  water-parting  from  Bingdl  to  Palandoken, 
the  mountain  landmark  just  south  of  Erzerum  —  all  this  area, 
measuring  some  140  miles  from  west  to  east  and  on  the  average 
50  miles  from  north  to  south,  is  intersected  by  a  sea  of  mountains, 
threaded,  indeed,  by  considerable  streams,  but  always  difficult 
and  in  winter  almost  impossible  to  cross.  The  constant  acclivity 
towards  the  north,  the  height  of  the  barrier  on  its  northern  confines, 
and  the  indifference  of  the  approaches  from  the  east  combine  to 
shut  it  off  from  the  stream  of  human  movement,  which  is  diverted 
into  other  channels.  We  can  scarcely  understand  the  history  of 
these  countries  without  appreciating  this  fact.  Be  the  movement 
from  east  to  west  or  from  north  to  south,  the  main  current  is  sure 
to  eddy  along  the  outskirts  of  this  territory,  either  pursuing  the 
broad  avenue  of  the  valley  of  the  Western  Euphrates,  or  turning 
aside  from  the  plateau  region  and  flooding  across  the  peripheral 
mountains  into  the  lowlands  of  Mesopotamia.  As  might  be 
expected  under  such  conditions,  the  country  is  for  the  most  part 
under  little  control.  Strange  people  who  are  classed  as  Kurds, 
but  speak  a  dialect  called  Zaza,  and  for  the  most  part  profess  a 
liberal  religion  which  holds  the  scales  between  Christianity  and 
Islam,  compose  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  in  the  mountainous 
parts.  The  Government  works  from  the  upland  plains,  of  which 
there  are  many  and  of  ample  extent,  and  from  such  centres  as 
Kighi  Kasaba  and  Pulumer.  If  my  reader  will  turn  to  my 
sketch  from  the  hill  of  Gugoghlan  (Fig.  195,  p.  373),  he  may 
realise  at  a  glance  the  rugged  nature  of  this  region  and  the 
contrast  which  it  offers  to  the  normal  surface  features.  It 
comprises  the  ridges  in  the  west  and  south-west  of  the  panorama  ; 
and  the  Merghuk  Su,  which  meanders  towards  them,  is  the  name 
of  the  head  waters  of  the  Kighi  Su,  issuing  in  the  plains  about 
Kharput.  Travellers  praise  the  woodlands  which  clothe  great 
parts  of  the  country,  though  they  were  not  visible  from  the 
standpoint  of  my  drawing. 

The  next  great  plain  at  the  foot  of  Taurus  derives  its  name 
from  the  town  of  Mush,  built  against  the  wall  of  the  range.  It 
extends  from  north-west  to  south-east  for  a  distance  of  over  40 
miles,  crossed  at  its  lower  end  by  the  wandering  stream  of  the 
Murad,  to  which  it  sends  a  dull  and  almost  stagnant  tributary. 
How  clean  the  line  of  Taurus  stands  out  on  the  southern  margin 
of  this  flat  and  almost  limitless  expanse  !      Under  happier  human 


394  Armenia 

conditions  the  plain  would  soon  become  a  garden  and  granary, 
favouring  the  vine  and  the  luscious  growth  of  the  tobacco  plant 
as  well  as  all  kinds  of  cereals.  At  the  present  day  marshes 
extend  over  a  great  part  of  the  area,  and  the  Armenian  peasantry 
— one  of  the  brawniest  and  most  sturdy  in  the  world — have  been 
reduced  by  the  excesses  of  the  Kurds  to  abject  indigence.  Mush 
is  in  communication  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  with  the  great 
grain-growing  districts  of  Bulanik  and  Khinis,  and  with  the  plains 
of  Pasin  and  Erzerum.  It  is  little  more  than  a  step — indeed  a 
step  in  the  literal  sense — up  to  the  fertile  territories  on  the  north 
of  Lake  Van.  Ready  access  is  always  forthcoming  through  the 
Bitlis  passage  to  the  Mesopotamian  lowlands.  The  Mush  plain 
represents  a  considerable  subsidence  of  the  plateau  region,  the 
average  elevation  being  only  4200  feet.  Thence  you  pass  across 
the  dam  formed  by  lavas  from  Nimrud  to  the  much  higher  level 
of  Lake  Van  (5637  feet).  That  inland  sea,  with  the  gulf-like 
extension  of  the  even  area  up  the  valley  of  the  Khoshab,  the 
district  of  Hayotz-dzor,  forms  the  appropriate  termination  of 
the  string  of  level  spaces  outspread  at  the  base  of  the  chain 
which  comes  from  the  Mediterranean  during  its  passage  along 
Armenian  soil. 

In  the  companion  chapter  of  the  first  volume  I  have  en- 
deavoured to  suggest  the  characteristics  of  the  mountains  of  the 
northern  peripheral  region.  The  corresponding  zone  upon  the 
south  which  is  occupied  by  Taurus  is  distinguished  by  many 
similar  features.  There  are  the  same  sharp  peaks,  precipitous 
slopes,  narrow  valleys  and  swift  streams  and  rivers,  composing  a 
landscape  which,  except  for  the  greater  scale  of  the  phenomena, 
is  essentially  and  constantly  alpine  in  character.  Unlike  our 
Alps  but  like  the  barrier  on  the  side  of  the  Black  Sea,  one  valley 
is  ever  higher  than  the*  trough  which  lies  behind  it,  each  crest 
more  lofty  than  the  last,  as  you  journey  towards  the  edge  of  the 
tableland  whether  from  the  coast  of  the  northern  waters  or  from 
the  alluvial  flats  which  extend  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  Of  moisture 
there  is  less  among  these  southern  mountains,  and  we  miss  the 
exuberance  of  the  Pontic  vegetation.  But  forests  of  dwarf  oak 
relieve  the  sternness  of  the  scenery,  and  the  knots  or  whorls  on  the 
trunks  of  the  numerous  walnut  trees  sustain  an  industry  which 
attracts  the  most  adventurous  of  native  traders,  causes  them  to 
sojourn  in  these  wild  districts,  and  enables  them  to  supply  the 
markets  of  Europe  with  excellent  material  for  veneering  purposes. 


Geographical  395 

The  summits  attain  their  greatest  elevation  in  the  Jelu  Dagh,  a 
group  of  peaks  just  east  of  the  valley  of  the  Great  Zab  which  are 
at  least  as  high  as  13,000  feet.  But  by  the  time  the  summer  is 
well  advanced  the  landscape  is  almost  free  from  snow.  West  of 
the  Zab  a  labyrinth  of  valleys  feed  the  long  course  of  the  Bohtan 
Su  across  the  mountainous  belt.  The  barrier  has  more  than 
trebled  in  lateral  extension  since  confining  the  territories  of 
Kharput  and  Palu.  Even  the  Tigris,  which  has  been  idly 
spreading  over  the  vast  alluvial  flats  about  Diarbekr,  is  compelled 
to  become  a  mountain  stream.  Above  the  primeval  village  of 
Hasan  Keif  it  enters  the  narrow  gorge  which  pierces  the  foot  of 
Taurus  as  he  reaches  out  into  the  plains  in  the  hill  range  of 
Midyat.  It  is  in  that  gorge  that  the  Bohtan  effects  the  conflu- 
ence ;  and  well  I  remember  the  roar  of  the  tributary  and  the 
genuflexions  of  my  companions  as  the  swirling  water  eddied 
around  our  raft.  The  Tigris  is  henceforward  a  noble  river  at  all 
seasons,  and  when  Jezireh  is  soon  passed  its  brief  activity  is 
over  and  it  luxuriates  in  open  spaces  till  reaching  the  Gulf 

All  this  alpine  country  between  the  edge  of  the  tableland  and 
the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  which  is  watered  by  the  numerous 
constituents  of  the  Tigris,  is  the  original  and  natural  home  of 
the  Kurdish  people,  the  true  Kurdistan  or  Kurd -land.  These 
shepherds  love  the  mountains  as  the  Arabs  affect  the  plains  ;  but 
they  need  the  warm  plains  during  the  winter  season  when  their 
fastnesses  are  covered  with  snow.  They  descend  to  the  foot  of 
the  chain  with  their  numerous  flocks  and  herds,  and  camp  on  the 
lower  course  of  some  southward-flowing  tributary  or  even  upon 
the  banks  of  the  great  river.  The  winter  climate  of  the  lowlands 
is  temperate  and  delicious  ;  the  long  Kurd  with  his  loose  limbs, 
hollow  cheeks  and  beak  nose  meets  the  neat  and  nimble  Arab. 
The  coarse  but  perky  little  highland  horse  is  watered  from  the 
same  flood  to  which  the  Arab  leads  the  graceful  creature  prized 
beyond  all  other  possessions,  of  skin  like  satin,  limbs  like  ivory, 
and  head  which  is  the  supreme  embodiment  of  high  courage, 
docility  and  intelligence.  The  noiseless  raft  surprises  a  group  of 
Kurdish  women  bathing  quite  nude  upon  the  margin  of  the  sandy 
bed.  A  man  is  watching  over  them,  and  they  seem  without 
concern.  Two  specks  are  descried  upon  the  bosom  of  the  waters  ; 
the  current  brings  them  nearer ;  they  are  swimmers  from  the 
opposite  bank  with  the  chest  supported  on  an  inflated  skin. 
Within   a   few  yards   of  your  calek   they  emerge  upon  the   bank, 


396  Armenia 

Arab  maidens  who  would  delight  a  sculptor  with  their  slim  forms 
resembling  deer,  and  who  have  never  learnt  the  sin  of  human 
nakedness.  Slowl}^  they  free  the-  air  from  the  buoyant  skins, 
unbind  the  bundle  on  their  heads  containing  their  loose 
cotton  garment,  and  make  their  way  to  an  invisible  village  or 
encampment. 

When  summer  comes  the  annual  migration  to  the  recesses  of 
the  mountains  has  taken  place,  and  whatever  Kurds  are  not 
detained  in  the  lowland  villages,  which  are  fairly  numerous  in 
spite  of  the  aversion  of  the  tribal  Kurd  to  a  life  within  walls, 
have  already  ended  their  brief  sojourn  in  the  country  of  the  Arabs 
and  are  stretching  their  goat-hair  tents  upon  the  upland  pastures. 
Streams  of  cattle,  sheep,  horses  and  goats  obstruct  the  passes  ; 
the  shepherds  have  doffed  their  felt  cloaks  and  clamber  over  the 
boulders,  their  women  beside  them,  mounted  or  on  foot.  The 
glades  and  gorges  become  bright  with  red  and  blue  cottons,  and 
Kurdish  girls  with  comely  faces  and  white  ankles  are  seen  on  the 
mountain  paths.  Long-drawn  shouts  are  carried  far  across  the 
hiss  of  the  torrents,  and  wurra,  zvurra  I  or  //<?,  Jio  !  announce  the 
locality  of  the  speaker  or  awake  the  attention  of  callous  ears. 
The  Kurd  is  a  picturesque  and  welcome  presence  among  these 
solitudes,  and  it  is  only  when  he  has  been  severed  from  his 
natural  surroundings  that  he  becomes  odious  and  an  enemy  of 
the  human  race. 

Of  the  principal  communications  across  Taurus  with  the 
tableland  of  Armenia  I  have  already  glanced  at  those  connecting 
Diarbekr  with  Kharput  and  Erzerum  through  Arghana,  and  with 
Erzerum  through  Haini.  The  latter  is  a  direct  and,  in  spite  of 
the  great  elevation  of  the  country  which  it  traverses  between  the 
plain  of  Altun  and  the  northern  capital,  nevertheless  a  promising 
route.  Mush  plain  may  be  reached  from  Diarbekr  by  way  of 
Kulp  and  the  Gozme  Gedik  Pass  (6645  feet).  But  between  this 
approach  and  the  Bitlis  passage  the  country  is  ill-controlled,  nor 
am  I  aware  of  any  favourable  and  beaten  tracks.  The  Bitlis 
passage  represents  the  main  avenue  between  the  lowlands  and 
the  country  about  Lake  Van  (Ch.  YL  p.  148)  ;  from  Diarbekr  it 
is  entered  by  way  of  Zokh  and  from  Mosul  through  Sert.  I  shall 
not  stay  to  discuss  the  various  more  or  less  direct  routes  across 
the  mountains  between  Sert  and  the  city  of  Van  ;  nor  can  I 
speak  from  personal  knowledge  or  even  conjecture  of  those  which 
conduct   to   Van   from   Jezireh-ibn-Omar,   or   from    Mosul   by   the 


Geograph  ical  397 

valley  of  the  Great  Zab.'  The  entire  region  to  the  south  and 
south-east  of  the  great  lake — Khizan,  Mukus,  Shatakh,  Nurduz — 
has  been  scoured  in  recent  years  by  various  travellers  whose 
experiences  have  not  to  my  knowledge  as  yet  appeared  in  print." 
I  should  now  propose  to  dismiss  this  part  of  my  subject,  dealing 
with  the  zones  of  peripheral  mountains  and  the  intermediate  lines 
of  elevation  upon  the  surface  of  the  tableland  which  they  enclose; 
and  to  bring  under  review  some  of  the  remaining  features 
characteristic  of  the  Armenian  highlands  in  their  westerly  ex- 
tension from  the  spine  of  the  Ararat  system  to  the  confines  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Hitherto  our  study  of  the  orography  of  this  Tauric  Armenia 
has  been  mainly  occupied — it  is  interesting  to  recall  the  fact — 
with  lines  of  folding  of  the  earth's  crust.  Indeed  the  country  as 
a  whole  has  not  been  subjected  to  recent  volcanic  action  in  the 
same  degree  as  the  plateau  regions  lying  to  the  north  of  the 
spinal  mountains^ — the  territories  of  Akhaltsykh,  Ardahan,  x'^khal- 
kalaki,  Alexandropol  and  Kars.  At  the  same  time  it  has  not 
escaped  the  operation  of  these  agencies  ;  nor  have  they  worked 
upon  a  less  impressive  scale.  Be  it  lavas  flooding  over  the 
sedimentary  deposits  and  levelling  the  inequalities  of  the  ground 
— what  more  startling  manifestation  could  be  offered  of  the 
process  than  the  Bingol  plateau  with  its  piled-up  la}'ers  of  lava 
and  tuff?  Or  if  volcanoes  in  the  strict  sense  be  matched  against 
volcanoes,  there  are  Nimrud  and  Sipan  to  enter  the  lists  with 
Alagoz  and  Ararat.  Several  mountains  which  are  due  to  eruptive 
action  have  been  added  to  the  map  in  the  course  of  my  own 
journeys.  Such  are  Bilejan  and  Kartevin.  The  roll  will  be 
increased  as  our  knowledge  is  carried  further  of  the  districts  on 
the  west  of  Bingol  and  Palanddken. 

A  striking  analogy  in  some  respects  to  the  Russian  territories 
which  I  have  just  specified  is  provided  by  the  surface  features  of 
the  Bingol  plateau,  with  its  continuation  northwards   in  the  shape 

1  H.  Binder  describes  the  route  from  Mosul  through  Amadia,  Julamerik,  Kochannes 
and  Mervanen  to  Van  [An  Kurdistan,  en  Mdsopotamie  et  en  Perse,  Paris,  1887).  See 
also  W.  F.  Ainsworth,  Travels  in  Asia  J\Iinor,  etc.,  London,  1842,  vol.  ii.  pp.  179 
seq.,  with  geological  section  from  Mosul  to  Lake  Urmi. 

2  For  the  geology  of  the  Taurus  between  Diarbekr  and  Kharput  an  article  by  W. 
Warington  Smyth  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  1845, 
vol.  i.  pp.  330  seij.,  may  be  consulted.  I  do  not  understand  his  statement  that  the 
breadth  of  the  main  ridge  of  Taurus  between  Arghana  and  Kharput  is  nearly  50  miles. 
Loftus  [op.  cit.  p.  344)  has  drawn  a  geological  section  from  Bitlis  through  Sert  to 
Jezireh-ibn-Omar.  Like  the  Zagros,  the  range  may  be  said  to  consist  in  the  main  of 
nummulitic  limestone. 


398  Armenia 

of  a  deeply  eroded  block  of  land  to  the  confines  of  the  plains  of 
Erzerum  and  Pasin.  This  extensive  region  lies  about  south-west 
of  the  corresponding  area  of  rectangular  shape  within  the  Russian 
frontier.  It  performs  the  same  function  of  a  roof  to  the  adjacent 
countries  ;  and  just  as  the  one  stage  gives  birth  to  the  Kur  and 
the  Arpa  Chai,  so  the  other  feeds  with  countless  channels  the 
earliest  course  of  the  Araxes  and  contributes  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  the  waters  of  the  Murad.  The  streams  which  decline 
from  its  north-westerly  extremities  swell  the  volume  of  the 
Western  Euphrates.  Built  up  on  the  south  with  lavas  and  tuffs 
to  the  extent  of  thousands  of  feet,  it  has  throughout  been  flooded 
with  volcanic  matter.  Taken  in  relation  with  the  general 
structure  of  Tauric  or  Turkish  Armenia,  we  may  apply  to  this 
elevated  stage  of  the  plateau  country  the  designation  of  the 
Central  Tableland. 

My  reader  is  already  familiar  with  the  characteristics  of  the 
region — the  basin -like  appearance,  the  long  parapets  on  the 
northern  and  southern  edges,  in  the  one  case  culminating  in 
the  volcanic  peaks  of  Palandoken  (10,694  feet)  and  Eyerli,  in 
the  other  distinguished  by  the  eminences  of  Bingol  (nearly  10,800 
feet).  The  limits  of  the  Bingol  plateau  are  clearly  defined  on 
three  sides,  and  may  readily  be  recognised  on  our  map.  On  the 
north  it  merges  insensibly  into  the  Shushar  and  Tekman  districts, 
though  at  some  points,  as,  for  example,  the  cliffs  just  south  of 
Kherbesor,  lines  of  demarcation  may  be  laid  down.  How  the 
waters  of  this  plateau  converge  together  in  the  shape  of  two  fans, 
as  they  are  precipitated  from  the  highest  levels  towards  the  north 
and  towards  the  east,  burying  themselves  ever  deeper  into  the 
volcanic  soil  !  The  one  group  is  collected  in  the  plain  of  Khinis, 
and  the  other  by  the  course  of  the  Araxes  between  the  plain  of 
Altun  and  the  narrows  on  the  north  of  Kulli.  There  in  the 
hollow  of  the  basin  the  levels  are  still  lofty — the  Altun  plain 
with  about  7000  feet  and  Kulli  with  about  6000.  Ascend  to 
the  table  surface  from  the  beds  of  the  rivers,  and  you  register 
heights  which  range  between  7000  and  at  least  9000  feet  above 
the  sea.  A  country  with  down-like  outlines,  composed  of  lime- 
stones with  intrusive  serpentines  and  Pliocene  lake  deposits  capped 
by  sheets  of  the  ubiquitous  lava — an  expanse  sterile  and  vast  at 
all  seasons,  and  in  winter  covered  with  snow — a  softly  billowing 
surface  dappled  by  the  shadows  of  cumulus  clouds  and  shot  with 
colour   from   a   network   of  blue   streams — such,   I  think,  are  the 


Geographical  399 

most  permanent  impressions  of  our  journeys  across   the   Central 
Tableland. 

Volcanic  action  is  largely  responsible  for  the  configuration  of 
this  tract  of  country,  filling  up  hollows,  preserving  the  sedimentary 
deposits  with  overlying  sheets  of  lava.  The  extent  of  the 
operation  may  best  be  gauged  on  the  south-western  extremities 
of  the  Bingol  plateau.  There  the  ridges  in  the  west  are  seen 
stepping  up,  one  after  another,  almost  to  the  margin  of  the 
elevated  platform  where  your  tents  are  spread.  The  setting  sun 
invests  them  with  an  added  glamour  of  gold  and  purple  ;  yet 
how  futile  this  fretful  array  against  the  solid  land  about  you, 
dimly  spread  in  horizontal  spaces  beyond  sight !  The  yellow 
mullein  which  scents  the  air  springs  from  the  ruin  of  all  those 
ridges,  growing  upon  the  tomb  of  their  deeply-buried  remains. 
But  further  north,  where  the  sway  of  the  lavas  has  already 
become  feeble,  the  same  phenomenon,  a  little  modified,  may  be 
observed.  Survey  the  scene  as  it  is  unfolded  northwards  from 
the  western  summit  of  Bingol  or  from  the  hill  of  Gugoghlan 
(Ch.  XXII.  p.  373,  Figs.  194  and  195).  What  a  contrast  between 
the  landscape  of  the  west  and  that  of  the  east !  All  those  ridges 
in  the  west  are  dying  by  themselves  into  the  down-like  spaces 
of  the  Central  Tableland.  Here  the  lavas  have  been  a  con- 
tributing but  not  the  principal  cause. 

The  truth  is  that  we  should  here  be  standing  quite  near  the 
point  of  greatest  constriction  between  the  inner  and  outer  arcs. 
In  other  words,  it  is  just  west  of  this  region  that  the  greatest 
compression  of  the  Armenian  highlands  by  earth  movements 
may  be  supposed  to  have  taken  place.  A  natural  consequence 
of  the  process  would  be  the  ridging  up  within  a  narrow  space  of 
the  normal  surface  elevations.  East  of  an  imaginary  line  between 
Bingol  and  Palandoken  the  area  becomes  enlarged.  Room  is 
given  for  the  ridges  to  spread ;  they  flatten  out  and  almost 
disappear.  At  the  same  time  the  change  from  the  Tauric  into 
the  Iranian  direction  soon  commences  to  make  itself  felt.  Moun- 
tain and  gentle  hill,  the  rocks  on  the  heights  and  those  in  the 
hollows  are  all  imprinted  with  the  stamp  of  a  new-born  force. 
In  the  most  central  districts  we  recorded  this  change  in  what 
geologists  call  the  strike  between  the  villages  of  Kanjean  and 
Alkhes  in  the  region  called  Elmali  Dere  or  Vale  of  Apples. 
There  the  stratified  rocks  have  been  flooded  with  sheets  of  lava, 
which   have   presumably   welled    up   from    fissures.      A    glance   at 


400  Armenia 

the  map  will  show  that  all  the  outlines  are  bending  over,  those 
on  the  north-east  and  those  to  the  south-west  of  this  point.  And 
a  little  looking  brings  home  the  fact  that  most  of  the  great 
Armenian  volcanoes  are  situated  at  or  near  the  bend. 

The  tendency  to  a  strong-pronounced  plateau  country  is  in 
Armenia,  and  especially  in  the  south-western  territories,  inde- 
pendent of  volcanic  action.  Herrmann  Abich  aptly  describes  the 
effect  of  this  tendency  upon  the  mountain  masses  when  he 
speaks  of  their  constant,  nearly  horizontal  summit  line.^  Yet 
the  heights  which  elicited  this  appreciation  belong  to  the  system 
west  of  Bingol,  and  are  mainly  composed  of  stratified  rocks. 
Horizontality  is  the  prevailing  characteristic  of  the  outlines  on 
the  north  of  the  series  of  plains  from  Pasin  in  the  east  to 
Erzinjan  in  the  west.  Those  outlines  belong  to  a  block  of 
elevated  land  from  over  9000  to  about  8000  feet  above  the  sea. 
Lavas  have  accentuated  the  feature  in  the  case  of  the  border 
heights  of  Pasin  (Ch.  VIII.  p.  193,  Fig.  163)  ;  but  when,  further 
west,  the  barrier  consists  of  limestones  and  old  igneous  rocks,  the 
same  appearance  of  a  flat-topped  mass,  representing  a  higher 
stage  of  the  plateau  region,  is  only  varied  by  some  beautiful  shapes 
emerging  upon  the  sky-line,  such  as  the  Cretaceous  peaks  of 
xA.khbaba  and  Jejen.  If  you  dravv  a  section  between  the  western 
extremity  of  the  plain  of  Mush  against  Taurus  and  the  maze  of 
valleys  which  feed  the  Chorokh  on  the  north  of  Erzerum,  the 
true  character  of  the  land  will  be  exhibited  in  a  striking  manner. 
You  will  commence  with  a  level  plain  of  immense  extent  from 
west  to  east  and  with  an  average  elevation  of  4200  feet.  Pro- 
ceeding northwards,  you  scale  a  wall  of  8000  feet,  only  to  find 
yourself  upon  a  platform  almost  as  flat  as  a  billiard-table,  over 
which  the  track  leads  without  much  change  in  level  for  a  distance 
of  many  miles.  This  stage  breaks  off  upon  the  north  to  a  little 
plain  even  as  water,  lying  in  the  lap  of  an  extensive  depression 
of  not  more  than  5000  feet.  You  cross  the  depression  with  a 
parapet  of  8400  to  over  9000  feet  closing  the  landscape  with 
gigantic  cliffs  before  your  eyes.  It  is  the  edge  of  the  Central 
Tableland.  The  journey  is  long  from  this,  its  southern  margin, 
to  the  corresponding  rim  upon  the  north — water-worn  downs  with 
an  average  altitude  of  over  7000  feet.  After  registering  heights, 
always  on  the  level,  of  about  9000  feet,  a  descent  is  made  to  the 
vast  expanse  of  the  Erzerum  plain  (5700  feet).      The  mass  which 

1   Abich,  op.  cil.  part  ii.  p.   119  note. 


Geographical  40 1 

rises  on  the  north  of  that  phiin  contains  the  sources  of  the 
Western  Euphrates  and  leads  over  to  the  deep  valleys  which 
sustain  the  Chorokh.  It  is  flat-topped,  and  attains  a  level  of 
about  9000  feet. 

The  most  fertile  and  agricultural  districts  lie  to  the  east  of 
this  section  ;  they  are  generally  separated  one  from  another  by 
inountains  of  recent  volcanic  origin,  upon  which,  however,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  the  Tendurek  Dagh,  a  wreath  of  smoke 
is  never  seen.  The  plain  of  Khinis  (5500  feet)  is  screened  by 
Khamur  from  the  plains  of  Bulanik  and  Melazkert  (5000  feet), 
where  some  of  the  finest  grain  in  the  world  is  grown.  Bulanik 
is  divided  into  a  western  and  an  eastern  territory  by  the  radial 
volcanic  mass  of  Bilejan.  The  line  of  heights  which  are  inter- 
posed between  Western  Bulanik  and  Mush  plain  are  probably 
partly  due  to  lavas  which  have  welled  up  from  fissures,  and  are 
easily  crossed  almost  at  any  point.  The  plain  of  Mush  (4200 
feet)  and  the  level  country  of  almost  endless  extent  between 
Sipan  and  the  Murad  are  shut  off  from  the  cornfields  and 
orchards  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Van  (5637  feet)  by  the  immense 
circumference  of  the  Ximrud  crater  and  by  the  block  of  limestones 
and  lake  deposits  upon  which  Sipan  is  built  up.  The  region 
between  Lake  Van  and  the  hills  of  the  Persian  border  is  parcelled 
out  into  a  number  of  districts  by  such  volcanic  eminences  as 
Varag  Dagh,  Pir  Reshid  Dagh,^  and  Tendurek  Dagh,  which  last- 
named  mountain  has  sent  its  lavas  a  great  distance  south  into 
the  Abagha  Plain."  All  the  way  from  Tendurek  to  the  plain  of 
Khinis  eruptive  agencies  have  fastened  upon  the  land  on  a  con- 
siderable scale.  A  large  area  is  occupied  by  the  radial  volcanic 
system  known  as  the  Ala  Dagh,  but  very  scantily  explored. 
It  is  succeeded  further  west  by  the  Kartevin  Dagh.  The 
extensive  territories  between  Kartevin  on  the  south,  the  plain  of 
Khinis  on  the  west,  and  the  Sharian-Mergemir  Dagh  barrier  on 
the  north,  are  for  the  most  part  covered  with  sheets  of  lava. 
But  the  plains  of  Alashkert  (5  500  feet)  and  Pasin  (over  5000  feet) 
are  worthy  to  rank  with  the  most  favoured  regions  ;  and  this 
sequence  is  continued  westwards  by  the  plains  of  the  Western 
Euphrates,  commencing  with  that  of  Erzerum  (from  5750  to 
about  3800  feet).      North  again  of  this  series  one  may  specially 

^   I  cannot  speak  with  certainty  as  to  the  geological  nature  of  the  Pir  Reshid  Dagh. 

^  For  Tendurek,  which  appears  to  be  in  a  solfataric  condition,  see  Abich's  article  in 
the  Bulletin  of  the  FreJich  Geological  Society,  2nd  series,  xxi.  pp.  213  seq.,  and  Letter 
from  T.  K,  Lynch  in  P.R.G.S.  xiii.  pp.  243,  244. 

VOL.  II  2D 


402  Armenia 

instance    the    plain    of   Baiburt    (5000    feet),   which   is    a    typical 
Armenian  plain. 

As  you  travel  from  plain  to  plain,  from  one  basin  to  another, 
the  horizon  is  most  often  filled  by  some  shapely  volcanic   outline, 
slowly  rising   from  the  floor  of  the   expanse.      Yet   the   stratified 
rocks  are   seldom   absent,   emerging   from   the   volcanic   layers   or 
only  capped  by  a  thin  sheet  of  lava.      Dominant  among  them  are 
the  limestones  of  various  geological  periods,  from  the  Cretaceous 
and  probably  earlier,  to   the   Pliocene   deposits,  when   the   greater 
part  of  the  country  must  have  been  covered  by  a  lake  of  fresh  or 
brackish   water.      Intrusive   in   the  earlier   limestones   are   found  a 
variety  of  old  igneous  rocks,  such  as  diabase,  gabbro  and   serpen- 
tine.     The  serpentines  combine  with  the  limestones  to  form  rounded 
hills  or  downs  with  soft  outlines.      Sometimes  a  cap  of  lava  has 
preserved  a  particular  piece  of  limestone,  and  the  result  has  been 
a  summit  with  a  point  like  that  of  a  needle  overtopping  adjacent 
and  undulating   forms.      Where   the  old   igneous  rock   occurs  in  a 
zone,   a   sombre   landscape  is  forthcoming,   as   for  instance  above 
the  northern   shore  of  Lake   Van  between   Akhlat  and    Adeljivas. 
Or  when  the  highly  marmorised  older  limestones   have  the  upper 
hand,  there  ensue  sterility  and   glaring   light.      These  latter  rocks 
have  a    fairly   wide   extension   and    compose   prominent    lines   of 
mountain.      For  example,  they  have   bestowed   upon  the  plain  of 
Khinis   its    northern   boundary ;   and    nowhere    are   they    seen   to 
greater  advantage  than  in  that  shining  and  richly  modelled  barrier 
appropriately  named  the  Akh  Dagh  or  White  Mountain.     During 
the  journey  from  Gopal  to  Tutakh  on  the  Upper  Murad  they  were 
constantly   emerging   from   the   sheets  of  lava  ;   and   in  the   south 
we  found  them  in  the  vicinity  of  the  southern  peripheral   moun- 
tains.     They  alternate  with  mica- schist  in  the   Elmali   Dere  and 
Giizel  Dere,  districts  at  the  south-western  extremity  of  Lake  Van. 
And   they    stretch   across   the   water  to   form   the   promontory   of 
Tadvan. 

A  rather  later  series  of  limestones  would  appear  to  be  repre- 
sented by  the  slopes  over  which  we  climbed  to  the  Vavuk  Pass 
between  Gumiishkhaneh  and  Baiburt.  There  they  are  placed  on  the 
very  threshold  of  the  Armenian  tableland;  and  they  are  distributed 
in  a  wide  zone  over  the  northern  districts  of  Armenia,  extending 
all  the  way  from  the  Merjan-Muzur  Dagh  in  the  west  to  be 
represented  by  many  a  summit  of  the  deeply  eroded  Chorokh 
region.      The   block   of    heights    on    the    north   of    the    Western 


Geographical  403 

Euphrates  is  composed  to  a  great  extent  of  such  Hmestones  ;  and 
both  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Kop  Pass,  and  during  the 
descent  northwards  from  the  pass  of  Khoshab  Punar,  we  have 
been  able  to  identify  them  by  the  evidence  of  fossils  as  belonging 
to  the  Cretaceous  period.  The  several  startling  eminences  from 
the  surface  of  this  elevated  stage — a  surface  which  is  characterised 
by  prevailing  flatness  and  horizontality  of  the  summit-line — are 
mostly  due  to  upstanding  masses  of  limestone,  such  as  Akhbaba 
and  Jejen.  In  the  south  we  recognised  the  fossils  of  this  same 
series  of  rocks  upon  the  line  of  hills  which  border  upon  the  north 
the  great  depression  of  the  plain  of  Mush,  where  these  give 
passage  to  the  ]\Iurad. 

Later  still  in  date,  and  of  almost  constant  prominence  in  the 
landscapes  both  of  the  plateau  region  and  of  the  peripheral 
mountains,  are  the  limestones  of  Eocene  age.  They  are,  perhaps, 
more  usually  associated  with  softer  features,  especially  when  they 
are  interbedded  with  shales.  Writing  from  memory,  one  may 
best  recall  the  incidence  of  their  impressive  features  at  such  widely 
distant  points  as  the  Palandoken  line  of  heights,  on  the  south  of 
Erzerum  and  Pasin,  and  where  they  whiten  the  waters  of  Lake 
Van  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Adeljivas.  This  pretty  town  with 
sweet-sounding  name  lies  at  the  foot  of  a  lofty  cliff  composed 
exclusively  of  white  chalk.  As  you  lunch  in  one  of  the  caves 
along  the  road  from  Akhlat,  numerous  corals  are  observed 
imbedded  in  the  rock.  Even  where  volcanic  action  has 
fastened  upon  such  heights  with  greatest  persistency,  the  white 
face  of  this  rock  or  of  the  softer  Pliocene  deposit  is  seldom  absent 
from  the  scene.  Eocene  limestones  and  Pliocene  deposits  are 
prominent  over  the  area  of  the  Central  Tableland  ;  and  the 
limestone  emerges  on  the  further  side  of  the  plain  of  Khinis 
to  compose  the  Zirnek  Dagh,  continuing  the  outline  of  Khamur. 
The  almost  limitless  expanse  through  which  the  Murad  winds 
between  Tutakh  and  Melazkert  reveals  most  clearly  its  essential 
character  as  a  country  of  rolling  chalk  downs  beneath  the 
covering  of  a  cloak  of  lava.  The  southern  limit  of  that  expanse 
would  seem  to  the  eye  to  be  volcanic,  misled  by  the  precedent 
of  the  immense  extension  of  the  train  of  Ararat.  But  when 
the  barrier  is  at  length  reached  it  is  found  to  consist  of  Eocene 
and  Pliocene  limestones,  forming  a  pedestal  for  the  fabric  of 
Sipan. 

Scarcely   a   less   prominent   surface    feature    are    the    Pliocene 


404  Armenia 

lacustrine  deposits,^  crumbling  in  the  hand  with  masses  of  fresh- 
water shells.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  at  an  epoch  contem- 
poraneous with  the  outpouring  of  lavas  a  lake  or  lakes  extended 
from  Erzinjan,  Erzerum  and  Pasin  across  the  region  now  occupied 
by  the  Central  Tableland,  and  through  Khinis  to  the  plains  of 
the  Murad  and  Sipan.  The  interior  of  Asia  Minor  and  the 
tableland  of  Persia  were  covered  with  lakes  at  the  same  date  ; 
but  that  these  were  salt  in  the  case  of  Persia  is  proved  by  the 
melancholy  saline  deserts  which  disfigure  immense  tracts  of  the 
soil  of  Iran.  In  Armenia  they  have  been  productive  of  the 
greatest  fertility,  their  wholesome  sediments  having  mingled  with 
volcanic  matter  and  become  constituent  of  rich  brown  loams.  It 
seems  likely  that  the  purple  sandstones  and  conglomerates  along 
the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Van  are  the  representatives  of  similar 
conditions  within  that  basin.  One  is  justified  in  supposing  that 
the  waters  became  gradually  more  shallow,  until  they  remained 
only  on  the  surface  of  the  numerous  greater  and  smaller  depres- 
sions, which  still  bear  their  imprint  to  a  degree  which  must  be 
convincing  even  to  an  unpractised  eye.  A  chain  of  separate 
lakes  was  formed,  spread  broadcast  over  the  land,  and  washing 
the  promontories  of  the  heights.  Such  lakes  appear  to  have 
existed  at  Alexandropol  and  in  the  plain  of  Erivan  ;  over  Pasin, 
the  plain  of  Erzerum,  and  that  of  Erzinjan  ;  in  the  districts  of 
Khinis,  Alashkert,  Bulanik  and  probably  Mush,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  smaller  sheets  of  water.  They  were  drained  away  as  a 
result  of  the  increasing  elevation  of  the  land  as  a  whole  ;  and, 
probably,  in  some  cases  the  process  was  accelerated  by  uptilt, 
causing  erosion  of  the  adjacent  barriers  to  be  accelerated.  The 
lakes  which  exist  at  the  present  day  are  almost  exclusively  due 
to  lavas  filling  up  the  mouths  of  valleys  and  forming  dams  on  an 
immense  scale. 

The  relation  of  geology  to  geograph}'  must  always  be 
intimate  ;  and  in  such  a  country  as  Armenia  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  travel  without  becoming  absorbed  in  the  open  book 
of  that  fascinating   study,  as  day  by  day  the  eye  is  greeted  by  a 

*  The  Miocene  deposits  are  found  in  tlie  valleys,  e.g.  in  those  of  the  Frat  (Western 
Euphrates)  and  Araxes. 

An  interesting  fact  has  been  brought  to  my  notice  by  Mr.  F.  Oswald,  my  friend  and 
companion  during  my  last  journey.  There  may  be  seen  in  the  Tiflis  Museum  the 
remains  of  a  mammoth  which  was  discovered  in  the  lacustrine  deposits  of  the  Alexan- 
dropol district.  Similar  remains  had  already  been  found  in  deposits  of  similar  character 
and  age  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Khinis  by  Colonel  J-  Sliiel.  These  are  in  the  British 
Museum,  where  they  have  been  christened  Elephas  ari/ieniacus. 


Geographical  405 

new  page.  The  architectural  quality  of  the  structural  features 
is  perhaps  the  main  incentive,  stimulating  the  curiosity  to  com- 
prehend the  underlying  design.  But  the  absence  of  wood  and 
the  sparseness  even  of  vegetation  permit  and  invite  the  interest 
to  centre  in  the  forms  and  hues  and  texture  of  the  material 
which  has  been  the  vehicle  of  the  large  idea.  Nature  is  revealed 
in  her  sculpturesque  rather  than  picturesque  beauties  ;  nor  will 
her  admirer  regret  the  nakedness  of  his  love.  But  the  climate 
suffers  from  the  prevailing  treelessness  of  the  landscapes,  being 
deficient  in  moisture  for  the  most  favourable  development  of  the 
human  race.  One  feels  the  skin  growing  contracted  as  in  most 
Eastern  countries,  and  the  native  sappiness  of  the  flesh  becoming 
impaired.  There  is  no  reason  why  this  country  should  not  be 
strewn  with  woodlands,  and  her  plains  verdant  with  a  kinder 
rainfall  and  extended  irrigation.  Patches  of  forest,  but  thin  and 
miserable,  still  struggle  towards  the  interior  from  the  luscious 
zone  in  the  north.  They  are  seen  on  the  sides  of  the  passes  at  a 
distance  from  the  villages.  But  with  the  exception  of  the  very 
thinly  populated  districts  of  Kighi  and  the  Dersim,  and  the  slopes 
of  the  Soghanlu  mountains  south-west  of  Kars,  the  land  has  been 
denuded  of  any  covering  as  a  result  of  progressive  economical 
decline.  Centuries  of  unchecked  licence  on  the  part  of  tribal 
shepherds  —  Tartars,  Turkomans,  Kurds — have  brought  about 
the  destruction  of  a  source  of  salubriousness  and  wealth  which 
under  any  circumstances  would  require  careful  husbanding. 

So  the  clouds  are  little  tempted  to  descend  upon  the  earth, 
and  the  sky  lowers  without  bringing  rain.  The  country  streams 
with  light,  and  the  pavements  of  ubiquitous  lava  burn  like  an 
oven  beneath  the  untempered  ra}'s  of  the  sun.  In  winter  the 
glare  is  blinding  ;  for  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  though 
not  generally  to  any  great  depth.  These  are  disadvantages 
which  are  not  entirely  without  remedy  ;  and  there  is  nothing 
needed  but  less  perversity  on  the  part  of  the  human  animal  to 
convert  Armenia  into  an  almost  ideal  nursery  of  his  race.  The 
strong  highland  air,  the  rigorous  but  bracing  winters,  and  the 
summers  when  the  nights  are  always  cool  ;  a  southern  sun,  great 
rivers,  immense  tracts  of  agricultural  soil,  an  abundance  of 
minerals — such  blessings  and  subtle  properties  are  calculated  to 
develop  the  fibre  in  man,  foster  with  material  sufficiency  the 
growth  of  his  winged  mind  and  cause  it  to  expand  like  a  flower 
in   a   generous   light.      One    feels    that    for  various   reasons   quite 


4o6  Armenia 

outside  inherent  qualities  this  land  has  never  enjoyed  at  any 
period  of  history  the  fulness  of  opportunity.  And  one  awaits  her 
future  with  an  expectant  interest. 

Both  branches  of  the  Euphrates  wind  their  way  by  immense 
stages  at  the  foot  of  these  mountains,  in  the  lap  of  these  plains. 
The  eastern  branch,  called  Murad,  contains  the  greater  volume, 
rising  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Diadin  near  the  base  of  the  Ararat 
system  and  traversing  Armenia  almost  from  one  extremity  to  the 
other.  The  principal  affluents  are  the  Bingol  Su,  bringing  the 
drainage  of  the  plain  of  Khinis  ;  the  Gunek  Su,  and  the  combined 
waters  of  the  Kighi  and  Muzur  rivers.  The  more  westerly 
channel  is  composed  in  its  infancy  by  two  streams  of  almost 
equal  size,  one  descending  from  the  Dumlu  Dagh  and  flowing 
sluggishly  through  the  plain  of  Krzerum  ;  the  other,  and  perhaps 
the  greater,  springing  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sources  of  the 
Chorokh  in  the  elevated  district  of  Ovajik.  The  Kelkid  and 
Chorokh  are  both  in  their  upper  courses  typical  Armenian  rivers. 
The  Araxes  takes  its  birth  upon  the  Central  Tableland,  and  its 
true  source  is  probably  represented  by  the  little  lake  which 
appears  in  my  drawing  from  the  western  summit  of  Bingol 
(Ch.  XXII.  Fig.  1 94, p.  373).  What  a  contrast  between  this  wealth 
of  waters,  many  of  which  might  be  rendered  navigable,  and  the 
hopeless  sterility  of  great  parts  of  the  interior  of  Persia,  from 
which  no  river  finds  its  way  to  the  ocean  ! 

All  these  rivers  wind  slowly  and  silently  over  the  surface  of 
the  tableland,  threading  landscapes  which  most  often  expand 
beyond  the  range  of  sight.  They  find  a  tardy  issue  through  the 
zones  of  peripheral  mountains,  where  they  meet  the  hiss  of 
torrents  and  the  spray  of  waterfalls.  When  one  reflects  with 
closed  eyes  upon  the  experiences  of  travel  it  is  not  the  dividing 
heights  that  fill  the  mind.  What  are  these  for  the  most  part  but 
the  higher  stages  of  the  plateau  country  ?  It  is  the  plains,  great 
and  small,  with  their  lake-like  or  sea-like  surfaces  ;  and  it  is  the 
ever-present  feature  of  the  volcanic  outlines,  spaced  at  large 
intervals.  The  streams  part  on  their  course  to  widely  distant 
oceans  from  a  scarcely  perceptible  rise  in  the  ground.  Earth  is 
spread  about  you,  nude  and  quite  unconscious  of  the  restless 
presence  of  man.  A  variety  of  delicate  and  transparent  tints  are 
shed  over  the  modelling,  due  to  the  atmosphere  and  the  volcanic 
nature  of  the  soil.  The  hues  deepen  in  the  blue  ribands  of  the 
flowing  waters,  in  the  gem-like  appearance  of  those  that  are  still. 


Geographical  407 

And  when  the  vision  has  nearly  faded  there  remain  the  shapes  of 
Ararat  and  Sipan,  the  campagna  of  Erivan,  the  ineffable  beauty 
of  the  lake  of  Van.  .  .  .  The  area  of  the  country  which  has  been 
delimited  within  the  Turkish  frontier  measures  35,599  square 
miles.  If  we  add  this  figure  to  the  Russian  territory  (Vol.  I, 
p.  445)  we  may  conceive  a  geographical  unity  nearly  equal  in 
extent  to  England  and  Wales. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

STATISTICAL    AND    POLITICAL 

When  after  the  close  of  the  last  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey 
the  leading  statesmen  of  the  European  Powers  assembled  in 
congress  at  Berlin  in  the  year  1878,  they  were  approached  by 
delegates  from  the  Armenian  people,  one  of  whom  was  no  less 
a  personage  than  the  present  Katholikos,  or  High  Priest  of  the 
nation,  His  Holiness  Mekertich  Khrimean.  In  answer  to  the 
enquiries  of  the  Plenipotentiaries  upon  what  portions  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire  the  Armenians — of  whom  they  had  heard 
during  their  studies  of  the  classics  at  school  and  college — still 
bestowed  the  glamour  of  an  historical  name,  the  delegates 
addressed  themselves  to  the  excellent  map  of  the  late  Professor 
Kiepert  and  endeavoured  to  trace  upon  it  the  approximate  limits 
of  their  country,  embracing  its  area  by  a  coloured  line.  Kiepert's 
map,  displaying  on  its  face  this  interesting  addition,  is  now 
slumbering  in  the  archives  of  the  Berlin  Foreign  Office,  and  I 
have  been  permitted,  by  the  courtesy  of  the  German  Government, 
to  hold  it  in  my  hands.  So  far  as  I  remember,  the  area 
comprised  within  the  coloured  line  corresponds  approximately  to 
that  which  is  indicated  in  a  document  presented  to  Congress  by 
the  delegates,  under  the  title  of  a  project  for  an  Organic  Regula- 
tion to  be  applied  to  the  new  Armenian  province  which  they 
desired  to  see  established.  The  delegates  asked  that  this 
province  should  be  administered  by  Armenian  officials  ;  and 
when  they  were  requested  to  state  what  proportion  its  Armenian 
inhabitants  would  bear  to  the  Mussulmans,  they  furnished  figures 
for  the  vilayets  of  Erzerum,  Van  and  Bitlis  (excluding  Sert)  which 
placed  the  numbers  of  the  Mohammedans  at  528,000  and  the 
non-Mohammedans  at  1,172,000.'  All  the  country  between  the 
1  See  Blue-l)ook,  Turkey,  No.  6,  1S81,  \).  127. 


Statistical  and  Political  409 

Russian  and  Persian  frontiers  on  the  east,  and  a  line  drawn 
between  Tireboli  on  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  confluence 
of  the  Kizil  Chibuk  Chai  with  the  Euphrates  on  the  west,  was  to 
be  included  in  the  new  Government.  The  northern  boundary 
was  the  coast  line  of  the  Black  Sea  ;  while  that  on  the  south 
extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  river  of  Bitlis,  and  so  through 
the  wild  districts  south  of  Lake  Van  back  to  the  Persian  frontier. 
At  a  congress  of  Oriental  diplomatists  both  their  demands  and 
their  statements  would  have  been  perfectly  understood.  One-half 
of  the  former  might  possibly  be  conceded,  and  the  smallest 
fraction  of  the  latter  accepted.  The  collective  wisdom  of  Europe 
assembled  in  the  Prussian  capital  may  perhaps  have  received  a 
hint  in  this  sense.  The  delimitation  on  the  map  of  Kiepert  was 
a  far  greater  puzzle  ;  how  many  members  of  Congress  had  even 
heard  of  the  publication  of  the  learned  and  laborious  German 
Professor  ?  But  it  was  evident  that  there  must  be  districts 
somewhere  containing  an  Armenian  population  ;  so  a  clause  was 
inserted  in  the  Treaty  to  the  effect  that  the  Porte  was  pledged  to 
carry  out  reforms  in  tJie  provinces  inhabited  by  Armenians} 

The  Plenipotentiaries  returned  to  their  respective  countries 
immensely  pleased  with  themselves  and  with  their  work.  Europe 
forgot  all  about  the  Armenians,  nor  have  the  Powers  collectively 
displayed  up  to  the  present  day  the  smallest  interest  in  the 
Armenian  Question.  Only  England  has  taken  the  matter  in  the 
least  seriously  ;  and  the  reaction  which  marred  the  results  of  the 
far-seeing  policy  of  Lord  Beaconsfield — and  which  was  perhaps 
induced  by  the  theatrical  character  of  that  eminent  man — 
prevented  us  from  striking  while  the  iron  was  still  hot.  The 
important  position  which  we  had  attained  in  the  councils  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire  by  the  provisions  of  the  Cyprus  Convention 
was  early  and  perhaps  irrevocably  lost.  When  Mr.  Gladstone's 
Government  came  to  deal  with  the  complexities  of  the  Armenian 

1  The  clause  in  the  BerHn  Treaty  relating  to  the  Armenians  is  as  follows  : — Article 
61.  "La  sublime  Porte  s'engage  a  realiser  sans  plus  de  retard  les  ameliorations  et  les 
reformes  qu'exigent  les  besoins  locaux  dans  les  provinces  habitees  par  les  Armeniens  et 
a  garantir  leur  securite  centre  les  Circassiens  et  les  Kurdes.  Elle  donnera  connaissance 
periodiquement  des  mesures  prises  a  cet  effet  aux  puissances  qui  en  surveilleront 
I'application." 

The  Armenian  delegates  to  the  Berlin  Congress  presented  a  memoir  to  the  European 
Plenipotentiaries  in  which  they  set  forth  their  cause.  It  is  published  by  De  la 
Jonquiere  in  his  Histoire  de  P Empire  Ottoman,  Paris,  l88i,  pp.  39-44.  They  also  drew 
out  a  project  for  an  Organic  Regulation  to  be  applied  to  the  new  province.  It  was  to 
be  administered  by  an  Armenian  Governor-General  appointed  by  the  Porte  with  the 
consent  of  the  Powers. 


4IO  Armenia 

Question,  they  could  scarcely  expect  to  enjoy  the  goodwill  of  the 
Turkish  Government,  which,  out  of  office,  they  had  done  their 
utmost  to  disparage  and  humiliate. 

An  attempt  was  made  by  Mr.  Goschen,  Ambassador  at 
Constantinople  under  the  Gladstone  regime,  to  grapple  with  the 
inherent  difficulties  of  the  case.  Immediately  after  the  Berlin 
Treaty  a  number  of  able  consular  officers  had  been  despatched  by 
England  over  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  with  instructions  to  report 
upon  the  general  condition  of  the  country,  and  upon  the  measures 
of  reform,  extending  over  the  whole  field  of  Turkish  administration, 
which  it  would  be  necessary  to  recommend.  Their  reports  are  an 
interesting  contribution  to  the  literature  of  Blue-books  ;  but  in 
respect  of  the  Armenian  Question  our  Ambassador  cannot  have 
been  enabled  to  extract  from  them  the  information  which  was 
necessary  to  provide  him  with  that  sure  ground  upon  ivJiicJi  to 
build  that  he  was  seeking  to  acquire.  The  Armenians  them- 
selves, for  whom  he  was  working,  supplied  him  with  misleading 
statistics,  and  seem  never  to  have  inspired  him  with  any  real  con- 
fidence as  to  the  soundness  of  their  cause.^  As  a  consequence, 
no  definite  plan  was  placed  before  the  Porte,  and,  what  is  more 
important,  no  definite  policy  seems  ever  to  have  been  brought  to 
the  mind  of  our  Ambassador  or  of  his  colleagues  representing  the 
signatory  Powers.  The  teasing  activity  of  England  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  reports  of  misgovernment  in  every  direction  which 
she  showered  upon  the  Porte,  seem  not  only  to  have  alarmed 
Turkey  but  the  European  Powers  as  well  ;  and  it  only  required 
a  word  from  Prince  Bismarck  to  dismiss  the  whole  question  of 
Armenian  reforms.- 

1  The  statistics  of  population  were  supplied  by  the  Patriarch  Nerses  to  Mr.  Goschen. 
They  may  be  found  in  Blue-book,  Turkey,  No.  23,  1880,  p.  274.  Mr.  Goschen, 
writing  to  Lord  Granville  on  15th  July  1880,  says:  "My  strong  feeling  is  that  the 
Powers  cannot  commit  themselves  to  any  plan  until  they  know  the  real  facts  about  the 
population.  It  would  not  do  to  build  on  a  mistaken  basis,  and  I  feel  convinced  that  no 
one  has  sure  ground.  The  Patriarch's  figures  arc  as  exaggerated  as  those  of  the  Porte 
on  the  other  side.  Again,  how  to  deal  with  the  nomad  Kurds  ?  All  must  depend  on 
the  physical  force  of  the  two  different  races  and  religions.  If  the  Armenians  should  be 
in  a  minority  it  will  be  dangerous  to  give  them  the  same  institutions  which  we  should  give 
if  they  were  in  a  majority,  dangerous  to  themselves"  (Blue-book,  Turkey,  No.  6,  1S81, 
p.  16).  And,  again,  in  another  despatch  of  23rd  July:  "With  regard  to  the  actual 
project  of  reforms,  the  letter  of  the  Patriarch  is  conceived  in  such  vague  phrases  that  but 
little  advantage  is  to  be  derived  from  it  in  elucidating  the  problem  to  be  solved " 
{ibid.  p.  20). 

'■^  See  Lord  Granville's  despatch,  loth  February  1881  :  "  In  consequence  of  the 
objections  raised  by  the  German  Government,  Mr.  Goschen  will  not  be  instructed  to  put 
forward  the  Armenian  Question  immediately  on  his  return  to  Constantinople." 


Statistical  and  Political  41 1 

What  was  the  problem  ?  The  Berlin  Treaty  spoke  of  tJie 
provinces  inhabited  by  the  Armenians.  But  the  Armenians  have 
become  scattered  in  considerable  numbers  over  the  whole  extent 
of  Asia  Minor.  This  dispersal  is  the  consequence  of  compara- 
tively remote  historical  events.  To  require  the  Porte  to  intro- 
duce reforms  in  tJie  provinces  inhabited  by  the  Arnieniajis,  and  to 
supervise  the  carrying  out  of  the  new  measures,  would  amount  to 
little  less  on  the  part  of  Europe  than  to  take  the  whole  of  Turkey 
under  tutelage.  But  there  might  be  certain  districts  in  which  the 
Armenians  were  in  a  majority,  and  where  they  might  be  able  to 
provide  the  necessary  machinery  of  government,  enjoying  a  certain 
measure  of  local  autonomy  while  remaining  subjects  of  the  Sultan. 
Neither  the  Armenians  themselves  nor  the  British  Consuls  appear 
to  have  furnished  satisfactory  evidence  towards  such  a  solution. 
What  is  needed  by  statesmen  who  have  to  deal  with  Asiatic 
problems  is  an  intimate  knowledge  of  Asiatic  geography.  During 
all  the  long  series  of  our  investigations  into  the  Armenian 
Question  this  side  of  the  subject  was  almost  ignored.  The 
Armenian  Project  of  which  I  have  spoken  embraced  within  the 
area  of  the  proposed  province  outlying  regions  which  present  such 
dissimilar  economical  and  political  problems,  that  it  would  have 
been  an  act  of  political  madness  to  endeavour  to  weld  them 
together  under  the  rule  of  a  mere  Governor-General.  Our  own 
Consuls,  partly,  no  doubt,  owing  to  the  vague  character  of  their 
instructions,  fell  into  the  same  error.  For  instance,  in  estimating 
the  population  of  the  Armenian  provinces,  vast  outlying  districts 
were  included,  such  as  the  sanjak  of  Hakkiari  belonging  to  the 
vilayet  of  Van,  where  the  Armenian  inhabitants  are  few  and  far 
between,  and  where  the  character  of  the  country  and  people  is 
so  wild  and  intractable  that  they  could  with  difficulty  be 
controlled  from  an  Armenian  centre.  The  problems  that  are 
presented  to  a  Governor  on  the  tableland  of  Armenia  are 
quite  sufficient  to  absorb  his  attention  and  exercise  his  resources 
without  the  addition  to  his  jurisdiction  of  the  mountains  of 
Kurdistan,  which,  if  Russia  were  mistress  of  the  country,  would 
be  constituted  into  a  military  Government  and  subjected  to 
military  law. 

It  must  be  my  endeavour,  in  proceeding  to  the  statistical 
aspect  of  my  subject,  to  avoid,  as  far  as  possible  with  the  existing 
Governmental  areas,  this  lamentable  mistake.  As  in  the  case 
of  the   Russian   provinces,  I    shall    adhere   as   closely  as   may   be 


412 


Annenia 


feasible  to  the  natural  boundaries  of  the  tableland  of  Armenia, 
such  as  they  have  been  determined  in  the  preceding  chapter 
and  delineated  on  the  little  map  which  accompanies  the  political 
chapter  of  my  first  volume.  Just  as  it  was  necessary  in  some 
instances,  when  dealing  with  the  Russian  territory,  to  overstep  the 
limits  of  the  natural  frontier,  so  I  am  now  compelled  by  the 
statistical  units  at  my  disposal  to  diverge  at  certain  points  from 
that  established  line.  Reference  to  the  map  of  which  I  have 
spoken  (Vol.  I.  p.  452)  will  enable  my  reader  to  compare  the 
geographical  with  the  statistical  area.  The  latter  is  made  up  of 
the  Governments  or  divisions  of  Governments  indicated  in  the 
following  table.  Since  this  statement  was  compiled  the  numbers 
of  the  Armenians  have  been  reduced  by  the  massacres  of  1895. 
In  the  vilayet  of  Erzerum  between  2500  and  3000  people  were 
butchered  ;  in  the  town  of  Bitlis  not  less  than  800,  in  that  of 
Kharput  500,  and  as  many  as  2800  in  Arabkir.  Reliable  figures 
are  wanting  for  the  losses  in  human  life  throughout  the  country 
districts  of  the  vilayets  of  Van,  Bitlis  and  Kharput.  But  they 
must  have  been  considerable,  and  whole  villages  were  wiped 
out.  About  50,000  to  60,000  Armenians  fled  into  Russia  from  the 
eastern  vilayets.  But  many  of  these  have  already  returned,  and  a 
few  years  of  settled  government  would  enable  this  prolific  people 
to  make  good  the  deficiencies  in  their  ranks.  Later  estimates, 
affected  by  such  special  circumstances,  would  be  more  misleading 
than  those  which  I  now  present. 


TABLE  III. — Population  of  the  Armenian  Tableland  in  Turkey 
(about  the  year  1890) 


Moslems. 

Christians. 

Others. 

Total. 

Armenians. 

Greeks. 

VILAYET  VAN  1 
Town  of  Van 
Merkei-Caza  of  Van   . 
Other  Cazas  of  Van  Sanjak  . 

Total 

1 0, 000 

7,000 

35,229 

20,000 
27,000 
28,644 

30,000 
34,000 
63,873 

52,22g 

75^644 

127,873 

'  The  figures  for  the  town  and  merkez-caza  of  Van  are  based  on  my  own  knowledge. 
Those  for  the  other  cazas  of  Van  sanjak  are  the  Turkish  official  figures  for  1890,  except 
in  the  case  of  Adeljivas  caza,  where  I  have  substituted  a  private  estimate. 


Statistical  and  Political 


413 


1 
Moslems. 

Christians. 

Others. 

Total. 

Armenians. 

Greeks. 

VILAYET  BITLIS^ 

Town  of  Bitlis  and  Merkez- 

27,673 

16,094 

342 

44,109 

Caza 

(Syrian 
Christians). 

