THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN
M0GHUL8:
ITS ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION.
BY
WILLIAM IRVINE,
LATE BENGAL CIVIL SERVICE.
LONDON
LUZAC Sc CO., 46, GREAT RUSSELL STREET,
1903.
7
yg^y MORSE STEPHE.I*
PRINTED BY E. J. BRILL — LEYDEN (HOLLAND).
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
Preface 1—2
Chaptei' I. Commissioned Rank and mode of recruiting. 3—11
Mansab, 3. — Grades of promotion, 5. — Zat and sKwar, G. —
Table of Mansahs and pay, 8. — Siavar rank, 9. — Tahinan,
9. — Pay of same, 11. — Chelas 11.
Chapter II. Eules connected with Pay and Allowances . 12 — 27
Rates of Pay, 12. — Date from which pay drawn, 12. —
Conditional and unconditional pay, 13. — Pay always in arrears,
13. — Pay in naqd and Jagir, 14. — Hacfiqat, 16. — Daul,
18. — Yad-dasht, 18. — Loans, advances and gifts, 18. —
Deductions, 19. — Fines, 22. — Sakatl and Bartarafi, 24. —
Absence, 25. — Illness, 25. — Leave, 25. — Desertion, 25. —
Discharge, 25. — Pension, 25. — Death, 25.
Chapter III. Rewards and Distinctions 28—35
Titles, 28. — Robes of Honour, 29. — Gifts, 29. — Kettledrums,
30. — Flags and Ensigns, 31. — Panjah, 31 . — ^Alam, 32. —
Mizan, 32. — Afiah, 32. — Azhdaha-paikar, 32. — Mahi, 32.—
Qiimqumah, 32. — Mdhl-o-maratib, 33. — Sher-maratib,
34. — Aftabgirl, 34. — Tmnan-togh, 34. — Summary, 35.
Chapter IV. Procedure on Entering the Service .... 36 — 44
Bakhshls, 37. — Duties of Bakhshl-id-mayncdik, 38. — The
other great Bakhshls, 39. — Provincial and other Bakhshls,
40. — First appointment of an officer, 40. — Haqlqat, 40. —
Tasdlq 41. — Yad-dasht, 42. — TaHlqah, 43. — Ahadls, 43.
Chapter V. — Branding and Verification 45 — 56
Chihrah-i-mansabdar, 48. — ChiJirah-i-tablnmi, 48. — Chih-
rah-i-aspan, 49. — Form of Imperial brands, 49. — Noble's
brands, 50. — Classification of horses, 51. — Subordinate esta-
blishment, 52. — Tashlhah, 53. — Officials and their duties, 55.
Chapter VI. Different Branches of the Service .... 57—61
Mansabdur, Tdblnan, Ahadls, Ahsham, 57. — No regimental
system, 57. — Total strength of army, 59. — Strength brought
into the field, 60.
Chapter VII. Equipment. — A. Defensive Armour . . . 62 — 72
Armour generally (silah, aslah) 62. — Fines for non-production
•i rY i"-
IV TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
of, 63. — Khud, Dnhalgliah, Top, 64. — Khoght, 65. —
Mighfar, 65. — Baktar, Bagtar, 66. — Chahar-a/inah, 66. —
Zirih, 67. — Jaibah, 67. — Joshan, 68. — Jihlam, 68. —
A^igarkhah, 68. — Daglilah, Dagla,QS. — Jamah- i-fatahi,
G8. — Chihilgad, 69. — Sac^igl, 69. — Kothi, 69. — Bhanju,
69. — TiTarMaZ, Q9.— Ghighwah, lO. — Kanthd-sohha, 70.—
Bastwanah, 70. — Bdnak, 71. — Mozah-i-ahani, 71. —
Patkah, 71. — Horse armour, 71. — Kajim, 71. — Artak-i-
kojimji. — Qashqahji. — Gardani,li. - Horse trappings,72.
Chapter VHI. Equipment. — B. Ofifensive Arms: T,
Weapons for close quarters .... 73—89
1. Swords, 74. — Mode of carrying, 74. — Names for, 75. —
Names of parts of and belts, 75. — Shamsher, 75. —
Bhup^ ^Asa Shamsher, 76. — Khandu, 76. — Sirohl, 76. —
Patta, li. — Gupti, 11. — Shields, 77. — C/iirioa/iand
Tilwah shields, 78. — Fencing shields {-phari), 78.
2. Maces, Gurz, 79. — Shashbur, 79. — Piydzl, 79. —
Bhara, 79. — Garguz, 79. — Khandli-Phansl, 79. —
Satit (flail), 80. — Pusht-khar, 80. — Khar-i-mahi, 80. —
Gajbdg, 80.
3. Battle Axes, Tabar, 10, — Zcighnol, 80. — Tabar-zaghnol,
80. — Taratigalah, 80. — Parusa, 81. — Fenmifroo,
81. — Basolah, 81. — Chamchdq, 81.
4. Spears, Sman, 81 . — Nezah, 82. — Bhalcl, 82. — Barchhah,
83. — Sa;^A;, San^f, Sangl, 83. — Sainthl, 84. — Sclarah,
84. — Ballam, 84. — Pandl-Ballam, 84. — Panjmukh,
84. — Lange, 85. — Garhiya, 85. — ^Alam, 85. —
/iro??i, Gaiidusa, 85.
5. Daggers, Katar, Katarah, Katdrl, 85. — Jamdhar, 86. —
Khanjar, 86. — Jamkhak, 87. — Jhambwah, 87. — ^anA;,
87. — Narsmgh moth, 87. — Bichhwa, 87. — Khapwah,
88. — Peshqabz, 88. — iiTarc?, 88. — Chaqchaql, 89. —
Sailabah-i-qalmaqi, 89.
Chapter IX. Equipment. — C. Offensive Arms, 11. Missiles 90—112
General, 90. — 1 . Bows, 91 . — Ogc/i7, OpcAi, 91 . — Charkh,
92. — /{"ama^i, 92. — Notch, 93. — String, 93. — Thumb-
stall, 93. — Takhsh Kaman, 95. — Kaman-i-gurohah,
95. — Gobhan, Falakhan, 95. — Kamthah, 95. — Nawak,
96. — Tufak-i-dahan^91. — Arrows, 97. — Tukkah, 97. —
Names of arrows, 97. — Symbolical use of arrows, 98. —
Quiver, 99. — Leather guard, 100. — Paikan-kash (arrow
drawer), 101. — Target, 101. — Modes of Shooting, 101.
2. Matchlock, Tufang, Banduq, 103. — General, 103. —
Tripod, 103. - Par ah, 106. — Match, 107. — Powder
horn et cetera, 107. — Blank cartridge, 1 07. — Caillctoqiie,
TABLE OF CONTENTS. V
Page
107. — Jazail, jazair, 109. — Gingall, janjal, 109. —
Qidr, 111.
3. Pistols, TamancJia/i, 111. — Sherhachah, 112.
Chapter X. Artillery. — Heavy guns 113—132
Top-khdnah and its meanings, 113. — Top-i- kalan, Top-i-
khurd, 114. — Under Babar, 114. — Top-i-zm^hzan^ 115. —
Under Akbar, 115. — European opinions, 116. — Heavy guns,
118. — Had names, 118. — Inscriptions on, 119. — Number
with ^\lamgir, 119. — Examples of use, 119. — By A'^zam
Shah, 119. — At Labor, 1125 ii., 119. — At Thun, 1128 ii.,
119. — At Wer, 1767, 120. — Jats use of at Agrah, 1767,
120. — How mounted, 121. — Descriptions of individual
guns, 123. — Wooden guns of Sikhs, 128. — Ghaharah,\1^. —
Beg, 129. — Tlr (bore of a gun), 129. — Miscellaneous, 129. —
Badalijah, 129. — Manjanlq, 130. — Sangra% 130. —
Sarkob, Muqabil-kob, 130. — Top-i-haivde, 130. — Chadar,
131. — Huqqah-i-atashy 131.
Chapter XL Light Artillery 133—151
TopkhduaJi-i-rezah, 133. — Topkhunah-i-jinsi (jambishl),
133. — Topkhanah-i-jilau, 133. — Artillery of the Stirrup,
134. — Names for light guns, 134. — Rahrau, 135. —
Swivelguns or wallpieces, 135. — Gajnal, Hathmil, Narnal,
135. — Shutarncd^ Zamburak, Shcihin, 135. — Size of
Shutarnal, 136. — Use of, 136. — Dhamclkah, 137. —
Ramjanaki, 137. — Arghmi, 138. — Chalani, 138. —
Fieldpieces, 138. — Rahkalah, 139. — Origin of name, 139. —
^Aradah-top, 140. — Qasarah, 140. — ^Arabah, 141. —
Turah, Tobrah, 142. — Muhrah-i-mhkalah, 146. —
Rockets, 147. — Mahtdb,ib\. — Powder Magazines, 151. —
Pal-i-siydh, 151. — Badar, 151.
Chapter XII. Personnel of the Artillery 152—159
Turks and Europeans, 152. — Mir Atash, 154. — Hazdrl,
157. — Mink-bdshi 157. — Sadvwcd^ Mirdahah^ <SaiV, 158, —
Golanddz,\hS. — Deg-andaz^\h^. — Bdn-anddz,Bcm-ddr,ib9.
Chapter XIH. Ahsham 160—174
General remarks, 160. — Infantry in general, 161. — Ndgas,
163. — 'Alighol, 164. — Silah-posh, 164. — iVajf 6, 164. —
Pathahbaz, 165. — Bhalait, 165. — Amazons, 165. —
Sihbandl, 166. — Barqanddz, 166. — Pay of Matchlockmen,
167. — Baksariya/i,iQS. — Bundelahs,i69. — Arabs, iQ9. —
Bhllah, 170. — Mewd^ti, 170. — Karndtakl, 170. — Kdld
Piyddah, 171. — Rdwat, 171, — Bargi, 171. — Mughal,
172. — Farangi, 172. — Pay of last four classes, 172. ~
Artificers and their pay, 173.
VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
Chapter XIV. Elephants 175—181
Chapter XV. Discipline, Drill, and Exercises 182—189
Discipline, 182. — Parades, 182. — Organization, 183. —
Uniform, 183. — Punishments, 184. — Drill, KasarcU, 185. —
Swordplay, 186. — Horsemanship, 187. — Mounting guard,
188. — Hunting, 189.
Chapter XVI. Army in the Field 190—194
General remarks, 190. — Mir Manzil, 190. — Transport,
Baggage {Bahlr o Bangah, Partal), 191. — Commissariat,
191. — Banjaras, 192. — Fodder, 192. — Foraging, 192. —
Scarcity and sufferings, 193. — Flight of inhabitants, 194.
Chapter XVII. Camps and Camp Equipage 195 — 201
Tents, 195. — Peshkhclnah, 195. — Camp, description of,
195. — Emperor's tents, 196. — Colour of tents, 198. —
Gulcllbar, 199. — Jail, 199. — Tanab-i-quruq, 200. —
Rahkalah-bar, 200. — Harems, 200.
Chapter XVIII. Army on the March 202—214
Lucky moment, 202. — Emperor takingfield in person, 202. —
Order of march, 203. — Standards, 205. — Military music,
Nauhat, 207. — Patrolling and watching, 209. — Escort
duty, 210. — Conveyances of Emperor, 210. — Salutation
on Emperor's passing, 210. — Crossing rivers, 211. —
Marching through passes, 212. — Scouts and spies, 213. —
Negociations, 214.
Chapter XIX. Length of Marches 215-222
Official day's march, 216. — Length of /:os, instances, 217. —
Forced marches, 21 8. — Army marching, 21 9. — Instances, 220.
Chapter XX. Order of Battle 223—228
Qarawal, 224. — Qalawuri, 224. — Iftcdl, 225. — Vanguard
(Harawal), 225. — Muqaddamah-ul-jais, 225. — Manqala,
225. — Juzah-i-harawal, 226. — Right wing, 226. — Left
wing, 226. — Advanced guard of Centre (jiltmish), 226. —
The centre, 226. — Wings {Tarah) of the centre, 227. —
Rear guard, 227. — Saqah'^ 227. — Nasaqchl, 227. —
Taulqamah, 227.
Chapter XXI. Conduct of a Battle 229—243
Artillery fire, 229. — Zanjlrah band, 230. — Battle cries,
232. — Charges, 232. — Chevaux de frise or caltrops, 233. —
Loss of leader decisive, 235. — Untimely plundering, 236. —
Single combat, 236. — The Utara, 237. — Other technical
terms, 239. — Harakat-i-mazbuh'i, 239. — Qaragl, 240. —
Dar goshah-i-kaman zadan, 240. — Talaql-i-farlqain, 241 .—
Siyah namudan, 241. — Hallah, 241. — Yurish, 241. —
Hai^at-i-majmuH, 241. — ChapkuncJd, Chapqalash, 241. —
TABLE OF CONTENTS. VII
Page
Sipahl-i-fTUez, 241. — Defeat, 241. — Juhar, 242. —
Proclamation of victory, 242. — Pillars of heads, 242.
Chapter XXII. Particular Battles, Stratagems, Losses . 244 — 259
Battle of Hasanpur, 1719, Telescopes, 245. — Reports of
Battles, 254. — Stratagems of war, 255. — Fictitious
desertion, 255. — Ambush, 255. — Personation of leader,
257. — Night surprizes, 257, — Statistics of losses, 258. —
Treatment of slain and wounded, 259.
Chapter XXIII. Forts and Strongholds 260—269
General remarks, 260. — Bound hedges, 261. — Hill forts,
262. — Places of refuge, 263. — Walled towns, 263. —
Various parts of a fortification, Technical words, hisar, qW^ah,
qal^ahchah, garhl, mahsilr shudan^ mahasarah kardan,
burj-o-harah, kungur, fasil,safil,chatah,goonga, kamrgah,
rauni, sang-andaz, damaghah, 263. — Description of a
small fort, 266. — References for other descriptions, 268. —
Imperial fortresses, 268.
Chapter XXIV. Sieges 270—295
General remarks, 270. — Approach by sap and mine, 273. — ■
Sdbat, 274. — Sandbags, 278. — Movable shields, 278. —
ShatUr, 278. — Malchar, 278. — Temporary wall, 279. —
Siha or Towers, 279. — Indian defence of forts, storming,
281. — Scaling ladders, 281. — Modes of repelling assaults,
282. — Stones, 283. — Evacuation after assault, 284. —
Reduction by starvation, 284. — Gurdaspur, 285. — Thun,
285. — Second siege of Thun, 287. — Communications
between besiegers and besieged, 287. — Keys of fortresses,
287. — Particular sieges, 288. — Jaitpur, 289. — Allahabad,
290. — Bangarh, 291. — Agrah, 294.
Chapter XXV. General Observations 296—300
PREFACE.
In 1894 1 began the preparatory studies for an account
of the later Indian Moghul system of government and
administration in all its branches, being impelled by the
belief that some information of the kind was a necessary
introduction to a History of that period, which 1 had
previously planned and commenced. Before I had done
more than sketch out my first part, which deals with the
Sovereign, the Court Ceremonial, and the elaborate system
of Entitlature, I noticed the issue of a book on a part of
my subject by Dr. Paul Horn \ The perusal of this
excellent work diverted my attention to a later section of
my proposed Introduction, the subject of the Army and
Army Organization; and in this way I have been led to
write this portion before any of the others. Except incident-
ally, my paper is neither a translation nor a review of
Dr. Horn's essay ; and though indebted to him, as acknow-
ledged from time to time, my study covers, in the main,
quite different ground, forming a complement to what he
has done, and, as I think, carrying the subject a good
deal farther in several directions. Dr. Horn seems to have
read chiefly the authorities for the period before Aurangzeb
Alamgir; while my reading has been confined in great
measure to the reigns of Aurangzeb's successors in the
1 "Das Heer- und Kriegswesen der Gross-Moghuls", by Dr. Paul Horn,
Privat-Dozent an der Universitat Strassburg, 8vo, pp. 160. (E. J. Brill:
Leiden, 4894.)
1
2 PREFACE.
period 1707 — 1803. The sources upon which we draw are
thus almost entirely independent of each other; and 1 hope
that my contribution to this rather obscure corner of Indian
history may not be thought inferior in interest to that of
my predecessor. The first seven chapters have already appeared
in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for July 1896.
CHAPTER 1.
COMMISSIONED RANK AND MODE OF RECRUITING.
Few soldiers were entertained directly by the emperor
himself; and for the most part the men entered first the
service of some chief or leader. These chiefs were ranked
according to the number of men that they had raised or
were expected to raise. In this way originated the system
of mansab, first introduced by Akbar {Ajn, \, 237). This
mode of recruiting the army through the officers, renders it
necessary to begin by a statement of the manner in which
the officers themselves were appointed and graded.
Mansab was not a term confined solely to the military
service; every man in State employ above the position of
a common soldier or messenger, whatever the nature of his
duties, civil or military, obtained a mansab. In fact, there
were for all grades, except the very lowest, only two modes
of obtaining support from State funds: a man must either
enter its active service, as the holder of a mansab, or he
must petition for a madad-i-muash (literally, ''help to live"),
on the ground of being a student of the holy books, an
attendant on a mosque {inutawalll or khadim), a man of
learning and religious life {darvesh), a local judge {qafi), or
an expounder of the Mahomedan law {mufti).
The word mansab is literally {Dastur-ul-Insha, p. 233)
''the place where anything is put or erected" {nasb kardan,
to place, fix, appoint) ; and then, as a secondary meaning,
the state or condition of holding a place, dignity, or office.
It seems to have been in use in Central Asia before the
Moghuls descended into Hindustan; and Ross translates
/^
4 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
it by the vaguer term "privileges". — Tankh-i-Ras/ndi, 108.
This word mansah I represent by the word rank, as its object
was to settle precedence and fix gradation of pay ; it did not
necessarily imply the exercise of any particular office, and
meant nothing beyond the fact that the holder was in the
employment of the State, and bound in return to yield
certain services when called upon.
The highest mansah that could be held by a subject, not
of the royal house, was that of commander of 7000 men,
thoudi in the later and more deorenerate times we find a
few instances of promotion to 8000 or even 9000. The
mansah of a prince ranged from 7000 up to 50,000, and
even higher {Mirat-ul-Istilah, fol. 35). In the Ajn-i-Akbarl
(Blochmann, 248, 249) sixty-six grades are stated, beginning
at commanders of 10,000, and ending at those set over ten
men. Even at that earlier period there seem to have been
only thirty-three of these grades in actual existence (Bloch-
mann, 238). All the later authorities agree in holding that
the lowest officer's mansah was that of twenty men; and
these writers record, T find, no more than twenty-seven
grades, beginning with that of 7000 and ending with that
of twenty. Tn the earlier days of the dynasty, rank was
granted with a niggard hand. In Akbar's time the
highest rank was for long that of 5000, and it was only
towards the end of his reign that a few men were promoted
to 7000, while many officers exercised important commands
although holding a comparatively low mansah. The great
accession of territory in the Dakhin and the incessant wars
connected with these acquisitions may account in part for
the increase in the number and amount of mansahs granted
by Shahjahan and ''Alamgir. But the relative value of
rank was thereby much depreciated; and the author of the
Maasir-uI-Umara (i, 8), while considering Akbar's officers
of 500 rank of sufficient importance to deserve separate
biographies, contents himself in the later reigns with going
no lower than those of 7000 or 5000, men below those ranks
COMMISSIONED RANK AND MODE OF RECRUITING. 5
being too numerous and too insignificant to call for detailed
mention.
The steps of promotion altered as the officer rose in
grade. The usual gradation was as follows {Mir at, B.M.
1813, fol. 35; Bastur-ul-^'Aml, B.M. 1G41, fol. 44^): —
From 20 to 100 each rise was by 20
100 to 400 „ „ 50
400 to 1000 „ „ 100
„ 1000 to 4000 „ „ 500
,, 4000 to 7000 „ „ 1000
There is a slight discrepancy between this table and the
facts as we find them in practice. It ought to be amended
thus: —
From 20 to 60 a man rose by 10 each time
,, 60 to 100 „ „ 20
Otherwise we should exclude the rank of 50, which was
common enough. Again, we find in many tables no ranks
of 250 or 350, although both of these are required to
accord with the above scheme of promotion.
We also find mention in the historians of ranks which
do not appear in the above scheme of grades. For instance,
in Danishmand Khan's Bahadur Shali7iamah (fol. 41 1^, 56a)
we find men appointed to 1200 and 2900, grades which
do not fit in with the scheme given above, nor do these
grades appear in the pay-table, copied from the official
manuals, which we give a little further on.
As an additional distinction, it was the custom to tack
on to a 7nansah a number of extra horsemen. To distinguish
between the two kinds of rank, the original manmh, which
governed the personal allowances, was known as the zed
rank [zed = body, person, self), and the additional men
were designated by the word suwar (= horseman). Thus
a man would be styled "2500 zdf, 1000 suwar.'' It is
said {Mired, fol. 35) that men below 500 never had suimr
6 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
added to their rank; but this is not borne out by what
we find in actual practice. For instance, Mirza Muhammad
{Tazkirah, I.O.L. N^. 50, fol. 9G«) wasinRabf II, 1119 h.,
made 400, 50 horse, and his younger brother 300, 30 horse.
There are also instances in Danishmand Khan of 150, 50
horse; 300, 10 horse; 300, 20 horse; 300, 80 horse; 400,
40 horse; and so on. In fact, unless this had been the case,
it would be impossible to divide the ranks below 500 into
first, second, and third grade, as was actually done. This
division into grades we now proceed to describe.
On the distribution of rank into zat and suivctr was founded
a classification into first, second, and third class fuansabs,
by which the scale of zat pay was reduced proportionately.
From this classification were exempted officers above 5000
zat; these were all of one class. From 5000 downwards,
an officer was First Class, if his rank in zat and smvar were
equal; Second Class, if his smear was half his zat rank;
Third Class, if the suwar were less than half the zat, or
there were no suwar at all {Dastur-ul-Insha, 222). I think
that here Blochmann {Ajn, i, 238, lines 5 and foil.) obscures
the subject by using "contingent" as the equivalent of
suwar, instead of leaving the untranslated original word
to express a technical meaning.
Pay was reckoned in a money of account called a dmn,
of which forty went to the rupee. There were also coins
called dam ; but the dams of account, bearing a fixed ratio
to the rupee, must be distinguished as a different thing from
the coin, though called by the same name. Here Dr. Horn,
16, is of opinion that the reckoning was made in such
a small unit as the to of a rupee, less to make a grand
show with big figures than because the value of the rupee
varied. On this head 1 am of exactly the opposite opinion,
for I think that the principal, if not the only object, was
to swell the totals and make the pay sound bigger than
it really was. That spirit runs through everything done in
the East, at any rate in the Indian portion of it, as could
COMMISSIONED RANK AND MODE OF RECRUITING. 7
easily be shown were it worth while to labour the point
further. As for the second reason, I have considered it
as well as I am able, not being a currency expert; and
it seems to me that with a fixed ratio between the two
coins, it was a matter of indifference to the receiver of pay
whether the amount was stated in the one or in the other
unit of value. The two units being tied together by the
fixed ratio, and the disbursements being in fact made (as
we know) in rupees, the payee suffered, or did not suffer,
equally by either mode of calculation.
In the following table, which shows all the inansahs with
their pay according to class, I have reduced the dam to
rupees, as being simpler and more readily intelligible. In
the present day, this reckoning by dams has quite dis-
appeared. When reading this table of pay, which shows
the sanctioned allowances for a year of twelve months, it
must be remembered that few of the officers received the
whole twelve-months' pay, the number of month's pay
sanctioned per annum ranging from four to twelve. Officers
were also supposed te keep up an establishment of elephants
and draught cattle. Apparently they were also liable to pay
a fixed quota of their own allowances towards the expenses
of the Emperor's elephants and cattle, an item known as
khuraJc-i-dawabb , feed of four-footed animals. There were
other petty deductions.
8 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
TABLE OF MANSAB-I-ZAT WITH YEARLY PAY IN RUPEES.
Rank
(Mansah-i-zat).
Yearly Pay in Rupees.
V • J
Eirst Class.
Second Class.
Third Class.
1
7000
350,000
_
_
2
6000
300,000
—
—
3
5000
250,000
242,500
235,000
4
4500
225,000
217,500
210,000
5
4000
200,000
192,500
185,000
6
3500
175,000
167,500
160,000
7
3000
150,000
142,500
135,000
8
2500
125,000
117,500
110,000
9
2000
100,000
92,500
85,000
10
1500
75,000
67,500
60,000
11
1000
50,000
47,500
45,000
12
900
37,500
36,250
35,000
13
800
31,250
30,000
28,750
14
700
27,500
26,250
25,000
15
600
23,750
22,500
21,250
16
500
20,000
18,750
17,500
17
400
12,500
12,000
11,500
18
300
10,000
9500
9000
19
200
7500
7000
6500
20
150
6250
5750
5250
21
100
5000
4500
4000
22
80
3500
3250
3000
23
60
2500
2375
2150
24
50
2125
2000
1875
25
40
1750
1625
1500
26
30
1375
1250
1125
27
20
1000
875
750
{Dastur-ul-'Aml, B.M. N^. 164J, fol. 44/^, z^. BM. N". 1690,
fol. 173/5, Bastur-ul-lnsha^ p. 234.) Theratesof payin Akbar's
reign, as given in the last column of Blochmann's table {Ajn,
i, 248), were much higher than the above, which refers to
^Alamgir's time and later. It will be noticed that the difference
of pay between first, second, and third class is as follows : —
From
20 to
60
5,000
For
80
10,000
From
100 to
400
20,000
For
1000
100,000
From
1500 to
5000
300,000
Dam, or Rs.
125 yearly.
250 „
500 „
2500 „
7500 „
(B.M. 6599, fol. 144^).
COMMISSIONED RANK AND MODE OF RECRUITING. 9
In addition to the simple division by mansah alone, there
was also a grouping of officers into three classes. From 20 to 400
they were merely ''officers with rank" {inansahdar) ; from
500 to 2500 they were Nobles — Blochmann, i, 535 {Amir, pi.
Umara, origin of our form "Omrah"); from 3000 to 7000
they were Great Nobles {Jnnr-i-A'zam, pi. '^JJzzam, TJmara-
i-kibar (Blochmann, i, 529, note), or Pillars i^Umdah). All
mansabdars were kept on one or other of two lists: (1)
Eazir-i-rikab, present at Court; (2) 2^<5f''2w^7/, on duty elsewhere.
Suivar Rank. — The grant of suwar in addition to zat rank
was an honour. Dr. Paul Horn, 15, supposes, however,
that these horsemen were paid out of the zed allowances.
In that case a man who had no suwar would be better
paid than another who was honoured with the addition of
suioar to his zat rank. Naturally Dr. Horn, 16, holds that
this "eigentlich nicht recht glaublich ist." He is quite
right in his conjecture. The explanation is, that the table
of pay in Blochmann, i, 248, and that given above, are
exclusively for the zat rank, from which money the officer
had to maintain his transport, his household, and some
horsemen. For the suwar rank there was a separate table,
pay for these horsemen being disbursed under the name of
the Tabinan. As Orme says ("Hist. Frag.," 41 8 j, the officer
raising the troops was responsible for the behaviour of his
men ; he therefore brought men of his own family or such
as he could depend on. Another rule was, according to
the Mirat'i-Akmadl, ii, 118, that the Tabinan, if horsemen,
must be one third Mughals, one third Afghans, and one
third Rajputs; if infantry, two thirds archers, and one-
third matchlockmen.
Tabinan. — Blochmann, i, 232, note 1, who, apparently,
translates this word as well as suwar by "contingent,"
derives it from the Arabic iabin, one who follows. ^ The
* Steingass, 272, (J^J-Ij , A, following in the steps of another ; but Pavet
de Courteille, Diet. Turc. Oriental, 194, claims it as a Chaghatae word,
with the meanings of "a troop of 50 men, the body-guard, the pages."
10 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
books (B.M. 1641, fol. 46b, B.M. 6599, 1445 and U8b) give
a long table setting forth their pay in dams, beginning with
that for five horsemen and ending with that for 40,000, but
as the basis for calculation remains the same throughout, it
is sufficient here to work out the pay for one horseman.
For five horsemen, then 40,000 dams a year were allowed.
That would be 8000 dams for one man; and this sum in
dams yields Rs. 200 a year (at the fixed rate of 40 dams
to the rupee), or Rs. 16 10a. 8p. per man per mensem.
Bernier, 217, states the rate as somewhat higher — "he
that keeps one horse shall not receive less than 25 rupees
a month." For this sum, of course, the man provided his
own horse and armour, and paid for his own and his horse's
keep. One Bastur-ul-Aml, B.M. 6599, fol. 1445, tells us
that the number of horses to men among the troopers
{tablnan-i-baradarl) was according to the rule of dah-bist
(lit. "ten-twenty"), meaning apparently that the total
number of horses was double that of the number of men.
The scale was as follows: —
3 three-horsed men = 9 horses
4 two-horsed men = 8 horses
3 one-horsed men = 3 horses
10 men 20 horses
That is, with 1000 men there would be 2000 horses. The
pay of the men with the extra horses was higher, but not
in proportion. Thus, a one-horsed man received 8000 D.
or Rs. 200 a year (Rs. 16 10a. 8p. per mensem), while the
two- or three-horsed man got 11,000 D. or Rs. 275 a year
(Rs. 22 14a. 8p. per mensem). In some places we find other
rates of pay recorded. For instance, Bahadur Shah enlisted
AJiadls, men a little superior to common soldiers, at Rs. 40
a month (Danishmand Khan, second Safar of the second
year, i. e, 1120 h. = 22nci April 1708). A century later, as
Fitzclarence tells us, "Journal," 73, 142, the rate was Rs. 40
a month in the Dakhin, and R. 22 in Hindustan. Service
COMMISSIOT^ED RANK AND MODE OF RECRUITING. 11
in the cavalry was socially an honourable profession; thus
a couHuon trooper was looked on as being, to some extent,
a gentleman, and such men, even when illiterate, often rose
to the highest positions.
The pay of the Tahinan was drawn by the mansabdar,
who was entitled to retain 5 per cent, of their pay for
himself {Aj7i, i, 265). Pay was not always allowed for a
whole year; often only for six, five, or four months. This
fact renders it impossible to calculate the actual expenditure,
for, although we generally can find out whether a manmhdar
was first, second, or third class, we rarely know for what
number of months in the year his pay was sanctioned.
C/ielas. — As a counterpoise to the mercenaries in their
employ, over whom they had a very loose hold, commanders
were in the habit of getting together, as the kernel of their
force, a body of personal dependents or slaves, who had
no one to look to except their master. Such troops were
known by the Hindi name of chela (a slave). They were
fed, clothed, and lodged by their employer, had mostly
been brought up and trained by him, and had no other
home than his camp. They were recruited chiefly from
children taken in war or bought from their parents during
times of famine. The great majority were of Hindu origin,
but all were made Mahomedans when received into the
body of chelas. These chelas were the only troops on
which a man could place entire reliance as being ready
to follow his fortunes in both foul and fair weather.
Muhammad Khan Bangash's system of chelas is described
by me in J.A.S. Bengal, part i, 1878, p. 340.
CHAPTER II.
RULES CONNECTED WITH PAY AND ALLOWANCES.
In the preceding paragraphs have been shown in general
terms the rates of pay for the cavalry, and some of the
rules by which pay was governed. When we come to
the actual working out in detail of this part of the
army administration, our difficulties increase. The official
manuals, which are our only guide, are couched in the
briefest of language, and naturally presume a knowledge
of many things of which we are ignorant. Nor can we be
certain whether the rules that they lay down were of general
application or were applicable to certain classes of troops
only. Thus the data are insufficient for any complete
exposition of this part of the general subject. The matters
treated of in the next following paragraphs are, moreover,
of a somewhat miscellaneous description, and many of them
might be better classed under other heads, such as Discipline,
Recruiting, and so forth ; but as there is not enough material
to yield complete information, I have thought it better to
deal with the greater part of them, as the native authors
do, in their relation to the calculation of pay.
Rates of Fay. — The rates of pay for officers and men of
the cavalry, forming numerically far the most important part
of the army, have been already stated when dealing with the
mansab system. The rates for Infantry and Artillery, so far
as recorded, will be stated when we come to those branches
of the service.
Date from to hick Vay Draion. — On an officer being first
appointed, if by his rank he was exempt from having his
RULES CONNECTED WITH PAY AND ALLOWANCES. 13
horses branded {dagli), his pay began from the date of
confirmation {^nrz-i-miiknrrnf). If such branding were
necessary, pay began from the date of branding (the day
itself being excluded), and as soon as this condition had
been complied with, a disbursement was made of one month's
pay on account. Tn the case of promotion, if it were un-
conditional, the rules were the same as above; if conditional,
the pay began from the date of entering on office {Dastur-
uU'Aml, B.M. 1641, fol. 37«, 58^^; id. 6599, fol. 1466, Dastur^
ul'inslia, 233).
Conditional {Mashrut) and Unconditional {Bila-sliart) Tay,
— Rank and pay might be given absolutely, or they might
be conditional on the holding of some particular office.
The temporary or mashrut ba khidmat rank was given as
an addition to the permanent, bila-shart rank which a man
already occupied. On ceasing to hold the office, such as
that of governor {sUbahddr) or military magistrate {faujdar),
the mashrut rank and pay were taken away.
Pay always in Arrears, — In later times pay due from the
imperial treasury to the mansabdars, as well as that due
from the 7nansabdars to the private soldiers, was always
in arrears. In fact, we should not go far wrong, I think,
if we asserted that this was the case in the very best times.
The reasons are obvious. More men were entertained than
could be easily paid; Indian Mahomedans are very bad
financiers; the habit of the East is to stave off payment
by any expedient. To owe money to somebody seems in
that country the normal condition of mankind. For
example, even such a careful manager as Nizam-ul-Mulk,
in his alleged testament, dated the 4th Jamadi II, 1161 h.
(31st May, 1748), is credited with the boast that he "never
withheld pay for more than three months'' ("Asiatick
Miscellany," Calcutta, 1788, vol. iii, 160). Another reason
for keeping the men in arrears may have been the feeling
that they were thereby prevented from transferring their
services to some other chief quite as readily as they might
14 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
have done if there were nothing owing. Disturbances
raised by troops clamouring for their pay were among the
unfailing sequels to the disgrace or sudden death of a
commander. The instances are too numerous to specify.
On this head Haji Mustapha, Seir, iii, 35, note 29, says
truly enough: — "The troops are wretchedly paid, twenty
or thirty months of arrears being no rarity. The ministers,
princes, and grandees always keep twice or thrice as many
men as they have occasion for, and fancy that by with-
holding the pay they concern the men in the preservation
of their lord's life." We can also quote Lord Clive as to
the state of things in the Bengal subah in 1757 ("Minutes
of Select Committee of 1772," reprint, 52) — "There were
great arrears due to the army by Siraj-ud-Daulah as well
as by Mir Ja^far, and the sums amounted to three or four
millions sterling. It is the custom of the country never
to pay the army a fourth part of what they promise them ;
and it is only in times of distress that the army can get
paid at all, and that is the reason why their troops always
behave so" (badly?).
PciT/ in Naqd and in Jagir, — Pay {tnnkhoah : literally,
tan 'body,' kjnoah 'need') might be either Naqd, that is,
given in cash {naqd)-, or Jagir (literally, ja 'place,' glr,
taking, from giriftan), that is an assignment {jaglf) of the
land revenue of a certain number of villages {maiiza^) or
of a subdivision {parganah). A certain number of officers
and soldiers, chiefly those of the infantry and artillery,
who were, as a rule, on the pay list of the emperor himself,
were paid in cash. This seems to have been the case in
all reigns up to quite the end. But the favourite mode
of payment was by an assignment of the government
revenue from land. Such an arrangement seems to have
suited both parties. The State was a very centralized
organization, fairly strong at the centre, but weak at the
extremities. It was glad to be relieved of the duty of
collecting and bringing in the revenue from distant places.
RULES CONNECTED WITH PAY AND ALLOWANCES. 15
This task was left to the jar/lrddr^ or holder of the jagir,
and unless such a manmbdar were a great noble or high
in imperial favour, the assignment was made on the most
distant and most imperfectly subdued provinces. ^ On the
other hand, a chance of dealing with land and handling
the income from it, has had enormous attractions in all
parts of the world, and in none more than in India.
Nobles and officers by obtaining an assignment of revenue
hoped to make certain of some income, instead of depending
helplessly for payment on the good pleasure of the Court.
Then in negotiating for a jagir there were all sorts of
possibilities, A judicious bribe might secure to a man
a larger jagtr than was his due; and if he were lucky,
he might make it yield more than its nominal return.
Many such considerations must have been present to their
minds. Whatever be the true reasons, of this there can
be no doubt, that the system was highly popular, and that
the struggle for jagtr s was intensely keen. As 'Abd-ul-Jalil
of Bilgram writes to his son: "Service has its foundation
on 2i jagir; an employe without Tijaglr, might just as well
be out of employ." ("Oriental Miscellany", Calcutta, 1798).
A recent French writer, M. Emile Barbe, "Le Nabab Rene
Madec," 117, speaking of a jaglr given in 1775, says:
"Cette apparition des jaguirs dans I'Empire Mogol a son
declin est un fait sociologique du plus haut interet." The
system of jaglr grants may be an interesting sociological
fact — as to that I have nothing to say for or against; but
it was not introduced into the Mogol Empire during its
decline. Jaglrs existed in that empire's most flourishing
days, having been granted as early as Akbar (Blochmann,
Ajn, i, 261), while under Shahjahan they existed on a
most extensive scale.
If the jaglr were a large one, the officer managed it
' This may have been a development of Taimur's practice of granting
the pay of his amirs from his frontier provinces. — Davy and White,
"Institutes." 237.
16 THE AKMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
through his own agents, who exercised on his behalf most
of the functions of government. Such jaglrs were practically
outside the control of the local governor or faujdar, and
formed a sort of imperium in imperio. The disastrous effects
of the system, in this aspect, need not be further dwelt on
here. On the other hand, a small jaglr was more frequently
left by the assignee in the hands of the faujdar, through
whom the revenue demand was realized. Gradually, as the
bonds of authority were relaxed from the centre, the faujdars
and sUbahdars ignored more and more the claims of these
assignees, and finally ceased to remit or make over to them
any of the collections.
I append here the first steps of ofiicial procedure followed
in the grant of a ja(/tr. We are to suppose that one
Khwajah Rahmatullah has been recalled from duty in some
province, and that on appearing at court he has applied for
a new jaglr. Through the Diwan-i-tan, a great officer at
the head of one of the two revenue departments, a haqlqat,
or Statement of Facts, was drawn up, in the following form
(B.M. N^ 6599, foil. 156« to 157/^): —
Statement {Haqiqat).
Khwajah Rahmatullah, son of Khwajah Ahmad, a native
of Balkh, who w^as attached to the standards in Province
So-and-so, having come to the Presence in pursuance of
the exalted orders, and the jagu which, up to such-and-such
a harvest, was held by him in the said Province, having
been granted to So-and-so, in this matter what is the order
as to the tankhwah jagir of the above-named.
[on the margin] \ ^i'^sentation {mulazamat)
\ Day so-and-so, month so-and-so
j Offering [nazar)
\ 9 Muhrs (gold coins) and
( 18 Rupees.
This haqiqat was passed on by the Diwan-i-tan to the
RULES CONNECTED WITH PAY AND ALLOWANCES. 17
Diican-i'^ala (or wazTr). The latter placed it before the
Emperor. If an order were given for a jaglr to be granted,
the wazTr endorsed on the paper, "The pure and noble
order issued to grant a jafir in tanlvhwaJi from the com-
mencement of such-and-such a harvest." This paper then
became the voucher for the chief clerk to the Diivan-i-tan,
who wrote out a siyaha daal^ or Rough Estimate, as follows :
Rough Estimate.
Khwajah Ralimatullah, son of Khwajah Ahmad, of
Balkh. Whereas he was on duty in Province So-and-so,
and according to order has reached the Blessed Stirrup
{i. e, the Court) —
One thousand. Personal {zat)
200 men. Horse {suivar)
Pay in dams
34 lakhs
Personal Troopers
{tabinan)
18 lakhs 16 lakhs
= Total, 34 lakhs.
Feed of Four-footed animals {Khurdk-i'dawabb) remitted.
Parganah So-and-so, Parganah So-and-so,
situated in Province situated in Province
So-and-so, So-and-so,
20 lakhs of Dams. 14 lakhs of Dams.
It will be seen, on referring to a previous page, that as
the man was 1000 zdl, but had only 200 suwar rank, he
was a third class Hazarl. By the table this gives him
18 lakhs, and then 200 horsemen at 8000 dams each comes
to 10 lakhs, making the 34 lakhs which are sanctioned in
the above.
18 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
The daul, or estimate, was made over to the diary-writer
[waqi^'ah navis), who, after he had entered it in the loaqi'ah
(diary), prepared an extract called a memorandum {y ad-das ht)
for submission to the office of the confirmation of orders
i^ars'i-mukarrar, lit. second petition). 'Y.\\q yad-dasht repeated
the facts much in the same form as the haqlqat and the daul.
On it the wazir wrote: "Let this be compared with the
diary {icaqiah) and then sent on to the confirmation office
i^arz-i'mukarrar)!' On the margin the diary-writer {icaqi^ah
navis) then reported: "This yad-dasfd accords with the
loaqiah!' Next the superintendent (darogliali) of the con-
firmation office wrote : "On such-and-such a date of such-
and-such a month of such-and-such a year this reached
the confirmation office. The order given was — 'Approved.' ''
We need not follow here the further fate of the order
after it left the Court and reached the governor of the
province referred to.
Loans, Advances, and Gifts. — The technical name for a
loan or advance of pay was vuisaadat (Steingass, 12:25, A,
helping, favour, assistance, aid), and the conditions as to
interest and repayment are given in Book ii, Ajn 15,
of the Ajn-i'Akbarl (Blochmann, i, 265). Historians
frequently mention the advance of money under this
name. In later times, especially from the reign of Mu-
hammad Shah, no commander ever took the field without
the grant of the most liberal cash advances to meet his
expenses. Possibly these were never repaid, or were from
the first intended as free gifts. When we meet with the
phrase tankkwali-i-inam, I presume that there can be no
doubt of the payment being a gift. Here the word
tankhwah seems to denote the order or cheque on the
treasury, and the word ina'^m (gift, present), differentiates
it from other tankhwah, which were in the nature of pay-
ments to be repeated periodically. The recovery of loans
and advances came under a head in the accounts called
mutalibah (Steingass, 1259, asking, claim, due). Another
RULES CONNECTED WITH PAY AND ALLOWANCES. 19
terra of somewhat similar import, haz-yaft (Steingass, 146,
the resumption of anything, a deduction, stoppage), seems
to have been confined to the recovery of items put under
objection in the revenue accounts by the mustaufls, or
auditors. At one time the recovery of an advance was
made from a man's pay in four instalments; but towards
the end of ^Alamgir's reign, it was taken in eight instal-
ments (B.M. NO. 1G4], fol. 58^).
'Deductions. — Of these I have found the following:
hasUr-i'do-datnl (fraction of the two dams), k/tarch-i-sikkah
(expenses of minting), ayyam-i-Mlall (days of the moon's
rise), Inssah'i-ijnas (share in kind), khurak-i-dawabb (feed
of four-footed animals).
KasUr-i-do-daml. — KasUr is, literally, fractions, deficiencies,
faults. This item was a discount of five per cent., that is,
of two dams in every forty, and therefore styled ''do-dami"
(B.M. 1641, fol. 37«). The origin of this is to be found
possibly in Akbar's five per cent, deductions from the AhadI
troopers on account of horses and other expenses {Ajn, i,
250, line 14). The rate of deduction is diff'erently stated
in fol. 583, B.M. 1641, as four dams in the 100, if the officer
drew seven or eight months' pay, and two dams in the
100, if he drew less than that number of months.
Kharch'i'Sikkah was also deducted : in ^Alamgir's reign the
rates were Rs. 1 12a. Op. per cent, on Shahjahan's coinage,
and Rs. 1 8a. Op. per cent, on the coin of the reigning
emperor. Under the rules then in force, the Shahjahani
coins, not being those of the reigning emperor, were
uncurrent, and therefore subject to a discount. Why a
deduction was made on the coins of the reigning emperor,
is harder to explain. It was not till Farrukhsiyar's reign,
1 believe, that the coinage was called in annually, from
which time only coins of the current year were accepted,
even by the government itself, at full face-value.
Ayyain-i-I/ilaU. — This was a deduction of one day's pay
in every month except Ramazan. Mansabdars, Ahadis, and
20 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
harqandaz (matchlock men) were all subject to it. But,
towards the end of 'Alamgir's reign, it was remitted until
the Narbada was crossed, that is, I presume, so long as
a man served in the Dakhin (B.M. 1641, fol. 55/5», 62^).
The reason for making this deduction is difficult to fathom;
and about the name itself there is some doubt. In the first
of the two entries just quoted, I read the word as talafl
(Steingass, 321, obtaining, making amends, compensation,
reparation); but this variant, instead of throwing light on
the subject, leaves it as obscure as before.
Bissah't-ipias, — Jins (goods) is used in opposition to naqd
(cash), and this item {hissah = share, ijnas = goods) seems
to mean the part of a man's pay delivered to him in kind.
Apparently this item did not apply to the cavalry. Tn the
case of the matchlockmen, artillerymen, and artificers, the
deduction was A if the man were mounted, and A if he
were not. This represented the value of the rations supplied
to him. There is another entry of rasad4-jins (supplies of
food?), the exact nature of which I cannot determine (B.M.
1641, fol. 62^).
KhUrak-i-daioabb . — This is, literally, khurdJc, feed,dawabbj
four-footed animals. It was a deduction from a mansahdars
pay on account of a certain number of horses and elephants
belonging to the emperor, with whose maintenance such
officer was saddled. The germ of this exaction can, I think,
be found in Akbar's system of making over elephants to the
charge of grandees {Ajn, i, 126). "He (Akbar) therefore
put several halkahs (groups of baggage elephants) in charge
of every grandee, and required them to look after them."
Akbar would seem to have paid the expenses ; but in process
of time, we can suppose, the charge was transferred to the
officer's shoulders entirely, and in the end he had to submit
to the deduction without even the use of the animals being
given to him. At any rate, the burden became a subject
of great complaint. This is shown by a passage in Khafi
Khan, ii, 602.
RULES CONNECTED WITH PAY AND ALLOWANCES. 21
"In the reign of 'Alamgir the mansahdars for a long
period were reduced to wanting their evening meal, owing
to the lowness of the assignments {paebaql) granted by the
emperor. His stinginess reminds one of the proverb 'one
pomegranate for a hundred sick men/ T/ak anar, sau hlmar.
After many efforts and exertions, some small assignment
{jac/rr) on the land revenue would be obtained. The lands
were probably uncultivated, and the total income of the
jaglr might not amount to a half or even a third of the
money required for the expenses of the animals. If these
were realized from the officer, whence could come the
money to preserve his children and family from death by
starvation? In spite of this, the Akhtah Begi (Master
of the Horse) and other accursed clerks caused the cost
of feeding the emperor's animals to be imposed on the
mansahdars, and, imprisoning their agents at court, used
force and oppression of all kinds to obtain the money.
"When the agents (toaklls) complained, of this oppression
to the emperor, the head of the elephant stables and the
Akhtah Begi so impressed matters on the emperor's mind,
that the complaints were not listened to, and all the men
were reduced to such an extremity by this oppression,
that the agents resigned their agency. In Bahadur Shah's
reign, the Khan-i-Khanan decided that when the mansahdars
received a jagir for their support, the number of dams
required for the cost of feeding cattle should be deducted
first from the total estimated income, and the balance should
be assigned as the income. In this way, the obligation for
meeting the cost of feeding the animals was entirely
removed from the heads of the mansahdars and their agents.
Indeed, to speak the truth, it was an order to absolve them
from the cost of the cattle provender." Dowson (Elliot,
vii, 403) could make nothing of this passage.
In the case of officers below a certain rank, the deduction
of kfmrak-i'daivahb was not made. The rule says that
where the pay {tankfiwah) did not come up to 15 lakhs
22 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
of dams, the deduction was not made; but apparently no
lower rank than that of 400 zat, 200 smear, was liable.
This rank would by the tables draw a pay of 20 lakhs
of dams. As to the rate of deduction, the records are so
obscure that I am unable to come to any conclusions.
Sometimes we are told that the calculation was made at
so many dams on each 100,000 dams of pay; at others,
that for each 100,000 dams one riding and five baggage
elephants were charged for. A distinction in rates was
made between Mahomedans and Hindus, the former paying
more; also between officers holding jac/irs in Hindustan
and those holding them in the Dakhin and Ahmadabad,
the former paying slightly less than the latter.
Fines. — We come now to the subject of fines, which
were of various sorts, such as tafawat-i-asp (deficiency in
horses), tafawat-i-silali (deficiency in equipment), tafawat-i'
tabinan (deficiency in troopers), also called, it would seem,
Jcami'i-barddariy tawaqquf o ^adam-i'tashlhah (non-verifica-
tion), saqatl (casualties), hartarafi (rejections).
Tafaioat'i-asp. — This is literally "diff'erence of horses,"
and refers to a classification of horses by their breed and
size, which will be referred to more fully under the head
of Branding and Verification. In each rank or mansab a
certain number of each class of horse had to be maintained,
and if at Verification it was found that this regulation had
not been complied with, the result was a fine. In the section
on Branding I give the rates so far as recorded.
Tafawat-i'silah. — This ''diff'erence in armour" was a fine
for not producing at inspection arms and armour according
to the required scale. The amount of fine and so forth
I have stated further on under the head of Equipment.
Tafawat-i-tablnan (diff'erence of followers) or kaml-i-
baradarl (deficiency in relations) was a fine imposed on an
officer for non-production of the number of men stipulated
for by the suwar rank. The following rates are stated in
BM. 1641, fol. 37«, and I presume that the deductions
RULES CONNECTED WITH PAY AND ALLOWANCES.
23
apply to marisahdars as well as to Ahadis, and that they
were made from the monthly pay for each man deficient,
although the entry is so brief as to remain very obscure : —
NuNBER OP Months for which Pay was Drawn.
Four
Months.
PiVE
Months.
Six
Months.
Seven
Months.
Eight
Months,
Amount of fine in
Rupees.
R. A. P.
2 8 0
R. A. P.
3 0 0
R. A. P.
4 0 0
R. A. P.
7 0 0
R. A. P.
8 0 0
In another passage, fol. 41, the same authority explains
the matter thus. In the twenty-first year of ^Alamgir,
a report on this subject having been made, the emperor
allowed a term of four turns of guard {chaukl) for a
mansabdar to produce men of his own class or family
{haradari), and for this period pay for the men was passed
as if they had been present. But subsequently, on the first
Rabf of the twenty-third year, the delay was extended
to two months, and for the time during which such men
were not actually present, pay at half-rates was sanctioned.
All sham, — In the case of the Ahsham^ or troops belonging
to the infantry and artillery, we have a little more definite
information under this head (B.M. 1641, fol. 64r/). Officers
of this class fell into three subdivisions, hazarl (of a
thousand), sadiwal (hundred-man), and mirdahah (lord of
ten). The first class was always mounted {suwar) and
the second sometimes; these mounted officers might be
two-horse {dUaspah) or only one-horse yakaspah) men.
Working on these distinctions, we get the following scheme
of pay. Duaspah Suwar : Where, inclusive of the officer's
own retainers {k/idsah), there were one hundred men present
per 100 of rank, pay was drawn at duaspah rates. But
if the number were under fifty per 100 of rank, pay was
passed to the hazarl as if he were a mounted sadiwal;
subject to restoration to duaspah pay when his muster
24 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
again conformed to the standard. Yakaspah-. If, including
khasah men, tliere were fifty men present per 100 of rank,
full pay was given ; if only thirty-one or under, then the
Iiazari was paid as a sadiwdl piyadah (unmounted), and
certain other deductions were made. Fiyadah (unmounted
officer). — If a sadiical produced under thirty-one men out
of his hundred, he received nothing but his rations. When
the numbers rose above thirty, he was paid as a mirdahah
till his full quota was mustered. In the case of a mirdahah^
the production of two men entitled him to his pay. If one
man only was paraded for inspection, a deduction from the
pay was made, varying, on conditions which I have not
mastered, from one to three annas per man.
Tawaqquf-i'tasJnhah (Delay in Verification). — The rules
for Branding and Verification will be found further on.
If the periods fixed were allov/ed to elapse without the
verification having been made, a man was reported for
delay; and then a mansahdar was cut the whole, and an
ahadl the half, of his pay (B.M. 1641, fol. 58^).
Saqatl and Bartarafi. — The first word is from saqat
shudan 'to die' (applied to animals, Steingass, 687), and
may be translated casualties. The other word means
setting aside or rejecting, in other words to cast a horse
as unfit. We find the groundwork of the saqatl system
in the Ajn-i-Akban. Blochmann, i, 250. In later times
there were the following rules for regulating pay in such
cases. First it was seen whether the man was dUaspah
(paid for two horses) or yahaspali (paid for one horse).
In the first case, (1) if one horse died {saqat s/iavvad) or was
cast {bar taraf shud), the man was paid at the yakaspah
rate ; (2) if both horses died or were turned out, the man
obtained his personal pay for one month, and if after one
month he had still no horse, his personal pay was also
stopped. In the second case, that of a yakaspah, if there
were no horse, personal pay was disbursed for one month ;
but after one month nothing was given (B.M. 1641), fol. 41«).
RULES CONNECTED WITH PAY AND ALLOWANCES. 25
If an ahndis horse died while he was at headquarters,
the clerk of the casualties, after having inspected the
hide, wrote out his certificate {saqat-namaJi), and pay was
disbursed according to it. If the man were on detached
duty when his horse died, the brand {dacjji), and the tail
were sent in to headquarters (B.M. 1641, fol. 29/^).
Other incidents of military service considered as affecting
fay. — Among these may be mentioned: (1) Gliair-hazirl
(absence without leave); (2) Bimarl (illness); (3) RuMsat
(leave and furlough) ; (4) Fararl (desertion) ; (5) Bartarafl
(discharge or resignation); (6) Pension; (7) Fautl (death).
(1) Ghair-hazirl. — If a man were absent from three
consecutive turns of guard {chauhi), his pay was cut; but
if he did not attend the fourth time, the penalty was dis-
missal, and all pay due was confiscated. Absence from night
guard or at roll-call {jaizah) involved the loss of a day's
pay. If absent at the time of the emperor's public or
private audience, or on a day of festival i^ld)^ half a day's
pay was taken (B.M. 1641, fol. 39«, 62/5).
(2) Bimarl. — Absence on the ground of illness was over-
looked for three turns of guard {chaukl), but after that
period all pay was stopped, and a medical certificate (blmarl-
namah) from a physician was demanded (B.M. 1641, fol.
39«, 58«y The rule is somewhat differently stated in
B.M. 6599, fol. 1636.
(3) Buk/isat. — Men who went on leave for their own
business received no pay while doing no duty (B.M. 1641,
fol. 416). In another place in the same work, fol. 646, we find
a different statement. We are there told that for one month
a man received half-pay; if he overstayed his leave it was
reduced to one-fifth or one-tenth ; and after three month's
absence he was classed as an absconder. Leave on account
of family rejoicings or mournings was allowed for one turn
of duty; if the man were absent longer his pay was cut
(B.M. 1641, fol. 39«). Again, on fol. 576, a rule is stated,
of which I am not able to understand the bearing. It
26 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
seems to be that not more than two months of arrears were
to be paid to a man who took leave; but whether that means
the arrears due to him when he left, or the pay accruing
during his absence, I cannot say.
(4) Farcin. — If, among the Ahslidm, an absconder who
had been some time in the service, left after drawing his pay
in full, the amount was shown on the margin (/^a^/zo) of the
pay-bill {qahz) as recoverable, and one month's pay was
realized from the man's surety. If a recruit absconded after
drawing money on account, the whole advance was recovered,
but a present of one month's pay was allowed. If a match-
lockman deserted the service of one leader to enter that of
another, he was cut half a month's pay {nim-mahah). But,
if it w^ere found that the mirdahah or sadlwal, to whom he
had gone, had induced him to desert, such officer had to pay
the fine himself (B.M. 1641, fol. 64/^). Pay of absconders
was reckoned up to the date of the last verification, and
three month's time was allowed {idem, fol. 575). By the
last phrase I understand that they were allowed that time
to reappear, if they chose. If they were again entertained,
their rations only were passed, that is, I presume, for the
interval of absence {idem, fol. 645).
(5) Bartarafi. — If the discharged mansabdar produced
a clear verification roll, he received half of the pay of
his zat rank, and the full pay of his horsemen {lablnan).
Matchlockmen received their pay in full up to the date
of discharge (B.M. 1641, fols. 575, 62«).
(6) Tension. — So far as I have ascertained, there was
no pension list, under that express name. No retiring
allowances could be claimed as of right. When a man
retired from active service, we hear sometimes of his
being granted a daily or yearly allowance. Such was
the case, for instance, when Nizam-ul-Mulk in Bahadur
Shah's reign threw up the whole of his offices and titles,
and retired into private life. But the ordinary method
of providing for an old servant was to leave him till
RULES CONNECTED WITH PAY AND ALLOWANCES. 27
his death in undisturbed possession of his rank and jagir.
(7) Pautl. — It seems that in the case of deaths a different
rule prevailed, according to whether the death was a natural
one or the man lost his life on active service. In the
one case half-pay and in the other full-pay was disbursed
to the heirs on the production of a certificate of heirship
{waris-namah) attested by the qasl.
CHAPTER III.
REWARDS AND DISTINCTIONS.
The promise of honorary distinctions has been in all
ages and in all countries one of the most potent agencies
employed to incite men to exertion. We have our medals,
crosses, orders, and peerages. The Moghul sovereigns were
even more ingenious in converting things mostly worthless
in themselves into objects to be ardently striven for and
dearly prized. Among these were: (1) Titles; (2) Robes of
Honour ; (3) Gifts of Money and other articles ; (4) Kettle-
drums; (5) Standards and Ensigns.
i. Titles. — The system of entitlature was most elaborate
and based on strict rule. This subject belongs, however,
to the general scheme of government, and need not be set
forth at length here. Suffice it to say, that a man would
begin by becoming a Khan or Lord (added to his own
name). After that, he might receive some name supposed
to be appropriate to his qualities, coupled with the
word Khan, such as Ikhlas Khan, Lord Sincerity; an
artillery officer might be dubbed Ra'd-andaz Khan, Lord
Thunder-thrower, or a skilful horseman, Yakah-Taz Khan,
Lord Single Combat, and so on. Round such a title as
a nucleus, accreted all the remaining titles with which a
man might from time to time be invested. As the empire
declined in strength, so did the titles increase in pomposity,
and long before the end of the dynasty the discrepancy
between a man's real qualities and his titles was so great
as often to be ridiculous. Still, these titles were never given
REWARDS AND DISTINCTIONS. 29
quite at random, nor were they self-adopted. Yet [ read
quite recently in a history of India, by a well-known and
esteemed author, that one governor of Bengal was "a
Brahman convert calling himself Murshid Kuli Khan."
Now Murshid Quli Khan no more called himself by that
name than has Earl Roberts of Candahar called himself
by the title he bears. Both titles were derived from the
accepted fountain of honour, the sovereigns of the states
which those bearing them respectively served.
(2) Robes of Honour. — The khild't was not peculiar to the
military department. These robes of honour were given
to everyone presented at court. Distinction was, however,
made according to the position of the receiver. There
were five degrees of hhilat, those of three, five, six, or
seven pieces; or they might as a special mark of favour
consist of clothes that the emperor had actually worn
{nialbUs-i'khas). A three-piece khilat^ given from the
general wardrobe [khilat-khanah), consisted of a turban
{(lasidr), a long coat with very full skirts {jamah), and
a scarf for the waist (kamrband). A five-piece robe came
from the toshah-khanah (storehouse for presents), the extra
pieces being a turban ornament called a sarpech and a band
for tying across the turban {balaband). For the next grade
a tight-fitting jacket with short sleeves, called a Half-sleeve
{nlmah-aslln), was added. A European writer, Tavernier
(Ball, i, J 63), thus details the seven-piece khila^t; (l)acap,
(2) a long gown (ka^bah), (3) a close-fitting coat [arkaloii),
which 1 take to be alkhaliq, a tight coat, (4) two pairs of
trousers, (5) two shirts, (6) two girdles, (7) a scarf for
the head or neck.
(3) Gifts, other than money. — These were naturally of
considerable variety. I have drawn up the following list
from Danishmand Khan's history of the first two years
of Bahadur Shah's reign (1708 — 1710): Jewelled ornaments,
weapons, principally swords and daggers with jewelled
hilts, palkis with fringes of gold lace and pearls, horses
30 THE ARMY OP THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
with gold-mounted and jewelled trappings, and elephants.
The order in which the above are given indicates roughly
both the frequency with which these presents were granted
and the relative value set upon them, beginning with those
most frequently given and the least esteemed.
(4) Kettledrums. — As one of the attributes of sovereignty,
kettledrums were beaten at the head of the army when the
emperor was on the march; and in quarters they were
beaten every three hours at the gate of his camp. The
instruments in use, in addition to the drums, will be found
in the Ajn-i-Jkbarl (Blochmann, i, 51). As a mark of
favour, kettledrums {nagqarah) ^ and the right to play them
{naubat) might be granted to a subject. But he must be
a man of the rank of 2000 smoar or upwards. As an
invariable condition, moreover, it was stipulated that they
should never be used where the emperor was present, nor
within a certain distance from his residence. Marching
through the middle of Dihli with drums beating was one
of the signs by which Sayyad Husain ''Ali Khan, Amir-ul-
Umara, notified defiance of constituted authority, when
he returned from the Dakhin in 1719, preparatory to
dethroning the Emperor Farrukhsiyar. The drums when
granted were placed on the recipient's back, and, thus
accoutred, he did homage for them in the public audience
hall. In Lord Lake's case the investment was thus carried
out : . "Two small drums of silver, each about the size of
a thirty-two pound shot, the apertures covered with parch-
ments, are hung round the neck of the person on whom
the honour is conferred, then struck a few times, after
which drums of the proper size are made." — Thorn, ''War,"
356. There is on record another instance of miniature
drums being used in this way, as a symbol. When con-
ferring on him the right to the naubat, Ahmad Shah
(1748 — 1754) gave such drums to Daim Khan, a favorite
* Khushhal Chand, Berlin ms. 495, fol. 41266 uses the word kurkah,
(Steingass, 1060, T, "a big drum").
REWARDS AND DISTINCTIONS. 31
chela of Ahmad Khan, Bangasli, of Farrukhabad. ("Bangash
Nawabs," Journal A. S. B., 1879, p. 161.)
(5) lUacis and Ensigns. — The flags and ensigns displayed,
along with a supply of spare weapons, at the door of
the audience hall and at the entrance to the emperor's
encampment, or carried before him on elephants, were
called collectively the Qur (Pavet de Courteille, ''Diet.," 425,
ceinture, arme, garde), and their charge was committed to
a responsible officer called the QUr-begl. An alternative
general name sometimes employed was mdhl'O-maratib (Fish
and Dignities), or more rarely, the panjah (literally. Open
Hand). It is, no doubt, the Qur which Gemelli Careri
describes thus (French ed. iii, 182): "Outside the audience
tent I saw nine men in red velvet coats embroidered with
gold, with wide sleeves and pointed collars hanging
down behind, who carried the imperial ensigns displayed
at the end of pikes. The man in the middle carried a
sun, the two on each side of him had each a gilt hand,
the next two carried horse-tails dyed red. The remaining
four, having covers on their pikes, it could not be seen
what it was they held."
In the Ain, i, 50, we are told of eight ensigns of
royalty, of which the first four were reserved exclusively for
the sovereign. The use of the others might, we must assume,
be granted to subjects. The eight ensigns are — (1) Aarang,
the throne; (2) G/iatr, the State umbrella; (3) Saiban or
Aftabgir, a sunshade; (4) Kaiikaba/i (plate ix, N". 2);
(5) \4lam, or flag; (6) Chatr~tok, or yak-tails ; (7)
Tuman-toh, another shape of yak-tails ; (8) Jltanda, or
Indian flag. To these we must add (9) Mdhi-0'7nardHb,
or the fish and dignities.
The origin and meaning of the diff'erent ensigns
displayed by the Moghul Emperors in India have been
thus described, Mirdt-ul-Isiildh, fol. 5 : —
(1) Panjah, an open hand, is said to mean the hand
of ""All. Taimur ordered it to be carried before him for
32 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
a charm and as a sacred relic. It was said that he
captured it when he overcame the Siyahposh tribe. In
17o3 Gentil saw four different ''pondjehs" {ie, pnnjahs)
carried on horseback in Salabat Jang's cavalcade ; they were
copper hands fixed on the end of a stafi" ("Memoires," 61).
(2) ^Alam, a flag or standard. — This was supposed to
be the flag of Husain, and obtained by Taimur at
Karbalah. To it he attributed his victory over Bayazid,
the Kaisar of Rum.
(3) Mizdn, a balance, was a reference to the equal
scales of Justice, and was adopted as having been the
emblem of Nushirwan the Just. There is a figure on
a plate in Gen til's "Memoires," which is probably the M'lzan.
(4) Jftab, or Sun, was obtained from the fire-worshippers
when they were conquered; it was an article used in their
worship.
(5, 6) Azhdaha-paikar, Dragon-face. — From the time of
Sikandar of the Two Horns, the rajahs of Hind had wor-
shipped this emblem in their temples, and when Taimur
made his irruption into India it was presented to him as
an oflPering. It consisted of two pieces, one carried in front
and the other behind the emperor.
(7) Mahl, or Fish, was said to have been an ofiering from
the islands of the ocean, where it was worshipped.
(8) Qumqumah (Steingass, 989, a bowl, a jug, a round
shade, a lantern). — This also was obtained from the Indian
rajahs. The Ajn-i-Akbarl, i, 50, has kaukahah for apparently
the same thing (see figure N^. 2 on plate ix). There is also
w^hat looks like the kaukahah in a plate in Gentil's ^^Memoires."
The definition of kaukahah in Steingass, 1063, corresponds
with the figure in the Ajn, viz. '^a polished steel ball
suspended from a long pole and carried as an ensign before
the king." Careri, iii, 182, tells us that he saw a golden
ball hanging by a chain between two gilt hands, and adds
that "it was a royal ensign carried on an elephant when
the army was on the march."
RFAVARDS AND DISTINCTIONS. 33
All these emblems, we are told, were carried before the
emperor as a sign of conquest over the Seven Climes, or,
in other words, over the whole world.
Mahl-o-maralih. — Some words must be added with special
reference to this dignity, which was borne on elephants or
camels in a man's retinue. It was one of the very highest
honours, as it was not granted to nobles below the rank
of 6000 zat, 6000 suwar {Miral-ul-Istilah, fol. 3). Main
(literally, a fish), was made in the figure of a fish, four
feet in length, of copper gilt, and it was placed horizontally
on the point of a spear {Seir, i, 218, note 150, and 743, note
51). Steingass, 1,147, defines mahl-mardtib as ''certain
honours denoted by the figure of a fish with other insignia
(two balls)." But in careful writers T have always found
it as ma/n-o-niaratib, "fish and dignities," and, as I take
it, the first word refers to the fish emblem and the second
to the balls or other adjuncts which went with it. The
maratib Thorn, "War," 356, describes as a ball of copper gilt
encircled by a jhalar or fringe about two feet in length,
placed on a long pole, and, like the main, carried on an
elephant. Can this be Gemelli Careri's "golden ball"?
Perhaps it was identical with the qumqumah or kaukabah
already described above. The translator of the Seir-Mutaq-
herin^ i, 218, note 150, tells us that the fish was always
accompanied by the figure of a man's head in copper gilt.
This must have been in addition to the gilt balls. The
mahl, as conferred on Lord Lake on the 14th August, 1804
(Thorn, "War," 356), is described as "representing a fish with
a head of gilt copper and the body and tail formed of silk,
fixed to a long staff" and carried on an elephant." James
Skinner, who recovered MahadajT-Sendhia's mahi-o-maraiib
in a fight with the Rajputs, speaks of it as "a brass fish
with two chourees (horse-hair tails) hanging to it like
moustachios" (Fraser, -'Memoir," i, 152). Gentil, "Memoires,"
62, calls the main simply "the head of a fish on the end
of a pole." As a sign of the rarity of this dignity, he
34 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
adds that while in the Dakhin (1752 — 1761) he only saw
four of them.
8her-maralih^ or lion dignity. — This is a name only found,
so far as I know, in Gentil, ''iMemoires," 62; and he only saw
it displayed by Salabat Jang, nazim of the Dakhin. At the
head of the dedication of the above work to the memory of
Shuja'-ud-Daulah, are the figures of two elephants; one
of which bears a standard that is most likely identical with
this Sher-maratib. The flag bears a lion embroidered on it,
and the head of the staff is adorned with the figure of
a lion.
^Alam. — The flags seem to have been triangular in shape,
either scarlet or green in colour, having a figure embroidered
in gold and a gold fringe. The staff* was surmounted by
a figure corresponding to the one embroidered on the flag.
A plate in Gen til's "Memoires"showsfour of these embroidered
emblems — l^t, a panjah, or open hand; 2"^^, a man's face
with rays; Si'd, a lion {sher); and 4tti, a fish. A flag, or
^alam^ could be granted to no man under the rank of 1000
smear.
Aftahgirl, — This sun screen {aftab, sun; gir, root of
c/irifian, to take), shaped like an open palm-leaf fan, was
also called Suraj-mukhl (Hindi, literally, sun-face). By
the Moghul rules it could only be granted to royal princes
{Mirat'ul'Istilah, fol. 3). In the eighteenth century, how-
ever, the Mahrattas adopted it as one of their commonest
ensigns, and even the smallest group of their cavalry was
in the habit of carrying one.
Tuman-togh. — This is one of the two togh mentioned in
Akbar's list, Ajn i, 50, and figured on plate ix of that
volume. Pavet de Courteille, "Diet.," 236, has ^y>' {togh)^
"etendard se composant d'une queue de (j/.LLjj {qatds) ou
boeuf de montagne {i. e. yak) fixee a une hampe, au dessus
d'un pavilion triangulaire." This yak's-tail standard was
not unfrequently granted to officers of rank, by whom it
was esteemed a high honour. The togh consisted generally
REWARDS AND DISTINCTIONS. 35
of three tails attached to a cross-bar, which was fixed at the
end of a long pole or staff.
Summary. — Thus, apart from titles or money rewards, or
ordinary gifts, a man might be awarded any of the following
honorary distinctions, of a more permanent character — (1)
the right to carry a flag or simple standard, (2) the right
to display a yak-tail standard, (3) the right to use kettle-
drums and beat the naubat, (4) the right to display the
fish and its accompanying emblems, (5) the right to use a
litter adorned with gold fringes and strings of pearls. Of
course, all these things were dependent on the caprice of
the monarch ; for in the Moghul, like in all Oriental states —
Ba yak nuldah 7nahram {^j^^^) mujrwi (c^^) shavvad-. By
one spot "confidant" becomes "criminal."
CHAPTER IV.
PROCEDURE ON ENTERING THE SERVICE.
Single men who resorted to the Court in the hope of
obtaining employment in the army, were obliged first to seek
a patron. A man generally attached himself to a chief from
his own country or of his own race: Mughals became the
follfcrwers of Mughals, Persians of Persians, Afghans of
Afghans, and so forth. On this point there were certain
customary rules, which are thus stated by Khushhal Chand,
Berlin Ms. 495, fol. 10723. A noble from Mawar-un-nahr
recruited none but Mughals ; if from Iran, he might have
one third Mughals and the remainder Sayyads and Shekhs,
or if he took Af^ans and Rajputs, of the former he might
entertain one sixth and of the latter, one seventh of his
total number. Nobles who were Sayyads or Shekhs might
enlist their own tribe, or up to one sixth they might take
Afghans. Afghans themselves might have one half Afghans
and the other half Mughals and Shekhzadahs. Rajputs made
up their whole force of Rajputs. At times men of high
rank who desired to increase their forces would remit large
sums of money to the country with which they were
specially connected, and thereby induce recruits of a
particular class to flock to their standard. For instance, in
the reign of Muhammad Shah (1719—1748), Muhammad
Khan, Bangash, filled his ranks in this way with men
from the Bangash country and with Afridi Pathans.
According to a man's reputation or connections, or the
number of his followers, would be the rank {mansab)
assigned to him. As a rule, his followers brought their
PROCEDURE ON ENTERING THE SERVICE. 37
own horses and other equipment; but sometimes a man
with a little money would buy extra horses and mount
relations or dependents upon them. When this was the
case, the man riding his own horse was called, in later
parlance, a si/aJ/dar (literally, equipment-holder), and one
riding somebody else's horse was a Ijarf/ir (burdentaker).
The horses and equipment were as often as not procured
by borrowed money ; and not unfrequently the chief him-
self made the advances, which were afterwards recovered
from the man's pay. The candidate for employment, having
found a patron, next obtained through this man's influence
an introduction to the BakJisln-ul-mamalik or Mir Bakhshl,
in whose hands lay the presentation of new men to the
emperor, and on his verdict a great deal depended as to
the rank {mansab) which might be accorded.
The Bakhshl. — This officer's title is translated into
English sometimes by Paymaster-General, at others by
Adjutant-General or Commander-in-Chief. ^ None of these
titles gives an exact idea of his functions. He was not a
Paymaster, except in the sense that he usually suggested
the rank to which a man should be appointed or pro-
moted, and perhaps countersigned the pay-bills. But the
actual disbursement of pay belonged to other departments.
Adjutant-General is somewhat nearer to correctness.
Commander-in-Chief he was not. He might be sent on
a campaign in supreme command ; and if neither emperor,
vicegerent {wakil-i-mutlaq), nor chief minister {ivazlr) was
present, the command fell to him. But the only true
Commander-in-Chief was the emperor himself, replaced
in his absence by the wahl or the wazir. The word
Bakhshl means 'the giver,' from bakhshidan, P. 'to bestow,'
that is, he was the giver of the gift of employment in
camps and armies {Dastur-ui-lnsha, 232); or might it not
better be connected wdth another meaning, ''to divide into
shares, to distribute," making Bakhshl to equal "the
1 Blochmann, A'lyi^ i, 161, has Paymaster and Adjutant-General.
38 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
distributor, the divider into shares?" In Persia the same
official was styled 'The Petitioner' i^ariz). This name
indicates that it was his special business to bring into the
presence of the emperor anyone seeking for employment
or promotion, and there to state the facts connected with
that man's case. Probably the use of the words Mir ^Arz
in two places in the Ajn-i-Akbarl (Blochmann, i, 257, 259)
are instances of the Persian name being applied to the
officer afterwards called a Bakhhl. The first BaHshl
(for there were four) seems to have received, almost as of
right, the title of Amlr-ul-umara (Noble of Nobles); and
from the reign of ""AlamgTr onwards, I find no instance
of this title being granted to more than one man at a time,
though in Akbar's reign such appears to have been the
case {Ain, i, 240, Blochraann's note).
Duties of the Bahhshl-ul-mamalik. — These duties com-
prised the recruiting of the army; maintaining a list
of mmisnhdars with their postings, showing (1) officers
at Court, (2) officers in the provinces; keeping a roster
of the guard-mounting at the palace; preparing the rules
as to grants of pay {tankhwali)\ keeping up a list of
officers paid in cash, and an abstract of the total pay-
bills; the superintendence of the mustering for branding
and verifying the troopers' horses and the orders subsidiary
thereto; the preparation of the register of absentees, with
or without leave, of deaths, and dismissals, of cash advances,
of demands due from officers {mutalibah), of sureties pro-
duced by officers, and the issue of written orders {dastak)
to officers sent on duty into the provinces. ^ One special
duty belonging to the Bakhshl was, in preparation for a
great battle, to assign posts to the several commanders
in the van, centre, wings, or rearguard. The Bakhshi was
also expected on the morning of a battle to lay before
the emperor a present state or muster roll, giving the
1 Dastur-ul-Insha, 232, Dastur-ul-^Aml, B.M. 6599, fol. 159a, and B.M.
1641, fols. 28, and 176 to 22a.
PROCEDURE ON P^NTERTNG THE SERVICE. 39
exact number of men under each commander in each
division of the fighting line.
TJk; ol/icr Hakh/m. — l^csides the First /?/7^//6'//e, ordinarily
holding the title of Amir'iil'Uinnra^ and styled either
Bdklifsln-ul'maiiialik (B. of the Realms) or Mir Bnkh/n
(Lord B.), there were three other Bak/m/iu at head-
quarters. It is a little difficult to fix upon the points
which distinguished their duties from those of the First
Bakhshl. The Second Bakhsid, usually styled Bakl/s/n-
ul-mulk (B. of the Kingdom), was also called the Bakhshl-
i-tan. ^ As tan (literally, body) was a contraction for
tankhicah^ pay (literally tan^ body, khioah, desire, need),
it might be supposed that his duties were connected
with the records of jaglrs, or revenue assignments granted
in lieu of pay, just as in the revenue department the
accounts of these grants were under a special officer,
the Diivan-i'tan. But on examining such details of the
Second Bakhshis duties as are forthcoming, 1 find that
this supposition does not hold good. On the whole, the
duties of the First, Second, and Third Bakhshis seem to
have covered much the same ground. The main distinction,
perhaps, was that the Second Bakhshl dealt more with
the recruiting and promotion of the smaller men, while
only those above a certain rank were brought forward
by the Mir Bakhshl. The Second Bakhshl was, it w^ould
appear, solely responsible for the bonds taken from officers,
a practice common to all branches and ranks of the
imperial service. His office would seem also to have been
used to some extent as a checking office on that of the
First Bakhshl, many documents requiring his seal in
addition to that of the Mir Bakhshl, and copies of many
others being filed with him. The same remarks apply
generally to the Third Bakhshl, the greatest diff'erence
1 Danishmand Khan, 18ih Shawwal 1119, Khafi Khan, ii, 601, Yahya
Khan, fol. 114a.
40 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
being perhaps that he took up only such recruiting work
as was specially entrusted to him, and that whatever he
did required to be counter-sealed by the First and Second
Bakhs/ds. His duties were on altogether a smaller scale
than those of the other two.
From the details in one work, DasfUr-ul-^Aml, B.M.
1641, fols. 28/5, 29«, it might be inferred that the Second
Bakhsh'is duties were connected with the Jhnais, or
gentlemen troopers serving singly in the emperor's own
service. The difficulty, however, at once arises that the
Fourth Bakhshl had as his alternative title that of Bakhshi
of the Ahadis. The third Bakhsh was also called occasionally
Bakhshl of the IV Wa Shahls, that is of the household troops,
men raised and paid by the emperor out of his privy purse. ^
Provincial and other Bakhsh'is. — In addition to the
Bakhshis at headquarters there were officers with similar
functions attached to the governor of every province.
With the office of provincial Bakhshl was usually combined
that of Waqi ah-nigar , or Writer of the Official Diary.
And in imitation of the imperial establishments, each great
noble had his own Bakhslii, who performed for him the
same functions as those executed for the emperor by the
imperial Bakhshis.
First Appointment of an Officer. — On one of the appointed
days, the Bakhshi laid before His Majesty a written
statement, prepared in the office beforehand and called
a Eaqiqat (statement, account, narration, explanation).
The man's services having been accepted, the emperor's
order was written across this paper directing the man
to appear, and a few days afterwards the candidate
presented himself in the audience-hall and made his
obeisance. When his turn came the candidate was brought
forward, and the final order was passed. The following
is a specimen of a Haqlqat, with the orders upon it: —
1 Kamwar Khan^ entry of l^t Jamadi I, 1119.
PROCEDDRE ON ENTERING THE SERVICE. 41
Report
is made that So-and-So, son of So-and-so, in hope of serving
in the Imperial Court, has arrived at the place of prostration
attached to the Blessed Stirrup {i. e. the Court). In respect
of him what are the orders?
[First Order.] The noble, pure, and exalted order issued
that the above-named be brought before the luminous
eye {i. e. of His Majesty), and he will be exalted
according to his circumstances.
[Second Order in two or three days' time.] To day the
aforesaid passed before the noble sight; he was
selected for the rank {mansab) of One Thousand, Two
Hundred Horse (suwar).
The next step was the issue of a Tasdiq, or Certificate,
from the Bakhslns office, on which the Bakhshi wrote his
order. It was in the following form : —
Certifies
as follows, that So-and-So, son of So-and-so, on such-and-such
a date, of such-and-such a year, in the hope of serving in
this homage-receiving Court, arrived at the Blessed Stirrup
and passed before the luminous sight. The order, to which
the world is obsequious and the universe submissive, was
issued that he be raised to the rank (jnansnb) of one Thou-
sand, Two Hundred Horse {suwar).
One Thousand, zat.
Two Hundred, siiwdr.
[Order thereon of the BcMsJn^ Let it be incorporated
in the Record of Events {Waqi^ah).
On the arrival of the Certificate {Tasdlq) in the office
of the JFaqiahnigar, or Diary Writer, he made an appro-
priate entry in his record and furnished an extract therefrom,
42 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS
which bore the name of a Yal-da^I/t, or MemoraniUim. In
form it was as follows: —
Memorandum {Yad-daslii).
On such-and-such a date, such-and-such a day of the
week, such-and-such a month, such-and-such a year, in the
department {risalah) of One endowed with Valour, a Shelter
of the Courageous, the Object of various Imperial Condes-
censions, Submissive to the Equity of the world-governing
favours, the Bakhshi of the Realms So-and-so, and during
the term of duty as Event Writer of this lowliest of the
slaves So-and-so, it was reduced to writing that So-and-so,
son of So-and-so, having come to the place of prostration
in the hope of service at the Imperial Court, on such-
and-such a date passed before the pure and noble sight.
The world-compelling, universe-constraining order obtained
the honour of issue, that he be raised to and selected for
the rank {ma7isab) of One Thousand Personal {zat) and Two
Hundred Horsemen {suioar) in the chain {silk) of rank-
holders {mansabddran), — On such-and-such a date, in
accordance with the Certificate Tasdlq), this Memorandum
{Yad-ddsht) was penned.
One Thousand, zdt.
Two Hundred, suwdr.
I. [Order of the WazTr.]
After comparing it with the Diary ( Waqtali), let it
be sent to the Office of Revision CArz4-7nukarrar).
II. [Report of the Event Writer.]
Agrees with the diary {Waqt'ah).
IH. [Order of the Superintendent of Revision, literally
Renewed Petition {^ Arz-i-mukarrar)^
On such-and-such a date, of such-and-such a month,
of such-and-such a year, it was brought up for
the second time.
PROCEDURE ON ENTERING THE SERVICE. 43
In the later notices of the system we find few mentions
of the paper called in the Jin (Blochmrmn, i, 25^) the
ta^liqa//, which was, it seems, an abridgment of the Yad-dasht,
This paper the tdliqah^ formed at that time the executive
order issued to the officer concerned {Ajn^ i, 255). I have
found tdhqnh used once in this sense as late as 1127 h.
(1716), by Sayyad ^Abd-ul-Jalil, BilgramT, in his letters
sent from Dihli to his son, ''Oriental Miscellany," Calcutta,
1798, p. 247).
The Jhadls. — Midway between the nobles or leaders
{mansahdars) with the horsemen under them {(abwdn) on
the one hand, and the Ahshani^ or infantry, artillery, and
artificers on the other, stood the Ahadl, or gentleman
trooper. The word is literally 'single' or 'alone' (A. aliad,
one). It is easy to see why this name was applied to
them; they off'ered their services singly, they did not
attach themselves to any chief, thus forming a class apart
from the iablndn; but as they were horsemen, they stood
equally apart from the specialized services included under
the remaining head of Ahsham. The title of Ahadi was
given, we are told {Seir, i, 262, note 201), to the men
serving singly "because they have the emperor for their
immediate colonel." We sometimes come across the name
Yakkah-taz (riding alone), which seems, when employed as
the name of a class of troops, to mean the same body of
men as the Ahadis. Horn, 20, 56, looks on the Ahadis as
a sort of body-guard or corps d' elite-, and in some ways
that view may be taken as true, though there was not,
as I think, any formal recognition of them as such. The
basis of their organization under Akbar is set out in Jjn 4
of Book ii (Blochmann, i, 249), and they are referred to
in several other places (i, 20, 161, 231, 246, 536). In the
strictest sense, the body-guard, or defenders of the imperial
person, seem to have been the men known as the Wdld
Shdhl (literally, of or belonging to the Exalted King), and,
no doubt, these are the four thousand men referred to by
44 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Manucci ('^Catrou," English ed. of 1826, p. 297) as 'the
emperor's slaves.' ^ Whether slaves or not, the fVala S/ia/il
were the most trusted troops of the reigning sovereign.
From various passages I find that they were chiefly, if
not entirely, men who had been attached to his person
from his youth and had served under him while he was
still only a royal prince, and were thus marked out in a
special manner as his personal adherents and household
troops. The Yasaivnls or armed palace guards were some-
thing like the Wala S/ialil so ;far as they were charged
with the safety of the sovereign; but they difl'ered from
the latter in not having the same personal connection with
him. The Ahadis received somewhat higher pay than common
troopers. In one instance we are told expressly what those
rates were in later times. On the 2^^^ SRfar of his second
year (1120 h. = 22nd April, 1708), Bahadur Shah, as
Danishmand Khan tells us, ordered the enlistment of
4,700 extra Aliadu at Rs. 40 a month, the money to be
paid from the Exchequer.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century the household
troops, we are told, 8eir, i, 94, note 90, amounted to 40,000
men, all cavalry, but usually serving on foot in the citadel and
in the palace. They consisted then of several corps besides
the Ahadis, such as the Surk/i-posh (wearers of red), the
SuUanl (Royal), the Wala Sha/il (High Imperial), the
Kamal-pos/i (Blanket Wearers). Haji Mustapha is not,
however, quite consistent with himself, for elsewhere {Seir,
i, 262, note 201), when naming still another corps, the
A^la Sha/n (Exalted Imperial), he asserts that the Surkh-
posh were all infantry, eight thousand in number. The
curious title used above, Kamal-posh, comes from the Hindi
word himmal, a coarse blanket, having also the secondary
meaning of a kind of cuirass {Seir, i, 143, note 105). The
latter is no doubt the signification here.
^ The word meant may be Bandahhae, or, perhaps preferably, the Qui,
the Chaghatae for 'slave.' — P. de Courteille, 433.
CHAPTER V.
BRANDING AND VERIFICATION,
False musters were an evil from which the Moghul army-
suffered even in its most palmy days. Nobles would lend
each other the men to make up their quota, or needy idlers
from the bazaars would be mounted on the first baggage
pony that came to hand and counted in with the others
as efficient soldiers. Great efforts were made to cope with
this evil, and in the earlier times with some success. In
the later reigns, notably from the middle of Muhammad
Shah's reign (1719 — 1748), all such precautions fell into
abeyance, amid the general confusion and ever-deepening
corruption. By 1174 H. (1761) the system had so entirely
disappeared from the suhah of Ahmadabad, that clerks
acquainted with the rules could not be found there {Mir at-
i'Ahmadl, ii, 118).
Mustapha, the translator of the Blyar-ul-ynuiakhann, gives
us an instance of the length to which this cheating was
carried {Seir; i, 609, note). In Bengal, in the year 1163 h.
(1750), when 'All Wirdi Khan, Mahabat Jang, was nazim,
an officer receiving pay for 1700 men could not muster more
than seventy or eighty. Mustapha, who wrote in 1787 — 8,
adds from his own experience — "Such are, without exception,
all the armies and all the troops of India; and were we to
rate by this rule those armies of 50,000 and 100,000 that
fought or were slaughtered at the decisive battles of Palasi
rPlassy] and Baksar [Buxar] (and by some such rule they
must be rated), we would have incredible deductions to make.
Such a rule, however, would not answer for Mir Qasim's
troops (1760 — 1764), where there was not one single false
46 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
muster, nor would it answer for Haidar ""All's armies."
The admitted difference between recorded and actual numbers
is emphazised by Khushhal Chand's expression, Berlin Ms.
495, fol. ]09la, MaujUdl, nak kaghazi, "actually present,
not merely on paper", used in reference to the force brought to
Dihli by Burhan-ul-mulk at the time of Nadir Shah's invasion.
It was to put down these evil practices that the emperor
Akbar revived and enforced more strictly than before a
system of descriptive rolls of men and horses, the latter
being branded with a hot iron before they were passed for
service. This branding, with the consequent periodical
musters for the purpose of comparison and verification,
formed a separate department under the Bakhshi with its
own superintendent [daroghali), and this was known as
the dagh'O-tasUhah, from dagJi, a brand, a mark, and
tashihah, verification. The usual phrase for enlisting was
asp ba dag/i rasanidan, "bringing a horse to be branded."
Branding was first introduced by ""Ala-ud-din Khilji in
712 H. = May, 1312— April, 1313, but on his dea'tii it was
dropped {DastUr-ul-Insha, 233). The emperor Sher Shah,
Afghan, started it again in 948 h. = April, 1541— April, 1542.
Akbar {Aj7i, i, 233) re-established the practice in the
eighteenth year of his reign (about 981 h., 1573 — 4), and
it was continued until the time when the whole system
of government finally broke down in the middle of the
eighteenth century. At first many difficulties were made
{Dastur-ul-Insha, 234), and evasions were attempted, but
at length the system was made effective. The great nobles,
holding the rank of 5000 and upwards, were exempt from
the operation of these rules; but when ordered, they were
expected to parade their horsemen for inspection (Z>«AV^7r-2^/-
'Aml, B.M., NO. 6599, fol. 144^). The technical name for
these parades was »X:^a maliallah (Steingass, 1 1 90), a word
evidently connected with that used in Akbar's time for
branding, viz. dagh-o-mahaUl {Ajn, i, 242 ; Budaonl, ii,
190). The germ of the dagh system may perhaps be found
BRANDING AND VERIFICATION. 47
in the practice in Transoxiana of annually branding the
colts. This was done so far back as the twelfth century;
see E. G. Browne on the Cliahar Maqalah of ^Arudl
(composed about 1161 A.D.), Journal R. Asiatic Soc.
(189^>), pp. 771 and 776.
As said before, the recruit was supposed, at any rate so
far as the State was concerned, to furnish his own horse.
Orrae states the case thus: — "Every man brings his own
horse and offers himself to be enlisted. The hor.^e is care-
fully examined : and according to the size and value of the
beast, the master receives his pay. A good horse will bring
thirty or forty rupees a month. Sometimes an officer con-
tracts for a whole troop. A horse in Indostan is of four
times greater value than in Europe. If the horse is killed
the man is ruined, a regulation that makes it the interest of
the soldier to fight as little as possible." — "Historical Frag-
ments," 4^0 edition, 418. Along with his horse the man
brought his own arms and armour, the production of certain
items of which was obligatory. In actual practice, however,
the leaders often provided the recruits with their horses and
equipment. When this was the case the leader drew the
pay and paid the man whatever he thought fit. Such a
man, who rode another's horse, was called a bargir (load-
taker); while a man riding his own horse was in modern
times called a silahdar (weapon-holder). The latter word
is the origin of the Anglo-Indian phrase of "Sillidar
cavalry," applied to men who are paid a lump sum monthly
for themselves, horse, uniform, and equipment.
Descriptive Rolls. — When an officer entered the service
(B.M. N^ 6599, fol. 160«) a Chihrah or descriptive rolP
^ Literally 'face,' 'countenance.' It must not be confounded with chlrah,
which means (1) a kind of turban, (2) a pay-roll, on which the recipients
signed, (3) the pay itself. Chlrah is used in the second sense in A hwal-ul-
khawaqin, fol, 2306; and also by Ghulam Hasan, Samin, when telling us
of the taunt addressed in 1170 h. (1757) by Ahmad Khan, Bangash, to
Najib Khan, Najib-ud-daulah, of having been once a private trooper in
Farrukhabad, where his pay-rolls (chirah-hae) were still in existence.
48 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
of the new mamahdar was first of all drawn up, showing
his name, his father's name, his tribe or caste, his place
of origin, followed by details of his personal appearance.
His complexion might be "wheat-colour" {^gandum-rang)^
"milky," i, e, white (slilr-fam), "red" {surkh-post), or
"auburn" {maigun-rang). His forehead was always "open"
(faraqli)\ his eyebrows either full (Jcushadah) or in whole
or in part inoshahQ)^ his eyes were sheep-like {irmh), deer-
like {ahu), ginger-coloured {adrak), or cat's eyes {gurbah).
His nose might be "prominent" {huland) or "flat" {past).
He might be "beardless" iamrad) or "slightly bearded"
{I'lsh 0 barwat clghaz) ; his beard might be "black" [risk o
barwat sigcth), or "slightly red" {siyah i maigun-numa),
"thin" {k/iall?), "shaven" {mutarash)^ "goat-shaped" (kosah-i-
kJiurd), or "twisted up" {shaqlqah). So with any moles he
might have; the shape of his ears, whether projecting or
not, whether the lobes were pierced or not, and whether he
was pock-marked or not — all these things were noted.
Ashob, Shahadat, fol. 84«, tells us that in the imperial
service the chihrahs were written on red paper sprinkled
with gold leaf.
Roll for Troopers. — The troopers (Jablnan) were also
described, but not quite so elaborately. A specimen is as
follows (B.M. No. 6599, fol. 163«): —
Troopers' Roll (ChihrahA-Tdbinan).
Qamr ^Ali, son of Mir "All, son of Kabir 'All, wheat
complexion, broad forehead, separated eyebrows, sheep's
eyes, prominent nose, beard and moustache black, right
ear lost from a sword-cut. Total height, about 40 shanah.
Horse. — Colour kabud (iron-grey?). Mark on left of
breast. Mark on thigh on mounting side. LaskarQ) on
thigh on whip side. Brand of four-pointed stamp +
BRANDING AND VERIFICATION. 49
Descriptive Roll of Plorses {fihihrah-i-aspan).
The next thing done was to make out an elaborate
description of the horse or horses (B.M. N^. 6599, fol.
106/5). There were twenty principal divisions according
to colour, and eight of these were again subdivided, so
that there were altogether fifty-eight divisions. Then there
were fifty-two headings for the marks {khal-o-khat) which
might occur on the horse's body.
The Imperial Brand.
The hot iron was applied on the horse's thigh {Seir,
i, 481, note 27), The signs used in A.kbar's reign are
given in the Ain, i, 139, 255, 256; but in the end he
adopted a system of numerals. In ^Alamglrs reign and
about that time there were twenty different brands
{tamghah), of which the shapes of fifteen have been
preserved and are reproduced below (B.M. N^ 6599,
fol. 161<2). I am not certain of the spelling, and in
most instances I am utterly unable to suggest a meaning
for the names.
Name. Form op Brand.
1. Chaliar i)arlia (four feather?) 1
2. Chakar jiarha jomar-khaj i J"
3. Chaliar par ha dur khaj "^
4. Chahar parha sihsar khaj "^ ^
5. Chakush V
6. 1st ad (upright)
7. Uftadah (recumbent)
8. Istadah o uftadah
50 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
]SIame. Form of Brand.
9. Yah ha do (one with two) i —
10. Asaran \ « 1
11. Togli (horse-tail standard) i 1 1
12. Fanjah4'7nurgh (hen's foot) r\f\
13. Mizan (balance) , 1 ,
14. Bo ddrah taur , 1
15. Chahar bar ah makar khaj 11
The Noble's Brand.
It is obvious that in addition to the imperial brand, a
second mark was required by each noble for the recognition
of the horses ridden by his own men. Accordingly we
find direct evidence of this second marking in Bernier,
216, and again 243, when he speaks of the horses "which
bear the omrah's mark on the thigh." Towards the end
of the period the great nobles often had the first or last
letter of their name as their special brand {Seir, i, 481,
note 27), as, for instance, the sin-dagh {^) of Sa^dat ^AlT
Khan, nazim of Audh. The brand of Sayyad ^Abdullah
Khan, was A^c i^abd), according to Khushhal Chand,
Berlin Ms. 495, fol. 1020«. Ghulam 'AH Khan (B.M.,
Add. 24,028, fol. 635) tells us that about 1153 h.
(1740 — 41) Muhammad Ishaq Khan used the last letter of
his name, a qaf (^), as his brand. The way of selecting the
brands is further illustrated by a passage in Kam Raj's
A^zam-ul-harh. When A'zam Shah in 1119 h. (1707) was
on his march from the Dakhin, some new brands were chosen.
"As the brand of the Wcila Shdhl (personal troops) was
^Azma, that of Bedar Bakht, the eldest son, was mankab,
and of Wala Jah, the second son, was khail, it was thought
BRANDING AND VERIFICATION
51
fit to fix on the word hashn (-) as that of ""Ala Tabar,
the youngest son." It is to be niferred from this passage
that in each instance the first letter of the word was used.
Classification of Horses.
According to the Ajn, i, 233, there were seven classes
of horses founded on their breed — (1) ^Arabi, (2) Persian,
(3) Mujannas, resembling Persian, and mostly Turk! or
Persian geldings, (4) Turhi, (5) Yabu, (6) Tazl, (7) Ja7iglah.
In Mlamgir's reign we find (B.M. N«. 6599, fol. i63r/)
the following classification : (1) ^ Iraqi, (2) Mujannas, (3)
Turkl, (4) Ycibu, (5) Tazl, (6) Jangll. This is practically
the same as Akbar's, except that Arab horses are not
mentioned. This must be an oversight, since we learn from
many passages in the contemporary historians that Arab
horses were still in use. The Tdzl and Jangll were Indian
horses, what we now call country breds, the former being
held of superior quality to the latter. The Yabu was, I
suppose, what we call now the Kabuli, stout-built, slow,
and of somewhat sluggish temperament. The Turkl was
an animal from Bukhara or the Oxus country; the ^Iraql
came from Mesopotamia.
In 'Alamgir's reign the proportion in which officers of
the different ranks were called on to present horses of these
different breeds at the time of branding was as follows : —
Class of
Horse.
Rank or
Total.
Officer.
^lUAQI.
Mujannas.
Turk!
Yabu.
400
3
1
1
0
5
300—350
2
1
1
0
4
100—150
0
0
3
0
3
80—90
0
0
2
0
2
50—70
0
0
1
1
2
40
0
0
1
0
1
52
THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
These figures differ from those in the A}n, i, 248 — 9, where
the number of horses is given for all mansahs, up to the
very highest. Some figures are also given in Mirat-i-Ahmadi,
ii, 118, which agree on the whole with those in the above
table.
According as the standard was exceeded or not come up
to, the branding officer made an allowance or deduction
by a fixed table. This calculation was styled tafawat-i-
aspan (discrepancy of horses) — B.M. N^. 6599, fol. 163a.
The extra allowances were as follows: —
Horse Required
BY Regulation,
Horse
Produced.
Additional
Allowance.
Turkl
Turkl
Tazi
Yabu
""Iraqi
Mujannas
Turkl
Turkl
Rs.
12
6
8
9
When an inferior horse was produced the following deduc-
tion was made: —
Horse Required
BY Regulation.
Horse
Produced.
Deduction.
Turkl
Yabu
Tazl
Jangll
Jangll
Jangll
Rs.
12
10
8
Subordinate Establishment.
An establishment of farriers, blacksmiths' forges, and
surgeons had to be maintained by each mansabddr, according
to the following scale (B.M. N^ 1641, fol. 38^'): —
BRANDING AND A^ERIFICATION.
53
• Numbers op Establishment.
Rank of
Officer.
Carriers
Blacksmiths'
Leeches or
{NaHband).
Shops {Ahangar).
Surgeons {Jara/j).
4000
8
2
2
3500
7
2
2
3000
6
2
2
2500
5
1
0
2000
4
1
2
1500
3
0
1
1000
2
0
1
Or, according to
more recent scale : —
1500—4000
The Mirat-i'Ahmadl, ii, 118, states that thirtj men on
foot were required to be entertained for every 1000 of
mansah rank. These included water-carriers, farriers, pioneers,
matchlockmen and bow-men.
Verification {TasMhak).
Something on this subject will be found in the Ajn, i, 250,
where the reference is confined to the ahadis; Dr. Horn,
so far as he goes into the matter at all, deals with it on
p. 49 of his work. In later times, at all events, the rule
of mustering and verification seems to have been of almost
universal application. For example, in a work called the
G iddastah-i-Ba//ar , a collection of letters from Chhabilah
Ram, Nagar, compiled in 1139 h. (1726—7), of which I
possess a fragment, I find on fol. 18a an instance of the
verification rules being enforced against a inansahdar in the
end of Bahadur Shah's reign (1118 — 24 h.). Chhabilah
Ram, who was then faujdar of Karrah Manikpur (stibah
Allahabad), complains to his patron that the clerks had
caused his jar/ir, in parganah Jajmau, bringing in ten lakhs
of dams, to be taken away from him, because he had not
54 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
produced vouchers of da(/h-o-tas/nIiaI/. He sends the papers
by a special messenger, and prays his correspondent, some
influential man at Court, to obtain the restoration of the
jafir in question.
The intervals after which verification was imperative
varied according to the nature of the man's pay. If he
were paid in jfifir, he had to muster his men for verification
once a year, and, in addition, a period of six months' grace
was allowed. If the officer were paid in naqd (cash), the
time allowed depended upon whether he was — (1) present
at Court {hagir-i-riqab), or (2) on duty elsewhere {tainat).
In the first case he had to procure his certificate at six-
month intervals, or within eight months at the outside.
In the second case he was allowed fifteen days after he
had reported himself at Court. An aJ/adl seems to have
been allowed, in a similar case, no more than seven days.
Where an officer drew his pay partly in jagw (assignment)
and partly in naqd (cash), if the former made more than
half the total pay, the rule for jaglrdars was followed; if
the jaglr were less than half, the naqdl rule was followed.
(B.M. 1641, fols. 31a, 395).
When the interval and the period of grace had elapsed,
the man was reported for taioaqquf-i4asInhah (delay in
verification). A mansabdar lost the whole of his pay for
the period since the last verification ; or, if he were im-
portant enough to have been presented to the emperor
{ru-sliinas, known by sight), he might succeed in obtaining
his personal pay. An aJiadl lost half his pay, and it was
only by an order on a special report that he could be
excused the penalty. The proportion of horsemen {tahinan)
that a mansabdar must produce difi'ered when he was at
Court and when he was on duty in the provinces. In the
first case he was bound to muster one-fourth, and in the
second one-third, of his total number or as the case is
stated in the Ma,asir-ul-umara, ii, 444, "In the reign of
Shahjahan it was decided that if an officer held a jaglr
BRANDING AND VERIFICATION. 55
within the Huhnh to which he was attached, he should
produce one third of his tahinan for Branding. Thus if
he were 3000 zed, 3000 suicar, he would produce 1000
horsemen. If sent to another sUbah of Hindustan, then one
fourth had to appear. During the campaign in Balkh and
Badakhshan, owing to the great distance, one fifth was
held to be sufficient." There were three seasons appointed
for verification, from the 26^1^ Shawwal to the 15^^^ Zul
Qa'dah (twenty days), the 19t^i Safar to the I5tli Rabf I
(twenty-five days), and the 16^^'^ Jamadi II to the 15*^
Rajab (twenty-nine days). (B.M. 1641, fols. 31«, 395, 58/^;
B.M. 6599, fol. 148«).
Officials and their duties. — At head quarters officers
entitled A mm, daroghah, and mushrif were appointed by the
emperor to the Verification department, which was under the
supervision of the chief bakhshis. The Bakhshis made the
appointments for the provinces. In addition to his personal
rank {mansab), the Amin received a mansab of 10 horse
while in office {Mirat-i-JJimadl, ii, 118). The duties are
thus described by Hidayatullah, Baharl, in his Ridayat-
ul-quwaid, fol. \Za. The daroghah should compare the marks
and points (Jchat-o-Mal) of the horses with the descriptive
roll {chihrah), and inspect the horses to see whether they
were fit for the service or not. If fit for branding, he should
cause the brand to be imposed, signing the descriptive roll,
adding the day, month and year, with the words "Two
horses such-and-such branded." If it were a two-horse man,
he should certify for two horses and send the original
descriptive roll to the office of the Bakhshi, retaining a
copy sealed by the Bakhshi among his own records. Two
months having passed, he should in the third month inspect
and verify according to the copy of the roll, looking to
see if the marks correspond. His inspection report was
entered on the back of the roll, giving day, month, and
year, thus : "So-and-so with his horses and arms was in-
spected." If it was a one-horse man, the daroghah wrote:
56 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
"Man and one horse inspected." If it were a foot match-
lock-man or an archer, he wrote on the back of the roll:
"Man and arms inspected." For carpet-layers and servants
belonging to the court establishment he wrote on the back
of the roll. When the paper was full, another sheet was
attached. The peshkar (head clerk) of the daroghah drew
up according to rule a present state, giving details of those
present and absent and the receipts. He then brought it
up for orders. The daroghah attached his seal to the report
and sent it on to the Bakhshi's office. In accordance there-
with an order {barat) on the Treasury was prepared for
each man. The daroghah ought to see that the horsemen
and infantry are present on the march and on guard. He
should enjoin on the guard-clerk to make an inspection
at midnight of the men posted on guard, and write down
the names of those present. According to the Mirat-i-
Ainnadt, ii, 118, the officials after the mustering and veri-
fication made out certificates {dastak) bearing the seals of
the daroghah, amin, and mushrif, which were delivered
to the mansabdar concerned.
CHAPTER VI.
THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF THE SERVICE.
Although in writing this essay I think it better to retain
the divisions of the original authorities, who distribute the
army into mansahdars (with their tahinan), ahadls, and aJtsham,
it is quite true that, as Dr. Horn says, p. 11, the Moghul
army consisted of cavalry, infantry, and artillery. But the
second and third branches held a very subordinate position
towards the first. The army was essentially an army of
horsemen. The Moo;huls from beyond the Oxus were ac-
customed to fight on horseback only; the foot-soldier they
despised ; and in artillery they never became very proficient.
Until the middle of the eighteenth century, when the French
and English had demonstrated the vast superiority of
disciplined infantry, the Indian foot-soldier was little more
than a night-watchman, and guardian over baggage, either
in camp or on the line of march. Under the Moghuls, as
Orme justly says "Hist. Frag.," 4<^o, p. 418, the strain of
all war rested upon the numbers and goodness of the horse
which were found in an army. Their preference for hand
to hand fighting and cavalry charges is well illustrated by
the remarks attributed to Prince A'zam Shah in 1707 by
Bhim Sen, Nuskhah-i-dilkusha, fol. 162«, that "to fight with
artillery was a stripling's pastime, the only true weapon
was the sword."
There was no division into regiments. Single troopers,
as we have already said, enlisted under the banner of some
man a little richer or better known than themselves. These
inferior leaders again joined greater commanders, and thus,
58 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
by successive aggregations of groups, a great noble's division
was gathered together. But from the highest to the lowest
rank, the officer or soldier looked first to his immediate
leader and followed his fortunes, studying his interests
rather than those of the army as a whole. ^ It was not till
quite the end of the period that, under the influence of
European example, and also partly in imitation of the Persian
invaders, it became usual for the great nobles to raise and
equip at their own expense whole regiments without the
intervention of petty chiefs. In Audh, Safdar Jang and
Shuja'-ud-Daulah had such regiments, as, for instance, the
Q.izzilbash, the Sher-bachak, and others, which were all
clad alike, and apparently were mounted and equipped by
the Nawab himself.
When Akbar first introduced the mansab system, which
ranked his officers according to the number of men supposed
to be under the command of each, these figures had possibly
some connection with the number of men present under those
officers' orders, and actually serving in the army (Horn, 39).
But it is tolerably certain that this connection between the
two things did not endure very long: it was, 1 should say,
quite at an end by the reign of Shahjahan (1627 — 58).
Indeed, if the totals of all the personal {zat) mansabs in
existence at one time were added together, we should arrive
at so huge an army that it would have been impossible for
the country, however heavily taxed, to meet such an expense.
If paid in cash, the army would have absorbed all the
revenue; if paid by assignments, all the land revenue
would have gone direct into the hands of the soldiery,
leaving next to nothing to maintain the Court or meet the
expenses of the other branches of the government. The
inference I wish to draw is, that from the grant of rank
it does not follow that the soldiers implied by such rank
were really added to the army. The system required that
a man's rank should be stated in terms of so many soldiers;
* For remarks to the same general effect, see W. Erskine, "History," ii, 540.
THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF THE SERVICE. 59
but there is abundant testimony in the later historians that
mansab and the number of men in the ranks of the army
had ceased to have any close correspondence.
Thus it seems to me a hopeless task to attempt, as
Dr. Horn does, p. 39, following Blochmann {Ajn, i, 244 — 7),
to build up the total strength of the army from the figures
giving the personal {zat) rank of the officers {mansabdars).
The difficulty would still exist, even if we had sufficiently
reliable accounts of the number of such officers on the
list at any one time. For we must remember that the
number of men kept up by any officer was incessantly
varying. On a campaign, or on active employment in one
of the provinces, either as its governor or in a subordinate
position, an officer kept up a large force, generally as many
as, if not more than, he could find pay for. On the other
hand, while attached to the Court at Dihli, his chief or
only duty might be to attend the emperor's public audience
twice a day (a duty which was very sharply enforced), and
take his turn in mounting guard at the palace. For duties
of this sort a much smaller number of men would suffice.
If we reckoned the number of men in the suwar rank,
for whom allowances at so much per man were given by
the State to the mansabdar, we might obtain a safer estimate
of the probable strength of the army. But for this also
materials fail, and in spite of musterings and brandings,
we may safely assume that very few mansabdars kept up
at full strength even the quota of horsemen {tabinmi) for
which they received separate pay. In these matters the
difference between one noble and another was very great.
While one man maintained his troops at their full number,
all efficiently mounted and equipped, another would evade
the duty altogether. As, for instance, one writer, Khushhal
Chand, in his Nadir-uz-zaynam (B.M. Or. 1844, fol. ]40«)
says : Lutfullah Khan Sadiq, although he held the rank of
7,000, "never entertained even seven asses, much less horses
or riders on horses." In Muhammad Shah's reign he lived
60 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
quietly at home at PanTpat, 30 or 40 miles from Dilili,
his attention engrossed by his efforts to get hold of all
the land for many miles round that town, and passing his
days, in spite of his great nominal rank, like a mere villager.
It seems to me equally hopeless to attempt a reconstruc-
tion of the force actually present at any particular battle
by adding together the numerical rank held by the com-
manders who were at that battle. This Dr. Horn has tried
to do on p. 67, without feeling satisfied with the results.
But, as far as I can see, there was little, if any, connection
between the two matters. The truth is that, like all things
in Oriental countries, there existed no rules which were
not broken in practice. A man of high rank would, no
doubt, be selected for the command of a division. But it
was quite an accident whether that division had more or
fewer men in it than the number in his nominal rank.
The strength of a division depended upon the total number
of men available, and the extent of the contingents brought
into the field by such subordinate leaders as might be put
under the orders of its commander. It was altogether a
matter of accident whether the number of men present
corresponded or not to the rank of the commanders.
Bernier, 43, has an excellent remark on the vague way
that numbers were dealt with by historians: "Camp-
followers and bazar-dealers .... I suspect, are often
included in the number of combatants." Again, on p. 380,
he seems to come to the conclusion that it would be a
fair estimate to take the fighting men at about one-third
of the total numbers in a Moghul camp. I have seen some-
where (I have lost the reference, but J think it was in
Khafi Khan) an admission that the gross number of a
so-called "fauj" (army) was always reckoned as including
no more than one-third or one-fourth that number of
fighting men. I give below, for what it is worth, a
tabular summary of Dr. Horn's figures (pp. 39—45) —
THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF THE SERVICE.
61
ESTIMATED NUMBERS OF MOGHUL ARMY.
Pkriod.
Cavaluy.
Match LOCKMEN
AND Infantry.
Artillery-
men.
Authority.
Akbar
Do.
Shahjahan
Aurangzeb
Do.
Mhd. Shah
12,000
384,758
200,000
240,000
300,000
200,000
12,000
3,877,557
40,000
15,000
600,000
800,000
1000
Blochmann, i,246.
Am-i-AkbarT. '
j Badshahnamah, ii,
1 715; Am,i,24>4>.
Bernier.
Catrou.
T an kh-i- Hindi of
Rustam '^Ali.
NUMBERS PRESENT ON PARTICULAR OCCASIONS.
Number
OF Impe
RIALISTS.
Number of Enemy.
Name of
Battle
>-,
B
>^
^
Authority.
>-s
c?
>~i
i-*
OR
P"*.
CS
Commander.
>
c
^
p
'-J3
CD
>
c3
^
^
"TTi
t
o
1— 1
<
w
o
I— 1
<
w
Sarkhej
10,000
_
100
40,000
100,000
Akhaniamah^
Under Khan
iii, 424.
'Azim
10,000
—
—
—
30,000
—
—
—
Id. iii, 593
Under Khan
Khanan . . .
1200
—
—
—
5000
—
—
—
Id. iii, 608
Sadiq Khan . .
3000
—
—
—
8000
—
—
80
Id. iii, 714
Qandahar
(1061 H.)...
50,000
10,000
—
10
—
—
—
—
Elliot, vii, 99
Jahanglr
(1016 H.)...
12,500
2000
—
60
—
—
—
—
Id. vi, 318.
Ahmad Abdali
(1174 11.)...
60,000
20,000
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
^ These include all the militia levies and zamindar's retainers throiighont
the provinces, besides the army proper.
CHAPTER VII.
EaUIPMENT. (a) defensive ARMOUR.
The generic name for arms and armour was silali, plural
adah (Steingass, 693). Weapons and armour of all kinds
were much prized in India, much taste and ingenuity being
expended on their adornment. Every great man possessed
a choice collection. The following extract describes that of
the Nawab Wazir at Lakhnau, in 1785: — "But beyond
everything curious and excellent in the Nawab's possession
are his arms and armour. The former consist of matchlocks,
fuzees, rifles, fowling-pieces, sabres, pistols, scymitars, spears,
syefs (long straight swords), daggers, poniards, battle-axes,
and clubs, most of them fabricated in Indostan, of the purest
steel, damasked or highly polished, and ornamented in relief
or intaglio with a variety of figures or foliage of the most
delicate pattern. Many of the figures are wrought in gold
and silver, or in marquetry, with small gems. The hilts of
the swords, etc., are agate, chrysolite, lapus-lazuli, chal-
cedony, blood-stone, and enamel, or steel inlaid with gold,
called tynashee ' or koft work. The armour is of two kinds,
either of helmets and plates of steel to secure the head,
back, breast, and arms, or of steel network, put on like a
shirt, to which is attached a netted hood of the same metal
to protect the head, neck, and face. Under the network
are worn linen garments quilted thick enough to resist
a sword. On the crown of the helmet are stars or other
small device, with a sheath to receive a plume of feathers.
The steel plates are handsomely decorated with gold wreaths
and borders, and the network fancifully braided." ("Asiatic
Miscellany," i, 393. Calcutta, 1795. 4to.)
' Probably for tah-nishani, inlaid with gold or studded with jems.
Koft (beating) is gold or silver wire beaten into iron or steel.
EQUIPMENT. — (a) DEFENSIVE ARMOUR.
63
The fines for not producing at inspection a man's own
armour and that of his elephant {jpahhaf) were as follows
(B.M. 6,599, fol. 162«): —
Amount op Fine for non-Production
of
Rank of
Officer.
Headpiece
{Kliud).
Body Armour
{Baktar).
Elephant
Armour
Greaves
{Ranak).
Harhai(?). '
400
350
300
250
200
Rs. a. p.
2 0 0
2 0 0
1 12 0
1 8 0
1 0 0
Rs. a. p.
5 0 0
4 0 0
4 0 0
3 8 0
3 0 0
Rs. a. p
4 0 0
3 12 0
3 8 0
3 4 0
3 0 0
Rs. a. p.
2 0 0
1 12 0
18 0
1 4 0
LOO
Rs. a. p.
10 0
0 15 0
0 14 0
0 13 0
0 12 0
Armour was worn by all horsemen who could afford it;
nay, officers of a certain rank were required to produce
it at the time of inspection, subject to a fine if it were not
forthcoming. Its use was never discontinued; it was even
worn by men of European descent when they entered the
native service. For instance, James Skinner, writing of the
year 1797, says, "as I was exercising my horse in full
armour' (Eraser, "Memoirs," i, 125); and again, "I was
only saved by my armour" {id. 127). George Thomas, the
Irish adventurer, also wore armour {id. 229). Nor is the
use of armour entirely discontinued even to this day, as those
can testify who saw the troops of the Bundelkhand States
paraded before the then Prince of Wales at iVgrah in January,
1876.
The armour was worn as follows (W. Egerton, 112, note
to W. 440) : — Depending from the cuirass was generally
a skirt, which was at times of velvet embroidered with
gold. Underneath the body armour was worn a qabchah, ^
or jacket quilted and slightly ornamented. Silken trousers
* Read sari-asp in B.M. 1641, fol. 37a, but to neither reading can I
assign a meaning.
2 Apparently the diminutive of qaha, a close long gown or shirt
(Stein gass, 950).
64 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
and a pair of kashmlr shawls round the waist completed
the costume of a nobleman of high rank. As to these
quilted coats, we are told elsewhere {Seir, i, 624, note)
that "common soldiers wore an ample upper garment,
quilted thick with cotton, coming down as far as the
knee. These coats would deaden the stroke of a sabre,
stop the point of an arrow, and above all kept the body
cool by intercepting the rays of the sun." Or as a still
later writer tells us (Fitzclarence, "Journal," 143) ^ : — "The
irregular cavalry throughout India are mostly dressed in
quilted cotton jackets ; though the best of these habiliments
are not, as 1 supposed, stuffed with cotton, but are a number
of cotton cloths quilted together. This serves as a defensive
armour, and when their heads are swathed round, and under
the chin, with linen to the thickness of several folds, it
is almost hopeless with the sword to make an impression
upon them. They also at times stuff their jackets with the
refuse silk of the cocoons, which they say will even turn
a ball." This habit of swathing the body in protective
armour till little beyond a man's eyes could be seen, gives
the point to the scoffing remark of Daud Khan, PannI, at
the battle against Husain "All Khan, fought on the S^ii
Sha'ban, 1127 n. (6th Sept., 1715), that his assailant, one
Mir Mushrif, "came out to meet him like a bride or
a woman, with his face hidden" (Ghulam 'All Khan,
Muqaddamah-i-Shah "Alam-namah, fol. 22/^).
I now proceed to describe each part of the armour,
seriatim^ beginning with the helmet.
Khud, Dabalghah, or Top. — This was a steel headpiece
with a vizor or nose-guard. There are several specimens
in the Indian Museum; and in W. Egerton, "Handbook,"
' Lieut. -Col. Fitzclarence was created Earl of Munster in 4831, and he
is the Lord Munster referred to by Dr. Horn on p, 8 as the author of
a series of questions on Mahomedan military usages. His "Journal," the
work of a close observer and graphic writer, proves that he was quite
competent to write for himself, and not merely "schreiben zu lassen,"
the history that he had planned.
EQUIPMENT. — (a) DEFENSIVE ARMOUR. 65
several of these are figured, Nos 703 and 704 on plate
xiii, N^ 703 on p. 134, and another, N^ 591, on p. 125.
Khud is the more usual name, but dabnlghah is the word
used in the Jjn (Blochmann, 1, iii, N^ 52, and plate xiii,
N^. 43). The latter is Chaghatae for a helmet; and Pa vet
de Courteille gives four forms, ^LiJ^jb, Ui^jb, »,k\y^c> (p. 317),
and i^i^i.o (p. 322). I have only met with it once in an
eighteenth-century writer {Ahwcll-id-Kkawaqin, c. 1147 h.,
fol. 161^), and then under the form of ^^iL^^^, dobalghah.
Top, for a helmet, appears several times in Egerton ; for
instance, on p. 119 and p. 125. This is apparently an
Indian word (Shakes., 73), sr'y, which must be distinguished
from the word top, y^j, a cannon, to which a Turkish
origin is assigned. A helmet seems to have been called a
top by the Mahrattas and in Maisur; but the word is not
used by writers in Northern India. If we disregard the
difference between o and o, then we can derive /o/j, 'a
helmet,' and tojn, 'a hat,' as does the compiler of the
"Madras Manual of Administration," iii, 915, from the
ordinary Hindi word topna, 'to cover up.' But I hardly
think this is legitimate.
Khoglil. — The next name to the dahalghah on the Ajn
list, the kliogln, N°. 53, must be something worn on the
head; but there is no figure of it, and I fail to identify
the word in that form. From the spelling it is evidently
of Hindi origin; and a note in the Persian text \\dL^ ghokhl
as an alternative reading. Has it anything to do with
ghoghl, a pocket, a pouch, a wallet (Shakespear, 1756), or
ghunglil, cloths folded and put on the head as a defence
against the rain (Shakes., 1758)? The latter may point to
a solution: the khoghi, or, better, the ghUghl, may have
been folds of cloth adjusted on the head to protect it from
a sword blow.
Migjifar is defined (Steingass, 1281) as mail, or a net-
work of steel worn under the cap or hat, or worn in battle
as a protection for the face, also a helmet. It is evidently
66 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
the long piece of mail hanging down from the helmet over
the neck and back, as shown in N'^. 45, plate xii, of the
Aj7i, vol. i, and called there and on p. Ill, N". 54, the
zHihkuldh (cap of mail). It was through the mighfar that,
according to Ghulam ^\lT Khan's history, the arrow passed
which wounded 'Abdullah Khan, Qutb-ul-Mulk, just before
he was taken a prisoner at the battle of Hasanpur (IS^-h
Nov., 1720), and the following verse brings in the word,
as also the josha7i : —
Ghcih yare Imnnd mighfar o josJian-am,
Chun Ban na hard akhtar roshaii-am.
"What aid to me is vizor and coat of mail,
"When God has not made my star to shine." ^
Baktar or Bagtar. — This is the name for body armour
in general, whether it were of the cuirass {chahar-ajnah)
or chain-mail {zirih) description. Steingass, 195, defines it
as a cuirass, a coat of mail. See also the Dastur-id-Insha,
228. The bagtar is W. 58 in the Ajn list (i, 112), and
is shown as N^. 47 on plate xii. From the figure it may
be inferred that, in a more specific sense, baktar was the
name for fish-scale armour. Bargustuioan, as Mr. H. Beveridge
has pointed out to me, is a general name for armour used
in the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, text 119 (Raverty, 466 and note);
but that work belongs to a period long before the accession
of the Moghuls. Steingass, 178, restricts bargustuwan to
horse armour worn in battle: the Ahwal-ul-Khaicagm, fol.
2183, applies it to the armour worn by elephants, and
I have found it in no other late Avriter.
Chahar-ajnah. — This is literally 'four mirrors': it
' Muqaddamah-i-Shdh '^Alam-namah by Ghulam "^Ali Khan, B.M. Add.
24,028, fol. 40a. The last line probably contains an allusion to Roshan
Akhtar, the original name of Muhammad Shah, to whom ""Abdullah Khan
succumbed.
EQUIPMENT. (a) DEFENSIVE ARMOUR. 67
consisted of four pieces, a breast plate and a back plate,
with two smaller pieces for the sides. All four were
connected together with leather straps. Steingass, 403, has
'a kind of armour.' It is N^ 50 in the Ajn, i, 112, and
figure N'\ 49 on plate xiii. It is also shown in Egerton,
plate ix, and again on p. 144. The specimens in the
Indian Museum are N^ 364 (p. 103), 450, 452 (p. 112),
569, 570 (p. 119), 587 (p. 124), 707 (p. 135), 764 (p. 144)!
Zirih. — This was a coat of mail with mail sleeves,
composed of steel links {Dastur-ul-Inshci, 228). The coat
reached to the knees (W. Egerton, 125, note to N^ 591).
It is No. 57 in the Ajn, i, 112, and N^. 46 on plate xiii
of that volume. There are six examples in the Indian
Museum— W.E. 361, 362 (p. 103), 453 (p. 112), 591,
591 T (p. 125), 706 (p. 135). Apparently, judging from
the plate in the Ajn, the bahtar (fish scales) or the chahar
ajnah (cuirass) was worn over the zirili. W. H. Tone,
"Maratta People," 61, note, gives a word beiUa as the
Mahratta name for the chain-mail shirt that they wore.
I cannot identify or trace this word.
Jaibah. — Blochmann, Aj?i, i. 111, N^ 56, and his
note 4, says it was a general name for armour. He gives
no figure of it. Erskine, ''History," ii, 187, has jaba.
Steingass, 356, says it is from the Arabic jubbat, and
spells it juba/i, a coat of mail, a cuirass, any kind of iron
armour. The word is used in the ^Alamgirnamah, 245, I. 7 :
— ''Tan ba zeb-i-jabah ojoshan \mirasta1i' — "body adorned
with the decoration of jabali and joshan!' It is also used
in Ahwal-ul-Khcmaqm {c. 1147 h.), fol. 164^^, in the form
jaibah. Some variety of the jaibah is spoken of in the
Akbarnamah, Daftar II, p. 249, line 4 (Lucknow edition),
where we are told that a Rajput of distinction in the
garrison of Chitor wore a j aibah-i-hazar-mlkhl. Apparently
it was covered with small studs or knobs {mihh).
Other items of body armour {Dastur-ul-lnsha, 228) were
the joshan^ the jihlam, the angarkhah^ the daghlah. In
68 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
other authorities we also meet with the jamah-i-fataJn, the
chihilqadj sadiql, the Jcothl^ the hlianjU, and the salhqaha.
Of the last, the salhqaha, Aj7i, N^. 66, we have no figure,
and I am unable to identify it, as I have never seen the
word elsewhere. Other words which have defied identifi-
cation are harhai, as I read it (B.M. 6599, foL 162«;
B.M. 1641, fol. 37«), and three articles in the Dastur-ul-
Insha, p. 228, which I read suhl, malk, and masari. \Ve have
also the kamal, the ghughwah, the kantha-sohka. Finally,
there were the dast-wanah or arm-pieces, the ranah or
greaves, and the mozah-i-alianl, a smaller pattern of leg-piece.
Joshan. — This is N^. 59 of the Iin, list, p. 112,
and is figured as N^ 48 on plate xiii. It appears to be b
steel breastplate extending to the region of the stomach
and bowels. Blochmann, p. xi, calls it an armour for
chest and body; Steingass translates more vaguely 'a coat
of mail.'
Jililam. — According to the dictionary (Shakes., 825), this
is the Hindi for armour, coat of mail, vizor of helmet;
but I do not know what was its special nature or form.
Steingass, 405, has chahlam, a sort of armour; also chihal-
tah, a coat of mail. Kam Raj, 585, has a passage —
"Mir Mushrif came quickly and lifted his jihlam from his
face." This makes the word equivalent to vizor. It is not
in the Ajn.
Angarkhah. — Hindi for a coat, possibly identical with
that sometimes called an alkhaliq (a tight-fitting coat).
Probably this coat was wadded so as to turn a sword-cut.
It is N". 63 of the Ajn, i, 112, and figure N". 52 of plate
xiv, where we see it a long, loose, wide coat worn over
the armour.
DagJdah or Dagla, — The second of these is the Hindi
form of the word. It was a coat of quilted cloth.
Jdmah-i'fataM. — This word is employed in the Akbar-
namah (Lucknow edition), ii, 89, line 3. According to the
editor's note it is "a robe which on the day of battle is
EQUIPMJ^NT. — (a) defensive ARMOUR, 69
put on beneath the coat of mail, and on it extracts from
the Qurjin, such as Jnna fotahna, are inscribed." Steingass,
351, defines it as "a fine silken robe." The coats worn
by the Khallfah's men in the Sudan, and now at the
United Service Institution, must be specimens, as they
have words embroidered or sewn on to them.
Chihilqad. — This is N". 67 of the Ajn, 112, and is shown
as figure N^ 54 on plate xiv. Muliammed Qasim, Alrwcd-
td-Khaioagm, 161/5, spells it J^iiii:^^, c/^«/^«/. It was a doublet
worn over the armour, and possibly identical with the chilta or
c^2^(7/-/a^-,literally forty-folds(Shakespear, 884; Steingass,398).
Sadiql. — Ajn, 112, N". 62, and N^ 51 on plate xiv, a
coat of mail something like the joshan in shape, but with
epaulettes.
Kotk. — We have this in the Ajn, 112, No. 61, and it
appears on plate xiv, N^ 50, as a long coat of mail worn
under the breastplate and opening down the front.
BhanjU. — This is W. 64 of the Ajn list, i, 112, but I
have never seen the word anywhere else ; it must be a Hindi
word, but it is not in Shakespear's Dictionary. The only
figure is the one reproduced from Langles by Egerton, N". 9
on plate i, opposite p. 23. This might be almost anything;
the nearest resemblance I can suggest is that of a sleeveless
jacket.
Kamal. — This word is literally 'a blanket,' and from
it the corps known as the kamal-posh (blanket-wearers)
derived its name. The word seems to have had the secondary
meaning of a cuirass or wadded coat, possibly made of
blanketing on the outside. There were wadded coats of
quilted cotton, as well as of wool, which would stand the
stroke of a sabre. Some stuffed with silk refuse were con-
sidered capable of withstanding a bullet {Seir, i, 143,
note 105). This sort of protection was very common.
"Almost every soldier in the service of a native power has
his head secured by many folds of cotton cloth, which not
only pass round but likewise over it and under the chin;
70 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
and a protection for the back of the neck is provided of
similar materials. The jacket is composed of cotton thickly
quilted between cloths, and so substantial as almost to
retain the shape of the body like stiff armour. To penetrate
this covering with the edge of the sword was to be done
only by the practice of cutting." (Valentine Blacker,
"War," 302).
Ghugfiwah, — This must, from its position in the A'Jn list,
N^ 55, be some kind of armour, but I cannot identify the
word, which is of Hindi form. In plate xiii, N^ 44, the
thing is shown as a long coat and cowl of mail, all in
one piece. In Egerton's plate (N^. i, figure 4) it is some-
thing quite different, of a shape which it is difficult to
describe, and for which it is still more difficult to suggest
a use. The loord seems to have some affinity to khoglii or
g hug In (see a7ite). It represents the Eastern Hindi form of
ghogha, following the usual rule of vowel modification,
thus: H. H., ghora-^ E. H., ghurwa^ 'a horse.' There being
also a slight indication of the diminutive in this form,
ghugliwa would be a small ghogha. There is a chain
epaulette shown in one of the plates in Rockstuhl and
Gille, which suggests the shape of the ghughwa figured by
Egerton, and possibly that was its purpose.
Kantha-sobha. — This is No. 70 in the list in the Ajn, 112,
and, as we can see from figure 7 on plate i of W. Egerton's
catalogue, it was a neck-piece or gorget. N^. 69 {rmiak)
and N^ 71 {mozah-i-ahanl) are both worn by the man and
not the horse; then why does Blochmann, in his note,
suggest that N^ 70 {kantha-sobha) was attached to the
horses neck? The derivation is from kant/td (Shakes.,
1616) a necklace, and sobhd, id. 1338, ornament, dress,
decoration.
Dastivdnah. — This was a gauntlet, or mailed glove, with
steel arm-piece. It is N^ 68 of the Ajn, 112, and is
shown as N*^. 55 on plate xiv. The specimens in the
Indian Museum are Nos. 452, 453, 454, 455 (Egerton,
EQUIPMENT. — (a) DEFENSIVE ARMOUR. 71
p. 112), 568, 570 [id, 119), 587, 590 {id. 124), 745 {id.
139). Three of these are shown, two on plate xii, opposite
p. 122, and one on plate xiv, opposite p. 136.
Banah. — In the Ajn list, 1 12, N^ 69, appears the word
rak or rag, which is quite unmeaning. When we turn
to W. 56 on Blochmann's plate xiv, we see that the thing
itself is an iron leg-piece or greave. Now, wherever there
are lists of armour in the MS. Dastur-ul-Aml, I find a
word iJ^i'^, which is invariably shown with a fourth letter
of some sort; it might be read ratak, mlak, ranak, but
never rak. As ran means in Persian the 'thigh,' I propose
to substitute for Blochmann's rak the reading ranak, the
diminutive ending being used to denote relation or con-
nection, a formation like dastak (little hand), a short written
order, fit to be (as it were) carried in the hand. The word
ranak is not in Steingass.
Moznh-i-ahanl. — This "iron-stocking" is N^ 71 on page
112 of the Aj7i, and N^ 56 on plate xiv. It is a smaller
form of the ranak.
Patkah. — I find in Ghulam ^AlT Khan, Muqaddamah,
fol. 38/^, an epithet q'^%j ^^Hy pcdkak-poshan, applied to
both Sayyads and horse-breakers {chabuk-smoaran). It appears
to refer to some part of military equipment, but what it
is I do not know. It is evidently used in a depreciatory
sense.
Having enumerated the man's defensive armour, we go
on to that of the horse. The elephant armour 1 will leave
till we come to the special heading devoted to those animals.
Kajvm. — This is in Ajn, 112, N". 72 {kajem), and is
shown as figure N^. 57 on plate xiv. Erskine. "History,"
ii, 187, has the form kiclmn. It was a piece of armour for
the hind-quarters of a horse, and was put on over a quilted
cloth called artak-i-kajwi {Ajn, 112, N*^. 73).
The other pieces of armour for the horse were the frontlet
{qashqah: Jjn, 112, N^ 74, and plate xiv, N«. 60) and
the neck-piece {gardani: Jjn, 112, N^ 75). Blochmann's
72 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
description of the latter (p. 112, note 3) does not seem
very appropriate, as he makes it a thing which hangs down
in front of the horse's chest. Gardani, however, is the name
still applied to the head and neck-piece, the hood, of a set
of horse-clothing. It is the neck-shaped piece in figure
N*^. 58 of Blochmann's plate xiv, and is separately shown
in Eger ton's plate i, figure N^ 8. Qashqah is the word
used in Persian for the Hindu sect-mark or tilak, applied
on the centre of the forehead. R. B. Shaw, J. A. S. Bengal
for 1S78, p. 144, gives qashqah as the Eastern Turk! for an
animal's forehead.
Horse trappings were often most richly adorned with
silver or gold, embroidery or jewels. When so enriched
they were styled saz-i-tilae, or saz-i-marasm . The names
of the various articles are as follows (W. Egerton, 155):
paltah (headstall) and Hna7i (reins), zerha^id (martingale),
dumchl (crupper), hhogir (saddle), ustak (shabracque), hala-
ta72g (surcingle), rikab (stirrups), shikarband (ornamental
tassels at corners of saddle). The bow or pommel of a saddle
was either qarhv.s (Steingass, 963) or qash (id. 947). The
former word is used by Shekh Ghulam Hasan, (Samln)
BilgramT, in his Tazkirah written in 1198 h. (1783); the
second, by Rustam ^k\\, Bijnori, in his Urdu ''History of
the Rohelas," written about 1803, fol. 28«. Nizam-ud-
din ("Ishrat, Siyalkuti) in his JSadir-namah, fol. 50a, speaks
of yaltang-posh as some sort of horse equipment. I have
not been able to find out what this was. The list of stable
requisites can be seen in Jjn, i, 136.
CHAPTER VIII.
EQUIPMENT. — (b) OFFENSIVE ARMS; I, "SHORT" ARMS.
The cavalry seem to have carried a great variety of arms.
The most relied on were those they styled the kotah-yaraq
or short arms, that is, those used at close quarters, corres-
ponding to the European "arme blanche." Probably the
kotah silah of Budaoni, i, 460, (Ranking, 593) has the
same meaning, and not as Ranking suggests that of a defi-
ciency or shortness of weapons. These short arms may be
ranged into five classes ([) Swords and shields, (TI) Maces,
(III) Battle Axes, (IV) Spears, (V) Daggers. Weapons for
more distant attack were (A) the bow {Kaman) and arrow
{Tlr) (B) the Matchlock {handuq or tufang) and (C) the
Pistol. Rockets were also used, but they were in charge
of the artillery {topkhanah) and will come under that head.
Out of the wealth of weapons, a description of which
follows, it is not to be supposed that the whole were
carried by any man at one time; but a great number
were so carried, and, in a large army, all of them were to
be found in use by some one or other. The great number
of weapons that a man carried is graphically depicted by
Fitzclarence, in the case of a petty officer of the Nizam's
service, who commanded his escort {Journal, J 34). "Two
very handsome horses with superb caparisons belong to
this jamadar, who is himself dressed in a vest of green
English broad cloth ^ laced with gold, and very rich em-
broidered belts. A shield of buffalo hide with gilt bosses
^ By Indian writers of the IS^-^ century broad cloth of all colours is
called sqarlat, Jd^^^, i. e. scarlet.
74 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
is hung over his back. His arms are two swords and a
dagger, a brace of English pistols, and he has his match-
lock carried before him by a servant." The following
satirical description from Moor's Narrative, 98, also shows
what a number of different weapons would sometimes be
carried. ''Many of the sardars" (i. e. of the Nizam's army
in 1791) "were in armour, and none of them deficient in
weapons of war, both offensive and defensive. Two swords,
a brace to half a dozen pistols, a spear, a crees, and matchlock-
carbine constituted the moving arsenal of most of them.
One man was mounted upon a tall, thin, skeleton of a
horse, from whose shoulders and flanks depended, as a
barricading, twenty or thirty weather-beaten cows' tails:
two huge pistols appeared in his capacious holsters, while
one of still larger dimensions, placed horizontally upon
the horse's neck and pointed towards his ears, which were
uncommonly long, dreadfully menaced the assailants in
front. His flanks and rear were provided with a similar
establishment of artillery of diflPerent sizes and calibres; one
piece was suspended on each side of the crupper of the
saddle, and a third centrically situated and levelled point
blank at the poor animal's tail The rest of his
armament consisted of a couple of sabres, a spear, a match-
lock and shield He wore besides a rusty coat of
mail from the lower part of which a large red quilted
jacket made its appearance." The variety of weapons is
again dwelt on with great effect in Wilks, iii, 135, "no
national or private collection of ancient armour contains a
weapon or article of equipment which might not be traced
in this motley crowd" i.e. Nizam ^Ali Khan's cavalry in 1791.
1. Swords.
As to the mode of carrying the sword, Mtzclarence,e7o?/r;2<3'/,
69, describing some irregular horse in the Company's
service (1817), says "they have a sort of foppery with
EQUIPMENT. — (b) OFFENSIVE ARMS; I, "SHORT" ARMS. 75
respect to their sword-belts, which are in general very
broad and handsomely embroidered; and, though on horse-
back, they wear them over the shoulder." But the sword
was not always carried in a belt hung from the shoulder.
On plate 8 in B.M. Or. 375 (Rieu, 785), A'zam Shah carries
his sword by three straps hanging from a waist-belt. The
generic name of a sword was tegh (Arabic), shamsher
(Persian) or tahcar (Hindi). The Arabic word saif was also
used occasionally. One kind of shortsword was called the
mmchah'Shamsher (Steingass 1445), It was the weapon
carried by Ibrahim Quli Khan in 1187 h. (1725), when
he made his attack on Hamid Khan at the governor's
palace in Ahmadabad (Gujarat), Mirat-i-JI/madl, fol. ll^a.
It is also to be found in the Akharnamah, Lucknow edition,
ii, 225, second line. I have not seen in Indian works the
word palaraJc used for a sword in Mujiail-ut-tanhh had
Nadinyah, p. 110, line 3.
Names of the various parts are (B.M. N^ 6599 fol. 84a),
teghah, blade, nabali, furrows on blade, qahzah, hilt, ^ae-
narelai^), sarnal or muhml and tahndl, metal mountings
of scabbard, kamrsal (the belt?) ^ handtari^). The quality
or temper of a blade was its ah (water) or jauhar (lustre).
One name of the belt was hamajil (Steingass, 430, plural
oi himalat); and Khair-ud-din, ^Ihratnamah, i, 91, uses
the word thus, in repeating the speech of one Daler Khan
and another man to Shah 'Alam (1173 h.), ''fidwl az
loaqte kih sipar o shamsher ra hamajil kardah-em, gahe ha
dushman-i-khud pusht na namudaE' -. "Since we hung from
our shoulders sword and shield never have we shown an
enemy our back." Another word that I have seen used
for a sword-belt is kamr-i-khanjar, see Steingass 1049;
also Budaoni, text, 441, Ranking 566.
Shamsher. This word when used with a more specific
1 This is described in Qanoonc Islam, app. XXYIII, as a belt worn by
women, consisting of square metal tablets hinged together. I find it named
in native authors as part of men's equipment.
76 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
meaning, was applied to the curved weapon familiar to us
as the oriental sword, or as it is frequently called, the
scimitar. It is purely a cutting weapon, as its shape and
the small size of the grip sufficiently demonstrate.
Bhitp, There was a straight sword, adopted from the
Dakhin, of which the name was dhUp', it had a broad
blade, four feet long, and a cross hilt. It was considered
an emblem of sovreignty and high dignity, and was therefore
displayed on state occasions, being carried in a gorgeous velvet
covering by a man who held it upright before his master.
It also lay on the great man's pillow when he was seated
in darbar, engaged in the transaction of public business.
This kind of sword was conferred as a distinction upon
successful soldiers, great nobles, or court favourites, {^Seir,
i, 549, note 54; i, 551, note 55; ii, 95, note 80; iii, 172,
note 39). The dhup was also spoken of as ^asa-shams/ier,
i.e. stafF-sword {Danislmand Khan, 22^^ Rajab, 1120 h.).
Instances of its being conferred are found in the same
historian (221^^ Ramazan, 1119 h., twice, and 22^1^ Rajab
1120 h., once). Mr. Egerton, p. 117, N". 527, note, quotes
from the Ajn-i-Akhan, ^'Dhoup, straight blade, used by
most of the Deccanees." I am unable to verify the reference;
I cannot find the passage in Vol. I, (translation), and the
word is not in Mr. Blochmann's index.
_Khanda. This weapon is N^ 2 of the list on p. 112,
AJn, Vol. I; and from figure 2 on plate xii it would
seem to be idential with the dhilp.
Siro/n, The Majasir-ul-Umara, iii, 152, tells us that these
blades obtained their good repute from the work done with
them in 1024 h. (1615), during a fight at Ajmer between
Rajah Suraj Singh, Rathor, and his brother, Kishn Singh.
'' Whoever was struck on the head by these Indian blades
was cleft to the waist, or if the cut were on the body, he
was divided into two parts." Egerton, 105, says this sword
had "a slightly curved blade, shaped like that of Damascus."
There is no specimen in the India Museum. Hendley,
EQUIPMENT. — (b) OFFENSIVE ARMS; I, "SHORT" ARMS. 77
"Memorials of the Jeypore Exhibition," 1883, Vol. TI, plate
xxix, N^ 4, has a sword from the Alwar armoury, which
he calls a Shikargah or Sirohl gnj bail{?). The blade
appears slightly lighter and narrower than that of the ordinary
talwar. Evidently the name is obtained from the place of
manufacture, Sirohl in Rajputanah, of which "the sword
blades are celebrated for their excellence now as formerly,"
Thornton, 874. The town is situated in Lat. 24° 59', Long.
72° 56', 360 miles S. W. of Agrah.
Patta. This is a narrow-bladed, straight rapier, and is
to be seen now chiefly when twirled about vigorously by
the performers in a Muharrara procession. It has a gauntlet
hilt. The specimens in Egerton are N*\ 402, 403, 404
(p. 110), 515 (p. 117) 643 (p. 131). There are figures of
N^ 403 and 404 on p. 104 of his catalogue.
Gu^il. In the Ajn, i, 110, this is N". 3, and was a
straight sword having a walking stick as its sheath, the
name being from H. gupt, concealed. See also figure 3 on
plate xii of the same volume. Egerton's entries are N^. 516,
517, 518, 519 (p. 117), 641, 642 (p. 131). The head or
handle in Blochmann's figure shows that the sword-stick
and the fakir's crutch were closely allied in appearance,
and might at times be united. The crutch is depicted in
Egerton, p. 47, and again on plate xiii (opposite p. 126)
N". 639 (p. 131), which is however only of dagger length.
One of these crutches played a conspicuous part in the
battle of Jajau in June 1707, A'zam Shah, one of the
contenders for the throne, whirling his crutch frantically,
as he stood up on his elephant to urge on his troops.
Jonathan Scott, 11, part IV, 34, note 4, calls it "a short
crooked staff", about three feet in length, not unlike a
crozier, used by fakeers to lean on when they sit, and
often by persons of rank as an emblem of humility."
Shields. Along with the sword naturally comes the shield,
the two being almost as closely connected as the arrow
and the bow. A shield (A. sipar, H. dhal) was inseparable
78 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
from the sword as part of the swordsman's equipment. Tt
was carried on the left arm, or when out of use, slung
over the shoulder. The shield appears at Nos 47 and
48 in the Ajn, i, HI, and is shown on plate xiii as
Nos 40 and 41. They were of steel or hide, generally from
17 to 24 inches in diameter. If of steel, they were often
highly ornamented with patterns in gold damascening;
if of hide, they had on them silver or gold bosses, cres-
cents, or stars. Egerton in a note to N^. 695 (p. 133)
gives a description of two magnificent steel shields which
once belonged to the emperor Bahadur Shah (1707 — 1712).
The kinds of hide used were those of the Sambhar deer,
the buffalo, the nilgau, the elephant, and the rhinoceros,
the last being the most highly prized. Brahmans who
objected to leather had shields made of forty or fifty folds
of silk painted red and ornamented (Egerton, 111, note
to N^ 484). More about shields can be seen in the same-
work, pp. 47, 48, 49. The specimens in the Indian Museum
are numerous, see Egerton pp. Ill, 118, 134, 139. The
curious snake-skin {nagphanl) shield, N°. 365 (p. 103), is
not a Moghul weapon.
Chirwah and TilwaJi. — According to the Ajii, Bloch-
mann, i, 252, these were the shields carried by the Shamsher-
baz, or gladiators, groups of whom always surrounded
Akbar on the march, Akharnamah , (Lucknow edition), ii,
225, second line.
Fe7icing Shields. Following the dhal or shield the Ajn^
i. Ill, has N". 49, the kherah, ^^^^^ , but there is no figure of it.
I presume that this is the same word as ^*)^i\girwah (Shaks.,
1695) or ^^^^ ganoah (Steingass, 1081), both meaning a shield.
I can find no word khera/i in the dictionaries, but it might
be ghera, q^, a round, a circle (Shakes. 1759), with allusion
to the form of a shield. Again W. 50 Pahrl, (Jjn, i. 111)
is described by Blochmann, p. xi, as a plain cane shield.
It is shown as N^. 42 on plate xiii. This must evidently
be Pharly grff, Hindi for a small shield of cane or bambu
EQUIPMENT. — (b) OFFENSIVE ARMS; I, "SHORT" ARMS. 79
(Shakes. 580). The quaint implement, maru or sinrjauta, made
of a pair of antelope horns tipped with steel and united
at tlie butt-ends, Egerton, p. Ill and p. \^'6 , ^ho i\\Q sainti
(id. 118 and plate x), may be classed as parrying shields.
II. The Mace.
This formidable-looking weapon, the mace {gurz), usually
formed part of the panoply of a Moghul warrior, at any
rate if he were of any considerable rank. It appears as
N". 25 in the A}7i list, i, 111, and varieties of it are
entered under N^ 26 {sJiashhur) and N^. 29 {piyazi).
Blochmann gives no figure of the latter, N°. 29, and from
his remarks on p. x he seems a little doubtful as to what
it was. The giirz is shown in figure 23, plate xii, of the
A}n as a short-handled club with three large round balls
at the end. Another kind, the shashbur, or lung-tearer \
figure 21, has a single head, of a round shape; and from
Egerton, 23, plate i, N^ 35, I should suppose that it was
made up of semi-circular, cutting blades arranged round
a centre. Of the gurz, or mace proper, there are three
examples in the Indian Museum. N". 466 (p. 115 and
plate x) is 2 feet 7 inches long, with a many bladed
double-head, that is one head above the other; N^. 574
(p. 123 and plate x) has a globular head of 3 inches in
diameter and a shaft of steel gilt, length 2 feet 2 inches;
N^ 616 (p. 130) is 2 feet 2 inches long and has a steel shaft
with a six-bladed head. Other weapons of a similar kind
named by Egerton are the Dhara, the Garguz and the
Khmidh-F/iansl. The Dhara, W. 468 (p. 115), has a six
bladed head and octagonal steel shaft; it is 2 feet long,
and came from Kolhaptir. Of the garguz there are four
specimens. Nos 373 and 374 (p. 108 and plate x) have
eight-bladed heads and basket hilts, one is 2 feet 7 inches
^ Egerton, 21, says this weapon is mentioned by Babar, but I have
been unable to find the passage in P. de Courteille's translation of the
"Memoirs."
80 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
and the other 2 feet 8 inches long; N''. 467 (p. 115) is
7-bladed with basket hilt, length 2 feet 4 inches; N^ 469
(p. 115) is eight-bladed with a similar hilt, length 2 feet
10 inches. The Khundll Phansl, N^ 470 (p. 115 and plate
x), is 19 inches long, has a head of open scroll work, and
is probably one of the BairagT crutches already referred to.
Pliansi means a noose in Hindi, but 1 do not see the
appropriateness of the name here, nor do 1 know what
Khundll can mean.
The Flail (H. smit) is another weapon that may be
classed with the Mace. These are two specimens in the
Indian Museum, Egerton N^s 62, 63 (p. 78), and one is
shown as N^. 24 on plate i opposite p. 23. 1 should also
class among maces the Pusht-khar or back-scratcher, Ajn,
i. 111, W. 41, made of steel in the shape of a hand. It
is shown as N*^. 35 on plate xiii of Blochmann's volume.
The same is the case with the Khar-i-main, or fishback-
bone, of steel spikes projecting from each side of a straight
handle, Ajn, i, 111, W. 41, and N^ 37, plate xiii. The
Gujbag put among weapons in the Jjn, i, 111, N^. 46,
and N^. 39, plate xiii, is only the common elephant goad
or ankus,
111. The Battle Axe.
The battle-axe {tahar) will be found at N^ 28 of the
Ajn, i. 111 and on plate xii, figure N°. 22. This figure
shows a triangular blade with one broad cutting edge.
When the head was pointed and provided with two cutting
edges, the axe was called a Zaghnol, or crow's beak (id.
N^. 30, and plate xii, ^g. 24). A double headed axe,
with a broad blade on one side and a pointed one on the
other side of the handle, was styled a Tahar zaghnol (id.
N^ 32, and plate xii, fig. 26). An axe with a longer
handle, called Tarangalah, was also in use (id. N^. 33
and plate xii, fig. 27, see also Egerton plate i, N^. 22).
EQUIPMENT. — (b) OFFENSIVE ARMS; I, ''SHORT" ARMS. 81
Of the Tabar there are seven entries 375, 876, 377 (p. ]08),
7]], 712, 713 (p. 137) and 746 (p. 144). There is a figure
of N". 376 on plate x opposite p. 114. The shafts of these
range from 17 inches to 23 inches in length; the heads
measuring from 5 to 6 inches one way and 3 to 5 inches
the other way. Some of the heads are crescent shaped, and
one of the shafts is hollowed and contains daggers. I omit
Egerton's Parma (p. 7) and Venmuroo (N^. 89, 90) as
not being Moghul weapons. There is also a weapon styled
Basolah, N^. 31 of the Ajn list, i. 111. The name sounds
as if it were derived from the Hindi basula, a carpenter's
adze, but the figure, N^. 25, plate xii, looks more like
a chisel than any other tool.
Silver axes highly ornamented were carried for display
by the attendants in the hall of audience (Egerton, note
to W. 375, p. 108). These attendants were the Yasawal,
and Anand Ram calls the axes they carried Chamchaq
{Mirat-ul-lstilah, fol, 193^). Besides this form of the word,
we find also Chamkhaq, Ghakhmaq, Chak//magh, Steingass,
388, 399, "a battle~axe fastened to the^saddle."
IV. Spears.
The usual generic name used for spears of all kinds
was the Arabic word sinan, pi. asnan, Steingass, 60, 698.
The head or point was called sunain^ Mirat-i-AI/madi \l^a,
Steingass, 704; and the butt was the hunain, Steingass, id.
There were several varieties of this class of weapon. The
cavalry, however, seem to have confined themselves to the
use of the lance {nezaJt), and the other kinds were used
by foot soldiers and the guards surrounding the emperor's
audience hall. There is also some evidence for the use, at
any rate among the Mahrattas, of a javelin or short spear,
which was thrown (Journal As. Soc. Bengal, XLVlll, 1879,
p. 101). The kinds of spear mentioned in the Ajn-i-Akbari,
i, 112, are five the Nezah, N^ 20, Barch/iah, W. 2J,
Sank, N^ 22, Sainthl, N^. 23, and Selarah, N^ 24.
82 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Nezah. This is the cavalry lance, a small steel head with
a long bainbu shaft. Steingass, 1442, has Nezah ''a short
spear, demi-lance, javelin, dart, pike." But this is not borne
out by the usage of Indian writers, who by this word
intend a long-shafted spear. It appears in the Ajn, i. 111,
as N^ 20, and is shown at N^ 16 of plate xii. Bhala I
take to be only the Hindi equivalent for Nezah. Shakespear,
386, says Bhcda is from Sanskrit ;t^^, a spear about 7
cubits or IOV2 feet long, a lance with a narrow head.
Including Nezah, Bhala and spears (unclassed), I find nine
entries in W. Egerton, vizt. 463 (p. 115) 606, 607, 608,
609, 610, 611, 612 two (p. 130). Of these one has a
small head and long bambu shaft; another a palmwood
shaft and small triangular head; four have bambu shafts
12 to 15 feet in length, with heavy bossed butts and
small heads; N^ 611, length 8 feet, head 16 inches; N^ 612
(two), length 9 feet and 9 feet 3 inches, head 21 inches.
The nezah or lance was so prominent a part of the
Mahratta equipment that one writer Mhd Qasim, Auran-
gabadi, {Ahwal-ul-Khawaqln, fol. 20 Iff and elsewhere) instead
of the usual ''accursed enemy" {ghanm-i-la''im) calls them
nezah-bazan, *'lance-wielders." He thus describes, fol. 2056,
their mode of using the lance: ''They so use it that no
cavalry can cope with them. Some 20,000 to 30,000 lances
are held up against their enemy, so close together as not
to leave a span between their heads. If horsemen try to
ride them down, the points of the spears are levelled at
the assailants and they are unhorsed. While the cavalry
are charging them, they strike their lances against each
other, and the noise so frightens the horses, that they turn
round and bolt."