Other  Cazas  Bitlis  Sanjak    . 

18,593 

14,306 

32,899 

Total  Sanjak  Bitlis    . 

46,266 

30,400 

342 

77,008 

Sanjak  Mush — 

Town  and  Caza  of  Mush  . 

21,246 

35,328 

56,574 

Other  Cazas    . 

42,572 

25,873 

68,445 

Total  Sanjak  Mush    . 

63,818 

61,201 

125,019 

Sanjak  Genj — 

Town  and  Cazas 

Total    of    the    three 

35,370 

5,583 

40,953 

145,454 

97, -^84 

342 

242,980 

Sanjaks 

VILAYET  KHARPUT2 

Sanjak  Kharput . 

120,000 

85,000 

'334 

422 

206,756 

Sanjak  Dersim    . 
Total 

62,000 

8,000 

70,000 

182,000 

93,000 

1334 

422 

276,736 

VILAYET  DIARBEKR3 

Caza  Palu  .... 

45,580 

15,150 

60,730 

VILAYET  ERZERUM* 

Sanjak  Erzerum — 

Town  of  Erzerum    . 

26,554 

10,434 

484 

1422 

38,894 

Other  Cazas   . 

207,261 

57,358 

330 

1797 

266,746 

Total  Sanjak     . 

233,815 

67,792 

814 

3219 

305,640 

Sanjak  Erzinjan 

155,879 

31,091 

2456 

2182 

191,608 

Sanjak  Bayazid  . 
Total 
Grand  Total 

38,801 

7,885 

... 

568 

47,254 

428,493 

106,768 

1    3270 

59(>9 

544,502 

S5J,75S 

387,746 

1 

4604 

6733 

1,232,841 

^  The  figures  for  Bitlis  vilayet  are  the  Turkish  official  figures  for  1893. 

2  The  figures  for  Kharput  sanjak  are  an  estimate  made  for  me  by  Consul  Boyajean  of 
Diarbekr,  at  the  instance  of  Consul  R.  W.  Graves.  I  had  previously  calculated  that  the 
Christians  were  in  a  majority  in  that  sanjak.  The  population  of  the  Dersim  sanjak  has 
been  estimated  from  various  sources.      The  estimate  is  little  better  than  a  guess. 

■■^  The  figures  for  caza  Palu  have  been  furnished  by  Consul  Boyajean. 

^  The  Turkish  official  figures,  as  annexed  to  the  British  Consular  Trade  Report  for 
1887,  have  been  adopted  for  the  vilayet  of  Erzerum. 

Except  in  the  cases  of  Van  town  and  caza,  and  possibly  in  those  of  vilayet  Kharput 
and  caza  Palu,  a  large  percentage  might  be  added  to  the  figures  above  given  in  order  to 
provide  for  the  imperfect  registration  of  females.  Under  this  head  the  figures  for  the 
other  cazas  of  Van  might  be  increased  by  10  percent;  those  for  Bitlis  vilayet  by  13 
per  cent ;  and  those  for  Erzerum  vilayet  by  7  per  cent. 


Armenians 

906,984 

Greeks 

Turks 

489,931 

Russians 

Kurds 

479,676 

Others 

Tartars 

306,310 

414  Armenia 

The  Moslem  population  may  be  divided  into  Turks  and 
Kurds  as  follows  : — 

Turks  (Sunni  Mohammedan)  .  .  .  442,946 

Kurds  (Sunni  Mohammedan  and  Kizilbash)      .  410,812 

Total  853,758 

It  may  be  interesting  to  add  these  figures  to  those  which  I 
have  given  for  the  Russian  provinces.  The  population  of  the 
country  as  a  whole  for  the  statistical  area  delimited  on  the  map 
will  be  represented  by  the  following  figures  : — 

52,367 
28,844 

84,439 
Total  2,348,551 

In  the  case  of  the  Turkish  provinces  I  have  found  it  a  task  of 
the  greatest  difficulty  to  arrive  at  a  statistical  estimate  of  the 
population  upon  which  it  might  be  possible  to  rely.  The  results 
resumed  in  Table  III.  are  the  outcome  of  a  long  and  laborious 
investigation  pursued  in  the  country  itself,  in  which  I  was  some- 
times aided,  but  more  often  bewildered,  by  the  lists  which  I  had 
in  my  possession,  and  which  have  either  already  been  published, 
or  were  furnished  to  me  by  private  friends.  In  the  absence  of 
a  census  conducted  on  scientific  principles,  any  figures  can  only 
be  approximately  correct.  Two  possible  sources  of  information 
exist  which,  in  the  first  instance,  it  is  natural  to  consult.  The 
first  are  the  official  lists  which  are  published  in  the  almanacs  of 
each  Government,  and  which  profess  to  give  the  numbers  both 
of  Mohammedans  and  of  Christians  inhabiting  each  caza  or 
administrative  sub-division.  The  second  are  the  books  of  the 
diocesan  authorities  who,  under  the  14th  and  96th  Articles  of 
the  so-called  Armenian  constitution  (of  which  I  shall  speak  later 
on),  are  enjoined  to  maintain  complete  records  of  all  births  and 
deaths  among  Armenians  in  the  diocese,  and  to  provide  copies 
to  the  Central  Bureau  of  the  Patriarchate  in  Constantinople. 
But  the  diocesan  authorities  are  chary  of  recording  information 
which  conflicts  with  the  number  of  Armenians  who  are  placed  for 
purposes  of  taxation  upon  the  Government  lists,  and  these  lists 
themselves  are  founded  upon  a  system  of  which  it  is  the  tendency 
to  underrate  the  number  of  the  population,  Mohammedan  and 
Christian  alike.      Owing   to  the  seclusion  of  women  in   the   East, 


Siaiisiica/  and  Political  4 1 5 

no  serious  attempt  is  made  to  count  the  female  population  ;  while 
in  the  case  of  males  the  figures  in  the  official  statistics  are  derived 
from  the  military  census,  which  is  at  best  a  very  imperfect 
record,  and  which  each  man  strives  his  utmost  to  evade.  All 
Mohammedan  males  are  liable  to  be  enrolled  in  the  army,  while 
the  Christians  are  obliged  to  pay  an  annual  tax  which  exempts 
them  from  military  service,  and  which  is  incident  at  birth.  In 
the  case  of  the  sedentary  population  it  is  probable  that  the 
Christians  evade  this  census  to  a  greater  extent  than  their 
Mohammedan  neighbours  ;  for  the  budget  of  a  Christian  family 
is  immediately  menaced  by  the  birth  of  a  male  child.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  extensive  districts  on  the  southern  portion 
of  the  tableland  in  which  the  Kurdish  tribes  inhabiting  them 
are  in  a  state  approaching  independence,  and  have  never  been 
counted  at  all.  The  official  lists  must  for  these  reasons  be  used 
with  much  discrimination  and  care.  In  one  Government  they 
will  be  compiled  with  some  measure  of  completeness  ;  in 
another  they  will  be  defective  as  regards  the  Armenians  ;  in  yet 
another  as  regards  the  Kurds.  In  addition  to  this  source 
of  information  there  are  the  estimates  which  have  been  made 
in  particular  districts  by  private  people  engaged  in  business, 
and  who  know  their  own  district  well.  The  figures  which 
emanate  from  the  Armenian  Patriarchate,  and  which  have  found 
their  way  into  the  Blue-books,  have  evidently  been  designed 
to  subserve  a  political  purpose,  and  may  be  dismissed  under  a 
sense  of  disappointment  and  disgust. 

Two  further  points  are  suggested  to  me  as  calling  for 
special  remark.  In  the  first  place,  I  am  satisfied  that  the  total 
population  of  the  Turkish  provinces  is  in  excess  of  the  figure 
which  I  give.  That  figure  only  shows  a  percentage  of  population 
to  the  square  mile  of  less  than  thirty^  ;  in  the  Russian  provinces, 
which  can  scarcely  be  called  populous  by  comparison,  although 
they  probably  contain  less  waste  land,  the  percentage  is  over 
forty -nine.  Secondly,  while  the  greatest  care  has  been  taken 
to  get  the  totals  of  the  different  peoples  at  least  correct  in  the 
proportion  which  they  bear  to  one  another,  it  is  probable  in  the 
cases  of  the  Armenians  and  of  the  Kurds  that  even  for  this 
purpose   the   figures    are    a    little    too   low.      I    have  preferred    to 

1  The  statistical  aiea  with  which  we  are  dealing  for  the  Turkish  provinces  measures 
42,814  square  miles.  If  we  were  to  adopt  the  area  delimited  by  the  Armenian  delegates 
to  the  Berlin  Congress,  the  proportion  of  Christians  to  Mohammedans  would  be  still 
smaller. 


41 6  Armenia 

content  myself  with  reproducing  the  statistical  materials  which, 
however  imperfect,  I  consider  the  best,  and  only  to  mention  in 
this  connection  the  general  impression  which  I  have  received/ 

Among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Turkish  provinces  who  are 
classed  as  Mussulmans  there  exist  considerable  differences  both 
of  race  and  of  religion  ;  but  for  our  present  purpose  it  is  most 
useful  to  distinguish  them  according  as  they  are  Turkish  or  Kurd. 
Under  the  former  name  I  have  counted  the  Mussulman  population 
of  the  northern  portion  of  the  Government  of  Erzerum,  or,  to  use 
more  specific  language,  of  the  entire  Government  of  Erzerum, 
with  the  exception  of  the  sanjak  of  Bayazid  and  the  cazas  of 
Khinis,  Kighi  and  Terjan.  I  have  also  included  as  Turkish  one- 
half  of  the  Mussulman  inhabitants  of  the  caza  of  Pasin.  In  the 
Governments  of  Van  and  of  Bitlis  the  only  portion  of  the 
population  which  I  have  thought  it  safe  to  number  as  Turkish 
are  the  Mussulmans  in  the  towns  of  Van,  Bitlis  and  Mush  ;  as 
citizens  in  Governmental  centres  they  are  attached,  if  not  by  a 
common  origin,  at  least  by  a  common  character  and  common 
sympathies  to  the  interests  of  the  ruling  race.  In  the  cases  of 
the  Government  of  Kharput  and  of  the  Governmental  division  of 
Palu,  I  have  been  unable  to  verify  by  personal  acquaintance  the 
estimates  which  I  have  adopted  as  the  best  ;  these  estimates 
make  the  Turkish  about  as  strong  as  the  Kurdish  element  in  the 
sanjak  of  Kharput,  and  a  little  less  numerous  in  the  caza  of  Palu. 
That  part  of  the  Mussulman  population  of  the  sanjak  of  Dersim 
who  are  counted  as  adherents  of  Government  may  most  usefully 
be  classed  as  Turkish  and  have  been  included  in  the  roll  of 
Turks.  In  the  several  Governments  the  remainder  of  the 
Mussulman  inhabitants  compose  the  total  which  has  been  given 
for  the  Kurds. 

'  It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  results,  which  were  obtained  quite  independently 
and  before  I  had  seen  his  estimate,  with  the  figures  given  by  the  late  Mr.  Taylor,  for 
many  years  British  Consul  for  Erzerum  and  the  surrounding  country.  Mr.  Taylor 
knew  the  country  intimately,  and  had  travelled  extensively  in  it.  On  his  figures  are 
based  those  which  have  been  given  by  his  successors  in  office,  and  which  appear  in  the 
Blue-books.  After  making  the  necessary  deductions  for  districts  annexed  to  Russia 
since  the  date  of  Mr.  Taylor's  reports,  his  estimate  of  the  population,  as  adapted  to  the 
area  with  which  we  are  dealing,  is  as  follows  : — Turks,  348,350  ;  Kurds,  466,982  ; 
Christians,  352,657 — total,  1,167,989.  This  estimate  corresponds  in  a  satisfactory 
manner  with  mine,  after  we  have  made  allowance  for  information,  either  new  or  more 
complete,  which  has  appeared  with  reference  to  certain  districts  since  Taylor's  time. 
The  census  shows  that  Taylor  under-estimated  the  Turks  who  inhabit  the  northern 
cazas  of  Erzerum  vilayet.  Taylor  also  placed  the  Kizilbash  Kurds  of  the  Dersim  at 
110,000.      Relying  on  more  recent  reports,  I  place  them  at  50,000. 


Statistical  and  Political  417 

To  express  these  results  in  general  language,  we  may  say  that 
the  seat  of  the  Turkish  population  is  the  country  on  the  north 
of  Erzerum,  while  the  Kurds  inhabit  the  more  southerly  districts 
of  the  tableland,  extending  to  the  southern  peripheral  mountains. 
But  what  is  the  meaning  of  the  name  Turkish  which  has  been 
used  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other  element  ?  We  must 
certainly  guard  ourselves  from  the  danger  of  attributing  to  a 
convenient  political  designation  an  ethnological  sense.  We  are 
justified  in  declaring  that  the  Mussulman  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  districts  of  the  Government  of  Erzerum  are  not  of 
Kurdish  origin  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  ground  is  less  tenable  if 
we  suppose  that  they  belong  to  the  Turkish  race.  How  large 
an  admixture  of  Turkish  blood  may  flow  within  their  veins,  is  a 
question  which  it  is  impossible  to  determine  ;  it  was  rather  the 
fertile  country  on  the  west  of  the  Euphrates  that  presented  the 
most  attractive  settling  ground  to  the  invading  hordes  of  Turks. 
I  am  given  to  believe  that  a  considerable  number  derive  from 
the  widely  spread  Georgian  family  ;  but  that  family  has  here 
mixed  with  other  race  elements,  of  which  the  Turkish  is  one.  In 
what  pertains  to  national  solidarity,  in  the  possession  of  common 
interests  and  common  sentiments,  these  Mussulman  inhabitants 
of  the  northern  districts  may  justly  be  classed  as  Turks.  But 
even  this  statement  is  subject  to  exception  and  cannot  be 
universally  applied.  Just  as  in  the  northern  zone  of  peripheral 
mountains  there  still  exist  whole  districts  of  which  the  inhabitants 
have  adopted  the  Mohammedan  religion,  but  retain  their  essential 
affinity  to  the  Greek  race  to  which  they  belong,  so  within  the 
statistical  area  of  the  tableland  among  the  ranks  of  the  Mussul- 
mans may  be  found  considerable  aggregates  of  people  who, 
although  of  Armenian  origin,  profess  the  dominant  creed.  In 
the  northern  province  an  important  instance  of  this  change  in 
religion  rather  than  in  nationality  is  found  in  the  district  of 
Tortum  between  Erzerum  and  the  town  of  Olti  ;  the  Mussulman 
inhabitants  of  that  district  are  said  to  be  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Armenian  families  who  are  known  to  have  lived  there 
within  historical  times. 

While  the  Turkish  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  in  those  pursuits  of  urban  life  which  attach  to  the  service  of 
Government  or  of  individuals,  or  to  the  less  ambitious  among  the 
requirements  of  industry  and  commerce,  the  Kurdish  population, 
on  the  other  hand,  present  a  variety  of  social  development  which 
VOL,  II  2  E 


41 8  Armenia 

includes  both  the  sedentary  and  the  nomadic  state,  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  commune  and  that  of  the  tribe.  A  people  who  were 
known  to  a  remote  antiquity  and  whose  character  is  already 
sufficiently  familiar  in  Europe,  the  Kurds  who  inhabit  the  table- 
land are  not  only  distinguished  from  one  another  according  to 
the  plane  of  social  life  to  which  they  have  attained,  but  are 
divided  by  essential  differences  of  language  and  of  creed.  From 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  town  of  Sivas  in  Asia  Minor  to  beyond 
Malatia  on  the  south,  and  between  the  two  branches  of  the 
Euphrates  to  the  vicinity  of  Mush,  the  Kurds,  although  classed 
in  the  official  lists  as  Mussulmans,  neither  practise  the  orthodox 
religion  nor  speak  the  same  dialect  as  their  neighbours  of 
presumably  kindred  race.  Branded  throughout  the  Nearer  East 
under  the  opprobrious  name  of  Kizilbash,  they  harbour  a  sullen 
hatred  of  the  Turkish  Government,  whose  attempts  to  convert 
them  to  orthodoxy  they  resent  ;  while  towards  the  Christians  they 
are  drawn  by  the  impulse  of  a  common  antagonism  to  the 
existing  order,  and  by  the  respect  in  which  they  hold  the 
Christian  religion,  in  the  person  of  whose  Founder  they  recognise 
an  incarnation  of  God.  Their  religion,  so  far  as  we  know  it, 
bears  the  impress  of  the  Aryan  mind,  which  seeks  for  ,a  human 
embodiment  of  the  Deity  ;  they  invest  with  divine  attributes 
Moses  and  Jesus,  Mohammed  and  Ali.  Their  language,  although 
a  branch  of  the  Kurdish,  contains  an  admixture  both  of  Persian 
and  Armenian  words,  and  is  said  to  differ  so  greatly  from  the 
prevailing  dialect  of  the  Kurdish  tongue  that  those  who  are 
familiar  with  the  one  are  unable  to  understand  the  other.  While 
they  practise  the  rite  of  circumcision  and  have  adopted  certain  of 
the  observances  of  Islam,  the  contempt  in  which  their  religion  is 
held  by  their  Mussulman  neighbours  of  the  Sunni  sect  disposes 
them  against  the  dominant  creed,  which  they  regard  as  a  danger- 
ous enemy  of  their  own  peculiar  faith.  In  brief,  they  constitute 
a  separate  element  in  the  Kurdish  population  of  the  tableland, 
and  the  numerical  value  of  this  element  may  be  placed  at  about 
a  third  of  the  total  figure  which  I  have  given  for  the  Kurds  in 
the  Turkish  provinces.  Their  geographical  position  between  and 
about  the  two  branches  of  the  Euphrates  invests  them  with  some 
contemporary  importance  from  a  military  point  of  view  ;  and 
they  hold  the  wild  and  mountainous  country  on  the  south  of  the 
headquarters  of  the  Turkish  Army  Corps  at  the  town  of  Erzinjan. 
In   this  district,  which  is  known  under  the  name  of  the  Dersim, 


Statistical  and  Political  4 1 9 

they  have  long  resisted  and  continue  to  resist  the  imposition  of 
the  Turkish  yoke.  They  are  here  in  the  tribal  and  pastoral 
state  ;  but  they  have  been  obliged  by  the  rigour  of  the  climate 
to  dwell  in  houses,  and  they  cultivate  small  strips  of  land.  In  the 
country  on  the  west  and  east  of  the  Dersim  the  Kizilbashes  are 
peaceful  and  industrious  peasants,  of  whom  most  travellers  have 
spoken  with  respect. 

If  we  draw  on  the  map  an  imaginary  line  from  ]\Iush  through 
Erzerum  towards  the  sea,  the  Mussulman  population  of  the 
Turkish  provinces  are  distributed  in  the  following  manner  over 
the  area  of  the  tableland.  On  the  north  of  Erzerum  and  on 
either  side  of  this  line  the  Turkish  population  extend  from  the 
Russian  border  on  the  east  along  the  banks  of  the  '  Western 
Euphrates  to  its  junction  with  the  eastern  branch.  The  country 
south  of  Erzerum  and  on  the  west  of  the  line  is  the  seat  of  the 
Kizilbash  Kurds  ;  while  on  the  east  are  situated  the  Kurds  who 
profess  the  orthodox  religion  and  speak  the  prevailing  dialect  of 
Kurdistan.  The  territorial  extension  of  the  Kurdish  people 
varies  according  as  the  forces  of  order  are  strengthened  or  decline, 
but  their  original  home  and  natural  habitation  are  the  mountains 
which  contain  the  sources  of  the  Tigris.  From  the  Euphrates 
on  the  west  to  the  Persian  Gulf  upon  the  south  the  zone  of 
buttress  ranges  which  support  the  tablelands  of  Armenia  and 
Persia,  and  which  we  know  at  first  under  the  name  of  Taurus 
and  then  under  that  of  Zagros,  is  inhabited  by  tribes  of  Aryan 
origin  —  the  Kurds  and  further  south  the  Lurs  —  who  are  dis- 
tinguished by  considerable  variations  in  dialect  and  in  religion, 
but  who  present  the  common  characteristic  of  an  inveterate 
aversion  to  settled  life  and  to  the  imposition  of  the  yoke  of  law. 
Their  manner  of  living  is  directly  determined  by  their  geographical 
position  and  pastoral  pursuits.  As  spring  develops  into  summer 
and  the  yellow  drought  creeps  higher  and  higher  up  the  slopes  of 
the  mountain-sides,  they  ascend  from  one  to  another  step,  from  a 
lower  to  a  higher  chain,  and  arrive,  perhaps  at  the  approach  of 
autumn,  on  the  fringe  of  the  tableland.  When  at  length  the 
season  is  verging  upon  winter  the  migration  southwards  begins. 
A  continuous  throng  of  sheep  and  goats  and  horses  and  weather- 
worn people  of  either  sex  and  every  age  flows  slowly  down  the 
blighted  country,  filing  by  tortuous  tracks  between  the  boulders 
or  pausing  about  the  noonday  hour  by  the  bed  of  a  shaded 
stream.      At   the    foot  of   the  range,  on    the  verge  of   the    vast 


4  20  Armenia 

alluvial  plains  through  which  the  Tigris  winds,  is  placed  their 
winter  encampment ;  their  tents  are  sufficient  shelter  against  the 
climate  of  the  low  country,  which  even  through  the  colder  months 
is  temperate  and  mild.  These  yearly  migrations  of  the  Kurdish 
tribes  are  not  conducted  without  great  suffering  on  the  part  of 
the  settled  population  ;  their  granaries  are  plundered  by  the 
shepherd  army,  and  the  land  which  they  might  have  cultivated 
is  occupied  by  the  nomads  during  winter  as  pasture  for  their 
flocks.  But  this  is  a  problem  which  belongs  to  the  southern 
peripheral  region  and  to  the  lowlands,  rather  than  to  the 
tableland.  The  Kurds  of  the  tableland — with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  Kizilbashes  —  are  an  alien  element  of  the 
population.  The  great  distance  of  their  pastures  from  the  plains 
of  the  Tigris  makes  it  difficult  for  them,  if  not  impossible,  to 
pursue  their  instinctive  migration  ;  the  rigorous  winter  obliges 
them  to  discard  their  tents  and  inhabit  villages — in  a  word,  to 
take  the  first  step  towards  a  more  settled  order,  of  which  the 
further  development  is  viewed  by  some  of  them  with  just  alarm, 
as  incompatible  with  their  tribal  organisation  and  independent 
life. 

We  may  place  at  the  kernel  of  the  Armenian  Question  in 
Turkey  the  difficulties  which  arise  from  the  presence  of  this 
Kurdish  population  upon  the  Armenian  plateau.  It  is  true  that 
a  considerable  number  among  them  have  become  industrious 
cultivators  and  subsist  on  the  fruits  of  their  own  toil.  According 
as  the  period  which  separates  them  from  their  former  life  is  long 
or  short,  or  the  name  of  their  more  lawless  kinsmen  is  despised  or 
respected,  these  peasants  will  answer  the  traveller  who  inquires  to 
what  people  they  belong  either  by  replying  that  they  are  Osmanli 
or  by  owning  to  their  being  Kurds.  In  the  first  case  they  rank 
themselves  with  the  settled  Turkish  population  ;  in  the  second 
they  acknowledge  the  bond  which  attaches  them  to  the  free  life 
of  the  tribe.  But  the  weight  of  this  agricultural  element  lies  in 
the  scale  of  peace  ;  it  is  otherwise  with  those  Kurds  who  retain  to 
the  full  their  tribal  organisation  and  who  pasture  their  flocks  on 
the  lofty  highlands  which  extend  to  the  plain  of  Erzerum.  It  is 
possible  that  from  a  remote  period  the  nomads  of  Kurdistan 
proper  may  have  advanced  the  limit  of  their  summer  journey 
beyond  the  plain  of  Mush,  to  return  at  the  approach  of  winter  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Diarbckr.  How  far  their  migration  should 
be  extended  would  be  determined  by  the  distance  which  separated 


Statistical  and  Political  421 

them  from  their  winter  quarters  on  the  lowlands,  and  by  the 
degree  of  resistance  which  the  settled  peoples  might  be  able  to 
offer  to  their  unwelcome  approach.  The  fall  of  the  feudal  system 
in  Turkey  and  the  decline  of  the  power  of  the  Turkish  beys  may 
no  doubt  have  contributed  in  a  sensible  manner  to  open  breaches 
to  the  Kurds  ;  but  it  appears  that  a  powerful  colony  of  this  people 
were  brought  to  their  present  seats  in  Armenia  through  a  definite 
act  of  public  policy  on  the  part  of  the  Turkish  Power.  After  the 
defeat  of  the  Persians  in  the  plain  of  Chaldiran  in  i  5  1 4  it  became 
necessary  to  arrive  at  a  permanent  settlement  of  the  Kurdish 
provinces  ;  and  it  formed  part  of  the  plan  pursued  by  Edrisi,  the 
distinguished  Minister  of  Selim  the  First,  and  himself  a  Kurd  ot 
Bitlis,  to  remove  a  portion  of  this  turbulent  people  from  the 
country  of  their  home  and  to  settle  them  along  the  new  frontier 
of  Turkey  in  the  districts  bordering  upon  Persia  and  Georgia 
which  had  been  acquired  from  the  Shah.  It  is  said  that  they 
were  granted  a  perpetual  immunity  from  taxation  on  the  condition 
that  they  would  act  as  a  permanent  militia  upon  the  border  which 
had  been  given  them  to  guard.^  Neither  the  evidence  of  subse- 
quent history  nor  the  contemporary  political  situation  upon  the 
tableland  can  be  taken  to  have  established  the  wisdom  of  a  policy 
which  appears  to  have  overrated  the  capacity  of  the  Kurds  whether 
for  benefit  or  for  harm.  On  the  one  hand,  by  adding  to  the  area 
inhabited  by  them,  the  Turkish  Government  seems  rather  to  have 
increased  the  difficulties  which  have  always  beset  their  efforts  to 
hold  this  people  in  check  ;  and,  on  the  other,  their  experience  of 
the  value  of  this  militia  can  scarcely  be  so  pleasant  a  memory  as 
their  persistent  continuance  in  a  worn-out  ideal  might  lead  us  to 
expect.  During  the  two  campaigns  against  Russia  of  1829  and 
1854  the  Kurdish  chiefs  played  off  one  Power  against  another, 
and  are  even  said  to  have  assisted  the  invading  armies  by  affording 
a  passage  through  their  adopted  country  and  by  providing  them 
with  supplies.  In  the  campaign  of  1877  the  Kurds  were  the 
most  dangerous  element  in  the  Turkish  army,  and  are  described 
by  an  eye-witness  of  the  several  actions  in  Asia  as  a  grotesque 
corps  of  irregular  cavalry  breaking  into  groups  when  resisted 
and  altogether  unfitted   for  the  serious  operations  of  war.      Their 

1  Consul  Taylor,  in  alluding  to  the  Kurds  of  the  tableland,  has  written  to  the 
following  effect  :  "  The  Kurds  inhabiting  the  Erzerum  districts,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Hakkiari,  were  originally  immigrants  from  the  vicinity  of  Diarbekr  ;  and  there  is  only 
one  tribe,  the  Mamakanlu — said  to  be  descended  from  the  Armenian  Mamikoneans — 
who  are  natives  of  the  soil. " 


42  2  Armenia 

atrocious  cruelty  towards  the  wounded  and  their  mutilation  of  the 
dead  was  visited  upon  the  heads  of  their  afflicted  protectors  in  a 
general  execration  of  the  Turkish  name.  Yet  even  the  bitterness 
of  this  disappointment  and  the  scarcely  doubtful  lesson  of  several 
minor  wars,  which  within  the  course  of  the  past  century  they  have 
been  obliged  to  conduct  against  the  Kurds,  seem  not  to  have 
convinced  the  Turkish  Government  of  the  folly  of  endeavouring 
to  humour  a  people  who  will  never  be  of  any  assistance  to 
Government  until  they  shall  have  lost  for  ever  the  power  of 
resistance  and  ranged  themselves  on  the  side  of  law.  The  reign- 
ing Sultan  in  his  dealings  with  the  Kurds  has  inclined  to  the  old 
policy  ;  he  has  sought  at  once  to  civilise  them  and  to  render  them 
more  efficient  from  a  military  point  of  view.  In  the  wild  and 
seldom-visited  country  between  the  plain  of  Alashkert  and  the 
lake  of  Van  I  was  able  to  gain  a  practical  acquaintance  with  the 
methods  that  are  being  pursued.  In  the  village  of  Patnotz, 
the  principal  seat  of  the  notorious  tribe  of  Haideranli,  a  solid 
stone  structure,  which  has  been  built  by  order  of  Government  to 
serve  the  several  purposes  of  a  mosque,  a  school,  and  a  residence 
for  the  chief,  stands  out  from  the  usual  cluster  of  mud  hovels — 
a  palace  among  ant-hills.  In  every  larger  Kurdish  village  I 
found  a  petty  officer  of  the  Turkish  army  bewailing  the  sad  fate 
which  had  brought  him  to  this  exile,  and  his  own  impotence  to 
control  the  slippery  people  and  constrain  them  to  attend  his  drills. 
A  new  name,  that  of  Hamidiyeh,  has  been  given  to  this  irregular 
cavalry,  and  they  have  been  liberally  supplied  with  uniforms  from 
the  Turkish  magazines.  The  headquarters  of  the  corps  are  at 
Melazkert  on  the  Eastern  Euphrates  or  Murad  Su,  and  over 
thirty  regiments  have  already  been  registered  over  the  area  of  the 
tableland.  Each  regiment  has  a  nominal  strength  of  about  600 
men.  But  they  have  never  yet  manoeuvred  together,  and  when 
in  1892  a  detachment  from  each  regiment  paraded  at  Erzerum,  I 
am  informed  that  the  whole  number  did  not  amount  to  2000,  and 
that  the  sorry  spectacle  was  presented  to  the  Turkish  general  of 
a  motley  company  of  aged  men  and  half-grown  youths,  mounted 
on  horses  which  wanted  muscle  and  had  perhaps  never  tasted 
corn.  It  is  pleasant  to  acknowledge  the  good  intentions  of  the 
Sultan  in  endeavouring  to  educate  the  Kurds  and  to  organise 
them  in  a  more  efficient  manner  for  the  purposes  of  serious  war  ; 
the  ideal  which  has  no  doubt  been  present  to  the  mind  of  his 
military  advisers  is  the  example  of  the  Russian  corps  of  Cossacks. 


Statistical  ami  Political  423 

But  the  mild  measures  at  present  in  favour  will  never  attain  this 
result  ;  it  is  not  under  such  a  policy  that  the  Kurds  will  be 
subjected  to  the  regular  discipline  of  a  camp.  Either  the  young 
men  must  be  taken  from  their  native  or  adopted  provinces  and 
trained  in  the  armies  of  the  Empire  at  a  distance  from  their  homes, 
or  the  entire  people  must  be  made  to  bend  to  the  yoke  of  an  equal 
civil  law,  of  which  they  at  present  evade  the  provisions  and  defy 
the  ministers. 

While  the  Turkish  Government  have  little  reason  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  results  of  their  experiments  with  the  Kurds, 
the  effects  which  derive  from  their  presence  on  the  tableland  are 
disastrous  in  the  extreme.  Yet  it  is  not  the  Mussulmans  so 
much  as  the  Armenians  who  are  afflicted  by  this  scourge.  Let 
us  pursue  a  little  further  our  original  analysis.  Transplanted 
from  their  natural  camping-grounds,  and  obliged  through  the  long 
months  of  an  arctic  winter  to  provide  themselves  and  their  animals 
with  shelter  and  with  food,  this  pastoral  people  were  quartered 
on  the  Armenian  villages,  but  were  required  by  Government  to 
pay  an  annual  tax  in  return  for  the  accommodation  which  during 
winter  they  received.^  But  an  arrangement  which  was  based 
on  the  just  principle  of  ensuring  to  the  Armenian  a  fair  remunera- 
tion for  the  lodging  which  he  furnished  and  the  fodder  which 
he  supplied,  was  put  into  practice  by  the  local  authorities  in  a 
characteristic  manner  :  the  proceeds  of  the  tax  were  committed 
to  their  own  coffers.  In  1842,  after  the  promulgation  of  the 
celebrated  charter  of  reforms  which  is  known  under  the  name 
of  the  Hatti-Sherif  of  Gulkhaneh,  a  beginning  was  made  towards 
the  abolition  of  the  system  ;  the  Kurds  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Mush  were  allotted  certain  villages  which  had  been  vacated  by 
the  Armenian  emigrants,  and  the  Armenians  of  the  district  were 
relieved  of  the  heavy  burden  which  they  had  previously  been 
obliged  to  bear.  At  the  present  day  the  pastoral  Kurds  of  the 
plateau  have  all  their  own  villages,  and  the  old  system,  except 
in  isolated  instances,  may  be  said  to  have  disappeared.  Yet  even 
now  the  Kurds  justify  their  raids  upon  the  Armenians  on  the 
ingenious  plea  of  the  ancient  right  of  quarter  which  they  consider 
they  are  entitled  to  enforce.  Policy  also  dictates  a  procedure 
which  their  tender  conscience  has  approved.  The  Armenians 
are  at  once  the  most  immediate  and  the  least  redoubtable  among 
their  neighbours.      The  courageous   Kurd  equips   himself  for  the 

1  This  tax  is  known  in  the  country  under  the  name  of  kishlak,  or  winter  quarters. 


424  Armenia 

foray  with  a  rifle  of  modern  Russian  pattern  and  belts  bristling 
with  cartridges  ;  his  victims,  by  a  cruel  and  cynical  provision, 
have  been  deprived  by  Government  of  all  arms.  Should  the 
Kurd  be  caught  red-handed  and  arraigned  before  the  civil 
authority,  he  will  scornfully  defy  the  civil  jurisdiction  and 
claim  to  be  tried  by  his  military  superiors  as  a  trooper  in  the 
Hamidiyeh  Corps.  When  the  civil  branch  has  been  successfully 
thwarted,  the  military  authorities  are  cajoled,  while  the  injured 
party  is  rewarded  by  the  visitation  of  a  fresh  injury,  which  he 
endures  without  complaint.  I  can  understand  that  in  Kurdistan 
proper  with  the  lowlands  about  the  course  of  the  Tigris  the 
shepherd  problem  presents  some  difficulty  ;  it  must  always  be 
a  task  of  some  magnitude  to  control  a  people  whose  migrations 
extend  over  so  wide  an  area  and  whose  country  conceals  within 
its  countless  recesses  such  inaccessible  retreats.  On  the  tableland 
the  case  is  quite  elementary  :  the  pastoral  Kurd  belongs  to  a 
village,  and  that  village  is  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
pastures  from  which  he  is  driven  by  the  winter  snows.  It  cannot 
be  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  to  follow  up  the  robbers  to  their 
homes.  It  is  well  within  the  capacity  of  the  existing  authorities 
to  enforce  against  them  the  necessary  measures  of  police.  But 
the  tribal  chiefs  are  well  aware  of  the  consequences  which  would 
flow  from  such  a  change  in  Turkish  policy  towards  them,  and 
they  exert  all  the  means  at  their  disposal  to  avert  it.  Upon 
the  tableland  they  enjoy  a  parasitical  prosperity.  Once  pre- 
vented from  levying  their  supplies  of  grain  and  fodder  upon  the 
Armenians,  and  restricted  to  the  legitimate  operations  of  barter 
with  the  peasantry  or  reciprocal  trade,  their  tribes  would  gradually 
melt  away,  and,  while  a  large  number  would  join  the  ranks  of 
the  agricultural  population,  a  remnant  only  would  remain  to 
continue  in  Armenia  the  shepherd  calling  and  the  tribal  life. 

The  Armenians  arc  distributed  in  the  following  manner  over 
the  statistical  area  of  the  Turkish  provinces.  Compared  with 
the  number  of  the  Mussulman  inhabitants,  they  are  in  greater 
strength  in  the  Government  of  Van  than  in  any  other  Govern- 
ment. Taking  that  Government  as  a  whole,  but  of  course 
excluding  the  Hakkiari,  they  exceed  by  about  one-third  the 
total  of  the  Mussulman  population.  In  the  town  of  Van  the 
proportion  of  Armenians  to  Mussulmans  is  about  as  two  to 
one.  In  the  Government  of  Bitlis  they  are  in  a  majority  in  the 
neighbourhood   of   Mush,  and   in    the  fertile  district  of   Bulanik, 


Statistical  and  Political  425 

north-west  of  the  lake  of  Van.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are 
outnumbered  by  the  Mussulmans  in  the  populous  sanjak  of 
Kharput,  and  in  the  caza  or  Governmental  sub-division  of  Palu. 
In  the  Government  of  Erzerum  there  is  scarcely  a  district  in 
which  they  are  not  less  numerous  than  their  Mussulman  neigh- 
bours. Yet,  when  estimating  the  relative  strength  of  the 
Armenian  element,  we  deceive  ourselves  if  we  dwell  with  com- 
placent insistence  on  the  fact  of  its  numerical  inferiority.  Several 
factors  essential  to  such  an  analysis  deserve  and  require  attention. 
In  the  first  place,  the  most  fertile  portion  of  the  country  is  held 
by  the  Armenians.  The  beautiful  region  about  Lake  Van, 
the  vast  plains  of  Bulanik,  of  Mush,  and  of  Kharput  are  the 
principal  seats  of  the  Armenian  peasantry — a  peasantry  as 
sturdy  as  the  Mussulman  settlers  and  far  more  industrious  and 
progressive  than  they.  Another  advantage  possessed  by  the 
Armenians  is  their  favourable  geographical  situation  in  relation 
to  the  Turks  and  the  Kurds.  The  Armenian  population  compose 
a  mass  of  varying  compactness  which  extends  across  the  table- 
land from  east  to  west,  and  may  be  said  in  a  general  manner  to 
divide  as  with  a  wedge  the  two  branches  of  the  Mussulman 
inhabitants.  Or  the  Armenian  may  be  compared  to  the  middle 
bedfellow  of  three.  Again,  the  solidarity  of  the  Armenian  element, 
both  from  a  political  and  a  social  point  of  view,  is  a  fact  which 
must  not  be  ignored.  Nowhere  in  a  more  conspicuous  manner 
than  upon  the  tableland  has  the  Gregorian  Church  resisted  the 
advances  of  Rome.  According  to  the  statistics  supplied  by  the 
Catholic  patriarch  to  Mr.  Goschen,  the  number  of  the  Catholics 
within  the  limits  of  our  statistical  area  cannot  amount  to  20,000 
souls.  Of  these,  the  great  majority  inhabit  the  northern  districts 
of  the  Government  of  Erzerum,  while  in  the  country  of  Van  and 
Mush,  which  is  essentially  Armenian,  there  are  scarcely  any 
adherents  of  Rome.  It  is  true  that  the  Protestant  community 
is  growing  ;  if  we  include  the  Mission  of  Mardin  lying  outside  our 
area,  they  are  over  16,000  strong.  But  the  paramount  object 
which  is  present  to  the  Protestant  missionaries  is  not  to  subvert 
the  national  Church  or  to  attach  it  to  their  own  denomination, 
but  rather  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  national  religion  and  to 
improve  the  social  condition  of  the  people  among  whom  they 
have  come  to  live.  Finally,  we  must  not  overlook  the  high  place 
which  the  Armenians  already  occupy  in  the  economical  order  of 
the  country,  and  the  fact  that  the  Armenian  population  is  capable 


426  Armenia 

of  very  rapid  expansion  under  kinder  circumstances.  I  have 
already  had  occasion  to  speak  in  praise  of  the  Armenian  peasantry ; 
yet,  while  agriculture  suffers  from  the  disappearance  of  the 
Armenian  from  the  soil,  the  place  which  he  occupies  in  the  less 
rudimentary  grades  of  civilised  life  can  never  be  supplied.  The 
worn  and  crippled  machine  of  industry  functions  through  him 
alone.  His  advancement  means  the  progress  of  the  country  ;  his 
removal  is  the  cause  of  its  decay.  Yet  the  stream  of  emigration 
continues,  and  is  gathering  fresh  volume  every  year.  The  general 
exodus  of  the  Armenian  population  which  ensued  upon  the 
retirement  into  Russian  territory  of  General  Paskevich  in  1839 
has  been  followed  by  a  gradual  process  of  depletion,  which  varies 
in  intensity  according  as  harvests  are  good  or  disastrous  and  the 
Kurds  are  encouraged  or  restrained.  During  my  stay  in  the 
country  the  Armenian  peasantry  of  considerable  districts  were 
exerting  themselves  to  pay  off  their  debts,  and  to  obtain  permission 
to  leave.  Many  were  flying  to  the  Russian  frontier  to  seek  an 
asylum  from  the  Kurds.  A  change  in  policy  is  alone  needed  to 
transform  a  country  which  is  rapidly  becoming  a  desert  into  a 
prosperous  and  progressive  province.  Behind  the  Armenian 
population  of  the  tableland  stand  their  kinsmen  who  inhabit  the 
less  distracted  districts  of  Asia  Minor.  At  the  first  approach  of 
a  better  era  many  of  these  would  seek  with  eagerness  the  ancient 
home  of  their  race.  Many  of  the  emigrants  into  Russia  would 
return  to  their  old  seats.  The  tide  now  setting  to  America, 
whence  the  Armenians,  like  the  Irish,  transmit  large  sums  of 
money  to  their  less  prosperous  relations  at  home,  would  slacken 
if  it  did  not  cease.  A  country  which  even  in  its  wildest  regions 
still  retains  the  traditions  of  Armenian  civilisation,  and  is  adorned 
with  the  remains  of  Armenian  architecture,  would  resume  the  old 
order  in  a  spirit  essentially  new. 

Have  I  wearied  my  reader  with  this  long  and  almost 
exhaustive  analysis,  at  which  I  can  scarcely  myself  suppress  a 
yawn  ?  At  least  we  may  console  ourselves  with  the  virtuous 
reflection  that  we  have  been  disentangling  a  difficult  subject  of 
which  we  shall  all  hear  more  as  the  years  go  by.  Most  of  us — 
for  we  are  all  rulers,  and  our  voices  reach  far — will  some  day  be 
expected  to  pronounce  our  opinion  upon  it  ;  I  have  therefore 
endeavoured  to  present  the  facts  in  an  uncoloured  narrative. 
But  it  may  be  asked  :  why  has  so  little  been  heard  of  the 
Armenians  still  residing  in   their  native  seats  ?      Are  they  not  a 


Statistical  and  Political  427 

handful  among  the  numbers  of  their  countrymen  dispersed  over 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  inhabiting  the  capital  or  the  great 
towns  of  Asia  Minor?  Sasun,  where  the  massacres  commenced 
in  1894,  is  surely  a  district  which  lies  outside  the  proper  limits 
of  Armenia  ;  while  Sivas  and  Trebizond,  Diarbekr,  Marash  and 
Aintab — cities  of  which  the  names  are  engraved  in  red  upon  our 
memories — are  situated  at  great  distances  from  the  Armenian 
centres.  Such  reasoning  is  in  a  great  measure  true  ;  it  is  the 
Berlin  difficulty. 

In  the  absence  of  reliable  statistics  I  shall  refrain  from  any 
attempt  to  trace  the  distribution  of  the  Armenians  over  the 
whole  extent  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The  total  number  of 
Armenians  in  Turkey  was  given  by  the  delegates  to  the  Berlin 
Congress  as  amounting  to  3,000,000  souls.  This  figure  is 
certainly  too  high.  An  Armenian  clerical  writer,  who  appears 
not  to  err  on  the  side  of  exaggeration,  has  placed  the  entire 
Gregorian  population,  that  is  the  great  bulk  of  his  countrymen 
in  Turkey,  at  1,263,900  souls.^  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  Armenian  subjects  of  the  Sultan  number  upwards  of  one 
and  a  half  millions,  of  whom  some  half  million  may  be  taken  to 
inhabit  the  statistical  area  with  which  we  have  been  dealing,  after 
considerable  additions  have  been  made  to  supply  the  deficiencies 
in  the  lists.  The  remainder  are  spread  over  the  Empire,  forming 
fairly  compact  communities  in  the  more  populous  towns.  Previous 
to  the  massacres  of  1895,  the  Armenians  of  Constantinople  were 
estimated  at  180,000  souls,  of  whom  some  80,000  might  be 
reckoned  as  immigrants  for  a  certain  period  from  such  Armenian 
centres  as  Van  and  Arabkir,  and  the  remainder  were  permanently 
established.  Other  considerable  aggregates  are  forthcoming  in 
Northern  Syria  and  Cilicia,  where,  besides  the  towns,  the 
mountainous  district  of  Zeitun  is  inhabited  by  a  vigorous  and 
brave  Armenian  peasantry.  The  towns  on  the  highlands  of  Asia 
Minor  from  the  Euphrates  to  Brusa  and  Smyrna  number  large 
bodies  of  Armenians  among  their  citizens.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  those  on  the  lowlands  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Diarbekr. 
Trebizond  contains  a  populous  and  flourishing  settlement,  as  do 
most  of  the  rising  towns  along  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea. 
Indeed    the   Armenian    is    ubiquitous    in    the    Nearer    Asia,   from 

'   Vahan   Vardapet,    in   an  Armenian  newspaper    published   in   Constantinople,   the 

Djeridei  Shai-kieh,  under  date  the  —  December  1886. 

15 


428  Armenia 

the  northern  province  of  Persia  to  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Yet  this  people  as  a  whole  can  scarcely  amount 
to  more  than  3,000,000  souls,  a  round  figure  of  which  the 
principal  components  are  as  follows  : — 


The  Armenian  tableland  (Russian  and  Turkish  provinces)    906,984 
Caucasus  and  remainder  of  Russian  Transcaucasia       .  450,000 

Astrakan  and  Bessarabia  ..... 

Remainder  of  Asiatic  Turkey     .... 

Turkey  in  Europe     ...... 

Azerbaijan  province  of  Persia  ^  . 

Colony  of  Julfa  (Ispahan)  and  remainder  of  Persia  ^ 

Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Rumelia 

Rumania  ....... 

Austria    ........ 


75,600 

751,500 

186,000 

28,890 

14,1 10 

5,010 

8,070 

1,230 

2,427,394 


Two  sets  of  causes  are  responsible  for  the  recent  outbreaks 
of  Armenian  sentiment  in  regions  where  this  people  are  an 
insignificant  minority,  separated  from  the  natural  and  historical 
seats  of  their  race.  There  is  in  the  first  place  the  political  and 
social  inequality  between  the  Christians  and  the  Mohammedans. 
Just  as  beside  some  stagnant  pool  among  the  recesses  of  the 
rocks  the  returning  tide  awakens  the  folded  life  of  plant  and 
shell,  so  our  Western  civilisation,  recoiling  upon  Asia,  arouses 
the  hopes  which  have  slept  for  centuries  in  the  breasts  of  the 
Christians  of  the  East.  It  is  not  that  they  are  denied  religious 
freedom,  as  some  of  their  partisans  are  bold  enough  to  assert. 
The  tolerance  of  the  reigning  Sultan  is  active  throughout  his 
empire.  The  traveller  marvels  at  the  liberty,  almost  amounting 
to  license,  which  is  allowed  to  the  votaries  of  the  several  creeds. 
Take  the  capital  :  there  are  the  Greeks  with  their  noisy  carnivals, 
so  repugnant  to  Mussulman  austerity.  Or  the  Moslem  wayfarer 
is  hustled  from  the  street  by  some  funeral  procession  with  its 
bevy  of  priests,  conducting  an  open  coffin  where  the  lineaments 
of  the  deceased  are  exposed  to  a  curious  and  respectful  crowd. 
What  invisible  force  controls  all  this  fermenting  human 
material  ?  .  .  .  Nor  will  the  favourable  impression  be  diminished 
by  the  wider  experience  of  a  provincial  tour.  In  the  country  the 
sound  of  Christian  bells  falls  upon  the  landscape  from  some 
cloister  nestling  in  the  lap  of  the  hills.  In  the  towns  the 
observance   of    Sunday   effects   a    change   in    urban    life   which   is 

'   .See  Curzon's  Persia,  vol.  i.  p.  548.  -'  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  493. 


Statistical  and  Political  429 

almost  as  marked  as  in  a  Christian  state.      Trades  are  suspended, 
shops  are  closed,  chimes  ring  from  the  churches. 

What  is  denied  to  the  Christians  is  political  equality.  They 
are  tolerated  and  they  are  taxed  ;  but  they  remain  the  unbelievers, 
the  victims  of  a  prejudice  stronger  than  any  law.  In  the  case 
of  the  Armenians  they  are  rigorously  prohibited  from  possessing 
firearms,  and  they  do  not  serve  in  the  army.  They  are  excluded 
from  the  highest  administrative  posts.  Their  share  in  the  pro- 
vincial government  is  almost  as  nothing.  The  edicts  which  have 
pronounced  in  favour  of  equality  have  been  inoperative  and  are  in 
abeyance.  At  the  same  time  the  voice  of  the  West  is  heard  louder 
and  nearer ;  and  the  rebellious  spirits  appeal  to  the  example 
of  Eastern  Europe,  freed  for  ever  from  a  Mussulman  yoke. 

But  why  did  the  movement  fasten  upon  these  scattered  com- 
munities— hostages,  as  it  would  seem,  to  the  Mussulman  power  ? 
I  think  the  reason  is  not  very  far  to  seek.  Because  of  the  severity 
with  which  the  outbreaks  in  Armenia  were  quelled  during  1890 
and  the  preceding  years.  It  was  evident  to  the  revolutionary 
party  that  the  spirit  of  their  countrymen  had  become  cowed  in 
the  land  where  they  are  native.  However  real  their  wrongs — 
and  I  think  I  have  testified  to  their  reality — they  had  learnt  by 
recent  experience  to  endure  them  in  silence  without  attempting 
to  obtain  redress.  The  movement,  suppressed  in  its  place  of 
origin,  broke  out  on  new  ground. 

Sasun,  a  mountainous  region  belonging  to  the  southern 
peripheral  zone  on  the  outer  margin  of  the  Armenian  tableland, 
was  the  scene  of  the  first  events  in  the  latest  recrudescence  of 
the  old  malady,  smothered  but  not  cured.  The  district  extends 
from  the  southern  slopes  of  the  mountains  overlooking  the  plain 
and  town  of  Mush,  situated  upon  their  northern  verge,  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  town  of  Hazo.  It  formed  a  canton  of 
the  old  Armenian  province  of  Aghdznik,  which  is  sometimes 
joined  by  Armenian  writers  with  that  of  Korduk,  the  modern 
Kurdistan.  The  name  of  the  canton,  Sasun,  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  Sanasar,  one  of  the  two  sons  of  the  Assyrian  monarch 
Sennacherib,  who,  after  slaying  their  father,  fled  into  Armenia.^ 
His  descendants  appear  to  have  been  known  as  the  Sanasuns  or 
Sasuns  ^ ;  they  were  princes  of  Aghdznik,  and  occupied  the  very 
highest  rank  at  the  court  of  the  Armenian  Arsakid  king.^      Their 

1  2  Kings  xix.  37  ;  Moses  of  Khorene,  i.  23. 
^  Saint  Martin,  Mdvioires  siir  V Arminie,  i.  163.  ^  Faustus  of  Byzantium,  iii.  9. 


430  A^nnenia 

territories  were  no  doubt  occupied  by  an  Armenian  population  ; 
and  the  memories  of  that  distant  period  still  linger  among  the 
peasantry  who  are  scattered  over  the  wild  but  in  places  fertile 
land/  But  the  vicinity  of  the  region  to  the  towns  of  the  lowlands 
must  have  rendered  wellnigh  impossible  the  maintenance  by 
its  inhabitants  of  their  Christian  religion  during  the  period  of 
Mussulman  expansion.  We  know  from  history  that  its  Armenian 
ruler  at  the  close  of  the  ninth  century  had  adopted  a  Mussulman 
name  and  outwardly  professed  the  Mohammedan  religion.^  At 
the  present  day  some  handfuls  of  Armenian  Christians  preserve 
with  obstinacy  the  habits  of  their  race  and  the  practice  of  their 
religion  among  remote  fastnesses.  The  bulk  of  the  population 
have  adopted  Islam,  are  classed  as  Kurds,  and  can  with  difficulty 
be  distinguished  from  the  Kurdish  people. 

Strange  indeed  are  the  anomalies  which  are  presented  in  these 
little -known  districts  of  Turkish  Kurdistan.  On  the  southern 
fringe  of  Sasun  live  a  tribe  called  the  Baliki  or  Beleke,  speaking 
a  mixed  language  of  Arabic,  Kurdish  and  Armenian.  Their 
religion  cannot  be  classed  either  as  Christian  or  Mohammedan, 
nor  even  as  that  professed  by  the  Kizilbashes.  When  they 
make  oath  it  is  in  the  name  of  a  church  or  monastery.  But 
they  possess  neither  churches  nor  mosques.  Marriage  is  a  rite 
which  they  ignore.  Their  women  go  about  in  perfect  freedom 
and  unveiled,  wearing  white  trousers  like  the  Yezidis  or  so- 
called  devil -worshippers.  Wives  are  bought  or  exchanged — 
a  woman  of  forty  for  one  of  twenty,  the  owner  of  the  latter 
being  compensated  by  a  few  silver  pieces.  A  girl  may  be 
purchased  from  them  by  a  stranger,  provided  always  that  you 
take  her  away.  These  Baliki  are  probably  a  particular  remnant 
of  the  old  inhabitants,  with  whom  the  Armenians,  dispersed 
among  them  as  traders,  would  scarcely  recognise  any  racial  link. 

Serfdom  is  an  institution  which  is  not  unknown  in  the  country, 
though  its  existence  is  softened  over  by  the  Turkish  authorities, 
who  shrink  from  dispensing  a  purely  nominal  sovereignty.  The 
serfs,  who  are  Armenians,  are  known  as  zer  kurri,  signifying 
bought  with   gold.      In   fact   they  are   bought   and   sold   in    much 

'  l'"()r  instance  the  Kurdish  Beys  of  y.ok\\  believe  themselves  to  be  descended  from 
the  dynasty  of  Sanasar.  Again  an  Armenian  convent,  called  Norshen,  is  held  in  rever- 
ence by  both  the  Armenian  and  Kurdish  inhabitants  ;  and  the  name  of  that  convent  is 
believed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Nor-Shirakaii  or  New  Shirak — a  name  applied  to  the 
country  by  the  earliest  Armenian  writers,  Agathangelus  (ch.  cxxvi.)  and  Faustus  (v.  9). 

-  John  Katholikos,  ch.  xxviii. 


Statistical  and  Political  43  \ 

the  same  manner  as  sheep  and  cattle  by  the  Kurdish  beys  and 
aghas.  The  only  difference  is  that  they  cannot  be  disposed  of 
individually  ;  they  are  transferred  with  the  lands  which  they 
cultivate.  The  chief  appropriates  as  much  as  he  wishes  from 
their  yearly  earnings,  capital  or  goods;  and  in  return  he  provides 
them  with  protection  against  other  Kurdish  tribes.  Many  stories 
are  told  to  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  relation.  A  serf  was  shot 
by  the  servant  of  a  Kurdish  agha  who  possessed  lands  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  owner  of  the  serf  did  not  trouble  to  avenge 
his  death  on  the  person  of  the  murderer,  still  less  upon  that  of  the 
agha,  his  neighbour.  He  rode  over  to  the  agha's  lands,  and  put 
bullets  through  two  of  his  serfs,  the  first  that  he  happened  to 
meet.  .  .  .  The  serf  of  a  chieftain  residing  a  few  hours'  distance 
from  the  town  of  Hazo  had  settled  in  Hazo,  where  he  had  become 
treasurer  to  the  Turkish  Government.  One  night  his  house  was 
attacked  by  another  Kurdish  chief,  his  money  carried  off  and  he 
and  his  cousin  murdered.  In  this  case  the  owner  was  not  so 
easily  propitiated.  He  gathered  his  people  together,  bearded  his 
fellow-brigand  in  his  lair,  killed  him,  burnt  down  his  house,  and 
put  to  death  every  living  thing.  Both  these  incidents  occurred 
during  the  lifetime  of  people  who  are  still  living  ;  the  one  is 
related  by  no  less  an  authority  than  a  British  Consul,  and  the 
other  by  an  individual  in  a  responsible  position,  whose  sympathies 
are  on  the  side  of  the  Turkish  Government. 

On  the  tableland  of  Armenia  such  relations  between  the  Kurds 
and  the  Armenians  are  altogether  unknown.  Their  existence  in 
one  form  or  another  among  the  inaccessible  retreats  of  Kurdistan 
provided  material  for  the  revolutionary  propaganda  of  the  agitator, 
Damadean,  whose  early  doings  in  the  Sasun  region  I  have 
chronicled  in  my  chapter  on  Bitlis,  and  who  presents  a  striking 
and  almost  legendary  figure  even  in  the  sober  narrative  of  the 
Blue-books.^  This  man  and  his  successor  Boyajean  knew  full 
well  that  there  in  Sasun  they  were  breaking  virgin  ground.  They 
were  further  encouraged  by  the  fact  that  the  Armenian  peasantry 
of  that  region  were  in  possession  of  arms  and  knew  how  to  use 
them.  The  result  of  their  efforts  and  of  the  ill-advised  action  of 
the  local  authorities  was  the  Sasun  massacre  of  1894.  It  was 
followed  by  the  massacres  of  1895,  which  devastated  the  country 
districts  and  most  of  the  great  towns  of  the  Armenian  tableland, 
but   of  which  the  principal  and  new  feature  was  the  occurrence  of 

^  See  especially  Turkey,  No.  I.   1895,  parts  i.  and  ii. 


432 


Armenia 


such  tragedies  among  the  Armenian  communities  spread  over  the 
face  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  learn  that  the  condition  of  these 
scattered  communities  presents  any  special  cause  for  disaffection  ; 
and  I  do  not  believe  that  the  revolutionary  movement,  in  which 
they  all  participated  in  some  degree,  wets  either  spontaneous  in  its 
nature  or  indigenous  in  its  growth.  Few  if  any  of  them  are 
engaged  in  a  struggle  for  life  and  death  with  hordes  of  Kurds, -let 
loose  on  territory  which  is  not  Kurdish  and  which  is  far  from  being 
suited  to  that  race  of  lawless  shepherds.  Most  of  them  are  fairly 
prosperous  citizens  in  the  towns  ;  and  whatever  grievances  they 
may  possess  are  shared  in  a  greater  or  a  lesser  degree  by  all  the 
Christian  subjects  of  the  Sultan.  The  Armenian  cause,  as  a  cause 
with  a  justifiable  and  reasonable  aim,  is  not  founded  upon  any 
such  grievances.  For  all  practical  and  constructive  purposes  it  is 
simply  a  question  of  the  proper  government  of  the  provinces  of 
Armenia  which  are  inhabited  by  Mussulmans  as  vv^ell  as  by 
Armenians,  but  which  are  raided  and  drained  of  their  resources 
by  tribal  Kurds. 