As to the usual mode of wielding the spear, we see in
a picture of a battle, inserted between fol. 14/; and fol. 15«
of B.M., Or: 3610 (Rieu, Supp. p. 54, W, 79) showing an
attack on the elephant of Raff-ush-shan, that the man on
horseback ("Abd-us-saraad Khan) who is attacking the prince,
EQUIPMENT. — (b) OFFENSIVE ARMS; 1, ''SHORT" ARMS. S3
held his spear uplifted above his head at the full length
of his arm. In other pictures the same attitude is seen in
the case of horsemen attacking horsemen.
Barchhah. This is a Hindi word, also spelt Barchlia and
Barchhl. W. Egerton, note to N". 401, p. 115, quoting
Tod's "Rajasthan," says ''the Mahratta lance is called
"Birchha." This statement taken literally may be true; it
is false, if taken as suggesting that the Barchhah is an
exclusively Mahratta arm. We find the Barchhah in the
Jjn list of Moghul arms, drawn up long before the Mah-
rattas had been heard of as a military power. It is a well
known word and weapon all over Northern India, hundreds
of miles from the Mahratta country. We have it figured
as N*^. 17 of plate xii of the Aj?i (vol. I). Its distinctive
feature is its being made wholly of iron or steel, shaft as
well as head. See also Egerton's description, p. 123, note
preceding N^. 574, of two specimens in the Codrington
collection. This heavy spear could hardly have been wielded
by a man on horse-back, and was no doubt confined to
the infantry.
Sank. This form of the word is Blochmann's translite-
ration, Ajn, i, 110, N*^. 22. According to present day
pronunciation it would be Sang. The second mark over
the letter kaf is very often omitted by scribes, and thus
t^ might easily stand for ^. Sang, (Shakes. 1239) is from
the Sanskrit ^ or ^rm, shanku, shakli. It was entirely of
iron, but according to the figure in the Ajn, i, plate xii,
fig. 18, it was much shorter than the Barchhah. On the
other hand, those in the Indian Museum are 7 feet 11 inches
in total length, of which the head occupies 2 feet 6 inches.
They have long, slender, four-sided or three-sided heads,
steel shafts, and the grip covered with velvet, (Egerton,
N^. 72, p. 81, and figure on p. 79), N^. 461, two, (p. 115).
The Indian name for the modern bayonet is sangln.
This may probably mean a little sang; and is possibly
formed from sang by a shortening of the vowel and the
84 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS,
addition of the diminutive termination ^5 nasalized. The
long, slender, three sided or four sided head of the sang
presents a resemblance to the shape of a bayonet; and in
.Hindi it is not uncommon, in the case of inanimate objects,
to employ the feminine termination ''?" as a diminutive,
thus gold, a ball, goli, a bullet, ha7ida a cauldron, hdndl,
a small pot, cJiakkd a wheel, chakkl, a hand-mill.
Saintlil. This is a Hindi word, also spelt saintl. Shakes-
pear, 1370, defines it as a dart, javelin, short spear, bolt.
It is N°. 23 in the Ajn, i, 111, and appears as N^. 19
on plate xii. The shaft is still shorter than that of the
sang. It is not given in Egerton. Has the name any con-
nection with sentM, Hindi for a kind of reed?
&elarah This is W, 24 of the Ayn list, i, 111, and it
is figured on plate xii (N^ 20) as a spear with a head
and shaft longer than those of the sarnthl but not so long
as those of the sang. There is no mention of it in Egerton,
and outside the Ajn I have never either seen the weapon
or come across the word. Possibly the word has some
connection with the Hindi sel, ^t:^, a spear, said to be
(Shakes. 1368) from Sanskrit ^s^^.
Other kinds of spears. Four names, Ballam, Pandl-ballam,
Panjmukh, and Lange occur in Egerton as kinds of spears,
though omitted from the Ajn.
The Ballam is well-known in moderm Hindi, and is
defined. Shakes. 354, as a spear, pike, lance. Egerton has
two specimens, N^s 27 and 28 (p. 78), which are described
as having barbed heads and wooden shafts, total length
5 feet 11 inches, of which the blade takes up 18 inches.
On p. 123, quoting from the Codrington catalogue, Mr.
Egerton says the Ballam is a short spear with broad head,
used by infantry.
Payidi-hallam (Egerton N*^. 29, p. 78) is a hog-spear
with leafshaped blade, and bambu shaft, total length 8 feet
3 inches (blade 2 feet 3 inches).
Panjmukh is described on p. 137 in a note to N". 710,
EQUIPMENT. — (b) OFFENSIVE ARMS; T, "SHORT" ARMS. 85
on the authority of the Codrington catalogue, as a "five-
headed spear used by the people of Guzerat." The derivation
is, of course, panj, five, mukh, head.
Lange is mentioned on p. 1:28 in a quotation from the
Codrington catalogue, and it is suggested that the word
is a corruption of "lance." It has a four-cornered iron head
with a hollow shaft.
Other designations for a spear are also to be found in
Shakespear, vizt. :
Garhiya, (col. 1705), Pike, javelin, spear;
^Jlam, (1458), Spear (properly a standard or banner);
Ko7it, (1637) spear from Sans. ^;^7\.
"^Alam I have heard used, but I never met with the two
other words. To complete the long list I may as well add
the sort of bill-hook or pole-axe, ganclasa, a steel chopper
attached to a long pole, which is the weapon of the modern
cliaukidar or village watchman.
V. Daggers and Knives.
These were of various shapes and kinds, for each ot
which there was a separate name.
Kafar, hatarah, Jcatcm, This is a Hindi word, kattar
(Shak., 1556), probably from the same root as the verb
Jcatna, to cut. The translator of the Seir (i, 549, note 53)
thus describes it, "A poignard peculiar to India made with
a hilt, whose two branches extend along the arm, so as
to shelter the hand and part of the arm. The blade is very
thick with two cutting edges, having a breadth of three
inches at the hilt and a solid point of about one inch in
breadth. The blade cannot be bent and is so stiff that
nothing will stop it but a cuirass. The total length is 2
to 22- feet, one half of this being the blade." The hilt has
at right angles to the blade a cross-bar by which the
weapon is grasped, and it is thus only available for a
forward thrust. It is named in the Aj7i, i, 112, being N". 10,
and it is fig. 9 on plate xii. There the blade is slightly
86 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
curved; Mustapha's description corresponds perhaps more
nearly to Hg. 4 of the same plate, the jamdhar. There are
about twenty five specimens entered in Egerton (pp. 102,
109, 116, 131) and five of these are shown on plates ix,
X (two) and xiii (two). The blades are of various patterns,
and the length varies from 9 to 175 inches. One W. 340
is forked or two-bladed. Yule, "Glossary" 815, refers to
two from Travancore which had blades of 20 and 26 inches.
Others of great length are described by Mr. Walhouse in
the "Indian Antiquary," vii, 193. The Bank is called in
Egerton, W. 335, p. 102, the B. katari, but the figure
on plate ix shows it as being like a knife and without
the handle characteristic of the katar. Stavorinus, quoted
by Yule, "Glossary," 816, speaks of a dagger, the name of
which he translates as hellt/ piercer. No one seems to know^
what Indian word was intended unless it were the kaffar,
which may be translated the "cutter" {quasi, "piercer").
Jamdhar. This is W. 4 in the Ajn, i, 112, and figure
N*^. 4 in plate xii. This figure has the same handle as
a kattar\ but the blade is very broad and straight, while
the katfar is given a curved blade. On the contrary Mr.
Egerton, p. 102, and plate ix, Nos 344 and 345, shows
the jamdhar katarl with a straight blade and a handle to
be held like one holds a table-knife or a sword. The
etymology of the word as given by J. Shakespear, 1790,
is jam, from the Sanskrit ?ft, death, and dhar, from ^jv{, a
sharp edge. But see also Yule, "Glossary", 358, under
"Jumdud" {jamdad).
Khanjar. We are told by Steingass, 476, that this is A.,
for dagger, poinard. There are eight specimens in the
Indian Museum, Egerton, 502 to 506 (p. 116), 626, 627«,
627 (p. 131): two are shown on plate x (opp. p. 114).
Most of these have doubly-curved blades, and are about
12 inches long. The Khanjar is N^ 5 in the Ajn, i, 110;
and on plate xii, N'-. 5, it is shown as a bent dagger
with a double curve in the blade and a hilt like a sword.
EQUIPMENT. — (b) OFFENSIVE ARMS; I, "SHORT" ARMS. 87
Figures N^s 5 and 7 on W. P]gerton's plate vi (opp. p.
53) appear to be Khanjar. Mustapha, Seir, i, 152, note
114, says that "the Khanjar is a poinard, with a bent
blade, peculiar to the Turks, who carry it upright and on
the right side; but it is occasionally worn by both Persians
and Indians, the latter wearing it on the left side and
inclined." Our word "hanger" is derived from Khanjar
(Yule and Burnell, 312). Then we have the
Jamkhrd-, Ajn, i, 110, N^ 7, plate xii, N". 7. If it
were not for the middle letter Mf ^, 1 would have sug-
gested that this word was a misreading for chamkhakh
^Lj5:w5^, a battle axe (Steingass, 389), see ante, under iii.
Battle Axes. The figure in the Ajn shows a dagger and
not an axe. — Could it be intended for Chaqchaq, a kind
of knife?
Jhambwah, Ajn, i, 110, W. 9, plate xii N'*. 9 and
Egerton 106 (p. 82), 486—9 (p. 116), 798—9 (p. 145).
He also gives figures on plate i, N^. 29 (p, 23) and fig.
17 on p. 79. The Jamhwah is also mentioned by him on
p. 124 in a note to W. 581. Steingass, 373, only gives
jamhiyah, "a kind of arms or armour." Shakespear, 789,
has "a dagger." There are also some interesting remarks
by Yule, ^'Glossary", 357, under ^'Jumbeea." He inclines
to a derivation from janh. A., the side.
Bank, Ajn, i, 110, N^ 8, and figure N^ 7, plate xii;
Egerton, Nos 480—1 (p. 115), and note to N^ 581 (p. 124),
figure 31 on his plate i, (opp. p. 23). The name evidently
comes from its curved shape (^tcft, a curvature, a bend,
Shakes. 275^).
Nar Singh moth, Ajn i, 110, W. 11 and figure 11, plate
xii; Egerton, fig. W\ 30 on plate i (opp. p. 23).
All four of these weapons seem of the same class as the
Khanjar, though varying slightly in form. The same may
be said of the Bichhiva and the Khapwah. Bichhica, literally
"scorpion", had a wavy blade. It is mentioned by Egerton,
27, and there are specimens in the India Museum, No«490 — 8
88 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
(p. 116), 628 (p. 131), and plate x (opp. p. 114). The
Khapiva/i, N". 6 in the Ajn, i, 110, must have been some
sort of dagger; there is no figure of it on plate xii, but
Egerton's plate i, N". 28, shows it as almost identical with
the jambwah. May it not mean ''the finisher, the giver of
the coup de graced' from the h. verb khapna, to fill up,
to complete, as in the phrase, den khap-gya ''the debt has
been liquidated?" The Persian word is dashnah (Steingass,
527). In some manuscripts of the Akbarnamah (near the
end of the 1 7^^ year), it is said, as Mr. H. Beveridge has
pointed out to me, that Akbar when drunk ran after Shahbaz
Khan of Malwah, and tried to strike him "^\i\iQ. dashnah,
called in Hindi a khapwaK\ because he refused to sing.
Peshqabz. The word is from P. pesh, front, qabz, grip.
It was a pointed one-edged dagger, having generally a thick
straight back to the blade, and a straight handle without
a guard; though at times the blade was curved, or even
double-curved. The Peshkabz is not in the Ajni, 110 — 112,
so I presume that it was included under one of the other
kinds of dagger, perhaps under kard, a knife, N°. 34 and
fig. 28, Plate xii. In Egerton I find twenty three examples :
346 (p. 102), 381 (p. 108), 382 (p. 109), 484—5 (p. 116),
617—625 (p. 130), 717—724 (p. 138), 760 (p. 144). Of
these there are 7 straight, 4 curved, and 2 double-curved
blades; the shape of the rest is not stated. On plate xiv
(opp. p. 136) he shows four, and on plate xv (opp. p.
140) one of these specimens. Some of the hilts have guards
to them, others have none. N°. 624 is like the Ixhanjar in
the Ayn, fig. 6, plate xii; W, 721 something like the
jambhivah, fig. 8, same plate, and the others, N^s 712, 720,
760, more like the kard, or knife, fig. 28, same plate.
Kard. This was like a butcher's knife and kept in a
sheath. It was more especially the weapon of the Afghan.
For an example, see Egerton N^ 750 (p. 144) and the
figure on plate xv, where the total length is 2 feet 6 inches,
and that of the blade alone 2 feet. This was the sort of
EQUIPMENT. — (b) OFFENSIVE ARMS; I, ''SHORT" ARMS. 89
weapon with which, on the 8^^ October 1720, Mir Haidar
Beg, Diighlat, assassinated Sayyad Husain 'All Khan, Mir
BakhshT, in the emperor's camp between Fathpur Sikri and
Amber (Jaipur), Mhd Qasim, LahorT, ^Ibratnamah, 1.0. L.
N'\ 252, fol. 348. The author of the Jou/iar-i'Sammtn, fol.
138/^, calls the weapon then used a chaqchaql'i-ioilayatt. This
word is related to yL:=-, a knife, (Steingass, 386, from Turkish).
We have also in the Ajn, i, 111, i\\Q giipti-kard, or knife
concealed in a stick (N°. 35, and plate xiii, W. 29),
the whip-shaped knife, qamchl-kard (N*^. 36 and plate xiii,
N*^. 30), and the clasp-knife or chaqu (N^. 37 and plate
xiii, W\ 31).
Sailclbah-i'Qalmaqt was the name for the knife used by
the men from Kashghar; it was as long as a sword, had
a handle made of a fish-bone called sher-maM (lion-fish),
and was worn slung from a shoulder belt, Ashob, fol.
172^, 1785.
CHAPTER IX.
EQUIPMENT. — (C) OFEENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES.
I exclude from tins heading what is generally classed
as artillery, weapons of attack which were not carried by
the individual soldier nor discharged by him without
assistance. The three kinds of weapon included are I,
Bows and arrows; II, Matchlocks; III, Pistols. Of these
the first was without comparison the favourite weapon,
the cavalry nearly all carried it, and the Moghul horsemen
were famed for their archery. It was feigned that the Bow
and arrow were brought down straight from Heaven, and
given to Adam by the archangel Gabriel. Weapons were
estimated in the following order. The sword was better
than the dagger, the spear better than the sword, the bow
and arrow better than the spear, {Risalah-i-i'ir o hayitan).
The use of the bow persisted throughout the 18**1 century,
in spite of fire-arms having become more common, better
made, and their handling better understood. Nay, somewhat to
our astonishment, we read in W. Forbes Mitchell's ''Reminis-
cences of the Great Mutiny," p. 76, that he saw the bow
used by the rebels at the second relief of Lakhnau in Nov.
1857. ''In the force defending the Shah Najaf, in addition
to the regular army, there was a large body of archers
on the walls, armed with bows and arrows, which they
discharged with great force and precision, and on a serjeant
of the 93>^d raising his head above a wall, an arrow was
shot right through his feather bonnet. One man raising
his head for an instant above the wall got an arrow right
through his brain, the shaft projecting more than a foot
EQUIPMENT. — (c) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES. 91
out at the back of his head. In revenge the men gave a
volley. One unfortunate man exposed himself a little too
long and before he could get down into shelter again, an
arrow was sent right through his heart, passing clean
through his body and falling on the ground a fe^v yards
behind him. He leaped about six feet into the air, and
fell stone-dead."
One would have thought this to be the last occasion on
which the bow was used in serious fighting by any but
the merest savages. But Mrs. Bishop, writing from Chefoo
on the 18th Oct. 1894 (St. James' Gazette, Dec. l^t 1894),
speaks of meeting large numbers of carts ''loaded with new
bows and arrows, Avith which to equip the Banner men
of the capital (Pekin)." And this in the days of Krupp
and Maxim guns!
The Matchlock, a cumbrous and probably ineffective
weapon, was left mainly for the infantry. Pistols sesm to
have been rareties.
I. Bows.
The Moghul bowmen were considered to be especially
expert with their weapon ; as Bernier says, 48, "a horseman
shooting six times before a musketeer can fire twice." The
word ogc/il quoted by Horn, 108, from the Akharnamah,
is hardly to be found in the later writers, those of the 18^^
century; an archer is styled by them a Tlr-andaz (literally,
arrow-thrower), not oqchi ^ But that word is used by
Anand Ram once in reference to Ahmad Abdali's first
invasion in 1161 h. (I.O.L. W\ 1612, fol. 705), though
there the scribe has spelt it auncld. Shakespear, 219, has
what he classes as a Hind! word, opcin, defined as ''A man
armed with weapons or clothed in mail." May this not be
a corruption of oqchi^ an archer? This word, opchi, is used
by Shridhar Murlidhar in his poem on FarrukhsTyar, line
594, (Journal A.S.B. (1900) Vol. LXIX, i, 14, 39):
* Pavet de Courteille, Diet., 68, v_i'i' , an arrow.
92 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Pile opc/d topchl topo ghanere.
"Gathered archers, gunners, guns, without end." Of course,
this may be simply the reduplication, so common in Indian
vernaculars, such as k liana- wdna^ food, panl'ioanl^ water.
Mild Qasim, Aurangabadi, Ahwal-uUkhaioaqln, 28 8^^, and
a rather later writer, Khair-ud-din (c. 1208 h.), ^Ihratnamah,
105, have kamandar (bow-holder) for archer.
CharkL In the Ja/ian kusliae Nadirl of Mirza Mahdi,
p. 233, (year 1151 h.) we have a reference to the C//«r^7/c^i-
bas/n, or head of the charkh men. W". Jones, "Nader Chah",
ii, ^^, renders this by "maitre de I'artillerie", and is followed
by the German translator, 293. Steingass has neither
charkhchi nor charkhchi-bashl. Charkh has many meanings:
among them being "a wheel," "a cart," "a crossbow."
Here I suppose we ought to render charkh by "cross-bow",
and not by "artillery." Charkhchi is to be found in the
Muj?nil-ut-tariM ba^d Nadiriyah, p. 95, line 13.
Kaman. The Moghul bow {kaman) was about 4 feet long,
and generally shaped in a double curve. The bow was of
horn, wood, bambu, ivory, and sometimes of steel (Egerton,
81, note to N^ 80). Two of these steel bows, in the
Emperor of Russia's collection at Zarkoe Selo, belonged to
the emperor, Bahadur Shah (1708 — 1712); they bear verses
in his honour and are covered with rich gold damascened
work (Egerton, 114, note to W. 457). The grip was
generally covered with velvet. Mr. Egerton, 144, describes
the Persian bow in detail, and the same description applies,
there can be little doubt, to the bows used in India, for
there they copied everything Persian, and in fact many
of the principal officers were themselves Persians.
Mr. Egerton says "the concave side of the bow (the
convex when strung) was lined with several strings of
thick catgut to give it elasticity and force. The belly is
made of buffalo or wild goats' horn, jet black and of a
EaUIPMENT. — (C) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES. 93
fine polish ; glued to this is a thin slip of hard, tough
wood. The ends are fashioned to represent snakes' heads.
The horn is left plain, while the wooden back is decorated
with rich arabesques of birds, flowers or fruit intermingled
with gilding." Captain Thomas Williamson, ''Oriental Field
Sports", 87, describes thus the construction of the Indian
bows kept for show or amusement, and also carried by
travellers. They were of buffalo horn in two pieces curved
exactly alike, each having a wooden tip for the receipt of
the string; their other ends were brought together and
fastened to a strong piece of wood that served as a centre
and was gripped by the left hand. After being neatly
fitted, they were covered with a size made of animal fibres,
after which very fine tow was wrapped round, laid on thin
and smooth. They were then painted and varnished.
The notch. The notches at the ends into which the string
was fixed were called goshah (Steingass, 1104), literally
"corner," also sufar {Dastur ul Insha, 228, Steingass 709).
The latter word is used in Ahioal-ul-hhawaqln (c. 1147 h.),
foL 12«. ~"
The string. This was called either zih or chillah, Hindi
names are roda^, Shak., 1195, catgut, a sinew used as a
bow-string, and panach or panchak (id. 552, 553). Bow
strings were made of strong threads of white silk laid
together until of the thickness of a goose quill. Whipping
of the same material was then bound firmly round for a
length of three or four inches at the centre, and to this
middle piece large loops of scarlet or other colour were
attached by a curious knot. These gaudy loops formed a
striking contrast to the white silk (Egerton, 144). Captain
Williamson, on the contrary, says, p. 87, that the string
was composed of numerous thin catguts laid together
without twirling, then lapped with silk in the middle and
at the ends.
The finger stall. This was called zihgir (Steingass 631),
1 Roda.^ a bow string, is in Steingass, 592. Is it Persian or Hindi or both ?
94 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
bow-string holder, or shast (id. 743). It was also styled
Shast-awez (Anand Ram, Mirat-ul-Isiilah, fol, 155/^, 182a).
Of this last the etymology would be shast, the thumb,
awez, attached or fastened to, that is, a thumb-stall. Bloch-
mann, Aj7i, i. 111, N^ 42, and note 3, says the shast-
dioez was a weapon resembling the girih-kusha, N^. 43,
that is, a kind of spear. He has no figure of it. May he
not have been mistaken, and is not Anand Ram's direct
assertion to be preferred?
The bowman drew with his thumb only, the bent fore-
finger being merely pressed on one side of the arrow nock
to secure it from falling, or as Dr. Weissenberg (quoting
V. Luschau) says, p. 52, the forefinger was pressed on the
nail of the thumb to strengthen the pull without increasing
the exertion. To prevent the flesh being torn by the bow
string the zihgir had been invented (Egerton, 114). It was
a broad ring, and according to a man's rank and means
was of precious stone, crystal, jade, ivory, horn, fishbone,
gold or iron. A very valuable zihgir^ part of the Labor
booty, one that had belonged to Lord Dalhousie, is described
in the "Daily Telegraph" of the W^ November 1898.
It was formed of a single emerald and was 21 inches
across at the widest part and U inches in depth. It bore
an inscription which is thus translated : "For a bow ring for
the King of Kings, Nadir, Lord of the Conjunction, from the
Jewel House it was selected, 1152" (=A.D. 1739). From
the date and the wording of this inscription it is to be
inferred that it was part of the spoil carried ofi" from Dihli.
How it found its way back to Labor we do not know.
Sometimes two thimbles were worn instead of a zihgir, on
the first and second fingers of the right hand. Upon the
inside of this ring (the zihgir), which projected half an
inch, the string rested when the bow w^as drawn; on the
outside the ring was only half the breadth, and in loosing
the arrow the archer straightened his thumb, which set
the arrow free. (Egerton, 114, Q^wQ\Jmg\k\.Q Booh of Archery ,
EQUIPMENT. — (C) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES. 95
136). By the use of the ring the distance to which an
arrow could be shot was increased. But its use required
skill and practice; the Hindus used instead a thumbstall
of leather {Mirrd-ul-Istilal/^ fol. 155^). These rings with a
spare string were usually carried in a small box suspended
at the man's side (Egerton, 114). Dr. S. Weissenberg, of
Elisabethgrad, Russia, has devoted an article to these rings
in the Miltheilmigen der anihrojjologischen Gesellschaft in
Wien, Band XXV (1895) pp. 50 — 56, where he gives
figures of eight of them. He divides them into two classes
1) cylindrical, 2) with tongue-like projection. Those des-
cribed by him are of bone or stone, and six out of thirteen
were found in the ruins of Sarae, a former capital of the
Qipchaq. See also a thumb ring of ivory (now in the
Nuremberg museum) figured on the plate at p. 887 of
A. Demmin, '-'Die KriegswafFen", 4th ed., 1893.
Takhsh kaman. This is N*^. 13 of the AJn i, 110, and
it is described by Blochmann, p. v, as a small bow. It is
shown in figure N^ 12 of plate xii. Steingass, 288, defines
takhh as a cross-bow, an arrow, a rocket.
Kaman-i-gurohah. This was a pellet-bow, identical, I
presume, with the modern gulel, with which boys scare
birds from the ripening crops. It is N°. 38 in the Ajn i,
111 and appears as N^ 32 of plate xiii. Steingass, 1085,
has for guroha, a ball or spherical figure.
Gob/tan. The sling, Ajn i. 111, N*^. 45 and plate xiii,
N°. 38, may as well be included here. The form in
Shakespear 1727, is gophan. Khafi Khan, ii, 656, uses the
word sang-i-falakhnn for the slings brought by the villagers
who assembled in 1710 to aid in the defence of Jalalabad
town against the Sikhs led by Bandah. Steingass, 936, has
^i>bl5 , ^Li>^5 , (iC;.^bi5, falakhan^falakhan, falasang, a sling.
Kamthah, kamanth. This is the long bow of the Bhlls.
We find it named in the Ajn list, i. 111, as W. 39 under
the first form; the second is that used by Anand Ram,
Mukhlis, Mirat'ul'IstilaU, fol. 184^. Blochmann, p. x, in
96 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
describing fig. 33 of his plate xiii confounds the kamfha
with the Kaman-i-guroha or pellet bow. I think this must
be wrong. Steingass, 1051, has a word kamnait, an archer,
which he thinks might be from P. kaman, ho^, plus Sanskrit,
netd, owner. The word might, with more probability, be
connected with the above words kamfha or kamant//, just
as dhalait, a man with a shield, comes from dhal, a shield;
or gorait, a watchman, from agorna, to watch. According
to Shakespear, 2258, kamtha is Hindi for abowofbambu.
The Bhils held the bow by the foot, drawing the string
{chillah) with the hand, and shooting so strongly that their
arrows could penetrate an elephants' hide. W. Egerton, 75,
quoting Tod's ''Rajpoot Tribes" (a reference which I have
failed in verifying) says the principal weapon of the Bhils
was the kamptl or bambu bow, with a string made of a
thin strip of the elastic bark of the bambu. In their quiver
were sixty barbed arrows each a yard long, those intended
for striking fish having heads Avhich came off the shaft
on striking the fish. A long line connected this head and
the shaft, so that the shaft remained on the water by way
of a float.
Nawak. This was a pipe through which an arrow was
shot. As I understand it, this was either a cross-bow, or
formed in some way a part of the ordinary bow. It was
not, I think, a mere blow-pipe, like those used by the
Malays for their poisoned arrows, as mentioned by Egerton,
97, 98, Nos 263—268. Those specimens of the pipe are
6 feet 6 inches to 7 feet 6 inches long, and the arrows
used with them 12 inches long. The nawak is N^. 14 of
the A}7i list, i, 110, but there is no figure of it. The
weapon was known at Farrukhabad in the IS^li century
(Journal A. S. B., XLVII, 33lT Steingass 1382, has 7ido,
a trough, a pipe, and ndwak^ dim. of nao, a small arrow,
an arrow for shooting birds, with notch on side; a tube
through which an arrow is projected ; a cross-bow ; a reed
or anything hollow.
EQUIPMENT. — (C) OPEENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES. 97
Tufak-i-dahan. The Ajn has also a blow-pipe, which it
calls tufak-i-dahan (lit. mouth- tube), N". 40, i, iii and
N^. 34, plate xiii. Steingass, 314, defines this as a tube
for shooting clay balls through by force of the breath.
Arrows. The arrow {tir) is given at N". 15 of the list
in the Ajn i, 110, and it is shown as fig. 14« on plate
xii. iVnother name, siharn is found in the Mirat-i-A/madl,
fol, 178«; it is the plural of sahm, an arrow, Steingass,
710; see also Lane, ''Lexicon," 1454, sa/iamahu, iii. Captain
Williamson, ''Oriental Field Sports," 87, says that in Bengal
there were two kinds of arrow shafts, the common kind
made of reeds, and those used against tigers, made of wood.
To the first kind the heads were attached by resin; in the
second kind, a hole was bored and the head while red-hot
was forced into it. Some arrows in the India Museum are
2 feet 4 inches long (Egerton 130, N*'. 604). One as long
as 6 feet, obtained at Lakhnau in 1857, must have been
used with a large bow. The names of the parts of an
arrow were for the shaft ^ P. kilk, lit. reed, Hindi, sari
(Shakes. 1285, also the name of a kind of reed); for the
head, P. paikan, H. bhal; for the feathers, P. par. The
feathers were frequently black and white mixed {ablaq).
Ordinarily the head was of steel, but the Bhils used arrow-
heads of bone.
Takah, Tukkah. — This was the name of an arrow
without a head. One was said to have been fired in anger
by A'zam Shah at his principal general, Zu'lfiqar Khan, at
Jajau "on the 18^^ June 1707, - Yaliya~Khan, fol 113^.
Steingass, 819, explains the word as "an arrow without a
point, but with a knot at the end."
In the 1 8^b century the kinds of arrows in use among the
1 In Budaoni (Printed Text, i, 418, 1. 3) there is an expression, katlhah-
i-bash, which Blochmann marlied as doubtful in his copy (now in my
possession), without suggesting any alternative; Ranking, 537, substitutes
katah-i-bas, and translates "bamboo shaft." I cannot find katah in the
dictionaries, Persian or Urdu, unless it be a form of cjTS" kath^ "wooden."
If so, "wooden-bambu" seems an odd combination.
7
98 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGflULS.
Pathans of Farrukhabad (Journal A. S. B., XLVIl, 832) were
1) Lais, Shakes., 1809, twig, practising arrow, 2j qalandara,
3) kohar-tarash, ^) ghera, broad-headed, 5) nahtali, or perhaps
na-katta, headless arrow, lit. non-cutting; compare Egerton,
137, note preceding W. 710, as to the blunt, heavy arrow
used in Sind, 6) thuth, or perhaps better, thonth. Shakes.
743, H. for beak, bill, 7) ankrl-ddr, with a bent head,
shaped like a saddle-maker's needle {ankrl, a hook), i. e.
barbed. In his time (1780—1807) Captain Williamson, 87,
found some very broad arrow heads in use in the west of
Bengal, towards Bahar. There was one of crescent shape
more than four inches across at the barbs. Though they
did not penetrate easily, yet when they happened to graze
a limb, they cut desperately. When discharged among bodies
of troops they were found to do amazing mischief. The
following names of arrows are found in DastUr-ul-Insha,
228, 1) g her ah, broad-headed, 2) do muhclnah, two pointed
or barbed, 3) tarah-i-mah, fullmoon or circular head,
4) tarahri-halal, crescent shaped head, 5) tarali-i-badam ,
almond-shaped head, 6) tarah-i-toko? , 7) sih-bhalah, three-
spear headed, i. e. trident-shaped, 8) tarah-i-khornl, 9)
tarah-i-khar, thorn-shaped, 10) tarah-i- khaki, Shakes. 974,
epithet of a kind of arrow, what kind he does not say.
James Fraser, Nadir Shah, 143, note, thus describes the
arrow used for practising at the earthen target described
a little further on. "The arrows for this exercise have the
iron part quite round, about four fingers long, of the size
of the reed until near the point, where they are somewhat
thicker, from which part they taper gradually to a sharp
point. The length from the thickest part to the point is
from a quarter to one inch."
Symbolical use of arrows. — The pagan Arabs used
arrows in a game of chance, Hughes, "Diet, of Islam,"
p. 309, under Al maisir, >^iX^. Divining by arrows was
forbidden by Muhammad, see Sale's "Preliminary Discourse",
section v, and the Quran, v, where the wcrd used is
EQUIPMENT. — (c) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES. 99
zalmun (singular) azlama (plural), an unfeathered, unpointed
arrow. The mode of procedure is set out in E. W. Lane's
Lexicon, p. 1247, under zalamun, "he cut off", section viii.
The practice, however, survived in spite of the prohibition ;
and in 1544 we find Humayun getting into trouble with
Shah Tahmasp on this account. He marked twelve of his
best arrows with his own, and eleven inferior ones with
Tahmasp's name-Erskine, "Baber and Humayun," ii, 289.
Shooting an arrow into the air is said by Portuguese
writers to have been a recognized mode of declaring war
in the Vijyanagar state and Malabar. The particular in-
stance is of 1537 at Diu, where Bahadur of Gujarat ordered
an arrow to be shot into the air as a declaration of war -
White way, "Portuguese in India", 249, note 1, on the
authority of Castanheda, ii, 16 (reprint of 1833) and Correa,
iv, 708, "Lendas da India", 4 vols., 1858—61. I have not
met with mention of this practice in any native author,
and Major J. S. King informs me that he knows of none.
Perhaps it was of Hindu origin.
At the same place Mr. Whiteway mentions the gift of
an arrow from the King's quiver as a security for peace.
The King's quiver was also used as a symbol of authority
(Whiteway, he. cit.). The instance given is from the Mirat-
i'8ika7idan, where Humayun in 1537 released Bahadur
Shah's minstrel, and bound his own quiver round the man's
loins. Clothed with this authority, every prisoner that the
minstrel claimed as his relation was released (Bayley,
"Gujarat", 389). Another instance of this practice is to be
found in the TanJch-us-Sind of Muhammad Ma'sum, under
the year 924 h. (1518), where Shah Beg, Arghun, gave
an arrow to the qafi of Tattah (Malet, p. 80).
Quiver. The Persian name is tarkash-. but I have found
the Arabic word jabah used once on fol. 59/5 of the Far-
rukjmamah of Shekh Muhammad Mun'im, Ja'farabadi (4tii
year of Farrukhsiyar). It was generally a flat case, broad at
the mouth, one side straight and the other sloping to a
100 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
point, provided with a strap for carrying over the shoulder.
This broad shape is due apparently to the fact that the
quiver was used to hold the bow as well as the arrows,
see plate xvii in B. M. Addl. 5254 (Rieu, 780), and the
plate in Valentyn, opposite iv, S04. There must have been,
however, separate bow-cases, qirhan, for they are named
as well as the tarkash, or quiver, in Kamwar Khan's entry
of the 21st Zu,l Qa'dah 1134 h. In the India Museum
are five specimens, Egerton, Nos 367, 369 (p. 108), 460
(p. 115), 601, 602 (p. 130). Of these one is of an un-
usual shape, namely, cylindrical. Common quivers were
covered with leather, more costly ones with blue or red
velvet, and these were often embroidered on one side in
gold or silver. These covers sometimes were applied to
strange uses. During Humayun's exile in Persia (1544),
Shah Tahmasp folded up his carpet, so that no one could
share any portion. Humayun would thus have been forced to
sit on the bare ground, when one of his followers took off
the ornamented cover of his quiver, tore it open and spread
it as a seat for his master, Erskine, "Baber and Humayun",
ii, 294. The quiver is N^ 16 of the Ajn list, i, 110, and it
appears as figure N^ 15 on plate xii. One of a slightly
diff'erent shape from the usual pattern is given in Egerton's
plate i (p. 24), copied from that in Langles' ''Monuments."
Here the quiver is the same width all the way down,
having one side straight and the other shaped in two
crescent-like curves.
The Leather Guard {Godhu). This is mentioned in Egerton,
114, and it was worn on the left arm. That is, I suppose,
if the shooter were not in armour, and thus already pro-
vided with a mailed glove and steel arm-piece. Hansard,
"Book of xA.rchery", 137, speaks of one as ''a quilted half
sleeve of common velvet or fine cloth, which protects the
arm from being bruised by the chord in its return". The
word godhu I have not been able to trace. Two Central
Asian arm-guards, one of bone and one of iron, are figured
EQUIPMENT. (C) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES. 101
by Weissenberg, 1. c. p. 54. They are now in the Ethno-
graphical Museum at St. Petersburg.
Paikan-Jcash. This word is from paikan, arrowhead, kasJi,
root of kaslildan, to draw out. The implement was shaped
like a pair of pliers, and as its name implies, was used
to extract arrow heads from the body. It is N". 19 of the
Ajn list, i, 110, and figure N^. 146 on plate xii. The
tirhardar, W. 18, (if the reading be correct) was another
instrument for the same purpose.
Target. This was the sJy", literally, heap, Steingass, 334,
todah. Shakes., 700, iudah. The latter is the present Indian
pronunciation of the word. To secure a more perfect use
of the bow and arrow it was usual to erect near an officer's
tents a mound of earth, into which he or his men shot a
certain number of arrows every day. It is referred to en
passant by W. Egerton, 106, as a practice of the Rajputs,
but its use was general and not by any means confined to
them. For instance, we find this target in use by Nadir
Shah, who shot five arrows into one every afternoon. It is
thus described by James Eraser, History of Nadir Shah,
143, note, '' Khak Towda is a heap of fine mould well
sifted and beat strongly in between two stone walls. 'Tis
five foot high, three feet thick, and from three to four feet
broad. The front of it is very smooth and even, beat hard
with a heavy trowel. One who is well skilled can shoot
his arrow into to it quite to the head; whereas one that
shoots ill (be he never so strong) can't put a third part
in". In a general sense the word for a butt or target, or
the object aimed at, was Jiadaf (Steingass, 1492).
Modes of Shooting. We are told in the Bisalah-i-tlr o
kaman that in archery there were twelve maxims to be
obeyed. Of these three required firmness, (1) Hold the
grip of the bow tight, (2) Keep the forefinger firm, (3)
When the arrow is let fly, keep the advanced foot firm.
Three things required easiness (1) the left side should be
kept easy (2) the left foot the same, and (3) the other
102 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
fingers. Three things required straightness (1) the body
should be erect (2) the forehead held up (3) the elbow-
straight. Other three things were single: (1) use one side,
(2) use one eye, (3) keep both hands in one direction.
An arrow could have seven faults: (I) too wide a notch,
(2) the shaft to be Jcarm'^ , (3) the head imperfect, (4) the
head too heavy, (5) the top end and butt of the shaft
hollow, (6) the shaft not straight, (7) the bow^ too stiff.
In shooting at a horseman 200 yards off, you should aim
at his cap, if 100 paces off, at his mouth, if 50 paces, at
his saddle. By so doing you will hit him in the chest.
A good archer needs to practise constantly with the Lezam,
a bow with an iron chain instead of a string. There are
three ways of gripping the bow, Chanc/al-i-baz (literally,
"Hawk's claw"), muharraf (diagonally, on the slant), tna-
rabba" (square), according to the length of the shooter's
fingers. The arrow should be held without moving, and
the advanced foot kept flat on the ground. As you let fly
at the mark, you ejaculate, "In the name of God". Shekh
AUahyar Sani, Eadlqat-ul-aqalim (ms. additions in my copy),
under Bijgram, speaks of one ^Abd-us-Samad, a perfect
bowman, who taught the author to shoot in three ways,
1) in the style of the master Tahiri, 2) qabzahgar^ 3) musht.
Until that time Allahyar had shot only in the mode of
Bahram.
Captain Williamson, "Oriental Field Sports", 87, says
the bow was strung by placing one end under the thigh,
and with both hands bringing the other end into due position,
when the string was easily slipped into the groove made for
it. Thirty inches of string was a common length, though
some were longer. With a new bow it required a strong
hand to bring the arrow up to its head.
The left hand was placed opposite the right breast, just far
enough from the body to allow clear action : the butt of the
arrow was pressed to the string, the fore and middle fingers
of the right hand were then drawn steadily, until the head was
EaUlPMENT. — (c) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES. 103
near the forefinger of the left hand. The bow was always held
perpendicularly. Native archers rarely missed an object the size
of a tea cup at sixty or seventy yards, and Captain Williamson
at Lucknow repeatedly saw a man lodge an arrow in a
common walking stick at that distance. The hill people of
Bengal were also very expert with the bow. They would
lie on their back, steadying the bow with their feet hori-
zontally, and at a distance of two or three hundred yards
send the arrow through a common water pot, not more
than a foot in diameter. They could shoot kites flying,
and indeed rarely missed their object.
11. Matchlock.
This was the tufang (Steingass, 314) or handuq (id. 202) ^
Great credit is claimed for Akbar in the Ain, i, ] 13, for
the improvements introduced by him in the manufacture
of the matchlock. In spite of these, that weapon up to
the middle of the 18^^ century was looked on with less
favour than the bow and arrow, which still held their
ground. The matchlock was left chiefly to the infantry,
who occupied a much inferior position to that of the
cavalry in the opinion of Moghul commanders. It was not
until the middle of the 18^^ century, when the way had
been shewn by the French and the English, that efibrts
were made to improve the arms and discipline of the foot
soldier.
The barrels of Akbar's matchlocks w^ere of two lengths,
66 inches and 41 inches. They were made of rolled strips
of steel with the two edges welded together. Both the
barrels, [nal, literally, pipe, tube, Steingass, 1378) and the
1 The Madras Manual of Ad., iii, 915, has a word tupak^ a small
cannon, a musket, which I have seen only once elsewhere, namely, in
verse 60, line 2, of a Hindi poem on Nadir Shah by one Tilok Das (Journal
As. S.B. (4897) Vol. LXVI, Part i, p. 10). Of course, in the above form
the word would represent the diminutive of top^ a cannon. But may it
not rather be the Indian pronunciation of tufak (St. 314, another form
of tufang^ a matchlock)?
104 THE ARMY Of THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
stocks {qu7iflaq, T. id. 970) were profusely decorated with
the surface ornament for which India, like the rest of the
East, is so justly celebrated. The longer of the two weapons
could only have been used, I should say, by a man on
foot. Part of the matchlockman's equipment was a prong
or tripod, called shakh-i'tufang, on which the gun was
placed when about to be fired {Mirat-ul-Istilah, fol. 178^;).
Ashob, fol. 1825, calls them sih-pajjah, i. e. three footed
or tripods. Seaton says, i, 207, that the prong was some-
times attached to the weapon. According to Bernier, 217,
the prongs were of wood.
I find in W. Egerton, pp. 83, 110, 111, 118, 124, 132,
133, 139, 145, about sixty specimens of the musket and
the matchlock. The latter he calls toredar (Shakes., 702, h.
a matchlock, from tora, a piece of rope, a gun-match).
Thirteen of these guns are figured on plates iv (p. 51)
and X (p. 114), and among the figures on p. 79. One
matchlock is a miniature weapon, one a revolver with four
chambers, one has a rifled barrel, five have flint, and four
percussion locks, these latter obvious modern imitations of
European models. The other forty-eight are types of the
ordinary matchlocks. Of these the shortest is 4 feet 7 inches
and the longest 7 feet in length. One, N^ 671, length 6
feet 5 inches is called a wall-piece; if so, N^s 551, 584,
585, which are longer, must be the same. Two of the
specimens have octagonal barrels, a third has a barrel
not only square outside but having also a square bore.
Guns of European make [tiifang-i-farang) were much
prized, but were only found in the possession of the
greatest nobles. It was with one of these, as Mhd Qasim,
Lahori, tells us, ^Ihratnamah, 352, that a slave seated
behind his master, Haidar Quli Khan, Mir Atash, shot
Sayyad Ghairat Khan on the 8^^ Oct. 1720, in the onset
made upon Muhammad Shah's tents immediately after the
assassination of the Sayyad's uncle, Husain ^Ali Khan,
Barhah.
EQUIPMENT. — (C) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS ; II, MISSILES. 105
To the end of the Moghul period the fire arm in
ordinary use was the matchlock. The flint lock was little
known to them, and, of course, the percussion weapon
was never seen, not having been introduced even into
European armies until the W^ century (H. Wilkinson,
JEngines of War, 67). The flint lock itself does not seem
to have been generally adopted in Europe until the end
of the 17^'i century (id. 67 ^), and it could hardly have
become generally known in the East until a hundred years
later. It was not until regular battalions armed and drilled
in the European manner, were entertained by the Mah-
rattas and the Nawab Wazir, that the flint lock could
have got into the hands of Indian troops to any appreci-
able extent. This seems borne out by the fact that of some
sixty fire-arms catalogued by W. Egerton, fifty are match-
locks, and only five fitted with the flint lock. A passage
in M. Wilks, "Soutb India", i, 278, note, also shows that
in 1751 the flint lock was an absolute novelty to the
native armies of Southern India. Eitzclarence, 256, writing
so late as 1818 confirms this opinion. He says "The flint-
lock, an introduction of the Europeans, is far from being
general, and I may even say is never employed by the
natives: though the Telingas, armed and discipled after
our manner, in the service of Scindiah and Holkar, make
use of it. Some good flint locks, are, however, made at
Lahor". It is true that Khair-ud-din, ^Ibratnamah, i, 105,
writing of 1173 h. (1759), declares that when Ram Narayan,
deputy governor of Patnah, was defeated by Shah 'Alam,
he left on the field among other things six thousand flint
muskets {bandUq-i-chaqmaqi). This can be only partially
true, and even then it must be remembered that, by that
time, the importation of arms through the ports on the
Hugli must have become active; and what might be true
of Bengal and Bahar in the above year, did not represent
1 Voyle and Stevenson, Mil. Diet. (1876), 142, say it was invented about
1635, but not employed in England till 1677.
106 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
the condition of things in places farther from the seaboard.
In the Dakhin the introduction of the flint-lock weapon,
owing to intercourse with the French and English, may
have been somewhat earlier. At any rate, it is said that
the 12 battalions of Gardl^ or infantry drilled and armed
in imitation of the French sepoys, and commanded by
Ibrahim Khan, Gardi, at the battle of Panipat in Jannary
1761, carried flint-lock muskets {Eusain S/id/d, fol. 345).
And, if we may trust Ashob's memory, writing 58 years
after the event, the artillery soldiers taking part in the
riot of 1141 H. (1729) at the Jami' Masjid in Dihli, were
armed with flint-lock (chaqmaqi) muskets.
The matchlock barrels were covered with elaborate da-
mascened ijcoft-gari) work, and the stocks adorned with
embossed metal work or with various designs either in
lacquer, or painting, or inlaying of different materials. The
stocks were at times adorned with embossed and engraved
mounts in gold, or the butt had an ivory or ebony cap.
The barrel was generally attached to the stock by broad
bands of metal or by wire of steel, brass, silver or gold.
The broad bands were sometimes of perforated design and
chased. The stocks were of one or other of two designs,
1) narrow, slightly sloped, of the same width throughout,
or 2) strongly curved and very narrow at the grip, ex-
panding to some breadth at the butt. When not in use,
matchlocks were kept and carried about in covers made
of scarlet or green broad-cloth.
Parah. Rustam ""All, BijnorT, in his "History of the
Rohelas" (in Urdu), fol. 22^, in speaking of the fight
between Donde Khan and Qutb-ud-din Khan, grandson of
^Azmatullah Klian, near Kiratpur in Rohilkhand, says;
handuq he parah charte the. Although this meaning
is not in the dictionaries, I take parah to be here
the hammer of the matchlock. Platts 258, and Steingass
230, 246, among other meanings give those of ''bolt
of a lock or door" and "iron mace", either of which
EQUIPMENT. — (c) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS; 11, MISSILES. 107
could be easily enough extended into "hammer of a gun".
The match. The name of this was in Persian either
jamagi (Stcingass, 351), ox fcdUah (id. 938), in Hindi /o/y7
(Shak. 702). According to Ashob, fol. 2616, to have the
match ready and lighted was falltah shahsuwctr namudan.
Powder horn et cetera. These accoutrements were called
collectively kamr (Egerton 83, N«. 143, 133, N^ 683). The set
consisted of a powder flask, bullet pouches, priming horn
{singra), match-cord, flint and steel, the whole attached to
a belt. This belt was often of velvet embroidered in gold.
Ashob, fol. 226/5, gives shakh as the word for powder horn.
Steingass, 720, does not include this specific signification
in the numerous meanings he gives; but Platts, "Hindu-
stani Dictionary", 716, has shakh-dahana, a small powder
flask for priming. Fitzclarence, 69, speaking in 1817 of
some irregular horse in the Company's service, half of
whom were armed with matchlocks, says "the receptacles
which contained their powder and ball are unwieldy, and
as they never make use of cartridges for their pieces, they
are a long time in loading. Some of them have at least
twenty yards of match about their person, similar in ap-
pearance to a large ball of pack-thread". Modern words,
adopted from Europeans, were tozdan (pouch) and kartus
(cartridge). They are used by Khair-ud-din, ^Ibratnamah,
i, 422, when recounting Rene Madec's defeat in 1191 h.
(1777) by Mulla Ralim Dad Khan. The book itself was
written after 1203 h. (1788).
Blank Cartridge. I find the expression khah-goli used
for blank cartridge by Rustam ^AlT, Bijnori, "History
of the Rohelas" (in Urdu), fol. lla-. Bataur jang-i-zargari
khah goll se apus men chalen; "As in a goldsmith's quarrel
(a collusive dispute), they fired blank cartridge at each
other".
Cailletoque. This strange word is used by Anquetil
Duperron, Zend-Avesta, I, xliv, when speaking of Siraj-
ud-Daulah's escort at Murshidabad (1757), and this word
108 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
he defines in his index "fusil a meche, tres long, que
Ton tire ordinairement en le posant sur un pie fait en
espece de fourche". The etymology of the word baffled me
for a long time, it being impossible, from his spelling, to
reconstitute its original form. It is not French, as the
variations in spelling sufficiently show. For instance, De
la Flotte, i, 258, referring to the Coromandel coast, (where
Anquetil also may have picked up the word), speaks of a
very long and heavy matchlock, which he calls a kaitoke
(evidently another phonetic rendering of "cailletoque").
Gentil also, 59, in describing the entry of Salabat Jang's
troops into Aurangabad on the li^ii June 1753, mentions
''fusils a meche, qu'on appelle kaitoJc, cou verts de drap
rouge". Rene Madec (c. 1774) spells it kayetoc (E. Barbe,
"Le Nabab Rene Madec", 54). For a time I thought it might
be due to the use of qanduq, gun-stock, as a name for the
whole weapon, though I have never found in native writers
any such use of that word. Or it might be a vulgar error
for banduq, the ordinary word for a gun. Mr. H. Beveridge
suggested to me milteq, a gun, as a probable derivation
of the word (R. B. Shaw "Sketch of the Turki Language"
J. A. S.B., 1878, p. 184). P. de Courteille, Diet. 506,
fancies that this word mllteq is itself a corruption of bandUq.
In the absence of anything more satisfactory, an explanation
of caiUetoque might he found in qidtUq, the armpit, (Shaw,
157, P. de Courteille 435), on the ground that a musket
is often carried under the arm!
But long after I had given up the search, I came across
a word for a gun or matchlock, which I am convinced
must be the original of that used by the European writers
quoted above. 1 found this word qaidUq in my copy of
the AJ/mnd-namah of 'Abd-ul-latif, a rhyming chronicle of
Ahmad Shah's reign written at Lakhnauin ] 184 h. (1770).
The two passages are on ff. ]5a and \bb, the first in the
rubric and the second in the text; and they read as
follows :
EaUIPMENT. — (c) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES. 109
Rubric.
Dastan dar hay an Jcih roze siiwdrl-i- Wazlr dar rah
ml-raft, o yake az ma and dar kamlngdh nishistah, qaiduq,
OJAxij, bar u rdndah, az In ma^nl Wazlr khiyrd-i-fdsid badil
az Slidh rasdndah, o derah-i-khud az Dihll herun burdah,
binydn-i'fasdd rd td'mir ddd.
Text.
Miydn-i-rdh kase qdbu giriftah,
Zadah qaiduq [^Axi] barue U nihuftali,
Ba qasd-as/i garchali U daiah zad^
Wa-le Ezad khiydl-ash sdkhtah radd,
Giriftand-ash kasd7i az zormandl,
Kashdn burdand urd ham chu bandi.
I cannot find the word in any of the dictionaries, of
which I have consulted a good many.
Jazdil or Jazdir. This was the wall-piece or swivel gun,
and it is doubtful whether it should come here, under
fire arms carried by the combatant, or under artillery.
In some respects it partook of the character of both.
Steingass, 362, defines jazdil as a large musket, wall-piece,
swivel, a rifle used with a prong or rest. Egerton, 124,
note to N°. 585 refers to jazdils in the Codrington col-
lection which are 7 feet and 8 feet long; this would
appear to be the usual length. Ashob, fol. 1825, describing
the entrenchments of Muhammad Shah outside Karnal
(1151 H., Feb. 1739), twice speaks of something he calls
a pushtafi, which was put up {anddkhtali) by the jazdil-
men. This is not the tripod, which is separately mentioned;
probably it was a field shelter or slight entrenchment.
In connection with this weapon we come to giny all, a word
used by European writers. Shakespear, 796, says it is h.
a swivel &ca, either a corruption oi jazd;il, or ivom janjdl,
trouble, difficulty; and Steingass, 373, has a word janjdl,
110 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
crowd, multitude. Yule and Burnell, 285, say that janjal
is ''of uncertain origin". Their examples are Elphinstone
(1818) and Shipp (1803—15). Fitzclarence (1818) also uses
the word. Janjal is used in a Hindi poem composed in
Bundelkhand in the first half of the 18^^ century (Journal
A. S. B., vol. XLVII, 1878, p. 369). I think that jazrdi
must be the origin of jinjal (gingall). Substitute, as an
uneducated Indian would do, a "j" for the "z", and you
have "jaja^il"; then insert a nasal, far from an infrequent
occurrence, and at once you have "janja^il", or quickly
pronounced, "janjal". Q. E. D. But whether gingall is
derived from jazcdl or not, these can be little doubt that
both words are used in respect of one and the same kind
of weapon, as witness Sir Hope Grant's description of the
Chinese gingall (Life, ii, 92). "This weapon is a species
of long heavy duck-gun carrying a ball weighing about
two pounds; its range is at least 1000 yards. It is placed
upon a tripod, from which tolerable aim can be taken".
Lake's remarks. Sieges, 70, note, show that a ginjal (as he
spells it) was in his opinion the same thing as the jazair
or jazdil. "Long matchlocks, of various calibres, used as
wall-pieces by the natives of India, which are commonly
fixed like swivels, and carry iron balls not exceeding a
pound in weight. In the field, they are sometimes carried
on the backs of camels". Fitzclarence, 245, says the ball of
the Indian jazdil weighed two or more ounces. Jinjalls, or
heavy matchlocks were, as writes captain Thomas Williamson,
"Oriental Field Sports", 45, commonly appropriated to the
defence of forts. They carried a ball from one to three
ounces in weight; and having very substantial barrels,
were too heavy to use without a rest. Many had an iron
prong of about a foot in length, fixed on a pivot not far
from the nozzle: and this placed on a wall, a bush, or
the ground, served as a support. In the defence of mud
forts, especially in Bundelkhand, the besieged exhibited
extraordinary dexterity, rarely failing to hit their object either
EQUIPMENT. — (c) OFFENSIVE WEAPONS; II, MISSILES. Ill
in the head or near the heart, even at great distances.
All fire arms used by Indians having small cylindrical
chambers, and being mostly of a small bore, a wonderful
impetus was imparted to the ball. The juzzail used by
the xVfghans in 1842 is described by Colonel Thomas
Seaton, "From Cadet to Colonel"; i, 207.
Ghor-dcthan was a kind oi jaza^il, of which one thousand
were made at Lahor for Mu'in-ul-mulk between 1161 and
1167 H. (1748—1754), see the Tahmas namah of Miskin,
composed in 1196 h., fol. 36^:. The allusion in the name
seems to be to the everted or widened mouth of the barrel.
Qidr. The Mircit-i-Ahmadl, fol. 199«, in describing the
battle outside Alimadabad in 1143 h. (1730), between
Abhai Singh, Rahtor, and Sarbuland Khan, speaks of the
horsemen with qidr, yXi, and matchlocks advancing to give
battle. I cannot find what weapon this was. The nearest
word I have found is jXi, qidr, a cauldron, pot, kettle,
Steingass, 957; but this does not suggest an explanation.
According to Erskine "History", ii, 294 (note), Osmanli
troops lay great store by a kettle, which they carry into
the field as other troops do their colours. But at Alimadabad
neither side were Osmanlis.
III. Pistols.
This weapon was the tamanchah or tamanchah (Steingass,
819, a sharp blow, a pistol). It does not appear in the
list in the Ajn, an omission not to be wondered at when
we remember that the Ajn was composed in 1596 — 7,
while the pistol does not seem to have been known even
in Europe much before 1544 (H. Wilkinson, Engines of
War, 58). The pistol was in use in India, to some extent
at any rate, early in the 18*^ century. For instance, it
was with a shot from a pistol that in October 1720 a
young Sayyad, related to Husain 'All Khan, killed that
nobleman's assassin (Mlid Qasim, Lahori, ^Ihratnamah).
112 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Dowson (Ell, vii, 573) must here have read nlmchah and
translates a "short sword", but all the copies of the text
that I have seen read tamanchah, i. e. a pistol. Probably
the pistol was confined to the higher ranks of the nobles.
Its rarety is shown by these being so few examples in the
Indian Museum. Egerton's "Handbook" has only three
entries, and one of these refers to a pair of English pattern,
which must be quite modern. But Ashob, fol. 61«, writing
in 1196 H. about the shoe-sellers' riot at the great mosque
in Dihli in the year 1141 h. (1 1^1^ March 1729), speaks
of the soldiers taking part in it as having European pistol
and tahanchah.
Sherbachah. This musketoon or blunderbuss (literally
"tiger-cub") seems to have been of a still later introduction
than the pistol. Egerton catalogues three examples only
N^ 410 (p. 110), Nos 761—2 (p. 144). One is twenty
inches long. Probably the weapon came into India with
Nadir Shah's army (1738) or that of iVhmad Shah, Abdali,
(1748 — 1761). In the last quarter of the 18tli century there
was a regiment of Persian horse in the Lakhnau service
known as the Sher-bachah. Possibly they took their name
from this weapon, with which they may have been armed.
Or the name may have been due to their supposed ferocity
and thirst for their enemies' blood. Dowson in Elliot, viii,
398, note 2, quoting from the Akhbar-ul-Muhabbat, speaks
of ten thousand dismounted men in Ahmad Shah, Abdali's
army in 1760 "having sher-bachas (pistols) of Kabul".
CHAPTER X.
ARTILLERY. HEAVY GUNS.
The general name for this branch was Top-k/iannh {top,
cannon, Hanah, house, division). Every departn:ient con-
nected with the artillery was included under the one
name; it comprized, 1) a manufacturing department; 2) a
magazine or ordnance department, in both of which the
imperial Khansaman, or Lord Steward, had the superior
control over the Daroghah or Mir Atash; 3) the field
artillery in actual use; and 4) the guns in use in the
fortresses. In these last two subdivisions the Mir Atash
seems to have been entirely independent of the Khansaman.
The word top, the usual name for a cannon, is stated
in Persian dictionaries to be of Turkish origin, but ap-
parently Babar used the word zarb-zan (literally, blow-
striker). For this see Horn, 27, and his references, Pavet
de Courteille, "Memoires", ii, 168, ^arabah ustidaki zcirhzan-
Icir, "les couleuvres qui etaient sur des chariots", id. ii,
336, zarbzan-lih ^arabah-ldr, "des couleuvres toutes montees
sur leurs affuts", and BudaunT, ii, 194, line 6, ta- zarbzan-
ha 0 zambUrakha kih bcilae ^arabahhae bud, "to the cannon
and swivel-pieces which were upon carts" ^. 1 have not
traced when the word top first appears in Indian writings,
but probably it came into use first in the Dakhin and
was introduced there by the officers from Rum, that is,
Turkey, who were employed in the artillery. The word top
' I have found zarbzan used by so late a writer as Kam Raj (c. 1119 h.),
see A^zam-ul-harb, fol. 1206, but then he has top and rahkalah in the
same sentence.
114 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
is often restricted to the large cannon or siege guns;
sometimes we find it used for all classes of cannon, with
the distinction into large and small, top-i-kalan and top4-
k/mrd.
Babar seems to have had in use pieces of considerable
size (Horn, 26). In his memoirs (P. de C, ii, 253) he
describes the founding of a cannon at Agrah under the
direction of his head of the artillery, Ustad Qull Khan.
"Around the mould they had erected eight furnaces for
melting the metal. From the foot of each started a channel
which ended in the mould. As soon as I had arrived, the
holes to allow the flow of metal were opened. The fused
metal rushed into the mould like boiling water. After a
time, before the mould was full, the fused metal from the
furnaces began to flow very slowly, either because their size
or the amount of material had been wrongly calculated,
Ustad Qull Khan, in a state that cannot be described;
wished to fling himself into the very midst of the melted
copper. I made much of hira, ordered him a robe of honour,
and thus succeeded in calming him. A day or two after-
wards, when the mould had cooled down, it was opened.
Ustad Qull Khan, overwhelmed with joy, sent me word
that the bore {dme) of the piece had no fault and that a
chamber could easily be made in it. The body of the
cannon was then uncovered and a certain number of arti-
ficers were set to finish it, while he busied himself with
the preparation of the chamber". From ii, 269, it seems
that this chamber was cast separately, and the gun was
then tried, and fired a ball for a distance of sixteen hundred
paces. On another occasion, ii, 324, a large cannon was
fired, the ball went far, but the piece burst and eight men
were killed'. At a much later period the art of founding
could not have greatly advanced, for w€ find that De la
^ The passage in ii, 336, does not necessarily refer to large guns, and
Mustafa, the other artillery officer, is spoken of as using small field
pieces (culverines).
ARTILLERY. — HEAVY GUINS. 115
Flotte, i, 258, speaking of the 18^1' century and the Dakhin,
asserts that Indian cannon were not founded, but built up
of iron bars bound together, and hekl in pkce from distance
to distance by thick rings of the same metal. Again An-
quetil Duperron, "Zend Avesta", I, xlvi, speaking of the force
commanded in 1757 by Rajah Dulab Ram, one of Nawab
Siraj-ud-daulah's officers, says "I'artillerie consista en gros
''canons faits de bandes de fer battu". Writing much later,
in 1818, Fitzclarence, 255, says "The artillery in use among
the natives is generally an iron cylinder with molten brass
cast round it". Elsewhere, 251, he remarks that in their
first attempts to make cannon the Indians employed bars
of iron hooped together. In one instance he saw an im-
provement on this. It was at DihlT that he found a piece
made of iron wedges placed as radii, and then hooped
together so as to form the gun.
Horn, 28, quoting from Mirza Haidar (Elliot v, 131, 132)
says that at the battle of Kanauj in 1540 Humaytin had 700
pieces (zarhzan) drawn each by four pairs of bullocks (these
guns fired balls of 41b., 304 gr. each), [n addition to these were
twenty-one heavy guns requiring each eight pairs of oxen, and
firing leaden balls ten times as heavy as the others. Erskine,
"History", ii, 186, using the same passage from Mirza Haidar,
reads "sixty-one (ti^-n^ o^^^^) heavy guns, each drawn by
sixty (o>^^^) pairs of bullocks". Ross, "Tarikh-i-Rashidi", 474,
has "twenty one (d^^ >^'^:^j) carriages each drawn by eight
(.^xi.^) pairs of bullocks". Looking to the state of things
then existing, I think the number of twenty one is pre-
ferable to Erskine's sixty-one heavy guns ; but on the other
hand the larger number of bullocks {sixty and not eight
pairs) is the more probably correct; the ball thrown being
ten times as heavy as that of the smaller pieces, the gun
itself must have weighed more, in something like the same
proportion, and would have required more than twice as
many bullocks to drag it.
Dr. Horn, 29, holds that under Akbar the artillery
116 THE AMRY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
reached the highest point of efficiency which it ever at-
tained during the existence of the Moghul empire. But
judging from the brief account of cannon in the Aln-i-
Jkbari, one would surmise that this arm was little, if at
all, developed. A great deal is said about matchlocks, but
comparatively little about other bouches a feu. It would
be, I think, a safer opinion to hold that the artillery was
much more perfect and numerous in 'Alamglr's reign, than
it was under his great-grandfather, Akbar. The long cam-
paign in the Dakhin and the innumerable sieges, some of
considerable importance, such as those of Bijapur and Jinji,
must have brought the uses of artillery into much greater
prominence. And during the 18^^ century something, if not
much, was learned from the example of the French and
English armies, and from the European adventurers, who
found their way in considerable numbers into the armies of
the native powers. As an instance of the hazardous conclusions
that are occasionally arrived at, 1 may quote the suggestion
of Mr. D. Mac Ritchie, "Gypsies of India", p. 207, that
the gipsies (whom he identifies with the Jats) brought the
use of artillery into Europe. The history of the arm in
India seems to prove on the contrary, that it was intro-
duced there from Europe.
European observers in the IS^h century do not, as a rule,
speak favourably of the Moghul artillery. For instance,
with reference to the Nawab of the Karnatak's army in
1746, Orme, "Mil. Trans." i, 74, says "Having never ex-
perienced the effect of field pieces, they had no conception
that it was possible to fire with execution the same piece
of cannon five or six times in a minute; for in the awk-
ward management of their own clumsy artillery, they
think they do well if they fire once in a quarter of an
hour". Even seventy years later, in 1815, the Nizam's
artillery were still content to fire once every fifteen minutes ;
and on one occasion they were indebted for final success
to the freak of some European soldiers, who came at night
ARTILLERY. HEAVY GUNS. 117
from their own camp, and fired the guns so fast as to
frighten the besieged into evacuating the place before the
morning (Lake, 15, note). Cambridge, who wrote about
1760, "War", Introduction, ix, is more general in his con-
demnation. "Nothing is so ruinous to their military affairs
as the false notion which is generally entertained by them,
and chiefly by their commanders, in relation to artillery.
They are terrified with that of the enemy, and foolishly
put a confidence in their own ; and what is the most fatal
mistake, they place their chief dependence on the largest
pieces, which they know neither how to manage or to more.
They give them pompous and sounding names, as the
Italians do their guns, and have some pieces which carry
a ball of seventy pounds. When we march round them
with our light field pieces, and make it necessary to move
those enormous weights, their bullocks, which are at best
very untractable, are quite ungovernable, and at the same
time are so ill-harnessed, that it causes no small delay to
free the rest from any one that shall happen to be unruly
or slain". Again, take what Mustapha says, Seir, i, 443,
note 19, "Expressions about a well-served artillery are
misleading, for it is certain that all their artillery was as
cumbrous, ill-mounted and ill-served as was the artillery
of Europe three hundred years ago. It is only since the
year 1760 that some Indians have put themselves upon the
footing of having an artillery mounted and served nearly
in the European manner". And writing at Agrah in 1768
or 1769, an anonymous observer (Orme Mss. p. 4341)
remarks on the Jats taking two 24-pounders a mile or two
in ten days, and scornfully adds "Telle est I'adresse de la
plupart des Indiens dans le metier de la guerre apres qu'ils
ont regu tant de legons des Europeens, dont ils auraient
du profiter. Mais on a beau leur apprendre!"
The following account of Mahratta ways in 1791 may
be taken as applicable to the Moghul artillery of the same
period. "A gun is loaded, and the whole people in the
118 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
battery sit down, talk and smoke for half an hour, when
it is fired, and if it knocks up a great dust, it is thought
sufficient: it is re-loaded and the parties resume their
smoking and conversation. During two hours in the middle
of the day, generally from one to three, a gun is seldom
fired on either side, that time being, as it would appear,
by mutual consent set apart for meals. In the night the fire
from guns is slackened but musquetry is increased on both
sides" (E. Moor, ^'Narrative", 30). Colonel Hector Munro,
the victor of Baksar, speaking of the period 1763 — 1772,
held that the Indian princes got their artillery from Eng-
land, Holland and France. "There is hardly a ship that
comes to India that does not sell them cannon and small
arms; the most of the gunpowder they make themselves.
They cast shot in abundance, but there is no black prince
that casts cannon but the king of Travelcore (Travancore).
The cannon and military stores are smuggled into the
country" (Carraccioli, "Life of Clive" iii, 276, and "Minutes
of Select Committee, H. C", sitting of 14th May 1772.
Heavy Guns.
The Moghuls were very fond of large ordnance, but
such pieces were really more for show than use; and as
Fitzclarence truly says, 243, the oriental idea seems to
have been "to render this destructive engine from its size
more powerful than those of the Western world". In this
direction they proceeded even to extravagant lengths. These
huge guns made more noise than they did harm; they
could not be fired many times in a day, and were very
liable to burst and destroy the men in charge.
Names. The large guns were all dignified with pompons
names, just as elephants were, such names as Ghazl Khan
"Lord Champion", Sher Dahan "Tiger-mouth", Bhumdham
"The Noisy", (Shiu Das, 29«) Kishwar kusha "World-
opener", Garh'bhanjan "Fort Demolisher", Fath-i- Laslikar
"Army Conqueror", (Elliot, vii, 100) Aarangbar "Strength
ARTILLERY. — HEAVY GUNS. 119
of the Throne", Burj Sliikan "Bastion Breaker", (Catrou,
256) Jahan kusha "World Conqueror" (Horn, 37) and so
forth. At the battle of Husainpur in 1133 h. (Nov. 1720)
there were present Sher dahan (Tiger mouth), Ghazi Khan
(Lord Champion), "Alam-sitan (World-seizer), Atash-dahan
(Fire mouth), KhushlialChand, Berlin Ms. N". 495, fol. 10 15^.
In addition to a name they were also usually provided
with an inscription, sometimes in verse, stating the name
of the founder, the place and the year of manufacture.
From Bernier, 217, 218, 352, we learn that early in
^Alamgir's reign there were in the field with the emperor
seventy pieces of heavy artillery, mostly of brass. These
and the camel guns did not always follow the emperor,
when he diverged from the high road to hunt, or to keep
near a river or other water. Heavy guns could not move
along difficult passes or cross the bridges of boats thrown
over rivers. Many of these seventy pieces were so pon-
derous that twenty yoke of oxen were necessary to draw
them along : and when the road was steep or rugged, they
required the aid of elephants, in addition to the oxen, to
push the carriage wheels with their heads aud trunks.
These heavy pieces had frequently to be left behind,
from the impossibility of their keeping up with the army.
Thus A'zam Shah, when he marched in 1707 from Ahmad-
nagar to Dholpur, left all his heavy guns behind at various
stages of his march, and had none left when he reached
the battle field at Jajau (Kamraj, A^zam-ul-harh, fol. 19).
Then in Safar 1125 h. (March 1712), during the contest
for the throne between the sons of Bahadur Shah, three
of the very largest guns were removed from the fort of
Lahor, each being dragged by 250 oxen, aided by five or
six elephants, and it was ten days before the camp was
reached, although it was not more than three or four miles
distant (B.M. N". 1690, fol. \hlb).
In 1128 H. (1715-6) when Rajah Jai Singh was be-
sieging Churaman Jat in his fort of Thun, one of these
120 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
cannon was sent from DihlT. It was escorted with ceremony
from Palwal to Hodal and there made over to the deputy-
governor of Agrah for conveyance to its destination. The
shot is threw was, we are told, one maiind (Shahjahani)
in weight (Shiu Das, fol. I3a). Again, at the siege of Agrah
in 1131 H. (July, August 1719), several of these large
cannon were employed. They had there Ghazi Khan, Sher
Dahan, Dhiimdham, and others. These guns took shot of
from 60 to 100 lbs, (30 sers to 15 man Shahjahani). Attached
to each gun were from one to four elephants and from
600 to 1700 draught oxen (Shiu Das, fol. 29«). Muhammad
Muhsin also speaks of Muhammad Shah having at Karnal
in 1151 H. (Feb. 1739), guns which required five hundred
to one thousand bullocks, aided by five to ten elephants
(Horn, 34, quoting Elliot, viii, 74).
When the Jat rajah of Bhartpur besieged his relation
in Wer, about 30 to 40 miles south of Bhartpur, his
biggest cannon, a 48 pounder, was sent from his capital.
It was a piece that Stiraj Mall had taken from the Mah-
rattas, and they had carried away from DihlT. Although
dragged by 500 pair of oxen, with four elephants to push
behind, it occupied them a month to convey the gun
about half way, some eighteen or nineteen miles altogether,
and there it stuck. It should be noted, however, that this
was in the rainy season, which added immensely to the
difficulty. The writer from whom I obtain these facts adds
"This may look strange, but you do not know the weight
of these guns or the kind of gun-carriage used. At the
very time I write this (c. 1767), it is ten days since they
brought out two 24-pounders from the fortress of Agrah,
each drawn by fifty pair of bullocks and helped by an
elephant. Yet at this moment they are not outside the town
of Agrah, though they are moving each day from dawn
to night-fall (Orme Mss. p. 4341). In 1826 there were
still large guns at Wer. Colonel Seaton in his "From Cadet
to Colonel", i, 177, says "we found some enormous iron
ARTILLKIIY. — IIP:AVY GUNS. 121
guns built up something in the style of our present xVrm-
strongs, with this difference that over the inner core of
longitudinal bars forming the bore, iron hoops and not
coils, were shrunk on ; over which came a layer of longi-
tudinal bars, and outside these another layer of hoops
shrunk on. The diameter of these guns at the muzzle was
enormous, something like three feet, but the bore was small.
I should suppose they were about 4()-pounders. I don't
think any amount of powder would have burst them".
A /ode of Mounting Recwy Guns. From the slow progress
that was made in the transporting of these heavy guns, it
may be inferred that the carriages on which they w^ere
mounted, were of a very clumsy and primitive construction.
One is almost inclined to believe that they must have been
dragged unmounted along the ground, by mere brute force.
Otherwise the length of time occupied in going a mile
seems hardly credible.
Most probably throughout the IS^^i century these guns
were mounted on low platforms, and were made to turn
on a pivot, such carriages as in 1803 Thorn, "War", 190,
called "country block carriages, turning on a large pivot".
Fitzclarence, 21G, says the generality of the artillery in the
forts was so badly mounted that they would be dismounted
at the first discharge.
The clearest account of the way in which they mounted
their heavy artillery in the field is to be found in Orme,
"Mil. Trans.", ii, 173, w^hen describing Siraj-ud-daulah's
guns at the battle of Palasi (Plassey) in 1757: "The cannon
were mostly of the largest calibres, 24 and 32 pounders;
and these were mounted on the middle of a large stage,
raised six feet from the ground, carrying besides the cannon,
all the ammunition belonging to it, and the gunners them-
selves who managed the cannon, on the stage itself. These
machines were drawn by 40 or 50 yoke of white oxen,
of the largest size, bred in the country of Purnea; and
behind each cannon walked an elephant, trained to assist
122 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
at difficult tugs, by shoving with his forehead against the
hinder part of the carriage". Sir Eyre Coote, "Minutes of
Select Committee H. C", SO^li April 1772, says that the
Nawab's cannon were "mounted on bundles of bamboos
tied together and each piece drawn by 20 or 30 pairs of
oxen". On the other hand, Major Munro, "Minutes", 14th May
1772, deposed that the 133 pieces of different sizes taken
from Shuja'-ud-daulah at Baksar (23^^ Oct. 1764) were
all on carriages and most of them on English carriages.
The Mahratta artillery in the Dakhin, so late as 1791,
was still mounted on the old plan, copied from that of
the Moghuls. "His (Paras Ram Bhao's) largest guns were
brass 32 and 42 pounders cast at Poona, in length far
exceeding ours: the wheels of the carriage as well as the
carriages themselves, were exceedingly clumsy, particularly
the limber wheels, which are generally of one piece, very
low, and in a heavy road do not perhaps turn once in
the distance of a hundred yards. The gun is so heaped
with baggage of every description that it could not be
cleared ready to fire under at least half an hour; nor
could any one from its appearance iu its travelling state,
were it not for the number of bullocks dragging it, con-
ceive it to be a gun : fifty, sixty and sometimes one hun-
dred couple of bullocks drag one of these guns; and in
very heavy roads, where the cattle have been hard worked
and ill-fed, an elephant is posted to the rear who pushes
with his head over difficult passages. Although the impro-
vement of having four bullocks abreast was lately adopted
by the Mahrattas, there surely can be no utility in having
such a string of cattle as they sometimes tack to one of
these strange pieces of ordnance" (E. Moor, "Narrative, 78)".
In the Dakhin we found it necessary to employ sixty
Carnatic bullocks in yoke to an iron 24 pounder, fifty to
an iron 18 pounder, and forty to an iron 12 pounder
(Blacker, "War", 283).
One observer, De la Flotte, who was in the south of
ARTILLERY. — HEAVY GUNS. 123
India from April 1758 to May 17G0, declares that Indian
cannon, when used in fortresses, were not mounted on
carriages: "they are put on the very embrasure, or they
are supported by two great movable timbers {poutres). The
balls are of stone, they make many ricochets and then
roll a great distance". M. de la Elotte saw at Jinji, the
well-known fortress 82 miles s.w. of Madras, one of these
pieces, which was twenty feet in length. At Arkat (Arcot)
in 1746 Clive seems to have fired a big native gun from
a mound of earth, without having any carriage (Orme, i,
191, referred to by Horn, 34). Colonel M. Wilks also
speaks of an occasion in 1768 when the guns of the Indians
were numerous "but unmounted". In Northern India,
however, some sort of carriage seems to have been used
even for heavy guns, when they were employed in the
defence of a fortress.
Descriptions of individual guns. Dr. Horn, 36, quoting
Captain Showers (J.A.S.B., XVI, 589) gives as the exact
dimensions of one of Shahjahan's cannon, then (1847) to
be found at Murshidabad,
Extreme Length . . . . 17 feet.