One  other  aspect  of  this  part  of  the  subject  remains  to  be 
considered.  The  massacres  of  1895  were  certainly  not  the  out- 
come of  a  spontaneous  rising  of  the  Mussulmans  against  the 
Christians.  All  or  nearly  all  were  organised  from  without.  I 
well  remember  how,  while  taking  coffee  with  an  official  high  in  the 
Turkish  service  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  great  provincial  centre, 
my  host,  pointing  to  the  road  which  we  overlooked  from  the  open 
windows,  said  :  "  I  can  never  look  upon  that  road  without  re- 
membering the  occasion  when  I  sat  in  this  very  room  and  saw 
strange  people  passing  along  it — immigrants,  so  they  seemed,  from 
the  mountains  in  the  north.  Our  massacre  followed  at  no  long 
interval."  The  Mussulmans  of  the  Armenian  provinces  are 
perfectly  well  aware  that  their  own  turn  will  closely  follow  upon 
the  disappearance  of  the  Armenians.  They  will  not,  indeed,  be 
butchered  by  imported  bands  of  ruffians  ;  but  they  will  be 
swallowed  by  the  Kurds.  Some  of  their  villages  have  already 
been  raided  by  this  people,  who  are  less  to  blame  for  such  natural 
exercise  of  their  appetites  than  those  who  have  transplanted  or 
enticed  them  from  their  native  seats.  ...  I  must  now  pass 
without  any  preamble  to  the  larger  bearings  of  the  Armenian 
Question  :  does  it  offer  any  scope  for  a  practical  and  special 
solution  which  need   not  embrace  the  reform   and  rejuvenescence 


Statistical  and  Political  43 


00 


of  the  Ottoman  Empire  as  a  whole  ?  And  what  arc  the  interests 
of  the  progressive  states  of  Europe,  and  of  Great  Britain  in 
particular,  in  the  settlement  and  disposal  of  the  Question  ? 

I.  I  must  repeat  with  tedious  persistency  that  what  is  most 
required  is  a  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  geographical 
conditions.  These  I  have  endeavoured  in  a  lengthy  analysis 
to  elucidate.  Collective  Notes  and  schemes  of  reform*  are  of 
very  little  value,  if  it  be  attempted  to  apply  their  provisions 
indifferently  to  regions  presenting  features  so  distinct  and 
dissimilar  as  the  tableland  of  Armenia  and  the  mountains 
of  Kurdistan.  No  solution  of  the  Armenian  Question  in 
Turkey  would  be  calculated  to  contain  the  elements  of  per- 
manence which  should  not  be  concerned  in  the  first  instance 
with  delimitation,  and  with  redistribution  of  the  existing 
Governmental  areas. 

The  principles  upon  which  such  redistribution  should  proceed 
are  the  common-sense  principles  of  grouping  together  districts 
which  naturally  belong  together,  and  of  rendering  the  Govern- 
ments as  far  as  possible  homogeneous.  I  think  it  would  be 
found  that  obedience  to  these  principles  would  at  the  same  time 
assist  a  practical  solution  of  the  Kurdish  Question.  They 
would  point  to  the  formation  of  three  great  Governments.  One 
would  be  constituted  by  the  mountainous  districts  between  the 
tableland  of  Armenia  and  the  Black  Sea,  and  might  be  called 
the  Black  Sea  Government.  It  would  coincide  to  some  extent 
with  the  existing  area  of  the  vilayet  of  Trebizond  ;  but  it  might 
seem  advisable  to  include  within  it  regions  at  present  belonging 
to  the  vilayet  of  Erzerum,  such  as  Tortum  and  the  districts  on 
the  side  of  Olti.  The  second  Government  would  embrace  the 
tableland  itself,  and  its  demarcation  should  be  conducted  as  far 
as  possible  in  consonance  with  the  natural  frontiers,  such  as  they 
have  been  determined  in  the  present  work.  The  third  Govern- 
ment would  be  the  Government  of  Kurdistan.  It  would 
comprehend  a  considerable  area,  from  Kirkuk  and  Sulimanieh 
on  the  south-east  to  Diarbekr  and. the  confines  of  Kharput  on 
the  north-west.  Mosul,  Jezireh  and  Diarbekr  would  be  the  bases 
of  the  administration,  these  cities  on  the  lowlands  being  situated 
in  convenient  positions  to  serve  as  centres  from  which  to  control 
the  necessary  winter  migrations  of  the  Kurdish  tribes  from  their 
mountains  to  the  agricultural  regions  bordering  on  the  left  or 
eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris.  Strong  military  posts  might  be 
VOL.  II  2  F 


434  Arineiiia 

established   within   the   mountainous   area   in  the   principal   towns 
of  Kurdistan. 

Of  these  three  Governments  that  of  the  tableland  should 
be  administered  from  a  suitable  centre,  which  centre  would  be 
neither  Erzerum  nor  Van.  Akhlat,  Melazkert  or  Khinis  would 
seem  to  be  naturally  designated  to  fulfil  the  requirements  of  the 
case.  None  of  these  towns  are  very  far  removed  from  the 
frontier  line  of  the  Kurdish  mountains,  on  which  side  alone  would 
the  new  Government  be  exposed  to  incursions  of  the  lawless 
Kurdish  element.  All  of  them  are  favourably  placed  for  inter- 
communication with  the  principal  Armenian  districts.  Passage 
of  the  tribes  from  Kurdistan  proper  into  the  Governmental  area 
should  be  rigorously  interdicted.  It  could  be  prevented  by  no 
more  formidable  measures  than  the  enrolment  of  a  corps  of 
o-endarmerie.  Such  a  corps  would  also  suffice  to  police  the  dis- 
tricts on  the  tableland  at  present  inhabited  by  tribal  Kurds. 

Reforms  or  changes  of  this  nature  are  well  within  the  capacity 
of  the  Government  at  Constantinople.  They  would  not,  I  think, 
prejudice  their  general  military  administration  ;  it  might  even 
be  found  that  they  would  be  in  harmony  with  purely  military 
interests.  But  the  Turks  should  never  forget  that  they  are  much 
more  likely  to  succumb  as  an  empire  owing  to  defects  in  the 
civil  rather  than  in  the  military  arm.  Europe,  with  all  her  want 
of  squeamishness,  cannot  permanently  tolerate  civil  misgovernment 
on  so  great  a  scale.  One  after  another  the  friends  or  allies  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire  in  Europe  will  be  compelled  to  stand  aside. 
Sooner  or  later  the  young  German  Empire  will  be  forced  by  cir- 
cumstances to  adopt  the  same  attitude  as  her  elder  sister  of  Great 
Britain.  Meanwhile  there  is  growing  up  with  alarming  rapidity  a 
situation  in  the  provinces  immediately  adjoining  Russian  territory 
which  already  invites  and  may  soon  require  Russian  intervention. 
Russian  statesmen  are  only  awaiting  the  favourable  moment  in 
the  world  movements  of  the  time.  Russian  troops  are  already 
placed  within  striking  distance  of  the  fortress  of  Erzerum, 
immediately  commanding  the  roads  to  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor 
and  to  the  capital.  It  does  not  require  a  long  memory  to  recall 
the  pretexts — nay,  the  causes — upon  which  Russia  justified  her 
previous  aggressions  upon  Turkish  territory.  Who  shall  assert 
that  the  present  situation  on  the  tableland  of  Armenia  is  less 
aggravated  than  that  which  prevailed  in  the  European  provinces 
when  the  Russian  armies  crossed  the  Truth  in  1877  ? 


Statistical  and  Political  435 

Administrative  changes  of  the  nature  I  have  indicated  are, 
of  course,  only  feasible  as  a  whole  through  spontaneous  action  on 
the  part  of  the  Government  at  Constantinople.  Their  professed 
friends  but  real  enemies  may  try  to  play  upon  their  suspicions  ; 
and  will,  no  doubt,  urge  that  they  are  being  offered  in  a  thinly 
veiled  form  the  substance  of  an  independent  Armenia.  But  such 
a  consummation,  were  it  even  possible  in  a  remote  future,  need 
not  alarm  the  well-known  solicitude  of  Oriental  rulers  for  the 
interests  of  posterity.  If  the  millions  of  Mussulmans  attached  by 
religion  and  common  interests  to  the  rule  of  the  Sultans  were 
ever  insufficient  to  keep  within  bounds  Armenian  ambitions,  the 
presence  of  such  a  strong  nation  upon  the  high  road  of  the 
Russian  advance  would  surely  be  a  blessing  in  disguise.  It  can 
scarcely  be  doubted  that  in  that  case  the  weight  of  Armenian 
sympathies  would  be  on  the  side  of  the  weak  Ottoman  Empire. 
But  this  talk  about  a  revival  of  the  Armenian  kingdom  is  windy 
and  frivolous  in  the  extreme.  The  Armenians  have  neither 
leaders  nor  a  class  of  leaders  ;  and  how  long  would  it  take  to 
develop  such  a  class?  In  the  ninth  century,  when  they  broke 
loose  from  the  expiring  body  of  the  caliphate,  they  had  their 
princes  and  nobles  of  greater  and  lesser  degree.  These  families 
have  disappeared  without  leaving  a  trace.  And  is  it  certain  or 
even  probable  that,  if  the  old  ideal  could  be  again  realised,  the 
Armenians  in  the  twentieth  century  would  be  prepared  to  revive 
a  polity  which  would  narrow  their  activities  from  the  whole  wide 
area  of  an  empire  to  the  confined  stage  of  a  petty  state  ? 

The  example  of  Bulgaria,  sometimes  quoted  with  a  shiver  of 
fear  in  this  connection,  is  not  an  example  in  point.  There  the 
Christians  composed  the  bulk  of  the  population  ;  and  they  had 
no  links,  such  as  are  present  in  the  case  of  the  Armenians,  with 
the  rest  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  But,  even  if  the  apprehensions 
of  the  most  nervous  could  be  justified  by  solid  arguments,  what 
is  the  alternative  which  they  are  able  to  suggest?  If  they  settle 
the  Kurdish  Question  they  are  in  so  far  assisting  the  Armenians  ; 
while,  if  they  allow  it  to  settle  itself,  they  are  face  to  face  with 
the  ruin  of  these  provinces,  which  Russia,  in  the  interests  of  the 
security  of  her  own  frontier,  will  be  constrained  and  will  be 
invited  by  Europe  to  occupy. 

But  the  regulation  of  Turkish  Armenia  is  not  a  matter  which 
alone  concerns  the  rulers  on  the  Bosphorus.  Europe  has  always 
recognised  her  intimate  interest  in   the  affairs  of  Turkey,  and  she 


436  Armenia 

is  specially  pledged  to  secure  good  government  for  the  Armenians. 
But  her  intervention,  should  it  be  necessary,  would,  I  hope,  be 
based  on  the  broadest  grounds,  not  in  favour  of  the  Armenians 
alone,  but  also  of  the  Mussulmans.  The  constitution  of  a  single 
new  province  on  the  tableland  would  not  be  tantamount  to 
controlling  the  administration  of  Asiatic  Turkey  ;  it  is  a  measure 
which  can  be  reasonably  demanded  and  readily  executed.  More- 
over, if  Europe  were  again  to  take  up  the  question,  she  would  be 
well  advised  not  to  recognise  any  limitations  in  respect  of  the 
qualifications  of  the  new  Governor-General.  He  would,  of  course, 
not  be  an  Armenian,  and  he  might  very  well  be  a  Mussulman 
and  a  subject  of  the  Sultan.  Or  a  European  might  be  appointed 
to  the  post.  In  a  financial  and  administrative  sense  the  province 
would  be  dissevered  from  the  Central  Government ;  and,  in  the 
present  state  of  the  country,  a  loan  to  the  provincial  treasury 
would  be  necessary  to  supply  the  funds  for  the  organisation  of 
the  gendarmerie.  The  new  Governor  would  rule  over  a  some- 
what heterogeneous  Mussulman  majority  and  a  compact  Armenian 
minority,  very  much  their  inferior  in  numbers.  But  his  efforts 
would  be  assisted  by  the  homogeneous  nature  of  the  provincial 
area  ;  and  his  jurisdiction  would  embrace,  not  a  tract  of  difficult 
mountain  country,  but  some  of  the  finest  agricultural  districts  in 
the  wcTrld. 

The  needs  of  the  Armenians  living  in  the  capital  and  in  the  • 
towns  of  Asiatic  Turkey  could  be  met  by  the  revival  of  the 
so-called  constitution  granted  to  their  nation  by  Sultan  Abd- 
al-Aziz  in  1863.  I  have  thought  it  worth  while  to  include  a 
translation  of  this  lengthy  document,  and  it  will  be  found  in  my 
first  appendix.  It  has  the  nature  of  a  regulating  statute,  like  the 
Polojenye  in  Russia,  rather  than  of  what  we  should  understand  by 
a  constitution.  But,  unlike  the  Polojenye,  it  is  mainly  addressed 
to  the  development  among  the  Armenians  of  systematic  manage- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  their  communities.  Those  communities 
have  always  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  administering  their  own 
institutions,  such  as  monasteries,  churches,  hospitals  and  schools. 
The  statute  of  1863  provides  a  complete  and  democratic 
machinery  for  the  better  organisation  and  control  of  such  institu- 
tions. It  wisely  avoids,  except  in  the  last  resort,  any  interference 
by  Government  in  these  purely  internal  affairs.  I  cannot 
conceive  any  better  training  for  the  Armenian  people  than  that 
which    they    would    receive    by    the    application    of    their    great 


Statistical  and  Political  437 

intelligence  to  such  practical  and  concrete  ideals.  The  pitfall 
which  they  should  avoid,  were  the  statute  ever  revived,  is  the 
attempt  to  convert  it  into  a  political  weapon. 

II.  Europe  as  a  whole  is  concerned  with  the  future  of  these 
Asiatic  provinces  on  the  score  of  her  great  and  growing  trade. 
The  particular  Powers  are  also  interested  on  political  grounds 
— to  preserve  the  balance  of  power.  The  territory  of  Turkish 
Armenia  is  of  first-rate  importance  whether  from  the  one  or 
the  other  point  of  view.  As  regards  trade,  it  is  not  only  the 
trade  with  Armenia  that  is  at  stake,  but  that  with  the  whole  of 
Northern  Persia.  The  great  highway  of  commerce  between  the 
ports  on  the  Black  Sea  and  the  interior  of  Persia  passes  along 
the  avenue  of  the  Armenian  plains.  The  possession  of  Erzerum 
by  a  protectionist  Power  would  effectually  stifle  this  important 
trade-route,  and  would  cut  off  Persia  from  the  Black  Sea. 

Not  less  far-reaching  would  be  the  results  in  a  political  sense 
of  such  an  occupation.  The  strategical  value  of  the  country  is 
difficult  to  overrate.  Turkish  Armenia  is  the  sign-post  of  the 
Nearer  Asia,  commanding  the  roads  west,  south  and  east.  These 
issue  upon  the  one  side  at  the  Mediterranean  seaboards,  and,  on 
the  other,  at  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  contemporary  littleness  of 
the  land  has  served  in  no  small  measure  to  blind  our  eyes  to 
these  facts. 

Europe  may  elect  to  keep  herself  blind  to  such  considerations, 
whether  of  a  commercial  or  political  nature.  The  question  then 
arises,  what  are  the  interests  of  Great  Britain,  and  upon  what 
lines  should  her  policy  be  shaped  ? 

In  the  discussion  of  all  such  questions  it  is  a  principle  of  no 
small  value  to  ascertain  not  the  opinions  of  statesmen  and 
diplomatists,  but  those  of  the  proverbial  ina)i  in  tJie  street.  Of 
the  former,  few,  indeed,  are  at  the  present  day  possessed  even 
of  an  elementary  knowledge  of  such-like  Asiatic  problems. 
Layard  and  Rawlinson  have  both  been  long  removed  from  the 
stage  of  politics  ;  and  these  eminent  men  and  stately  figures 
with  their  Western  culture  and  Eastern  sympathies  have  both 
already  passed  from  our  midst.  We  can  none  of  us  be  specialists 
on  each  and  every  question  ;  and  it  is  with  a  feeling  of  deep 
respect  that  those  among  us  who  have,  perhaps,  acquired  some 
small  knowledge  of  a  particular  problem,  should  endeavour  to 
select  among  their  friends  those  possessed  of  the  divine  average, 
and  use  them  as  foolovieters — the  gauge  of  common  sentiment. 


438  Armenia 

Several  different  kinds  of  opinion  will  be  registered.  "  It  is 
very  sad,  those  poor  Armenians  ;  but  we  are  not  knight-errants, 
and  there  are  hard  blows  going  about."  ..."  Why  can't  we 
leave  the  Turks  alone — they  are  in  possession.  Turkey  belongs 
to  the  Turks  and  China  to  the  Chinese."  .  .  .  "So  we  are  to 
hark  back  to  the  miserable  policy  of  bolstering  up  the  Turks  ! 
Let  them  go  bag  and  baggage  to  the  quickest  possible  perdition  ; 
and,  if  Russia  will  do  the  work  and  remove  the  nuisance,  so  much 
the  better  for  us  and  the  whole  world."  ..."  We  can't  expect 
to  have  a  finger  in  everybody's  pie.  We  have  already  more  than 
we  can  manage  on  our  hands."  The  one  conclusion  which  you 
may  draw  from  these  conflicting  utterances  is  that  the  balance  of 
common  sentiment  is,  perhaps,  in  favour  of  standing  aside. 

In  England  the  actions  of  Governments  are  based  on  common 
sentiment.  There  is  no  Government  in  the  sense  of  an  en- 
lightened administration,  with  a  reasoned  foreign  policy  and  what 
the  French  would  call  a  politique  de  longue  vue  et  de  longue 
haleine.  Even  our  great  Indian  Empire  is  ruled  on  principles 
which,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  external  affairs,  are  little  better 
than  the  proverbial  methods  of  the  ostrich.  What  Indian  Foreign 
Secretary  is  even  conversant  with  the  affairs  of  Persia,  his  next- 
door  neighbour,  as  one  might  say?  The  Indian  Government 
are  at  the  present  day  sensible  of  great  constriction  in  their 
finances,  and  what  are  the  methods  which  they  pursue?  In 
every  direction  they  draw  in  their  horns,  saving  a  few  pounds 
here  and  a  few  there,  and  pointing  with  pride  to  the  forcible 
retirement  of  a  pair  or  two  of  distinguished  teachers  in  a  great 
educational  establishment.  What  vigilance  and  strict  economy  ! 
But  business,  at  least  in  the  City,  is  not  as  a  rule  conducted  by 
the  clerks.  There  our  suspicions  are  excited  by  such  pettifogging 
manoeuvres,  and  we  keep  our  eyes  open  in  expectation  of  the 
inevitable  failure,  not  less  certain  than  in  the  case  of  inflation 
and  extravagance. 

At  home  widespread  prosperity,  a  long  start  in  the  industrial 
race  and  the  complexity  of  our  world-wide  transactions  have 
grown  like  weeds  and  flowers  around  the  margin  of  a  salubrious 
well,  screening  the  view  and  almost  the  sound  of  the  life-giving 
waters.  We  forget  the  commercial  basis  of  all  our  wealth  and 
power  ;  and  few  among  us  are  sensible  of  a  thrill  if  some  vast 
province  of  the  Chinese  Empire  be  walled  round  against  our 
trade.      Yet   foreign   commerce    is   the   most   delicate   of   national 


Statistical  and  Political  439 

activities,  slow,  shy,  easily  disturbed  and  swiftly  killed.  The 
essential  peacefulness  of  its  methods,  and  the  fact  that  few  of  the 
homes  it  helps  to  support  are  even  aware  of  the  destination  of 
the  goods  they  contribute  to  produce — such  characteristics  are 
little  calculated  to  compete  with  the  clamour  of  other  interests, 
such  as  gold-mines,  colonies,  pan-Germandom  or  pan-Saxondom, 
or  any  other  of  the  popular  cries  of  the  day. 

The  spirit  of  adventure  lying  at  the  foundation  of  the  British 
character  has  been  enlisted  into  African  enterprise.  One  cannot 
help  admiring  the  undoubted  ability  with  which  the  organisers 
of  the  movement  towards  South  Africa  have  at  once  appealed 
to  the  imagination  of  the  British  people,  and  won  over  to  their 
side  by  careful  preparation  both  the  elements  in  the  body  politic 
capable  of  exercising  quiet  pressure  and  the  recognised  mouth- 
pieces of  public  opinion.  The  prettiest  women,  the  most  ancient 
titles  have  all  their  share  in  the  movement  ;  and  a  Press,  which 
cannot  be  bought,  has  been  successfully  persuaded  of  the  excel- 
lence of  the  cause  which  in  full  chorus  they  uphold  and  applaud. 
On  the  Continent  similar  methods  have  been  pursued  by  our 
Boer  adversaries  ;  and  the  result  has  been  a  war  in  print  and 
a  war  in  feeling  with  our  neighbours  in  Europe  of  far  greater 
moment  than  the  African  battles  we  have  won  or  lost.  For 
such  outbursts,  produced  by  a  clever  imitation  of  South  African 
methods,  or,  perhaps,  by  spontaneous  appreciation  on  the  part 
of  the  Boers  of  the  new-born  forces  of  advertisement  on  a  huge 
scale,  the  organisers  in  England  can  scarcely  be  held  responsible. 
They  have  done  their  work  well,  however  we  may  judge  its  effect 
on  character  ;  and  we  cannot  blame  them  if,  absorbed  in  their 
own  particular  problem,  they  have  at  the  same  time  thrown  cold 
water  on  all  questions  concerning  Asia.  The  prudence  of  our 
people,  once  committed  to  an  important  struggle,  has  also  been 
a  factor  on  their  side. 

But  Africa,  this  Syracuse  of  modern  Europe,  will  not  always, 
let  us  hope,  be  at  our  doors.  The  moment  our  hands  are  free 
I  trust  they  may  be  directed  to  the  disentangling  of  some  Asiatic 
knots.  Now  the  interests  of  Great  Britain,  under  which  we  may 
include  those  of  British  India,  are,  I  think  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
most  intimately  bound  up  with  the  Asiatic  provinces  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire.  Starting  from  the  base  of  the  Persian  Gulf  we 
have  built  up  by  laborious  methods,  extending  over  a  period  of 
getting  on  for  a  century,  a   commercial  system  which  reaches  far 


440  Armenia 

into  the  interior  of  Mesopotamia  and  embraces  the  whole  of 
Southern  Persia.  At  the  same  time  we  have  erected  that  northern 
trade-route  of  which  I  have  spoken,  giving  access  to  our  goods 
from  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  to  the  markets  of  Northern 
Persia. 

What  a  long  and  patient  struggle  in  face  of  almost  over- 
whelming difficulties  has  been  successfully  conducted  and  inch 
by  inch  pursued  by  these  various  enterprises  !  With  them  are 
associated  the  names  of  Brant  in  the  north  and  of  Chesney  and 
Lynch  in  the  south.  The  correspondence  of  Consul  Brant  v/ith 
his  distinguished  chief,  Stratford  Canning,  will,  I  trust,  be  some 
day  given  to  the  world.^  It  displays  on  its  face  a  union  of  ideas 
with  the  much  rarer  capacity  of  translating  them  into  practice  by 
unwearying  attention  to  the  minutest  details,  which,  whether  the 
quality  may  have  been  inspired  by  the  ambassador  or  his  able 
subordinate,  reflects  lustre  upon  both  names.  It  serves  to  remind 
us  that  the  Russian  policy  of  building  walls  round  their  possessions 
is  not  a  policy  of  recent  date.  We  may  regard  with  legitimate 
pride  the  readiness  of  our  ancestors  to  take  advantage  of  the 
throwing  open  of  the  Black  Sea  and  of  the  facilities  offered  by  the 
introduction  of  steam  power  ;  the  old  land-routes  through  Asia 
Minor  were  rapidly  superseded,  and  a  new  commercial  avenue 
between  Trebizond  and  the  interior  of  Persia  was  gradually 
opened  up  by  a  series  of  patient  efforts  which  would  have  done 
credit  to  the  Genoese. 

In  the  south  the  expeditions  of  Chesney  (1835-37)"  and 
of  Lynch  (1837  and  following  years)  were  directed  to  the  survey 
of  the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris  and  of  the  countries  through 
which  they  flow.  The  former  took  his  vessels  in  pieces  from  the 
coast  of  Syria  to  the  Euphrates,  while  those  of  the  latter — the 
Nitocris,  Assyria  and  Nimrod — were  conveyed  by  sea  to  the 
estuary  of  the  Shat-el-Arab.  The  labours  of  these  pioneers  were 
thrown  away  by  the  British  Government,  and  the  project  of  an 
overland  route  from  the  Mediterranean  to  India  somewhat  suffered 
from  the  undertaking  of  the  Suez  Canal  (i860  and  following 
years).  It  is  certain  to  be  revived.  On  the  purely  commercial 
side  something  was  saved  by  individuals  ;  and,  starting  from  the 
knowledge  acquired   by  the  two   eminent  explorers,  a  trade   with 

•   It  may  be  found  among  the  archives  of  the  British  Consulate  at  Erzerum. 

^  Chesney,  Expedition  for  the  sun'ey  of  the  7-ivers  Euphrates  and  "figris  carried  on 
by  order  of  the  British  Government,  London,  1850,  2  vols,  folio  with  maps  ;  Narrative 
of  the  Euphrates  Expedition,  London,  1868,  8vo. 


Statistical  and  Political  44 1 

an  annual  value  at  the  present  day  of  about  a  million  sterling 
has  little  by  little  been  built  up.  It  is  carried  by  river  steamers, 
which  also  convey  the  British  mails,  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
Baghdad.  These  steamers  have  to  contend  with  a  variety  of 
disabilities  imposed  by  the  Turkish  Government.  Their  voyages 
are  confined  to  the  Tigris  ;  the  Euphrates  is  kept  closed,  and 
they  are  not  suffered  to  proceed  a  mile  above  Baghdad.  But 
the  magnificent  country  through  which  they  pass  is  growing 
in  wealth  through  the  facilities  they  provide  ;  and  the  force  of 
circumstances  will  sooner  or  later  open  wide  the  doors. 

Of  even  earlier  date  are  our  trade-routes  from  the  Gulf  sea- 
board to  the  tableland  of  Persia.  Indeed  it  may  be  said  without 
exaggeration  that  from  Kirmanshah  on  the  north  to  Beluchistan 
upon  the  south  the  zone  of  mountains  which  support  that  tableland 
are  threaded  by  a  number  of  arteries,  diffusing  over  the  vast  body 
of  the  Iranian  highlands  the  life"- blood  of  reciprocal  commerce. 
Such  facts  have  not  escaped  the  notice  and  solicitude  of  competent 
observers  ;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  their  logical  bearing  upon  the 
problems  of  the  Nearer  Asia  has  not  been  examined  with  sufficient 
thoroughness.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  acquisition  by 
Russia  of  a  port  on  the  Persian  Gulf  would  not  be  tolerated  by 
any  British  Government.^  Apart  from  all  considerations  of  a 
commercial  nature,  it  would  imply  the  necessity  of  maintaining  a 
powerful  fleet  in  the  Gulf,  with  additional  strain  on  the  finances 
of  India.  But  what  if  the  northern  Power  were  to  occupy  Turkish 
Armenia  ?  Would  it  merely  entail  the  loss  of  our  northern  trade- 
route  ?  I  should  like  to  examine  in  a  temperate  spirit  the 
possibilities  of  such  a  hypothesis,  not  fearing  to  look  them  in  the 
face,  but  endeavouring  to  divest  my  remarks  of  any  alarmist  or 
sensational  character. 

My  reader  who  may  have  mastered  the  facts  of  the  geography 
will  call  to  mind  the  intimate  connection  of  the  system  of  table- 
lands with  one  another  from  the  borders  of  India  to  the  Mediter- 

^  "  The  preservation,  so  far  as  it  is  still  possible,  of  the  integrity  of  Persia  must  be 
registered  as  a  cardinal  principle  of  our  Imperial  creed."  "  I  should  regard  the  concession 
of  a  port  upon  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Russia  by  any  power  as  a  deliberate  insult  to  Great 
Britain,  as  a  wanton  rupture  of  the  status  quo,  and  as  an  intentional  provocation  to  war ; 
and  I  should  impeach  the  British  Minister,  who  was  guilty  of  acquiescing  in  such  a 
surrender,  as  a  traitor  to  his  country."  "  It  {i.e.  the  aggression  of  Russia  upon  South 
Persia  and  the  Persian  Gulf)  can  only  be  prosecuted  in  the  teeth  of  international  morality, 
in  defiance  of  civilised  opinion,  and  with  the  ultimate  certainty  of  a  war  with  this 
country  that  would  ring  from  pole  to  pole." — Curzon,  Persia  and  the  Persian  Question, 
London,  1892,  vol.  ii.  pp.  603,  605,  465.  May  I,  as  a  traveller,  take  the  present  oppor- 
tunity of  contributing  my  mile  of  gratitude  to  Lord  Curzon  for  this  considerable  work  ? 


442  Armenia 

ranean.  The  capital  of  Persia  and  her  greatest  cities  are  situated 
upon  the  tableland  ;  and  I  cannot  conceive  that  the  empire  of 
the  Shahs  could  long  maintain  its  independence  after  Russia  had 
become  possessed  of  Turkish  Armenia.  Not  less  certain  would 
be  the  fate  of  Asia  Minor,  west  of  the  Euphrates  ;  and,  indeed,  in 
the  contingency  which  we  are  discussing,  the  German  Empire 
might  be  well  advised  to  bargain  away  the  important  railways 
which  she  has  recently  constructed  in  that  country  in  return  for 
substantial  advantages  elsewhere.  As  regards  England,  I  cannot 
admit,  after  careful  consideration,  that  the  loss  to  her  trade  of 
Turkish  Armenia  and  the  presence  of  Russia  on  the  tableland  of 
Persia  would  necessarily  endanger  India.  Such  a  consummation 
— regrettable  as  it  must  be,  and  avoidable  as  I  believe  it  is — 
would  deal  a  hard  blow  at  her  trade  in  the  south.  But  one  has 
to  face  that  common  sentiment  of  which  I  have  spoken,  and  the 
corresponding  lukewarmness  of  our  rulers  in  the  domain  of  Asiatic 
affairs. 

It  would  be  a  very  different  thing  if  we  were  to  suffer  any 
encroachment  on  the  part  of  Russia  upon  the  zone  of  mountains 
supporting  on  the  south  the  tablelands  of  Armenia  and  Persia, 
and  drawn  like  a  long  succession  of  chevaux  de  /rise  around  the 
lowlands  of  Mesopotamia.  Her  occupation  of  any  part  of  that 
zone  of  mountains  would  necessarily  entail  sooner  or  later  the 
occupation  of  the  whole.  The  lowlands  themselves,  the  field  of 
our  trade,  and  appointed  by  Nature  as  a  granary  for  India  with 
her  teeming  millions  and  uncertain  harvests,  would  be  at  her 
mercy  without  striking  a  blow.  Distance  is  a  factor  of  little 
importance  on  the  lowlands  ;  they  are  flat  as  the  sea,  and 
traversed  from  one  end  to  the  other  by  two  magnificent  navigable 
rivers.  A  Power  stationed  at  Diarbekr  is  already  stationed  on 
the  Persian  Gulf,  with  a  country  of  immense  potential  wealth  at 
her  back.  For  these  reasons  it  would  be  well  that  we  should 
recognise  as  soon  as  possible  that  the  bedrock  of  British  policy 
in  the  Nearer  Asia  should  be  the  preservation  of  the  integrity  of 
the  lowlands  with  their  frame  of  mountains  from  Syria  to  the 
borders  of  India. 

The  conclusion  at  which  I  arrive  is  that  the  possession  by 
Russia  of  Turkish  Armenia  would  be  attended  by  consequences 
which  have  scarcely  been  appreciated  at  all  by  the  majority  of 
my  countrymen.  I  would  fain  hope  that,  if  this  event  be  indeed 
inevitable,   it   may   not   take   us   by    surprise.      Our    own   path   is 


Statistical  and  Political  443 

clearly  indicated  by  the  finger  of  Nature  ;  and  the  Russian 
Empire,  established  in  Armenia,  would  be  quite  as  accessible  to 
attack  from  the  lowlands  as  our  Indian  Empire  to  hostile 
approach  on  the  side  of  Asiatic  Russia.  But  in  order  to  safe- 
guard our  interests  and  provide  for  future  contingencies  we  must 
accustom  ourselves  to  think  a  little  ahead.  It  will  not  be 
sufficient  to  beat  time,  and  endeavour  to  entice  Germany  into 
our  own  particular  domain.  As  a  natural  commercial  ally  in 
her  own  field  of  Asia  Minor,  that  Power  may  render  assistance 
to  the  common  cause.  As  a  competitor  in  our  sphere  she 
would  be  very  much  more  likely  to  make  her  own  terms  with 
the  northern  Empire.  Finally — for  after  all  it  is  as  much  a 
question  of  men  as  of  measures — I  should  like  to  contribute  my 
vote  as  a  traveller — ^whatever  it  may  be  worth — in  favour  of  a 
proposal  recently  made  by  a  well-informed  writer.  And  the 
only  amendment  which  one  might  desire  to  the  proposition  he 
has  well  expressed  is  that  it  should  be  accompanied  by  a 
recognition  of  what  our  Foreign  Office  has  already  accomplished 
with  the  imperfect  system  which  it  at  present  dispenses  : — "  The 
machinery  of  the  F"oreign  Office  is  not  adjusted  to  perform  the 
new  and  strange  duties  which  belong  to  Oriental  diplomacy. 
The  ministers  and  secretaries  who  are  competent  officials  in 
Vienna  or  Rome  are  lost  among  the  tortuous  political  pathways 
of  Bangkok,  Teheran  and  Pekin.  Never  shall  we  hold  our 
own  in  Asia  until  an  Asiatic  Department  is  formed,  under  the 
charge  of  an  experienced  minister  of  Cabinet  rank,  with  an 
independent  diplomatic  staff,  trained  in  the  methods,  and  speaking 
fluently  the  languages  of  the  East."  ^ 

1   "  The  Amir  of  Afghanistan,"  Quarterly  Review,  January  1901,  p.   167. 


APPENDIX    I 

NATIONAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  ARMENIANS  IN 
THE  TURKISH  EMPIRE 

PRELIMINARIES 

The  Sublime  Porte, 

Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs, 

No.  191. 

To  THE  Prudent  Representative  of  the  Patriarch 
{LoaoH  tenens) 

Prudent  and  dear  Sir — The  Imperial  Firman  concerning  reforms 
requires  that  each  community  shall  take  into  consideration  within  a  given 
time  the  privileges  and  prerogatives  which  it  enjoys,  and,  after  due  counsel, 
shall  decide  upon  the  reforms  which  are  in  accordance  with  the  circum- 
stances, the  civilisation  and  the  learning  of  the  present  time.  It  shall 
present  a  list  of  such  reforms  to  the  Sublime  Porte  in  order  that  the 
authority  and  rights  granted  to  the  spiritual  heads  of  each  community  may 
be  placed  in  harmony  with  the  position  and  new  conditions  secured  to 
each  community.  In  accordance  with  these  behests,  the  outlines  of  a 
Constitution  for  the  Armenian  nation  have  been  prepared  by  a  Committee 
composed  of  certain  honourable  persons.  But  at  the  same  time  it  has 
been  considered  appropriate  that  the  ecclesiastical  members  of  the  General 
Assembly  and  the  delegates  of  the  different  Quarters  should  select  by  a 
majority  of  votes  a  Committee  of  seven,  to  whose  consideration  the  above- 
mentioned  project  should  be  submitted.  We  therefore  beg  you  to  despatch 
within  a  few  days  the  summons  to  hold  the  election  of  that  Committee, 
and  to  direct  that  the  Committee  shall  meet  at  the  Sublime  Porte  the 
Committee  and  functionary  appointed  specially  for  this  purpose.  We  beg 
you  also  to  send  us  the  names  of  the  seven  persons  thus  elected. 

(Signature) 
1862,  Feb.  14  (Old  style).  All 


446  Armenia 

Document  presented  to  the  Sublime  Porte  ev  the  National 
Committee  and  the  Coinimittee  of  the  Government 

To  the  Sublime  Porte, 
Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

The  Imperial  Government  has  from  ancient  times  granted  to  the 
different  nations  under  its  righteous  protection  privileges  and  prerogatives 
for  their  religious  liberty  and  the  special  administration  of  their  internal 
affairs. 

These  prerogatives  are  in  their  principles  uniform  for  all  nations,  but 
they  are  at  the  same  time  adapted  to  the  particular  religious  regulations 
and  customs  of  each  nationality.  And  each  nationality  has  used  and 
enjoyed  them  according  to  its  peculiar  manners  and  customs. 

The  Armenian  nation,  like  other  nations,  has  had  to  this  day  a 
Patriarch,  who  has  been  acknowledged  by  the  Government  as  the 
President  of  the  Patriarchal  Administration,  the  representative  of  the 
nation,  and  the  medium  of  the  execution  of  Imperial  Orders,  and  who 
from  ancient  times  has  been  elected  from  the  ecclesiastical  body  by  a 
General  Assembly,  composed  of  individuals  representing  the  different 
classes  of  the  nation. 

The  Patriarch  in  his  office,  which  is  to  preside  over  the  nation  and  to 
watch  over  its  interests,  has  never  been  exempt  from  the  influence  and 
supervision  of  the  nation,  exerted  over  him  through  the  General  Assembly. 
The  proof  of  this  is  that  the  Patriarch  has  always  invited  and  convoked 
the  General  Assembly,  and  has  applied  to  that  Assembly  for  a  decision 
when  a  question  has  been  raised  by  orders  of  the  Sublime  Porte. 

The  Armenian  nation  about  two  years  ago  begged  of  the  Imperial 
Government  to  have  two  Assemblies  established  in  the  Patriarchate  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Patriarch,  one  religious,  the  other  political,  that 
they  might  be  participators  in  and  auxiliaries  of  the  office  of  the  Patriarch, 
and  that  any  deviation  on  the  part  of  the  nation  from  its  ancient  regula- 
tions and  customs,  both  religious  and  political,  might  be  prevented. 

When  these  assemblies  were  established  it  became  necessary  to 
organise  other  Councils  for  the  administration  of  the  minor  affairs  of  the 
nation. 

But  as  the  authority  and  duties  of  each  national  officer  were  not 
definitely  defined,  it  was  evident  that  these  efforts  to  improve  the  state  of 
affairs  in  the  nation  would  be  the  occasion  of  continual  misunderstanding 
in  the  different  branches  of  the  National  Administration,  as  well  as  between 
that  administration  and  the  nation.  This  naturally  would  be  the  cause 
of  many  irregularities  in  the  execution  of  justice  for  all  concerned,  and  of 
confusion  and  disputes  in  the  National  Administration. 

With  the  object  of  doing  away  with  the  causes  of  such  confusion  and 
dissension,  and  with  the  nuisance  of  the  undue  claims  of  different  parties, 
the  Imperial  Government,  with  its  paternal  solicitude  for  all  its  subjects, 
deems  it  necessary  to  organise  a  National  Mixed  Committee  in  order  to 
prepare  a  Constitution  in  accordance  with  the  peculiar  religious  and 
political  customs  and  long-established  manners. 


Appendix  I  447 

Now  that  Mixed  Committee  considers  it  proper  according  to  the 
Gudine  of  the  Constitution  presented  for  confirmation  to  the  Sublime 
Porte, 

I.  That  the  office  of  the  Patriarch  as  the  medium  between  the  nation 
and  the  SubHme  Porte  should  remain  as  it  was  in  the  old  system, 

II.  That  the  organisation  of  the  General  Assembly  should  be  reformed. 
The  national  delegates,  instead  of  being  elected  by  the  Esnafs  (Artisans) 
— since  the  condition  of  the  Esnafs  is  no  longer  what  it  used  to  be — 
should  be  elected  by  the  Committees  of  churches,  that  is,  by  different 
quarters,  in  a  way  that  perhaps  will  be  more  regular  and  lawful  than  the 
one  adopted  by  the  Greeks. 

And  as  Armenians  living  in  the  interior  of  the  country  rightly  complain 
that  they  are  altogether  deprived  of  participation  in  the  deliberations  and 
decisions  of  the  Patriarchate,  a  number  of  the  delegates  should  be  elected 
by  the  provinces  to  be  added  to  the  number  of  the  delegates  of  the 
quarters  or  sections  of  Constantinople.  The  ecclesiastical  members, 
twenty  of  them,  should  be  elected  by  the  clergy  in  Constantinople,  so 
that  the  total  number  of  the  members  of  the  General  Assembly  be  140  ; 
their  term  of  office  should  last  ten  years,  and  once  in  every  two  years  the 
tenth  part  should  be  changed,  and  new  elections  take  place. 

The  General  Assembly  should  nominate  both  the  Patriarch  and  the 
members  of  the  two  Assemblies  working  under  his  presidency  and  should 
have  the  supervision  of  their  acts, 

III.  The  administration  of  religious  affairs  should  belong  to  the 
Religious  Assembly,  the  administration  of  Political  affairs  to  the  Political 
Assembly,  and  that  of  mixed  affairs  to  the  Mixed  Assembly,  which  shall 
consist  of  the  other  two  Assemblies  together, 

IV.  The  Religious  and  Political  Assemblies  should  manage  through 
the  Sectional  and  other  Councils  all  national  affairs  of  the  church  com- 
munities (that  is  to  say,  the  people  of  different  sections  or  quarters)  under 
their  jurisdiction,  and  the  affairs  of  the  churches,  schools,  hospitals, 
monasteries,  and  other  similar  national  institutions, 

V.  The  centre  of  the  administration  should  be  the  National 
Patriarchate.  The  Patriarch,  as  the  Official  Head  of  the  Patriarchate, 
should  preside  both  over  the  General  Assembly  and  over  the  two  National 
AssembUes,  and  he  should  under  the  inspection  of  the  General  Assembly 
manage  all  the  affairs  concerning  the  nation  directly  or  indirectly, 

VI.  The  administration  of  provincial  communities  should  be  connected 
with  the  Central  Administration.  The  Metropolitans  should  preside  over 
local  assemblies  which  should  be  organised  in  the  same  way  as  those 
in  Constantinople,  and  they  should  be  the  managers  of  those  local 
assemblies, 

VII.  The  Provincial  Assemblies  should  be  responsible  to  the  Central 
Administration.  Each  one  of  the  Councils  of  this  Central  Administra- 
tion should  be  responsible  to  the  Assembly  to  which  it  belongs.  The 
National  x\ssemblies  should  be  responsible  to  the  General  Assemblies, 
the  Patriarch  responsible  on  the  one  hand  to  the  Imperial  Government 
and  on  the  other  to  the  nation  (through  the  General  Assembly), 


448  Armenia 

VIII.  And,  inasmuch  as  the  Imperial  Government  considers  the 
Patriarch  as  the  natural  medium  of  the  execution  of  the  orders  given  by 
it  to  the  nation,  and  at  the  same  time  considers  him  as  the  head  of  the 
National  Administration,  and  it  is  to  him  that  it  addresses  its  question, 
if  the  Government  should  command  the  Patriarch  to  give  his  opinion  on 
the  question  asked,  the  Patriarch  should  act  according  to  the  decision  of 
the  Assemblies  under  his  presidency  ;  but,  if  he  be  ordered  to  communicate 
to  the  Government  the  opinion  of  the  nation,  then  he  should  convoke  the 
General  Assembly  and  communicate  to  the  Government  the  final  decision 
of  that  Assembly, 

IX.  The  National  Administration  has  three  kinds  of  obligations. 
First  towards  the  Imperial  Government,  that  is  to  preserve  the  nation  in 
perfectly  loyal  subjection  and  to  secure  to  the  nation  in  general  and  to 
individuals  in  particular  the  preservation  of  their  rights  and  privileges  on 
the  part  of  the  Government.  The  second  obligation  is  to  the  nation,  to 
treat  it  in  true  compassion  and  in  a  paternal  way.  The  third  is  to  the 
see  of  Edgmiatsin,  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  religious  regulations  and 
laws  of  the  Armenian  Church. 

These  are  the  features  in  the  Constitution  which  the  Mixed  Committee 
considers  desirable.  These  features  are  approved  by  the  other  Committee 
which  was  organised  according  to  the  orders  of  your  Excellency,  in  order 
to  present  to  the  Sublime  Porte  on  behalf  of  the  nation  their  observations 
on  the  Constitution. 

Constantinople,  1862. 

Signatures  of  the  members  of  the  Committee  of  the  Sublime  Porte — 
Stephanos,  Archbishop  of  Nicomedia,  Representative  of  the  Patriarch 
Elect  of  Constantinople,  three  Armenian  ecclesiastics,  and  eight  notables. 

Signatures  of  the  members  of  the  National  Committee,  seven  notables. 

Ordinance  of  the  Sublime  Porte 

To  the  Prudent  Representative  of  the 
Patriarch  Elect  of  Constantinople. 

The  Constitution  drawn  up  by  the  Committee  formed  at  the  Sublime 
Porte  for  the  reforms  of  the  condition  and  administration  of  the  Armenian 
Patriarchate,  after  having  undergone  certain  modifications  concerning 
secular  affairs  only,  was  presented  to  His  Imperial  Majesty,  and,  having 
been  approved  by  His  Imperial  Majesty,  the  Imperial  Decree,  making  a 
law  of  the  features  contained  in  it,  was  issued  to  be  handed  to  your 
Beatitude. 

In  enclosing  to  you  the  above-mentioned  Constitution,  we  commission 
you  to  superintend  the  perfect  execution  of  those  features  according  to 
the  high  will  of  the  August  Emperor. 
1863,  March  i  7. 

INTRODUCTION 

The  privileges  granted  by  the  Ottoman  Empire  to  its  non-Mohammedan 
subjects  are  in  their  principles  equal  for  all,  but  the  mode  of  their  execution 


Appendix  I  449 

varies  according  to  the  requirements  of  tlie  particular  customs  of  each 
nationahty. 

The  Armenian  Patriarch  is  the  head  of  his  nation,  and  in  particular 
circumstances  the  mediuui  of  the  execution  of  the  orders  of  the  Govern- 
ment. There  is,  however,  in  the  Patriarchate  a  Religious  Assembly  for 
religious  affairs  and  a  Political  Assembly  for  political  affairs.  In  case  of 
necessity  these  two  Assemblies  unite  and  form  the  Mixed  Assembly.  Both 
the  Patriarch  and  the  members  of  these  Assemblies  are  elected  in  a  General 
Assembly  composed  of  honourable  men  of  the  nation. 

As  the  office  and  duties  of  the  above  Assemblies  and  the  mode  of 
their  formation  are  not  defined  by  sufficient  rules,  and  for  this  reason 
different  inconveniences  and  special  difficulties  in  the  formation  of  the 
General  Assembly  have  been  noticed. 

As  each  community  is  bound  according  to  the  new  Imperial  Edict 
(Hatti  Humayun,  6/18  Feb.  1856)  to  examine  within  a  given  time  its 
rights  and  privileges,  and  after  due  deliberation  to  present  to  the  Sublime 
Porte  the  reforms  required  by  the  present  state  of  things  and  the  progress 
of  civilisation  of  our  times. 

As  it  is  necessary  to  harmonise  the  authority  and  power  granted  to 
the  religious  chief  of  each  nationality  with  the  new  condition  and  system 
secured  to  each  community, 

A  Committee  of  some  honourable  persons  of  the  nation  was  organised, 
which  Committee  prepared  for  the  nation  the  following  Constitution. 

ARMENIAN    NATIONAL    CONSTITUTION 
Fundamental  Principles 

1.  Each  individual  has  obligations  towards  the  nation.  The  nation,  in 
its  turn,  has  obligations  towards  each  individual.  Again,  each  individual 
and  the  nation  have  their  respective  rights  over  one  another. 

Hence  the  nation  and  its  constituents  are  bound  together  by  mutual 
duties,  so  that  the  duty  of  the  one  is  the  right  of  the  other. 

2.  It  is  the  duty  of  each  member  of  the  nation  to  share  according  to 
his  means  in  the  expenses  of  the  nation,  willingly  to  accept  any  services 
asked  of  him  by  the  nation,  and  to  submit  to  its  decision. 

These  duties  of  the  individual  are  the  rights  of  the  nation. 

3.  The  duties  of  the  nation  are  to  care  for  the  moral,  intellectual,  and 
material  wants  of  its  members,  to  preserve  intact  the  creed  and  traditions 
of  the  Armenian  Church,  to  diffuse  equally  the  knowledge  necessary  to 
all  men  among  the  children  of  both  sexes  and  of  all  classes,  to  watch  over 
the  prosperity  of  national  institutions,  to  increase  the  national  income  in 
any  possible  lawful  way  and  wisely  to  administer  the  national  expenses,  to 
improve  the  condition  of  those  who  have  devoted  themselves  for  life  to 
the  service  of  the  nation  and  to  secure  their  future,  to  provide  for  the 
needy,  peaceably  to  adjust  the  disputes  that  may  arise  among  the  members 
of  the  nation — in  a  word,  to  labour  with  self-denial  for  the  progress  of  the 
nation. 

VOL.  II  2  G 


450  Armenia 

These  obligations  on  the  part  of  the  nation  are  the  rights  of  its 
members. 

4.  The  authority  which  is  appointed  to  represent  the  nation  and  to 
supervise  and  administer  the  regular  performance  of  these  mutual  obliga- 
tions is  called  the  National  Administration.  To  this  body  is  committed, 
by  especial  permission  of  the  Ottoman  Government  and  by  virtue  of  the 
Constitution,  the  care  of  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Armenians  of  Turkey. 

5.  In  order  that  the  Administration  may  be  national  it  should  be 
representative. 

6.  The  foundation  of  this  Representative  Administration  is  the  principle 
of  rights  and  duties,  which  is  the  principle  of  justice.  Its  strength  is  to  be 
found  in  the  plurality  of  voices,  which  is  the  principle  of  legality. 


Chapter  I 

The  Central  National  Administration 

I.  The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 

His  Election  and  Resig)iation 

Article  i. — The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  is  the  President  of  all 
the  National  AssembUes  and  the  representative  of  their  executive  authority, 
and  in  particular  circumstances  he  is  the  medium  of  the  execution  of  the 
orders  of  the  Ottoman  Government. 

Hence  the  person  to  be  elected  as  Patriarch  should  be  a  man  worthy 
of  the  confidence  and  respect  of  the  whole  nation,  and  he  should  possess 
all  the  qualifications  and  dignity  required  by  his  position.  He  should 
belong  to  that  class  of  bishops  who  have  always  been  considered  as 
candidates  for  the  office.  At  the  same  time  he  should  be  worthy  of  the 
perfect  confidence  of  the  Government,  an  Ottoman  subject  beginning  at 
least  with  his  father  and  above  thirty-five  years  of  age. 

Article  2. — In  case  of  vacancy  of  the  Patriarchal  Throne,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  death  or  resignation  of  the  Patriarch,  or  from  any  other 
cause,  the  Political  and  Religious  Assemblies  meet  and  elect  a  Repre- 
sentative {locum  feiiens),  and  request  the  Sublime  Porte  to  confirm  their 
choice. 

The  General  Assembly  elects  the  Patriarch,  but  the  Religious  and 
Pohtical  Assemblies  have  the  right  by  a  list  of  candidates  to  express  their 
opinion  in  regard  to  the  merits  of  the  candidates. 

The  election  of  the  Patriarch  will  take  place  in  the  following  manner  : — 

In  the  first  place  the  Representative  {locum  tenens)  prepares  a  list  of 
all  the  bishops  within  Ottoman  territory,  indicating  opposite  each  name 
their  qualifications  in  the  sense  of  the  first  article,  and  presents  it  to  the 
Religious  Assembly. 

The  Religious  Assembly  convokes  a  general  meeting  of  ecclesiastics 
and  prepares  a  list  of  candidates  by  secret  ballot — that  is,  each  member 
present  writes  on  a  slip  of  paper  the  names  of  all  the  bishops  that  he 


Appendix  I  451 

does  not  consider  unfit  from  a  religious  point  of  view.  A  list  of  these 
names  is  prepared  in  the  order  of  the  number  of  votes  received  by  each. 

The  Representative  presents  this  list  to  the  Political  Assembly.  This 
Assembly,  after  an  investigation  into  the  political  merits  of  the  persons 
indicated,  elects  by  a  majority  of  votes  five  candidates  and  presents  this 
list  to  the  General  Assembly. 

At  the  same  time  the  first  list  prepared  by  the  General  Religious 
Assembly  should  be  hung  in  the  hall  of  the  (General  Assembly.  The 
General  Assembly,  after  learning  from  these  two  lists  the  opinions  of  the 
competent  Assemblies  concerning  the  religious  and  political  qualifications 
of  the  candidates,  elects  the  Patriarch  by  secret  ballot  and  by  a  majority 
of  the  votes. 

The  General  Assembly  may  give  its  votes  to  a  person  outside  the  list 
presented  by  the  Political  Assembly,  but  the  name  of  that  person  must 
have  been  indicated  in  the  list  prepared  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
ecclesiastics.      No  one  can  be  elected  whose  name  is  not  on  that  list. 

If  no  majority  of  votes  be  obtained  on  the  first  ballot,  the  names  of 
those  two  who  have  received  the  largest  number  of  votes  are  announced 
by  the  Representative  to  the  General  Assembly,  and  the  second  ballot 
should  be  on  those  two  names.  For  this  second  ballot  those  of  the 
national  deputies  who  cannot  be  present  may  forward  their  votes  in  a 
sealed  and  signed  letter  addressed  to  the  Assembly,  or  to  the  Representa- 
tive, or  to  the  Chairman  of  the  General  Assembly. 

The  counting  of  votes  is  done  by  the  officers  of  the  General  Assembly 
in  the  presence  of  four  ecclesiastical  and  four  lay  members  of  the 
Assembly  who  act  as  inspectors. 

In  case  after  a  second  ballot  the  two  candidates  receive  the  same 
number  of  votes,  then  one  of  them  is  elected  by  lot. 

Article  3. — After  the  election  a  report  is  prepared,  signed  by  all  those 
present,  and  it  is  presented  to  the  Sublime  Porte  by  the  Representative, 
and  the  election  of  the  Patriarch  is  confirmed  according  to  the  ancient 
custom  by  an  Imperial  edict. 

Article  4. — The  General  Assembly  sends  a  written  invitation  to  the 
person  elected  as  Patriarch  if  he  be  present  in  the  capital,  or  a  special 
delegate  if  he  be  out  of  Constantinople.  On  receiving  this  invitation  the 
newly-elected  Patriarch  comes  to  the  Patriarchate,  and  in  the  Cathedral, 
in  the  presence  of  the  General  Assembly,  takes  a  solemn  oath  in  the 
following  words:  "Before  God  and  in  the  presence  of  this  National 
Assembly  I  publicly  vow  to  remain  faithful  to  the  Government  and  to 
my  nation,  and  faithfully  to  see  to  the  maintenance  of  the  National 
Constitution."  Herewith  the  office  of  the  Representative  comes  to  an 
end.  Upon  the  invitation  of  the  Sublime  Porte  the  new  Patriarch  is 
admitted  to  the  presence  of  His  Majesty  the  Sultan,  his  office  is  formally 
confirmed,  and  he  visits  the  Sublime  Porte  to  announce  it. 

Article  5. — Should  the  Patriarch  act  contrary  to  the  rules  of  the 
Constitution  he  is  liable  to  impeachment. 

Article  6. — Only  the  General  Assembly  and  the  Political  and  Religious 
Assemblies  have  the  ri!j;ht  to  bring  a  charge  against  the  Patriarch. 


452  Ann  cilia 

The  accusing  or  protesting  Assembly,  with  the  permission  of  the 
Sublime  Porte,  asks  the  Patriarch  to  convoke  the  General  Assembly. 

Should  the  Patriarch  refuse  to  do  so,  this  fact  again  is  reported  to  the 
Sublime  Porte,  which  then  issues  a  permit  for  the  General  Assembly  to 
hold  a  sitting  under  the  Presidency  of  the  oldest  bishop  in  Constantinople. 

The  General  Assembly  chooses  five  of  its  ecclesiastical  and  five  lay 
members  to  constitute  a  Committee  of  ten,  among  whom,  however,  there 
shall  be  none  of  those  who  have  accused  or  protested.  This  Committee, 
after  investigating  the  charges,  gives  a  report  to  the  General  Assembly 
which  decides  the  question  by  a  secret  vote.  The  documents  containing 
this  decision  should  be  signed  by  all  who  have  voted  in  favour  of  this 
decision.  If  the  resignation  of  the  Patriarch  be  thus  decided  upon,  the 
two  Chairmen  of  the  two  Assemblies,  accompanied  by  the  presiding  bishop, 
wait  upon  the  Patriarch  and  present  to  him  this  document.  The 
Patriarch  on  learning  the  v/ill  of  the  nation  is  bound  to  resign.  If, 
however,  he  do  not  agree  to  resign,  the  matter  is  reported  to  the  Sublime 
Porte,  which  deposes  the  Patriarch. 

Article  7. — The  ex-Patriarch  after  his  al)dication  becomes  like  one 
of  the  diocesan  bishops,  and  the  necessary  steps  will  be  taken  for  him  by 
the  Mixed  Assembly. 

Office  and  Obligations 

Article  8. — The  duties  of  the  Patriarch  are  to  act  according  to  the 
principles  of  the  Constitution  and  to  watch  diligently  over  the  exact 
execution  of  all  its  points. 

The  Patriarch  refers  all  business  that  comes  before  him  to  the 
Assembly  to  which  it  belongs  for  investigation  and  decision.  The  takrirs 
and  other  official  papers  of  the  Patriarch  cannot  be  valid  and  admissible 
if  they  be  not  also  sealed  and  signed  by  the  Assembly  that  has  given  the 
decision.  If  there  be  any  urgent  business  for  the  consideration  of  which 
it  might  be  impossible  to  await  the  day  of  the  meeting  of  the  Assembly, 
or  even  to  convoke  an  extraordinary  meeting,  the  Patriarch  may  do  what 
is  necessary,  taking  the  responsibility  upon  himself.  But  he  is  bound  to 
make  a  due  record  of  what  he  may  have  done,  and  to  present  it  for 
confirmation  in  its  next  meeting  to  the  Assembly  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  which  the  case  may  come. 

Article  9. — The  Patriarch  before  signing  any  papers  containing  the 
decisions  of  the  General  Assembly  taken  in  his  absence  may  make  his 
observations  concerning  them  and  submit  the  case  to  a  second  considera- 
tion, but  after  this  revision  he  is  bound  to  sign  those  papers  if  he  does 
not  find  there  anything  contrary  to  the  requirements  of  the  Constitution. 

Article  10. — The  Patriarch  may  propose  to  the  competent  Assembly 
or  Council  the  dismissal  of  any  ecclesiastic,  teacher,  agent  of  a  church, 
monastery,  school,  or  hospital  who  has  not  acted  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  the  Constitution. 

jlrticle  II. — The  Patriarch  himself  has  no  right  to  dissolve  and  change 
the  Religious  and  Pohtical  Assemblies  and  the  Councils  belonging  to 
them,  but,  if  he  notice  in  any  of  them  conduct  contrary  to  the  Constitu- 


Appendix  I  453 

tion,  first  he  demands  an  explanation  of  the  Chairman  of  the  Assembly  or 
the  Council.  The  second  time  he.  warns  him,  but  the  third  time  he 
applies  to  the  General  Assembly  if  the  accused  be  one  of  the  National 
Assemblies,  or  to  the  Political  Assembly  if  he  be  one  of  the  Councils, 
and,  giving  his  reasons,  he  proposes  the  dissolution  of  the  accused  Council 
or  Assembly. 

Article  12. — The  Patriarch  having  a  salary  appointed  to  him  from 
the  National  Treasury  provides  himself  for  the  internal  expenses  of  the 
Patriarchate. 

II.  The  Bureau  of  the  Patriarchate 

Article  13. — There  will  be  a  Bureau  at  the  Patriarchate  for  all 
necessary  national  documents.  This  bureau  will  be  divided  into  three 
departments  : — 

I.   The  department  of  correspondence,  for  the  documents  sent  by  the 
Patriarchate  and  for  those  received  there. 
II.   The  department  of  registration,  to  arrange  the  papers  belonging 

to  the  National  Assemblies  and  Councils. 
III.  The    department    of  census,    to   record    births,    marriages,    and 
deaths.      From  the  last  department  are  issued  the  papers  needed 
for  travelling  or  other   personal   transactions ;    also  certificates 
for  births,  marriages,  and  deaths. 
Article    14.  —  The    Patriarchal    Bureau    will     have    a    chief    who    is 
responsible  for  all   its  transactions.      The  Political  Assembly  elects  him 
and  the  Patriarch  nominates  him.     This  chief  is  also  the  Secretary  of  the 
General  Assembly. 