Deph of Bore .... 15 „
Diameter at Muzzle . . 1 „
Diameter of Bore ... 6 inches.
This cannon, Jahan Kusha, the world conqueror, bore a
poetical inscription of eight distiches, to which were added
the facts that it was made at Dhakah in Jamadi ii of the
eleventh year of Shahjahan (Oct. Nov. 1637), and that it
took a charge of 28 sirs of powder. It had been made by
the method of welding.
When Dara Shukoh was sent against Qandahar in Shah-
jahan's reign, he cast two great guns at Lahor, which
threw a ball of I man 5 sirs (about 90 lbs. English). Their
names were Fath Mubarik (Blessed Victory) and Kishwar
Kushae (World Overcomer). He had with him two other
124 THE ARMY OP THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
heavy guns, the Qildh-kushae (Fort Overcomer) from Dihli
and Maryam (Mary?) from Shal (Raverty, "Notes on Af-
ghanistan", 22, relying on the Lataif-ul-Aklihar of Rashid
Khan). " ~
One of these large guns was to be found at Alimadnagar
in the Dakhin. Fitzclarence, 243, says it was about 25 feet
long, and it was said to have carried shot into Sir Arthur
Wellesley's camp in 1803 "though it was pitched out of
range of all reasonable weapons". It was, perhaps, the same
as the malik-i-maidan, (King of the Battle-field), described
by Horn, 132, quoting Meadows Taylor and J. Fergusson's
"Architecture of Beejeepore", which is declared by those
writers to be the largest piece of ordnance in the world.
The metal is an alloy of 80.427 parts of copper to 19.573
parts of tin. The dimensions are
Diameter at the Breech . . 4 feet, 10 inches.
Diameter at the Muzzle . . 5 ,, 5 „
Diameter of Bore .... 2 „ 41 „
Length 14 „ 3 „
In the "Life and Correspondence of the Right Honble Sir
Bartle Frere", i, 56, these is a drawing by him of two
large guns that he saw at Bijapur in 1848. One was on
the Upari-burj (upper bastion?); the other he calls Muluh
Juft. Neither of them was mounted on a carriage.
The gun Malik-i-maidan was cast at Alimadnagar in
1548, during the reign of Burhan Nizam Shah i, by a
Turk named Muhammad, son of Hasan. It was first des-
cribed by E. Moor, "Narrative", 322, who believed it to
have been cast by 'Alamgir in 1097 h. (1685), but the
copy of the inscription as given by him, does not bear
this out, for it commemorates the capture of Bijapur in
that year, and not the casting of the gun. Moor was told
that there were twelve large guns; of these he saw three,
two being not cast, like the Malik-i-maidan, but made of
welded bars hooped round. One of them was called Lam-
ARTILLRRY. — HEAVY GUNS.
125
chharri, which Moor translates "the fiir-liyer" (perhaps from
lamchhar (Shak. 1795), a long musket, lamchhara, adj. tall).
There were also two guns twenty five feet long at Nagpur
(Fitzclarence, 108, 244), called by the English Gog and
Magog, which were "finer pieces and better proportioned
than the one at Aliraadnagar". Fitzclarence also saw, 216,
a heavy brass gun mounted on a sort of tower at Daulat-
abad, and though he did not measure it, he supposed it
equal to throwing a ball of sixty pounds. There was also
a 24-pounder (id. 218) on a peak at the top, said to have
been raised to that position by a European in ^Alamgir's
reign. At DihlT, opposite the Lahor gate, he also saw in
1817 a gun of a very large bore.
Fitzclarence also describes the "great gun of Agra" as
Major Thorn calls it, "War", 188. "At Agra I have seen a
gun more like an immense howitzer, above 14 feet long,
221 inches in the bore, into which persons can get: the
following is a table of its dimensions".
TABLE OF DIMENSIONS.
Diameter of the
Length of the
Weight
-i
Weight
Nature.
Weight.
OF the
OP THE
.
^
SHOT OF
SHOT OF
6
<6
o
'3
S
•S-S
IRON.
MARBLE.
,£2
,a
S)
=5
O)
1
^
1^
o
0)
^
CJ
B
cq
^
o
Pm
1500 lbs.
cwt. grs. lbs.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
lbs.
lbs.
Brass
1049 1 4
22.5
10.8
46.5
11.3
48.6
51
159
1C9.5
1497.39
567
Weight in maunds, 1469.
Value of the gun, as old brass, in sonaut {sanwat) rupees
53,400; but if serviceable it may be estimated at one
lac and sixty thousand.
"This gun was once supposed to contain much gohl ; and
126 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
even as old brass it is valued at £ 7000 ; but if serviceable,
it may be estimated at about £ 18,000. It at present (1818)
lies near the bank of the Jumnah, outside the wall of the
fort. An attempt was made to transport it down to Cal-
cutta'*. Both Fitzclarence and Thorn give drawings of the
gun. Thorn, 189, says "General Lake had a great desire
to remove this trophy from Agra to Calcutta, with a view
to transporting it ultimately to England; but though a
raft was prepared for its conveyance upon the Jamnah,
the stupendous body of metal proved too heavy for the
framework, and the whole sank in the bed of the river,
where the gun lay buried in the sand when 1 (Major Thorn)
last saw it".
At Agrah in 1803 Lord Lake also obtained a fine 72-
pouuder of the same composition as the ''great gun",
together with 76 brass guns and 86 iron ones of different
kinds, such as mortars, howitzers, carronades, and gallopers,
with thirty-three tumbrils. The brass gnns were in general
of the same manufacture and construction as those taken
at Dihli; and in the camp and town (Agrah) several of
the iron ones were of that description called bar guns,
and the whole were mounted either on travelling carriages
with elevating screws, or on country block carriages turning
on a large pivot (Thorn, 190).
There are some large guns of the Moghul period at
Labor. There is the Zamzamah (The Thunderer), one of
two cast by a man named Shah NazTr, by order of Shah
Wall Khan, prime minister of Alimad Shah, Abdali,
(1747 — 1773). It is of brass and was used, so Muhammad
Latif says, at the battle of Panipat in 1761, though this
is inconsistent with the tariM it bears (1179 h. or 1765/6).
The fellow gun was lost in the Chinab river ; and this one
was removed by the Sikh leader, Har Singh, BhangT, from
the village of Khwajah Sa^id, two miles from Labor, where
the Abdali had his arsenal. It bears . an inscription of
twenty-two lines, of which the last two are :
ARTILLERY. — HEAVY (lUMS. 127
Ba^d taslwi ha gufta: ''Top
Paikar-i-azhdahae, citash'haz\ (1179 z. ^. 1765/6).
''After obeisance he exclaimed 'The dragon shaped, fire-
vomiting, cannon'." Its length is 14 feet 45 inches and
the diameter of the bore is 91 inches. These is also at
Lahor another large gun made in 1182 h. (1768 — 9) by
Shuja'at Khan, Safdar Jang, a governor of Multan; it
bears the name of Kohshikan (The Mountain Destroyer)
and weighs 110 maunds (Syad Muhammad Latif, "Lahor",
p. 386).
Moor, "Narrative", 420, refers to descriptions of large guns
by Dow, "History of Hindostan", ii, 278 (a reference which
I cannot trace in my edition) and by Rennell, "Memoir", 61.
The two referred to by Dow were at Arcot and Dacca.
Rennell measured the second of these, but before the end
of the 18<^li century, it and the bank on which it rested
had fallen into the river. The weight of an iron shot for
it was 465 pounds, and Moor calculates the weight of one
for Malik'i'inaidan to be 2646to pounds.
Sixty eight guns were taken by Lord Lake outside Dihli
on the 16th Sept. 1803 (Thorn, 117). They were of dif-
ferent sorts, the whole mounted on field carriages with
limbers and traces complete. The iron guns were of Euro-
pean manufacture: but the brass guns, mortars, and
howitzers had been cast in India, with the exception of
one Portuguese three-pounder. Some were made at Math-
ura and others at Ujjain, but evidently from the design
and execution of a European artist. The dimensions in
general were those of the French, and the workmanship
highly finished. The guns had belonged to the disciplined
troops of Sendhiah, and the above description abundantly
shows that they were not strictly Moghul weapons at all,
but an equipment prepared under the supervision of Euro-
peans in the native service.
A somewhat later account (1809) of Sendhiah's artillery
is found in Broughton, 109. Sendhiah then had 66 guns.
128 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHUJ.S.
twenty-seven in his own park, ten of large calibre, the rest
of various sizes and descriptions. Thirty one guns were
attached to his regular brigade ; these were all of different
sizes, but few were so large as an English six-pounder.
Besides these he had eight curricle guns, each drawn by
a pair of bullocks: they were very small and were called
the ''orderly" guns from their following in the Maharajah's
retinue.
Wooden Guns. Under the stress of necessity these strange
substitutes for ordinary cannon were used by the Sikhs
on two occasions. For instance, we learn that when the
Sikhs in Dec. 1710 evacuated their fort of Lohgarh in the
outer hills, they blew up a cannon ''which they had made
out of the trunk of a tamarind tree" (Kamwar Khan,
entry of 19^^ Shawwal 1122 h.). Another writer, Ghulam
Muhi-ud-din Khan, fol. 37/^), tells us that when they were
besieged in Gurdaspur in 1715, the Sikhs, though they
had the light artillery that they had taken from Wazir
Khan, faujdar of Sihrind, Bayazid Khan, and Shams Khan,
were unprovided with heavier pieces. These they replaced
by hollowed-out trunks of trees, strengthened by heavy
iron bands placed close together. From these they threw
balls of stone and iron. The Mahomedans estimated these
make-shift cannon to he about half as effective as the
usual kind. A. Demmin "Die Kriegswaffen", 108, speaks of
wooden mortars used in Europe in the Middle Ages; they
were formed of hollowed tree trunks bound with iron straps
and furnished with a metal touchhole. And so late as
1525 the rebellions peasants who besieged their Arclibishop
in Strasburg were in possession of wooden cannon. They
also had leather cannon, such as at a later time were used
by the Swedes! Demmin, p. 929, N'l 24^2^, has a figure
of a wooden cannon froai Cochin China, said to be manu-
factured there up to the present time. It appears to be a
tree trunk strengthened by thirteen strong bands in its
whole length.
ARTILLERY. — HEAVY GUNS. 129
Ghaharah. According to Steingass, 880, this is a bomb,
a mortar for throwing shells. I have only once come across
it; Rustaui 'All, Bijnorl, uses it on fol. 30^/ of his "History
of the Rohelas" (written about 1780): Toj), rahkalah, gha-
bare, dhamakah, (jnj?icd, shutarnal, jazalr, sherbache, qain-
chi banon ke, lekar.
Beg {Mortars). We find in the official manuals a class
of men among the Ahsham, styled Deg-andaz, literally "pot-
throwers". In present usage deg denotes a mortar, and it
may have meant the same at the end of the 17^^ and
beginning of the 18^^^ century, when the manuals referred
to were drawn up. But it seems to me more probable
that these men carried some sort of fire-pot or hand-
grenade, which they threw when two armies were coming
to close quarters.
Ttr. This word, literally "arrow", after acquiring the
extended meaning of bullet, musket, or cannon ball (Stein-
gass 340), was then converted into a word denoting the
calibre of a gun. For instance, in the letters of Chhabilah
Ram, Nagar, ^Ajdib-ul-afaq, fol. 345, we have, Hamrah-
i-jidwiyat'irtisam sih top-i-kamtir, "with this loyal servant
are three guns of small calibre" ; and again a little farther,
upon the same folio, Wa yak zarb-i-top-i-kalan-tlr , "and one
cannon of large calibre". With its meaning of "cannon ball"
we find t'lr in the expression ilrah-hand for "loaded",
used by Rustam "All, BijnorT, in his "History of the
Rohelahs", fol. 435.
Miscellaneous. We come now to various instruments,
mostly of obscure application and use, which are mentioned
here and there by the historians. These are Badal'ijah,
Manjaniq, Sang-ra'd, Sarkob , Top-i-hawae, Muqabil-kob,
Chcidar, Ruqqah-i-atash. Most of these are named by Horn,
28, 29, 35.
Badakjah. Steingass, 140, defines it as a sort of cannon.
Mhd Kazim uses the form Badalij i^Alamgir namah 98,
line 3, ba zarb-i-badalij az pae dar amad). Once Ghulam
130 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
^Ali Khan, Muqaddamah-i-Shah ^Alam-namah^ fol. 795) uses
this word hadaUj when speaking of the war materiel to
be found in Lahor fort in 1165 h. (1752). I have not
seen the word elsewhere, nor can I tell what kind of thing
it was.
Manjamq. This seems to have been in the nature of a
catapult. vSteingass 1324, defines it, a warlike engine, cata-
pulta, balista, sling a pulley, machine for raising great
weights, a crane. Horn, 35, quotes from Elliot, vi, 139, a
reference to the use of a man^anlq at the siege of Asirgarh.
It is also used in the Tankh-i-Alfi (Horn 29, Elliot, v, 170).
This word was applied to the scaffold raised by some
French explorers when examining the upper part of the
Naqsh-i-Rustam tombs in Persia, (E. G. Browne, "A year
in Persia", 250).
Sangrdd. Steingass, 702, calls this a stone ball for a
cross-bow, a stone roller for smoothing flat roofs. Is it not
more probably another name for a catapult throwing large
stones ?
Sarkob. Horn, 132, referring ioilie Akbarnctm ah /m,^)^^^
line 11, speaks of it as a wall breaker or battering ram.
Steingass, 676, has, "a machine erected to overtop a wall,
a battery, a battering machine, vany eminence which com-
manded a fortress or houses, a citadel". Several of these
definitions seem to make it the same thing as siba, which
we shall speak of a little further on. The word sarkob for
a battering ram is used by Jauhar, Aftabchi, fol. 165, when
describing the siege of Chunar in 942 h. (1535). Nizam-
ud-din, Tabaqat-i'Akbar 8hahl, fol. 1515, in his account of
the same events calls the ram a muqdbil-kob.
Top-i-haivde. Horn, 28, calls attention to a passage in
Khafi Khan, ii, 226, where this expression is used. He is
writing of Sldl Ya^qut in the Dakhin during ^Alamgir's
reign (year 1079 h. — 1668-9), and he says o tophde hawae
ba-hani rasdndah^ bar darakht-hde bastah, loaqt-i-sliab taraf-i-
Dandd Bdjpurl at ash niiddd. "Having provided some top-
ARTILl.ERY. — HEAVY GUNS. Kjl
i'hawae (air guns?) and having fixed them on trees, at
night time fired them in the direction of Danda Rajpuri".
This is all we know of this mysterious weapon.
C/tadar. In the Maasir-i-'^Alamglrl 295, line 13, year
1098 H. (1686), when the army was before Gulkandah, I
find this passage, o yah tassuj pesh qadam na shudan-i-
mardum az harish-i-tufang o ban o chadar o huqqah fjhair
az Ixushtah shudan o zakhml gardldan maqsad sural nagirift.
"From the rain of matchlocks and rockets and 'chadar
and 'huqqaJt, the men could not advance a single inch,
and no purpose was effected but to be slain or wounded".
The context shows that c/tadar is here something that was
fired off, but I do not know what. Elsewhere, as the con-
text shows, the word denotes some kind of tent. As for
instance in Ashob, fol. 265flf, ba pal iva chadar iva tambu,
where chadar cannot possibly mean anything but a kind
of tent. I have also seen the word chadar employed in a
way that made it mean a sort of mantlet used as a field
protection to gunners. I have mislaid my reference to the
passage.
Euqqah'i-dtash. Horn, 29, refers to Budaoni, i, 376, line
7 from bottom, but I think it must be, i, 371, 372.
(Ranking, 482). It was at the siege of Kalinjar in Bundel-
khand in 952 h. (1545 — 1546). Sher Shah stood near the
wall and ordered huqqah to be thrown into the fort. By
chance one of these struck the wall and coming back with
force broke in pieces, and the fragments falling on the
other huqqahs, set fire to them and blew up Sher Shah.
This passage does not show whether they were bombs
fired from a mortar or thrown by the hand; but it is
clear that they must have been one or the other. It shows
that the projectile itself was called huqqah, a name derived
no doubt from some resemblance in shape to the ordinary
huqqah used in smoking. Steingass, 426, has huqqah-i-rdash,
a kind of rocket used in war. Huqqah were used in 1044 h.
(1634 — 5) by the defenders of Dhamonl in Bundelkhand,
132 THE ARMY OP THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Badshahnamah, i, part 2, p. 108. The Central Asian word
for the same thing seems to have been qarorah, see Mujmil-
ut-tarlH bad Nadinyah, p. 78, line 13. We meet with
another mention of these Ituqqah in an account of an
assault on Dig by Najaf Khan's troops in 1191 h. (1777),
see Khair-ud-din Mhd, 'Ibratncimah, \, p. 425. The Rohe-
lahs scaled the wall by digging their knives into it and
helping each other up, then hisarvi/an, hairan'i'nairangl'i-
rozgar, sabackahd o Iiaqqah-hae baritt bar sar-i-shan ml
andakhtand. "The garrison, harrassed by the instability of
fortune, threw on their heads small pots {sabuchaJi) and
huqqahs of gunpowder". This goes to show they were
hand-grenades. The same author, i, 75, speaks on an earlier
occasion of the garrison of Fatnah in 1173 h. (1759)
resisting an assault by sabuchah-i-bdrut. There are some
farther remarks on the J/uqqah under the head of Sieges.
CHAPTER XI.
LIGHT ARTILLERY.
Bernier, 217, says the artillery in 1658 was of two sorts,
the heavy and the light, or "as they call the latter, the
artillery of the Stirrup". Another general name sometimes
applied to the light field guns is toplhanah-i-rezah or "small
artillery" {Alrwal-ul-khawaqln, 190<^). We also find it styled
topkhanah-i'jambishl, "moveable artillery", by Khushlial
Chand, Berlin ms. 495, fol. 1144^ and elsewhere. But
more frequently the reading is iop-Jchdnah-i-jinsi. We find
this in Khafi Khan, ii, 953, where the meaning seems to
be "miscellaneous artillery" and in Tarlkh-i-Almad 8haJi,
fol. 1243, under date the 18th Jamadlli", 1167 h., ll^h
April 1754. In the latter passage the sentence reads — "the
jinsi artillery, large and small, was ordered to be collected
under the JharokaJi' (balconied window of the palace).
Here it is made to include cannon of all sizes, and is used
probably as equivalent to "the artillery attached to the
emperor's person". Top-hhanah-i-jilau^ we are told by Colonel
Colombari, 36, is the word used by Mirza Mahdi in Jahan
kushUe Nadirl for "moveable artillery". I have not been
able to find the passage intended. But the word is used
in Mujmil-ut-tankh bad Ncidiriyali^ p. 86, line 9.
This division into heavy and light artillery endured up to
the end of the Moghul period, but I should describe the
Artillery of the Stirrup rather as a subdivision of the Light
artillery than as an identical term for it. For instance,
distinct from the Artillery of the Stirrup proper, Bernier
184 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
tells US that Aurangzlb had two hundred to three hundred
light camels, each of which carried a small field-piece, of
the size of a double musket, attached on the back of the
animal "much in the same way as swivels are fixed in
our vessels".
Artillery of the Stirrup. The Stirrup {rikab) was a figu-
rative expression for the emperor's immediate entourage.
To be at Court was to be hazir-i-rikab, "present with the
Stirrup". The artillery called by this name consisted in
Bernier's time (Travels, ~218, 363) of "fifty or sixty small
field-pieces, all of brass; each piece mounted on a well-
made and handsomely painted carriage containing two
ammunition chests, one behind and one in front, and
ornamented with a variety of small red streamers„ The
carriage with the driver was drawn by two fine horses,
and attended by a third horse, led by an assistant driver
as a relay. The light artillery is always intended to be near
the king's person, and on that account takes the name of
the artillery of the stirrup. When he resumes his journey
in the morning and is disposed to shoot or hunt in game
preserves, the avenues to which are guarded, it moves
straight forward and reaches with all possible speed the
next place of encampment, where the royal tents and those
of the principal omrahs have been pitched since the pre-
ceding day. The guns are there ranged in front of the
king's quarters, and by way of signal to the army, fire a
volley the moment he arrives". Sendhiah in later days
imitated this practice, but called such guns his "orderly"
artillery (Broughton, 109). But after 'Alamgir's reign and
until European ideas were introduced towards the end of
the IS*'*^ century, I do not find mention anywhere else that
cannon were dragged by horses. Either oxen or elephants
were used, to the exclusion of horses.
Names for Light Cannon. For the lighter guns we come
across many names, several of which are probably diff'erent
words for practically the same thing. The names that I
LIGHT ARTILLERY. 135
have collected are 1) Gajnal, 2) Hathncd, 3) Shutarnrdj
4) Zamhiirak, 5) Slia/nn, 6) Dhamaknh^ 7) BamjanaH and
8) Bahkalah. There is also a word rahraii (literally, "mover,
traveller") used on fol. 1005 of the Tarlkh-i- Alamgir Sam.
Referring to the dismantling of the Dihli fort by Ahmad
Shah Abdali in 1170 h. (January 1757) it says: "the great
and small cannon that were on the bastions and over the
gateways were brought down; also the rahrau of the
moveable {jinsi) artillery". In reality there seem to have
been only two classes of light artillery, which may be
designated respectively, (1) Swivel-guns or Wall-pieces, (11)
Field pieces. The distinction lies in the fact that the first
class, the smaller pieces, were carried on the backs of ani-
mals, while the second were transported on some sort of
wheeled carriage. The Bahkalah (N°. 8) represents the second
of these classes, and the other seven belong to the first
category.
1) Gajnal, 2) Hathnal. The words mean literally ' 'ele-
phant barrel" from H. (/aj and H. hat hi, elephant, and
P. 7ial, a tube or gun-barrel; for the former Steingass, 1017,
has the alternative form kajnal. They are mentioned in
the Aj7i, i, 113, and were thus called because they were
carried on elephants backs. From the Jauhar-i-samsam
(Fuller's translation, fol. 50) it would seem that each
elephant carried two gapicd pieces and two soldiers. We
are led to infer that they were fired from the back of the
elephant. But perhaps the gun was placed on the elephant
for transport only, and dismounted before it was discharged.
In any case, the practice of using elephants for such a
purpose soon ceased to be common, as we seldom find
any trace of it in the later reigns. The word Jiarnal,
literally "male-barrel", quoted by Horn, 28, from the Ajn,
i, 113, 1 have never met with in any of the later writers.
It was Akbar's name for matchlocks which one man could
carry.
3) Shutanial, 4) Zamburak, 5) Shahm, These words seem
130 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
all three to refer to the same weapon, what we should call
a swivel-gun or wall-piece. Shutarnal is literally ''camel-gun
barrel", and denotes the fact that they were sometimes
carried on and fired from camels' backs. ZamhUrah is
derived from zamhUr, a bee or wasp, with a diminutive
added, and thus means ''a little wasp", probably in allusion
to its sound when fired, or its power of stinging or wounding.
Sliahm, literally ''falcon", seems a later name for the same
thing; a name which was brought into India by Nadir
Shah (1738—9) or Ahmad Shah, Abdall (c. 1760). Horn,
28, refers to it, quoting from Dowson's Elliot, viii, 398,
a passage in Nig elm ama //A- Hind of Sayyad Ghulam ^Ali.
See also W. Egerton, 29. An anonymous Indian writer
{Waqat^-diyar-i'maghrih) describing the Durrani empire
in 1212 H. (1797-8), writes of "the shakn-khanah, which
are also called zamburalc\ The name shaJim may have been
a translation of the European "falconet". Colonel F. Co-
lombari "Les Zemboureks", Paris, 1853, p. 28, says it was
the Afghans of Qandahar who first fixed the zambUraJc or
falconet to the saddle by a moveable pivot. This mode
was in use by them when they invaded Persia in 1722.
Up to that time the camel had been used for transport
only; the weapon when in use being placed on a rough
wooden carriage, on the ground.
As to the size of the zamburak or shutamcd, we are
told by Bernier, 217, that it was "a small field-piece of
the size of a double musket". Horn, 28, quoting from the
French edition of Bernier (Paris, 1670, p. 110, ed. A. Con-
stable 47, 218) adds that "a man seated behind it on the
camel can load and discharge the gun without dismounting".
A later observer gives a different account of their use
[Seir, i, 250, note 34). "Zamburaks are long swivels with
one or two-pound balls. Two of them are carried fastened
upon the saddle of a camel; and when they are brought
into play, the camel is, as usual, made to kneel on the
ground ; but to prevent his rising, each leg is fastened, bent
LIGHT ARTILLERY. 137
at it is, with cord, and the animal remains immoveable".
According to eJonas Hanway, "Revohitions of Persia", 3^
ed. 1762, ii, 153, this method was also adopted by the
Persians for their "harquebuses". "Each of these pieces,
with its stock, was mounted on a camel, which lay down
at command; and from the backs of these animals, trained
to this exercise, they charged and fired these arms".
Mundy, 215, states the way of using the camel-gun diflPer-
ently : "the gun revolves on a swivel fixed on the pummel
of the saddle, and the bombardier, sitting astride behind
it, loads and fires with wonderful quickness". This refers
to Sendiah's army in 1828.
6) Blinmakah. In one or two places 1 find Bhamakah
mentioned along with rahkalah, as for instance in Jauliar-
i-samsam, fol. 155^5 and Kamwar Khan, 227 (year 1132 h.).
The word is used in the Ajn, i, 115, N*^. 39, for some
kind of matchlock. But it was probably applied in later
times to a small field piece of the same kind as the rah-
halah, although 1 am unable to tell in what particulars
they differed. The word is, of course, the Hindi dhamah 7/,
the sound made by any heavy body falling on tc the
ground. I recollect, in a case of murder brought befrre me,
that this word was applied to the thud made by a dead
body falling into a well. Shakespear doe^ not give the
word in this, its more usual, meaning, but defines it as
a kind of cannon carried on an elephant. Forbes copies
Shakespear. Fallon, 659, has, however, as second meaning
"a blow, thump"; and as third meaning the very vague
word "firelock", which does not suit the passages where
1 have found the word ; it was rather some kind of light
field piece.
7) Ramjanakl. Another unusual word for some sort of
light field-piece is ramjaJd or ramjanakl (Jauhar4-mmsam ,
fol. 155fl). I also find the word used during the period
1134—1147 H. in the Alnocd-i-khawaqin, fol. 216^, where
1 read it Uamchangl. It is given as Bamjangl on fol. 8«
138 THE AllMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
of the Hidayat'ul-quwaid of Hidayat-ullali, Bahari, com-
posed in 1128 H. I cannot suggest even a derivation for
the name.
Organ {Argliun). "A weapon called an organ, which is
composed of about 36 gun barrels so joined as to fire at
once"; Letter from De Boigne's camp at Mairtha, dated
13th Sept. 1790, in H. Compton's "Military adventurers",
p. 61. Steingass, 38, has, Greek, ^^c,' an organ, or o^^^^-
Mr. Compton suggests the comparison with a mitrailleuse.
Chala7il. This is a word used by Rustam ^All, BijnorT,
in his "History of the Rohelahs", fol. Via-, huhn taiyari
saz ^araq, rakkala/i, chalanl, gajual, shutarncil ka. Evidently
from the collocation of words it is some sort of offensive
weapon. But as to what it is the dictionaries give no help;
and I have not met the word elsewhere.
Field Pieces. We come now to the second class of light
artillery, that of field pieces mounted on wheeled carriages.
Of the further subdivision of this branch into ordinary
fifld artillery and artillery of the stirrup we have already
sp ^ken. I have not come across any description of the
pieces in purely Moghul times, but Fitzckrence, 88, writes
thus of those taken from the Mahrattas at Jabalpur in 1817.
"They were of cast brass with iron cylinders, two of them
three and two bix-pounders, but they are so thick that till
1 looked at the bore I thought they were six and nine.
Six tumbrils with their bullocks fell into our hands, with
much ammunition and great stores of balls, grape and
chain-shot. They appeared to be very careless with their
powder, as large quantities of it lay loose near the guns . . .
The carriages of the guns and tumbrils have hands painted
on them in red, and the only explanation 1 could get of
the emblem, used here as well as on the colours, is that
it is meant for ^ujali (worship)" \
* On the significance of the open hand as an emblem much light is
thrown in a learned article by the late Mr. O'Neill in the "Pall Mall
Magazine" for June 4895, pp. 59—72.
LIGHT ARTILLERY. 139
Thirteen of the four-pounders taken from the Mahrattas
outside Dihli in September 1803 were of a similar make,
namely, they were iron cylinders or bores over which it
would seem the metal was run in casting the piece, "the
adherence being so close that no chasm appeared, and
nothino^ but the different colours of the two metals dis-
covered the junction. The iron cylinder or bore was com-
posed of four longitudinal pieces of hammered iron, remark-
ably close and neatly fitted throughout the bore" (Thorn,
"War", 1J7). Here again we have to remember that these
guns were most probably produced in workshops super-
intended by the Frenchmen in the Mahratta service.
Bahkalah. In all histories of the later Moghul period
we find a word rahhalah used in connection with artillery.
Literally it means a cart (Shakes. 1203, Hindi). The word
rahhalah may be heard to this day in the Upper Duab
applied to the smallest size of bullock-cart, one having a
platform or body and wheels, but no sides. This cart, also
called a larrl, is used to carry produce from the fields to
the threshing floor, and for similar light work. The word
seems also to be in ordinary use in the town of Bombay
for a country cart \ But in historical works it means a
field piece or small gun, including of course the vehicle
for its transport. These guns were drawn by bullocks. No
doubt, as a passage in the Akhbar-i-muhabhat, p. 277,
w^ould show, rahkalah was strictly speaking the name of
the gun-carriage only: Ear do dast dar zer-i-rahkalah
burdah, top ra ba rahhalah ta sinah bardasht, "Bringing
both hands beneath the rahhalah, he lifted both gun {top)
and carriage {rahhalah) as high as his chest". In ordinary
' Parliamentary Paper No. 538, March 1894, p. 30, para. 29 of report
by Acting Commr. of Police, Bombay, "natives of Kathiawad, who for the
most part find an occupation in driving rehlas (small bullock carts)".
Apparently these rehlas are the small gaily painted bullock carriages
used for conveying people about in Bombay, one of which is depicted in
the water colour by H. Van Ruilt (Loan Collection, Empire of India
Exhibition, 1895, No. 398).
140 THE ARMY OP THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
circumstances no such distinction was made, and when we
read of the number of top and rahkalah in an array, we
understand thereby so many siege-guns and field pieces.
The word arahah is distinctly used for a field piece in
line 1317 of the Hindi poem by Shridhar Murlidhar of
Prag on the battle between FarrukhsTyar and Jahandar
Shah, composed c. 1712;
cFT cJTT cFTH cfTT ^T ^^^ ^ T\Z ^Tc^f^ ZV\ cFT
''kar-kar-hara-kaf sou arctbe chhuten, tat pakani tapkl
But more frequently he uses the word rahkala. Another
18^^ century poet, Lai, in his Chhatar-prakash (p. 267,
doha 15, line 2) also uses «ra^e as the name of a swivel-gun :
Goli-gola chhutat arahe.
Calling the whole thing a cart {rahkalah or ^arcibah) is
only equivalent to our saying a "gun", when we mean
the gun with its carriage, or the Indians saying chakra, a
wheel, when they mean a cart. In all three cases the name
of a part is used to express the whole of a thing.
^Aradah'top. This is the name used in Khurasan for
what must have been a field-piece, that is, in other words,
a rahkalah. It is used by Mahmud-ul-Munshi in his
Tarlkh-i- Ahmad Shahi, fol. 195 and elsewhere.
Qasarah. This weapon, evidently meaning some sort of
field piece, is mentioned by the author of the Eusain Shahl,
fol. lib and elsewhere, as forming part of the equipment
of the Durrani armies.
Remarks on use of the loords ''^arabah'' a?id ''rahkalah'". I
have not traced back the first adoption, in the secondary sense
of a field piece, of a word originally meaning a cart. Either
the usage was of Indian origin and of a date anterior to
Babar's time; or it might have begun with the translation
of a Turkish or Arabic word already in use in the Cha-
ghatae army. The former is, I think, the preferable opinion.
LIGHT ARTILLERY. 141
Thus Babar in his "Memoirs" uses a word which also means
originally a cart, the Arabic word ^arahah. But if this
were in Turki the well known and accepted name of the
cart on which a gun was placed, why does Babar's cousin
and contemporary use the Persian word gardim (lit. wheel)
for the same thing? See Tarlkh-i-Uashidi, ed. Elias and
Ross, 474.
"Arahah. Does Babar by this word mean nothing but a
cart, or does he include in it the field piece also? The
question is an interesting one. When recounting his pre-
parations for the battle of PanTpat in April 1526, Babar,
"Memoires", P. de C, ii, 161, tells us that he ordered his
men to bring as many ^arabah as they could, and they
collected seven-hundred. These were bound together with
strips of hide, and in the intervals palisades of some sort
{turali) were erected, the whole forming a kind of stockade
or field protection. How, then, should we translate here
the word "arabah? Literally it is, of course, cart; and for
that literal version Pavet de Courteille, ii, 273, and Dr.
Horn, 28, give their vote. On the contrary, Leyden and
Erskine, "Memoirs of Baber", 304, prefer to render the word
by "gun-carriage" and in other places "gun". Sir Henry
Elliot follows suit, "Mah. Hist.", vi, 468, adding the curious
assertion that "Babar had no light pieces at Panipat".
Pavet de Courteille admits that a cart i^araba/i), being
used to transport a field piece, could also be described as
a "gun-carriage". But the main objection to this rendering
is, in his opinion and that of Dr. Horn, the improbability
that Babar had 700 cannon of any sort at Panipat; or
that in another instance, given by Babar, the Persians
could have had 2000 pieces, the word used being in both
cases the same, that is, ^ardbah (P. de Courteille, "Memoires",
ii, 161, 376). Elphinstone, "History", 363, following W.
Erskine in his later work on Babar and Humayun, i, 433,
writes, "linked his gu7is together by ropes of twisted leather".
Looking to the small size of these Bahkalahs, throwing
142 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
probably a ball of only two or three pounds' weight, it
would not be very difficult to collect a large number of
them. Nor would it be impossible to gather together seven
hundred or even two thousand of such light pieces. Taking,
then, all the probabilities of the case into account, the
view of Pavet de Courteille and of Dr. Horn seems wrong,
while that of Leyden, Erskine, Elphinstone and H. M.
Elliot is more likely to be correct. We may safely believe,
I think, that by ^arahah Babar meant not only a cart,
but a cart with the small £fun carried on it. The onlv
difficulty is that in other passages Babar combines with
the word ^arabah (cart) the word zarh-zan (lit. "blow-
striker") to designate the gun itself ("Memoires", P. de C,
ii, 168, 336), and therefore, it may be argued, he would
mean by "arahah, used by itself, a cart and nothing more.
But these very passages, where zarh-zan occurs, may be
turned round to strengthen the argument in favour of
^ardba/i sometimes meaning a gun. For they show that
Babar had field pieces in his army. If so, then where were
these guns at the decisive battle of PanTpat? Unless we
accept with H. M. Elliot the very improbable conclusion
that Babar had then no light artillery at all, the obvious
answer is that they were on the ^arabah, with which he
formed his first line of field defences in preparation for
the battle. This operation of entrenching the artillery and
chaining the guns together, was a common device in the
battles of later times. And we may infer that what his
successors did so often afterwards, was what Babar did at
Panipat, that is, he placed his artillery in front of his
force in a long line, and there partially entrenched it and
chained the guns together.
Turah or Tobrah. As part of this question of Babar's
use of guns in his battle against Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat,
there arises a curious side issue about the meaning of the
obscure word turah, s^y, or tobrah, «yy. First of all, which
is correct, turah or tobrah'^ The latter form is that used
LIGHT ARTir-LERY. 143
by Nizani-ud-dln, Tahnqat-i-Akhar 8/iaJn, fol. 141^7, fol-
lowed by his friend, 'Abdul-qadir, Budaonl, (Bibl. Ind. i,
334, line 4). It does not seem to be a scribe's error, for
in that case it would not have been adopted by a con-
temporary, Budaonl, without any question. It is strange
that Nizam-ud-dln Bakhshl, a soldier, a man highly placed
at Akbar's court, and living barely two generations from
Babar's time, should have misread Babar's "Memoirs", from
which, as is quite evident, he derived his information about
the battle of Panipat. Yet all the other sources that I have
been enabled to consult agree in giving the word as tUrah,
I am indebted to Mr. H. Beveridge for many valuable
notes on these authorities. An excellent manuscript of the
Turk! Baharnamali owned by Mr. Say3^ad All BilgramT,
fol. 264^, line 6, has tUra twice in the same line; Ilminsky's
Turkish text, p. 341, four lines from foot, has ^f/^m twice;
the Bombay lithographed edition of the Persian text, p. 173,
has turah. In the Akbarnamah (Lucknow edition i, 74,
line 2), Abu^l Fazl, who is here evidently using Babar's
"Memoirs", has tUrah. Then Erskine and Leyden, in [their
translation of the Babarnamah, p. 304, found the word to
be turah in the manuscripts they used; and in a later
work, "History of India", i, 433, Erskine practically adheres
to this version. To sum up, there can be little doubt, I
think, that the word Babar used was turah and not tobrah.
It is a little difficult to account for Nizam-ud-din making
such a mistake. Perhaps finding a word turah, of which
he did not know the meaning he altered it into the more
obvious term, tobrah, a nose-bag. Although he thus obtained
a word more definite in meaning than the other, one asks
in astonishment how leather nose-bags could be converted
into breast-works or palisades or shields ? Here the ingenuity
of ^Abd-ul-qadir, Budaoni, comes to the rescue. In his
Muntakhab-ut-tawarikh, Bib. Ind., i, 334, line 4, which is
almost word for word a copy of Nizam-ud-din, and there-
fore of the Babarnamah, he writes "between each pair of
144 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGIIULS.
carts i^arabah), six or seven nose-bags {tohrah) full of earth
{pur4-khak) were arranged". Being furnished by Nizam-
ud-din with the word tohrah, a nose-bag, he at once in-
vented the earth with which he filled them, in order to
make the use of such an unsuitable article somewhat more
plausible. Of nose-bags there must have been plenty in an
army consisting nearly entirely of cavalry, but even four
thousand nine hundred of them (700 X 7) would furnish
a very sorry protection to the soldiers, and if filled with
earth could not be carried ''raised in the air" as the turah
occasionally was. Sir H. M. Elliot, ''Mahomedan Historians",
vi, 469, accepts Budaoni's version as quite satisfiictory, and
as affording a gratifying explanation of the use to which the
nose-bags were put: see Dr. Horn, 74, 75, who gives the
references just quoted, which I have verified. Colonel Rru-
king, i, 439, I am glad to see, takes the view that I do,
namely, that tohrah is a wrong reading for turah. The
difficulty about carrying in the air also throws doubt on
D. Price's ("Retrospect", iv, 678) and H. Beveridge's {Akhar-
namah i, 242) rendering of "gabion"; although in fairness,
one is bound to admit that this word fits better than any
other the description of the turah as used by Babar at the
battle of Panipat.
At times the leather nose-bags {tohrah) were, however,
put to strange uses, as can be seen in the Tdrikh-i-Eusain
Shahi, fol. 39r/. At the end of 1760, during one of the
encounters which preceded the crowning victory of Panipat,
Shah Pasand Khan, generalissimo of Ahmad Shah, Durrani,
was seated on the edge of a well, cleaning the blood from
his sword, when Shuja^-ud-daulah's retinue passed by. On
the Nawab congratulating him, the general asked, "How
many infidels thinkest thou we have slain?" "At the least
five thousand", replied the Nawab. The Afghan said jokingly,
"Give me one rupee each for them, and I will make over to
thee twenty thousand heads". Then he shouted to his troopers,
and each man as he rode up emptied the heads out of
LIGHT ARTILLERY. 145
his nose-bag at the feet of the Nawab. There were from
two to four in each bag.
Tdrah, the meaning of the word. \V. Erskine, "Memoirs
of Baber", 304, in the passage we have just been discussing,
translates "breastworks", and adds in a note that "the
meaning assigned to Turnh is merely conjectural". In
addition to its use as a term of military art, turah has
several other meanings, some of which are better known.
Steingass, 334, has torah^ Turkish, "law, regulation, custom,
rite, a law instituted by Changiz Khan". The meaning under
discussion he gives on the same page under the form of tUra.
But he does not seem to have the not unusual one of "scion
of a royal house", (especially when set up as a claimant
to the throne), see Pavet de Courteille, "Diet." 224. In this
last sense Indian writers use the word whenever the
occasion arises. For one instance among many, Muhammad
Qasim, Aurangabadi, applies it in his Jhival-i-khawaqin,
1725, to the pretender. Prince Nekusiyar. The above three
meanings can easily be derived from the Arabic word ^i^/,
"Anything behind which shelter can be taken" (Kazmirski,
ii, 1516). The same word, with quite a different meaning,
turns up in the Badshdhnamah, ii, 208, year 1051 h.
(1641-2). It is used there for a gift made to the widows
of Yamin-ud-daulah, and is explained as being "nine pieces
of unsewn clothing". According to Platts, "Dictionary", 342,
this torah is an Indian word for dishes or trays of food
and so forth, sent out as presents. In this sense it is also used
more than once in the Tdrlkh-i-^Alamc/lr Sdm^yesiY 1171 h.,
folios 1735, 175r/ and 176^7
As a military term, what then was a turah or tfird? In
the passage having reference to the battle of PanTpat, Pavet
de Courteille, "Memoires", ii, 161, translates "sorte de palis-
sades". In his "Dictionnaire Turc-Oriental", 225, the same
author defines the tarah as pieces of wood and iron bound
together with chains and hooks, behind which the soldiers
took shelter. The word appears in other places in Babar's
10
146 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
memoirs. For instance, "the infantry marched in front,
their turah raised in the air" (P. de C, i, 150, Ilminsky,
p. 86, six lines from foot, Erskine, 74), and "orders were
given to prepare turah and ladders, and also all that is
necessary for the turah ^ without which a town cannot be
taken by assault" (id. ii, 328). The exact kind of thing
intended is thus left extremely vague, as is shown by
Pavet de Courteille's alternatives ("Memoires", ii, 828)
"sorte de palissades ou de boucliers". Perhaps Babar em-
ployed the word in a shifting, somewhat elastic sense,
applying it to anything coming under the general meaning
of "a shelter" or '*a protection". I suppose it was usually
what European military writers would call a mantlet (see
Lake, "Sieges", 216, note). Apparently the same sort of thing
was used by the Mahrattahs at the siege of Karnala in
1670, where "they advanced by throwing up boards
which they carry before them", Grant Dnff, 110, quoting
the Bombay Records. Quatremere, "Histoire des Mongoles
de la Perse", i, 387, note, also holds that the turah was
*'une sorte de mantelet", relying on three passages in the
Zafarnamah, two in the Kabib-us-siyar, and one respecti-
vely in the Matla^'US-sa^dain and the Akharnamah \
Muhrah-i-rahkalah. This is an expression used by Mhd
Qasim, Aurangabadi Akwal-i-khatvdqtn, 210^, for which I
can find no meaning in the Persian dictionary. Describing
his preparations for resisting an expected night attack of
the Mahrattahs, he says, Ba har janih kih dar-rasand
jamf-i'mubarizan faraham dmdah, muhrah-i-rahkalah ba
muqabilah-i-dn nci-pdkdn bay ad kard. From this I infer
that it means the nozzle or mouth of the gun. The same
1 I am indebted to Mr. H. Beveridge for calling my attention to the
passage in Quatremere. The work referred to is "Collection Orientale,
Manuscrits inedits de la Bibliotheque Royale — Histoire des Mongoles de
la Perse, ecrite en Persan par Raschid eldin, publiee, traduite en frangais,
accompagnee de notes et d'un momoire sur la vie et les oeuvres de I'auteur",
par [Etienne Marc] Quatremere, Vol. i, folio, Paris, 1836. The Persian
title is Jami'^-ut-tawarikh.
LIGHT ARTILLERY. 147
word is used, id. 126/^, where it evidently means "chess-
man". J. Shakespear, 2003, gives muhri (which he derives
from munh, face) as the bore of a gun. This must be Mlid
Qasim's meaning in the first of the above passages; but is
not the word more probably connected with the Persian
mori or muhri, a drain pipe? Khushhal Chand, Berlin Ms.
1004^, uses the expression az muhrah-i-bandtiq majruh gasli-
tah : and again id. 1015/5 (twice) and ]019fl. In the
second of these four cases the word seems to refer to the
mouth of the cannon; in the first, third, and fourth, to
the ball or bullet itself. Ashob, fol. 262^, uses Muhrali
quite plainly for the muzzle of a gun. He tells us that in
1739, during Nadir Shah's general slaughter in Dihli,
having no weapons to defend their warehouses, some mer-
chants resolved on frightening the Persians into leaving
them unmolested. They removed the poles and bambus
from their thatched roof, laid them on the walls and the
top of the gate, with their ends toward the street, so that
they looked like the barrels of matchlocks or wallpieccs,
with their muzzles {muhrali) showing.
Ban {Rockets). Dr. Horn speaks of these on p. 39 of his
treatise. Some form of rocket or fire-arrow was in use among
Hindus from very early times. The word han is said by Stein-
gass, 152, to be from vana, Sanskrit for an arrow. But takhsh
used for a rocket in Elliot, ''M. Hist.", iii, 439, {MalfUzat-i-
Taimurt), as quoted by Egerton, 17, is not found in any
modern work. In the Ajn, i, 110, N". 13, we have takhsh
kaman, but that is explained as a small bow, while rockets
appear as ban, N°. 77, p. 112. Euqqah-i-dtash, defined by
Steingass, 426, as a kind of rocket, has been placed by
me under mortars, which see, ante p. 129. The stick of a
rocket was apparently called chharl (h. a stick), see Khafi
Khan, ii, 304, line 15, year 1095 h., sadmah-i-chobchharl-
i-ban ba dahan-i-u rasidah bud: ''He had received a blow
on the mouth from the stick {chob-chharl) of a rocket".
In Tartkh-i-^Alamglr Sanl, fol. lo2a, we have a word
148 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
descriptive of some portion of a rocket, which reads ^^j-^.,
pu/a/c, but must be intended, I think, for 1^j>j , pun(/d, "a
hollow tube", Platts, "Dictionary", 281. A thing called
qainchi-i'han is mentioned twice in the Ahwdl-i-khawdqln
(209<^, 219/5i) and Khushhal Chand speaks of Mahabat Jang,
governor of Bengal, having with him in 1155 h. (1742)
two thousand qaichl-i-bdn [Nddir-uz-zamdnl, Berlin Ms.
W\ 495, fol. 1128«]. See also Ashob, fol. 110«, and again
122fir, who uses the word qaicM when writing in 1198 —
1199 h. of the events of 1150 h. I am not able to say
what this was; but I guess it to have been a tripod or
support from which the rocket was fired. Steingass, 997,
gives qai?ichi, scissors. Perhaps, however, it is only one of
the descriptive words so often used, like zanjir with elephants
or rds with horses; in that case it adds nothing to the
meaning. Another obscure name, in connection with rockets,
hahak-hmihd, is found in the Akbarndmah (Lucknow edition,
iii, 19, line 9). The only suggestion I can offer is, that it
refers to the screaming noise made by some special kind
of rocket, and that the word is, h., kuhuk, the cry of the
koil, or scream of the peacock.
Rockets were an invariable part of the equipment of a
Moghul army. Bernier, 48, speaks of their being used
by Dara Shukoh at the battle of Samugarh in 1658, and
references to them might be multiplied almost indefinitely.
Ashob, fol. 24 1«, speaks of the great number of rockets
which fell into Nadir Shah's hands with the rest of
Muhammad Shah's artillery in 1152 (1739). The rocket,
according to this writer, was invented and first used in the
Dakhin. In his time they were chiefly carried on camels,
each of which carried ten rockets besides the rocket man.
At times they were conveyed on carts drawn by two or
four bullocks, each cart carrying fifteen rockets, besides the
necessary attendants. The idea of the Congreve rocket, intro-
duced into the British service in 1806, is said to have
been obtained from those used by Tipu Sultan at Seringa-
LIGHT ARTILLERY. 149
patara in 1799, where Congreve was present as a subaltern.
But rockets were not peculiar to Maisur, they had been
used in all ages and before that time had spread all over
India. They were used by the Nagpur Rajah at Jabalpur
in 1817 (Fitzclarence, 87).
The Ban is N^. 77 of the list of weapons in the Ajn, i, 1 1 2,
and is figure 62 of plate xiv. It was adorned with a small
triangular flag of green, white, or red. Rocket men marched
on each side of the emperor's moving throne or of his elephant.
This practice was imitated by the Dutch envoy Kotelar, in
his procession into Lahor in 1712 (Valentyn, iv, 283).
We possess several descriptions of the rocket. Moor, 509,
quoting Major Dirom, says ''the rocket consisted of an
iron tube of about a foot long and an inch in diameter,
fixed to a bambu rod of ten or twelve feet long. The tube
being filled with combustible composition, is set fire to,
and being directed by the hand flies like an arrow to the
distance of upwards of 1000 yards. Some of the rockets
have a chamber, and burst like a shell; others called
ground rockets, have a serpentine motion, and on striking
the ground rise again and bound along till their force be
spent. They make a great noise and exceedingly annoy the
native cavalry in India, who move in great bodies; but are
easily avoided or seldom take effect against our troops, who
are formed in lines of great extent and no great depth".
They are thus spoken of by an anonymous European,
writing in French about 1767, Orme Mss. 4307, "Fouquets
{ban), a species of rocket or pipe of iron filled with fine
powder well rammed, and tied to long sticks. They make
a great noise in the air. They are used to throw at crowds
and to embarrass cavalry, but it is easy to protect oneself
against them. Mostly they create more disorder than they
do damage. The Rohelahs are reputed more skilful with
them than any one else. Every army has some. The foot
soldiers in charge might be styled ^'grenadiers" ".
Difficulties arising in the use of rockets are well described
150 THE ARMY OP THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
by Captain Thomas Williamson, 6:2, ''Bans are not very
safe engines, being apt to turn back on those who use them.
They are much employed among the native powers. The
contrivance is very simple, being nothing more than a
hollow cylinder of iron, about ten inches or a foot long,
and from two to three inches in diameter, closed at the
fore end, and the other having a small aperture for filling.
These cylinders are tied strongly to Icitldes, or bamboo
staves, six or seven feet long, parallel to the thickest end
of the bamboo. The fuze at the vent is lighted, the
direction is given by the operator, a slight cast of the hand
commences the motion, and then the dangerous missile
proceeds to its destination. The panic it occasions among
cavalry is wonderful ! When it does fall where intended
its effect is inconceivable ; all fiy from the hissing winding
visitor, receiving perhaps a smart stroke from the stick,
which gives direction to the tube and often causes it to
make the most sudden and unexpected traverses. So deli-
cate, indeed, is the management of this tremendous weapon,
that without great precaution, those v/ho discharge them
are not safe, and it requires much practice, not only to
give them due elevation, by which their distance is pro-
portioned, but to ensure that they shall not, in the very
act of discharging, receive any improper bias, which would
infallibly produce mischief among the party".
M. Wilks, "Hist. Sketches", ii, 27, note, says "The
Indian rocket derives its projectile force from the same
composition which is used in the rockets of ordinary fire
works; the cylinder which contains it is of iron; and
sometimes gunpowder at its extremity causes it to explode
when it has reached its object: a straight sword blade is
also not unfrequently affixed to the rocket; an attached
bambu or reed steadies its flight; the rocket men are all
trained to give them an elevation proportioned to the
varying dimensions of the cylinder and the distance of the
object to be struck : as those projected to any distance describe
LIGHT ARTILLERY. 151
a parabola of considerable height, a single rocket is easily
avoided, but when the flight is numerous, the attempt would
be useless and their momentum is always sufticient to destroy
a man or a horse. Such was the ancient Indian instrument, so
inferior to the Congreve rocket of modern European warfare".
Lastly, Fitzclarence, "Journey", 255, holds that "Rockets
were early brought into use and are far from being an
ineffectual weapon. They have an iron cylinder fastened
with untanned leather thongs and transported on horses
or animals, and on being lighted an additional impetus is
given to them from the foot of the thrower. They will
pass through the body of a horse or man". Opposite p. 35
of his book he gives a plate showing a private in the Camel
Rocket Corps then (1817) forming part of the Bengal Army.
Malitah. On Husain 'All Khan's being despatched in 1714
against Ajit Singh of Jodhpur, part of his equipment was
100 Mahtah. I am not sure what these were; but as they
are named along with rockets, I presume they were some
kind of missile. Steingass, 1352, says mahtah is a kind of
firew^ork ; and J. Shakespear, 2000, has "a kind of fireworks,
blue lights", he refers to Qanoone Islam, where mahtah and
naqti mahtah appear in the Appendix, p. Ixiv, under fireworks.
Powder Magazines. These were called BarUt-khanah, see
Ghulam 'All Khan, Muqaddamah-i- Shah ^Alam-namah, fol. 885.
Pal-i-sii/ah. I find this expression twice at least in the
Ahical-i-khawaqm (fols. 2095 and '2'27a); "The rahkalahs
w^ere filled with pal-i-siyaK\ and it is thus either an ex-
plosive or a projectile. In another passage in the same
work, 625, the same word is used, where from the context
it ought to mean a copper coin : kharmuhrah, o 'pal-i-siyah,
0 zar-i-sufed o zar-i-surkh, i. e. a cowrie, a copper, silver
coin, and gold coin. Steingass, 254, has put, a small coin.
Badar. I find this word used in the second of the above
passages, badar hae-pal-i-siy ah. It was thus something in
which the pal-i-siyah was contained. Is it badrah, a bag?
(Steingass, 162).
CHAPTER XIT.
PERSONNEL OF THE ARTILIiERY.
Of this arm of the service it is doubtful whether the
Moghuls knew much before they descended into the plains
of India under Babar. What they did know was probably
borrowed from the Turks and from Constantinople. Nor
could the art and science of gunnery have been very ad-
vanced in India itself, when the Moghuls arrived in that
country in the first half of the 16^^ century. In the earlier
Moghul period, at any rate, the emperors were dependent
for their artillery on the help and instruction of Rumis,
that is, Mahomedans from Constantinople, or of Farangis,
principally run-away sailors from Stirat, or Portuguese half-
castes (Horn, 29). Rumi Khan was a well known officer
of the first of these classes. Of either the real Europeans
or their half-caste Portuguese substitutes, we find little or
no mention. The Indian Mahomedans ignored as much as
possible the services of the Christians and Europeans in
their employment. Possibly this may have been due to the
contempt which they really felt for Christian foreigners
and their abhorrent ways. The slight consideration with
which Mahomedan nobles treated Europeans, even those of
some position, up to the middle of the 18^^ century, can
be learnt from the statements in a letter written about that
time by the celebrated Marquis de Eussy-Castelnau (R. O.
Cambridge, "War", Introduction, xxix, xxx). Similarly, Haji
Mustapha, a very acute observer, remarks about our early
successes in Bengal, "But hear a Moghul, or read any of
their relations, it seems that the whole revolution hangs on
PERSONNEL OF THE ARTILLERY. 153
the Moghols themselves only, and if any mention at all is
made of foreigners, it is only to hint that Jafer Ali Chan
gave also his protection to a few hundred frenghees, headed
by one Clive, whom the new Nabob and his party saved
from imminent destruction". (Dalrymple, ''Or. Repertory",
ii, 217). The same feeling was shown by the governor of
Orissa in 1633, when he insisted that Cartwright, an English
trader, should kiss his foot, C. R. Wilson, "Early Annals", i, 8.
In spite of the almost complete silence of native authors,
there is still evidence that up to the middle of the 18^^
century considerable bodies of Portuguese continued to be
enlisted. For instance, we learn that Juliana d'Acosta, a
Portuguese lady who held the office of matron of the harem,
imported from Goa three hundred Portuguese, for most of
whom she obtained employment (Gentil, "Memoires", p.
375). From the Tankh-i-Muhammadl (year 1147 h.) we
learn that "Julya, a Farangi woman, a doctor and favourite
of the deceased Shah ^Alam (i. e. Bahadur Shah) and of
the reigning emperor, MM Shah, died at Dihli in Rabf
i, 1147 (August 1734)". Again, Father TiefFen thaler, a
Jesuit priest from the Tyrol, spent about sixteen years
between 1747 and 1764 as priest in charge of a commu-
nity of Christians in the imperial service, who had settled
down in the obscure town of Narwar, 108 miles south of
Agrah, (Bernouilli, "Recherches sur I'lnde", i, 175, and
pp. 4, 5 of author's preface).
There are other scattered notices about Europeans em-
ployed in the artillery. Bernier, 217, (Horn, 32) says "But
the artillerymen receive great pay, particularly all the
Farangis or Christians; Portugueze, English, Dutch, German,
and French, fugitives from Goa and from the Dutch and
English companies. Formerly, when the Mogols were little
skilled in the management of artillery, the pay of the
Europeans was more liberal, and there are still (1658)
some remaining, who receive two hundred rupees a mouth,
but now the king (^Alamgir) admits them with difficulty
154 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
into the service and limits their pay to thirty two rupees" ^
Bernier also mentions, T6, 93, that the garrison of Bakkar
in Sind had, in 1658, artillerymen who were Portuguese,
English, French and German. They had been enter-
tained by Dara Shukoh. And in describing the battle of
Hasanpur in 1133 h. (1721) Khushhal Chand, Berlin
Ms. 495, fol. 1015^, speaks of the "skilful Europeans"
{Farangiyan-i'chahuk-dast) who worked the guns. Later
again, in 1750, the principal artillery officer of Nazir Jang,
subaJidar of the Dakhin, was an Irishman (Cambridge,
"War", 67); We learn also from the Eusain 8/iahi, fol.
34^, that in 1760-1 most of Sendhiah's gunners were
Europeans {JSasarl-i-Farang); and Gentil, "Memoires", 285,
asserts that at the battle of Katrah in 1774, Hafiz Rahmat
Khan's artillery was commanded by a Spaniard. So late as
1815 the Nizam had some Portuguese artillerymen in his
service. "They had a Portuguese who levelled each gun
himself, and appeared to have the direction of the attack.
If by chance a shot struck any part of the wall, so as
to raise a dust, the air resounded with acclamations in
praise of the old Portuguese, who seemed in no small
degree flattered thereby" (Lake, "Sieges", 16, note).
Mir Atash. At the head of the artillery was one of the
great officers of state, the Mir Atash (Lord of Eire), or
DarogIiah-i-topk//anah (Superintendent of the Cannon depart-
ment). 8ometimes, as in Jahandar Shah's reign (1712), we
read of two such officers, one at the head of all the artil-
lery, and the other in special command of the light artil-
lery attached to the emperor's person. These men were
mansahdars, graded in the usual way according to their
services or the favour in which they stood. But the rest
a month. G. Careri, 244, copies the above passage, except
that he interpolates a statement that the heavy artillery especially was
in the hands of Frank or Christian gunners, and that the Europeans
entered through Goa or absconded from warships.
PERSONNEL OP THE ARTILLERY. 155
of the men on the establishment of the imperial artillery
were paid direct from imperial funds, and in this respect
were treated differently from the main body of the army,
which consisted almost entirely of cavalry, men dependent
upon and paid by the chief under whose banner they
enlisted. There were, as we know, some bodies of cavalry
in direct pay of the emperor, such as the Aliadis, the
Wala Shahi and so forth. But all the rest of the men so
paid, matchlockmen, artillery-men and artificers, including
such an unmilitary class as cotton-carders and such like,
seem to have been lumped together under one head as
Ahsliani. One point that these men had in common appears
to have led to this incongruous classification. They were all
borne on the imperial treasury pay-rolls, and paid direct
therefrom as persons in the immediate employ of the emperor,
and not entertained through any chief or mansabdar^ to
whom their pay could be disbursed.
The Mir Atash had grown into a most important officer;
this is borne ont by Khushlial Chand's remark, Berlin Ms.,
fol. 1133i^, when Safdar Jang was appointed on the 21st
March 1744, that "contrary to former days, the artillery
has become the most trusted and favoured corps in the
army". Involving as it did the command of the imperial
artillery, which was always parked round the fortress or
palace or the tents occupied by the emperor, this office
carried with it the custody of the emperor's person and the
guarding of the palace gates and walls, {^eir ii, 373, note 170,
and Malumat-ul-afaq, fol. l^b).
The Mir Atash seems to have performed for the officers
and men under his command most of the duties belonging
for the rest of the army to the Bakhshis. He was aided
in the execution of these duties by a Mushrif, or executive
officer. The Mir Atash laid before the emperor all demands
made on his department; all orders to it passed through
him. He checked the pay bills and inspected the diaries
of the Arsenal before sending them on to the Khansaman
156 THE AKMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
or Lord Steward. He saw to the postings of the artillery
force, and received reports as to all losses and deficiencies.
The agent at the head of the artillery pay-office was nomi-
nated by him. The descriptive rolls of artillery recruits
passed through his hands, all new appointments and pro-
motions were made on his initiative {DastUr-ul-Aml, B.M.
1641, fols. 235—27/;).
In dealing with artillery, the subject falls naturally under
three heads, 1) Manufacture, 2) Artillery in use, 3) Arsenals
or Magazines. It is doubtful how far in later times the
Mir Atash was concerned in the casting of guns or the
provision of stores. The Top-khanah was classed as one of
the workshops, or karkltmiajat, belonging to the Imperial
Household, which were in charge of the imperial Khansaman,
or Lord Steward ; and as Daroghah of the Topkhanah, used
in this sense, the Mir Atash must have been a subordinate
of the Lord Steward. But in course of time, as the artillery
branch developed, the office of Mir Atash grew in impor-
tance, until he was the equal or more than the equal of
his nominal superior, the Khansaman, and as commander
of the artillery in use he must have been wholly indepen-
dent of that official.
In earlier days, judging from passages in Babar's memoirs,
a Mir Atash was supposed to supervise the casting of cannon.
Ustad QulT Khan, Babar's Mir Atash, is described as taking
an active part in the founding of a large cannon at Agrah.
I doubt if this was the practice in later reigns; I fancy
that the cannon-foundry and ordnance store department
fell more completely into the hands of the Khansaman
and his officers, while the Mir Atash confined himself more
exclusively to his purely military duties. As for arsenals,
magazines, or store-houses of cannon and the other requi-
sites pertaining thereto, these were under neither the
Khansaman nor the Mir Atash. All reserve artillery and
stores were kept in certain great fortresses, such as Agrah,
Dihli and Labor, in the charge of the special commandant
PERSONNEL OF THE ARTJLLERY. 157
{qildhdaf), who was an officer appointed direct from court
and in no way connected with or subordinate to the pro-
vincial governor {nazini or sUbahdar).
Ilazar'i. The word hazarl often appears in histories, and
from the context 1 have found that it means an officer of
artillery, generally of garrison artillery. The equivalent may
be taken to be our rank of captain. Hazarl is, of course,
the same word as that used for one of the ranks (mansabs),
which we have detailed earlier in this work. But the two
t/iin{/s intended by the one word could not have been the
same. A mansabdar of 1000 was a officer of high, or at
any rate of considerable, rank; while Hazans are spoken
of in the plural in a way to show that they were nume-
rous and of no great consideration.
Some writers, Mirza Muhammad, for instance, in his
Tarikh-i'Muhammadl, invariably use for an artillery officer
the word mink-bashl where others use Hazarl. Ghulam ^Ali
Khan, M uqaddamah-i-Shah ^Alam-namah^ fol. 64a, also uses
that word. Kam Raj, A^zam-ul-harb, fol. 120^, uses both
Mink-bashl and Hazarl in the same sentence. The two are
equivalent in meaning, for mink-bashl is the Turkish for
"Commander of 1000" {inink, 1000, bclsh^ head). See Horn,
14, 136, (Taimur's Ordinances, Davy and White, 281). Of
course, this and the other Turkish terms for commanders
of various ranks must have been known to and used by
the Moghuls up to the time that Babar conquered India.
But it does not seem as if the Turkish words passed into
the official nomenclature of Hindustan. In that country all
the ranks {mansab) were known by their Persian aud not
by their Chaghatae Turkish names. Apparently the Ajn-i-
Akbarl (at least, judging from Blochmann's translation)
makes no use of the word Mink-bashl. From this I infer
that the word came into India with the Turks from Con-
stantinople, who were the chiefs and leaders in the Indian
artillery during the earlier Moghul period. As the services
of these and of Europeans, who were also employed, were
158 THE ARMY OP THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
much prized, they may have been accorded at first the rank
of commander of 1000 (i. e. mink-bashl or hazdri), and
although, as the Indians themselves grew more familiar
with the working of artillery, the estimation and market
value of an artillery officer diminished, the original name
of Hazarl or Mink-bds/n may have stuck to the office, after
the rank denoted thereby had ceased to belong to it. This
designation of Hazarl explains the epithet in Blacker,
''War", 340, applied to the Mahratta qildhddr or com-
mandant of Mandlak (Central India), viz. Sahib Rae Hazarl,
or as Blacker spells it, Hazeree. Possibly also Pogson's
"Lulloo Hoozooree", commandant of Ajaigarh in Bundel-
khand, ought to be Hazarl (''Hist, of the Boondelas", J 35).
Sadiwdl, Mirdahah, Sdir. These names follow those of
the Hazarl in all the official manuals, and may be taken
as equivalent to lieutenant, sergeant, and privates. The
etymologies are P. sadl, group of 100, lodl h. affix for man,
person, possessor; mir contraction of P. mlr, lord, master,
dahah, a group of 10; sdjir P. the rest, remainder, the
others, i. e. the common gunners, (Davy and White, "In-
stitutes", 232). Kam Raj, A^zam-ul-harb^ fol. 120(5, has
the form sadlddr.
Golanddz. When gunners are specifically named this is
the designation they receive, and in the Manuals they
appear among the Ahshdm. Golanddz literally "ball-thrower",
is derived from P. gol, ball, and anddz, the root of P.
anddkhtan, to throw. We do not know how many men
were attached to each gun and it must have varied a good
deal, but Horn, 27, suggests sixteen as the average number,
by inference from a passage in the Tuzuhi-Jahdngln
(Lowe, 18, line 9). Ahmad Abdali had two men to each
shdhln or falconet (Horn, 28, Elliot viii, 398). From Mirza
Haidar's account of Humayun's artillery in 1540, it is in-
ferred by Horn, 29, that there was then an average of
seven men to a gun (Elias and Ross, 375?).
Deg-anddz. These were the men who had charge of and
PERSONNEL OF THE ARTILLERY. 159
used the deg, which I have mentioned under the head of
Heavy Artillery. The name is literally 'Tot-thrower", P.
deg, a pot, and andaz, throwing. I am not certain whether
this means that they had charge of mortars, called deg,
or whether they used hand-grenades. The latter would be
more near the literal meaning, and I do not think that
mortars were at all common in India until introduced by
Europeans after the middle of the 18th century. A passage
in Fitzclarence, 246, seems to bear out my interpretation
of Deg and Deganddz. He says "at times they have re-
course to thick earthen-ware pots with fuses and full of
powder, the pieces of which wounded dreadfully".
Ban-andaz, Ban-dar. As these "Rocket-throwers" or
"Rocket-holders" are rated separately in the official books,
it must be inferred that they existed as a separate body.
CHAPTER XIII.
AHSHlM.
The Alisliam is the heading under which the later native
writers place all connected with the army, who were neither
maTisabdars, tablndn, nor ahadis. I retain the heading, with
one change only; I place the artillery by themselves, as of
sufficient importance for separate treatment.
In the Ajn, i, 251 — 254, there is a chapter headed
Fiyadagan which corresponds generally to the Alisham of
the later books. Under the same head as Akbar's 12,000
matchlockmen, who are the only men in the group at all
entitled to be reckoned as soldiers, come the doorkeepers,
the palace guards, the letter carriers and spies, the swordsmen,
wrestlers, slaves, litter-bearers, carpenters, water-carriers and
so forth. In the Ajn, i, 254, there is a class of troops
called Dakhill (extra, additional) which seems no longer
to have existed in Mlamgir's reign, at least the name has
dropped out of the official manuals.
The vague word Ahsham (Steingass, 21, A, pi. of ifa.5//<^/;0
is defined in the dictionary as servants, domestics, followers,
attendants, retainers, a kind of militia or armed police. In
the official manuals {BastUr-ui- Ami) it comprehends the
infantry, the 'personnel of the artillery, the artificers, and
the attendants on the court. The incident of service which
was common to all these men, and caused their inclusion
under one head, was the fact that they were all borne
direct on the imperial books, and received their pay from
the imperial treasury, without the intervention of a man-
sabdar. This fact also accounts for Abul Fazl's apparently
AHSHAM. 161
anomalous classification of the artillery as part of the
Household in Book i of the Jjti, instead of with the rest
of the army in Book ii, Ajn 1 to 10. I have also found
Ahsham used with three more restricted meanings: 1) The
light artillery which attended the emperor's person wherever
he went were called the AhJicim {Mirai-ul'IstilaJ/^ fol. bb).
This artillery is described by Gemelli Carreri, French ed.,
iii, 244, and by Bernier, 217, 363, who calls it ''artillery
of the stirrup" (i. e. rikab) ; 2) the word Ahsham is used
constantly in the 18^^ century for the gunners of the
garrison artillery ; and 3) we find Ahsham used as a general
term for petty zamindars serving in any campaign, and the
half-armed militia or levies which they brought in their
train. Khafi Khan, ii, 953, names the daroghah-i-ahshain
separately, between the mir atash and the daroghah-i-top-
Manah-i'jinsl, which would make the Ahsham something
distinct from both the artillery generally and the light
artillery.
Infantry, As already stated, this arm of the service held
a very inferior position and was of little or no consideration
(Bernier, 219). Writing about 1760, and referring more
particularly to the south, De la Flotte, 258, says that the
less numerous body gave way at the first meeting, espe-
cially infantry before cavalry; "nay, seldom would 50,000
infantry stand before 20,000 cavalry". Another observer,
Orme, "Hist. Frag.", 417, says the infantry consisted in
a multitude of people assembled together without regard
to rank or file: some with swords and targets, who could
never stand the shock of a body of horse; some bearing
matchlocks, which in the best of order can produce but a
very uncertain fire-, some armed with lances, too long or
too weak to be of any service, even if ranged with the
utmost regularity of discipline. Little reliance was placed
on them. To keep night watches and to plunder defence-
less people was their greatest service, except their being a
perquisite to their commanders, who received a fixed sum
11
162 THK ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
for ever}? man, and hired every man at a different and
less price. In short, the infantry were more a rabble of
half-armed men than anything else, being chiefly levies
brought into the field by petty zamindars, or men belonging
to the jungle tribes. Any Mahomedan or Rajput, who
respected himself, managed somehow or other to provide
himself with a mount and obtained enrolment as a cavalry
soldier, who was in popular estimation a gentleman. The
high figures for Infantry in each district and province,
shown in volume ii of the Ajn-i-Akbarl, can only be ac-
cepted under considerable reservation. These numbers can
only represent the men called on to render strictly local
duty, and they must have consisted almost entirely of
villagers armed with long pikes, or swords and shields,
perhaps even with only an iron-bound bambu staff [lathi).
Bernier tells us, 217, that the foot soldiers received the
smallest pay: "and to be sure, the musketeers cut a sorry
figure at the best of times, which may be said to be
when squatting on the ground and resting their muskets
on a kind of wooden fork which hangs to them. Even
then they are terribly afraid of burning their eyes or their
long heards, and above all least some jinn, or evil spirit,
should cause the bursting of their musket. Some have
twenty rupees a month, some fifteen, some ten". And again,
219, (a passage copied almost word for word by Gemelli
Careri, iii, 244) ; "I have said that the infantry was in-
considerable. I do not think that in the army immediately
about the king the infantry can exceed 15,000, including
musketeers, foot-artillery, and generally every person con-
nected with that artillery. From this an estimate may be
formed of the number of infantry in the provinces. I
cannot account for the prodigious amount of infantry with
which some people swell the armies of the Great Mogol,
otherwise than by supposing that with the fighting men
they confound servants, sutlers, tradesmen, and all those
individuals belonging to bazars or markets, who accompany
AHSHAM. 163
the troops. Including these followers, 1 can well conceive
that the army ini mediately about the king's person, parti-
cularly when it is known that he intends to absent himself
some time from his capital, may amount to two or even
three hundred thousand infantry. This will not be an
extravagant computation, if we bear in mind the immense
quantity of tents, kitchens, baggage, furniture, and even
women, usually attendant on the army".
Nagas. These bodies of so-called Hindu devotees were
common in the armies of the 18^^ century, and I believe
that to this day the Rajah of Jaipur entertains a large
number of them. There was a corps of them in the Audh
service from about 1752 to the end of the century. The
last leader of these was Rajah Him mat Bahadur, whose
name appears so frequently in our own early connection with
Bundelkhand (Pogson, "Boondelahs", 119 — 122, Francklin,
"George Thomas", 364, 365). With this exception the
Mahomedans do not seem to have retained any of these
fakirs in their employ. Anquetil Duperron ''Zend Avesta",
I, Ixxv, describes a body of these armed vagabonds, num-
bering some 6000 men, that he met in 1757 on their
way to Jagannath. The three leaders marched first, a long
pike in one hand and a buckler in the other. The main
body was armed with swords, bows and matchlocks. Haji
Mustapha, during his adventurous attempt in 1758 to reach
Masulipatam via Western Bengal and Pachet, came across
five thousand of these devotees on their way to the Ganges
at Sagar; "they are all of them tall, stout, well-limbed
men, in general stark naked, but very well armed" (Dal-
rymple's "Oriental Repertory", ii, 239). A description of a
corps of these Nagas commanded by a disciple (chela) of
Him mat Bahadur, and then in the employ of Daulat Rao,
Sendhiah, well be found in Broughton, "Letters", 96, 104,
106,-123. Blacker, "War", 22, says the "Gossyes" i.e.
Gusains or Nagas, "have always been considered good
troops".
164 THE AMRY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
^Alighol. In the later years we find a class of troops
known as '^Ahghol, who from one passage (Fraser, "Skinner",
ii, 75, 76) would seem to have been the equivalent of the
ghazis, as we now style them, so frequently heard of on
our Afghan frontier. Eraser defines them as "a sort of
chosen light infantry of the Rohilla Patans : sometimes the
term appears to be applied to other troops supposed to be
used generally for desperate service". They are also men-
tioned in V. Blacker, "War", 23. W. H. Tone, 50, makes
out the ^Alighol to be one of the divisions of the Nezib
Silah-posh. In 1799 the Jaipur Rajah had a body-guard
of sixteen hundred men, armed with matchlocks and sabres,
who were called the silaJ/posh, no doubt from their being
clad in armour (Francklin, "George Thomas", 165).
Najlb. The word means literally "noble", and Blacker,
"War", 22, tells us they were irregular infantry, who dis-
dained uniform and carrying a musket, their arms being
a matchlock, or blunderbuss, and a sword. They disdained
to stand sentry or do any fatiguing duty, considering it
their only business to fight and to protect the person of
their prince. W. H. Tone, 50, says that long practice had
enabled them to load with sufficient readiness, while their
matchlock carried farther and infinitely truer than the
firelock of those days. The Najibs was also excellent
swordsmen.
With regard to the Najibs in the Nawab of Oudh's ser-
vice in 1780, Captain Thomas Williamson, 124, tells us
that they were clothed in blue vests and drawers, furnishing
their own arms and ammunition (matchlock, sword, shield,
bow and arrows). Their discipline was very contemptible;
they answered very well for garrison duty, but could not
stand the charge of cavalry, having no bayonets, while
their arms were totally unfit for prompt execution. As for
the Nawab's troops organized in imitation of the E. I.
Company's battalions, they were, even on actual service.
AHSHAM. 165
nothing but "food for powder". Such as had bayonets had
no locks: those that had hammers to their locks, had no
cock, or at any rate the flints were wanting. Such ammu-
nition and cartridges as there were had, through damp and
time, become so incorporated with the wooden pouch-blocks,
that when touched the tops came ofi", leaving the powder
and ball a fixture. A battalion of Najibs could with ease
cut to atoms half a dozen of those mock regiments.
Faf/iabaz. The author of the Eusain Sha/n (written in
1212 H., 1797-8) mentions, fol. 345, that in 1760-1 Sendhiah
had several thousand FathcMaz, "a word which in the
idiom of the Dakhin is applied to courageous men and
expert swordsmen". They received their name, no doubt,
from their weapon, the patfa or straight rapier (see ante p. 77).
Dhalait. This Hindi word (Platts, 572), meaning lite-
rally "shield bearer", I have met with in three writers.
Ashob applies it to one of the three foot soldiers who
followed Sa^d-ud-dln Khan, the Mir Atash, when forced
in 1151 H, (1738), much against his will, to accompany
Nadir Shah's general of artillery into the streets of Dihli,
to put the inhabitants to the sword. This Bhalait was sent
as a messenger to carry a note to the Wazir, Qamr-ud-din
Khan, (Ashob, fol. 2565). The word is also found in
Tankh-i-Alamglr Sam, fol. 136«, referring to the year
1170 H. (1756-7); and in the Tahmas-namah of Miskin,
fol. 49«.