It  is  his  duty  to  see  that  every  year  he  be  supplied  with  copies  of  the 
records  of  births  and  deaths  both  in  Constantinople  and  in  the  provinces, 
which  records  he  shall  have  inscribed  in  the  books  of  the  general  census 
of  the  Patriarchal  Bureau.  He  should  be  well  versed  in  the  Armenian 
language,  and  practised  in  the  French  and  Turkish  languages. 

Article  15. — ^This  Bureau  will  have  a  sufficient  number  of  Secretaries. 
These  Secretaries  also  must  be  well  acquainted  with  the  Armenian  language, 
and  every  one  must  possess  all  the  necessary  qualifications  for  his  position. 
Each  Secretary  is  responsible  in  his  department  to  the  Assembly  or  Council 
to  which  he  belongs.  All  of  them  are  responsible  to  the  Chief  of  the 
Bureau. 

Article  16. — All  papers  issued  at  the  office  of  the  census  must  be 
confirmed  by  the  Patriarchal  seal  and  by  the  signature  of  the  Chief  of  the 
Bureau. 

III.   The  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem 

Article  17. — The  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  occupies  for  life  the  Chair 
of  St.  James.  He  is  at  the  same  time  the  manager  of  all  the  holy  places 
belonging  to  the  Armenians  in  Jerusalem,  and  the  President  of  the  brother- 
hood of  the  Monastery  of  St.  James. 

It  is  his  duty  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  Monastery 
of  Jerusalem,  and  to  watch  over  the  faithful  execution  of  those  regulations. 


454  Armenia 

Article  i8. — In  case  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  act  contrary  to  the 
regulations  of  his  Monastery  he  will  be  liable  to  have  a  charge  brought 
against  him. 

Article  19. — A  charge  can  be  brought  against  the  Patriarch  either 
by  the  brotherhood  of  the  Monastery,  or  by  the  Religious  and  Political 
Assemblies  of  Constantinople. 

In  such  a  case  the  General  Assembly  is  convoked,  and,  if  after  an 
investigation  the  charge  should  appear  well  founded,  the  General  Assembly, 
in  accordance  with  the  sixth  article  concerning  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, will  act  as  the  case  requires  either  by  sending  an  admonition  to  the 
Patriarch,  or  by  compelling  him  to  abandon  his  office,  when  his  office 
will  be  given  over  to  a  Representative  whom  the  General  Assembly  shall 
elect  from  amongst  the  brotherhood  by  a  secret  vote. 

Article  20. — In  case  of  the  death  of  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  the 
brotherhood  elects  one  of  its  members  as  Representative,  and  he  is 
confirmed  by  the  National  Assemblies. 

Article  21. — The  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  is  elected  by  the  National 
Assemblies  of  Constantinople,  but  the  brotherhood  has  the  right  to  express 
its  opinion  in  regard  to  the  merits  of  candidates.  Immediately  after  the 
death  of  the  Patriarch,  the  Representative  convokes  a  general  meeting  of 
the  brotherhood.  This  meeting  prepares  a  list  of  names,  just  as  this  is 
done  by  the  General  Religious  Assembly  of  Constantinople  for  the  election 
of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  the  list  prepared  by  the  brother- 
hood should  contain  at  least  seven  names.  This  list  is  signed  by  the 
brotherhood  and  sent  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople. 

Article  22. — The  person  to  be  elected  as  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  should 
be  at  least  thirty-five  years  of  age,  born  an  Ottoman  subject,  and  a  bishop 
or  doctor  (vardapet)  belonging  to  the  brotherhood,  and  not  separated  from 
it.  Persons  who,  by  the  consent  of  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  have  been 
employed  by  the  Assemblies  of  Constantinople  in  some  national  office  are 
not  to  be  considered  as  having  been  separated  from  the  brotherhood. 

Article  23. — The  Mixed  Assembly,  composed  of  the  Religious  and 
Political  Assemblies,  examines  the  merits  of  the  persons  indicated  in  the 
above-mentioned  list,  and,  choosing  three  candidates,  presents  their  names 
to  the  General  Assembly.  The  list  sent  by  the  brotherhood  should  be 
kept  hung  in  the  hall  of  the  General  Assembly. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  opinions  expressed  both  by  the  brother- 
hood and  by  the  two  National  Assemblies,  the  General  Assembly  elects 
by  secret  vote,  and  by  the  majority  of  votes,  the  one  whom  it  regards  as 
the  worthiest  in  respect  of  learning  as  well  as  of  good  character. 

In  the  General  Assembly  no  votes  should  be  given  for  any  person 
whose  name  is  not  indicated  in  the  list  presented  by  the  brotherhood. 

IV.   National  Religious  Assembly 

Article  24. — The  Religious  Assembly  consists  of  fourteen  worthy  ecclesi- 
astics, who  should  be  at  least  thirty  years  old  and  ordained  at  least  five 
years  ago. 


Appendix  1  455 

Article  25. — The  General  Religious  Assembly  by  a  secret  vote  elects 
three  times  the  number  of  the  members  of  the  National  Assembly,  and 
signs  this  list  and  presents  it  to  the  National  General  Assembly. 

The  General  Assembly  by  a  secret  vote  elects  out  of  this  list  the 
members  of  the  Religious  Assembly.  The  report  is  presented  by  the 
Patriarch  to  the  Sublime  Porte,  and  the  members  of  the  Religious 
Assembly  thus  elected  are  confirmed  by  Imperial  edict. 

Article  26. — The  Religious  Assembly  is  dissolved  in  a  body  once 
in  two  years,  at  the  end  of  April,  and  is  re-elected  in  the  beginning 
of  May.  The  members  of  this  Assembly  cannot  be  re-elected  immediately, 
but  only  after  the  lapse  of  two  years. 

Article  2  7. — When  there  are  as  many  as  three  members  of  this  Assembly 
wanting,  either  in  consequence  of  resignation  or  from  some  other  cause, 
others  are  elected  by  the  General  i\ssembly  to  take  their  places,  but 
until  this  election  shall  have  taken  place,  the  majority  of  the  whole 
number  is  to  rule. 

Article  28. — The  Religious  Assembly  undertakes  the  general  inspection 
of  all  the  religious  affairs  of  the  nation.  Its  duties  are  to  develop  in  the 
nation  the  religious  sentiment,  to  preserve  intact  the  profession  and  tradi- 
tions of  the  Armenian  Church,  to  promote  the  good  order  of  churches  and 
ecclesiastics,  and  to  try  to  improve  the  present  condition  of  ecclesiastics, 
and  to  secure  the  welfare  of  their  future.  It  should  visit  from  time  to  time 
the  national  schools  and  supervise  the  teaching  of  the  Christian  doctrines, 
in  order  to  educate  worthy  and  active  doctors  (vardapets)  and  priests,  and 
when  investigating  any  religious  disputes  that  may  arise  in  the  nation,  it 
should  decide  them  according  to  the  laws  of  the  Church. 

Article  29. — When  the  ReUgious  Assembly  cannot  itself  decide  a 
purely  religious  question,  it  convokes  all  the  bishops  in  Constantinople, 
the  preachers  of  all  the  churches,  the  head  priests,  and  if  necessary  the 
Metropolitans  of  the  dioceses  in  the  vicinity,  to  a  General  Religious 
Assembly.  Should  this  Cieneral  Assembly  consider  the  question  beyond 
its  jurisdiction,  then  the  question  is  referred  to  the  Oecumenical  Katholikos 
(at  Edgmiatsin). 

Article  30. — All  kinds  of  reports  of  the  Religious  Assembly  should 
always  be  signed  by  the  majority  of  its  members. 

Article  31. — The  authorisation  for  ordaining  vardapets,  whether  in 
Constantinople  or  in  the  provinces,  is  given  by  the  National  Religious 
Assembly.  The  authorisation  for  ordaining  priests  in  Constantinople  is 
also  given  by  the  same  Religious  Assembly,  and  in  the  provinces  by  the 
local  Religious  Assemblies. 

Article  32. — No  authorisation  for  ordaining  a  new  priest  is  granted 
until  the  priests  of  the  church  and  the  Council  of  the  quarter  send  a 
written  application  urging  the  necessity  of  such  authorisation. 

Article  ZZ- — The  Religious  Assembly  elects  the  preachers  (vardapets) 
for  the  churches  in  Constantinople  as  well  as  their  head  priests,  and  the 
Patriarch  nominates  them. 

Article  34. — All  elections  in  the  Religious  Assembly  are  by  secret 
ballot. 


456  ArDicnia 

Artic/e  35. — The  Religious  Assembly  should  prepare  a  set  of  rules 
with  the  object  of  improving  the  present  condition  of  ecclesiastics,  and  of 
securing  their  future  welfare,  so  that  they  may  perform  gratuitously  their 
spiritual  affairs. 

\.  The  Political  Assembly 

Article  36. — The  Political  Assembly  consists  of  twenty  laymen  well 
acquainted  with  the  national  affairs  and  with  the  laws  of  the  Government. 

Article  37. — The  members  of  the  Political  Assembly  are  elected  by 
the  General  Assembly  by  secret  ballot  and  by  a  majority  of  votes,  and, 
the  report  having  been  presented  to  the  Sublime  Porte  by  the  Patriarch, 
they  are  confirmed  in  their  office  by  an  Imperial  edict. 

Article  38. — The  Political  Assembly  is  dissolved  once  in  two  years, 
at  the  end  of  April,  and  the  re-election  takes  place  in  the  beginning  of 
May.  The  members  of  this  Assembly  may  be  re-elected  after  the  lapse 
of  two  years,  and,  though  for  tlie  first  two  years  they  cannot  be  candidates 
for  the  Political  Assembly,  still  they  may  be  employed  in  any  other 
national  office. 

Article  39. — If  any  member  of  the  Political  Assembly  shall  have  been 
absent  from  the  sittings  three  times  successively  without  sending  a  written 
explanation,  a  letter  is  sent  to  him  by  the  Chairman  of  the  Assembly 
asking  for  an  explanation  of  his  absence.  If  no  answer  be  received  he  is 
notified  by  a  second  letter  that  in  case  of  his  absence  at  the  next  sitting 
he  will  be  considered  as  having  resigned. 

Article  ^o. — When  there  are  as  many  as  three  members  wanting  in 
the  Political  Assembly  either  in  consequence  of  resignation  or  from  some 
other  cause,  others  are  elected  by  the  General  Assembly  to  take  their 
places,  but  until  this  election  shall  have  taken  place  the  majority  of  the 
whole  number  is  to  rule. 

Article  41. — The  Political  Assembly  undertakes  the  general  superin- 
tendence of  the  political  affairs  of  the  nation.  Its  duties  are  to  promote 
the  good  order  and  progress  of  tlie  nation,  to  examine  carefully  any  useful 
projects  presented  to  its  consideration  by  the  Councils  under  its  inspection 
and  to  facilitate  their  execution. 

Article  42. — The  Political  Assembly  refers  the  questions  presented  for 
its  consideration  to  the  Councils  to  which  they  belong,  and  it  is  only  after 
having  heard  the  opinion  of  those  Councils  that  it  can  take  action.  And 
though  it  has  the  right  to  refuse  for  good  reasons  the  decision  taken  by 
any  of  these  Councils,  yet  it  cannot  by  itself  make  a  diff'erent  arrangement 
in  regard  to  the  case  in  question,  but  it  should  once  more  refer  it  to  the 
same  Council.  Neither  can  the  Political  Assembly  change  or  dissolve 
any  of  the  National  Councils  so  long  as  they  do  not  act  contrary  to  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  Constitution.  But  in  case  of  a  default  of 
this  kind  the  Assembly  demands  in  the  first  instance  an  explanation  from 
the  Chairman  of  the  Council  in  question.  The  second  time  it  sends  a 
written  warning,  and  on  the  third  occasion  it  may  change  the  members 
of  the  Council,  provided  always  that  it  shall  explain  in  its  biennial  report 
to  the  General  Assembly  its  reasons  for  so  doing. 


Appendix  I  457 

Article  43. — Should  the  Political  Assembly  consider  the  solution  of 
any  question  presented  to  its  consideration  beyond  its  jurisdiction,  it 
refers  such  question  to  the  General  Assembly. 

VI.  Councils  and  Committees  organised  by  the 
Political  Assembly 

Article  44. — The  Political  Assembly  should  organise  four  Councils  for 
educational,  economical,  and  judicial  affairs,  and  for  the  inspection  of 
monasteries,  and  three  Committees  for  financial  administration.  The 
term  of  office  of  the  members  of  these  Councils  and  Committees  is  two 
years,  but  half  of  their  numbers  must  be  changed  at  the  end  of  each  year. 

The  President  of  the  Judicial  Council  is  the  vicar  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople. 

I.    The  Educational  Coitftcil 

Article  45. — The  Educational  Council  consists  of  seven  well-educated 
laymen.  Its  object  is  the  general  inspection  of  the  education  of  the 
nation.  Its  duties  are  to  promote  good  order  in  the  national  schools, 
to  help  the  Societies  that  have  for  their  object  the  promotion  of  the 
education  of  both  sexes,  to  improve  the  condition  of  teachers  and  to  care 
for  their  future,  to  raise  well-qualified  teachers  and  to  encourage  the 
preparation  of  good  text-books. 

The  Educational  Council  gives  certificates  to  those  students  who  have 
finished  their  course  in  a  national  school. 

It  selects  the  text-books  and  holds  annual  examinations. 

But  the  supervision  of  the  religious  instruction  belongs  to  the 
Religious  Assembly,  which  Assembly  selects  the  text-books  for  religious 
learning  and  the  teachers,  holds  examinations  and  distributes  certificates. 

2.    77/1?  Ecoiwmical  Couticil 

Article  46. — This  Council  is  to  consist  of  seven  well-qualified  laymen 
whom  the  Political  Assembly  elects  by  a  plurality  of  votes. 

It  is  to  this  Council  that  belongs  the  general  inspection  of  the 
financial  administration  of  all  national  institutions  in  Constantinople  and 
their  properties.  It  is  its  duty  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  these 
institutions. 

It  is  its  duty  to  see  that  each  national  estate  is  provided  with  the 
proper  title-deed.  Copies  of  the  title-deeds  of  all  national  real  estates  in 
the  provinces  should  be  kept  in  the  Bureau  of  the  Patriarchate. 

No  selling  or  buying  of  national  property  is  allowed  without  the 
knowledge  of  this  Council  and  without  the  consent  of  the  Political 
Assembly  and  the  confirmation  of  such  consent  by  the  seal  of  the 
Patriarch. 

In  Constantinople  and  in  its  vicinity  no  national  building  can  be  con- 
structed or  repaired  without  the  knowledge  of  this  Council  and  without 
the  consent  of  the  Political  Assembly. 

It  is  also  the  duty  of  this  Council  to  inspect  the  financial  administration 


458  Armenia 

of  the  Committees  on  finances,  on  wills,  and  on  the  Hospital,  and  to 
examine  at  certain  times  the  books  of  the  Councils  of  different  quarters, 
and  present  a  report  to  the  Political  Assembly. 

Two  months  before  the  beginning  of  a  new  year  it  should  ascertain 
from  the  Committee  on  finances  the  incomes  and  expenses  for  the  coming 
year,  prepare  a  budget,  and  present  it  to  the  Political  Assembly. 

3.    The  Judicial  Council 

Article  47. — The  Judicial  Council  is  composed  of  eight  persons  versed 
in  law,  married,  and  at  least  forty  years  of  age,  four  of  whom  should  be 
ecclesiastics,  and  the  other  four  laymen. 

The  vicar  of  the  Patriarch  is  the  President  of  the  Judicial  Council, 
and  all  the  members  are  elected  by  the  Mixed  Assembly  by  the  plurality 
of  votes.  The  function  of  this  Council  is  to  settle  family  disputes,  and 
to  examine  and  decide  any  questions  referred  to  it  for  solution  by  the 
Sublime  Porte. 

In  case  the  Judicial  Council  should  consider  any  question  beyond  its 
capacity,  then,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  question,  it  recommends 
that  it  should  be  referred  to  the  Political  or  to  the  Mixed  Assembly. 
Should  any  person  protest  against  the  decision  taken  by  this  Council,  the 
question  is  examined  again  by  one  of  the  above-mentioned  Assemblies  as 
the  case  may  require. 

4.    Council  for  Alonasteries 

Article  48. — The  monasteries  are  the  property  of  the  nation.  Hence 
the  supervision  and  control  of  their  administration  and  the  management 
of  their  finance  belong  to  the  nation. 

Inasmuch  as  it  is  necessary  for  each  monastery  to  have  its  own  particular 
regulations,  the  Mixed  Assembly,  consisting  of  the  Political  and  Religious 
Assemblies  of  the  Central  Administration,  with  due  consideration  of  the 
opinions  of  the  brotherhood  of  each  monastery,  and  of  the  opinions  of  the 
Council  for  Monasteries,  prepares  a  set  of  rules  and  presents  it  to  the 
General  Assembly  for  confirmation.  The  fundamental  principles  for  such 
rules  are  : — 

I.  The  special  management  of  each  monastery  belongs  to  its  brother- 
hood, but  the  right  of  the  general  superintendence  of  them  all  belongs  to 
the  Central  Administration,  of  which  the  Council  for  Monasteries  is  the 
executive  body. 

II.  The  Abbot  of  each  monastery  is  elected  by  its  brotherhood,  and 
is  confirmed  by  the  Patriarch  with  the  consent  of  the  Mixed  iVssembly  of 
the  Central  Administration.  The  person  to  be  elected  Abbot  should  be 
over  thirty  years  of  age,  a  vardapet  (doctor),  and  a  subject  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire. 

III.  All  monasteries  are  obliged  to  promote  the  moral  improvement 
of  the  nation.  Hence  each  one,  according  to  its  capacity,  should  have  a 
seminary,  a  library,  a  printing  office,  a  hospital,  and  other  similar  useful 
establishments. 


Appendix  I  459 

The  Council  for  Monasteries  is  composed  of  seven  persons  elected  by 
the  Political  Assembly  by  plurality  of  votes. 

Its  functions  and  duties  are  to  superintend  the  execution  of  the  rules 
of  each  monastery,  to  ascertain  the  revenues  and  the  expenditure,  and  to 
arrange  and  regulate  it  all. 

This  Council  elects  from  the  brotherhood  of  each  monastery  the 
managers  of  the  affairs  of  the  monastery.  These  should  perform  their  duties 
under  the  presidency  of  the  Abbot  and  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the 
monastery,  and  at  stated  times  should  give  an  account  of  their  doings  to  the 
Council  for  Monasteries. 


5.    The  Committee  011  Finance 

Article  49.  —  The  Committee  on  finance  consists  of  seven  persons 
versed  in  financial  affairs,  who  are  elected  by  the  Political  Assembly  by 
plurality  of  votes.  Its  function  is  the  administration  of  the  National 
Central  Treasury. 

The  revenues  of  this  Treasury  are  the  general  national  taxes,  the 
incomes  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  and  the 
donations  or  wills  to  the  nation  without  the  specification  of  a  place. 
Its  expenditure  consists  of  the  usual  expenses  of  the  Patriarchate  and 
its  Bureau,  the  pecuniary  aids  granted  to  the  national  institutions  under 
the  immediate  care  of  the  Central  Administration,  and  to  needy  quarters, 
and  other  casual  expenses.  The  Committee  collects  the  revenues  and 
dispenses  the  expenditure  with  the  knowledge  of  the  Council  for  the 
general  administration  of  finance  and  wath  the  consent  of  the  Political 
Assembly. 

It  is  its  duty  to  keep  the  accounts  of  the  Treasury  according  to  the 
strictest  rules  of  book-keeping,  and  periodically  to  present  the  budget  to 
the  Council  of  the  general  administration  of  finance,  which  Council,  after 
the  necessary  examination  of  it,  communicates  such  budget  to  the  Political 
Assembly. 

6.    The  Committee  oti   IViils 

Article  50. — The  Committee  on  wills  consists  of  seven  persons — three 
ecclesiastics  and  four  laymen — elected  by  the  Mixed  Assembly  by  plurality 
of  votes. 

Its  function  is  the  management  of  wills  in  favour  of  the  nation.  Its 
duties  are  to  superintend  the  execution  of  the  wills  in  strict  accordance 
with  the  object  and  intention  of  the  makers  of  the  wills. 

Special  rules  for  the  guidance  of  this  Committee  should  be  prepared 
by  the  Mixed  Assembly  with  the  aid  of  this  same  Committee  and  the 
General  Committee  for  finance,  and  they  are  to  be  confirmed  by  the 
General  Assembly. 

This  Committee  on  wills  should  periodically  present  its  accounts  to 
the  General  Council  of  Finance,  which  Council,  after  the  necessary 
examination,  should  communicate  its  report  to  the  Political  Assembly. 


460  AriJiciiia 

7.    The  Trustees  of  the  Hospital 

Article  51. — The  Trustees  of  the  Hospital  shall  be  nine  persons  elected 
by  the  Political  Assembly  by  plurality  of  votes.  Two  of  these  persons 
should  be  physicians  furnished  with  diplomas.  The  duties  of  these 
trustees  are  to  manage  the  National  Hospital,  its  estates  and  revenues, 
and  to  administer  it  with  these  incomes  and  with  the  aids  received  from 
the  Central  Treasury. 

This  establishment  should  contain  four  departments,  one  for  the  care 
of  the  sick  who  are  poor,  the  second  lor  helpless  old  men,  the  third  for 
the  insane,  the  fourth  for  the  education  of  orphans. 

The  arrangements  and  administration  of  this  establishment  should 
always  be  managed  according  to  medical  and  hygienic  laws. 

These  trustees  are  responsible  to  the  General  Council  of  Finances 
for  the  financial  management  of  this  establishment,  and  to  the  Educational 
Council  for  the  educational  department  of  it,  and  they  should  furnish 
periodically  an  account  to  these  Councils. 


Vn.   Councils  of  Quarters 

Article  52. — These  Councils  consist  of  five  to  twelve  members  accord- 
ing to  the  locality.  Their  duties  are  the  management  of  the  affairs  of 
their  quarter,  the  care  of  the  church  and  schools,  the  care  of  the  poor 
and  the  investigation  and  settlement  of  disputes  that  may  rise  among 
their  people. 

Article  53. — Each  quarter  should  have  a  treasury  under  the  manage- 
ment of  its  Council.  The  income  of  this  treasury  is  derived  from  the  tax 
paid  by  the  people  of  the  quarter,  the  revenues  of  the  church  and  the 
school,  gifts  or  wills.  Its  expenses  are  the  expenses  of  the  school  and  aid 
given  to  the  poor. 

These  Councils  should  keep  a  regular  register  of  all  births,  marriages, 
and  deaths  in  their  respective  quarters. 

Article  54. — These  Councils  are  directly  responsible  to  the  different 
Central  Councils  for  their  different  departments.  For  the  management 
of  schools  they  are  responsible  to  the  Educational  Council,  for  financial 
affairs  to  the  Council  of  Finances,  for  judiciary  affairs  to  the  Judiciary 
Council.  They  should  furnish  periodically  an  account  to  each  one  of 
these  Councils. 

Article  55. — These  Councils  are  elected  by  the  people  of  the  quarters, 
and  whosoever  shall  not  be  deprived  (according  to  the  67th  Article  of  the 
Constitution)  of  the  right  of  voting  can  take  part  in  their  election. 

Article  56. — The  rules  to  guide  these  Councils  are  to  be  prepared  by 
the  Political  and  Religious  Assemblies. 

The  office  of  these  Councils  lasts  four  years.  They  are  changed  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  year,  and  their  members  may  be  immediately  candi- 
dates for  re-election. 


Appendix  I  461 

VIII.  The  National  General  Assembly — Its  Organisation 
AND  ITS  Duties 

Article  57. — The  National  General  Assembly  is  composed  of  140 
deputies,  of  whom 

I.   One-seventh;   that    is   twenty,  are   ecclesiastical  deputies  elected 
by  the  ecclesiastics  in  Constantinople. 
II.   Two-sevenths,  that  is  forty,  are  deputies  from  the  provinces. 
III.   Four-sevenths,  that  is  eighty,  are  deputies  elected  by  the  different 
quarters  in  Constantinople. 

Article  58. — The  members  of  the  Religious  and  Political  Assemblies 
attend  the  sittings  of  the  General  Assembly,  but  if  they  are  not  elected 
deputies  they  have  no  vote  in  the  General  Assembly. 

Article  59. — The  General  Assembly  can  have  no  sitting  if  the  majority 
of  its  members,  that  is  at  least  seventy-one  persons,  be  not  present. 

Article  60. — The  functions  of  the  General  Assembly  are  to  elect  the 
Patriarchs,  to  participate  in  the  election  of  the  Katholikos,  to  elect 
the  chief  functionaries  of  the  nation  and  the  members  of  the  Religious 
and  Political  Assemblies  ;  to  oversee  the  administration  of  the  National 
Councils,  to  settle  questions  which  belong  to  these  Councils  but  are  con- 
sidered beyond  their  capacity,  and  to  preserve  the  National  Constitution 
intact. 

Article  61. — The  General  Assembly  will  have  a  sitting 

I.  Once  in  two  years,  according  to  the  old  custom,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  month  of  April,  to  hear  the  biennial  report  of  the  National 
Administration,  to  examine  the  general  account  of  revenues  and 
expenditures  managed  by  financial  functionaries,  to  elect  new  members 
for  the  Religious  and  Political  Assemblies,  to  settle  the  national  taxation  . 
for  the  next  two  years. 

These  biennial  sittings  should  close  within  two  months. 

The  members  of  the  National  Administrative  Assemblies  who  are  at 
the  same  time  deputies  in  the  General  Assembly  can  take  part  in  the 
discussions  in  these  sittings,  but  cannot  vote  in  any  question  except  those 
of  taxation  and  election, 

II.   To  participate  in  the  election  of  the  Katholikos, 

III.  To  elect  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  the  Patriarch  of 
Jerusalem, 

IV.  To  settle  any  discord  between  the  Patriarch  and  the  Political  or 
Religious  Assemblies.  In  such  cases  the  parties  in  discord  may  take  part 
in  the  discussions  in  the  General  Assembly,  but  can  give  no  votes, 

V.   To  revise  the  national  Constitution, 

Finally,  for  any  question  the  decision  of  which  belongs  to  the  General 
Assembly. 

But  in  case  of  such  extraordinary  sittings  notice  is  given  to  the 
Sublime  Porte  and  its  consent  is  previously  obtained. 

Article  62. — The  Patriarch  convokes  the  General  Assembly  with  the 
consent  of  the  Political  or  of   the  Religious  Assembly,  or  even  at   the 


462  Armenia 

request  of  the  majority  of  the  members  of  the  General  Assembly.  But 
before  convoking  such  an  extraordinary  sitting  the  reasons  for  it  should  be 
explained  to  the  Sublime  Porte  and  its  consent  obtained. 

The  Election  of  Ecclesiastical  Deputies 

Article  63. — All  the  ecclesiastics  in  Constantinople,  at  the  invitation 
of  the  Patriarch,  come  together  in  a  certain  place,  and  by  secret  voting 
and  by  the  majority  of  votes  elect  the  ecclesiastical  members  of  the 
National  General  Assembly  from  bishops,  vardapets,  and  priests  :  but 
the  candidates  should  not  be  holding  any  office  in  the  provinces.  They 
should  be  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  ordained  at  least  five  years  ago  and 
under  no  accusation. 

Article  64. — The  office  of  the  ecclesiastical  deputies  lasts  ten  years, 
and  once  in  two  years  the  fifth  part  of  them  is  changed.  This  fifth  part 
is  changed  by  lot  during  the  first  eight  years.  All  those  who  have  ceased 
to  be  members  either  by  lot  or  at  the  end  of  the  ten  years  may  be 
re-elected  immediately. 

The  Election  of  Lay  Deputies — Qualifications  for 
Candidates  and  Election 

Article  65. — The  national  tax  and  personal  merits  are  considered  the 
basis  of  the  right  of  being  electors. 

In  order  to  have  the  right  of  an  elector  a  person  should  pay  annually 
at  least  seventy-five  piasters  as  national  tax. 

Those  whose  personal  merits  entitle  them  to  be  electors  are  persons 
employed  in  Government  bureaux  and  in  other  Government  offices, 
physicians  with  diplomas,  authors  of  useful  books,  school  teachers,  persons 
who  have  rendered  some  valuable  service  to  the  nation. 

Article  66. — Persons  who  are  twenty-five  years  of  age  are  entitled  to 
be  electors,  provided  they  be  Ottoman  subjects. 

Article  67. — The  following  are  deprived  of  their  right : — 

I.  Those  convicted  of  a  crime,  who,  according  to  the  penal  laws  of 
the  country,  are  considered  as  morally  dead. 
II.  Persons  who  have  been  condemned  by  some  National  Council 
for  fraud  in  the  administration  of  national  affairs  and  who  have 
been  deprived  by  a  decision  of  one  of  these  Councils  of  their 
right  to  hold  any  national  office. 
III.   Those    who    are   undergoing    a    corrective    punishment    by    the 

Courts  of  the  Government  and  whose  term  is  not  yet  finished. 
I\'.  The  insane  whose  complete  recovery  is  not  legally  confirmed. 
Article  68. — Candidates  are  all   those   members  of   the    nation   who 
have  attained  their  thirtieth  year,  are  Ottoman  subjects  acquainted  with 
the  laws  of  the  country  and  with  national  affairs,  and  wlio  are  not  deprived 
of  their  right  according  to  the  67  th  Article  of  the  Constitution. 

But  at  least  seven  of  the  eighty  deputies  to  be  elected  by  the  different 
quarters  in  Constantinople  should  be  persons  holding  a  certain  rank. 


Appendix  I  463 

The  Manner  of  Election 

Article  69. — The  National  Political  and  Religious  Assemblies,  with 
the  Chairmen  of  different  Councils,  hold  a  sitting  once  every  two  years,  in 
the  first  part  of  the  month  of  February,  to  prepare  the  list  of  the  deputies 
to  be  elected  by  the  quarters  of  Constantinople  and  by  the  provinces,  and 
with  the  aid  of  the  general  census  kept  in  the  Bureau  of  the  Patriarchate 
they  decide  the  number  of  deputies  to  be  elected  by  each  quarter  or  by 
each  province,  taking  as  their  basis  for  the  quarters  in  Constantinople  the 
number  of  the  electors,  and  for  the  provinces  the  number  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  number  of  deputies  thus  decided  upon  should  be  communicated  by 
the  Patriarch  to  each  quarter  or  province. 

The  office  of  the  deputies  lasts  ten  years,  and  once  in  two  years  the 
fifth  part  of  the  deputies  elected  by  the  quarters  of  Constantinople  and  by 
the  provinces  is  changed ;  the  election  of  this  fifth  part  should  take  place 
once  in  two  years  by  the  quarters  or  by  the  provinces  alternately. 

The  turn  of  this  alternation  should  be  decided  by  lot  during  the  first 
eight  years,  on  condition  that  in  case  the  number  of  electors  in  a  quarter 
or  the  number  of  the  population  in  a  province  is  diminished  or  increased, 
the  number  of  the  deputies  to  be  elected  by  the  quarter  or  the  province 
in  question  should  be  diminished  or  increased  proportionately. 

Those  who  are  to  take  the  places  of  the  deputies  deceased  or  resigned 
should  be  elected  every  year  two  months  before  the  beginning  of  a 
new  year. 

The  deputies  of  the  quarters  should  be  elected  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Constantinople.  But  the  deputies  of  the  provinces  should  be  elected  by 
the  General  Assembly  of  each  province. 

Article  70. — The  deputies  of  the  quarters  or  of  the  provinces  need  not 
necessarily  be  the  inhabitants  of  the  same  quarter  or  of  the  same  province, 
provided  they  live  in  Constantinople,  are  well  acquainted  with  the  national 
affairs  of  the  quarter  or  of  the  province  they  represent,  and  have,  by  their 
love  for  their  nation,  by  their  honesty  and  justice,  deserved  the  esteem  and 
confidence  of  their  electors. 

The  national  deputies  are  not  regarded  in  the  General  Assembly  as  the 
deputies  of  any  particular  locality,  but  as  the  deputies  of  the  nation,  all 
enjoying  the  same  equal  rights. 

Article  71. — The  Patriarch  sends  a  communication  to  every  quarter 
in  Constantinople,  in  the  month  of  February,  in  regard  to  the  one-fifth  of 
the  deputies  to  be  elected  by  them  every  two  years,  giving  notice  of  the 
number  of  the  deputies  to  be  elected  by  each  one,  and  reminding  them  of 
the  qualifications  of  electors  and  candidates. 

On  receiving  this  communication,  the  Councils  in  the  quarters  under- 
take the  election  of  the  deputies,  but  during  the  process  of  the  election 
the  preacher  of  the  quarter,  or  in  his  absence  the  head  of  the  priests,  will 
preside,  and  from  three  to  six  honourable  inhabitants  of  the  place  are 
added  to  the  number  of  the  Council. 

The  Electoral  Council  thus  formed  ascertains  the  number  of  those  who 
have  the  right  of  election  in  their  quarter,  prepares  in  alphabetical  order  a 


464  Anne  Ilia 

list  of  electors,  and  causes  it  to  be  hung  for  eight  days  in  the  Council  hall, 
which  is  to  be  kept  open  during  all  this  time. 

The  Electoral  Council,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  decision  of  electors, 
prepares  a  list  of  candidates  in  three  times  the  number  required,  and  causes 
this  list  also  to  be  hung  in  the  Council  hall ;  the  electors,  however,  are  in 
no  way  bound  to  follow  this  list. 

In  the  provinces  the  members  of  the  Provincial  General  Assemblies 
are  elected  in  the  same  way. 

The  Voting 

Article  7  2. — A  week  after  the  list  of  electors  has  been  exposed,  on  a 
Sunday  morning  after  service  the  voting  is  begun  in  the  Council  hall  in 
the  following  manner. 

The  President  of  the  Council  of  the  quarter,  the  list  of  electors  in  hand, 
calls  upon  the  electors  in  turn,  who,  after  having  signed  their  names  in  the 
list  of  electors,  write  on  a  piece  of  paper  as  many  names  as  there  are 
deputies  required,  one  under  the  other,  indicating  before  every  name  the 
surname,  residence,  and  profession,  fold  the  paper,  and  drop  it  in  the  box 
that  is  prepared  especially  for  this  purpose.  But  if  the  electors  for  some 
reason  or  other  cannot  personally  come  to  the  Council  hall,  they  send  their 
votes  enclosed  in  a  letter,  which  they  should  sign. 

Article  73. — Voting  is  secret,  so  the  voters  should  write  their  papers 
alone,  so  that  no  one  else  can  see  the  names  they  write. 

Article  74, — The  voting  should  close  the  same  day  that  it  begins.  No 
elector  who  does  not  present  his  vote  that  day  has  any  right  to  protest 
afterwards. 

Article  75. — No  one  can  vote  in  two  quarters  at  the  same  time. 

Article  ']6. — If  the  quarters  and  dioceses  that  are  united  for  election 
are  near  each  other,  then  the  electors  come  together  for  voting.  But  if 
they  are  far  from  each  other  each  quarter  or  diocese  holds  its  own  voting, 
and  then  the  results  of  the  votes  of  the  two  parties  are  united. 

Article  77. — After  the  voting  is  over,  the  same  day  and  in  the  same 
sitting,  in  the  presence  of  the  Council  of  the  quarter  the  box  is  opened, 
and  the  votes  are  counted  by  officers  specially  appointed  for  this  purpose 
and  sufficient  in  number  for  the  number  of  voters. 

Should  any  discrepancy  be  discovered,  and  should  the  Council  of  the 
quarter  have  any  suspicion  of  fraud,  a  second  ballot  is  appointed  to  be  held 
on  some  other  day  before  the  next  Sunday. 

In  the  same  way,  if  the  required  number  of  deputies  be  not  obtained 
the  first  time,  a  second  ballot  is  held  for  the  rest  some  other  day. 

Article  78. — If  it  so  happen  that  one  of  the  voters  has  written  on  his 
paper  more  names  than  are  required,  the  superfluous  names  are  to  be 
rejected.  In  the  same  way  are  to  be  rejected  all. papers  where  the  names 
are  not  written  one  under  the  other. 

Article  79. — Those  are  elected  as  deputies  who  have  received  the  largest 
number  of  votes  exceeding  half  the  number  of  the  voters,  and  if  two 
persons  have  received  the  same  number  of  votes  the  older  one  is  to  be 
elected. 


Appendix  I  465 

Article  80. — If  no  majority  be  obtained  on  the  first  ballot,  the  Council 
of  the  quarter  announces  the  names  of  the  two  persons  who  have  obtained 
the  largest  number  of  votes,  and  the  second  ballot  should  be  on  those  two 
names. 

Article  81. — The  Council  of  each  quarter  presents  to  the  Patriarch  the 
names  of  those  who  have  been  elected  deputies  in  its  quarter  in  an  especial 
report,  in  which  should  be  exactly  indicated  the  names  of  those  elected, 
their  surnames,  residence,  profession,  and  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
election. 

The  Patriarch  presents  this  report  to  the  Political  i\ssembly,  which 
examines  it  and  verifies  the  qualifications  of  those  elected. 

After  that  the  Patriarch  announces  officially  to  every  one  of  the 
deputies  his  legal  election,  and  invites  them  to  hold  a  silting  of  the 
General  Assembly  on  a  certain  day. 

Article  82. — The  General  Assembly  in  its  first  sitting  hears  the  reports 
examined  by  the  Political  Assembly,  and  confirms  the  elections  and 
declares  the  General  Assembly  legally  organised. 

The  General  Assembly  can  begin  its  meetings  when  the  majority  of 
the  deputies  of  Constantinople  are  elected  without  awaiting  the  end  of  the 
provincial  elections,  the  results  of  which  will  be  meanwhile  communicated 
to  Constantinople. 

Article  83. — If  a  deputy  be  elected  by  several  quarters  or  provinces 
he  himself  decides  which  of  the  elections  he  shall  accept,  and,  in  case  he 
decline  to  decide,  the  General  Assembly  decides  by  lot. 

Article  84. — The  list  of  the  deputies  should  be  hung  in  the  hall  of  the 
General  Assembly  made  out  in  alphabetical  order,  and  before  each  name 
should  be  indicated  resignation,  death,  and  anything  else  that  may  happen. 
This  list  should  be  revised  once  in  two  years. 

Chapter  II 
General  Laws  for  Assemblies  and  Councils 

Article  85. — Every  Assembly  and  Council  will  have  its  officers,  that 
is  a  Chairman,  a  Secretary,  and  sometimes  also  a  second  Chairman  and 
a  second  Secretary.  All  these,  of  course,  should  be  elected  from  the 
members  of  the  Assembly.  These  officers  are  elected  only  for  one  year, 
but  they  may  be  re-elected. 

Article  86. — No  meeting  can  be  held  without  the  presence  of  the 
majority. 

Article  87. — A  question  should  be  put  to  vote  only  after  it  has  been 
thoroughly  examined  and  discussed,  and  all  decisions  should  be  taken  by 
plurality  of  voices.  In  case  of  a  tie,  should  the  President  be  present  the 
decision  will  depend  upon  his  vote,  and,  if  absent,  it  will  depend  upon 
the  vote  of  the  Chairman. 

Article  88. — In  order  to  arrive  at  a  decision  in  regard  to  a  question 
discussed  in  the  Mixed  Assembly,  each  of  the  two  Assemblies  should  vote 
separately.  If  the  majority  of  both  have  arrived  at  the  same  decision, 
VOL.  II  2  II 


466  Armenia 

then  the  question  is  settled.  But  if  the  decisions  be  different,  it  is 
considered  as  difference  of  opinion,  and  consequently  the  final  settlement 
of  the  question  is  referred  to  the  General  Assembly. 

In  order  that  the  Mixed  Assembly  may  have  a  legal  meeting  the 
majority  of  both  Assemblies  should  be  present. 

Article  89.  —  Invitations  should  be  sent  to  the  members  from  the 
Patriarchate  at  least  six  days  before  the  day  of  the  meeting. 


Chapter  III 
National  Taxation 

Article  90. — Every  member  of  the  nation  who  is  of  age  and  capable 
of  earning  money  is  bound  to  participate  in  the  national  expenditure  by 
paying  a  tax.  This  tax  is  annual,  and  the  basis  of  its  distribution  is  the 
capacity  of  the  individual. 

Article  91. — There  are  two  kinds  of  national  taxes — one  general,  for 
general  expenses  and  collected  by  the  Patriarchate  for  the  National 
Central  Treasury,  the  other  special,  for  the  special  expenses  of  each  quarter, 
and  collected  by  the  Councils  of  the  quarters  for  their  private  treasuries. 

Article  92. — The  distribution  and  manner  of  collection  of  the  general 
taxes  for  Constantinople  are  settled  by  the  Political  Assembly  and 
confirmed  by  the  General  Assembly.  But  the  special  taxes  are  arranged 
by  the  Council  of  each  quarter.  In  the  same  way  are  managed  the 
provincial  general  taxes  and  the  special  taxes  for  each  locality. 

Article  93. — The  General  Assembly  will  decide  and  the  Sublime 
Porte  will  confirm  the  manner  of  distribution  and  collection  of  the  tax 
which  the  provinces  have  thus  far  been  paying  to  the  Treasury  of  the 
Patriarchate. 

Chapter  IV 
National  Provincial  Administration 

Article  94. — The  Metropolitan  is  the  president  of  Provincial  Assemblies 
and  has  their  executive  power  under  his  control. 

His  duty  is  to  see  that  the  Constitution  is  preserved  in  the  provinces. 

Article  95. — The  Metropolitan  cannot  reside  in  monasteries  and  thus 
be  far  from  the  place  of  his  office,  but  he  will  live  in  the  official  residence 
of  the  Metropolitan,  where  the  Provincial  Assemblies  also  hold  their 
meetings. 

When  a  Metropolitan  is  at  the  same  time  an  abbot  he  can  carry  on 
the  two  offices  simultaneously  if  the  monastery  be  only  one  day's  journey 
from  the  metropolis,  paying  occasional  visits  to  the  monastery,  but  if  the 
distance  be  more  than  one  day's  journey,  he  should  appoint  a  repre- 
sentative in  the  monastery,  and  he  himself  should  reside  in  the  city.  In 
case  of  need,  however,  he  can  visit  any  part  of  his  diocese. 

Article  96. — Every  quarter  in  the  provinces  should  have  in  the  same 
way  as  those  in  Constantinople  its  Council,  its  treasury,  and  its  officers. 


Appendix  I  467 

In  the  metropolis  there  should  be  Political  and  Religious  Assemblies, 
and  under  the  direction  of  the  Political  Assembly  there  should  be  a 
provincial  Treasury  ;  there  should  be  also  a  provincial  Bureau,  where 
should  be  kept  all  the  census  books  of  all  the  people  of  the  diocese. 

Article  97. — The  election  of  the  Metropolitan  is  carried  on  in  the 
Provincial  General  Assembly  in  the  same  way  as  tiie  Patriarchs,  and  the 
report  of  the  election  is  sent  to  the  Patriarch  by  the  Mixed  Assembly. 
'J'he  Patriarch,  with  the  consent  of  the  Mixed  Assembly  of  the  National 
Central  Administration,  confirms  the  election  and  gives  due  notice  of  it 
to  the  Sublime  Porte  in  order  to  obtain  ofiicial  authorisation. 

Article  98. — The  Provincial  Assemblies  are  to  be  organised  on  the 
same  plan  as  those  of  the  Central  Administration  and  have  the  same 
functions  and  duties.  But  the  number  of  the  members  of  the  Provincial 
Assemblies  will  be  fixed  once  for  all  according  to  the  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  each  province. 

Until  the  national  taxation  be  fixed  in  the  provinces,  the  electors  of 
the  Provincial  General  Assembly  should  be  only  those  who  belong  to  the 
first,  second,  and  third  classes  of  tax-payers  to  the  Government.  And  the 
manner  of  the  organisation  of  these  Assemblies  will  be  decided  according 
to  the  population  of  each  diocese  by  the  Central  Administration  after  due 
consultation  with  Metropolitans. 


Chapter  V 

Revision  of  the  Constitution 

Article  99. — The  fundamental  principles  of  the  National  Constitution 
are  unchangeable.  But  if  experience  should  make  it  desirable  to  modify 
certain  points  the  General  Assembly  will,  five  years  after  the  forming  of 
the  Constitution,  organise  a  Committee  of  Revision.  This  Committee  shall 
consist  of  twenty  members — three  from  the  Political  Assembly,  three  from 
the  Religious  Assembly,  two  from  each  of  the  four  Councils,  and  besides 
these  six  from  the  General  Assembly  or  outsiders.  This  Committee  shall 
report  the  necessary  changes,  which,  after  being  ratified  by  the  General 
Assembly,  shall  be  presented  to  the  Sublime  Porte  and  put  in  force 
according  to  the  Imperial  edict. ^ 

^  The  General  Assembly  of  the  Annenian  nation  met  regularly  in  Constantinople 
until  1892.  Some  of  the  Provincial  Assemblies  still  continue  their  meetings.  But  the 
Constitution  is  practically  in  abeyance  owing  to  the  strained  relations  at  present  existing 
between  the  Palace  and  the  Armenians. 


APPENDIX    II 

CHEMICAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  SOME  ARMENIAN   LAKES 

Samples  of  water  from  Lakes  Van,  Nazik,  Bulama  (Gop),  and  from  two 
lakes  in  the  Nimrud  crater  were  collected  by  us,  carefully  sealed,  and 
submitted  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  late  Mr.  William  Thorp,  B.Sc, 
for  analysis.  Unfortunately  the  samples  were  not  large  enough  to  permit 
of  more  than  a  single  analysis  in  each  case,  estimating  the  various 
constituents  in  succession.  Hence  it  was  not  possible  to  examine  for 
ammonia  or  organic  matter,  or  for  certain  compounds  of  which  slight 
traces  may  have  been  present. 

With  regard  to  Lake  Van,  three  previous  analyses  of  its  water  have 
been  made  at  various  times,  and  the  following  tables  have  been  prepared 
in  order  to  facilitate  comparison. 


LAKE  VAN. 

Quantities  of  solids  in  solution  estimated  in  parts  per  100,000 
parts  of  water. 


Chancourtois.l 

Abich.2 

Serda.a 

Thorp. 

Chlorine 

566.679 

488.  1S2 

579-114 

568.9 

Carbonates  . 

329-057 

249.448 

328.637 

320.565 

Sulphates 

212.773 

188.476 

198.467 

203.4 

Phosphates  . 

0.146 

0.05 

Nitrates 

Soda    . 

1206.370 

862.848 

1040.864 

III5.916 

Potash 

29.742 

29.238 

52.809 

39-919 

Magnesia 

26.21  I 

21.250 

27.311 

not  determined 

Lime 

5.240 

Strontia 

0.063 

Iron  oxide    . 

0.303 

Manganese  oxide 

0.223 

Ammonia 

0.573 

Silica 
Alumina 

>          18.000 

trace 
3-58 

7.284 
0.347 

7-53 
1. 01 

Total  solids  in  solution  . 

2260.000 

1734.21 

2110.979 

2248.9 

Suspended  matter 

A  little  organic 
matter 

0.39 

1  Comptes-rendtts,  Acad,  des  Sciences,  Paris,  1 847,  x.xi.  p.  1 1 1 1 . 

2  Vergl.   chein.    Untcrsiich.   d.    IVcisser  d.  casp.   Meeres,    Urmia  11.    Van-Sees,   JShhit. 
Acad.  Sc.  St.  Pt'tershourg,  1859,  Series  6,  math,  et  phys.  vol.  vii. 

^  Miiller-Simonis,  P.,  Du  Caiicase  an  Golfe  Persique,  Paris,   1892,  p.  25S. 


Appendix  II 
Calculated  composition  in  parts  per  100,000. 


469 


Sodium  chloride    . 

Chancourlois. 

Abich. 

Serda. 

Thorp. 

938.000 

810.67 

953-835 

938.837 

,,        carbonate 

861.000 

543-84 

714.426 

773-110 

,,        sulphate  . 

333-000 

258.68 

266.527 

369.095 

Potassium  sulphate 

55.000 

54.06 

97-655 

73-819 

Magnesium  carbonate 

55.000 

40.71 

57-308 

not  determined' 

, ,          sulphate 

22.67 

,,          1 

Calcium  carbonate 

4.692 

1 

,,        sulphate  . 

•5.928 

,,        phosphate 

... 

0.319 

Strontium  sulphate 

0.  I  II 

Iron  carbonate 

0.488 

Manganese  carbonate     . 

... 

0.360 

Ammonium  chloride 

1 

1.699 

Silica  .... 

\     18.000 

3-58 

7.284 

7-53 

Alumina 

J 

0-347 

1. 01 

Nitrates 

0.05 

Percentage   of  solids   in 

22.6% 

17-34% 

21. 10°; 

22.48% 

solution    . 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  water  was  determined  by  Chancourtois  as 
1.0188,  and  by  Abich  as  1.0189,  both  at  19°  C.  As  Abich  points  out, 
the  water  of  Lake  Van  is  nearly  identical  in  composition  with  that  of  some 
of  the  soda-lakes  at  the  south-eastern  foot  of  iVrarat,  in  the  Araxes  plain. 
In  some  of  these  the  chloride,  in  others  the  carbonate,  and  in  others 
again  the  sulphate  of  sodium  is  the  predominating  constituent.  Probably 
the  composition  of  the  waters  of  Lake  Van  vary  somewhat  in  different 
parts  of  the  lake ;  Abich's  sample  was  certainly  less  saline  than  those  of 
the  other  analysts. 

The  following  analyses  of  the  extraordinarily  saline  waters  of  Lake 
Urmi  are  appended  for  contrast  rather  than  for  comparison  with  those  of 
Lake  Van. 

LAKE  URML 

Quantities  of  solids  in  solution  estimated  in  parts  per  100,000 
parts  of  water. 


Chlorine      ..... 

Abich.  1 

Guniher  and  Manley.2 

12,686.8 

8,536 

Sulphates    ..... 

929.03 

631.2 

Soda  ...... 

10,106.4 

6,814 

Potash 

140.2 

Magnesia     ..... 

1,099.3 

626.6 

Lime  ...... 

37-7 

70.6 

Traces  of  bromides 

Traces  of  barium. 
No  traces  either  of  brom- 
ine or  iodine. 

1  Loc.  cit. 


2  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  L\v.  p.  312,  London,  1899. 


470 


Armenia 


In  this  case  Abich's  sample  was  a  stronger  solution  than  Giinther's, 
the  percentage  of  solid  salts  being  22.28  and  14.89  respectively.  Yet 
the  relative  proportion  of  the  various  salts  is  very  similar,  as  shown  by  the 
following  comparison  of  percentages  : — 


Sodium  chloride 
Magnesium  chloride     . 
,,            sulphate    . 
Calcium  chloride 
,,         sulphate 
Potassium  sulphate 

Abich. 

Giinther  and  Manley. 

86.37 
6.94 
6.08 
0.27 
0.34 

86.203 
6.S16 
4.150 

1-151 

I. 741 

100.00 

100.061 

The  specific  gravity  in  the  two  cases  were  determined  as  1.175  and 
I.I  13  respectively. 

The  remaining  four  analyses  by  Mr.  Thorp  were  made  from  our  small 
samples  of  water  taken  from  fresh-water  lakes. 

Quantities  estimated  in  parts  per  100,000. 


Chlorine 

Lake  Bulama. 

Lake  Nazik. 

Niinrud  Crater, 
Large  Lake. 

Nimrud  Crater, 
Warm  Lake. 

0-35 

1.50 

2.15 

4-25 

Sulphates 

Nitrates 

0.05 

0.05 

0.08 

0.05 

Sodium    and    pot 

issumi 

carbonates 

S.80 

91-13 

Magnesia 

1.29 

Lime  . 

2.71 

3-32 

5.82 

Iron  oxide    . 

0.60 

0.0 1 

0.08 

Silica  . 

3-5 

13-8 

Alumina 

.  1           1. 71 

0.24 

0.68 

Total  solids  in  sol 

Lition  .             25.86 

18.74 

39-41 

I  14-43 

Suspended  matter 

21.33 

0.36 

1.88 

2.18 

The  water  of  Lake  Bulama  is  slightly  ferruginous  and  yet  slightly 
alkaline.  The  unpleasant  odour  from  the  lake  doubtless  arose  from  the 
fermentation  of  much  vegetable  matter  in  suspension  and  solution ;  it 
could  not  be  due  to  sulphur  compounds,  since  there  is  an  absence  of 
sulphates,  and  the  low  proportion  of  chlorine  indicates  freedom  from 
animal  contamination. 

Lake  Nazik. — A  soft  water,  with  very  little  contamination. 

Nimrud  crater. — An  accident  to  the  sample  of  water  from  the  large 
lake  caused  the  loss  of  the  iron,  alumina,  lime,  and  magnesia  estimations. 
Some  vegetable  matter  occurred  in  suspension. 

The  water  of  the  warm  lake  is  slightly  alkaline,  but  the  ratio  of  the 
potassium  to  the  sodium  could  not  be  determined.  It  was  rather  turbid 
owing  to  fine  fragments  of  vegetable  matter.  It  is  scarcely  conceivable 
that  it  can  possess  healing  properties. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

In  the  following  Bibliography  ^  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  the 
sections  relating  to  Travel  and  Topography  as  complete  as  possible. 
The  other  sections  are  not  exhaustive ;  but  they  perhaps  include  the 
more  important  and  most  recent  sources  of  information.  Works  written 
in  Armenian  and  Russian  have,  with  certain  exceptions,  been  excluded,  as 
well  as  those  dealing  with  the  Armenian  mediaeval  kingdom  of  Cilicia. 

I.  TRAVEL  AND  TOPOGRAPHY 


General  Authorities. 
Bitter  (K. )   Die  Erdkunde  von  Asien ,  Berlin , 

1832-59,  2nd  edit.,  18  vols.  8°  and  index. 
Saint  Martin  (J.)     Mdmoires  sur  I'Armenie, 

Pans,   1818,  2  vols.  8". 
(In   Armenian)   Alishan  (L.)  (Mekhitarist), 

Province  of  Shirak,  Venice,  1881;  Province 

of    Ararat,     Venice,     1890;     Province    of 

Sisacan,   Venice,  1893. 

Eaki.y  Travel. 
Rubruck     (William     of)     (Guillaume     de 

Ruysbroeck  or  Rubruquis  ;   Flemish  monk 

(Franciscan);   envoy  to   Khan  of  Tartary 

from   Pope  Innocent  \'I.  and   Louis  IX.  ; 

travelled  across  Armenia  in   1254.)     New 

translation    from    Latin   by  W.    Rockhill. 

Haklnvt  Soc.  ser.  2,  iv.  Loud.  1900,  8°. 
Marco  Polo  (Venetian  merchant ;   travelled 

in     Tartary,     India,     Persia,    and    across 

1  List  of  Sources. — British  Museum  Library  catalogues  ;  Royal  Geographical  Society,  catalogues  and 
publications  ;  Poole's  Index  to  Periodicals,  1848-96  ;  Review  of  Reviews,  Annual  Inde.v,  1890-gg  ;  Cata- 
logue of  York  (iate  geographical  library,  Land.  1886;  Academic  des  Sciences  de  St.  P^tersbourg, 
Tableau  general  des  publications  (langues  ^trangeres),  St.  Pet.  1872.  List  of  books  in  library  of  Tiflis 
Museum,  kindly  compiled  for  the  author  hy  Dr.  Radde.  Petern'.ann's  Mittheilungen,  Gotha,  1855-1900  ; 
Bibliotheque  Asiat.  et  Afric.  (Ternau.x-Compans  H.),  Pafis,  1841  ;  Bibliotheca  Cleographica  (1750-1856) 
(Engelmann,  W.),  Leipz.  1858  ;  Bibliotheca  Orientalis  (Zenker,  J.  T.),  vol.  ii.  Leifiz.  1861  ;  Catalogue  de 
la  Section  des  Russicae,  St.  Pet.  1873  ;  Bibliographia  Caucasica  et  Transcaucasica  (Miansarov,  M.),  Si. 
Pet.  1874-76 ;  Bibliographies  Gt^og.  spiciales  (Jackson,  J.)  Paris,  1881  ;  Orientalische  Bibliographie 
(MiiUer,  A.),  1887-96,  Berlin,  1897;  Bibliotheca  Geographica  (Baschin,  O.),  1891-97,  Berlin,  1899; 
Catalogue  des  livres  de  Timprimerie  arm^nienne  de  Saint-Lazare,  I'enice,  1894. 

Encyclopaedias:  Zedler,  Leipz.  1732;  Ersch.  u.  Gruber,  Leipz.  1820;  M'Clintock  and  Strong,  Neiv 
York,  1867  ;  Ency.  Britannica,  Land.  1875-89  ;  Brockhaus,  Leipz.  1882  ;  Meyer,  Leipz.  1885  ;  Diction- 
naire  de  Gtog.  Paris,  1879-95  ;  La  Grande  Encyclop^die,  Paris,  1887  seq.  ;  Real-Ency.  f.  protestantische 
Theologie  (article  Armenien  by  Gelzer),  Leipz.  1S97. 

Special  bibliographies  :  Dubois  de  Montpireux,  Voyage  autour  du  Caucase,  Paris,  1839-43  ;  Saint-Martin 
(V.  de),  Hist,  des  D^couv.  Geog.  Paris,  1846  ;  Miiller-Simonis,  Du  Caucase  au  Golfe  Persique,  Paris, 
1892  ;  Bibliographie  analytique  des  ouvrages  de  M.  F.  Brusset  (1824-79),  ^(-  Pet.  18S7. 

Authorities  quoted  by  Ritter,  Die  Erdkunde  von  Asien,  Berlin,  1832-59 ;  Reclus,  Nouv.  G6og. 
Universelle,  Paris,  1876-94  ;  Lanier,  L'Asie,  Paris,  1889. 


Armenia  to  Trebizond,  1271-95.)  First 
ed.  in  Italian,  Venice,  1496.  Eng.  trans, 
with  notes  by  Col.  H.  Yule,  Land.  1871, 
2  vols.  8°.      Many  other  editions. 

Odericus  of  Pordenone  (Italian  Franciscan; 
travelled  across  .\rmenia  c.  1318  ;  a  few 
lines  only. )  Italian  in  Ramusio,  vol.  ii. 
Venice,  1583,  fol.  Latin  and  English  in 
Hakluyt's  Voyages,  Land.   1809-12. 

Jordauus  (Dominican  missionary  c.  1330; 
travelled  in  Armenia,  short  account. ) 
Mirabilia  Descripta  :  The  Wonders  of  the 
East.  Trans,  from  Latin  by  H.  Yule, 
Haklnyt  Soc.  vol.  xxxi.   Lond.   1863,  8°. 

Clavijo  (Ruy  Gonzalez  de)  (Castilian  am- 
bassador to  Khan  of  Tartary,  1403-6.) 
Historia  del  gran  Tamerlnn,  e  itinerario, 
ec. ,  Seville,  1582,  fol.  Eng.  trans,  by 
Clements  Markham,  Haklnyt  Soc.  vol. 
xxvi.  Lond.   1859,  8°. 


4/2 


Armenia 


Zeno  (Caterino)  (\'enetian  envoy  to  Persia, 
1471-73.)  Ramusio,  vol.  ii.  Venice,  1583, 
fol.  Eng.  trans,  by  C.  Grey,  Hakluyt 
Soc.  vol.  xli.\'.  Loud.  1873,  8°. 

Barbaro  (Josafa)  (Venetian  envoy  to 
Persia,  1471-87.  )  Venice,  1543  ;  and  in 
Ramusio,  vol.  ii.  Venice,  1583,  fol.  Eng. 
trans,  by  W.  Thomas,  Hakluyt  Soc.  vol. 
xlix.  Lond.   1873,  8° 

Contarini  (Ambrosio)  (Venetian  envoy  to 
Persia,  1473-77.)  Venice,  1524;  and  in 
Ramusio,  vol.  ii.  Venice,  1583,  fol.  Eng. 
trans,  by  W.  Thomas,  Hakluyt  Soc.  vol. 
xlix.  Loud.   1873,  8°. 

Anonymous  Venetian  Merchant  (Tra- 
velled from  Aleppo  to  Persia  via  Bitlis  and 
Lake  Van,  1507-20.)  Ramusio,  vol.  ii. 
Venice,  1583.  Eng.  trans,  by  C.  Grey,. 
Hiikluvt  Soc.  vol.  xlix.  Lond.   1873,  8°. 

Newberie  (John)  (English  merchant;  tra- 
velled from  Tabriz  to  Erzinjan  by  Erivan 
and  Erzerum,  1580-82.)  Purchas's  Pil- 
o'rims,  pt.  ii.  bk.  ix.  ch.  iii.  Lond.  1625,  fol. 

Cartwright  (John)  ("The  Preacher,"  Eng- 
lish ;  travelled  from  Aleppo  to  Ispahan 
via  Bitlis  and  Lake  \'an  about  1600?) 
Lond.  161 1  ;  Purchas's  Pilgrims,  pt.  i. 
vol.  ii.  bk.  ix.  Lond.  1625,  fol.  ;  and 
Churchill's  Collection  of  Voyages,  vol.  vii. 
Loud.  1707-47- 

Rhodes  (Alessandro  de)  (Jesuit  mission- 
ary, 1618-53.)  Relazione  de' felici  success! 
della  Sante  Fede  Predicata  da  Padri  della 
Comp.  di  Giesu  nel  Regno  di  Tunchino, 
Milan,  1651,  8°  ;  Voy.  et  Miss,  du  Pere 
A.  de  Rhodes,  S.J.,  en  la  Chine  et  autres 
Royaumes  de  1' Europe  avec  son  retour 
par  la  Perse  et  I'Arm^nie,  Lille,  1884. 

Poser  (H.  von)  Reyse  von  Constantinopel 
aus,  durch  die  Bulgarey,  Armenian,  Persien 
und  Indien  (1621),  Jena,  1675,  4°- 

Tavernier  (J.  B. )  \'oyages  en  Turquie,  en 
Perse  et  aiix  Indes  (1631-64),  Paris,  1676, 
3  vols.  4'.  English  translations,  Lond. 
1678  and  1684.      (Many  other  editions.) 

Philippi  (F. )  (Carmelite  monk.)  Itinera- 
rium  orientale  .  .  .  (1640),  Lyons,  1649, 
8'. 

Evliya.  Travels  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
in  the  17th  century.  (Trans,  from  the 
Turkish  by  Ritter,  Joseph  von  Hammer), 
Lond.  1840,  4°. 

Boullaye  le  Gouz.  Les  \'oyages  et  Obser- 
\ations  dn  Sieur  de  la  Boullaye  le  Gouz 
gentilhomme     Angevin      (1647),      Paris, 

1653.  4°- 

Poullet.  Nouvelles  relations  du  Levant 
(deuxieme  partie)  (1658),  Paris,  1668, 
12"'". 

Melton  (E.)  Eduward  Meltons,  Engelsch 
l'',dL-lmans,  Zeldzaame  en  gedenkwaardige 
Zee-en-Land-Reizen  door  Egypten,  \\'est- 
Indicn,  Perzien,  Turkyen,  Oost- Indien, 
etc.  (1660-77),  Amsterdam,  1681,  4°. 


Chardin  (Jean)  Voyages  en  Perse  et 
autres  lieux  de  I'Orient  (1666-77),  L.ond. 
1686  (ist  vol.);  Amsterdam,  1711,  10 
vols.  12'"°  ;  Nouv.  6d.  par  Langles,  Paris, 
iSii,  10  vols.  8^  Eng.  trans.  Lond. 
1720,  2  vols.  8*^. 

Jesuit  Missions  (Erivan,  Erzerum,  Bitlis, 
1682  seq.) 
\'illotte  (Pere)  Voy.  d'un  Miss,  de  la 
Comp.  de  J^sus  en  Turquie,  en  Perse, 
en  Arm^nie,  en  Arable,  et  en  Barbaric, 
Paris,  1730,  12"'°. 
Fleurian   (T.   C. )      Estat  present  de  I'Ar- 

m^nie,  Paris,  1694,  8^. 
Lettre  du  Pere  Monier    .  ^ 
M^moire    de    la    Mission  j  Lettres       Edi- 
d'Erzeron  .  .   |      Jiantes,  vols. 

M(?moire    de    la    Mission  \      iii.    and    iv. 
d'Erivan     .     _     .  .   |       Paris,  1780, 

Journ.  du  voy.  d'Erzeron  |        12'"". 
a  Tr^bizonde       .  .  J 

Monier  (Pere)  Relation  de  I'Armenie  in 
Bernard's  Recueil  de  Voyages  an  Xord, 
vol.  vi.  pp.  1-116,  Amsterdam,  XT2.<^,  12™°. 

Chinon  (G. )  (Capuchin  missionary.)  Rela- 
tion nouvelle  du  Levant  .  .  .  religion, 
gouvernement  et  coutumes  des  Perses,  des 
Arm^niens  et  des  Gaures,  Lyons,  1671,  8°. 

Careri  (G.  F.  Gemelli)  Giro  del  Mondo 
(1693)  (Trebizond  ,  Erzerum,  Kars,  Erivan, 
Nakhichevan),  Naples,  1699,  7  vols.  8"". 
Eng.  trans,  in  Churchill's  Voyages,  vol.  iv. 
Lond.   1774,  etc. 

DeBeze(Pere)  (Jesuit.)  Astronomical  obser- 
vations at  Trebizond  and  Erzerum  (1698), 
published  by  P.  Gouye  in  Hist,  de  I' Acad, 
de  Sciences,  pp.  85-6,  Paris,  1699. 

Schillinger  (F.  C. )  Persianische  und  ost- 
indianische  Reise,  \'om  Jahr  1699  bis 
1702,  i\'ureni/'c?g,    1707,  8^ 

Tournefort  (J.  Pitton  de)  Relation  d'un 
voyage  du  Levant  (1701-2),  Paris,  1717, 
2  vols.  4"^.  Eng.  trans.  Ozell  (J.),  Lond. 
1 74 1,  3  vols.  8". 

Lucas  (Paul)  Voyage  au  Le^'ant  (Palu- 
Erzerum,  1700),  The  Hague,  1705,  2  vols. 
8°. 

Ferri^res-Sauveboeuf (Comte  de)  \'oyages 
...  en  Turquie,  en  Perse  et  en  Arabic 
(1782-89),  Pd'-is,  1790,  2  vols.  8". 

Travei.  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

Abbott  (K.  E. )  Notes  of  a  tour  in  Armenia 
in  1837,  Jour.  R.  Geog.  Soc.  xii.  pp.  207- 
20,  Lond.  1842. 

Abich  (H. )  Geologische  Forschungen  in 
den  kaukasischen  Landern,  3  Parts  and 
Atlas,    Vienna,  1878-87,  4"  and  fol. 

Aus  kaukasischen  Landern  :  Reisebriefe 
herausgegeben  von  Frau  Abich,  Vienna, 
1896,  2  vols.  8°. 

Geolog.  Natur  des  armen.  Hochlandes(Festrede) 

(1843),  Dorpat,  ^  pavt. 
Geolog.   Beobacht.   auf  Reisen   in  den   Gebirg.s- 


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4/6 


Armenia 


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Haurand  (R. )     Maine   Reise  im    Kaukasus 

und     in     Armenian,      Wurttenibergischen 

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Hepworth     (G. )       Through     Armenia     on 

Horseback,  Land.   1898,  8°. 
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coutumes   des   populations   du   vilayet   de 

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la  Russie  m^ridionale  (1838),  Paris,  1843- 

45,  8°. 
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arnu'tiien  und  den   Riickzug  der  Griechen 


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{See  also  Schobert. ) 
Koch  (K. )     Reise  durch  Russland  nach  dem 

kaukasischen  Isthmus,  1836-38,  Stuttgart, 

1842-43,  8°. 
Armenisch-kaukasiche  Reise  des  Prof.  Koch 

und     Dr.     Rosen     (Nachriciiten    von    K. 

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JMonatsb.    I'ej-kaud.    Gesell.    Erdk.    s^r.    2,   i. 

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Reise  im  pontischen  Gebirge  und  tiirkischen 

Armenien,    IVei/nar,  1846,  8°. 
Die  kaukasischen  Lander  und  Armenien  in 

Reiseschilderungen  von  Curzon,  K.  Koch, 

etc.,  Leipz.  1865,  8°. 
Der   Kaukasus  :    Landschafts-   und  Lebens- 

Bilder    aus    dem    Nachlasse    von    K.    K. 

Berlin,  1882,  8°. 
Kolenati    (F.    A.)       Die    Bereisung    Hoch- 

.Armeniens  (natural  history  and  ethnology), 

Dresden,   1858,  8''. 
Kotschy    (T.)       Neue    Reise    nach    Klein- 

Asien,  Petermann  s  Mitth.  vi.  pp.   68-77, 

Gotlia.    i860. 
Kotzebue  (M.  von)     Narrative  of  a  Journey 

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Krahmer   (D. )      Die    altarmenische    Haup- 

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Bruns-ioick,  1895. 
Langlois  (V.)     Topographic  de  la  petite  et 

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Sarkisian,    Jour.    Asiat.    ix.    ser.    6,    pp. 

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Laval  (L.  de)     Besuch  bei  Khan  Mahmud 

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Schreiben  aus  Amasia  fiber  eine  Reise  von 

Erzerum  durch  das  Dudschikgebirge  nach 

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1367,  Augsburg.  1845. 
Layard  (A.  H. )     Discoveries  in  the  ruins  of 

Nineveh    and     Babylon,    with    travels   in 

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Lefevre - Pontalis  (C. )     De  Tiflis  a  Pers6- 

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1855- 
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4/8 


Armenia 


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1)1  Bull,  de  r Acad,  de  St.  Pctersbourg — 

Zur  Geologic  des  sudost.  Kauk.  (Gletscherende 
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Allen   (T.    G.)   and    Sachtleben    (W.    L.) 

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Anon.     Der  Ararat  (Legends),  Das  Ausland, 

4  articles,  Munich,  1830. 
Erk-Ura  (Akhury),  die  armenische   Kolonie 

auf  dem  Berge  Ararat,  Das  Ausland,  pp. 

729-30,  Munich,   1834. 
Major   Voskoboinikoff's   official    account    of 

earthquake  of  Akhury  in  1840,  from  "  The 

Times,"    .4thencEum,    Feb.     20,    p.     157, 

Lond.   1841. 
Visit   to   Ararat,  Eraser's  Mag.    l.\.    111-21, 

Lond.   1859. 
Arzruni  (A.)     Reise  nach   Siid-Kaukasien 

(ascent    of   the    Little  Ararat),    Verhand. 

Gesell.    Lirdk.    xxii.    pp.    602- ir,   Berlin, 

1895. 
Baker  (G.    P.)     Ascent  of  Ararat,   Alpine 

Jour.  j)p.  318-27,  Lond.   1879. 
Berens     (K.  |        Zwei      Besteigungen      des 

Ararat  im  Jahre  1835,  Zweite  Besteigung 

(from  .St.    Petersburger  Zeitung,    in    Brit. 

Mus.  library),  St.  Pet.   1838,  8". 
Brosset    (M.     F. )       Note    sur     le     village 

armc^'nicn    d'.\corhi    et    sur  le  couvent  de 

.St.   Jacques  (earthquake  of   1840),   Bull. 

Sclent.    Acad.    Sc.    viii.     pp.    41-48,    .SV. 

L\-l.   1 841. 


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5,  pp.  209-14. 
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Alpine  Journal,  viii.  p.  215,  Zowt/.  1877. 
Spassky  -  Avtonomov    (K. )       Ueber    eine 

neue  Ersteigung  des  Ararat,  August  1834, 

Magazin  fiir  die  Literatur  des  Aus  lands. 

No.  34,  Berlin,  1835. 
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Proc.  R.  Geog.  Soc.  xxi.  pp.  77-92,  Lond. 

1877  (see  also   Freshfield's  Early  Ascents 

of  Ararat,  Alpine  Jour.  1877). 
Venukoflf  ( — )     Observations  thermometri- 

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Rend.  Acad.  Sc.  cix.  Paris,  1894. 
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die  \"ersuche  zu  seiner  Besteigung  (trans. 

by  H.  Hofmann  from  the  Russian  Zapiski 

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1884),    Mitth.     Vereins    F.rdk.     133-202, 

Leipz.  1884. 
See  also  supra  Gordon  ( C.  G. ) ,  Letters  from 

the  Crimea,  etc.  ;    Tournefort  (J.  P.  de), 

Voy.    du    Levant  ;    Wagner   (M.),    Reise 

nach  dem  Ararat. 

The  Russian-speaking  reader  may  he  referred  to 
Kaulbar's  Apergu  des  J  rav.  Geog.  en  Russie,  St. 
Pet.  i88g,  8'  ;  SlejofT,  La  Litt6rature  russe  sur 
la  G6og.  1865-83  ;  MiansarofF,  Kibl.  Cauca.sica, 
St.  Pet.  1874-76,  8^  ;  and  to  the  following  periodi- 
cals (the  list  of  articles  is  not  exhaustive,  but 
indicates  sources  of  information). 

Imp.  Russ.  Geog.  Soc.  Cauc.  ."ice. — Iz^iesiiya, 
Khodzko,  iv.  1875;  vii.  1882-83;  Zapiski — 
Khodzko,  vi.  1864  ;  Weidenbaum,  xiii.  1884  ; 
Pastukhoff,  .\vi.  1S94. 

2    I 


482 


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Saveliev. 
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Nord,  7  and  8,  St.  Pet.  1845,  Spassky-Avtonomov. 
Le    Messager    Historique,    xlvi.    St.    Pet.    1891, 

Paquirev. 

Russo-TuRKisH  Wars. 

Anon.  Coup  d'osil  sur  les  provinces  nouvel- 
lenient  conquises  par  les  Russes,  Venice, 
1828,   12°. 

Remarques  topographiques  sur  quelques 
cantoris  transcaucasiens  et  sur  la  Perse  (par 
un  m^decin  de  I'arm^e  Russe  1827-28), 
Nouv.  A?i>i.  I'oy.  -xlv.  pp.  343-60,  Paris, 
1830. 

Theatre  de  la  guerre  dans  la  Turquie  d'Asie, 
Nouv.  Ann.  Fay.  xlii.  pp.  192-205,  Paris, 
1829. 

Armstrong  (T.  B. )  Journal  of  travels  in 
the  seat  of  war,  during  the  last  two  cam- 
paigns of  Russia  and  Turkey,  Land.  1831, 
8°. 

Chesney  (F.  R. )  Russo-Turkish  campaigns 
of  1828  and  1829,  Lond.  1854,  8°  ; 
and  in  German  in  "  Das  tiirkische  Reich 
in  historisch-statistischen  Schilderungen," 
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Sandwith  (H. )  Narrative  of  the  siege  of 
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Anon.     Visit  to  Kars  while  in  the  hands  of 

the  Russians  (June   1856),  Fraser s  Mag. 

Iv.   160-173,  Lond.  1857. 
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Paris,  1888. 
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Forbes    (A.)    and    others.      Daily   Neius 

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Greene  (F.  V.)     The  Russian  army  and  its 

campaigns  in  Turkey  in   1877-78,   Lond. 

1880,  8". 
Norman  ( C.  B. )     Armenia  and  the  campaign 

of  1877,  Lond.   1878,  8'-'. 
Ryan  (C.  S.)  and  Sandes  (J.)     Under  the 

Red  Crescent  (English  surgeon  at  Plevna 

and     Erzerum,     1877-78),     Lond.     1897, 

8^ 
Williams    (C. )      The  Armenian    Campaign 

(1877),  Lond.   1878,  8". 


Dottain  (E. )  La  Turquie  d'Asie  d'apres  le 
traits  de  Berlin,  Rev.  de  G^og.  iii.  pp. 
204-18,  Paris,  1878. 

Kiepert  (H. )  Die  neue  russisch-tiirkische 
Grenze  in  Asien,  Globus,  .xxxiv.  p.  102, 
Brunszvick,  1878. 

Petermann  (A.)  Map  of  districts  acquired 
by  Russia  by  the  Berlin  Treaty  of  1878, 
Petermann  s  Mitth.  xxiv.  p.  321,  Plate  16, 
Gotha,  1878  ;  see  also  ibid.  pp.  365-68, 
and  relate  20,  and  p.  393. 

Sstebnizki  (J.)  Die  russisch-tiirkische 
Grenze  in  Klein-Asien  nach  dem  Berliner 
Tractat  von  1878,  Petermann  s  JMitlh. 
xxviii.  pp.   129-32,  Gotha,  1882. 

Data  fok  Map. 

Khodzko  (J.)  Die  russischen  Aufnahmen 
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Petermann' s  Mitth.  x.  pp.  361-67,  Gotha, 
1862. 

Osten-Sacken  (C.  von)  Die  internationale 
Aufnahme  der  tiirkisch-persischen  Grenze, 
Petermann  s  Mitth.  xi.  pp.  131-33,  Gotha, 
1865. 

Staritzky.  Die  katastral  Vermessung 
Transkaukasiens,  Petermann' s  Mitth.  x. 
pp.  84-86,  Gotha,  1864. 

Tschirikow  (E.  I.)  Ueber  die  Arbeiten  der 
persisch  -  tiirkischen  Granz  -  Commission, 
Ert?ian's  Archive  fiir  wisscnschaftliche 
Kunde  von  Russland,  xix.  pp.  218-24, 
Berli?t,  i860. 

/Positions  : 

Gedeonoflf  (D.)  ///  Russian.  CJeographical 
position  of  50  points  in  Turkish  Armenia 
and  Kurdistan  from  astronomical  obser- 
vations made  in   1889.      (Extracted  from 


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on  route  from  Rize  through  Kyan  village 
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Cauc.  Sect.  vi.  Append.  2,  pp,  63-64, 
Tijlis,  1879-81. 

Glamasdin  ( — )  In  Russian.  Heights  in 
the  vilayet  of  Trebizond  registered  by 
aneroid  in  1882,  Izvest.  Imp.  Russ.  Geog. 
Soc.  Cauc.  Sect.  viii.  p.  76,  Tijlis, 
1884-85. 

Ilyin  (P.  A. )  In  Russian.  List  of  altitudes 
in  Asiatic  Turkey  barometrically  de- 
termined (1882),  Izvest.  Imp.  Russ.  Geog. 
Soc.  Cauc.  Sect.  viii.  pp.  80-82,  Tijlis, 
1884-85.  (Germ,  trans,  by  R.  Kiepert  in 
Verh.  Gesell.  Erdk.  Berlin,  1884,  pp. 
300-302.) 

Kiepert  (Richard)  Hohen messungen  in 
Armenien  und  Persien.  Translations  of 
three  lists  of  altitudes  in  the  Izvest.  I.  R. 
G.  Soc.  Cauc.  Sec.  :  i.  byD.  M.  Lupandin, 
1881  ;     2.    P.     F.     Stepanoff,     1881  ;     3. 


Positions  and   altitudes  in  the  district  of 

Kars.      Zeits.    Gesell.  Erdk.  xviii.  pp.  76- 

80,  Bc}-lin,  1883. 
Eusikoff  (N.    S. )     In    Russian.     Altitudes 

in  Asiatic  Turkey  determined  by  aneroid 

(1880-81),  Izvest.   Imp.   Russ.    Geog.    Soc. 

Caiic.  Sect.  viii.   pp.    78-79,    Tijlis,   1884- 

85.       (Germ,    trans,    by    R.    Kiepert    in 

Verh.    Gesell.    Erdk.    Berlin,     1884,    pp. 

298-99. ) 
In   Russian.     Altitudes   in    Asiatic    Turkey 

and     Persia,     barometrically    determined 

(1884),    Izvest.    Imp.     Russ.     Geog.     Soc. 

Cauc.     Sect.     viii.     pp.     339    43,      Tijlis, 

1884-85. 
Altitudes    in    government    of    Erivan    and 

Asiatic  Turkey  determined  in  1884,  Izvest. 

Imp.    Russ.    Geog.    Soc.    Cauc.    Sect.    vs.. 

pp.  202-204,  Tijlis,  1886-88. 
In  Russian.      Altitudes   in   Asiatic   Turkey, 

Van,  Bitlis,  Kharput,  and  Erzerum  vilayets, 

determined    in    1885,    Izvest.    Imp.   Russ. 

Geog.    Soc.    Cauc.    Sect.    ix.    pp.    392-93, 

Tiflis,  1886-88. 
Routes  :■ 
Haussknecht     (C. )       Routen     im     Orient 

(1865-69)    nach   dessen  Original-Aufnah- 

men    redigirt    von    H.    Kiepert,    Berlin, 

1882. 
Tchihatcheff  (P.  von)     Itinerar  der  klein- 

asiatischen    Reise    im     jahre    1858    (vom 

Verf.  durch  C.  Ritter  mitgetheilt  ;  Anmer- 

kungen  und  Karte  von  H.  Kiepert),  Zeits. 

allgem.  Erdk.  vi.  p.  275,  Berlin,  1859. 
Reisen    und    Forschungen    in    Klein -Asien 

(1848-58),  Petermann  s  Mitth.  vi.  p.  313, 

Gotha,  i860. 
See  also  Strecker  under  Travel   in   the 

Nineteenth  Century. 
Maps  : 
Map  of  the  Turco- Persian  frontier  made  by 

Russian  and  English  officers  in  the  years 

1849-55  (4  miles  =  I   inch),   Southampton, 

1873- 

Orographical  map  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  from 
the  latest  sources,  coloured  to  show  con- 
tours (described  in  Petermann's  Mitth. 
1882,  p,  430),   Tijlis,  1882. 

Reconnaissance  survej'  of  north-west  .Azer- 
baijan (1894).  In  library  of  R.G.S. , 
London. 

Carte  de  la  Turquie  d'Asie  (sans  I'.Arabie) 
scale  I  :  1,000,000,  Paris,   1897. 

Calvert  (H.  C. )  Map  of  the  country  to  the 
north  of  Erzerum  (1857).  In  library  of 
R.  G.S. ,  London. 

Khanikoff  (N.)  Map  of  Aderbeijan,  com- 
piled principally  from  personal  observa- 
tions and  surveys  made  in  the  years  1851- 
55,  Berlin,  1862. 

Kiepert  (H. )  Xouvelle  carte  gte6rale  des 
provinces  asiatiques  de  I'Empire  Ottoman 
(sans  I'Arabie)  (Railways  to  1898),  Berlin. 

Memoir  tiber  die  Construction  der  Karte  von 


484 


Armenia 


Klein -Asien  und  Ttirkisch- Arnienien  in 
6  Bliitt.  von  V.  \'incke,  Fischer,  v.  Moltke, 
und  Kiepert,  Berlin,  1854,  8". 

Statistics. 

Cuinet    (V.)       La    Turquie    d'Asie,    Paris, 

1890-95,  4  vols.  4". 
Hippius    (A.)       .Statistische    Tabellen    von 
Transkaukasien   (from  Izvest.    Caitc.    Sec. 
Rus^.  G.  Soc.    1889),   Fetcnnanti  s  Mitth. 
XXXV.  p.   178,  Gotlia,  1889. 
Klein  (D.)       L'Arm^nie    et    les    Armenians 
(estimate  of  the  numbers  of  the  Armenian 
people),   L Exploration,    iv.    pp.    267-72, 
Paris,   1877. 
Kondratenko    (E.)       Ethnographical  maps 
of  Transcaucasia  (scale  20  versts=  i  inch), 
Zapiski  Imp.  Puss.  Geog.  Soc.  Cauc.  Sect. 
xviii.  supplement,   Tiflis,  1896. 
Kutschera  (H. )    Administrative  Eintheilung 
uiid   Ijevolkerung  der   asiatischen  TiArkei, 
Oestcrreictiische  Alonatsschrift  f.  d.  Orient. 
PP-   153-57.    Vienna,  1877. 
Macgregor  (C.  M. )     History,  Ethnography, 
ToiJography    and    Resources    of    part    of 
Asiatic    Turkey  and    Caucasia,    Calcutta, 
1872,  8". 
Michelsen  (E.  H.)     Das  tiirkische  Reich  in 
historisch-statistischen  Schilderungen,  Art. 
iv.,  Leipz.  1854. 
Mordtmann    (A.    D.)       Officielle    Bevolke- 
rungsziffern    aus    der    asiatischen    Tiirkei 
(from    Turkish   newspaper    I'akyt,    1879), 
Zeits.  Gesell.  Erdk.  ii.  pp.   132-37,  Berlin, 
1880. 
Ravenstein  (E.  G.)      The   populations   of 
Russia  and  Turkey,  Jour.  Statistical  Soc. , 
Lond.   1877. 
Schweiger  -  Lerchenfeld    (F.    von)       Das 
neue  vilajet  Wan,  Oesterrcuhischc  Monats- 
schriftfiir  den  Orient,  \i]i.  42-45,  I'ienna, 
1877. 
Seidlitz  (N.  von)     \'olkszahlung   m  Tiflis, 
1864,    Petermanns    Mitth.    xi.     p.    233, 
Got  ha,  1865. 
Ethnographic  des  Kaukasus  (with  coloured 
map),   Petermanns  Mitth.    xxvi.    p.    340, 
Gotha,  1880. 
Selenoy   (G.   L.)   and    Seidlitz    (N.   von) 
Die    X'erbreitung    der    Armenier    in    der 
asiatischen  Tiirkei  und  in  Transkaukasien, 
Petermami s  Mitth.   .xlii.  pp.  i-io,  Gotha, 
1896. 
Stebnitzky  (H.  J.)      Uebcrsicht  der  kauka- 
sisclicn      Statthalterschaft,       Peterjnanns 
Mitth.  xi.  p.   121,  Gotha,  1865. 
Supan  (A.)     Vertheilung  der  ATmenischen 
Huvulkerung       in      Tiirkisch  -  Armenian, 
Kurdistan     und     Transkaukasien      (nach 


Cuinet,    .Selenoy  imd   Seidlitz  entworfen) 
Petermann  s  Mitth.  xlii.  Gotha,  1896. 


Statistische  Notizen  liber  die  Kaukasus- 
Provinzen,  Erinan  s  Archive  f.  wiss. 
Kiaidevon  Russland,  p.  196,  Berlin,  1854. 

Die  Bevolkerung  der  Stadt  Tiflis  (1876), 
Russische  Rev.  xvi.  St.  Pet.   1880. 

In  Russian.  Statistics  of  Transcaucasia 
derived  from  the  family  hsts  of  1886,  pub. 
by  order  of  the  Civil  Government  of  the 
Caucasus  by  the  Transcaucasian  Statistical 
Committee,  Tiflis,  1893,  4".  See  also 
the  Caucasus  Calendar,  published  yearly 
at  Tiflis. 

Note  on  Russian  Census  of  1897  giving 
populations  of  Transcaucasia,  Petermann  s 
Mitth.  xliii.  pp.   132-34,  Gotha,  1897. 

See  also  under  Political  :  British  Pari. 
Papers,  various  estimates  of  the  population 
of  certain  provinces  of  Asiatic  Turkey. 


Maloma  (J.  D.)  In  Russian.  List  of 
inhabited  places  in  districts  of  Bayazid 
and  Alashkert,  Isvest.  Imp.  Russ.  Geog. 
Soc.  Cauc.  Sect.  v.  pp.  288-302,  Tiflis, 
1877-78. 

Yeritzoff  (A.  D.)  ///  Russian.  List  of 
inhabited  points  of  Erzerum  province, 
Izvest.  Imp.  Russ.  Geog.  Soc.  Cauc.  Sect. 
viii.   Append.    2,    pp.  1-160,   Tiflis,  1884- 


Blau  (0.)  Leber  Rechtschreibung  und 
Deutimg  tiirkischer  Ortsnamen,  namentlich 
in  Klein-Asien.  Note  on  above  by  Dr. 
H.  Barth,  Petermann  s  Mitth.  viii.  pp. 
45-51  and  183-84,  Gotha,  1862. 

Dwight  (H.  G.  O.)  Orthography  ot 
Armenian  and  Turkish  proper  names. 
Jour.  Amer.  Orient.  Soc.  iv.  pp.  119-21, 
A't7i>  York,  1854. 

Nallino  (C.  A.)  La  transcription  des  noms 
g^ographiques  arabes,  persans  et  turcs. 
Bull.  Soc.  Khddiviale  Gt'og.  pp.  205-31, 
1894. 

For  Commerce,  etc. ,  see  Trade  Reports 
(British)  from  H.M.'s  Con.sulsat  Erzerum, 
Trebizond,  and  Diarbekr,  commencing 
with  those  of  1854  from  Erzerum  and 
Trebizond  (laid  before  Parliament  in  1856, 
command  No.  2078),  and  with  that  of 
1856  from  Diarbekr  (laid  in  1857,  No. 
2285).  The  Reports  previous  to  these 
are  lull  of  interest,  but  have  not  been 
published.  Reports  on  special  subjects 
by  H.M.'s  Consuls  have  from  time  to 
time  been  issued,  but  do  not  yet  appear 
to  have  been  indexed. 


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I'ancienne  Armenia,  Jour.  Asiatique,  %€x. 

4,  xix.  pp.  5-58,  Paris,  1852. 
Chants    populaires    de   I'Arm^nie,    Rev.    des 

deux Mo7ides,  xiv.  pp.  224-55,  Paris,  1852. 
Emin  (J.  B. )     Recherches  sur  le  paganisme 

arm(^nien    (trans,     from     Russian     by    de 

Stadler),   Rev.    de  I'Orient,    s^r.    3,    xviii. 

pp.   193-244,  Paris,   1864. 
Garnett  (L. )      The  \^'omen  of  Turkey  and 

their  folklore,  Lond.   1880,  8°. 
Gelzer  (H. )     Zur  armenischan   Gotterlehre, 

Berichte    Verh.    k.    sdchs.     Gesell.     IViss. , 

phil.  -hist.    CI.    xlviii.    pp.    99-148,  Leipz. 

1897. 
Haigazn  ( E. )     L^gendes  et  superstitions  de 

I'Armenie,  Rev.  des  traditions  populaires, 

X.  pp.  296-97,  Paris,  1895. 
Kanewski    (C. )       Ueberraste    des    Heiden- 

thums  bei  den  Armeniern,  Das  Ausland, 

pp.  320-21,  Augsburg,  1840. 
Lalayantz  (E.)    L^gendes  at  superstitions  de 

I'Annrnie,   L\'ev.   des  traditions  populaires, 

X.  pp.   1-5,  119-20,  193-97,  Paris,  1895. 


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III.   ARMENIAN   LITERATURE 


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tums-\\'issenchaft. 

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der  armenischen  Litteratur,  Lcips.  1836, 
8". 

Neve  (F.)  L'Arm^nieChrdtienne,  Zw^w/w, 
1886,  8". 

Patkanean  ( K. )  Catalogue  de  la  littt^rature 
arm^nienne  depuis  le  commencement  du 
iv<=  siecle  jusque  vers  le  milieu  du  xvii«. 
Bull.  Acad.  Sc.  ii.  pp.  49-91.  St.  Pet. 
i860. 

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historical  literature  of  Armenia  (from 
Trans,  of  Intern.  Congress  of  Orientalists, 
St.  Pet.  1876,  pp.  455-5"^.  St.  Pet. 
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Sukias  Somal  (P.)  Quadro  della  storia 
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488 


A 


ruienia 


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Bull.  Acad.  Sc.  xxii.  pp.  303-12,  St.  Pet. 
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Mecliitharisten  Bibliothek  zu  Wien  (deutsch- 
armenisch),   I'ienna,  1895. 

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du  Synode  Armino  -  Grigorien  a  I'Acadimie 
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Sc.  i.  pp.  59-64,  St.  Pet.  1844. 

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culture  des  lettres  en  Arminie,  Rev.  de  tOrient, 
■str.  3,  .\iv.  pp.  200-23,  Paris,  1861. 

Mourier  (— )  La  bibliotheque  d'Etchmiadzine  et 
les  MSS.  arminiens  (Armenian  miniature  paint- 
ing, trans,  from  Russ.  of  Uvarov  in  Trans,  of 
Archciological  Congress  at  TiJJis,  published  at 
W.jscow,  1882),  'Piflis,  1885. 

Schrumpf  (G.  A.)  On  the  progress  of  Armenian 
studies,  Trans.  Oriental  Congress,  1892,  i.  pp. 
540-5;.  Lond.  1893. 

Strzygowski  (J.)  Das  Et.schmiadzin-Evangeliar, 
Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  armenischen,  raven- 
natischen  und  syro-dgyptischen  Kztnst,  Vienna, 
1891. 

Tcheraz  (M.)  Les  Etudes  Arm^niennes  en  Europe, 
L'Arnienie,  Jan.  15,  seq.,  Lond.  1890. 

Armenian  Writer.s  Translated 

Agathangelos.  Fifth  century.  History 
of  King  Tiridates  and  the  conversion  of 
Armenia  to  Christianity  by  St.  Gregory 
the  Illuminator,  Constantinople,  1709  ; 
Venice,  1862.  New  edition  of  Greek 
te.xt  by  De  Lagarde  (P.),  Goltingen,  1887. 

Translations  : 
Ital. — Tommaseo  (N. )     Storia  di  Agath- 

angelo,   Venice,  1843,  8°. 
French,    with    Greek    te.xt,    in     Langlois' 
Collection.      See  supra. 

Gutschmid  (A.  von)  Agathangelos,  Kleine 
Schriftcn  iii.,  Leipz.  1892,  8°. 

Anania  of  Shirak  (astronomer  and  mathe- 
matician) 7th  century.  Calendar, 
Venice,  1821  ;   St.  Pet.   1877. 

Brosset  (M.  F.)  Extrait  d'un  manuscrit  Armeiiien 
rt-latif  au  caleiidrier  Georgian,  Jour.  Asiat.  x. 
stir.  2,  pp.  526-32,  J^aris,  1832. 

Anonymous.       5th    century.       Life    of   St. 

Xerses  the   Great   and   genealogy   of   the 

family    of   St.    Gregory   the    Illuminator, 

Venice,  1853. 
Translatiofi  : 

French. — In  Langlois'  Collection. 
Arakel  of  Tauris.     17th  century.     History, 

1602-61,  .Imslcrdam,  1669. 
Translation  : 

French  —  In     Hro.sset's    Collection.        See 
supra. 
Brosset.     Des  historiens  Arminiens  des   xvii^  et 

xviiie  siecles,  Mem.   Acad.  Sc.    xix.  s6r.  7,  pp. 

1-60,  St.  Pet.  1873. 


Aristakes    of    Lastivert.       nth    century. 
History  of  the  invasion  of  the  Seljuk  Turks, 
] 'en  ice,  1845. 
Translation  : 

French  —  Prudhomme     (E. )        Nev.      de 
I' Orient,  s€r.  3,  xv.  pp.  343-70;  .\vi.  pp. 
41-59)   158-84,   268-86,    289-318  ;   xvii. 
PP-  5-33.  Paris,   1863-64. 
Asoghigh   (Stephanos)    of  Taron.      nth 
century.        Universal     History,    from    the 
Creation  to  a.d.    1004,  Paris,  1854;   St. 
Pet.   1885. 
Translation  : 

French  —  (Books    I.    and   II.)      Dulaurier 
(E. ),  Paris,  1883,  8°. 
Chamchean     (Michael)        i8th     century. 
History   of   Armenia    from    K.  c.    2247    to 
A.U.   1780,    Venice,  1784-86,  3  vols.  4°. 
Translation  .- 

F.nglish    (abridged)  — Avdall    (].),     Cal- 
cutta, 1827,  2  vols.  8"'. 
David  Anyaght   (the   Philosopher)      5th 
century.      Theological   and   philosophical 
treatises  and  translations. 

Neumann  (0.  F.)  M^moire  sur  la  vie  et  les  ou- 
vrages  de  David,  philosophe  Arminien  du  v^ 
siecle.  Jour.  .4siat.  iii.  sir.  2,  pp.  49-86  ;  97-1531 
Paris,  182Q. 

Eghishe  or  Elisceus.  5th  century.  History 
of  Vardanand  of  the  wars  of  the  Armenians, 
Cojistantinople,  1764. 

Translations : 

Fnglish — Neumann  (C.  F. ),  Lond.    1830, 

4°- 

Italian — Cappelletti(C.),  Venice,  1840,  8°. 

French  —  Karabaghy    ( G. )      Soulevement 

national  de  I'Arm^nie  chr^tienne  au  V 

siecle  contre  la  loi  de  Zoroastre,  Paris, 

1844,  8'^,  and  in  Langlois'  Collection. 

Nfeve   (F.)      L'Arminie    chritienne,    pp.    299-316. 

See  su/ira. 

Eznik  Koghbetzi  (of  Kolb  or  Kulpi)      5th 
century.        Refutation    of    various     sects, 
Snivr/za,  1761  ;    Venice,  1826. 
Translations  : 

French — Le  Vaillant  de  Florival   (P.  E. ), 
Paris,     1853,     8°,     and    in     Langlois' 
Collection  (Book  II.). 
German — (Book   I\^)   Neumann   (C.    F. ) 
Zeits.  f.  d.  hist.  Theologie,  i.  pp.  71-78, 
Leipz.  1834. 
Dulaurier  (E.)      Cosmogonie   des  Perses  d'apres 
Eznig,   auteur   arminien  du   v"=   siecle.  Rev.    de 
TOrient,  ser.  3,  v.  pp.  253-62,  Paris,  1857. 
Wickering  (A.    de)       Eznik   de    Gog'ph    et    son 
traducleur    fran(;ais.    Rev.    dc    I'Orient,    sir.    3, 
iii.  pp.  207-16,  Paris,  1856. 

Faustus  of  Byzantium.  4th  and  5th  cen- 
turies. History  of  Armenia,  A.D.  317-85, 
Constantinople,  1730. 

Translations  : 
French — In  Langlois'  Collection. 
German — Lauer(M. ),  Cologne,  1879. 
Latin — Fragments  in  Procopius,  De  Belle 
Persico. 

MeneviSChean(P.  G.)  F'austusvon  ByzanzundDr. 


Bibliography 


489 


Lauer'sdeutsche  Uebersetzung,  Zeiis./.  li.  Kiiiidc 
lies  Morgenlandcs^  iii.  np.  51-68,  I'icnna,  1889. 
See  Gelzer  (H.)     Die  Anfiinge  der  armen.  Kirche, 
Bcrichtc  dcr  k.  scichs.  Gesell.  Wiss.  pp.  109-74, 
Lfipz.  1895. 
Ghevond  or  Levond.     8th  century.     History 
of  the  Invasion  of  Armenia  by  the  Arabs, 
Paris,  1856. 
Tratislation  : 

Froich — Chahnazarian,  Paris,  1856,  8°. 
Gregory  the   Illuminator.      3rd   century. 
Discourses    attributed  to,     Venice,    1838  ; 
I  'agha  rshapai,  1896. 
Translation  : 

German  —  .Schniid    (J.    M. ),    Regcnsb/irg, 
1872,  8^ 
Gregory  Magistros.    nth  century.     Poems, 

J\-nict-,  1868.      Letters,  not  published. 
LangloiS  (V. )     M^moire  sur  la  vie  et  les  Merits  du 
prince   Gregoire   Magistros,  Jour.    Asiat.    xiii. 
ser.  6.  pp.  4-64,  Paris,  1869. 

Gregory  of  Narek.     loth  century.     Pra3'ers, 

/  'cnirc,  1784. 
HomiUes  and  Odes,  Venice,  1827. 
Collected  works,    Venice,  1840. 
Nfeve  (F.)     LArmenie  chrtitienne,  pp.  256-68. 
Hethum  II.  (King  of  Cilicia)     14th  century. 

Poem  on  the  history  of  Armenia,  published 

with  the  Armenian  Bibles  of  Atnsterdain . 
1666,  Constantinople,  1705;   Venice,  1733. 
Translation  : 

French — In  Dulaurier's  Recueil.  Seesupra. 
LangloiS  (V.)     Extrait  du  poeme  du  roi  H^thoum 

II.,  Bi///.  Acad.  Sc.  iv.  p.  289,  St.  Pet.  1862. 
Indgidgean    (L. )      19th    century.      Ancient 

Armenia,    Venice,  1835,  4". 
Translatio?i  : 

Italian — Cappelletti   (G. ),    Turin,    1841, 
3    vols.       Geographical    description    of 
ancient  Armenia,    Venice,  1822,  4°. 
Brosset.     Description  de  Tancienne  Gtorgie  turke, 

comprenant     le     pachalik    d'Akhaltzikh^    et    le 

(iouria,    four.    Asiat.    xiii.    sir.    2,    pp.    459-87, 

Paris,  1834. 

John  Katholikos.      loth  century.      History 

of  Armenia  from  the  origin  of  the  world 

to  A.D.  925,  Jerusalem,  1843. 
Translation  : 

French— ?>2im\.  Martin  (J. ),  Paris,  1841,  8°. 
Bore  (E.)     De    Taction    du   Christianisme   sur   la 

societe  arminienne,  fotir.    Asiat.  i.   s6r.   3,  pp. 

209-38,  Paris,  1S36. 
N6ve.     L'Arminie  chrilienne,  pp.  317-40. 
Kirakos  of  Gandzak.      13th  century.      His- 
tory of  .Armenia,  .\.T).  300-1265,  Moscow, 

1858  ;    Venice,  1865. 
Translations : 

French  —  Brosset,     Deux    historiens    Ar- 

meniens,   St.  Pet.   1870-71,   2  vols.  4°  ; 

Dulaurier  (extracts)  in   Recueil,  and  in 

Jour.  Asiat.  xi.  s6r.  5,  Paris,  1858. 

See  Brosset,  Additions  a  I'histoire  de  la  Gtorgie, 

Hist,  ancicnne,  pp.  412-37,  St.  Pet.  1851. 
Koriun.     5th  century.      Life  of  St.  Mesrop, 

Venice,  1833. 
Translations  : 

German — Welte,   Tubingen,  1841. 

French  —  In  Langlois'  Collection. 


Lazar  of  Pharpi.  5th  century.  History 
of  Armenia,  A.u.  388-485,   Venice,  1783. 

Translation  : 

French — In  Langlois'  Collection. 
Karabagliy(G.)     AbriSgi  de  la  vie  .  .  .  du  Prince 

Vahan  le  Mamigonien,  Paris,  1S43,  8'. 

Maghakia  Abegha.  13th  century  (?).  His- 
tory of  the  nation  of  archers  (Invasion 
of  the  Mongols  to  A.D.  1272),  St.  Pet. 
1870. 

Translation  : 
French — Brosset,  Additions  a  I'liistoire  de 
la  G^orgie,  Hist,  ancienne,  pp.  438-67, 
St.  Pet.   1851,  4  . 

Mattheos  of  Edessa.  12th  century. 
Chronicle  from  A.D.  952-1136,  continued 
by  Gregory  the  Priest  to  1162,  Jerusalem, 
1869. 

Translation  : 
French — Dulaurier,  Paris,  1858,  8°. 

Ctaahan  de  Cirbled.  Notice  de  deux  manuscrits 
armeniens  contenant  I'histoire  de  Matthieu  Eretz, 
Paris,  1812,  4^. 

Dulaurier.     Recueil,  pp.  I-2CI. 

Neve.     L'Arminie  chretienne,  pp.  341-70. 

Mkhithar  of  Asrrivank.  13th  centur\. 
Chronological  history  to  -X.i).  1289, 
Moscoiv,  i860. 

Translation  : 

French  —  Brosset,    Mem.    Acad.    Sc.    xiii. 
s^r.  7,  pp.  i-iio,  St.  Pet.  1869. 

Brosset.  Etudes  sur  I'historien  Armenien  Mkhitar 
d'.Airavank,  Biitt.  Acad.  Sc.  viii.  pp.  391-416, 
.S7.  Pet.  1S65. 

Moses     of     Khorene.        Date      uncertain. 
History  of  Armenia,   Amsterdam,    1695  ; 
Venice,  1843. 
Translations  : 

Latin    (with    Armenian    text)  —  W'histon 

(G.  and  G. ),  Lond.   172^,  4". 
Italian — Cappelletti  (G.),     Venice,    1841, 
8'.     Tommaseo  (N. ),   fVwzVf,  1849-50, 
8°. 
German — Lauer  (M. ),  Regensburg,  1869. 
French  (with  Armenian  text) — Le  Vaillant 
de  Florival  (P.  E. ),  Paris,  1841,  2  vols. 
8'  ;  and  in  Langlois'  Collection,  vol.  ii. 
See  also,   for   his   sources,    ibid.    vol.    i. 
translations     of     Mar     Apas     Catina, 
Bardesanes,    The    Pseudo  -  Bardesanes, 
Lerubna  of  Edessa,  The  Pseudo-Agath- 
angelos,  and   list   of  lost    fragments  of 
Greek  historians  preserved  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Armenian  authors. 
Baumgartner  (A.)     Dr.  M.  Lauer  und  das  zweite 

Kuch  de-  iSIoses  Chorenazi,  Leipz.  1885. 
Burckhardt  ( — )     Review  of  Carriere's  Ligende 
d'Abgar  (sources  of  Moses  of  Khorene),  Byzan- 
iinisclte  Zeitscliri/t,  pp.  426-435,  Leipz.  1807. 
Carriere  (A.)     Moise  de  Khoren  et  les  genealogies 
patriarcales,  Paris,   i£qi,  8°.      Nouvelles  sources 
de  Moise  de  Khoren,  Vienna,  1893,  8°,  and  Sup- 
plement, 1894.     La  legende  d'Abgar  dans  I'his- 
toire d'Armenie  de  Moise  de  Khoren,  Paris,  1895, 
8°. 
Gildemeister  (J.)     Pseudokallisthenes  bei  Moses 
von  Khoren,  Zeits.  dents.  Morg.  Gesell.  xl.  pp. 
88-91,  Leipz.  1S86. 
GutSChmid  (A.   von)     Moses  von  Khoren,  Klein- 


490 


Armenia 


Schrifteii,   iii.    pp.   332-38,    Leipz.    1892,   and    in 

English  in  Eticyclopeedia  Britannica,  Ljnd.  1S83. 

Ueber    die    Glaubwiirdigkeit     der    armenischen 

Geschichte  des  Moses  von  Khoren,  Kleine Schrif- 

ten,  iii.  pp.  282-331,  Lcipz.  1892. 
Khalathianz  (G.)    Zur  Erklaruiig  der  armenischen 

(leschichtc  ties  Moses  von  CMox^n^,  Zeits.  f.  d. 

A  iindc  dcs  Morgcnlandt's,  vii.  pp.  21-28,  I'/enfuz, 

1S93. 
LanglOiS(V.)     Etude  sur  les  sources  de  I'histoire 

d'Armiinie   de   Moise   de  Khorene,  BuU.  Acad. 

Sc.  iii.  pp.  531-83,  SV.  Pet.  1861. 
Petermann  (— )      Die    schriftlichen   Quellen    des 

Moses   Chorenensis,   Berichte    Verhand.    Akad. 

U'/is.  pp.  87-104,  Berlin,  1852. 
Saint  Martin  (J.)     Notice  sur  la  vie  et  les  terits 

de    Moise    de    Khoren,  Joitr.   Asiat.   ii.   sir.   i, 

pp.  322-44,  Paris,  1823. 
Vetter  (P.)      Das   .Sibyllen-Zitat   bei    Moses   von 

Choren,  Theol.Qitartalsclirift,-pT^.  465-74,  Tnltin- 

gen,  1892.     Das  Buch   des  Mar  Abas  von  Nisi- 

bis  (sources  of  Moses  ol"  Khorene),   Stuttgart, 


Geography,   Marseilles,    1683  ;   Land.    1736, 
4",    with    Latin   trans.  ;    Paris,    1819,    8°, 
with    French    trans.  ;      Venice,     1881,    8°, 
with  French  trans. 
Translations  : 

Latin — Whiston     (G.     and     G. ),     Lond. 

1736,  4°- 
French  —  Saint    Martin   (J.)    in   Mdtnoires 

sur  r Armilnie,  vol.  ii.,  Paris,  1819,  8°  ; 

Soukrean  (A.),    Venice,  i88r,  8°. 


Treatise  on  Rhetoric,   Venice,   1796,   1843. 
Batimgartner  (A.)     Ueber  das  Buch  "  Die  Chrie," 

Zeits.    dents.    Morg.    Gesell.    xl.    pp.    457-515, 

Leipz.  1886. 

Nerses  Clayetzi  (of  Romkla)  or  Snorhali 

(the  Gracious),  Katholikos.     1066-1 173. 

Elegy  on  the  fall  of  Edessa,  Madras,  1810  ; 

Calcutta,  1832  ;   Paris,  1828. 

Poems,    Venice,  1830. 

Pastoral  letter  with  Latin  translation,  Venice, 

1830. 
Synodal  Address  and  Letters,  Venice,  1848. 
Prayer  (translated  into  thirty-six  languages), 

Venice,  1810,  1862,  1882. 
Translations  : 

Latin  —  Cappelletti   (J.)      Opera    omnia, 

Venice,  1833. 
French — (Synodal  address)  Dulanrier  (E. ) 
Hjstoire,   rites,    dogmes    et    liturgie    de 
I'Eglise  arm^nienne  ;    (Elegy  on  the  fall 
of  Edessa)  extracts  in  Dulaurier's  Recueil, 
pp.  223-268,  Paris,  1855. 
Avdall   (J.)     Memoir  of  life  and  writings  of  St. 
Nierses  Clajensis,  surnamed  the  Graceful,  Pon- 
tiff of  Armenia,  Jour.  Asiat.  Hoc.  Bengal,  v.  pp. 
129-57,  Calctttta,  1836. 
Monike   (D.    G.    v.)      Nierses   Klaietsi  .   .   .   und 
dessen  (lebete,  Zeits.  f.  hist.  Theol.  i.  pt.  ii.  pp. 
67-104,  Leipz.  1832. 
N6ve  (F.)    Le  patriarche  Nerses  IV.  dit  Schnorhali, 
L' .-Xrini-nie  chretienne,  pp.  269-86. 

Nerses      of      Lambron.        12th     century. 

.Synodal    .\ddress   to   Council   of   Romkla, 

Venice,   1787. 
Treatise  on  the;  institutions  of  the  Church, 

Venice,  1847. 


Letters,  etc.  (with  letters  of  Gregory  Tegha) 

(Katholikos,  1173-80),    I'enice,  1838. 
Translations  : 

Italian  —  (Synodal  .Address)  Aucherian 
(P.)  (with  Armenian  text),  Venice,  1812. 

dermati  —  (Synodal  Address)  Neumann 
(C.  F.),  Leipz.  1834. 

French — In   Dulaurier's    Recueil  :    Reflec- 
tions   sur    les    institutions    de    I'Eglise 
(extraits)  ;      Lettre     adress^e     au     roi 
Eton  II. 
Orbelean      Stephanos.        13th     centtiry. 

History  of  .Siunia,  Paris,    1859  ;   Moscow, 

1861. 
Translations  : 

French  —  Brosset,    St.     Pet.     1864-66,    2 
vols.  4°. 
Brosset.        Projet     d'une     collection     d'historiens 

armiiniens  inedits.  Butt,  scient.  Acad.  Sc.  viii. 

pp.  177-89  and  i,\-.  pp.  253-68,  St.  Pet.  1841-42. 
Traduction  de  I'histoire  d'Etienne  Orbilian,  Bull. 

Acad.  Sc.  vi.  pp.  500-1,  ^S"^.  Pet.  1863. 
Histoire  des  princes  Orbilians,  idid.  viii.  p.   177, 

1865. 
See    also    Saint    Martin,   Afem.  sur  t Annenie, 

Paris.  1819,  vol.  ii.  pp.  1-300,  for  French  trans. 

of   a   work   attributed    to   Stephanos   Orbelean, 

published    in     Madras,    1775,    about    which    see 

Sukias  Somal,  Quadro  della  storia  letteraria  di 

Aimenia,  pp.  119-20,  Venice,  1829,  8". 

Samuel  of  Ani.      12th  century.     History  to 

A. U.  1 179  (continued  by  unknown  author 

toA.D.   1337),    Vagharshapaf,  1893. 
Translations  : 

Latin  —  Zohrab,  Milan,  1818  ;  and  in 
Migne's  Patrologice  cursus  completus, 
ser.  Grceca,  xix.  pp.  599-742,  Paris, 
1844-64. 

French — In  Brosset's  Collection. 
Brosset.      Samuel    d'Ani,  revue    gdnirale    de    sa 

chronologie.   Bull.   Acad.  Sc.  xviii.  pp.   402-42, 

St.  Pet.  1873. 
Dulaurier.      Recueil,    pp.    445-68;    and    see    his 

Recherches  sur  la  chronologie  arminienne. 
Sebeos.     7th  century.     History  of  Heraklius, 

Constantinople,  1851  ;   St.  Pet.   1879. 
Translations  : 

Russia?! — Patkanean  (K.),  St.  Pet.  1862. 

German — (part)    Hiibschmann  (H. )     Zur 
Geschichte  Armeniens   und    der    ersten 
Kriege  der  Araber,  Leipz.  1875,  8°. 
Prudhomme    (E.)      Essai    d'une    histoire    de    la 

dynastie  des  Sassanides,  etc.,  Jotir.  Asiat.  s6r. 

6,  vii.  pp.  101-238,  Paris,  1866. 
Sembat    (the    Constable)       13th    century. 

Chronicle,  Moscow,   1856  ;    Paris,   1859. 
Translation  .• 

French — Dulaurier,  Recueil,   pp.   605-80  ; 
Langlois  (part),  A/i'm.  Acad.  Sc.  s^r.  7, 
iv.  St.  Pet.   1862. 
Thomas  Artsruni.     9th  and  loth  centuries. 

Armenian  history  with  an  account  of  the 

Artsruni  family  (continued  by  later  writers). 

Con  sta  n  tinople ,  1852. 
Translation  : 

French — In  Brosset's  Collection. 
Brosset.     Notice  sur  I'historien  arminien  Thomas 

.'\rd/rouni,    Bull.   Acad.    .^c.   v.  pp.  538-54,  St. 

Pet.  1863. 


Bibliography 


491 


Sur  I'histoire  coniposte  en  arnienien  par  Thomas 
Ardzroiini,  ibid.  xiv.  pp.  428-32,  1870. 

Neve.  Histoire  de  la  Maison  des  Ardzrounis, 
Muscon,  vi.  pp.  ZTi'lli  Louvain,  1887. 

Thomas      Metsobatzi.  15th      century. 

History  of  Tiniur,   Paris,    i860;     TijUs, 

1892. 
N6ve.     Etudes  sur  Thomas  de  Medzoph  et  sur  son 

histoire    de    I'Arm^nie    au    xv^    siecle,    Paris, 

1855,  8°. 
E.\pos6  des  guerres  de  Tamerlan  et  de  Schah-Rokh 

dans    I'Asie    occidentale    d'apres    la    chronique 

arm^nienne    inedite   de    Thomas    de   Medzoph, 

Brussels,  i860,  8°. 
Quelques   Episodes   de  la   persecution   du   Christi- 

anisme    en    Arm^nie    au    xv-e    siecle,    Louvain, 

1861,  8°.         _ 
Sources  arm^niennes  pour  rhistoire  des  Mongols, 

L' Arinniic  chrciienne,  pp.  371-S2. 

Ukhtanes     of     Edessa.        loth     century. 
History  of  the  religious  separation  of  the 
Armenians  and  Georgians,    Vagharshapat , 
1871. 
Translaiion  : 

French — Brosset  (M.  F. )     Deux  historians 
arm^niens,  St.  Pet.   1870-71  (2  vols.) 
Brosset  (M.  F,)     Etudes  sur  I'historien  armdnien 
Ouktanes,  Bull.  Acad.  Sciences,  xiii.  pp.  401-54, 
.S7.  Pet.  1869. 
Vardan  the  Great.     13th  century.     History, 
edited  by  Emin,  with  Russian  translation, 
Moscinu,  1861  ;    Venice,  1862. 
Dulaurier.      Les   Mongols  d'apres   les   historiens 
arm^niens  (extrait   de   I'histoire    universelle   de 
Vartan),    Jour.  Asiat.  six.  s,  xvi.    pp.  273-323, 
Paris,  i860. 
Reiiieil,  pp.  431-43. 

Brosset.  Analyse  critique  de  I'histoire  de  Vardan, 
Mem.  Acad.  Sc.  s6r.  7,  iv.  pp.  1-30,  St.  Pet. 
1S62. 


Geography  (attributed  to  Vardan),  Constan- 
tinople, 1728. 
Translation  : 

French  (with  Armenian  text)  —  Saint 
Martin,  in  Mhn.  sur  V Arminie,  vol.  ii. 
Paris,  18 19. 


Fables  (attributed  to  \'ardan),  St.  Pet.  1899 

(N.  Marr). 
Translation  : 

French  —  Saint      Martin,      Jour.      Asiat. 
s^r.  i.  Paris,  1825. 
See  Sukias  Somal's  Quadro,  p.   iii. 
Conybeare   (F.    C.)     Review   of  "The    Fables   of 
Wardan,"  by  N.  Marr,  Folk  Lore,  pp.  462-75, 
Land.  1899. 

Zenob  of  Glak.  4th  century.  History  of 
Taron,  attributed  to  Zenob  of  Glak,  and 
continued  by  John  Mamikonean,  7th 
century,  Constantinople,  1719  ;  Venice, 
1843. 
Translations  : 

French — Prudhomme  (E. )      Jour.    Asiat. 

s^r.    6,    ii.    pp.    401-75,    Paris,    1863. 

And  in  Langlois'  Collection. 
English  —  Avdall    (J. )       Memoirs    of    a 

Hindoo    colony    in     Ancient   Armenia, 

Jour.  Asiat.    Soc.    of  Bengal,    Calcutta, 

1836. 


Stackelberg.  Review  of  "Zenob  of  Glak"  (Fzt'«?;a, 
1893)  by  Khalatheantz  (Chalatiantz)  in  modern 
Armenian,  Byzantinische  Zeitschri/t,  pp.  368-70, 
Leipz.  1895. 

Brosset's  Collection,  vol.  ii. ,  also  contains 
translations  of  certain  writers  of  the  17th 
and  1 8th  centuries.  See  also  his  His- 
toire de  la  Gdorgie  {St.  Pet.  185 1), 
Voyage  Arch^ologique,  and  Ruines  d'Ani 
{supra.  Travel  in  Nineteenth 
Century)  for  translated  extracts  from 
Armenian  writers. 

History 

Artemi  of  Vagharshapat.     Memoirs  of  his 

life  (trans,  fioni  Armenian).  English, 
Lond.  1822,  8  ;  German  by  Busse,  Halle, 
1823,  8°. 

Brosset  (M.  F.)  Inscriptions  arm^niennes 
de  Bolghari,  Bull.  Scient.  Acad.  Sc.  iii. 
pp.  18-21,  St.  Pet.  1838. 

Notice  historique  sur  les  couvents  arm^niens 
de  Haghbat  et  de  Sanahin,  Bull.  Scient. 
Acad.  Sc.  X.  pp.  303-36,  St.  Pet.  1842. 