Amazons. At the end of the 18^^^ century the Nizam at
Haidarabad had two battalions of female sepoys, of one
thousand each, which mounted guard in the interior of
the palace, and accompanied the ladies of his family when-
ever they moved. They were with the Nizam during the
war against the Mahrattas in 1795, and at the battle of
Kurdlah did not behave worse than the rest of his army.
They were dressed as our sepoys used to be, and performed
the French drill with tolerable precision. The corps was
called the Zafar-paltan or victorious battalion, and the
166 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
women gardani^ a corruption of the word "guard" ^ The
pay was five rupees a month (Blacker, 213, note). This
Nizam seems to have had a penchant for female warriors.
Moor, "Narrative", 117, tells us of an Italian lady, a
dancer, who so entranced him, that he conferred on her
a title and placed a battalion under her command. She
now learnt the manual exercise and evidently took her
military position au grand serieux. Soon afterwards a foreign
male dancer arrived, and the lady was directed to appear
in ^ pas de deux. Full of her new dignity, she objected;
and as the Nizam insisted, she resigned her command and
retired to Poona.
Sihbandi. This was the name for the armed men enter-
tained by local officers when engaged in collecting the
land revenue {Dastur-ul-^Aml, B.M. 6598, fol. 483). Colonel
Sir R. C. Temple ("Calcutta Review", Oct. 1896, p. 406) in
an article on the Andaman Sibandi Corps, suggests that
this word found its way into Anglo-Indian use from Madras,
and that originally it was unknown in Northern India.
This opinion seems untenable in the face of the authority
above quoted, which belongs to Northern India and is not
later than 'Alamgir (1658—1707). The word is also used
for local levies by Danish mand Khan, Bahadur ShalMimnah
(entry of the 12th Shaban 1120~h. = 26th October 1708).
Or we may go still farther back, to the year 932 h. (1526),
when we find it applied by Babar to the Indian levies of
Ibrahim Lodi. See the Baharnamah, lithographed text, 174;
the bedhindi of Pavet de Courteille, ii, 163, is an obvious
misreading.
Barqandaz. This name (literally barq, lightening, andaz,
thrower), which came to be the commonest name for a
foot soldier using a musket, appears rarely, if at all, in
earlier writings, unless as a mere metaphor. An early use
of it as a name for a matchlock man is found in Ahwal-i-
khawaqln, 2093, (c. 1 147 h.).
* Or perhaps better, "guard" plus the feminine termination anl.
AHSHAM.
167
MatcJilochnen, Rates of pay. The following table shows
the rates of pay for the various classes of the matchlock-
men; it may be presumed, perhaps, that the mounted men
were in the position of officers, or were perhaps what we
should call mounted infantry. First we have the pay of
the regular matchlockmen {BandtiqcM-i-jangi or Tufang-chi)
who were either Eaksariyahs or Bundelahs. Of these some
drew rates of pay specially fixed, and entered in the official
diary at the time when they were entertained {Inihm). The
usual rates, which every one else got, were as follows:
Class.
Rank.
Qadiml
(old).
Jadidi
(new).
Suwar,
HazarlDuaspah
Rs. 45, 40, 32
Rs. 40, 35
(mounted).
(two horsed).
Id. Yakaspah
Rs. 22, 20, 17Jr
Rs. 20, 171-
(one horsed).
Piyadah,
Sadl-wal
Rs. 9
Rs. 8
(foot).
Mirdahah.
Rs. 8
Rs. 7
SaJr (the rest).
Rs. 6, 5^, 5
Rs. 6^
Cash Rs. 6,
and conditional
jagir, 8 annas.
Akbar's rates for these men, Ain, i, 116, work out as
follows :
Class.
1st Grade.
2iid Grade.
3id Grade.
4tii Grade.
Sth Grade.
Mirdahahs
Rs. 7.1;
Rs. 7
Rs. 6f
Rs. 6^
Others Rs.
l8t
6[
2 ad
6
8rd
1st
2nd
5.1
3rd
5
1st
41
2nd
3rd
4[
1st
4
2nd
^
3rd
I8t
3|
2nd
3
3rd
2^
The later rates for the Mirdahahs would thus appear to
have been a little higher than those first fixed; those for
the common soldiers, on the whole, much higher.
168 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
There are some words which occur in the above which
call for some explanation:
Baksariyah is a curious word, and suggests to us at its
origin the town of Baksar on the Ganges in the Bhojpur
country. The region is one which still supplies from its
Rajput and Bhuinhar clans the stalwart clubmen of the
zamindars in Bengal proper, the door-keepers of private
houses in Calcutta, and many of the finest sepoys in our
Hindustani regiments. Bhojpur shared with Audh the supply
of men to our native army in Bengal from its earliest to
its latest days, that is, from the middle of the 18^1^ to
the middle of the 19^^ century. That these men crowded
to our standards, as soon as the Company began to raise
an army, was due, no doubt, to their having already been
accustomed, for generations, to serve as matchlockmen and
gunners in the army of our predecessors, the Moghuls.
When in 1756 Calcutta was threatened by Siraj-ud-Daulah
and preparations for defence were made, we find that "the
number of Buxeries" (i. e. Baksariyahs), "or Indian match-
lockmen, was therefore augmented to 1500". (Orme, Mil.
Trans., ii, 59). See also the Glossary prefixed to an Address
to the Proprietors of East India Stock (J. Z. Holwell's
India Tracts, 3^ ed. 1774), — "Backserrias — foot soldiers
whose common arms are sword and target only".
The connection between the Baksariyahs of the army
and the town of Baksar in Bahar was evidently a matter
of common belief and acceptance. In the Chahar Gulshan
of Rae Chatarman (my copy, fol. 127/5), written in 1173 h.
(1759), in the itinerary from Rae Bareli to Patnah, when
the author comes to Baksar, he adds "original home-country
of the Baksariyahs" {asl loatn-i-Baksariyah-ha). It is strange
that they should have been known by the name of the
town rather than by that of the subdivision of the country,
that is, parganah Bhojpur, sirkar Ruhtas, Subah Bahar
{A}n, ii, 157). We call them nowadays Bhojpuris and
not Baksariyah. In the historians belonging to the \%'^^
AHSHAM. 169
century, I find that the men of the garrison artillery are
usually designated Baksariyah.
Bu7idelahs. Bundelahs are, of course, the Rajput clan
whose home is in the country south of the Jamnah and
eas{. of the Betvvah river (J. Rennell, ''Memoir of a Map . . .",
p. ^34, but for the northern limit read Jamnah instead of
Ganges). Their appearance in this list shows that originally
they w^ere held to be an inferior class of troops, and
employed principally as matchlockmen. They were always
renowned, however, for their bravery. In the end, through
the rise of the Orchhah rajah, the head of their clan, and
that of the so-called Dhangya State, formed by Champat
Rae and extended by his more famous son, Chattarsal,
their position was much enhanced, and during the 18^^
century they played an extremely prominent part, fighting
first on the side of the Moghuls and subsequently against
them.
Arabs. In later times, in the Dakhin at any rate, the
best infantry were held to be the Arabs, who received
higher pay than others. They received Rs. 12 a mouth,
while the lowest pay was only Rs. 5 a mouth. The Arabs
were in general fully to be depended on, but particularly
so in the defence of walls (Blacker, "War", 21).
Other classes under this general head of Ahsliam were
Bhilah, Mewatl, Karnataki, Mughal (B.M. 1641, fol. 593,
60a). For a mention of Bhilah and Karnataki in 1133 h.
(1721), see Khushhal Chand, Berlin Ms. 495, fol. ]013i5.
The golandaz {golah, ball, andaz, thrower) or artillery-
man, the Degandaz {deg, pot, andaz, thrower) and the
Bandar {ban, rocket, dar, holder) are included in this section,
but 1 have classed them under the head of Artillery. In
one battle, that against 'Abdullah Khan, Khushhal Chand,
Berlin Ms. 495, fol. 10133, speaks of certain men imme-
diately around the emperor's elephant as qurqchis, there
being two kinds, those in yellow and those in red. The
word, an unusual one in Indian works, is defined by
170 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Steingass as "a gamekeeper, a sentinel over the women's
apartments".
BInlah. These were men of the wild tribe whose home
is in the rugged country between Ajmer and Gujarat.
They are described by an 18*^^ century writer, (Anand
Ram, Mukhlis, Mirdt-ul'Istilah, fol. 1845) as being in
their own country nothing but highway robbers and skilful
hunters, wearing clothes mostly of leaves. Their principal
weapon, which no doubt they brought with them when
in the emperor's service, was the long bow of bambu called
kamanth, which has been already described (p. 95).
Mewati. These men are further designated Tir-andaz
(archers, lit. ''arrow throwers"). Mewat is the hilly country
south and west of the Jamnah, between Agrah and Dihli
(J. Rennell, "Memoir", cxx). It derives its name from the
tribe inhabiting it, the Meos. In the Ijn, i, 252, the men
from Mewat are called Mewrahs, and they are described as
post-runners and spies. Neither the name nor these duties
seem to have belonged to the MewatTs in the 18^^ century;
though mewrah had survived as a name for a post-runner
of any kind. From Mewat, the name of the country,
comes the word Mewati, an inhabitant of Mewat. They
are now Mahomedans and were famed, until our time, for
their turbulence. Their depredations made the imperial
highway from Agrah to DihlT, via Mathura, at all times
unsafe; and it was necessary to travel in large parties, or
to hire armed men, who were probably themselves MewatTs,
on the principle of setting a thief to catch a thief. A good
description of the state of things about 1710 will be seen
in Yar Muhammad's Dastur-ul-Ins/ia, p. 130, 131. The
E. I. Company's envoy, Mr. John Surman, who travelled
this way to Court in June 1715, mentions in his diary
that at Agrah they were forced to hire an armed guard
for their protection (Orme Collections, p. 1694, under date
of June 8tli).
Karnatakl. These must have been men from the south
AHSHAM. 171
of India, the word Karnatak by the Moghul usage applying
to the whole of peninsular India south of the Tungah-
bhadra, except Adoni (J. Rennell, "Memoir" (Peninsula),
20). I suppose these men in the Moghul army were of the
same class as those who formed our first sepoy battalions
in the south of India. In Northern India, which they
reached in 1757 as part of Olive's force sent for the relief
of Calcutta, they were known as Talingahs, that is, men
of the Talagti country; and Talingah is still the common
village word in Hindustan for a sepoy in one of our regi-
ments. De la Flotte, 258, who served in South India from
1758 to 1760, says the infantry (no doubt the same men
as these Karnatakis) carried on their heads a bundle of
rice and their cooking utensils, their women carrying the
husband's sword and other arms. Those were a very long
and heavy matchlock called kaitoke {ante, p. 107). The
whole family followed.
Kala Piyadah. Kamwar Khan (Ms. of the Royal Asiatic
Society, Morley's Catalogue N^ 97) when speaking of the
army led against Nizam-ul-Mulk by Mubariz Khan, subah-
dar of Haidarabad, says there were in it 30,000 match-
lockmen of the Dakhin known as Kala piyadah, (lit.
"black foot-soldiers"). These if not identical with, must
have been very similar to the Karnataki.
Rawat. This is a name which in Northern India indi-
cates generally any respectable Hindu landholder who is
not of very high caste. Mahomedan writers not infrequently
apply it to the general body of Mahrattah soldiery, most
of whom were of the kumbi caste, for which such an
epithet would be appropriate. It is applied in this sense
by the author of the Husain-shahl to 12,000 men, who served
in Sendhiah (Scindiah) Patel's army during the campaign
ending in the battle of PanTpat (1760—1761).
Bargi. Another general name used by some writers, when
speaking of the Mahrattah soldiery, is Bargl. See Ma^asiru-
l-umara, iii, 740, line 17, and J. Shakespear "Diet." 319;
172 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHUl.S.
its use is also referred to in Grant Duff, 37. I do not know
the etymology of this word.
Mughal. As to these men I can suggest no reason for
their appearance in this list of men serving in the infantry,
but it is curious to find that there were any Mughals,
who would deign to serve in this inferior branch of the
service.
Farangi, These must have been Europeans serving in
the capacity of common soldiers. They were probably for
the most part native Christians, or so-called Portuguese,
either from Goa, or from the colonies of that nation settled
about the mouth of the Ganges and Brahmputra. There
may have been among them some fugitive sailors from
ships lying at Surat or Cam bay. More usually, however,
such men entered the artillery. Ashob, fol. 266^?, informs
us that in 1739 there were still Franks in the Mus^hal
service. They were all Frenchmen, either attached to the
artillery or practising as surgeons, bone-setters {shikastah-
band), or physicians. The chief of them, Farangi Khan and
Farashish Khan, were accounted nobles and drew nobles'
pay. These Europeans lived in a special quarter called
Farangipurah just outside the Kabul gate, close under the
hill Kali Pahar, They killed some of Nadir Shah's provosts
{nasaqc/n) and in retaliation the colony was wiped out.
Pag. The pay of the classes above enumerated is given
as follows (B.M. 1641, fol. 59/5, 60«). The word sa^ir, which
I would render "private soldier", will be found used in
that sense in the Institutes of Taimur, Davy and White,
232, sU^yU, "common soldiers".
AHSHAM.
173
Mounted {Suwar).
Foot {Piyadah).
Name.
Remarks.
HazIrI
DUASPAH.
SadTwal
SADnVAL.
MiRDAHAH.
Sair.
Yakaspah.
Rs.
lis.
Rs.
R. a. p.
R.
a.
P-
Bliilali
52
•26
10
8 12 0
6
4
0
Formerly they
received rations,
but no pay in cash.
Mew at!
50
25
—
4 8 0
4
0
0
Receiving rations.
II
—
8
6 0 0
5
0
0
"Without rations.
Karnataki
50
■25
8
7 0 0
6 0 0
5
4
0
8
0
0
Mughul
—
—
8 0 0
7
6
0
8
0
0
Farangi
—
according
S
6 4 0
6
0
0
to order
5
5
5
12
8
4
0
0
0
Bernier, 217, gives the pay of foot soldiers at Rs. 20,
15, and 10 a month, and the pay of FarangTs as Rs. 22
a month. Rations, when issued to the above men, were
as follows: Flour {arad), \\ sir, Split peas {dfil) \ sir,
Salt {namak) \ of a dam, ghi {rogJia/hi-zard), 2 dams.
Artificers, or other men classed under Infantry. Of these
there were a number, artisans and labourers, who can
scarcely be designated soldiers at all; they were really
camp-followers, though they may possibly have carried some
sort of weapons for their own protection, just as we furnish
litter-bearers with swords when on active service. The
Beldars were used to make difficult roads passable (?lorn,
24, \ilnmglr-7iamah, 653); they also threw up the field-
works usually made to protect the guns. One duty of the
carpenters and axemen was to cut a road through the
thorny jungle with which most petty strongholds were
surrounded. The use of some of the others, as bearing on
the service of the army, are obvious enough ; others, less
so. Dr. Horn, 24, seems to translate beldar by "beiltrager",
a word meaning, 1 believe, an axeman. But bel is a spade.
174
THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
hoe, or mattock, and a heldar is a digger up of earth, an
excavator, not an axeman.
The following table gives the names and pay of some
of these artificers (B.M., 1641, fol. mh). Many of the
words I am unable to make out.
Name.
Class.
Remarks.
Persian.
English.
SUWAR.
Yakaspah.
PlYADAH.
Rs.
Kahardah Turanl
—
40
Rs. 14, 11, 7
II liindusianl
—
(as ordered)
Rs. 8, 7, 6, 5^
wUc^ ^^J
—
(as ordered)
Rs. 15
Najjar
Carpenters
(as ordered)
Rs. 8, 7, 5
Basali
Rs. 10
An armourer?
Steing. L87,
Basal, an iron
helmet,
Ahangar
Blacksmiths
—
Rs. 6[, 6[, 6
Musuji {diO\M&'^)
Rs. 9^
Bhnnah
Cotton-carders
—
Rs. 6
Badaha
—
—
Rs. 6, 5
Sahalki
—
—
Rs. 8, 7
Khor hahliyah
—
—
Qadim, Rs. 9
Usual, Rs. 8, 7
Bahelii/ah, a bird
snarer ?
Sang -tar ash
Stone masons
—
Rs. 8, 7, 6
Modi
Leather workers
—
Rs. 8
Atashhaz
Firework makers
—
Rs. 7, 6, 5
Kharati
Turners
—
Rs. 7
Arah-kash
Sawyers
. —
Rs. 6
Beldar
Diggers
—
(blank)
Naqh-kwi
Miners
Rs. 20, 17
Rs. 41, 4.V, 4
Tabrdar
Axemen
—
Mirdahah, Rs. 5 1-
Private, Rs. 4]-'
Salotrl
Farriers
Rs. 15
—
CHAPTER XIV.
ELEPHANTS.
Horn, 51 — 56, includes elephants in his account of the
fighting force. But long before the Moghul empire fell into
decay, they had become principally beasts of burden or
means of display, and their role in the day of battle was
comparatively insignificant.
Akbar seems to have made much use of elephants,
bringing them into the field in great numbers (Horn, 51,
52, 53). In his time they carried on their backs musketeers
or archers. This practise seems to have soon ceased. But
as late as 1131 h. (Nov.-Dec. 1718) and Muharram 1133
(November 1720) we hear of their being used to carry
small cannon. Thus Sayyad Husain 'All Khan, when he
re-entered Dihli on his return from the Dakhin, had forty
gajnal elephants, which each carried two soldiers and two
pieces, Jauhar-i-Sanisam, Fuller's translation, fol. 50. Again,
when ""Abdullah Khan, Qutb-ul-Mulk, was made prisoner
at the battle of Hasanpur, a gajnal elephant was ordered
up, and seated on it the prisoner was carried before
Muhammad Shah {Jauhar-i-Samsam., fol. I58fir, and Fuller's
trans., fol. 76).
To the last some elephants protected by armour were
brought into the battle-field. But their use was confined
almost entirely to carrying the generals or great nobles,
and displaying their standards. The baggage elephants were
assembled in the rear with those bearing the harem, the
women remaining mounted on the latter during the battle,
and protected by a strong force posted round them.
176 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
In the day of battle elephants were provided with armour,
called paJihar, Ajn, i, 129, W. 21. This was made of
steel and consisted of separate pieces for the head and
trunk. In one place, A/noal-i-khawaqm, 2186, I find the
epithet barc/ustawan-posh applied to armour-clad elephants.
Again Ghulam ^AlT Khan, Muqaddamah, 34/^, applies the
word kajim to elephant armour in general, and defines
bargustuioan, as a protective covering adjusted on the trunk
of an elephant when going into battle. The rest of the
complicated gear used in connection with elephants is set
out in detail in the Ajn, i, 125 — 130. Besides their own
armour, the riding elephants carried on the day of battle
an armour-plated, canopied seat, called an ^iman, of which
the sides were some three feet high. The prince or noble
took his seat in this, and was thus protected with the
exception of his head and shoulders from all distant attack
{Mirat-id'JstilaJi, 207/5). We are told by Haji Mustapha,
Seir, ii, 301, note 140, that the ^imari and the haudah
(or Haudaj) "are diff'erent, the former has a canopy and
is used for travelling or for purposes of state, the latter
has no cover and is employed in w^ar". Or again, in other
places, i, 33, note 41, and i, 337, note 283, he says the
haudah is made of boards strengthened with iron, having
the shape of an octagonal platform, with sides eighteen
inches high. In war time the sides were raised to two
feet, and were then covered with iron or brass plates. It
was divided into two unequal parts; in the forepart, about
three fourths of it, a man may easily sit with his pillows
and cushions, or upon a stretch, two men. The hind part
held one man, and that with difficulty. He adds that
when "covered with a canopy it is called an amhari and
is not used in the field". This last statement cannot be
accepted, as all the historians speak of the seat used in
war as an ^imari, ^^Uc Moor, "Narrative", in his glossary
under Amhara says that a seat with a canopy was so
called, and without a canopy it was a haudah. "It (the
ELEPHANTS. 177
canopy) is generally made of Europe scarlet cloth and
embroidered, and sometimes has a golden or silver urn or
some such ornament on the top. Mahomedans prefer a
crescent".
The object of mounting the general or commander on
an elephant was that he might be seen from a distance
by all the troops. For in those days battles were nearly
always decided by the fate of the leader. If he was killed
or disappeared, the army gave up the contest and in a
very short space of time melted away altogether. Nadir
Shah wondered at this Indian habit of mounting the
general on an elephant: "What strange practice is this that
the rulers of Hind have adopted? In the day of battle they
ride on an elephant, and make themselves into a target for
everybody ! {Malahat-i-maqal of Rao Dalpat Singh, fol. 54^).
The criticism seems to have been taken to heart. For Miskin,
fol. 43r/, tells us that Mu^in-ul-mulk, governor of Labor
(1748 — 1754), declared that a general on an elephant was
like a prisoner in the midst of his guards, and a mere
target for the enemy. The next time that he fought Ahmad,
Durrani, he meant to ride, a horse. In other ways, too,
the elephants were sometimes of more harm than benefit.
If wounded, they were liable to get beyond control and
escape at the top of their speed. In one instance, in a battle
near Labor in 1124 h. (March 1712), a wounded elephant
rushed off with ^Azim-ush-shan, son of Bahadur Shah, and
jumping off the high bank into the river Ravi drowned
himself, and the wounded prince along with him.
Elephants were also used to batter in the gates of fortified
places. It is for this reason that such gates are generally
found protected by metal plates and spikes. To counteract
these, the elephant was again, in its turn, provided with
a frontlet of steel. We find an instance at Arcot (Arkat)
in 1751, when "the parties who attacked the gates drove
before them several elephants who, with large plates of
iron fixed to their foreheads, were intended to break them
12
178 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
down : but the elephants, wounded by the musquetry,
soon turned and trampled on those who escorted them"
(Orme, Mil. Trans., i, 194).
Under Akbar the elephants ridden by the emperor were
called khasali (special), and all others were arranged in
groups of ten, twenty or thirty, called Iialqah (ring, circle).
In later reigns, (B.M. 1690, fol. 176r/) the same classifi-
cation was employed, with a rather more extended meaning,
khasa/i then including all riding, and halqah all baggage
elephants. Mansabdars from 7000 down to 500 were required
to maintain each one riding elephant, and in addition, five
baggage elephants for every 100,000 dam of pay. As I
understand the rule, these elephants belonged to the em-
peror, and were not even made over to the mansahdar for
use. The origin of this practice can, I fancy, be detected
in a passage in the Ajn, i, 126 (see also i, 130), where
Abu^l Fazl says that Akbar "put several halqahs' (groups
of ten, twenty, or thirty elephants) "in charge of every
grandee, and required him to look after them". In Akbar 's
time apparently the fodder was supplied by the State. I
have already referred to this matter of Khurak-i-datoabb
under the heading of Pay (p. 20).
Armandi's work on the military history of the elephant
is almost entirely taken up with its use by the Greeks
and Romans. The Moghul period occupies only fifteen pages,
and there is nothing in those pages of any novelty. There
is another v/ork which covers in part the same ground,
"Historical Researches on the Wars and Sports of the
Mongols and Romans", by John Ranking, "resident up-
wards of twenty years in Hindoostan and Russia". The
main object of this very discursive treatise, which ranges
over India, Siberia, and Great Britain, seems to be to
prove that the fossil bones of elephants found in Europe
are the remains of those used in war and sport by the
Romans and Moghuls. Sixty quarto pages are taken up by
a life of Taimur. The most valuable part of the book is
ELEPHANTS. 179
perhaps the descri])tion of the elephant (pp. 440—450).
In spite of his ''upwards of twenty years in Hindustan",
Ranking seems to have found some difficulty with the
word zanjlr, a chain, as applied to an elephant. On p. 12
of his Introduction, he says "very frequent mention is
made in Asiatic histories of c/iain elephants ; which always
means elephants trained for war; but it is not very clear
why they are so denominated". The explanation is fairly
easy. The word zanjtr (chain) is here one of the fanciful
catchwords attached to every being or thing in the Oriental
art of ^iyaq, that is, of accounting and official recording.
Some fancied appropriateness was discerned in the epithet
so used. Pearls were counted by danah, seed, horses by ras,
head, shields by dast, hand, bricks by qalih, mould, and
so forth. For elephants the word is znjijir, chain, which
is no doubt a reference to the iron chain by which an
elephant is hobbled when not in use. Having to speak of
100 elephants, a Persian or Indian scribe writes 100
zanjlr-i-fil, or in an account he would enter them thus;
mi,
zanjlr,
100.
All elephants had names, as they have still. Horn, 79,
gives several names from the Akharnamah\ and again, p.
124, (Von Noer, Fr. trans., i, 171j, he refers to Akbar's
own elephant Asman Shukoh (Heaven Dignity). Catrou, 255,
has Bahingar (Ornament of the Army) and Aurang-gaj
(Throne-elephant). Danishraand Khan; entry of 26^^ Rama-
zan 1120 H., refers to Fath-gaj (Victory Elephant), and
we find in Elliot, viii, 95, Mahasundar (Queen of Beauty)
ridden by Nadir Shah.
After the introduction of fire-arras and the gradual ex-
tension of their use, elephants ceased, even in the East,
to be of much value in the fighting line of battle. As I
have said above, the chief men still rode them and dis-
played their standards on them. But this was more for the
180 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
purpose of being seen and of acting as a centre and ral-
lying point, than for any advantage derived from the ele-
phants themselves, either through their strength or their
courage. (To the same effect, see De la Flotte i, 258, and
Cambridge, "War", Introd. ix).
Nizam-ul-Mulk seems to have maintained a large number
of elephants even so late as about 1143 h. (1730-1).
When on a campaign to the north of his dominions, in
the direction of the Tapti, he had with him 1026 elephants,
of which 225 were provided with armour, and presumably
were used in battle {Ahwal-i-Jihatoagm, 218(^). On this
occasion he made a curious trial of their staunchness or
otherwise. In an open space near the river he ranged his
guns in a line, (there were 44 top and 1225 rahkalah), and
drew up his elephants opposite them. As the elephants
advanced, the cannon were fired, supported by musketry.
A few of the elephants stood fast, but the greater number
fied for miles, the only result being that 306 foot-soldiers
were trodden under foot.
Towards the end of the period they were more largely
employed as beasts of burden or as aids in the transport of
heavy guns. Captain T. Williamson, ''Oriental Field Sports",
43, says that when used for the latter purpose they were
furnished with a thick leather pad, covering the forehead,
to prevent their being injured. The same work has also one
of the best early accounts of the Indian elephant, wild and
domesticated. In time of peace, as a means of display, for
riding on, for shooting from, they have continued to be
largely used. Ranking, 13, tells us that Asaf-ud-Daulah,
Nawab of Audh (1775—1797), kept considerably above
1000 elephants merely for pleasure. Still the gradual decline
of the elephant, even for purposes of state and show, is
proved unmistakeably by a recent paragraph in the Indian
papers ("Pioneer Mail", Sept. ^1^^ 1894, p. 2). The Govern-
ment "howdah-khanah" has been broken up, there being
only two to three hundred elephants on the roils all over
ELEPHANTS. 181
India, nearly all of which are maintained for heavy batte-
ries; the equipment at Agrah has been sold off, only the
vice-regal howdah of silver being kept. We have thus
travelled far from the days when one of our early com-
manders-in-chief, Colonel Richard Smith, ''reviewed his
troops from the houdar (sic) of his elephant" (Carraccioli,
"Clive", i, 133).
CHAPTER XV.
According to our European notions discipline was ex-
tremely lax, if not entirely absent. Bernier, 55, tells us
that when once thrown into confusion, it was impossible
to restore a Moghul army's discipline, while during the
march they moved without order, with the irregularity of
a herd of animals ; and Europeans generally held the true
cause of their dread of fire-arms, and particularly of artil-
lery, to lie in the inexperience of their leading men, who
never understood the advantage of discipline or the use of
infantry (Cambridge, "War", Introduction, viii).
Nobles while at headquarters were bound to appear twice
a day, morning and evening, at the emperor's audience,
and on this point they were strictly supervised. But there
seems to have been no regular drill and no manoeuvres.
From time to time they paraded their troops in the outer
court during the time of public audience, and the state of
the horses and elephants was then observed. Occasionally, but
very rarely, there were special parades in the open ' ; these
generally took place on the line of march, the emperor
passing in review the troops of some particular commander,
as he was making his march to his next camping ground.
For instance, Datid Khan, Panni, thus paraded his troops
before Bahadur Shah on the 26^^^ Ramazan 1120 h. (8*^1
Dec. 1708), Banishmand Khan, entry of that date.
^ These were the Mahallah ah^eady referred to, see ante, p. 46. The
phrase in Khurasan was San dldan, see Mujmil ut-tdrlkh ha^d Nadirlyah,
p. 81, hne 5.
183
Orgamzatio7i. There was no regimental organization; the
only divisions known were those created by reason of each
chief or noble having his own following of troops. Such
words as tUman or tumandar have no strict or definite
meaning. The first meant any body of soldiers, and the
second the leader or head of such a body. Jama Mar is a
word of the same signification and equally vague, though it
may be taken as denoting a smaller man than a tumandar.
Qas/mn is a word employed in the second half of the
18*11 century, having been borrowed from the Durrani system,
but I do not think it had a much more definite sense
than the above words. In the dictionary, Steingass 971,
Q^^s is defined as T., body, company, troop, army, soldier,
military station.
As for uniform, the only sign of it originally was
a red turban worn by all in the imperial employ. For
the great mass of the army there was usually no uni-
formity of dress; but in a general way each class of
troops dressed in a similar style, Persians in one way,
Mughals in another, Hindustani Mahomedans could be
distinguished from Rajputs, and so forth (Horn, 25). But
such distinctions, though obvious at once to a practised eye,
would take long to record, even if we knew sufficiently
what they were. One Sabit Khan, at one time faujdar of
^Aligarh, was famed as the introducer of a kind of attire
for soldiers, which w^as called after him the sahit-khanl dress.
There were, however, some few regiments clothed in uniform.
For example, as early as Farrukhsiyar's reign the ''Surkh-
poshari' (the Red Regiment) is spoken of. (Ijad's Farrukh-
shali namali, fol. 27, line 3). And it would seem from a
passage in the Sharaif-i-^usmam, p. 207, line 4, that in
Muhammad Shah's time there were some regiments of
body-guards clad alike, and known as the surkhposh,
zardpos/i and siyahposlt, from the colour of their coats, red,
yellow or black. These men carried gold or silver clubs
{gathak).
184 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
The Chaghatae origin of the ruling house and many of
its officers was shown in the frequent occurrence of mili-
tary terms from the language used in Central Asia. The
emperor and many about the court spoke and understood
the Chaghatae language so late as 1173 h. (1759-60), Seir,
iii, 142; and Mustapha, id., iii, 400, note 63, tells us
that up to the time he wrote (c. 1785), the word at Ian
(Be mounted) was "carried round to the horse guards
when the emperor is going to mount his elephant". (P.
de C, 5, from oUi^j5, atlanmaq, to ride on horseback).
Another instance of familiarity with Eastern Turkish is
found in 1739, when Aghar Khan of the Aghar tribe,
whose family had been settled in India over a hundred
years, talked to Nadir Shah in that language, and even
composed some verses in it, Ashob, foL 258<2.
Punishments. For desertion to the enemy we read occa-
sionally of men being blown from the mouth of a gun.
In 1714 two Mina robbers were blown from guns by
Husain 'All Khan, when on the march from Dihli to Ajmer.
Again Haidar Qui! Khan, when commanding at the siege
of Agrah in 1131 h. (1719), had recourse to this punish-
ment with good effect, Siwrniih-i-khizrl (my copy). In the
year 1174 h. (1760) the Mahrattahs blew away from guns
two Mahomedan leaders taken prisoners by them at Kunj-
purah, ''History of the Rohelas" by Rustam 'Ali, Bijnorl,
fol. 51«. And in 1175 h. (30tli May 1762) the Mahrattah
commander, Narti Pandit, blew two men from guns at
Burhanpur, Mirat-us-Safa, ilQa. In the "Abrege Histo-
rique" prepared by Colonel Gentil in 1772, (E. Blochet,
"Inventaire et description des miniatures des Mss. orientaux
conserves a la Bibliotheque Nationale", p. 202, N^ 219)
there is a picture of a man tied to the mouth of a cannon.
Horn deals with the subject of desertion on pp. 49 and
51, but both of his references to Babar's memoirs, viz.,
P. de C. ii, (should be i) 325, and ii, 352, 353, seem to
be cases of surrender. That to the Badshahaamalt i, 334,
DISCIPLINE, DRTIJ., AND EXERCISES. 185
is not a case of desertion at all. The garrison of Mansur-
garli in Orissa (1049 h.) asked for quarter by holding
blades of grass between their teeth. This is the well-known
Indian custom of indicating submissiveness, see Elliot,
"Supp. Gloss.", 252, s. v. Dant-tinka (teeth-straw), which
is practised by villagers to this day. It is also said to have
been resorted to by the Mahrattah horsemen at DihlT (Feb.
1719), when they were overpowered in a street riot, Mlid
Qasim, Lahori, ^ Ibratnmiah 244, my copy. Another in-
stance is found in a book written c. 1147 h., gah dar
dandan giriftah {AJnoal-i-khawaqln, fol. 2I7fl).
Drill. There seems to have been no drill for soldiers,
as such, and no training in combined movements of any
sort. The individual, on the other hand, paid the minutest
attention to the training of his body, and exercising him-
self with all his weapons. For this there were the series
of movements practised daily, known as kasarat. In 1791
an English visitor to the Nizam's camp near Kadapah
(Cuddapah) writes to the following effect, Ouseley, "Or. Coll",
1795, i, 21 — 32, "the traces of order, discipline, and
science are so faint as to be scarcely discernible, except in
the outward appearance of the men, the management of
their horses, and their dexterity in the use of the spear
and sabre, which individually gives a martial air". He adds
that the men exercise at home with dumb bells or heavy
pieces of wood; and he also describes the kasarcd move-
ments. There were in addition the clubs called mugdar,
the chain bow or lezam, Egerton 147, 150-1, N^ 808,
and single-stick play. In this last, a stick covered with a
loose sheath of leather was held in one hand and a small
round buckler in the other, Egerton, 148, quoting from
Mundy (3rd ed. 1858, p. 165, 191, 310, 322). The stick
is called gudka, gadka or gadga, a little club, from gada,
a club (Shakes. 1689). An account will be found in Briggs,
"Ferishta", iii, 207, of yak-ang-bazl, play with one single-
stick or sword, and do-ang-bazl, with sword and shield,
186 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
or two swords, one held in each hand. There were also
wrestling bouts, which usually took place in the rainy
season. For mounted men there were tent- pegging and
shooting at bottles: and the archers had their daily shooting
at an earthen mound or target.
Sword'play. The swordsmen were exceedingly skilful and
active; their attack and defence being accompanied by the
wildest gestures, the most extraordinary leaps, and elabo-
rate feints of every sort. Something of this may still be
seen at any Muharram festival, where the most complicated
evolutions and sweeping circular cuts are made with the
straight gauntlet sword or patta.
Burton, writing of Sindh in 1844, gives us a good
picture of Indian single-stick and sword-play. The usual
style of sword exercise in India is, he says, "Life", i, 119,
with a kind of single-stick, ribbonded with list cloth up
to the top, and a small shield in the left hand. The
swordsman begins by "renowning it", vapouring, waving
his blade, and showing all the curious fantasie that dis-
tinguish a Spanish espada. Then, with the fiercest counte-
nance, he begins to spring in the air, to jump from side
to side, to crouch, and to rush forwards and backwards,
with all the action of an excited baboon. They never
thought of giving "point": throughout India the thrust is
confined to the dagger. The cuts as a rule were only two,
one on the shoulder and the other, in the vernacular called
qalam \ at the lower legs. Nothing was easier than to
guard these cuts and to administer a thrust that would
have been fatal with steel. Colonel Blacker on the other
hand, "War", 302, thought more highly of the native
cutting stroke, it being the only one capable of penetrating
the quilted jackets, or the many folds of cloth worn as turbans
by Indians. The colonel held the opinion that the then
Dragoon sword would not penetrate these, even by giving
"point". He adds "the native practice not only requires a
' Probably from qalam kardan, to lop or prune.
DISCIPLINE, DRILL, AND EXERCISES. 187
stiff wrist, but a stiff though not a straight elbow, for a
cut that shall disable".
Fitzclarence, 102, thus describes the charge made on the
Sitabaldi hill by the Nagpur Rajah's Arabs on the 26^^
Nov. 1817. "Their manner of advancing was exceedingly
imposing. Being perfectly undisciplined, they advanced in
a crowd; the bravest being in advance and taking high
bounds and turning two or three times round in the air,
they rushed forward to the sound of small drums, accom-
panied by the perpetual vociferation of the war-cry "Din !
Din! Muhammad!" This sounds at a distance like 'ding,
ding', which is often used instead of the correct expression".
As this represents what was, no doubt, the long-established
mode of fighting on foot, I give it, in spite of its referring
to a period after the fall of Moghul rule.
Horsemanship. The cavalry had their horses trained to
a sort of manege, where the horse was made to stand on
its hind legs and then advance by bounds for a consider-
able distance. This manoeuvre was resorted to in Bundel-
khand whenever a man on horse- back attacked any one
on an elephant. Once, when Muhammad Khan, Bangash,
invaded Bundelkhand in 1727, he was thus attacked. As
he writes in his report to the emperor: "1 drove my ele-
phant straight into the thick of the enemy, where my men
seemed to be struggling hopelessly against them. At this
moment two of the enemy's horsemen, one after the other,
rode their horses with the greatest boldness at my elephant,
so that their forefeet were on the elephant. By God's aid
they were, one after the other, dispatched by our arrows"
(see the official report in Shakir Khan's Gulshan-i-sadiq,
my copy). This caracolling is still adhered to by the
cavalry in the Bundelkhand native states, as could be seen
by those who witnessed the review of their troops at Agrah
in 1876, in the presence of the then Prince of Wales.
The Persians in the Moghul service did not think much
of Indian horsemanship, judging from the following passage
188 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
of an anonymous memoir written about the middle of the
18^h century. ''As a rule the people of India do not know
how to ride, and horsemanship is unknown in Hindustan.
In addition, they use their utmost efforts to efface from
horses all the qualities of the horse, and make it epileptic
and mad. Their movements are not regulated by an intel-
ligible principle, and it is impossible for them to be under
the rider's control. I am a good rider and relying on my
skill, I have often mounted Indian horses barebacked, in
the belief that they would not be too much for me; and
yet, when I have wanted to go east, they have carried me
north, south, or west, and vice versa. If one wants to
control the speed of the horse and make him travel at the
speed one wishes, the beast either stands up on his hind
legs or jibs, or hugs a wall till he crushes his rider or
kills him in some other way. His paces are accompanied
by jumps wholly unnatural". {Tankh-i-Farah Bakhsli, trans.
W. Hoey, i, App. p. 7). ~~
In this connection the following passage, although written
in 1844, is quite as applicable to the Indian Moghuls as
if it had been written a century or two earlier. ''All nations
seem to despise one another's riding, and none seem to
know how much they have to learn. The Indian style has
the merit of holding the horse well in hand, making him
bound off at a touch of the heel, stopping him dead at a
hand gallop, and wheeling him round on a pivot. The
Hindu (Indian ?) will canter over a figure-of-eight, gradually
diminishing the dimensions tell the animal leans over at
an angle of 45°, and throwing himself over the off side
and hanging down to the earth by the heel, will pick up
sword or pistol from the ground". (Burton, "Life", i, 135).
This is as favorable as the preceding extract was unfavorable.
When doctors disagree, who shall decide?
Mounting Guard. In time of peace the nobles took it in
turn to mount guard with their troops at the palace gate.
This was called chauh and the guard-house was the
DISCIPLINE, DRILL, AND EXERCISES. 189
chauJci-Hanah \ The rules will be found in the Ajn, i, 257.
The duty lasted for twenty-four hours and recurred once
a week. The relief took place every evening. There was
also another division of the army into twelve parts, each
of which mounted guard for one month. But 1 do not
see how the two divisions, that into seven and that into
twelve parts, are to be reconciled with each other.
Hunting. The nearest approach to army manoeuvres was
when the army or a division was ordered out to take part
in a royal hunt. This subject is touched on by Horn, 69.
One branch of the army combined two functions; in peace
they were huntsmen, in war, skirmishers. These were the
Qarawal, with the Qarawal Begl, or Chief Huntsman, at
their head ^. Horn, 69, refers to two descriptions of a
royal hunt, namely, Budauni, iii, 92, and Erskine, "History",
ii, 286. I add another from Anand Ram, Mirat-ul-Istilah,
fol. 184fl. ShiJcar-i-qamrghdh (or qamrc/ah), also shikar-i-
jargah, is called in Hindi Iiata-jorl \ For this hunt a king
gives orders, through his huntsmen {qarawal), to his gover-
nors and the zamindars and cultivators (ryots) to surround
a wide space full of game. This was closed in on daily
till the area was very small. Then the ruler and his friends
arrived, entered the enclosed space, and hunted the game.
As this was a privilege {jquruq) of kings, no one else, not
even a great noble, was allow^ed to practise it. This method
was also followed in Iran; in India it was given up after
the middle of ^Alamgir's reign.
1 Steingass, 402, chauki^ H. a raised seat, chair; a guard; a place for
collecting customs; a watchhouse. J. Shakes. 507, chauk, a market, a
city square; a court yard.
2 Steingass, 962, a sentinel, watchman, spy, guard; the vanguard, a
gamekeeper, a hunter.
» Kamrg_hah, Steingass, 988, the hunting ring formed to enclose the
game in the grand royal chase. Id, 360, jargah, a circle or ring of men
or beasts. Hatna, H. to drive back, jorna, to collect, therefore hata-jorl^
a drive of game.
CHAPTER XVI.
ARMY IN THE FIELD.
Having sprung from a Central Asian nomad horde, the
early chiefs of Taimur's race were perpetually on the move,
accompanied by their army. This traditional habit was
maintained in India by the earlier and more active em-
perors of that house \ From Babar to Bahadur Shah, they
were seldom long in one place, and the greater part of
their life was passed under canvas. For example, during
the five years of his reign Bahadur Shah never slept in
any building, and did not enter one in the day time on
more than one or two occasions. From this habit it resulted
that the empire had never had a fixed capital, the only
capital was the place at which the sovereign might happen
to be 2, and as a consequence, the whole apparatus of
government was carried wherever the emperor went. Ail
the great officers of state followed him, and all the im-
perial records moved with them. Thus a Moghul army,
where the emperor was present, was weighted with the
three-fold impedimenta of an army, a court, and a civil
executive. It is thus easy to account for the immense size
to which their camps gradually extended.
Mir Manzil. To preserve order in the audience-hall and
its approaches, and to regulate the access of the public
thereto, there were a number of guards {yasaioal), at whose
1 The original nomadic habits of the royal house are betokened by
the singular habit, that the wives of the emperors were delivered lying
upon a saddle-cloth. The authority for this is found in a letter said to have
been written in 1137 H. by Nizam-ul-Mulk to Muhammad Shah ("Asiatic
Misc." i, 490).
* Or as the Romans said, "Ubi Imperator, ibi Roma".
ARMY IN THE FIELD. 191
head were several officers styled Mn Tuzak (literally, Lords
of Arrangement). The first of these officials was one of the
great officers of State, and it was his duty when the court
was on the march, to fix the route, to decide on the marches,
and to proceed ahead, select a place for encampment, and
lay out the site of the various camps and the lines of shops
{bazar). When carrying out these duties, the first Mir Ttizak
was more commonly known as Mir Manzil, Lord of the
Stages.
Transport. The means of transport, consisting of elephants,
camels, pack-ponies, bullocks, bullock-carts and porters, were
only provided officially for the imperial tents and establish-
ments; every one else was left to make his own arrange-
ments. Each soldier did his best for himself. The baggage
was known as bahlr o hangah ox 'part dl. In Ashob, fol. 265«,
we find Partdl used for the means of transporting, instead
of for the baggage itself: P artdl-i-aksare-i-eshdn shut ar an-
i-Bakhtl-i-asil loa khdtirhde, yanl usfiturhde katai^-i-khush-
jins'i- Wildyatl. Bakhtl is the large, two-humped or Bactrian
camel.
Commissariat. In an Indian army the commissariat was
left very much to take care of itself. The imperial kitchen
fed a certain number of palace servants and some armed
guards, matchlock men, and artificers. There was also a
charitable kitchen kept up, at the emperor's expense, and
called the Langarkhanah. In the same way, a chief distri-
buted cooked food to the men more especially attached to
his person. Outside these limited circles, every man was
left to provide for himself, buying from day to day enough
for his daily wants from the numerous dealers, or hanyas,
who followed the army. These men's huts or shops were
erected in long double lines, so as to form temporary streets.
These were the so-called bazars or markets (Bernier, 381).
Each great leader had his own bazars, and in these were
to be found not only dealers in grain, but merchants and
artificers of every sort and kind.
192 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Banjara or Birinjara. The suppliesof grain were brought
in on the backs of bullocks by the wandering dealers known
as Banjarahs or Brinjarahs. There are two derivations alleged
for this word, 1) H. bnnij, trade, plus the affix ctrah, de-
noting a doer or agent (Steingass, 201), and 2) P. birinj,
rice, ar, am, the root of dwardan, to bring (Steingass, 179).
Eitzclarence, 93, says "It is by these people that the Indian
armies in the field are fed, and they are never injured by
either army. The grain is taken from them, but invariably
paid for. They encamp for safety every evening in a regular
square formed of the bags of grain, of which they construct
a breastwork. They and their families are in the centre and
the oxen are made fast outside. Guards with matchlocks and
spears are placed at the corners, and their dogs do duty
as advanced posts. I have seen them with droves of 50,000
bullocks. They do not move above two miles an hour, as
the cattle are allowed to graze as they proceed on the
march". On these men, see also Thorn, 85, E. Moor, 131,
and M. Wilks, iii, 209.
Fodder. The grass for the horses was provided, as it still
is, by sending men out to gather it. If they had a pony,
the grass was loaded on it and brought in ; if not, it was
carried in on the man's head (Cambridge, "War", Introd.
vi). These men were either engaged as servants by the
troopers or worked on their own account, (Bernier, 381).
With an active enemy about, these followers were often
cut off, or even frightened into not going out at all.
Camels were, of course, sent out to pick up what they
could in the country round the camp (idem). These, too,
were often raided by the enemy.
Foraging. In addition to those brought in by traders,
supplies were also added to by raiding and plundering in
the country through which the army marched. Even in the
best time of the monarchy and under the strictest com-
manders, the course of an army was marked by desolation.
These was great destruction of growing coops when the
ARMY IN THE FIELD. 193
army passed through a fairly cultivated country. Compen-
sation under the name of paemcllt, "foot-treading", was
certainly allowed, according to the rules, in the shape of
a remission of revenue on the land injured, but this must
have been a very incomplete indemnification for the loss
of the crop.
Scarcity and other sufferings. An army supplied in the
way indicated above was peculiarly liable to have its sup-
plies cut off; then followed at once scarcity, high prices,
and if the stoppage continued, death from starvation.
Mention of these difficulties is seldom absent long from the
pages of native historians. Great heat and want of water
were also frequent grounds of complaint, and from one
who went through the march of A^zam Shah from Gwa-
liyar to Dholpur in June 1707, escapes the bitter cry,
"May God Omnipotent never subject even my enemy to
such a day as we then passed through" {Ahioal-i-khawaqin,
fol. \\a). Again in Bahadur Shah's operations against the
Sikh leader, Bandah, in December 1710, he was much
hampered by the heavy rain and the intense cold, many
of the transport animals being lost. A graphic picture of
campaigning difficulties, even in the case of a force which
was finally victorious, is given by KhafT Khan, ii, 888.
Nizam-ul-mulk on his way in July 1720 to attack ^Alim
^Aii Khan, governor of Aurangabad, passed several days
in extreme discomfort, exposed to incessant rain and in
the middle of deep black mud. The constant rain and the
swollen streams stopped all supplies, the Mahrattas plun-
dered close round the camp, not an animal could be sent
out or brought in. For many days the only food of the
cattle was the pounded leaves and young shoots of trees;
"the smell even of grass or corn did not reach the four-
footed animals", and many of them, standing up to their
shoulders in mud, starved to death. One rupee would only
buy 2 to 4 lbs. of flour. Referring to a century earlier.
Sir Thomas Roe, as quoted by Cambridge, "War", Introd.
13
194 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
vii, gives a very lifelike description of the sufferings of a
march through woods and over mountains.
Flight of Inhabitants, Colonel Wilks, i, 308, note, speaking
of the south of India, says the inhabitants of a country
deserted their homes for the hills and woods upon the
approach of an invader, taking with them whatever food
they could carry, and often perishing of want. Such an
exodus was not unknown in Northern India, as for instance,
when the Sikhs first rose in 17 JO, and invaded the Upper
Jamnah-Ganges duabah and the country north and east
of Lahor, the inhabitants, especially the Mahomedans, fled
at their approach. More usually, however, the peasants
continued with tranquil unconcern to plough, sow, or reap
within a stone's throw of a raging battle. Like true sons
of the East, they "bowed low before the blast" and "let
the legions thunder past". What had they to hope or fear
from defeat or victory?
CHAPTER XVII.
CAMPS AND CAMP EQUIPAGE.
Each soldier seems to have had the shelter of a tent,
even if it consisted only of a cotton cloth raised on two
sticks. The kinds of tents were numerous, from the rautl,
a mere low awning, up to the huge imperial tents. The
Ayn, i, 54, names twelve different kinds of tents. I have
just spoken of one of these, the Uautl, and of another,
the Guldlbar, not a tent but an enclosure, I shall speak
further on. The sarapardah W. 11 also is a screen and
not a tent. From a perusal of the passage referred to, coupled
with plates x and xi, it is fairly easy to understand what
each of these tents was like. The Shamiyanah^ N". 9, is still
known and in common use; the name may be from sham,
evening, that is an awning for use in the evening, or from
shamah (Steingass, 725), a veil. The khargah, N". 8, (Stein-
gass, 456) are spoken of by Bernier, 359, note 4, and 362,
where he says they are folding tents with one or two doors,
and made in various ways; he calls them "cabinets", and
leads us to infer that they were set up inside the large
tents. The emperor and the great nobles were provided
with tents in duplicate, one set being sent on to the next
camping ground while the other set was in use (Bernier,
359). The tents thus sent on were knov/n as the pesh-
khanah (literally "advance-house").
Camp, description of. The laying out of the emperor's
camp, a plan continued to the last, is described in the
Ajn, i, 47, and is shown with more detail in plate iv. In
the centre was the imperial enclosure of canvas screens
196 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
]530 yards long, and about one fifth of that distance in
breadth. It was divided across in its length into four courts.
Over the entrance, which faced in the direction of the next
inarch, was the drum-house (naqar-khanah), in the second
court was the audience tent, in the third a more private
hall, and in the fourth the sleeping tents. Behind was a
place for Akbar's mother, while outside and still more to
the rear were the women's apartments, surrounded on all
four sides by guards. Along the outside of the enclosure
were ranged on each side the kdrhhanahs, or departments
of the household and arsenal, about ten tents on each side.
Still farther away and towards each corner, the tents of
the guards were erected. Outside the gate of the enclosure
were the elephants and horses with their establishments on
one side; and the records, the carts and litters, the general
of artillery, and the hunting leopards on the other. A des-
cription of Jahangir's camp will be found in Cambridge,
"War", Introd. v, who quotes it from Sir Thomas Roe's
journal, the chief impression produced on the ambassador's
mind being that of immense size.
A good account of the mode of pitching an imperial
camp is to be found in Bernier, 360, 361. First of all the
Mir Manzil selected a fit spot for the emperor's tents.
This was a square enclosure 300 paces each way. The
whole of this was surrounded by screens {qanat), seven or
eight feet high, secured by cords to pegs and stayed by
poles fixed at an angle, one inside and one outside, at
every ten paces. The entrance was in the centre of one of
the sides. On each side of the gate (Bernier, 363) were
two handsome tents, where were kept a number of horses
ready saddled and caparisoned ^ In front of the entrance
was a clear space, at the end of which stood the naqar
khanah, or station for the drums, trumpets and cymbals.
Close to it was the chauki-hhanah , or tent of the officer
on guard for the day.
* This is, no doubt, what we read of so often under the name of the Ji7ai<.
CAMPS ANI) CAMP EQUIPAGE. 197
Round the enclosure were the imperial bazars, through
which a street led from the gate in the direction of the
next day's march, marked out by long poles, which were
surmounted by yak tails and placed at 300 paces from each
other. The princes and great nobles pitched their camps
at various distances, sometimes of several miles, from the
emperor's tents. Each was surrounded by the tents of his
men and his own bazar, the only order observed being
that the chief's tents must face towards the imperial Public
Audience-hall (Bernier, 366). Bernier estimates, 367, that
where there was ample space for spreading, ^Alamgir's
whole camp would have measured about six miles in cir-
cumference. The bazars were marked out (Bernier, 365)
by long poles surmounted, as already said, by the tails of
the great Tibet cow "which have the appearance of so
many periwigs".
The camp is thus described by Catrou, French ed., 4*0,
p. 128, 12^^, iv, 40, 57, possibly borrowing from Bernier,
although he professes to have the Venetian, Manucci, as
his authority : "The camp where this numerous army rested
was laid out daily in the same manner, so far as the
nature of the ground permitted. A great enclosure was
roped off of square shape, and this was surrounded by a
deep ditch. The heavy artillery was ranged from distance
to distance and defended the approaches. The emperor's
palace was placed in the centre of the camp. This also
was square in shape and the light artillery was disposed
all round it. The tents of the generals, of a much less
height than those of the emperor, were pitched in the
different quarters of the camp. The sutlers and traders of
all sorts had streets assigned to them. To sum up it may
be said that Aurangzeb dragged in his train a travelling
city as large and as peopled as his capital".
Some of the tents were of an enormous size. These was
one made by order of Shahjahan which bore the name of
Dil'badil (Generous Heart). When Bahadur Shah ordered
198 THE ARMY OP THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
this tent to be erected at Lahor in the year 1711, five
hundred tent-pitchers and carpenters were employed for one
month in putting it up, and in so doing several persons
were killed {Mirat-ul-Istilah, 218^). Kamwar Khan, entry
of 4th Sha'ban 1123 h* (16th Sept. 1711), sayTthis tent
cost 50,000 rupees. A later writer, Seir, i, 25, note 32,
says the emperor's camp was about one and a quarter
miles in circuit, it contained one hundred and twenty tents,
some of them big enough for several hundreds of men,
and the largest might admit two thousand or three thou-
sand. All this was surrounded by a qanat, or wall of cloth
six feet high, outside which is a paling which surrounds
the whole : and it is betwixt these two enclosures that live
the guards. Further off, there is another paling, and here,
too, in the intermediate space reside guards and people
attached to the imperial household, such as chairmen,
watermen, or taper-bearers. See also Cambridge, "War",
In trod. V, for an account of Nasir Jang's camp in 1750,
over twenty miles in circumference. There is also a good
description of a native camp in Wilks, i, 292, referring to
the year 1752, where he tells us of the motley collection
of cover, from superb tents down to ragged blankets; tents
and animals all intermixed ; the only mark of order being
the flags set up by each chief, the only regularly laid out
lines being those of the traders' booths or shops.
Colour of tents. The tents of the emperor,* his sons, and
grandsons were of a red cloth, called kharwah, a stout
canvas-like cotton cloth, dyed red with the root of the al
plant. Round the emperor's tents was the enclosure called
the gulalhar. Some of the great nobles such as the vice-
gerent (loahl-i-mutlaq) or the chief minister, {Jamdat-ul-
mulk) were allowed patapatl or striped tents, one red stripe
and one white stripe alternately. Patl is h. for a strip
of anything, {Mirat-ul-Istilah, fol. 275 and Bernier, 366).
The latter writer on p. 362 seems to imply that the imperial
tents also were striped outside, but as his phrase is "or-
CAMPS AND CAMP EQUIPAGE. 199
namented with stripes", perhaps the two statements are
not absolutely conflicting.
Gulalbar. The name of the screen which Bernier speaks
of as being put up round the emperor's tents was the
Gulalbar. It is mentioned in the Ajn, i, 45, 54, but a
fuller description will not be out of place, since the word
frequently appears in histories, and it is well to have a
definite idea of what is meant. Gulal in Hindi means "red"
and bar, "anything in the nature of a wall which prevents
entrance or passage through it". Thus the whole word is
equivalent to "Red Wall". Before Akbar's time the tents
of the Gurgani kings were surrounded by a rope called
the ia7idb-i-qUruq (lit. "the rope of hindrance"). In Akbar's
reign the gulalbar was devised. It was formed out of
bambus coloured red and held together by leather straps
like a net- work {jail), and so made that it might be ex-
tended or gathered up at will. Its height was three gaz,
or about eight feet, and it had two gateways to the front
and one on the side where the harem tents stood. This
screen was erected round the imperial tents, which were
styled collectively the Daulat-khanah (literally. Abode of
Prosperity). Outside it a ditch was dug, and red flags, an
attribute of sovereignty, were displayed on poles {Mirat-
ul-Istilah, fol. 203«).
Jail. The word jail is similarly met with in reference
to the precincts of the emperor's tent. The derivation is
from H. jcil, a net, and it means lattice, grating, network.
From the passage quoted in the last paragraph and another
in the same book, we see that this network {jail) was
the gulalbar under another name. But a European observer,
who probably had seen an emperor's camp, says the gulalbar
was the outer paling fifty yards from the qanats, or cloth
screens seven feet high, which enclosed the emperor's tents
{Seir, i, 159, note 120). For gulalbar Khushhal Chand in
one place, Berlin Ms. 495, fol. 1010^, uses salabat-bar
"majestic-enclosure": and Ashob, fol. 196^, claims it as
200 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
the invention of Salabat Khan ^ Mir Atash to ^Alamgir,
gulal-barah being nothing more than a popular name.
Ashob gives a minute description of its construction; this
differs in details from that of x^nand Ram given above.
The tents of princes continued to be protected by the old
device of a rope, which still bore the name of tandb-i-quruq,
or rope of prohibition {Mirat-ul-I.).
Bahkalah-bar. This word is literally rahkalah^ field-piece,
plus bar, enclosure. It was the park of artillery arranged
at the entrance of the imperial quarters, or round them, as
a protection against attack. The quarters of the Mir Atash
were at the imperial gateway (Danish mand Khan, entry
of 4th Zai Hijjah 1119 h., and Bernier, 363)7
Rarem women with armies (Horn, 57). On all campaigns
a harem of women with their attendants seems to have
accompanied the emperor and the chief men. On the day
of battle these women were put on elephants and carefully
guarded by the force forming the rear guard, which was
posted at some distance behind the centre, where stood
the emperor or other chief commander. Many references
might be quoted in illustration of this statement. The
habit of being followed by a harem might be justified in
cases where the camp was the only home, for perhaps years
at a time. But the practice was the same even on short
campaigns. For instance, the redoutable GhazT-ud-din Khan,
^Imad-ul-mulk, who became wazir at sixteen years of age and
had deposed two emperors before he was five and twenty,
was born in his maternal grandfather, Qamr-ud-din Khan's,
camp. This noble, who was Muhammad Shah's wazir, was
then on his way to Malwah on an expedition against the
1 According to the Ma^asir-iil-umara. ii, 742, Khwajah Mir, Khwafi,
(Salabat Khan) was made Mir Atash in the 23rt^ year of '^Alamgir, then
removed, but reappointed in the 25tii year; he died in 1103 h. (the 36*^
year). The Tarlkh-i-Muhammadi says he died in 1104 h. Neither the
Ma^asir-ul-umara nor the Ma^asir-i-^Alamglrl makes any mention of his
having invented the gulalbar.
CAMPS AND CAMP EQUIPAGE. 201
Mahrattas. Wilks, ii, 38, writes as if it were a peculiar
weakness of the particular noble, that the Nizam of Hai-
darabad was in 1768 "accompanied in the field by his
favourite wives". But in so doing Nizam 'All was only
following the usual practice of Moghul commanders.
CHAPTER XVIIT.
ON THE MARCH.
When an army or the emperor first took the field, there
were generally great difficulties and delays in making a
start. Nothing was ever ready when wanted ; and if a great
noble was put in command, he had always some further
petition to urge or objection to make before he could be
persuaded to start. Then there were the astrologers to be
consulted. No march began until the lucky moment {saat-
i-sald) had been fixed by reading the stars. If it were not
possible to make a real departure on the proper day or at
the proper time, the advance tents would be sent out and
a pretended start would be made in the hope of cheating
the Eates {Seir, i, 309, note 248). In all cases, however,
the first march out was a very short one, in order that
stragglers might have time to join and anything left behind
might be sent for. This regard for lucky and unlucky days
was a great obstacle to the Moguls' success in war, as it often
prevented them from taking the most obvious advantages
of an enemy (Cambridge, "War", Introd. xi).
Emperor s taking the field in person. The emperor was
not supposed to take the personal command unless the
army was large and the campaign important (Horn, 46
relying on the Tuzuk-i-Taimuri). Thus, when Bahadur Shah
in 1710 headed the army sent against the Sikh, Bandah,
he was blamed for meeting an antagonist unworthy of him.
On the way it was usual to pay visits to holy men of
repute in order to obtain their blessing; and the shrines
of any noted saints situated near the line of march were
ON THE MARCH. 203
perambulated and the saint's help implored. Thus Shah ^Alam
Bahadur Shah when on his way to fight his brother, offered
up prayers at the tombs of Qutb-ud-din and Nizam-ud-din
Auliya at Dihll. In the same way Farrukhsiyar, marching
up from Patnah to Agrah, prayed at the tombs of Taki-
ud-din ut JhusT, of Badf ud-dln at Korah, and of Shah
Madar at Makhanpur. Another curious practice is described
by Yaliya Khan, 1295. He says that when in 1721, Prince
Muhammad Ibrahim was raised to the throne and was
about to start against Muhammad Shah, he was taken, in
accordance with an old custom, to Qutb-ud-din's shrine, to
have his turban wound round his head there, and a sword
attached to his waist. Then a bow with its string loosened
ought to have been placed near the tomb. If the string of
itself resumed its place, this would be held a sign of
victory. On this occasion, such was the uproar and con-
fusion, the order to bring the bow was not carried out.
Description of an army on the march. Catrou, Vl^^ ed.
1715, iv, 49 — 57, or 4to edition p. 126, gives us the fol-
lowing picture of a march of the emperor Aurangzeb. The
heavy artillery went first and formed as it were the ad-
vance guard. The baggage followed in good order. First
came the camels bearing the imperial treasure, one hundred
loaded with gold and two hundred with silver coin. The
load of each did not exceed 500 lbs. The treasure was
succeeded by the hunting establishment. There were a great
many dogs used for coursing deer and numerous "taureaux" ^
for hunting tigers. Next came the official records. It is
the practice of the Moghul empire for these never to be
separated from the emperor. The accounts and other archives
of the empire were carried on eighty camels, thirty elephants
1 This must surely be a mistake; perhaps leopards (chitah) are meant
or buffaloes for fighting with tigers. But the original Portuguese text of
Manucci, Berlin Ms., Phillipps 1945, p. 47, says nothing about bulls. The
sentence reads : "One hundred and fifty camels loaded with nets (redes) for
hunting tigers, of which sport I have already spoken". For the use of
these nets, see Constable's Bernier, p. 378.
204 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
and twenty carts. Immediately behind these came fifty
camels carrying water for the court and the princes. This
is a necessary precaution in Indian travelling, you are
often in a waterless country or the water, speaking gene-
rally, is stagnant and unwholesome. Behind these camels
came the imperial kitchen and fifty camels with the pro-
visions for the day. There were fifty cows to give milk,
as Aurangzeb chiefly lived on milk. One hundred kitchen
servants riding on horses followed. Each man prepared one
particular sort of stew Next was the wardrobe of the
emperor and the harem, and for this fifty camels and one
hundred carts sufficed. Thirty elephants bore the harem
jewels and the store of swords and daggers, from which
the emperor makes presents to his generals. In front of
the baggage train and the artillery two thousand pioneers
marched with spades ready to smooth the ground. There
were other thousand who followed to repair any holes made
by the camels or elephants.
The army came after the baggage. It was composed
almost entirely of cavalry. As for the infantry it is made
up in case of need from the numerous sutlers, traders,
and servants that follow the army. These are armed only
with the sword, spear and shield. After the cavalry came
the emperor, followed by his seraglio. Ordinarily he rode
an elephant. On the back of this great animal, they had
built a room with glass windows, in which was a couch
and a bed. By the side of the elephant were palankins
all ready for use should .the emperor wish to change his
mode of conveyance. His elephant was followed by led
horses. Aurangzeb was fond of riding and at a considerably
advanced age he was still the best rider in his empire.
Some camels preceded the emperor bearing some large
cooking-pots always steaming, perfuming the air as they
went by. Forming the two wings on the two sides of the
emperor's elephants, marched in good order the whole of
the imperial guard. The queens, princesses, and ladies of
ON THE MARCH. 205
the harem followed the emperor. They were carried, as he
was, on elephants, but the room which contained them was
surrounded with wooden blinds [jalousies) covered over with
loose, thin muslin. They saw all and could breathe the
air without being seen. The other women who worked in
the harem were on horseback, wrapped in long mantles
covering their faces and reaching to their feet. The line of
march was brought up by the light artillery, each field
piece on its carriage being drawn by horses.
The rear guard was swollen by the prodigious number
of people always at the Court, and the innumerable mul-
titude of servants leading elephants, camels, horses, and
those carrying the tents and baggage of the lords of the
court and the generals of the army. All moved in order
and without confusion. This rear guard had its place al-
lotted as exactly as the disciplined troops.
Standards. The flag of the noble or sovereign was car-
ried on an elephant during the march (De la Flotte, i, 258
Fitzclarence, 138). These was a special officer entrusted
with the insignia and standards. Of these some account
has been given under the head of Mansabddrs. Collectively
they were called the qUr, an Indian usage of the Turkish
word which is not given among the definitions in P. de
Courteille, "Diet." 425. The officer's title was QUrbegt,
lord of the Qur\ and the men under him carried a supply
of weapons for the emperor's use. The details, as they
stood under Akbar, will be seen in the Ajn, i, 109, 110.
Bernier, 371, speaks of the qur (or as he spells it, cours)
preceding the emperor on the march: these standards and
emblems were surrounded by a large number of players on
cymbals and trumpets.
The following graphic description of an emperor on the
march with music playing and standards displayed is found
in a Hindi poem by Shridhar Murlldhar of Allahabad,
lines 355—376:
206 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Phajir 8hahanshdh sajeu,
JSakal brind gayand gajeu,
Bajl nauhate gahgahi tab,
Bhai naubat rawarl ab,
Ghor dhamisd dhuni dhakdrat,
''Phateh, pliateir , manu pukdrat,
^^ Ho'hu-Iio' karandi bdjat^
8hdhanshdh-hi sagun 8djat,
Sagun son siirandi bdjl,
Siddhi rdm karlju sdjl,
"Jhdru-jhdrun' jhdnjh jhankat,
Khanan Idgi-hi g limit ''khanakh'kat'\
Phil tvdr nishdn jliaharat,
Man-hu agd phatuli phaharat,
At pair anup rdjat,
Indr syon prabhu tdbi rdjat,
Jhdlarl muku tdsu lachhak,
Man-hu tdrd chhatr rachhak,
Aphtdb blhds ken kar,
Man-hu rakhshak sang dini ar,
Tog sundar mdha mdhl^
Sagun kl manu det gwdhl.
Next morning the King of Kings started,
The throng of elephants roared,
The royal march was beaten loudly,
Then played the music of His Majesty,
The big drums shook with mutterings and growlings,
Men shouted 'Victory! Victory!',
The trumpets brayed 'ho-hu-ho'.
The King of Kings' good omens appeared.
The hautboys sounded happy augury,
Rama and the sages joined the throng.
'Clash, clash' clanged the cymbals,
Jingling bells began their 'tinkle, tinkle',
The elephant riders displayed their standards,
In front ran men shouting 'Victory!'
ON THE MARCH. 207
Everywhere incomparable brightness reigns,
The splendour is that of Indra's heaven,
Fringes hang over their faces,.
Guardians of stars and umbrellas,
Sun screens waving in their hands.
Hearts full of joy, they shout for the Faith,
Yaktails, sundar, the fish dignity.
Give evidence of happy augury.
Military Music and the Naubat. The beating of drums,
accompanied by the playing of cymbals and the blowing
of trumpets, at certain fixed intervals {naubat), was one of
the attributes of sovereignty. The place where the instru-
ments were stationed, generally at or over a gateway, was
the naubat or naqqar khanah, the latter name coming from
naqqarah, one kind of drum used. Details will be seen in
the Ain, i, 51. As I read that passage, there would seem
to have been nine naubat in the twenty four hours, but
generally they are spoken of as recurring at the end of
each of the eight watches {pahr) into which that period
was divided. The number is differently stated by different
writers. Haji Mustapha, Seir, i, 3 note 31, after saying
that in its origin this music was a mark of sovereignty,
though later usurped by all provincial governors, goes on,
"It played four times by day and once by night, and also
to announce good news". Others speak of only three ^«w6r/^.
Fitzclarence, 192, writes "the continual beating of the
naubat, or great drums, is one of the highest signs of rank
and power; over the gate of every palace is a gallery or
balcony where this noisy instrument is beaten at certain
hours in the day and night. One of them (i. e. a drum)
is always carried on an elephant before the commander of
a native army. At Murshidabad, when I was there, the
Nawab had them continually beaten. Four gates to his
palace had each a naubat, and each of them sounded a
quarter of each hour and made the most horrid din ima-
208 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
ginable". As to the beating of kettle drums on the march
there is a passage to the same effect in Captain J. Wil-
liamson "Oriental Field Sports", p. 79.
In addition to the fixed periods at which the imperial
drums were beaten and the music played, it would seem
that music and drum beating accompanied the march of
the emperor (Fitzclarence, 138). The intention to make a
march was announced by the beating of kettle drums, as
was done for instance by Prince 'Ala Gohar in 1171 h.,
Tankh-i- Alamgir Sam, fol. 1555. Or as Manucci asserts,
ii, 68, a trumpet was sounded for the same purpose. If
the emperor were not present, the commander, if entitled
to this high honour, caused his own drums to be beaten,
and as Horn, 17, remarks, the sound of these drums was
a sign that some great noble was in commatid and that
probably the army under him was a large one. The drums
were also beaten at the opening of a battle. We are told
by one writer of the year 1169 h. (1756), Tanhh-i- Almnglr
Sanl, fol. 49^, that a horn was blown at night in the
emperor's camp to indicate a halt for the next day. We
read of one noble who kept in his service one hundred
horn-blowers {Jcarranctl), so that when a fight was trembling
in the balance, they should all blow together and inspire
the other side with dread. [Majasir-ul-umara, i, 514).
After a battle the drums and trumpets were also employed
by the victors to announce their victory; and even on
ordinary occasions a noble was preceded by music. In 1757
iVnquetil Duperron, Zend Avesta, i, xliv, after being pre-
sented to Siraj-ud-daulah, speaks of the Nawab coming out
to visit the mint, and "nous entendimes un bruit affreux
de tymbales, de trompettes, entremele de coups de fusils
et de cailletoques". This picture taken on the spot must
represent, as I take it, the usual practice.
The kettle drums {7iaqqarali) were made of iron hoops,
and they were twice as big as those used by cavalry in
Europe {Seir, i, 24, note 31). One of the drums used was
ON THE MARCH. 209
called Bankah, a small wooden drum, no doubt identical
with i^^n-, Shak. 1129, a bass kettledrum, in size between
the naqqarah and the laJwra, or as Q.anoone Islam, App.
p. Iv, has it, the bass end of the small kettle-drum. De
la Flotte, 211, compares the sound of their trumpets
{(rom.pettes), ten or twelve feet long, to that of a French
cowherd's goathorn, only louder; and G. Careri iii, 182,
speaks of seeing a man walking in front of the camp
Provost Marshal {kotwal), blowing a copper horn 8 ''palmes"
in length, the sound of which made him laugh, "il res-
semble tout a fait a celui que les porchers font en Italic
lorsqu'ils veulent rassembler leurs cochons egares".
Patrolling and Watching. At night time some troops were
sent out to march round the camp and protect it. The
name of these detachments was tildyah {Mirat-ul-Istilah,
fol. 202^, Steingass, 817). In 1151 h. (1738) when" Mu-
hammad Shah marched out to Karnal to oppose the advance
of Nadir Shah, these night rounds or patrols were apparently
still carried out; Ashob, fol. 1826 calls them shah-gar d,
which seems the correct technical name, Steingass 732.
He uses tali alt, fol. 182«, for advanced posts or pickets,
which seems the more exact meaning of that word, Steingass
819. The same form, taltah, is used c. 1169 h. (1755-6) by
Muhammad ^AlT, Burhanpuri, in his Mirat-us-safa, fol. 99«.
As for the care of the interior of the camp, Bernier, 369,
describes the system of watch and ward then prevailing.
His watchmen with their cries of khabardar (Take care),
the guards at their watch fires every five hundred paces
round the camp, and the kotwal with his armed men and
their trumpet, were better fitted to prevent thieves and
robbers entering the camp than to act as military pre-
cautions against surprize. In later times even these im-
perfect precautions seem to have been abandoned. In the
18^^ century it was found that, often as native troops had
been surprized in the night by Europeans, they could never
be brought to establish order and vigilance in their camp.
14
210 THE ARMY OF THE ~TNDTAN MOGHULS.
When they acted as allies of the English, the most earnest
entreaty could never prevail upon them to be upon their
guard, or quit their ground in the morning to take part
in a surprize. The men ate a heavy meal just after night
fall, many indulged also in drugs, and about midnight a
whole army would be in a dead sleep (Cambridge, "War",
Introd. xiii). In the police of the camp the provost-marshal,
or kofwcil, was aided by a censor, or muhtasib, whose
special duty (usually very imperfectly performed) was to
suppress gambling, drinking, and other breaches of the
Mahomedan law.
Escort. The name used for this duty was badraqah
(Steingass, 163).
Etrfperors conveyance and usages on his passing hy. Shah
'Alam Bahadur Shah (1707—1712) generally travelled his
stages on a moving throne [tahht-i-rawan). It is described
by Bernier, 370. Another account, 8eir, ii, 171, note 95,
tells us it was a chair resting on two straight bambus or
poles and carried on the shoulders of eight men. Two or
three persons could find place in it, and it had not only
a canopy over it, but an awning in front to intercept the
glare of the sun. Preceding the moving throne were the
yasawals (Steingass, 1531), whose business it was to pre-
serve order (Malumat-ul-afaq, fol. 795). Sometimes Bahadur
Shah mounted a horse, but he does not seem to have ridden
on an elephant except in the battle field.
Whenever the emperor passed, it was the etiquette for
princes, nobles, and chiefs to come out to the edge of their
camp and present a gold coin or other offering. There are
numerous instances of the practice in the historians such
as Danishmand Khan and Kamwar Khan; and Bernier,
382, also speaks of it. The custom was observed by Herr
Kotelar, the Dutch envoy, when he was in Bahadur Shah's
camp at Lahor in 1712. The practice spoken of by Bernier
of entering the camp sometimes on one side, sometimes
on another, was the taghaiyur-i-rah dddan {Mirat-ul-Istildh,
ON THE MARCH. 211
fol. 80), a custom either founded on superstition or devised
as a precaution against assassination.
Crossing Rivers. On this subject Horn, 25, quotes P.
de Courteille, "Memoires", ii, 336, the occasion being
Babar's boat bridge across the Ganges near Kanauj. The
practice was exceedingly common. Any river, if unfordable,
was crossed by a temporary bridge of boats, such as are
still to be seen in the present day. Horn, referring to
Elliot, vi, 363, somewhat emphasizes the fact that elephants
could cross such bridges, but this is a matter of every
day experience. A special officer, dignified with the name
of Mir Bahr, Lord of the Sea, was charged with the con-
struction of these bridges and the provision of boats. The
description of one of these bridges in Bernier, 380, can
hardly be improved upon. "The army crossed by means
of two bridges of boats constructed with tolerable skill,
and placed between two and three hundred paces apart.
Earth and straw mingled are thrown upon the planking
forming the foot way, to prevent the cattle from slipping.
The greatest confusion and danger occur at the extremities ;
for not only does the crowd and pressure occur most there,
but when the approaches to the bridge are composed of
soft moving earth, they become so broken up and full of
pits, that horses and laden oxen tumble upon one another
into them, and the people pass over the struggling animals
in the utmost disorder. The evil would be much increased
if the army were under the necessity of crossing in one
day; but the king generally fixes his camp about half a
league from the bridges of boats and suffers a day or two
to elapse ere he passes to the opposite side of the river;
when, pitching his tents within half a league from the
bank, he again delays his departure so as to allow the
army three days and nights at least to efi'ect the passage".
The practice referred to in the last sentence could be illu-
strated by more than one instance of river-crossing in the
reign of Bahadur Shah (1707—1712).
212 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
It seems that there was one defect in the purely native
system of making a boat-bridge. They did not make use
of grapnels. Instead of these, they followed the tedions
mode of driving stakes into the river bed. The result was
a bridge less secure; and what might have been ready in
one day took eight or ten days to complete (Remarks by
Major R. E. Roberts, "Asiatic Miscell." i, 419).