Inscriptions  armeniennes,  Bull.  Acad.  Sc.  i. 
pp.  399-413,  St.  Pet.  i860. 

Listes  chronologiques  des  princes  et  m^tro- 
polites  de  la  Siounie,  jusqu'a  la  fin  du 
-xiiie  siecle,  Bull.  Acad.  Sc.  iv.  pp.  497- 
562,  St.  Pet.  1862. 

Description  of  the  Armenian  convents  of 
Haghbat  and  Sanahin  by  the  vardapet 
John  of  the  Crimea.  In  Armenian  and 
Russian  with  Appendix  in  French,  A/t'm. 
Acad.  Sc.  vi.,  St.  Pet.  1863. 

Chahan  de  Cirbied  (J.)  Histoire  ar- 
menienne  (details  sur  les  changements  poli- 
tiques  en  G^orgie  et  en  Arm6nie  dans  les 
premieres  annfes  du  xix™^  siecle),  Paris, 
1818,  8°. 

Chahnazarian  ( — )  Esquisse  de  I'histoire 
de  I'Armenie,  coup  d'oeil  sur  I'Arm^nie 
ancienne  et  sur  son  ^-tat  actuel,  Paris, 
1856,  8°. 

Daghbaschean  (H.)  Griindung  des  Bagra- 
tidenreiches  durch  Aschot  Bagratuni, 
Berlin,   1893. 

Defremery  ( — )  Fragments  de  g6ographes 
et  d' historiens  arabes  et  persans  in^dits, 
relatifs  aux  anciens  peuples  du  Caucase  et 
de  la  Russie  m^ridionale,  Jour.  Asiat. 
s^r.  4,  xiv.  pp.  447-513  :  ^'^'i-  PP-  S°-75' 
153-201  ;   xvii.  pp.  105-162,  Paris,   1849- 

50-SI' 

Dulaurier  (E.)  Etude  sur  1' organisation 
politique,  religieuse  et  administrative  du 
royaume  de  la  Petite  Arminie  (valuable 
for  its  bearings  on  Armenia  Proper),  Jour. 
Asiat.  s^r.  5,  xvii.  pp.  377-437  ;  •^'^■i"- 
pp.  289-357,  Paris,  1861. 

Kazem-Beg  (M.  A.)  Derbend  -  Nameh 
(conciuest  of  Armenia  by  the  Arabs  in  8th 
century),    Eng.    trans,    from   the   Turkish, 


492 


Armenia 


Mim.  Acad.  Sc.  pp.  435-711,  ^7.  Pet. 
1851. 

Klaproth  (J.  von)  Al^moire  de  Jean  Ouosk- 
'lierdjan,  i)retre  armenien  (events  in  Ar- 
menia in  1 8th  century  ;  monastery  of 
Haghbat  ;  inscriptions  at  Marmashen, 
Ani,  Haghbat,  etc.),  in  Mim.  relatifs 
a  I'Asie,  vol.  i.  pp.  224-309,  Paris,  1824. 

Extrait  du  Derbend-Xameh  ou  de  I'Histoire 
de  Derbend  (trans,  from  the  Turkish), 
Jour..Asiat.  s^r.  2,  iii.  pp.  439-67,  Paris, 
1829. 

Aper9u  des  entreprises  des  Mongols  en 
G^orgie  et  en  Arm^nie  dans  le  xiii™" 
siecle,  Paris,  1833,  8°. 

Langlois  (V.)  Place  de  I'Arm^nie  dans 
I'histoire  du  monde,  Rev.  de  l' Orient, 
ser.  3,  iv.  pp.  321-331,  Paj-is,  1856. 

Lettre  sur  I'histoire  politique,  religieuse  et 
civile  des  Arm^niens  a  I'^poque  des  croi- 
sades,  Bull.  Acad.  Sc.  iii.  pp.  241-248, 
St.  Pet.   1861. 

Neumann   (C.   F. )     Geschichte   der    Ueber- 


siedlung  von  40,000  Armeniern,  welche 
ini  Jahre  1828  aus  der  persischen  Provinz 
Aderbaidschan  nach  Russland  anwanderten 
/from  the  Russian  of  S.  Glinka),  Leipz. 
1834,  8\ 

Petermann  (H. )  Beitritge  zu  der  Geschichte 
der  Kreuzztige  aus  armenischen  Quellen, 
Abh.  K.  Akad.  Wiss.  pp.  81-186,  Berlin, 
i860. 

Petermann  (J.  H. )  De  Ostikanis,  .Arabicis 
Armenia;  Gubernatoribus,  Berlin,  1840,  4°. 
See  also  Brosset,  Hist,  de  la  G^orgie,  Hist. 
Ancienne,  Additions,  etc.,  pp.  249  seq. 

Saint  Martin  (J.)  Histoire  des  revolutions 
de  rArmi^nie  sous  le  regne  d'Arsace  II., 
pendant  le  iv^  siecle.  Jour.  Asiat.  ser. 
2,  iv.  pp.  402-52  ;  v.  pp.  161-207,  336- 
74,  Paris,  1829-30. 

Serpos  (G.  de)  Compendio  storico  di 
memorie  cronologiche  concernenti  la  re- 
ligione  e  la  morale  della  nazione  armenia, 
suddita    dell'    impero    ottomano,     Venice 

1786,    3  vols.     12°. 


IV.   VANNIC  INSCRIPTIONS 


Sayce  (A.  H. )  The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions 
of  Van,  Jour.  R.  Asiat.  Soc.  xiv.  pp.  377- 
732  ;  XX.  pp.  1-48  ;  XXV.  pp.  1-37  ;  xxvi. 
pp.  691-732,  Loud.   1882-88-93-94. 

Belck  (W.)  and  Lehmann  (C.  F.)  Pending 
the  publication  of  a  comprehensive  account 
of  the  travels  and  researches  of  these,  the 
most  recent  workers   in  this  field  of  dis- 

'  covery,  references  are  here  given  to  various 
periodicals  in  which  they  have  recorded 
their  work  up  to  the  present  time  :  — 

Verhand.  der  Berliner  Gesell.  fiir  Anthrop. 
etc.  1892,  pp.  477-88  ;  1893,  pp.  61-82, 
217-24,  389-400;  1894,  pp.  213-41,479- 
87;   1895,  PP-    57S"92.  592-601,  601-16; 

1896,  pp.  309-21,  321-27,  586-89;  1897, 
pp.  302-8;  1898,  pp.  522-27,  568-92; 
1899,  pp.  193-94,  4-11-20. 

Zeits.  fiir  Ethnologie  [Berl.  Gesell.  fiir 
Anthrop.  etc.),  1892,  pp.  122-52;  1899, 
pp.  99-132. 

Zeits.  fiir  Assyriologie  [Berlin,  etc.),  1892, 
pp.   255-67;    1894,    pp.    82-99,  339-60; 

1897,  pp.  113-24,  197-206;  1899,  pp. 
307-22. 

Sitzungsb.  der  k.  preuss.  Akad.  der  1  Viss. 
[Berlin],  1899,  pp.  116-20,745-49;  igoo, 

PR-  619-33- 
Nackricliten    der   k.    Gesell.    der    Wiss.    zu 

Gottingen,  phi  I. -hist.  Classe,  1899,  p;).  80 

seq. 
Recueil  de  travaux  relatifs  ii  la  philologic  et 

a    r archdologie    dgyptienne    et    assyrienne 

[Paris),  1896,  pp.  209-17. 
Mittheilungen  der  geog.   Gesell.  [Hatnbuig], 

1898,  pp.  1-23,  189-221;  1899,  PP-   ^6-70. 


Globus  [Brunswick),  1893,  PP-   153-5^- 
Deutsche    Rundschau    [Berlin),     1894,     pp. 
402-18. 

Hyvernat  (H. )  L'histoire  ancienne  de 
r.Vrmenie  et  les  inscriptions  cun^iformes  du 
bassin  de  Van  (in  Miiller-Simonis's  Du 
Caucase  au  Golfe  Persique),  Paris,  1892, 

4°- 

Basmadjian  (K.  J.)  Note  on  the  Van  Inscriptions, 
Jour.  R.  Asiat.  Soc.  xxi.  ser.  3,  pp.  579-83,  Land. 

1897. 
Brosset    (M.    F.)       Notice    sur    deux    inscriptions 

cun^iformes  (Armavir),  Biill.  AcaJ.   Sc.  v.   pp. 

428-35,  St.  Pet.  1863. 
Rapport  sur  diver.ses  inscriptions  (.\rmavir),  Bitil. 

Acad.  Sc.  vii.  pp.  275-77,  St.  Pet.  1864. 
.Sur  I'histoire  ancienne  de  I'Arm^nie,  Bull.  Acad. 

Sc.  -wi.  pp.  332-40,  St.  Pet.  1871. 
De  Saulcy.     Recherches  sur  I'^criture  cun^iforme 

assyrienne  ;  inscriptions  de  Van,  Paris,  1848,  8°. 
Ducreux  (C.)     L'Armi^nie  primitive.  Rev.  Ency- 

clopcdiquc,  pp.  336-37,  Paris,  1897. 
Grotefend.     (Inscription  of  Lsoglu,  discovered  by 

jMiihlbach),  Original  Papers  0/ Syro-Egyptian 

Soc,  Loiui.  1840. 
Guyard    (S.)       Les    inscriptions    de    Van,  Jour. 

Asiat.  XV.  s^r.  7,  pp.  540-43,  Paris,  1880. 
Etude    sur    les    inscriptions    de    Van    (Melanges 

d'Assyriologie),  Paris,  1883,  8°. 
I.    Notes  sur  quelques  particularites  des  inscription.s 

de  Van.     2.   Inscriptions  de  Van  ;  les  estampages 

de  M.  Deyrolle, /o?/?-.  Asiat.  i.  .sir.  8,  pp.  261, 

517,  Paris,  1883. 
Note  sur  quelques  passages  des  inscriptions  de  Van, 

Jour.  Asiat.  ii.  sir.  8,  p.  306,  Paris,  1883. 
Etudes  Vanniques, /(7?<>-.  Asiat.  iii.  ser.  8,  pp.  499- 

517,  Paris,  1884. 
HinckS  (E.)     On  the  Inscriptions  at  Van,  Jour.  R. 

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VI.   POLITICAL 


Engelhardt  (E. )  La  Turquie  et  le  Tanzi- 
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Ottoman  depuis  1826),  Paris,  1884,  2 
vols.  8'\ 

Holland  (T.  E. )  A  Lecture  on  the  Treaty 
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The  European  Concert  in  the  Eastern  Ques- 
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Rolin-Jaequemyns  (M.  G.)  L'Arm6nie,  les 
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Anon.  Rapports  sur  I'oppressiou  des  Arminiens 
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The  Armenian  question,  by  an  Eastern  Statesman, 
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1880. 

Quelques  indications  sur  les  r^formes  a  introduire 
dans  I'adininistration  de  I'Arm^nie,  Constanti- 
nople, 1880,  'i,' pain. 

M^nioire  sur  la  question  arm^nienne,  pr6sent6 
aux  Grandes  Puissances  a  I'occasion  du  Congres 
de  Berlin,  Constantinople,  1880,  12°  pnni. 

La  Question  arm^nienne.  Note  collective  ad- 
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8°  pant. 


The  Case  for  the  Armenians,  Lond.  1S93,  8°. 
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4'  pain. 
Violations   of   the   Hatti-Humayum,    A  fw    \  'ork. 

The  Armenian  Question,  by  a  Diplomatist,  Ne-dj 

Rez'.  xii.  pp.  62-66,  Lond.  1S95. 
Our  obligations  to  Armenia,   Macmillans  Mag. 

vol.  Ixxi.  pp.  340-45,  Lo7id.  1895. 
Historical  sketch  of  Armenia  and  the  Armenians 

in    ancient    and    modern     times,    with     special 

reference  to  the  present  crisis,  by  an  old  Indian, 

Lond.  1896,  8°. 
La  v6rit6  sur  les  massacres  d' Armenia  (rapports  de 

t6moins  oculaires,  correspondances  particulieres), 

par  un  Philarmene,  Paris,  1896,  8°. 
Armenia     and     the     Powers  :    from     behind     the 

scenes,    Contemporary   Rev.    Ixix.    pp.    628-43, 

Lond.  1896. 
The     Constantinople      Massacre,      Contemporary 

Rev.  l.vx.  pp.  457-65,  Lond.  1896. 
The    Two    Eastern    Questions    (by    W.),     Fort- 
nightly Rev.  lix.  pp.  193-208,  Lond.  1896. 
England's  policy  in  lurkey  (by  a  Turkish  officer), 

Fortnightly  Rev.  lix.  pp.  2S6-90,  Lotid.  1896. 
Lord    Rosebery's    Second    Thoughts    (by    Diplo- 

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1896. 
The  Eastern    Question,  Blackwood,  clx.  pp.  847- 

58,  Ed  in.  1896. 
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of  Armenian  Catholics),  Rez'.   Catholique,  Aug. 

and  Dec.  1874  and  Jan.  1875,  Louvain,  1874-75. 
Lanin  (E.  B.)    Armenia  and  the  Armenian  people, 

Fortnightly  Rett.,  Lond.  1890. 
LepsiUS  (J.)      Armenia  and   Europe:    an    Indict- 
ment, Lond.  1897. 
Lynch    (H.    F.    B.)       The    Armenian     Question, 

Contemporary    Rev.,     3    articles,    June,     July, 

September,  Lond.  1894. 
The    Armenian     Question  :     Europe    or    Russia? 

Contemporary  Rev.  pp.  270-76,  Lond.  1896. 
MacColl_  (M.)      England's   responsibility   towards 

Armenia,  Lond.  1895,  S"  pain. 
The      Constantinople      Ma.s.sacre,     Conte?nporaiy 

Rev.  Ixviii.  pp.  744-60,  Lond.  1895. 
Armenia    and    the    Transvaal,    Fortnightly    Rev. 

lix.  pp.  313-29,  Lond.  1896. 
Malcolm    (J.    A.)      An    Armenian's    Cry   for    Ar- 
menia, Nineteenth  Century,  xxviii.   pp.  640-47, 

Lond.  1890. 
Marillier  (L.)     La  Question  armenienne  (statistics 

of  massacres),   Rezi.    Chretientu;   s6r.   3,  iv.  pp. 

401-20,  Paris,  1896. 
Nazarbek  (A.)    Armenian  Revohitionists  upon  the 

Armenian  Problem,  Lond.  1895,  ^^  pam. 
Prudhomme     (E.)       Constitution     nationale     des 

Anneniens     (trad,     de     I'Armenien),      Rc2i.     de 

rOrient,  siir.  3,  xiv.  pp.  1-18,  -9-107,  Paris,  1861. 

[This  Constitution  appears  to  have  been  drawn  up 

in  i860,  and  promulgated  in  May  of  the  .same  year. 

It  is  much  the  .same  as  that  printed  in  the  Ap- 
pendix   to    the   present    work,   but    is   differently 

arranged.      The   article   contains   a   list   of    the 

constituencies  with  their  representation. — Note 

by  H.  F.  B.  L.] 
Ra'fiuddin  (A.)     A  Moslem  view  of  Abdul  Hamid 

and    the    Powers,   Nineteenth  Century,  xxxviii. 

pp.  156-64,  Lond.  1895. 
.\  Moslem's    view    of    the    Pan-Islamic    Revival, 

Nineteenth  Century,  xlii.  pp.  517-26,  Lond.  1897. 
Ramsay  {W.  M.)     Two  Massacres  in  .\sia  Minor, 

Contemporary  Rev.  Ixx.  pp.  435-48,  Zo«c;'.  1896. 
Rassam  (H.)     The  Armenian  difficulty  :  results  of 

a  local  enquiry,  /.  and  Asiat.  Quart.  Re7'.   ix. 

PP-  42-47  :  >'■•  PP-  49-57.  Lond.  1895. 
Sadik  Eflfendi.     The  Armenian  agitation  :  a  reply 

to  Mr.   Stevenson,  M.P.,  New  Rev.  ix.  pp.  456- 

65,  Lond.  1893. 


496 


Armenia 


Safir  ( — )     The  Armenian  Question,  /.  and  Asiat. 

Quart.  Rev.  ix.  pp.  48-52,  Land.  1895. 
Salmone  (H.  A.)    The  real  rulers  of  Turkey,  Ninc- 

tcctitli  Ceiitury,  xxxvii.  pp  719-33,  Lend.  1895. 
The   Massacres   in   Turkey,  Nincttenth  Century, 

xl.  pp.  671-75,  Land.  1896. 
Sandwith   (H.)     How   the   Turks   rule   Armenia, 

Ninctt'cntk  Ccntjiry,  iii.  pp.  314-29,  Land.  1878. 
Sevasly    (M.)      The     Armenian     question,    Neiv 

KiT'.  i.  pp.  305-16,  Loud.  1889. 
Shaw  Letevre  (G.)    Constantinople  revisited.  Nine- 

ictittli  Century,  xxviii.  pp.  927-44,  Loud.  1890. 
Stevenson   (F.    S.)      The   Armenian   Church,    its 

history  and  its  wrongs.  New  Ke7'.  ix.  pp.  201-6, 

Loud.  1893. 
The   Armenian   agitation  :    a   rejoinder    to    .Sadik 

Effendi,  Neiu  ReT.  ix.  pp.  64S-54,  Land.  1893. 
.Armenia,   Contemporary  Rez'.    Ixvii.    pp.    201-200, 

I^ond.  1S95. 
Troshine    (Y.)      A     Bystander's     Notes    of    the 

Armenian  massacre  at  Constantinople,  Scribner, 

XX i.  pp.  48-67,  Ne7v  York  atid  Lond.  1897. 
V^mbery    (H.)      Das     nationale    Erwachen     der 

Armenier,  Allgein.  /.eitutig.,  1890,  224-25  ;  Beilage 

188-89,   Tu/ihigen,  1890. 
Zur   armenischen    Frage,    Dcuts.   Rev.    xx.    May, 

pp.  228-44,  Stuttgart,  1895. 
VartOOguian    (A.    P.)     Armenia's,   ordeal.    New 

Yo?-k,  1896,  8'. 
Watson   (W.)      The    Purple   East.      A   series   of 

sonnets  on  England's  desertion  of  Armenia,  Land. 


Woods  (H.  F.)  (Woods  Pasha)  The  truth  about 
Asia  Minor,  Lond.  1890,  1,°  pain. 

See  also  the  newspaper  L' Ariiienie  (French  and 
English),  editor  M.  Tcheraz,  published  in  London 
from  Nov.  1889  onwards ;  and  the  Bull,  de 
rCEuTre  des  flcoles  d'Orieut,  vols,  xviii.  and  xix., 
for  letters  from  the  scenes  of  the  Armeniara 
massacres  from  R.  Catholic  clergy  and  others, 
Paris,  1895-98. 

British  Parliamentary  Papers 

Despatch  from  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury  enclosing 
a  copy  of  the  Treaty  signed  at  Berlin,  13th  July 
1878,  Turkey,  1878,  No.  38. 

Correspondence  respecting  the  condition  of  popula- 
tions in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  Turkey,  1879, 
No.  10;  1880,  Nos.  4  and  23;  1881,  No.  6. 

Correspondence  relating  to  the  Asiatic  provinces  of 
Turkey,  Turkey,  1889,  No.  i  (trial  of  Moussa 
Bey);  continued,  1890,  No.  i;  1890-91,  No.  i, 
and  1S92,  No.  i  ;  1889,  No.  i  ;  1895,  No.  i, 
Part  I.  (Events  at  .Sassoon  and  commission  of 
enquiry  at  Mush),  continued.  Part  II.  ;  1896, 
Nos.  3,  5,  and  6. 

Correspondence  respecting  the  Kurdish  invasion  of 
Persia,  Ttirkey,  1881,  No.  5. 

Correspondence  respecting  the  introduction  of 
reforms  in  the  Armenian  provinces  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  Turkey,  1896,  No.  i  ;  Correspondence 
relative  to  the  Armenian  question,  1896,  No.  2. 


INDEX 


Abagha  Plain,  ii.  401 

Abaran  (Kasagh)  river,  i.  136,  242,  316 

Abas,  king  of  the  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  352,  390,  407 

Abastuman,  Russian  watering  place,  i.  48,  53-55, 
432 

Abazbek,  posting  station,  i.  84 

jVbbas,  Shah  of  Persia,  transports  a  colony  of 
Armenians  to  Ispahan  and  carries  off  slabs  from 
Kdgmiatsin,  i.  262,  264  note  5.  Comes  into  pos- 
session of  Van,  ii.  78.  Reputed  to  have  taken 
Kars,  i.  396 

Abdul  ]Miseh,  grave  of  a  supposed  king  of  this 
name,  ii.  133 

Abdurrahman  Gazi,  valley  and  pass  into  Tekman 
from  Krzerum,  ii.  202 

Abgar,  king  of  Edessa,  who  is  said  to  have  corre- 
sponded with  Christ,  i.  278,  is  claimed  by  the 
Armenians  as  one  of  their  own  royal  line,  ibid. 
Receives  St.  Thaddeus  and  with  his  people 
embraces  the  Christian  faith,  ibid,  and  277  note 
2.  Under  his  successors  his  people  lapse  into 
polytheism,  278.  The  authenticity  of  the  story 
of  Abgar  is  examined  by  Professor  Carriere,  who 
shows  that  Moses  of  Khorene  used  an  Armenian 
version  of  this  legend  which  began  to  form  about 
A.D.  250,  ibid,  note  2 

Abich,  Herrmann,  i.  78,  79,  166,  177,  182,  1S7,  188, 
191,  192,  193,  195,  199,  388,  394,  437,  445.  ii.  376, 
383,  3S6;  I.  93,  174,  340,  374,  375,  381,  383,  385, 
386,  416,  434,  435,  442,  n.  43,  46,  47,  76,  229,  363, 
385,  401,  notes 

Abkhasia,  i.  42  ;  its  Bagratid  king,  i.  356 

Abul,  Mt.,  i.  92-95,  104,  105,  119,  441 

Abul,  village  of,  i.  92,  93 

Abul-Samsar  volcanic  system,  i.  95,  441 

Abulsevar  (Chawir,  Aplesphares),  chief  of  the  Beni- 
Cheddad  family,  q.'o.  ;  styled  by  Byzantine  annal- 
ists and  Armenian  writers  prince  of  Dvin,  i.  365  ; 
362,  363,  365  note  I 

Abulsevar,  prince  of  Ani,  i.  365 

Abu-Said,  Mongol  king  of  Persia,  his  edict  at  Ani, 
i-  377 

Achote,  Monseigneur,  Superior  of  the  Monastery 
of  Mugni,  i.  141 

Adamanli,  a  division  of  the  Hasananli  Kurds,  ii. 
21,  26 

Adeljivas  (Lake  Van),  town  of,  ii.  326-330,  403. 
Mileage  to  Akhlat,  ii.  325  note.  Earthquake 
there,  47  note  i  ;  341.  Rise  in  the  level  of  Lake 
Van  there,  52.     Cuneiform  inscriptions  there,  75 

Adrianople,  treaty  of,  i.  36,  125  ;  397.  ii.  204. 
Exodus  of  Armenian  population  from  Erzerum 
province  as  a  result  of,  ii.  206 

Afrikean,  M.  Karapet,  improvement  in  wine  accom- 
plished by,  i.  226 

Afshin,  Arab  Governor  of  Azerbaijan,  i.  341-343, 
352 

Agathangelus  Treatise,  our  earliest  authority  for 
the  reign  of  Tiridates  and  the  events  connected 
with  the  conversion  of  the  Armenians  as  a  nation 
to  Christianity,  i.  291  note.     Von  Gutschmid  has 

VOL.  II 


succeeded  in  discriminating  between  the  various 
sources  from  which  the  treatise  has  been  built 
up,  ibid.,  295  note  i 

Aghdznik,  ancient  Armenian  province,  ii.  429  ;  i.  309 
note  I 

Aghri  Dagh,  name  given  by  the  Mussulman  peoples 
to  Ararat  as  well  as  to  the  Ararat  system,  i.  148, 
197,  409.  414  (Fig.  loi),  415,  419  (Fig.  106),  420 
(Fig.  107),  423,  435,  436.  ii.  10  (Fig.  112),  384  .ttv/. 
Frontier  between  the  Russian  and  Turkish 
empires,  i.  435.     ii.  384.     And  see  Shatin  Dagh 

Aghzi  Achik,  pass  over  the  heights  south  of 
Erzerum,  ii.  202 

Agriculture  finds  in  Armenia  extremely  favourable 
conditions,  due  to  the  climate  and  the  nature  of 
the  soil — a  mixture  of  lavas  and  lacustrine  de- 
posits, i.  87,  105,  442.  ii.  255,  345,  404,  405-406. 
Character  of  and  seasons  in  various  districts,  i. 
5^1  57i  73i  75?  94i  i°5i  106  ;  among  the  Dukho- 
bortsy,  107  ;  118,  121,  123  ;  on  the  plain  of  Alexan- 
dropol,  131  ;  133  ;  in  the  valley  of  the  Araxes, 
142,  202,  203,  229,  316,  318,  444;  321,  326,  410, 
411  ;  443;  in  Alashkert  and  basin  of  Upper  Murad, 
ii.  3,  15,  19,  277  ;  in  basin  of  Lake  Van,  82,  315,; 
in  plain  of  Mush,  167,  172,  318  ;  in  plain  of  Khinis, 
18S,  256,  258  ;  in  Bulanik,  344-345  ;  among  the 
Circassians,  331,  353;  359;  in  plain  of  Kharput, 
391.  Backwardness  in  Russian  Armenia,  i.  56, 
139,  and  causes,  i.  225,  461  ;  in  Turkish  Armenia, 
ii.  21,  164,  218,  219,  259,  and  causes,  ch.  xxiv. 
fiassiiii.  Estimate  of  the  levels  at  which  cereals 
will  flourish  in  Armenia,  i.  107  note 

Agrikar  Dagh,  peak  of  the  Gori  Mokri  in  Northern 
Armenia,  i.  87,  434 

Ahmed,  Arab  Emir,  cherishes  pretensions  to  the 
district  of  Taron  (Mush),  i.  343,  and  defeats 
Sembat  L,  ibid. 

Aiana,  Greek  Monastery  of,  ii.  238 

Aiger  Gol,  on  the  southern  slopes  of  Sipan,  ii.  339 

Ainalu  Dagh,  Kars  district,  i.  394 

Ainsworth,  Mr.  W.  F.,  ii.  162,  176  note 

Aintab,  Mesopotamia,  massacre  there,  ii.  427 

Ajara,  Mts.  and  district  of,  i.  41,  42,  62,  437,  442 

Ajars,  The,  i.  42,  432 

Akantz,  town  on  N.E.  coast  of  Lake  Van,  ii.  26. 
Pop.,  ibid.     Mileage  from  Karakilisa,  12 

Akhalkalaki,  town  in  Northern  Armenia  (Govt,  of 
Tiflis),  visited  and  described,  i.  86  scg..,  66  note, 
72,  85,  438,  455.  Pop.,  86.  Brave  defence  of  by 
the  Turks  against  the  Russians  in  1828,  8g ; 
schools  in,  see  under  Education 

Akhalkalaki,  plain  of,  i.  87  and  note.  Character  of 
the  soil,  442 

Akhalkalaki  (Toporovan)  river,  i.  76,  78,  87,  88,  92 

Akhaltsykh,  town  in  Northern  Armenia,  visited  and 
described,  i.  58-61  and  64-71.  History,  i.  66-67  ; 
was  captured  and  partly  razed  by  the  Russians 
in  1828,  67  ;  the  Mussulman  pop.  emigrated  into 
Turkey  and  the  town  received  large  bodies  of 
Armenian  immigrants,  ibid.;  reasons  given  by 
inhabitants  for  the  decline  in  prosperity,  68  ;  pop. 

2   K 


498 


Armenia 


ill  1S33,  67  ;  ill  18S6  and  1891,  65  and  note  2  ; 
description  of  the  modern  town,  68  ;  of  the  old 
town,  69  ;  of  the  Jewish  quarter,  70  ;  schools  in, 
see  under  Education.     INIileage  to  Akhalkalaki, 

Akhaltsykh  river,  1.  57,  73 

Akhaltsykh-Inieritian  Mts.,  i.  430,  431,  433,  434, 
438.  44' 

Akhashen,  valley  of,  i.  74 

Akhashen,  village  of,  i.  75 

Akhavank  (Iskele),  residence  on  the  mainland  of  the 
Katholikos  of  Akhtamar,  ii.  126 

Akhbaba  Dagh,  peak  of  the  northern  border  heights 
of  Erzerum,  ii.  203,  227 

Akhbaba  Dagh,  Lake  Chaldir,  i.  43S 

Akh  Bulakh  Dagh,  peak  of  Aghri  Dagh,  i.  420 

Akh  Dagh  (Tekman  Dagh,  Kozli  Dagh),  name  ap- 
plied to  the  northern  border  heights  of  the  plain 
of  Khinis,  ii.  iSg.  View  of  from  the  south,  iS6 
(Fig.  159)  ;  from  the  Palandoken  Pass,  249  ;  from 
village  of  Demian,  277  ;  from  summit  of  Khamur, 
351  ;  from  Bingol  Dagh,  372.  Appearance  of 
from  Tekman,  249,  from  the  plain  of  Khinis, 
256-258,  from  the  Kartevin  Dagh,  269.  Structure 
and  composition  of,  389,  402 

Akh  Dagh,  Akhmangan  region,  i.  445 

Akh  Deve  (White  Camel  Hill),  Kars-Kagyzman 
district,  i.  412 

.'\kher  Gol  Su  (plain  of  Khinis),  source  of  the,  ii. 
257 

Akhja  Kala,  Tartar  village  on  southern  slopes  of 
Alagoz,  i.  320 

Akhlat,  is  the  name  of  a  district  on  the  north- 
western shore  of  Lake  Van,  which  includes  :  ist, 
the  ancient  city  of  Akhlat,  now  known  as  Kharaba 
or  Takht-i-Suleyman,  situated  in  a  ravine  some 
distance  from  the  shore  ;  2nd,  the  Ottoman  fortress 
of  Akhlat  (Kala)  on  the  shore  ;  3rd,  the  modern 
township  in  the  quarter  of  Erkizan,  ii.  284.  Pop. 
of  entire  district,  ihid.  Characteristics  of  the 
site,  ilnd.  Erkizan  described,  2S5  ;  the  Kala 
described,  287-289;  the  ancient  city  described, 
291-292.  The  ma'usolea  or  kumbcts  described  and 
their  dates  ascertained,  285-293.  The  ancient 
cemetery,  290.  History  of  Akhlat,  294-297;  i. 
355i  360,  366.  Mileage  to  Adeljivas,  ii.  325  note. 
Plan,  ii.  296 

Akhtamar,  Lake  Van,  island  and  monastery  of, 
described,  ii.  129-135  ;  architecture  of  the  church, 
132,  and  date,  131 

Akhtamar,  Katholikos  of,  hisjurisdiction  and  status, 
ii.  135,  and  cp.  i.  276  ;  visited  at  Akhavank,  ii. 
127-129,  135-136 

Akhurean  river,  see  Arpa  Chai 

Akhury  (Arguri,  Acorhi,  Akuri,  Agguri,  Arkuri), 
ancient  Armenian  settlement  on  Ararat,  destroyed 
by  the  catastrophe  of  1840,  i.  183  scq.  ;  is  said  by 
the  Armenians  to  have  been  built  on  the  site  of 
Noah's  vineyard,  183  ;  their  attempt  to  connect 
it  with  the  Armenian  for  '"he  has  planted  the 
vine  "  has  probably  led  to  a  corruption  of  the 
name,  ilnd.  note  4.  May  it  not  be  the  Adduri 
of  the  Assyrian  inscription  of  Shalmaneser  IL? 
iliid.  A  willow  tree  there  was  said  to  have 
sprung  from  a  plank  of  the  Ark,  183,  and  the 
church  to  have  been  built  on  the  site  of  Noah's 
altar,  erected  on  his  departure  from  the  Ark, 
ibid.  The  date  of  the  church,  184.  Pop.  accord- 
ing to  Dubois  and  Wagner,  183,  184  note  i. 
There  was  also  at  A.  a  square  fortress  built  of 
clay,  184  ;  and  a  summer  palace  for  the  Persian 
Sirdars  of  Erivan,  ibid.  Account  of  the  cata- 
strophe of  1840,  185-187;  investigations  undertaken 
by  the  Russian  Govt.,  187.  Divergent  conclu- 
sions of  Wagner  and  Abich  as  to  character  of 
convulsion,  188.  What  remains  of  the  ancient 
settlement  at  the  present  time,  192,  193.  The 
old  cemetery  with  the  graves  of  seven  brothers 
said  to  have  been  killed  uy  a  single  snake,  193 

Akhury,  chasm  of,  Ararat.  Entrance  to  the  chasm, 
i.  184  ;  Kurdish  village  at  the  mouth  of  the 
chasm,   192  ;  excursion  up  the  ravine,   193  ;  the 


peculiar  formation  of  a  side  valley,  ibid. ;  which 
probably  owes  its  distinctive  features  to  the  action 
of  ice,  194  ;  arrival  at  St.  Jacob's  Well  and  the 
sacred  rose  bush,  ibid.,  elevation  of  the  site,  195. 
The  boulders  covering  the  bottom  of  the  ravme 
are  worn  by  the  action  of  ice  and  water,  195. 
According  to  Abich  the  long  ridges  which  appear 
in  his  illustration  were  composed  of  dirty  glacier 
ice,  covered  with  stone  and  debris,  195  ;  but  we 
did  not  see  any  ice  in  the  trough  of  the  chasm, 
196,  though  we  admired  a  lake  of  glacier  water, 
ibid. 

Akhury,  New,  settlement  of  Tartars  on  Ararat,  i. 
193  ;  pop.,  ibid. 

Akhviran  Pass  into  the  Khinis  Plain,  ii.  249,  252, 
373. 

Akhviran,  village  of,  ii.  278 

Ak  Kripri,  crag  of  near  Van,  ii.  in,  112  note  i 

Ak  Kopri,  river,  ii.  112 

Ak-kul  ((Jubudgokh)  Mt.,  west  of  Akhtamar,  ii. 
137 

Akrag,  Armenian  village  on  the  Murad  near  Shakh- 
berat,  ii.  351 

Akstafa  river,  tributary  to  the  Kur,  ii.  39,  40,  437 

Akstafa  station,  i.  39,  226 

Ala  Dagh  Mts.  (Nepat,  Niphates),  ii.  10,  12,  22, 
401.  Seen  from  Lake  Van,  31,  121  ;  from  Karte- 
vin Dagh,  269.  Strabo  says  that  the  Tigris  rises 
in  these  mountains,  ii.  41.  Viewed  from  Tutakh, 
265.     A  seat  of  the  Thonraki  (Thonraketzi),  i.  285 

Ala  Dagh,  Chaldiran  district,  i.  413  note 

Ala  Gol,  i.  434 

Alagoz,  e.xtinct  volcano  and  natural  barrier  between 
Northern  Armenia  and  the  valley  of  the  Araxes 
about  Erivan,  i.  iig,  124,  147,  438,  444;  135, 
148,  149,  152,  205,  228,  325,  326,  330,  331,  367, 
419,  442.  .Seen  from  summit  of  Abul,  i.  95  ;  from 
plain  of  Alexandropol,  122  (Fig.  23),  127,  134  ; 
from  the  east,  136  (Fig.  28) ;  from  Erivan,  208 
(Fig.  41)  ;  from  Ararat,  138  ;  from  the  plains  on 
the  west,  327  (Fig.  68).  Journey  along  the 
southern  slopes,  i.  316  seq. 

Alagoz,  hamlet  of  near  Gumgum,  ii.  358 

Alaja  (Tsaghkotz)  river  at  Ani,  i.  368,  369 

Alaja  Dagh,  i.  330,  368,  399 

Ala-Kilisa,  village  of  Armenian  -  speaking  Greeks, 
i.  122 

Alander,  Col.,  Governor  of  Akhaltsykh,  i.  60,  61, 
64,  65,  66 

Alarodians,  name  by  which  the  inhabitants  of 
Urardhu  were  known  to  Herodotus,  ii.  67  and 
note  4;  were  joined  with  the  Matienians,  etc., 
in  1 8th  satrapy  of  the  Persian  empire,  68 

Alashkert,  plain  of,  i.  148,  ii.  2  seq.  and  Fig.  108, 
384,  389,  400,  401,  404.     Elevation  of,  ii.  3 

Alexander  I.,  Einperor  of  Russia,  extends  great 
privileges  to  the  Protestant  emigrants  from  Wiir- 
temberg  on  their  arrival  in  Georgia,  i.  97.  En- 
courages Protestant  missionary  enterprise,  99. 
His  humane  and  liberal  policy  towards  the 
Dukhobortsy,  103 

Alexander  Severus,  Roman  Emperor,  i.  287 

Alexandropol  (Giimri),  Russian  fortress  town  on 
the  Arpa  Chai  visited  and  described,  i.  124-132, 
330,  443,  445,  453,  455,  462,  467-  "•  46.  note. 
Visited  by  Emperor  Nicholas  L  in  1836,  1.  125. 
History  and  description  of  city,  124-125,  127-129  ; 
pop.,  124  and  note  i  ;  is  almost  exclusively  in- 
habited by  Armenians,  124  ;  who  have  inherited 
the  love  of  building  of  their  forefathers,  127  ;  but 
their  churches  and  other  buildings  are  pretentious 
and  commonplace,  128.  Greek  chapel  of  St. 
George  with  Byzantine  picture  of  St.  George  and 
the  Dragon,  129.    Schools  in,  see  under  Education 

Alexandropol,  plain  of,  i.  122,  131,  133,  134,  442. 
ii.  404 

Ali  Bey,  chief  of  Karapapakhs  at  Karakilisa  (Alash- 
kert), ii.  6,  255 

Ali  Bey,  chief  of  Sipkanli  Kurds,  ii.  267,  268 

Ali  Gedik,  village  near  Charbahur  on  the  Murad, 

V'  352 

Ali-Kuchak,  village  on  Alagoz,  i.  137 


Index 


499 


Ali  Mur,  hamlet  of  Kizilbash  Kurds,  district  of 
Shushar,  ii.  252 

Alkhes,  village  of  the  district  of  Klmali  Dere,  ii. 
262,  263,  399 

Allah  Akbar  Dagh,  Soghanlu  range,  i.  441 

Allen,  Mr.,  American  missionary  at  Van,  ii.  92 

Allen,  T.  G.,_and  Sachtleben,  \V.  L.  Their  ascent 
of  Ararat,  i.  199 

Alp  Arslan,  Seljuk  sultan,  captures  Tiflis,  i.  337, 
and  Ani,  353,  J63,  and  Melazkert,  ii.  275 

Altai  Mts.,  their  connection  with  the  structural 
system  of  A.sia,  i.  424,  425 

Altun,  plain  of,  Upper  Araxes,  ii.  379,  398 

Alur,  village,  Van  district,  ii.  122 

Amasia,  Turkish  settlement  on  the  Arpa  Chai, 
i.  122 

Amat,  Armenian  village,  district  of  Alashkert,  ii.  2 

American  Missions,  see  Missions 

Amisus,  ruins  of  (near  Samsun),  i.  4 

Anak,  Parthian  of  the  blood  royal,  murderer  of  the 
Parthian  King  of  Armenia,  Chosroes,  and  father 
of  St.  Gregory,  i.  288.  View  of  Von  Gutschmid, 
ibid,  note  2 

Anania  of  Shirak,  i.  312,  note  i 

Anastasius,  Roman  Emperor,  ii.  222 

Anguil  Su  (Enghil  Su)  or  Khoshab,  river  flowing 
into  Lake  Van,  ii.  122 

Anguil,  village,  ii.  123 

Ani,  Armenian  mediasval  town  and  fortress  on  the 
Arpa  Chai  (Akhurean),  now  in  ruins  and  unin- 
habited, visited  and  described,  i.  329,  334,  354- 
392,  268,  269 ;  history  of,  354-366 ;  345,  350. 
Description  of  the  various  buildings  and  fortifica- 
tions, 369-390 ;  distinctive  features  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  Ani  buildings,  390 ;  appeal  to  the 
Russian  Government  for  their  preservation,  391  ; 
date  of  the  Cathedral,  354,  355.  Mr.  Marr's 
excavations  at  Ani,  377-378.     Plan,  309 

Ani,  the  modern  Kemakh,  ancient  Armenian 
fortress  on  the  W.  Euphrates,  i.  294 ;  fane  of 
Aramazd  at  this  place  destroyed  by  St.  Gregory 
and  King  Tiridates,  ibid. 

Anti-Taurus  Mts.,  their  connection  with  the  struc- 
tural system  of  Asia,  i.  424  ;  probable  representa- 
tives of  the  A-T.  elevation  in  Armenia,  ii.  386 

Aplesphares,  ie.e.  Abuhevar 

Aplgharib,   Pahlavuni  family  at  Ani,  i.  382,  383 

Apughamir,  Pahlavuni  family,  son  of  Vahram,  i. 
382,  383  note  3,  385 

Arabion  Castellum  on  the  Gt.  Zab,  i.  277  note  2,  279 

Arabkir,  massacre  at,  ii.  412 

Arakelotz  Vank,  plain  of  Mush,  ii.  166 

Arakh  Su,  Mush  plain,  ii.  166 

Aralykh,  Russian  military  post  at  the  foot  of 
Ararat,  i.  154-155  ;  climate  of,  202 

Aramzalu,  village  of,  district  of  Erivan,  i.  154 

Ararat,  Mt.  (Masis  of  the  Armenians,  Aghri  Dagh 
of  the  Tartars),  first  view  of  from  the  southern 
slopes  of  Alagoz,  i.  137.  It  does  not  appear  that 
there  was  an  independent  local  tradition  of  the 
Flood,  197  ;  but  the  identification  of  Ararat  with 
the  mountain  upon  which  the  Ark  rested  may 
have  been  made  by  Jewish  prisoners  of  war,  ibid. 
The  Ararat  of  Scripture  is  the  Assyrian  Urardhn, 
ibid,  and  ii.  57 — a  geographical  designation  which 
appears  to  have  travelled  north  during  the  course 
of  time  ;  the  historical  Urardhu  or  Ararat  is 
the  province  around  Mt.  Ararat,  well  known 
as  Ararat  to  Agathangelus  and  other  early  Ar- 
menian writers,  i.  197.  Supposed  vestiges  of  the 
Flood,  157.  The  district  has  been  covered 
within  comparatively  recent  geological  times  by 
a  lake,  317,  ii.  404 

The  fabric  of  Ararat  is  built  up  by  Great  and 
Little  Ararat,  i.  197 ;  though  due  to  eruptive 
volcanic  action,  no  eruption  is  known  to  have 
occurred  during  historical  period,  197,  188.  View 
of  from  the  plains  about  Erivan,  149,  198.  Oro- 
graphy, 148-153,  156,  197.  Vegetation  abundant 
on  parts  of  the  mountain,  160  ;  also  partridges, 
ibid.  ;  but  the  fabric  is  entirely  devoid  of  trees,  the 
,  only  wood  being  a  covert  of  low  birch,  161. 


Ascent  of,  167-178  ;  start  made  from  the  en- 
campment at  Sardar  Bulakh,  167.  Three  struc- 
tural divisions  to  be  distinguished  in  that  part  of 
the  mountain  between  Aralykh  and  the  summit, 
170.  The  great  snowfield  has  a  minimum  depth 
of  2000  feet,  171.  The  south-eastern  summit 
attained,  176.  Temperature  of  the  air  a  few  feet 
below  the  summit,  177  note.  Descent  to  encamp- 
ment of  Sardar  Bulakh,  179.  Best  season  and 
starting  point  for  the  ascent,  37,  199.  List  of 
successful  ascents,  ibid.  View  of  Ararat  from 
the  summit  of  Sipan,  ii.  336,  337 

Ararat,  Chasm  of  Akhury,  see  under  Akhury 

Ararat,  Monastery  of  St.  Jacob,  i.  184 

Ararat,  Little,  i.  149,  150,  160-168  and  Fig.  33, 
197,  199,  436 

Araxes  river  (Aras,  Egri  Chai),  sources  of  on  the 
Bingol  Dagh,  ii.  374  and  Fig.  194  ;  its  course 
through  Armenia,  ii.  379,  251,  190,  192  seg.,  i. 
138,  146,  154,  201,  317  seq.,  416,  436,  444,  ii.  406, 
and  see  Bingol  Su 

Araxes,  plain  of  the  (district  of  Ararat),  i.  130,  137, 
138,  146,  154,  701,  206,  317  seq.  444.  Elevation, 
146.  Tradition  that  it  was  the  seat  of  Paradise, 
318 

Archelaus,  Bishop  of  Karkhar,  author  of  a  disputa- 
tion with  Mani,  was  probably  bishop  of  a  see  not 
far  from  Van,  i.  279  and  note  3.  Adoptionist 
theory,  281 

Ardabil,  town  in  Persia,  i.  366,  387,  435  note 

Ardahan,  town  and  district  in  Northern  Armenia,  i. 
443  ;  66  note  i,  430,  431,  432,  437,  438,  439 

Ardahan  river,  see  Kur 

Ardasa.  town  of,  ii.  243 

.•\rdashir,  first  Sasanian  King  of  Persia,  i.  286  ;  the 
supporter  of  the  fire-worshippers,  287  ;  is  harassed 
by  Chosroes,  Arsakid  King  of  Armenia,  288, 
whose  death  he  encompasses,  ibid. 

Ardavan,  Arsakid  King  of  Persia,  i.  286 

Ardos,  Mt. ,  Lake  Van,  ii.  123,  126,  135,  137,  279 

Arenjik,  Kurdish  village  on  the  slope  of  Kolibaba, 
ii.  348 

Arghana,  town  in  Mesopotamia,  ii.  388,  396 

Argistis  I.,  Vannic  King,  ii.  61,  73 

Argistis  IL,  Vannic  King,  ii.  75.  Inscription  of,  at 
Hargin,  ii.  29 

.•\rjish,  ruins  of  (Lake  Van)  some  miles  south-west 
of  Akantz,  ii.  26  seq.  The  site  to  be  distinguished 
frorn  an  earlier  Arjish,  27  seq.  and  71.  Deserted 
by  its  inhabitants  owing  to  rise  in  level  of  the 
lake,  30.  Was  known  to  Marco  Polo  as  one  of 
the  greatest  cities  of  Armenia,  29 

Armavir,  ruins  of,  i.  318,  319,  ii.  61,  71,  73-74,  76 

Armenak,  son  or  grandson  of  Hay!:,  progenitor  of 
the  Armenians,  i.  318 

Armenia,  natural  boundaries  of,  i.  428-35,  ii.  231 
note  I,  235-236,  244,  386-390,  394.  Its  connection 
with  the  system  of  the  great  Asiatic  tablelands, 
i.  421-428.  Geology  of,  i.  428,  ii.  402-404,  and 
passim  in  the  narrative  of  the  journeys.  Charac- 
teristics of,  i.  52,  86,  428,  429,  436-439,  449,  ii. 
235-236,  .244,  382,  400,  405-407.  It  is  naturally 
divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Ararat  system — a 
north-easterly  and  a  south-westerly,  i.  409,  43=;- 
436,  ii.  384.  Limits  and  characteristics  of  north- 
easterly or  Russian  Armenia,  i.  436-445  ;  area, 
445;  pop.  451.  Do.  of  south-westerly  or  Turkish 
or  Taunc  Armenia,  ii.  386-394,  397-406  ;  area,  407  ; 
pop.  412-414.  Communications  with  Armenia, 
i-  7>  39.  431,  432,  433  note,  437,  ii.  89,  148,  203, 
205,  225,  239,240  note,  382,  388,  390,  396.  Routes 
and  communications  in  Armenia  passitn  in  the 
narrative  of  the  journeys  and  i.  146,  ii.  393 

Armenia,  history  of,  seems  to  fall  naturally  into  four 
periods,  (I.)  the  pre-Armenian  period,  with  an 
obscure  interval  preceding  the  rise  of  the  Arsakid 
dynasty,  i.  285-286,  ii.  70  and  53-76;  (II.)  the 
Arsakid  period,  with  an  interval  preceding  the 
evolution  of  the  petty  Armenian  dynasties  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  i.  286-312;  (III.)  the  Armenian 
Kingdom  of  the  Middle  Ages,  i.  335-364,  391,  and 
(IV.)  a  long  sleep,  dating  from  the  overthrow  of 


500 


Armenia 


that  kingdom  by  hordes  of  Seljuk  Turks  towards 
thfe  close  of  the  nth  century  to  the  advent  of 
the  modern  epoch,  i.  364-367.  Impressive  part 
played  in  the  history  of  these  countries  by  the 
Roman  Empire  of  the  East,  i.  34.  Scanty 
knowledge  of  Armenia  displayed  by  Greek  and 
Roman  writers,  ii.  40 

Local  Mussulman  dynasties  have  flourished  in 
most  of  the  great  Armenian  centres,  notably 
Akhlat,  q.v.  and  i.  366.  Mussulman  art  is  well 
represented  by  the  ruins  of  the  Ulu  Jami  at  Van, 
ii.  106,  and  by  the  mausolea  at  Akhlat,  q.z'. 

Modern  history  of,  i.  446,  458  ;   66,  67,  89,  96 
scq.,  124,  125,  210,  232  seq.,  393,  396-399;  ii.   78, 
14S,  149,  204,  205,  223,  and  see  Armenian  Moz'e- 
inent 
Armenian  alphabet,  i.  312  note 
Armenian  Church,  history  of,  i.   276-314,   and  cj>. 
264.       Ripsimian   legend,    256-261.      Differences 
with  the  Greek  and  with  the  Roman  Churches, 
313-314   and    note    i,    352,    363.      Contemporary 
importance  of  the  A.C.,  231 
Hierarchy  and  Government  of  the  Church  : 

The  katholikos  at   Edgmiatsin  the  supreme 
head,  i.   231,  276  (and  see  298-300).     Elective 
character  of  his  office,  231,  233  note  2.     The 
synod  at  Edgmiatsin,  its  antiquity  and  func- 
tions,   234,    235,    218,    220 ;     revived    by    the 
Russian  Govt,  and   provided  with   a  Russian 
procurator,  234.     The  Tsar  appoints  its  mem- 
bers,  235.     Fetters   placed   upon   the  katholi- 
kos by  the   Russian  Govt.,  235.     The  Regu- 
lating  Statute   or  Polojenye,    233  -  236.      The 
twelve    bishops     at    Edgmiatsin,    253.       The 
bishops,  monks  (^<ardapets)  and  parish  priests, 
274,  275,  and  233  note  2.     The  A.C.  represents 
a  compromise  between  opposite   principles   in 
the  organisation  of  Christianity,  276  and  307. 
Power  of  the  laity,  276  ;  ii.  213.     The  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  ii.  Appendi.x  I.  ;  his  relations 
to  the  katholikos,  i.   276.     Regulation  of  the 
Armenian  Church  in  Turkey,  ii.  Appendi.\  I. 
Need  of  reforms   in  the  A.C,  i.    469,   ii.   93. 
Reforming   spirit   of    the    present    regime    at 
Edgmiatsin,  i.  274 
Armenian  architecture,  i.  63,  131,262-272,  323,  369- 
390,  407,  ii.  34,  101-102  (thelog  churches  of  Van), 
106,  107,  114,  115,  131-133,  15s,  179,  188,  233,  271. 
Love   of  building   among   the  Armenians  at  all 
periods,    i.    127,    265,    344.       Their  architecture 
exhibits    capacities    of    the   first   order,    i.    391. 
Characteristics  of  the  style,  i.  390.     The  conical 
dome,  i.  63.     Function  of  the  niche,  i.  269.     Pos- 
sible  traces   of  Assyrian  influences,  ii.  65,   132. 
Their  churches  exhibit  the  coupled  pier,  wand- 
like pillar  and  pointed  arch  at  least  as  early  as 
the     commencement     of    the     nth    century,    i. 
372.     Influence  upon  them  of  Mussulman  art,  i. 
391  ;  their  influence  upon  Mussulman  art,  ii.  294. 
Instance  of  conveying  stone  from  a  great  distance, 
ii.  131  note  2 
Armenian  language,  its  harshness  to  the  ear,  i.  450, 

ii-  33,  236 
Armenian  music,  i.  250,  254,  255 
Armenian  Movement,  i.  239-242  ;  ii.  83-87,  157-159, 
408,  420-423,  428-429,  432.  Thetalkaboutamodern 
Armenian  Kingdom  examined,  i.  468,  ii.  435 
Armenian   Constitution  (in   Turkey),  ii.    436,    and 

Appendix  I. 
Armenian  law,  i.  367 

Armenians,  The,  their  capacities  and  character,  i. 
255,  314,  391,  465-468.  Fidelity  of  Armenian 
women  under  trying  circumstances,  ii.  92.  The 
assistance  the  A. 's  have  rendered  to  the  Russian 
advance,  i.  233.  Their  disillusionment,  //'/(/. 
Will  they  ultimately  enter  the  Russian  Orthodox 
Church?  i.  463.  Their  position  in  Turkey,  see 
under  Armenian  liloveineni  references  to  vol.  ii. 
Ethnology  of  the  .\rmcnians,  ii.  67,  390.  They 
have  probably  received  at  various  epochs  an 
admixture  of  Semitic  blood,  ii.  70,  i.  237,  299, 
305,  ii.  77,  99 


.Vrniutli,  village  near  the  Araxes,  i.  440,  443 

Aron-Magistros,  General  of  the  Empress  Zoe,  i.  373 

Arpa  Chai  (Akhurean),  i.  119,  121,  442;  122,  131, 
327,  328,  363, .367.  368,  376,  377,  381,  386,  389,  453  ; 
confluence  with  the  Araxes,  319 

Arpa  Gcil,  i.  439 

Arshak,  King  of  the  Arsakid  dynasty,  i.  304,  305, 
30?)  309 

Arshakavan,  a  city  of  refuge  founded  by  Arshak, 
i.  308 

Arsissa,  Areesa,  name  by  which  Lake  Van  was 
known  to  Ptolemy,  ii.  27,  42.  See  also  I'an, 
Lake 

Artaxata,  ancient  Armenian  city  in  the  district  of 
Ararat,  i.  201  ;  258,  259,  271,  287  note  3,  288, 
293>  294,  304.  305 

Artemid  (Atramit,  Artamit),  a  village  on  Lake  Van, 
ii.  119-121  ;  36,  42,  135.  Researches  at  made  by 
Schidz,  ii.  120  note  i 

Arter,  Islet  of.  Lake  Van,  ii.  135 

Artsruni,  The,  ancient  Armenian  family  of  princely 
rank  claiming  descent  from  a  king  of  Assyria,  i. 
336,  ii.  429.  Their  vast  possessions  in  Vaspura- 
kan  (Van)  during  the  decline  of  the  caliphate, 
i.  336.  Their  territory  overrun  and  their  prince 
captured  by  the  Arab  armies,  338.  Their  atti- 
tude towards  the  Bagratuni  family,  raised  to 
royal  rank  under  Ashot,  i.  342,  343,  345,  346. 
Their  prince,  Gagik,  obtains  a  royal  crown  from 
the  Arab  governor  of  Azerbaijan,  345,  and  allies 
himself  with  the  Mussulmans  against  the  Bagra- 
tids,  346.  But  the  alliance  is  broken,  348,  and 
better  relations  with  the  Bagratids  ensue,  349. 
Gagik  is  crowned  by  order  of  the  caliph,  ibicf. 
Divergence  of  policy  towards  him  on  the  part  of 
the  governor  of  Azerbaijan  and  of  the  caliph,  349. 
His  territories  overrun  by  the  former,  350. 
Visited  by  John  Katholikos,  ibiJ.  The  Artsruni 
furnish  one  of  the  three  kinglets  of  .\rmenia  under 
Ashot  III.,  354.  Their  country  e.xperiences  the 
first  shocks  of  the  Seljuk  invasions,  356,  357,  359, 
and  their  king,  Senekerim,  bargains  away  his 
kingdom  to  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Basil  II., 
in  return  for  a  retreat  in  the  Greek  Empire,  357. 
Extent  of  the  ceded  dominions,  ibiii.  Significance 
of  the  event,  359,  ii.  77-78 

Artsruni,  Thomas,  historian,  i.  340  note  i  ;  ii.  131 
note  2 

Artsruni,  his  ascent  of  Little  Ararat,  i.  199 

Artvin,  town  and  valley  of,  i.  430,  443 

Artze  (Artsn,  Arzen,  Erzen),  unfortified  town  in  the 
vicinity  of  Erzerum,  ii.  223 ;  may  have  been 
called  Artze  of  Rum  to  distinguish  it  from  an 
Artze  in  Southern  Kurdistan,  iluci.  note  6.  Sacked 
by  the  Seljuks  in  1049,  '•  35^ 

Arzanene  (.Arrhene),  a  country  comprised  in  the 
present  vilayet  of  Diarbekr,  ii.  41 

Arzasku,  site  unknown,  capital  of  Arame,  king  of 
Urardhu,  ii.  59 

Arzen,  see  Artze 

Arzian  Dagh,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  441 

Asbeleff,  M.,  i.  54 

Ashakh  Dagh,  Ararat  system,  ii.  384 

Ashkala,  Mohammedan  village  on  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates,  ii.  226,  228 

Ashkala  Plain,  special  features  of,  ii.  228-229 

Ashkhen,  queen  of  Armenia,  i.  261 

Ashot  I.,  king  of  the  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  339  seq. 

Ashot  II.,  king  of  the  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  347  seq. 

Ashot  III.,  king  of  the  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  353 
seq.  ;  his  tomb  at  Khosha  Vank,  389,  390 

Ashot  IV.,  king  of  the  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  355  seq. 

Ashtarak,  a  township  near  Erivan,  i.  139,  140,  141, 
142 

Asia,  structural  features  of,  i.  ch.  xxi.  and  map 

Asoghik,  Armenian  historian,  i.  382,  390 

Aspinja,  Mohammedan  village  on  the  Upper  Kur, 
i-  74i  75  \  discontent  of  the  inhabitants,  ibid.  ;  66 
note  I 

Astishat  (District  of  Mush),  place  famous  for  its 
temples  in  pagan  times,  i.  295.  The  temples 
destroyed  by  St.  Gregory,  ibid.,  who  erects  the 


Index 


;oi 


first  Christian  church  in  Armenia  upon  the  site, 
296.     Site  of  Astishat  identified  witli  that  of  the 
present  cloister  of  Surb  Karapet,  296  note  2 
Astrakhan,  diocese  of  the  Armenian  Church,  i.  233 

note  2  ;  emigration  of  Armenians  to,  367 
Astvatsadur,  katholikos,  i.  262,  264  note  5,  268 
Atabegs,  governors  of  Upper  Georgia,  i.  62  ;  they 
became  independent  kings  of  Georgia,  and  were 
suppressed  at  a  late  date  by  the  Ottoman  Turks, 
ibid. 
Atanon  village,  near  Lake  Van,  ii.  123 
Aternerseh,  Bagratid  prince  of  Georgia,  i.  341,  343, 

344>  345  .  ,  , 

Athenogenes,  Christian  Saint,  whose  bones  were 
obtained  as  holy  relics  by  St.  Gregory,  i.  295  and 
note  3 

Athenogenes,  son  of  Yusik  and  father  of  Nerses  the 
Great,  i.  303,  306 

Aurelian,  Roman  Emperor,  i.  281,  289  note  2 

Avdi,  village  between  Karakilisa  and  Tutakh,  ii.  13 

Avrin  Dagh,  Persian  frontier,  ii.  386 

Ayubids,  dynasty  of  Kurdish  extraction  in  Meso- 
potamia, descendants  of  Saladin,  ii.  211,  295 

Azat,  village  in  district  of  Kars,  i.  409 

Azerbaijan,  frontier  province  of  Persia  on  the  side 
of  Armenia.  Nature  of  the  frontier,  i.  428,440. 
Geology  of,  ii.  389.  Governed  by  semi-inde- 
pendent Arab  governors  during  the  decline  of 
the  caliphate,  whose  relations  with  the  kinglets 
of  Armenia  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  Ar- 
menian medijeval  history,  i.  341  scq.  See  A /shin, 
Yusuf.  Exodus  of  the  Armenian  inhabitants 
upon  its  evacuation  by  the  Russian  armies  in 
1828,  ii.  206.  Its  Armenian  pop.  at  the  present 
day,  ii.  428.  A  diocese  of  the  Armenian  Church, 
i.  233  note  2 

Baba,  Cape,  Black  Sea,  i.  2 

Bafra,  port  on  the  Black  Sea,  i.  4 

Bagaran,  in  the  province  of  Ararat,  i.  296,  324  ;  the 

capital  of  Ashot  I.,  340,  350 
Bagdad,  village,  Kutais  district,  i.  48,  49 
Baghdasareantz,  Sembat,  member  of  the  Society  of 

Evangelical  preachers  in  Shusha,  i.  98,  102,  104 
Baghmesheh,  Hay  of.  Lake  Van,  ii.  138 
Bagrat-Magistros,  governor-general  of  the  eastern 

provinces,  i.  373 
Bagratuni  or  Bagratids,  ancient  Armenian  family 

of  princely  rank  giving  kings  to  Armenia  as  well 

as  to  Georgia  during  the  Middle  Ages,  i.  337. 

See   Armenia,  History  of,  III.     Their  Jewish 

origin,  337.     Their  hereditary  seats,  ibid. 
Baiburt,  town  in  the  valley  of  the  Chorokh,  i.  432, 

ii.  233,  244,  382   _ 
Baiburt,  plain  of,  ii.  402 
Baiiidir,  Karapapakh  settlement  on  the  Murad  near 

Tutakh,  ii.  267 
Baker,  G.  P.,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  199 
Baku,  on  the  Caspian,  i.  226,  449  ;  Govt,  of,  i.  447, 

449 
Balakhor  v  alley,  u.  234 
Baliki  or  Beleke,  tribe  in  Kurdistan,  ii.  430 
Baliik,  Lake,  district  of  Ararat,  ii.  7,  384,  385,  386 
Baralet,  village,  district  of  Shubaret,  i.  86 
Bartholomew,  Saint,  i.  277,  279 
Bash  Abaran,  Armenian   village,   Alagoz   district, 

i-  137 

Bashit  Dagh,  Taurus  range,  ii.  388 

Basil  IL,  Byzantine  emperor,  intervenes  in  Ar- 
menian affairs,  i.  360  and  makes  an  armed  pere- 
grination of  the  country,  ibid.  Again  marches 
into  the  territories  of  the  Armenian  kinglets, 
//'/(/.  and  361.  Inherits  the  principality  of 
Akhaltsykh,  360,  and  is  named  heir  to  the 
dominions  of  the  king  of  Armenia,_  361.  _  Takes 
over  the  dominions  of  the  Artsruni  family,  357. 
His  forward  policy  in  Armenia,  361.  Dies  before 
its  completion,  ibid. 

Basil,  Saint,  of  Csesarea,  i.  307,  310  ;  275 

Bashkala,  Jews  at,  ii-  80  note 

Bashkent,  village  of,  ii.  185 

Bashkent,  plain  of,  ii.  1S5  and  note 


Baskan,  village,  I'ingul  district,  ii.  182,  360 
Basle,  Evangelical  Mission,  see  JMissions 
Bastok,  Kurdish  village,  Bingiil  district,  ii.  379 
Batum,  i.  37,  38,  39,  40,  41,  226,  2j6,  4^0,  432,  455 
Bayaz  Tuzla,  village,  Bingol  district,  ii.  260 
Bayazid,  town  near  Ararat,   i.   37,   160,  321,  435  ; 
Kurds  and   Karapapakhs  in  the  district,  ii.   11, 
14  note,  416.     Pop.  of  tlie  sanjak,  413 
Bayindar  Bey,  tomb  at  Akhlat,  ii.  293,  294  ;  prob- 
ably a  chieftain  of  the  Turkoman  horde  of  the 
White  Sheep,  296 
Behagel,   von,  companion  of  Parrot,   i.   184,    185, 

321,  notes 
Bejano  (Kestano),  village  on  plain  of  Akhalkalaki, 

i.  87  note  I 
Bejeshkean,   Father   Minas.   i.   32  note  i,  33,  367 

note  I 
Beka,  atabeg,  i.  63 
Bekant,  village  of,  i.  437 
Belck,  Dr.,  i.  197-272,  ii.  28,  44,  51,  ^6  seq.  ;  i.  183, 

ii.  47,  121,  122,  notes 
Bendimahi  Chai,  Lake  Van,  ii.  38,  44,  50 
Beni-Cheddad,  Mussulman  family  belonging  to  the 
Kurdish  clan  of  Rewadi,  establish  a  dynasty  in 
Karabagh  during  the  decline  of  the  caliphate, 
i.  362,  364,  365  note  I,  382.     Become  possessed 
of  the  Armenian  capital,  Ani,  in  a.d.  1072,  i.  365. 
Lords  of  Ani  until  towards  the  close  of  the  12th 
century,  ibid.,  and  366,  371  note  i.     See  Abul- 
se^'ar,  Fathliin,  M anuchar 
Berkri,  town  near  Lake  Van,  i.  358,  ii.  29  note  4 
Berlin,  Congress  and  Treaty  of,  i.  238,  241,  ii.  205, 

409  note,  410-411 
Besh  Parmak  Mts.,  Lake  Van,  ii.  23 
Bessarabia,   a  diocese  of  the  Armenian   Church, 

i.  233  note  2 
Bessarion,    Cardinal,   his   account    of   Trebizond, 

■■19 

Beth  Lapat,  Synod  of,  at  which  the  old  Christian 
church  of  Persia  adopted  the  Nestorian  confes- 
sion, i.  313 

Biaina,  territory  of  which  Dhuspas  (Van)  was  the 
capital,  ii.  57 

Bilejan  Dagh,   ii.  257,  258,  2^9,  309,  311,  333,  343, 

347,  351,  372.  397,  401 

Bingol  Dagh  (mountain  of  the  thousand  tarns)  or 
Bingol  Koch  (caldron  of  the  thousand  tarns), 
parent  mountain  of  the  Araxes  and  of  the  prin- 
cipal tributaries  of  the  Euphrates,  ii.  182  ;  seen 
from  the  highlands  above  the  village  of  Kulli, 
190 ;  from  the  PalandOken  Pass,  247  ;  from 
Tekman,  247,  251,  252,  253  ;  from  Khinis,^  254, 
255,  257  ;  from  Kartevin  Dagh,  269  ;  from  Sipan, 
333,  337  ;  from  Nimrud,  311  ;  from  Khamur, 
351.  Description  of  the  mountain,  363-377,  389. 
Ascent  of,  363  ;  altitude,  364,  366,  367  ;  names 
given  to  the  three  principal  elevations,  3? 4,  365, 
that  of  Demir-Kala  being  slightly  the  highest, 
182.  View  from  the  summit,  372-374.  Traces  of 
ice  action  on  the  Bingol  Dagh,  369,  370.  Flora, 
361,  362,  369.  Our  discovery  of  a  cuneiform  in- 
scription, 373.  Inspiring  surroundings,  361. 
Plans,  366,  378 

Bingol  Plateau,  ii.  122,  182,  185,  188,  189,  374,  348, 
399.  The  stupendous  cliffs  by  which  it  breaks 
away  on  the  south,  ii.  182,  358,  359,  360  (Fig. 
192),  361,  371 

Bingol  Su,  name  given  to  several  rivers  in  Central 
Armenia,  notably  i.  the  Upper  Araxes,  ii.  190, 
191,  2.  a  considerable  tributary  of  the  Murad  or 
Eastern  Euphrates  flowing  through  the  plain  of 
Khinis  and  effecting  the  confluence  in  Bulanik, 
ii.  253,  257 ;  the  confluence  visited,  346 ;  373, 
and  3.  a  second  tributary  to  the  Murad,  coming 
in  near  Charbahur,  ii.  182,  183,  354,  358,  360,  362 

Birmalek,  Tartar  settlement,  Alagoz  district,  i.  325, 
326 

Bitanu  or  Bitani  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  may 
be  Biaina,  ii.  57,  and  ibid,  note  4 

Bitlis,  town  on  the  borders  of  Armenia  and  Kur- 
distan, visited  and  described,  ii.  i45;i57 '>  5i- 
Elevation  above  sea  level,   147.     Solidity  of  the 


502 


Armenia 


buildings,  ibid.  Importance  of  the  situation, 
148.  History,  148-151.  Greek  coins  found  in 
the  vicinity,  150.  Pop.,  151,  413.  Industries, 
151.  The  tunnel  of  Semiramis  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, 156  and  Fig.  148.  Political  unrest  at 
Bitlis,  85,  157-159,  318,  431.  Plan,  147.  View 
of,  145  .     ,  , 

Black  Sea  (Pontus  Euxinus,  Euxine)  and  southern 
seaboard,  i.  1-36,  37,  38,  41-43,  432,  ii.  225,  236, 
237-240,  382.  Closed  to  European  commerce  by 
the  Ottoman  Turks  in  the  15th  century,  i.  36. 
Its  free  navigation  secured  by  the  Treaty  of 
Adrianople  in  1829,  ibid.  Commencement  of 
steam  navigation  in  1836,  ibid. 

Blagodarnoe,  Molokan  village,  district  of  Kars, 
i.  403 

Bogdanovka,  a  Russian  settlement  on  the  plani 
of  Akhalkalaki,  i.  105;  86,  115,  118 

Bohtan  Su,  tributary  of  the  Tigris,  ii.  395 ;  57 
note  4 

Bor,  Armenian  village  near  Bitlis,  ii.  143 

Bor,  Pass  of,  ii.  143 

Borchala,  Valley  of  the,  i.  40  note 

Borchali,  Ouezde,  i.  430,  453 

Bore,  Eugene,  i.  348,  ii.  153  ;  i.  281,  367  notes 

Borjom,  Gorge  of,  i.  39,  430,  443 

Boyajean,  Armenian  revolutionary,  ii.  431 

Boyajean,  Consul,  ii.  413 

Boz  Tepe  (Mt.  Mithros),  i.  9,  12,  13,  32,  ii.  238 

Brant,  Consul  James,  ii.  44,  79,  151,  173,  182,  206, 
440  ;  i.  406,  ii.  121,  165,  187,  190,  195,  197,  283, 
287,  313,  339,  notes 

Brosset,  M.  F.,  i.  63,  64,  65,  71,  370-380,  382-385, 
387-390,  407  ;  75,  78,  79,  80,  81,  84,  132,  183,  266, 
270,  271,  272,  338,  354,  366,  notes 

Bryce,  Rt.  Hon.  J.,  his  ascent  of  Mt.  Ararat,  i.  166, 
197,  199.  His  description  of  the  valley  of  the 
Araxes,  146 

Biiga  Tepe  (Kars  district),  i.  394 

Bugutu,  Crag  of,  Alagoz,  i.  321,  325 

Bulama,  Lake,  see  Gop,  Lake 

Bulanik,  district  of,  ii.  344,  394,  404,  345,  351,  401, 

424,  425 
Burnu  Bulakh,  Kurdish  village  near  Koshk,  ii.  18 
Butyka,  Dr.,  ii.  49 
Buwayhids,  Turkish  dynasty,  i.  353 
Buyuk  Chai  (Erishat),  Lake  Van,  ii.  24 

Caffa,  port  on  the  Black  Sea,  i.  36 

Canning,  Stratford,  British  ambassador,  his  corre- 
spondence with  Consul  Brant,  ii.  440 

Canterbury,  Archbishop  of,  i.  102  ;  his  Mission  to 
the  Assyrian  Christians,  ibid. 

Carriere,  Prof.,  i.  278  note 

Caucasus  Mts. ,  connection  of  the  range  with  the 
structural  system  of  Asia,  i.  425.  Joined  by  the 
Meschic  Mts.  to  the  Armenian  border  chain,  42s, 
433  ;  40,  70.  Viewed  from  the  Zikar  Pass,  52  ; 
from  the  summit  of  Abul,  95  ;  from  Ararat,  198. 
Height  of  the  snow-line  on,  ig8  note  2 

Chabakchur,  plain  of,  ii.  387,  392 

Chaghelik,  Kurdish  hamlet,  Bingol  district,  ii.  360 

Chakhar  Dagh,  i.  436 

Chalcedon,  Council  of,  i.  312,  313,  348 

Chalda;ans,  name  inider  which  the  Chaldians,  or 
remnant  of  the  subjects  of  the  old  Vannic  kings 
inhabiting  the  northern  peripheral  mountains  of 
Armenia,  are  sometimes  alluded  to  by  classical 
authors,  ii.  68,  69 

Chaldaeans,  name  sometimes  given  to  the  Assyrian 
Christians  inhabiting  the  recesses  of  Kurdistan, 
ii.  69,  70.  Their  supposed  origin,  z/'/V.  Relations 
of  the  English  Church  with  them,  i.  102.  Their 
incidence  in  Armenia,  451.     ii.  So  note 

Chaldees,  ii.  70  and  note  i 

Chaldia,  see  Klialdians 

Chaldians,  see  Khaldians 

Chaldir  Mts.  (Northern  .\rmenia),  i  105,  iig,  121, 
I23,.438>  441 

Chaldir,  Lake  of,  i.  439,  443.     How  formed,  li.  404 

Chaldiran,  district  in  central  Armenia,  i.  435,  ii. 
421 


Chamar  Dagh,  i.  431 

Chambers,  Rev.  W.  N.  and  Mrs.,  American  mission- 
aries in  Erzerum,  ii.  217,  256 

Chamchean,  Father  M.  (Chamich),  i.  339  note 

Changalli,  name  sometimes  given  to  the  cloister  of 
Surb  Karapet  (Mush  district),  q.v. 

Changly,  village,  i.  416  note 

Chantre,  M.  and  Mme.,  i.  167,  195  note  i,  199,  434 
note 

Charbahur,  Circassian  village  near  the  slopes  of  the 
Khamur  heights,  ii.  353 

Charbahur  Tepe,  Circassian  village,  ii.  354 

Chardaklu  Dagh,  Tauric  Armenia,  ii.  386 

Chardin,  J.,  i.  209,  211,  256  note,  262,  267 

Charshembeh,  town  in  the  delta  of  the  Iris,  i.  4 

Chat,  Kurdish  village,  Alashkert  district,  ii.  i 

Chaurma  village,  Tekman  district,  ii.  249 

Chavarchan  (Ardaz),  ancient  canton,  i.  277  note  2 

Chawir,  see  Abuhevar 

Chembek  Dagh,  Taurus  Range,  ii.  389 

Cheremetieff,  General,  his  reclamations  in  the  valley 
of  the  Araxes,  i.  226 

Chermaly,  Armenian  village  and  posting  station 
(Kars-Kagyzman),  i.  412 

Chernomorsk,  Govt,  of,  i.  447 

Chesney,  F.  R.,  expeditions  of,  ii.  440 

Chevelik,  village,  ii.  392 

Chevermeh,  Armenian  village,  Khinis  district,  ii. 
256 

Chibukh-Naryn-Bashi  Dagh,  i.  441 

Chonchal,  lake,  i.  105,  106 

Chonchal,  river,  i.  105 

Chorzene,  name  by  which  district  of  Kars  was 
known  to  Strabo,  i.  395 

Chorokh  river,  i.  41,  62,  337,  358,  430,  431,  436, 
437,  442,  453,  ii.  68  note  3,  203,  232,  386-387,  402, 
406 

Chorsa,  see  Kars 

Chosroes,  Arsakid  king  of  Armenia,  i.  286-288 

Chosroes  the  Little,  Arsakid  king  of  Armenia,  i. 
301  note,  302 

Chunak,  pseudo-katholikos,  i.  309,  310 

Cilicia,  mountainous  district  of  Asia  Minor.  After 
the  Seljuk  conquest  of  Armenia  some  Armenian 
emigrants  founded  a  kingdom  in  these  mountains, 
i.  367,  which  endured  for  almost  300  years,  ibid. 
These  colonists  resisted  the  spirltu.al  guidance  of 
the  Roman  popes,  ibid. ;  but  as  friends  of  the 
Crusaders  they  were  at  length  overwhelmed  by 
the  Turks,  ibid.  Their  descendants  still  maintain 
themselves  in  the  district,  ibid.,  and  ii.  427.  Status 
of  the  katholikos  of  Sis,  i.  276 

Circassians,  immigrants  into  Turkish  Armenia,  ii. 
340,  341.  List  of  their  villages,  340.  Character- 
istics, ii.  331,  332,  353,  354,  356,  357,  359 

Clayton,  Major,  British  Consul  at  Van,  ii.  62,  313, 

Cole,  Mr.  R.  M.,  American  missionary  at  Bitlis, 

"■  '54. 
Comneni,  distinguished  Greek  family,  perhaps  of 

Italian  origin,  i.  35  ;   called  to  the  throne  of  the 

Byzantine  Empire,  ibid.  ;  their  tragic  overthrow, 

ibid.  ;  furnish  a  line  of  emperors  of  the  Black  Sea 

coasts,  ibid.     See  Grand-C oiiincni 
Constantine  the  Great,  Byzantine  Emperor,  i.  293 

note  I,  300 
Constantine  V.,  Byzantine  Emperor,  ii.  222 
Constantine     VII.,     Porphj-rogenitus,     Byzantine 

Emperor,  i.  336  note,  352,  ii.  223 
Constantine  X.,  Monomachus,  Byzantine  Emperor, 

i-  353>  362,  363 
Constantine  XL,   Dukas,    Byzantine   Emperor,   i. 

373        . 
Constantinople,  Council  of,  i.  312  note 
Constantinople,  Armenian  Patriarchate  of,  ii.  450 

seq. 
Conybeare,  Mr.   F.  C,  i.  280,  281,  283,  407  ;   277, 

279,  284,  285,  301,  312  notes 
Cossacks,  i.  158  seq.,  401-403 
Crimea,  emigration  of  Armenians  to,  i.  367 
Cuinet,  Vital,  ii.  25  ;  26,  79,  139,  152,  notes 
Cuneiform  inscriptions,  their  widespread  occurrence 


Index 


503 


in  Armenia,  ii.  53,  56,  61.  Difficulties  attending 
their  decipherment,  54-56.  The  ancient  civilisa- 
tion which  they  disclose,  56-76.  The  inscriptions 
on  the  rock  of  Van,  108-110.  Inscription  of 
Choban  or  Meher  Kapusi  near  Van,  112  and  Fig. 
134.  Inscription  at  Akhtamar,  133;  do.  at 
Melazkert,  275  note  2  ;  on  the  Bingol  Dagh,  373, 
73  ;  at  Palu,  3^2 
Cyprus  Convention,  ii.  409 

Dadian  Dagh,  ii.  386 

Daghestan,  i.  447 

Dalmatian,  Armenian  equivalent  for  Latin,  i.  300 

note  2 
Daly  Dagh,  peak  of  the  Gori  Mokri,  i.  434 
Damadean,  notorious  Armenian  revolutionarj-,   ii. 

157-159;  172;  431 
Daniel,  Syrian  philosopher,  i.  312  note  i 
Daniel  the  Syrian,  katholikos,  i.  299  note  i 
Daniel,  monk  of  Tigranocerta,  i.  388 
Daniel  Vardapet,  of  Varag,  ii.  113 
Darachichak,   summer  resort  near   Erivan,  i.  139, 

143.  445     . 

David  II.,  king  of  Georgia,  i.  365 

David,  Prince  of  Akhaltsykh  country,  i.  355,  360 

David,  Prince  of  Van,  i.  356 

Dedeveren,  Kurd  village,  Khinis  plain,  ii.  256 

Deir,  town  in  valley  of  the  Great  Zab,  i.  277  note  2 

Deirmen  Dere,  valley  of  the  ancient  Pyxitis  river 
in  the  Pontic  region  near  Trebizond,  ii.  238  ;  i. 
8'.  9.  22 

Delijan,  posting  station,  Northern  Armenia,  1.  40 

Demian,  Pass  of,  ii.  277 

Demian,  village  of  Hasananli  Kurds  above  the 
plain  of  Melazkert,  ii.  277,  342.  Mileage  to 
Melazkert  and  Akhlat,  277  note 

Demir  Kala,  see  Bingol  Dagh 

Dersim,  The,  country  and  administrative  division 
belonging  to  western  Armenia,  ii.  388,  389,  390, 
393.  Pop.  413,  416.  Its  Kizilbash  inhabitants, 
418 

Deveh  Boyun,  Camel's  Neck,  volcanic  ridge  divid- 
ing the  plains  of  Pasin  and  Erzerum,  ii.  194,  196, 
227.  Strategical  importance  to  Erzerum,  201, 
245  ;  fortifications  on  the  ridge,  ibid. 

Dhuspas,  ancient  name  for  city  of  Van,  q.v. 

Diadin,  town  on  the  Upper  Murad,  i.  272,  297  note, 
ii.  406 

Diarbekr,  city  on  the  lowlands  of  Mesopotamia,  i. 
359  et  passim ;  device  of  double-headed  eagle 
there,  ii.  211  note  3 ;  communications  with 
Kharput  and  Erzerum,  388,  396 ;  with  Bitlis,  148 

Dignuk,  village  on  the  Murad  near  Melazkert,  ii. 
276,  265 

Dimitri,  king  of  Georgia  and  lord  of  Ani,  i.  365 

Diocletian,  Roman  Emperor,  i.  256,  293,  295  note 
3,  300 

Dittrich,  Protestant  missionary,  i.  98,  99 

Diyadin,  Armenian  village,  Bingol  district,  ii.  182 

Dochus  Punar,  radial  volcanic  mountain  system  in 
Northern  Armenia,  i.  73,  94,  438,  440,  441,  443 

Dodan,  Armenian  village,  Bingol  district,  ii.  182, 
358,  360  ;  180  note  2 

Dodan  Chai,  see  Bingol  Sit 

Dombat,  village  of  Kizilbash  Kurds  on  Upper 
Murad,  ii.  10,  12 

Dosp,  see  Van 

Dubois  de  Montp^reux,  i.  62,  64,  71,  75-84,  183, 
185,  203,  216-218,  264,  267,  269,  318,  319,  327  ;  66, 
67,  201,  230,  261,  notes 

Dukhobortsy  or  Dukhoborians,  Russian  sectaries 
settled  in  Armenia,  i.  96,  102-104.  Their  settle- 
ments visited,  i.  105 -in.  Character  of  their 
religion,  103,  111-112.  Feud  arises  among  their 
communities,  112- 113.  A  considerable  party 
resolve  to  defy  the  Government,  113,  114. 
Govt,  retaliates  with  savage  cruelty,  114 -116. 
Large  numbers  emigrate  to  British  territory',  first 
to  Cyprus  and  then  to  Canada,  116.  Reflec- 
tions, 116,  117,  120.     .See  also  456,  457 

Diimlii  Dagh,  source  of  the  Western  Euphrates,  i. 
431,  ii.  209  and  note  2,  406 


Duzjurt,  Kurdish  village,  Tekman  district,  ii.  249, 

Dvin  (fovin),  ancient  Armenian  city  in  Ararat 
district,  i.  201  note  i  ;  the  seat  of  the  katholikos 
transferred  to,  i.  264  note  5,  265  ;  its  importance 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  338,  342,  346,  364,  365,  382 

Dvin,  Council  of,  i.  284,  301  note  i 

"  Eagle  of  Vaspurakan,"  newspaper  founded  by  the 
Katholikos  Mekertich  Khrimean,  i.  240 

Ebeling,  Herr,  his  ascent  of  Little  Ararat,  i.  199 

Edessa  (Urfa),  town  in  Mesopotamia,  i.  277  note  2, 
279,  306 

Edgmiatsin  (Vagharshapat,  g.v.),  Armenian  mona;- 
tery  and  town  in  the  district  of  Ararat,  visited  and 
described,  i.  228-276,  453.  Sometimes  called  by 
Armenian  writers  Nor  -  Kaghak  ;  origin  of  this 
name,  287  note  3.  Known  as  Uch  Kilisa  in 
Mussulman  times,  256.  Tradition  that  the 
cathedrals  and  chapels  occupy  a  site  of  great 
sanctity  in  pagan  times,  il'id.  note  2.  Ripsimian 
legend  attributes  the  origin  of  the  cathedral  to 
a  direct  mandate  of  Jesus  Christ,  256-261.  The 
legend  examined,  311.  Academy,  see  under 
Education.     Plan,  244. 

Education,  (I.)  Russian  provinces.  The  Russian 
State  schools  and  the  Armenian  Church  schools  : 
their  status  and  regulation,  i.  218-220,  273,  ii.  97. 
The  two  systems  contrasted,  i.  220-222.  The 
Armenian  system  culminates  in  the  Academy  at 
Edgmiatsin,  272-274.  Several  Russian  State 
schools  visited  and  described  :  at  Akhaltsykh,  i. 
68  ;  at  Akhalkalaki,  i.  90 ;  at  Alexandropol,  i. 
129;  at  Erivan,  i.  221-224;  atKars,  i.  408;  in  villages, 
i.  203,  316,  332.  The  Russian  solution  of  the 
religious  difficulty,  223-224.  A  rntenian  schools  : 
at  Akhaltsykh,  i.  68  ;  at  Akhalkalaki,  i.  90 ;  at 
Alexandropol,  i.  129  ;  at  Erivan,  221  ;  at  Kars,  i. 
408  ;  in  villages,  i.  140,  203,  325.  The  teachers 
are  as  a  rule  laymen. 

(II.)  Turkish  provinces.  The  Turkish  State 
schools  and  the  Armenian  Church  schools  :  their 
status  and  regulation,  ii.  96,  97,  99,  100,  215. 
Much  greater  latitude  allowed  in  Turkey  to  the 
Armenian  schools,  97  ;  but  Russian  methods  are 
creeping  in,  ibid,  and  100.  The  two  systems  con- 
trasted, loi.  The  Armenian  teachers  are  laymen 
and  belong  as  a  rule  to  a  high  class  in  society,  97. 
Turkish  State  schools  visited  and  described  :  at 
Van,  ii.  loo-ioi  ;  at  Bitlis,  ii.  152  and  note  i  ;  at 
Mush  the  school  is  in  abeyance,  ii.  170 ;  at 
Khinis,  ii.  186;  at  Erzerum,  ii.  217.  Armenian 
schools:  at  Van,  ii.  96-99,  and  private  schools, 
il'id.;  at  Bitlis,  ii.  152  ;  at  Mush  the  schools  are 
closed;  at  Erzerum,  216-217,  and  Sanasarean 
School,  213-216,  97.  In  villages  they  are  for  the 
most  part  closed,  c/>.  ii.  165.  Rigorous  Turkish 
censorship  over  foreign  literature,  ii.  95,  180. 
American  Mission  schools,  culminate  in  Armenia 
College  at  Kharput,  ii.  391.  Visited  in  various 
centres,  ii.  94-95,  154,  217,  256.  Armenian 
Catholic  schools,  ii.  153,  217 

Efremovka,  Russian  settlement  and  posting -station 
in  northern  Armenia,  i.  118,  119 

Egin,  town  on  W.  Euphrates,  i.  449,  ii.  386,  390 

Eleazar,  katholikos,  i.  262,  263,  270 

Elizabetpol  (Gandzak),  i.  364,  365 

Elizabetpol,  Govt,  of,  i.  447,  449  ;  97,  103  note,  113, 
114,  115,  447,  449,  455 

Elliot,  Capt. ,  British  Consul  at  Van,  ii.  304,  314 

Elmali  Dere  or  Vale  of  Apple  Trees,  district  between 
Khinis  and  Tutakh,  ii.  263,  399 

Elmali  Dere,  Lake  Van,  ii.  142 

f2mlekli  Dagh,  Gori  Mokri,  i.  434 

Enghil  Su,  Lake  Van,  see  Anguil Su 

Enzakh,  Armenian  hamlet.  Lake  Van,  ii.  137 

Ephesus,  Council  of,  i.  312  note,  314  note 

Ephraim,  katholikos,  i.  264  note  5 

Erazgavors,  town  in  Shirak,  residence  of  Sembat  I., 
i;  341-  345        .      . 

Erimenas,  Vannic  king,  known  only  from  an  inscrip- 
tion on  a  shield  found  at  Toprak  Kala,  ii.  66,  75 


504 


Armenia 


Erishat  River  (Irshat),  Lake  Van,  ii.  24,  44 

Erivan,  the  town  of  gardens,  visited  and  described, 
i.  142,  143-146,  153,  206-227,  229,  427,  ii.  404. 
Derivation  of  the  name  and  history,  i.  209-210, 
446.  Industries,  226.  Material  prosperity  of  the 
Armenian  inhabitants,  225,  467  ;  yet  there  does 
not  exist  a  single  bookseller's  shop,  225.  Pop.  of 
the  town,  209  ;  of  the  province,  447,  451.  Schools, 
see  under  Education.  View  of  from  the  north. 
Fig.  42,  p.  208 

Erkizan,  quarter  of  Akhlat,  ii.  45,  284 

Erovant,  Armenian  Arsakid  king,  ist  cent.,  i.  209 

Ertev,  village,  Pasin  district,  ii.  193 

Ervandakert,  ancient  Armenian  fortress  on  the 
Arpa  Chai,  i.  319,  324 

Ervandashat,  ancient  Armenian  city  on  the  Arpa 
Chai,  i.  319,  324 

Erzen,  see  Artze 

Erzerum  (Karin,  Karnoy  Kaghak,  Theodosiopolis), 
fortress  and  capital  in  Turkish  Armenia,  visited 
and  described,  ii.  198-224,  244,  245.  Derivation  of 
the  name,  223.  History,  221-224,  204-205.  Climate, 
20S  and  cp.  i.  107  note,  427.  Trade,  ii.  205-207, 
i.  32  ;  pop.  of  the  town,  ii.  206-207,  ^'''d  cp.  i.  67, 
128  ;  of  the  province,  ii.  413.  Schools,  see  under 
Eeincaiion.  View  of  from  the  south,  Fig.  164, 
p.  207,  from  the  north,  Fig.  165,  p.  208.  Mileage 
to  Khinis,  174  note ;  to  Trebizond,  225,  240. 
Route  to  Rizeh,  382,  i.  431,  and  to  Olti,  ibid. 
Suggestions  for  railway  comminiication,  ii.  206,  382 

Erzerum,  plain  of,  area  and  elevation,  ii.  209. 
Connection  with  other  Armenian  plains,  i.  146, 
ii.  401 

Erzinjan,  ancient  Armenian  town  and  Turkish 
military  station  on  the  Western  Euphrates,  i.  348 
note,  431,  432,  ii.  204,  227,  228,  234,  386,  390, 
404,  413,  418.  Statue  of  the  goddess  Anahid  at 
E.  destroyed  by  St.  Gregory,  i.  294 

Eugenius,  Saint,  of  Trebizond,  i.  36 

Euphrates,  Western  (Kara  Su,  P'rat),  its  sources  in 
the  Diimlii  Dagh,  i.  431,  ii.  209,  401  ;  fed  by  the 
Central  Tableland,  ii.  398  ;  its  course  through 
Armenia,  i.  146,  ii.  201,  203,  222,  227,  228  and 
note,  230,  404,  406  ;  its  valley  apportioned  to  the 
Roman  Empire,  i.  306 

Euphrates,  Eastern  (Murad),  its  sources  and  prin- 
cipal affluents,  ii.  406  ;  373,  398  ;  course  through 
Armenia,  i.  420,  ii.  2,  9,  10,  12-15,  264-273,  277, 
342,  343,  346-355  ;  _  183,  175,  i77_;  the  ancient 
Arsanias,  ii.  41.  Tiridates  and  his  people  bap- 
tized on  the  banks  of,  i.  296 

Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Nicomedia,  i.  300 

Eyerli  Dagh,  Erzerum,  ii.  202,  245,  381,  398 

Eyub  Pasha,  Kurd  Hamidiyeh,  ii.  5 

Eznik,  i.  301  note  i 

Ezra,  katholikos,  i.  270 

Faddeff,   General,   Governor   of  Kars,  i.  399,  400, 

4°3.  417  .        .  ,  .  . 

Fallmerayer,  J.  P.,  historian  of  Trebizond,  1.  33, 

34.  19  .  .       . 

Fars  (Shiraz,  Persepolis),  1.  286,  287,  340  note  5 
Fath  Ali,  Shah  of  Persia,  i.  217 
Fathlun  I.,  Beni-Cheddad,  i.  365 
Fathlun  II.,  i.  365 

Faustus  of  Byzantium,  i.  291  note  i,  303,  311 
Feodoroff,  companion  of  Parrot,  i.  198  note  i 
Fergiisson,  J.,  History  of  Architecture,  i.  263,  368, 

372  note 
Fethulla  Bey,  chieftain  bf  Hasananli  Kurds,  ii.  276 
Finlay,  G.,  History  of  Trebizond,  i.  33,  34 
Flora  and  fauna.     The  flora  in  Armenia  is  as  a 
rule   composed    of    the   species   familiar   to   the 
traveller  in  Europe,  ii.  246,  248  ;  208,  253,  256, 
265,  268,  269,  303.     It  is  perhaps  most  remarkable 
on  the  sandy  slopes  of  Ararat,  i.  igo,  191,  as  also 
on  the  higher  seam.?,  i.  181.     The  great  mountain 
masses  appear  to  have  their  distinctive  flowers, 
ii.  362,  and  see  Bingol,  Niinrud,  Sipan.    Wealth 
and  variety  of  the  flora  in  the  regions  bordering 
Armenia  on  the  side  of  the  Black  Sea,  i.  18,  51, 
432,  ii.  236,  239,  241,  242,  382 


Of  big  game  there  is  little,  ii.  302,  304,  339 ; 
but  partridges  are  -found  in  abundance  on  the 
mountains,  i.  161,  181  ;  and  the  plain  of  Alash- 
kert  is  a  nursery  of  wild  fowl,  ii.  3,  9.  Wild 
geese  are  frequent  on  the  rivers,  ii.  346,  and 
pelicans  on  some  of  the  lakes,  323,  344.  The 
Nimrud  crater  is  a  nursery  for  all  kinds  of  butter- 
flies, ii.  303.  Remarkable  about  Lake  Van  are 
the  rollers  {coracias  garrulus),  ii.  280.  Lizards 
dart  among  the  rocks,  i.  74 

Forests,  scarcity  of  in  Armenia  and  causes,  ii.  405 

Fraser,  Miss,  member  of  the  American  Mission  in 
Van,  ii.  92 

Frat  river,  see  Eup/iTafes,  Western 

Frese,  General,  Governor  of  Erivan,  i.  143,  226, 
246,  248,  253 

Freshfield.  Mr.  D.  W.,  i.  198  note 

Gagik,  Kinglet  of  Van  (Artsruni)  and  ri\al  of  King 
Sembat  I.,  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  345,  346,  348, 
349,  350.  Builds  the  church  at  Akhtamar,  ii.  131 
note  2. 

Gagik  I.,  Shahanshah,  King  of  the  Bagratid 
dynasty,  i.  354-355.  360,  373..  382,  383 

Gagik  II.,  King  of  the  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  362 

Galerius,  Roman  Emperor,  i.  300 

Galicia,  emigration  of  Armenians  to,  i.  367 

Gandzak,  see  EUzahctpol 

Ganibuk,  village,  Khamur  district,  ii.  348 

Garchigan,  district  and  caza.  Lake  Van,  ii.  138,  139 

Gargalik,  village  of  Sipkanli  Kurds  on  the  Murad, 
ii.  267 

Garni,  ruined  town,  village  and  river,  district  of 
Ararat,  i.  201,  264 

Garni  Chai,  Mush,  ii.  166,  170,  175 

Garuts,  see  Kars 

Garzik  village.  Lake  Van,  ii.  141 

Garzoni,  Maurizio,  Roman  Catholic  missionary  in 
Kurdistan  in  the  18th  century,  ii.  149 

Gegham,  Lake,  see  Sevati  Lake 

Gelarash  Dagh,  spur  of  the  Ala  Dagh,  ii.  16 

Gelat,  Monasterj'  of,  district  of  Kutais,  i.  45,  46,  47 

Gelzer,  Prof.  H.,  i.  277,  292,  295,  299,  300,  309,  310, 
notes 

Genj,  District  of,  ii.  392 

George  I.  of  Georgia,  i.  360 

George  III.  of  Georgia,  i.  365,  366 

George  IV.,  katholikos,  i.  236,  254,  263,  267,  273 

Georgia,  i.  429,  432,  433;  37,  39-51  ;  448.  Glance 
at  the  Georgian  kingdom  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  i.  337  seg.  passim.  It  abdicates  in  favour 
of  the  Tsars,  446 

Georgians,  overlap  into  Armenia,  i.  55-85,  86,  443. 
Numbers  in  Armenia,  451,  455  (often  classed  as 
Turks,  iltid.  and  ii.  417).  Their  Church  accepts 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  i.  313.  Unites  with 
the  Russian  Orthodo.x  Church,  463.  Their 
curious  method  of  catching  fish,  i.  76.  Their 
language,  ii.  68  note  3 

German  colonists,  their  origin  in  Transcaucasia, 
i.  96-99  ;  met  with  in  Armenia,  410 

Gez,  village  near  Erzerum,  ii.  227 

Ghubanoff,  Michael  Vasilievich  (Dukhobortsy), 
brother  of  Lukeria  Vasilievna,  i.  loS 

Giaour  Dagh,  northern  border  of  Armenia,  i.  430, 
ii.  243 

Ginal  Dagh,  i.  434 

Girdim  Dagh,  Turkish  Armenia,  ii.  386,  392 

Glak  Vaiik  (Changalli),  ii.  180  note  i 

Gobet,  Mussulman  village,  Akhaltsykh  district, 
_  i.  74 

Godorebi,  Mt.  of  the  Abul-Samsar  volcanic  system, 
i.  95 

Gukcheh  Lake,  see  Scran  Lake 

Giil  Bashi,  hamlet  on  Mush  plain,  ii.  319 

Gol  Bashi,  Pool  of,  a  source  of  the  Kara  Su,  ii.  319 

GiJleh,  district  in  northern  Armenia,  i.   430,  431, 

,  437.  439.  443  . 
(>olgat,  Armenian  village,  Alagiiz  district,  i.  133 
Gi'ili,  Armenian  hamlet.  Lake  Van,  ii.  138 
Giiljik,  Lake,  ii.  3S7  ;  indications  of  a  rise  in  tlie 
level,  53  note 


Index 


505 


Gop,  Lake  (Bulama,  Lake  of  Shailu),  near  Bilejaii 

Dagh,  ii.  337,  343,  344.     Analysis  of  its  water, 

Appendix  II. 
Gop,  large  Armenian  village,  district  of  Bulanik, 

ii.  344,  345.     Mileage  to  Charbahur,  353  note 
Gopal,   Armenian   village,   Akh   Dagh   district,    ii. 
,  258,  259 
Gopal   Su,    tributary   of  the    Hingijl    Su  (Khinis), 

ii.  260 
Gorelovka,  see  Diikhohortsy 
Gori  Mokri  Mts.,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  87,  433 
Goschen,  Rt.  Hon.  G.  J.,  ambassador  to  Turkey, 

ii.  410 
Goshkar  Baba  (shoem.aker  to  the  Prophet),  grave 

near  Bingol  Dagh,  ii.  372 
Gotimeria  Dagh,  Northern  .Armenia,  i.  430,  431 
Gotni,  Kurdish  village,  Mush  plain,  ii.  163 
Gotok,  village  of  settled  Kurds,  vilayet  of  Bitlis, 

ii.  142 
Gozme  Gedik  Pass,  Mush  plain,  ii.  396 
Grand-Comneni,   line  of  Greek  emperors  at  Tre- 

bizond,  i.  35-36 
Graves,  Mr.   R.  W.,  British  Consul  at   Erzerum, 

ii.  8,  199,  413  note  2 
Greeks  in  Armenia,  i.  122,  129,  331,  332,  451,  455; 

in  the  northern  peripheral  region,  i.  432,  4s5,  ii. 

236,  237-244 
Greene,  Mr.  F.  D.,  American  missionary'  at  Van, 

ii.  92,  95 
Gregory,  Saint  (Lusavorich  or  The  Illuminator),  i. 

259-261 ;    2S8-301 ;    200,  201,   204,  254,  262,  264 

note  5,  265,  269,  271,  283,  284,  306,  311,  348,  ii. 

178  and  note  2 
Gregory  Magistros,  persecutes  the  Thonraki,  i.  285 
Grigor,  grandson  of  .St.  Gregory,  i.  267 
Grigor  (Pahlavid),   father  of  Vahram,  i.  381,  382, 

383  note  3 
Grigor,  son  of  Vahram,  i.  385 
Gudubgokh  (Surb  Vakob),  Chapel  near  Lake  Van, 

ii-  137 
Gugoghlan,   Kurdish  village,  Shushar  district,  ii. 

^  375     . 

Gujaretis,  Valley  of  the,  i.  433 

Gumbet  Dagh,  i.  430,  431 

Gumgum,  village  and  capital  of  the  caza  of  Varto, 

ii.  183,  356,  371 
Gumgum  Su,  affluent  of  the  Bingcjl  Su  (Charbahur), 

ii.  358,  367,  368. 
Gumri,  see  Alc.xajidropol 
Gumiishkhaneh,  town  in  vilayet  of  Trebizond  and 

capital  of  Greek  diocese  of  Chaldia,  ii.  69,  240, 

243,  382  ;  famous  for  its  silver  mines,  243.     Com- 

mimications,  i.  432 
Gundemir,  ancient  Armenian  village,  Bingol  dis- 
trict, ii.  182,  358,  359 
Gunduz,  Armenian  hamlet,  plain  of  Khinis,  ii.  257 
Gunek  Su,  affluent  of  Eastern  Euphrates,  ii.  389, 

392,  406 
Giinther,  Mr.  R.  T.,  ii.  43  note,  48  and  Appendi.x  II. 
Gurgi  Boghaz  (Georgian  Gates),  Erzerum-Olti,  ii. 

203,  227,  245 
Gurgur,  name  given  to  the  passage  of  the  Murad 

out  of  Mush  plain,  ii.  177.     Ruins  of  a  fortress 

there,  ibid. 
Guria,  Province  of,  i.  42,  43 
Gutschmid,  Alfred  von,  i.  278,  287,  288,  289,  291, 

292,  295,  300,  301,  notes 
Guyard,  M.  Stanislas,  ii.  56 
Giizel  Dere,  Beauteous  Valley,  Bitlis  district,  ii. 

45,  143,  402 
Giizul  Dere,  village  on  Alagoz,  i.  135 
Gypsies,   in  Garchigan,   ii.    139   note,     .^t   Gopal, 

260.     Are  they  the  remnant  of  a  Hindu  colony? 


Hadrian,  Roman  Emperor,  i.  12,  ii.  40 
Haidar  Bey,  village  near  Lake  Van,  ii.  28 
Haini,  town  of,  ii.  388,  396 
Haji  Khalil,  village,  Alagoz  district,  i.  135 
Hakkiari,  district  of,  ii.  88,  421  note,  424 
H.alys  River,  i.  4  ;  its  delta  is  celebrated  for  tobacco, 
il'iii. 


Hamdun,  Arab  emir,  i.  353 

Hamidiyeh,  irregular  cavalry  recruited  by  the 
Turkish  Govt,  among  the  Kurds  and  Karapa- 
pakhs,  ii.  5,  6,  13,  14,  17,  26,  88,  172,  184,  187, 
195,  219,  255,  260,  266,  276,  283,  314,  344,  356, 
357,  421,  422,  423 

Hamilton,  W.  J.,  i.  33  ;  32,  367  notes 

Hamsi  Keui,  Upper  and  Lower,  villages,  Machka 
Dere,  ii.  241,  236  note 

Hargin,  village  on  Lake  Van,  ii.  27,  29 

Hasan  Kala,  ancient  town  in  Pasin,  ii.  61,  174,  193, 
219 

Hasan  Keif,  primeval  village  on  the  Tigris,  ii.  395 

Hasuna,  village  of  Hasananli  Kurds  at  the  foot  of 
Kartevin  Dagh,  ii.  268,  275 

Ha.\thausen,  A.  von,  i.  235  ;  66,  90,  234,  273,  notes 

Hayk,  city  of,  result  of  excavations  at,  ii.  71 

Hayk,  son  of  Togarmah,  grandson  of  Japhet,  re- 
puted progenitor  of  the  Armenians,  i.  318,  ii.  70, 
78,  274 

Haykaberd,  ruins  of  an  Armenian  fortress  near  the 
passage  of  the  Murad  from  Mush  Plain,  ii.  177 

Hayotz-dzor,  district  of,  Lake  Van,  ii.  71,  394 

Hazo,  town  of,  ii.  429,  431 

Heraclius,  Roman  emperor,  i.  314,  ii.  222 

Heraklea,  Black  Sea,  1.  2 

Hieron  Oros,  see  Icros 

Hincks,  Dr.,  ii.  56  note  i 

Hindu  refugees,  their  temples  at  Surb  Karapet  de- 
stroyed by  St.  Ciregory,  ii.  178  ;  the  gjpsies  in 
Armenia  are  said  to  be  their  descendants,  ibid.^ 
and  their  language  is  known  as  Sanskrit  among  the 
Armenians,  ibid. 

Hindu  Kush  Mts.,  i.  423,  424,  425,  435 

Hipsinek,  Armenian  village,  Akantz  district,  ii.  23 

Hittites,  The,  ii.  61 

Hiznavuz  (Kiznaus),  Armenian  village  near  Edg- 
miatsin,  i.  316 

Honentz,  family  of,  i.  375 

Hoseyn  Ali  Khan,  Sirdar  of  Erivan,  i.  214,  217 

Hoseyn  Pasha,  chief  of  the  Haideranli  and  ruler  of 
territory  of  Patnotz,  ii.  17,  20,  21 

Hrazdan  or  Zanga  River,  see  Zanga 

Huns,  The,  i.  287,  303 

Iberians,  The,  i.  395,  ii.  68  note  3 
Ibn-Alathir,  Arab  historian,  ii.  29  and  note  2 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  adjutant  of  Kurd  Hamidiyeh,  ii 

344  ^    , 

Ibrahim  Sheikh,  unknown  ruler  at  Vostan,  Lake 

Van,  ii.  125-126 
leros  (Hieron  Oros),  cape  near  Trebizond,  i.  8,  13, 

33 
Igmal,  village  on  Lake  Van,  ii.  27 
Iki  Kube,  quarter  of  Akhlat,  ii.  284-287 
Ilantash  or  Karatash,  plateau  of,  near  Akantz,  ii. 

28  _ 
Ildigiz,  Atabeg  governor  of  Azerbaijan,  i.  366 
Ilija,  village  in  Erzerum  district,  ii.  227 
Imeritia,  i.  42,  45,  47,  430 

Ineboli,  ancient  town  on  the  Black  Sea,  i.  3,  4,  6,  35 
Innaknean  Vank  (Changalli),  ii.  i3o  note  i 
Inuspuas,  Vannic  king,  ii.  72,  no  note 
Iris,  river  flowing  into  Black  Sea,  i.  4  ;  its  delta  is 

celebrated  for  its  Indian  corn,  ibid. 
Isa,  Arab  governor,  i.  340 
Isaac  the  Great,  katholikos,  i.  312 
Iskandar  Pasha,  ii.  289 
Iskele,  harbour  of  Van  city  and  name  of  a  gate,  ii. 

36,  49,  108  note 
Ismail  I.,  Shah,  i.  210,  ii.  78 
Ispahan,  i.  264  note  5,  440 

Ispir,  town  on  the  Chorokh,  i.  431,  ii.  68  and  note  3 
Ispuinis,  Vannic  king,  ii.  60  and  note  3,  72.     In- 
scription of,  no  note,  112 
Issaverdens,  i.  277  note  2,  ii.  222 

Jacob,    Saint,    Bishop   of  Nisibis,    his   attempt    to 

ascend  Ararat,  i.  184,  185  ;  269 
Jacob  (James  IV.),  katholikos,  i.  262,  268  note 
Jagluya  Mts.,  near  Kagj-zman,  famous   for   their 

rich  pastures,  i.  419 


5o6 


Armenia 


Jaila,  Armenian  hamlet,  Alexandropol  district,  i. 

"9  .         . 

Jala,  Armenian  village,  Shuragel  district,  i.  330 
Javresh  Dagh,  Kighi  district,  ii.  389 
Jejen  Dagh,  ii.  203,  227,  230,  245,  382,  400,  403 
Jejen  Dagh,  Pass  of  (Khoshabpunar),  ii.  382  and 

240  note 
Jelal-ud-Din,  Sultan  of  Kharizme,  ii.  295,  296 
Jellap,  Armenian  village  and  posting  station,  Alex- 
andropol district,  i.  122 
Jelu  Dagh,  Kurdistan,  ii.  388,  395 
Jenghiz  Khan,  Ani  sacked  by,  i.  366,  377 
Jerusalem,  Armenian  patriarchate  of,  ii.  453 
Jesuits,  see  Missions 
Jevizlik,  town  of,  Dei'rmen  Dere,  ii.  238  ;  mileage 

to  Trebizond  and  Baiburt,  225  note,  240  note 
Jezireh,  town  in  Kurdistan,  ii.  433 
Jezirok,  village  on  Lake  Nazik,  ii.  323 
Jil   Gol,  Lake  of  Rushes,  Sipan   district,   ii.   331  ; 

outlet  of  the  waters,  341  ;  increase  in  the  level, 

ibid.,  and  47  note  i 
John  Katholikos,  Armenian  historian,  i.  335,  341, 

344.  345.  346.  347.  348.  350,  352 
John  the  Baptist,  Saint  (Surb  Karapet),  cult  of  in 

Armenia,  i.  283-284,  295 
John  the  Philosopher,  katholikos,  i.  284 
John  Sembat,  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  355  seq.,  373, 

John   Zimiskes,   Byzantine   emperor   of  Armenian 

descent,  i.  353,  354 
Jude,  Saint,  the  apostle,  i.  277  note  2 
Julfa,  village  on  the  Araxes,  i.  434,  435,  444 
Julfa,  New,  i.  233  note  2,  264  note  5 
Justinian,  Roman  Emperor,  i.  27,  ii.  222 

Kabak-Tepe  or  Kizilkaya,  Kars  district,  i.  394 
Kagdarich,  village  on  the  Western  Euphrates,  ii. 

228 
Kagyzman,  town  near  the  Araxes,  i.  148,  413-417, 

419.  459-     Pop-  of,  417  ;    account  of  town  and 

castle  by  Evliya,  416  note 
Ka!a-i-Zerin,  see  Zcrnak 

Kalaji,  Kurdish  village,  Shushar  district,  ii.  251 
Kalajik,  village  of,  Lake  Van,  ii.  38,  112 
Kalajik,  castled  crag  of,  near  the  Vavuk  Pass,  ii. 
.243 

Kala  Su,  Pasin  district,  ii.  193 
Kamarlu,  village  of  Armenians  and  Tartars,  Ararat 

district,  i.  154,  201,  203 
Kanjean,  village  in  the  Elmali  Dere,  ii.  399 
Kanlija,  near  Alexandropol,  cuneiform  inscriptions 

found  at,  ii.  61,  73 
Kanly  Dagh,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  437 
Kara  Ali,  Circassian  village,  plain  of  Melazkert,  ii. 
,277 
Karabagh,  country  forming  an  Armenia  in  miniature 

on  the  side  of  the  Caspian,  i.  434  ;  254,  423,  445, 
^449.  453.  454-     Kurds  in,  455  and  cp.  364 
Karachanta,  Mussulman  village,  Alexandropol  dis- 
trict, i.  122 
Karachoban,  Armenian  village  on  Bingol  Su,  ii.  257 
Karadagh,  northern  Azerbaijan,  i.  434,  435 
Karaghun,  Kurdish  hamlet,  Sipan  district,  ii.  342 
Kara  Hasan  Su,  affluent  to  the  Western  Euphrates, 

ii.  228 
Karaja  Dagh,  Mesopotamia,  ii.  388 
Karakach  Dagh  (Gori  Mokri,  Northern  Armenia), 

i.  87,  434,  438,  441 
Karakala,  ruins  on  the  Araxes,  i.  318,  319,  321 
Karahisar;    town    of   (Shabin    Karahisar),    i.    431, 

ii.  204 
Kara  Kala,  see  Bingd'l  Dagh 
Karakaya  Dagh,  Tauric  Armenia,  ii.  386 
Karakilisa,  Alashkert,  ii.  2-10,  266.     Kaimakam  of, 
,.7-8.  255 

Karakilisa,  village  near  Lake  Van,  ii.  23 
Kara    Mehemet,    Armenian    village    on    plain    of 

Ale-vandropol,  i.  122 
Karaogli,  village  on  Murad,  ii.  346,  347 
Karapapakhs  or  Black  Caps,  ii'.  6,  14,  266  ;  i.  455, 

456,  ii.  5,  267 
Karass,  Scotch  mission  at,  i.  99 


Kara  Su,  Ararat,  i.  156,  183,  187,  201 

Kara  Su,  Mush  plain,  ii.  162  note,  176,  317,  319 

Kara  Su,  Western  Euphrates,  ii.  209,  228,  406 

Karatash,  see  Ilantash 

Kara  Vank,  Armenian  village  on  Aghri  Dagh, 
i.  418 

Karchkhal  Mts.,  Pontic  region,  i.  430 

Karembe,  Cape  (Black  Sea),  i.  3 

Kargabazar  Heights  (Pasin),  ii.  193,  203,  227,  See 
also  i.  431,  432 

Karin,  see  Erzertun 

Karkar  Dagh  (Lake  Van),  ii.  388 

Karke,  Mt.  (in  Taron),  site  of  heathen  temples, 
i.  295,  296.     .Site  identified,  296  note  2 

Karlik  Tepe,  Trebizond,  i.  34 

Karmuch,  Armenian  village  near  Akhlat,  ii.  45,  299 

Karniarch,  mountain  and  landmark  near  Alaguz, 
i.  138,  140,  317 

Karnirash,  hamlet  of  Kurds,  foot  of  Nimrud,  ii.  319 

Karri  Chai,  tributary  to  the  Kur,  i.  443 

Kars  (Karutz),  ancient  fortified  city  and  modern 
fortress  in  Northern  Armenia,  visited  and  de- 
scribed, i.  393-408  ;  39,  61,  330,  331,  332,  333, 
442,  459.  History,  395:399.  352,  353,  354,  356, 
358,  360,  364.  Elevation,  439.  Pop.  of  the 
town,  405,  406.  Do.  of  the  province,  451.  View 
of,  406.  Plan,  395.  Railway  from  Tiflis  recently 
completed,  40  note 

Kars,  river  of,  curiosities  attending  its  course, 
i.  442,  394,  413  __ 

Kartevin  Dagh,  ii.  16,  263,  265,  268,  277,  333,  337, 
397,  401. 

Kasagh  River  (Abaran  Su),  i.  242,  245,  316 

Kastamuni,  town  in  Asia  Minor,  i.  3,  6,  35 

Katranideh,    Queen   of  Armenia,    wife   of  Gagik, 

}■  .373 

Kazikly  Dagh,  northern  border,  ii.  240,  382 
Keban-Maden,  Euphrates,  ii.  390 
Kegham,  Lake,  see  Sevan  La/ce 
Kekeli,  Armenian  village,  Bilejan  district,  ii.  343 
Kelkid-Chiftlik,  town  on  the  Lycus,  ii.  234 
Kelkid  .Su  (Lycus),  i.  431,  ii.  406 
Kemakh  (Ani),  the  burial-place  of  Armenian  Arsakid 

kings,   ii.   390.     Fane  of  Aramazd  destroyed  by 

St.  Gregory,  i.  294 
Kemurly,  Upper  and  Lower,   Kagyzman   district, 

.'•  413,  414.  416 

Kerasun,  Black  Sea,  i.  6,  18,  431 
Keremitlu  r)agh,  fortified  hill  near  Erzerum,  ii.  203 
Kerim,  notorious  brigand  in  the  Caucasus,  i.  153 
Kerkiir  Dagh,  volcanic  pile  on  the  flank  of  Nimrud, 

ii.  50,  160-161,  312,  316,  317 
Ker  Porter,  Sir  R.,  i.  201  note,  319,  323,  324,  367, 

Kersik  or  Kersuk  .Su,  Elmali  Dere  district,  ii.  263  ; 

confluence  with  the  Murad,  265 
Kerwanserai,  Kurdish  settlement,  slopes  of  Alaguz, 
J-  '35  .  .     .      .. 

Keser  Su,  tributary  of  the  Tigris,  li.  148 
Keshish  Gol,  on  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Varag,  ii.  64  ; 

stele  near  with  inscription  of  Rusas  L,  itiiii. 
Kestano  (Bejano),  Plain  of  Akhalkalaki,  i.  87  note 
Ketivan,  Mohammedan  village  near  Hasan  Kala, 

-"•  '93 

Kety  Dagh,  Karabagh  border,  i.  434 

Keupek  Dagh,  Terjan  district,  ii.  386 

Khach  Dagh,  Terjan  district,  ii.  386,  393 

Khachkar  Mts.,  i.  430 

Khadrak  station,  valley  of  Balakhor,  ii.  234 

Khaldians,  subjects  of  the  old  Vannic  kings,  their 
history,  language  and  art,  ii.  56-65.  Character 
of  their  civilisation,  53,  65,  71,  76,  iii,  116.  Was 
there  any  racial  or  cultural  link  between  them 
and  the  Chaldees?  70.  Approximate  date  of 
their  overthrow,  65,  66.  The  remnant  known  to 
Greek  writers  as  Chaldians  and  the  mountainous 
country  to  which  they  were  driven  as  Chaldia — a 
name  which  survives  to  the  present  day,  68,  69 

Khaldis,  supreme  god  of  the  old  Vannic  kings  and 
their  people,  ii.  57 

Khalias  Dagh  or  Mergemir,  ii.  263,  269,  337,  389 

Kluuna  Dagh,  ii.  384 


Index 


507 


Khamur    Dagh,    seen    from    Koshk,    ii.    13,    from 
Tutakh,  14  ;   from  Bashkent  Ova,  185  ;   from  the 
Palandoken  Pass,  247  ;  from  Khinis  plain,  257  ; 
from  the  village  of  Demian,  277.     Ascent  of  the 
principal  ridge,  348-351.     Geological  composition 
ofj   257,   349,   371.     Monument   on   the   summit, 
350  ;  view  of  the  surrounding  country,  351.     Con- 
nection with  Bingol,  350,  371.     Photograph,  252, 
Fig.  177 
Khancharli,  village  of,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  119 
Khanik,  Circassian  village,  Sipan  district,  ii.  278 
Khanikoff,  N.  V.,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  199 
Khan  Mahmud,  Kurdish  chieftain,  ii.  78 
Kharaba,  ruins  of  village  on  the  site  of  Ali  Mur, 

district  of  Khinis,  ii.  252 
Kharaba,  quarter  of  Akhlat  q.v.,  ii.  284 
Kharput,  ancient  Armenian  town  on  a  hill  near  the 
banks  of  the   Murad,  ii.  390 ;   pop.  391  ;    do.  of 
the  province,  413,  425.     Large  number  of  villages 
in  the  vicinity,  391  ;   products  of  the  neighbour- 
hood, ibid.     The  Americans  have  a  flourishing 
Mission  and  a  well-equipped  College,  ibid.;    388, 
396.     Plain  of,  390 
Kharshut  River,  ii.  234,  236,  242 
Khashkeui,  Armenian  village  on  Plain  of  Mush,  ii. 