In Ashob's Skahadat-i-Farruk/isii/ar, fol. 112/5, I have
come across a curious device bv the Mahrattas to mark
the fordable part of a river. In 1148 h. (1735) Pilaji Jadon
crossed the Jamna to attack Sa^adat Khan, Burhan-ul-mulk.
At the place of crossing he caused bamboo poles to be
planted in the water, to show the line of shallow water in
case they had to retire. His forethought was, however, of
no avail; they were badly beaten, fled in haste, and missed
the ford, those that were not drowned being taken prisoners.
Marching through Passes. The passage through a hilly
country of such a huge assemblage as a Moghul army,
consisting as it mainly did of undisciplined men, was, it
need hardly be said, a matter of extreme difficulty, and
in the presence of an active enemy likely to end disas-
trously. Of this difficulty Bahadur Shah had ample expe-
rience while governor of Kabul during the last ten years
of his father's life. It was with the greatest difficulty, and
more by guile than force, that he was able to pass yearly
from his winter quarters at Peshawar to his summer resi-
dence at Kabul, and back again (Raverty, "Notes", 84,
foot note, 86, 90, foot note, 372). Warned by what had
happened to him in Kabul, we find Bahadur Shah adopting
special precautions whenever he came to any narrow defile.
On his return from the Dakhin, when he arrived at the
Eardapur pass between Aurangabad and Burhanpur on the
23rd Shawwal 1121 h. (25tii Dec. 1709), he sent ahead
his eldest son, Jahandar Shah, with orders on reaching
the other end to occupy in force a position in the open
plain beyond (Kamwar Khan, entry of above date). Shortly
ON THE MARCH. 213
afterwards he came with his army to the Mukand darrah,
or pass, and the three great Rajput chieftains of Udipur,
Jodhpur, and Jaipur being in open revolt, there was every
reason to take precaution against a sudden onftilL This
narrow valley in the Kotah state has a melancholy interest
in Anglo-Indian history as the scene of Colonel Monson's
disastrous retreat before Jaswant Rao, Hulkar, in July 1804
(Thornton, "Gaz." 624, Thorn, "War", 358—363, Wel-
lesley "Despatches", iv, 178 ^). Bahadur Shah took very
great precautions. A plan of the pass was prepared a week
before they came to it: the road was reported to be only
4i dirdh wide (about 12f feet). Accordingly on the 25*^
Muharram 1122 h. (25th March 1710), the eldest prince,
Jahandar Shah, was again deputed to march through in
advance of the main army, and occupy the exit from the
narrow valley. It seems to have taken the main body eight
days to get clear, as it was not until the 6^^^ gafar (5^^
April) that the emperor quitted his camp on the hill side,
at the top of the pass, a position which had been occu-
pied by him since the 29^^ March (Kamwar Khan, entry
of above date).
Scouts and Spies. The intelligence department was always
in active operation, both in peace and war. Reports of all
sorts, descending even to idle gossip and scandal, were
always welcome. Danishmand Khan, entry of 11*^ j^^^mazan
1120 H., tells us that there were in all four thousand spies
{Jiarkarali) in the imperial service scattered throughout the
kingdom. There was a head spy {daroghah-i-harharah^ who
was a man of influence and much feared ; his establishment
formed a branch of the postal department, managed by a
high court official called the Baroghah-i-dak, or super-
intendent of the Post. When in the field, these spies were
sent out in all directions. Their name, harkarah (literally
"for every work"), arose in the Dakhin but was adopted
' The best account of this retreat is perhaps that in Frazer's "Skinner",
ii, 7—15, 31—35.
214 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
by the Moghuls (Danishmand Khan, 1. c). In modern usage
it has been transferred to the runners carrying the mail
bags. Despatches and orders were either sent through the
ordinary post, manned by foot runners, or by special mes-
sengers on camels. If the recipient was to be specially
honoured or the matter was very important, one of the
imperial mace-bearers carried the message or letter to its
destination.
Negociations. These were carried on as a rule through holy
men {darvesh) or through eunuchs, the sacred character of
the one and the peculiar position of the other class making
their persons more likely to be respected. Connected with
this subject is the case in Erskine "History", ii, 248, quoted
by Horn, 51, where during Humayun's flight through Sind
in 1542, Mai Deo, the son of Rae Lankaran of Jaisalmir,
when he came to remonstrate about plundering, bore a
white flag. Another instance is found in Ashob, fol. 2565.
He tells us that during the general slaughter of 1739 in
Dihli, the Shah's men were opposed in superior force by
the AVazTr's troops stationed round the hitter's mansion. It
became necessary to communicate with the VVazir and send
him a letter. The messenger displayed a white sheet "that
is to say, the signal of peace and negociation", and then
advanced to state his purpose. The only other instance
that I have met with of a flag of truce being used, was
at the siege of Malligam in 1818, where Lake, 127, says
"the garrison hung out a flag of truce, that we might
carry away our dead and wounded".
CHAPTER XIX.
LENGTH OF MARCHES.
Rennell, 317, speaking from his experience, says the
length of a day's journey in Hindustan was 11 to 12 kos
or about 22 miles, for an ordinary traveller; but that of a
courier may be reckoned at 30 or 33 miles; and on occa-
sions of emergeney they could travel even more, and that
for a continuance of fifteen or tv^^enty days. But these
figures must not be taken as any standard for army mar-
ching. These was an official rate of progress laid down for
single officers or small parties travelling to or from Court.
At times there were, however, forced marches which much
exceeded the ordinary length; on the other hand, the rate
of advance of a large army was very much less than the
official rate of marching, for ''slowness of motion and the
smallness of the stages are in the idea of the Indians a
part of the state that must attend a great man" {Sei7\ i,
187, note 131). Bernier, 358, alludes to this when he
writes, "this is indeed slow and solemn marching, what
we here call a la mogole\
In detailed histories where events are recorded day by
day, such as Danish mand Khan's Bahadur 8Jidh namah
and Kamwar Khan's Tazkirah-i-salatm4'chaghatai7/a/i, the
length of each day's march is stated with great precision
in jaribl or measured kos. This precision is accounted for,
no doubt, by a statement found in Firishtah, Maqalah ii,
p. 212, line 1. He tells us that a tanah-i-'paimcdsh fol-
lowed the army, and by it the distance traversed was
measured. The introduction of the practice into India was
216 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
attributed to Babar. One hundred tanab made one tanah
(the word is kos, in the quotation of the passage to be
found on fol. 38« of B.M. Or. 2005, Tnnkh-i-AImad Shahi
c. 1167 H.). Each tanab was of 40 yards {(jaz) and each
gaz was of nine average fists (mus/il). This would make
a kos of 4000, instead of 5000 gaz, as the later reckoning
was. It was apparently Akbar who lengthened the tanab
from 40 to 50 gaz {Ajn (Jarrett) ii, 414).
Niccalao Manucci saw these measurements actually being
made when 'Alamgir left Dihli in 1663, Berlin Ms. Phil-
lipps 1945, fol. 48, and he gives a detailed account of the
process. "Other men on foot march with a rope to measure
the road, as follows. They begin at the royal tent when
the king starts. The first man, who holds tho rope in his
hand, makes a mark in the ground, and when the man
behind comes up to it, he calls out ''One". Then the other
man makes another mark and counts two: and thus they
continue for the whole march, counting "Three", "Four"
and so on, the other peon also keeping count. Should the
king ask how far he has gone, they calculate the number
of ropes making up a league, and answer accordingly".
Dr. Horn, 115, states that his researches have not yielded
him material for an exhaustive treatment of this section.
Without any pretence to be exhaustive, 1 hope to he able
to throw some further light upon the subject.
The official days inarch. If a man was summoned to
court, the time for his arrival was calculated in the fol-
lowing way (B.M. 1641, fol. 40«5):
1) For the order to reach him by the postrunners, 30
measured {jarlbl) kos (78 miles) a day.
2) For preparation to march, one week.
3) For the march, 7 measured kos (18.2 miles) a day.
The imperial measured kos was 200 jaribs of 25 dira^h
each, that is, 5000 dirdh (B.M. 1641, fol. 51^). The fol-
lowing doggrel lines aff'ord a memoria technica of this fact :
LENGTH OF MARCHES. 217
Panj alaf amad zi gaz nnqdar-i-mll.
In manabazat bar In has/iad dahl.
"Five thousand will yield in yards the mile's length,
This specification affords the proof thereof".
(Klmshhal Chand, 'Nadir-uz-Zamani, B. M. Or. 1844,
fol. 159/^).
The dirdh may be safely assumed to be the same as
the gaz-i'ildhl, which has been found to be, as nearly as
could be ascertained, 33 inches in length (Elliot, "Supp.
Gloss." 480, under "llahi Guz", and 229, under "Coss",
see also Prinsep, "Useful Tables", Calcutta, 1834, p. 88,
89). Thus the length of one jarlbl kos would be 4583|
yards or 2.6 miles; and 7 kos equals 18.2 miles. The
reputed {rasaml) kos was shorter, one jarlbl equalled 1.71
rasaml kos, and the rasaml kos was thus 1.52 miles in
length. But this latter kos varies greatly in different parts
of the country.
We can prove the ordinary rate of a day's journey from
other sources. For instance, Khushlial Chand Nadir-uz-Zamanl,
B.M. 24,027, fol 247^, tefls us that from Dihli to within
twelve kos of Kabul the distance was 306 jarlbl kos, or
5351 rasaml kos, and that it was one and a half month's
journey. Taking thirty days to a month, or forty five days
in all, we find that this brings out a rate of 6| jarlbl
and II9 rasaml kos travelled each day, or almost exactly
the same as the distance fixed in the official manual.
Then Mirza Muhammad, Harisi, gives in his Memoirs
details of several journeys that he made. After Bahadur
Shah's death he came from Labor to Dihli in twenty three
marches, via Nakodar, Phaltir, Ambalah, and Karnal. The
reputed distance was 107 kos, measured on the map it
comes to about 288 miles, or at the rate of 2.6 miles to
the kos to 278 miles. This gives only 4.65 kos or 12.09
miles a day. But then we must recollect that for most of
the time he travelled in the company of Bahadur Shah's
218 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
widows, who w^ere bringing that emperor's body for burial
at Dihli. Under these circumstances they may be supposed
to have travelled less quickly than was usual. Again in
1130 H. (1718) the same Mirza Muhammad went from
Dihll to Jalalabad in the Muzaffarnagar district in five
marches; the distances he gives, when added up, come to
53 kos, an average of over 10 kos (27 miles) a day. He
also returned to Dihli in five marches. The next year,
1131 H. (1719) the same man went as an 'Amil to par-
ganah Rahun in the Jalandhar duabah. He reached the
place in twelve marches. Measured on the map the distance
is roughly about 200 miles, which gives an average of
161 miles as his daily march. Again in 1126 e. it took
^Abd-ul-jalil, BilgramT, four months to 'march from Bhakkar
to Dihli, a distance of about 850 miles (Oriental Miscellany,
pp. 133 — 295, Letter N^ 6) by the usual route via Labor.
This yields an average of a little over seven miles a day;
but then we do not know what halts he made.
Forced marches. The tlghar, or forced march, is men-
tioned by Horn, 21. Some remarkable feats of this nature
were performed by Akbar; notably his advance on Gujarat
in 1573 (Elphinstone, 443). Such activity was not displayed
in later times, and the Moghuls were habitually outmarched
and out-manoeuvered by the Mahrattas. It is true that late
instances of forced marches by Maistir troops are on record,
but these can hardly be taken as applicable to the Moghul
organization. Haidar and Tipu Sultan kept their troops in
exceptional order, and what they did could not be done
by other native armies. In 1781 Haidar marched one
hundred miles in two days and a half, and in November
1790 Tipu s entire army marched sixty three miles in two
days. In our early days in India our own troops performed
feats quite as wonderful. In 1805 General Smith's cavalry
followed Amir Klian 700 miles in 43 days (Blacker, 281).
Lord Lake also made some wonderful marches in 1803
and 1804.
LENGTH OF MARCHES. 219
Army marching. We possess several detailed accounts of
long marches undertaken by the later emperors at the
head of large armies. When ^Alamglr died two of his sons
fought together for the crown. But at the time of their
father's death, one was at Jamrud, a little west of Peshawar,
and the other was in the imperial camp at Ahmadnagar
in the Dakhin. There were thus about 1200 miles between
them ; they at once commenced to march towards each
other, and finally met in battle in June 1707 between
Agrah and Dholpur.
The eldest son. Prince Mu^zzam, Shah 'Alam, reached
Agrah in sixty-two days. The route was covered thus:
Jamrud to the Indus, 8 days, the Indus to Lahor, 19 days,
Lahor to DihlT, 25 days, Dihli to Agrah, 10 days. The
distance measured on the map, with an addition of one
eighth for the windings of the road ', is about 690 miles.
The average distance covered is thus about 11.1 miles
(including halts).
Starting from the other direction. Prince A^zam Shah,
the second son, was ninety two days on the march. From
Ahmadnagar to Aurangabad took him 15 days, Aurangabad
to Burhanpur, 22 days, Burhanpur to Sironj, 20 days,
Sironj to Gwaliyar, 29 days, Gwaliyar to Dholpur, 6 days.
The total number of days being ninety two and the dis-
tance on the map about 505 miles, the average rate of
progress was about 5.48 miles (including halts). Some
farther details may be noted. Aurangabad to Burhanpur
was, we are told, 56-2 kos done in 18 marches and 4 halts;
the actual marching thus averaged here 3J^ kos (8.16 miles)
a day. Burhanpur to Sironj, given as over 114 kos (296.8
miles), was done in 17 actual marches, or a daily average
of 6.7 kos (17.42 miles). By the map I make it 242 miles,
which yields an average of 14.2 miles.
The two marches above described were made under the
1 Rennell's rule, -'Memoir", 7, is "Break the horizontal distance into
portions of 100 or 150 miles, and add one eighth to get the road distance".
220
THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
strongest possible pressure of haste, and must represent
the utmost that a Moghul army was able to do in the
way of continuous marching. In ordinary times the usual
march of an army never exceeded 4| kos (11.7 miles) and
was sometimes as little as 11 kos (3.25 miles). When
Bahadur Shah marched from Agrah to the Dakhin, and
then back via Ajmer to Lahor, the historians record the
length of 340 separate marches. Most of them were of 3
to 31 kos each (7.8 to 9.1 miles). This monarch always
halted on Friday, and there was generally a long halt in
the month of Ramazan on account of the fast. Some of the
facts may be tabulated as follows-.
Name op Place.
Number
Total
Total
Average
OP
Number
number
DISTANCE
DAILY MARCH
Pb-om
To
MARCHES.
OF Halts.
OP DAYS.
MARCHED
(approximate).
(excluding
DAYS halted).
miles
miles
Agrah
Jaipur
20
50
70
155
7.75
Jaipur
Mairtha
16
12
28
140
8.75
Mairtha
Ajmer
14
17
31
45
3.21
Ajmer
Burhanpur
40
39
79
427
10.67
Burhanpur
Haidarabad
61
144
205
360
5.9
Haidarabad
Aurangabad
44
87
131
315
7.15
Aurangabad
Burhanpur
15
38
53
135
9.0
Burhanpur
Narbada bank
11
17
28
72
6.54
Narbada bank
Ajmer
50
130
180
355
7.1
Ajmer
Sonpat
21
97
118
318
15.14
Sonpat
Thanesar
8
11
19
68
8.5
Thanesar
Beyond
Sadhaurah
7
8
15
48
6.85
Sadhaurah
Labor
33
200
233
220
6.66
To
tal
340
850
1190
2658
7.81
The whole period occupied, namely from the 12^^ Nov.
1707 to the lltii Aug. 1711, comprises 1369 days, of
which 1190 days are shown above. The remaining 179
days were spent at some of the principal places named in
the first column.
Another instance is when Dara Shukoh was sent to recover
Qandahar. He reached that place in thirty three marches
from Multan (Raverty, "Notes", 22). Assuming that his
LENGTH OF MARCHES.
221
route was by the Eolan pass, the distance may be esti-
mated as 60S miles. This gives an average daily march of
18.4 miles.
We have also some other accounts, which are sufficiently
specific to afford us information of the usual rate at which
an army marched. For example, we have the advance of
FarrukhsTyar from Patnali to encounter his uncle, Jahandar
Shah, in the neighbourhood of Agrah. The prince left
Patnah on the 22^^ Sept. 1712 and reached Sarae Begam,
opposite Samtigarh, east of Agrah, on the 4^^ January 1713.
The distance from Patnah to Agrah was commonly reckoned
as 800 Jtos (780 miles)^ Khushhal Chand, B.M. Addl 24,027,
fol. 220^. I make it no more, however, than 585 miles on
the map (allowing i^^ for the windings of the road); and
as Farrukhsiyar did not keep to the usual route, but
deviated a good deal to the right, in order to visit the
shrine of Shah Madar at Makhanpur, I should estimate
the distance actually travelled at about 610 miles. The
stages (including the final advance to Dihli) were:
Stages.
Nu:viBER
OF
MARCHES.
Number
0^ HALTS.
Total
NUMBER
OF DAYS.
Approximate
TOTAL DISTA^'CE
marched.
Average
DAILY MARCH
From:
To
(excluding
DAYS halted).
Patnah
Banaras
Allahabad
Makhanpur
Agrah
Banaras
Allahabad
Makhanpur
Agrah
Khizrabad
(outside Dihll)
19
5
17
17
12
23
6
11
8
8
42
11
28
25
20
miles
180
90
180
157
130
miles
9.47
18.0
10.58
9.23
10.83
T
Cotal
70
56
126
737
10.51
We have the record of two long marches of Jahandar
Shah, first from Lahor to Dihll shortly after his accession,
secondly, from Dihli to Agrah to oppose Farrukhsiyar.
222
THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Stages.
Number
OP
MARCHES.
Number
OF UALTS.
Total
NUMBER
OP DAYS.
Approximate
TOTAL DISTANCE
MARCHED.
Average
From
To
DAILY MARCH.
Lalior
Dihll
Dihll
Agrah
(not k
nown)
5
44
22
miles
288
135
miles
6.54 (with halts)
8.43 (without halts)
Again the march of Sayyad Husain 'Ali Khan from the
Dakhin, a march undertaken under circumstances of extreme
urgency, should afford an excellent test of the rate at which
a Moghul army could march. He left Aurangabad about
the ll<^h Nov. 1718, and reached a suburb of Dih]i on the
16tb Feb. 1719. His march thus occupied 98 days, and
his route by way of Burhanpur, Ujjain, and Agrah, mea-
sures about 695 miles on the map, allowing 1^^^ for the
windings of the road. His average daily rate of marching
(including any days on which he halted) was thus 7.1 miles.
The last instance I shall refer to is the march of Mu-
hammad Shah in 1719 from Agrah past Fathpur Sikri to
Todah Bhim in the direction of Jaipur. I make out the
distance to be about 90 miles; it took the army twenty
seven days to reach Todah Bhim; but they marched on
twelve days only and halted on fifteen days. The average
daily march made was thus about 71 miles.
CHAPTER XX.
ORDER OF BATTLE.
The ranging of an army in order of battle was known
as saff arastan, from saff, a row, rank, or file; another
phrase for the same thing i^parrah hastan (Ashob, fol. 134^).
Dr. Horn, 59 — 70, has worked out this section so fully,
that what 1 have to say must be in a great measure a
reproduction of his remarks. He shows that the Moghul
tactics were founded on the rules laid down in Taimur's
ordinances (Davy and White, 228 and foil, Horn, 136 — 151).
When a great battle was imminent, it was the duty of
the first Bakhshi, the Bakhshi-ul'mamalik, to draw up a
scheme of attack, dividing the force into divisions, assigning
to each its position and naming the leaders of each. The
proposed distribution was laid before the Emperor and his
approval obtained. The day before the battle the Bakhshi
also caused musters to be made, and an abstract of this
present-state was laid before the emperor. For instance, we
read in Danishmand Khan, entry of the 28th Shawwal
1120 H., that Zujfiqar Khan, the first Bakhshi, drew up
a plan for the battle against prince Kam Bakhsh, and
presented it to the emperor for approval.
The order of battle was then, roughly speaking, as fol-
lows. First came the skirmishers. Next was placed the
artillery in a line, protected by rocket-men and sheltered
by a rough field-work, possibly the guns being also chained
together. Behind the guns stood the advanced guard; a
little behind it were the right and left wings. Then, at
some distance, was the centre, where stood the emperor on
224
THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
his elephant, having a little way in front of him an ad-
vanced guard {iltmisli) and on each side of it two bodies,
thrown a little way ahead, called the tarah. Behind the
centre was the rear-guard {cha7idaioul), having in its charge
the baggage and the women. I would beg a reference to
the diagrams in Horn, 60, 63, 65, 66, 73. One book,
B.M. 6599, fol. 164(f^, has the following disposition:
Juz-i-harawal
Jaranghar
(Left Wing)
Qar Clival
(skirmishers)
Harawal or
Muqaddamah-
ul-Jais
(Vanguard)
Iltmish
Baranghar-i-
Harawal
(Right wing of
advance guard)
Al-altar{l)
Dastchap-i-ghol
(Left wing of Centre)
GJiol (Centre)
(where the com-
mander was
stationed)
Iltmish
Dast-i-rast-i-g liol
(Right wing of
centre)
Chandawul
(Rear guard)
As the names for these different parts of an armv in
battle array differ a good deal, it will be as well to set
them out somewhat at length. The words so/-^an and sol-
qui for the left, and ong-qul for the right wing of the centre,
as introduced by Eabar (P. de Courteille, "Memoires", ii,
17, Horn, 60), seem to have dropped out of use. We hear
nothing of them in the later histories.
Qalawurl. This word is employed in the Mirat-i-Ahnadl,
ORDER OF BATTLE. 225
fol. 186^, in the sense of men guiding or showing the
way to an army. Steingass, 983, defines it as "road-guides,
horsemen who guard the flank, spies, scouts".
Iftrdl. From a passage in John Surman's Diary, C. R.
Wilson, "Early Annals", ii, 2nd part, 26, this word seems
to have been used for an advanced force or vanguard :
"Meer Jumlah has arrived att Attayah (Itawah) and his Aftally
consisting of 12,000 horse att Shasadpore (Shahzadpur)".
Steingass, 80, has. If ted: "dispersed, scattered, rent, torn".
Skirmishers. Qarawal is defined by Steingass, 962, as T.
a sentinel, watchman, spy, guard, the vanguard, a game-
keeper, a hunter. In peace these men were the imperial
huntsmen; in war, they were sent ahead as scouts and
skirmishers.
Vanguard. This was called either Harawal ov muqaddamah'
ul-jais. The former word Iiaraioal, harol, or arawal is de-
fined by P. de Courteille, 10, 515, as "troupe qui marche en
avant de I'armee pour I'eclairer, troupe envoyee en avant
pour soutenir I'avant garde". Steingass, 1494, has "vanguard,
running footmen". Muqaddamah-ul-jais is the Arabic phrase,
meaning "front-part of the army {jaisy\ and is often used
instead of harawal. Horn, 60, speaks of certain families
among the Moghuls having hereditary claims to certain
positions. In India the right to fight in the vanguard was
conceded, from the time of Akbar, to the Barhah sayyads,
and the fact is often referred to in later times as one of
their best titles to honour. In the Badshah-nmiah, i, 214,
line 8, I find 'Abd-ul-hamid speaks of troops sent ahead
of an army by the name of manqalah. The expression is
not very common; I have met with it once spelt manqala
in Khushhal Chand, Berlin Ms. 495, fol. 1127^, and
several times in the Maasir-ul-umara (written c. 1155 h.,
1742), as for instance on p. 543 of vol. i. It is used in
Tarikh-i"^ Alamgir Sam, on fol. 1055. It is said to have
also the form manghalae, the latter a Moghul word meaning
"forehead, front" (Steingass, 1331, 1333).
15
226 THE AMRY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Advanced post of the Vanguard. This body was named
juzah-i-hardwal, literally "chicken of the vanguard", Horn,
61, who refers to Budaoni, ii, 231, line 4.
Bight Wing. There are five names for this part of the
army, two Arabic, one Chaghatae, and two Persian. They
are (1) maimanah^ (2) ansar-i-maivianah, (Dastur-ul-lnsha,
233), (3) baranghar, (4) dast-i-rdst, (5) taraf-i-yamln (Khafi
Khan, ii, 876)7 '" ~~
Left Wing. In the same way the left wing is referred to by
five different names, the maisarah, A.ansdr-i-??iaisarah{Ds.st\lr-
ul-Insha, 233) jaranghdr, Ch., dast-i-c/iap^ P., and jdnib-i-
yamr (Khafi Khan, ii, 876). Jaranghdr, the form used in
India, should be more correctly juivdnghdr (Horn, 39, P.
de C, 157, 289), but jaranghdr does not seem to be
merely a mistake of the press, as Dr. Horn suggests, for
we have it in the dictionaries (Steingass, 359).
Advance guard of the Centre. This bore the Chaghatae
name for the number sixty, that is, iltmish, (P. de C. 31).
Possibly it may have originally consisted of this number
of men, and the name having been once adopted, it was
retained regardless of the actual number of men employed.
Khafi Khan, ii, 876 spells, galtmish.
The Centre. This division was known either by the
Chaghatae word qTil (P. de C. 433) or the Arabic words
qalb, literally "heart", and ghol, "troop", "assemblage".
For example, Khafi Khan, ii, 876 uses ^?7/ and the ^m/^^-
i'Mhd. Shah, fol. 1135, uses ghol. Qid also means slave in
Chaghatae. Perhaps the centre was called by this name,
because it was formed out of the personal retainers or slaves
of the leader or sovereign. Another name for the centre is
qamargah, Mirdt-i- Ahnadi (circa 1170 h.) fol. 17v<^. This
word is more usually applied to the circle within which game
was driven by troops used as beaters. It was also a term of
fortification (see farther on under "Sieges"). It was in the centre
that the leader took up his station with his standards displayed.
ORDER OF BATTLE. 227
Winc/s of the Centre. These were called taraJi. P. de
Courteille, "Diet." 382, translates this word as used in
Babar's ''Memoirs", ii, 167, Text, 344, by the word "reserve".
Horn assigns to the tar ah, which he also calls the reserve,
a position on each side, but somewhat in advance, of the
centre itself. In this position these troops would seem rather
to be the advanced guard than the reserve of the centre.
Khafi Khan, ii, 876, distinguishes into tarah-i-dast-i-chap
and tarah'i'dast-i-rast .
Rear guard. The name of this was chanddwul (P. de C.
288) literally, water-carriers, people belonging to the rear
guard (Steingass, 400). Tn its charge was the baggage of
the army (bahir-o-bangah). Horn, 61, says the correct form
is chaghdaul, referring to Babar 131, line 1, and 184, line
10. This form is not used by Indian writers of later date,
nor is it in P. de Courteille, "Dictionnaire". It is found
on p. 395 of Steingass.
Saqah. The rear of any division of the army or of any
camp was called its saqah, Ashob, fol. 182a, Steingass, 642.
Nasaqchl. From the time of Nadir Shah's invasion, we
hear a good deal of the nasaqchl. This word, which seems
to have passed then into Indian usage, is from nasaq, order,
arrangement. The nasaqchl was an armed man employed
to enforce orders ; and there were several thousand of them
in Nadir Shah's camp. Military punishments were inflicted
through them, and one of their duties was to stand in the
rear of the army and to cut down every one who dared
to flee. Their arms were a battle-axe, a sabre, and a dagger
(Jchanjar), JSeir, i, 340, note 286. Their signs of office,
Ashob says, fol. 263^^, were a staff" or baton carried in the
hand, and on the head a tadai, J^^j, of moulded brass,
three sided, in shape like the deeply ribbed or winged
fruit of the kamra/ch (Averrhoa carambola).
Taulqamah (^^.iiip') or Taulghamah (i^^^S). This is a Cha-
ghatae word used to denote the troops posted in ambush
to turn the enemy, or the action of turning the flank of
228 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
the enemy (P. de C. "Diet.", 243). Horn refers to it in
several places (22, 23, 60, 73, 75). It was a manoeuvre
executed by Babar (P. de C. "Memoires", i, 194) and is
described by him as a sudden onslaught accompanied by
a discharge of arrows, and followed by as sudden a retreat.
From this passage Horn holds taulqamah to be the name
of a manoeuvre rather than of a particular part of the army.
But in his diagram on p. 73, showing the position taken
by Babar before the battle of PanTpat, he places a taul-
qamah on both the right and the left of the two wings.
Thus the word must be accepted in both senses, namely
as a manoeuvre and as a section of the battle array. Khafi
Khan, ii, 876, when setting forth the divisions of Nizam-
ul-mulk's army before the fight with Sayyad Dilawar 'All
Khan, 19th June 1720, says "Fathullah Khan, Khosti, and
Rao Raghuba, Binalkar, with a force of 500 horse were
appointed the taulqamair . This bears out the use of the
word as one of the divisions of an army when in battle
array. The manoeuvre was one employed by Ahmad Shah,
Abdali, without giving it this name, see p. 233. Qazaql
(p. 240) was also a movement of much the same sort.
CHAPTER XXI.
CONDUCT OF A BATTLE.
An open country was one of the first necessities for a
successful action by a Moghul army, for without this their
cavalry could not deploy freely (Horn, 21). Even ground
covered with thick scrub was unfavourable, while hills and
ravines still more hampered their movements. In a moun-
tainous region they were at a terrible disadvantage; and
their mail-clad horsemen were quite unequal to guerilla
warfare. In their palmiest days they found themselves unable
to reach the Pathans amidst their rocks; and in their
decadence they were helpless as children against the nimble
Mahratta.
Usually one, if not both, the armies made ready for
battle by drawing out the guns in a long line and protecting
them by earth works, the guns being also connected to-
gether by chains or hide-straps, to prevent the horsemen
of the other side from riding through the line and cutting
down the gunners. For instance, Dara Shukoh used chains
at Samugarh in 1658 (Bernier, 47); and before the battle
of the 22nd Rabf i, 1161 h. (2lst March 1748) with Ahmad
Shah, AbdalT, between Machhiwarah and Sihrind, the im-
perialists "joined their cannon together by chains after the
fashion of Rum" (Anand Ram, India Office Ms. 1612, fol.
58a). Again, outside Labor, on Ahmad Shah's second in-
vasion in 1165 H. (1751-2), the subahdar, Mu^in-ul-mulk,
resorted to zanjlr-hnndl of his cannon (Ghulam ''All Khan,
Muqaddamah-i-S. A. namah, fol. 79«). Nay, the practice
survived to the very last, for we find it put in force by
230 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
the Mahrattas at LaswarTin November 1803 (Thorn, "War",
214). A good description of the zanjlrah-hand (as he calls
it) is given by Ashob, fol. 182/5, with reference to Mu-
hammad Shah's camp at Karnal in the year 1151 h. (1739).
''The zaujirah hand began at the last bastion of the town
wall, a narrow path one or two yards wide being left on
the bank of the canal for the passage of the guards (chauki)
on their rounds ishah-gard). The swivel-guns {rahkalali)
were planted four yards apart, with iron chains strongly
attached to the wheels {lialqah) of their carriages (arabah).
Between every two swivel-pieces were stationed five men
with wall-pieces {jazair), having pushtahs (breastworks)
thrown up {andakhtali), and their pieces ready, side by side,
on their tripods".
If the guns were not too numerous, it was often the
practice to post them behind the clay walls of the houses
in some village; or to take up a commanding position on
the top of an old brick-kiln ; or a temporary entrenchment
might be formed out of the earthen bank and ditch which
usually surround a grove of mango trees \ A discharge of
rockets from the artillery position generally began the action.
Then the guns were brought into play. The fire never
became, I expect, very rapid. Orme, for example, "Mil.
Trans.", i, 74, referring to as late as the middle of the
18^^! century, speaks of their firing once in a quarter of an
hour. Khushhal Chand's remarks, Berlin Ms. 495, fol. 1016/5,
show that in 1721 the usual rate of fire of the heavy guns
was one shot every three hours (one pas). He praises
Haidar Quli Khan's men for the energy with which they
cooled their guns, loaded them, and fired them at inter-
vals of three-quarters of an hour {do-ghari ^=- 44 minutes).
In Babar's time the rate of firing must have been very
slow. In his battle near Kanauj, he says (P. de C, ii, 337)
"Ustad Quli Khan" (his mir atash) "made very good use
1 Clive found one of these last very useful at the battle of Palasi (Plassey),
Orme, ^'Mil. Trans.", ii, 172.
CONDUCT OF A BATTLE. 231
of his artillery. The first day he discharged eight projec-
tiles, the second he shot sixteen, and so continued for three
or four days". He used for this the piece called "the Cannon
of the Conqueror", the same that he had used in the battle
against Sanka (i. e. the Rana of Chitor), and to this it owed
its name of Ghazi. He had also mounted in a battery a
still larger piece; but it burst at the first discharge.
Owing to the slowness of the draught oxen, who were
unable to keep up with an advancing line, the artillery
seldom took any further part in the battle, once the
cavalry advance had passed beyond the entrenched position
which had been taken up at the outset. From the same
cause, it seldom happened that in case of a retreat or
defeat the guns could be saved; they had to be spiked
and left behind (Fitzclarence, 255); or as Blacker puts it
("War", 128) "In an action the guns of an Indian army
are generally immovable and their cavalry all motion. The
object of the batteries is to fire as long as possible pre-
viously to being taken; and of the horse, to secure their
retreat if discomfited, unfettered by any incumbrance".
While the artillery duel went on, the rest of the army
was drawn up at some distance behind the guns in the
order of battle already detailed, with standards displayed,
drums beating, and horns blowing. "As the army took up
its position for battle, the long brass horns {karranai)
sounded and heralds ^ made proclamation" {8air-ul-Muta-
kharln text, 59, Seir, i, 208). Since, as Isaiah says,
"every battle of the warrior is with confused noise", some
mention must be made here of battle cries. Horn, 23, tells
us that in Babar's time there was a pass word to dis-
tinguish friend from foe ; we hear nothing of such a prac-
1 Heralds, that is naqlb, Steingass 1421, a servant whose business it
is to proclaim the titles of his master, and to introduce those who pay
their respects to him. In 1870, on the day of the Duke of Edinburgh's
arrival at Benares, such a herald preceded the late Rajah Deo Narayan
Singh as he walked from the railway station to the river bank, and I
heard the man shouting out the Rajah's titles.
232 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
tice in later times. But shouts and battle cries, coupled
with abusive or taunting language, were copiously resorted
to. Such cries were Allahu akbar ! (God is great) and Din!
Din! (The faith! The faith!). Akbar used the cry of Yd
Muln! (O Helper!), Horn 109, quoting BudaonT, ii, 167,
Lowe 170. The passage in Budaoni is:
Kamdn-i-liiydnl dar elm ad ba-zilt,
YaJce guft '' Ba-sitdn\ yalce guft '' DUi\
''The royal bow was drawn to the full.
One called 'Seize', and another 'Strike' ".
In another place, Budaoni, i, 335, line 3 from end, speaks
of awdZ'i-' Dill' o ''Sitctn' o '' Ba-kasI/!' o "Ba-zan\ ghostly
cries of "Strike", "Seize" "Slay", "Smite", still supposed
to be heard after night-fall from the battle-field of Panipat.
Steingass, 547, has di!i, strike thou, inf. dadan, and 548,
dihddih zadan, to raise a battle cry. Khafi Khan ii, 58,
speaks of sadde ''Ba-kash!'' ''Ba-kasli' buland sak!itah,
"having raised loud cries of 'Kill! Kill!'" We are reminded
of Michael Drayton's "Battaile of Agincourt":
"Whilst scalps about like broken potsherds fly
And 'kill', 'kill', 'kill', the Conquering English cry".
The most common cry in later times was Din! Din!
Muliammad! This was used by the Arabs at Nagpur in
1817 (Fitzclarence, 103). It is what Robert Orme repre-
sented, "Mil. Trans." ii, 339, as "the sound of Ding Ma-
homed", or as a contemporary account of the battle of
Baksar, Oct. 23rd 1764, says (Carraccioli, "Clive", i, 57)
"when our seapoys observed the enemy they gave them a
ding or huzza \ One Mahratta war cry was "Gopal ! Gopal!"
{AJucdl-ul'khaivaqln, 207^;); this is one of the names of
Krishn. iVnother, according to Grant Duff, 109, was "Har,
Har, Mahadeo" ; these are also the names of Hindu gods.
Cavalry cJiarges. When the guns were supposed to have
done their work and had sufficiently demoralized the op-
posing army, successive charges were delivered from first
CONDUCT OV A BATTLE. 233
one wing, then the other. The horsemen began with match-
lock fire and a discharge of arrows, finally coming to close
quarters and hand to hand fighting with sword, mace, or
spear. This latter was the chapqalash, evidently from (ji^^xjl:^,
P. de C. 271, a combat. Ahmad Shah, Abdali, seems in
1165 H. (1752) to have brought in a mode of attack,
resembling the taulqamah, (ante, p. 228) in which the
matchlock played a conspicuous part. He divided his horse
into several bodies of one thousand each, all with matches
ready lighted. The first body {dastaJi) rode hard at the
enemy, delivered its fire, then galloped off again. A second
body followed and did the same, and so on in succession
(Ghulam 'All Khan, Muqaddamah, fol. 79/5). At the battle
oFPanTpat, fought on the 7*11 Jamadi ii, 1174 h. (13*^
January 1761), he repeated this manoeuvre at a critical
moment with conspicuous success, thereby throwing the
Mahrattah centre into confusion, {Tdnkh-i-Eusain ShaM,
fol. 445, 45^^). In the Ma^asir-ul-umara, ii, 671, we are
told that in the south of India it was the practice to make
the first attack against the rear of an army.
Chevaux de frise or Caltrops. According to the dictionary,
Steingass, 460, khasak is the word for a caltrop thrown
down to impede the movements of cavalry. I have seen
only one mention of their employment, namely, in the
Akharnamah (Lucknow edition, i, 75, five lines from foot)
where Taimur is said to have used them. But I have come
across the word in Sa'di's lines quoted by Muhammad Mun'^im,
Ja'farabadi, in his Farrukli-namah, fol. 275, (1128 h.) and
by 'Ishrat, Siyalkoti, in his Nadirnainah^M. 56a (1151 h.) :
'^Adu ra ha jcte khasak zar ha rez,
Kih bakhshish kund kunad dandan-i-iez.
"Before an enemy scatter gold, not spikes.
For gifts will blunt the sharpest teeth".
As to the distinctive difference between Moghul cavalry
and that of European armies in their methods of fighting.
234 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Colonel Blacker has some judicious remarks ("War", 189).
First of all, to show how formidable such solid but irre-
gular bodies of cavalry seemed, he quotes Orme — "whoso-
ever has seen a body of ten thousand horse advancing on
the full gallop all together will acknowledge with the
Marechals Villars and Saxe that their appearance is tre-
mendous, be their courage or discipline what it will". Yet
a few European squadrons could ride them down and dis-
perse them. There was a want of sympathy between the
parts, and this prevented one part depending upon the
assistance of another. Owing to its size, an army of Moghul
horse could, for the moment, meet the attack of a small
compact body by a portion only of its total strength, and
since as against disciplined cavalry an equal front of an
irregular body of troops can never stand the shock of an
attack, the Moghuls were bound to give way. The whole
being thus broken up into parts, the parts avoided exposure
to the brunt of the action ; the part actually attacked fled,
but the parts not menaced did not combine to fall on the
rear of the pursuers. On the other hand, the disciplined
troops divided, reassembled, charged and halted on a single
trumpet-call, and threatened each single part in turn. But
if the drilled cavalry tried skirmishing, it was soon found
that the Moghul horse, apparently so despicable, were most
formidable in detail. Wilks, iii, 392, is also of opinion that
in single combat a European seldom equalled the address
of a native horseman.
The objective was the elephant of the opposite leader,
and round it the fiercest of the battle raged. The centre
was the ultimate object of attack and every effort was
made to get closer and closer to it. As a rule, a battle in
India was a series of isolated skirmishes, the contending
bodies holding themselves at first at some distance from
each other, and ending in close individual fighting. One
European observer, writing at rather a late period, declares
that numbers always decided the day, that the smaller
CONDUCT OF A BATTLE. 235
invariably gave way before the larger force. This view may
have some truth in it, but cannot be hiid down as an
axiom. Accident as frequently as not was decisive, while
treacherous desertion or half-hearted support w^as a frequent
occurrence.
The most decisive point of a battle was, however, the
death or disappearance of the leader. If he was known to
have been killed, or could not be seen on his elephant,
the troops desisted at once, and the greater part forthwith
sought their own safety in flight (To this eff'ect, see De
la Flotte, i, 258, Orme, "Hist. Frag.", 419, Cambridge,
"War", Introd. ix). In order to be conspicuous, the leader
rode on an elephant, preceded by others bearing displayed
standards. "Nothing was more common than for a whole
army to turn its back the moment they perceived the
general's seat empty. But Europeans having these forty
years past (1745 — 1785) gained many a battle by only
pointing a four-pounder at the main elephant, Indian
generals have abandoned the custom and now appear on
horseback, nay have learned to discipline their troops and
to have an artillery well served" {Seir, i, 10, note 20). The
troops were very subject to panic and sudden flight; so
much so that the fact was summed up in the proverb
"one soldier makes off, and a whole army is done for" \
Many battles were lost by the event above referred to,
the death or disappearance of the leader. One instance is
the loss of the battle of Samugarh in 1658, because Dara
Shukoh descended from his elephant to mount a horse, at
the entreaty of Khalilullah Khan, with the object of pur-
suing the flying enemy (Bernier, 54). The loss or flight
or capture of the leader also determined the great battles
of Jajau (18th June 1707), Haidarabad (13th January 1709),
Labor, (15th-18th March 1712), Agrah, (10th Dec. 1712)
Hasanpur (13th Nov. 1720). In the first Prince A'zam Shah
1 Lashkarl garezad, o lashkarc sar shavvad^ Horn, 111, quoting
Budaonl, ii, 196, line 4.
236 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
and two sons were killed; in the second, Prince Kam
Bakhsli was mortally wounded and made prisoner. At
Lahor the three younger brothers of Prince Jahandar Shah
were defeated by him one after another and killed. At
Agrah, Jahandar Shah left the field of battle and fled in
disguise to Dihli. At Hasanpur, Prince Ibrahim and the
rebel wazir, ^Abdullah Khan, both became the prisoners of
Muhammad Shah. On this head see also Horn, 46, and
the cases there referred to, Badsliahnamah, i, 512, last line,
Akharnamah, iii, 54, line 12 and following. Once more.
Sir Eyre Coote, "Minutes of Sel. Com", SQtli April 1772,
reprint, 39, attributes the victory of Palasi (Plassey) partly
to the loss of one Meer Noodur, Siraj-ud-Daulah's head
general. One of our cannon balls killed his elephant and
then its rider was killed by a fall from it; this, and the
death of the oxen dragging the guns, threw the enemy
into the greatest confusion.
Untimely plundering. There was also an undisciplined
eagerness to break off and begin plundering before the
day w^as really decided; and this habit often ended disas-
trously for those who had too easily assumed themselves
to be the victors.
Single combat. Horn, 46, quotes instances {Akbarnamah,
iii, 97, 98 and Khafi Khan, ii, 304, 305), 1st where Akbar
challenged his opponent, Datid Lodi, to a fight in single
combat; and 2adly^ in 1095 h., when M. Ibrahim, a general
of the Haidarabad rulers, made a similar ofier to Prince
Mu'azzam, eldest son of 'Alamgir. We may add to these
the proposal sent in 1119 h. (1707) by the same Prince
Mu'azzam (afterwards Shah 'Alam Bahadur Shah) to his
next brother, xVL. A'zam Shah, when they were both clai-
mants for the throne, then vacant through the death of
their father. It does not appear that any of these duels
actually took place; the last most certainly did not.
Challenges to single combat seem to have been not un-
usual between men of lower rank. We have an instance
CONDUCT OF A BATTLE. 237
in Khafi Khan, ii, 633, line 14, where he says that Sarwa,
a robber associate of Papra, the toddy-seller, and one of
the latter's petty officers, Purdil Khan, had such a violent
quarrel about each other's soldierly qualifications, that they
fought a duel {jang-i-yahyangi), "as is the custom in the
Dakhin" (see ante, p. 185). Later on the practice showed itself
in 1782, when the English under Sir Eyre Coote were opposed
to the Mysore army under Haidar "All. Individual horsemen
would ride up within speaking distance and, with contemp-
tuous abuse of a mode of warfare excluding individual
prowess, would give a general challenge to single combat.
Many times and with uniform success these were accepted
by Lieut. Dallas, a man six foot high, who rode a coal-
black horse, and formed a striking exception to the general
inferiority of European to native swordsmen (Wilks, ii, 392).
The TJtara. Dismounting, (from H. utarna, to descend,
dismount), or fighting on foot, was a peculiarity of Indian
horsemen of which they were very proud. It was specially
affected among Indian Mahomedans by the Barhah Sayyads.
H. M. Elliot, "M. Hist.", i. Appendix, 537, speaks of this
practice, and the allied one of Colligation in Fighting, as
a custom of the Hindu tribes. The Beglar-namah, (Ell. i,
293) a history of Sind written about 1625, quotes Rana
Kumba of Amarkot as saying "it was an old-established
custom amongst their tribes that both parties should alight
from their horses and engage on foot". Other instances are
to be found in the same Appendix.
Horn, 21, seams to be referring to this habit, when he
says that the Moghul horseman had to serve sometimes as
infantry. His reference in the ^Alamgir'namah, 67, line 8,
is undoubtedly a case of the utara. It took place at the
battle with Jaswant Singh, Rathor, and it is specially said
to be "the custom of the valorous reputation-seekers of
Hindustan". Anand Ram, writing in 1161 h. (1748),
I. O. L. N^ 1612, fol. 876, refers to it as a special feature
of Rajput tactics. An instance of the practice by Rajputs
238 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
will be found in Budaonl's account, text i, 368, Ranking,
478, of the battle fought in 1562 near Ajmer between
Sher Shah and Mai Deo, Rathor. Again, we find it in use
in 1151 H. (1739) at the battle near Karnal, where Klian
Dauran, Samsam-ud-daulah, was wounded and MuzafiFar
Khan killed. Ashob, fol. 227«, tells us that "they found
the dead bodies of Mirza 'Aqil Beg, Kamalposh, and of
others, his brethren, with their skirts tied together".
This dismounting was resorted to at the crisis of a battle;
and when the horsemen alighted, they bound themselves
together by the skirts of their long coats. There are many
references to this mode of fighting in the descriptions of
battles in the early part of the 18^^ century. The Persians
in the Indian service scoffed at this habit, and attributed
it not to valour but to defective horsemanship. An anony-
mous writer of that nation remarks, "So when Hindustani
cavalry go to battle, it is impossible for them to make a
stand without suffering physically. If they are caught in-
volved in a fight they have no resource left but to alight
and let their horses go. Though they may be killed in
either case, yet the chances are greater in favour of life
when they alight. If they remain in the saddle, it is im-
possible for them to escape, for the horse, as likely as not,
kills the rider before the enemy touches him. Anyhow,
this manoeuvre of utdra has the appearance of bravery and
they boast of it. ("Memoirs of Dihli", trans, of Tankh-i-
Parah Bnkhsh, by W. Hoey, M. A., D. Lit., i, App7~8).
Allied to what Elliot refers to as "colligation", or men
binding themselves together when fighting, is an incident
which I have only met with once. In 1165 h. (1752) at
the turning-point of the battle fought outside Lahor against
Ahmad Shah, Abdali, the nazim, Mu'in-ul-mulk, and his
chief captain, Bhikari Khan, put each one foot in the
other's stirrup, and thus, knee to knee, fought their way
back to shelter in the fort of Lahor (Ghulam 'Ali Khan,
Muqaddama/i, fol. l^b).
CONDUCT OF A BATTT^E. 239
Some other technical terms of fighting. There are several
words and phrases which often occur in accounts of battles,
and seem to have, in that connection, a more or less tech-
nical meaning. These I note, with such explanations as
occur to me.
Earakat-i'mazbu/n. This means literally the expiring throes
of a slaughtered animal, but seems used to express a feeble
and hesitating attack, which is never carried home. In
Budaoni, ii, 234, occurs the following passage: o sare chand
az fidaigdn-i-Rana, kih mahal-i-Tt-rd muhdfazat nn-kardand^
0 sare chand-i-dtgar, suknah-i-mu^abad^ kih majmu'' bist kas
bdshand, binabar-i-rasm i-qadlm-i- Hindustan.^ kih waqt i-khdli
sdkhtan-i-shahr, ba jihat-i-radgat-i-ndmus, kashtah mi shav-
vand, az andarun-i-khdnahha o butkhdnahhd bar dmdah,
harakat-i-inazbuhi kardah, ba zakhm-i'Shamsher-i-jdn-sitdn
jdn ba mdlikdn-i-dozakh sipurdand. Lowe, 240, renders it
thus: "And certain of the devoted servants of the Rana,
who were the guardians of his palace, and some inhabi-
tants of the temple, in all amounting to twenty persons,
in accordance with an ancient custom of the Hindus that
when they are compelled to evacuate a city, they should
be killed in order to save their honour, coming out of
their houses and temples performed the sacrificial rite and
by the stroke of their life-taking swords committed their
souls to the keepers of hell". See also Lowe's note. I take
this passage as meaning, on the contrary, that the men
made a feeble purposeless onslaught {harakat4-7nazbuhl),
and were slain not by their own swords, but by those of
their Moslem opponents.
Again in the Ma fisir-i-^ Alamgirl, 299, at the taking of
Gulkandah, 24th Zul'Qa^dah 1098 h., 9th Sept. 1687, we
have the expression used in its literal sense of a feeble
useless effort. When the besiegers entered that fort, their
leader seized the king be an kih U o hamrdhdn-ash harakat-
i-mazbuhl namdyand, "before he and his companions could
make any fruitless effort". As the prisoners thus made were
240 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Mahomedans, it can hardly be supposed that the writer
means they were about to perform a "sacrificial rite", that
is, in other words, the Hindu jTi/iar, or immolation of
themselves and family. In the Ma^asir-ul-wriard, i, 844,
the words are used to describe the opposition offered in
1153 H. (1740) by Sarfaraz Khan, 7iazim of Bengal, to the
invasion of the usurper, 'All Wirdi Khan, Mahabat Jang.
Wilks, ii, 552, attributes to Tipu Sultan's personal malig-
nity the use of this phrase for describing the "movements
of the enemy". No doubt, contempt is included in the
meaning, but it is a regular stock expression, used by all
writers when describing the movements of troops. Khushhal
Chand, Berlin Ms. 495, fol. 10103 uses it in its strictly
literal signification with reference to the execution of Rajah
Ratn Chand (1133 h.). Once more he uses it, rather in-
definitely, on fol. 10153.
Qazaqt. The word comes, of course, from qazarj, Stein-
gass, 968, a partisan, a light armed soldier, a highway
robber, a Cossack. Qazaqi he defines as a military incur-
sion, guerilla warfare, free-booting, brigandage. But in Indian
writings it seems to me to have a more definite application,
and is used for something equivalent to a loose attack in
open order, followed by retreat as soon as the attack has
been delivered, in short something the same as the taul-
qamah movement already referred to (ante, p. 227). Modern
writers speak, I notice, of the Cossack "lava-like" form of
attack, and I suppose the above-named is what they mean.
Horn, 64, rejects, and I think rightly, the use of this
word as one of the divisions of an army, but he does
not give us any definition to replace the one rejected.
I fancy that Dr. Oskar Mann's reading of faraql iS'^s, on
p. 95, line 6, of Mujmil-ut-ianM might be better J.[^, qazaqi.
Bar gosliah-i-kaman zadan. This is in the literal sense
of the words "to take in the corner of a bow". But the
words seem to have also the specifiic meaning of surrounding
and overpowering any body of men.
CONDUCT OF A BATTLE. 241
Talaql'i-fariqain, "Meeting of the two parties", denotes
the fact that the two armiCwS are in touch and within
striking distance of each other.
Sii/ah namudan, lit. "to show black", is the phrase for
the first faint signs of an enemy's appearance in the distance.
Ilallah^ said by Steingass 1506 to be from hamlah, a
fight, was the general word for an on-rush or charge.
Ynrish, Steingass, T., 1537, P. deC, 545 u^^j^.,7narche,
expedition, was also used in the same sense as hallali.
Hni^at'i-majmui was also a word for some sort of com-
bined advance. Literally it means hai^at, form, mode, maj-
mul, collective, aggregate. I think this had a technical use,
but I have failed to satisfy myself as to its exact meaning.
ChapkuncJii, a reconnaisance, Horn 21, T have never seen.
Chapqalash I have already referred to (ante, p. 233); Turk-
tazi (Turk-galloping) was an expression for hard or ex-
peditious riding. The words TJimaq or Aimaq, Horn, 21,
Blochmann Ajn, i, 371, note, were not in use in the later
period.
Sipahl-i'frdez. This phrase, literally "soldiers of the melon
bed", has often puzzled me. It is used as a description
of a defeated, non-resisting body of troops. Presumably the
metaphor means that in such a case their heads are as
easily cut off as melons can be gathered from a melon-bed.
Mirza Haidar (Ross and Elias, 323) puts Avords something
like it into the mouth of a prince, looking on at a review
of raw undisciplined troops: "with such a troop as this it
would be dangerous to try and rob a kitchen-garden {paliz)".
Defeat. In case of a reverse the heavy guns were ge-
nerally abandoned, as they could not be removed. We are
told that in such cases they were spiked and rendered
useless (Blacker, "War", 128). One instance where this was
done was at Gulkandah in 1097 h. (1685-6) by 'Alamgir,
Khafl Khan, ii, 355, last line, mlkh zadah nahud salchtand.
Generally, on the retreat of an Indian army, so great was
the dispersion that some days elapsed before the direction
16
242 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
of flight taken by the principal body could be ascertained.
There were no dispositions taken to cover its escape, no
stratagems to mask its route, cover its baggage, gain an
advance, lay an ambuscade, or mislead a pursuer. All
impediments to flight were successively abandoned, and a
retreat became a sauve qui pent. This result is attributable
partly to the want of discipline and to defective leadership,
which leaves every individual to rely more on himself than
on his commander (Blacker, "War", 162).
Juhar. This well-known Hindu practice of killing women
and children to prevent their falling into the enemy's hand
was once, I find, proposed for adoption by a small body
of Mughals under Khwajah Asa^d Khan (son of Mubariz
Khan), when surrounded hy an overwhelming body of
Mahrattahs {Jhval-i-kliawaqm, fol. 194«).
Proclamation of Victory, Horn, 109. When the day was
won, the victor ordered his drums to strike up and his
horns to blow, both to announce the victory to his own
side and to produce further disheartenment among his
opponents. Sometimes, to re-animate the drooping energies
of his men, a general would order his drums to beat as
for a victory, in the hope that they would be cheated into
the belief that the day was going favourably for them, and
thus inspirited, might turn an imagined into a real success.
Pillars of heads. It was the custom for a subordinate
commander to accompany his despatch announcing any
success with as many heads of the slain as could be col-
lected. This was a survival of the Central Asian practice
of erecting a pillar or pyramid formed of the heads of the
dead enemy. There are two cases in Budaoni, ii, 17, 169,
Lowe, 10, 172. In 964 h. (1556-7) Akbar built a pyramid
of heads at Panipat; again in 981 h. (1573-4) near Alimad-
abad, he did the same. There are also several instances of
heads being sent in during the reigns of 'Alamgir and
Bahadur Shah. For example, Danishmand Khan tells us,
entry of 18tl^ Ramazan 1119 h., i1^^ Dec. 1707, that an
CONDUCT OF A BATTLE. 243
imperial officer, after taking the Jat fort of Sansani, near
Matliura, sent in one thousand heads in ten carts, along
with the weapons taken. Nicolao Manucci also speaks,
Phillipps 1945, Part i, p. 85, of having seen piles of
heads, once as many as ten thousand heads; and in his
many journeys between Agrah and Dihli (1656 — 1680),
he always saw fresh heads in the niches made for them
on the pillars. In 1122 h. (1711) Mhd Amin Khan,
when announcing the capture of Sihrind, sent in six
cart-loads of heads, and reported that the rest had been
built into a pillar {minar), Kam Raj, ^Ibrat-namah^ fol. 435.
Again in 1715, in Farrukhsiyar's reign, between two and
three hundred heads carried on poles graced the triumphal
entry into Dihli of the victors of Gurdaspur. And, according
to the Ahlihclr-i'Muliahhat, fol. 279, pillars of heads were
constructed by Ja^far Khan in 1124 h. (1712) on the edge
of the high road to Hindustan, just outside Murshidabad,
after he had defeated Rashid Khan. Ashob, fol. 1115,
speaks of Sa^adat Khan Burhan-ul-mulk sending to Court
the heads of the slain after his defeat of Bhagwant Singh,
Khichar, in 1]48 h. (Oct. 1735). Abdullah Klian, Firuz
Jang, who died in 1054 h., 1644-5, boasted, according to
the MafisiT-ul'Umara ii, 788, that he had cut off 200,000
heads, and all the way from Agrah to Patnah had built
pillars with them.
CHAPTER XXII.
PARTICULAR BATTLES, STRATAGEMS, LOSSES.
D]\ Horn devotes many pages (71 — 105) to reproducing
detailed battle pieces. These comprise Babar's first battle
at Panipat, 21^^ April 1526, Babar's battle against Rana
Sanga, IG^h March 1527, Akbar's battle at Panipat, 5tli
Nov. 1556, the battle at Korah between Shah Shuja^ and
""Alamglr, 3^^ Jan. 1659, and the taking of a mountain
pass near Ajmer. Most of these serve more as specimens
of style than as plain and direct reports of what happened
at these actions. All of them, except Babar's own description
of the battle of the 21st April 1526, are written in that
deplorably inflated, rhetorical style, of which Persian and
Indian writers are so proud, where sense is drowned in
sound and plain facts are buried under far-fetched meta-
phor. Such turgid stuff reduces the translator to despair
and engenders disgust in the European reader. As will
have been noticed. Dr. Horn brings his specimens no further
down than the first year of ^Alamgir's reign. There was
much fighting in the rest of that reign and in the fol-
lowing reigns, and from the later historians it would be
possible to put together accounts of many other battles.
I may instance those of Jajau (1707), Agrah (1712),
Hasanpur (1720).
For the first of these recourse might be had to Ni'amat
Khan (afterwards Danishmand Khan), poetically A^li. This
well known poet and literary man, who died SO^b Rabi'
i, 1122 H., 28tii May 1710, was appointed historiographer
PARTICULAR BATTLES, STRATAGEMS, LOSSES. 245
by Bahadur Shah, and has left two descriptions of the battle
at Jajau, in which his patron defeated a brother, A'zam
Shah, and obtained the throne. That in the Bahadur Shah-
namah is the simpler; the other, a separate work known as
the Jang-?iamah, is written in the florid, full-blown manner
which was considered requisite for such show pieces. It is
a ver}^ clever performance; an admirable specimen of a
detestable genre. The proportion of bread to sack may be
known from the fact that when, after transcribing the whole
piece, I proceeded to make an excerpt of the bare facts, I
found that they occupied only one-fifth of the original
space.
Following Ur. Horn's example, 1 will give a description
of the battle of Hasanpur, fought on the 13th Nov. 1720.
On the 28th Sept. 1719, Muhammad Shah had been
raised to the throne at Agrah by the two Sayyad brothers,
^Abdullah Khan and Husain ^AlT Khan. Shortly afterwards
(8^^h Oct. 1720), with Muhammad Shah's tacit approval,
the younger brother was assassinated. ^Abdullah Khan
thereupon raised another scion of the royal house. Prince
Ibrahim, to the throne, and marched from Dihli against
Muhammad Shah, who was coming from the south-east.
Just before the decisive battle, the emperor's head-quarters
were at Hasanpur, those of ^Abdullah Khan about six
miles further north, at Biluchpur. Both places are between
Mathura and Dihli, on the right bank of the Jamnah, in
parganah Palwal. The authorities on which the following
description is founded are 1) Kamwar Khan, 2) Shiu Das,
3) Khafi Khan, 4) Mhd Qasim, LahoTl, 5) Mhd Shaff,
Warid, 6) Khwajah 'Abd-ul-Karim, Kashmiri, and 7) Mhd
^Umr, son of Khizr Khan.
The Battle of Easanpur. Early in the morning of Wed-
nesday the 13th Muharram 1133 h. (13th Nov. 1720),
before the sun rose, Muhammad Shah mounted his elephant,
Padshah Pasand, and took his place in the centre. Haidar
Quli Khan was sent on ahead with the strong artillery
246 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
force under his command '; while Khan Dauran and Sabit
Khan were ordered to follow and support him with the
left wing. Muhammad Khan, Bangash, and Sa'adat Khan
were sent towards the river and the rear. Round his
Majesty's person were the new wazir, Muhammad Amin
Khan, and his son, Qamr-ud-dm Khan, Dil Daler Khan,
Sher Afkan Khan, Hizbar Khan and others. Zafar Khan,
Fakhr-ud-dm Khan, his brother. Rajah Bahadur of Kishn-
garh, Nusrat Yar Khan, Jag Ram (Jai Singh's diwan)
'Aziz Khan, Mir Mushrif, and Rajah Gopal Singh, Bha-
dauriyah, were placed in charge of the main camp, which
was at a distance of one kos from the position taken up
by the emperor. The prisoner, Ratn Chand, diwan of
'Abdullah Khan, was now sent for. He was brought
before the emperor on an elephant; he was there made to
dismount, and was at once executed. The severed head
was thrown before the emperor's elephant and trodden
under foot.
' If we are to interpret Khushhal Chand literally, Berlin Ms. 495, fol.
10d4&, Haidar Quli Khan used a telescope to make out the enemy's position.
He says H. Q. K. at a distance of one farsakh (3 miles) saw the enemy's
army by the eye of a dur-bln (telescope). Or is it only his "farseeing
eye" {chashm-i-durbvi)1 A late writer (c. 1790) Rustam '^Ali, Bijnori,
in his "History of the Rohelahs", fol. 526, states that at the battle of
Panipat in January 1761, Ahmad Shah, Durrani, used a telescope (dnr-fctn)
to watch the movements of the Mahrattahs. As he was writing thirty
years after the event, I do not know whether he is to be relied on for
such a detail. Also in the Husain Shahl of Imam-ud-din Chlsti, fol. 656,
we have mention of the field telescope as used by Taimur Shah, son of
Ahmad Shah, Abdali : "The king mounted his elephant and slowly inspected
the army. From time to time he raised his telescope to his eye" {qarib-
i-chasm-i-mubarik guzasht). This telescope produced unexpected results
for some of the commanders: they received a severe beating from the
sticks of the nasaqchis sent to them. A learned man standing by the
king, puzzled by this infliction of punishment, asked what it meant. Taimur
Shah replied : "Through my telescope I saw that these commanders were
seated under the shade of their horses, while the men of their regiments
were exposed to the full heat of the sun. Tomorrow I will give them robes
of honour to console them".
PARTICULAR BATTLES, STRATAGEMS, LOSSES. 247
Chura Jat, who was hovering near the army on the
west, cut ofiP many followers and penetrated into the camp.
But the above-named Rajahs drove him out again. Next
the Jats attacked on the south, whence they carried off
some goods and part of the imperial property. Zafar Khan,
Muzaffar Khan and Muhammad Khiin, Bangash, once
more repelled them. They then made a further attempt
on the east side. Here Mir Mushrif and 'AlwT Khan,
TarJn, of Lakhnau, met and defeated them. But the uproar
was very great, and the camp followers and traders were
so frightened, that they jumped into the Jamnah and tried
to swim across it, many losing their lives in the attempt.
By three o'clock the baggage camp was moved to a safer
place, and the confusion continuing, it was again moved
still farther off.
When Najm-ud-dm "All Khan at the head oftheSayyad
vanguard, appeared in the distance from the direction of
the river, Haidar Quli Khan, the imperial Mir Atash,
moved out his heavy cannon into the open, and encoun-
tered the advancing enemy with a storm of balls from
them and his field-pieces. The fire was so continuous and
heavy that the artillery of the other side was silenced. After
every volley Haidar QulT Khan urged on his men by lavish
gifts of gold and silver. As the artillery advanced, the rest
of the army followed and occupied the ground. Stimulated
by their commander's liberality, the gunners worked zeal-
ously, and a second set of guns were loaded by the time
the first were discharged. Khan Dauran's troops moved in
support of the imperial artillery, Sanjar Khan and Dost
^AlT Khan, in command of that noble's guns, particularly-
distinguishing themselves. The latter was wounded in the
foot. Sayyad Nusrat Yar Khan and Sabit Khan also took
a leading part, while Sa'adat Khan and Muhammad Klian,
Bangash, created a diversion on the left. During the day
a rocket fell on Sayyad 'Abdullah Khan's powder-magazine,
exploding it and causing much loss of life.
248 THE AMRY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Throughout the day of the iS^'i, the battle was chiefly
one of artillery. The brunt of the fighting on 'Abdullah
Khan's side was borne by his brother, Najm-ud-din ^Ali
Khan, who commanded his vanguard. Originally the Sayyads
had intended to rely on a general onset. But Rajah Muhkam
Singh, who had deserted from the imperialists, dissuaded
them, pointing out that to charge down on such a power-
ful artillery as the other side possessed, would be to expose
themselves to destruction. Their own small supply of guns
ought, he said, to be entrenched in a good position on
the edge of some ravine, and there they could await the
favour of events. Although Muhkam Singh had acquired
in the Dakhin the highest reputation as a soldier, his
advice was not adopted. The Sayyads' artillery was placed
on a high mound, under the shelter of some trees, near a
deserted village, and it tried to reply to the other side's
fire to the extent of its ability. In the field, the usual
scattered fighting, charging and counter-charging, went on
all day, and at one time it looked as if the imperialists
would give way. But Khan Dauran, Sayyad Nusrat Yar
Khan, Sabit Khan, Dost 'All Khan, Sayyad Hamid Khan
and Asad 'All Khan by redoubled exertions prevented a
catastrophe. In the end, some of the Sayyads' field pieces
were taken, and they were ejected from their sheltered
position among the trees. Najm-ud-din 'All Khan was
wounded by an arrow near the eye ^, and a ball from a
swivel-gun struck him on the knee. Among the chiefs who
lost their lives were Shekh Sibghatullah of Lakhnau, three
sons, and seventy-five of his men, 'Abd-ul-Qadir Khan,
Thathawi, (nephew of Qazi Mir, Bahadur Shahi), 'Abd-ul-
GhanT Khan (son of 'Abd-ur-Rahim Khan, 'Alamgiri),
Ghulam Muhi-ud-din Khan, and the son of Shiija' Khan,
Pal wall. Many soldiers also were slain.
* He lost his eye from this wound, and the glass ball by which he
replaced it was a subject of wonder to the common people for the rest
of his life, (Ma,asir-ul-iimara, ii, 508).
PARTICULAR BATTLES, STRATAGEMS, LOSSES. 249
'Abdullah Khan had decided to single out for attack
the force under Sayyad Nusrat Yar Khan, who had com-
mand of the advanced guard near the emperor. Against
this man the Sayyads had a special grudge, because he,
one of their own clan and a relation, had sided against
them. Having swept him on one side, 'Abdullah Khan hoped
to be able to push on to Muhammad Shah's centre {qalb).
First of all, he tried to make his way to his objective
from his own left, but found the river such an obstacle,
that he changed his direction and moved across his front
to the right of his own army. As soon as the movement
was detected, reinforcements were sent for by Muhammad
Shah, the centre having been left very weak. The generals
who were thus summoned objected to quit their posts.
The imperial artillery present with the emperor's division,
was then despatched towards the river to bar the way,
and part of the vanguard was also transferred to the same
point.
Unfortunately the change in 'Abdullah Khan's line of
advance resulted in his being drawn away from the river
bank, and thus his main position was now some miles
from the water side. The battle had continued till the
afternoon, and so far 'Abdullah Khan showed no signs of
discouragement. But his men, more especially the new levies,
became uneasy, and soon lost their heads completely. On
pretence of watering their horses and camels, they rode off
towards the river, only to find their opponents in possession
of the banks. Group after group, on the pretext of getting
water, left the standard. These desertions continued until
the night fell; and all night long, from the camp to Barah-
pulah just outside Dihli, the road was encumbered with
fugitives. At night-fall there were not more than a few
thousands left of the huge host that had set out from
Dihli a few davs before.
■/
At first 'Abdullah Khan had ordered a small tent to be
put up for the night where he stood, but countermanded
250 THE ARMY OV THE INDIAN MOGHULS,
it, when he reflected that it would be a target for the
enemy's fire. The night was a moonlight one, and the
imperial artillery never ceased its fire. If any man stirred
in the Sayyad position or showed himself, a gun was at
once pointed in that direction and discharged; and from
time to time the guns were dragged forward, the oxen
being harnessed to the muzzle instead of, as usual, to the
breach end of the gun. Among the guns in use were
those named GhazT Khan and Shah Pasand. These heavy
guns were fired oftener than had ever been done before
in the recollection of the oldest man. Haidar Quli Khan
kept up the energy of his men by continual gifts ; ^Abdullah
Khan's continued to make ofp in small parties. Muhammad
Shah passed the night seated on his elephant so near the
vanguard as to be under fire.
When day dawned on the 14th Muharram (14tiiNov. 1720),
^Abdullah Khan found his army reduced to a few of his
relations and his veteran troops. They were altogether not
more than one thousand horsemen; with these he continued
the fight to the best of his power. Najm-ud-dm 'All
Khan and Saif-ud-dm ^\li Khan, the wazir's younger
brothers, Sayyad Afzal Khan, High Almoner {Sadar-ns-
sadur), Rae Tek Chand, a Bali Khatri, his chief officer,
Ghazi-ud-din Khan (Ahmad Beg), Nawab Allahyar Khan,
Shahjahani, and Ruhullah Khan were found among these
faithful few, who had passed a sleepless night on their
elephants, having seen neither food nor water for many
hours. Access to the river-side was blocked by the Jats,
who plundered impartially friend and foe. As dawn was
drawing near, a ball struck the seat upon Muhkam Singh's
elephant. The Rajah got down, mounted his horse, and
galloped off; for many years it was not known whether
he Avas alive or dead.
Early in the morning, returning to his plan of the pre-
vious day, 'Abdullah Khan, joined by Najm-ud-din "All
Khan and many Barhah chiefs, again delivered an attack.
PARTICULAR BATTLES, STRATAGEMS, LOSSES. 251
in the hope of reaching the emperor's centre. The imperial
left opposed a stout resistance to this onset, and at length
the Sayyads dismounted to continue the fight on foot at
close quarters. Shahamat Khan and his son, Fatli Mu-
hammad Khan, Tahavvar 'All Khan (better known as
Bahadur 'All Khan), and many others on the Sayyads' side
were slain. Darvesh 'All Khan, head of Khan Dauran's
artillery, was killed ; Dost 'All Khan and Nusrat Yar Khan
were severely wounded. Sa'adat Khan and Sher Afkan Khan
were also prominent in this encounter. 'Abd-un-Nabi Khan
and Mayah Ram, two of Haidar Quli Khan's officers, and
Mhd Ja'far (grandson of Husain Khan) were the only other
men of name who lost their lives on the imperial side.
After a time the men of Khan Dauran, Haidar Qui!
Khan, Sa'adat Khan and Muhammad Khan, Bangash,
surrounded the ex-wazir, and an arrow struck him on the
forehead, inflicting a skin wound. The soldiers then tried
to make him a prisoner. But, clad although he was in chain-
mail, he leapt to the ground sword in hand, with the in-
tention of fighting to the death. In spite of their knowing
his practice of fighting on foot at the crisis of a battle,
the ex-wazir's troops, when they saw his elephant without
a rider, imagined that their leader must have fled, and
each man began to think of his own safety. Then Tali 'Yar
Khan charged at the head of his men, and cut down Shekh
Nathu, commanding 'Abdullah Khan's artillery; the Raj-
puts, coming up, took possession of the Shekh's body, and
carried it to the imperial camp. Najm-ud-dm 'Ali Khan
and Ghazi-ud-din Khan did their best to rally their men,
but no one paid them any heed. Shuja'at-uUah Khan,
Zujfiqar 'All Khan, and 'Abdullah Khan, Tarln, fled.
Even Saif-ud-din 'All Khan, the ex-wazTr's brother, thought
the day was lost, and left the field along with two or
three hundred men, taking with him Prince Ibrahim, who
abandoned his elephant and mounted a horse. His elephant
252 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
and imperial umbrella were afterwards found, and taken
by Muhammad Shah's men. The feebleness of the defence
would be fully proved, if we believe, as Warid tells us,
that after two days' fighting, only forty men were left
dead on the field.
Najm-ud-din ^Ali Khan, a drawn sword in his hand, rode
on to enquire after and search for his brother. He found
^Abdullah Khan standing on the ground quite alone, and
although wounded in the hand, still fighting like a lion,
while on every side the crowd of assailants grew greater
every minute. Still not one of them had the courage to
lay hands upon him; one of Khan Dauran's men had
wounded him on a finger of the right hand, but the
Nawab returned the blow by a cut, which struck the
man's leg and his horse's shoulder. Najm-ud-din 'All Khan
dismounted from his elephant and joined his brother.
""Abdullah Khan called out to him "Behold the inconstancy
of Fortune, and the end of all earthly greatness!", adding
a verse of Sa^di, Shirazi, fitting to the occasion ^ Haidar
Quli Khan, who had noticed that the howdah of 'Abdullah
Khan's elephant was empty, made enquiries, and was in-
formed by one of his soldiers that the Nawab was on foot
and wounded. Coming up at once with a led elephant,
Haidar Quli Khan addressed the Sayyad, in the humblest
manner, with words of praise and flattery. ''Was he not
a well-wisher, and was not his life one with his? Except
to set forth for the presence of the emperor, what course
was there left?" Najm-ud-din 'All Khan made a movement
to cut the speaker down, but 'Abdullah Khan held his
' Khizr Khan, who took part in the battle as one of the Sayyad army,
was near enough to know that ''Abdullah Khan called out, but from the
uproar could not hear his words. Some years afterwards (1138 h.) he
met at Mathura, Najm-ud-din ''Aii Khan, then on his way to Ahmadabad,
and obtained from him the details in the text. Khafi Khan, ii, 933, on
the contrary, makes out that A. K. claimed aman (safety for life) by
announcing himself as a Sayyad.
PARTICULAR BATTLES, STRATAGEMS, LOSSES. 253
brother back. Then, with a haughty and dignified air,
he took Najiu-ud-din 'All Khan's hand and mounted the
elephant. Haidar Quli Khan followed on his own elephant,
and conducted his prisoners to the emperor, Muliammad
Shah.
His hands bound together by Haidar Quli Khan's shawl,
'Abdullah Khan was brought before Muhammad Shah.
Saluting him with a "Peace be upon you", the emperor
said "Sayyad! you have yourself brought your affairs to
this extremity". Overcome with the disgrace, 'Abdullah
Khan answered only "It is God's will". Muhammad Amin
Khan, unable to contain himself, leapt from the ground
with joy, and exclaimed "Let this traitor to his salt be
confided to this ancient servitor". But Khan Dauran, in
respectful terms, intervened. "Never! never! Make not the
Sayyad over to Muhammad Amin Khan, for he will at
once slay him in an ignominious manner, and such a deed
is inadvisable. What did FarrukhsTyar gain by the murder
of Zujfiqar Khan ? Let him remain with Haidar Quli Khan,
or be made over to the emperor's own servants". The
prisoner was accordingly made over to Haidar Quli Khan,
along with Najm-ud-din 'All Khan, his brother, whose
wounds were so severe that he was not expected to recover.
Hamid Khan, TuranT, was also taken a prisoner and brought,
bare-headed and bare-footed, before his cousin, Muhammad
Amin Khan, and Khan Dauran. The wazTr calmed his
fears and assured him of being tenderly dealt with. There
were many other prisoners, among theui the chief being
Sayyad 'All Khan, (brother of Abu j Muhsin Khan, Bakhshi)
and 'Abd-un-nabi Khan.
On the Sayyads' side the entrenchments were held and
the fight maintained by GhazT-ud-din Klian and others for
nearly an hour after the capture of 'Abdullah Khan.
When at length they were satisfied that the day was lost,
they desisted. Ghazi-ud-dln Klian with such baggage as
254 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
could be saved, followed by AUahyar Khan and many others,
moved off and marched straight for Dihli; while the Barhah
Sayyads endeavoured to cross the Jamnah, in order to make
their way to their homes. Saif-ud-dln 'All Khan had brought
Prince Ibrahim off the field of battle, but owing to the
entire absence of carriage, was obliged to leave him in the
orchard of Qutb-ud-din Khan close to the village of Nekpur.
Saif-ud-dln ""All Khan went home to Jansath, sending Baqir
'All Khan and Khizr Khan to Dihli to bring away the
Sayyad women and dependents. These messengers reached
the capital before the emperor, and carried off the ladies
and children to the Sayyads' country.