165 
Khashlu,  village,  Bilejan  district,  ii.  345 
Khedonun,  village  of  Jibranli  Kurds,  ii.  250 
Kherbesor,  village,  Shushar  district,  ii.  252,  373 
Kherbesor  cliffs,  Bingol  plateau,  ii.  373,  398 
Khertvis,  town  at  the  junction  of  Kur  and  river  of 

Akhallcalaki,  i.  76  ;  66  note,  74,  85 
Khindris  Plain,  ii.  389,  392 

Khinis,  town  of,  visited  and  described,  ii.  186-188, 
253,  254-255.     Pop.  187.     Emigration  of  Armen- 
ians from  the  district,  219.     Mileage  to  Mush  and 
Erzerum,  174  note.     Do.  to  Tutakh,  255  note 
Khinis,  plain  of,  ii.  186,  188,  256-258,  351,  401.     A 

seat  of  the  Thonraki,  i.  285 
Khinis,  river  of,  a  component  of  the  Bingol  Su,  ii. 

186,  188,  253 
Khizan,  region  south  of  Lake  Van,  ii.  397 
Khodzko,  J.,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  199 
Khojabek,  Armenian  village,  Akhalkalaki  district, 

i.  105 
Khorasan,  village  at  the  narrows  of  the  Ara.xes,  i. 

146,  ii.  194 
Khorasan,  Province  and  Mts.  of  northern  Persia, 

i.  423,  426 
Khoren  Stephaneh,  monk  at  Edgmiatsin,  i.  248 
Khor  Virap,  Monastery  near  the  Ara.xes,  visited, 
i.    200,    203,    204.      Erected   on   the  site   of  St. 
Gregory's  dungeon,  ibid. 
Khoshab  River  (Enghil  Su)  Lake  Van,  ii.  44,  50, 
122,  394.     The  waters  of  the  Khoshab  basin  are 
taken  to  the  suburbs  of  Van  by  the  Shamiram  Su, 
60 
Khosha  Vank  (Kizil  Kilisa),  Armenian  village  on 

the  Arpa  Chai,  i.  328 
Khosha   Vank,   Monastery  of  (Horomos),   visited 

and  described,  i.  387-390  ;  328 
Khoshkhosh,  Queen,  her  tomb  at  Varag,  ii.  115 
Khosrov  Pasha,  donor  of  a  pulpit  to  the  mosque  at 

Vostan,  ii.  125 
Khosrovidukht,   sister   of  King   Tiridates,   i.   259, 

261,  264 
Khozapin,  Lake,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  87  note 
Khram,  Valley  of  the,  i.  89 
Khram  Mts.,  i.  433 
Khrimean,   Katholikos  Mekertich,  i.  236,  242,  246- 

248,  249,  250,  251-256,  ii.  86,  96,  103,  115,  408 
Khvandzeh,  wife  of  Shahanshah,  i.  375 
Kiaya,  the  head  man  of  a  Christian  village,  ii.  176 

note  2 
Kiepert,  Prof.  H.,  ii.  383  note,  408 
Kighi  Su  or  Peri  Su,  ii.  389,  392,  406 
Kighi  Kasaba,  town  of,  ii.  390,  393 
Kighi,   district   of,    view   of  the  from   the   hill  of 
Gugoghlan,  ii.  376.    Eastern  limits,  380.    Charac- 
teristics, 393,  405 
Kilich  Gedik  Mts.,  ii.  2,  12,  13,  262,  263,  264,  266, 
337 


Kilisa  Deresi,  Armenian  Church  on  the  Plain  of 

Khinis,  ii.  188,  253 
Kimball,  Dr.  Grace,  of  the  American  Mission  at 

Van,  ii.  92 
Kindirantz,  capital  of  the  caza  of  Garchigan,  ii.  138- 

140 
Kindirantz,  plain  of,  natural  phenomenon  which  is 

repeated  every  year,  ii.  139 
Kinneir,  Macdonald,  ii.  151,  231  note 
Kip  (ji)l,  crater  lake  on  Ararat,  i.  199 
Kirakos,  katholikos,  i.  264  note  5 
Kirk  Bulakh  River  (Forty  Springs),  Erivan,  i.  209 
Kirk  Deirmen,  pass  near  Erzerum,  ii.  202 
Kirklar,  a  quarter  of  Akhlat,  ii.  284 
Kirklar  Gol,  pool  on  summit  of  Sipan,  ii.  334 
Kisir  Dagh,  Chaldir,  i.  394,  438,  441 
Kitowa  Dagh  Pass,  ii.  240,  242,  382 
Kizilbash,    people    usually   classed    as    Kurds    but 
professing  a  distinctive  form  of  religion,  ii.  418, 
419  ;  numbers  in  Armenia,  414,  416  note  ;  12,  185, 
187,  252,  390  _ 

Kizii-Goch  River,  tributary  to  the  Arpa  Chai,  i.  119 
Kizilkaya,  see  Kabak  Tepe 
Kizilkilisa,  village  on  the  Arpa  Chai,  i.  328 
Kiziltash,  cuneiform  slab  near  Artemid,  ii.  120,  121 
Kizvag,  village  on  Lake  Van,  ii.  315  ;  menaced  by 

increase  in  le\'el  of  water,  52 
Klupfi"ell,  IVL  de,  i.  38 
Knapp,    Messrs.    G.    C.    and    George,    American 

missionaries,  ii.  154 
Koblian  Chai,  tributary  of  the  Kur,  i.  57 
Kobulety,  station,  i.  42 

Koch,  K. ,  i.  107,  436,  437,  443,  ii.  176,  210,  2ir 
Kohanam  Dagh  (Sepuh),  i.  348  note 
Kolchis,  i.   7,   18,  42,  432,  ii.   239;   glances  at  the 

history  of,  i.  62,  343,  344,  345,  349 
Kolibaba  Mt. ,  Khamur,  ii.  333,  348,  350,  372 
Komitas,  katholikos,  i.  263,  264  note  5,  265,  270, 

291  note 
Koms,  quarter  of  Bitlis,  ii.  154 
Kop  Dagh,  ii.  203,  227,  230,  245,  386,  403 
Kop  Dagh  Pass,  elevation,  ii.  230 
Korakhbur,  village  near  Efremovka,  i.  n8 
Kordikran,  village  in  Garchigan,  ii.  139 
Korduk  (Kurdistan),  i.  309  note  i,  ii.  429 
Koriun,  i.  291  note,  301  note  i 

Kor  Ogly  Dagh,  Abul  Samsar,  volcanic  group,  i.  95 
Kor  Su,  tributary  of  the  Murad,  district  of  Bulanik, 

ii.  346 
Kor  Su,  tributary  of  Murad,  Karakilisa,  ii.  9 
Koshk,  Kurdish  village,  district  of  Tutakh,  ii.  13-17 
Koshmiir  Dagh,  Kighi  district,  ii.  389 
Kotur  River,  Azerbaijan,  ii.  386 
Kovaleffsky,  his  ascent  of  Little  Ararat,  i.  199 
Kozli,  Armenian  village  on  slopes  of  Akh  Dagh,  ii. 

256  .  _ 

Krasnovodsk   Mts.,   Caspian   seaboard,  their  con- 
nection with  the  structural  system  of  Asia,  i.  425 
Krimizi  Tuzla,  village,  Khamur  district,  ii.  260 
Ktutz,  island  and  monasterj-  in  Lake  Van,  ii.  32,  33 
Kuarkuareh,  atabeg,  i.  64 
Kiichik  Keui,  village  near  Kars,  i.  397 
Kuenlun  Mts.,  their  connection  with  the  structural 

system  of  Asia,  i.  424,  425 
Kukurt  Dagh,  Artvin,  i.  430 
Kulaxis,  quarter  of  Akhlat,  ii.  284 
KuUi,   Kurdish  village,   Tekman  district,   ii.    190 ; 

Brant's  accoimt  of  in  1838,  ibid,  note  i  ;  398 
Kulp,  district  of,  ii.  396 

Kulpi,  salt  mines  of,  Ararat  district,  i.  319,  ii.  385 
Klip  Keran,  Armenian  village,  near  Karakilisa,  ii.  9 
Kur  River  or  river  of  Ardahan,  i.  73  seq. ;  56,  63, 
94,   118,   394.     Sources  and  course  through  Ar- 
menia, 443 
Kurdistan  or  Kurd-land,  situation,  ii.  395  ;  145,  i. 
424,    429.       Characteristics,     ii.     145,     148,     394. 
Divided  into  five  considerable  principalities  dur- 
ing  the    i8th    century,    149.      Condition   of    the 
Armenian  inhabitants,  ii.  429-431.    Suggestions  for 
the  proper  government  of,  ii.  433,  434 
Kurds,  their  antiquity,  ii.  69.     Their  picturesque- 
ness,  ii.  396  and  cp.  250.     Portraits  of,  ii.  5,  16, 


5o8 


Arvienia 


17,  163.  Characteristics,  i.  427,  ii.  419.  In 
Armenia  the  tribal  Kurds  are  quite  out  of  place, 
the  conditions  of  their  life  there  being  unnatural, 
ii.  I  and  fassiiii  in  the  narrative  of  the  journeys  ; 
420-424.  How  they  came  to  their  present  seats 
there,  421.  Their  numbers  in  Armenia,  i.  451,  ii. 
414.  Various  Kurdish  tribes  in  Armenia  visited  : 
Zilanli,  ii.  6  ;  Hasananli,  21,  igi,  259,  260,  267, 
268,  276,  322-323;  Haideranli  (Patnotz,  etc.),  16, 
20.  26,  422,  187  ;  Adamanli,  21,  26  ;  Sipkanli,  16, 
267,  26S  ;  Jibranli,  184,  187,  250,  357,  371,  372  ; 
Zirkanli,  187,  190 ;  Zireki,  250,  380.  See  also 
Kizilhash 

Kuseh  Dagh,  Ararat  system,  i.  436  ;  ii.  10  and  Fig. 
112,  193,  267,  277,  312,  336;  altitude,  384 

Kuseh  Dagh,  northern  border  of  Armenia,  i.  430 

Kutais,  capital  of  Imeritia,  visited  and  described, 
i.  45-48  ;  vineyards  there,  55.     Govt,  of,  447,  449 

Kutlerusky,  General,  takes  Akhalkalaki,  i.  89 

Kzia,  River  and  Plain  of,  i.  433 

Lakes  in  Armenia,  notices  of  Strabo,  Pliny  and 
Ptolemy,  ii.  40-43.  The  great  lakes  described 
(Van,  Urmi,  Gukcheh),  39,  43-46 ;  analyses  of 
their  waters,  468-470.  Fluctuations  in  their  level, 
46-53.  See  also  402-404 
Lanchkuty,  village  of.  Black  Sea  coast,  i.  43 
Layard,  Sir  A.  H.,  ii.  55,  133  ;  69,  79,  115,  233,  283, 

296,  324,  344,  notes 
Lazar  Pharpetzi,  i.  291  note  i,  302  note  i 
Lazis  or  inhabitants  of  Lazistan,  i.  42,  427,  432 
Lehmann,  Prof.  C.   F. ,  ii.   56  seq.  and  see  Biblio- 

graj>hy,  i,^-2 
Lemberg,  Armenian  colony  at,  i.  367 
Leo  VI.,  Byzantine  emperor,  i.  341,  346,  ii.  223,  295 
Leontius,  archbishop  of  Caesarea,  i.  295  note  i 
Leter,  village  of,  district  of  Bulanik,  ii.  342 
Lichig,  village  of,  Kighi  district,  ii.  392 
Liz,  town  of,  Bulanik  district,  ii.  345,  351 
Loftus,  \V.  K.,  ii.  30,  47,  50,  51  ;  30,  47,  385  notes 
Longworth,  Mr.,  British  Consul  at  Trebizond,  i.  11 
Lori,  town  in  Georgia,  i.  353,  356,  465 
Lukas,  katholikos,  i.  264  note  5 
Lukeria  Vasilievna,  see  Dukhobortsy 
Lurs,  The,  i.  427.     ii.  419 
Lutipris,  Vannic  dynasty,  ii.  71  note  3 
Lycus  River,  see  Kelkid 
Lynch,  Commodore  H.  B. ,  ii.  440 

Macdonald,  Sir  John,  British  ambassador  to  Persia, 

tomb  at  Edgmiatsin,  i.  266. 
Madatapa,  Lake,  district  of  Akhalkalaki,  i.  87,  118 
Madatapa  ridge,  i.  430 
Madavantz,  Armenian  semi-troglodyte  village  near 

Akhlat,  ii.  293  ;  the  Church  is  said  to  have  been 

built  by  St.  Thaddeus,  ibid. 
Maden    Khan,   settlement    near   Baiburt,   ii.    232, 

225  note,  240  note 
Maden,  hamlet  near  the  Zigana  Pass,  ii.  242 
Madrak,  Kurdish  village,  Tekman  district,  ii.  248, 

249  ;  373-  375.  380,  381 
Magaspert,  Arpa  Chai,  i.  442 
Mahmud  Bey,  Kurdish   chieftain,  Bingol  district, 

Mahmudia,  territory  of,  ii.  122 

Makar,  katholikos,  i.  220,  236,  264  note  5 

Malatia,  town  in  Asia  Minor,  sacked  by  the  Seljuk 

Turks,  i.  358 
Malek  .Shah,  his  relations  with  Ani,  i.  365 
Mamakanlu,  Kurdish    tribe   said  to  be  descended 

from  the  Mamikonean  family,  ii.  421  note 
Mamakhatiin,  town  in  the  district  of  Terjan,  ii.  231 
Mamlun,  Arab  governor  of  Azerbaijan,  i.  355 
Mangasar,  village  of,  Alashkert,  ii.  7 
Manna,  collected    by  the  peasants,  Bitlis  district, 

ii.  151 
Manuchar,  atabeg,  i.  64 

Manuchar,  Beni-Cheddad  family,  i.  365,  370,  377 
Manzara,  village,  plain  of  Akalkalaki,  i.  105 
Marco  Polo,  ii.  29 

Margistan,  village  of,  near  Vardzia,  i.  79 
Markoff,  Dr.  K.,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  176.  199 


Marmashen,  ruins  of  the  monastery  of  near  Alex- 
andropol,  visited  and  described,  i.  131,  132  ;  355 
Marmed  Chai,  Lake  Van,  ii.  44 
Marr,  Mr.  N.,  his  exxavations  at  Ani,  i.  377,  381 
Mastikan  Dagh,  Taurus  system,  ii.  389 
Matthew  of  Edessa,  i.  352-366 /rti.f/w 
Maunsell,  Major  F.  R.,  ii.  45 
Maximin  II.,  Roman  emperor,  his  relations  with 

Armenia,  i.  300 
Maximoff,  M.,  Russian  Consul  at  Erzerum,  ii.  199 
Mechinkert,    tipper   and    Lower    villages    on    the 

Enghil  Su,  Lake  Van,  ii.  122 
Meiriman,  Valley  of,  Pontic  regior^ii.  239-240,  382 
Mekhitarists,  Order  of  the,  i.  291  note  i,  314  note 
Mejitli,  Kurdish  hamlet  on  the  Upper  Araxes,  ii.  191 
Melazkert  (Manazkert),  ancient  town  and  fortress 
on  the  Murad,  visited  and  described,  ii.  268-274, 
275  note  2  ;  and  cp.  i.  378.      History,  ii.  274-275, 
58,  71  ;   i.  34,   355,  358,  360,  364.     Commimica- 
tions,  ii.  11,  8g,  264,  266,  277.     Hamidiyeh  there, 
ii.   191,   276,   422.     Its  central   position,   ii.   434. 
Its  plain,   ii.  268,  276,  277,  337,  401  ;  elevation, 
265  note.     Plan,  271 
Melikoff,  Loris,  Russian  general  of  Armenian  origin, 

i.  126,  233,  399,  465 
Menaskut,  district  of,  Tauric  Armenia,  ii.  392 
Menuas,  Vannic  king,  ii.  60,  72-73,  392;  no,  112, 

120,  274,  27s,  notes 
Mergemir  Dagh,  see  Khalias 
Merghuk  Su,  head  waters  of  the  Kighi  Su,  ii.  375, 

393 
Merjan-Muzur  Dagh,  Tauric  Armenia,  11.  386-388, 

390.  392,  402  .         . 

Merujan,  an  Armenian  bishop  of  3rd  century,  i.  279 
Merwanids,  Kurdish  dynasty,  their  rule  at  Akhlat, 

ii.  295 
Meschic  or  Moschic  Mts.,  i.  40,  41,  47,  425,  433 
Mesgeldek,  village.  Lake  Van,  ii.  123 
Mesrop,  inventor  of  the  Armenian  alphabet,  i.  312 
Messalianism,  Armenian  heresy,  i.  284 
Mezik,  village  of,  near  Lake  Nazik,  ii.  321 
Michael    IV.,   Paphlago,    Byzantine   emperor,    his 

claims  on  Ani,  i.  361,  362 
Midyat,  hill  ranges  of,  Mesopotamia,  ii.  395 
Migry,  village,  valley  of  Araxes,  i.  434 
Milan,  Kurdish  village,  Tutakh  district,  ii.  15 
Mingrelia,  Georgian  province,  i.  42 
Minni,  The,  ii.  61,  72,  74 
Mirabet,  village  of,  Lake  Van,  ii.  136 
Missions,    (i)  The  earliest  missionary  enterprise  in 
."Vrmenia  appears  to   have  been  that  of  the  Do- 
minicans, ii.  485.     (2)  Jesuit  Missions  were  estab- 
lished in  the   17th   century,   ii.    153,  472,  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  is  still  active  in  Turkish 
Armenia,  153,  170,  217,  though  it  does  not  make 
as  much  progress  among  the  Armenians  of  the 
tableland  as  among  their  countrymen  elsewhere, 
ii.  425.     (3)  Protestant  Missions  : — the  Basle  Mis- 
sion, i.  98-102.     The  American  Mission  (Congre- 
gational Church  of  America)  has  been  established 
in  Asiatic  Turkey  from  an  early  date  in  the  19th 
century,    ii.    93  ;    its    activities   in  Armenia   are 
practically  confined  to  the  Armenians  (Gregorian 
Christians),  ibid.  ;  schools,  hospitals  and  orphan- 
ages have  been  opened,  94,  95,  and  the  standard 
of  living  has  been  raised  both  in  the  material  and 
the  moral  spheres,   ibid.     The  Mission  at  Van, 
ii.  93-95  ;  at  Bitlis,   153,   154  ;  at  Erzerum,  217  ; 
at  Kharput,  391.     Activity  of  the  missionaries  in 
the  plain  of  Khinis,  256.     They  are  viewed  with 
suspicion  by  the  Russian  Govt,  and  experience 
difficulty  in  crossing  Russian  Armenia,  i.  102 
Mithros,  Mount  of  (Boz  Tepe),  i.  9,  10,  17 
Mohammed  II.,  Ottoman  sultan,  takes  Trebizond 
and   closes   the   Black  .Sea  to  Europe  and  com- 
merce, i.  22,  36 ;  takes  Erzerum,  ii.  223 
Mokri  Gori  (Wet  Mountains),  Northern  Armenia, 

i.  87  .  . 

Moldavia,  emigration  of  Armenians  to,  1.  367 
Molokans,   Russian  sectaries  settled    in    Northern 
Armenia,  their  villages  visited,  i.  410-412  ;  456,457. 
Molokans  at  Erivan,  209 


Index 


509 


Monahan,  Mr.,  Kritish  Consul  at  Bitlis,  ii.  304 

Monteith,  W.,  i.  66  note,  90,  232 

Morier,  J.,  i.  218,  232,  269  ;  210,  216,  notes 

Morkh,  village  of  and  stream,  ii.  162 

Moses  of  Khorene,  national  historian  of  the  Ar- 
menians, i.  278,  302,  ii.  54,  222  ;  i.  291  note 

Moses,  katholikos,  i.  212,  264  note  5 

Mosul,  town  on  the  Tigris,  ii.  148,  396,  433 

Mugni,  monastery  of  near  Ashtarak,  i.  140,  141 

Mukus,  district  of,  ii.  135,  397 

Miiller,  Prof.  D.  H.,  ii.  56  note 

Mi'iller-Simonis,  Mr.  P.,  ii.  80;  28,  no,  121,  293, 
notes 

Murad,  river,  see  Euphrates,  Eastern 

Murad,  Mr.  Serapion,  i.  247 

Murad  Khan,  station  near  Tekke,  ii.  243 

Muravieff,  Russian  general,  i.  397 

Murian,  village  on  the  banks  of  the  Gopal  Su,  ii.  260 

Mushegh,  Bagratid  king  of  Kars,  i.  353,  395 

Mush,  town  of,  visited  and  described,  ii.  166-173. 
Pop.  of  the  town,  172-173,  of  the  sanjak,  413. 
Hamidiyeh  there,  173.  Communications,  12, 
160,  174,  396 

Mush,  plain  of,  ii.  161-167,  175-177,  181,  317-319, 
355  ;  length  of  the  plain,  181  note  ;  the  Armenian 
inhabitants  are  in  a  large  majority,  173,  424  ;  50, 
19s  note  2,  200,  308,  311,  393,  394,  401,  404 

Muzur  Su,  affluent  of  Eastern  Euphrates,  ii.  390,  406 

Nadir  Shah,  i.  211,  214,  267,  396 

Nahapet,  katholikos,  i.  271 

Nairi,  ii.  58,  60 

Nakhichevan,   town   on   the   Araxes,   i.    342,    345, 

346,.  357- 
Nakhichevan,  New,  town  of,  i.  233  note  2 
Nazik,  village  of,  ii.  321-323 
Nazik,   Lake,  visited   and   described,   ii.    321-324 ; 

45,   46,   284,  309,  333,  337  ;   elevation,   323 ;   an- 
alysis of  waters,  470 
Nepat,  Mt. ,  identified  with  the  modern  Ala  Dagh 

(Niphates),  ii.  41.     Tiridates  and  the  Armenian 

people  receive  baptism  in  its  vicinity,  i.  296 
Nepiszkaro  Dagh,  i.  430 
Nerses  I.,  katholikos,  surnamed  The  Great,  i.  307- 

309  ;  264  note  5,  275,  295  note  i,  299,  305,  311 
Nerses  III.,  katholikos,  surnamed  The  Builder,  i. 

264  note  5,  265,  265  note  i,  272,  284 
Nerses  IV.,  katholikos,  i.  26S 
Nerses  v.,  katholikos,  i.  235,  245,  266,  273 
Nerses  of  Lambron,  i.  314  note 
Nerses,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  i.   241,  ii.  410 

note 
Nestorianism,  adopted  by  the  Christian  Church  of 

Persia,  i.  313 
Nestorians,  name  sometimes  given  to  the  Christians 

inhabiting  the  recesses  of  Kurdistan.     See  dial- 

dceans 
Nice,  Council  of,  i.  281,  282,  301,  312 
Nicholas  I.  Emperor  of  Russia,  i.  103  ;  125,  233 
Nikephorus  Phokas,  Byzantine  emperor,  i.  353 
Nikephorus,  Byzantine  governor  of  Vaspurakan,  i. 

360  note 
Nimrud,  gigantic  extinct   volcanic  crater   at    the 

south-westerly  extremities  of  Lake  Van,  visited 

and  described,  ii.  298-313  ;  views  of.  Fig.  145,  p. 

142,  and  Figs.  185,  186,  pp.  298,  302.     Plans,  305, 

312  ;  32,  45,  50,  51,  118,  122,  141,  181,  269,  337, 

362,  388,  397,  4oi_ 
Norashen,    Armenian    village    on    the    slopes    of 

Alagoz,  i.  134 
Norkeui,  village  on  Lake  Van,  ii.  136 
Norshen,  Kurdish  village  on  the  plain  of  Mush,  ii. 

162,  318 
Norshen,  Pool  of,  ii.  45,  162,  163,  317,  31S 
Norshunjik,  village  on  the  slopes  of  Sipan,  ii.  330 
Novo-Bayazet,  town  of,  i.  453 
Novo-Michaelovka,  Molokan  village,  i.  411 
Nurduz  district,  ii.  397 

Of,  village  of,  Lazistan  district,  i.  11 
Okhan,  village  of,  near  Tutakh,  ii.  13 
Okhtchapert,  grottoes  of,  Erivan  district,  i.  201  note 


Olti,  town  of,  i.  431,  432,  437,  453.     ii.  203 
Ordubad,  town  on  the  Araxes,  i.  434,  453 
Orlovka,  Russian  village  and  small  lake,  district  of 

Akhalkalaki,  i.  106,  115 
Ortukids,    Turkish    dynasty    which    adopted    the 

douWe-headed  eagle  as  their  emblem,  ii.  211  and 

note  3 
Oswald,  Herr  A.,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  199  note 
Ovajik,  upland  district  north  of  Erzerum  plain,  ii.  406 
Ozurgeti,  capital  of  Guria,  i.  43 

Pahlavuni,  family  of,  i.  381,  385 

Pakharij,   ancient   township,    province   of  Terjan, 

i.  294 
Palandoken  (Saddle  Shifter),  peak  of  volcanic  origin, 
north  of  Erzerum,  ii.  202  ;  a.scent  of,  and  elevation 
ascertained,  381  ;  a  landmark,  337,  351,  372,  373, 
^398 

Palandoken  Pass,  ii.  202-203,  244-247 
Palandoken-Eyerli  Dagh  volcanic  system,  ii.   38 1- 
382  ;  connection  of  the  line  of  heights  upon  which 
it  is  built  up  with  the  structural  system  of  Asia, 
386  ;  the  underlying  limestones,  403 
Palgrave,  W.  G. ,  ii.  370 

Palu,  town  on  the  Murad,  ii.  391.     Rock  chambers 
and  cuneiform  inscription  there,  392.     Pop. ,  391  ; 
of  the  caza,  413,  416,  425 
Palu  Dagh,  ii.  387 

Pambak  Mts.,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  434 
Pambukh  Dagh,  Ararat  system,  ii.  385 
Pap,  Arsakid  king  of  Armenia,  i.  306-310 
Pap,   son    of   Yusik    and    great-grandson    of    .St. 

Gregory,  i.  303,  29^  note  i,  306 
Papken,  katholikos,  1.  301,  note  i 
Paris,  Treaty  of,  ii.  204 
Parkhal  Mts.,  i.  430 

Paropamisus  Mts.,  their  connection  with  the  struc- 
tural system  of  Asia,  i.  423,  425 
Parrot,  F. ,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.   199;  149,   157, 

183  note,  184,  185,  198,  318  note 
Pasin,  Plain  of,  ii.  193-196;  i.  146,  148,  414.     ii.  n, 
200,  201,  387,  394,  398,  400,  401,  404.     Connection 
with  some  historical  events,  i.  358,  360,  ii.  223 
Paskevich,  Marshal,  i.  66,  89,  90,  100,  125,  129,  210, 

233.  323-.  332,  395,  396,  397i  405>  >'•  204,  250,  426 
Patnotz,  village  and  plain  of,  Sipan  district,  ii.  18, 

20,  268,  269,  337,  422 
Paul,  Bishop  of  Samosata,  i.  281,  282,  285 
Paulicians,  i.  282,  284.     ii.  222 
Pazu,  hamlet  near  Surb  Karapet,  ii.  i8o 
Peri  Su,  Tauric  Armenia,  ii.  389 
Perli  Dagh,  Ararat  System,  ii.  384,  385 
Petander,  General,  vice-Governor  of  Kars,  i.  400 
Petros  II.,  katholikos,  i.  268 

Petrovka,  German  settlement,  Kars  district,  i.  410 
Pharen,  pseudo-katholikos,  i.  299  note  i 
Phasis,  river,  see  Rio7i 

Philippos,  katholikos,  i.  262,  264  note  5,  269 
Piran,  village  near  Lake  Gop,  ii.  345 
Pirnakapan,  village  near  Ashkala,  ii.  229 
Pir  Reshid  Dagh,  Lake  Van,  ii.  401 
Platana,  town  on  the  Black  Sea  coast,  i.  8 
Poghos,  Bishop  of  Lim,  ii.  87 
Poland,  emigration  of  Armenians  to,  i.  367 
Pontic  Range,  i.  423,  430,  431,  433 
Poskhov  Chai,  tributary  of  the  Kur,  i.  57 
Postukhoff,  M.,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  175,  199 
Pribil,  iM.  i.  24S,  249,  253,  255 
Piiliimer,  township  of,  Tauric  Armenia,  ii.  393 
Pyxitis,  river,  see  Deirjiten  Dere 

Radde,  Dr.  G. ,  i.  no  ;  56,  87,  89,  107,  135,  434,  notes 

Randuli,  village  of,  Bingol  district,  ii.  182 

Raouf  Pasha,  Vali  of  Erzerum,  ii.  220 

Raphalovich,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  199 

Rassam,  Mr.  Hormuzd,  ii.  62,  63 

Rava  plateau,  Nimrud  district,  ii.  316  note  2 

Rawlinson,  Sir  H.  C. ,  ii.  437  ;  67,  68,  70,  notes 

Reshid  Pasha,  Turkish  general,  ii.  149 

Rewadi,  see  Beni-Chcddad 

Reynolds,  Dr.,  American  missionary  at  Van,  ii.  92 

Rhiitor^,  Pere,  of  Van,  ii.  153 


5IO 


Armenia 


Rion,  river  (Phasis),  i.  2,  40-47,  433 
Rion,  Plain  of  the,  i.  44,  48,  52,  448 
Ritter,  K.,  i.  33,  190,  264,  324,  ii.   78;  i.   187,   188, 

318,  340.     ii.  130,  149,  173,  178,  193,  231,  283,  notes 
Riza  Bey,  Kurdish  chief  at  Melazkert,  ii.  276,  278 
Rizeh,  port  on  the  Black  Sea,  ii.  225,  382 
Romanus,  Byzantine  emperor,  i.  34,  361,  364 
Romkia,  in  Cilicia,  Council  of,  i.  314  note 
Ross,  Prof.  E.  Denison,  ii.  286 
Rovvanduz,  town  in  Kurdistan,  ii.  58 
Rupenian  dynasty  (Cilicia),  i.  :;67  ;  268 
Rusas  I.,  Vannic  king,  ii.  60,  74 

,,       II.,  Vannic  king,  ii.  64,  75 

,,       III.,  Vannic  king,  ii.  64,  76 
Rustav,  posting  station,  i.  74 
Rzewuski,  Col.,  i.  400 

Sach,  village   in   the   Giizel   Dere   near    Bitlis,   ii. 

143  ;  spring  near,  45 
Sachtleben,  W.  L.,  .see  .-J/Zt-w,  r.  C.  _ 
Safar,   monastery  of,   Akhaltsykh   district,   visited 

and  described,  i.  61-64,  73 
Saffarids,  The,  petty  Mussulman  dynasty  in  Fars 

and  Seistan,  i.  340 
Safi,  Shah,  of  Persia,  takes  Erivan,  i.  211 
Sahak  the  Great,  see  Isaac  the  Great 
St.  Jacob's  Well,  Mt.  Ararat,  i.  194,  19s 
St.  Jacob's  monastery,  i.  184 
Saint  Martin,  J.  A.,  ii.  54,  55      .         . 
Sajids,    Mussulman    family    ruling    in   Azerbaijan 

during  the  decline  of  the  Caliphate,  i.  352,  see 

A/shin,  Yusuf 
Sakulaperdi  Dagh,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  431,  432, 

438,  441 
Salt  deposits,  in  Armenia,  Persia  and  Turkey,  i.  428 
Salvarty  Dagh,  Karabagh  border,  i.  434 
Samsar  Dagh,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  95,  434,  see 

Abul-Saiiisar 
Samsar  River,  tributary  ofToporovan  River,  i.  87 
Samsun,  town  and  bay  of,  i.  3,  4 
Samuel  of  Ani,  Armenian  historian,  i.  352-366,  370 

note,  373,  3S2,  407  note 
Sanatruic,  son  of  Abgar,  king  of  Edessa,  i.  277  note 

2,  278 
Sanasar,  son  of  Sennacherib,  ii.  429,  430  note  i 
Sanasarean,  Mr.,  ii.  96,  214 

Sanislo  Mts. ,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  433,  438,  443 
San  Stefano,  Treaty  of,  ii.  205 
Sapor  Su,  stream.  Lake  Van,  ii.  45  note,  142 
Sapunji,  Kurdish  hamlet,  Alagoz  district,  i.  326 
Sardarabad,  town  in  the  valley  of  the  Araxes,  i.  444 
Sardar  Bulakh,  well  and  valley,  Mt.  Ararat,  i.  160- 

167,  180-182  ;  158,  19P 
Sarduris  I.,  Vannic  king,  ii.  59-60,  71  note  3,  72, 

108 
Sarduris  II.,  Vannic  king,  ii.  61,  71  note  3,  73-74, 

no  note 
Sarduris  III.,  Vannic  king,  ii.  28,  76 
Sargis,  Armenian  noble  who  supported  the  Emperor 

Michael's  claim  to  the  Armenian  kingdom  of  Ani, 

i.  361,  362 
Sarichichek  Dagh,  Asia  Minor,  ii.  386 
Sarik,  Kurdish  hamlet.  Lake  Van,  ii.  137 
Sarikamish,  Russian  frontier  station,  Kars-Erzerum, 

i.  401,  411,  ii.  73,  199 
Sasanian  dynasty,  their  rise,  i.  286-288 ;  interven- 
tion in  Armenian  affairs,  289,  293,  303-306 ;  302 

note  2,  311,  ii.  77 
Sasun,  district  of,  south  of  Mush,  ii.  157,  158,  429- 

432  ;  massacre  in,   157,  237,  431  ;   a  seat  of  the 

Thonraki,  i.  285 
Sayce,  Prof  A.  H.,  i.  197,  ii.  56  note  4 
Schulz,  Y.  E.  ii.  55;  28,  108,  120  note 
Sebeos,  Armenian  historian,  i.  264  note  5 
Seda,  inscriptions  at  Ani,  i.  382 
Seghurt  or  Teghurt,  village  on  Nimrud,  ii.  299 
Seidlitz,  M.  de,  i.  448 
Seif-ed-Daula,  Hamdanid,  i.  353 
Selim   I.,  Ottoman  Sultan,  his  policy  towards  the 

Kurds,  ii.  421 
Selim  II.,  Ottoman  Sultan,  restorations  at  Akhlat, 

ii.  288 


Seljuk  Turks,  their  early  incursions  and  subsequent 

supremacy  in  Armenia,  i.  356-365  ;   34,  395,  454, 

ii.  77,  223,  275,  295;  285 
Sembat,  Bagratid  family,  sparapet,  i.  338,  339 
Sembat  I.,  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  341-347 
Sembat  II.,  Bagratid  dynasty,  i.  354,  364,  370,  373  ; 

323  note 
Sembat,  John,  Bagratid  dynasty.    See  John  Sembat 
Sembat,  reputed  founder  of  the  Thonraki  sect,  i.  285 
Sembat,  Mamikonean,  ii.  179 

Semenoff,  ,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  199 

Semo-Karthli,  Georgian  province  of,  i.  62-64 
Senekerim,  King  of  Van,  i.  257,  359,  ii.   77-78;   i. 

356  note  4.     His  tomb  in  the  monastery  of  Yedi 

Kilisa  (Van)  desecrated,  ii.  115,  i.  237.     See  also 

Artsrzini,  The 
Sepuh  Mt.  (Kohanam  Dagh),  i.  348  note 
Serchemeh  Chai,  constituent  of  W.   Euphrates,  i. 

431  ;  confluence  with  the  Kara  Su,  ii.  228 
Serdica  in  Illyria,  i.  300 
Sert,  town  of,  ii.  148,  396 
Sevan,    Lake    (Lake    of    Gegham    or    Geghark  ; 

Lychnitis ;    Gokcheh   Deniz),   ii.    43-44;    42;    i. 

445 ;   40,  147,   148,  152,   163,  181,  174,   196,   203, 

205,  208,  248,  350,  449,  453,  462.     Fluctuations  in 

level,  ii.  48-51.     Cuneiform  inscriptions,  73,  74 
Sevan,  Island  and  monastery  of,  ii.  49,  i.  350 
Seymour,  H.  D. ,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  199 
Shabin  Karahisar,  see  Katahisar 
Shagriar,  village  of,  valley  of  the  Ara.\es,  i.  321 
Shahapivan,  Council  of,  i.  284 
Shahanshah,  title,  i.   336  note,  and  proper  name, 

.^75,  376 
Shahbagh,  village,  near  Van,  ii.  112 
Shah  Dagh,  Lake  Sevan,  i.  433,  434 
Shaitan  Dagh,  Kighi,  ii.  389,  392 
Shakhberat,   village   on   the    Slurad,  ii.   346,   348 ; 

mileage  to  Charbahur,  353  note 
Shamiram  Su  or  river  of  Semiramis  (Van),  ii.   60 

and  note  4.     73,  120  note,  122  and  note  2 
Shamyl,  leader  of  the  resistance  to  Russia  on  the 

part  of  the  mountaineers  of  Caucasus,  ii.  6 
Shapur  I.,  Sasanian  king  of  Persia,  i.  289 
Shapur  II.,  i.  302  note  2,  305,  309,  ii.  77 
Sharian  Su,  tributary  to  the  Murad,  ii.  12 
Shatakh,  district  of,  ii.  61,  135,  397 
Shatin  Dagh,  name   given   to   the   more   westerly 

portion  of  the  Ararat  system.     See  Aghri  Dagh 
Shebu,  village  of,  Sipan  district,  ii.  342 
Sheikh  Alan,  village  of,  Mush  plain,  ii.  175 
Sheikhjik   Dagh,    Shushar-Kighi   district,   ii.    251, 

374>  375 
Sheikhjik     Dagh,     northern     border     heights^   of 

Erzerum,  ii.  203,  227,  245 
Sheikh  Ora,  broken-down  crater  on  the  southern 

shore  of  Lake  Van,  ii.  48,  52,  301 
Sheikh  Yakub,  village  near  Gop,  ii.  343,  344 
Shekan,  hamlet  on  the  Aras,  ii.  379 
Shemakha,  town  of,  i.  449 
Shemzinar,  district  of,  ii.  89 
Sherefeddin  Su,  afiluent  to  the  Bingol  Su  (Charlia- 

hur),  ii.  360 
Sherif  Bey,  last  native  ruling  prince  at  Bitlis,  ii. 

149  ;  taken  prisoner  by  Reshid  Pasha,  ibid. 
Shiel,  J.,  ii.  121,  151,  404,  notes 
Shirak,  district  of,  i.  124  note  2,  337,  341,  343,  345, 

356,  360,  361,  442  note  I,  459 
Shirvan,  district  of,  i.  233  note  2 
Shishmanean,  Mgr.,  Bishop  of  Erzerum,  ii.  213 
Shishtapa,  elevation  of,  i.  430,  434 
Shishtapas,  The.  Turkish  and  Armenian  villages  on 

the  Arpa  Chai,  i.  1 18-122,  439 
Shuragel,  i.  124  and  note  2 
.Shusha,   capital  of  Karabagh,  i.  449.     The  Basle 

Mission  there,  98-101 
Shushan,  mother  of  Vahram  Pahlavuni,  i.  382 
Shushantz,  village  and  monastery.  Lake  Van,  ii.  113 
Shushar,  district  of,  ii.  252,  380,  398 
Sieger,  Dr.  R. ,  ii.  47  note,  48 
Sikava,  village  on  the  plain  of  Mush,  ii.  183,  353 
Simon,  Saint,  the  apostle,  i.  277 
Sipan  Dagh,  extinct  volcano  on  the  northern  shore 


Index 


511 


of  Lake  Van  ;    ascent  of,  ii.   330-339 '.    elevation 
ascertained,    336,    339.      View   of  the   mountain 
from  tlie  plain  on  the  north,  ii.  18,  19  (Fig.  116)  ; 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Van,  53  (Fig.   123); 
from  Artemid,  ii..  Frontispiece.     A  landmark,  i. 
420,  ii.  13,  i5i  3i>  181,  252,  269,  300,  321,  351,  372. 
Limited  extension  of  lava  flows,   278,   403  ;    38. 
Possible   connection   with   the   other    great   vol- 
canoes, 388.     Plan  of  summit  region,  336 
Sipikor  Dagh,  ii.  386 
Sir-er-syrchaly  Dagh,  i.  434 
Sis,  capital  of  Cilicia,  i.  264  note  5  ;  240,  276 
Siunik,  ancient  province  of,  i.  279,  373  note  2  ;  342 

Sivoloboflf, ,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  i.  199 

Smith,  Eli,  i.  70,  98,  loi,  434,  ii.  206,  notes 
Soghanlu  Dagh,  volcanic  system,  i.  394,  431,  432, 

438,  441,  442.     Forest  there,  i.  125,  ii.  405 
Somkethian  Mts.,  i.  95,  433 

Spasky-AvtonomoflF,  K.,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,  1.  199 
Strzj-gowski,  J.,  i.  33,  250,  254,  266,  notes 
Stuart,  R.,  his  ascent  of  Ararat,_  i.  199 
Subotan,  village  of,  near  Kars,  i.  331 
Suflis,  town  on  the  Akhaltsykh  Chai,  i.  57 
Suleyman  L,  Ottoman   Sultan,  ii.  78;  founder  of 

the  kala  of  Akhlat,  288,  296 
Suleyman  Pasha,  ii.  353,  356,  357 
Siiliik  Lake,  Vardzia  district,  i.  79 
Sumelas,  Greek  monastery  near  Jevizlik,  ii._  239 ; 
i.  30  ;  mileage  and  intermediate  stages  to  Baiburt, 
ii.  240  and  note 
Suram,  Pass  of,  i.  40,  42 

Surb,  \'illage  and  bay,  on  Lake  Van,  ii.  _i4i_,  279,  301 
Surb  Astvatsatsin,  monastery  near  Bitlis,  ii.  154 
Surb  Daniel,  monastery  near  Lake  Bulania,  ii.  345 
Surb  Geghard,  monastery,  Erivan  district,  i.   201, 

388 
Surb  Karapet  (Glak  Vank,  Lmaknean  Vank,  Chan- 
galli),  monastery  above  Mush  plain,  visited  and 
described,  ii.  176-180;  i.  241,  358,  ii.  12.  Dis- 
tances from  Mush  and  Erzerum,  ii.  174.  Com- 
munications with  Palu,  392 
Surb  Karapet,  monastery  on  the  Upper  Murad  near 

Diadin,  i.  296  note  2  ;  272 
Surb  Khach,  monastery  near  Van,  ii.  113 
Surb  Lusavorich,   monastery,   Erzinjan  district,  i. 

348  note 
Surb  Takob  (Gubudgokh),  monastery  above  Lake 

Van,  ii.  137 
Surmeneh,  village,  Lazistan  district,  i.  1 1. 

Tabizkhuro,  Lake,  i.  87  note,  95 

Tabriz,  capital  of  Azerbaijan,  a  diocese  of  the  Ar- 
menian Church,  i.  233  note  2,  231.  Tabriz-Trebi- 
zond  trade  route,  i.  32,  ii.  8,  205,  440.  Marble  of 
Tabriz,  i.  262.     Elevation,  i.  440 

Tadvan,  village  of,  Lake  Van,  ii.  314-316  ;  142,  160, 
402 

Taginaura  Dagh,  Northern  Armenia,  1.  430 

Tahirids,  The,  petty  dynasty  in  Khorasan,  i.  340 

Takht-i-Suleyman  (Solomon's  throne),  quarter  of 
Akhlat,  q.v.,  ii.  284 

Takjaltu  Dagh,  Ararat  system,  i.  317,  319,  327,  415, 

"■  385 
Takjaltu,  hill  forming  part  of  the  Ararat  fabric,  i. 

151,  158,  159,  161 
Talin,  village  on  the  slopes  of  Alagoz,  1.   322-325. 

Ruins  in  the  vicinity,   324.      Site   of  Bagaran? 

ibid. 
Talori  or  Talvorik,  village  in  Sasun,  ii.  158 
Talysh,  Armenian  village,  Alagoz  district,  i.  320, 

324 

Tana,  river,  tributary  of  the  Kur,  i.  269 

Tandurek  Dagh,  see  Tendurck  Dagh 

TapaDolak,  village  in  plain  of  Alexandropol,  i.  133 

Tarasoff,  Col.,  Governor  of  Akhalkalaki,  i.  90,  96, 
106 

Tarnaieff,  leader  of  a  storming  party  before  Erzerum 
(1877),  i.  465  .  .         .     „       .      , 

Taron,  ancient  Armenian  province  in  1  auric  Ar- 
menia embracing  the  territory  of  the  modern 
Mush,  i.  295,  306,  338,  343,  348,  ii.  173  ;  i.  241 

Tartars,  The,   i.   448,  454,   455  ;  their  numbers  in 


Armenia,  451.     Visited,  i.   57,  193,  202,  203,  316, 
319,  325,  326;  at  Erivan,  209,  211,  213,  214,  222- 
225.     Sack  of  Ani  by  the  Tartars  under  Jenghiz 
Khan,  i.  366 
Taurus  Mts.,  their  connection  with  the  structural 

system  of  Asia,  i.  423,  424,  ii.  419,  387-407 
Tashkesen,  village  of,  Tekman,  ii.  249 
Tavernier,  J.  B.,  i.  211,  256,  262,  367,  ii.  149,  notes 
Tawkoteli  Dagh,  Abul-Samsar  .system,  i.  433,  438, 

441  ...  ... 

Taylor,  Consul  J.   G.,  i.  459,  ii.  i4>  79;  i-  40<^i  "• 

390,  416,  421,  notes 
Tazaken,  village  of.  Northern  Armenia,  i.  119 
Teghtap  Su,  tributary  of  Bingiil  Su  (Khini.s),  ii.  256 
Teghurt  or  Seghurt,  village  on  Nimrud,  ii.  299 
Tekke,  village  near  Gumiishkhaneh,  ii.  243 
Tekman,  district  of,  ii.  247-251 ;  190-193,  200,  202,  398 
Tekman  Dagh,  see  Akh  Dagh 
Telfer,  Commander  J.  B. ,  i.  107,  201,  264,  268,  388, 

notes 
Temran,  village  of,  ii.  392 
Tendurek  Dagh,  solfatara,  Bayazid  district,  ii.  401  ; 

385,  388 
TergukasoflT,  General,  1.  465  and  note 
Terjan,  district  of,  ii.  376,  386,  416;  i.  294,  348 
Ter-Mikelean,  Dr.  A.,  i.   256,  271,  273;  277,  291, 

301,  313,  314,  notes 
Ter-Mosesean,  Dr.  Mesrop,  librarian  at  Edgmiatsin, 

i.  249,  250 
Texier,  C. ,  i.  23,  33,  ii.  210 ;  i.  368,  390,  ii.  212,  notes 
Thaddeus,  Saint,  said  to  have  been  sent  by  Christ 
to  King  Abgar  of  Edessa,  and  intimately  associ- 
ated with  the  earliest  Christianity  in  Armenia, 
i.   277-299 ;  239,  ii.  293.     His  relics  preserved  at 
Edgmiatsin,  i.  269 
Thamar,  queen  of  Georgia,  i.  338,  366 ;  55,  80,  83 
Thekla,  Saint,  i.  264 
Theodosius  L,  Roman  emperor,  i.  293 
Theodosius  IL,  Roman  emperor,  ii.  221 
Thonraki  (Thonraketzi),  Armenian  heretics,  i.  285 
Tian-shan  Mts.,  Central  Asia,  their  connection  with 

the  structural  system  of  Asia,  i.  424,  426 
Tiflis,  capital  of  Georgia,  Armenian  convent  there, 
i.  253.     Pop.,  449.     Glances  at  the  history  of,  337, 
343,  365.     Communications  with  Armenia,  39-40, 
73  (Borjom  gorge),  89,  133,  226,  433,  437 
Tiflis,  Govt,  of,  its  pop.,  i.  447,  449,  451.     German 

colonies  there,  97  and  cp.  410 
Tigranes,    Arsakid    king    of   Armenia   introduces 

Jews  into  Armenia,  i.  299  note  3,  305,  ii.  77 
Tigranocerta,  disputed  site  of,  319  note  2 
Tigris  River,  accounts  of  by  Strabo  and  Plinj;,  ii. 
40-42.     Course   between   Diarbekr  and  Jezireh- 
ibn-Omar,  395,  396 
Tikma,   Little,  village  of  German  colonists,  Kars 

district,  i.  409,  410 
Til,  statue  of  Nanea  at,  destroyed  by  St.  Gregory, 

i.  294 
Timur,   or   Tamerlan,   reputed   to  have  captured 
Kars,  i.  396,  and  Van,  ii.  76,  78.     His  wassail  on 
the  Bingiil  Dagh,  ii.  365.     His  method  of  warfare 
against  the  Georgians,  i.  81 
Tiran,  Arsakid  king  of  Armenia,  i.  303-304 
Tirdat,  Armenian  architect,  restores  S.  Sophia  at 

Constantinople,  i.  373  note  4 
Tiridates,  Arsakid  king  of  Armenia,  restored  by  the 
Romans,  founder  of  Christianity  in  Armenia  as 
a  State  religion,  i.  2S9-301  ;  264 
Tirkavank,  village  of,  Mush  plain,  ii.  166 
Titgir,  village  of,  F^rzerum  district,  ii.  209  note  i 
Toghrul,  Seljuk  sultan,  i.  357,  358,  363 
Toghrul  Ben  Kilijarslan,  ii.  223 
Top  Dagh,  fortified  hill  near  Erzerum,  ii.  201 
Toporovan,  Lake,  Northern  Armenia,  i,  87,  95 
Toporovan  River.     See  Akhalkalaki  River 
Toprak  Kala,  low  limestone  hills  north  of  Van,  ii. 
62  ;  excavations  there  in  1879  and  1880,  and  again 
in  1898,  63.     Site  of  the  City  of  Rusas  or  New 
Van,  64.     The  site  visited,  113  ;  80 
Tortan,  Erzinjan  district,  temple  at  destroyed  by 

St.  Gregory,  i.  294  ;  348  note 
Tortum,  Lake  and  district  of,  i.  456,  ii.  417,  433 


51 


Armenia 


Tournefort,  P.  de,  i.  33,  182,  185  ;  183,  256,  31S,  ii. 

205,  notes 
Tozer,  Rev.  H.  F.,  i.  33;  ii.  283,  327,  392,  notes 
Trebizond    (Trapezius),    ancient    Greek    city    and 

flourishing  town  on   the  Black  Sea,  visited  and 

described,  i.  7-36.     Glance  at  the  history  of  the 

Grand-Comneni  or  emperors  of  Trebizond,  34-36. 

Pop.,  32  note.     Trade,  32,  and  cp.  under  Tabriz. 

Tabriz-Trebizond  trade  route,  361,  378,  431,  ii. 

236,  272-273.    Armenian  inhabitants,  427.     Plans, 

i3>  30 
Trialethian  ISIts.,  i.  87,  89,  433,  434,  438,  442,  443 
Tripoli,  town  on  Black  Sea  coast,  i.  18 
Troitskoy,  Russian  village  on  Lake  IMadatapa,  i.  iiS 
Tsaghkotz  (Alaja  Chai),  Ani,  i.  368,  377,  379  note 
Tsaghkotzadzor,  Valley  of  the  Flower-garden,  Ani, 

i.  368,  381,  382  ;  355 
Tsinis,  village  of,  near  Akhaltsykh,  i.  73 
Tuman,  Lake,  i.  87 
Tunus,  quarter  of  Akhlat,  ii.  284 
Turkomanchai,    Treaty    of,    i.     125.      Exodus    of 

Armenian  population  from  the  frontier  districts  of 

Persia  as  a  result  of,  i.  454,  ii.  206  ;  i.  233 
Tutakh,  town  on  the  Murad,  ii.  14,  266.     Mileage 

to  Melazkert,  264  note.     Do.  to  Karakilisa  and 

Akantz,  12 
Uch   Kilisa,  see  Edgiiiiatsin   and  Surb  Karapct 

(Diadin) 
Uran  Gazi,  Circassian  settlement  on  the  slopes  of 

Sipan,  ii.  330-331,  340-341.     Mileage  to  Gop,  341 

note 
Urardhu  or  Urarthu,  name  by  which  the  country 

of  the  Vannic  kings  was  known  to  their  Assyrian 

contemporaries,  ii.  57.     Tendency  of  the  term  to 

travel  north,   i.    197.     The  Ararat  of  Scripture, 

ibid.     Urardhians  =  Alarodians  of  Herodotus,  ii. 

67 
Uravel  River,  tributary  to  the  Kur,  1.  73 
Urmi  Lake,  Azerbaijan,  ii.  40,  42-43  ;  fluctuations 

in  level,  48,  49,  52  ;  analysis  of  water,  469.     How 

known  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions,  58.    Elevation 

and  area,  43 
Urut,  village  of,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  443 
Ussher,  J.,  i.  405,  ii.  121,  134,  notes 

Vagharshapat,  afterwards  Edgmiatsin,  royal  resi- 
dence during  Arsakid  period,  i.  257-262  ;  286-314. 
Sacked  by  Shapur,  305,  264  note  5,  266,  272,  382. 
Site  near  the  present  monastery,  242 

Vagharshapat  River,  see  Kasag/i  River 

Vagharshapat,  Synod  of,  i.  313  and  note 

Vahan  Mamikonean,  i.  264  note  5,  265 

Vahan  Kamsarakan,  tomb  at  Surb  Karapet,  ii.  179 

Vahan  the  Wolf,  tomb  at  Surb  Karapet,  ii.  179 

Vahram,  Pahlavuni,  i.  361,  362,  382.  Builds 
monastery  of  Marmashen,  132,  355.  Builds  at 
Ani,  382 

Van  (Dhuspas,  Turuspa,  Buana,  Iban),  fortress  and 
town  of  gardens  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake 
Van,  visited  and  described,  ii.  36,  37,  38,  39,  53, 
76-113.  Pop.,  79;  of  the  Govt,  excluding 
Hakkiari,  412,  424.  History,  54-76,  77,  78,  116, 
117,  and  see  I'aspurakan.  Communications,  11, 
89,  397  note  I.  Education,  see  under  Education. 
Plan,  81,  view  of,  53 

Van,  Lake  (Thospitis,  Arsene,  Arethusa,  Areesa  or 
Arsissa),  ii.  39-53.  Fluctuations  in  level,  47-53. 
Analyses  of  water,  46S.  How  known  in  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions,  58.  Elevation,  43,  354. 
Area,  39.  Character  of  the  scenery  about  its 
.shores,  31-36,  116,  279,  281,  282,  300,  323,  327,  338 

Vanand,  Province  (Kars),  i.  396 

Vanik  Cape,  Lake  Van,  ii.  141 

Varag,  Mt.,  ii.  36,  38,  39,  64,  iii,  113  (Fig.  135), 
282,  401.     Cloister  on,  .see  \'edi  Kiiisa 

Vardzia,  troglodyte  city  of  remote  antiquity,  i.  80, 


believed  to  have  been  the  favourite  residence  of 

Queen  Thamar  of  Georgia,  visited  and  described, 

i.  80-84 
Varzahan,  ancient  Armenian  village  in  the  plain  of 

the  Chorokh,   ii.    233,   with   ruins   of  three   fine 

buildings,  ibid. 
Vaspurakan,  ancient  Armenian  province  of  which 

Van  was  the  capital.     The  seat  of  the  Artsruni 

dynasty  during  the  Middle  Ages,  i.  337-364,  ii. 

117  note  I 
Vavuk  INIt.  and  Pass,  i.  430,  ii.  234,  235,  240,  243,  402 
Verthanes,  katholikos,  eldest  son  of  St.  Gregory, 

i.  303 
Vladikars,  colony  of  Russian  sectaries,  Molokans, 

near  Kars,  i.  410 
Vostan,  district  of  gardens  about  the  spurs  of  Mt. 

Ardos,  Lake  Van,  ii.  123-126  ;  i.  357 

Wagner,  Dr.  M.,  i.   184,  187,  ii)8,  193;  ii.  44,  121, 

203,  209,  notes 
Wilbraham,  R.,  i.  210,  235,  367,  406,  notes 
Williams,  General  F. ,  of  Kars,  i.  393,  397-399 
Wiinsch,  Prof.,  ii.  53  note 

Xenophon,  opposed  by  a  body  of  ChaldEean 
(  =  Khaldian)  mercenaries  at  the  passage  of  the 
Bohtan  branch  of  the  Tigris,  ii.  69.  His  interest- 
ing account  in  the  Cyropeedeia  of  the  contem- 
porary relations  of  the  Armenians  with  the  rem- 
nant of  the  Khaldians,  6S-70.  Site  of  his  camp 
near  Trebizond,  i.  31.     Extent  of  his  feat,  285 

Xer.xes,  trilingual  tablet  of  at  Van,  ii.  66,  106  ;  55 

Varalmish,  Circassian  village  near  Melazkert,  ii.  277 
Vedi   Kilisa  (Varag),  monastery  on  the  slopes  of 

Mt.  Varag,  ii.  113-115  ;  i.  237,  240,  359 
Yeni  Keui,  village  of,  plain  of  Khinis,  ii.  256 
Yezdegerd  IL  of  Persia,  persecutes  the  Armenians, 
_i-.3i2 
Vezidis,  so-called  devil-worshippers,  ii.  187,  430 
Yungali,  village  of,  Bulanik,  ii.  346 
Yusik,  grandson  of  St.  Gregory  and  katholikos  in 

the  reign  of  Tiran,  i.  303,  304 
Yusuf,  governor  of  Azerbaijan,  i.  343-352 
Vusuf  Bey,  chief  of  the  Sipkanli  at  Koshk,  Ii.  16,  17 
Yusuf  Pasha,  chief  of  all  Sipkanli  Kurds,  ii.  268 

Zab  the  Great  (Stranga),  i.  277  note  2,  279  note  3, 

ii.  69,  148,  388,  395,  397 
Zado,  hamlet  near  Tutakh,  ii.  12 
Zagros  Range,  i.  423,  ii.  385,  397  note  2,  419 
Zakare  or  Zakarea,  name  of  certain  Georgian  rulers 

of  Ani,  i.  370  note  3,  375,  376,  377,  388 
Zalka  Plateau,  Northern  Armenia,  i.  433 
Zanga  River  (Hrazdan),  tributary  to  the  Araxes,  i. 

208,  211,  212,  215,  216,  229,  357,  ii.  44,  49 
Zaremba,  missionary  from  Basle,  i.  98-100 
Zaza,  language  of  the  Kizilbashes,  ii.  393 
Zeda  Tmogvi,  ruined  fortress  near  Vardzia,  i.  80 
Zeidikan,  Alashkert,  village  and  pass  of,  ii.  266 
Zeitun,    moimtainous  district    in   Asia   Minor    in- 
habited by  Armenians,  ii.  427_ 
Zemzem  Dagh,  hills  near  Van,  ii.  in 
Zenobius  of  Glak,  Armenian  writer,  ii.  178 
Zernak    (Kala-i-Zerin,    Zernishan),     Ruins    of   an 

ancient  city  near  Akantz,  ii.  25  and  note  2 
Ziaret,  village  of.  Mush  plain,  ii.  176 
Zigag,  village  and  Promontory,  Lake  Van,  ii.  279, 

.284 
Zigana  Dagh,  11.  241 
Zigana  Pass,  ii.  236,  242 
Zigana,  villages,  ii.  242 

Zikar  Pass  {Zikarski  Pcrival),].  51,  55,  430,  437 
Zirket,  village  of.  Mush  plain,  ii.  164 
Zirnek  Dagh,  Khamur  heights,  ii.  258,  347,  403 
Zoe,  Byzantine  empress,  i.  373 
Zokhj  town  in  Kurdistan,  ii.  396,  430  note  i 


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