To return to the field of battle. The Moghul soldiery,
as their custom was, took to plundering, and appropriated
to themselves whatever horses, camels, mules, and cattle
fell into their hands. Churaman Jat followed suit, and
plundering both sides with strict impartiality, made off with
his booty to his own country. Among his spoils were over
one thousand baggage oxen and camels, which had been
left negligently on a high sandy mound close to the river,
several camel-loads of goods meant for charitable distri-
bution, and the records of the Grand Almoner's department.
Reports of Battles. Somewhat in the same way that
after a battle a modern general sends off a despatch to
his superiors, a Moghul commander prepared and submitted
a report (^arsah-ddsht) to the emperor. Often he also drew
up a separate description of the fight for distribution to
his friends and equals. These latter papers were styled
tfmiar, or roll, (a word which had another technical signi-
fication in the finance department). If the emperor was
especially satisfied with any general, he gave orders that
the victory should be recorded in the imperial diary of
proceedings (the waqi^ah), equivalent to our gazette. Many
specimens of battle reports sent in from Bundelkhand by
Muhammad Khan, Bangash, will be found in Sahib Rae's
Khujista/i Kaldni ; and the same work contains a tUmdr
PARTICULAR BATTLES, STRATAGEMS, LOSSES. 255
circulated by Nizam-ul-mulk after his victory over Sayyad
Dilawar 'All Khan, Rajah Ehim Singh, Hada, and others.
Stratagems of War. Dr. Horn, 70, states that deceit and
stratagem did not play a leading part in Moghul warfare.
This may be so, still they were not unknown. Of a character
similar to the pretended desertion, in order to obtain in-
formation of the enemy's plans and strength, which was
employed by Rumi Khan at Chunar in 1538 (Horn, 71,
quoting Erskine, ii, 140, note), is a plot put into execution
once by Nizam-ul-mulk. In the middle of 1720, when
about to fight for supremacy in the Dakhin against Sayyad
'Alim 'All Khan, governor of Aurangabad, he arranged
with one of his principal officers that a fictitious dispute
about pay should be raised, that the officer should behave
disrespectfully, and after receiving his money, should desert
to 'Alim 'All Khan's camp. So said, so done. After an
altercation, Nizam-ul-mulk paid the man and let him go.
When he reached the Sayyad's camp, this officer was received
with honour and taken into the Sayyad's service. But on
the day of battle, as secretly agreed on with Nizam-ul-
mulk, the deserter turned his men traitorously on 'Alim
'All Khan's rear, and bringing him under two fires contri-
buted materially to his defeat (Shiii Das, fol. 425).
Ambush {ha kamm-gdh nisldstan) was not an uncommon
stratagem. Matchlock men were hidden in high crops, or
on the edge of a ravine, at a spot where the opposite
leaders would most probably pass. At the proper moment
a volley would be discharged, and occasionally with deadly
effect. It was in this manner that Qaim Khan, nawab of
Farrukhabad, and many of his chief officers lost their lives
on th7 12th Zuj Hijjah, 1162 h. (22^^^ Nov. 1749), see
J. A.S. B. for 1878, p. 381. An ambush was not unfre-
quently supplemented by pretended flight, so arranged as
to draw the pursuers on and bring them under fire. We
have an instance of this in Nizam-ul-mulk 's fight with
Sayyad Dilawar 'All Khan in Barar on the 19tii June 1720.
256 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Between the two forces there were deep ravines, where a
large army could have been effectually concealed. Nizam-
ul-mulk sent out his guns and placed them in position, so
as to command from both sides the only road across this
ravine. His advanced guard was concealed in the hollows
on each side. Then two or three men, closely resembling
the Nawab in beard and features and age were dressed up,
placed on elephants, and sent out to represent Nizam-ul-
mulk at the head of his main body, which showed itself
in front of the entrance to the ravine. Dilawar ^Ali Khan's
men came straight at their foe, and were drawn on and
on by a simulated retreat. Anxious to slay or capture the
opposite leader, who as they believed was in command,
they pursued steadily, disposing on their way of several
pretended Nizam -ul-mulks. When Sayyad Sher Khan at
length brought his elephant close to that of ^Iwaz Khan,
the Moghul by a sign caused his elephant to kneel, and
by this trick, escaped with his life. AVhen the ravine was
reached, the guns did their work; and their leaders being
killed, the rest of Dilawar ^Ali Khan's army dispersed
(Shiti Das, 37^, M. Qasim Lahori, 314, TariklU-muzajJan,
fol. 183). ~
This device of having "six Richmonds in the field" was
not unusual, it having been put in practice against us in
our own early fighting in the Dakhin (R. O. Cambridge,
"War", Introd. xi). It was also resorted to earlier in the
century by Sa'^adat Khan, Burhan-ul-mulk, founder of the
Audh family. The Khichar zamindars of parganah GhazTpur
in sirkar Korah, sub ah Allahabad, had long given trouble
to the imperial officers, although several ineffectual attempts
had been made to reduce them to order. At length, the
Sirkar was made over to Burhan-ul-mulk; and on the
10th Jamadi ii, 1148 h. (27^^ Oct. 1735) that noble while
on his way from Audh to Dihli, undertook to eject the
then zamindar, Bhagwant Singh, son of Udaru. When the
contending parties came face to face, a servant, clad in
PARTICULAR BATILES, STRATAGEMS, LOSSES. 257
rich robes belonging to the Nawab, was placed upon the
Nawab's elephant. Burhan-ul-mulk took his seat upon
another. Several fierce attacks on the suppositious Nawab
were repelled successfully. Finally, the Rajput chief gathered
together some seven hundred men, and fully resolved on
death or victory, made his way to the centre of the Ma-
homedan army, which he reached at the head of only
forty to fifty men. Then, with not more than seven or
eight men left, he arrived close to the leader's elephant.
Bhagwant Singh knew the Nawab's attire, and thought he
was in presence of Burhan-ul-mulk himself. Before the
Mahomedans could attempt a rescue, he pulled the supposed
leader out of his high-sided seat i^iman) and slew him,
with rejoicings at having successfully carried out his enter-
prize. But Burhan-ul-mulk, who had stood aloof, now
ordered one of his officers to advance with five hundred
men, and in a few moments Bhagwant Singh was slain.
The body was skinned and the skin filled with straw -.
then, with its head and that of the rebel's son, it was
sent to Dihli ; where in Sha'ban of the same year Rustam
^Ali, Shahabadi, saw them hanging in the main street,
near the chief police office (Nadir-uz-zamanl, B,M. Or, 1844,
fol. 152«, 1523, and Rustam 'All, fol. 2683).
When a leader took to flight on his elephant, it was
not unusual for him to change places with the driver in
order to escape molestation in case of pursuit and capture
(Fitzclarence, 133).
Night surprizes (shah-ldiUn, night-blood, or shah-c/lr, night-
seizing) were also a form of stratagem not unfrequently
employed. It was in this way that Ahmad Khan, Bangash,
on the 1st August 1750, attacked and overcame the
superior force of Naval Rae on the bank of the Kali-nadi
river near Khudaganj (13 miles east of Farrukhabad). The
Pathans started during heavy rain at three hours after
sunset, and avoiding by a long detour the front of Naval
Rae's position, they got round to his rear near the river.
17
258 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
An hour and a half before sunrise, when it was so dark
that you could not tell friend from foe, the attack was
delivered. Naval Rae's guns were fired at random and did
no execution, he was killed, and his troops dispersed.
Statistics of Losses. Dr. Horn devotes one section of
his work (xiii, pp. 113 — 115) to the subject of losses in
battle. Here again, as in the question of the total number
present, or the strength of particular divisions, T agree
with him that to obtain any idea of the numbers of killed
or wounded is exceedingly difficult, historians either omitting
to mention them, or if they do so, contradicting each other
irreconcilably. After a battle no attempts were made to
ascertain the losses or count the slain. Any statements that
w^e may meet with are thus mere guesses, and we may be
quite certain that they are much exaggerated for the de-
feated, and much diminished for the victorious army. From
these causes such statements are quite worthless, and can
form no basis for the calculation of percentages, or such-
like strict arithmetical treatment. Incidentally, we learn
from passing allusions the severity of the losses in a battle,
or the number of the slain in some special group of those
who were present. Thus, after the battle of Jajau, fought
on the 18th J^ne 1707, we are told that the defeated
fugitives made off towards Gwaliyar "and so many lost
their lives on the way at the hands of Jat plunderers and
the Rohelahs of Dholpur, that the ravines leading to the
Chambal were encumbered with decaying bodies" (Kamwar
Khan). Another Avriter, Khushhal Chand, fol. 373«, tells
us that the loss on both sides in this battle is said to have
amounted to ten thousand men. As to losses among a
particular group, or of men from one town, we have an
instance in the Tahsirat-mi-nazinn of Sayyad Muhammad,
BilgramT, who informs us, under the year 1163 h., that
thirty seven men from Bilgram lost their lives on Naval
Rae's side, when he w^as attacked by Ahmad Khan, Bangash,
near Khudaganj. Scattered notices of this sort might be
PARTICULAR BATTLES, STRATAGEMS, LOSSES. 259
collected. But of what value would they be? They might
enable us to sav whether the fio'htinof had been severe or
not. But as we do not know the total strength and have
only vague accounts of the losses, how can any minute
calculations be made? The figures, such as they are, for
nine battles in the time of Babar and Akbar will be found
collected in a table on p. 115 of Dr. Horn's essay. De la
Flotte, i, 258, who knew something of the south of India
between 1758 and 1760, is of opinion that battles were
much less bloody than in Europe.
Slain and toounded. Plundering of the slain and wounded
seems to have been universal ; the camp followers were
those chiefly concerned, but the fighting men were not
above lending a hand. In reading the memoir of Colonel
Skinner's life, a man half Indian by blood and wholly
so by education, one is struck with his exultation over a
piece of valuable plunder, and his obvious belief that it
was a legitimate source of income. The dead bodies left
on a field of battle do not seem to have been usually
buried, they were left to lie as they fell; but once or twice
we are told of their being collected in great pits, which
were styled ganj-i-shahld, or martyr store-houses. For an
instance, see Rustam ^Ali, I'arikh-i- Hindi, fol. %\lb. The
wounded seem to have been left mostly to their fate; there
was no organization for their succour, nor any attempt to
heal their wounds; this was left to their relations or friends.
CHAPTER XXIIT.
FORTS AND STRONGHOLDS.
As early as Alexander's time the Indians possessed walled
and fortified towns (Mc Crindle, Invasion of India, 119).
The practice of building such strong places was never
abandoned, and by the sixteenth century, when the Moghul
rule began, petty forts held by chiefs of Hindu clans or
by grantees from Mahomedan sovereigns, were scattered
thickly over the country. Speaking of the Mahratta terri-
tory at the end of the W^ century, Colonel Blacker, 305,
believed that no province of the same extent in India, or
perhaps in any part of the world, possessed so many fortressess.
In the plains of the Ganges and Indus, these forts were
usually placed on an artificial mound, the earth for which
was taken from the foot of the site, thus forming on one
or more sides a large pond or marsh, which protected the
fort from a sudden attack. As a rule these forts consisted
of four high walls, enclosing a rectangular space; they
were provided with a bastion or tower at each corner;
and had a fortified gate on one side, the entrance lane
turning several times at right angles before arriving at the
interior of the place. This narrow tortuous entrance lane
was generally enfiladed with guns and loop-holed on every
side. These gates with their intricate passages are well
described by R. Orme ("Mil. Trans." i, 320, Trichinoply),
and in the south of India generally by Lake, "Sieges", 56,
who considered the gateways the strongest part of the
Indian forts. The outer walls were generally of clay and
very thick : they were loop-holed for musketry, round
l^ORTS AND STRONGHOLDS. 261
earthen-ware pipes being inserted in the walls for this
purpose (Fitzclarence, 245, Orme, ''Mil. Trans." ii, 203,
255). If the owner were lucky enough to have any wall-
pieces, they would be mounted on the flat roofs of the
houses built against the inside of the wall. These outer
walls might be from twenty to thirty feet in height. Such
a stronghold was safe against any small force, and with
the means then in use, could hardly be reduced except
by starvation. At the more important places they added
one and sometimes two ditches, together with outworks,
so as to render regular approaches necessary (E. Lake,
"Sieges", 11). In hilly country and in the Dakhin the
fortresses were of much more elaborate construction. Of
these I shall speak in a subsequent paragraph.
Bound Hedge. As an additional protection, such places
were often surrounded by a thick plantation of thorny trees
or an impenetrable screen of bambus. Some of the latter
were of great depth and in the operations in Rohilkhand
during the suppression of the Mutiny of 1857, our troops
came across bambu hedges which a cannon ball was unable
to penetrate. This was no new thing. For instance, Khushhrd
Chand, fol. 177r/, tells us that when Muhammad Shah
came in 1158 h. (1745) to besiege 'All Muhammad Khan,
Rohelah, in Bangarh, he found "a great wilderness of bambus
round the fort, through which the wind even found its
way with difficulty ; quick-handed diggers and axemen were
collected to cut this down and uproot it". Again, in 1805
we found Rampur in the same province surrounded by a
bambu hedge thirty feet thick (Thorn, ''War", 435). In
the same way, it was in Bundelkhand the usual custom
to protect a fort by a wide belt of thorny jungle; and in
1140 H. (1728) Muhammad Khan, Bangash, when reporting
to DihlT his campaign there, speaks of these jungles as
retarding his operations considerably.
Going to an entirely different part of India, we find
that the town adjoining the fortress of Ahmadnagar in
262 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
the Dakliin had inside a low wall an immense prickly-pear
hedge about twenty feet high. No human being could pass
it without cutting it down, a work of the utmost diffi-.
culty, as it presented on every side the strongest and most
pointed thorns imaginable. Being full of sap, fire would
not act upon it, and an assailant while employed in clearing
it, would be exposed to the enemy's matchlocks from behind
it; thus it was stronger than any abbatis or other barrier
(Fitzclarence 241). We find another good instance of the
adoption of these protective belts of jungle in the case of
Bobili, 1.40 miles N. E. of Vizagapatnam , which was
attacked by Bussy in 1757: ''An area of five hundred
yards or more in every direction is preserved clear, of which
the circumference joins the high wood, which is kept thick,
three or four miles in breadth, around this centre. Few
of these forts admit more than one path through the
wood The path admits only three men abreast, winds
continually, is everywhere commanded by breast-works in
the thicket, and has in its course several redoubts, similar
to that at the entrance, and like that flanked by breast-
works on each hand" (R. Orme ''Mil. Trans.", ii, 256).
In early Anglo-Indian writers, for instance Wilks, iii, 217,
such plantations are styled a "bound-hedge", of w^hich
definitions will be found in the glossaries of Major Dirom's
and Lieut. Moor's works. "Bound-hedge" = quasi "Boundary
hedge"?
Hill Forts. In the parts of India where detached emi-
nences, often of great extent, are found, these were com-
monly selected for the sites of fortresses. The most cele-
brated of these in Northern India were the two forts of
Ruhtas, one in the Panjab, the other in Bahar, Kalinjar
in Bundelkhand, Chitor in Mewar. Further south there
were Asirgarh in Khandesh, Daulatabad ^ near Aurangabad,
and many others equally celebrated. Forts on the tops of
' There is a good view of this fortress as the frontispiece to Fitzclarence's
"Journal".
FORTS AND STRONGHOLDS. 263
hills were extremely numerous in the Dakliin. In that
part of the country there was generally a walled town (or
pettah) at the foot of the liill, and the fort itself was pro-
vided with two or more enceintes. Tn the Dakhin stone
walls were common, that material being abundant. Lake,
205, is of opinion that many of these hill forts, if properly
defended, were absolutely impregnable, unless by the tedious
process of strict blockade. On the contrary, he thought the
fortresses in the plains exceedingly weak (id. 208).
Places of Befage. Most of the petty semi-independent
princes were careful to provide themselves with some fort
or place of safety, generally situated in a country difficult
of access and at some distance from their capital. Here
their reserves of treasure and munitions of war were stored
and carefully guarded. Ranthambhur used to furnish such
a store-house for the rajahs of Jaipur; and as will be re-
collected, the rajahs of Banaras provided such places at
Latifpur and Bijigarh, in the hills south-east of Mirzapur.
Walled Toions. Tn the western half of Northern India,
walled towns were frequent; all the principal places being
provided with a high brick wall. In that part of the country,
even the smallest village was capable of some defence, the
flat-roofed, clay-built huts being huddled very close together,
and the only entry being through a few narrow, tortuous
paths between the houses. Some of the largest towns had
walls as well as fortresses, as for instance Lahor and Dihli.
At these places the fortress was built in one corner of the
town, a continuation of the town wall forming its outer side.
Such strongholds were palace as well as fortress, and covered
a considerable extent of ground. Other towns, such as
Agrah and Allahabad, although they possessed first-class
fortresses, had no wall round the town itself. In their case,
the fortress stood apart from the rest of the town.
Technical loords. I insert here such technical terms
connected with fortification as I have come across in my
reading. The names for a fort were hisar (Steingass 421),
264 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
hasin (id. 422), qal^ah, qWah (id. 984), and h. garh. A
small fort or redoubt was a qal^ahchah (Steingass, 985) or
garhi. To be invested was malisar or mahsun shudan: to
invest was mahasarah kardan. The wails were collectively
bnrj 0 harah, the former word meaning a bastion, a tower,
(Steingass, 170) and the latter, the curtain, the walls,
fortifications (id. 142). The Central Asian word for the
curtain of a fort was badan, see Mujniil-ut'tankh bad
JSadirlyah, p. 79, line 13. The battlements were hungur,
kangurah, (St. 1056); the ditch was khandaq. Fasilm^Q
dictionary (St. 931) is defined as breastwork inside a
fortification, an entrenchment, wall, rampart; but I believe
that strictly speaking it meant the platform running round
the inside of the wall, on which the guns were mounted,
or from which the defenders fired. (J. Shak. 1494). It is
apparently what Europeans call the terre-plein (Lake, 113,
Voyle, 428). ^afU (Shak. 1292) was a vulgar form of the
same word. Ashob, fol. 284«, speaks of the Chhatah-i-qilah
at Shahjahanabad. I cannot find any meaning for this. Is
it only chhat, the Hindi for roof? The word khakrez in
Mujmil'Ut'tarikh ba'^d Nadir'igah, p. 78, line 12, meaning
"foot of the wall", "the glacis", does not seem to have
been in use in India.
Goonga. 1 cannot restore the true form of this word, as
I have not found it except in books by Europeans. Can
it be intended for kungur, battlements? In the "Military
Memoir of Col. Skinner", i, 230, we have at the taking
of HansT in Dec. 1801, the passage: "we commenced
mining, and advanced to within ten yards of the crown
work, called in Hindustani goongas\ On id., 266, the
word is spelt goonju : "these brave fellows stood upon the
goo7ijus for a full hour, under one of the heaviest fires of
musketry and great guns I have seen", (this was at the
siege of 'AlTgarh by Lake in 1803).
Kummurgah {Kamrgali). I find this word used for the
second line of defence at Aslrgarh in the Uakhin (Blacker,
FORTS AND STRONGHOLDS. 265
"War", 420). This is a metaphorical use of kamrgah, the
place where the belt is placed, the waist (Steingass, 1049).
As Lake explains, 156, "it has been aptly styled kum-
murgah (or the belt)".
Tlaunee, Bainee, Benny, Fitzclarence, 110, saw at Nagpur
"a fine piece of masoury" in front of and covering the
bottom of the wall "which I suppose to be what is in this
country called a rainee, similar to a fausse-braye" ^ And
ao'ain, id. 245 : "thouofh thev do not understand the con-
struction or advantages of a glacis, they saw the necessity
of covering the foot of the wall from an enemy's fire, and
formed a defence, similar to our fausse-braye, which they
call rainee\ Thorn, 400, speaking of Hathras fort (now in
the ^Aligarh district, N. W. P.) says "a renny wall, with
a deep, dry, broad ditch behind it, surrounds the fort".
James Skinner, "Mil. Mem.", i, 172, spells it rounee, and
Fraser erroneously translates "counterscarp", being as Yule
says "nonsense as well as incorrect". Blacker, "War", 299,
writes "Sholapur had a fausse-braye of substantial masonry".
1 suppose this was a rauni or rainee. Such a wall is shown
in his plan and sections of Malligam (Plate 31). This was
about twenty feet high, and about fifty feet from the main
wall. The word raunee is used by him on plate 38 (Asir-
garh) ; and here the secondary wall stood at the foot of a
slope, about eighty feet from the main wall. The derivation
of the word roiinee is a puzzle: Yule, 583, says it is the
Hindi word raoni, but suggests no etymology and admits
that it is not in either Shakespear or Wilson. Can it have
any connection with a word in J. Shakespear, 1189, rmdhna,
to surround or enclose as with a hedge? Fallon evidently
did not know it, and in his "Eng. Hind. Dictionary", 264
renders "fausse-braye" by Blms, Matti ka piishtah, equi-
valents which also show fairly well that he had no clear
idea of what a fausse-braye was.
' Moor, '^Narrative", (Glossary, 504) "Fausse-braye, a work between
the ditch and curtain: not much adopted by modern engineers". See also
E. Lake, "Sieges", 219, and note.
266 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Sang-andaz. Budaom, ii, 146, uses this word when des-
cribing the fort of Surat. This is here evidently "embrasure",
and so translated by Lowe, 150. Steingass, 703, has sang-
afkan and sang-andaz, a loophole in a fortress. But a
passage in the Majasir-ul-umara, i, 76, referring to the
siege of Dharwar in the Dakhin in Shahjahan's reign, would
lead one to infer that sang-andaz was a pathway or tunnel,
down which stones were literally thrown.
Damaghah. When Sindh was taken by us, we found
"Karachi surrounded by a tall wall, tipped with fancy
crenelles and perpendicularly striped with what the Persians
call Damagheh, or nostril holes, down which the besieged
could pour hot oil or boiling water" ("Life of Capt. Sir
R. F. Burton", i, 126). Possibly the derivation might be
from damaghah (Steingass, 534), the crest of a falcon or
similar bird. We have an instance of the use of boiling oil
at Ak bar's siege of Asirgarh (Von Noer, French trans.,
ii, 336, Horn, 128).
Descriptions of small Forts. I find a good description
of a petty Rajah's fort in W. H. Russell's "My Diary in
India", ii, 318. Although this was written in 1858, it is
quite as applicable to an earlier time. "The low bank of
earth was the outer parapet of the fort of Amethi (in
south-east Audh), with a very deep ditch of irregular
profile separating it from the level of the field. It was
some time ere we made out the entry. The gateway was
approached by a dam across a ditch full of water, which
was dominated by a bastion with the embrasures directed
upon the dam. A sort of causeway at the other bank led
us to a high gateway in a mud curtain, which was also
flanked by a musketry fire and by a few embrasures. The
lines of all the works were exceedingly irregular. The gates
were of wood, studded and clamped with iron".
Again, this time in Bundelkhand, we get the following
description of the ordinary native fort (Fitzclarence, 59).
"These forts are in general of mud, but from six to twelve
FORTS AND STRONGHOLDS. 267
feet at the bottom of the wall are often of masonry. They
are surrounded by a deep ditch, and the defences consist
of small round-towers connected by curtains. Some of them
have two or three lines of these walls and towers within
each other. On the glacis are generally large excavations
for grain; but this, of course, is only in dry situations.
The mud walls receive the shot without being shattered,
and they are in consequence very difficult to breach". A
similar description applying to the southernmost part of
India, is to be found in Wilks, ii, 95.
Blacker, "War", 229, gives a good general description
of the small forts in the Dakhin. "Tmagine a mound of
earth of about one hundred and fifty yards diameter and
about sixty or seventy feet high. Then the sides of this
are scarped off by labour, and the prominent parts shaped
into flanking towers. Let the whole be reveted and sur-
mounted by a parapet, and then only an entrance will be
wanted. A gateway pierced in the revet ement of a re-
entering angle, something lower than the interior of the
fort, will form the inner communication, and on each side
will be projected a tower to flank it and to plunge a fire
into the next (gateway?). This will be found in a lower
wall, the extremities of which will terminate in the revete-
ment of the place, inclosing a small space ; and it will be
likewise flanked by projecting towers, independent of the
defences being loop-holed. These works, it is evident, may
be frequently repeated; and the form of the traverses as
well as the relative position of the gates continually varied;
but the general practice avoids placing two successive gates
exactly opposite, and the outer aperture is invariably on
lower ground than that next within, to favour the ascent.
On some occasions so much earth may be scarped off as
to form a high glacis, which makes the space left between
it and the wall actually a ditch; but in very few cases is
a ditch actually excavated round a garhi".
Particular Forts. 1 have collected from European writers
268 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
the descriptions of a good many Indian fortresses; and
I have no doubt that many more such notices are in
existence. I append a list of those I have seen, arranged
in alphabetical order with references.
Ahnadnagar. Fitzclarence, 241, a detailed account.
Ajaigarh. Fitzclarence, "Journal", 62; Pogson,''Boondelas",
136, in whose book a plan, a general view of the east
face, and of the breach at the N. W. gateway may be seen.
'Allgarh. Taken by the English on the 4tli Sept., 1803:
it was of European design. Thorn, "War", description on
p. 102, view on plate 3.
Aslrgarh. Blacker, "War", a description on p. 414, two
views, one from the north and one from the east, and on
Plate 38 plan and sections.
Bhartpiir. This town and its fortifications are described in
Lord Combermere's "Memoirs". Vol. ii, p. 236.
Chinglapat. Description by John Call, chief Engineer,
Madras, in Cambridge, "War", appendix.
Baulatahad. A detailed account in Fitzclarence, 216,
and also in Anquetil Duperron, "Zend Avesta", 1, ccli.
Anquetil visited the place on the IS^^i April 1758, when
it was held by a French officer on behalf of M. Bussy.
Dhctrwar. A view and description in Moor, "Narrative", 39.
HatJiras. Fitzclarence, "Journal", has a plate of it oppo-
site p. 18.
Kalinjar. This place is fully described in Pogson, "Boon-
delas", 148 — 157; he tells the story of the siege of 1812
on pp. 139—147.
Nagpur. Described in Fitzclarence, "Journal", 110, Lake,
"Sieges", 35.
Trichinopolg. There is a description of this fortress by
Col. Stringer Lawrence in R. O. Cambridge, "War", 15.
Imperial Fortresses. In the official manuals we have
several lists of these places. The greater number of these
forts were in the Dakhin, and in the better days of the
Moghul period, the charge of them was committed to
FORTS AND STRONGHOLDS. 269
imperial officers called qildhdars, who were appointed
direct from the capital, and were quite independent of the
governor of the province. This arragement was rendered
necessary from the importance of these strongholds, both
as a means of retaining hold of the country, and owing
to their employment as great store-houses and arsenals.
Moreover, if left under the control of a governor, he might
be tempted to make a try for independence, when the
possession of one of these fortresses would contribute largely
to his chances of success.
I find from a list referring to the reign of ''Alamgir
(B. M. Or. 1641 fol. 525), that there were forty-two imperial
forts. I cannot read all the names but 1 have made out
the following. 1) Shahjahanabad, 2) Akbarabad, 3) Lahor,
4) Kabul, 5) Kashmir, 6) Atak, 7) Allahabad, 8) Ajmer,
9) JhansI, 10) Gwaliyar, 11) Kalinjar, 12) Sitapur, 18)
Taragarh, 14) Bargarh, 15) Chandu, 16) Ujjain, 17)Raesen,
18) Ranlgarh, 19) Dohad, 20) Kakrun, 21) Ranthambhor,
22) Ruhtas Khtird, 23) Stirat, 24) Kangrah, 25) Hunger,
26) Jodhpur, 27) Mairtah, 28) Sambhar, 29) Ghaznain,
80) Pishawar, 31) Zafarabad, 82) Shergarh, 33) Lankarkot.
The identity of Nos 12, 13, 14, 18, 32^ 33, is doubtful;
the others are well-enough known places. However, this
list, although containing as many as forty-two places, must
be looked on as very incomplete. In it are included none
of the strongest places in the Dakhin, where to say the
least, fortresses were as numerous as in Hindustan.
CHAPTER XXIV.
SIEGES.
In India the art of fortification remained in the same
state as it was in Europe before the introduction of the
regular systems. The Indians placed their reliance more on
a strong profile than on a judicious plan; and they never
realised the importance of the maxim that every work of
a fortress should be fianked by some other (Lake, II).
Blacker holds that nothing proved more forcibly their
ignorance of the attack and defence of fortified places than
their manifest superiority when acting on the defensive.
A native army scarcely ever succeeded in taking a place
which attempted resistance: it was generally reduced to
terms through the distress caused by the force lying around
it. On the contrary, some very vigorous defences had been
made, prolonged by determined defence of the breach and
by bold sallies to the trenches. Mining had found its way
to some but not to all parts of India; but there were few
instances of its being practised with eff'ect (Blacker, "War",
23). In the Mujmil-ut'tanJch bad Nadirlyah, p. 78, line 7,
it is stated that the Afghans had a practise before
commencing a siege of killing a dog and throwing it in
the direction of the fortress. I have never seen this men-
tioned elsewhere, and one does not quite see what was
symbolized by the act.
Strong places were most commonly reduced by strict
investment and starving out (Fitzclarence, 245). There were
few captures by a coup de main {sar-i-suwari), the walls
were not often breached, and rarely escaladed. Treachery
SIEGES. 271
within the walls was as frequent a cause of surrender as
any other thing. In sitting down before a fortress, a Moghul
army tried to surround it completely so as to prevent any
ingress or egress. As Grant Duff, 165, expresses himself,
''they never considered an army capable of undertaking a
regular siege unless sufficiently large to surround the place
invested and completely obstruct communications". Earth
works {mUrchal) were thrown up, in which the siege guns
were placed. The system of digging approaches and laying
mines {naqb) was known and practised, at any rate in
Northern India. No doubt. Lake, 14, holds the contrary
view; he says ''the natives appear to be utterly ignorant
of the art of conducting approaches by sap: and generally
they are also unacquainted with Mining". But this opinion
must be understood as applicable to the Dakhin only.
There was also a plan, to which recourse was sometimes
had, of building high towers with the branches of trees,
and when these were of a height to command the interior
of the place, guns were mounted on them. These were
called slbn. Scaling ladders {narduhcin) were not unknown,
and were occasionally brought into use. Elephants were
frequently brought up to batter in the wooden gates of a
fort. The Seir translator, iii, 182, note 45, says the gates,
baing always covered by some work, could not be broken
in except by grenades (of which the natives knew nothing),
or by pushing against them elephants, protected by iron,
or by setting fire to them. It was as a protection against
elephants that the gates were studded with iron spikes;
to meet which it was the practice to furnish the elephant
with an iron frontlet (Fitzclarence, 137). For instance, we
read in the SiT/ar-ul-mutakharm (translation, iii, J 81), with
reference to an assault by the Mahrattas in 1173 h. (1759),
that the Khizri gate of the Dihli citadel "was covered
with sheets of brass and set thick with iron nails jutting
out twelve inches, and an inch square at the bottom".
Often the gateway was bricked up when a siege was im-
272 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
minent, and this device rendered it impossible to blow it
in. At' Cuttack in 1803, the gate was partially built up
in this way, and we had considerable difficulty in entering
(Lake, 211, note).
These general remarks are borne out by a passage in
Lake's "Sieges of the Madras Army", 14: "when one of
their armies sits down before a place, the object appears
rather to be to harrass the besieged and weary them out
by a strict blockade, than to effect an entrance by breaching
the walls: for although guns are used, they are placed at
such a distance from the town, out of musket shot, and
not always in battery, that their effect is uncertain, and
even this desultory fire is only kept up at intervals during
the day; for at night, to guard against the consequences
of a sally, the guns are always withdrawn to the camp;
and this ridiculous process is continued till the besieged
are tired out, and a compromise is entered into".
Fitzclarence, "Journal", 245, also enters at some length
into the question. "The investment of an eastern fortress
did not in general consist of anything beyond a blockade;
and it will be seen by a reference to Indian history, that
the surrender of these forts has been caused more by trea-
chery and scarcity than by any other means, and that the
length of some sieges in this country equal those of Troy,
Ostend, and Mantua. The food of the Indians being almost
entirely rice \ which is the least perishable of any article
of subsistence, the defence of such places may be the
longer protracted. Though the natives did not understand
the advantage of a glacis, still they saw the necessity of
covering the foot of the wall from the enemy's fire when
exposed to it, and formed a defence similar to a fausse-
braye, which they call rainee (see back, p. 265). They are
very partial to loopholes to fire through, Each of
1 This is not true of Hindustan, outside of Bengal. If "corn" were sub-
stituted, the argument would still hold good, and exactitude would not
be sacrificed.
SIEGES. 273
these narrow and confined [entrance] lanes is generally
enfiladed with guns and loopholed on every side, so that
should the enemy force the outer gate, they find them-
selves exposed to a continuation of fresh dangers from an
invisible garrison at every turn. 1 am not, however, a good
judge of native fortresses, having only seen those of Chunar
on the Ganges, of Alighur, of Agra, and Delhi. The gates
at Agra, Alighur and Chunar are examples of this diffi-
culty of entrance" \
"The Indians, in the defence of their forts, behave with
the greatest gallantry and courage, and in this differ from
the Europeans, who often fancy that, when a practicable
breach is made in their walls, surrender becomes justifiable.
But here all feel desirous of fighting man to man, and
look upon the contest in the breach as the fittest occasion
for meeting their enemies with sword and dagger. They
use large heavy wall pieces called gingalls" (see ante, p. 109),
"which send a ball of two or more ounces to a very con-
siderable distance. Having no shells or handgrenades, they
cast bags of gunpowder into the ditch, which exploding
by fire thrown on them, scorch the assailants; and at times
they have recourse to thick earthen-ware pots with fuses
and full of pow^der, the pieces of which wound dreadfully.
They have been known to line the sides of the ditch with
straw thatches, and by throwing other lighted thatch on
their enemies, envelop them in flames. Our success against
Hatras by bombardment has been a wonderful encourage-
ment to taking all the native forts by similar means; and
from their having no casements, shells are the most effec-
tive means for reducing them"; (id. 246).
Approach by sap and mine. The word used for the galle-
ries of approach seems to have been sdhdt. This is defined
by the Lucknow editor of the Akbarnamah (Vol. ii, p. 245,
note 7) as a roof {saqaf) between two walls, which is also
I After this date tbe author also saw Daulatabiid, pp. 215—221, and
Ahrnadnagar, 241, 242.
18
274 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGBULS.
called "the path of safety" {kUchah-i'Salamat) ; sabat is, he
says, the name of a town in Transoxiana. Steingass, 638,
explains it as a covered passage connecting two houses.
The ordinary Hindi word for a mine is surang (Platts, 656)
and surang urana is to spring a mine. This mode of attack
was known and practised. For instance Sher Shah in 952 h.
(1545-6) at the siege of Kalinjar advanced galleries {sabat)
to the foot of the wall, and then prepared naqb, which
appears to mean here mines, and not the mere digging
through of a wall (Budaoni, Text, i, 371, Ranking, 482).
Again at a siege of Budaon in 963 h. (1555-6), the
besiegers resorted to mining, and the commander of the
garrison thwarted them by counter-mining, having de-
tected the direction of their approach by putting his ear
to the ground and listening, just as our engineers did at
Lucknow in 1857, Budaoni, Text, i, 465 (Ranking, 599),
and McLeod Innes' "Siege of Lucknow". And again, at
the siege of Gurdaspur in 1715, 'Abd-us-samad Khan made
covered ways or approaches {sabat)^ Yahya Khan, 123<7.
Once more, at Allahabad in 1719 the imperialists worked
their way close to the walls of the fort "and began to
mine under the walls", and Girdhar Bahadur, believing
that the day was lost, made overtures through Muhammad
Khan, Bangash, {Siwrniih-i-Khizri, 13). So also at the siege
of Agrah (July, August 1719) Haidar Quli Klian, who had
under his command many Europeans whom he had brought
from Surat, drove several saps towards the walls (id.).
Sabat. According to the dictionary this is "a covered
passage connecting two houses"; and as a military term it
means a trench or approach made in besieging a fortress.
According to Briggs, "Firishtah", ii, 230 (siege of Chitor)
the sabat were constructed in the following manner. "The
zigzags, commencing at gunshot distance from the fort,
consist of a double wall, and by means of blinds or stuffed
gabions covered with leather, the besiegers continue their
approaches till they arrive near to the walls of the place
SIEGES. 275
to be attacked". There is another passage to the same effect
with reference to the year 1595 and the siege of Ahmadnagar.
The text of Firishtah is even more explicit as to the
siege of Chitor (Lucknow edition, Maqalah ii, p. 257,
beginning at line 22). A body of five hundred carpenters,
stone-cutters, blacksmiths, excavators, earthworkers, and
shovelmen were set to work to construct sabrd, ''which are
peculiar to India". These men laboured at making sabrd
and digging mines {naqb). ''Sabat is the name for two
walls which are made at the distance of a musketshot;
and under the shelter of planks and baskets which are
held together by skins, the said walls are carried close to
the fort. Then the matchlock men and the mine-diggers
{naqqab) come in safety, through the wide way between
those walls, to the foot of the fort, and there they dig a
mine and fill it with gunpowder. When the fort has been
breached {rakhnah shud), the rest of the array reaches the
spot by way of the sabat, and effects an entry into the fort".
We have the story of the same siege told by Nizam-ud-
din in the Tabaqat-i-Ahbar Shahi, fol. 209^, line 1 7, (under
the i2tt liahi year, the beginning of Ramazan 974 h.,
1566 A.D.). It is practically the same as Firishtah, some-
times word for word the same. He says work was begun
in two places. They prepared something like a lane (or
narrow street) up to the wall of the fort. "The sabat which
began from the emperor's entrenchment was so wide, that
ten horsemen could ride abreast along the bottom of it;
and so deep ' that a man seated on an elephant, holding
a spear in his hand, could go along it". In spite of the
shields of ox-hide, a hundred men a day were killed by
shots from the garrison. The bodies were built into the walls.
There was in addition a place upon which Akbar sat
1 The word actually used is irtafd", "height", which evidently means
"height" from the floor of the trench to the natural surface of the ground,
or to the top of the earth thrown out on each side. In other words, what
we call "depth", when speaking of an excavation.
276 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
and picked off men appearing on the fortress walls. "His
Majesty sat upon the top of a building {khanali) prepared
for his reception upon the sahat of his entrenchment
{murchal). He sat there matchlock in hand". Budaoni, ii,
103, (Lowe 106), here copies and abridges Nizam-ud-din:
and in describing the siege of Kalinjar in 952 h. (1545),
he uses the word scibat as if he meant by it a sap or
trench, and not a tower.
Allowing for a certain amount of obscurity and vagueness
in the native historians, we may, I think, assert that, so
far, the meaning of sabdt is tolerably plain. It was a trench
begun at some distance from a fortress, deep and wide
enough to conceal the workers, the excavated earth being
thrown up on each side to increase the protection. In rocky
soil it may have been necessary to form the protecting
wall of material, such as planks, trees, or earth, brought
from elsewhere; but in most instances the obvious and
easy method was to dig a trench in the ground, and use
the earth from it to heighten the sides. But a sabat was
not a tower or erection, built up from the surface of the
ground. If Ab^ul Fazl had not thrown the subject into
confusion by his use of the word sabdt in the Akbarndmah^
the meaning of the word would be clear enough. But he
persists in using it as the name for a temporary tower,
or a battering ram, as he explicitly says in ii, 261, last
line, (Lucknow edition), describing the siege of Ranthambhur
in the \^^^ year, 22^^ Ramazan 976 h. The besiegers of
Ranthambur came to the conclusion that the fort could
not be taken without recourse to sabdt, kili sarkob-i-gnrdan-
kashdn bash ad. As to this siege Nizam-ud-din fol. 212a,
also uses the word sdbdt, but enters into no details.
Budaoni, ii, 107 (Lowe, 111), follows Nizam-ud-din very
closely.
Ab.ul Fazl persists in using sabdt in a different sense
from everybody else. To begin with the siege of Chunar,
Ab^ul Fazl (Lucknow edition), Book i, 114, line 6, says
SIEGES. 277
Rtimi Khan, ha hisMlhae tari'tb-i-sabai sakhtah. The pas-
sage is translated by Mr. Beveridge, i, 331, "Rumi Klian,
constructed a covered way {sdbdl) upon boats, and
arranged such a roof [sat aha) ". But if we go to
Jauhar, Aftabchi, my Ms. fol. \^b, or to Nizam-ud-din,
Tabaqdt, fol. 151/5, we find that RumI Khan took three
ijoats and built on them a battering ram {muqabll-kob).
The passages are rendered to the same effect in Stewart,
Tezkereh-al'Vaklat, p. 20, lines 11—25, Erskine, "Babar
and Humayun", ii, 140, 141, BudaonT, Ranking, i, 456,
and Elliot, "Mahomedan Historians", v, 199. In none of
them is there a word about a sabat, nor did they ever
dream of calling this high erection built on boats, a
sabat.
It is the same with Ab.ul Fazl's long account of the
siege of Chitor, (Lucknow edition) ii, from line 11 of p.
245, although in one place he says they made diivar-i-gilln'
i'ariz-i-marpech, "serpentine, wide, earthen walls" ; but he
writes elsewhere that Akbar sat aloft upon a sahat, which
commanded the walls, and from thence he shot. How could
a serpentine wall be a tower, from which a man shot; or
a battering ram, as he elsewhere defines a sdhdt to be?
Abuj Fazl has misled Count von Noer "Kaiser Akbar", i,
234 — 240, French edition, i, 165 (Horn 121) into asserting
that a sahat should "if possible command the walls", that
from "the top of the sahat, cannon breach the walls of the
fortress". Then he speaks of the rolling of movable shields.
Dr. Horn seems here, by a reference to the tUrali (see ante
p. 142) to identify it with the sabat. But I think the text of
the Akbarnamali ii, 243 — 254, Lucknow edition, leads to the
conclusion that three things were employed by Akbar at
Chitor, 1) a long and deep trench {sabdt), 2) movable
shields to protect the workmen {tUrah), and 3) a high
erection commanding the walls {slba).
Apparently open trenches were resorted to by the Mah-
rattahs so far back as 1670 at the siege of Karnala, for
278 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Grant Duff, 110, quoting the Bombay Records, says ''they
advanced by throwing up breastworks of earth".
handbags. In order to facilitate an attack, the ditch of a
fort was at times filled up with sacks {jmvctl^ Steiugass,
376), filled with earth. This was done at ^Alamgir's siege
of Gulkhandah in 1097 h. (1685-6), Khafi Khan, ii, 356,
line L We find these bags mentioned as part of the Sikh
equipment when they advanced in 1710 against the town
of Rahun in the Jalandhar dUahah, Khafi Khan, ii, 658,
line 9, o juwalah-hae pur az reg, harae mUrchal hastan^
"and bags full of sand to make batteries".
Movable shields. In 1710 the Sikhs, when attacking the
town of Jalalabad in the Ganges DUabah, adopted the plan
of using movable wooden screens, or mantlets, mounted
on ordinary cart-wheels. These they brought close to the
walls, and from their shelter showered bullets and arrows
on the besieged, (Khafi Khan, ii, 656). Mantlets in general
have been described, ante p. 142, under the word TUrah,
when dealing with Light Artillery.
Shatur, ^^bU. In Budaoni, Text, i, 382, we find this
word, and it would seem from the context to refer to some
article made of the trunks of trees, something connected with
a siege. Colonel G. Ranking, 494, note 7, not finding it in
any dictionary, suggests the Turkish sdtu, the roof of a house,
meaning a shelther under which to approach the walls,
something like the Roman vinea, a roof of planks and
wicker work supported on poles eight feet long, and carried
by the men as they advanced. May not the correct word
be shahtlr, a beam?
Malchar. This is an obscure word used by ^Abd-ul-hamid
twice, Badshalmamah, i. Part 2, p. 107, 1. 15, and p. 108,
1. 18. Both passages belong to the year 1044 h., 1634-5,
and the first refers to the siege of Urchhah, the second to
that of Dhamoni, fortresses in Bundelkhand. The wording
in the second instance leads one to infer that the malchar
was something in the nature of an approach by trenches.
SIEGES. 279
Temporari/ wall. Another device was to surround a for-
tress with a temporary wall, leaving a few openings at
which strong guards were posted, and no one was allowed
to enter or come out without a pass. This was done by
'Alamglr at Gulkhandah in 1098 h. (1686-7), Ma^asir-i-
"^Alamgirl, 296. The materials employed were trunks of
trees and clay. A somewhat similar plan was resorted to
by ^Abd-us-samad Khan, when he invested Bandah, the
Sikh, in Gurdaspur.
Towers {Stba). In connection with this siege of Gurdaspur,
we are told of the building of high wooden towers, on
which guns were mounted, the inside of the fortified place
being thereby commanded, so as to make it untenable.
The following passage gives a description of these towers
by a contemporary, who was present. "At a distance of two
arrows' flight, batteries were erected of a size sufficient to
allow of the guns being worked. They were about three
cubits (42 feet) in height and in shape like bastions. A
constant fire was kept up on both sides. Whenever a gunner
shewed his head above the top of the earthwork, he would
be fired at by one of the Sikhs concealed behind the
battlements. In the same way a head showing above the
wall was immediately fired at. The Sikhs answered shot
for shot, and the imperialists were unable to move out to
an attack in the open. Then, at the battery of ^Arif Khan,
^Abd-us-samad Khan prepared a tower over-topping the
fort wall, and mounted his guns upon it. This device dis-
concerted the besieged, as the interior of the fort was now
commanded and their movements thereby hampered. Similar
towers were raised on two other sides of the attack, where
Zakariyah Khan and Qamr-ud-din Khan commanded re-
spectively", Ghulam Muhi-ud-dln Khan, fol. 57«.
Ijad, fol. 23«, with respect to the same operations, uses
a word which I read cJiob-slbae, and I suppose it applies
to these towers. "The besiegers threw up chob-slbae, and
drove subterannean passages towards each corner of the
280 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
fort". But I am doubtful of this interpretation, as he had
just spoken of "mounds of earth raised on the trunks of
trees and placed from distance to distance round the fort"
i. e. in other words, "towers". Why then should he refer
again to the same thing by another name {chob-slbae) in
the next sentence?
Slba is defined by Steingass, 714, as from the Turkish,
"a place surrounded by walls"; but Horn, 103, quoting
the ^Alamgirnamah, 313, translates siba "aus den Befesti-
gungen sich erhebender Bastionen", or in other words
what was called in Europe, a cavalier. This latter meaning
would apply equally to ^Abd-us-samad Khan's towers,
although they were independent structures, and not part
of a fortress.
It was evidently a slba that was built by Dara Shukoh
when besieging Qandahar in 1063 h. (1653). "He mounted
a battery on a high and solid mound of earth" (Elphinstone,
"History", 513). We also find the word used in the Mw/-
us-safa, foil. 99/5, when in 1169 h. (July 1756^) the
French under Bussy were invested in the Chahar Mahal
at Haidarabad. The assailants erected sibaJi. Something of
the same sort was had recourse to by the native besiegers
of Arcot in 1751 (Orme "Mil. Trans." i, 191). They filled
up a house with earth, and on this as a base they raised
a square mound, which commanded the gate and every
part within the fort. The same kind of thing is referred
to by Orme, "Hist. Frag.", 153, on the authority of
Manucci (Catrou, 4to edition of 1715, 3"^^ part, p. 177),
as having been used at the siege of Gulkhandah in 1687.
A vast mound of earth was raised to a level with the
wall and the artillery mounted on it. Wilks, ii, 360, was
told by Sir Barry Close, one of the garrison, that when
Tellicherry (Malabar District) was besieged in 1782, Sirdar
Khan employed what was evidently a slba, though the
name is not used. "An immense extent of base served as
1 See Malleson, ''French in India", (new edition) p. 490.
SIEGES.
281
the foundation for several successive stories, constructed of
the trunks of trees in successive layers, crossing each other
and compacted by earth rammed between the intervals;
the contrivances in the rear for raising the guns were
removed when the erection was complete; successive stories
were raised as the besieged covered themselves from each
in turn". Lake, 221, calls these erections "cavaliers", and
compares them to the great mounds raised by the ancients
in their sieges. (For "Cavalier", see Voyle, 69).
Storming. With the inefficient artillery of those days, a
breach was very rarely effected, and we hear of very few
forts being actually stormed. Entrance was oftener secured
through breaking in the gate, and for this purpose
elephants, as already stated on p. 177, were employed.
Scaling ladders. The name for scaling ladders was nar-
duhan, Steingass, 1395. Babar mentions them more than
once. Their use in the reign of Humayun, 963 h., 1555-6
is proved by a passage in Budaoni, text, i, 465, Ranking
600. The words employed there are zlnah-pae, the round
of a ladder or step of a stair, and kamand, which Ranking
translates literally "noose", though from the context "rope-
ladder" would be better. Again they were used in Shah-
jahan's reign, (1044 h. 1634-5), at the siege of Qrchhah,
Badshahnamah, i, part 2, p. 107, line 15. From time to
time we hear of their being used at a much later period.
For instance, at the end of 1719, when Girdhar Bahadur
was besieged in Allahabad fort by Haidar Quli Khan and
other imperial officers, we read that a general attack in
two directions was ordered. One of these was headed by
Sher Afgan Khan, Daud Khan, an officer under Muhammad
Khan, Bangash, and others. They drove the besieged back
t^ the very foot of the wall, then "Daud Khan, Bangash,
brought up the scaling ladders, hoping to make an entry,
but after much struggle and effort, he was obliged to
abandon the attempt", Siioanihi-kldzn. In 1710 the Sikhs
had scaling ladders with them when they tried to take
282 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Jalalabad in the upper Ganges Bliahah, Khafi Khan, ii, 657.
Modes of repelling assault. Burning oil. Powder Bags &c.
In a quotation already given on p. 273, from Fitzclarence,
reference has been made to the throwing down from the
walls of bags of gunpowder and burning thatch. I have also
referred on p. 131 to the hnqqah-i-atash used for a similar
purpose. Other missiles are named by Horn, 123, quoting
Von Noer i, 254 ("French trans.", i, 161), who says that
at the siege of Chitor the Rajputs brought sacks of cotton
cloth and fascines steeped in oil, which they endeavoured
to set fire to while the breach was being stormed. As to
the throwing of skins full of gunpowder with a match
attached, we read of this being done by the defenders of
a fort in the Dakhin in the fourth year of Shahjahan (1631
A.D.). Horn, 132, quotes the passage from the Badshah-
nama/i, i, 376, sixth line from end, az darun-i-Msar ban
0 tufang o huqqah o sang o mashh-hae bar Tit ra at ash
zadah ml andakhtand, "From inside the fort they threw
rockets and bullets and grenades and stones and lighted
powder-skins". A somewhat later instance of the use of the
huqqah or hand-grenade and the handl or firepot, was at
the siege of the Ghasahrl fort ('Aligarh district) by Suraj
Mai, Jat, in the year 1753. In the Sujan Charitr, Canto v,
stanza 24, we have:
Vththan maru ghanl paclau, saththi mitkh mode ;
Ha7idi huJcke aggi de, gadh-ioalaun chhode.
"There he fierce fighting fell, his men turned back;
The defenders threw lighted handis and huqqahs\
Quite at the end of the Moghul period, v/e find these
means of defending a breach resorted to by George Thomas'
officers, in resisting the Mahratta assault on HansT (3^^ Dec.
1802): "Burning choppers (i.e. thatch from the roofs of
houses), powder-pots, and everything he could get hold of,
were showered upon us; but our greatest loss was from
the powder-pots, which greatly disheartened the men"
SIEGES. 283
(^'Military Memoirs of Lt. Col. James Skinner, C. E." i, 238).
Again, at the siege of Ehartpur in 1805, we find in use
similar means of repelling an assault. Thorn, ''War", 457,
says ''the people on the walls continually threw down upon
their heads ponderous pieces of amber and flaming packs
of cotton previously dipped in oil, followed by pots filled
with gunpowder and other combustibles, the explosion of
which had a terrible effect". See also a case, which occurred
in 1781, quoted by Lake, "Sieges", 212.
Stones. Where the fort was on an eminence and stones
were available, these latter were stored, and rolled down
the hill upon any besieger. (Blacker, "War", 318). In
1044 H., 1634-5, when Dhamoni in Bundelkhand was
besieged, the defenders rolled stones down on their assailants.
Badshahnamah, i, part 2, p. 108. This was also done
at a fort in the Dakhin in 1674, when it was attacked
by Shiva-ji (R. Orme, "Hist. Frag.", 47). And it is only
a year or two ago that we found the same mode of defence
still resorted to at Hanza in the Himalayas.
This use oi stones was the principal cause of our failure
at the first storming of Chunar on the Ganges, Nov. 29<^^
1764, (Carraccioli, "Clive", i, 64). "Large stones, which
the enemy rolled out of the breach and on each side of
it, threw our men so often down and rolled them back
again by twenties at a time Our people were at
last so fatigued that they were obliged to give it up".
Here Captain Dow (the historian) had his skull fractured
by a stone, for which he was obliged to be trepanned.
Khair-ud-din, ^Ibrat-nfimah, 75, tells us that sang-asiya were
thrown from the walls of Patnah when it was attacked in
1173 H. (1759); the dictionary, St. 701, says these are
whetstones, possibly the stones of hand-mills are intended
by the author. We were also repulsed twice, in 1789 and
again in 1791, at Kistnagarhi (Salem District) "simply by
(the garrison) rolling down stones and large masses of
granite on the assailants". Lake, 207, note. Again, at
284 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Trimbak, in Khandesh, our assault on the 24^^^ April 1818
was chiefly repulsed by the garrison rolling down large
stones on their assailants (Lake, 105); and great damage
was done in the same way at Gopadrug on the IS^h May
1819 (id. 201).
Evacuation after a repulsed Assault. Lake, 150, remarks,
as among the many inconsistencies of the Indian character,
that while they surrendered impregnable fortresses without
a blow, they would not only defend a mere walled town,
but stand an assault after a practicable breach had been
made. Another curious habit connected with these defences
is pointed out by Blacker, 346. It frequently happened
that a garrison would repulse an assault in the most
dauntless manner and with severe loss. Yet during the
following night they would silently evacuate the place they
had defended so well. Naturally Europeans wondered and
sought for a cause. The object did not seem to be to
divert the attacking force from some enterprize of greater
danger to the general cause. The effort was nearly always
isolated and desperate. Why not abandon the place at
once, or ask for terms? It seemed that it must be a point
of honour with them to try their strength, and having
proved their valour, they then withdrew.
Reduction by Starvation. Many instances of this cause
of surrender might be adduced. This was, for example, the
principal reason of the surrender of Agrah in 1131 h.
(Aug. 1719), when Nekusiyar, after laying claim to the
throne, was invested in that fort by Husain 'All Khan.
"After a month, provisions began to be scarce. Many of
those who had joined from the country round began to
desert, getting over the walls at night, only to be seized
by the Nawab's sentries. These fugitives informed Husain
'All Klian of the disheartened and suff'ering condition of
the garrison. All the good grain had been used up, and
nothing was left but inferior pulses, and even these had
been stored over seven years and smelt so strong, that even
SIEGES. 285
the fourfooted beasts would not eat them with avidity.
Attempts were made to bring in small supplies of flour,
which were dragged up by ropes let down from the battle-
ments. Some of the artillery of the besieging force took
part in this traffic. After this was found out, the strict-
ness of watch was redoubled, anything moving in the river
at night was fired upon, and expert swimmers were kept
ready to pursue and seize any one who attempted to escape
by way of the river", Mhd Qasim, Lahorl, 286, 287.
Negociations commenced, and the fort was surrendered on
the 12tb Aug. 1719, after an investment of nearly three
months.
Gurdasjmr. The reduction of Gurdaspur and the conse-
quent surrender of Bandah, the Sikh leader, is another
instance of the starving out of a garrison. 'Abd-us-samad
Khan appeared before the place in April 1715, but it was
not taken before the 17*^^ Dec. of that year. Some time
before this happened, the provisions had come to an end,
not a grain being left in the storehouses. The garrison
obtained a little food from the common soldiers outside,
for which they paid at the rate of two or three shillings
a pound; they also slaughtered oxen and other animals,
and having no firewood, ate the flesh raw. Then they
picked up and ate whatever they found on the road. They
gathered the leaves from the trees; when these were gone,
they stripped the bark and gathered the smaller shoots,
and grinding these down, used them as a substitute for
flour. The bones of animals were also ground down and
used in the same way. It is said that some of the Sikhs
even cut flesh from their own thighs, roasted it, and eat it.
Thun {First Siege). In another instance the attempt to
take a place by starvation was not successful. Thun was
a fort built by the ancestors of the Jat rajahs of Ehartpur,
and it was their chief place of strength before they removed
to Bhartpur. It was situated somewhere between Dig and
Gobardhan, to the west of Mathura. In 1716 the cup of
286 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
Churaman's transgressions being full, it was resolved to
proceed against him, and the duty was confided to Rajah
Jai Singh Sawae of Amber. Thun having been completely
invested, the siege began on the IQ^'^ Nov. 1716. The
fortress was provided with lofty walls and a deep ditch
filled from springs, and round it spread a thick and thorny
jungle "through which a bird could hardly make its way".
Supplies were abundant; indeed (though this is probably
an exaggeration) there were, it was said, grain, salt, ghl,
tobacco, cloth and firewood sufficient for twenty years.
When the siege was imminent, Churaman had forced all
merchants and traders with their families to quit the place,
leaving their goods behind them. He made himself per-
sonally responsible for compensation, if he gained the day,
and as the property could not be removed, the owners
gave their consent without much demur. Churaman's son,
Muhkam Singh, and his nephew, Rtipa, issued from the
fort and gave battle in the open. In his report of the
21^^ Dec. 1716, the Rajah claimed a victory. He next cut
down the trees round the fort, and erected a large number
of small guard-houses, in which he placed his men. A large
cannon was sent to him from Dihli, while three hundred
mans of gunpowder, one hundred and fifty fuans of lead,
and five hundred rockets were supplied from the arsenal
at Agrah. The siege dragged on for twenty months, and
even in the end Thun was not taken. The rains of 1717
were very late in coming, prices rose very high, and great
expense fell on the Rajah in bringing supplies from his
own country of Amber. In January 1718 the Rajah reported
that he had had many encounters with the Jats, in which
he had overcome them, but owing to support at Court,
they were not willing to yield. Soon after this Sayyad
Khan Jahan, Barhah, a near relation of the wazir, nego-
ciated a peace over Jai Singh's head, and Churaman was
allowed to settle matters by ofi'ering a tribute of thirty
lakhs of rupees to the government, and a present of twenty
SIEGES. 287
lakhs for the minister himself. Rajah Jai Singh was then
recalled.
ThUn {Second Siege). On a second occasion, in the year
1722, Rajah Jai Singh was more successful, and Thun
was then razed to the ground. He reached Thun a few
days before the 25th Oct. 1722; the fort was then held
by the sons of Churaman, and at first there were daily
fights. On the 31st a report came from the Rajah stating
that he had taken three small forts from Muhkama (who
was the son of Churaman), and he expected that Thun
would soon fall. He asked for a large cannon, one hundred
rahkalahs, five hundred mans of lead and powder, and
three hundred rockets. The capture of the fort was reported
to the emperor on the 20th ]n^ov. 1722. Churaman's sons
had fled. This speedy and apparently brilliant victory was,
however, the result of treachery and not of hard fighting.
Badan Singh, who was on bad terms with his cousin,
Mulikam Singh, had been persuaded to betray the fort, on
a promise that he would be appointed to the chieftainship.
Communication bettveen Besiegers and Besieged, In Fraser,
"Mil. Mem. of Lt. Col. J. Skinner", i, 231, we read that
at HansT the Mahrattas rolled letters upon arrows and shot
them into the fort from the trenches, and received answers
from George Thomas' men in the same way, agreeing to
give their leader up. In 918 h. (1512) at Gazhdawan, Babar
is said to have communicated in this way with the Uzbak
garrison, (Budaoni, i, 444). Another case is at the siege of
Qandahar in 1545: "The dwellers in the fort w^ote daily
accounts of Mirza ^Askari, and shot them down from the
walls, twisted round an arrow", Akbarnamah (Beveridge) i,
466, line 4. The same mode of communicating, Manucci
tells us, Philipps Ms. 1945, Part i, p. 251, was employed
by the besiegers of Bhakkar in Sind (1658); one of these
arrows struck Manucci on the shoulder, and he took it
just as it was to the eunuch commanding the garrison.
Ke7/s of Fortresses. Horn, 133, quoting Elliot, v, 176,
288 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
says that the fortresses had gold or silver keys; in this
particular passage the place referred to is Rantharnbhur.
An instance of this practice in Persia is found in Mupnil-ut-
Tanhh-i-had-nadinyah (ed. Oskar Mann) 85, line 21. We
are told here that the keys of Naishapur were delivered
to Ahmad Shah, Durrani, when peace was made. Again,
we have a somewhat earlier instance. In 1119 (1707) when
Mir Wais, Ghilzai, killed Gurgin Khan, Gurji (Georgian),
governor on behalf of Sultan Husain Mirza, Safawi, and
took possession of Qandahar, he sent his submission to Shah
"Alam Bahadur Shah, together with a golden key {M.-ul-u.,
iii, 702). Another Central Asian practice is to be found
in Mujmil-ut-tankh bad Nadinyah, p. 88, line 2, the
planting of a flag on the bastion of a fort as soon as it was
taken. I have found no mention of this in India. As showing
the importance attached in India to the keys of a fortress,
we may instance the trouble taken by Aurangzeb ^Alamgir
to make his father, Shahjahan, surrender those of Agrah,
sending his eldest son. Sultan Muhammad, to demand them
(Bernier, 63). In 1707, Mhd Yar Khan, the qilahdar of
Dihli, sent his son with the keys of the fort to Bahadur
Shah in token of submission (Khafi Klian, ii, 577). And
we read in Ghulam ^Ali Khan's Muqaddamah-i-Shah ^Alam-
namaJi, fol. 615, that during Nadir Shah's invasion (1738),
Burhan-ul-mulk and Tahmas, Jalair, were sent ahead from
Karnal with a note from Muhammad Shah addressed to
Lutfullah Khan, Sadiq, {subahdar of the province), directing
him to give up the keys of the fortress at DihlT to the
Shah's agent, which was done accordingly. Then, when
Najaf Khan took Agrah from the Jats in 1773, the mes-
senger conveying the news to DihlT "carried with him the
keys of the fort to be laid at His Majesty's feet", W.
Francklin, Shah Aulum, 53.
Particular Sier/es. For the period covering the end of
Shahjahan's reign and the whole reign of 'Alamgir, I add
a few notes and references in respect of the more notable
SIEGES. 289
sieges. I then give an account, in a little more detail, of
sieges belonging to the 18^'^ century. In the second half
of ^Alamglr's reign sieges, or at least attacks on forts, were
very numerous.
Qandahar. Dara Shukoh had at the siege of Qandahar
in 1063 H. (1653) four heavy guns, 30,000 iron shot, great
and small, 1500 mans (60,000 lbs) of lead, 5000 mans
(20,000 lbs) of gunpowder, 5000 artillerymen, 10,000 mus-
keteers, 6000 pioneers, sappers and axemen, 500 pak/idhs
(men bringing water in large skins carried on animals),
3000 aJiadts, 60 war elephants, and a great number of
Brinjaris (grain-carriers), Raverty, "Notes", 22. There is a
long account of the campaign, id., 23 — 28.
Bljapur, 1097 h., 1685-6. B.M. 1641, foL 113« (sixteen
entries), id. 138<?, Khafi Khan, ii, 322 — 368, Ma^asir-i-
^Alamgin, 275.
Gulkhandah, 1098 h., 1686-7, Ab^ul-Hasan left Haidarabad
and took refuge in Gulkhandah in Zu^l Qa'dah 1097 h.
Possession of Gulkhandah was obtained on the 24tii Zu^l
Qa'dah 1098, Ma^dsir-i-A., 299. The siege lasted eight
months and some days, id., 300. Description of the fort,
id., 301. See also B.M. 1641, fol. 113r/, (forty entries).
/m^Xn05-9H., 1693-7. Khafi Kh. ii,418, Ma,asir-i-'A.'d^\.
Khelnah, 1113 h., 1701-2. Kliafi Kli. ii, 499, Maasir-i-'J'.,
445—457.
Kanddnak, 1114 u., 1702-3. Khafi Kh. ii, 510, Madsir-
i-'J. 469.
Wdkankherd, 1116 h., 1704-5. Khafi Kb. ii, 527, Ma,dsir-
i-'I. 490.
Jaitpur. One of the best known sieges of the 18^^^ century
was that of Jaitpur in Bundelkhand, where Muhammad
Khan, Bangash, was invested by the Bundelahs aided by
the Mahrattas. This siege is memorable, among other
reasons, as the occasion on which the Mahrattas first took
a prominent part in imperial politics north of the Narbada.
The siege lasted over three months, namely, from the 15tii
19
290 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
May to the 31st Aug. 1729. Cliattarsal, Bundelah, had
submitted himself earlier in the year, and Muhammad
Khan, quite unsuspicious of danger, was out settling the
country at the head of a small force. Suddenly he heard
that a large Mahratta army, under BajT Rao and eleven
other chiefs, was close at hand. From the 12^^ March to
the 15*11 May, he maintained himself in his camp, but
finally was forced to retreat on Jaitpur. There were no
stores of food, and no time to provide any. Soon they
were completely surrounded, but the Mahrattas, always
poor hands at siege operations, made no impression on the
place. They resolved to starve the garrison out. After a
month or two there was no longer any grain for food.
Recourse was then had to the slaughter of the horses and
bullocks. Flour could not be procured even at one hundred
rupees the seer; the only supplies were those furnished
surreptitiously by the Mahrattas outside, and this flour
was composed mainly of ground bones. Money was let
down by a rope, and the corresponding amount of flour,
at the rate of 100 rupees for a seer, was attached to the
rope and drawn up. Many men died of starvation. But
by Baji Rao's orders, any man on giving up his arms was
allowed to pass out unmolested. In the end only some
thousand or twelve hundred men remained. At last Mu-
hammad Eyian was forced to make terms and evacuate
the fort (Journal A. S. B. for 1878, p. 300, and Mirat-i-
toaridat, my copy, pp. 25, 26.
Allahabad. This fortress was besieged twice in the 18^^^
century, first in 1131 h. (1719) and again in 1163 h.
(1750). On the first occasion the imperial forces were sent
to eject the governor, Girdhar Bahadur; on the second, it
was attacked by the Pathans of Farrukhabad, when held
by the officers of the then governor, Safdar Jang, who was
also subahddr of Audh and wazlr of the empire. The first
investment lasted about nine and the second some seven
months, but on neither occasion did the besiegers succeed
SIEGES. 291
in reducing the fort. In 1131 ii. (1719) Girdhar Bahadur
yielded on obtaining the government of A udh, and marched
out with all the honours of war. In 1163 h. (1750) the
Pathans, before they had made the least impression upon
the fortress, were recalled hurriedly to defend their homes
against a combined attack by Safdar Jang and the Mahrattas.
Bangarh. Almost the last expedition commanded by a
Moghul emperor in person involved a siege. Between Abii^l
Mansur Khan, Safdar Jang, governor of Audh, and 'All
Muhammad Khan, Rohelah, a man who had recently risen
to power in what we now call Rohilkhand, there had long
been ill-blood from one cause and another. Now, Amir Khan,
^Umdat-ul-mulk, a favourite of Muhammad Shah, had been
banished from court and sent as governor to Allahabad,
the boundary of which runs with Audh. With this noble
Safdar Jang struck up an intimacy. After a time, Amir
Khan was recalled to Dihli, where he resolved to oust his
enemy, the wazir Qamr-ud-dln Khan. For this purpose he
sought the aid of Safdar Jang, and caused the emperor
to summon him from his government. Safdar Jang was
received with marked favour and appointed Mir Atash,
or commander of the imperial artillery. Having secured
influence at court, he proceeded to use it for the destruction
of 'All Muhammad Khan. The latter had, however, a friend
in the ivazlr, with whom he had prudently formed a matri-
monial connection. Meanwhile Safdar Jang's influence with
the emperor was on the increase, and was crowned on the
25th June 1744 by the honour of a visit to his tents from
Muhammad Shah in person.
The importance of ejecting 'All Muhammad Khan was
so fully impressed on the emperor, that for the first time
in his reign he was persuaded to take the field in person.
Amir Khan and Safdar Jang worked hard to secure this
result, for without the emperor's presence they could effect
little or nothing. The loazir, Qamr-ud-din Khan, was
friendly to 'Ali Muhammad Khan, Qaim Jang, the nawab
292 THE ARMY OP THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
of Farrukhabad, was in secret concert and alliance with
him, and his army was efficient and well-equipped. On
the 24tli Muharram, 1158 h. (25^^^ February 1745), making
a pretext of a hunting expedition in the Loni preserve,
Muhammad Shah crossed the Jamnah, his real purpose
being kept secret even from the wazlr.
Omitting the intervening events, we pass on to the 21st
Rabf ii (May 22^1^ 1745), the day on which the army
reached Budaon; and here Muhammad Shah effected a
reconciliation between Qaim Jang and Safdar Jang, which
was ratified by an exchange of visits. All the same, Safdar
Jang continued actively to carry on the campaign. Then,
seeing the imperial army so close to him, ^Ali Muhammad
Khan quitted his abode at Anwalah, and took refuge in
his stronghold of Bangarh, some kos to the south. To
this place he was followed by the imperial army. On the
one hand, the wazlr persisted that he could bring in 'All
Muhammad Khan; on the other, Safdar Jang urged that
if he were given a free hand, he would soon overcome
the rebel by force. To strengthen his position, Safdar Jang
also sent to Audh for reinforcements. His hakhs/n, Naval
Rae, was ordered to march with this force by way of
Shahjahanpur to Bangarh.
Bangarh was now surrounded by the imperialists. Kalyan
Singh, rajah of Kumaon, who had recently suffered from
an irruption of the Rohelahs, joined the army as an ally.
Round the fort was a thick screen of bambus "through
which the wind found its way with difficulty". Labourers
and axemen were set to work to cut this hedge down, and
batteries were erected. But the army and its commanders
were only half-hearted in their exertions, many nobles had
passed long years at court and had never seen a skirmish
or heard the roar of cannon, and others again blamed the
wazlr for bringing them to do a work which he did not
care to do himself. The remarks just referred to caused
great annoyance to Qamr-ud-dm Khan; so much so, that
SIEGES. 293
Haiyat-ullah Khan, liizbar Jang, (son of Saif-ud-Daulah
Zakariyah Khan, and son-in-law of the wazlr), begged
urgently for leave to advance and end the matter.
In spite of the overwhelming odds, "All Muhammad
Khan held his ground. Khushhal Chand, although an im-
perial officer, cannot help admiring his courage. He also
breaks forth into unstinted praise of the flourishing state
of the Rohelah territory, the lands being fully cultivated, the
crops good, the peasants well-off. Theft, outrage and highway-
robbery were unknown within those boundaries. These results
were the fruits of the ruler's strong reason and good under-
standing :
"The fox carried off the morsel from the wolf,
For the former has great wits, the latter, little".
One day 'All Muhammad Khan came out of the fort,
and was attacked by one of Safdar Jang's officers. Safdar
Jang mounted and was anxious to make an onset. Mu-
hammad Shah thought this imprudent, when on the one
side were the Moghuls (the waz'ir^ troops) and on the other
the Pathans (Qaim Jang and his men), neither of whom
were to be trusted, and might act in collusion with the
besieged. Several days elapsed. Then 'All Muhammad Khan
fired some balls which fell in the camp of the nobles, some
even coming near to the imperial enclosure "to make
obeisance". Muhammad Shah sent for the tvazir and con-
sulted. There was no want of men; one division by itself
would have sufficed. Yet nothing was done. Once Muhammad
Shah appealed to Rae Hemraj, a Saksena Kayath, a mere
clerk in the artillery office; "If I made over this business
to you, how long would it take?" The /ia?/al/i replied:
"Your Majesty's artillery is so powerful that 1 could reduce
Bangarh to ashes in four ^//ari (about one and a half hours)".
But the imperialists continued to discuss helplessly what
should be done next. In this interval. Naval Rae arrived
with 20,000 horsemen and 40,000 infantry. Safdar Jang
294 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
went out a kos or two to meet him. Naval Rae commenced
the siege in earnest, and 'Ali Muhammad Khan began to
think of flight or surrender. He sent an intimation to this
effect to the wazir, whose second son, Mu'ln-ud-daulah
(commonly called Mir Mannu) was sent to talk the matter
over. Having received a promise that his life would be
spared, ''All Muhammad Khan came to the Presence on
the 3rcl Jamadi i, ] 158 h. (2^ June 1745), Khushhal Chand,
B.M. Or. 1844, foil. 164«— 181(5.
Agrah. After their defeat by Ahmad Shah, Abdali, in
January 1761, the Mahrattas for a time quitted Northern
India. Suraj Mall of Bhartpur was then the only powerful
ruler left from the gates of Dihli to the banks of the
Chambal. The only place of strength remaining to the
Moghuls was the fort of Agrah, and in 1763 Suraj Mall
determined to acquire it. Since 1754 the commander and
troops had received no pay, living on the produce of what
they sold from the magazines within the fort. Obviously
such people would not be difficult to deal with. Suraj
Mall made a pretence of crossing to the north bank of
the Jamnah, then turned suddenly and blockaded Agrah.
Still, he could never have taken the place, had it been in
charge of a good commandant. At this time the command
was held by a mere boy, and he was under the thumb
of a subordinate, a greedy coward. From this traitor over-
tures were received, and the fort was given up. The
blockade had lasted twenty days, but though the inhabi-
tants of the city suffered from plundering, no damage had
been done to the fort. Suraj Mall is supposed to have
carried off fifty lakhs of rupees from the town. ''When
Suraj Mall took Agrah, it had the most numerous and
the best artillery in the kingdom, with powder, balls and
bullets, and other goods of the Royal Wardrobe, collected
during a long course of years. Everything was carried off.
The best cannon were removed to Dig and Bhartpur.
Two years ago (1765?), Juwahir Singh caused most of the
SIEGES. 295
houses to be demolished, imitating what had been done
at Allahabad, to allow room for the artillery to play. But
the fort guns can do no harm as the bastions are so high.
Nay, the debris of the houses could be used as ready-made
entrenchments and batteries, to secure an approach to the
main body of the place. The present commandant and the
leaders of the Jats know nothing of war, they are men of
low extraction, owing their rise solely to their devotion to
young Juwahir Singh", ''Orme Collections", p. 4308.
CHAPTER XXV.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
The war organization of the Moghul empire offers some-
thing more than a mere antiquarian interest. The more I
study the period, the more I am convinced that military
inefficiency was the principal, if not the sole, cause of that
empire's final collapse. All other defects and weaknesses were
as nothing in comparison with this. Its revenue and judicial
system was, on the whole, suited to the habits of the
people, they looked for nothing different, and so far as those
matters were concerned, the empire might have endured
for ages. But long before it disappeared, it had lost all
military energy at the centre, and was ready to crumble
to pieces at the first touch. The rude hand of no Persian
or Afghan conqueror, no Nadir, no Ahmad Abdali, the
genius of no European adventurer, a Dupleix or a Clive,
was needed to precipitate it into the abyss. The empire
of the Moghuls was already doomed before any of these
had appeared on the scene ; and had they never been heard
of, there can be little doubt that some Mahratta bandit
or Sikh free-booter would in due time have seated himself
on the throne of Akbar and Shahjahan. It is a curious
problem, then, to consider what causes could have led to
the military decrepitude of a monarchy which had been
founded and maintained by its military prestige. How came
it to pass that what had been gained by the sword was
at length to perish by the sword?
In the Moghul army there was little loyalty to the
sovereign's person, and absolutely no patriotism or devotion
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 297
to one's country. To a slight extent the zeal and fervour
of Mahomedanism was on the side of the ruler. But in a
country where the majority were still Hindus, any excess
of this feeling was as much a danger as an advantage. In
a faint degree, there was some attachment to the reigning
house, which still lived on the reputation of such great
rulers and soldiers as Babar and Akbar. But Aurangzeb
had alienated both the Rajput warrior clans and the general
Hindu population. The army was thus, in effect, a body
of mercenaries, men who served only for what they could
get, and ready at any moment, when things went badly,
to desert or transfer themselves, to a higher bidder. The
army'was full of Persian,. Central Asian, and Afghan sol-
diers of fortune, whose swords were at the service of any
one who chose to pay them.
By its original constitution everything turned, in such
an army, upon the characler_.ofJts he^^^^ If he were an
able and successful soldier, or even one gifted with the
power of leading and governing men, all went well, some
sort of discipline was maintained, and some unity of pur-
pose was secured. Thus the first necessity was a strong
emperor; for no one but the emperor was readily obeyed,
and even he could not always secure obedience. But after
the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, efficient rulers ceased to
be found among the scions of Taimur's house. A free field
was thus opened to the jealousies and rivalries of the
nobles. iVll courts seem more or less hot-beds of petty
intrigue; but in eastern countries this evil growth seems
to find its most congenial soil. Intrigue seems to accord
with the genius of eastern races; and in that respect per-
haps no eastern country equals India. My experience of
India is that if a man has only two servants, one of them
will at once attempt to supplant the other and monopolize
his master's confidence.
Disastrous consequences followed from these jealousies
amon^ the great men and nobles. As one writer aptly says
298 THE AMRY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
a noble was (lasad-pesha/i, "one whose profession was envy".
In military matters we have not to go far in our search
for examples of this jealousy and its consequence, base
treachery. At Jajau in 1707, Zujfiqar Khan left A'zam
Shah to his fate, because he had been made to serve under
Bedar Bakht, that prince's son. Again, in 1712, the same
Zujfiqar Khan stood aloof at Agrah, in the hope that his
rival, Jahandar Shah's foster-brother, might be destroyed,
leaving him to reap the benefit of an unshared victory.
In this same battle we see treachery at work, the troops
of Turani race having been bought over by the other side.
Instances might be multiplied ad infinitum.
Furthermore, the constitution of the army was radically
unsound. Each man was, there can be no doubt, individu-
ally brave, even to recklessness. Why then do we find
them so ready to retreat from a battle-field, so anxious to
make off after the slightest reverse? Simply because they
had so muc^io^Jose and so veryJitlle_lo ^ain. A trooper
rode his own horse, and if it was^ killed he was ruined
irretrievably. As a European writer of the middle of the
18^1^ century justly enough says: "Their cavalry (which are
among them very respectable, and also~weri~paid) though
not backward to engage with sabres, are extremely un-
jwilling to bring their horses within the reach of our guns ;
so that they do not decline' so much through fear of their
lives, as for their fortunes, wdiich are all laid out in the
"liofs'e'^They'nde on", Cambridge, "War", In trod. viii. In ^
1791-2 ffloor^ 204, noTice3~~among the Mahrato^cavalry
that the same cause produced the same effect. "A reluctance
to charge will be frequently observed; which does not
proceed from any deficiency in personal courage, but from
this cause: a great part of the horses in the Mahratta
service are, we have understood, the property of the riders,
who receive a certain monthly pay, according to the good-
ness of Jhe horse, for their own and their beast's services.
Tf a~man has his horse killed or wounded, no equivalent
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 299
is made him by the Sirkar, but he loses his animal and
his allowance ; he will therefore, of course, be as careful as
possible to preserve both". See also Seir, i, 315, note 250,
Orme, ''Hist. Frag.", 418, Fitzclarence, "Journal", 73,
Blacker, "War", 21.
Then in addition to this hindrance to zeal caused by
his personal interests, we lind that the individual soldier
did not look to the sovereign and the State, or consider
his interests identical with theirs. He was the soldier of his
immediate commander and never looked beyond him. If a
great leader was hike- warm in the cause or was bought
over, was forced to flee from the field, or was slain in the
battle, liis~ men dispersed at once. With the leader's dis-
appearance, theirj.nterest in the fight was at an end, and
their first concern was their own and their horse's safety.
To take one instance out of many, Sayyad Husain ^Ali
Khan left Agrah in Muhammad Shah's train at the head
of as large a force as had ever been collected by any
Moghul general. A week or two afterwards, he was suddenly
assassinated. An hour or two had hardly elapsed, and not
a trace of his mighty army was left, his camp had been
plundered, and even his tents burnt.
The death or disappearancejpfjhe^general-in-chief always
decided the battle. Outside Labor, when prince ^Azim-ush-
sMn's elephant ran off and drowned him in the Ravi, his
army dispersed and his treasure was plundered. Again,
when Jahandar Shah fled from the battle-field at Agrah,
the day was lost, although Zujfiqar Khan's division was
intact. Of treacherous defection in the field the examples
would be endless. The luke-warmness of Indian troops
serving with allies was shown many a time in our earlier
campaigns; for instance, in Rohilkhand in 1774, where
Shuja^-ud-Daulah allowed us to do all the work, and in
the Dakhin in 1792, when the Haidarabad and Mahratta
troops proved more of a hindrance than a help to their
English allies. In 1803 the Nizam's horse were useless, and
300 THE ARMY OF THE INDIAN MOGHULS.
in the campaign of 1817 the conduct of the irregular horse
was contemptible. As an auxiliary force they were hurtful
in consuming forage and provisions, for which they made
no return (Blacker, 348).
Speaking of the Nizam's army, a writer at the end of
the JSt'i century says: ''As an army, the composition is no
less expensi^^e^^han defecti veT'aM'Iotany untitlorTn ilitary
operations. They encamp at random, without proper pickets
in front, flaiik, or rear, an3^1n consequence of this and other
negligence are easily to be surprized — in short, these
numerous bodies of robust_ men and active horse, seem
designed for no other purpose than_tp adorn thejmarch
of their chief, who rides in the midst of them, upon one
elephant, his standard displayed upon angther^^attended by
c/iohdars calling irat his titles". No orders were given for
a march ; "^wordrnrf-' them wa^onveyed to each chief by his
news-writer, who attended the darbar every evening. Little
attention was paid to merit; preferment was obtained through
birth and~~connections, in trigue~, caBal,^ii3r"'other means
equally'^estructive'tDr-ffittiMry'character (Ouseley's * 'Orjental
ColIecHons^-m -^ "~ ~
Similar comments~~are^o be found in the chapter on
war in R. Orme's paper on the government and people of
Indostan (''Hist. Frag." 417—420). In short, excepting
want of personal courage, every other fault in the list of
military vices may be attributed to the degenerate Moghuls :
indiscipline, want of cohesion, luxurious habits, inactivity,
■ bad commissariat, and cunTbiwsTquipmeht. rn~fact, Mount-
stuart ElphinstonO"ir1iis~^'Iiisfofy^579, gives us succintly
the conclusion of the whole matter, "They formed a cavalry
admirably fitted to prance in a procession, and not ill-
adapted to a charge in a pitched battle, but not capable
of any long exertion, and still less of any continuance of
fatigue and hardship".
The End.
LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED AND REFERRED TO.
I. Persian (printed books).
1. DaslUr-ul-Insha, by Yar Muhammad, (c. 1170 ii.), Calcutta, 1270 ii.
(1853).
2. Firishtali (Muhammad Qasim, son of Hindu Shah), Gulshan-i-Ibrahlml^
40., hthographed, Lakhnau 1281 h. (18G4).
3. Badshah-namah^ by ""Abd-ul-Hamid, 2 vols. (Bib, Ind.), Calcutta,
1867-8.
4. Mu)ita/diab-ut-kiwarlkh, by ^Abd-ul-Qadir, Budaoni, 1004 h. 3 vols.
(Bib. Ind.) Calcutta7l868.
5. ^Alamgir-namah, by Mhd. Kazim, (Bib. Ind.) Calcutta, 1868.
6. Ma^asir-i-^Almnglrl, by Mhd. SaqT, Musta'^id Khan, 1122 h. (Bib. Ind.)
Calcutta, 1871.
7. Muntakhab-ul-lubah by Khwafi Khan, 1137 h., 2 vols. (Bib. Ind.)
Calcutta, 1874.
. 8. Tarllih-i-Jahcm-kushcie Ncidirl by Mirza Mahdi Khan (lithographed)
Bombay, 1292 h. (1875).
9. Akbarnamah by AbhJ Fazl, 3 vols., 4to. (Bib. Ind.) Calcutta, 1873—
1886. Id. — "(lithographed edition) — Lakhnau 1883.
10. Mirat-i-Ahmadl by "^Ali Muhammad Khan, composed 1174 11. (litho-
graphed) Bombay, 1307 h. (1889)~
11. Bcibarnamah or Tuzuk-i-Babari, lithographed edition, Bombay
1308 H. (1890).
12. Ma^asir-ul-Umard^ by Shah Nawaz Khan, 3 vols. (Bib. Ind.) Calcutta,
1888—91. ~~
13. Mujmil-ut-tdnkh ba'^d Nadiriyah by Abul Hasan b. Muhammad
Amin, (composed 1196 h.), edited by Oskar Mann, Leiden, 1891
and 1896.
II. Hindi (printed books).
Chhutfii Prukash of Lai Kuvi, edited by Captain W. Price, Calcutta
1829.
III. Persian (Manuscripts).
1. Jauhar, Aftabchi, TazkircU-ul-waqfat, Irvine Ms. N^. 43, 995 h.
2. Nizam-ud-din, Tabaqdi-i- Akbar Shdii'i, B.M. Additional Ms. No. 6543,
1002 H.
302 LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED AND REFERRED TO.
3. DastUr-ul-%ml, British Museum No. 1641 (c. 1118 h.).
4. do. B.M. 6598.
5. do. B.M. 6599.
6. do. B.M. 1690.
7. Kamraj, A'zam-ul-harb, B.M. 1899 (c. 1119 h.).
8. Danishmand Khan, Bahadur Shcih-natnah, B.M. Oriental, No. 24
(c. 1120 H.).
9. Bhim Sen, Nuskhah-i-dilkusha, B.M. Oriental No. 23, 1120 H.
10. History of Jahandar Shah, B.M. Oriental No. 3610. c. 1124 H.
11. Muhammad Mun^im, .la'^farabadl, Farrukhnamah, I. 0. L. No. 1876,
(1128 H.).
12. Hidayatullah, Bahari, Hidayat-ul-quwaid, Irvine Ms. No. 251, 1128 H,
13. Mirza Muhammad (son of Muta'^mad Khan), TazPiirah^ India Office
Library. N". 50, (1131 h.). ~~
14. Kamraj, 'Ibratndmah (Daftar I), I. 0. L. No. 1534 (c. 1131 h.).
15. Mhd Ahsan, Ijad, Samanawi, Farrukhsiyar-namah^BM. Or. 25 and
Irvine Ms. No. 113, both incomplete (c. 1131 ii.).
16. Mhd Qasim, Lahorl, "Ihratnamah, I. 0. L. No. 194 (c. 1133 h.).
17. Shiu Das, Shdhnamah, Manavvar-i-kaldm, B.M. Or. 26 (c. 1134 h.).
18. Chhabilah Ram, Nagar, letters of, '^Ajaib-ul-dfdq^ B.M. Or. No, 1776
(c. 1134 H.).
19. Ghulam Muhl-ud-din Khan, Fatuhat-ndmah-i-Samadi, B.M. Or. 1870
~~{c. 1135 H.).
20. Kamwar Khan, Tazkirai-iis-salatln-i-Chaghtaiyah, Irvine Ms. NO. 70
(c. 1137~it.). ~ ■■ ~
21. RaeBihari Ram, Nagar, Guldastah-i-baha}\lv\meMs. No.176(1139h ).
22. Mhd Qasim, Aurangabadi, Ahwdl-ul-khawaqin, B.M. Addl. 26,244
(c. 1147 H.). ~
23. Yahya Khan, Tazkirat-ul-muluk, I. 0. L. No. 1149 (1149 h.).
24. Rustam 'All, TarUih-i-hindi, B.M. Or. 1628 (1149 h.).
25. Mhd Shafi^ Warid, Mirat-i-waridat, B.M. No. 6579 (c. 1149 h.).
26. MaHumat-ul-afaq, B.M. 1741 (c. 1150 ii.).
27. Risalah-i-Mhd Shdhl, B.M. Or. 180 (c. 1150 h.).
28. Risalah-i-tlr o kaman, B.M. Additional Ms. No. 5629 (c. 1150 h.).
29. Jauhar-i-samsam, B.M. Or. 1898, and Col. Fuller's translation, B.M.
30,784 (c. 1152 h.).
30. Anand Ram, Mukhlis, Mirat-ul-istildh, B.M. Or. 1813 (1157 h.).
31. Sahib Rae, Khujistah-kalain, Irvine Ms. No. 18 (1159 h.).
32. Khushhal Chand, Nadir-uz-zamdnl, B.M. Or. 1844, id. Addl. 24,027
and Berlin Ms. No. 495 (Cat. p. 476) (c. 1161 h ).
33. Anand Ram, Mukhlis, Events of 1159—61 h., I. 0. L. 1612 (1161 h.).
34. Mirza Muhammad, Tmnkh-i-Miihammadi, B.M. Or. 1824 and Irvine
Ms. NO. 143 (c. 1163 h.).
35. Tarlkh-i- Ahmad Shahl, B.M. Oriental No. 2005 (c. 1167 h.).
LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED AND REFERRED TO. 303
36. Mahmud-iil-Munshi, Tarlkh-i- Ahmad S/iahl, B.M. Or. Ms. N^. 196
(c. 1471 H.).
37. Rae Chatarman, Chahar Gulshan, Irvine Ms. N^. 118 (1173 ii.).
38. Shakir Khan, Gulshan-i-sadiq, Irvine Ms. No. 69 (c. 1174 ii.).
39. 'All Muhammad Khan, Mirat-i-Ahmadl, B.M. Addl. 6580 (1174 ii.).
40. Tdrlkh-iWlcumfir Scini, B M. Or. 1749 (c. 1174 ii.).
41. Muhammad *^Ah, Burhanpuri, Mirat-us-saff'd, B.M. Addl. Mss. Nos.
6539, 6540 (1179 h.).
42. Dalpat Sing, Maldhat-i-maqdl, B.M. Or. Ms. N«. 1828 (c. 1181 ii.).
43. Sayyad Muhammad, Bilgrami, Tabsirat-un-ndzirm, Irvine Ms. N^. 34
(1182 H.).
44. 'Abd-ul-latif, Ahmad-ndmah, Irvine Ms. No. 100 (1184 h.).
45. Ashob, Shahddat-i-Farrukhslyar wa julus-i-Muhammad Shah by
Mirza Muhammad BalvhSi, Ashob, B.M. Or. 1832 (1196 h.).
46. Ghulam Hasan, Bilgrami, (Samin), Tazkirah, Irvine Ms. No. 113
~(1197 H.).
47. Ghulam Hasan, Bilgrami (Samin), Shardif-i-Sismdm, Irvine Ms. N". 27
~~(c. 1200 H.).
48. Ghulam ''Ah Khan, Muqaddamah-i-Shdh "Alam-ndmah, B.M. Addl.
"24,028 (c. 1204 h.).
49. Khair-ud-din Mhd, ''Ibratndmah, Irvine Ms. No. 15 (3 vols.) (c.1204h.).
50. Waqdf-i-diydr-i-maghrib, Irvine Ms. N^. 189 (1213 H.) (almost
identical with Tdrlkh-i-I/usain Shdhi by Imam uddin, Chisti,
Rieu, 904).
51. Imam-ud-din Chisti, Husain Shdht, BM Or. No. 1662 (1213 h.).
52. Mhd 'Umr, Siwdnih-i-lihizrl, Irvine Ms. No. 80 (c. 1213—14 h.).
53. Mhd =Ah Khan, Tdrlkh-i-muzaffarl, Irvine Ms. No. 25 (c. 1215— 16 h.).
54. Rustam 'Ali, Bijnori, Rohelon k'l tdrikh, B.M. Addl. Ms. No. 26,284
(1803 A.D. Urdia).
55. Muhabbat Khan, son of Faiz ^Ata Khan, Daudzai, Akhbdr-i-muhabbat,
Irvine mTno. 21 (1220 h.).
56. Collection of Portraits, B.M. Oriental No. 375 (c. 1835 A.D.).
IV. Books and Mss. in European languages.
1. N. Manucci, Storia do Mogor, KonigUche Bibliothek, Berlin, Ms. Phil-
Hpps 1945 (1700).
2. Robert Orme, Ms. Collections now in the India Office (1760—1805).
3. F. Catrou (and N. Manucci). Histoire Generale de I'Empire du Mogol,
one vol. 4to. Paris, 1705, and 4 vols. 12o. or one volume 4to.
Paris, 1715.
4. F. Valentijn, Beschrijving van Oud en Nieuw Cost Indien, Vol. IV,
fol. Dordrecht, 1726.
5. Gemelli Careri, Voyage autour du Monde, 6 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1726.
6. James Fraser, History of Nadir Shah, 2nd ed. 1742.
7. R. 0. Cambridge, Account of the War in India, 1750— 60, 4to. 1761.
304 LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED AND REFERRED TO.
8. Jonas Hanway, Revolutions of Persia, 3rd. ed., 1762.
9. De la Flotte, Essais Historiques sur I'lnde, 2 vols. 12nio. Paris, 1769.
10. P. M. Anquetil Duperron, Zend Avesta, 3 vols. 4to., Paris, 1771.
11. Minutes of Select. Com. House of Commons of 1772. 8vo. (T. Evans).
London, 1772.
12. J. Z. Hoi well, India Tracts, 3rd. ed. 1774.
13. C. Carraccioli, Life of Robert Lord Clive, 4 vols. 1775?
14. Davy and White, Institutes of Timour, 4to. Oxford, 1783.
15. Asiatic Miscellany, 2 vols. 4to. Calcutta, 1785-6.
16. J. Bernouilli, Description de I'lnde, 3 vols. 4to. Berlin, 1788.
17. Seir Mutaqherin (1195 ii.), trans, by Notamanus (Haji Mustapba),
3 vols., 4to. Calcutta, 1789.
18. Asiatic Miscellany, 3 vols., 8vo. Cal. 1788. New Ditto, 4to., Cal. 1789.
19. J. Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan. 3rd. ed. 4to. 1793.
20. E. Moor, Narrative of Capt. Little's Detachment, 4to. 1794.
21. Jonathan Scott, History of Dekkan, 2 vols., 4to. Shrewsbury, 1794.
22. A. Dalrymple, Oriental l^epertory, 2 vols. 4to. 1794-5.
23. W. H. Tone, A letter on the Maratta people (1796), Bombay, 1798.
24. Oriental Miscellany, Calcutta, 1798.
25. W. Francklin, History of the reign of Shah Aulum, 4to. 1798.
26. Sir W. Ouseley, Oriental Collections, 3 vols. 4to. 1797—1800.
27. R. Orme, Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire, 4to. 1805.
28. W. Francklin, Military Memoir of Mr. George Thomas, 8vo. 1805.
29. Lewis F. Smith, Rise and Progress of the Regular Corps, 4to.
Calcutta 1805.
30. Thomas Williamson, Oriental Field Sports, folio, 1807.
31. Lieut.-Col. Mark Wilks, Historical Sketches of the South of India,
3 vols. 4to. 1810—1817.
32. W. Thorn, Memoir of the War in India, 1803-6, 4to. 1818.
33. Lieut.-Col . Fitzclarence, Journal of a Route across India,! 81 7-8. 4to.l 81 9.
34. Lieut.-Col. V. Blacker, Memoir of Operations in India 181 7—1 9. 4to. 1821 .
35. Major D. Price, Chronological Retrospect of Mohammedan History,
4 vols. 4to. 1811—1821.
36. L. Langles, Monuments Anciens et Modernes del'Hindoustan, 2 vols.,
folio, Paris 1821.
37. J. B. J. Gentil, Memoires sur I'lndoustan, 8vo. Paris, 1822.
38. E. Lake, Sieges of the Madras Army, 1825.
39. J. Leyden and W. Erskine, Memoirs of Baber (translated), 4to., 1826.
40. J. Ranking, Historical Researches on the Wars and Sports of the
Mongols and Romans, 4to. 1826.
41. W. R. Pogson, History of the Boondelas, 4to. Calcutta, 1828.
42. J. Prinsep, Useful Tables, Part. I, Calcutta 1834.
43. Despatches of the Marquess Wellesley, K. G., ed. M. Martin, 5 vols., 1836.
44. E. Quatremere (translator), Histoire des Mongols de la Perse, by
Rashid-ud-dln, folio, Paris 1836.
45. H. Wilkinson, Engines of War, 1841.
LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED AND REFERIlEl) TO. 305
46. Chevalier P. Armandi, Histoire niilitaire des elephants, Paris, 1843.
47. G. A. Hansard, Book of Archery, 1845.
48. Captain St. J. D. Showers, Inscription on a gun at Moorshedabad,
Journal A.S. Bengal, XVI, Calcutta, 1847.
49. J. Shakespear, Hindustani English Dictionary, 4th. ed. 4to. 1849.
50. J. B. Fraser, Military Memoirs of Lieut.-Col. James Skinner, C. B.,
2 vols. 1851.
51. A. Rockstuhl and F. Gille, Musee de Tzarkoe (folio), St. Petersbourg
1835—1853.
52. Colonel F. Colombari, Les Zamboureks, Paris, 1853.
53. W. Erskine, History of India under Baber and Humayun, 2 vols. 1854.
54. M. Elphinstone, History of India, 4th ed., 1857.
55. G. C. Mundy, Pen and Pencil Sketches in India, 3rd ed., 1858.
56. H. M. Elliot, Supplemental Glossary, Roorkee, 1860.
57. W. H. Russell, My Diary in India, 2 vols. 1860.
58. R. Ornie, History of the Military Transactions in Indostan (reprint),
3 vols. Madras, 1861.
59. E. Thornton, Gazetteer of India, 1862.
60. G. A. Herklots, M. D. Qanoone-Islam, 2nd ed. Madras, 1863.
61. E. W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, 1867,
62. Colonel T. Seaton, From Cadet to Colonel, 2 vols. 1866.
63. P. Meadows Taylor and James Fergusson, Architecture ofBeejapore,
1866.
64. Viscountess Combermere and W. W. Knollys, Memoirs of F. M.
Viscount Combermere, 2 vols. 1866.
65. A. Pavet de Courteille, Dictionnaire Turc Oriental, Paris, 1870.
66. id. , Memoires de Baber, 2 vols. Paris, 1871.
67. H. Blochmann, ^A^in-i-Akhari, 1 vol. (translation), Calcutta, 1873.
68. Voyle and Stevenson, Military Dictionary, 3rd. ed. 1876.
69. H. M. EUiot, History of India, Muhammedan Period, 8 vols. 1867— 1877.
70. W. Irvine, Bangash Nawabs of Farrukhabad, Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, vols. XLYH and~~XLYni, 1878, 1879.
71. R. B. Shaw, Sketch of the Turki Language, Journal A. S. Bengal, 1878.
72. M. J. Walhouse in "Indian Antiquary", Vol. VII, 1878.
73. Honorable W. Egerton, Illustrated Handbook of Indian Arms, 1880.
74. Graf F. A. von Noer, Kaiser Akbar, Leiden, 1880.
75. id. , L'empereur Akbar, trans. Alf Maury, 2 vols.,
Leide, 1883.
76. Col. T. H. Hendley, Memorials of the Jeypore Exhibition, 4 vols.
London 1883.
77. H. G. Raverty, Notes on Afghanistan, 4 parts, folio, 1881-3.
78. S. W. Fallon, New Eng. Hindustani Dictionary, Benares, 1883.
79. W. H. Lowe (translator), Muntakhah-ut-tawdrikh, Vol. II, of 'Abd-
ul-Qadir (Bib. Ind.) Calcutta, 1884.
80. John T. Platts, A Dictionary of Urdu, 1884.
81. H. Yule and A. C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson, a Glossary, 1886.
306 J.IST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED AND REFERRED TO.
82. David Mac Ritchie, Account of the Gypsies, 1886.
83. Sir E. C. Bayley, The Local Muhammedan Dynasties, Gujarat, 1886.
84. J. B. Tavernier, Travels in India, trans, by V. Ball, 2 vols. 1889.
85. W. H, Lowe (translator), Tuzuk-i-Jahangirl, Fasc. 1 (Bib. Ind.)
Calcutta, 1889.
86. W. Hoey, M. A., D.Lit., TclrlkJi-i-Farah Bakhsh (1233 h.), trans.,
2 vols. Allahabad, 1888-9.
87. F. Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire 1665-8, ed. A. Constable, 1891.
88. Syad Mhd Latif, History of Labor, Labor, 1892.
89. F. Steingass, Persian-Eng. Dictionary, 1892.
90. T. D. Broughton, Letters written in a Mahratta Camp, 1809, new
edition, 1892.
91. Herbert Corapton, European Military Adventurers in India, 1892.
92. G. B. Malleson, History of the French in India, 1893.
93. Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Vol. Ill,
fol. Madras, 1893.
94. W. Forbes Mitchell, Reminiscences of the Great Mutiny, 1893.
95. E. G. Browne, M. A., A year among the Persians, 1893.
96. I. Burton, Life of Captain Sir R. F. Burton, 2 vols. 1893.
97. J. W. Mac Crindle, Invasion of India by Alexander, 1893.
98. August Demmin, Die Kriegswaffen, 4th ed. Leipzig, 1893.
99. Paul Horn, Das Heer und Kriegswesen dor gross Moghuls, Leiden, 1894.
100. Emile Berbe, Le Nabab Rene Madec, Paris, 1894.
101. Sir Hope Grant, Life and Correspondence, ed. H. Knollys, 2 vols. 1894.
102. Parliamentary Paper, N^. 538, March 1894.
103. N. Elias and E. D. Ross, Tdrlkh-i-Rashidi of Mirza Haidar Dughlat, 1895.
104. John Martineau, Life and Correspondence of the Right Honorable
Sir Bartle Frere, 2 vols. 8vo. 1895.
105. Dr. S. Weissenberg in "Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesell-
schaft in Wien", Vol. XXV, Vienna, 1895.
106. Col. R. C. Temple, Calcutta Review, October 1896.
107. T. P. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, 1896.
108. W. Irvine, Nadir Shah and xMuhammad Shah, by Tilok Das, Journal
A. S. Bengal, LXVI, Calcutta 1897.
109. George S. A. Ranking (translator), ilfun^a/^/ia&M-i-toiyarl/^/i by "^Abd-
ul-Qadir Badaoni, Vol. I (Bibl. Indica), Calcutta 1898.
110. R. S. White way. The Rise of Portuguese Power in India, 1899.
111. E, G Browne, The Chahar Maqdlah of "^Arudi, composed about
1161A.D., Journal R. Asiatic Society, 1899.
112. C. R. Wilson, Early Annals of the English in Bengal, Vol. I and II
(part 1), Calcutta 1895, 1900.
113. E. Blochet, Inventaire des miniatures des manuscrits orientaux,
Paris 1900.
114. W. Irvine, Jangnamah of Farrukhslyar by Shridhar Murlidhar,
Journal A. S. Bengal, LXIX, Calcutta 1900.
CORRECTIONS, EMENDATIONS AND ADDITIONS.
Page 7 (six lines from bottom). For "te" read "to".
» 48, 1. 20, Miskin, Tahmasp-namah, B.M. Oriental Mss. NO. 1918,
fol. 59a, states that the chihrahs of the mcmsabdars were
written on red paper.
y^ 49. The Imperial Brand. Manucci, Philiipps 1945.. part III, fol. 27,
says that the imperial brand was of this shape CI , and was
impressed on the horse's right flank.
» 50. The Noble's Brand. Manucci, id., mentions that the nobles had
a separate mark, but it was put on the horse's left flank. It
consisted usually of the first letter of the noble's name.
» 51, (line 2). For "niferred" read "inferred".
» 62, note. For "Jems'" read "gems".
» 64. The Akharnamah (Lucknow edition), III, p. 17, lines 10 and 11
from foot, has dabalghah (spelt *aJ^). The same passage has
the word pesh-blni for nose-guard.
» 76 (line 11). For "seated" read "seated".
» 99 (Add at end of paragraph). D. S. Margoliouth, "Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society" for July 1903, p. 491, in an article 'On
the origin and import of the names Muslim and Hamf\ quoting
a story from the Kamil, I, 210, refers to an ancient Arabian
custom of giving protection to a stranger by writing on an
arrow "So-and-so is my Guest".
» 101 (line 26). Delete "to" after "into".
» 110 (line 12). For "these" read "there".
» 114 (line 9). For "fumaces" read "furnaces".
» 117 (line 11). For "more" read "move".
» 120 (line 4). For "is" read "it".
» 148 (line 21, add at end of paragraph). The expression is also nsed
in a Hindi poem (c. 1720) by one Sudisht, line 725, Mangae
kahak ban sabh Hind ke.
y> 188 (line 28). For "tell" read "till".
» 192 (last line). For "these" read "there" and for "coops" read "crops".
» 205 (line 19). For "these" read "there".
» 216 (line 14). For "tho" read "the".
» 233 (add under Caltrops). In the Edinburgh Museum of Science and
Art, among the oriental exhibits, is a four-pronged caltrop said
to have been found on the battle field of Multan (1849). This
goes to show that the Sikhs used this mode of obstructing cavalry
as late as the middle of the 19*^^ century.
INDEX.
A.
Ah (temper of sword blade), 75.
Ahlaq (black and white feathers), 97.
Absence, without leave, 25.
Adjutant-General (Bakhsht). 37.
Advance guard ofiheCentYe{iltimish),
226.
Advances of pay, 18; recovery of, 18,
Aftah (kind of standard), 32.
Aftabglr, Affdhgirl, 31, 34.
Agrah, siege of, 294.
Ahadis, 10, 19, 25, 43, 53; Bakhshl
of the, 40.
Ahangav (blacksmith), 174.
Ahmadnagar, 268.
Ahsham, 20, 26, 43, 155, 160; three
meanings of, 161.
Aimaq, 241.
Ajaigarh, 268.
Ajmer, 269.
Akbar, his rules for branding, 46;
system of making over elephants
to grandees, 20; artillery of, 115.
Akbarabad, 269.
Akhtah Begl (Master of the Horse), 21 .
^Alam (a standard), 31, 32, 34, 85.
'^Alamgir, artillery of, 116.
A'^la Shahl (Exalted Imperial regi-
ment), 44.
'^Ala-ud-dln, Khilji, his branding
system, 46.
^Aligarh, 268.
'^Alighol (class of tioops), 164.
Alkhaliq (a tight coat), 29, 68.
Allahabad, 269; siegesof 1719, 1750,
290.
Al Maisir (divining by arrows), 98.
Amazons, 165.
Ambush, 255.
Amir (noble), 9.
Amir-i-A'^zam (great noble), 9.
Amir-ul-umai^a (Noble of Nobles). 38.
Angarkhah (a long coat), 68.
Ankri-dar (kind of arrow), 98.
Ankus (elephant goad), 80.
Ansar-i-maimcmah (right wing), 226.
Ansar-i-maisarah (left wing), 226.
Appointment of an Officer, mode of, 40.
Approach by sap and mine, 273.
""Arabah (gun carriage), 141; use of
word, remarks on, 140.
"Arabi (Arab troops), 51.
Arabs, 169.
"^ Aradah-toid (wheeled artillery), 140.
Arah-kash (sawyers), 174.
Arghun (mitrailleuse), 138.
'^Arif; (old name of a BakJishl), 38.
Arkalon (a tight coat?), 29.
Armandi, treatise on elephants, 178.
"Arme blanche", 73.
Armour, defensive, 62, 63.
Arms, offensive, 73; "short", 73.
Army chiefly horsemen, 57 ; strength
of the, 59; in the field, 190; on
the march, 203; mai'ches, length
of, 219.
Arrow, 73, 97 ; and bow, 90 ; shafts,
97; heads, 98; for practising, 98;
symbolical use of, 98 (and see
310
INDEX.
Errata); divining by, 98 ; declaring
war by, 99 ; from the king's quiver,
security for peace, 99; symbol of
authority, 99.
Artak-i-kajim (horse-housing), 71.
Artificers, 20, 173.
Artillery, 113; Babar's, 114; Huma-
yun's, 115; Akbar's, 115; ""Alam-
gir's 116; Light, 133; of the
Stirrup, 133, 134; Moveable, 1 33 ;
personnel of, 152; departments of,
156 ; Manufacture of, 156 ; Arsenals,
156; in battle, 230.
Artillerymen, 20.
"Arzah-dasht (report), 254.
'^Arz-i-makarrar (Confirming Order),
13, 18, 42.
'^Asd-shamsher (straight sword), 76.
Asirgarh, 268.
Aslah (weapons generally), 62.
Asnan (spears generally), 81.
Assault on forts, modes of repelling
282; repulsed, evacuation after. 284.
Assignment of revenue (jdgir), 14.
Astrologers, 202,
Atak, 269.
Atashbaz (firework-makers), 174.
Audiences, parades during, 182.
Auditors (mustaufis), 19.
Aunchi (bow), 91.
Aurang (throne), 31.
Authorities, list of, 301 - 306.
Axe, battle, 80; silver, 81.
Ayyam-i-hilali, 19.
A^hdaha-jmikar (kind of stiinda.rd.)32.
Babar's Artillery, 114.
Back-scratcher (piisht-khdr), 80.
Badaha (class of artificer), 174.
Bddalij (catapult), 129.
Badalljah (catapult), 129.
Badan (curtain of fort), 264.
Badar (powder-bag), 151.
Badraqah (escort), 210.
Bagtar (body-armour), 66.
Bahlr 0 hangah (baggage), 191, 227.
BakJishis, First, 39; the other, 39;
second, 39; third, 39; fourth, 40;
of the ahadis, 40.
Bakhshi, of the Wdld Shdhls, 40;
provincial and other, 40 ; of the
Realms, 42.
Bakhshi-i-tan, 39.
Bakhshi-ul-mamdlik, 37; duties of, 38.
Bakhshi-ul-mulk, 39.
Baksariyah (kind of infantry), 168.
Baktar (body armour), 66.
Bdldhand (turban ornament), 29.
Bdldtang (surcingle), 72.
Ballam (kind of spear), 84.
Ban (Rockets), 147.
Bdti-anddz (rocket-man), 159.
Bandahlide (servants), 44 n. 1.
Bdn-ddr (rocket-man) 159, 169.
Bandldr (part of a sword), 75.
Banduq (a matchlock), 73, 103.
B anduqchi-i-jang I (match\ock-m2in\
167.
Banduq-i-chaqmdqi (flint musket),
105.
Bangarh, siege of, 291.
Banjdra (grain-carrier), 192.
Bank (kind of dagger), 86, 87.
Baranghdr (right wing), 226.
Bardt (order on Treasury), 56.
Barchhd, Barchhah, Barchhi, Birchha
(kind of spear), 83.
Barchhah, see "Barchha".
Bargarh, 269.
Bargl (name for Mahrattahs), 171.
Bdrglr (hired trooper), 37, 47.
Bargustuwdn (elephant armour), 66.
Bargustuwdn-posh (armour-clad ele-
phant), 176.
Barqanddz (matchlockman), 20, 166.
Bartarafl (rejection of horses), 22,
24, 25, 26.
Bdrut-khdnah (powder magazine),
151."
INDEX
311
Basall (an armourer). 174.
Basolah (kind of weapon), 81.
Battle Axes {tahar). 73, 80.
Battle cries, 231.
Battles, particular, force present at
60 : order of, 223 ; conduct of 229 ;
particular, 244; reports of, 254.
Bayonet {sang'ui), 83.
Bazciv (camp market), 191.
Baz-yaft (item under objection), 19.
Beldar (a digger), 173, 174.
Belly-piercer (kind of dagger), 86.
Besiegers and Besieged, communi-
cation between, 287.
Beiita (chain-mail shirt), 67.
Bhal (arrow-head), 97.
Bhala (kind of spear), 82.
Bhanju (part of armour), 69.
Bhartpur, 268.
Bhllah (class of infantry). 170.
Bichwa (kind of dagger), 87.
Bijapur, siege of, 289.
BilTi-shart (unconditional pay), 13.
Bimarl (illness), 25.
Bimari-namah (medical certificate).
25.
Birinjara (grain-carrier). 192.
Blacksmiths' forges, establishment of,
52.
Blank Cartridge, 107.
Blockades, 272.
Blowing from guns, 184.
Burj 0 bar ah (fortifications). 264.
Bound Hedge. 261.
Bow (of a saddle), 72.
Bows and arrows, 73, 90, 91 ; esti-
mation of, 90 ; recent use of, 90 ;
make of, 92; mode of drawing,
94, 96 ; stringing the, 102 ; shooting
with, 102.
Bow-men, 53.
Brand, imperial, 49 (and see Errata) ;
the noble's, 50 (and see Errata).
Branding. 45.
Bridge of boats, 211.
Broad cloth, 73 n. 1.
Bunain (butt of spear), 81.
Bimdelahs (class of infantry), 169.
Burning oil, throwing of, 282.
Cailletoque (a musket), 107.
Caltrops, 233 and see Errata.
Camps and Camp Equipage, 195; a
description of, 195.
Cannon, construction of, 114; rate
of firing, 116; names of, 118;
mode of mounting, 121 ; heavy,
desci'iptions of, 123; wooden, 128.
Cartridge, blank, 107.
Casualties, 22.
Cavalry charges, 232; Moghul, tactics
of, 234.
Centre (qui, qalb), 226; advance
guard of the (iltimish'), 226 ; wings
of the (tarah), 227.
Certificate of heirship (warisnamah)^
27 ; from Bakhshfs office {tasdlq),
41, 42. ~~
Chadar (missile or tent or mantlet),
131.
Chaghatae language, use of, 184.
Chahar-a'inah (breastplate), 66.
Chahlam (kind of armour), 68.
Chakhmagh (battle-axe), 81.
Chakhmdq (id.), 81.
Chalanl (small piece of artillery), 138.
Chalqat (doublet over armour), 69.
Chamchaq (kind of battle-axe), 81.
Chamkhakh (a long knife), 87.
Chamkhaq (kind of battle-axe), 81.
Chandawiil (the rear-guard), 227.
Chandu (imperial fort), 269.
Changal-i-baz (mode of holding bow),
102.
Chapkunchi (a reconnaisance), 241.
Chapqalash (an onslaught), 233,241.
Chaqchdq (kind of knife), 87.
Chaqchaql-i-wilayatl (a long knife),
89.
312
INDEX.
ChaqU (a knife), 89.
Charges of cavalry, 241.
C/iarlvh (cross-bow), 92.
CharlihcJd-hashl (head bowman), 92.
Chatr (state umbrella), 31.
Clicitr-lok (yak-tail standard), 31.
Chaukl (guard), 23, 25, 188.
C/iauki-khd)iah (guard-house), 196.
Chelas (slaves, household troops), 11.
Chevaux-de-frise (caltrops), 233 and
see Corrections.
Chharl (rocket-stick), 147.
Chhatah-i-qila^h (platform ?), 264.
Chihaltah (wadded coat), 68, 69.
Chihilqad (wadded coat), 69.
Chihrah (descriptive roll), 47.
Chihrah-i-aspan (descriptive roll of
horses), 49.
Chihrah-i-tabinan (descriptive roll
of troopers), 48.
Chillah (bow-string), 93.
Chilta (wadded coat), 69.
Chinglapat (fortress), 268.
Chirah, meaning of, 47 n. 1.
Chirivah (kind of shield), 78.
Chob-sibae (wooden-tower), 279.
Choppers (thatches of roofs), 282.
Christians in Mogul Service, 152, 153,
154; contempt for, 152, 153.
Coats, wadded, 69.
Colligation in fighting, 237, 238.
Combat, single, 236.
Commander-in-Chief, 37.
Commissariat, 191.
Conditional pay (jmashrut), 13.
Confirmation of orders ("arz-i-ma-
karrar), 18.
Contingent (suivars), 6.
Coup-de-main, 270.
Cross-bow (charkli), 92, 95.
Crossing Rivers, 211.
Crutch, fakir's, 77.
Cuirass (oi/inah), 67.
D.
Dabalrjhah (helmet), 64 and see
•'Corrections".
Daggers, 73, 85.
Dagh, 13, 25.
Daghlah (quilted coat), 68,
Dagh-o-mahaUl (parades), 46.
Dagh-o-tashlhah (Branding and Veri-
fication), 46.
Bagla (quilted coat), 68.
Dah-bist (proportion of horses to
men), 10.
Dakhili troops, 160.
Dam (a coin of account), 6.
Damclghah (holes on fortress wall
for pouring down boiling oil), 266.
Dant-tinka (form of surrender), 185.
Bar goshah-i-kaman zadan (to cap-
ture), 240.
Daroghah-i-dak (Chief of Post), 213.
Daroghah-i-harkdrah (Head Spy),
213.
Daroghah-i-topkhdnah (artillery ge-
neral), 154.
Dashnah (kind of dagger), 89.
Dastar (a turban), 29.
Dast-i-chap (left wing), 226.
Dast-i-rast (right wing), 226.
Dastwanah (gauntlets), 70.
Daul (estimate), 18.
Daulatabad (fortress), 268.
Daulat-khdnah (emperor's residence),
199.
Dead on battle field not buried, 259.
Death (fauti)^ rules for pay, 25, 27.
Deductions from Pay, 19.
Defeat, 241.
Defensive armour, 02.
Deficiency, in horses, 22; in equip-
ment, 22; in troopers, 22.
Deg (Mortars), 129.
Deg-anddz (mortar-man), 129, 158,
169.
INDEX.
313
Delay in Verification, fines for 24, 54.
Description of an army on the march,
203.
Descriptive Roll, of men, 47; of
horses, 49.
Desertion {Farari)^ 25; pretended,
255.
mm (a shield), 77.
Bhalait (foot-soldier), 165.
Bhamcikah (small gun), 135, 137.
Dhara (kind of mace), 79.
Dharwar (fortress), 268.
Dhunah (cotton-carder), 174.
Dhup (straight sword), 76.
Diary, see Waqi^ah.
Diary-writer, see Waqi^ah navls.
Bircc'h (measure of length), 217.
Discharge {bartarafl), 25.
Discipline,' 182.
Dismounting to fight, 237.
Divination by arrows, 98.
Biwan-i-ala (chief minister), 17.
Biwan-i-tan (second revenue mi-
nister), 16, 39.
Driver of elephant, general changing
places with, 257.
Do-angr-?)azl (kind of sword-pIay),l 85.
Dog, killing of, before a siege, 270.
Dohad (fortress), 269.
Bo muhcin ah (kind of arrow-head), 98.
Drill, 182, 185.
Drums, miniature, 30.
BUasjJcth, 23.
Bumchl (crupper), 72.
BUr-bm (telescope), 246 n. 1.
Duties of the Bahhs/il-ul-mamalik,
38. "
E.
Elephants, in general, 175; made
over to grandees, 20 ; gifts of, 30
armour of, 175; kfiasah, 178
names of, 179; disuse of, 179, 180
numbers in use, 180.
Elephant-guad (aukus), 80.
Emperor's taking the field in person,
202; conveyance of, and usages on
his passing by, 210.
Ensigns, 31.
Entering the service, procedure on, 36.
Equipment, 62, 73, 90; deficiency in,
22.
Escort (badraqah), 210.
Establishment, subordinate, 52.
Estimate, rough, 17; {daul), 18.
Estimation of weapons, 90.
Europeans in Mogul service, 152, 153,
154.
Evacuation of fortress, after repulsed
assault, 284.
Exercises, 182.
Fakir's crutch, 77.
FalakJian (sling), 95.
Falltah (match for firelock), 107.
Farangi (European), 172.
Fararl (desertion), 25, 26.
F3.vnevs{na^lband), 53; establishment
of, 52.
FasU (terre-plein), 264.
Fausse-braye (rauni), 265.
Fauti (death casualties), 25, 27.
Fencing Shields, 78.
Field Pieces, 138.
Fighting, on foot, 237 ; colligation in,
237, 238 ; technical terms of, 239.
Fines, 22, 63.
Finger stall (zihglr), 93.
Fish (Mahl) standard, 32; and digni-
ties, 33 ; fish-scale armour {baktar),
67.
Fish back-bone (Khar-i-mahl), 80.
Flags, 31, 32; of truce, 214.
Flail (sant), 80.
Flight, of inhabitants, 1 94; pretended,
255.
Flint-lock (banduq-i-chaqmaql),iOb.
Fodder, 192.
Foraging, 192.
314
INDEX.
Force actually present at particular
battles, 60.
Fording river, 212.
Fortresses, keys of. 287.
Forts and strongholds, 260; des-
cription of, 260; Hill, 262; small,
description of, 266; particular, des-
cription of, 267; Imperial, 268.
Furlough, 25.
Gajbag (elephant goad), 80.
Gajbail (kind of sword), 77.
Gajnal (small gun), 435.
Gandam (a chopper), 85.
Ganj-i-shahld (martyrs' grave), 259.
Gardani (amazons), 166.
G«rrfa?2i (neck-piece for horse), 71, 72.
Gardi (drilled French sepoys), 106.
Garguz (kind of mace), 79.
Garh (a fort), 264.
Garhi (small fort), 264.
Gar My a (small fort), 85.
Garwah (a shield), 78.
Gaz-i-ilahi (measure of length), 217.
Ghahdrah (kind of field-piece), 129.
Ghair-haziri (absence), 25.
Ghaznain (fortress), 269.
Ghet^a (kind of shield), 78.
Gherah (kind of arrow), 98.
Ghoghi (armour head-piece), 65.
Ghol (troop), 226.
Ghor-dahan (kind of matchIock),lll.
Ghughl (armour head-piece), 65.
Ghughwah (armour head-piece), 70.
Ghunghl (armour head-piece), 65.
Gifts, of money, 1 8 ; other than money,
29.
Gingall (wall-piece), 109.
Ginjal (wall-piece), 110.
Gipsies, 116.
Girih-kushd (kind of spear), 94.
Girwah (a shield), 78.
Guhhan (a sling), 95.
Godhu (ai-m-guard), 100.
Golandaz (artillery-man), 158, 169.
Gold-coin presented on passing by of
emperor, 210.
Goonga (battlements?), 264.
Goonju (battlements?), 264.
Gophan (a sling), 95.
Goshah (notches of bow). 93.
Government revenue, assignment of
{jagir). 14.
Grandees, elephants made over to, 20.
Grass cutters, 191.
Gudka (single-stick), 185.
Gulalbar (imperial enclosure), 195,
199.
Gulel (pellet-bow), 95.
Guns, na mes of, 1 1 8 ; heavy,! 1 8 — 1 28 ;
light, 133—147; wooden, 128;
spiking, 241.
Gupti (stick-sword), 77.
Giipti-kard (knife in stick), 89.
Gurdaspur, siege of, 285.
Gurohah, kaman-i- (pellet-bow), 95.
Gu7'z (mace), 79.
Gusains (kind of infantry), 163.
Gwaliyar, 269.
H.
Hadaf (object aimed at), 101.
Haiat-i-majmu% (mode of attack),
241.
Hallah (charge), 241.
Halqah (class of elephants), 178.
Hama^il (shoulder-belt), 75.
Handl (fire- pot) 282
Hanger (kind of dagger), 87.
Haqiqat (statement), 16, 40.
Harakat-i-mazbuhl (a feeble attack),
239.
Harawal (vanguard), 225.
Harem women with armies, 200.
Harked (part of armour). 68.
Harkarah (spy, scout), 213.
Hasanpur, battle of, 245.
Hashu (margin of account book), 26.
Hathnal (small gun), 135.
INDEX.
315
Hathras (fortress), 268.
Haudah, 176.
Hazatn (artillery captain), 23, 157.
Bazlr-i-rlkah (present at Court), 9.
Heads, pillars of, 242.
Heavy Guns, 113, 118; desci'iptions
of, 123.
Hedge, Bound, 261.
Heirship, certificate of {ivaris-n amah),
27.
Heralds (naqlb), 231 ??. 1.
Ilissah-i-ajnds (]iayment in kind), 19,
' 20.
Historians, florid style of, 244.
Horsemanship, 187.
Horsemen, Mogul army made up of,57.
Horses, in general, 29; deficiency in,
22 ; to be furnished by recruits, 47 ;
descriptive roll of, 49; classifi-
cation of, 51 ; "^Arabi, 51 ; Persian,
51 ; Mujannas, 51 ; Turkl, 51 ;
Yahu, 51 ; Tdzi, 51 ; Janglah 51 ;
discrepancy of, 52.
Humayun, artillery of, 115.
Hunting, 189.
Huqqah (hand-grenade), 282.
Huqqah-i-atash (id.), 131.
I.
Iflall (advanced troops), 225.
Ilghar (forced march), 218.
Illness (Bimarl), 25.
Iltimish (part of order of battle) 226.
'^Imarl (protected howdah), 176.
'^Inan (reins), 72.
Infantry, 161; pay of, 173.
Intervals after which verification ^vas
imperative, 54.
Investment of fortresses, 272.
Jaba (coat of mail), 67.
Ja*bah (a quiver), 99.
Jackets, quilted cotton, 64.
Jae narela (part of sword) 75.
Jaglr (assigmenL of revenue), 14, 22.
Jacfirs, management of, 15, 16.
Jaiba/i (coat of mail), 07.
Jaiba/L-i-Jiazar-mikht (kind of armour),
67. ~
Jaitpur, siege of, 289.
Jail (railing before throne), 199.
Jamagl (match for fire-lock), 107.
Jamah (court dress), 29.
Jamah-i-fatahl (kind of coat), 68.
Jama'^hdar (petty leader), 183.
Jambishi, topkhanah-i- (light field
artillery), 133.
Jamblyah (kind of dagger), 87.
Jambwah (kind of dagger), 87.
Jamdhar (kind of dagger), 86.
Jamhhak (kind of dagger), 87.
Janib-i-yasar (left wing), 226.
Janjal (wall -piece), 109.
Jaranghar (left-wing), 226.
Jats, said to be gipsies, 116.
Jauhar (temper of sword-blade), 75.
Javelin or short spear, 81.
Jazail (wall-piece), 109, 111.
Jazair (id.), 109.
Jhalar (a fringe), 33.
Jhambwah (kind of dagger), 87.
Jhanda (a flag), 31.
Jhansi, 269.
Jihlam (kind of armour), 68.
Jinjal (wall-piece), 110.
Jinji, siege of, 289. '
Jins (goods, food-stuff), 20.
/msi, top-kJvanah-i- (light artillery),
133.
Jodhpur, 269.
Joshan (kind of armour), 66, 68.
Jubah (kind of armour), 67.
Juhar (immolation), 242.
Juzah-i-harawal(\)art of van-guard),
226.
Juzzail, see ^''JazuiV'.
316
INDEX.
Ka%ah (a long gown), 29.
Kabul, 269.
Kahak-hanha (kind of rocket), 148.
Kahardah, Hindustani (class of arti-
ficer), 174.
Kahardah, Turdni (class of artificer).
174.
Kaitok, kaitoke (kind of matchlock).
108, 171.
Kajem (horse-armour). 71.
Kajim (id.), 71.
Kakriln (fortress), 269.
Kala Piyadah (kind of infantry), 171.
Kalinjar (fortres.s), 268, 269.
Kamal (kind of armour), 69.
Kamal-posh (Blanket Wearers), 44.
Kaman{hovi). 73, 92; i-gurohah.9b.
Kamand (rope-ladder), 281.
Kaml-i-haradari (deficiency of men),
22.
Kamin-gah (ambush), 255.
Kammal (blanket), 44.
Kamnait (kind of archer), 96.
Kamptl (bambu bow), 96.
Kamr (accoutrements), 107.
Kamrhand (waist belt), 29.
Kamrgah (part of fortress), 264.
Kamr-i-khanjar (sword-belt), 75.
Kamr sal (sword-belt), 75.
Kamthah, kamanth (kind of bow), 95.
Kandanah, siege of, 289.
Kangrah (fortre.ss), 269.
Kantha-sohlid (gorget), 70.
Kard (a long knife), 88.
Karkhanahs (workshops), 196.
Karnalakl (class of infantry), 170.
Karranai (horns), 208.
KdrtUs (cartridge), 107.
Kasarat (exercises), 185.
Kashmir (fortres.s), 269.
Kn.uir-i-do-daml (deduction from
m), 19.
Kalah-i-has (arrow-shaft?), 97 n. 1.
Katar, katarah, katdrl (dagger). 85.
iira^i6a/i-i-6as/i (arrow-shaft?), 97 n.l.
Kaukabah (kind of .standard), 31, 32,
33.
Kayetoc (kind of matchlock), 108.
Kettledrums, 30.
Khakrez (glacis), 264.
Khall-goli (blank cartridge), 107.
Khal-o-kliat (marks on horse), 49.
Khan (Lord), 28.
Khanda (kind of sword), 76.
Khanjar (kind of dagger), 86.
Khapwah (kind of dagger), 87.
Kharati (turner), 174.
Kharch-i-sikkah (a deduction from
pay), 19.
Khargah (kind of tent), 195.
Khar-i-mahl (kind of mace), 80.
Khasak (caltrops), 233 and Errata.
Khelnah. siege of, 289.
Klierah (a shield), 78.
KhiUjf't (robe of honour). 29.
Khila^t-khanah (state wardrobe), 29.
Khoghi (armour head piece), 65.
Khogir (saddle), 72.
Khor hahliyah (class of artificer), 174.
Khud (helmet), 64.
KhundU-pkdnsl (kind of mace), 79,
80.
Khurdk-i-dawabb (feed of cattle), 7,
~i9, 20, 178.
Richlm (horse-armour), 71.
Kilk (arrow-shaft), 97.
Knives, 85.
Koft work, 62.
Kohar-tardsh (kind of arrow), 98.
Kont (kind of spear), 85.
Kos length of, 216.
Kotdh sildh (short-arms), 73.
Kotah-yardq (short-arms), 73.
Kothl (kind of armour), 69.
Koiivdl (police officer), 210,
Kuc/ia ft- L-aalaina I (coMimd way), 274.
INDEX.
317
Kuhuk (kind of rocket), 148.
Kiimraurgah (part of fortress;, 264.
Kunrjur (battlements), 264.
Kurkuh (kind of drum), 30 n. 1.
L.
Ladders, scaling, 271, 281.
Lais (kind of arrow), 98.
Labor (fortress), 269.
Lake, Lord, maid conferred on, 33.
Lance, cavalry, 82; Mahratta use of,
82.
Langarkhanah (charitable kitchen),
191. "
Lange (kind of spear), 84, 85.
Lankarkot (fortress), 269.
Leader's death or disappearance, effect
of, 235; changing places with ele-
phant driver, 257.
Leather Guard (godhu), 100.
Leave of absence, 25.
Left Wing, 226.
Length of marches, 215.
Lezam (bow for exercising), 185.
Light artillery. 133.
Lion dignity (Sher~mar7jJAh), 34.
Loans, 18; recovery of, 18.
Lord {Khan), 28.
Losses, 244; statistics of, 258.
M.
Maces (gurz), 73, 79.
Madad-i-mu'ash(kindof2i\\o\waince),3.
Mahadaji-Sendhia, 33.
Mahallah (parades), 46, 182 n. 1.
Mahasarah kardan (to invest a
fortress), 264.
Mahi (a kind of standard), 32.
Mahi-o-maratib (kind of standard),
.31, 33.
Mahratta use of lance, 82.
Mahgun shudan (to be invested), 264.
Mahsur shudan (id.), 264.
Mahldb (blue lights), 151.
Maimanah (right wing), 226.
Mairtah (fortress), 269.
Maisarah (left wing), 226.
Maisir, al- (divination by arrows), 98.
Malhus-i-klids (emperor's robes), 29.
Malchdr (mode of approach during
a siege), 278.
Malk (part of armour?), 68.
Manjaniq (catapultj, 130.
Manqalah (advanced troops), 225.
Mansab, generally, 3. 42; first class,
6; .second class, 6; third class, 6;
sy.stem, 58; .system, connection
with number of men present, 58.
Mansabdars, 19, 43; formed an army
of horsemen, 57.
Mangab-i-zat, table of, with yearly
pay, 8.
Mantlet (turah), 146, 278.
Marabba'^ (mode of archery). 102.
Mardtib (kind of standard), 33.
March, army on the, 202; description
of. 203; lengthof,215, 219— 222;
measurements made of, 216 ; official
day's, 216; forced, 218.
Marching through pa.sses, 212.
Maru (parrying shield), 79.
Masari (part of armour?), 68.
Mashrut (conditional pay), 13.
Mashrut-ba-khidmat (id.), 13.
Match (falitah), 107.
Matchlockmen, 20, 53; rates of pay,
167.
Matchlocks. 73, 90, 91, 103; barrels,
106; stocks, 106; hammer of, 106.
Measurements of marches, mode of,
216.
Memorandum (ydd-ddfiht), 18, 42.
Mewatl (class of infantry), 170.
Mewrah (post-runners), 170.
Mighfar (part of armour), 65.
Military music and the^Yaufea^ 207.
Mllteq (a matchlock), 108.
Mines, 271, 273, 275.
Mink-bdshl (artillery captain), 157.
Mir 'Art (old name of Bakhshi), 38.
318
INDEX.
Mir Atash (general of artillery), 154;
duties of, 155.
Mir Balir (head of boatmen), 211.
Mir Bakhshl (second noble), 37.
Mirdahah (petty officer), 23, 26, 158.
il/irManziZ(Quarter-master-general),
190.
Missiles, 90.
Mizan (kind of standard), 32.
Mochi (class of artificer), 174.
Moghul Army, an army of horsemen,
57.
Moghul cavalry, tactics compared
with Europeans, 234.
Moghul Empire, War Organization
of, reasons for decay of, 296; no
patriotism, 296, 297; badly con-
structed, 297; weakened by jea-
lousies of officers, 297, 298; bad
system of recruitment, 298, 299 ;
troops only fit for a procession or
a charge, 300.
Mortars {deg), 129.
Mounting Guard, 188.
Mozah-i-ahant (part of armour), 71.
Mugdar (wooden clubs), 185.
Mughal (class of infantry), 172.
Miiharmf (mode of archery), 102.
Muhnal (scabbard mountings), 75.
Muhrah-i-rahkalah (nozzle of field-
piece), 146.
Muhtasib (Censor), 210.
Munger (fortress), 269.
Muqabil-kob (catapult), 130.
Muqaddamah-ul-jais (vanguard),
225.
Murchal (battery, entrenchment),
271.
Musa'^adat (money advances), 18
Musht (mode of archery), 102.
Music, military, 207.
Mustaufis (auditors), 19.
Musters, false, 45.
Mutalibah (recovery of loans), 18, 38.
N.
habah (furrows on sword blade), 75.
Nagas (class of infantry), 163.
Ndgphani (kind of shield), 78.
Nagpur (fortress), 268.
Najib (class of infantry), 164.
Najjar (carpenters), 174.
Nal (barrel), 103.
Naqar-khanah (music-room or Band-
stand), 196.
Naqb (under-mining), 271, 275.
Naqb-kun (digger), 174.
Naqd (cash pay), 14, 20.
Naqlb (herald), 231 n. 1.
Naqqdrah (kettle-drums), 30, 208.
Nardubdn (scaling-ladders) 271 , 281 .
Narsingh moth (kind of dagger), 87.
Nasaqchi (army police), 227.
Naubat (drum-beating), 30, 207.
Nawak (kind of bow), 96.
Negotiations, 214.
Nets (redes) for hunting tigers, 203 n. i .
Nezah (lance), 81, 82.
Nezah-bazan (spear-men), 82.
Ni'^amat Khan, ATi, quoted, 244.
Night surprizes, 257.
Nimah-asiln (a jacket), 29.
Nimchah-shamsher (short sword),
75, 112.
Noble ofNobles(ylmir-w?-wmam),38.
Non-verification (^adam-i-tashihah),
22.
Notch of bow, 93.
Nuktah (kind of arrow), 98.
Number of weapons carried, 73.
O.
Observations, general, 296.
Offensive weapons, 90.
Offering presented on passing of
emperor, 210.
Officer, first appointment of, 40.
Official day's march, 216.
Officials and their duties, 55.
INDEX.
319
Oil, burning, throwing of, 282.
Opchl (a bowman), 91.
Oqchl (a bowman), 91.
Order of battle, 223.
Orders, confirmation of (^arz-i-ma-
karrar), 18.
Organ (Arghnn), 138.
Organization, 183.
Ornaments, jewelled, 29.
P.
Paehaql, right to collect arrears of
Jaglr rents, 21.
Paemali (compensation for damaged
crops), 193.
Pahrl (small shield), 78.
Paikan (arrow-headj, 97.
Paikan-kash (arrow-drawer), 101.
Pakhar (elephant armour), 176.
Palarak (a sword), 75.
Pa^i-si?/a/Hkindofgun-ammunition),
151.
Palkls (litters), 29.
Po.Uah (headstall), 72.
Panach or panchak (bow-string), 93.
Pandi-hallam (kind of spear), 84.
Panjah (kind of standard), 31, 34.
Panjmukh (kind of spear), 84.
Par (arrow-feathei's), 97.
Parades (mahallah, sandidan), 182,
id. n. 1.
Parah (gun-hammer), 106.
Par rah has tan (hattle-array), 223.
Parlal (baggage) 191.
Particularbattle,forceactually present
at, 60.
Parusa (battle-axe), 81.
Passes, marching through, 212.
Patapaii or striped tents, 198.
Pathabaz (swordsman), 165.
Patkah (part of armour), 71.
Patkah-poshan, 71.
Patrolling, 209.
Patta (rapier), 77.
Pay, yearly, table of Mansah-i-zat,
8-, rates of, 8; for one horseman,
10; date from which drawn, 12;
conditional (MashrTU) 13; uncon-
ditional (Bila-shart), 1 3 ; in arrears
always, 13; in Naqd (cash), 14;
by Jaglr (assignment), 14; rates
of infantry, 172.
Paymaster and Adjutant-General
{Bakhshi-ul-mamalik), 37, n. 1.
Paymaster-General (id.), 37.
Pensions, 25, 26.
Percussion weapons, 105.
Peshkhanah (advance-tents), 495.
Peshqabz (kind of dagger), 88.
Pharl (fencing shield), 78.
Pioneers, 53.
Pishawar (fortress), 269.
Pistol {tabanchah or Pisiol), 73, 90,
91, 91, 111, 112.
Piyadagan (infantry), 160.
Piyadah (foot-soldier), 24.
Piyazl (kind of mace), 79.
Plundering, untimely, 236.
Pommel ofasaddle(gar6ws, qcish)^ 72.
Powder Bags, 282.
Powder horn, 107.
Powder Magazines, 151.
Practising, arrow used for, 98.
Privileges (mangab), 4.
Procedure on entering Service, 36.
Provincial and other BaJihshls, 40.
Punishments, 184.
Pushtah (field shelter), 109.
Pusht-khar (kind of mace), 80.
Q.
Qabchah (quilted under-jacket), 63.
Qabz (pay-bill), 26.
Qabzah (sword-hilt), 75.
Qabzahgar (mode of archery), 102.
Qaiduq (a matchlock), 108.
Qainchi-i-bdn (rocket tripod), 148.
Qal'ah (a fort), 264.
320
INDEX.
QaVachah (small fort) 264.
Qalandara (kind of arrow), 98.
Qalciwurl (skirmishers), 224,
Qalh (centre of army), 226.
Qamargah (•centre of army), 226.
Qamchi-kard (narrow knife), 89.
Qamrgah (mode of hunting), 189.
Qandahar, siege of, 289.
Qanduq (gun-stock), 408.
Qarawal (skirmishers), 189, 225.
Qarawal Begi (chief of skirmishers,
Head huntsman), 189.
QarhUs (pommel of saddle), 72.
Qasarah (kind of field-piece), 140.
Qash (pommel of saddle), 72.
Qctshqah (frontlet), 71, 72.
Qashun (hody of troops), 183.
Qatas (yak-tail), 34.
Qcizaql (mode of attack), 240.
Qidr (a cauldron?). 111.
Qil'ah (a fort), 264.
Qila^hddr (fort commandant), 269,
Qirhdn (bow-case), 100.
Qizzilbash (Persian horsemen), 58.
Quilted cotton jackets, 64.
Quiver (tarkash), 99; the King's, a
symbol of authority, 99.
Qui (a slave, also centre of army),
44 n. 1, 226,
QTiltuq (the armpit), 108.
Qumqicmah(kmd of standard), 32,33.
Qunddq (gun-stock), 104.
Qur (armoury, armed attendants),
31, 205.
Qurbegl (head of armoury), 205.
QurqcMs (emperor's guard), 169.
R.
Raesen (fortress), 269.
Rahkalah (wheeled field-piece), 135,
139; use of word, remarks on,
140.
Rahkalah-hdr (artillery park), 200,
Rainee (fausse-braye), 265.
Ramchangi (kind of small cannon),
137.
Rdmjaki (id.), 137.
Rdmjangi^ (id.), 137.
Rdmjankl (id.), 135, 137.
Rdnak (greaves), 71.
Ranigarh (fortress), 269.
Rank (mansab)^ 4.
Rank, suwar, 9.
Ranking's work on elephants, 178.
Ranthambhor (fortress), 269.
Raonl (fausse-braye), 265.
Rasad-i-jins (payment in kind), 20.
Raunee (fausse braye), 265.
Rauti (a small tent), 195.
Rawat (a Hindu trooper), 171.
Rear guard, 227.
Recovery of loans and advances, 18.
Recruit, to furnish own horse, 47.
Redes (nets for hunting tigers), 203 n. 1 .
Reduction of fortresses by Starvation,
284.
Refuge, places of, 263.
Regiments. 57.
Rejections, 22.
Reklas (kind of conveyance), 139 >?. 1.
Renny (fausse braye), 265.
Report {Haqlqat). 41.
Resignation, 25.
Revenue, assignment of (jdgir), 14.
Right Wing of army, 226.
Rikdb (stirrups), 72, 134.
Risdlah (department), 42.
Rivers, crossing of, 211 ; fording, 212.
Robes (of Honour), 29.
Rockets (ban, kahak-ban), 73, 147'.
mode of carrying, 148; description
of, 149, 150; mode of discharging,
149, 150, 151.
Rodd (bow-string), 93.
Rolls, descriptive, 47, 49; for Troo-
pers, 48.
Ruhtas Khiii-d (fortress), 269.
Rukhsat (leave of absence), 25.
INDEX.
321
s.
Sa'at-i-sa^ld (lucky moment), 202.
Sahat (covered way), 274, 275, 276,
277.
Sabuchah-i-barut (fire-pots), 132.
^adiql (coat of mail), 69.
Sadiival (artillery sergeant), 23, 26,
■ 158.
Saff amstan (battle array), 223.
Safll (terreplein), 264.
Sahalki (class of artificer), 174.
Sahm (arrow), 97.
Saiban (a kind of standard), 31.
Saif (a sword), 75.
Sailabah-i-Qalmacfi (a kind of knife),
89.
Sainthl (kind of spear), 81 , 84.
Samtl (id.), 79, 84.
Saints, shrines of, 202.
Sair (privates), 158.
Sa?a6a^fcar (imperial enclosure), 199.
Salhqaba (kind of armour), 68.
Sdlotrl (farrier), 174.
Sambhar (fortress), 269.
Sandbags, 278.
San didan (a parade), 182 n. 1.
Sang (kind of spear) 83.
Sang-afkan (aperture for hurling
down stonesj, 266.
Sang-anddz (id.), 266.
Sang-i-falakhan (slings for stones),
95.
Sangln (a bayonet), 83.
Sangra'^d (catapult), 130.
Sang-tarash (stone-mason), 174.
Sank (kind of bpear), 81, 83.
Sant (kind of spear), 80.
Sap, approach by, 273.
iSaqah (rear of any troops). 227.
Saqatl (horse casualties), 22, 24.
Saqat-namah (certificate of horse's
death), 25.
Sari (arrow- shaft), 97.
Sar-i-suwarl (coup-de-main), 270.
Sarkob (catapult). 130.
Sarnal (scabbard mountings), 75.
Sarpech (head ornament), 29.
Saz-i-marassa" (jewelled trappings),
72.
Sdz-i-Uldc (gold-mounted trappings),
72."
Scaling-ladders (narduban), 271, 281.
Scarcity and other suffering, 193.
Scouts, 213.
Set (kind of spear), 84.
Selarah (kind of spear), 81, 84.
Service, entering the, 36.
Shab-gard (night-rounds), 209.
Shab-glr (night-surprize), 257.
Shab-khun (id.). 257.
Shahin (falconet), 135.
Shahjahanabad (fortress), 269.
Shdlih (powder horn). 107.
Shakh-dahdna (id.), 107.
Shalih-i-tufang (tripod for matchlock),
104".
Shamiydnah (kind of tent), 195.
Shamsher (sword), 75.
Shamsherbdz (swordsman), 78.
Shashbur (kind of mace), 79.
Shast (thumbstall), 94.
Shast-awez (id.), 94.
Shdtur (a catapult?), 278.
Sherbachak (a blunderbuss), 112.
Sher-bachah (a class of troops), 58.
Shergarh (fortress), 269.
Sher-mdhi (kind of fish-bone), 89.
Sher-mardtib (a kind of standard), 34.
Sher Shah, his system of musters, 46.
Shields, 73, 77 ; fencing, 78; movable
(or mantlets), 278.
Shikdrband (part of horse trappings),
72.
Shikdrgah (kind of sword), 77.
Shooting, modes of, 101 ; with bow,
102.
Shrines of noted saints, visits to, 202.
Shutarndl (small gun) 135; size of,
136.
322
INDEX.
biba (towers at sieges, also "cava-
liers"). 271, 277, 279, 280.
Sieges of Gurdaspiir and Thun, 270,
285; particular, 288; of Qandahiir,
289 ; of BIjapur, 289 ; of Jinji. 289;
of Khelnah, 289 ; of Kandanah, 289 ;
of Wakankhera, 289 ; of Jaitpur,
289; of Allahabad, 290 •, of Ban-
garh, 290.
Siham (arrows), 97.
Sihhandi (local militia), 166..
Sih-hlvdlah (kind of spear), 98.
Sih'ioaijah (tripod for matchlock). 104.
Silah (weapons in general), 62.
Silahdar (class of trooper), 37, 47.
Silah-posh (a class of troops), 164.
Sinan (spear in general), 81.
Singauta (parrying shield), 79.
Single-stick play, 185.
Singrd (priming horn), 107.
Sipahi-i-falez (undisciplined troops).
241.
Sijmi' (a shield), 77.
Sirohl (kind of sword), 76; gaj hail
(id.). 77.
Sitapur (fortress), 269.
Siyaha dead (estimate of allowances).
17.
Siyah namUdan (to appear in the
distance), 241.
Siyahposh (class of troops), 183.
Skirmishers {qarawaldri), 225.
Slain and wounded, plundering of, 259.
Spears, 73, 81 ; short, 81 ; mode of
wielding, 82.
Spies, 213.
SqarVdt (broad-cloth), 73 n. 1.
Standards, 32, 205; Yak's-tail, 34.
Starvation, reduction of fortre.sses by,
284.
Statement {Haqlqat), 16.
Stones, use of, by besieged, 283.
Storming, 281.
Stratagems, 244; of war, 255.
String of bow, 93.
Stringing the bow, 102.
STiln (part of armour), 68.
Sufdr (notch of bow), 93.
Sultani (Royal), 44.
Sunain (head of spear), 81.
Suraj-mukhi (kind of standard), 34.
Surang (a mine), 274.
Surat (fortress), 269.
Surgeons (jarah), establishment of,
52.
Surkh-posh (class of troops), 44, 183.
Snwar (troopers), 5; Rank, 9.
Swivel-gun, 109.
Swordplay, 186.
Swords, 73, 74; mode of carrying, 74.
Sword-stick, 77.
System, Akbar's, of making over ele-
phants to grandees, 20.
Tahal (head-piece), 227.
Tahanchah (pistol), 112.
Tahar (battle-axe), 80.
Tabar zaghnol (kind of axe), 80.
Tdblnan (cavalry soldiers), 9, 43, 48.
Tabindn-i-baradmn (class of cavalry),
10.
Table of Mcmsab-i-zat^ 8.
Tabrddr (axe-man), 174.
Tafdivat-i-asp (a deduction from pay),
22, 52.
Tafaivat'i-silah (id.), 22.
Tafawat-i-tabindn (id.), 22.
Taghaiyur-i-rah dddan (change of
route), 210.
Tahnal (scabbard-mounting), 75.
Ta%nat (posted to a province), 9.
Takhsh (kind of missile), 147.
Takhsh kaman (cross-bow), 95.
Takht-i-raivan (portable throne),210,
Talafl (deduction from pay), 20.
Talaql-i-fariqaui (encounter of ar-
mies), 241.
Talfah (videttes), 209.
INDEX.
323
Ta^liqah (executive order), 43.
Talwar (sword), 75.
Tamanchah (pistol), 11-1, 112.
TamanchaJi (id.), 111.
Tanab-i-quruq (rope enclosure), 199.
Tankhicah (pay), 17, 21, 38.
Tcmkhwah-i-ina'^m (a gift), 18.
Taraf-i-yamin (right wing), 226.
faragarh (fortress), 269.
Tarah (part of battle array), 227.
Tarah-i-hadam (kind of arrow), 98.
faraii-i-halal (id.), 98.
faraii-i-khar (id), 98.
Tarah-i-khornl (id), 98.
Tarah-i-mah (id.), 98.
farah-i-toko (id.), 98.
farcmgalah (battle-axe), 80.
Target, 101.
Tarkash (quiver), 99.
Tascllq (certificate), 41, 42.
Tashihah (verification), 46, 53.
Taulghamah (part of battle array),
2277
Taulqamah (part of battle array),
227, 233, 240.
Taivaqqi(f-i-tashihah (delay in veri-
fication), 24, 54.
Tawaqquf o '^adam-i-iashihah (non-
verification), 22.
Technical terms of fighting, 239;
words connected with fortresses,
263.
Tegh (sword), 75.
Teghah (sword blade), 75.
Telescope, 246.
Tents, colour of, 198; striped, 198.
Tei're-plein, 264.
Thonth (kind of arrow), 98.
Thnn(First Siege),285; (Second Siege),
287.
Thuth (kind of arrow), 98.
Tilak (sect-mark), 72.
Tilayah (patrol). 209.
Tilivah (kind of shield), 78.
Tir (arrow), 73, 97 ; various meanings
of. 129.
Tlrah-bcmd (loaded), 129.
Tir-cmdaz (archer), 91.
Ttrbardcir (arrow-extractor), 101.
Titles, 28.
Tobrah (nose-hag), 142.
Toc/h (kind of standard), 34.
Top (cannon), 65, 113.
Top (helmet), 64, 65.
Top-i-liaioae (air-gun?), 130.
Top-i-kalan (heavy gun), 114.
Top-i-ljMlrd (field-piece), 114.
Top-khanah (artillery), 113.
Tor a (gun match), 107.
Torah (law, custom), 145.
Toredar (matchlock), 104.
Toshah-lzhanah (wardrobe for pre-
sents), 29.
Towers (st&a), 279.
Towns, Walled, 263.
Tozdun (pouch), 107.
Transport, 191.
Trichinopoly (fortress), 268.
Troopers, fine for deficiency in, 22;
roll for, 48.
Truce, flag of, 214.
Tudah (earthen target), 101.
Tnfak (matchlock), 103 n. 1.
Tufak-i-dahcln (blow-pipe), 97.
Tufang (matchlock), 73, 103.
Tufang-chi (matchlock man), 167.
Tufang-i-farcmg (European match-
lock), 104.
Tukah, Tukkah (kind of arrow), 97.
Tumcln (body of troops), 183.
Tumandar (head of tumdn). 183.
Tuman-togh {Tuman-tok) (kind of
standard)^ 31, 34.
TTimar (despatch, report), 254.
fupak (matchlock), 103 n. 1.
TUrah (mantlet), 142, 145, 277.
Turk-tazl (Turk-galloping), 241.
Tynasliee work, 62.
324
INDEX.
UiiMq (class of cavalry), 241.
Ujjain (fortress), 269.
Umara (nobles), 9.
Umara-i-kihar (great nobles), 9.
'Umdah (pillars of the State), 9.
Unconditional pay, 13.
Uniform, 183.
Ustak (shabracque), 72.
Utara (fighting on foot), 237.
^Uzzam (great nobles), 9.
Vanguard, 225 ; advanced post of the,
226.
Venmuroo (kind of mace), 81.
Verification, 53; delay in, 24, 54;
roll, 26; and branding, 45; inter-
vals after which imperative, 54;
department-officials and their du-
ties, 55.
Victory, proclamation of, 242.
W.
Wadded coats, 69.
Wakankhera, siege of, 289.
Wakll-i-mutlaq (vice-gerent), 37.
Wala Shahls, Bakhshi of the, 40,
43, 44; (High Imperial). 44.
Wall, temporary, 279.
Wall-piece, 109.
Waqi^ah (official diary), 18, 41, 42,
254.
Waqi^ah navls (diary-writer) 18.
'W'agfa/i-nigfar (diary-writer), 40,41 .
War Organization of Moghul Empire,
reasons for decay of, 296 — 300.
^^^aris-namah (certificate of death),
27.""
Watching, 209.
W^ater-carriers, 53.
Wazir (chief minister), 37.
Weapons, 29; great number that a
man carried. 73; offensive, 90;
relative estimation of, 90.
Wielding the spear, mode of, 82.
Wings of army, Right, 226; Left,
226; of the centre, 227.
Wounded, no medical aid for, 259.
Wrestling, 186.
Yad-dasht (memorandum), 18, 42.
Yak-ang-bazi (kind of sword-play),
185.
Yakaspah (having one horse), 23.
Yakkah-taz (riding alone), 43.
Yak's-tail standard, 34.
Yaltang-posh (part of horse trappings),
72.
Yaltmish (part of battle array), 226.
Yasawals (armed messengers), 44,
81, 210.
Yurish (onset), 241.
Z.
Zafarabad (fortress), 269.
Zdghnol (kind of axe), 80.
Zalmun (an arrow), 99.
Zamburak (camel-piece), 135 ; size of,
136.
Zanjir-bandi (chaining cannon), 229.
Zanjir-i-fil (phrase of record or ac-
count), 179.
Zarb-zan (cannon), 113.
Zardposh (class of cavalry). 183.
Zat (personal rank), 5.
Zerband (martingale), 72.
Zih (bow-string), 93.
Zihglr (thumstall), 93. 94.
Zlnah-pae (scaling-ladder), 281 .
Zirih (kind of armour), 66. 67.
Zirihkidah (part of armour). 66.
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